b'Class \n\n\n\n\nBook \n\n\n\nSMITHSONIAN. DEPOSIT \n\n\n\n7 \'\xe2\x80\xa2. ^""^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDigitized by the Internet Archive \nin 2011 with funding from \nThe Library of Congress \n\n\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/peoplesbookofancOObrow \n\n\n\nTHE \n\n\n\nPEOPLE\'S BOOK \n\n\n\nAICIEIT AID lODERI HISTORY; \n\n\n\nCOMPRISING \n\n\n\nTHE OLD WORLD: \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS, ASSYRIA, EGYPT, GREECE, \n\nROME, PERSIA, INDIA, CHINA, THE MAHOMETANS, \n\nSPAIN, GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, SWEDEN AND NORWAY, \n\n\' THE NETHERLANDS, DENMARK, PORTUGAL, \n\nITALY, SWITZERLAND, ETC. \n\n\n\nHENRJ HOWARl) BROWNELL, A, M \n\n\n\nNUMEROUS COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS, \n\nBY EMINENT ARTISTS. \n\n\n\n\nH ARTFOED: \nPUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS. \n\n1851. \n\n\n\n, OF CONGRESS \n\n\n\nENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1851, BY \n\nLUCIUS STEBBINS, \n\nIN THE CLERK\'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF CONNECTICUT. \n\n\n\nFOUNDRY OF \n\nSILAS ANDRUS AND SON, \n\nHARTFORD. \n\n\n\nPRESS OF \nF. C. GTJTrERREZ, \n\nNEW-TORE. \n\n\n\n^%-S \n\n^^^ \n\n\n\nINTRODUCTION. \n\n\n\nThe attempt has been made, in the following work, to furnish, \nwithin limits accessible to the general reader, a succinct and con- \nnected historical account of such nations as have played the most \nimportant, conspicuous, or interesting parts in the progress of the \nWorld. To most minds, undoubtedly, the chief charm of such an \naccount consists in the frequency of personal details ; and though \nthe plan of this book necessarily precludes the narration of many \nextraneous events, the more momentous passages of history are \ndisplayed as fully as possible, and scenes characteristic of the age, \nor of any celebrated personage, are related with as much minuteness \nas may consist with the limits of the work. \n\nMuch attention has been paid to the frequency and accuracy of \ndates^ so indispensable to a clear and connected view of the history \nof nations, especially in their mutual relations ; and the arrangement \nof the several articles has been made, as far as might be, with an \nespecial view to the general connection and progress of mankind. \nEepetition, as far as possible, has been avoided, and where, as it \nfrequently occurs, the history of one nation is for a long period \ninvolved in that of another, the events common to both are detailed \nbut once, though with the proper reference. \n\nThe beauty of the typography, and of other matters which \nconstitute the mechanical perfection of a book, will, it is believed, \nrequire no especial notice or eulogium ; and the number, selection, \nand excellence of the engravings, (mostly designed and executed \nby the first artists of the country,) are probably unequalled by those \nof any volume of a similar character ever published in America. \n\n\n\n4 INTKODUCTION. \n\nNo pains or expense have been spared to make the work altogether \nworthy of the patronage of an American community. \n\nThis narrative commences with the origin of the Hebrews, the earli- \nest nation of which we have any authentic historical account. Events \noccurring before the Deluge can hardly be said to have a place in \nthe records of national existence. They pertain rather to natural \nphilosophy than to a history of human transactions. The terrible \nconvulsions occurring in remote ages, and the strange and monstrous \nforms of life which then had their being, seem to indicate that the \nearth, at a certain time, was only adapted to the grosser and less \nrefined existences, of whose traces geology furnishes the evidence. \n\nThe book of Genesis (the Creation), a work carefully compiled by \nMoses, the great prophet and law-giver, from the traditions of his \npeople, is perhaps the earliest reliable human record. Many nations \nhave indeed cherished and handed down vague traditions of the \ncreation and early history of mankind. These are mostly of a wild \nand fabulous character, though occasionally corresponding some- \nwhat with the Biblical relation. Even this, though of deep interest, \nis brief, partial, and meagre; containing little beyond a personal \naccount of a few of the earliest dwellers upon earth, and of such \nhuman crimes and passions as usually characterize a rude and \nunformed state of society. \n\nThe flood seems the great epoch from which human history takes \nits principal date. It is to be remarked that almost every nation, \neven the most uncivilized, has preserved some tradition of that \ndreadful catastrophe which submerged the mountains, and destroyed \n"all in whose nostrils was the breath of life." The polished Greek, \nwith his legend of Pyrrha and Deucalion, and the Chinese, with the \nstory of Fohi, evidently refer to the same universal calamity. \n\nThe floating habitation, fraught with the destinies of mankind, is \nsaid to have finally rested on Ararat, a high mountain situated \nnearly on the present boundary of Persia and Turkey in Asia. From \nthe eight individuals thus preserved, descended the various tribes \nand nations whose history we shall briefly examine. \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. \n\n\n\nPAGE \n\nINTRODUCTION, . . 3 \n\nLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 15 \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\nC H A PT E K I. \nEarly History of the Hebrews \xe2\x80\x94 The Patriarchs \xe2\x80\x94 The Departui\'e from Egypt, . . . .17 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe Desert\xe2\x80\x94 The Invasion of Palestine\xe2\x80\x94 The Judges, ....... 24 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nThe Kings, until the Captivity, .......... 20 \n\nCHAPTER IV. \n\nThe Restoration \xe2\x80\x94 Misfortunes of the Hebrews \xe2\x80\x94 The Maccabees \xe2\x80\x94 Gradual Ascendancy of Rome, 40 \n\nCHAPTER V. \n\nThe Roman Government, and the Destruction of Jerusalem, . . . . . .46 \n\n\n\nASSYRIA. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nAncient History of Assyria, . . . . . . . , . ,57 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nModern Discoveries, . . , . . . . . . , . .63 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nAncient History of Egypt, . . . . . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 . , , 67 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nArts, Sciences, Customs, and Mechanical Labom-s of the Ancient Egyptians, . . . ,73 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nModem Egypt, ... . . . . . . . , . 70 \n\n\n\nQ CONTENTS \n\n\n\nPAGE \n\nGREECE. \n\nH APTE R I. \n\nThe Early History of Greece, ........... 86 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe Persian Invasions, ........... 91 \n\nCHAPTER III. \n\nFrom the Defeat of the Persians to the End of the First Peloponnesian War, . . . .94 \n\nCHAPTERIV. \n\nThe Second Peloponnesian War, .......... 97 \n\nCHAPTER V. \n\nThe Thirty Tyrants\xe2\x80\x94 The Expedition of the Ten Thousand\xe2\x80\x94 The Death of Socrates\xe2\x80\x94 The Theban War, 102 \n\nCHAPTER VI. \n\nPhilip of Macedon, . . . . . . . . . . . .107 \n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\nThe Conquests of Alexander, .....,..,, Ill \n\nCHAPTER VIII. \n\nFrom the Death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest, . . . . . , , 119 \n\nCHAPTER IX. \n\nModem Greece, ............ 123 \n\nROME, \n\nCHAPTER I. \nThe Early ana Partially-fabulous History of Rome under the Kings, ..... 126 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe Consuls, Dictators, Tribunes, and Decemvirs \xe2\x80\x94 Wars with the Volscians and with Veil \xe2\x80\x94 Decline \n\nof the Roman Power, , . . , . . . , . . 130 \n\nCHAPTER III. \n\nThe Invasion of the Gauls, ........... I35 \n\nCHAPTER IV. \n\nThe Wars with the Samnites, the Latins, and Pyrrhus, ...... 137 \n\nCHAPTER V. \n\nThe First Punic War, . . . . . . . . . ,-, 140 \n\nCHAPTER VI. \n\nThe Second Punic War, ........... 143 \n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\nThe Wars with Macedon, and the Third Punic War, . , . . . . . ,147 \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. 7 \n\nCHAPTER VIII. PAGB \n\nThe Gracchi \xe2\x80\x94 The War with Jugui-tha \xe2\x80\x94 The Civil Wars of Marius and Sylla, . . . 149 \n\nCHAPTER IX. \n\nThe First Triumvirate, and the Wars of Pompey and Csesar, ...... 153 \n\nCHAPTER X. \nThe Second Triumvirate, ........... 159 \n\nCHAPTERXI. \n\nThe Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, ...... 163 \n\nCHAPTER XII. \n\nThe Emperors Nero, Galba, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva, . . 167 \n\nCHAPTER XIII. \nTrajan, Adrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Severus, Caracalla, Macri- \n\nnus, HeUogabalus, Alexander, Maximin, Gordian, Philip, and Decius, . . . 171 \n\nCHAPTERXIV. \nGallus, Valerian, Galienus, Flavius Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Dioclesian, Constantius \n\nand Galerius, and Constantine \xe2\x80\x94 Removal of the Seat of Empire to Byzantium, . . 177 \n\nCHAPTER XV. \n\nDecline and Dissolution of the Empire, ......... 180 \n\n\n\nPERSIA. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nHistory of Persia before the Christian Era, ........ 183 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nFrom the Christian Era to the Conquest by Zinghis Khan, ...... 193 \n\nCHAPTER III. \n\nFrom the Invasion of Persia by Zinghis Khan to the Present Time, ...... 201 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nThe Ancient and Classic History of India, . . . . . . . , .209 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe Early Mahometan Invaders and Conquerors of India\xe2\x80\x94 The Afghan Dynasty\xe2\x80\x94 Timur the Tartar, 214 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nThe Mogul Dynasty, Baber, Akbar, Jehanghu-e, Aurengzebe\xe2\x80\x94 Decline of the Imperial Power, . 219 \n\nCHAPTERIV. \n\nEarly European Discoveries and Conquests\xe2\x80\x94 Expeditions of the Portuguese and Dutch, . . 227 \n\n\n\n8 CONTENTS. \n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V . PAOB \n\n\nThe Early English Expeditions and Settlements\xe2\x80\x94 The East India Company\xe2\x80\x94 Contests with the French \n\n\n233 \n\n\nCHAPTER VI. \n\n\n\n\nThe British Conquests in Bengal\xe2\x80\x94 The Wars with Hyder Ali and with the French, . \n\n\n239 \n\n\nCHAPTERVII. \n\n\n\n\nThe Wai-s with Tippoo Saib, and the Conquest of Mysoi-e, . . . \n\n\n248 \n\n\nCHAPTER VIII. \n\n\n\n\nThe Mahratta Wai-\xe2\x80\x94 Conquest of Central India, . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . \n\n\n252 \n\n\nCHAPTER IX. \n\n\n\n\nThe Pindaree War, and the Final Overthrow of the Mahrattas, . . . \n\n\n256 \n\n\nCHAPTER X. \n\n\n\n\nThe Religion, Customs, Industry, and Character of the Hindoos, . . . . . \n\n\n260 \n\n\nCHIWA. \n\n\n\n\nCIIAPTERI. \n\n\n\n\nNative History of the Chinese, .......... \n\n\n267 \n\n\nCHAPTERII. \n\n\n\n\nCharacteristics of the Inhabitants of China, ........ \n\n\n275 \n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I. \n\n\n\n\nThe Inhabitants of Arabia\xe2\x80\x94 Their Ancient Government and Religion, . . . \n\n\n285 \n\n\nCHAPTER II. \n\n\n\n\nThe Early Life of Mahomet\xe2\x80\x94 His Religious Pretensions, ...... \n\n\n287 \n\n\nCHAPTER I TI. \n\n\n\n\nThe Life of Mahomet, from the Promulgation of his Doctrines until his "Hegtra," or Flight to Medina, 291 | \n\n\nCHAPTER IV. \n\n\n\n\nFrom the" Hegira" to the Capture of Mecca, ........ \n\n\n294 \n\n\nCHAPTERV. \n\n\n\n\nFrom the Capture of Mecca till the Death of Mahomet, . . . \n\n\n30O \n\n\nCHAPTERVI. \n\n\n\n\nThe Caliphat of Abu Beker\xe2\x80\x94 The Wars in Syria\xe2\x80\x94 The Capture of Damascus, and the Defeat of the \n\n\n\n\nImperial Forces ........... \n\n\n305 \n\n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\n\n\n\nThe Caliphat of Omar\xe2\x80\x94 The Capture of Emessa, Baalbec, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Cjesarea\xe2\x80\x94 Pinal \n\n\n\n\nConquest of Syria, ...... . > \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n310 \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. 9 \n\nCHAPTEK VIII. PAGE \n\nThe Caliphat of Omai-, contiuued\xe2\x80\x94 Conquest of Egypt and of Persia\xe2\x80\x94 Death of Omar, \xe2\x80\xa2 . 316 \n\nCHAPTER IX. \n\nThe Caliphat of Othman\xe2\x80\x94 The Invasion of Northern Africa\xe2\x80\x94 Naval Success of the Moslems, . 322 \n\nCHAPTER X. \n\nThe Caliphat of AU\xe2\x80\x94 The Rebellion of Moawyah\xe2\x80\x94 Death of Ali \xe2\x80\x94 Caliphat of his son Hassan, . 325 \n\nCHAPTER XI. \nThe Syrian CaUphat\xe2\x80\x94 Reign of Moawyah\xe2\x80\x94 The Siege of Constantinople \xe2\x80\x94 Wars in Africa\xe2\x80\x94 The Reign \n\nofYezid, . .328 \n\nCHAPTER XII. \nThe Rival Caliphs of Damascus and Mecca \xe2\x80\x94 Triumph of Abd\'Almalec, .... 332 \n\nCHAPTER XIII. \n\nRevival of the Spirit of Conquest\xe2\x80\x94 The Reign of Waled\xe2\x80\x94 Final Subjugation of Northern Africa, 33C \n\nCHAPTERXIV. \n\nThe Conquest of Spain, and the Invasion of France, ....... 339 \n\nCHAPTER XV. \nThe Division of the Caliphat\xe2\x80\x94 The Dynasties of Spain, Africa, and Bagdad \xe2\x80\x94 Fm-ther Conquests \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nDecline of the Saracenic Power, ......... 341 \n\nCHAPTER XVI. \nThe Tai-tar Conquests and Invasions, ......... 344 \n\nCHAPTER XVII. \n\nThe Tmks\xe2\x80\x94 The Seljukian Dynasty, 347 \n\nCHAPTERXVIII. \n\nThe Turks\xe2\x80\x94 The Dynasty of Othman \xe2\x80\x94 The Ottoman or Present Tm-kish Power, . . , 350 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nAncient History of Spain \xe2\x80\x94 The Carthagenians, Romans, and Goths \xe2\x80\x94 The Saracen Conquest, . 355 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe Formation of New Christian States: Asturias, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Arragon \xe2\x80\x94 Continued \n\nContests with the Moors \xe2\x80\x94 Union of Leon and Castile, ..... 358 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nFrom the Union of Leon and Castile to that of Castile and Arragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, 364 \n\nCHAPTER IV. \n\nFerdinand and Isabella\xe2\x80\x94 Subjugation of the Moors\xe2\x80\x94 Charles 1. The Emperor Charles V.), . 366 \n\nCHAPTERV. \n\nFrom the Abdication of Charles I. to the Death of Charles U., the last Monarch of the Austrian Line, 371 \n\n\n\n10 CONTENTS. \n\nCHAPTERVI.. PAQE \n\nTlie House of Bourbon, rnitil the French Revolution, ....... 374 \n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\nCharles IV. \xe2\x80\x94 Ascendancy of France \xe2\x80\x94 Abdication of the King, . . . . . . 378 \n\nCHAPTER VIII. \n\nDethronement of the Bourbons, and, Accession of Joseph Bonaparte \xe2\x80\x94 Resistance of the Spaniards, 3S2 \n\nCHAPTER IX. \n\nThe Peninsular War, . . . . . . . . . . . i 385 \n\nCHAPTER X. \n\nExpulsion of the French, and Restoration of the Bourbons, ...... 390 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nThe Ancient Germans\xe2\x80\x94 The Empire of the West\xe2\x80\x94 The Elective Empire, .... 394 \n\nCHAPTERII. \n\nThe Francoman Emperors\xe2\x80\x94 CJontests with the Papacy ....... 397 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nThe Empire until .the Reformation, .......... 401 \n\nCHAPTERIV, \n\nThe Reformation \xe2\x80\x94 Martin Luther \xe2\x80\x94 The Indulgences, &c., ...... 405 \n\nCHAPTER V. \n\nThe Reformation Continued\xe2\x80\x94 The " Theses " of Luther\xe2\x80\x94 Contests with Rome\xe2\x80\x94 The Diet at Worms, 409 \n\nCHAPTER VI. \n\nSpread of the Reformation \xe2\x80\x94 ^The Bible\xe2\x80\x94 The Peasant- War \xe2\x80\x94 Persecutions, .... 415 \n\nCHAPTERVII. \n\nReUgious Disputes\xe2\x80\x94 The Thirty Years\' War, . . . . \'. . . .419 \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nEarly History of Russia\xe2\x80\x94 The Tartars\xe2\x80\x94 Ascendancy of the Muscovite Dynasty\xe2\x80\x94 Ivan the Great, 425 \n\nCHAPTERII. \nIvan the Terrible \xe2\x80\x94 Foreign Wars \xe2\x80\x94 Accessiom of the Hoase of Romanoff, .... 429 \n\nCHAPTER III. \n\nPeter the Great\xe2\x80\x94 Peiils of his Youth\xe2\x80\x94 his Efforts for Refonn\xe2\x80\x94 Cruelties\xe2\x80\x94 Travels in Europe \xe2\x80\x94 War \n\nWith Charles XII. of Sweden, 432 \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. \n\n\n\n11 \n\n\n\nCHAPTERIV. PAGE \n\nPeter the Great, continued\xe2\x80\x94 Disastrous War with the Turks \xe2\x80\x94 Fresh Conqueste and Improvements- \nDeath of his son Alexis \xe2\x80\x94 Expedition to the Caspian Sea \xe2\x80\x94 Death of Peter, . . . 437 \n\nCHAPTER V. \nCatharine I., Peter IL, Anna, Ivan, Elizabeth, and Peter III., ...... 442 \n\nCHAPTER VI. \n\nCathiii-ine II. and Paul, . ... . . ... . . 445 \n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\nAlexander and Nicholas, ........... 447 \n\n\n\nFRANCE, \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nThe Early Inhabitants of France \xe2\x80\x94 The Romans; The Franks \xe2\x80\x94 The Merovingian and Carlovingian \n\nDynasties, ........... 451 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe House of Capet, . . . . . . . . . . . 455 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nThe House of Valois, . . . . . . , . . . .462 \n\nCHAPTERIV. \nThe House of Valois, continued, \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . . . . . . . 470 \n\nCHAPTER V. \n\nThe House of Bourbon\xe2\x80\x94 Henry IV. and Louis XIII., ...,,,. 477 \n\nCHAPTERVI. \n\nThe House of Bourbon\xe2\x80\x94 Louis XIV. and Louis XV., . . , \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . , 481 \n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\nThe House of Bourbon, continued \xe2\x80\x94 Louis XVI. and the Revolution, .... 493 \n\nCHAPTER VIII. \nThe Convention, and the Reign of Terror, ......... 502 \n\nCHAPTERIX. \n\nThe Convention, and the Directory, . . . . , . , . . 506 \n\nCHAPTER X. \n\nThe Consulate, .514 \n\nCH APTER Xr. \n\nThe Empire, ........:.. 518 \n\nCHAPTER XII. \n\nThe Decline and Fall of the Empire, ......... 527 \n\n\n\n12 CONTENTS. \n\nCHAPTER X I.I I. PAQB \n\nThe Restoration of the Bourbous, and the "Hundred Days" of Napoleon, .... 535 \n\nCHAPTERXIV. \n\nThe Second Restoration of the Bourbons, and their Expulsion \xe2\x80\x94 Louis Philippe, and his Expulsion \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nThe Republic, 541 \n\nTHE RULERS OF FRANCE, \n\nFrom B. C. 60 to the Present Time, ......... 547 \n\n\n\nEJV6LAJVD. \n\nCHAPTER I. \n\nBritain under the Romans, ........... 549 \n\nCHAPTER II. \n\nThe Saxon Invasions and the Heptarchy, . . . , . . . . 551 \n\nCHAPTER III. \nThe Anglo-Saxon Kings, . . . . . . . . ... 551 \n\nCHAPTER IT. \n\nThe Danish Kings, and the Last of the Saxons, . . . . . . . . 558 \n\nCHAPTERV. \n\nWilliam I., William II., and Henry I., ......... 5C3 \n\nCHAPTERVI. \n\nStephen and Henry 11., .... . ..... 567 \n\nCHAPTER VII. \n\nRichard I., John, and Henry HI., ....... . . 572 \n\nCHAPTERVIII. \n\nEdward I., Edward II., and Edward III., ........ 577 \n\nCHAPTER IX. \n\nRichard H. and Henry rv., .......... 585 \n\nCHAPTER X. \n\nHenry V. and Henry VI., ........ ... 591 \n\nCHAPTER XI. \n\nEdward IV., Edward V., and Richard lU., ......... 593 \n\nCHAPTER XII. \n\nHenry VII., C04 \n\nCHAPTERXIII. \n\nHenry Vni., .608 \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. -JO \n\nCHAPTERXIV. PAGE \n\nEdward VI. and Maiy, \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2..,. 618 \n\nCHAPTER XV. \n\nElizabeth, \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2...,,, 62R \n\nCHAPTER XVI. \n\xe2\x80\xa2f\'""^*!-\' 643 \n\nCHAPTER XVIX. \n\nCharles I., . . . . . . . ^^ \n\nCHAPTER XVIII. \n\nThe Commonwealth, \xe2\x80\xa2......., 66\'i \n\nCHAPTER XIX. \n\nThe Protectorate, &c., , . /.<,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCHAPTER XX. \n\nCharles II., .... .-,. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2. 070 \n\nCHAPTERXXI. \n\n\'^^"\'\xc2\xab\xc2\xab"-\' 684 \n\nCHAPTER XXII. \n\nWilliam m. and Mary U., \n\nCHAPTER XXIII. \n"^\xe2\x96\xa0^^ 694 \n\nCHAPTER XXIV. \n\nGeorge I. and George II., ... \xc2\xbb^ \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 , \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . 639 \n\nCHAPTER XXV. \n\nGeorge III., ... \n\n\' 704 \n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVI. \n\nGeorge IV., WUUam IV., and Victoria, . . . . \n\n\n\n716 \n\n\n\nTHE RULERS OF ENGLAND, \n\nFrom B. C. 55 to the Present Time, \n\n\n\nHi CONTENTS. \n\n\n\nSWEDEN AND NORWAY, \n\nITALY, \n\nTHE NETHERLANDS, - \nDENMARK, - - - - \xe2\x80\xa2 \nPORTUGAL, . - - - \nSWITZERLAND, \n\n\n\nlESSER EUROPEAN NATIONS. fage \n\n721 \n\n\n\n724 \n729 \n731 \n733 \n735 \n\n\n\nLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nIN ALL CASES WHERE THE NAME OF THE DRAFTSMAN IS NOT \n\nGIVEN, THE ENGRAVINGS ARE FROM CELEBRATED FRENCH \n\nAND ENGLISH ARTISTS; MOSTLY VERNET, OF FRANCE, \n\nAND GILBERT, OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nSUBJECTS. \n\nTITLE-PAGE, \n\nJoseph Sold by his Brethren, \n\nMoses and Aaron before Pharaoh, \n\nView of the Valley of the Jordan, \n\nBabylonian Captivity, \n\nDestruction of Jerusalem, \n\nThe Funeral Pyre of Sardanapalus, \n\nAssyrian Monarch returning from Battle, \n\nJudgment of the Dead, \n\nThe Battle of Aboukir, \n\nThe Battle of the Pyramids, \n\nMai\'s\' Hill and the Acropolis, at Athens, \n\nXerxes viewing the Sea-Fight at Salamis, \n\nThe Death of Socrates, \n\nThe Mother of Corlolanus, \n\nThe Death of Virginia, \n\nObsequies of Pompey, \n\nThe Fortress of Gingee, \n\nIndia Costumes, \n\nHyder AH, \n\nPalace of the British Resident at Hyderabad, \n\nMausoleum of the Sovereigns of Mysore, \n\nThe Great WaU of China, \n\nThe Cultivation and Preparation of Tea, \n\nThe Flight of Mahomet, \n\nThe " Battle of the Bridge," at the River Euphrates, \n\nSpanish Costumes, \n\nCharles I. of Spain resigning the Crown, \n\nThe Rock of Gibraltar, \n\nThe Prison of the Inquisition at Cordova, \n\nMilitary Costume of the Twelfth Centuiy, \n\nMilitary Costume of the Thirteenth Century, \n\n\n\nRA.WN BY \n\n\nENGBAVED BT \n\n\nPAGK \n\n\nBillings \n\n\nClark \n\n\n1 \n\n\nBillings \n\n\nDodd \n\n\n21 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n23 \n\n\nWallin \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n2G \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n39 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nBaker \n\n\n53 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nRichardson \n\n\n60 \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n, 64 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nRichardson \n\n\n75 \n\n\n\n\nDodd \n\n\n. 80 \n\n\n\n\nDodd \n\n\n, 81 \n\n\nDoepler \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n86 \n\n\nDai\'ley \n\n\nHerrick \n\n\n93 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nClark \n\n\n-104 \n\n\nBillings \n\n\nClark \n\n\n.132 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nHerrick \n\n\n^ 134 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nRichardson \n\n\n157 \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n238 \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n243 \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n243 \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n. 252 \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n253 \n\n\nWade \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n269 \n\n\nWade \n\n\nClark \n\n\n. 2d4 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n294 \n\n\nDai-ley \n\n\nBobbett &. Edmonds \n\n\n319 \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n1 368 \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n370 \n\n\n\n\nThompson \n\n\n375 \n\n\nWade \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n388 \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n400 \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n. 400 \n\n\n\n16 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS \n\n\n\n\n\n\nStTBJBCTS. \n\n\nDRAWN 3T \n\n\nENGRAVED BT \n\n\nPAGE \n\n\nMartin Luther, \n\n\nWallin \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n408 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\nAustrian Peasant, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n417 \n\n\nGerman Peasant, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n417 \n\n\nIsabel of Bavaria, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n417 \n\n\nAustrian Lady of Rank, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n417 \n\n\nFredericlc the Great, \n\n\nWallin \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n422 \n\n\nBronze Statue of Peter the Great, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n435 \n\n\nThe Retreat from Russia, \n\n\n\n\nDodd \n\n\n445 \n\n\nNicholas I., Emperor of Russia, \n\n\nWallin \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n447 - \n\n\nPeter the Hermit, \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n456 \n\n\nDepartui-e of the First Cmsade, \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n457 \n\n\nFrench Costumes, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n476 \n\n\nThe Contested Causeway at the Battle of Areola, \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nRichardson \n\n\n510 - \n\n\nThe Battle of the Pyramids, \n\n\n\n\nDodd \n\n\n5jl \n\n\nNapoleon Bonapai\'te, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n518 \n\n\nMarshal Soult, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n519 \n\n\nMarshal Lannes, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n526 \n\n\nNapoleon Crowning the Empress Josephine, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n528 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\nThe Private Supper at Dantzic, \n\n\n\n\nClmk \n\n\n528 \n\n\nMarshal Ney, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n530 \n\n\nAn Officer of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n538 \n\n\nDisinterment of the Remains of Napoleon, \n\n\n\n\nDodd \n\n\n540 \' \n\n\nThe Funeral Car of Napoleon, \n\n\n\n\nThompson \n\n\n541 \n\n\nA Ban-icade, as attaclted and defended, at Paris, \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nHerrick \n\n\n546 \n\n\nA Druid and Dniidess, \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n552 . \n\n\nA Druidical Altar or Monument, \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n552 . \n\n\nA British Wai-rior of the Southern Tribes, \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n553 \n\n\nA Knight Templar, in Full Armoxir, \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n553 \n\n\nEnglish, Scotch, and Irish Costumes, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n568 \n\n\nThe Murder of Thomas a Beclcet, \n\n\nDai-ley \n\n\nO\'Brien \n\n\n570 \n\n\nGarter King-at-Arms, Chief Herald of England, \n\n\n\n\nCrosby \n\n\n585 - \n\n\nDeath of Richard HI., \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nHerrick \n\n\n603 -\' \n\n\nHenry VIIL, \n\n\n\n\nThompson \n\n\n609 \n\n\nElizabeth, Queen of England, \n\n\n\n\nThompson \n\n\n629 \n\n\nCharles I., \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n649 \n\n\nOUver Cromwell, \n\n\nWallin \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n659 \n\n\nCharge of Cromwell at Worcester, \n\n\nDarley \n\n\nHerrick \n\n\n667 \n\n\nCharles II., \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n675 \n\n\nCharles Edward (called the Pretender), \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n702 \n\n\nThe Duke of Wellington, \n\n\n\n\nThompson \n\n\n714 \n\n\nCharge of the Enniskillen Dragoons at Waterloo, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n715 \n\n\nVictoria, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n71G \n\n\nDanish Costumes, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n721 \n\n\nJenny Lind, \n\n\nWaUin \n\n\nBobbett & Edmonds \n\n\n722 \n\n\nBemadotte, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n723 \n\n\nItalian Costume, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n725 \n\n\nMurat, \n\n\n\n\nClark \n\n\n727 \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\nEAELT HISTOEY OF THE HEBREWS. THE PATEIARCHS. \xe2\x80\x94 THE \n\nDEPARTUKE FROM EGYPT. \n\nThe Hstorj of tlie Chosen People may be considered as com- \nmencing witli the preservation of Noah, although their laws and \nceremonies were not prescribed until a later period. The Deluge \nhaving subsided, the Ark rested on Mount Ararat, and the patriarch \noffered a sacrifice to the Lord, in gratitude for his preservation. It \nis recorded that he survived for three hundred and fifty years after \nthe flood, and died at the advanced age of nine hundred and fifty. \n\nHis sons were Shem, Ham, and Japheth; "and of them was the \nwhole earth overspread." It is told of the descendants of Japheth \nthat by them "were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands." \nFrom Ham descended Nirnrod, the mighty- hunter, and the founder \nof Babylon. Asshur, a son of Shem, also founded Nineveh, after- \nwards united to Babylon, and forming the Assyrian empire. No \nespecial record of events is given until we arrive at Abram, the \nninth in descent from Shem, and the venerable father of the \nHebrew race. \n\nHis name is still held in reverence by nearly all the oriental races, \nand many accounts of his life and teachings are found in their \nlegends. Some of these have been adopted in the Koran; but the \nonly authentic record is to be found in the Book of Genesis, where we \nare informed that he was the son of Terah, and was married to \nSarai, his half-sister. Such unions were not uncommon in that \nprimitive age. Their dwelling-place was Ur, a region in the north- \neast of Chaldea, whence they migrated to Carrhan, a country farther \n2 \n\n\n\n18 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwest. From this place, Abram, with his nephew Lot, and the rest \nof his numerous household, following a divine intimation, set forth \nto found a new race in other lands. Crossing the Euphrates, he \narrived, after some delays, in Palestine, and pitched his tent in \nSichem, between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim. He afterwards \ndwelt north of Jericho, and descending southward in quest of \npastures, was compelled by famine to seek the land of Egypt \xe2\x80\x94 a \ncountry whose fertility seems to have made it a frequent refuge for \nthe destitute. \n\nSarai, who passed as his sister, was taken by the king, who, on \ndiscovering his mistake, returned her to Abram, and with her sent \nmany gifts of a pastoral nature \xe2\x80\x94 "sheep and oxen, and he asses, \nand men-servants and maid-servants, and she asses and camels." \nEeturning to Canaan with an increased household and possessions, \nAbram and Lot agreed upon a separation, and the latter moved \neastward into the fertile valley of the Jordan. \n\nAbram here received a renewed promise that his posterity should \nbe a gTcat and chosen nation, possessing all the land of Palestine. \nAgain migrating, the tribe encamped in the southern plain of Mamre. \n\nSoon after, a great contest occurred in the neighbourhood of the \nJordan, where in the vale of Siddim, there were joined in battle \n"four kings with five." Lot, a resident in Sodom, one of the cap- \ntured cities, was carried away a prisoner. On receiving the intelli- \ngence, Abram, with three hundred and eighteen of his own clan, \nand with some assistance from the neighbouring tribes, pursued the \nenemy near the sources of Jordan. Falling on them by night, he \nrescued Lot and the other prisoners, and recovered the booty, of \nwhich he refused to receive any share. One-tenth, however, was \nconsecrated as a divine offering, \n\nAbram still remained childless, but was cheered by a prophetical \nvoice, proclaiming that his descendants should be numerous as the \nstars on which he was gazing. The destiny of his race Avas fore- \ntold, and a miraculous appearance confirmed his faith. Shortly \nafterwards, Sarai gave to him Hagar, her Egyptian slave, who bore \nhim a son named Ishmael. Many years afterwards, when both \nAbram and his wife were advanced in years, a new revelation \nannounced that he should have a legitimate offspring by Sarai. \nThe ancient and widely-adopted rite of circumcision was also at \nthis time prescribed, and he was commanded to assume the reverend \nname of Abraham, signifying "the father of a multitude." \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 19 \n\nAt this time occurred the destruction of tlie cities of the plain, \nfrom which Lot and his family were preserved. The patriarch fled \nto Zoar, and thence to the mountains, where, overcome with wine, \nhe became, by an incestuous intercourse with his two daughters, the \nparent of the famous tribes of Ammon and Moab. \n\nThe son long promised to Abraham now was born, and named \nIsaac. At the jealous instigation of Sarai, Hagar and her son, \nIshmael, now fourteen years old, were sent into the wilderness. The \naccount of their fortunes, in Scripture, is most touching and beautiful. \nPreserved from death by the discovery of a well of water, they \nsurvived, and Ishmael became the father of those wandering tribes \nof Arabs who inherit the character of their progenitor, "the wild \nman, whose hand is against every man, and every man\'s hand \nagainst him." \n\nOnce more to test his obedience, the patriarch was commanded to \nsacrifice his beloved son, the hope of his house, and the inheritor of \nhis divine destiny. He consented, and made preparation: a victim \nwas miraculously provided ; and the promise was renewed that his \nseed should be as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on \nthe sea-shore. \n\nAt the death of Sarai, we find Abraham purchasing a place of \nburial, \n\n* * * \xc2\xab< jyiachpelah\'s honoured cave, \nWhere Jacob and where Leah lie ;\'\' \n\nafterwards destined to contain the last remains of others memorable \nin Sacred Writ. \n\nA wife is next sought for Isaac, not from the neighbouring tribes, \nbut from the relations of Abraham. A servant is despatched to \nthe ancient settlement, who meets at the well the beautiful Eebekah, \na grand-niece of the patriarch. She assists him in watering the \ncamels, and is finally conducted back a bride. \n\nBy Keturah, another wife, Abraham had many children, though \nIsaac continued his sole heir. At length, fall of years, he died, and \nwas buried by Ishmael and Isaac in Machpelah. \n\nIsaac, who pursued the peaceful occupation of a husbandman, \nwas father to Esau and Jacob \xe2\x80\x94 ^the one a hunter, rough in appear- \nance, brave and generous \xe2\x80\x94 the other a herdsman, peaceful, crafty, \nand treacherous. By means of artifice, the latter secured to himself \nthe birthright and the blessing destined for Esau ; but, fearing his \n\n\n\n20 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nrevenge, departed for tlie ancient dwelling-place of tlieir tribe in \nMesopotamia. After receiving a divine instruction, he proceeded to \ntlie home of his ancestors, and admired his cousin Eachel, whom, \naccording to the oriental and primitive manners of the daj, he found \ndriving her father\'s flocks to water at the well. \n\nFor her, and for her sister Leah, he served their father fourteen \nyears, and finally departed secretly, taking with him his wives, his \nproperty, and the sacred utensils of his father-in-law, Laban. Before \nventuring to approach the home of his father, he deprecated the \nresentment of Esau (now the head of a powerful tribe) by sub- \nmission and by presents. These were not needed; for the rough \nforester, generous and forgiving, "ran to meet him, and embraced \nhim, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept." \n\nBy this time the family of Jacob appears to have formed the \ncommencement of a nation; for we find Simeon and Levi, two of \nhis sons, to avenge the seduction of their sister Dinah, falling upon \nthe city of Shechem, and putting the inhabitants (enfeebled by a \nlate circumcision) to the sword. \n\nThe promise of inheritance was again renewed to Jacob, and he \nerected at Luz an altar, and called the place Beth-el, the House of \nGod. Thence he removed to Bethlehem, the birth-place of Christ, \nwhere Eachel died, having given birth to Ben-oni, the "child of her \nsorrow," but called by his father, Benjamin, "the son of his right \nhand." At last he rejoined his father Isaac, in the plain of Mamre. \nHere the old man died, and was buried by Esau and Jacob, who \nmet in peace, as the rivals Ishmael and Isaac had done before at the \nburial of Abraham. \n\nFrom this time the branches of the family constituted distinct \nnations. Esau and his descendants, the Edomites, dwelt about Mount \nSeir, and Jacob continued to remain in the land of Canaan. \n\nIn the history of these early races we find only the records of a \nwandering and pastoral life. They migrate, with their camels and \nasses, wherever pasture or a supply of food invites them. Some \ntraffic seems to have existed with Egypt, "tbe granary of nations," \nand gold and silver had been introduced. \n\nThe soil, where cultivated, appears to have been of a virgin \nrichness, returning, as in the tillage of Isaac, "a hundred for one." \nThe supreme authority was vested in the patriarch or head of the \ntribe, who could transfer it, with the right of primogeniture, to any \nof his sons whom he preferred. The domestic customs and the ties \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n21 \n\n\n\nof marriage seem to have been mucli as they are at the present day \namong the ruder nations of the East, \n\nFrom Jacob, who, by divine command, assumed the name of \nIsrael, sprang twelve sons, each the father of a separate tribe. From \nLeah were born the four elder, Eeuben, Simeon, Leyi, and Judah ; \nfrom Bilhah, Rachel\'s handmaid, Dan and Naphtali; from Zilpah, \nLeah\'s servant. Gad and Asher. Leah again bore Issachar and \nZebulun, with a daughter, Dinah. Finally, Rachel became the \nmother of Joseph and Benjamin. \n\nJoseph, a beautiful and intelligent youth, had ever held the first \nplace in the affections of his father. This excited the jealousy of his \nbrethren, who determined, while tending their flocks, to put him to \ndeath. At the remonstrance of Reuben, they spared his life, and \nsold him as a slave to a caravan of Arabian traders passing into \nEgypt, and laden with spicery, myrrh, and balm. Having been \nbought by Potiphar, a chief ofl&cer of the court, he was soon found \nworthy, by his prudence and integrity, of the charge of his master\'s \nentire household. Attracted by his beauty, the wife of his master \nmade advances, which being repelled, she caused him by a false \ncomplaint to be cast into prison. Having there distinguished him- \nself by his skill in the interpretation of dreams, he was summoned \nby Pharaoh to expound to him a perplexing vision. \n\nThe king had dreamed of " seven well-favoured and fat kine," \ndevoured by as many "ill-favoured and lean," and of seven ripe \nand goodly ears of corn devoured by the same number that were \nthin and withered. This the prisoner explained to signify that \nseven fruitful and abundant years should be followed by seven of \nbarrenness and famine. He advised in what manner to meet the \ncalamity ; and, being appointed vizier or prime minister over the \nland, exacted annually a fifth of all the produce, and caused it to be \nstored in the royal granaries. The king, to connect this talented \nstranger more nearly with his own people, gave to him in marriage \nAsenath, daughter of the priest of the sun in Heliopolis. \n\nThe years of plenty having passed away, those of famine suc- \nceeded; and were felt not only in Egypt, but in the adjacent regions. \nIn the second year, the sons of Jacob came thither, sent by their \nfather to purchase corn. The scriptural account of the various \nmeetings of Joseph and his brothers, is too long and too beautiful \nto be compressed within the limits of this work. \n\n"And there stood no man near him, while Joseph made himself \n\n\n\n22 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nknown unto liis brethren; and lie wept aloud, and the Egjj)tians \nand the house of Pharaoh heard. And Joseph said unto his breth- \nren, \' Come near to me, I pray you.\' And they came near. And \nhe said, \'I am Joseph; doth my father yet livef^^ \xe2\x80\x94 He forgave them, \nafforded them every relief and assistance, and sent for his father and \nall his household. The aged patriarch could not at first believe the \nwonderful account. Convinced at last, he said, "It is enough; \nJoseph my son is yet alive ; I will go and see him before I die." \xe2\x80\x94 \nThus all the direct descendants of Abraham, seventy in number, \nmigrated to Egypt, and were allotted, as their residence, the fertile \nland of Goshen. \n\nDuring this time, Joseph, by supporting the people, gradually \nacquired, as the property of the crown, the money, stock, and lands \nof all the inhabitants, except the priests, who were supported \nthroughout at the public expense. \n\nAfter residing in Egypt seventeen years, Jacob died, at the good \nold age of one hundred and forty-seven. In his last moments, he \nuttered many remarkable prophecies of the future fate of his nation, \ngave his last blessing to Joseph, and enjoined that he should be \nburied at Machpelah, in the sepulchre of his father. \n\nMeanwhile, the Israelites had increased remarkably in number, \nand enjoyed peace and prosperity. At the age of one hundred and \nten years, their great leader Joseph died, having directed that his \nbody should be embalmed, and borne to the family-tomb in Canaan. \n\nAt this period ends the Book of Genesis, (the creation,) the earli- \nest and sublimest record of human events. Our next source of \ninformation is Exodus, (the going forth,) in which the history of the \nIsraelites is continued. \n\nThey remained in Egypt, according to some authorities, for a \nperiod of two hundred and fifteen years ; according to others, four \nhundred and fifty. During this time, thej^ gradually increased into \na large and distinct nation, and appear to have been well treated by \nthe original inhabitants. \n\nAt last, "there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not \nJoseph." Forgetful of their claim to hospitality and protection, he \nsought to diminish the number of the foreign race by employing \nthem in severe and exhausting labours. This plan failing, he com- \nmanded, Herod-like, that all the male infants should be destroyed at \ntheir birth. A Hebrew woman exposed her child in a cradle of \nrushes on the bank of the river. Being discovered and adopted by \n\n\n\n\nAnd aftei-wa.rd Moses and Aaron went in, and told Pharaoh, Thus saith the Loi-d \nGod of Israel, Let my people go, that they may hold a feast unto me in the wildei\'- \nness. And Pharaoh said. Who is the Lord, that I should ohey his voice to let \nIsrael go ? I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go. And they said, The \nGod of the Hebrews hath met with us: let us go, we pray thee, three days\' jour- \nney into the desert, and sacrifice unto the Lord our God, lest he fall upon us Avith \npestilence, or with the sword. And the king of Egypt said unto them. Wherefore \ndo ye, Moses and Aaron, let the people from their works ? get you unto your bur \ndens And Pharaoh said, Behold, the people of the land now are many, and ye \nmake them rest from their burdens. And Pharaoh commanded the same d:iy the \ntaskmasters of the people, and their ofliioers, saying. Ye shall no more give the \npeople straw to make brick, as heretofore : let them go and gather straw for them- \nselves. And the tale of the bricks, "which they did make heretofore, ye shall lay \nupon them ; ye shall not diminish aught thereof : for they be idle ; therefore they \ncry, saying. Let us go and sacrifice to our God. Let there more work be laid \nupon the men, that they may labour therein : a.nd let them not regard vain words. \nAnd the taskmasters of the people went out, and their ofiicers, and they spake to \nthe people, saying. Thus saith Pharaoh, I will not give you straw. Go ye, get \nyou straw Avhere you can find it, yet not aught of your work: shall be diminished. \nSo the people were scattered abroad throughout all the land of Egypt, to gather \nstubble instead of straw. And the taskmasters hasted them, s.\'iying. Fulfil your \nworks, TOUR daily tasks, as when there w^as straw. And the ofiicers of the chil- \ndren of Israel, which Pharaoh\'s taskmasters had set over them, "were beaten, \nAND demanded, Wherefore have ye not fulfilled your task in making bi-ick liotln \nyesterday and Lr-day, as heretofore \' \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 23 \n\ntlie king\'s daughter, he received the name of Moses, an Egyptian \nword signifying " drawn from the water." Educated in the court of \nPliaraoh, he became accomplished in all the learning and science of \nthe Egyptians. Sympathizing with his oppressed nation, he killed \na man, probably one of the task-masters, who was beating and ill- \ntreating one of his people. In alarm for the consequences, he fled \nto Midian, and there for forty years pursued the humble occupation \nof a shepherd. \n\nOne day he drove his flock into the solitudes near Mount Horeb, \nand received a divine command, enforced by miracles, to attempt the \ndeliverance of his people from their slavery. His brother Aaron, a \nman of eloquence, was associated in the task. Proceeding to the \nthrone of Pharaoh, they petitioned a brief respite from their labours, \nto offer sacrifice to the Lord. The prayer was rejected, and fresh \nburdens were imposed upon the unhappy bondsmen. Unconvinced \nby miraculous tokens, the king hardened his heart, and incurred for \nhimself and his people awful calamities. The rivers were turned \ninto blood; myriads of frogs swarmed over the land, and filled the \nroyal palace ; the dust was changed to vermin, and swarms of flies \ninfested the inhabitants. A destructive pestilence pervaded the \nflocks ; a loathsome disease attacked humanity, and dreadful storms \nof rain, hail and thunder, before unknown in Egypt, afflicted the \nland. The king\'s obstinacy began to relent, and he promised to let \nthe people go. Eetracting his agreement, new terrors ensued. \nSwarms of locusts, ("such as had never been seen before, nor should \nbe again,") a palpable darkness for three days, and finally the mys- \nterious destruction in a single night of stll the first-born in Egypt, \novercame the fatal obstinacy of the king. "Knowest thou not yet \nthat Egypt is destroyed?" On the occasion of the last judgment, \nthe passover was instituted, in memory of the blood of the victims \nsprinkled on the door-posts, by which the avenging angel might \npass over the chosen people. \n\n* * " Thus with ten wounds, \n\nThe river-dragon, tamed, at last submits \nTo let his sojourners depart; and oft \nHumbles his stubborn heart." \n\nThe Hebrews departed, in a mighty caravan, encumbered with \ntheir helpless families, cattle, and all their household goods. Carry- \ning the bones of their great ancestor, Joseph, they advanced into the \n\n\n\n24 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndesert, and finally encamped by tlie Eed Sea. The haughty king, \nrenewing the hardness of his heart, pursued. Hope almost deserted \nthem, when a furious wind from the east began to blow \xe2\x80\x94 the dry \nbed of the sea appeared, and about nightfall they commenced defil- \ning through the miraculous path. The chariots and horsemen of \nthe Egyptians followed in full pursuit, and while in mid passage, the \nreturning sea came in like an army, and they were swallowed up : \n\n* * * * "Gone \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nGone with the refluent wave into the deep, \nA prince witli half his people." \n\nThe tradition of this wonderf td event is still preserved among the \nwild inhabitants of these shores ; and the wandering Arab imagines \nthat, among the breakers in a certain bay, he can still distinguish \ncries and wailings uttered by the ghosts of Pharaoh\'s army. \n\n\n\nTHE DESEET. \xe2\x80\x94 THE INVASION OP PALESTINE. \xe2\x80\x94 THE JUDGES. \n\nAftee this signal interposition in their behalf, the Israelites \nmarched three days through the wilderness of Shur. Having drank \nof the bitter waters of Marah, they reposed a month in Elim, where \nthey found twelve wells of water, and three score and ten palm- \ntrees. In danger of famine, they were relieved by flocks of quails \nand by a sweet substance called manna, . distilled from certain \nshrubs in the desert. \n\nThey arrived at last before that awful mountain which had \nalready witnessed the first interview of Moses with the Divine \nBeing, Water was miraculously supplied to them, and the Amalek- \nites, who attacked the camp, were discomfited, and became the \nperpetual enemies of Israel. \n\nHere also Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, joined him, and, by \nhis advice, a system of government and jurisprudence was adopted. \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 25 \n\nAnd here, amid the savage rocks and precipices of Sinai, slirouded \nby thick darkness and tempest, was delivered to Moses that remark- \nable code of laws and ceremonies so long the giiide of the Jewish \nrace. Though apparently severe and arbitrary in some points, they \nwere probably well adapted for the government of a rude, semi- \ncivilized race. They enforced strongly the worship of one God, \ninnocence from the more obvious crimes, chastity, cleanliness, rever- \nence to age, and a great number of minor obligations, the intent of \nwhich, at this time, is not very clear to us. \n\nDuring the absence of their chief, the people, in despair of ever \nseeing him again, recommenced their idolatry; and on his return, \nthe tribe of Levi, at his command, slew three thousand of them, \nwithout regard to friendship or relationship. \n\nA tabernacle was next erected, splendid in workmanship and \nmaterials, and Aaron and his sons were appointed as heads of the \npriesthood. On the completion of the edifice, the pillar of cloud \nby day and of flame by night, which had hitherto guided the people, \ncame and rested upon it. \n\nAt length, a year after the departure from Egypt, the twelve tribes \nleft their encampment, and marched northward in military array, \nsinging, "Arise, O Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered!" On \nthe way, to strengthen the authority of their chief, a council of \nseventy elders was appointed \xe2\x80\x94 the origin, according to the Jews, of \ntheir famous Sanhedrim. \n\nArriving, at last, at Kadesh Barnea, on the southern frontier of \nthe Promised Land, they sent a spy from each tribe to reconnoitre \nthe country. These, returning, dwelt oh the richness of the soil \nand the beauty of the fruits, of which they brought specimens; \nbut alarmed the people with a description of the inhabitants. " And \nthere we saw the giants, the sons of Anak; and we were in our \nown sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight." \n\n"Back to Egypt!" was the universal exclamation; and turning \ntheir faces from the Land of Promise, they commenced fulfilling \ntheir allotted destiny \xe2\x80\x94 to wander for forty years in the desert. For \nthirty-eight of these, we know little except the names of the stations \nwhere they halted, mostly near Mount Sinai. It is thought probable \nby some, that during this period Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, \noverrun a great part of the world, and that the Israelites, in this \ninaccessible retreat, escaped the vengeance of their former masters. \n\nAt last, when the old generation had passed away, and a new race \n\n\n\n26 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhad sprung up, invigorated bj the free air of tlie desert, the race of \ninvaders once more marched to Kadesh. Fearing to engage at first \nwith the sons of Anak, the Philistines and the Jebusites, they sought \nfrom the Edomites a passage over Mount Seir, that they might com- \npass the Dead Sea, and crossing the Jordan, fall upon the richest \nand least protected region of the land. This being refused them, \nthey retraced their steps to the Red Sea, and turned northward \nthrough Moab. On their way, Aaron died, and was buried on Hor, \na rocky mountain, where his tomb is shown to this day. \n\nStill marching east of the Dead Sea, they overcame the Amorites, \nwho had refused them passage, and slew Og, the gigantic king of \nBashan. The Moabites in alarm sent for aid to Midian, a friendly \npower, describing the number and ferocity of their invaders, in the \nexpressive language of the East: "They shall lick up all that is \nround about us, as the ox licketh up the grass." Moreover, to \ncountervail the unseen and mysterious protection which evidently \nshielded the Israelites, Balak, king of Moab, sent for Balaam, a \nrenowned prophet of the East, that by his imprecations the invad- \ning legions might be disheartened and confounded. The divine \nintuition of the holy man acquainted him with the true destiny of \nevents, and his curses were converted into blessings and favourable \nauguries to the enemy. \n\nThe victorious army, still advancing, was overladen with booty, \nand half-satiated with slaughter. The rich meadows of Bashan and \nGilead, east of the Jordan, were, at their request, allotted to the \ntribes of Reuben and Gad, who at once commenced a settlement. \n\nAnd now the end of the great Law-Giver drew near. He had \nlived an hundred and twenty years, yet "his eye was not dim, \nnor his natural force abated." His last work was the revision \nand compilation of those numerous edicts which he had from time \nto time promulgated. His last words to the people were an exhort- \nation and a prophecy, unsurpassed for sublimity of expression, \nand fearfully realized in the event. \n\nHe named Joshua as his successor, and as death drew near to \nhim, ascended Mount Nebo, from whose loftiest eminence, Pisgah, \nhe surveyed, for the first and last time, that beautiful Land of \nPromise, whose valleys and meadows he was destined never to \ntread. Beneath his feet flowed the Jordan, never to be crossed by \nhim ; opposite was Jericho, in its forest of shady palms ; to the north \nlay the lovely plain of Esdrelon ; and far beyond, the mountains of \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 27 \n\nJudea stretclied onward to tlie Great Sea. Gazing on this magnili- \ncent prospect with fjiding eyes, lie resigned his soul to its Creator. \n"But no man knoweth his sepulchre unto this day." \n\nFor thirty days the people lamented their great leader, and then, \nunder the direction of Joshua, prepared to recommence the war. \nSpies being despatched to the city of Jericho, reported, on their \nreturn, that the native inhabitants had become faint-hearted on \nlearning of the valour and the miraculous protection of their \ninvaders. Encouraged by this, the entire army crossed the Jordan, \nand laid siege to Jericho. At the end of seven days, it was taken, \nand every living thing within its walls put to death, except the \nfamily of Rahab, a harlot, who had harboured and concealed the \nspies. The next expedition was against Ai, a neighbouring city, \nand was at first repulsed with much loss. Being finally taken by \nstratagem, the place was burned, and the people exterminated \xe2\x80\x94 the \nusual consummation of a Jewish conquest. \n\nPalestine seems at this time to have been governed by a number \nof petty independent sovereigns. Five of these, headed by Adoni- \nzedek, king of the Jebusites, (whose city was afterwards Jerusalem,) \nattacked Gibeon, which had made an alliance with the enemy. \nDefeated by Joshua, they took refuge in a cave, whence, being dis- \ncovered, they were taken, and hanged, as usual. Another confeder- \nacy at the north was likewise defeated in a single battle, and the \nchariots and horses, their main implements in war, were destroyed. \nThis contest with the native tribes lasted for seven years, during \nwhich time, seven nations \xe2\x80\x94 the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hit- \ntites, the Hivites, the Perizzites, the Girgasliites, and the Jebusites \xe2\x80\x94 \nhad been entirely subdued ; thirty-one chiefs had fallen, and many \ncities had been depopulated and razed to the ground. \n\nWeary of war, they desisted from further slaughter, and their \nleader portioned out the conquered country among the successful \ntribes, assigning to each a separate tract. By these it was divided \namong the people, and every estate was held, as in later feudal \ntimes, by a tenure of military service. A tax of two-tenths was \nlevied on all produce, one-tenth for the Levites, and the other for the \nsupport of the poor. After seeing his people peacefully settled in \ntheir new country, Joshua died, appointing no successor. The gov- \nernment was thenceforth vested in chieftains and petty magistrates, \ncalled judges, who were, in reality, a species of military dictators. \n\nEre long, a war with the remaining aborigines succeeded, which \n\n\n\n/ \n\n\n\n28 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nterminated in the destruction of many of their towns, and the pay- \nment of tribute by others. Only the fierce inhabitants of the south, \ndefended by their chariots of iron, remained unsubdued. An out- \nrage committed upon the concubine of a Levite, by some of the \ntribe of Benjamin, aroused all Israel against them. The offending \ntribe were cut off \xe2\x80\x94 men, women, and children \xe2\x80\x94 to the number of \ntwenty-five thousand, and the lives of six hundred alone were \nspared to perpetuate the name of Benjamin. \n\nDuring many years which succeeded, portions of the Hebrews \nwere alternately enslaved by the neighbouring people, and delivered \nby the craft and valour of their judges. \n\nSisera, a powerful king of the Canaanites, having oppressed the \nnorthern tribes for twenty years, a confederacy was formed to \nrecover their freedom. Under the command of Deborah, an Ama- \nzon and prophetess, Barak marshalled the forces of Israel on Mount \nTabor. The vast army of their enemies, with nine hundred char- \niots of iron, entered the plain of Esdrelon \xe2\x80\x94 ^the great battle-ground \nof nations. Overcome by a sudden attack from the mountain, many \nwere slaughtered, and others perished in the overflowing Kishon. \nSisera, taking refuge in the tent of Jael, a Kenite woman, was \ntreacherously slain by her, a nail being driven into his head while \nsleeping. The hymn of Deborah, in honour of the victory, is one \nof the most striking specimens of primitive poetry, and valuable \nas an historic record. \n\nAfter forty years of peace, the wild tribes of Midian and Amalek \nmarched fi:om their wilderness, overspread the whole country, and \nreduced the people to slavery. Gideon, a leader of the tribe of \nManasseh, again delivered them, by a sudden night attack upon the \ncamp of their invaders, whose arms, in the confasion, were turned \nupon each other. Fresh victories ensued, and the war ended with a \nloss of one hundred and twenty thousand of the Midianites and \ntheir allies. \n\nSome generations had passed away, when a new enemy, the \nAmmonites, crossed the Jordan, and threatened the destruction of \nthe nation. Jephthah, a jndge of Israel, going forth to meet them, \nrashly and impiously vowed, if victorious, to sacrifice the first living \nthing that should meet him on his return. Having gained a great \nvictory, his only daughter came forth, with music and dancing, to \nwelcome her father home from the wars, and on her was his rash \nand cruel vow fulfilled. \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n29 \n\n\n\nWe next learn tliat, tlie Philistines prevailing against the southern \ntribes, a hero arose, named Samson, whose exploits seem to resemble \nthose of Hercules and Antar, the strong-limbed champions of a \nprimitive world. Among the many feats which he is recorded to \nhave performed against the Philistines, are the destruction of their \nfields, the slaughter of an immense number at various times, the \ngates of Graza carried awaj, and finally, when, blind and captive, \nhe was brought into their great temple to amuse them with feats of \nstrength, his tearing its pillars from their foundation, and over- \nwhelming himself and his enemies in a common ruin: \n\n* * * * " Straining all his nerves, he bowed \xe2\x80\x94 \nAs with the force of winds and waters pent, \nWhen mountains tremble \xe2\x80\x94 those two massy pillars \nWith horrible convulsion to and fro. \nHe tugged, he shook, till down they came, and drew \nThe whole roof after them in burst of thunder, \nUpon the heads of all who sat beneath ; \nLords, ladies, captains, counsellors and priests, \nTheir choice nobility and flower." \xe2\x80\x94 Milton. \n\n\n\nLJ ujJj dido dj cb tXJ Jj oj Jj iL o \n\nTHE KINGS, UNTIL THE CAPTIYITT. \n\nA CHAMPION more efficient than the hero of mere physical force \nwas soon to arise in behalf of Israel. The Philistines had now \ndefeated them in battle after battle, and at last taken the Ark, \nwhich, as a last resort, had been carried to the field by the disheart- \nened tribes. This mysterious emblem, however, was the cause of \nsuch trouble and annoyance to the idolators, that, at the end of \nsome months, they gladly restored it to its rightful owners. Twenty \nyears longer were the people oppressed by their enemy, when a new \nruler arose in Israel. \n\nSamuel, a Levite, educated in the house of Eli the high-priest, \nhad, from his early youth, received intimations of divine favour and \n\n\n\n30 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ninspiration. Having done mucli to extirpate idolatry among tlie \npeople, he now stood forward as a civil and military dictator. \nAssembling the terrified Israelites, lie reassured them, gave battle \nto the enemy, and entirely defeated them. His administration of \ncivil affairs was not less successful; but his sons proving corrupt \nand faithless, the people demanded the appointment of a king. \nThis event had been anticipated by Moses, Avho provided both for \nthe royal election and administration. The reverend man remon- \nstrated, but left the people to their choice, which was for a mon- \narchy \xe2\x80\x94 "that our king might judge us, and go out before us, and \nfight our battles." By the divine command, Saul, a youth of tall \nand striking figure, and of resolute courage, was selected for their \nfuture ruler. To prepare him for this elevated station, his educa- \ntion was entrusted to the school of the prophets; but even during \nthis tutelage, he signalized himself by his conduct and courage in \ndefeating the Ammonites. Hereupon, Samuel resigned his author- \nity; and with him ended the line of judges, during which Israel \nhad been enslaved and harassed by its enemies for one hundred \nand thirty years, and had enjoyed peace and prosperity for more \nthan three hundred. \n\nAt a later period, the Philistines again overran the country ; but \nwere, after various fortunes, totally discomfited by Saul and his \nvaliant son Jonathan. The Amalekites, again disturbing the fron- \ntier, were almost entirely exterminated; and Agag, their king, \nwhose life had been spared by Saul, was hewed in pieces before the \naltar, by command of Samuel. \n\nFrom this period, the life of Saul, rendered dangerous and \nunhappy by attacks of insanity, is closely connected with that of \nDavid, a brave and beautiful youth, whom Samuel had privately \nanointed as his successor. His early exhibitions of courage and \nprudence, his destruction of the gigantic Philistine Goliath, and his \nsoothing with music the disordered mind of the king, are too well \nknown to be repeated. Having attained great popularity by his \nprowess against the enemy, and being married to Michal, the daugh- \nter of Saul, his life was often endangered by the king\'s wayward \njealousy. He perceived that, despite the generous devotion of his \nfriend Jonathan, there was no safety for him at court, and, taking \nrefuge in a cave at Adullam, became the leader of a band of dis- \ncontented adventurers. \n\nSaul, meanwhile, suspecting the priesthood of a conspiracy, \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n31 \n\n\n\nslauglitered many of them witliout mercy, and thus lost the sup- \nport of that dangerous and influential class of people. \n\nAt times, the unfortunate king of Israel, touched by the virtues of \nDavid, and his reverence for the royal person, had become reconciled \nto him; at others, an insane jealousy prompted him to seek the \nlife of his unoffending son with the first weapon. Barely escaping \nfrom his vengeance, and often exhibiting great forbearance and \nmagnanimity, the persecuted man at length took refuge with the \nenemy, where Achish, their king, assigned Ziklag as a residence for \nhim and his two wives. Meanwhile, the venerable Samuel, so long \nthe hope and oracle of the nation, died, and with great lamentation \nwas buried at Eamah. \n\nThe end of the unhappy Saul was at hand. Deserted by many \nof his people, haunted by a dread of impending misfortune, and \nrefused all comfort and oracular encouragement from the priests, he \nsought in despair the haunt of a noted witch \xe2\x80\x94 one of a race which \nhe had endeavoured to extirpate from the land. He proceeded to \nher cave in disguise, and desired that the shade of Samuel might be \nevoked. Mighty sj^irits arose from the earth, and among them the \nprophet, an old man covered with a mantle, who responded with a \nfearful warning of his defeat and death on the morrow. \n\nThe next day the king gave battle to his enemies on Mount \nGilboa, and, pierced with arrows, fell on his own sword. His brave \nson Jonathan and the flower of Israel died with him. The lament \nof David over the royal chieftains, his former friends, is sublime and \nbeautiful: "Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their \nlives, and in their death they were not divided," \n\nCalled to the throne by universal acclamation, David displayed \nall the qualities of a brave leader and a sagacious prince. The \nPhilistines every where withdrew, and left the chosen people in \npeace. After reigning some years at Hebron, he seized a citadel of \nthe Jebusites, most favourably situated, and there laid the founda- \ntions of the wondrous city of Jerusalem. \n\nThe ark was removed thither, and the national religion established \nin security and magnificence. Desirous of building a suitable tem- \nple, he was deterred by a divine prohibition, through the prophet \nNathan: "Thou hast shed blood abundantly, and hast made great \nwars; thou shalt not build a house unto my name, because thou \nhast shed much blood upon the earth in my sight." \n\nPursuing his victorious and sanguinary career, he overthrew with \n\n\n\n32 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ngreat slaughter the Philistines, the Edomites, Moabites, and Syrians, \nand extended his empire until it was bounded by the Euphrates and \nthe southern desert. Insulted by the Ammonites, who had shaved \nthe beards and curtailed the skirts of his embassy, he defeated them \nwith great loss, and subjected the survivors to the most cruel torture \nand execution. \n\nFrom this time a series of errors and misfortunes followed him to \nthe grave. His licentious seizure pf Uriah\'s wife, with the murder \nof her husband, and its punishment, incest and murder among his \nchildren, and finally the rebellion of Absalom, his favourite son, \nfollowed each other in rapid succession. The prince, a young man \nof great beauty and popular manners, aided and incited by Ahito- \nphel, a subtle conspirator, raised the standard of revolt, and the king \nin his old age was compelled to flee from Jerusalem. His usurping \nson seized the capital, and took possession of the royal harem, \nDavid, in time, assembling an army, sought to regain his crown. \nBattle being joined, and the revolted forces defeated, Absalom, in \nflight, was entangled by his long hair among the boughs of an oak, \nand there slain by Joab, the fierce and unscrupulous general of the \nroyal forces. The king\'s anxiety for his safety, and his grief on \nlearning the fatal issue, are most eloquently described: "Would \nGod I had died for thee, oh Absalom, my son, my son!" \n\nAnother rebellion succeeded, headed by an adventurer named \nSheba. This suppressed, a famine ensued, and seven of the descend- \nants of Saul were sacrificed, as a propitiatory offering. But Kizpah, \nthe mother of two of them, watched the remains "from the begin- \nning of harvest until water dropped on them out of heaven, and \nsuffered neither the birds of the air to rest on them by day, nor the \nbeasts of the field by night." \n\nThe king now determined to number the souls in his extensive \ndominions, and after a census of nine months, discovered that in \nIsrael and Judah there were one million three hundred thousand \nmen fit to bear arms. A desolating pestilence succeeded. The old \nage of David was passed in making great preparations for a temple \nto be erected by his successor. Having anointed Solomon, his son \nby Bathsheba, as successor to the throne, he enjoined upon him, on \nhis death-bed, that he should keep inviolate the Mosaic laws, and \ntake the first opportunity to destroy Joab and Shimei, who had been \nhis enemies. He then died, having reigned forty years, first over \nscattered and oppressed tribes, and afterwards over the empire which \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n83 \n\n\n\nhe had founded, extending from Egypt to Lebanon, and from the \nEuphrates to the Great Sea. He was a man of the greatest and \nmost diversified talent \xe2\x80\x94 a warrior, a legislator, a prophet, and a \npoet of the highest order. Though often manifesting great affection \nand magnanimity, some of his deeds are strongly marked by the \nfierce and merciless spirit of the age. \n\nAt the age of twenty, Solomon ascended the throne. His first \nact was to put to death his brother Adonijah, of whom, he was \njealous. He next killed Joab and Shimei, according to his father\'s \ndirection. Despite these acts of violence, his reign was eminently \npeacefal, judicious, and prosperous, and Israel and Judah dwelt \nsafely "every man under his vine and under his fig-tree, from Dan \nto Beersheba." The administration of justice, the financial affairs \nof the kingdom, and its foreign relations, were all carefally and \nwisely overseen. Then, too, for the first time, the Israelites engaged \nlargely in commerce. The trade through Tyre to Tarshish, (proba- \nbly Carthage,) the overland caravans to Egypt and the Arabian \npeninsula, and the venturous expeditions to Ophir by the Eed Sea, \nwere the fruits of the king\'s enlightened policy. He built as sta- \ntions for the trafiic between the Euphrates and the sea, the splendid \ncities of Palmyra and Baalbec, whose ruins still excite the highest \nadmiration. The magnificent temple at Jerusalem was another \ntrophy of his genius and resources. His wisdom and learning were \nas proverbial among his contemporaries as they have been with suc- \nceeding generations. His many works of poetry, natural history, \nand philosophy, have perished, except the books of Proverbs and \nEcclesiastes, and a fragment of his thousand and five songs. \n\nHis government was strengthened by judicious alliances with \nTyre and with Egypt, a princess of which he took to wife. His later \ndays appear to have been marked by a strange idolatrous infatua- \ntion, or perhaps rather a weak deference to his wives and concubines, \nmany of whom held the idolatrous belief After a reign of forty \nyears, Solomon expired, and with him the renown and strength of \nthe Jewish nation. \n\nEehoboam, his son, succeeded. This headstrong youth, when the \npeople remonstrated against their burdens, replied, "My, father made \nyour yoke heavy, and I will add to your yoke ; my father chastised \nyou with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." Ten of the \ntribes instantly revolted, and made Jeroboam, their leader, ruler \nover the new kingdom of Israel or Ephraim. Eehoboam was reduced \n3 \n\n\n\n34 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nto his native possessions in Judea, and to the allegiance of the tribes \nof Judah and Benjamin, Ere long, Shishak, king of Egypt, attacked \nJudah, and plundered the temple of its treasures. \n\nAbijah, the son of Eehoboam, succeeding him, attacked Jeroboam \nwith a great force, and totally defeated him. At the end of three \nyears he died, and his son Asa succeeded to the kingdom of Judah, \nB. C. 959. \n\nMeanwhile, the posterity of Jeroboam being extirpated, the new \nkingdom of Israel became the prey of a succession of adventurers, \nwho slew and replaced each other, very much in the manner of the \nsmaller Eastern nations at present. Finally, about B. C. 919, Ahab, \nthe son of Omri, surpassed all his predecessors in wickedness. \nHaving espoused Jezebel, daughter of the king of Sidon, he intro- \nduced the worship of Baal or the sun, and slew the prophets of the \ntrue God. These inspired and influential men were always especially \nobnoxious to a tyrannical government : they stood forward boldly \nin defence of their laws and religion, and fearlessly denounced \noppression and backsliding among the rulers of the land. \n\nElijah, one of the most eminent, having escaped, appeared before \nAhab, reproved his apostacy, and announced its punishment in a \nfearful drought. This having occurred, he challenged the idolatrous \npriests to a trial of power ; in which, being vanquished, they were \nput to death, to the number of four hundred and fifty. Ben-hadad, \nking of Syria, twice attacking Samaria, was totally defeated. Mes- \nsengers being despatched to sue for peace, Ahab, with unwonted \nmagnanimity, exclaimed, "Is he yet alive? he is my brother!" and \naccorded honourable terms. Having committed many crimes, he \nwas finally slain in battle with the Syrians. \n\nDuring this time, Asa had reigned peacefully for forty-one years \nover the kingdom of Judah, and his son Jehosaphat had succeeded \nhim. The latter having made an alliance with Ahab, was defeated \nin the battle above referred to. Ahaziah, son of Ahab, after a brief \nreign, was succeeded by his brother Jehoram, who, in concert with \nthe forces of Judah and Edom, defeated the king of Moab. To \nJehosaphat succeeded his son Jehoram, each kingdom being at this \ntime governed by a ruler of the same name. The Judean having \nkilled his brothers at his accession, experienced a series of misfor- \ntunes. Edom, which had heretofore been tributary to him, revolted, \nand the successful insurgents took possession of Elath, his only \nremaining port on the Eed Sea. Attacked by the Philistines and \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 35 \n\nArabians, his capital and seraglio were taken, and his children, \nexcept one, were slain. He died nnhonoured, and Ahaziah, his son, \nmounted the throne. \n\nMeanwhile, the king of Israel was engaged in a desperate war \nwith the Syrians. Elijah had bequeathed his mantle and his spirit \nof prophecy to Elisha, on whom the hopes of the Jewish race now \nrested. Already the fame of his miracles had spread through the \nland, and had even reached Syria, where Naaman, a high officer of \nBen-hadad, was cured by him of a leprosy. The city of Samaria was \nnow beleagured on all sides, and the sufferings of the people, and their \ndreadful resort to cannibalism, remind us of that more terrible siege so \noften predicted by the prophets, and so fatally fulfilled. At length the \nseer announced the departure of the Syrian army ; and three lepers \nsallying forth, discovered that the enemy, alarmed by mysterious \nsounds of battle, had fled in dismay. Soon after, Hazael, a Syrian \nofficer, having murdered his sovereign and seized the crown, defeated \nat Ramoth the king of Israel and Ahaziah, son of the Judean Jehoram. \nBy command of Elisha, Jehu, the furious driver, was now anointed \nas king of Israel. The army revolted, and espoused his cause. He \ndrove rapidly to Jezreel, where his first act was to slay the two \nkings, Jehoram and Ahaziah, who had come to meet him, in their \nchariots. Entering Jezreel in triumph, and irritated by the taunts \nof Jezebel, he commanded her to be thrown from her window into \nthe street, where the dogs gnawed her remains, according to the \nprophet\'s prediction. Seventy descendants of Ahab and forty -two \nof Ahaziah were put to death, and the usurper mounted the throne \nof Israel without opposition. Assisted by Jehonadab, the ascetic, \nhe totally exterminated the priests of Baal, and rooted out all idola- \ntries, except that of the golden calves, which had always been \nespecially dear to the people and their rulers. \n\nAthaliah, daughter of Ahab and wife of Jehoram of Judah, \nseized the throne of that country, murdered all the heirs, except \none, and reigned for six years, during which the worship of Baal \nwas established at Jerusalem. At the end of this time, Jehoiada the" \nhigh-priest organized a conspiracy, slew the queen and the priest of \nBaal, proclaimed Joash, the surviving heir, a child of seven, and, \nduring the minority, took the government into his own hands. \n\nHazael, the usurping king of Syria, had gradually encroached \nupon the possessions of Israel during the reign of Jehu; and in \nthat of Jehoahaz, his successor, had almost reduced it to a small \n\n\n\n36 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntributary province. He now turned his arms upon Joasli, (who had \nreceived his crown,) took Gath, and advanced on Jerusalem. After \nvarious reverses, having apostatized, and been denounced by the \nprophet Zachariah, Joash was defeated by the Syrians, miirdered by \nhis own officers, and refused the honour of royal sepulture. \n\nAmaziah, his son and successor, with a great army, invaded the \nrevolted kingdom of Edom, and took the city of Petra. Elated by \nsuccess, he attacked Jehoash, king of Israel. The army of Judah \nwas totally routed, Jerusalem taken, and the treasures of the temple \ncarried to Samaria. Fifteen years afterwards, Amaziah fell, the victim \nof a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his son Uzziah or Azariah. \n\nDuring a prosperous reign of fifty-two years, this prince did much \nto restore the kingdom to its former flourishing condition. He \ndefeated the Philistines, recovered the important port of Elath, on \nthe Ked Sea, fortified Jerusalem, and improved the agriculture of \nthe country. Being smitten with leprosy, he was, in conformity \nwith the law of Moses, deposed from his office, and his son Jotham \nappointed in his stead. \n\nThe kingdom of Israel, also, had now regained a portion of its \nancient prosperity. Jeroboam II., who succeeded Jehoash (B. C. \n825), reconquered the eastern provinces, and even took the city of \nDamascus. At his death, anarchy prevailed : his son Zachariah was \nkilled by Shallum, and he by Menahem, during whose reign the \nnation became tributary to Assyria. That mighty empire, indeed, \nnow seemed advancing to universal conquest. Syria was half over- \nthrown, and Palestine lay before it an easy prey. The prophets \nlifted their voices in wilder warning and denunciation, and the fall \nof nation after nation bore witness to the truth of their inspiration. \nIn the midst of terror and prophetical foreboding, they chanted the \ndeath-song of surrounding empires \xe2\x80\x94 of Moab and Ammon, of Tyre \nand Damascus, and of their dreaded oppressor Nineveh herself. \nBut over the land of the Chosen People \xe2\x80\x94 over Judah and Israel, \narose more eloquent and pathetic wailings than ever lamented the fall \nof nation or dynasty. All national poetry sinks into insignificance \nbefore these sublime prophecies and lamentations. A long succession \nof genius and inspiration found its appropriate and sufficient climax \n\n" In rapt Isaiah\'s wild prophetic fire," \n\nwhere first the promise of a Comforter and Eedeemer is fully and \nvividly accorded. \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n87 \n\n\n\nTo Menaliem succeeded Peliekiali, who was slain by Pekah, a new \nusurper. In Judak, Jotkam left the crown to his son Ahaz, the \nmost unfortunate monarch of his line. Pekah and Pezin, king of \nSyria, joined in confederacy, invaded his bounds, and after a terrible \nbattle, carried two hundred thousand of his subjects into captivity. \nEezin seized Elath ; the Edomites and Philistines revolted ; and \nAhaz, in despair, sought the aid of Assyria. Eelieved thus of his \nimmediate enemies, he fell into a more degrading and dangerous \nservitude to his ally, and imitated his idolatries. \n\nPekah, meanwhile, had. been assassinated, and Hoshea, who suc- \nceeded him, was made tributary to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. \nFinally, that monarch advanced into his territories, took Samaria, \nafter a siege of three years, and terminated for ever the independent \nexistence of the kingdom of Israel. \n\nGreat numbers of the unfortunate Israelites were transplanted to \na mountainous region in Media, and their places filled by colonists \nfrom Assyria. From this time we lose sight of the ten tribes, as a \ndistinct people. Many fanciful theories of their destiny have been \nframed ; but it is most reasonably inferred that they gradually became \nmingled and absorbed among the people with whom they were settled. \n\nSix years before the destruction of Israel or Samaria, Hezekiah, \na pious and sagacious monarch, replaced his father Ahaz on the \nthrone of Judah. Idolatry was once more extirpated, and the \nancient rites restored. Even the brazen serpent of Moses was \ndestroyed. The passover was celebrated with great magnificence. \nHe defeated the Philistines, and threw off the yoke of Assyria, daily \nincreasing in weight. For a time, the vengeance of Shalmaneser \nwas diverted from Judah by the conquest of Tyre, which sustained \nwith great bravery a siege of five years. His son Senacherib sent \nan immense army, which took up its position before Lachish, The \nunfortunate Hezekiah submitted, and ransomed his crown by pay- \nment of an enormous tributCj which compelled him to strip the \nvery walls of the temple. \n\nThe Assyrian leader marched to the conquest of Egypt, but a \nportion of his army which remained, renewed a demand for the \nsurrender of Jerusalem, and sent the townsmen a message, which \nEabshakeh, their envoy, delivered in most insulting language. By \nadvice of Isaiah, the king refused submission ; and on receiving a \nsecond summons from the Assyrian monarch, trusted for defence to \nthe Protector of the chosen race. His trust was not in vain. In a \n\n\n\n38 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nsingle night, smitten by an unseen destroyer, (supposed by some to \nhave been the simoom,) ttie mighty host of the invader was annihi- \nlated, and Senacherib himself, flying in terror to his capital, was \nassassinated by his own sons. Hezekiah survived this wonderful \nevent fifteen years, during which, he strengthened the cities, improved \nagriculture, and saw his people prosperous. \n\nHe was succeeded by Manasseh, whose irreligion and cruelty \nbecame proverbial. Idolatry was restored, and the temple itself \npolluted with a graven image. He laid violent hands upon the \nprophets, shed the blood of innocent persons, and is said to have \ncaused the revered Isaiah to be sawn asunder. Esarhaddon, king \nof Assyria, appearing before the walls, he submitted without a \nstruggle, and with his people was carried in captivity to Babylon. \nThe policy of transplanting the inhabitants, and replacing them \nwith Assyrians, was continued by Esarhaddon. From this union \nof nations, a mingled worship of true religion and idolatry sprang \nup in the land. Manasseh being finally permitted to reoccupy his \nthrone, completed a reign of fifty-five years, latterly with more \nobservance of laws and religion. \n\nHis son Amon being murdered by his own officers, was succeeded \nby Josiah, whose memory is deservedly dear to the Jewish nation. \nHe extirpated idolatry, repaired the temple, and inculcated the true \nreligion. The original book of the law being discovered by Hilkiah \nthe high-priest, the king was struck with terror at its awful warn- \nings and forebodings, and, with all the nation, renewed a solemn \ncovenant with the Lord. This wise and religious monarch, had he \nsurvived, might, perhaps, have restored Judah in some degree to its \nancient grandeur ; but espousing the cause of Assyria against Necho, \nking of Egypt, he was slain in battle with the latter, near the frontier. \nAt this period appeared the prophet Jeremiah, whose sorrowful and \ndesponding tone of genius was well fitted to bewail the fall of the \nlast kingdom of the race of Abraham. Necho having defeated the \nAssyrians, seized Jerusalem, deposed the new king, Jehoahaz, and \nappointed another, Eliakim (Jehoiakim). \n\nIn the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar, son of the \nAssyrian monarch, was associated with his father in the empire and \ncommand of the army. Jehoiakim, resisting his authority, was \ncarried in chains to Babylon, the temple was plundered of its treas- \nures, and many youths of high family were carried into captivity. \nAmong these were Daniel, and the celebrated three \xe2\x80\x94 Shadrach, \n\n\n\nmi \n\n\n\no a> \n\n\n\n\\ ^r \n\n\n\n\npj 1) \n\n\n\n\n\n\ni\' t>. \'p \n\n\n\n4_\xc2\xab cj :\' \n\n\n\n\n\n1^ \n\n\nQ \n\n\nq \n\n\n0) \n\n\no \n\n\no \n\n\n,a \n\n\nOT \n\n\n1^ \n\n\no \n\n\n^C \n\n\nc: \n\n\nPH \n\n\no \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\no \n\n\n\'v \n\n\n\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n89 \n\n\n\nMeshach, and Abednego \xe2\x80\x94 wliose striking story is so universally \nknown. The king having been reinstated, and again revolting, \nwas again besieged in Jerusalem, and finally slain (B. 0. 598). \n\nHis son Jehoiacliini had hardly ascended the throne, when the \nAssyrian army appeared before Jerusalem, and carried away the \nroyal family, the treasures, and many of the nobility and artisans, \nto Babylon. Over what remained, Zedekiah, a son of Josiah, was \nappointed as a kind of viceroy. Encouraged by the Egyptians, in \nthe ninth year of his reign he revolted, notwithstanding the remon- \nstrances of Jeremiah. His allies were defeated, and Jerusalem was \nagain besieged. After a long and determined resistance, the inhab- \nitants, subdued by famine, opened their gates. The king was seized, \nand his children were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, \nand led away to an Assyrian dungeon. Soon after, the city, palaces, \nand temples were levelled in universal ruin. The remaining treasures \nof the temple were sent to Babylon, the chief-priests slaughtered, \nand the others carried to the enemy\'s capital. On this occasion \nJeremiah delivered that sublime elegy which forms a fitting climax \nto all former lamentations and prophecies of wo. \n\nThe miserable remnant of the Jewish nation was placed under the \nrule of Gredaliah, as a pasha of the Assyrian ; and the seat of govern- \nment was fixed at Mizpeh. Many of the inhabitants fled to Egypt; \nand thus closes the first period of Jewish history. Nothing is more \nunusual than that a people, enslaved and expatriated, should resume \ntheir national existence, and retain their distinct national character- \nistics. But the wonderful principle of vitality inherent in the Mosaic \nLaw preserved them a distinct race, as well during the Babylonish \ncaptivity, as during that wider dispersion, which at later times suc- \nceeded. We shall see them again, ere long, take their place among \nnations, pursue a more extraordinary career, and at last encounter a \nmore fearful overthrow and dissolution. \n\nOn reviewing the various records of their chequered existence to \nthis period, we perceive a strong family resemblance in the various \nbranches of the Jewish race. Often revengeful, treacherous, and \ncruel, they were capable, at times, of high magnanimity and refinement \nof feeling. The social affections were exceedingly strong, though \nsometimes sacrificed to revenge and ambition. Considering their lim- \nited number, they were among the most valiant and warlike of \nnations ; and peculiarly excelled in that stubborn, resolute endurance, \nwhich often carries its point against the most disproportionate odds. \n\n\n\n40 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nArts and manufactures had. attained a certain perfection, thougli \nprobably not excelling that of surrounding nations; in the science \nof architecture, they were certainly inferior to many of their con- \ntemporaries, especially the Greeks and Egyptians. Marine com- \nmerce appears to have been principally carried on by the aid of their \nneighbours, the Phoenicians, and the overland caravans to Egypt \nand the East constituted their most important trade. Their superi- \nority to the surrounding tribes and empires is principally to hd \nfound in their clearer and more exalted ideas of a single Divine \nBeing, though they still exhibited that perpetual tendency to lapse \ninto idolatry, which characterizes a semi-barbarous race. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEEI?. \n\nTHE RESTOEATION. MISFOETUNES OP THE HEBEEWS. \xe2\x80\x94 THE \n\nMACCABEES. GRADUAL ASCENDANCY OE ROME. \n\nThough the grief of the captive nation was naturally great, and \nthough they "sat by the waters of Babylon, and wept as they \nremembered Sion," yet the conduct of their new masters appears to \nhave been mild and considerate, and their treatment rather that of \ncolonists than slaves. Daniel and other youths of good family were \nentertained at the king\'s court, and instructed in all the learning of \nthe Chaldeans. \n\nAssyria soon falling before the united power of the Medes and \nPersians, Daniel, already distinguished by his skill in prophecy and \ninterpretation, was advanced to a high oflice under the new govern- \nment. Darius, and afterwards Cyrus, appreciated and rewarded his \ntalents ; and it was probably through his influence that the latter, \nseventy years after the captivity, issued a decree for the restoration \nof the Hebrews to their native land. Assembling to the number of \nforty-two thousand three hundred and sixty, under Zerubbabel, a \ndescendant of their kings, they returned to Jerusalem, bearing a few \nrelics of the sacred treasures which once had adorned the splendid \nedifice of Solomon. \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 41 \n\nEenewing tlieir ancient rites, they laid tlie corner-stone of a new \ntemple, amid the tears of a few old men, who yet remembered its \nformer glory. Their resources were indeed miserably insufficient, \ncompared with the wealth of David and Solomon, The Samaritans, \na race descended from the ten tribes and the Assyrian colonists, \noffered, it is true, to assist in the great work devoted to their common \nreligion. Their overtures, however, were contemptuously rejected \non account of the ancient animosity between Judah and Israel \xe2\x80\x94 an \nanimosity afterwards deepening into the most bitter and irreconcila- \nble hatred. \n\nDuring the captivity, the national faith had undergone consider- \nable modification. The belief in a future life, and the coming of a \nMessiah, their exclusive king and redeemer, had, from the teachings \nof the prophets, assumed a firm place in their peculiar belief. \n\nWhile Cambyses reigned, and pursued his conquests, the people \nmade little progress in rebuilding their city and temple ; but Darius \nHystaspes, his successor on the Persian throne, in reverence to the \nancient edict of Cyrus, furthered their wishes. The temple was \ncompleted in six years, and its dedication celebrated with sacrifices \n\xe2\x80\x94 few and meagre, indeed, compared with those of their ancestors. \nDarius was succeeded by the celebrated Xerxes, supposed to be the \nAhazuerus of the Book of Esther. In this interesting and truly \noriental tale, we see a daughter of the dependant race advanced to \nhigh station in the royal harem, procuring the ofl&ce of vizier for a \nfriend, and causing the execution of his rival, the enemy of her \npeople. Before his deposition and death, however, he had issued an \norder for the destruction of the Jews throughout the Persian empire. \nAt the request of the favourite, messengers were despatched, on \nhorses and fleet dromedaries, to the various cities, with permission \nto the proscribed race to defend themselves. This they did so effect- \nually as to slay seventy-five thousand of their antagonists in the \nseveral provinces. \n\nThe reign of Artaxerxes, the next king, was favourable to them\xe2\x80\x9e \nEzra, a man of priestly descent, headed a new migration from Baby- \nlonia, and established laws and magistrates. Afterwards ISTehemiah, \na Jewish favourite, was permitted to rebuild and fortify the city, \nwhich he accomplished in the incredibly short time of fifty -two \ndays. Every tenth man, by lot, was compelled to enrol himself as \na citizen and defender of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Ezra had com- \npiled the Sacred Writings in nearly the same order in which they \n\n\n\n42 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nnow stand, tliougli several books were subsequently added. Dissen- \nsions occurring between Nebemiah and the priesthood, Manasseb, \nson of tbe bigb-priest, was expelled from Jerusalem. In revenge, \nbis friends built a rival temple on Mount Gerizim, and appointed \nbim bigb-priest. Tbe breacb between Samaria and Jerusalem was \ntbus widened still furtber, and tbe latter by degrees fell entirely \nunder tbe government of ber bigb-priests. One of tbese baving \nmurdered bis brotber in tbe sanctuary, tbe Persian governor entered \ntbe temple, and imposed a beavy penalty on tbe wbole people. \n\nAbout tbis time, Alexander tbe Grreat was besieging Tyre, and \ntbe Jews made submission to bim. Tbe Samaritans revolting, be \nexpelled tbem, and planted Macedonians in tbeir room. \n\nAfter bis deatb, Ptolemy of Egypt, assaulting Jerusalem on tbe \nSabbatb, took it witbout resistance, and carried one bundred thou- \nsand captives to Alexandria and Gyrene. It was twice taken by \nAntigonus, and twice regained by Ptolemy, witb wbom it finally \nremained. Antiocbus of Syria baving seized Judea, and been com- \npelled to rebnquisb it, again attacked it, in tbe reign of tbe next \nPtolemy (Epipbanes), and at last wrested it from tbe Egyptians. It \nwas afterwards bestowed upon Ptolemy as tbe dowry of bis daugh- \nter Cleopatra (tbe elder). \n\nAfter it bad been for a long time distracted by internal factions, \nAntiocbus Epimanes, baving conquered Egypt, and learning of a \nrevolt, marched against Jerusalem, put to death forty thousand of \nthe inhabitants, and sold as many more for slaves. After pillaging \nand marring tbe temple in every way, be sacrificed a great sow \nupon tbe altar, boiled a part, and caused the defiling fluid to be \nscattered over tbe sacred building. Two years afterwards, in execu- \ntion of another sanguinary edict, Appolonius, bis legate, attacked \nthe unresisting people on the Sabbatb, slew a vast number, pillaged \nthe. city, and set it on fire. The temple was dedicated to Jupiter \nOlympus, Bacchanalia were substituted for tbe national festivals, and \nthe unfortunate survivors throughout Judea were compelled to join \nin idolatrous rites, or to undergo tbe most cruel martyrdom. \n\nTbe Jewish nation and the worship of Jehovah were near tbeir \ntotal extermination, when a new deliverer arose. Mattathias, a man \nof priestly descent, with bis five sons \xe2\x80\x94 Johanan, Simon, Judas, \nEleazer, and Jonathan \xe2\x80\x94 excited a most vigorous resistance near tbe \ncoast. After obtaining important successes, be died, bequeathing \nbis command to Judas, called Maccabseus, the most prudent and \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n43 \n\n\n\nvaliant of his sons. He defeated general after general of the Syrian \nforces, and at last entered in triumph the city of Jerusalem, now \ndesolate and overgrown with thick underwood like a forest. The \ncity was fortified, the temple was purified, and the national worship \nrestored. Many oppressed provinces were enfranchised, and the \nvaliant Maccabees continued to pursue a series of victories until the \ndeath of Antioohus. Under his successor, after a desperate contest, \nthey were compelled to retreat to Jerusalem, and finally to surren- \nder. Again defeating his enemies, the wise and patriotic Judas \nentered into treaty with Rome, for the sake of her important coun- \ntenance and protection; but ere the news of its ratification reached \nhim, fell gloriously in defending his country against a fresh attack. \nAfter great reverses, his brother Jonathan succeeded in again assert- \ning the national independence, and, with the title of high -priest, \ngoverned and defended Judea bravely and sagaciously. Being \ntreacherously murdered by a Syrian ofiicer, he was succeeded by \nhis brother Simon. \n\nUnder his wise and impartial administration, the country enjoyed \ngreat prosperity. The former magnificence of the temple and capi- \ntal were, in a great degree, restored; but like his brothers, he perished \nby violence, being assassinated in his old age by an ambitious \nconspirator. \n\nHis son John Hyrcanus, inheriting the ability of his family, \neluded the danger, and was proclaimed high-priest and ruler at \nJerusalem. Besieged there by the Syrians, under another Anti- \nochus, he was compelled to become tributary; but on the death of \nthe king, reasserted the independence of Judea, which was main- \ntained until the Roman conquest. Among other achievements, he \ntook Sichem, and destroyed the rival temple on Mount Gerizim, \nwhich had been for two hundred years an eye-sore to the Jewish \nnation. He took Idumea, and completely incorporated it with his \ndominions ; and, after a most obstinate contest, became master of all \nGalilee and Samaria, and razed the hated city to the ground. His \nreign, which lasted twenty-nine years, was much troubled with \ndissensions between the Pharisees and Sadducees, who by this time \nhad formed two great and irreconcilable factions. \n\nHis son Aristobulus, after murdering several of his relatives, died \nof remorse, and was succeeded by Alexander Jannasus, the next heir. \nHis reign was marked by continual contests with the Syrians and \nwith his own people, of whom he put great numbers to death. \n\n\n\n44 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nHis son Hyrcanus II. espoused tlie cause of the Pharisees, and by \ntheir support had reigned in tolerable quiet for some years, when \nhis brother Aristobulus, who headed the opposite party, usurped the \ngovernment. After various contests, the brothers submitted their \nquarrel to Pompey the Great, then at Damascus, who, after several \ndelays, settled the question by marching into and taking possession \nof the disputed territory for the Eoman people. Having entered \nJerusalem, the most resolute of the factions took possession of the \ntemple and citadel, which sustained a siege of three months. It was \nfinally taken by means of military engines brought from Tyre ; and \nthe conqueror excited the wonder and terror of the Jews by exam- \nining every part of the sacred edifice, and even profaning the Holy \nof Holies by his heathen presence. He spared the splendid treasures, \ncommanded the temple to be piirified, appointed Hyrcanus high- \npriest over Judea, fixed a tribute, and departed. Nothing, however, \ncould induce the Jews to forgive his desecration of their temple ; and \nin the civil wars which ensued, they embraced, throughout the \nworld, the party of Caesar; for by this time extensive colonies of \nthem had settled in other lands, especially in Egypt, where their \nnumbers have been estimated at a million. During the war, Aristo- \nbulus and his talented son Alexander, who had made many attempts \nagainst the Eomans, were cut off, and Hyrcanus remained in posses- \nsion of his office. Antipater, his prime minister, by his influence \nwith Caesar, gradually supplanting him, appointed Phasael, his own \nson, to the government of Jerusalem, and Herod, another, to that \nof Gralilee. After various reverses, Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus, \nclaiming the kingdom, and seizing Jerusalem, by aid of the Parthi- \nans, Herod barely escaped with his life. He fled to Eome, and such \nwas his influence with Augustus and Antony, that in a brief time \nhe returned with the crown of Judea. He suffered, at first, various \ndefeats and reverses; but finally, with the assistance of the Eoman \nlegions, under Sosius, took Jerusalem after a siege of half a year, \nsaved it from destruction at the hands of his allies, and sent Anti- \ngonus in chains to Antony. The chiefs of the opposite faction were \nmostly executed, and the whole Sanhedrim, except two, shared the \nsame fate. Having espoused the beautiful Mariamne, daughter of \nAlexander, and raised her brother Aristobulus to the office of high- \npriest, he soon caused him to be treacherously murdered, dreading \nhis popularity. Having experienced great danger, first from the \nhatred of Cleopatra, the mistress of Antony, who had begged his \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 45 \n\nkingdom from her lover, and afterwards from lier love, lie thought \nto have her assassinated, but was dissuaded by his friends. About \nthis time, a dreadful earthquake overthrew many cities in Judea, \nand destroyed thirty thousand lives. \n\nAfter the battle of Actium, fresh perils awaited him, from his \nintimacy with the defeated Antony. But with that extraordinary \nboldness and presence of mind which never deserted him, he imme- \ndiately sought the conqueror, and addressed him in a speech of such \nart and persuasiveness, that Augustus loaded him with renewed \nhonours and possessions. \n\nMeanwhile, his palace was filled with wretchedness and domestic \ncrime. The murder of one relative after another was succeeded by \nthat of Mariamne, whose execution he ordered in a fit of jealousy. \nFrom that moment his life was marked by the deepest gloom and \nfrequent insanity. Yet his administration was in general judicious, \nliberal, and magnificent ; and the success and splendour of his public \ncareer contrast most strongly with the cruelty and weakness of his \ndomestic life. He endeavoured, by introducing Greek refinement \nand Eoman amusement, to soften the narrow and sectional character \nof his people; he erected splendid public buildings, founded new \ncitadels, and rebuilt the ancient city of Samaria. In a dreadful fam- \nine, he imported corn from Egj^pt, and supported the necessitous. \nAmong other public-spirited acts, he founded and completed in \ntwelve years the splendid city of Ci3esarea, named in honour of his \npatron Augustus Caesar, in whose favour he stood next to Agrippa ; \nand he rebuilt the temple with unprecedented magnificence. \n\nThe wretchedness of his private career continued. Constantly \nsuspicious of his sons, he was often on the point of despatching them. \nAt last, he ordered the execution of Alexander and Aristobulus, \nthe innocent sons of Mariamne ; and, on his death-bed, that of Anti- \npater, another son, who had in reality attempted his life. An \natrocious order, which he is said to have given, for the massacre of \nall the principal persons in Jerusalem at his death, was disregarded. \nAmong his later atrocities, was the "Murder of the Innocents" in the \nlittle town of Bethlehem. Having in his last moments disposed of \nhis kingdom, and ordered the execution of his son, he expired, \nleaving a character for talent and wickedness seldom equalled. \n\nBy his will, Galilee and Perasa were assigned to Herod Antipas, \none of his sons, and Judea, Samaria, and Idumea to Archelaus, \nanother. During the absence of the latter at Eome, to support the \n\n\n\n46 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, \n\nwill before Augustus, the most terrible anarcliy prevailed, and tlie \nneighbouring Eoman generals, taking advantage, seized Jerusalem, \nand put to death great numbers of the people. \n\nDespite a petition from the Jews for the restoration of their ancient \ngovernment, the will of Herod was, for the most part, confirmed by \nthe emperor; and Archelaus returning, ruled for nine years with \ngreat tyranny. An accusation being then preferred against him at \nEome, he was banished to Gaul, and his kingdom reduced to a \nEoman province ; and thus the sceptre for ever departed from Judah. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ? \n\n\n\nTHE ROMAN GOVERNMENT, AND THE DESTRUCTION OF \nJERUSALEM. \n\n\n\nThe government was now that of a colonial district, dependant on \nthe prefecture of Syria; the judicial and ecclesiastical authority being \nstill vested in the Sanhedrim, or Council of Elders, which was in \ncommunication with the Eoman governor. \n\nThe population was mostly divided into two great factions ; first \nand most popular, that of the Pharisees, who believed in a future \nexistence, and pretended to great sanctity ; and secondly, the Saddu- \ncees, who, denying a future existence, were inflexibly severe in the \nenforcement of human law and punishment. There was also a small \nsect called the Essenes, of exceedingly rigid and ascetic manners. \n\nPublius Sulpicius Quirinus, being appointed governor of Syria, \nfound it necessary to take a census of the population and property \nin Judea, for purposes of taxation. A resistance to this, headed by \none Judas, was suppressed, and the insurgents executed with the \nmost cruel torture. Throughout the remainder of the reign of \nAugustus, Judea was subject to a succession of Eoman governors. \nIn the long reign of Tiberias, he appointed only two, Yalerius Gratus \nand Pontius Pilate, (A. D. 27,) comparing a Eoman province to the \nwounded man (in the fable) attacked by a swarm of flies, from whom \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n47 \n\n\n\nit would be folly to drive them away, that the more hungry might \ninstantly succeed. \n\nDuring this period, though Judea enjoyed tranquillity, the Jews, \nfrom a jealousy of their influence, suffered great persecutions in \nItaly. Pontius Pilate, the Eoman praetor, now removed the seat of \ngovernment from Cassarea to Jerusalem. Of a stern, decided char- \nacter, yet not disposed to unnecessary cruelty, nor heedless of popular \nfavour, he ruled the people with firm, yet judicious control. His \nworst act appears to have been the weakness or policy of yielding \nthe Saviour to the infuriated priesthood. He would gladly have \ntransferred the case to the jurisdiction of Herod, and was evidently \nsmitten with remorse at his own injustice; for he took water, and \nwashed his hands, saying, "I am innocent of the blood of this just \nperson; see ye to it." \n\nThis is not the place for a recital of the wondrous life, teachings, \nand martyrdom of Christ ; suffice it to say, that the Hebrews dis- \nplayed, on this occasion, the same narrow and unrelenting spirit \nwhich had always characterized their treatment of all opposing the \npopular religious belief \n\nPilate having been recalled, and Caiaphas degraded from the \npriesthood, Tiberias died, and was succeeded by Caligula. His \ninsane vanity prompted him to demand divine honours from his \nsubjects throughout the whole empire. The Jews in Alexandria \nnot complying, underwent a dreadful persecution ; and soon an edict \nwas issued that the emperor\'s statue should be placed in the temple \nat Jerusalem. The effect upon the popular superstition was terrible : \nthe people, in despair, left their occupations throughout the country, \nand offered their breasts to the Roman swords; and Petronius the \npraetor was so far moved as to suspend the execution of the decree \nuntil it was repealed by the interest of Agrippa. \n\nMeanwhile, in Babylonia, certain of the people revolting, terrible \nmassacres had taken place, and the assassination of Caligula alone \ndelivered the race from more grievous injuries. Claudius, succeed- \ning him, appointed Agrippa king over all the dominions ruled by \nthe first Herod. After a splendid reign of three years, he died, and \n^\'Judea became once more a Roman province under a succession of \nprsetors. And now commenced that series of crimes and errors \nwhich led to the final destruction of the holy city. \n\nThe people had become excessively corrupt and turbulent. Bands \nof assassins scoured the country : the fanatical populace was contin- \n\n\n\n48 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nually embroiled witli the Koman soldiery; and Felix, the governor, \nin vain endeavoured to suppress the spirit of revolt. In Csesarea the \nmost violent conflicts prevailed between the Greeks and Jews ; in \nJerusalem the authority of Festus and Agrippa (the second), Eoman \npreetors, was set at naught. To Felix succeeded Albinus, a corrupt \nand avaricious man, and to him Gessius Florus, whose oppression \nand treachery were among the principal causes of the insurrection \nwhich followed. \n\nSome terrible phenomena, which appeared about this time, were \nsupposed to portend calamitous events. A comet in the shape of a \nsword hung over the city for a whole year; the massive gates of \nthe temple were thrown open, and a luminous appearance covered \nthe altar ; and the evolutions of chariots and horsemen were seen in \nthe heavens. A man filled with insanity, or the spirit of prophecy, \nfor four years went about the city, crying "Wo to Jerusalem!" \nAnd the Christians, in obedience to the divine premonition, aban- \ndoned Jesusalem in a body, and retreated to Pella beyond the Jordan. \n\nAt this time, when the inhabitants of Judea amounted to about \nthree millions, and vast numbers of Hebrews were settled in other \ncountries, that fatal series of events commenced, which terminated \nin their entire destruction as a nation. The feud in Csesarea being \nrenewed, and the Jews getting worsted, Florus took advantage of \nthe discontent excited in Jerusalem, and committed a terrible massa- \ncre upon the people, hoping, in the event of a general insurrection, \nto plunder the temple of its vast treasures. Disappointed in this, \nand finding his position unsafe, he retired to Csesarea. \n\nBy the prudent counsels of Agrippa, peace was well nigh restored, \nwhen a party of insurgents seized a small fortress near the Dead \nSea, and put the Eoman garrison to the sword. A decree was \nfurther made in Jerusalem, prohibiting the Komans from sacrificing \nin the temple, which, as a piece of conciliatory policy, had always \nbeen done in the name of the emperor. This being an open \ndeclaration of hostilities, the more moderate citizens sent to Agrippa, \nentreating a force to preserve the peace. This having arrived, a \ncontest commenced, which lasted with great desperation for seven \ndays, at the end of which the insurgents, under Eleazer, gained the \nadvantage. Afterwards, the remaining troops of Agrippa were \nsuffered to leave the city, and the few Eomans who still held out, \nwere massacred after capitulation. \n\nOn that very day, however, a fresh misfortune awaited the Jews. \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n49 \n\n\n\nThe Grecian party in Ceesarea, bj previous agreement, rose suddenly, \nand in one liour destroyed them, almost to a man, to the number of \ntwenty thousand. Maddened by this outrage, and perceiving them- \nselves fully committed against the Eomans by their own conduct in \nJerusalem, the whole nation took up arms, and commenced an \nindiscriminate slaughter in all the cities on their borders. The \nSyrians and Greeks, in revenge, put to death great numbers of Jews \nresiding in their nation. In Alexandria the Jewish populace, \nrevolting, were cut off with prodigious slaughter, and fifty thousand \ndead bodies were heaped ujd for burial. \n\nCestius Gallus, the Syrian governor, now marched against the \nrevolted city, at the head of twenty -three thousand troops, and after \nmeeting a severe reverse in the pass of Beth-horon, laid siege to the \ncity. Naturally irresolute, and meeting a fierce resistance, after a \nfew days, he raised the siege, and retired. His retreat, which soon \nbecame a flight, was harassed by the victorious insurgents, and he \nfinally entered Antipatris, with the loss of nearly six thousand troops, \nand all his battering rams, catapults, and engines of war. These \nwere afterwards used with dreadful effect against their former owners. \n\nAfter this defeat, the most disgraceful which Eoman arms had \nexperienced for a long time, Judea was in open rebellion against the \nMistress of the World. Undisciplined, entirely without allies, and \nopposed to a power which could command nearly all the forces in \nthe known world, the Jewish nation made a defence which, if fierce \nand fanatical, was certainly the most daring, desperate, and patriotic \nthat has ever been recorded in the annals of the earth. Naturally \nof a fierce and clannish nature, exasperated by great oppressions, \nand committed by great crimes, looking forward with confidence to \nthe speedy coming of a Messiah, and relying on a renewal of ancient \nmiracles in their behalf, the whole nation now prepared for a most \ndetermined resistance. \n\nThe reduction of the revolted province had been entrusted by \nISTero to Yespasian, the most distinguished commander in the empire, \nwho immediately hastened to Syria to collect the Eoman forces and \nthose of their tributaries. Eleazer, the leader of the first insurrec- \ntion, though not possessing nominal office, was in reality the chief \nleader of the Jews. Over the different districts, of&cers of trust \nand fidelity were appointed by the insurgents ; and over that of \nGahlee in particular, Josephus, the celebrated historian of his \npeople. In Jerusalem, preparations for war proceeded with great \n4 \n\n\n\n50 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. \n\nenergy; the walls were strengtlienecl, engines constructed, and \nstores laid in with great care and promptitude. They first attacked \nAntonius, the Eoman commander of Askelon, but were repulsed \nwith great loss in two attempts, \n\nVespasian advanced to Ptolemais, and was there joined by his \nson Titus, who had been despatched to Alexandria for reinforce- \nments. Their united force amounted to sixty thousand regular \ntroops, besides followers of the camp. They took up the line of \nmarch, but halted on the frontiers of Galilee, to give an opportunity \nfor submission. The army of Josephus dispersed in every direction, \nand the Hebrew general threw himself, with all his available forces, \ninto the strong city of Jotapata, situated among the mountains. \nFor forty-seven days it resisted all the attacks of the Eomans, and \nthe garrison, in their courageous sallies and sudden attacks, evinced \nall the bravery and adroitness which usually characterizes a race of \nmountaineers. After a most valorous defence it was taken, with a \nloss of forty thousand men during the siege and capture, and \nJosephus fell into the hands of the Eoman commander. He was \nreceived with great courtesy, and eventually obtained the fullest \nconfidence of both Yespasian and Titus. The Eomans now retired \nto Csesarea, exhausted by the late terrible conflict, and destroyed \nJoppa, which was held by the revolted forces. Thence returning \nto Gralilee, and taking Tiberias, Yespasian made a terrible slaughter \namong the inhabitants after capitulation, sold more than thirty \nthousand as slaves, and sent six thousand to Nero, who was then \nengaged in a scheme for cutting a canal through the Isthmus of \nCorinth. The province, overawed, submitted; some citadels which \nyet held out were taken after obstinate resistance. In Gamala, \nespecially, four thousand were put to the sword, and the bodies were \nfound of five thousand who had cast themselves from the rock, on \nseeing the assault successful. \n\nMeanwhile, the unhappy city of Jerusalem was involved in all the \nhorrors of a civil war. One faction, including the most respectable \nand wealthy, were for peace and submission ; the other, more des- \nperate, and fired with fanatical zeal, was determined to resist to the \nlast. Immense numbers of the latter party, many of them robbers by \nprofession, flocked into the city, and, under pretence of patriotism and \nreligious enthusiasm, plundered, imprisoned, and murdered the more \npeaceable. These Zealots, as they were called, after a desperate \nconflict, took possession of the temple, an immense citadel, adapted \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n51 \n\n\n\neither for worship or defence. Their leader was Eleazer. Besieged \nthere, they sent for aid to the Idumeans, who came before the city \nto their assistance to the number of twenty thousand. Entrance \nbeing obtained for them by a stratagem, the Zealots with their new \nallies recommenced the contest, the temple was deluged with blood, \nand eight thousand five hundred bodies strewed its courts. Unsat- \nisfied with victory, they continued for a long time to massacre the \npeople, and spared neither age nor innocence. The high-priests were \nslaughtered, and the most celebrated officers put to death. Vespa- \nsian, urged to march upon the city, replied, that such a step would \nat once unite the factions, and that he preferred allowing them, like \nwild beasts, to tear each other to pieces in their dens. He had now \ntaken many of the cities, and on one occasion had slain or drowned \nin the Jordan fifteen thousand fugitives. The river and the Dead \nSea itself had been almost choked with bodies. He was daily \nexpected at the gates of Jerusalem, when news arrived of the death \nof Nero, and for two, years the Eoman kept his forces fresh and \ninactive, that he might profit by a favourable opportunity for seizing \nthe empire. During this time Galba, Otho, and Yitellius had in turn \ngained and lost the imperial crown. The politic Vespasian at last \nattained the purple, and the command in Judea was delegated to \nhis son, the celebrated Titus. \n\nDuring all this time, Jerusalem had been distracted by a civil war \nof the fiercest character. Two new factions had arisen, headed by \nSimon, son of Gioras, and by John of Gischala, who had played a \nconspicuous part in the commencement of the war. They were both \nmen of remarkable bravery, craft, and ambition, and both utterly \ndestitiite of scruples. Simon, who had long ravaged the country with \na large force, was at last permitted to enter the city that he might \nprotect it from the atrocities of the Zealots. The city was now the \nprey of three farioiis factions \xe2\x80\x94 that of Simon, in the upper city; \nJohn, with the Zealots, in the temple ; and Eleazer, with others, in \nthe inner court. These alternately slaughtered each other and the \ndefenceless citizens. Many were killed in worshipping at the sanc- \ntuary-; for, strange to say, amid all this havoc and violence, the cus- \ntomary rites were observed as usual. \n\nAt last Titus with a great force once more approached the gates of \nJerusalem, Hardly had he pitched his camp, before the besieged made \na furious sally, and the commander was nearly taken by a surprise. \nThe factions now perceived the necessity of making common cause \n\n\n\n52 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY \n\n\n\nagainst the enemy, and of burying their animosity for tlie present. \nBy agreement they made a simultaneous attack on the tenth legion, \nwhich was stationed at the foot of the Mount of Olives. By the fierce- \nness and suddenness of their onslaught, it was, at first, entirely roiited, \nand Titus himself exposed to the greatest danger; at length, rallying, \nafter a contest of an entire day, the Eomans repulsed their enemies. \n\nIt was now the Passover, and vast multitudes fi^om the most dis- \ntant regions, had entered the beleagured city to celebrate their most \nrevered and important festival. This circumstance added gTcatly to \nthe suffering and famine which ensued. Meanwhile, the Eomans, \nin forming military approaches, had laid waste all the surrounding \ncountry; but being enticed under the walls by a stratagem, were \ndefeated with great loss. \n\nThe city was, at that time, fortified by three walls, one within the \nother, strengthened by one hundred and sixty -four towers. More- \nover, there was a fortress of unusual strength, called the Antonia, \nand three towers built of such immense stones as to defy the engi- \nneering of the day. High over all rose the temple, an impregnable \ncitadel in itself, covering a space of a furlong square, and its walls, \nthe rock included, five hundred and twenty-five feet in height. This \nsplendid structure, with its marble pillars and gilded roof, "a mount \nof snow, fretted with golden pinnacles," excited the admiration of \nTitus, and a regret at the necessity of destroying so much magnificence. \n\nThe approaches to the city were at last perfected, and the huge \nengines, called Helipoleis (city takers), began to shake the outer wall \nin three different places. The most furious resistance was made \nby the besieged, now united in a common defence. They made des- \nperate sallies, and often nearly succeeded in destroying the machines. \nOn one occasion these were fired by the insurgents, and would have \nbeen destroyed, but for the bravery of Titus, who killed twelve of \nthe assailants with his own hand. At last the great engine, called \nNico (the conqueror), threw down a portion of the outer wall. The \ngarrison retreated to the next, and still fought with desperate valour. \nIn five days more, the second fell, and Titus entered the suburbs, \nsparing the lives and property of the peaceable citizens. . By a fierce \nsortie, the Eomans were again driven from their position, which they \ncould not regain for fou.r days, when they threw down a large por- \ntion of the wall. The temple, the hill of Zion, and the impregnable \nforts, still defied the invader; and the Jews now plied with tremen- \ndous effect the balistas and other engines taken from Cestius in his \n\n\n\n\nI ^tvv^^l ^o- \n\n\n\nTHE DESTRUCTION OE JERUSALEM. \n\n\n\n"While the Holy Houae was on fire, every thing was plundered that came \nto hand, and ten thousand of those that were caught were slain ; nor -was \nthere a commisseration of any age or any reverence of gravity, hut children \nand old men, and profane persons, and priests, "were all slain, in the same \nmanner \xe2\x80\x94 as well those that made supplication for their lives, as those that \ndefended themselves hy fighting." \xe2\x80\x94 Whiston\'s Josephus. \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. 53 \n\nfliglit. They scoffed at tlie idea of surrender, and offered violence \nto all Avho came to parley. Famine had now commenced, and many \nof the vast multitude pent up in the city were dying with hunger. \nMany others fled with all the wealth they could carry, and Titus \nallowed them to pass unmolested, though John and Simon put to \ndeath without mercy all who seemed desirous to fly. Their soldiers \nused the most cruel tortures to compel all who had a little provision \nto yield it up ; and all natural affection seemed lost and absorbed in \nthis dreadful calamity. Titus was now crucif)dng all his prisoners, \nsometimes to the number of five hundred in a da}^, and this added \nto the rage and desperation of the besieged. After seventeen days \nof great labour, the embankments had befen made, and the engines \nmounted for an attack, when the whole Avere seen to sink into a fiery \nabyss, and be consumed. John had undermined the whole, filled his \ncavern Avith combustibles, and set fire to the wooden supports. Two \ndays after, Simon with a croAvd of his partisans, made an attack on \nthe remaining engines, and after a most furious conflict, burnt nearly \nall of them. \n\nIt Avas then decided to blockade the city, and starve the garrison \ninto a surrender. In three days, working with incredible diligence, \nthe besiegers had, in the inspired Avords of prophecy, "cast a trench \nabout them, and compassed them round, and kept them in on every \nside." Well might they noAV recall, too, the terrible denunciations \nof Moses in his djdng prophecy: "The Lord shall bring a nation \nagainst thee from far," "a nation of fierce countenance, which shall \nnot regard the person of the old, nor shoAV favour to the young." \n\'\xe2\x80\xa2 And he shall besiege thee in all thy gates, until thy high and fenced \nAvails come do Avn." "The tender and delicate Avoman among you, \nwhich would not adventure to set the sole of her foot upon the ground \nfor delicateness and tenderness, her eye shall be evil toward the hus- \nband of her bosom, and tOAvard her son, and toward her daughter, \nand toAvard her children Avhich she shall bear : for she shall eat them \nfor Avant of all things, secretly in the siege and straitness wherewith \nthine enemies shall distress thee in thy gates" \xe2\x80\x94 a prophecy Avhich \nAvas now fearfully realized. Half the city was dying of starvation, or \nresorting to the hideous resource of cannibalism. Many died with \ntheir eyes fixed on the temple to the last, and others crept to ceme- \nteries, and there laid their OAvn corpses. Without, the ravines were \nfilled with dead bodies throAvn fi-om the Avails; Avithin, the city, \nstrcAvn with unburied corpses, reeked like a vast sepulchre. \n\n\n\n54 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF 11 IS TO EY. \n\nStill the enfeebled garrison maintained an unfailing resolution. \nMatthias tlie high-priest, and others suspected of favouring the \nRomans, were slain in their sight, and their bodies tumbled from the \nwalls. The insurgent chiefs melted the sacred vessels of the temple, \nand served out the sacred oil and wine as rations to the famished \ndefenders. A fresh horror was soon added. Many deserters, escaping \nto the Roman camp, had swallowed their treasures to preserve them ; \nand this fact coming to the knowledge of the fierce Syrian and \nArabian allies, they commenced a horrible course of murder and \ndissection: two thousand Jews are said to have thus perished in a \nsingle night. "With the greatest difficulty Titus put a stop to this \natrocity. \n\nAt length, after stripping the whole country of its woods, the \napproaches were renewed, and the tall engines once more stood \nmenacing the walls. Both parties were almost exhausted by the long \ncontest, but especially the Jews, who had also famine to contend \nagainst. The wall fell, but another was discovered within. An \nattack of the enfeebled defenders was repulsed ; and during the night \na few resolute Romans, taking the enemy by surprise, stormed the \nwall. A day of hard fighting left the besiegers in possession of the \nstrong fortress Antonia. Another fierce attack was made in vain \nupon the temple, now slippery with blood, and encumbered with \ncorpses. At no time had the Jews fought with more desperate and \nunwearied courage than now, when outnumbered, famine-stricken, \nand reduced to the last extremity. \n\nThe cloisters of the temple were set on fire, and their destruction \nenabled the Romans to penetrate to the outer court, where their \nengines soon began to batter the stronghold. Repulsed by the fury \nof its defenders, Titus set fire to the gates, and enough was destroyed \nto allow the Romans to enter. A most terrible encounter ensued in \nthe temple itself, and despite the desire of Titus to save this mag- \nnificent building, it was fired by his enraged soldiery. Multitudes \nperished in the flames and by the sword, and the plunder was so \ngreat, that gold fell in Syria to half its former value. \n\nJohn and Simon still held out in the upper city, seized the palace, \nand massacred eight thousand four hundred people who had taken \nrefuge there. After eighteen days the Romans took it, almost with- \nout a struggle, and the leaders, on surrender, were reserved for the \ntriumph of Vespasian and Titus. More than one hundred thousand \nof the inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the city was razed to the \n\n\n\nTHE JEWS. \n\n\n\n55 \n\n\n\nground Ly command of Titus. The number who had perished was \nprodigious; for vast multitudes from the adjoining regions had been \nshut wp at the time of the Passover. It has been calculated that one \nmillion one hundred thousand lost their lives in this most calamitous \nof sieges, and including those slain elsewhere, half Judea may be said \nto have perished. \n\n" Thus fell, and for ever, the metropolis of the Jewish state. Other- \ncities have arisen upon the ruins of Jerusalem, and succeeded, as it \nwere, to the inalienable inheritance of perpetual siege, oppression, and \nruin. Jerusalem might almost seem to be a place imder a perpetual \ncurse; it has probably witnessed a far greater portion of human \nmisery than any other spot upon the earth." \n\nHere, too, ends the history of the Chosen People as a distinct nation \n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\x94 a distinct race they have ever been, though scattered widely \nthroughout almost every nation on earth. And we are again reminded \nof the striking language of their great law-giver: "Thou shalt become \nan astonishment, a proverb and a by- word among all nations whither \nthe Lord shall lead thee." "And the Lord shall scatter thee among \nall people, from the one end of the earth even unto the other." "And \namong these nations shalt thou find no ease, neither shall the sole \nof thy foot have rest : but the Lord shall give thee a trembling heart, \n\xc2\xaband failing of eyes, and sorrow of mind. And thy life shall hang in \ndoubt before thee ; and thou shalt fear day and night, and shalt have \nnone assurance of thy life." i \n\nThese remarkable words describe the condition of the Jewish people \nsince the destruction of their national existence as accurately as any \nwhich could be used. Despised, oppressed, and wantonly murdered \nfor nearly two thousand years, they have still maintained, imshaken, \ntheir laws and customs, their theology, and their firm belief in a \nMessiah yet to appear for their deliverance. \n\nTo the disgrace of nations calling themselves Christian, this scat- \ntered and defenceless people has sustained, till recently, the most \nunrelenting persecution at their hands. Wanton outrages, cruel tor- \ntures, degrading and oppressive impositions, have characterized their \ntreatment\' throughout the world. But since mankind have learned \nto think more justly and rationally on matters of mere belief, the \nspirit of persecution has gradually died away, and now appears in \nits worst form only in some of the half-civilized nations of the \nEast \xe2\x80\x94 as Russia, Syria, and some Mahometan provinces. \n\nBy their industry, acuteness, and strong commercial spirit, the \n\n\n\n56 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nJewisli strangers generally attain prosperity whenever free from \noutrage and spoliation, and among their number have been found the \nmost eminent bankers and financiers. Whatever may be thought of \ntheir belief, it will be generally admitted that they are useful members \nof most communities which they enter. Perhaps, with the ceasing of \nthat persecution which is one of the strongest incentives to obstinacy, \nthey may gradually adopt a more rational belief, and become amal- \ngamated with the nations in which they are settled. But at present \nthey remain, throughout the world, a race as separate and distinct \nfrom all others, as that which followed Moses into the wilderness, \nor rebuilt their temple after the captivity of Babylon. \n\n\n\nASSYRIA. \n\n\n\nU dJi dX if i oil si io \n\nANCIENT HISTORY OP ASSYRIA: \n\nAssyria lias always been considered as tlie most ancient nation \nof which we have any authentic history. It was founded not long \nafter that dispersion of mankind which succeeded the Deluge. We \nread in Grenesis that out of the land of Shinar "went forth Asshur," \n(the second son of Shem,) "and builded Nineveh, and the city Reho- \nboth, and Calah." About the same time Nimrod, the grandson of \nHam, built the city of Babylon, and founded Babylonia. "And \nthe beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech and Accad, \nand Calneh, in the land of Shinar." We are further told that he \n"began to be a mighty man upon the earth," and "a mighty hunter \nbefore the Lord." The chase has ever been held the fittest school \nfor war, and accordingly, we find Nimrod a hunter, a warrior, and \na king. He was probably the first who assumed the title of a \nmonarch, and entered on a career of conquest for the sake of \nenlarging his territories. \n\nAt the end of about one hundred and twenty years, ISTinus, the sov- \nereign of Assyria, to whom the Babylonians had become tributary, \ndeposed JSTarbonius, their king, and united the two nations, which \nhenceforth we are to regard as one \xe2\x80\x94 the Assyrian empire. This \nmonarch, it is related, extended his conquests from Egypt to India. \n\nSemiramis, his widow, who at his death assumed the government, \nis the most celebrated name in Assyrian history: she was alike dis- \ntinguished for her beauty, her talents, and her vices. Of obscure \n\n\n\n58 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nparentage, and married to Menones, an officer, slie attracted the \nnotice of the king. Her husband, despairing before such a rival, \nkilled himself, on which Ninus espoused her, and at his death left \nher on the throne of his widely-extended empire. \n\nHaving removed the seat of government from Nineveh to Babylon, \nshe made the latter, by the grandeur of her improvements, the most \nmagnificient city on the earth. It is difficult to credit all that \nancient writers have told concerning these wonders of architecture ; \nbut it seems certain that the city was decorated with the most splen- \ndid structures, both for use and ornament: bridges, palaces, and \ntemples; walls upon which three chariots might drive abreast, and \nvast forests suspended at an immense height in the air. These were \nthe celebrated "hanging gardens," which she is said to have con- \nstructed for the purpose of reminding her of the mountainous \nscenes amid which her youth had been passed. \n\nEestless without excitement, she engaged in war; conquered \nLybia and the greater part of Ethiopia, and finally led an immense \narmy to attempt the conquest of India. Crossing the Indiis on a \nbridge of boats, after a fiercely-disputed passage, she advanced a \nconsiderable distance into the country. Being at last defeated with \ngreat slaughter by Stabrobates, a king of India, she retreated home- \nward by forced marches, leaving the greater part of her numerous \nlegions \n\n" To dry into the desert\'s dust by myriads, \nAnd whiten with their bones the banks of Indus." \n\nThe private vices and licentiousness imputed to Semiramis by \nsome historians, are too enormous to be entirely credited; it would \nappear, however, that she lived in the utmost luxury and profligacy, \nand was finally put to death by Ninyas, her son, who availed him- \nself of these causes to hasten his accession to the throne. \n\nNinyas appears to have been a prince of an easy and dissolute \ntemperament, and devoted to sloth and voluptuousness. He lived \nentirely secluded within the walls of his seraglio, securing the fidel- \nity of his forces by a yearly change of the soldiers, lest they should \nbe gained over by ambitious officers. \n\nFrom this time, with few and unimportant exceptions, we lose \nsight of Assyrian history for a period of more than eight hundred \nyears. Ctesias, a physician of Cnidos, who accompanied Cyrus the \nYounger, and wrote about B. 0. 399, gives, it is true, a long list of \n\n\n\nASSYEIA. 59 \n\nBabylonian monarclis, who are said to have ruled in regular succes- \nsion. But this account is usually considered to be, for the most \npart, fallacious, bearing internal evidence of its incorrectness. It \nseems probable that many revolutions and changes of power must \nhave taken place, so as to efface the records of the ancient dynasty. \nIt is certain that during this period the country was overrun by \nSesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, but that the conquest was not \nretained for any great leng-th of time. \n\nAt last, about eight hundred years before Christ, we again gain \nsight of an Assyrian monarch, in the person of Pul or Phul, by \nwhom the Israelites were subdued and made tributary, in the reign \nof Menahem. Some have supposed that this Pul was the king of \nNineveh, who, with his people, repented at the preaching of Jonah. \n\nThe account in Scripture of this occurrence is very beautiful and \npathetic. We are told that the wickedness of Nineveh had arisen \nbefore the Lord, and that he commanded his prophet to go and \nwarn the inhabitants: "Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and \ncry against it ; for their wickedness is come up before me." \xe2\x80\x94 Jonah, \nwhose disposition seems to have been timid and irresolute, endeav- \noured to escape the will of God by embarking on a long voyage. \nHe set sail from Joppa, the most ancient of sea-ports, in a vessel \nbound for Ta];shish, a city supposed to have been the celebrated \nCarthage. Being miraculously compelled to return, he journeyed \nto Nineveh, and approaching it, cried: "Yet forty days, and Nine- \nveh shall be overthrown." \xe2\x80\x94 The king and his people believed, and \nsignalized their repentance, not only by the customary tokens of \n"sack cloth and ashes" and fasting, but by a sincere and humble \nreformation. "And God saw their works, that they turned from \ntheir evil ways ; and God repented of the evil that he had said that \nhe would do unto them, and he did it not." But Jonah, valuing \nhis reputation as a prophet more than the divine and merciful will, \nwhich had spared the city, was "displeased exceedingly," and "very \nangry." He remonstrated with his Maker; and going out of the \ncity, sat sullenly under a booth which he had constructed, "till he \nmight see what would become of the city." His ill-regulated pas- \nsions probably made him desirous of witnessing its destruction. But \nthe Lord, typifying the vakie of his creatures by the grief which \nJonah manifested at the loss of a perishable gourd, gently rebuked \nhis hardness of heart: "Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the \nwhich thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow. And should \n\n\n\n60 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nnot I spare JSTineveli, tliat great citj, wlierein are more tlian six \nscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand \nand their left, and also much cattle ? \' \' \n\nSardanapalus, supposed by some to have been the son of Pul, \nappears to have been the last ruler of the Assyrian empire who \ninherited its wide possessions in their full extent. He was of an \neffeminate and dissolute disposition, entirely immersed in sensual \npleasures. His time was usually passed among his women, whom \nhe imitated in their dress and amusements, and whom he is even \nsaid to have joined in spinning with the distaff. Placing the sover- \neign good in ease and pleasure, he is reported to have inscribed \nupon two cities which he had built, the following inscription, as \nversified by a modern poet: \n\n* * * "Sardanapalus \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nThe ]dng, and son of Anacyndaraxes, \n\nIn one day built Anchialus and Tarsus. \n\nEat, drink, and love the rest\'s not worth a fillip." \n\nAt last, about the year 767 B. C, an insurrection broke out, \nheaded by Arbaces, the governor of the Medes, and Belesis, an \neminent priest and astrologer. Aroused by this emergency from \nhis effeminate life, Sardanapalus defended his throne with great \nbravery, and evinced a kingly courage and magnanimity. Being \ngradually overpowered by the insurgents, he retreated to Babylon, \nhis capital, resolved to defend it to the last extremity. He was the \nmore encouraged in this, because an oracle had declared that the city \nshould never be overthrown, until the river should become its \nenemy. He held out against the besieging armies for some time, \nuntil the river Euphrates, which washed the walls of Babylon, rose \nin a great inundation. By undermining their foundations, it threw \ndown a vast extent of the ramparts, for a distance of twenty stadia, \nor two and a half miles. Seeing all farther resistance useless, he \nconstructed an immense funeral pile within the palace, and con- \nsumed thereon his treasures, his women, and himself: \n\n* * "In this blazing palace, \n\nAnd its enormous walls of reeking ruin. \n\nWe leave a nobler monument than Egypt \n\nHath piled in her brick mountains o\'er dead kings." \n\nAfter the death of Sardanapalus, his dominions were separated \ninto three kingdoms, the Medes retaining their independence, and \n\n\n\n\n"%. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE FUNERAL PYRE OF bARDANAPALUS \n\n\n\nA S S Y E I A , \n\n\n\n6i \n\n\n\nAssyria Proper being divided between the kingdoms of Nineveli \nand Babylon. This last, however, remained an independent nation \nfor only seventy years, being conquered and annexed to that of \nNineveh by Esarhaddon. \n\nThe history of the Assyrian empire, from the time of its separation, \nis intimately connected with that of the Hebrews, and we are indebted \nto the Bible for the greater part of our knowledge concerning it. \n\nThe first ruler of the new kingdom of Nineveh was Tigiath-Pileser, \nwho is recorded in the Book of Kings as having taken many cities \nof the Hebrews, and carried their inhabitants in captivity to Assyria. \nWe also read that Ahaz, king of Judah, being besieged at Jerusalem \nby the Syrians and Israelites, entreated assistance of him, and sent \nas a propitiatory offering the sacred vessels of gold and silver from the \ntemple. Being freed from his enemies by the aid of the Assyrian, \nhe joined in his idolatries. \n\nWe next find that Shalmaneser, his successor, made Hoshea, king \nof Israel, tributary to him, and finally carried the Israelites into \ncaptivity. He pursued a frequent policy of conquerors, distributing \nhis prisoners among various provinces of Assyria, and supplying \ntheir places in Samaria by colonists of his oavu people. \n\nSenacherib, who next succeeded to the throne, attacked and took \npossession of the fortified cities of Judah, in the reign of Hezekiah, \nson of Ahaz. The defeated prince humbled himself before the \ninvader, and sacrificed all his own treasures and those of the temple \nto secure a peace. It was not long, however, before the Assyrians \nsent a fresh army against Jerusalem. The king and his people, des- \npairing of succour, were encouraged by the prophet Isaiah, who fore- \ntold the destruction of their enemies. Accordingly, a vast number \nof the Assyrian host perished in their camp that same night, smitten \nby an imseen and mysterious hand. \n\n"For the Angel of Death spread his wings to the blast, \nAnd breathed in the face of the foe as he passed; \nAnd the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, \nAnd their hearts but once heaved, and for ever were still." \n\nSenacherib returned discomfited to Nineveh, and while worship- \nping "in the house of Nisroch, his god," was murdered by Adram- \nelech and Sharezer his sons. They escaped into Armenia, and \nEsarhaddon, another of his sons, reigned in his stead. This prince \nsubdued Babylon, and added it to his own dominions, about 680 B. C. \n\n\n\nQ2 THE TEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nNext, and about one hundred years afterwards, we find Nebucli- \nadnezzar, one of his successors, frequently mentioned in the inspired \nwritings. He conquered Syria, Egypt, Palestine, and other nations, \nand appears to have been the most powerful monarch of his age. \nConnected with the captivity of the Jews, appear some of the most \nstriking incidents of his reign : His dream and its interpretation by \nDaniel, the miraculous preservation of the three Hebrews, and finally \nhis own pride, his degradation to the condition of a beast, and his \nfinal conversion. \n\nBelshazzar, (sometimes called Evil-Merodach,) his son and succes- \nsor, released the king of Judah from prison, and restored him to \nhis kingdom. On the occasion of his marriage to Nitocris, a Median, \nhe incurred the enmity of her nation, with which he was thencefor- \nward at war. After experiencing defeat and adversity, he met a \ntragic end. Unwarned by the fate and humiliation of his father, he \npresumptuously despised the power of which he had seen such won- \nderful evidences. "And Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a \nthousand of his lords," and while drinking, in the pride of his heart, \ncommanded that the sacred vessels taken from Jerusalem should be \nbrought in for their use. A hand appeared, and wrote four words \nin an unknown character: "and the king saw the part of the hand \nthat wrote." Greatly troubled, he sought in vain for an interpretation \nfrom the Chaldeans and soothsayers, but could obtain none. Resort- \ning to the prophet Daniel, the meaning of the mysterious symbols \nwas unfolded to him : that his kingdom was numbered and finished \nby Grod ; that he was weighed in the balance, and found wanting ; and \nthat his kingdom was divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. \nIn the same night he fell a victim to the conspiracy of his nobles, one \nof whom, Darius the Median, took possession of the kingdom. \n\nThe usurping monarch was killed, some time afterwards, in a bat- \ntle with the Persians. His son, after a reign of nine months, was \nmurdered by Nabonadius, a son of Belshazzar and Nitocris, who \nassumed the throne. After reigning seventeen j^ears, he was besieged \nby the Great Cyrus in Babylon. Having provision for twenty years, \nhis confidence was unbounded. The besiegers passed two years \nbefore the walls, and were beginning to despair, when a great festival \narrived, which the Babylonians were accustomed to spend in drinking \nand revelry. Taking advantage of their security, Cyrus diverted the \nriver from its course, and entered the city in its dried-up channel. \nNabcnadius was slain, and the city submitted to the conqueror. \n\n\n\nASSYEIA, \n\n\n\n63 \n\n\n\nThus ended the Assyrian empire, about tlie year B. C. 536, and \nthus were fulfilled the prophecies long before uttered by Isaiah and \nother inspired writers of the Hebrews. \n\n\n\nMODERN DISCOVERIES; \n\nMuch interest has lately been excited by the discoveries of Mr. \nLayard, the enterprising explorer of Assyrian antiquities. The \nmost remarkable results have rewarded his sagacious and perse- \nvering researches. Along the Tigris, for many miles, lie a succession \nof vast mounds, which have long been considered as the remains of \nthe mighty city of Nineveh. So great is the extent of these ruins \nthat it renders intelligible the account of the prophet Jonah, who \nproceeded "into the city a day\'s journey \'\' before commencing his \nfearful mission. \n\nAt Kouyemjik and at Nimroud, (whose very name seems to recall \nthe founder of the Assyrian empire,) the most interesting discoveries \nrepaid the zeal of the antiquarian. At the latter place, the remains \nof a dam, built of heavy masonry, still obstruct the river, and the \ntradition of the natives still ascribes its construction to Nimrod. \nHaving commenced his excavations, the labours of Mr. Layard were \nsoon rewarded by the discovery and exhumation of an enormous \nwinged lion, with a human head, sculptured in alabaster. " It was \nin admirable preservation. The expression was calm, yet majestic, \nand the outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of \nart scarcely to be looked for in the works of so remote a period." \n"I was not surprised that the Arabs had been amazed and terrified \nat this apparition. It required no stretch of imagination to conjure \nup the the most strange fancies. This gigantic head, blanched with \nage, thus rising from the bowels of the earth, might well have \nbelonged to one of those fearful beings which are pictured in the \ntraditions of the country as appearing to mortals, slowly ascending \nfrom the regions below." \n\n\n\n64: THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nAs tlie work was steadily pursued, twentj-eiglit lialls and gal- \nleries, filled with the wonderful remains of this strange species of \ncivilization, were gradually brought to light. The discoverer was \nsoon able "to behold chamber after chamber, hall after hall, unfold \nthemselves, as it were, from the bosom of the earth, and assume \nshape, dimensions, height; to watch the reliefs which line the walls \ngradually disclosing their forms. As the rubbish cleared away, the \nsiege and the battle and the hunting-piece becoming more and more \ndistinct ; and the king wearing more manifestly his lofty tiara, and \ndisplaying his undoubted symbol of royalty; the attitude of the \npriest proclaiming his office, sometimes his form and features, his \nimperfect and effeminate manhood; the walls of the besieged cities \nrearing their battlements, the combatants grappling in mortal strug- \ngle; the horses curveting; the long procession stretching out, slab \nafter slab, with the trophies of victory or the offerings of devotion; \nabove all, the huge symbolic animals, the bulls or lions, sometimes \nslowly struggling into light in their natural forms, sometimes develop- \ning their human heads, their outspread wings; their downward \nparts \xe2\x80\x94 in their gigantic but just proportions \xe2\x80\x94 heaving off, as it \nmight seem, the encumbering earth." \xe2\x80\x94 Many of the walls were \npainted in dazzling colours, and every where statues, reliefs, and \nsymbolic ornaments met the eye. The entire construction and \narrangement of an ancient Assyrian palace were disclosed. "Three \ngreat edifices of different periods, adorned by sculptures of different \ncharacters \xe2\x80\x94 one at the north-western corner, one in the centre, and \none to the south-east \xe2\x80\x94 ^revealed to the light of day the Nineveh \nperhaps of Ninus and Semiramis, of Shalmaneser and Senacherib, \nof Esarhaddon and Sardanapalus." \n\nMany curious and elaborately-carved ornaments of ivory were \nfound in a tolerable state of preservation, and, by a peculiar pro- \ncess, were restored to their former condition. Long inscriptions, \nexplanatory of the various events recorded in stone, have been \ncarefully copied, and engage the attention of antiquarians. The list \nof a succession of kings has been detected by Mr. Layard; and in \nhis more recent excavation, a chamber has been discovered, in \nwhich tablets of terra cotta, covered with inscriptions, were jDiled in \ngreat numbers. It is confidently hoped, that the history of a large \nportion of mankind, which for many ages had apparently perished, \nmay thus be recovered, and especially that the great chasm in Assy- \nrian events, which has so long puzzled historians, may be filled up. \n\n\n\nASSYEIA. \n\n\n\n65 \n\n\n\nA most remarkable correspondence has been discovered between \ntliese sculptured representations and tbose on the monuments of \nEgypt, so long the only rival capable of competing with Assyria. \nIn each, the battles, spoils, and trophies from foreign nations, are \nminutely represented. In each may be found sculptured the pre- \nsentation of heads to the victorious monarch, and a scribe carefully \nenrolling the number. \n\nApparently the most ancient monument yet discovered in Nine- \nveh, is an obelisk of black marble, on which are sculptured figures \nof the elephant, the rhinoceros, and a tribe of monkeys; thus \nforcibly carrying back the mind to the time of Semiramis, and to \nher Eastern trophies, or perhaps those of her successors. \n\nThe vast mounds from which these and many other objects of \ninterest have been rescued, are composed of the decayed masses of \nbrick which formed the principal building material of the city. In \nthese "mountains of brick rubbish" lie whelmed the walls, the \npalaces, and the hanging-gardens which once reared themselves so \nsplendidly on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. \n\nThe present inhabitants of this once renowned region, are mostly \nignorant Arabs, governed by their almost equally ignorant and \nbigoted masters,- the Turks, Every obstacle (probably with a view \nto extortion) was at first placed in the way of the enterprising dis- \ncoverer. At one time his proceedings were stopped, by order of \nthe pasha, under pretext that he was disturbing, by his excavations, \nthe tombs of the "true believers." The appearance of a cem- \netery was certainly found, but, as it proved, constructed by the \norders of the wily governor himself "Daoud Agha," says Mr. \nLayard, "confessed to me on our way that he had received orders to \nmake graves on the mound, and that his troops had been employed \nfor two nights in bringing stones from distant villages for that pur- \npose. \'We have destroyed more real tombs of the true believers,\' \nsaid he, \'in making sham ones, than you could have defiled between \nthe Zab and Selamiyah. We have killed our horses and ourselves \nin carrying those accursed stones.\' " \n\nThe native tribes exhibited the greatest awe and superstition on \nbeholding the evidences of the power and religion of their myste- \nrious predecessors. Some ran away in alarm, and others were \nstruck with a pious horror at the monstrous images. "When they \nbeheld the head, they all criod together: \'There is no God but \nGod, and Mahomet is his prophet ! \' It was some time before the \n5 \n\n\n\n6Q \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOET. \n\n\n\nslieik could be prevailed \xe2\x96\xa0upon to descend into the pit, and convince \nHmself that the image he saw was of stone. \' This is not the work \nof men\'s hands,\' exclaimed he, \'but of those infidel giants of whom \nthe prophet \xe2\x80\x94 peace be with him ! \xe2\x80\x94 has said that they were higher \nthan the tallest date-tree; this is one of the idols which ISToah \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 \npeace be with him!\' \xe2\x80\x94 cursed before the flood.\' In this opinion, \nthe result of a careful examination, all the bystanders concurred." \n\nThese discoveries, so splendidly commenced, and still progressing \nwith much encouragement, will probably form a most important \nepoch in our knowledge of antiquities. The names and achieve- \nments which we have been accustomed to receive as doubtful or \nfabulous, may be confirmed as authentic, or superseded by others \nmore real and more satisfactory. The numerous inscriptions and \nrecords, if deciphered by a skill like that of ChampoUion, may yet \nopen to us a page of history, which for some thousands of years \nhas been entirely hidden from the world. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\nANCIENT HISTORY OP EGYPT. \n\nNo nation has bequeathed to mankina more gigantic remains of \nformer grandeur and civilization than Egypt ; none has been more \nsolicitous for the commemoration of her conquests and achieve- \nments ; and the early history of none is more utterly obscure and \nperplexed. Mythological and human personages are so confounded \nin her primitive narrations, that the antiquarian turns for safer infor- \nmation to the strange characters and emblems sculptured on her \npalaces and obelisks; and these, being partially deciphered, have \nthrown some light upon the doubtful relations of early historians. \n\nThe first authentic name which occurs in the records of Egyptian \npolity, is that of Menes, a monarch who reigned about B. C. 2200 \nor 2400. It is related that he turned the course of the Nile, near \nthe site of Memphis, and led it to the sea, through the centre of \nthe valley. He is farther said to have invaded the neighbouring \ncountries in a warlike manner, and finally to have been destroyed \nby a hippopotamus. \n\nThe next and most important event in the early affairs of Egypt \nis her invasion and conquest by a wandering race fi:om the east; \nusually called the Invasion of the Shepherd Kings. Menes and his \nsuccessors had ruled for two hundred and fifty-three years, when, in \nthe reign of Timaus, the last of his dynasty, these strangers ravaged \nthe country, demolished the temples, and reduced the people to \nslavery. They appointed as king, Salatis, one of their leaders, and \nhe resided in Memphis. He strongly garrisoned the whole region, \nespecially the east, where he fortified the city of Abaris, and filled \n\n\n\n58 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nit witti two hundred and forty thousand soldiers. During the new \ndynasty, whicli lasted for two hundred and sixty years, the first \npyramid was begun (about B. 0. 2095), and the visit of Abraham to \nEgypt occurred (about B. C. 2077). The conquerors were perpetu- \nally engaged in war with their new subjects, and treated them with \noppressive cruelty. The enormous structures which still raise their \npeaks along the Nile, are supposed to have been mostly erected by \nthe compulsory labour of the enslaved inhabitants. \n\nAt length, (about B. C. 1899,) the native princes revolted, and, \nafter a long contest, expelled their invaders. Besieged in Abaris, \n(afterwards Pelusium,) the remaining foreigners, with their house- \nholds, in all about two hundred and forty thousand, were at last \nallowed to depart, and, emigrating to Judea, there settled and built \nJerusalem. \n\nThis event, related by Manetho, has been by some confounded \nwith the Exodus (emigration) of the Hebrews ; but the best authori- \nties suppose that the Philistines were the descendants of this expelled \npeople, and derive the term Pali-stan (Shepherd-land) from the \nnomadic race which founded it. The hatred still felt by the native \nEgyptians toward shepherds in the time of Joseph, tends strongly to \nprove that their subjugation and the expulsion of their conquerors \noccurred before his day.* This fact is in some degree confirmed \nby the statement of Herodotus, who says that the Egyptians of his \ntime ascribed the building of the pyramids to one Philitis, a shep- \nherd, whose name was held by them in utter abhorrence. \n\nDuring the next native dynasty, which lasted for two hundred \nand fifty-one years, occurred the migration of the flebrews to \nEgypt, and their settlement in Goshen (B. 0. 1863). The beautiful \nand romantic account of their adventures belongs rather to their \nown history than to that of Egypt. The genius and policy of \nJoseph introduced great changes in the relative condition of the \npeople and their monarchs ; and with his administration of affairs \ncommenced that entire subserviency of the inhabitants, and that \nroyal monopoly of lands, which have usually prevailed, and which \nexists at the present day, in their most odious forms. Their depart- \nure occurred B. C. 1648. Pharaoh, it may be remarked, was a \ncommon name of the Egyptian kings, being bestowed in somewhat \nthe same manner as the title of Caesar upon the Eoman emperors. \n\n* "Ever}\'\' shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." \xe2\x80\x94 Genesis xlvi. 34. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n69 \n\n\n\nA long list of sovereigns filled the throne, of whom little is \nknown except their names. B. C. 1327 commenced the reign of \nMoeris, famed for the excavation of the celebrated lake, which still \nbears his name. His son, the renowned conqueror, Sesostris, suc- \nceeded him. The exploits and conquests ascribed to this sovereign, \nlike those of early periods in general, are dovibtless exaggerated \nand incorrectly related. Under the names of Sesostris, Ozymandias, \nand Eameses, he was regarded by the Egyptians as the founder of \ntheir mightiest edifices, and the hero of their most famous exploits. \nHis real achievements were sufficiently great. He subdued the \nAbyssinians, and rendered them tributary. Turning his arms \ntoward Asia, he conquered the Assyrians and Medes; thence pass- \ning to the boundaries of Europe, he made war upon the Scythians, \nand finally returned to his kingdom, after an expedition which had \nlasted nine years. The pillars which he erected to commemorate \nhis various conquests were long afterwards to be seen in Palestine, \nArabia, and Ethiopia, bearing the haughty inscription: \n\n"sesostris, king of kings, and lord of lords, \n\nSUBDUED this COUNTRY BY HIS ARMS." \n\n\n\nThe immense treasures, and the multitude of captives gained by \nhis successes enabled him to commemorate them by the most splendid \nstructures and moniiments. He built or greatly adorned the mighty \ncities of Memphis and Thebes. The former, situated amid the over- \nflowing of the Nile, and plundered of its materials by successive \nconquerors, has almost entirely disappeared; but the latter still \nstands upon the banks of the river, and its majestic ruins, the most \nwonderful in the world, excite the awe and admiration of all behold- \ners. No nation has ever rivalled the grandeur or magnitude of these \nancient temples and palaces, which appear, says Belzoni, to have \nbeen built by the hands and for the residences of a race of giants. \n\nFor several centuries after the reign of this renowned sovereign, \nwe find nothing very memorable in the history of Egypt. About \nB. C. 770, Anysis was expelled from the throne by Sabaco, an Ethi- \nopian, who descended the Nile. Sixty years afterwards, Senacherib, \nking of Assyria, prepared an immense host for the conquest of \nJudea, and the invasion of Egypt ; but it was destroyed in a single \nnight by some unknown pestilence. \n\nIn 619 B. C. Pharaoh Necho ascended the throne. His reign was \n\n\n\n70 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOliY. \n\nmemorable for the taking of Jerusalem by bis forces in the reign \nof Josiali, and for tbe attention wliich be bestowed on navigation \nand discovery. He attempted fruitlessly to connect tbe Nile witb \ntbe Ked Sea \xe2\x80\x94 an enterprise wbicb bas engaged tbe attention of suc- \ncessive sovereigns of Egypt. Under bis direction an expedition \nwas fitted out, wbicb performed a task, wonderful indeed for tbe \nage ; tbe circumnavigation of Africa. It was absent for tliree years, \nand tbe adventurers made as many settlements on tbe coast for tbe \npurpose of raising grain for tbeir support. Tbe circumstance wbicb \ncaused Herodotus to doubt tbe trutb of tbis relation, is tbe strongest \nproof of its autbenticity \xe2\x80\x94 tbat tbe mid-day sun was observed by \ntbe mariners to be upon tbeir rigbt band, or to tbe nortbward. \n\nTbe Assyrian empire bad long been formidable to its neigbbours ; \nEgypt was repeatedly menaced witb invasion; and at last, B. 0. \n535, Cyrus tbe Grreat, wbo by conquest or inberitance commanded \nnearly all tbe East, overran and subjugated tbe wbole country; \nallowing it, bowever, tbe form of an independent government. \n\nTen years afterwards, tbe people revolting, Cambyses, bis succes- \nsor, witb a great army, marcbed upon Pelusium; and placing tbe \nsacred animals of Egypt in front of bis ranks, took tbe city, unmo- \nlested by tbe superstitious garrison. He sbortly after reduced \nMempbis, and slaughtered two thousand of tbe first inhabitants. \nHe outraged tbe religious feeling of the wbole nation by slaying \ntbe biill Apis, tbe object of tbeir universal adoration. He also \nthrew down and destroyed some of tbe most splendid monuments \nin Thebes and elsewhere. \n\nThe government of Persia was maintained more than two hun- \ndred years. A series of revolts were successfully repressed, in turn, \nby Xerxes, Artaxerxes and Ochus. During tbis period, Egypt \nwas visited by tbe celebrated historian Herodotus, to whom we \nare. indebted for so many important particulars in its history and \ncustoms, B. C. 448. \n\nIn the year B. C. 332, it was added to bis other conquests by \nAlexander, wbo built tbe splendid city which yet bears his name ; \nand at bis death, was allotted to Ptolemy Lagus, one of his generals, \nwho assumed the crown, under tbe title of Soter. He founded tbe \nfamous Alexandrian Library, and was distinguished for his love of \nletters, and bis patronage of philosophers. He turned bis acquire- \nments to practical account, promoting the knowledge of medicine, \ngeometry, history, and other useful sciences. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n71 \n\n\n\nPliiladelplius, his son, wlio succeeded, during a reign of thirty- \neight years, executed many works of public utility \xe2\x80\x94 canals, aque- \nducts, and a light-house at Alexandria. Among his successors, \nPtolemy Euergetes carried his conquests beyond the Euphrates, and \nrestored to Egypt many splendid and valuable spoils, which had been \ncarried away by Cambyses. \n\nUnder his successor, whose reign commenced B. C. 221, Syria \nrecovered the provinces which had been wrested from her; and his \nkingdom experienced the evil effects of a weak and cruel govern- \nment. After his death, the guardians of Ptolemy Epiphanes, his \ninfant son, threatened with invasion by Macedon and Syria, applied \nfor assistance to the Eomans; an important step, and one usually \nfollowed, in the end, by annexation. Their interference was success- \nful, and the kingdom was secured to the prince, until, in his twenty- \nninth year, he perished by assassination. \n\nThe throne was at first seized by the queen, Cleopatra, a Syrian \nprincess, for her infant son. The Eomans again interfering, divided \nthe command between the young prince, Philometer, and his brother \nEuergetes (or Physcon). The former dying, his infant son was \nmurdered by Euergetes, who took entire possession of the govern- \nment. During a long and tyrannical reign, he grievously oppressed \nthe people, while science and learning, which had heretofore distin- \nguished Egypt, took refuge in other lands. \n\nLathyrus, one of his sons, succeeded; and after defeating his \nbrother Alexander, who disputed the throne, laid waste the city of \nThebes, and completed the destruction commenced by Cambyses. \n\nOn his death, B. C. 81, the Eomans, under Sylla the dictator, set- \ntled the succession by a marriage between his daughter Cleopatra \nand her cousin Ptolemy; who, however, murdered his wife, was \nexpelled the kingdom, and dying, by will bequeathed the country \nto the Eoman people. \n\nAuletes (the flute-player) the son of Lathyrus, a weak prince, \nand a mere instrument of the Eomans, succeeded ; but was soon \nexpelled, and his daughter Berenice substituted on the throne. He \nwas restored by Pompey and Mark Antony, and after murdering \nBerenice, and perpetrating other cruelties, died, leaving his throne \nand children to the guardianship of Eome. \n\nAmong the latter were the celebrated Cleopatra and her brother \nPtolemy. On coming of age, they were associated in the govern- \nment, but soon disagreeing, engaged in a civil war. Cleopatra was \n\n\n\n72 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ncompelled to retreat into Syria ; but sliortl j afterwards betook her- \nself to Alexandria, where Caesar, then master of the Eoman empire, \nhad arrived, to settle the affairs of Egypt. He espoused her cause, \nand the war which ensued resulted in the death of Ptolemy, the \nestablishment of Cleopatra upon the throne, and the complete \nascendancy of the Eomans ; her subsequent career, and her suicide, \nwith that of Antony, her lover, on their defeat by Octavius, are well \nknown. \n\nWith her ended the line of Grecian sovereigns, which had com- \nmenced with Alexander, two hundred and ninety-six years before. \nThe country was now openly transformed into a Eoman province; \nand its history, for a series of centuries, rather belongs to that of the \nvast empire of which it formed a part. Occasional insurrections \nwere suppressed, and foreign invasions repelled ; and the province was \nfirmly and efficiently retained until the time of the later emperors, \nwhose forces were drawn from all the distant provinces to protect \nthe frontier against the northern barbarians. Both Adrian and Seve- \nrus passed a considerable time there, endeavouring to improve the \ncondition of the people, and to restore learning and science to their \nformer flourishing condition. At a later period, Zenobia, queen of \nPalmyra, as a descendant of the Ptolemies, advanced a claim upon \nthe sovereignty ; but, being overcome by Aurelian, was carried cap- \ntive to Eome. \n\nThe Emperor Probus, on his visit to Egypt, executed many works \nof utility and ornament. The navigation of the Nile was improved, \nand temples, palaces, and bridges were erected by his army. Under \nDiocletian, a formidable revolt occurring, he laid siege to Alexandria, \nand took it, after a siege of eight months. He also destroyed the \nsplendid cities of Busiris and Coptos. \n\nThe introduction of Christianity was marked by the usual outrages \nand mutual persecution which attend the progress of a new rehgion \namong a fierce and bigoted people. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n73 \n\n\n\nkJ d)ci> buui iL (L <xj iLh Ji Jf \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nABTS, SCIENCES, CUSTOMS, AND MECHANICAL LABOURS OF \nTHE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS). \n\n\n\nThe most remarkable and grandest relics of former civilization \nare to be found in the land of Egypt \xe2\x80\x94 a land so ancient, that, even \nin the early days of Greece, it was considered to be of wondrous and \nremote antiquity. Some works, which excited the wonder and \nadmiration of former ages, are now lost to mankind, having been \nburied beneath the shifting sands of the desert, or gradually over- \nwhelmed by the alluvion yearly deposited by the Nile. Among \nthese is the famous Labyrinth, described by Herodotus, and situated \nnear Lake Mceris, itself a wonderful work of human labour and inge- \nnuity. This remarkable structure contained fifteen hundred rooms \nabove the surface of the ground, and three thousand beneath it, \ndevoted to the reception of the sacred mummies of kings, crocodiles, \nand other objects of Egyptian veneration. It was so artfully con- \ntrived, that a person ignorant of the clue might wander for days in \nits vast recesses, and perhaps never emerge. \n\nThe pyramids, the most stupendous structures ever erected by \nman, still remain, almost uninjured by time or by repeated attempts \nto demolish them. The erection of one of them is said to have cost \nthe labour of an hundred thousand men for twenty years. It covers \nthe surface of eleven acres, and rises nearly to the height of five \nhundred feet. In its immediate neighbourhood is the Sphynx, a \ncolossal half human figure, crouching in the sand, carved firom the \nsolid rock, and more than a hundred feet in length. \n\nThe ruins of Thebes, situated about five hundred miles from the \nmouth of the Nile, have always excited the most enthusiastic admira- \ntion. The circumference of the ancient city was twenty-seven miles, \nand the structures which still remain, though ravaged by successive \nconquerors, and exposed to the elements for thousands of years, are \nunequalled by any in the world. The great temple is a quarter of a \nmile in length, and with its avenues and adjoining buildings, covers \nmany hundred acres of ground. The immense statue of Ozymandias, \n\n\n\n74 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nnow thrown from its pedestal, lies broken npon tlie ground. Its \nsize may be imagined from tlie fact that tbe breadth of the shoulders \nis twenty-six feet. Two other figures, each in a sitting posture, and \nabout fifty -two feet in height, still retain their places ; one of them \nbeing the celebrated Memnon, which was accustomed to salute the \nrising sun with a single note of music. In the neighbourhood are \ntombs excavated in the solid rock, so magnificent as to appear like \ntemples ; one of which, being opened by the traveller Belzoni, was \ndiscovered to be that of Pharaoh Necho, who took Jerusalem, the \ncaptive Hebrews being portrayed upon the wall. At the island of \nPhiloe, farther up, is another assemblage of stupendous temples, pal- \naces, and monuments; and in many other places along the Nile, \nthere still remains splendid memorials of the power and magnificence \nof the ancient Egyptians. \n\nThese ruins are, for the most part, covered with figures and hiero- \nglyphics, (sacred sculpture,) which tell the history of their founders \nwith various degrees of clearness and obscurity. Often the entire \nseries of events of a battle or conquest are sculptured in succession, \nand the nation of the captives is readily distinguished by their features \nand costume. \n\nA species of hieroglyphics more difficult, and for many ages \nuntranslatable, was at last deciphered by the ingenuity of Young, \nChampoUion, and other eminent antiquarians. It consisted of a \nkind of alphabet, each letter or sound being represented by some \nobject whose initial commenced with it ; and from this rude beginning \nis supposed to have sprung the more improved method of writing \nwhich Cadmus carried with him to Greece, and which was there \nperfected into nearly our present system of letters. These mystical \ninscriptions, so ingeniously deciphered, have thrown much light on the \nchronology and history of Egypt, and have confirmed the truth of \nstatements in the ancient writings of Manetho, which had heretofore \nbeen considered fabulous. There is also little doubt that the present \nsystem of arithmetical numbers, for which we are indebted to the \nSaracens, was by them derived from that of the Egyptians. \n\nLearning and the sciences appear to have been pursued with great \ndiligence ; and the education of an ancient philosopher was hardly \nconsidered complete, until he had voyaged to Egypt, and received \nfrom the lips of the priests some portion of their traditional lore \xe2\x80\x94 \n"all the wisdom of Egypt." \n\nAnatomy, medicine, and surgerv were particularly studied; and \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n75 \n\n\n\nthe prodigious structures, which still remain, indicate a high knowl- \nedge of mathematical and mechanical science. Their histories, \nthough now lost to mankind, were perused with deep interest by \nancient writers, and served as models for the many valuable records \nof Grecian history which we now possess. A library existed at \nThebes even before the Trojan war; and the national reputation for \nlearning was revived, at a later day, by the celebrated collection at \nAlexandria. \n\nNo people appear to have paid more attention to the funeral rites \nand the preservation of their bodies. A talent of silver ($2,500) was \noften expended upon the last of&ces of the upper classes; and the \ntombs excavated in the solid rocks are innumerable, and wrought \nwith inconceivable labour. The body itself, swathed in numerous \nbandages, and embalmed in fragrant gums and spices, was deposited \nin cases, often curiously adorned with incidents in the life of their \ntenant. Although great numbers of these mummies have been, for \nmany ages, wantonly destroyed, it is said that many millions still \nremain in the extensive catacombs which line the banks of the Nile. \n\nA singular custom prevailed, on occasion of the death of any dis- \ntinguished personage. The deceased, of whatever rank, was placed \nby the shore of the nearest lake, with a boat in waiting to carry him \nacross. Two-and-forty judges, seated on the bank, listened to any \ncriminal accusations which might be preferred against his former liffe ; \nand if these were substantiated, the cherished rites of sepulture were \ndenied to him \xe2\x80\x94 a doom far more grievous to the Egyptian mind, than \nany punishment while living. If the charges were not proved, a \nheavy punishment awaited the accuser. So much attention was \nbestowed upon the final disposal of the remains of humanity, that \nsome one has said that the Egyptians passed their lives in pre- \nparing to be buried. \n\n\n\n7g THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nMODERN EGYPT. \n\nAfter remaining a province of tlie empire until tlie seventla century, \nEgypt shared the fate of most Eastern nations in falling a prey to the \nSaracens. Amru, a brave and politic leader, gained possession of \nAlexandria by treachery ; and the consequence of this new invasion \nof barbarians was most severely felt in the destruction of the famous \nlibrary. The bigoted victor ordered it to be burned, saying that if \nit contained any thing opposed to the Koran, it was pernicious ; and \nif not, superfluous. \n\nDuring the contentions which occurred in the eighth century \nbetween the rival pretenders to the throne of the caliphs, Egypt \noccasionally struggled to throw off the foreign yoke; which, however, \nwas always again replaced when the dissensions of the Saracens were \nsettled. Various descendants of the Prophets, of his relations, and \nother powerful families, disputed with each other for authority over \nthe conquered provinces; but whoever gained the ascendancy, \nEgypt was still kept in vassalage. Toward the end of the tenth \ncentury, a chief directly descended from Mahomet by his daughter \nFatima, removed his seat of government from Gyrene, where it had \nlong been established, to a place on the banks of the Nile, named \nMisr-el-Kahira, or the Victorious \xe2\x80\x94 the modern Cairo. \n\nIn the eleventh century, Egypt was visited with a dreadful famine, \nfollowed by plague and pestilence. An equally dreaded calamity, \nthe. inroad of the Turks, succeeded. A body of these barbarians \nfrom Central Asia, in the pay of the caliph, overran the country, \ncommitting the most atrocious cruelties, A fresh misfortune fol- \nlowed, in the arrival of the Crusaders, who reduced Pelusium, and \nonly spared Cairo for a ransom. \n\nToward the close of the twelfth century Aladid, the last mon- \narch of the race of Fatima, entrusted the entire government of the \ncountry to his viziers. On his death, the government was taken \npossession of by an able and ambitious minister \xe2\x80\x94 the celebrated \nSaladin. He assumed the title of sultan, seized all the treasures \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n77 \n\n\n\nand strong places in the empire, and threw into prison all whom he \nsupposed hostile to his interests. His sovereignty was acknowledged \nby the neighbouring states, and even by the Caliph of Bagdad. An \nadventurer, who, supported by the adherents of the late king, \nappeared with an immense army, was completely defeated. \n\nThe crusading Christians, commanded by William of Sicily, were \nbesieging Alexandria by sea and land. The sultan hastened to its \nrelief, and the invaders, seized with a sudden panic, retreated in such \nhaste as to leave behind them their stores, baggage, and military \nengines. \n\nHe was next exposed to the enmity and intrigues of the court of \nDamascus, which endeavoured to array against him a coalition of the \nsurrounding nations. War being commenced, he so completely \ndefeated the enemy as to remain master of all Syria. \n\nThe sultan, freed for a time from his enemies, next turned his \nattention to the improvement and fortification of Cairo, where some \nof his works still testify to his enterprise and genius. He encouraged \nliterature and the sciences ; and would probably have done much to \nimprove the condition of Egypt, had not a fresh irruption of the \nCrusaders summoned him to Palestine. At first he was utterly \ndefeated; and his splendid army perished in battle or in the retreat \nacross the desert. \n\nUndismayed by this reverse, he renewed his operations both by \nland and sea ; recovered the ground which he had lost in the former \ncampaign; and finally, in a complete victory, captured Lusignan, \nking of Jerusalem, and Arnold, the other Christian commander. \nFollowing his success, he seized ISTeapolis, Csesarea, and Acre, and \nthen marched upon Jerusalem. The besieged made a desperate \ndefence, but a breach being made in the wall, submitted, and paid \na heavy ransom to the victor. \n\nHis territories, which now extended from Upper Egypt to Damas- \ncus, were again invaded by a fresh host of Crusaders, commanded by \nthe Emperor of Germany, Philip of France, and the famous Coeur \nde Lion (Eichard I.) of England. Encamping before Acre, they \nbesieged the sultan, who made a vigorous and successful defence. \nOvercome by famine, he capitulated on honourable conditions ; being, \nhowever, compelled to deliver to the besiegers a part of the treasures \nwhich he had at different times wrested from their allies. He \nmarched out with the honours of war, surrendering the town, the \nsiege of which ha.d cost three hundred thousand lives. After a \n\n\n\n78 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OP HISTOKY. \n\nstormy and contentious life, in which he had generally gained the \nadvantage over his opponents, he died at the age of fifty-five. \n\nHis son did not inherit his genius; but Alcamel, who succeeded \nto the throne in the beginning of the thirteenth century, in some \nmeasure revived the renown of the Egyptian nation. The Crusaders, \nwho, for the fifth time, had invaded the dominions of the Faithful, \nwere defeated, and compelled to sue for peace. \n\nNojuroddin, his successor, (A. D. 1238,) whose influence in Pales- \ntine was superior to that of the Syrian princes, made a treaty, \nensuring protection to the Christian pilgrims who flocked in great \nnumbers to Jerusalem. While absent on an expedition against the \nforces of Damascus, Louis IX. with a fresh host of Crusaders, landed \nat Damietta, and commenced the campaign with considerable success. \nThe sultan hastened to oppose him, but dying on his homeward way, \nleft the throne to his youthful son. His widow, however, a woman \nof great courage and enterprise, raised a considerable army, defeated \nLouis, and took him prisoner. \n\nAbout this time, the remarkable class of men called Mamalukes \ngained their first accession to power. Saladin had first formed a \nguard for his person composed of these men, mostly slaves from the \nsouthern shores of the Caspian Sea. Their power had been increased \nby the succeeding sultans, with fresh privileges; and they finally \nacquired complete ascendancy. Ibeg, one of them, was made regent \nduring the minority of the prince, and, on liis death, married the sul- \ntan\'s widow, and ascended the throne. He was assassinated, but left \nthe throne to his son, and the Mamaluke dynasty held its authority \nin Egypt for an hundred and twenty years. At the end of that time, a \nnew power sprang into existence. The Borghites, a body of Circas- \nsian slaves and soldiers, had been distributed in garrisons through \nthe kingdom, in order to overawe the people. One of their leaders, \nnamed Barcok, overthrew the Mamaluke government, and was him- \nself elevated to the throne. He ruled wisely and bravely, and was \nsucceeded by a race of Borghite princes. \n\nThe ferocious hordes, called Mongols and Tartars, had long over- \nrun the most fertile provinces of Asia ; and in the latter -part of the \nfourteenth century, Tamerlane, one of their most celebrated leaders, \nmenaced the conquest of Syria. Finding that he would be power- \nfully opposed by Egypt, he desisted for the present, and the feuds \nbetween him and his rival, Bajazet, averted the destruction which \nwould otherwise have awaited the country. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. 79 \n\nFor a century and a half longer, Egypt obeyed the Borghite gov- \nernment, until m 1517 it was invaded by the Turks, and reduced to a \nTurkish province. In this state, it was governed by a pasha or vice- \nroy, appointed by the sultan of Turkey, and a divan composed of the \nprincipal military chiefs. The Mamalukes, or personal guards of the \nvarious officers of state, soon gained great ascendancy, and it was com- \nmon for them to fill the most important posts. By their aid Ibrahim, \na janissary officer, succeeded, about the middle of the last century, \nin becoming the actual sovereign of the country. A pasha was still \nnominally at the head of the government, but neither his authority \nnor the sultan\'s was regarded in comparison with that of Ibrahim. \n\nAt his death, the power was still retained by his adherents, the \nMamalukes, and at the end of two years Ali Bey, one of their num- \nber, made himself complete master of the country. He had been a \nCircassian slave, educated in the house of Ibrahim, and was distin- \nguished at first for his fiery courage, as afterwards for his policy \nand ambition. Expelling the pasha, and refusing the accustomed \ntribute, he openly assumed supreme power, and set the sultan at \ndefiance. \n\nEepeated attempts on the part of the Porte to assassinate him were \nfrustrated ; and to strengthen his position, he equipped a fleet in the \nEed Sea, and seized Mecca and Djedda, intending to make the latter \nthe depot of an extensive East Indian commerce. In 1771, he des- \npatched a force of sixty thousand men against Syria, defeated the \nTurks, and make himself master of the whole coimtry. The treach- \nery of his general, Mohammed Bey, who suddenly retreated into \nEgypt, deprived him of the fruits of this victory. \n\nEre long, Mohammed, exciting an insurrection, compelled Ali to \nflee into Syria. Eeturning with a small force to regain his kingdom, \nhe was defeated, made prisoner, and shortly perished, probably by \nprivate assassination. \n\nMohammed, now in possession of the supreme authority, renewed \nhis allegiance to Turkey, and paid the accustomed tribute. After \nten years of cruelty and oppression, he died, and his authority was \nshared by Ibrahim and Mourad, two rival and powerful beys. For \nten years this state of affairs continued, though distu.rbed by mutual \njealousy. At the end of that time, the sultan, having concluded a \npeace with Eussia, resolved once more to reduce Egypt to subjection. \nHe despatched Hassan Pasha, with twenty-five thousand men, to \nAlexandria. The Turkish commander, defeating the Mamalukes, \n\n\n\n30 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nunder Mourad, entered Cairo, where lie appointed a governor, and \npursued the beys into Upper Egj^pt, \n\nDuring the brief interval in which he held authority, his humanity \nand wisdom did much to alleviate the condition of the oppressed \nEgyptians. After a short period, Ibrahim and Mourad returned, \nand succeeded in regaining their power. \n\nIn 1798 a more important series of events commenced. The \nFrench, under ISTapoleon, landed at Alexandria, under pretext of \nprotecting the rights of the sultan, but in reality to gain a new prov- \nince, and open the way to India. \n\nIt had indeed long been a favourite project with several European \npowers, to gain possession of the isthmus of Suez, which nature has \nmarked as the thoroughfare for communication between the East and \nthe West. \n\nThis daring attempt, however, produced a less permanent result \nthan might have been expected. Marching toward Cairo, through \nthe burning sands, the French army encountered much privation and \ndistress. Not far from the capital, and within view of the pyramids, \nthey were encountered by the Mamalukes, the real masters of the \ncountry, under Ibrahim and Mourad Bey. As the action commenced, \nNapoleon, in that classic enthusiasm which no army but his own \ncould have appreciated, cried out to his followers: "Soldiers! from \nyonder pyramids, twenty centuries behold your actions!" The dis- \nciplined and veteran invaders threw themselves into squares, and \nfirmly repulsed the furious and repeated attacks of their brave but \nbarbarous opponents. In these desperate and unavailing charges, \nand in vainly attempting to swim the Nile, after their defeat, this \nsplendid body of cavalry was almost completely destroyed. The \nvictor, entering Cairo in triumph, instituted for a brief time a gov- \nernment more mild and beneficial than any which the unfortunate \ncountry had enjoyed for many centuries. \n\nThe Turkish government now declared war against the French \nrepublic, and was supported by England, which sent a powerftil fleet \nto the assistance of her ally. A terrible naval engagement soon \noccurred in the bay of Aboukir, in which the French fleet was almost \nentirely destroyed and taken by that of the English, under Admiral \nNelson. Napoleon, after various successes in Syria, sustained a severe \nloss and defeat in attempting the siege of Acre, which was bravely \ndefended by the Turks and English, and retreated into Egypt. \nA Turkish fleet soon appeared off Alexandria, and disembarked \n\n\n\nvv\' ufmunk/ m \n\n\n\no \n\nS \xc2\xa7 \n\nb \n\n\xc2\xab t> \n\nW O \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS. \n\n\n\nAs the Mamalukes, under Mourad Bey, came charging desperately upon the \nFrench line, which extended to the right, Napioleon ordered the infiintry to \nthrow themselves into squares ; and, with that classic enthusiasm which no \narmy hut his own coald have appreciated, cried out. "Soldiers 1 from yonder \npyramids, twenty centuries behold your actions \' The enemy, after a mooc \nfrantic and persevering series of attacks, were almost entirely cut off. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n81 \n\n\n\neighteen thousand men at Aboukir. After a most desperate contest, \nthis force, with the exception of one-third, was cut to pieces or driven \ninto the sea. \n\nSoon after, entrusting the command to Kleber, the French general \nreturned to France, where his presence was required, not only for his \nown interests, but for those of the nation. The new commander \nwas soon assassinated by a fanatical Turk, and Menou, who took the \ncommand, was compelled to defend himself against a fresh force des- \npatched by England under Sir Kalph Abercrombie. After various \nundecisive actions, the French were defeated, and Menou was besieged \nin Alexandria. Their communication with the interior was also cut \noff by the English, who admitted the waters of the sea into Lake \nMaraeotis ; a barbarous act, which submerged an immense extent of \nfertile country, and deprived thousands of their homes and possessions. \n\nCairo being besieged by the new invaders, and Beliard, who \ncommanded there, seeing no prospect of assistance from France, sur- \nrendered; and Alexandria soon followed its example. All the \nFrench soldiers were, by agreement, sent to France; and Egypt, \nhaving been the scene of a destructive war for two years, was once \nmore subjected to the government of Turkey. The authority of the \nremaining Mamaluke beys was, indeed, by the interference of the \nBritish, still in a great measure confirmed. \n\nThe chiefs were, however, soon massacred, in a most treacherous \nmanner, by command of Hassan, the grand vizier. Having perpe- \ntrated this deed, he departed, leaving a favourite slave, Mohammed \nKhosrouf. pasha of Cairo. The latter despatched a force against the \nMamalukes in Upper Egypt, who still held out. This was defeated \nwith great loss, and the pasha took occasion to attempt the ruin of \nMehemet Ali, the second in command, of whose growing influence \nhe had become jealous. \n\nThis remarkable man, who has played such a conspicuous part in \nthe modern history of the East, was an Albanian by birth, and by \nprofession a tax-gatherer under the Turks. This office he discharged \nwith such severity and efficiency as to obtain preferment and assist- \nance from the Turkish governor. He next entered into business as \na tobacco merchant, and was successful in trade, until the French \ninvasion of Egypt gave him an opportunity to display his military \ntalents. With a force of three hundred men he joined the Turkish \nforces, and soon so distinguished himself as to be promoted to a \nhigher command. \n6 \n\n\n\n82 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nBeing summoned by Kliosrouf, on the occasion before mentioned, \nto appear privately before him in the night, the Albanian, well \nknowing the usual termination of such interviews, refused to comply, \nexcept in daylight and at the head of his troops. The pasha hoping \nfor protection from the Albanians commanded by Taher pasha, \nadmitted them into the city. The event did not answer his expecta- \ntions. Clamorous for their pay, these wild troops attacked the \ncitadel, compelled him to flee from Cairo, and installed their own \nchief as governor. The tyranny of the latter soon brought his \ngovernment to a close, and the Mamalukes, recovering their power, \nappointed three chiefs to the command, of whom Mehemet Ali was \none. By artfal intrigues he contrived to embroil his associates, and \ngain possession of the capital. For greater security, he then rein- \nstated the exiled pasha, intending to use him merely as the instru- \nment of his own purposes. \n\nThe sultan, perceiving his ambitious designs, in the year 1804 \nissued orders that the Albanians should be sent to their own country, \nand replaced by troops more to be depended on; but Ali, artfully \nevading this command, soon took upon himself the office of pasha \nor viceroy of Egypt. The Porte, seeing that it could do no better, \nconfirmed the self-appointed governor, and established him in power. \n\nThe Mamalukes, who had gathered in force to oppose him, were \ninveigled into Cairo, and there slaughtered in such numbers as to \nrender them far less formidable. The sultan, still jealous of his \npower, summoned Mehemet to leave his capital, and be invested \nwith the government of Salonica. The wary usurper was too well \nversed in eastern policy to comply. "Cairo is to be publicly sold, " \nsaid he; "whoever will give most blows of the sabre, will win it." \nAt the same time, he maintained, in appearance, a profound defer- \nence to the Porte, which finally, seeing that he could not be dispos- \nsessed, yielded to circumstances, and invested him with a written \ntitle to the viceroy alty of Egypt. His position secure, he .again \nadvanced against the remaining Mamalukes in Upper Egypt, and \ncompletely defeated them. \n\nIn 1807 the British government, through jealousy of French \ninfluence at the court of Constantinople, despatched a force of five \nthousand men to seize Alexandria. This object they effected, but \nsubsequently were entirely defeated, and great numbers were killed \nand taken prisoners \xe2\x80\x94 four hundred and fifty heads being pubhcly \nexposed at Cairo. \n\n\n\nEGYPT. 33 \n\nThe paslia, still jealous of the remaining Mamaluke chiefs, now \nresolved to commit the most atrocious act of perfidy and assassina- \ntion which modern times have witnessed. On the 1st of March, \n1811, on the occasion of conferring a new dignity on his son \nToussoun, he invited the devoted victims to share in the splendour \nof the ceremony. He received them with the greatest affability \nand courtesy, and the procession moved to the appointed place. \nSuddenly, while passing through a narrow square, the Mamalukes \nfound themselves shut in, and a destructive fire opened upon them \nby their concealed enemies from all sides. Strength and courage \nwere of no avail, and these splendid soldiers perished without being \nable to strike a blow in their defence. One only escaped, who, \nspurring his horse up a rampart, leaped over it, and, though falling \nabout forty feet on the other side, came off unhurt, and was secreted \nby certain Arabs. Several hundred perished on this occasion, and \nthe number of victims altogether was about a thousand. \n\nMehemet next entered upon a war with the Wahabees, in Arabia, \nand after a contest of several years, conducted by his sons Toussoun \nand Ibrahim, succeeded in subduing them. His success was princi- \npally owing to the European discipline introduced into his army by \nthe French officers whom he employed. When first subjected to \nthe new system, the soldiery evinced the greatest discontent, and \neven, at one time, endangered the power and life of the pasha \nhimself To restore order, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and \nthe troops returned to their duty; but shortly after, many of the \nchief movers in the mutiny died, or mysteriously disappeared. \n\nHis next movement was to despatch his son into Upper Egypt \nand Sennaar, with instructions to capture as many of the blacks as \npossible. He succeeded so well as to bring back a vast number of \nthese unhappy creatures; but out of twenty thousand who were \nsubjected to the improved discipline, at the end of two years, not \nthree thousand survived. \n\nUndeterred by the difficulty or cruelty of his project, he next \nlevied a conscription of thirty thousand Arabs and peasants, whom \nhe placed under the direction of Colonel Seve, his principal military \nadviser, with five hundred Mamalukes, who were to fulfil the duties \nof oificers. This scheme succeeded better, and the pasha soon found \nhimself in possession of a large and tolerably efficient army. So \ngreat, however, is the horror of the conscription, that it has been a \nvery ordinary thing among the lower classes to put out one of their \n\n\n\nQ4: THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nejes, or otherwise to mutilate themselves, in hopes of avoiding it. \nTo overcome this last refuge of the unhappy peasants, the tyrant \norganized a one-eyed regiment. \n\nHaving subdued all Upper Egypt and a great part of Nubia, he \nformed the project of more extended conquests. His reputed son \nIbrahim, distinguished for his cruelty, valour, and military skill, \nwas despatched with a select force to reduce Syria to submission. \nAcre, the key of the East, was compelled to surrender, the Turkish \nforces were every where defeated, and their fleet was overcome by \nthat which the vigorous policy of the pasha had already called into \nexistence; Constantinople itself was threatened by the victorious \narms of Ibrahim. At this juncture, several of the European powers, \nheaded by England, interfered in behalf of the Turkish empire, \nwhich seemed threatened with annihilation. \n\nA fleet was despatched against Acre, and after a terrible bombard- \nment, gained possession of that important post. Beirout shared a \nsimilar fate. The pasha and his enterprising son were forced to \nabandon most of their conquests, and the former was compelled to \nhold Egypt itself as nominal viceroy of the sultan. \n\nAfter a long and sanguinary career, in which he had exercised \nan authority more despotic and unlimited than any monarch of the \nEast, the intellect of Mehemet began gTadually to decline. In 1847, \nhe became imquestionably deranged, and in the following year his \nrelatives found it necessary, to secure the lives of those around him, \nto subject him to some constraint. \n\nThe succession had been long settled upon Ibrahim, whose cruel \nand ferocious disposition caiised the unhappy nation to regard with \ndeep alarm the prospect of his accession. To the great relief of \nall, however, he expired, at this critical period, worn out with excess \nand intemperance. By this event. Abbas Pacha, a grandson of the \nviceroy, became heir to the pachalik, and lately received from \nthe sultan a solemn investiture in his rank. Though a bigoted \nTurk, and deeply addicted to the vices of his nation, he is said \nto be good-natured, and free from the cruelty which has disgraced \nhis predecessors. \n\nDuring his entire reign, Mehemet Ali paid much attention to \nmanufactures and the useful arts, many of which he successfally \nintroduced into the country. On account, however, of his despotic \nsystem of forcing them into existence, irrespective of true political \neconomy, or the rights of individuals, little good has resulted to the \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n85 \n\n\n\npeople. Moreover, tlie monopoly of all profitable brandies of trade, \nwhicli lie held in bis own bands, greatly repressed tbe spirit of \nindustry and enterprise. \n\nA noted instance of bis tyrannical metbod of improving tbe \ncountry at tbe expense of tbe inbabitants, may be found in tbe \nMabmoudieb canal \xe2\x80\x94 a gigantic work, extending from Alexandria to \ntbe navigable portion of tbe Nile. An immense number of Fellahs \nor peasants from tbe surrounding country were burried to tbe spot, \nand compelled, witb insufficient provision and implements, to work \nday and nigbt at tbis laborious undertaking. In six weeks, tbe \nexcavation was nearly completed ; but during tbat brief time, twenty \ntbousand of tbese unbappy serfs died from bunger, overwork, and \nexposure. \n\nTbe condition of tbe lower classes is, indeed, at all times truly \nwretcbed. Tbe pasba\'s tax-gatberers watcb every garden, tree, \nand meadow ; and every tbing, except a bare subsistence, is wrung \nfrom tbe working classes tbrougbout tbe country. It bas been tbe \nfasbion among tbose wbo admire a strong and successful tyranny \nto praise tbe administration of Mebemet; but tbe best comment \nupon bis system may be found in tbe fact, tbat since be gained \npossession of tbe country, tbe population of Egypt bas dwindled to \none-balf of wbat it was even under tbe tyranny of bis predecessors. \nMucb attention bas lately been directed to tbis interesting country, \non account of tbe newly-adopted passage to India by tbe istbmus \nof Suez and tbe Eed Sea. Tbat its acquisition would be very \ndesirable to England, is unquestionable ; and almost any cbange of \ngovernment would probably be for tbe benefit of tbe oppressed \ninbabitants. It seems probable, bowever, tbat tbe jealousy of \nFrance and otber continental powers will prevent ber from making \nany direct movement at present in accomplisbment of ber wishes. \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\nu dJj dX Sf Jj \xc2\xa3^ xi i \n\n\n\nTHE EAELY HISTOEY OF GREECE. \n\nGeeece, tlie most interesting and celebrated of lands, anciently \noccupied the modern kingdom of that name, and a considerable part \nof Turkey in Europe. It was divided into a number of small inde- \npendent states, sometimes at war with each other, and sometimes \njoined in alliance against a common enemy. It comprised, on the \nmain land, the provinces of Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, Doris, vEtolia, \nLocris and Meggera. North of these were Epirus, Thessaly, and \nMacedonia, which, though not belonging to Greece Proper, are \nusually included in its historj^ Lower Greece formed a peninsula, \nthen called Peloponnesus, (the island of Pelops,) and now the Morea. \nIt was joined to the continent by the isthmus of Corinth, and was \ncomposed of the states of Corinth, Sicyon, Arcadia, Argolis, Laconia, \nMessenia and Elis. Many of these were very limited, hardly \nexceeding in extent the county of a Western state. Moreover, \nthere were many islands, in the Archipelago and elsewhere, some \nbelonging to the foregoing states, and others independent. \n\nLike most nations of antiquity, their origin is doubtful. So \nmany of their accounts are fabulous and mythological, that we know \nlittle beyond the fact, that they were descended from an extensive \ntribe, called the Pelasgians, and from the Hellenes, a race from the \nnorth of Thessaly. \n\nThe first kingdoms supposed to have been founded, are those of \nSicyon, Argos, and Mycense, on the peninsula, which are referred by \nsome to the time of Abraham. About B. 0. 1556, Cecrops, an \nEgyptian, travelling into Attica, founded the city of Athene \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl< ^V ^^\' \'^^ " \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n87 \n\n\n\n(Athens), civilized the inluibitants, and instituted laws. He also \nfounded the famous Court of Areopagus, and his second successor, \nAmphictyon, the renowned council which bore his name. Codrus, \nthe last monarch of this line, devoted himself to death for his coun- \ntry, and afterwards the title of archoji, or governor, was substituted \nfor that of king. \n\nCadmus, who invented the Greek letters, or perhaps borrowed \nthem from the Phoenicians, founded Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, \nabout B. C. 1453. Sparta, or Lacedaemon, was founded about the \nsame time. To avenge the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, \nits king, the Greeks united in besieging the city of Troy, and took \nit by storm, after a contest which lasted for ten years. It may be \nremarked, as a proof of the rude manners of the age, that about \nthe same time when Jephtha fulfilled his rash vow in Israel, Aga- \nmemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia, to propitiate the offended \nDiana in favour of the Grecian arms. \n\nCorinth was formed into a kingdom about B. C. 1184, by Sisy- \nphus, and numbered among its kings Periander, one of the Seven \nWise Men of Greece. Macedonia was first ruled by Caranus, a \ndescendant of Hercules. In all the states a kingly government \nprevailed at first, but was afterwards changed into republican, except \nin Macedonia, \n\nThese states, independent, yet united by a common language and \nreligion, were further leagued together by the famous Amphictyonic \nCouncil, which met twice in the year to consult for the general good, \nand to which many of them sent deputies. \n\nThe communities, however, which played the most conspicuous \npart, both in domestic dissensions and in confronting a foreign \nenemy, were Athens and Sparta. To the history of these, more \nparticular attention will be given, and that of the others will be \nfound, in a great measure, interwoven with the affairs of the two \nleading nations. \n\nSparta was governed by thirteen, in succession, of the Pelopidae, \nor descendants of Pelops, from whom the peninsula was named. \nThese being supplanted by the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, \nthe throne was shared for several centuries by two kings, equal in \nsovereignty. During this time, the peasants or Helots, having taken \nup arms to assert their right to equal privileges, were subdued, and, \nwith their posterity, condemned to perpetual slavery. At this \nperiod, also, Lycurgus instituted his celebrated body of laws. Hav- \n\n\n\n88 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ning travelled into Asia and Egypt, studying the laws and institutions \nof other nations, he framed a code by which it was enacted that the \nroyal authority should be subject to that of a senate, chosen for life, \nand this, in its turn, to that of the people. (A century later, the \nCourt of the Ephori was instituted, consisting of five members, \nannually elected by the people from among themselves, and possess- \ning almost supreme power.) The law-giver divided all the lands of \nthe state among the people, and prohibited the use of any metal for \ncoin except iron. \n\nFurther to enforce temperance and frugality, all the men were \ncompelled to eat at a public table, where the provisions were strictly \nspecified. All children born with any important defect, were \nexposed to perish in a cavern near Taygetus \xe2\x80\x94 a high mountain over- \nhanging the city of Sparta. The strong and healthy were taken \nfrom their parents at the age of seven, and educated by the state. \nFrom their tenderest years they were trained in the severest discipline. \nThey were taught to be indifferent to their fare, quiet in their man- \nners, to bear exposure to cold, and to overcome fear. Their heads were \nshaved, and they fought each other naked, with such obstinacy, that \nthey would lose their eyes, or even their lives, before yielding up \nthe contest. Until the age of thirty, (till which period these exer- \ncises continued,) they were not allowed to marry, to serve in the army, \nor to hold any office. \n\nThe discipline of the weaker sex was not less rigorous. Until \nthe age of twenty, when they were allowed to marry, they were \ntrained to severe industry, and shared all manly and invigorating \nexercises ; whence they became a fierce and patriotic race of Ama- \nzons. One, giving his shield to her son, bade him "Eeturn with it, \nor on it!" such being the manner of carrying the dead who had \nperished in conflict. Another, learning that her son had died in \nbattle, answered, "It was for this that I brought him into the \nworld!" \n\nWar was the principal employment of the Spartans ; they exer- \ncised no mechanical art, but in time of peace, employed themselves \nin hunting and athletic games. Their unfortunate slaves, the Helots, \nsupported them by tilling the ground. These were treated with \ngreat severity, and if the jealousy of their masters was excited by \nthe increase of their numbers, it was allowable by a secret law to \nput them to death. Two thousand are said to have thus disappeared \non a single occasion. \n\n\n\nG E E E C E . \n\n\n\n89 \n\n\n\nThe citizens, thus supported in leisure and competence, passed \nmucli of their time in the public halls, where they conversed together, \nand cherished a spirit of patriotism. Their law-giver prohibited \nthem from walling the city, lest they should rely too little upon \narms; and it was enacted, on penalty of death, that they should \nnever fly from an enemy, however numerous, or resign their arms \nexcept with their lives. \n\nHaving framed these laws and institutions, with some others, and \nhaving persuaded the people to take an oath for their strict observ- \nance while absent, Lycurgus departed to consult the oracle of \nDelphos. This authority affirming, in answer, that his decrees would \nrender the Lacedemonians prosperous, he never returned, and at his \ndeath ordered his ashes to be thrown into the sea. \n\nBy these severe and martial regulations, the Spartans became \nexceedingly expert in war. They first turned their arms against the \nneighbouring state of Messenia, which they conquered after a war \nof twenty years. Thirty-nine years afterwards, the Messenians \nendeavoured to throw off the yoke ; but after a most sanguinary \ncontest, were expelled from their country, which was added to \nSparta, and greatly increased her power and resources (B. C. 664). \n\nNot long before this, the Athenians had also become desirous of \nadopting a written code of statutes ; and Draco, a man of great integ- \nrity and severity, was selected to frame one. His laws were so cruel \nand sanguinary, that they were said to be written with blood \xe2\x80\x94 \ndeath being the punishment for all offences indiscriminately. Such \nrigour, however, defeated itself; through humanity, the statutes \nwere not executed, and soon fell into disuse. Licentiousness and \ndisorder succeeding, the people applied to Solon, one of the Seven \nWise Men of Greece. (The others were Thales, the Milesian ; Chilo, \na Lacedemonian; Pittacus, of Mitylene; Periander, of Corinth; \nBias, and Cleobulus.) This man, famous for his prudence and virtue, \nwas elected archon, or chief magistrate of Athens, and entrusted \nwith full power to remodel the laws. In this task, as he said, he \nwas rather guided by expediency, and the necessity of the times, \nthan by pure justice, abstractly considered. He repealed the laws \nof Draco, except those against murder, and relieved the poor by \nabolishing their debts to the rich. On the other hand, he divided \nthe people into four ranks, according to their wealth, excluding \nfrom the poorest and most numerous the right to hold any office \nwhatever. All citizens, however, were allowed to vote in the popu- \n\n\n\n90 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, \n\nlar assembly; and as an appeal to this from the magistrates was \npermitted, in time all matters of consequence came before them. \nThe Areopagus was remodelled, and acquired much renown by the \nwisdom of its decisions ; the Romans themselves sometimes referring \nto it the most intricate causes. He further appointed a council of \nfour hundred, who were to examine all questions before they were \nsubmitted to the people. \n\nNo person was allowed to remain neuter in ptiblic dissensions, on \npenalty of exile and confiscation. The Areopagus might inquire \ninto the private affairs of any one, and if he had no visible means \nof gaining a subsistence, inflict punishment. Chastity and temper- \nance were enforced with reasonable severity. \n\nHaving made these enactments, Solon commenced his travels, \nhaving bound the citizens, by oath, religiously to observe his laws \nfor at least one hundred years. He had not been long absent, how- \never, before the country was distracted by three different factions. \nThe most powerful of these was headed by Pisistratus, a man of \ngreat talent and many virtues, but of inordinate ambition. Learned \nhimself, he was a patron of learning ; and is said to have introduced \nthe works of Homer, and caused them to be written in correct order. \nSolon returning at the end of two years, in vain endeavoured to \noppose his designs. Pisistratus artfully wounding himself, appeared \ncovered with blood before the people, and so enlisted their sympa- \nthies, that they granted him a body-guard of fifty men. Making \nthis a nucleus, he soon increased it to an army, seized the citadel, \nand usurped the supreme power. Solon did not long survive the \nindependence of his country; and the dictator, with the same art \nand ability, maintained his power during life, and transmitted it to \nhis sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. \n\nFollowing the example of their father, they reigned for eighteen \nyears, encouraging learning, and promoting the education of the \npeople. Among other poets, the celebrated Anacreon and Simonides \nwere attendant on their court. At last, to fevenge a private injury, \nHipparchus was slain by the friends Harmodius and Aristogiton, \nwho also lost their lives in the attempt; and Hippias, by the influ- \nence in Sparta of the Alcm^onidEe, who had been banished from \nAthens, was likewise dethroned (B. C. 508), the same year in which \nthe kings were expelled from Eome. The statues of the two friends \nwere erected in the market-place, and their names ever after were \nheld in the highest veneration at Athens. \n\n\n\nGEEECE. Ql \n\nHippias, however, sought the court of Persia, and by representing \nAttica as an easy conquest, gained its support; and the Athenians, \nrefusing to restore him. to the throne, were compelled to make \npreparations for defence. \n\n\n\nTHE PERSIAN INVASIONS. \n\nPersia was at this time the most powerful nation in existence ; \nwhile the little state of Athens only contained about ten thousand \ncitizens, besides strangers and servants. Sparta at the same period \nwas peopled by only nine thousand citizens and thirty thousand \nslaves. The Grreek colonies in Asia Minor, then dependent on Per- \nsia, revolted; and being assisted with ships by Athens, invaded \nLydia, burned the city of Sardis, and maintained a war with their \noppressors for six years. Darius, the Persian king, in revenge, \ndetermined to attempt the conquest of all Grreece. Mardonius, his \nson-in-law, was first sent in command of the fleet and army; but \nsuffering disaster from a tempest, was attacked by the Thracians, \nand returned defeated. Datis and Artaphernes, two experienced \ngenerals, replaced him. The king now sent heralds into the various \nstates of Greece, requiring submission. The smaller communities \nyielded, but the spirited Athenians, when earth and water were \ndemanded of them, as the usual token of vassalage, threw one her- \nald into a ditch and another into a well, and sneeringly desired \nthem to help themselves. JEgina, having succumbed to the foreign \ninfluence, was attacked, and finally subdued by its neighbours the \nAthenians. \n\nThe Persian generals now commenced the campaign, with a fleet \nof six hundred ships, an army one hundred and twenty thousand \nstrong, and instructions to destroy and depopulate the resisting prov- \ninces. They overcame the Eretrians, after a gallant defence, burned \ntheir city, and sent the inhabitants in chains to Darius. They then \nadvanced to Marathon, a plain by the sea side, a few miles from \nAthens, and ever since memorable for the most glorious of the \nvictories of freedom. \n\n\n\n92 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nTo oppose the immense force of their enemies, tlie Greeks liad \nonly ten thousand citizens of Athens, and a small band of allies, \nfrom Plataea; but these were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, \nand Themistocles, men whose names are yet proverbial for valour, \nwisdom, and patriotism. Miltiades, the chief in command, drew up \nhis little army at the foot of a height overlooking the plain, that \nfamous field, where stiU \n\n"The mountains look on Marathon \xe2\x80\x94 \nAnd Marathon looks on the sea." \n\nThe shore was lined with the Persian galleys, and tne plain was \nhalf-covered with their army. As they advanced, the Athenians \ncharged in an extended line \xe2\x80\x94 the centre, which was weakest, being \ncommanded by Aristides and Themistocles, and the wings being \nstrengthened as much as possible. The enemy engaged the centre \nwith great bravery, and it was on the point of giving way, when \nthe two wings, being victorious, attacked them on both flanks, and \nthrew them into confusion. The rou.t soon became universal, and \nthey fled to their ships, pursued fiercely by the Greeks. Seven ves- \nsels were seized, others were set on fire, and six thousand of the \nenemy were left dead on the field of battle. Many, also, were \ndrowned and burned in attempting to regain their fleet. Of the \nGreeks, only two hundred fell ; monuments were erected over them, \nand a statue, dedicated to Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, was \ncarved by the celebrated Phidias, from a block brought by the Per- \nsians to commemorate their anticipated victory. The mound or \ntumulus, in which the defenders of their country were interred, is \nstill an object of interest to travellers. This battle, fought B. C. 490, \nis one of the most important in the annals of warfare \xe2\x80\x94 ^both as a \nsplendid example of patriotic courage, and for its influence in check- \ning the tide of Eastern barbarism, which threatened to overflow the \nnations most advanced in civilization. \n\nThe Athenians, with their customary caprice, soon became dis- \ncontented with Miltiades, and this eminent commander died in prison. \n\nDarius also died as he was preparing to invade Greece in person, \nand his son Xerxes succeeded to his throne and his project. \nDeclaring that he did not choose any longer to huy the figs of \nAttica, he prepared an immense force both by land and sea. His \nfleet is said to have consisted of nearly two thousand five hundred \nvessels, transports included, and his army to have been composed \n\n\n\nGKEECE. \n\n\n\n93 \n\n\n\nof two millions of Persians, Medes, Bactrians, Lydians, Assyrians, \nand others, over wliom his empire extended. Much of this is prob- \nably exaggerated; but it is certain that he built a bridge of boats \nover the Hellespont, and that his immense army was seven days in \ncrossing. With this vast army he marched upon Greece, ten years \nafter the battle of Marathon. The smaller states submitted; Athens \nand Sparta alone determined to defend their liberties to the last. \n\nAristides the Just, who had been banished, was recalled, and \nThemistocles, the ablest general since Miltiades, was appointed \ncommander of their little army of eleven thousand men. With the \ngreatest industry a fleet of two hundred and eighty sail was equipped \nby the allies, and the command given to Eurybiades, a Spartan, It \nwas determined to make the first stand at Thermopylae, a narrow \npass in Thessaly, and Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, led \nthither a force of six thousand men. For two days he maintained \nhis post against the whole Persian force, and repulsed every attack \nwith great slaughter. \xe2\x96\xa0 By the treachery of a Trachinian, twenty thou- \nsand of the enemy were conducted to a mountain commanding the \nstrait, and Leonidas perceived that his situation was no longer \ntenable. Dismissing his allies, he remained with only three hundred \nSpartans, and a few Thespians and Thebans, in all not a thousand \nmen. Devoting themselves to death, they made an attack at mid- \nnight on the Persian camp, and having slain an immense number \nof the enemy, died almost to a man. On the same day, the Persian \nfleet was defeated by the Greeks, with the loss of many ships. \n\nThe invading army now marched on Athens, and the inhabitants \ntook refuge in Salamis, a small neighbouring island. The city was \ntaken, the citadel burned, and its few defenders were put to the sword. \nThe Greeks built a wall across the isthmus to defend the peninsula, \nand their vessels, to the number of three hundred and eighty, \nassembled at Salamis, under the command of Themistocles and Eury- \nbiades. The fleet of the Persians, far more numerous, advanced to \nengage them, and the sovereign himself, from a high promontory, \nsurveyed the contest. \n\n"A king sat on the rocky brow \n\nThat looks o\'er sea-born Salamis, \nAnd ships, in thousands, lay below, \n\nAnd men in nations \xe2\x80\x94 all were his! \nHe counted them at break of day, \nAnd hen the sun set, where were theyl" \n\n\n\n94 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, \n\nThe Grecian admiral prudently delayed tlie action until a strong \nwind, which usually rises at a certain time, had commenced to blow ; \nand with this in his favour, bore down upon the hostile fleet. Their \nvessels, from their great height and bulk, being unmanageable in the \nnarrow strait, were dashed together by the waves, and were sunk \nand boarded in all directions by the swift light gallej\'^s of the Greeks. \nTwo hundred were burned and many were taken. Xerxes, in \nchagrin, left Mardonius in command of the remainder of his army, \nand hastened back to the Hellespont, which he was compelled to \npass in a fishing-boat, his bridge having been destroyed by the waves. \n\nMardonius, with three hundred thousand men, again overran \nAttica, and the Grecian force, now increased to seventy thousand, \nengaged them near the little city of Platsea. Aristides was in com- \nmand of the Athenians, Oleombrotus of the Spartans, and Pausanias, \na Lacedemonian, was the chief general. Mardonius falling, Arta- \nbazis, with forty thousand men, fled to Asia; and the remainder of \nthe army being routed, were refused quarter, and put to the sword, \nto the number, it is said, of one hundred thousand. Thus ended \nthis formidable invasion; and thus perished the last Persian army \nthat ever crossed the Hellespont. On the same day, a most import- \nant victory was gained at Mycale, in Ionia, by the Greeks over \nTigranes, the Persian general. His ships were burned, and he \nperished in the battle, with a vast number of his men. \n\n\n\nPROM THE DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS TO THE END OF THE \nFIRST PELOPONNESl AN AVAR. \n\nThe Athenians now fortified their city, and increased its strength, \nthus exciting the jealousy of Sparta. A secret project of Themis- \ntocles for burning the fleet of their allies was defeated by the \nuprightness of Aristides. The two nations next sent out an \nexpedition under Pausanias, and Cimon the son of Miltiades, which, \namong other victories, took the city of Byzantium (Constantinople), \nand brought away many captives, and a vast amount of plunder. \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n95 \n\n\n\nThis newly-acquired wealth, and the imitation of foreign habits, \nappear to have corrupted the Greeks from the primitive simplicity \nof their manners. Pausanias, through ambition, entered into an \nintrigue with Xerxes, and offered, as the price of his daughter\'s \nhand, the betrayalof Sparta, and of all Greece. Being detected, \nafter two trials he was found guilty, and taking refuge in the temple \nof Minerva, there perished of hunger. \n\nThemistocles being also accused, though falsely, of sharing the \nplans of Pausanias, was compelled to fly for his life, and after \nvarious wanderings, took refuge at the Persian court. The king, \nadmiring his eloquence and self-possession, entei-tained him with \ngreat magnificence, and assigned three cities for his support. But \nAvhen he proposed to his guest to take command of an expedition \nagainst Greece, this eminent patriot, rather than turn his arms \nagainst his country, put an end to his life by poison. His remains \nwere afterwards carried to Athens by the repentant citizens, and a \nmonument erected over them on the shore at the Piraeus. Aristides, \nhaving Ax^on the highest honour by his honesty and disinterestedness, \nwhile holding the treasury at his entire disposal, died so poor that \nhe was buried at the public expense. \n\nAfter the death of these great men, Cimon the son of Miltiades \nbegan to acquire honourable distinction. He delivered the Greek \ncities in Asia Minor from the rule of the Persians, destroyed their \nfleet, and compelled them to relinquish jurisdiction over the contested \ncolonies. Ere long, he found a rival in Pericles, a young man \npossessed of the highest advantages in birth, fortune, person, talents, \nand education. This new favourite of the people lessened the power \nof the Areopagus, by causing frequent appeals to the people from its \ndecisions. A jealousy against Sparta again arising, Cimon, who v/as \nsupposed to favour that nation, was banished, and the alliance \ndissolved. The Athenians further took the high-sounding title of \n"Protectors of Greece," and conducted so haughtily, that a collision \nensued between the rival nations. The people of Athens were at \nfirst defeated, though Cimon came to their assistance, but afterwards \nwere victorious. This turned the popular opinion in his favour, and \nhe was recalled after a banishment of five years, Pericles himself \nproposing the decree. Peace being restored by his mediation, he \nset out Avith two hundred sail for the conquest of Cyprus, where \ndying, and his death being concealed, the country submitted before \nthe terror of his name. \n\n\n\n96 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nPericles, now left free from opposition, found himself without a \nrival in the popular affection. He distributed the conquered territory, \nexhibited public shows, and so won upon the minds of the people, \nthat he may be said to have attained sovereign power in a free \nrepublic. To his administration Athens owed the Parthenon, and \nother splendid buildings, whose ruins still excite universal admira- \ntion. Among other exploits, he led an expedition against Samos, \nin favour of the Milesians, and besieged and took its capital with \nbattering rams and other engines, then for the first time used in war. \n\nOn occasion of a war breaking out between certain petty states, \nthe powerful republics of Athens and Sparta, espousing different \nsides, after fruitless negotiation, became involved in a long and \nterrible contest \xe2\x80\x94 the famous " Peloponnesian War," recorded by \nThucydides. The inferior states also took part in the dispute, the \nmajority siding with Sparta which was considered a protector of \nthe rights of provinces. That people, with their allies, took the \nfield with sixty thousand men. To these the Athenians were able \nto oppose only thirty thousand in all. Being thus overmatched, by \nadvice of Pericles, they shut themselves up in Athens, determined \nto resist to the last extremity. Meanwhile, their fleet of three \nhundred galleys, more powerful than that of the Spartans, ravaged \nthe enemy\'s coasts in all directions, and levied contributions suf6.cient \nto carry on the war. The invading force marched within seven \nmiles of Athens. The people, eager for an action, were restrained by \nthe wisdom of Pericles, who shut the gates, and sent a hundred sail \nto distress the coasts of Peloponnesus. After laying waste the \ncountry around Athens, the besiegers retired; and the Athenians, \nsallying forth, invaded the enemy\'s country in turn with consider- \nable success. \n\nThe next year the siege was renewed. At the same time a more \nterrible calamity befell the Athenians. A plague, one of the most \ndreadful recorded in history, travelled from Egypt through Lybia \na,nd Persia, and finally fell with intense fury upon the multitudes \ncooped up within the walls of Athens. The scene, as described by \nThucydides, is terrible ; the living and dead seemed huddled together \nin a confused mass. The blame was laid on Pericles for gathering \nsuch gTcat numbers within the narrow limits of the city. He still, \nhowever, refused to risk an engagement, though the enemy was \nlaying waste the country without, and the multitude within was daily \ndecreasing by pestilence and famine. He was deposed from com- \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n97 \n\n\n\nmand, but, with tlie characteristic fickleness of the Athenians, soon \nreinstated with more than former honours. He died not long after \nof the prevailing disorder. \n\nThe next year the Spartans and their allies laid siege to Platasa, \na city which had faithfully espoused the cause of Athens. After a \nheroic resistance, only five hundred of the garrison were left, half \nof whom cut their way through the enemy by night, and arrived \nsafely at Athens. The remainder, after a further defence, being \ncompelled by famine to surrender, were put to death. \n\nCleon, a popular and boisterous demagogue, now controlled the \ncounsels of the Athenians. The Spartans would have been willing \nto make peace, but Cleon, with Demosthenes, (the admiral, and \nancestor of the celebrated orator,) made a descent on Sphacteria, \nand after a desperate contest, made prisoners of all the Lacedemo- \nnians on the island. The war, after being conducted with alternate \nsuccess for some years longer, was finally brought to a temporary \nclose, principally by the death of Cleon and of Brasidas, the opposing \ngenerals. Thus, in the tenth year of the contest, a peace for fifty \nyears was concluded between the rival states and their confederates. \nTowns and prisoners were to be restored on both sides. This was \nusually called the Nician peace, because effected by Nicias, a prudent \nAthenian general, the rival and opposer of Cleon. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEE I?. \n\nTHE SECOND PELOPONNESIAN WAR. \n\nThis agreement, however solemn, was brief in its duration. A \nnew favourite of the people arose, destined to add greatly to the \nrenown and calamities of Grreece. Alcibiades was a young man of \nthe highest fortune, family, and personal beauty. His talents were \nexceedingly versatile, and though addicted to some vices, he was in \na degree reclaimed by the lessons and example of Socrates, who was \nhis teacher, and had already saved his life in battle, during the \nrecent war. Ambition was from childhood his ruling passion, and \n7 \n\n\n\n98 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nthis soon found a field for action, in opposing Nicias before the \npeople, and rekindling the war with Sparta. \n\nThe Lacedemonians, apprized of certain intrigues designed to \nrender Argos hostile toward them, sent ambassadors to Athens with \nfull power to settle the question amicably; but Alcibiades, having \nartfully persuaded them to disclaim any such power before the \npeople, at once cried out they were rogues and liars; and caused \nthem to be dismissed in disgrace. A treaty was made with Argos, \nand Alcibiades declared general-in-chief; but his arms were soon \nturned in a more adventurous direction. The inhabitants of Egesta, \nin Sicily, applied to the Athenians for aid against Selinunta and \nSyracuse, and to prove the solvency of their treasury, exhibited to \nthe Greek deputies a great number of gold and silver vases, of \nimmense value, which they had borrowed for this occasion from the \nneighbouring states. Their request was complied with, and Alci- \nbiades, Nicias, and Lamachus were despatched to their assistance \nwith a fleet of one hundred ships, Nicias in vain opposing the \nexpedition. The fleet was fitted out with great care and magnifi- \ncence, and the whole population flocked down the Piraeus to see it \nset sail. Eeaching its destination, it took Catana by surprise ; but \nAlcibiades was here recalled by the people, who had been excited \nby some absurd accusations. He started to return, but disappeared \non the way, unwilling to face the prejudice of the fickle multitude. \nHe was therefore in his absence condemned to death, his immense \nproperty confiscated, and an anathema pronounced against him by \nall the priests. \n\nNicias, meanwhile, attacked Syracuse, and defeated its army \nunder the walls. The contest was prolonged till Spring, when he \nreceived reinforcements from Athens, and seized Epipolse, a high \nhill commanding the city. Lamachus fell in a skirmish, and he was \nthus left in sole command. The Syracusans were greatly reduced, \nwhen they were relieved by G-ylippus, who came to their assistance \nwith a large force from Lacedemon. He notified to Nicias that he \nwould allow him five days to leave Sicily, to which the Athenian \ndisdained returning an answer. After several battles,, fought with \nvarious success, Nicias was besieged in a strong position near the \nharbour, and sent an account of his situation to Athens. Eeinforce- \nments were ordered, but before they could arrive, he met with \nfurther misfortunes, both by land and sea. \n\nHis anxiety was at last relieved by the arrival of Demosthenes, \n\n\n\nGREECE. 99 \n\nthe Athenian admiral, with seventy-three ships and eight thousand \nfighting men. Again attacking Epipolse by night, they were terri- \nbly defeated, with a loss of two thousand men. Nicias would now \nhave retreated from the island, but for an eclipse of the moon, which \nwas declared by the augurs unfavourable for such an undertaking. \nThus delayed, he was compelled to hazard another engagement by \nsea, in which the Athenians were again defeated. Moreover, the \nenemy shut up the mouth of the harbour, with a row of galleys \nsecured by iron chains, and thus cut off their retreat. Attempting \nto force their way, they suffered another reverse, and were com- \npelled to return. \n\nThe Athenians, in opposition to the advice of Demosthenes, now \ndetermined to retreat by land to Oatana. Nearly forty thousand \nin number, they commenced their march, the third day after the \nsea fight. After being much harassed by the enemy, and losing \ngreat numbers, the army separated in the night, and Demosthenes, \nwith the rear guard, lost his way. Surrounded in a narrow pass by \nthe Syracusans, they fought with great bravery, but were at last \ncompelled to surrender, to the number of six thousand. Nicias, with \nthe remainder, overcome with thirst and fatigue, was defeated, and \nsurrendered near the river Asinarius. Nicias and Demosthenes \nwere cruelly put to death by the victors, in spite of the efforts of \nGrylippus to save them ; and the prisoners, many thousand in number, \nwere confined in dungeons and sold as slaves. It is said that some \nof them, repeating scenes from the plays of Euripides, their masters \nwere so aftected as to restore their freedom. \n\nThe Athenians were at first unable to believe the terrible news \nof their misfortune ; and with customary precipitation condemned \nto death the first man who brought the tidings. Never had they \nfound themselves in such a condition \xe2\x80\x94 destitute of money, ships, \nmariners, and soldiers \xe2\x80\x94 and expecting daily an invasion of Attica. \nThey, however, busied themselves in retrieving their aifairs as far \nas possible; built new ships, retrenched all superfluous expense, \nand did their best to put the country in a state of defence. But \nfrom the time of this signal disaster, they no longer occupy the \nprincipal place in Grecian history ; reduced in spirits and resources, \nthey ceased to attempt the regulation of the affairs of Greece, and \nwere content with defending their own territory from the invasion \nand rapacity of their neighbours. \n\nAlcibiades, who had taken refuge with Tissaphernes, a high officer \n\n\n\n100 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY \n\n\n\nof the king of Persia, persuaded tlie people to change their form of \ngovernment to that of an oligarchy; assuring them, if this was \ndone, of the protection of that monarch. Accordingly all power \nwas vested in a council of four hundred, with the shadow of a final \nappeal to the citizens. The new rulers, however, did not think fit \nto recall Alcibiades, dreading lest he should possess himself of the \nsupreme authority. They conducted with great tyranny and rapacity, \nbanishing and putting to death all obnoxious to them, and confis- \ncating their estates. \n\nThe army, then at Samos, viewed these proceedings with dis- \npleasure, and by advice of Thrasybulus, recalled Alcibiades, and \nmade him their general. He prudently forbade an open attack \nupon the new authorities ; but these had become so unpopular, that \nthey were obliged to fortify themselves at the Piraeus. The Lacede- \nmonians took advantage of these disturbances, to renew the war; \nand defeated the small fleet of the Athenians. The people enraged, \nimmediately deposed the four hundred, and entreated Alcibiades to \nreturn. He was, however, unwilling to present himself, after his \nlong exile, without having performed some notable exploit; and \nimmediately renewed the war with the Spartans. He twice defeated \nthem at sea with great loss, took their whole fleet, reduced several \nrevolted cities to submission, and sailed to Athens with a fleet of \ncaptured vessels loaded with spoils and tro23hies. He was received \nwith the greatest rejoicing, his excommunication was taken off by \nthe priests, and he was appointed commander-in-chief, with almost \nunlimited powers. \n\nLysander, the Lacedemonian general, a man of the greatest bravery, \nand renowned for his craftiness, now sought Cyrus, son of the \nPersian king, and so far gained his confidence that he increased the \npay of the Spartan mariners \xe2\x80\x94 a circumstance which operated injuri- \nously upon the manning of the Athenian fleet. Alcibiades being \ncompelled to leave it for the purpose of obtaining supplies, Antio- \nchus, who was left in command, in spite of strict orders to the \ncontrary, sailed for Ephesus, engaged the Spartan fleet commanded \nby Lysander, and was defeated and killed. Alcibiades was again \ndeposed by the disappointed populace, and Lysander, his year \nexpiring, was succeeded by Callicratidas, a man of equal courage \nand far greater honesty. He besieged Conon, the Athenian com- \nmander in Mitylene, and took forty of his ships. Leaving a part \nof his fleet to continue the siege, with an hundred and twenty \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n101 \n\n\n\nvessels lie engaged an Athenian fleet of superior force, wliich had \nbeen fitted out to oppose him. His ship was sunk, charging through \nthe enemy, and seventy of his vessels were lost and taken: the \nAthenians lost twenty-live, with most of their crews. The Athenian \ncommanders, immediately after their victory, were accused of not \nhaving taken sufficient pains in rescuing their men and recovering \nthe bodies of the dead for burial. They alleged, reasonably, that a \nviolent storm succeeding the action, had prevented the performance \nof this duty; yet six of them, one being the son of Pericles, were \nput to death, Socrates alone daring to raise his voice against the \npopular prejudice. \n\nLysander had now been reappointed by the Spartans, and with \nhis allies commenced operations by destroying Lampsacus. He was \nfollowed by the Athenian fleet to a place called ^gos Potamos. \nFor five days the Athenians regularly went up to his squadron, and \noffered him battle, which being declined, they returned to the shore, \nand spent their time in amusement. Alcibiades, who was living in \nthe neighbourhood, better informed of the nature of their enemy, \nentreated more caution, warned them of their danger, and offered his \naid, with a body of Thracians, which was rejected. \n\nOn the fifth day, after they had retired as usual, and were dis- \npersed along the shore, Lysander suddenly attacked them with his \nentire force, captured nearly their whole fleet, and took three thou- \nsand prisoners. By this signal victory, the war, which had lasted \ntwenty-seven years, was in effect brought to a close ; and Lysander \nput all his prisoners to death, in retaliation for a similar act of the \nAthenians. He then sailed for their city, which he strictly block- \naded by sea, while Agis and Pausanias, the Spartan kings, besieged \nit by land. Overcome by famine, the citizens were compelled to \nsubmit to the severest terms. All their ships, except twelve, were \nto be delivered up ; the fortifications and long walls to the Pirseus \nto be demolished \xe2\x80\x94 and the vanquished nation to serve its invaders \nas an allj both by land and sea, in all expeditions. Thus ended \nthe Peloponnesian war, the longest and most destructive in which \nGreece had ever been involved. \n\nDuring the brilliant period of Athenian history, flourished many \nof their most celebrated authors and philosophers. Among the \ndramatists were JEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes; \namong the historians, Herodotus and Thucydides: Socrates and \nPlato, among the philosophers. \n\n\n\n102 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEB ?. \n\n\n\nTHE-THIETY TYRANTS, THE EXPEDITION OF THE TEN THOUSAND, \nTHE DEATH OP SOCRATES, AND THE THEBAN WAR. \n\nThe democratic form of government at Athens was now abolished, \nand the people were compelled to submit to the rule of thirty officers, \nimmediately under the influence of Lysander, and called, for their \noppression, the Thirty Tyrants. Protected by a guard from Sparta, \nthey pursued a course of violence, confiscation, and butchery. Among \nother atrocious acts, they procured the death of Alcibiades, then \nresiding in Persia. Dreading the popular hatred, they invested three \nthousand of the citizens with some degree of power, and, by their \nassistance, kept the rest in awe. Socrates alone dared to raise his \nvoice in opposition to their tyranny ; but imprisonments, confiscations, \nand murders still went on. \n\nAt leng-th Thrasybulus, a patriotic citizen, who had long deplored \nthe wretched fate of his country, resolved on making an effort to \nrelieve it. With seventy men, he seized the citadel of Phyle, not \nfar from Athens, The tyrants and their followers, marching out to \nattack it, were repulsed, and, on account of a great snow-storm, \nretreated to the city. Having increased his force to a thousand men, \nhe sallied forth, and took the Piraeus. A battle instantly ensued, and \nthe thirty, with their adherents, were put to flight. They appealed \nto Sparta, but Pausanias, commiserating the Athenians, refused to \ncountenance them. Again taking up arms to regain their authority, \nthey were defeated and put to death. An amnesty was now pro- \nposed by Thrasybulus, by which all past offences were overlooked. \nThe ancient laws and magistracies were restored, and the remaining \ncitizens, after so many years of misfortune and bloodshed, formed \nthemselves once more under a partially democratic government. \n\nA scene was next enacted in Asia, in which the Greeks played a \nconspicuous part. Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, king \nof Persia, had made several attempts to seize the throne, and as often \nbeen generously pardoned. He was even put in possession of exten- \nsive provinces. Resolved to make another trial, he enlisted as \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n103 \n\n\n\nmany troops as possible, and among tliem a body of thirteen thou- \nsand Greeks, under command of Clearclius, an able Lacedemonian. \nApprized of his intention on the march, they refused to proceed; \nbut by kind treatment and an augmentation of pay, the adventurer \ninduced them to continue in his service. After long and tedious \nmarches, they arrived at Cunaxa, near Babylon, and engaged the \nroyal army, immense in number, and commanded by Artaxerxes in \nperson. The Greeks were successful in their charge, but their Per- \nsian allies were routed, their camp plundered, and Cyrus himself \nwas killed fighting hand to hand with his brother. The battle was \nrenewed, and the Greeks again came off victorious. Still, their situ- \nation was exceedingly critical. In the heart of the enemies\' country, \ntwo thousand miles from home, surrounded by hostile forces, and \ndestitute of provisions, they still maintained a resolution not to yield. \n\nTheir homeward march (the famous "Eetreat of the Ten Thou- \nsand ") was commenced, and the king\'s army followed in pursuit. \nBy a treacherous device, Clearchus and four of the principal generals \nwere persuaded to enter the tent of Tissaphernes, the Persian general ; \ntheir attendants were put to the sword, themselves bound, sent to \nthe king, and beheaded. Others were appointed in their places, and \namong them Xenophon, the admirable historian of the expedition. \nDestroying all unnecessary baggage, they again set forth, and after \na march of many months, fighting their way, and overcoming the \ndiflBculties presented by nature \xe2\x80\x94 -crossing rivers, mountains, and des- \nerts \xe2\x80\x94 they finally succeeded in gaining a height, whence they could \nbehold the Euxine. The whole army, weeping for joy, cried out, \n"Thalassa! Thalassa!" \xe2\x80\x94 "the sea! the sea!" They embraced their \ngenerals, and erected a trophy on the spot, as if for a victory. After \nmany reverses, they regained their country and the shore of that sea \nso beloved by all the Grecians. \n\nAt Athens a tragedy of the deepest character was now enacted. \nSocrates, the most virtuous and sublime of uninspired philosophers, \nhad always been celebrated for his patriotism and bravery. His \nteachings had been the most remarkable which ever emanated from \nthe soul of a heathen. He was now arraigned by his wicked and \nmalicious enemies, on a charge of introducing new gods, and corrupt- \ning the youth of Athens. At his trial he disdained the customary \narts for exciting compassion, and his defence, reported by Plato, his \npupil, is one of the most able, dignified, and eloquent compositions \non record. He was nevertheless convicted; and treating such con- \n\n\n\n104 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nviction with just contempt, was sentenced to drink the juice of \nhemlock \xe2\x80\x94 a customary method of inflicting death. For thirty days, \nduring which executions were suspended on account of the absence \nof the Sacred Galley,* his calm and cheerful deportment excited the \nadmiration of all. He was offered the opportunity to escape, but \nrefused, deeming it wrong to evade the action of the laws; and \nsmilingly asked his friend if he knew of any place out of Attica \nwhere people did not die! He preserved the same cheerful and \nserene demeanour to the last, consoling his friends, enforcing the \nimmortality of the soul, and finally taking the fatal draught with the \nutmost tranquillity and resignation. The scene is beautifully described \nby a poet, who, more fully and feelingly than any other, has illus- \ntrated the scenery and associations of Greece : \n\n" Slow sinks, more lovely ere his race is run \nAlong Morea\'s hills, the setting sun; \nNot as in Northern climes, obscurely bright, \nBut one unclouded blaze of living light. \nO\'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws, \nGilds the gi\'een wave, that trembles as it glows, \nOn old ^gina\'s rock and Idra\'s isle \nThe god of gladness sheds his panting smile; \nO\'er his own regions lingering loves to shine, \nThough there his altars are no more divine. \nDescending fast, the mountain shadows kiss \nThy glorious gulf, unconquered Salamis! \nTheir azure arches through the long expanse, \nMore deeply purpled, meet his mellowing glance. \nAnd tenderest tints, along their summits driven, \nMark his gay course, and own the hues of heaven ; \nTill, darkly shaded from the land and deep. \nBehind his Delphian cliff he sinks to sleep. \n\n"On such an eve, his palest beam he cast, \nWhen, Athens, here thy wisest looked his last. \nHow watched thy better sons his farewell ray. \nThat closed then- murdered sage\'s latest day! \nNot yet \xe2\x80\x94 not yet \xe2\x80\x94 Sol pauses on the hill \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe precious hour of parting lingers still ; \nBut sad his light to agonizing eyes, \nAnd dark the mountain\'s once delightful dies. \n\n* A ship was yearly despatched by the Athenians to offer sacrifice in the temple \nof Apollo, at Delos, and until it returned, no person could legally be put to death. \n\n\n\n\nTHE DEATH OF SOCRATES. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 ^ \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 "He extended the cup to Socrates But Socrates received \nit from him, indeed, \xe2\x96\xa0with great cheerfulness ; neither tremhling nor suffering \nany alteration for the -worse in hia colour or countenance. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 And at \nthe same time, ending his discourse, he drank the poison with exceeding facil- \nity and alacrity. Thus far, indeed, the greater part of us were tolerably well \nable to refrain from weeping , but -when we saw him drinking, we could no \nlonger restrain our tears. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 But Socrates, upon seeing this, \nesclaimed : "What are you doing, excellent men? for I principally sent \naway the women, lest they should produce a disturbance of this kind." \xe2\x80\x94 Thk \nPH.a!:Do OF Plato. \n\n\n\nGEEECE. IQQ \n\nGloom o\'er the lovely land he seemed to pour, \nThe land where Phoebus never frowned before, \nBut ere he sank beneath Cithseron\'s head \nThe cup of wo was quaffed \xe2\x80\x94 the spirit fled ; \nThe soul of him who scorned to fear or fly \xe2\x80\x94 \nWho lived and died, as none can live and die." \n\nAfter the death of this great man, when the people reflected on \nthe true merits of the case, all Athens was overwhelmed with afflic- \ntion. The remorse of the people was excessive, and they bitterly \nreproached themselves for their cruelty and rashness. The schools \nwere closed, and all public exercises suspended. Melitus, one of his \naccusers, was condemned to death, and the rest were banished. All \nwho had any share in the persecution fell into such detestation, that \nno one would have any intercourse with them, and many of them, in \ndespair, took their own lives. His statue by Lysippus was erected, \na chapel was dedicated to him as a demi-god, and the people exhib- \nited all that excessive revulsion of feeling which characterizes an \nignorant and impulsive populace, and which especially distinguished \nthe people of Athens. The impulses which prompted this persecu- \ntion, and the subsequent reaction of popular feeling, are well depicted \nby a distinguished American poet. \n\n\n\n"Far Humanity sweeps around; where to-day the martyr stands, \nOn the morrow crouches Judas, with the silver in his hands. \nFar in front the cross stands ready, and the crackling fagots burn, \nWhile the hooting mob of yesterday in silent awe return \nTo gather up the scattered ashes into History\'s golden urn." \n\nLOWELL. \n\nSparta now held the chief position among the Grrecian communities. \nAgesilaus, the king, invaded Asia, and gained a signal victory over \nthe Persians, under Tissaphernes. Through Persian influence and \nsubsidies, a confederacy, headed by the Thebans, was formed against \nthe Lacedemonians. \n\nThe Athenians threw off their yoke, and Argos, Corinth, Euboea, \nand other states, joined in the new alliance. After various actions \nby land and sea, peace was again concluded, with disgraceful stipu- \nlations in favour of Persia. Thus relieved from her principal foe, \nSparta proceeded to overawe the smaller hostile states ; and among \nother acts of authority, placed a garrison in the citadel of Thebes. \n\nFour years afterwards, an insurrection, headed by Pelopidas and \n\n\n\njQg THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. \n\nCharon, and supported by seven thousand men from Athens, com- \npelled the foreign troops to surrender. Agesilaus, on hearing the \nnews, marched for Thebes with twenty thousand men; but, having \nravaged the country, withdrew without an action. The reputation \nof the Thebans had now rivalled that of the Spartans for bravery \nand generalshi|) \xe2\x80\x94 at the battle of Tegea the Spartan force was \nrouted by a third of its number, and lost both its generals. The \nSacred Band, a body of three hundred men, of remarkable bravery \nand fidelity, contributed greatly to the success of the Thebans. \nUnder Epaminondas and Pelopidas, the rising state became so pow- \nerful, that the Athenians, through jealousy, broke off their alhance, \nand joined the Spartans. \n\nThe latter now determined on making a vigorous effort to crush \ntheir rival ; and Cleombrotus, their general, with twenty -four thousand \nfoot and sixteen hundred horse, marched to the frontiers of Boeotia. \nTheir demands were refused, and they invaded the country. Epam- \ninondas, with only six thousand troops, gave them battle near the \nlittle town of Leuctra. After a long and desperate conflict, the \nSpartan phalanx was broken by Pelopidas, at the head of the Sacred \nBand, Cleombrotus was slain, and his army put to flight. In this \ndefeat, the most terrible ever experienced by the Lacedemonians, \nthey and their allies lost four thousand men. \n\nGreat numbers soon joined the Theban confederacy, and Epami- \nnondas, with seventy thousand men, overran Laconia. He did not \nattack the city of Sparta, but reinstated certain communities in their \nancient rights, which had been taken away by the Lacedemonians. \n\nThe defeated nation now applied for aid to its old enemies, Athens \nand Persia ; and succeeded in gaining that of the former. Pelopidas \nhad been slain in an action against Alexander, king of Pherae, and \nall the confidence of the Thebans was now reposed in Epaminondas. \n\nLearning that the army of Argesilaus was on its way, he suddenly \nmarched upon Sparta by night, intending to capture it by surprise. \nThis attempt was defeated by the return of the king and a portion \nof his forces; a desperate contest ensued, and the Thebans, after \nhaving taken a part of the city, sent a detachment of horse to take \npossession of Mantinea. This was defeated by six thousand Athe- \nnian auxiliaries, who had just arrived by sea. \n\nEpaminondas followed with all his force, and with the enemy in \nclose pursuit. Before reaching the town, he determined to halt, and \ngive them battle. This battle, called that of Mantinea, from the \n\n\n\nGEEECE, \n\n\n\n107 \n\n\n\ntown near wbicli it was fought, was the most obstinate and the best- \ncontested in the annals of Greece. The numbers engaged were \ngreater than had ever fought in the civil dissensions, being nearly \nsixty thousand, of which the majority were Thebans and their allies. \nAfter the fighting hand to hand had continued for a long time with \ngreat slaughter, Epaminondas, at the head of a chosen troop, succeed- \ned in breaking the Spartan phalanx, and securing the advantage, \nbut was mortally wounded in the hour of triumph. Being carried \nto the camp, and expressing anxiety about his arms, and the fate of \nthe battle, his shield was shown him, and he was told that the The- \nbans were victorious. He replied^ " It is well ! " and drawing the head \nof the javelin from his wound, instantly expired. \n\nWith Epaminondas fell the power and glory of Thebes. A peace \nsoon followed, by which it Avas agreed that each state should hold \nwhat it possessed, and be independent of any other. Agesilaus soon \nafterwards made an expedition into Egypt, where he controlled and \nsettled the dynasty of that country, and finally died in Africa at the \nage of eighty, having reigned forty years. The Athenians were \nagain engaged in war with their neighbours, B. C. 858, which, how- \never, was not of long duration, or marked by important events. \n\n\n\nC H A P i- \xc2\xa3 R Y I . \n\nPHILIP OE MACEDON. \n\nA NEW and formidable power had now grown up in Greece, and \nbegan to take an active part in the international interests. Philip, \nw^ho began, to reign over Macedon in the one hundred and fifth \nolympiad, and the twenty-fourth year of his age, was a man of the \ngreatest sagacity and most comprehensive ambition. He was the \nmost able general of his day, having learned the art of war under \nEpaminondas. At his accession to the throne, he was environed \nwith enemies. The Pasonians and Illyrians were menacing his \nfrontiers, and the Macedonians had lately lost four thousand men in \na battle with the latter. There were, moreover, two pretenders to his \ncrown, one supported by Athens, and the other by the Thracians. \n\n\n\n1QQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHis first care was to gain the confidence of his people and to \nimprove their military discipline, and with this view he invented \nthe famous Macedonian phalanx, consisting of eight thousand pike- \nmen formed into an impenetrable square. To this piece of tactics the \nnation was indebted for many of its subsequent victories. Having \ndefeated the Athenians who espoused the cause of his rival, he \nturned his arms against the Pseonians and Illyrians, subdued them \nboth, and compelled them to restore their conquests. Having seized \ncertain disputed cities, he discovered at Crenides (which he named \nPhilippi) a most productive gold mine ; which was of great use to \nhim afterwards, especially in negotiation. \n\nThe states of Greece at this time were in open dissension. The \nPhocians, who had charge of the temple of Apollo, at Delphos, had \nploughed up a piece of ground belonging to the god ; being cited, \nand fined heavily by the Amphictyonic council, they resisted, and, \nencouraged by the Spartans, seized the temple. The council, aided \nby the Thebans, Locrians, Thessalians, and others, decliared war \nagainst the contumelious state; Athens and Sparta supported her. \nThe conflict which ensued, called "The Sacred War," was distin- \nguished only by those cruelties and reprisals which usually charac- \nterize a religious contest; the prisoners were mutually put to \ndeath, much to the satisfaction of Philip, who was pleased to see the \nGreeks wasting their forces against each other. About the conclu- \nsion of this war, his son, Alexander the Great, was born, on the \nsame night when the temple of Diana was fired at Ephesus. \n\nHaving destroyed Methone, which obstructed his designs on \nThrace, Philip marched to the assistance of the Thessalians, who \nwere oppressed by Lycophron, of Pheraj, \n\nAttacked by the Macedonian, six thousand of his men were slain \nin a battle, and three thousand of his Phocian allies being taken \nprisoners, were thrown by Philip into the sea, as being guilty of \nsacrilege. He would next have taken possession of Thermopylae, \nthe key of Attica, but for the opposition of the Athenians, who, \nurged by the famous Demosthenes, occupied the pass before him. \n\nThis distinguished patriot and orator was the son of an armourer \nat Athens, who left him a large fortune. His first appearance as a \npublic speaker was in- a suit against his guardians, who had man- \naged his estate dishonestly. He laboured under many disadvantages : \nsuch as stammering, a feeble voice, and natural awkwardness. All \nthese he overcame by severe study, exercise, and discipline; some- \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n109 \n\n\n\ntimes, it is said, sliutting liimself up for montlis in an apartment \nunderground, and shaving half his head, lest he should be tempted \nto emerge. He was also instructed in the art of elocution by \nSatjrus, an able actor. \n\nHe finally attained such a degree of eloquence and celebrity, that \npeople flocked from all parts of Greece to listen to him ; and his \ncountrymen were so much under his control, that Philip declared \nhim more formidable than all the fleets and armies of Athens. \n\nPhilip, not wishing to incur the enmity of the Athenians at present, \ndirected his hostilities against the Olynthians, took their city, and \nput his two brothers, who had taken refuge there, to death. He \nalso espoused the cause of Thebes against the Phocians, and com- \npelled the latter to surrender at discretion. Their fate was referred \nto the Amphictyons, who decreed that all their cities should be \ndemolished, the fugitives excommunicated, and the remaining citi- \nzens dispersed in villages, and burdened with heavy tribute, until \nthe loss sustained by the temple at their hands was made up. Their \nseat in the council was likewise declared forfeited, and Philip \nafterwards contrived to have it conferred on himself \n\nThe king, pursuing his system of self-aggrandizement, offered his \nprotection to the Argives, Messenians, and Thebans. To counter- \nbalance this league, the S|)artans pressed a union between their state \nand Athens, and Philip avoided coming to an open rupture. On an \nartful pretence, however, he sent a body of troops into Euboea, \nseized the citadels, and established a government of three kings or \ntyrants. Assistance being supplicated by the inhabitants from the \nAthenians, they despatched a few troops under Phocion, a com- \nmander worthy of the early days of the republic. His manners and \ncountenance were rigid and severe, but his heart was humane and \nopen. Being rallied before the people on account of the severity of \nhis aspect, he replied, addressing the citizens, "The sternness of my \ncountenance never made any of you sad, but the mirth of these \nsneerers has cost you many a tear." \n\nIn assemblies, his unstudied eloquence rivalled that of Demosthe- \nnes ; yet he was so superior to mere popular approbation, that once, \nbeing applauded by the people, he asked a friend what weak or \nimproper sentiment had escaped him. He was chosen to command \ntheir armies forty-five times, without any application for the office. \n\nSuch was the man, who, though strongly inclined to peace, was \nchosen to oppose the selfish and ambitious designs of Macedon. \n\n\n\n110 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\nInflamed by the ardent invectives of Demosthenes, the people now \nentered into open hostilities with Philip, Phocion compelled him \nto raise the siege of Byzantium ; drove him out of the Hellespont ; and \nrecovered many fortresses which he had seized. The Athenians next \nblockaded all his ports, and cut off his commerce. He would now \nwillingly have made peace, and Phocion supported the proposal; \nbut the people, influenced by Demosthenes, refused. \n\nThe king, however, artfully contrived to revive the dissension \nconcerning sacrilege, among the lesser states, and was appointed com- \nmander in chief to the Amphictyons, which he used as a mere mask \nto cover his ambitious designs on Attica. \n\nHis intentions at last being evident, in an assembly of the \nAthenians, Demosthenes alone ventured to ascend the tribunal, and \nanimate them to resistance. In a speech of great force and eloquence, \nhe recommended that immediate assistance be despatched to the \nThebans, whose territories were menaced; his advice was followed, \nand he was sent in person with a large force. The battle took place \non the plain of Cheronoea, the allied forces amounting to thirty \nthousand, and those of Philip to a little more. On the one side were \nthe Thebans, headed by their Sacred Band; the Athenians, com- \nmanded by Lysicles and Chares ; the Corinthians, and the allies from \nPeloponnesus. On the other, Alexander headed a chosen body of \nMacedonians, supported by the renowned Thessalian cavalry; and \nthe king himself commanded the phalanx. The prince, after rout- \ning the Sacred Band, who sustained their ancient reputation, and \ndied at their posts almost to a man, attacked the Thebans; the \nAthenians, meanwhile, putting to flight the enemy opposed to them. \nCarrying the pursuit too far, they were attacked in flank by the \nphalanx, and completely defeated. Demosthenes himself, throwing \naway his shield, fled among the first ; and the whole army was soon \nrouted or forced to surrender. A thousand of the Athenians lay \ndead on the field, two thousand were captured, and the loss of the \nThebans was equally severe. \n\nPhilip, however, treated the defeated states with mildness, and \nagreed on a treaty of peace; hoping at some future time to unite \nthem under himself in an attack on the Persian empire. Lysicles \nwas condemned to death by his fellow-citizens ; but nothing could \nshake their confidence in Demosthenes. His counsels were followed \nthroughout, and for the assistance which he gave from his own \nresources, it was publicly proposed that a golden crown should be \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\nIll \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2awarded him. On this occasion, (the person who suggested this pro- \nposal being impeached by JEschines, the celebrated orator and rival \nof Demosthenes,) occurred that famous contest of eloquence in which \n^schines lost his cause, and was banished from Athens. \n\nPhilip was now chosen general-in-chief of the Grecian forces, and \nprepared to invade Persia. Consulting the oracle as to the success \nof his undertaking, he received this ambiguous response: "The \nvictim is already crowned, and will soon be sacrificed." This he \ninterpreted in his favour, but it was soon verified in a different \nmanner; the king being murdered at a festival by Pausanias, who \nwas supposed to have been instigated by Olympias, the queen. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?H \n\n\n\nTHE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER, \n\n\n\nThe news of Philip\'s death was received with great joy in Greece, \nand especially in Athens, where the people who had a little while \nbefore appointed him their chief, and loaded him with adulations, \nnow crowned themselves with garlands, and sacrificed to the gods \nin gratitude. \n\nAlexander, already distinguished, succeeded him. His ruling pas- \nsion was a love of glory, and that of the most distinguished kind. \nWhen young, being asked if he would contend at the Olympic \ngames, "Yes," he replied, "if I can have kings to contend with." \nHe lamented the conquests of his father, fearing that his own \nexploits and renown would be anticipated. At an early age, he \nastonished the Persian ambassadors by inquiring the road to Asia, \nthe resources of their king, the order of battle, and the manner of \ntheir government. \n\nHis chief teacher was Aristotle, to whom doubtless are owing \nthose traits of magnanimity and virtue which occasionally shone \nforth in a long career of conquest and violence; and of him he \nlearned that true, manly eloquence, which is founded on facts and \n\n\n\n112 \n\n\n\nTHE TEOl\'LE\'S BOOK OF lilSTOKY. \n\n\n\ncommon sense. His spirit of ambition and exclusiveness showed \nitself in a letter, still extant, in whicli he complains to Aristotle \nthat he had made public certain portions of that learning, of which \nthey had before been in exclusive possession. \n\nHe was attached to the arts, and was a discriminating patron of \nmusic, painting, sculpture, and architecture. He was fond of poetry, \nand almost idolized Homer, the poet of battle and romance. \n\nOn his accession to the throne, he found himself, like his father, \nsurrounded by dangers on every side; both from the barbarous \nnations, ready to fling off the yoke imposed by Philip, and from \nthe Greeks, who were resolved to seize this opportunity to recover \ntheir liberties, in reality subverted. Disregarding the counsels of \nthose who advised a temporizing policy, he took up arms at once, \ncrossed the Danube, defeated the king of the Triballi in a great \nbattle, and overawed the surrounding nations. The Thebans, at the \ninstigation of Demosthenes, and encouraged by a report of his death, \nhad risen and massacred many of the Macedonian garrison; he \nappeared before their cities in an incredibly short time, and demanded \nthat Phoenix and Prothules, the chief insurgents, should be delivered \nup, offering a general amnesty to all Avho would join him. The \nThebans, in return, contemptuously demanded Antipater and Phi- \nlotas, two of his first generals; and appealed to all the states for \nassistance in defending the liberties of Greece. \n\nBattle being joined, they defended themselves with great bravery, \nthough vastly outnumbered ; but, being attacked in the rear by the \ngarrison from the citadel, were totally routed, and mostly cut to \npieces. The city was plundered, and razed to the grotmd, and the \ninhabitants, to the number of thirty thousand, were sold as slaves ; \nthe priests and the descendants of the poet Pindar excepted. Six \nthousand had perished in the battle. Those who escaped were \nreceived with the greatest kindness at Athens. \n\nThat city now appeared to lie at his mercy, and, knowing that \nthe popular love of liberty was kept alive by the eloquence of their \norators, he demanded that ten of these should be surrendered into \nhis hands. On this occasion, Demosthenes related to the people the \nfable of the wolves demanding from the sheep, as a condition of \npeace, that their watch-dogs should be delivered up ; this increased \ntheir reluctance, and Alexander, through the mediation of Demades, \nhis personal friend, at last waived his demand. From a spirit of \npolicy he even bestowed flattering attentions on the commonwealth. \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n113 \n\n\n\nNo longer dreading any domestic opposition, he now summoned \nat Corinth an assembly from all the communities of Greece, and \nproposed that the expedition against Persia, projected by his father, \nshould be intrusted to him. Animated by the love of glory, and \na remembrance of ancient invasion and injury, they all consented, \nwith the exception of Lacedemon. This decision was destined to \nhave a most important and controlling influence on human affairs. \n\nHe settled the affairs of Macedon, during his absence, by appoint- \ning Antipater viceroy, with a force of twenty-four thousand troops. \nHe then exhausted his treasures and revenues in providing for his \nfriends, and being asked what he had reserved for himself, only \nreplied, "Hope!" \n\nHe set out for Asia in the spring, with an army of thirty thou- \nsand foot, and four thousand cavalry \xe2\x80\x94 all veteran soldiers, inured to \nhardship and the art of war. So far advanced in age were most of \nthem, that they are said to have had the venerable appearance of a \nsenate. "With this force, destined to decide the fate of Greece and \nall the oriental world, he arrived at the Hellespont. Steering his \nown galley, he crossed without opposition ; a neglect which proved \nthe destruction of his opponents. From Lampsacus, which was \nsaved from his anger by Anaximenes, his former tutor, he pro- \nceeded to Troy, and caused funeral games to be performed in honour \nof the heroes of the Iliad. He is even said to have run naked three \ntimes around the vast mound which contains the relics of Achilles. \n\nDarius, king of Persia, treated this invasion with the utmost con- \ntempt, and sent particular directions to his satraps for the treatment \nof Alexander and his army, when captured. Arriving on the banks \nof the Granicus, a river of Phrygia, the invaders found an army of \nan hundred and ten thousand men, commanded by Memnon and \nArsites, drawn up on the opposite shore, to dispute their passage. \nAgainst the advice of his ofl&cers, Alexander determined to seize \nthis occasion of impressing the enemy with a belief in the invinci- \nbility of the Greek forces; and with a large detachment of horse, \nplunged into the river. The contest was obstinately disputed, but \nthe Macedonians were at first repulsed from landing, by Memnon, \nthe ablest and most resolute commander of the Persians. Alexan- \nder hastened to the head of the column, and by desperate exertions \nsucceeded in gaining the shore. The Macedonians followed, and the \nbattle became general. Spithradates, son in law of Darius, was \nkilled fighting hand to hand with the king, and the entire army of \n8 \n\n\n\n114 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe Persians was routed, except a large body of Greek auxiliaries, \nsoldiers of fortune. These being refused permission to retreat, the \nbattle was renewed, and the most terrible part of the contest ensued. \nThese mercenaries, fighting desperately, were all cut to pieces except \ntwo thousand, who were made prisoners ; and the Macedonians lost \nmore in this conflict than in the other. \n\nAfter this victory, he proceeded to make himself master of the \ncities, some of which, as Sardis and Ephesus, submitted without \nmuch resistance ; others, as Miletus and Halicarnassus, he took by \nsiege, and razed the latter to the ground. Among other chiefs, he \nwas sought and faithfully served by Mithridates, king of Pontus, an \nancestor of that monarch of the same name who at a later period \nfigures so famously in the Koman wars. \n\nOpening his campaign early the next year, Alexander proceeded \nto subdue the maritime provinces. He took Celsenge, after a siege \nof sixty days, and then advanced to Gordium, the capital of the \nmythological king Midas. At this place was a chariot, in the fast- \nenings of which was such an intricate knot, that no one had ever \nbeen able to untie it, though, according to an ancient oracle, the man \nwho could perform this feat should possess the empire of Asia. \nAlexander, after a number of futile attempts to disunite it in a \nlegitimate way, drew his sword impatiently, and cut it apart, which \nwas hailed as a fulfilment of the prediction \n\nSubduing Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, he advanced upon Tarsus, \nand arrived just in time to save it, the city having been fired by the \nretreating Persians. Darius now marched against him with an \nimmense army, securing the passes, lest his enemy should escape ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nan utterly needless precaution, for Alexander was . equally anxious \nto stake the empire upon a battle. Long descriptions are given of \nthe pomp and magnificence which distinguished the royal army. \nImmense treasures, costly apparel, numerous concubines, and a vast \nhost of domestic attendants, gave it rather the appearance of a pro- \ngress of pleasure than a formidable armament. This useless and \ncumbrous splendour excited only the contempt of the Greeks, and \ntheir rapacity to obtain possession of such valuable spoils. After \nvarious manoeuvres, the hostile armies met in the neighbourhood \nof Issus. \n\nLike the locality of Marathon and other celebrated battles, the \nscene of action was a plain lying between the mountains and the sea. \nThe river Pinarus flowed through it, dividing it into two parts nearly \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n115 \n\n\n\nequal. The Macedonian phalanx was composed of six bodies, each \ncommanded by a distinguished officer ; the other forces were skilfully \ndistributed, and Alexander, in person, directed the whole. The \nfield could hardly contain the immense forces of Darius, but he \nplaced in the centre thirty thousand Greek stipendiaries, the most \neffective part of his army. The front line was drawn up on the bank \nof the river to oppose the crossing of Alexander. The latter, how- \never, at the head of his men, plunged boldly into the stream, and \ndirected his first attack against the person of the king; who was \nforced to leap from his chariot, and betake himself to another. The \nPersians were soon routed, and Darius, with the greater part of his \narmy, involved in a common flight, were pursued by the Macedo- \nnians. The mercenaries, however, made a vigorous and successful \nresistance, until Alexander, returning from the pursuit, attacked \nthem in flank, and completed the victory. It is said that in this \nbattle seventy thousand of the Persians perished, and that forty \nthousand were taken prisoners. The wife, mother, and children of \nthe defeated prince, being found in his camp, were treated by the \nvictor with the greatest courtesy and respect. \n\nAll Phoenicia, except Tyre, now submitted. The Persian fleet \nwas defeated at sea, and great part of it captured. Damascus, in \nwhich the royal treasures had been deposited, surrendered to Par- \nmenio. The Persian monarch, in a haughty message, demanded his \nfamily, on paying ransom. This was refused, and he was told that \nthey should be restored without ransom, but only on his submission. \n\nAlexander now resolved to form the siege of Tyre. This cele- \nbrated city was built upon an island, about three-quarters of a mile \nfrom the shore. It was surrounded by high walls, and was con- \nsidered almost impregnable. The inhabitants, encouraged by prom- \nises of assistance from Carthage, a powerful Phoenician colony, \nresolved to hold out. They killed the Macedonian ambassadors, and \nthrew their bodies from the walls into the sea. Enraged at this act \nof violence, Alexander resolved never to desist until he had taken \ntheir city, and razed it to the ground. \n\nAn immense pier, principally of wood, had been carried fi-om the \nmain land nearly to the city, when it was burned by a fire-ship sent \nout by the Tyrians. This disaster having been repaired, and the \nmole carried yet further, a furious storm again sAvept away all the \nstructure. Undismayed, the besiegers immediately commenced \nanew, and Alexander with a fleet protected the works, and offered \n\n\n\n116 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOTLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY \n\n\n\nbattle to the Tyrians. This they dechned; and withdrew their gal- \nleys into the harbour. \n\nThe pier was once more advanced to the walls, and an attack com- \nmenced simultaneously by land and sea, when a storm so shattered \nthe vessels as to render it ineffectual. The joy of the besieged was \nsomewhat alloyed by news from Carthage, that the Syracusans had \nattacked that city, and all her resources were necessary for self- \ndefence. The Tyrians, however, resolved to continue their resistance \nto the last. The women and children were all sent to Carthage, and \nevery preparation was made to resist the invaders, who were again \nsharply assaulting the walls. The greatest ingenuity was displayed \nin warding off the force of the engines, in destroying the ships, and \nannoying the besiegers. They shot immense arrows studded with \nscythes, and showered burning sand among the besieging squadron. \n\nAt length, a breach being made in the walls, Alexander, with the \nArgyraspides (Silver-shield bearers), stormed the town, which was \ndefended with great bravery. The fle.et forced its way into the har- \nbour, and the citizens being defeated, an indiscriminate slaughter \ntook place. A vast number were slain, two thousand were crucified \nafter the victory, and thirty thousand sold as slaves. Of Tyre, the \nearliest and first great commercial city in the world, nothing now \nremains but a small village, connected with the land by a mole, \nformed by accumiilations of sand around the pier constructed by \nAlexander; and, according to prophecy, fishermen now "dry their \nnets " where the stately city once raised its walls and palaces. \n\nDarius now offered further conditions, so advantageous that Par- \nmenio, a prudent officer, observed that he would certainly accept \nthese, were he Alexander. "And so would I," replied the king, \n" were I Parmenio." From Tyre he marched to Jerusalem, intending \nto punish the inhabitants for their contumacy in refusing him pro- \nvisions during the siege ; but he was pacified by Jaddua, the high- \npriest, who went out to meet him with a select body of citizens, and \nshowed him the prophecies of Daniel, in which his conquests were \nforetold. He thence proceeded to Gaza, took it after an obstinate \nresistance, put ten thousand of its defenders to the sword, and, in \nemulation of Achilles, dragged the body of Boetus, the commander, \naround the walls, behind his chariot. \n\nLeaving a garrison here, he next directed his forces against Egypt, \nwhich submitted without resistance. On this occasion he made a \njourney of twelve days through the desert, to visit the celebrated \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n117 \n\n\n\ntemple of Jupiter Amnion, situated in a fertile oasis in the wilderness. \nOn his way, he founded the city of Alexandria, afterwards one of \nthe most famous commercial cities in the world. Arrived, an oracle \nuttered by the complaisant priest declared him to be the son of \nJupiter, a title which he thenceforth was strenuous in asserting. \nReturning to Asia, he found Darius prepared to renew the contest, \nwith greatly increased forces ; and having crossed the Tigris, received \novertures from that monarch, with advantageous proposals for peace. \nHe rejected them, with the haughty reply that the world would not \nadmit of two suns, or of two sovereigns ; and both parties prepared to \nstake the empire upon a last battle. Darius, with a vast but undis- \nciplined and irregular army, was encamped near the city of Arbela, \nfrom which the battle receives its name. On the side of the invader \nwere less than fifty thousand troops, but mostl}"" veterans, and accus- \ntomed to victory. The only really formidable force in the Persian \narmy, was a body of Greek mercenaries, who fought, as usual, with \ngreat skill and courage. \n\nThe charge, led by Alexander in person, was successful; and \nDarius himself narrowly escaped death at the hand of his adversary. \nThe Persians were defeated on every side, and such terrible havoc \nwas made among their disordered and flying masses, that it is said \n(probably with exaggeration) that three hundred thousand were put \nto the sword. Darius fled, with his enemy in hot pursuit, to Arbela, \nwhence he barely escaped Avith the loss of his treasure, his army, \nand his throne. \n\nThis decisive victory, indeed, gave Alexander full possession of \nthe empire of Asia. Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and all the Persian \nprovinces, surrendered without opposition. In the last-named city \nhe found and relieved four thousand Greek captives, who had been \nbarbarously mutilated by their conquerors. Having found immense \ntreasures here, the Macedonians abandoned themselves to revelry \nand dissipation. The king, at a banquet, overcome with wane, was \npersuaded by Thais, an Athenian courtezan, to avenge the injuries \nof Greece by firing the magnificent palace of the Persian king. \nSeizing a torch, he led the way ; his chief officers and many of the \narmy followed; and the splendid edifice was soon reduced to ruin. \n\nMeanwhile, Darius pursued his flight to Ectabana, the capital of \nMedia. Being there endangered by the treachery of his officers, \nthe Greeks in his service offered to protect him to the last; a devo- \ntion which he magnanimously rejected, thinking it unbecoming a \n\n\n\n118 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nmonarcli to confide his safety in the hands of any but his own \npeople. The Greeks then withdrew to Alexander, and were enrolled \namong his forces. \n\nThe traitors now seized Darius, and threw him in chains, and \nbeing closely pursued by the Macedonians, left him mortally wounded \non the road-side. Being there found by the victorious pursuers, he \nsent a message of thanks to Alexander for the kindness bestowed \nupon his family, charged him to avenge his murder, and expired. \nHis request was complied with, and Bessus, the principal traitor, when \ntaken, was tied to four trees bent to the earth, and thus torn asunder. \n\nThe character of Alexander was now tarnished by the execution \nof Parmenio and his son Philotas, two most faithful officers, whom \nhe condemned on suspicion of a plot. He next, in a fit of drunken \nrage, at a banquet, slew his friend Clitus, who had saved his life at \nthe passage of the Granicus. The most violent remorse succeeded. \n\nAfter some doubtful successes against the Scythians, he determined \non attempting the conquest of India, a country whose vast extent \nand niimerous nations were as yet little known. Proceeding toward \nthe Indus, he received the submission of most of the nations on his \nroute; but near the Hydaspes, met with a fierce resistance from \nPorus, a native king, of great power and ability ; who was, however, \ndefeated with much loss. Being asked by the victor how he would \ndesire to be treated, he replied, "Like a king !" Alexander, admiring \nhis fortitude, restored and augmented his kingdom, and the Indian \nprince remained faithful to his interests ever afterwards. \n\nThe invader thence proceeded further into the interior, exacting- \nsubmission from the native tribes, and amusing his mind by inquiries \ninto the Braminical philosophy. The Macedonians, worn out with \nmarches and encounters, at last refused to accompany their leader \nany further, and he was compelled to direct his course to the south- \nward, in search of the Indus. Arrived there, he voyaged down the \nriver, and reached the Indian Ocean. Here the whole army, accus- \ntomed to the tideless shores of the Mediterranean, beheld with \nastonishment the extraordinary periodical rise and fall of the sea. \n\nWeeping that he could carry his arms no farther, he made \npreparation for the homeward march, Nearchus, with a fleet, coasted \nalong the shore, seeking the Persian gulf, and the main body of the \narmy proceeded by land. After experiencing great want and hard- \nship, they arrived at the rich province of Gedrosia, and abandoned \nthemselves to intemperance and excess. Alexander himself, in \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n119 \n\n\n\nemulation of Bacchus, who had conquered India before, was carried \nalong on a platform drawn by eight horses, where, with his chief \nofficers, he passed the time in revelry, the whole army following his \nexample. In this manner he proceeded toward Babylon. \n\nIt would seem that, satiated with conquest, or despairing of \neffecting greater achievements, he now gave himself up entirely to \ndrinking and revelry. It was thought that he attempted thus to \ndrown remorse for his treatment of Parmenio, Clitus, and other \nfriends who had perished by his violence. He entered Babylon, \nand the drinking-bouts became more frequent and protracted. In \none of these, his dearest friend Hephestion was carried off by excess. \nAlexander shortly followed him; for having spent two nights in \ncontinued debauchery, he fell senseless on the floor, and was imme- \ndiately seized with a violent fever, which in a few days proved mortal. \nBeing asked to whom he would leave the empire, he replied, "To \nthe worthiest!" and then expired, at the age of thirty-two, after a \nreign of twelve years, mostly passed in war and conquest. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER Till. \n\n\n\nFROM THE DEATH OP ALEXANDER TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. \n\n\n\nWe return to the affairs of Greece, with which the wars of \nAlexander have little connection, except as being principally carried \non by Greek forces. The Lacedemonians, who had never concurred \nin the expedition to Persia, after his departure, under their king \nAgis, organized a confederacy to check the growing power of \nMacedon. With an army of twenty-two thousand, the Spartan \nking attacked Megalopolis, a city in the Peloponnesus, under the \ncontrol of the enemy. Antipater, the viceroy, engaged in action \nagainst him with a greatly superior force, and gained the victory, \nthough with a loss of three thousand five hundred men. The \nSpartans lost an equal number, and among them Agis, one of the \nwisest and most patriotic of their kings. \n\nThis insurrection crushed, little of interest is found in the subse- \n\n\n\n120 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nquent history of Sparta; and the efforts of Antipater were directed \nto disarm opposition from other quarters. Demosthenes falling \nunder a suspicion of having received bribes from Macedon, was \ncondemned by the Areopagus to fine and banishment. Thus freed \nfrom the only man whose name was formidable to his designs, the \nviceroy issued a decree, in which authority over all the Grrecian \nstates was directly assumed. Under Leosthenes, an Athenian, \nhowever, the people prepared for a vigorous resistance; and the \ndeath of Alexander, which occurred about this time, added to their \nconfidence. Demosthenes was recalled, and Antipater, engaging the \nconfederates with inferior forces, was defeated, and forced to take \nrefuge in Thessaly. The Greeks, elated with their success, would \nnow have openly declared war upon Macedon, but were restrained \nby the prudence of Phocion. \n\nEeceiving reinforcements, Antipater renewed the war; and soon \nengaged the Greeks, and utterly defeated them. Athens, the city \nmost obnoxious to his displeasure, was only spared on condition \nthat it should receive a Macedonian garrison, and deliver up the \nprime mover of hostilities, Demosthenes. That great man, knowing \nthe danger of his situation, fled to Calauria, a neighbouring island, \nand took refuge in the temple of Neptune. Pursued thither by the \nemissaries of Antipater, he ended his life by taking poison from a \nring or bracelet which he always carried. A statue was afterwards \nerected to him, and other honours to his memory were decreed \nby the Athenians. \n\nThe Macedonian victor used his power with such moderation and \nequity as to gain from the different states the title of Protector of \nGreece. The ^tolians alone continued their resistance, but were \nfinally defeated, and compelled to submit. Soon afterwards he died, \nat a great age, leaving the government of Macedon and Greece to \nPolyperchon, one of the generals of Alexander. \n\nUnder his administration the brave and virtuous Phocion was \ncondemned to death by the Athenians, for having opposed a change \nin the form of government. "With characteristic magnanimity, he \nsought only to save the lives of those condemned to die with him, \nand charged his son to forget the injustice of the people. A decree \nwas even passed, prohibiting any person from supplying fire for his \nfuneral pile. The last honours were paid to his remains by a woman \nof Megara, who secretly preserved his ashes in an urn buried under \nher hearth. As in the case of Socrates and other illustrious victims \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n121 \n\n\n\nto tlie caprice of the Athenians, a great revulsion of feeling soon \nfollowed. liis accusers were, as usual, condemned to death, his \nashes honourably brought to Athens, and a statue erected to his \nmemory. \n\nPolyperchon, a man of weak and cruel disposition, was, in his \nturn, dethroned by Cassander, supported by other inheritors of the \npower of Alexander. Greece and Macedon were now, for a consid- \nerable time, the prey of rival pretenders to the throne. \n\nAbout this time an immense army of Gauls, three hundred \nthousand in number, issuing from their forests in the west, overran \na great part of southern Europe. They took and plundered the \ncity of Eome, invaded Macedon, slew the king, and directed their \nmarch to Greece. The states, with great resolution, united to oppose \nthem, and they were repulsed with much loss in several attempts to \nforce their way through the straits of Thermopylge. Succeeding in \ngaining the interior, by the way of Mount (Eta, they proceeded \ntoward Delphos, intending to plunder the temple. The inhabitants \nbravely repulsed their invaders from the sacred precints, and, aided \nby a severe storm, slew vast numbers. Brennus, their leader, in \ndespair, put an end to his life, and the remainder attempted a retreat. \nBut of all the multitudes which had passed from Macedon into \nGreece, it is said, not one returned to his native country. \n\nAmong others who seized the throne of Macedon in these unset- \ntled times, was Pyrrhus, the celebrated king of Epirus and invader \nof Italy. He also made an assault iipon the city of Sparta with a \ngreat force, but was driven back by its defenders, and his son \nPtolemy was killed in the retreat. He soon afterwards marched \nupon Argos, and was there slain in a fight ivithin the walls. \n\nAntigonus, son of the famous Demetrius Poliorcetes (taker of \ncities), had been deposed by Pyrrhus. He now reascended the \nthrone, and defeated a body of Gauls making a fresh irruption into \nhis kingdom. He compelled the Athenians to receive a Macedonian \ngarrison; and was entertaining designs upon the liberties of all \nGreece, when death ended his ambitious projects. His son Deme- \ntrius took the throne, and was in his turn succeeded by another \nAntigonus, his kinsman. \n\nA fresh power, the Achaean League, now sprang up, which \npromised fairly to restore in a great degree the ancient spirit of \nfreedom among the Grecian republics. It was a confederacy for \nmutual defence first formed in Achaia, and afterward extended among \n\n\n\n122 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\nmany of the states, on somewhat the same plan as the American \nUnion. By the wisdom and patriotism of this association, and of \ntheir general, Aratiis, nearly all the Greek communities were placed \nupon an independent footing; but its increasing power excited the \njealousy of the ^tolians and the Spartans, now greatly degenerated \nfrom the ancient simplicity of their manners. \n\nThe Acha3ans, attacked and defeated by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, \nsolicited the aid of Antigonus, and placed him at the head of their \nconfederacy; a movement so unpopular, that most of the Grecian\' \nstates espoused the cause of Sparta. She was, nevertheless, defeated, \nand Cleomenes was forced to fly into Egypt. Philip, the successor \nof Antigonus, further assisted the Acha3ans, and reduced the strength \nof their enemies, the ^tolians. Hoping to make himself master of \nall Greece, he entered into an engagement with Hannibal, then at \nwar with the Eomans, that each should assist the other in their \nrespective designs on Greece and Italy. Philip, however, in \nattempting to carry out his plan, was defeated by the Bomans, who \nimmediately entered into an alliance with ^tolia and Sparta, and, \naccording to their customary policy, commenced securing a footing \nfor themselves in the country (B. C. 208). The Achseans, com- \nmanded by Philopoemen, carried on the war six years longer, when \nit was concluded by a peace between Philip and the Romans. \n\nThis, however, was not of long duration. Philip having invaded \nEgypt, and encroached on some of the territories of Greece, was \nforbidden by the Roman senate to continue his hostilities. The \nking refusing compliance, war ensued, and the Romans, under Flam- \ninius, soon compelled him to make peace upon very severe conditions ; \na restoration of his Grecian conquests being one (B. C. 199), \n\nUnder pretext of supporting the liberties of Greece, the Romans \nsoon contrived to acquire a strong ascendancy. The vEtolians and \nthe Acheeans were overawed in succession; and a thousand of the \nprincipal men of the latter were transported to Rome, charged with \naiding Perseus, the son of Philip, and now king of Macedon. The \nking himself, defeated in a great battle, was carried to Rome, where \nhe put an end to his life by starving himself in prison. With him \nfell the last hope of Grecian independence. Macedon was formed \ninto a Roman province, and the remaining states of Greece soon \nshared the same fate (B. C. 163). \n\nFrom this time the history of Greece seems rather to belong to \nthat of the widely-extended Roman empire; and is principally to \n\n\n\nGKEECE. \n\n\n\n123 \n\n\n\nbe found in tlie humanizing influence wliicli lier art and literature \nexerted over the vigorous but unpolished minds of her conquerors. \n\nWhile the joke was yet fresh, occasional disputes broke forth; \nalways ending in accession of power to the Eomans. Metellus, and \nafterwards the consul Mummius, defeated them successively, and \nthe conquest of Grreece was completed by the taking of Corinth, \nB. C. 145, the same year in which Carthage was added to the \nempire. The city was plundered, and the finest works of art des- \ntroyed. It is said the rude soldiers were seen throwing dice upon \nthe paintings of the greatest masters. Many works of taste were \ncarried to Eome, which served as models for imitation, and laid the \nfoundation of that excellence in art to which the Italians afterwards \nattained. The unfortunate city was razed to the ground, and its \ninhabitants sold into slavery. \n\nAbout A. D. 86, the Athenians, hoping to fling off the foreign \ngovernment, made an alliance with Mithridates, king of Pontus. \nSylla, in revenge for their defection, destroyed the fortifications of \ntheir city, and defaced many of the public buildings. \n\nThe court of Areopagus still continued to exist, and Athens was \nstill the school of philosophy, to which the learned and inquiring \nresorted from all the civilized world. Several of the emperors, and \nmany of the most celebrated Romans, distinguished it by their resi- \ndence and munificence. With other contiguous portions of the \nRoman empire, Greece fell before the power of Alaric, king of the \nVisigoths, and shared the usual devastation which marked the \ncourse of these barbarian hordes. \n\n\n\nVj tiith ti/d) Ji Jj lU JjO J> t/oj < \n\n\n\nMODERN GREECE. \n\n\n\nAfter the division of the immense dominions of the Romans \n(A. D. 364) into the Eastern and Western Empires, the influence of \nGrecian manners and colonization were so extended as to cause the \nformer to be called after their country \xe2\x80\x94 the Greek Empire. Under \nthis power, Greece Proper continued to exist until about the year \n\n\n\nX24: THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nA. D. 1200, when the greater part of it was conquered, and formed \ninto small principalities by various Italian adventurers, with whom \nit remained until its invasion and complete conquest by the Turks \nunder Mahomet II. \n\nThough allowed to retain their national religion, (that of the \nGreek or Patriarchal church,) the Greeks were cruelly oppressed \nand enslaved by their new masters for nearly four hundred years; \nand under these unfavourable circumstances the national character \nbecame lowered and degraded. \n\nA spark of the ancient spirit yet survived ; in 1820, the inhabit- \nants throughout the Morea raised the standard of revolt, and the \nrevolution soon became general. The most atrocious cruelties were \ninflicted on the insurgents and all the Grecian race whenever cap- \ntured; the venerable Patriarch was hanged at Constantinople, and \nin every direction thousands of defenceless persons were massacred \nwithout mxcrcy. These acts of violence were retaliated by the Greeks \nwhenever successful. \n\nThe Turks soon sustained a severe reverse. Besieged in Tripolitza, \nnear the centre of the Morea, they were compelled, after an obstinate \nresistance, to surrender, and fifteen thousand of them perished. They \nmet with signal defeats in other parts, and more than one Turkish \narmy left the bones of thousands scattered through the narrow passes \nof the Peloponnesus. \n\nMany acts were performed worthy of the best days of Ancient \nGreece. The brave Marco Botzaris, with an army of two thousand \nmen, marched against Mustapha Pasha, the Turkish commander of \nfourteen thousand. Emulating the example of Leonidas, with his \nlittle force he attacked the enemy\'s camp by night. "If you lose \nsight of me," said he, "seek me in the pasha\'s tent." After having \nthrown the whole army into confusion by the suddenness and fury \nof his attack, he was mortally wounded, carried off the field, and \nexpired. \n\nAmong other acts of atrocity committed by the Turks, the beau- \ntiful and peaceful island of Scio was ravaged with fire and sword, \ntwenty thousand of the inhabitants were massacred, as many sold \nfor slaves, and the remainder compelled to fly for their lives. The \nisland was completely depopulated, and nothing was left but smoking \nruins and ravaged plantations. The fleet of the Turkish admiral, \nwho had performed this atrocious deed, was soon afler destroyed by \nthe brave Canaris. \n\n\n\nGREECE. 125 \n\nIn this long and terrible struggle, the Greeks were not without \nsympathy and assistance. Many lovers of freedom flocked to their \nstandard from other countries, and among them the illnstrions Byron, \nwho perished at Missilonghi. Assistance was rendered them in \nmoney, provisions, and clothing, by the people of England and the \nUnited States ; and at last the British government decided to interfere \nin their behalf with an armed force. \n\nThe Turkish fleet, reinforced by that of Ibrahim Pasha, their \nEgyptian ally, lay at anchor in the harbour of Navarino. A squad- \nron of English, French, and Eussian vessels appeared before it, \nthough without provoking an encounter. By the rashness of a \nTurkish commander, the two squadrons soon became involved in a \ngeneral engagement; which resulted in the complete destruction of \nthe Ottoman fleet, with an immense loss of life. \n\nThis event decided the fate of Greece. Her independence was \nguarantied by the larger powers of Europe, and, by their influence. \nPrince Otho, of Bavaria, ascended the throne. The condition of the \ncountry, though improved, has remained somewhat unsettled. A \njealousy of the Bavarian of&cers, who had too great a share in the \nroyal favour, and other defects incident to a new dynasty, have fre- \nquently caused popular demonstrations against the government, in \nwhich much of the ancient democratic spirit has been manifested. \n\nThe latest movement of this nature, however, was conducted with \nsuch admirable firmness and moderation, that the king, with his \nabsolutist advisers, was compelled to succumb to the popular will, \nand yield his assent to a constitution, far more liberal than any \nwhich the nation had yet enjoyed. The rights and representation \nof the people were guarantied by this instrument in the fullest man- \nner, and the royal prerogative was limited and defined. \n\nThe improvement, indeed, both in public order and capacity for \nself-government, seems to be decided ; and we may hope yet to see \nthis classic and celebrated land once more take her place among \nnations, with greater happiness and more real freedom than ever \nexisted, even in her most renowned and victorious days. \n\n\n\nROME. \n\n\n\nTHE EARLY AND PARTIALLY FABULOUS HISTORY OF ROME \nUNDER THE KINGS \n\nThe origin of few nations is more obscure than that of the Eomans. \nWrapped in the mists of fable and mythology, the account of their \nprimitive national existence affords few reliable or satisfactory points \non which the historian may rest. The stories so popularly received, \nboth among the later Eomans and many writers since, are founded \nupon ancient traditions, and on certain poems of doubtful authenti- \ncity, and long since lost to mankind. \n\nIn the midst of these romances, a few plain and well-substantiated \ntruths have been gleaned, and illustrated from other sources. It \nappears true, that from a period far beyond the time when the \nEoman people make their first appearance in history, their city, per- \nhaps under another name, occupied its present site on the Palatine \nHill ; that it was peopled by a combined race of native Oscans and \nforeign Pelasgians ; that the nation Avas afterwards further increased \nby a union with the Sabines, a neighbouring people ; and that, lastly, \nthere occurred a further union with (and perhaps a subjugation by) \nthe Etruscans, a powerful and refined nation, which infused into the \nEoman national character its own greatness and peculiarities. \n\nIt also appears that from the earliest period Eome was governed \nby kings, elected for life by the people, with a senate selected from \nan hereditary nobility ; that the people, desirous of more influence, \nwere often at issue with both, and that, finally, the monarchy was \noverthrown, and a republic or commonwealth established in its stead. \n\nThe account of these early transactions, as given by Eoman histo- \nrians, is, in a few facts, from external evidence, true; in others, \n\n\n\nROME. \n\n\n\n127 \n\n\n\nindisputably false. Much remains wliich may liave some foundation \nin fact, but of tlie truthfulness of which we have no means of judg- \ning. The story of their origin and early history, as generally received \namong them, is briefly as follows : \n\n^Eneas, a prince of Troy, after the destruction of that city by the \nGreeks, sailing in quest of a new home, and having experienced \nmany strange adventures, ascended the Tiber, and landed in Italy, \nAfter a fierce war with Turnus, king of the Rutuli, he espoused \nLavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latin race, built a city, and \nfounded a new nation. From this tradition originated that beauti- \nful poem, the ^neid, in which the wars and wanderings of the hero \nare described with great genius and interest. \n\nAfter fifteen kings had reigned, Amulius, a usurper, caused two \ninfants, lineal descendants fi:"om the royal family, to be exposed on \nthe banks of the Tiber. The fabulous narration states that these \nchildren, Romulus and Eemus, were suckled by a wolf; and a bronze \nstatue, representing this event, was long held in reverence at Rome, \nand even exists at the present time. Preserved by a herdsman, and \nattaining a manly age, they destroyed the usurper, and restored \ntheir grandfather, ISTumitor, the rightful claimant to the throne. \n\nThey then resolved to found a city, and while laying the founda- \ntions, Remus was slain by his brother, who was offended because he \nhad contemptuously leaped over the wall. Romulus, thus left in sole \nauthority, completed the city upon the Palatine Hill, named it Roma, \n(B. C. 752,) and peopled it by inviting thither all slaves, criminals, and \nother lawless persons from the surrounding country. He was chosen \nking, and a council of a hundred senators was appointed. "Women \nalone were wanting to the new state, and as the neighbouring people \ndeclined intermarriage, Romulus resorted to stratagem to accomplish \nhis wishes. Having instituted a feast to Neptune, with attractive \ngames, he invited the surrounding people, who came readily, and \namong them the Sabines, a warlike nation in the vicinity. While \nall were intent upon the spectacle, the Roman youth suddenly rushed \narmed into the assembly, and carried off the youngest and most \nbeautifal women. War of course ensued, and, after mutual successes \nand reverses, was at last ended by the intervention of the captured \nfemales, who, now reconciled to their ravishers, rushed into the \nmidst of battle, and besought their husbands and parents to relin- \nquish arms. \n\nPeace was restored, Tatius, a Sabine king, being admitted to share \n\n\n\n128 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. \n\nthe tlirone with Romulus, and a hundred Sabines being introduced \ninto the senate. The city retained its name, but the citizens were \ncalled Quirites, after Cures, a Sabine town \xe2\x80\x94 a name which they \nalways retained. \n\nRomulus, affecting supreme power, was, it is said, after a reign of \nthirty-seven years, assassinated by the senators, and his remains care- \nfully concealed; while the people were persuaded into a belief that \nhe had been translated to heaven as a god. A temple was dedicated \nto him under the name of Quirinus. \n\nHe was succeeded by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, and a man of \ngreat learning, piety, and justice. So wise and virtuous was his \nreign, that the people supposed him to be intimate with the nymph \nEgeria, and to receive instruction from her. He built temples, insti- \ntuted sacred ceremonies, divided among the poorer people the lands \nobtained by war, and effaced the distinction between the Roman and \nSabine population. He died, after a peaceful reign of forty-three \nyears. \n\nAfter an interregnum (vacancy of the throne), Tullus Hostiiius \nwas next elected, (U. C* 82,) a prince of warlike disposition, who \nsoon commenced hostilities against the Albans. As battle was about \nto be joined, it was proposed and agreed to stake the event upon a \ncombat between three champions on each side. With the Romans \nwere three brothers called the Horatii, and with the Albans three \nothers called the Curatii, all of great strength and courage. The \naccount of the contest and its sequel is romantic and interesting. \nThe Romans triumphed, and the Alban army and people submitted. \n\nAncus Marcius, the grandson of Numa, was the next king, (U. C. \n115,) being elected by the people, whose choice was confirmed by the \nsenate. Like his ancestor, he was of a pacific and virtuous charac- \nter, though possessing talents for warfare. Attacked by the Latins, \nhe defeated them, destroyed their cities, and removed the inhabitants \nto Rome. He likewise obtained success over other enemies. He \nbeautified and fortified the city, and, among other public works, built \nthe sea-port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. \n\nLucius Tarquinius Priscus, a foreigner from Corinth, succeeded to \nthe throne. He gained victories over several of the adjoining \nnations, and improved the city with public edifices. He first assumed \n\n* U. C, "Urbe Condita," \xe2\x80\x94 "from the foundation of the city," which took place, \naccording to this account, B. C. 752. \n\n\n\nROME. \n\n\n\n129 \n\n\n\ntke emblems of royalty in tlie shape of crown, throne, and sceptre. \nAfter a reign of thirty-eight years, he was murdered by the sons of \nAncus Marcius. \n\nServius Tullius, his son-in-law, was raised to the throne by the \nvoice of the senate only. He repaid this service by increasing their \npower as much as possible, at the expense of the people\'s. After a \nprosperous reign of forty-four years, he was murdered by his son-in- \nlaw Lucius Tarquinius, who ascended the throne, (U. C. 220,) being \nthe seventh and last king of the Roman people. \n\nSecure in power, the usurper governed with great tyranny and \ncruelty. He put to death all who had been attached to the late \nking, and, to overawe the people, increased the guard around his \nperson. By force and treachery, he gained many advantages over \nthe surrounding nations ; and to employ his people, completed the \nbuilding of the capitol. In his reign the famous Sybilline Books \nwere also purchased, and deposited in the new edifice. \n\nThe lawless passions of his son Sextus, who had committed an \noutrage on Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, cost him his throne. \nRevenge was sought by the injured family, and especially by \nJunius Brutus, whose father and brother had been murdered by the \nking. Exposing the body of Lucretia (who had stabbed herself) in \nthe public forum, he so excited the vengeance of the citizens, that a \ndecree was passed, by which the whole family of Tarquin was \ndethroned and banished. The exiled prince took refuge in Etruria, \nafter a reign of twenty-five years (U. C 245). \n\nIt would appear that the Roman nation, under the latter kings, \nwas more powerful, and more commercial in its nature, than has been \ngenerally supposed; for a treaty with Carthage was made about this \ntime, by which the respective limits of navigation and the rules of \ninternational commerce were prescribed. The maritime skill of the \nRomans, however, became almost entirely disused and forgotten \nduring the decline of their power which succeeded. \n9 \n\n\n\n130 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\n\n\n\\j (L(L luuj Jf w iLi ujO Ui ui e \n\n\n\nTHE CONSULS, DICTATORS, TRIBUNES, AND DECEMVIRS. \n\nWARS WITH THE VOLSCIANS AND WITH VEIL \n\nDECLINE OF THE ROMAN POWER. \n\n\n\nA MORE republican form of government was now instituted, tlie \ninfluence of the senate, however, being still predominant. Two \nmagistrates, called consuls, (or probably at first praetors,) were annu- \nally chosen from that body by the people, with authority equal to \nthat possessed by the kings. Brutus and Collatinus were first \nelected to the office. \n\nA great danger soon menaced the new commonwealth. A \nconspiracy in favour of Tarquin was formed by some of the young \nmen at Eome. Among them were the sons of Brutus and the \nnephews of Collatinus. The plot was discovered, and the conspira- \ntors condemned to death \xe2\x80\x94 Brutus alone beholding, with unfaltering \ncountenance, the execution of his children. \n\nTarquin, assisted by the Veiians, with a considerable force, \nmarched upon Eome ; Brutus and Valerius went forth to oppose \nhim. The former, meeting Aruns, the son of Tarquin, in single fight, \nboth were slain ; a desperate contest ensued between the two armies, \nand Valerius, having obtained the advantage, returned to Eome. \n\nThe defeated adventurer next sought assistance from Porsenna, a \nvaliant and powerful king of the Etrurians. Marching to Eome with \na numerous army, and laying siege to it, they gained great advan- \ntages, and would have taken the city, but for the valour of Horatius \nCodes, who, with two others, defended the entrance to a bridge over \nthe Tiber, until it had been broken down by the citizens ; then \nplunging with his arms into the torrent, he swam safely to the oppo- \nsite shore. The city was now blockaded, and the besieged began to \nsuffer extremities from hunger. \n\nIn this strait, Mutius Scsevola, a young man of great bravery, \nentered the camp of the invader in disguise, determined to kill the \nEtrurian king, and deliver his country. Having by mistake stabbed \nthe royal secretary, he was taken and brought before Porsenna, \nwhere, being interrogated, he at once avowed his intention ; and \n\n\n\nEOME. 231 \n\nthrusting liis right hand into a fire which glowed upon the altar, \nmanifested his contempt of torture. He further assured the king \nthat three hundred Roman youths had taken a vow to accomplish \nthe same deed which he had attempted. It is said that Porsenna, \nstruck with his heroism, dismissed him, and shortly afterwards \ngranted peace to the besieged, on the deliverance of hostages. \n\n(It is thought by some tliat this invasion of Eome resulted in the \nentire subjugation of the people, and that it did not reappear as an \nindependent power until some time afterwards, and then with the \nloss of great portions of its territories. It should be remarked that \nthe chronology up to this time, and somewhat later, is entirely \ndefective \xe2\x80\x94 the events alluded to having probably occurred at a much \nearlier period than that which is thus ascribed to them.) \n\nA further disagreement between the people and the nobility \nresulted in the appointment of a dictator, who was invested with \nabsolute power over both (U. C. 255). Largius, who was first \nappointed, exercised his authority in a lenient manner for a short \ntime, and then resigned it. The plebeians, or common people, (of \nwhom the army was composed,) weary of the oppressive conduct \nof the nobility, who, as their creditors, held them in almost complete \nservitude, took a new and singular resolution. Headed by a plebeian, \nnamed Sicinius Bellutus, they quitted the city en masse, and encamped \nupon the Mons Sacer, (the Sacred Mountain, so called from this event,) \nabout three miles from Eome. After some ineffectual negotiation, \nten commissioners were appointed by the senate to confer with them, \nand settle the matters in dispute. Among -these was Menenius \nAgrippa, a man of great shrewdness and humour, who, to persuade \nand amuse the discontented plebeians, related to them the well-known \nfable of "the belly and the members," showing the mutual depend- \nance of the people and their rulers. \n\nIt was finally conceded that a new office should be instituted, \ncharged expressly with the protection of the popular rights. Five \ntribunes (afterwards increased to ten) were to be annually elected by \nthe people, and in them was to be vested the power of confirming \nor annulling every decree of the senate. Besides this formidable \nconcession, an edict was made for the abolition of debts; and the \npeople, having carried their demands triumphantly, returned in \npeace to the city (U. C. 260). \n\nTillage having been neglected during this difficulty, famine ensued ; \nwhich, however, Avas relieved by the importation of grain from Sicily. \n\n\n\n132 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OP HISTOKY. \n\n\n\nCoriolanus, a distinguished noble and general, opposing the distri- \nbution of this to the people, was cited by the tribunes to undergo \na popular trial; and other charges being alleged against him, was \ncondemned to banishment. In the midst of great lamentation, \nespecially of the senate, he quitted the city, and took refuge with \nTullus Attius, a powerful chief of the Yolscians, and a determined \nenemy of Eome. \n\nHis resentment soon made itself formidable. On a slight pretext, \nthe new confederates declared war against Eome, and marched \ntoward the city, devastating all lands except such as belonged to the \nnobility. The Eomans, filled with consternation, and finding the \narms of their ablest general turned against them, made but a feeble \nresistance, and took refuge in their city. After taking many of their \ntowns, he sat down, with a numerous army, before the walls of Eome. \nThe citizens, dreading the worst, sent out an embassy to deprecate \nhis vengeance, and obtain moderate terms of peace. It was dismissed \nwith contempt, and another, composed of priests, pontiffs, and augurs, \nshared the same fate. At last, yielding to the entreaties of his wife \nand mother, who came forth beseeching him to spare the city, he \nconsented to withdraw his arniy, exclaiming, " Oh, my mother, thou \nhast saved Eome, but lost thy son!" Not long afterwards, he was \nslain in a tumult by the discontented Volscians. \n\nSoon after these events, Spurius Cossus, aiming at supreme power, \nwas thrown headlong from the Tarpeian Eock; the customary \npunishment of traitors. \n\nGreat dissensions now arose between the senate and people on \naccount of an agrarian law, or edict for the division of public lands, \nwhich was proposed by the tribunes. A dictatorship was again \nresorted to, and the most fitting occupant of this high office was found \nin Cincinnatus, a man of great virtue and poverty, who quitted his little \nfarm to assume the entire control of aftairs at Eome. By his influ- \nence with the people, he restored harmony, postponed the passage of \nthe obnoxious law, and induced thern again to enlist in the army \xe2\x80\x94 \na refusal to do which was their common method of testifying \nresentment and embarrassing the government. \n\nHe retired, but was soon again summoned from his seclusion by \nthe necessities of the state. The Equi and Yolsci, resuming the \nwar, had made fresh inroads, and at last besieged the consul, Minu- \ntius, with his army, in a narrow defile, whence he could not escape. \nCincinnatus, hastily levying forces, marched to his aid, and the Equi, \n\n\n\n\nTHE MOTHER OE COEIOLANUa \n\n\n\nENTREATING HER SON THAT ROME MAT MR STARED \n\n\n\n\'VoLUMNiA. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 He turns awiiy! \nDown, ladies; let us shame him -^-ith our knees; \nTo his surname, Coriolanus, \'longs more pride \nThan pity to our pirayers. Do^wn ; an end: \nThis is the last; so Ave -will home to Evome, \nAnd die among our neighhoiirs. \n\nCoriolanus. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 Oh, mother! mother!\' \nWhat have you done? Behold, the heavens do opie, \nThe gods look down, and this unnatural scene \nThey laugh at. Oh, my mother, mother! Oh, \nYou have won a happy victory for Rome , \nEut for your son \xe2\x80\x94 helieve it, oh, helieve it! \xe2\x80\x94 \nMost dangerously with him you have prevailed. \nIf not most mortal to him." \n\nShakspeare \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n1 V \n\nJ-Ot \n\n\n\nattacked on both sides, were compelled to surrender. The officers \nwere sent to Eome, and the soldiers were obliged to pass under the \n3\'^oke, in token of humiliation. Having further taken their city, and \nfortified it for the Romans, he resigned his command, and returned \nto the quiet seclusion of his farm. \n\nThe clamours for the agrarian law were soon renewed; and with \nreason: for the people, who, by their bravery and endurance, had \ngained the enemy\'s lands, Avere debarred from sharing them. Being \nstrongly urged by Siccius Dentatus, a veteran soldier, it would \nprobably have passed, but for the violence of the young patricians, \nwho, attacking the crowd, destroyed the balloting urns, and defeated \nthe resolution (U. C. 302). \n\nBoth senate and people were now desirous of adjusting their \ndisputes by the adoption of a written code of laws, which should be \nobligatory on all parties. Three commissioners were despatched to \nAthens and other Grecian cities, to collect and bring home the most \nuseful laws and institutions which they could discover. During their \nabsence, a terrible plague ravaged the city. At the end of a year \nthey returned, having collected a number of ordinances, which were \nembodied in ten tables, which, with the subsequent addition of two \nmore, formed the celebrated code of the "twelve tables," some frag- \nments of which remain to the present day. \n\nIt was resolved that ten of the senate should be annually elected, \nwith power equal to that of the consuls, to carry the laws into effect; \nand these decemvirs, by private agreement, each exercised authority \nin turn for one day. Artfully procuring their power to be extended \nbeyond the stated term, they soon commenced acts of tj^ranny and \nproscription, aggravated by the popular resistance. No one ven- \ntured to attack them openly, being surrounded at all times by a host \nof lictors and dependants. \n\nThe Volsci and Equi, constant enemies of Rome, profiting by the \ngeneral discontent, renewed their attacks, and even advanced within \nten miles of the city. Appius, one of the decemvirs, with a portion \nof the army, was left at Rome, to overawe the people, and his col- \nleagues, with the remainder, marched out to meet the enemy. They \nwere shamefully put to flight ; the people, after their usual fashion, \ntestifying their discontent by refusing to engage. Dentatus, being \nsent to the army, as legate, was assassinated by order of the treach- \nerous decemvirs, after a brave resistance, in which he killed many \nof his assailants. \n\n\n\n134 THE PEorLE\'s book of histoey. \n\nA deed yet more detestable was now perpetrated at Eome. \nAppius, a man of unbridled passions, and utterly lawless, one day, \nsitting on liis tribunal, beheld a beautiful young girl, named Vir- \nginia, about fifteen years of age, passing on lier way to school. He \nat once determined, at all hazards, to possess her, and made inquir- \nies concerning her parentage, and all other circumstances. She \nwas the daughter of Virginius, a centurion, then with the army, and \nwas contracted to Icilius, a tribune of the people. After several \nfruitless attempts, he suborned a villanous dependant to claim her \nas his slave, and to swear that she had been born in his house, and \nadopted by the wife of Virginius, who was childless. Virginius \nhastened to Rome, and exposed the falsehood of the claim by indis- \nputable proof; yet the wicked decemvir gave judgment that his \ndaughter should be delivered up to the new claimant. The centu- \nrion, under pretext of taking farewell of his child, was permitted \nto speak with her privately, and seizing a knife from the shambles \nnear the forum, embraced her, and stabbed her to the heart. Then, \ndevoting Appius to the infernal gods, he hastened to the army, and \nexcited a general insurrection. The people left their commanders, \nand again sullenly too]^ their station on Mount Aventine, whither \nthey had retired forty years before. \n\nThe tumult in the city increased, the senate succimibed, and eight \nof the decemvirs went into exile. Appius and his remaining col- \nleague, being thrown into prison, ended their lives by suicide. \n\nMeanwhile, the hostile nations in the vicinity became bolder and \nmore successful, sometimes carrying their incursions to the very \nwalls of Rome. Dissension within still prevailed. The senate, with \nindignation, submitted to a law proposed by the tribunes, allowing \nintermarriage between the patricians and plebeians ; another, permit- \nting consuls to be chosen from the latter, they absolutely refused to \npass. The people then resorted to their old expedient of refusing- \nenlistment ; and a compromise was finally entered into, by which it \nwas agreed that in place of the consuls, six military tribunes \nshould be appointed, of whom half might be chosen from the \npeople (U. C. 310). \n\nThe new aiithorities, before long, were discontinued, and the \nconsuls resumed their function. A new office, that of censor, was \nnow instituted, the business of which was to estimate the property \nand numbers of the citizens, to oversee morals, and to degrade \nnobles, knights, and plebeians, for misconduct, into a lower rank. The \n\n\n\n\nTHE DEATH OF VIRGINIA. \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \'Spurned, "betrayed, berefc, \n\nThy father hath in his despair one fearful refuge lei\'t \n\nHe little deems that in this hand I clutch what still can save \n\nThy gentle youth from taunts and blows, the portion of the slave , \n\nTea, and from nam.eless evil, that passeth taunt and blow \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nFoul outrage which thou know\'st not, which thou shalt never know \n\nThen clasp me round the neck once more, and give me one more kiss \n\nAnd now, mine own dear little girl, there is no way but this.\' \n\nWith that he lifted high the steel, and smote her in the side. \n\nAnd in her blood she sank to earth, and with one sob she died \n\n\n\nThen, for a little moment, all people held their breath, \nAnd through the crowded forum was stillness as of death, \nAnd in another moment broke forth from one and all \nA cry as if the Volscians were coming o\'er the wall." \n\nLa.ys of Ancient P^ome \n\n\n\nKOME. \n\n\n\n135 \n\n\n\nincumbent was cliosen every fifth year, and was usually a patrician. \nConcord was thus, in some measure, restored; and was farther \nenhanced by a victory over the Volscians under Geganius the consul. \n\nA famine arising, Spurius Melius, a wealthy Equestrian, took \nadvantage of it to increase his popularity by importing and distrib- \nuting corn to the people in great quantities. Thus strengthened, he \nconspired to seize the government. Suspicion was aroused, and, to \nmeet the crisis, Cincinnatus, now eighty years old, was again chosen \ndictator. Melius refused to appear before him ; and resisting Ahala, \nhis deputy, was killed by the latter on the spot. \n\nThe people, who espoused the cause of Melius, again demanded \nmilitary tribunes. The senate complied, but they were soon again \ndiscontinued and consuls reappointed. \n\nThe inhabitants of Yeii had long been at enmity with Eome ; and \nit was determined to destroy their city. The siege is said, probably \nwith exaggeration, to have lasted ten years, and to have consumed \nby warfare or exposure a great part of the population of Eome, \nIt was at last taken by a mine, under Furius Camillus, who had \nbeen appointed dictator ;~ and the Eomans also regained much of \nthe territory which they had lost in fornaer wars. The siege of Falerii \nwas noted for the treachery of a school-master, who, having charge \nof the children of the chief men of the city, delivered them up as \nhostages ; and for the magnanimity of Camillus, who returned them \nto their parents. \n\nThe dictator, soon after falling before the caprice of the multitude, \nwas cited for trial, and refusing to submit to it, took refuge in Ardea, \na city not far from Eome. He was adjudged, in his absence, to pay \na heavy fine. \n\n\n\nkj Jjjj ciii) i X lLI i)X Ji X X a \n\nTHE INVASION OF THE GAULS. \n\nA NEW and terrible danger now threatened the destruction of \nEome. A vast number of Gauls, issuing from their forests beyond \nthe Alps, commenced to overrun Italy, and wherever they made \ntheir appearance, dispossessed the original inhabitants. Of giant \n\n\n\n136 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nstature and barbarian manners, they struck witb terror tlie more \neffeminate Italians. The inhabitants of Clusium, a city of Etruria, \nbeing besieged by them, sought the assistance of Eome. An \nembassy of three senators was accordingly sent to interfere in their \nbehalf These, after vainly attempting negotiation, entered the city, \nand headed a sally of the besieged. Enraged at this interference, \nthe Gauls immediately broke up their encampment, and marched \ndirectly upon Rome. Leaving the intervening countries unharmed, \nthey pursued a steady course toward the city. A Roman army, \nwhich encountered them near the river Allia, was totally defeated, \nwith a loss of nearly forty thousand men. The city now lay at \ntheir mercy, and most of the inhabitants took refuge in the neigh- \nbouring towns. \n\nAfter two days of feasting and exultation on the scene of their \nvictory, the barbarian army marched to Rome, which they found \nalmost abandoned, except by a force in the capitol. It is related, \nprobably with invention or exaggeration, that these rude natives of \nthe forest, entering the forum, and beholding the most aged senators \nand priests sitting in their robes of office, each with an ivory sceptre, \nsupposed them to be the tutelary deities of the place, and would \nhave offered them worship. One of them, through curiosity, \nattempting to stroke the beard of Papyrius, a noble Roman, was \nstruck to the earth by his sceptre; upon which an indiscriminate \nslaughter of the senate and all the remaining inhabitants took place. \nThe city was then set on fire, and all the houses burned to the \nground; the capitol, strongly fortified and bravely defended, still \nheld out. \n\nAn attack by night was made, and would have been successful, \nbut for the alarm given by the cries of certain geese, sacred to Juno, \nwhich were kept in her temple. The assault being thus discovered \nin time, the Gauls were repulsed, and many of them thrown from \nthe top of the precipice. Despairing of taking the fortress, Brennus, \ntheir leader, agreed to withdraw his army on payment of a thousand \npounds of gold. While it was being weighed out, amid the insults \nof the conqueror, Camillus suddenly appeared at the head of a large \narmy, which he had raised for the assistance of his countrymen. \nCommanding the gold to be restored to its coffers, he sternly \ninformed the Gauls that it was the custom with Romans to ransom \ntheir country with iron alone; a battle instantly ensued, in which \nthe Gauls were utterly defeated, and compelled to fly the country. \n\n\n\nEOME. 1^>j \n\nThis account of tlie return of Camillus, is by some considered \nuntrue, though it is certain that the invaders were compelled to \nabandon their conquest. \n\nThe city (except the capitol) was now a heap of ruins, and the \npeople, in despair, wished to abandon it entirely, and make their \nhomes at Veii. By the remonstrances of Camillus, this design was \nrelinquished, fresh buildings were commenced, and Eome began to \nrise from her ashes. Domestic troubles soon again ensued. Manlius, \na patrician, whose bravery in defending the capitol had induced the \nEomans to provide him with a dwelling and public support, began to \naspire to the sovereignty. To oppose his design, Cornelius Cossus \nwas appointed dictator by the senate, but found his authority \nunequal in power to the popularity of Manlius, whose insolence and \nseditious conduct became worse and worse. As a last resort, \nCamillus was appointed military tribune, and summoned Manlius \nto take his trial before the people. They refused to condemn him \nwhile in sight of the capitol, the scene of his former patriotism ; but \nthe trial being adjourned to another place, he was found guilty, and \nsentenced to be thrown from the Tarpeian Eock. \n\nAbout this time occurs the fabulous tale of a gulf which opened \nin the midst of Eome, widened daily, and refused to close, until \nCurtius, a brave soldier, devoting himself to the good of his country, \nleaped in, and was swallowed up. Such relations as this, cause us to \nlook with distrust upon other matters recorded by the early historians, \nespecially their narratives of personal adventures. From this time, \nhowever, the history of Eome becomes far more reliable, and its \nauthenticity is soon found to be unquestionable. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH 17. \n\nTHE WARS WITH THE SAMNITES, THE LATINS AND PYREHTJS. \n\nA WAE soon occurred between the Eomans and the Samnites, a I \npowerful nation in the south of Italy. The consul Cornelius led an | \narmy against Samnium, and obtained signal success ; his colleague, ! \n\n\n\n138 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nYalerius Corvus, who had gone to the relief of Capua, also gained \na great victory over the enemy on his way. A large force was left \nat Capua, which soon became mutinous, and marched back to within \neight miles of Eome, Corvus was appointed dictator, and led out \nan army against them ; a terrible civil contest, however, was averted \nby his moderation and influence with the soldiery. \n\nThe Eomans were next engaged in war with the Latins ; and the \nsimilarity of the two nations in language, arms, and appearance, was \nso great, that the strictest discipline was required to prevent con- \nfusion. Orders were issued by Manlius, the consul, that no one \nshould leave the ranks, on pain" of death, at any provocation what- \never. As the battle commenced, Metius, the Latin general, riding \nbefore the Eoman lines, challenged any knight in their armj^ to a \nsingle combat. Titus Manlius, son of the consul, unable to resist \nthe temptation, encountered him, and after a desperate conflict, slew \nand despoiled him of his armour. To the horror of the whole \narmy, the rule was enforced, and the youth publicly beheaded by \nthe lictors, at the command of his own father. \n\nThe battle lasted long, and the issue was doubtful, when Decius, \na tribune of the people, who commanded the left wing, resolved to \noffer his life to his country, by fulfilling an augury, which foretold \nsuccess to the party whose general should voluntarily seek destruc- \ntion. Having solemnly devoted himself, as a sacrifice, to the infernal \nand celestial gods, he rushed on horseback into the midst of the \nenemy, and, covered with wounds, expired. The Eomans, emulating \nhis example, and encouraged by the prophecy, gained so complete \na victory that the enemy was almost exterminated. The Latins \nwere compelled to sue for peace; their chief city, Ptedaeum, was \ntaken, not long after, and they were reduced to entire subjection \n(U. C. 431.) \n\nThe contest with the Samnites still continued. The Eomans, \nhaving refused to make peace, suffered a signal reverse. Their \narmy, being entrapped into a narrow defile by Pontius, the Samnite \ngeneral, was compelled to capitulate, and then, disarmed and half- \nstripped, to pass under the yoke. This incident caused the deepest \nmortification at Eome. The success of the Samnites, however, was \nbut temporary, and their enemies, under Papyrius Cursor and Fabius \nMaximus, gained repeated triumphs, and finally reduced them to an \nenfeebled condition. \n\nIn this extremity, the defeated nation sought assistance from \n\n\n\nKOME. \n\n\n\n139 \n\n\n\nPjrrhus, the powerful and warlike king of Epirus. This monarch, \nof great talents and ambition, readily undertook a scheme which \npromised farther conquests, and first sent them a force of three \nthousand men, under the command of Cineas, a distinguished soldier \nand orator. He soon afterwards followed in person, with a force of \ntwenty-three thousand men and twenty elephants. A great part of his \narmament was, however, dispersed and lost in a tempest. Arriving \nwith the remainder at Tarentum, he took the entire command, and \ninstituted strict discipline among the luxurious inhabitants of that city. \n\nThe Eomans omitted no preparations for defence ; and the consul \nLtevinus, with a numerous army, was despatched to oppose him. \nRejecting an offer of mediation from Pyrrhus, he pitched his camp on \none bank of the river Lyris, while his antagonist occupied the \nother ; somewhat disappointed by the able disposition of the Roman \nforces. The battle was commenced by Lajvin^is, who crossed the \nriver in spite of opposition, and the action soon became general. \nThis battle, the first in which the Greeks and Romans had encoun- \ntered each other, was long and obstinately disputed; but the scale \nwas finally turned in favour of Pyrrhus by his elephants, which \nstruck terror into the minds of the inexperienced Romans. A \ncharge of the famous Thessalian cavalry completed their defeat, and \nthey retreated, leaving fifteen thousand men upon the field. The \nvictory had cost the Epirotes almost as dearly. The king, struck \nwith admiration at the bravery of his opponents, and surveying \nthe manly forms stretched upon the battle-ground, is said to have \nexclaimed, "With what ease I could conquer the world, if I had \nthe Romans for soldiers, or if they had me for their king!" \n\nCineas was now despatched to Rome with overtures of peace, \nwhich were sternly rejected, except upon condition that the foreign \nauxiliaries should leave the shores of Italy. Returning, he informed \nhis master that the city seemed peopled by kings, and that the senate \nwas like an assembly of demi-gods seated in a temple. \n\nUndismayed at their defeat, the Romans renewed the war ; and, \nwith a force of about forty thousand, encountered the enemy, equal \nin numbers, near Asculum. After a fiercely-disputed contest, the \nRomans, under their consuls, Decius and Sulpicius, were again \ndefeated, with a loss of six thousand men. The loss of Pyrrhus was \nalmost as severe, and he exclaimed to those who congratulated him, \n"One such victory more, and I shall be undone!" \n\nThe Romans, though defeated, were still magnanimous; and an \n\n\n\n140 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\n\n\noffer by the physician of Pjrrhus to take off his master by poison, \nwas at once disclosed to him. As an acknowledgment of their \ncourtesy, he dismissed his prisoners without ransom, and again \noffered to negotiate a peace. This was refused, except upon the \nsame condition as before, and, after an interval of two years, both \nparties renewed the war, Pyrrhus, strengthened by new levies, \ndespatched one part of his army against Lentulus, the Eoman consul, \nand marched in person with the remainder against Curius Dentatus, \nFailing in his attempt to surprise the latter by night, battle was \njoined, and finding his opponents gaining the advantage, he brought \nup his elephants to the attack. These, however, had now lost their \noriginal terror, and the Eomans, with flaming balls of tow and rosin, \ndrove them back into the ranks of the enemy, and soon put his \nentire army into confusion. In spite of the greatest exertions of \nPyrrhus, he was utterly defeated, with a loss of twenty-three \nthousand troops. His camp was also taken, and the Romans \nlearned, from its construction, most important lessons in the art of \nentrenchment. \n\nThe war had now lasted six years, and Pyrrhus, finding little to \nbe gained among these stubborn, impracticable people, took his \ndeparture, leaving only a garrison in Tarentum, This also was \nreduced, not long afterwards, by a combined force from Rome and \nCarthage, acting under the ancient treaty of the kings, which had \nlately been revived with additional provisions for mutual assistance \nin time of war. The walls were demolished, but the inhabitants \nwere treated with mildness and lenity. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?, \n\n\n\nTHE FIRST PUNIC WAR. \n\n\n\nThe amicable relations of Rome and Carthage were of short \ncontinuance. The latter, a flourishing colony founded by the \nPhoenicians on the coast of Africa, (about 889, B, C) had now \nbecome one of the most powerful nations on the earth. She was \n\n\n\nEOME, \n\n\n\n141 \n\n\n\nin possession of a part of Sicily, and had long been ambitious of \nadding the whole island to her territories. Pyrrhus himself had \npredicted the contest which ensued. Hiero, the king of Syracuse, \nattempting to reduce a revolted garrison at Messina, its defenders \napplied for assistance to both the rival nations. Each sent a force, \nwith intent to gain possession of the place, and the Carthagenians, \nwho had arrived first, were dispossessed by the Eomans. A war \nthus broke out, the cause of which, a mutual jealousy, had been \nevident for some time, and had even showed itself in the siege of \nTarentum (U. C. 490). \n\nCarthage, essentially a maritime nation, possessed great advantages \nin her fleets and the skill of her seamen ; the Eomans were at this \nperiod almost wholly unacquainted with the construction or naviga- \ntion of vessels. With indomitable perseverance, however, they set \nto work; and a Carthagenian galley, wrecked on the shore at \nMessina, is said to have served them for a model in the art of ship- \nbuilding. \n\nA fleet being finally equipped, ventured to sea under the consul \nDecilius, and with characteristic audacity and good fortune, engaged \nthe Carthagenians, and defeated them, with a loss of fifty ships. \nThe senate now resolved to carry the war into Africa, and des- \npatched to the enemy\'s shores a fleet of three hundred sail, carrying \nan hundred and forty thousand men, under command of Manlius \nand of Eegulus, the most eminent Eoman general then living. \nThey were engaged by the Carthagenians with an equal force, and, \nthough worsted in manoeuvring and fighting at a distance, soon dis- \ncovered their superiority in close combat. The fleet of the enemy \nwas dispersed, and fifty -four vessels were taken. Following up their \nadvantage, the Eomans made a descent upon the coast of Africa, \nand took the city of Clypea, with twenty thousand prisoners of war. \n\nThe charge of the war in Sicily was now committed to Manlius, \nand Eegulus continued to prosecute the campaign in Africa. This \nhe did with such energy and success, that, after sustaining a fresh \ndefeat, the Carthagenians were reduced almost to despair, and more \nthan eighty of their towns submitted to the Eomans. \n\nAs a last resort, they sent to Lacedsemon, and engaged the services \nof Xantippus, a commander of experience and distinction. By his \nskill and discipline, and by the confidence which he revived, their \naffairs soon began to wear a more cheerful aspect. His forces being \nsufficiently trained, he took the field, supplied with cavalry, \n\n\n\n142 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nelephants, and otlier necessary forces, and in a great battle com- \npletely defeated the Eomans, destroyed the greater part of their \narmy, and captured Regulus himself. \n\nFresh disasters awaited them; their whole fleet was lost in a \nstorm ; another, which they built, was driven upon quicksands, and \nshared a similar fate ; and Agrigentum, an important town in Sicily, \nwas taken from them by Karthalo, the Carthagenian general. \n\nSatisfied with these successes, Carthage would willingly have \nmade peace; and for this purpose sent ambassadors to Rome, carry- \ning with them Regulus, who had now been confined in a dungeon \nfor four years. A promise to return, if peace was not agreed upon, \nwas exacted from him ; and his captors supposed that all his influence \nwould be exerted to effect an arrangement so much for his interest, \nespecially as his life depended on the result. \n\nArrived at Rome, he refused to enter the walls or to behold his \ndwelling, alleging that he was still a slave of the Carthagenians. \nA council was held by the senate, and proposals of peace were made \nby the ambassadors. The Romans, wearied with a war which had \nnow been protracted more than eight years, were not averse to the \nproposition. But, to the surprise of all, Regulus, who gave his \nopinion last, strongly advised against any other course than that of \ncontinuing the war. The senate, moved by this magnanimity, were \nunwilling to devote him to certain destruction ; but he insisted on \nthe correctness of his views, refused to consent to a peace, and, amid \nthe lamentations of the whole city, returned to Carthage with the \nambassadors. The enraged and disappointed citizens put him to \ndeath with the most cruel and studied tortures. \n\nThe war was now recommenced with fresh animosity. Victory \nsoon declared itself with the Romans, who first, under Fabius Buteo, \nthe consul, and again, under Lutatius Catulus, defeated their ene- \nmies at sea so signally, that their naval force was almost annihi- \nlated. The discomfited people now sued for peace, which was granted \nthem only on the same terms which Regulus had formerly dictated \nat the gates of Carthage. They agreed to pay down a thousand \ntalents of silver, (about one million of dollars,) to defray the \nexpenses of the war, and, in ten years, two thousand two hundred \nmore ; to quit Sicily entirely, to deliver up their prisoners, and never \nto molest a Roman ally, or come with a vessel of war within the \nRoman dominions. Thus ended the "First Punic War," (IT. C. 513,) \nafter having lasted twenty-four years. \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n143 \n\n\n\nSoon after these events, the Romans, being at peace with all \nnations, began to give greater attention to the arts of polished and \ncivilized life. Poetry began to flourish, especially satire; and the \ndrama, principally formed on Greek models, succeeded. Pastoral \nand other poetry by degrees assumed its place, and became more \nrefined and elegant. \n\nAbout U. C. 527, the Illyrians, a piratical nation, had despoiled \ncertain subjects of Rome, and had murdered the ambassadors sent \nto complain and demand restitution. For this outrage, war was \ndeclared; many of their towns were taken, a great part of their \ncountry was compulsorily annexed to Rome, and a yearly tribute \nexacted from the remainder. \n\nThe Gauls now made a fresh irruption into Italy, laying waste \nEtruria with fire and sword, till they had advanced within three \ndays\' journey of Rome. But the time had passed when these undis- \nciplined barbarians, by the mere fury of their attack, could over- \nthrow armies regularly disciplined. They were defeated by the \nconsul with immense slaughter. Another victory was soon obtained \nby Marcellus, who slew their king with his own hand, and compelled \nthem to retreat. They purchased peace on conditions which greatly \nstrengthened the commonwealth. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER TI. \n\nTHE SECOND PUNIC WAR. \n\nAt last, the Carthagenians, recovered from their exhaustion, \nrecommenced the war ; and opened hostilities by besieging Sagun- \ntum, a city of Spain, and a faithful ally of Rome. Desistance and \nredress being refused, both parties prepared for another contest. \n\nThe Carthagenians were now commanded by Hannibal, the most \nextraordinary general of antiquity. Of remarkable address in win- \nning the affections and commanding the minds of others, he was \nperfectly skilled in all personal exercises and accomplishments. \nHe was gifted with untiring perseverance, with most remarkable \ntalent in the art of war, and by his personal courage and power of \nendurance, set an example to all under his command. \n\n\n\n144 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHe possessed an hereditary enmity toward the Eomans; his \nfather Hamilcar having caused him, in youth, solemnly to swear \nbefore the altar an eternal hatred and opposition to those enemies \nof his country. \n\nWith equal boldness and sagacity, he determined to carry the war \ninto Italy itself Leaving Hanno to secure his conquests in Spain, \nhe raised a numerous army, and with a great force of elephants and \ncavalry, crossed the Pyrenees into Gaul, the modern France. March- \ning with incredible celerity, and overcoming the most formidable \nobstacles, he arrived at the foot of the Alps, then covered with the \nsnows of winter. \n\nEntering by the pass which appeared most practicable, (supposed \nto have been the lesser St. Bernard,) he pursued his Avay for fifteen \ndays, amid difficulties which seemed almost insurmountable, and at \nlast beheld the fertile plains of Italy spread before him. This terri- \nble march had been commenced with upwards of an hundred \nthousand men; of which there remained on his arrival into Gaul \nfifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. Thirty -seven elephants \nonly had survived the passage. These forces were yet further greatly \nreduced by the passage of the Alps. Scipio, who was sent to \noppose him, retreated with considerable loss, while his adversary, by \nconciliating treatment, largely recruited his forces from the Gauls, \nthrough whose country he was passing.* \n\nA second battle was fought on the banks of the river Trebia, \nwhere the Carthagenian, by an artful manoeuvre, enticing the enemy \nto ford the river, easily defeated them, fatigued with the passage and \nbenumbed by the coldness of the water. Twenty-six thousand were \nslain or drowned, and the remainder, ten thousand in number, \nfighting desperately, broke through the opposing ranks, and retreated \nto Placentia. \n\nThe Romans sustained another and most terrible defeat near the \nlake of Thrasymene, where the scene of battle is still pointed out. \nThe Carthagenian troops were posted on an eminence, overlooking \nthe lake, and Flaminius, the Roman consul, imprudently led his \nforces into a narrow defile beneath it. So desperate was the contest \nthat, according to Livy, during the battle, \n\n"An earthquake reeled unheededly away;" \n\n* The term Gallia (Gaul) was at this time applied to a vast region, extending \nfrom the Pyrenees into the north of Italy. \n\n\n\nKOME. 145 \n\nthe fury of the combatants not allowing them to perceive it. The \nRomans were utterly defeated, with a loss of their general and \nfifteen thousand men. Six thousand were made prisoners. Tradi- \ntion has still preserved the remembrance of this ancient fight among \nthe inhabitants, and a little rivulet still retains the name given it by \nthe carnage of that day : \n\n* * * "And Sanguinetto* tells ye where the dead \nMade the earth wet, and turned the unwilling waters red." \n\nThese successive disasters created the greatest consternation at \nRome. Fabius Maximus, a commander of the highest reputation, \nwas next appointed general, and determined upon pursuing an \nentirely new system of strategy. Avoiding a general engagement, \nhe kept upon the higher ground, and harassed the enemy with \nannoying attacks, distressing his quarters, and cutting off his pro- \nvisions. At one time he had enclosed the Carthagenians among \nmountains in such a manner that their extrication seemed impossi- \nble, when Hannibal by a singular device forced his passage during \nthe night. \n\nThe term of office for which Fabius was elected having expired, \nhe was succeeded by Terentius Varro, a rash and ignorant man, and \nby Paulus Emilius, a brave and prudent general. The colleagues, \nwhose army was now increased to ninety thousand, marched in quest \nof Hannibal, who was encamped near the village of Cannse, with a \nforce of about half that number. By an unwise arrangement, the \ntwo Roman generals, each in turn, commanded for a day. Emilius \nwas averse to an engagement; but Varro on his day, without con- \nsulting his colleague, commenced the action. \n\nThe Romans, ill-directed, and inferior in cavalry to their opponents, \nand embarrassed moreover by clouds of dust, which blew in their \nfaces, were, after desperate exertions, routed and put to flight. \nEmilius, refusing to fly, died valiantly in the midst of the enemy, \nand an immense slaughter of his forces ensued. In this battle, the \nmost disastrous that Roman arms ever experienced, fifty thousand \nmen were left dead upon the field. \n\nAt Rome, though firstly struck with consternation, the people \nbravely prepared for further hostilities. Thanks were even returned \nto Varro for not having despaired of the safety of the republic. \n\n* Sanguinetto. Literally, " the bloody brook," a name which, from similar circum- \nstances, hns been applied to streams in our own country. \n\n10 \n\n\n\n146 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nFabius and Marcellus were again appointed to the command. Han- \nnibal now offered peace, but it was refused, as in the time of \nPyrrbus, except on condition of bis evacuating Italy. \n\nUnable to march upon Eome, the Carthagenian general led his \nforces to Capua, where the softness of the climate, and the luxurious \nhabits of the place, did much to enervate and enfeeble them. Up \nto this time, his career had been one of unvaried and astonishing \nsuccess, A series of reverses now awaited him. Soon after the \nbattle of Cannae, he was repulsed in an attempt upon the city of \nNaples, and, laying siege to Nola, a small town, met with a \nconsiderable loss from a sudden sally of Marcellus (U. C. 544). \n\nThe war had been prolonged between the two armies for some \n3^ears, without any decided advantage on either side, when the Car- \nthagenian senate resolved to send a body of troops to the assistance \nof their general, under his brother Asdrubal. After experiencing \nlong and vexatious delays, the latter, emulating the exploit of Han- \nnibal, advanced by forced marches to Italy ; but was intercepted and \ndefeated, with the loss of his life, by the consuls Nero and Livius. \n\nThe Koman arms were not less successful elsewhere. Marcellus \ntook the city of Syracuse, so ingeniously defended by the philoso- \npher Archimedes. This great man, to the grief of the Roman \ngeneral, was killed by a soldier while meditating in his study. In \nSpain, where two of the Scipio\'s had been slain, a third, the cele- \nbrated Scipio Africanus, was destined to retrieve the fortunes of his \nfamily and of the Roman people. \n\nThis famous commander was equally distinguished for his martial \ntalents, and for the gentleness and amiability of his character. \nAfter subduing the forces of the enemy in Spain, he returned to \nRome, and was chosen consul at the age of twenty-nine. He now \nresolved again to carry the war into Africa, and to divert the scene \nof contest from his own country. Soon after landing, he found \nhimself opposed by Hanno; but the latter was defeated and slain. \nSyphax, who had usurped the throne of Numidia, led a large army \nagainst him. This prince, attacked in his camp, was also defeated, \nwith the loss of an immense number of his followers. Carthage \nitself was now threatened with a siege, and positive commands were \ndespatched to Hannibal that he should return for its defence. With \nthe greatest grief and vexation he complied ; and with tears quitted \nthat Italy which he had once almost conquered, and whose most \nbeautiful regions he had held for sixteen years. \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n147 \n\n\n\nArrived in Africa, lie marclied. to Zama, a city witliin five days\' \njourney of Carthage; and the Koman general, reinforced by Massin- \nissa the Numidian with six thousand cavalry, advanced to meet him. \nNegotiations for peace being vainly attempted, both parties prepared \nfor battle; and the attack was commenced by the Carthagenians \nwith their elephants. These being driven back, caused, as usual in \nsuch an event, the greatest confusion in their own ranks; and the \nRomans, with the assistance of Massinissa, who attacked their enemy \nin the rear, gained a complete victory. Twenty thousand Cartha- \ngenians were killed in the battle and the pursuit, and as many more \nwere taken prisoners. Hannibal, having done every thing which \nskill and courage could accomplish, fled with a small escort to \nAdramentum. \n\nBy advice of their general, the defeated nation now sued for peace ; \nwhich was only granted them on conditions as severe as those to \nwhich they had formerly submitted. They were compelled by \nthese to quit Spain and all the Mediterranean islands; to pay ten \nthousand talents (about ten millions of dollars) within fifty years, to \ndeliver up their ships and elephants, and to make no war in Africa \nwithout permission of the Romans. Thus closed the "Second \nPunic War," after having lasted seventeen years, during which, \nItaly, Spain, and Africa had been the scene of fierce contention. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEK ?IL \n\nTHE WARS WITH MACEDON, AND THE THIRD PFNIC WAR. \n\nDuring this time the Romans, at the solicitation of Athens, and \nin pursuance of their usual aggrandizing policy, had been also \nactively engaged in war with Macedon. Philip, king of that coun- \ntry, had been defeated in several engagements by the consul Galba \nand by Quintus Flaminius. He was obhged to purchase a peace on \nexpensive terms, and for the present the liberties of Greece seemed \nrestored. \n\nThey were next engaged in war with Antiochus, king of Syria; \n\n\n\n148 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nwho finally, with, an immense army, suffered a complete defeat from \nScipio, near the city of Magnesia, and was compelled to submit to \nthe severest conditions of peace. One of these was, to deliver up \nto the Komans their ancient enemy Hannibal, who, in his old age, \nhad entered the service of Antiochus, and had been promoted by \nhim to the command of his fleet. This celebrated general, quitting \nthe country secretly, wandered among various states, vainly seek- \ning protection, and at last took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. \n-iiEmilius was sent to demand him, and the persecuted chief, per- \nceiving that it was intended to surrender him, ended his days by \npoison. \n\nRome was next engaged in a second war with Macedon (U. G. 553). \nPerseus, the son of Philip, after protracting the contest for three \nyears, was completely defeated by ./Emilius, captured, and reserved \nto adorn the triumph* of his adversary. \n\nThe fate of the unhappy Carthagenians was next resolved upon, \nand a pretext was readily found for recommencing hostilities. \nMassinissa, who had been restored by the Romans to the throne of \nNumidia, invaded a portion of their territory. Their defence \nagainst this attack was construed into an infraction of the treaty, \nand it was resolved to demolish their city, and for ever rid the \nRoman people of an enemy who had been so formidable. \n\nIt is said that Cato, whenever the subject was introduced in the \nsenate, invariably ended his remarks with the same inexorable \nsentence, "Delenda est Cartago," \xe2\x80\x94 " Carthage must he destroyed.\'\'\'\' In \nspite of the entreaties of the unfortunate inhabitants, they were \nordered to quit their city, that it might be levelled to the ground. \n\nFinding their supplications to the consuls ineffectual, they departed \nto their homes, resolved, with the courage of despair, to defend \nthem to the last extremity. Every thing was now sacrificed to the \nterrible emergency. Vessels of gold and silver were converted into \narms; the luxuriant tresses of the women were surrendered for \nbowstrings. Hasdrubal, their general, who had been imprisoned to \nappease the Romans, was placed in command, and the consuls \narriving before the walls, found them strongly and skilfully fortified. \nSeveral attacks were repulsed with loss to the assailants, who had \nserious thoughts of raising the siege. Scipio ^milianus was now \n\n* It was customary at Rome, after any conquest or splendid exploit, to grant the \nsuccessful commander a triumphal procession into the city, in which trophies of the \nenemy and any distinguished captives were exhibited to the people. \n\n\n\nEOME. 149 \n\nappointed to the command, and by the treachery of Phaneas, the \nmaster of the Carthagenian cavalry, he soon turned the tide of \naffairs. The walls were at last demolished, and the city, after an \nobstinate defence, taken ; many of its defenders throwing themselves \ninto the flames rather than surrender. The city was levelled to the \nground. Thus fell Carthage, after having flourished about seven \nhundred and fifty years, during a part of which, it had been among \nthe most powerful of nations. \n\nFresh conquests succeeded. ISTumantia, the most important city \nin Spain, was besieged by Scipio, and the inhabitants, in despair, \nset fire to it, and perished in the flames of their dwellings. All \nSpain was soon conquered, and formed into a Roman province, \ngoverned by two prsetors, appointed annually. \n\nThe splendid city of Corinth was also taken and demolished by \nthe consul Mummius. Many of the treasures of art which it con- \ntained were carried to Rome, and served as useful examples to the \nItalians in their future progress toward refinement. As an instance \nof their ignorance at this time of the true value of these monuments \nof genius, it is related that Mummius, to deter his soldiers from \nwanton injury, assured them that if they destroyed any statues or \npaintings, they would be compelled to make new ones to replace them. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER YIII. \n\nTHE GRACCHI. THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. THE CIVIL \n\nWARS OF MARIUS AND SYLLA. \n\nThe state, increased in wealth and numbers, soon after became a \nprey to domestic dissensions (U. C. 621). The overbearing influence \nof the patricians had formerly been repressed by a law called the \nLicinian, which provided that no one should hold in possession more \nthan five hundred acres of land. Through the influence of Tiberius \nGracchus, an eloquent and ambitious leader of the people, this law, \nto the great indignation of the nobles, was reenaeted. A fresh \ncause of dispute arose in a valuable legacy bequeathed to the nation \n\n\n\n150 I\'lIE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IlISTOKY. \n\nby a foreign prince. Gracclius proposed that tliis sliould be divided \namong the people. AVhile haranguing them, an attack was made \nupon him by the partisans of the senate, and, witli three hundred \nof his party, he was slain. In justification of this outrage, it was \ngiven out that he was aspiring to the sovereignty. \n\nBy this act of violence, the aristocratic party gained a temporary \ncessation from popular opposition ; but a new and more formidable \nopponent awaited them. Caius, the brother of their victim, had \nbeen overlooked in the massacre on account of his youth; but \nhaving attained to maturer years, he acquired a high reputation in \nthe army for virtue and courage. The king of Nvimidia, sending a \npresent of corn to Rome, desired his ambassadors to say that the \noffering was a compliment to the merits of Caius Gracchus. The \nsenate, indignant at this mark of attention to their hereditary foe, \ndismissed them with contempt, as barbarians. They could hardly \nhave taken a step more fatal to their own interests. Gracchus \nimmediately left the army, came to Rome, was elected tribune, in \nspite of all their opposition, and prepared to stand forward as the \nchampion of popular rights. \n\nHe commenced his attack by a scrutiny into the corruptions of \nthe senate; and the greater part of its members being found guilty \nof bribery, extortion, and other venalities, the trial of magistrates \nwas transferred to the knights. Among other popular measures, he \nregulated the sale of corn, and extended the freedom of the city to \nall on the Italian side of the Alps \xe2\x80\x94 a measure designed to hold in \ncheck the patrician influence within the walls. The Licinian law \nwas again revived. The patrician party left no means of opposition \nunused. Opimius, the consul, enlisted a number of mercenaries in \nhis service, and sought by all methods to provoke an open contest. \nIn his third competition for the tribuneship, Gracchus was defeated ; \nit was supposed through the falsity of the returning of&cers. \n\nAfter various quarrels between the two parties, Gracchus and his \nfollowers left the city, and encamped on Mount Aventine. A reward \nwas offered by the senate for his head, and for that of Flaccus, a \npopular tribune. The people gradually falling off, Opimius, with an \narmed force, made a furious attack upon the remainder, and slaugh- \ntered three thousand unresisting citizens. Gracchus, pursued by \nthe enemy, took refuge in a grove dedicated to the Furies, and there \npersuaded a slave, who followed him, to take his life. These trans- \nactions, which lasted a number of years, have iTSually been called \n\n\n\nEOME. 251 \n\n"the sedition of the Gracchi," but seem rather to deserve the title \nof a civil dispute, in which the patricians, from their violence and \nmartial spirit, gained the advantage. The nation was now subjected \nto an odious aristocracy, composed not only of the nobles, but of \nall who had acquired wealth. By means of the laws concerning \ndebt, the poorer classes were almost effectually enslaved; and the \ntribunes, prosperous themselves, no longer stood forward in defence \nof their rights, but rather aided the nobility. \n\nA war in Africa next engaged the attention of the nation. \nJugurtha, a grandson of Massinissa, and usurper of the throne of \nNumidia, had murdered Hiempsal, the rightful heir, whose brother \nAdherbal fled to Rome, and entreated assistance. The ambassadors \nof Jugurtha, by large bribes to the senate, procured the most \nvaluable share of the kingdom to be decreed to their master; and \nhe soon took advantage of this position to besiege, capture, and \nmurder Adherbal. \n\nTo avenge this crime and the slight thrown upon Rome, an army \nwas sent against him, which was beaten, and obliged to pass under \nthe yoke. Metellus, the succeeding consul, took command ; and in \nthe course of two years, defeated the usurper in several battles, and \nforced him to fly the country, and sue for peace. By an artful \nintrigue, Caius Marius, his lieutenant, a man of great talent, ferocity, \nand courage, obtained the consulship for himself, and reaped all the \nfruits of victory. Jugurtha, in despair, sought the aid of his father- \nin-law, Bocchus, king of Mauritania. After meeting with some \nslight success, they were defeated, with immense loss, in two engage- \nments. By the artful persuasions of Sylla the quaestor, the Mauri- \ntanian treacherously consented to deliver up his guest; who, being \nentrapped, under pretext of an interview, was carried in chains to \nRome, adorned the triumph of his victor, and perished of starvation \nin prison. \n\nAbout this time most of the Italian states had entered into a con- \nfederacy against Rome to extort from the senate an admission to \nthe freedom of the city, and for the redress of other grievances ; and \nthe contest which followed, called "the Social War," lasted for two \nyears. The senate then yielded to their demands for the most part, \nand arms were laid aside, after the most devastating slaughter on \nboth sides. Two victories, which Marius gained over the Gauls, \nincreased his renown ; and, supported by the popular party, he began \nto entertain the most ambitious hopes. \n\n\n\n152 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nMithridates, king of Pontus, the most powerful monarch of the \nEast, was the enemy whom Rome next encountered. The command \nof the forces despatched against him was, by an intrigue of Marius, \ntransferred from Sylla to himself The soldiers, however, refused \nto accept the change, put to death the officers whom he sent, and, \nplacing Sylla at their head, marched to Rome. Marius and his party, \nafter vainly opposing them, were compelled to seek safety in flight ; \nand Sylla found himself in complete possession of the city. The \ndefeated leader, at the age of seventy, was declared a public enemy. \nClosely pursued, he took refuge in the marshes of Minturnas, and \nbeing there discovered, was carried prisoner to a neighbouring \ntown. The governor, solicitous of pleasing the successful party, \nsent a Cimbrian slave to despatch him in prison ; but the barbarian \nwas so much awed by the fierceness and majesty of his demeanour, \nthat he returned, saying it was impossible. His master, touched at \nthis circumstance, dismissed his prisoner, and supplied him with a \nship to leave the shores of Italy. \n\nRepelled from Sicily, he landed in Africa, and seated himself \namong the ruins of Carthage, a scene congenial to his fallen for- \ntunes. Ordered to retire by the Roman praetor, he spent the winter \nat sea, vainly endeavouring to find a refuge with some protecting \npower. "While in this deplorable situation, he learned that Cinna, \nan able member of his faction, had raised a large army in Italy, and \nwas anticipating a successful movement against the predominant fac- \ntion. Marius hastened to join him. \n\nSylla was absent, contending with Mithridates, and his opponents, \nentering the city, made a terrible slaughter among all who were \nobnoxious to them. They then caused themselves to be declared \nconsuls, and shortly afterwards Marius died, glutted in his last hours \nwith ambition and revenge. \n\nSylla, on hearing the news, at once made peace with Mithridates, \nand set out on his return. Cinna, while making preparations to \noppose him, perished in a mutiny, and Scipio, the consul, having \nagreed on an armistice, his troops, seduced by those of Sylla, left \nhim in a body. The younger Marius, who inherited the talents and \nambition of his father, still maintained a claim to the supreme \nauthority; but eight legions of his army were defeated by Pompey \n(afterwards the Great), and the remainder, under Carbo and Urba- \nnus, by Metellus. Sylla again entered Rome in triumph, and, \nwhile addressing the senate in a quiet manner, caused eight thousand \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n153 \n\n\n\nof Ms enemies to be put to death. He furtlaer proscribed an infinite \nnumber of senators, knights, and wealthy citizens. \n\nInvested with an absolute and perpetual dictatorship, he ruled \nwith the caprice of tyranny for three years, and then, to the surprise \nof every one, resigned his authority, and retired into the country, \nwhere death soon overtook him (U. C. 680). \n\n\n\nij Sa> JX i i &i dii i tA) , \n\n\n\nTHE FIRST TEIUMYIRATE, AND THE WARS OF POMPEY AND \n\nCiESAR. \n\n\n\nPoMPEY and Crassus were now the two most conspicuous charac- \nters in the state; the first from his military reputation, the latter \nfrom his inordinate wealth. Each sought to obtain the popular \nfavour ; Crassus by largesses to the people, and Pompey by proposing \ndemocratic laws. He had lately gained great popularity by suppress- \ning the pirates, who in vast numbers had infested the Mediterranean. \nThe tribunes, who supported his interests, next proposed and carried \na decree that the war against Mithridates, and the government of \nall Asia, should be committed to him alone. Superseding Lucullus, \nhe completely overthrew the enemy, and added large regions to the \nRoman dominion. \n\nMeanwhile, a great danger menaced the very existence of the \nrepublic at home. Cataline, a patrician of the greatest ambition, \ncourage, and dissoluteness \xe2\x80\x94 utterly unscrupulous, and overwhelmed \nwith debt \xe2\x80\x94 formed a conspiracy to overthrow the government. Many \nof the nobility, in desperate circumstances, joined the plot, and it was \nresolved that, by a simultaneous moveinent, a general insurrection \nshould be raised throughout Italy, the capital fired, and the senate \nmassacred. Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, and many others of noble \nfamily, were implicated in this horrible design, and a part was assigned \nto each. \n\nBy the address and vigilance of Cicero, who was then consul, \ntheir attempt in the city was disconcerted ; and the chief conspirators \nsoon paid with their lives the penalty of their crime. Cataline, \n\n\n\nX54 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\nescaping to Etruria, where lie had raised an army, took the field \nwith twelve thousand men. Pursued by Petreius, the Eoman com- \nmander, they fought desperately, and were cut off almost to a man. \n\nPompey had now returned from his conquests in the East, and \nthe jealousy between him and Crassus was renewed. But a name \ndestined to surpass them both was now becoming familiar on the \nlips of the Eoman people. Julius Caesar, a nephew of Marius, who \nhad been praetor in Spain, returned with large resources and high \nreputation. He had alwaj^s been a favourite of the people, and a \nstaunch supporter of popular decrees. By his intervention, the con- \ntending politicians were reconciled, and admitted the new comer into \ntheir councils. A triumvirate was thus formed, consisting of the \nthree most influential men in the state, leagued together for mutual \nsupport, and entirely controlling the government (U. C. 694). \n\nCoesar was chosen consul, and farther ingratiated himself with the \npeople, by procuring the passage of a new law for the division of \npublic lands. By mutual agreement, the foreign provinces were \nshared among them. Pompey chose that of Spain, which, however, \nhe governed by deput}?-, residing at his ease in Eome. Crassus \nselected Syria and the East; while to Cassar was assigned for five \nyears the province of Gaul, offering an immense field for warlike \noperations. \n\nDuring his administration, which was continued for ten years, he \nperformed the most remarkable exploits yet achieved by Eoman \ncourage and discipline, fie subdued the Helvetians, with a loss of \ntwo hundred thousand of their fighting men ; reduced the Germans \nto submission ; and defeated the Belgi with a most terrible slaughter. \nThe Nervii, the most warlike of these barbarous tribes, made a fierce \nresistance, and, though finally routed, at one time nearly destroyed \nthe Eoman army. Having overcome the Celtic Gauls, and all the \nsurrounding nations, he resolved to push his conquests into Britain. \nLanding with difficulty, he overcame all opposition, and granted \npeace to the natives, on delivery of hostages. Taking advantage of \na storm, which destroyed a great part of his fleet, they renewed the \ncontest with a numerous army, but were again defeated, and forced \nto submit. \n\nPompey, meanwhile, had remained faithful to his interests at Eome ; \nbut at last awaking to a sense of his diminished importance, endeav- \noured secretly to undermine the reputation of his rival. The death \nof Crassus, who was killed in a war with the Parthians, removed \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n155 \n\n\n\nanother tie wliicli had bound them together ; and the senate, acting \nunder Pompey\'s influence, ordered home two legions from the army \nin Gaul. Cassar was next recalled from his government, the allotted \nterm of which had nearly expired. \n\nInstead of complying, he advanced with his army to the confines \nof Italy, and wrote to the senate that he would lay down his arms, \nif Pompey, who was in command of the forces at Kome, would do \nthe same. It was replied, that unless he disbanded his army, he \nshould be declared an enemy to the commonwealth. With a portion \nof his forces, he arrived at the little river Eubicon, the boundary of \nItaly. After hesitating a moment at incurring the responsibility of \na civil war, he cried out that "the die was cast," and plunged in, \nfollowed by his soldiers. \n\nGreat consternation was excited at Eome, where Pompey was \ninsufficiently prepared for defence. The senate espoused his cause, \nand, with the two legions which had been ordered home, he retired \nto Capua, pursued by Caesar, who took possession of the towns on his \nroute. Pompey next retreated to Brundusium, whence, being besieged \nby his adversary, he sailed for Dyrrachium, leaving all Italy unde- \nfended, Csesar, unable to follow him for want of ships, marched to \nEome, and plundered the treasury to an immense amount, to provide \nfor carrying on the war. He thence went to Spain, defeated Pom- \npey\'s lieutenants, in forty days made himself master of the whole \nprovince, and returned to Eome. The citizens, whose favourite he \nhad always been, received him with enthusiasm, and conferred on \nhim the offices of consul and dictator \xe2\x80\x94 the latter of which after a \nfew dsijs he resigned. \n\nPompey, meanwhile, assisted by all the eastern monarchs, made \nactive preparations to oppose him, in Greece and Epirus. JSTine \nlegions, with five hundred ships and an abundant supply of treasure \nand munitions of war, were at his disposal. He had defeated Cassar\'s \nlieutenants, Antony and Dolabella; and crowds of distinguished \ncitizens and nobles flocked to his camp. Among these were two \nhundred senators, including Cicero and Cato. \n\nHis rival now made overtures of peace, offering to refer all dis- \nputes to the senate and people of Eome. This was refused, and \nCffesar transported his legions to the scene of warfare as fast as pos- \nsible. In the first battle he was entirely defeated, and pursued to his \ncamp ; but Pompey neglected to secure the fruits of this advantage, \nwhich might have ended the contest. His enemy retreated to Thes- \n\n\n\n156 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nsaly, and soon made himself master of tlie wiiole province, except \nLarissa, wMcli was held by Scipio with a legion of the army of \nPompey. \n\nThat general was now prevailed on by the entreaties of all around \nhim to seek another battle, and, marching into Thessaly, encamped \non the plains of Pharsalia, where, being joined by Scipio, he awaited \nthe enemy. The event was anticipated with the greatest anxiety, \nas the fate of Rome and her immense dominions was staked upon \nthe issue of the contest. The forces of Pompey amounted to above \nfifty thousand men ; those of Caesar, to less than half that number ; \nbut these were veterans, accustomed to conquer, and trained in the \nrugged wars against the barbarians. \n\nThe hostile force approaching, both parties prepared for action; \nand it is a remarkable proof of the excellence of Cesar\'s discipline, \nthat both Pompey and he took under their immediate command \nsuch troops as had been trained and exercised by him \xe2\x80\x94 the one \nselecting the two legions from Gaul, and the other his celebrated \ntenth legion, victorious in a hundred fights. Pompey\'s cavalry, \nwhich charged first, was received in an unexpected manner, and the \nhandsome young cavaliers of whom it was principally composed, \nwere disconcerted, says Plutarch, by finding the blows of their \nenemies always directed against their eyes and faces. They were \nthrown into confusion, and fled ; and the foreign allies, after a long \nresistance, followed their example. The defeat became general, and \na terrible slaughter was committed, though Csesar cried out to spare \nthe Romans, who mostly received quarter. As he entered the \nenemy\'s camp, luxurious preparations for a banquet were found, so \nconfident had they been of victory. The victor was strongly afiected \nas he beheld the field of battle strewn with the bodies of his coun- \ntrymen, and exclaimed, as if in self-justification, " They would have \nit so!" He behaved with great clemency to the senators and other \ndistinguished prisoners, giving them their liberty, and refusing to \nread their letters to Pompey, which had been taken. Fifteen thou- \nsand of Pompey\'s soldiers had been slain in this disastrous defeat, \nand the remainder, to the number of twenty -four thousand, joined \nthe victorious army. \n\nThe defeated general, in disguise, fled to Larissa, and thence \npassing along the vale of Tempe to the sea, espied a ship, in which, \nbeing acquainted with the master, he embarked. With his wife \nCornelia, who joined him at Lesbos, he sailed for Egypt, hoping to \n\n\n\n\nTHE OBSEQUIES OF FOMPET THE GREAT. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0"\'The murderers, having cut ofT Fompey\'s head, threw the body out oJ\' the \nboat naked, and left it exposed to all Avho "were desirous of such a sight. \nPhilip staid till their curiosity "was satisfied, and then "washed the hody "with \nsea "water, and "wrapped it in one of his o"wn garments. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 An \nold Pv,oman, A^rho had made sonae of his first campaigns under Pompey, came \nup, and said to Philip, \'Who are you that are pjreparing the funeral of Pompey \nthe Great?\' Philip answered, \'I am his freedman.\' \xe2\x80\x94 \'But you shall not,\' said \nthe old Pvoman, \'have this honour entirely to yourself. As a "work of piety \noffers itself, let me have a share in it, that I may not absol\'ately repent msy \nhaving passed so many years in a foreign country; hut, to compensate many \nmisfortunes, may have the consolation of doing some of the last honours to \nthe greatest general E-ome ever produced.\'" \xe2\x80\x94 Plutakch\'s Lives \n\n\n\nEOME. IQ\'J \n\nfind a refuge with Ptolemy. By order of tlie perfidious advisers of \nthis prince he was assassinated, and his head embalmed and sent to \nCsesar ; who, however, turned in horror from the spectacle, and burst \ninto tears. \n\nHaving arrived in Egj\'-pt with forty thousand men, and finding \nhis rival no more, he undertook, as Eoman consul, to settle the \nsuccession to the throne, which was disputed between Ptolemy and \nhis sister, the famous Cleopatra (U. C. 706). Meeting with a vigor- \nous resistance from the supporters of Ptolemy, he espoused the \ncause of Cleopatra; who, by her charms and address, gained him \nentirely over to her wishes. He soon found his undertaking a \ndifl&cult one ; was besieged in Alexandria, and nearly lost his life ; \nbut was at length relieved by a faithful adherent, Mithridates \nPergamenus, who marched to his assistance with a numerous army. \nHaving effected a junction, the allies defeated the Egyptians with \ngreat loss; Ptolemy lost his Hfe, and Cassar found himself in undis- \nputed possession of Egypt. \n\nAfter appointing Cleopatra (by whom he had a son, Cesarion,) \nqueen of the country, and after revelling in her company for a long \ntime, he was aroused by the necessity of opposing Pharnaces, son \nof the great Mithridates, who had seized Armenia and Colchis, and \ndefeated the Roman legate. He was defeated in his turn by Caesar, \nwith such ease and expedition, that the victor, in giving an account \nof the affair at Rome, simply wrote, " Vem, vidi^ vicir \xe2\x80\x94 "I came, I \nsaw, I conquered," \n\nIn his absence he had been chosen consul, dictator, and tribune \nat Rome, whither he repaired in time to allay the disorders excited \nby his deputy, Antony, who had filled the place with riot and \ndebauchery. Order being restored, he set out for Africa^ where the \nremains of Pompey\'s party had rallied under Scipio and Cato, \nassisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. He gained a complete victory, \nand all the opposing generals were slain, with the exception of Cato. \nThis great man and true patriot, perceiving the liberties of his \ncountry at an end, destroyed his own life by falling on his sword. \n\nThe victor returned to Rome, and astonished the people by the \nsplendour of his triumphs. He next provided for the veterans who \nhad served him so faithfully, and conciliated the citizens with shows \nand donations. Fresh honours and dignities were showered upon \nhim by the subservient senate ; and his administration was so moder- \nate and judicious, that he seemed in some degree to deserve them. \n\n\n\n258 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nCneius and Sextus, the sons of Pompey, and Labienus, his general, \nagain raised the standard of civil war in Spain, and the dictator \nwas compelled to leave Eome in person to oppose them. After the \nwar had been protracted for some time by sieges and other fruitless \noperations, the two armies encountered in the field. After a most \ndesperate contest, in which Caesar declared that he had often before \nfought for victory, but never for life till then, his opponents were \ndefeated, with a loss of thirty thousand men, and the death of Cneius \nPompey and Labienus. Sextus escaped, and afterwards became \nhighly distinguished in naval warfare. \n\nThe remainder of Csesar\'s life was passed in improving the city \nand the vast empire, which might now be considered almost entirely \nhis own. He rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, commenced other works \nof public utility, and was revolving great plans of conquest and \nex|)loration, when conspiracy put an end to his days. He had been \ncreated perpetual dictator, and was supposed to have an intention \nof assuming the title of king, a name always odious to the Eoman \npeople. A scheme for his assassination was formed by no less than \nsixty senators and men of noble birth \xe2\x80\x94 ambition instigating some, \nand patriotism the rest. At the head of this design were Brutus, a \ndescendant of the ancient patriot of that name, and Cassius, the \npraetors of Eome. Both had been pardoned by Caesar after the \nbattle of Pharsalia, and he had distinguished Brutus by his friend- \nship and many marks of favour. The terrible deed was consummated \nin the senate-house on the ides of March. The dictator, attacked \non all sides by gleaming daggers, defended himself with great \ncourage until he received a wound from Brutus, when he exclaimed, \n"Thou too, my son!" and covering his face with his mantle, yielded \nto his fate. He fell covered with wounds, at the base of Pompey\'s \nstatue, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and after fourteen years of \nalmost uninterrupted conquest (U. C. 710. B. C. 44). \n\n\n\nHOME. \n\n\n\n159 \n\n\n\nu tl dX iJ jj Ja dPi tAj \n\n\n\nTHE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. \n\nAfter this terrible act, tlie conspirators retired to the capitol, \nwhich they fortified; Antony, the consul, and Lepidus, with their \nsoldiers, occupied the forum, seized the papers and effects of the late \ndictator, and assembled the senate. This body, placed in an embar- \nrassing position, pursued a middle course, granting pardon to the \nconspirators, and yet confirming all the acts and decrees of Caesar. \nAntony took advantage of this, by falsifying accounts, to dispose \nof the immense wealth of the deceased to further his own views; \nand at the funeral highly inflamed the sympathy and indignation of \nthe people. He read to them the will, in which it was provided that \nOctavius Csesar, his grand-nephew, should be his heir, and in which \nlarge bequests were made to the Koman people. Further showing \nthem the bloody robe of Ctesar, covered with stabs, he excited such \nfury in the popular mind, that the conspirators thought it most \npradent to retire from Rome. \n\nTwo fresh competitors for power appeared ; young Octavius, and \nLepidus, a man of ambition and great wealth. Antony thought it \nwise to enter into a league with these, and thus was formed the \nSecond Triumvirate, an unprincipled dujue, holding in their hands \nthe destiny of Rome and her numerous provinces. At their first \nmeeting, it was determined that the government should be shared \namong them ; that all power should be lodged in their hands, under \nthe title of the Triumvirate, for five years; that Lepidus should \ntake Spain; Antony, Gaul; and Octavius, Africa and the islands. \nItaly and the eastern provinces were to remain undivided until all \ntheir enemies were suppressed. Lists of proscription were presented, \nand each surrendered his friends to the common cause: Lepidus, \nhis brother Paulus; Antony, his uncle Lucius; and Octavius, the \ngreat Cicero. \n\nThe principal conspirators, who had fled, raised each a powerful \narmy, Brutus in Macedonia, and Cassius in Syria, where he com- \npletely defeated Dolabella, Antony\'s lieutenant. Antony and \n\n\n\nIQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nOctavius, with forty legions, set out to meet them. After subduing \nthe Lycians and Ehodians, Brutus and Cassius, whose forces were \nnow united, approached the city of Philippi, in Macedon, where the \ntriumvirs lay encamped. \n\nThe forces on each side were great; those of the conspirators \namounting to eighty thousand foot and twenty thousand of cavalry, \nand those of their opponents to an hundred thousand foot and \nthirteen thousand horse. The position of the former was the most \nadvantageous, and in an endeavour to cut oS" their communication \nwith the sea, a general engagement was brought on. The forces of \nthe Triumvirate, Octavius being ill, were commanded by Antony, \nwho made a fierce attack on the ranks of Cassius. Brutus, on his \nside, charging the enemy with great impetuosity, routed them, and \npenetrated to their very camp. While, however, they were engaged \nin plunder, the division of Cassius, in spite of his bravery and \nexertions, was defeated, and, supposing the battle lost, he put an \nend to his life. \n\nBrutus, now left in sole command, reassembled his army, and \nreanimated their courage. For twenty days he remained encamped, \nand then, at the urgent solicitation of his troops, hazarded another \nengagement. After gaining great advantages where he commanded \nin person, the battle was lost by the flight of the soldiers who had \nbelonged to Cassius ; and after performing the most desperate feats \nof valour, he was compelled to retreat, and ended his life by falling \non his sword. \n\nTheir enemies subdued, the triumvirs divided the dominions of \nEome, and pursued a career of irresponsible authority \xe2\x80\x94 ^Lepidus, \nhowever, having rather the semblance than the reality of power. \nExecutions went on among the proscribed, and many of the first \nmen in the empire were sacrificed to their vengeance. \n\nAntony now gave free vent to that lawless spirit of revelry and \nlicentiousness for which he had always been notorious. Passing in a \nmagnificent manner through the East, he distributed crowns, exacted \ntribute, and divided nations with his usual caprice. His most inti- \nmate friend was Herod, whom he made king of Judea, and his \nfavourite mistress Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. Entirely capti- \nvated by her talents and beauty, he abandoned himself to pleasure, \nand committed a thousand extravagances. \n\nMeanwhile, Octavius, more prudently, led back the army into \nItaly, and conciliated the afiections of his soldiers by providing \n\n\n\nKOME. \n\n\n\n161 \n\n\n\nthem with lands. To effect this, he expelled from their homes a \ngreat number of unfortunate farmers and shepherds; among them \nthe poet Virgil, who, however, had sufficient interest to regain his \npatrimony. Italy was now in great distress; the licentious soldiery \nplundered at their will, and Sextus Pompey, who was master of the \nseas, cut oi3f the usual supplies of corn, and added the terror of \nfamine to the former calamities. A fresh civil war soon ensued. \n\nFulvia, the wife, and Lucius, the brother of Antony, took up \narms, under pretext that he had been overlooked in the distribution \nof lands. They were soon vanquished by Octavius, and Antony \nin person sailed with a large fleet to sustain his interests in Italy. \nAssisted by Sextus Pompey, he landed at Brundusium ; but, by the \nintervention of friends, peace was brought about, and was further \nconfirmed by the marriage of Antony (his wife having died) to \nOctavia, the sister of his rival. \n\nA new division of the world was now agreed upon. Octavius \ntook the Western portion of the empire, Antony the East, and \nLepidus the provinces in Africa. The Peloponnesus, and many of \nthe Mediterranean islands, were assigned to Pompey. \n\nThis peace continued for some time; Antony carrying on war \nagainst the Parthians, Octavius being engaged in quieting the \nprovince of Gaul, and Pompey securing his new possessions. The \nlatter, however, considering himself aggrieved by Antony, renewed \nhostilities, again cutting off supplies from Italy. Octavius, who \nencountered him at sea, was defeated, and his fleet, reinforced by \nAntony, was twice disabled by tempests. A second attempt, under \nAgrippa, was more successful, and Pompey, after resolutely contend- \ning with ill fortune for some time, was taken and slain. \n\nLepidus, who, on the death of Pompey, with a strong force had \ntaken possession of Sicily, was next overthrown. Octavius, repair- \ning boldly to his camp, deposed him by the aid of his own soldiers, \nand banished him to Circaeum. \n\nThere now remained but one rival to his ambitious designs upon \nthe empire of the world. Fortune seemed to second his wishes, for \nAntony returned in disgrace from his expedition against Parthia; \nand now, utterly neglectful of his interest, and that of the state, was \nspending his time in revelry and dissipation with Cleopatra. He \ngranted her most of the adjoining countries, and Octavius, taking \nadvantage of the dissatisfaction which these proceedings occasioned \nat Eome, sent out his wife Octavia, as if for the purpose of reclaim- \n11 \n\n\n\n162 THE PEOPLE\'S- BOOK OF IIISTOKY. \n\ning him, but in reality, to gain a pretext for hostilities. The event \nanswered his expectation ; Antony, without seeing his wife, ordered \nher to return, and completed his career of folly by repudiating her, \nand openly espousing Cleopatra. On this occasion, dressed in the \ncharacter of Bacchus, (Cleopatra representing that of Isis,) he made \na grand theatrical display in public, confirming all his previous \ngrants, and associating her son Csesarion in the government; and \nconcluded by sending a full account of his ridiculous pageant to the \nconsuls at Eome. \n\nOctavius now prepared for war, but was detained for more than a \nyear by his preparations, and by an insurrection of the lUyrians, \nwhich he found himself obliged to qiiell. At length, with immense \nand nearly equal forces, drawn from the east and west, the rivals \nmet near Actium, a city of Epirus, on the gulf of Ambracia. The \narmy of each amounted to about an hundred thousand men, but \nAntony\'s fleet, five hundred in number, was more numerous than \nthat of his antagonist. \n\nThe battle was fought by sea, their armies, from opposite sides of \nthe gulf, surveying the scene, and encouraging the combatants. \nAfter the contest had continued with great fury for some time, it was \ndecided against Antony by the flight of Cleopatra, who, with sixty \nsail, deserted the scene of action. She was soon followed by her \nlover, whose infatuated passion thus cost him the empire of the \nworld. His army followed the example of their leader, and finally \njoined the ranks of the victor. \n\nHe fled to Egypt with the queen, and each made proposals to \nOctavius of peace and submission. No answer was returned to \nAntony, and, imitating Timon the misanthropist, he shut himself \nup in a small house surrounded by the sea, and refused to hold \nintercourse with any one. The war was now transferred to Egypt, \nand Octavius marched on Alexandria. Antony, however, recallhig \nhis accustomed courage, sallied out against him, and at first com- \npletely repulsed the attack. Shortly afterwards, sending his fleet to \nengage the enemy, he had the mortification to see it join that of his \nrival, and return with it to the harbour. His cavalry also deserted \nin a body, a fresh assault which he made with his remaining forces \nwas readily repulsed, and he was compelled to reenter the city. \n\nCleopatra, whose treachery had connived at this desertion, for the \nsake of ingratiating herself with the victor, now retired to a strong \ncitadel, where she had deposited all her treasures, in hopes to make \n\n\n\nKOME. ;[g3 \n\nterms witli Octavius. Here she caused a report to be given out tliat \nshe had destroyed herself, and Antony, deserted by all the world, \nand unwilling to survive his mistress, put an end to his own life \xe2\x80\x94 \nan example which was soon followed by the queen, that she might \navoid gracing the triumph of the conqueror by her presence. Cesa- \nrion, and Antyllus the son of Antony, were also put to death by \norder of the victor. \n\n\n\nTHE EMPERORS AUGUSTUS, TIBERIUS CALIGULA, AND CLAUDIUS. \n\nOctavius now found himself in undisputed possession of the \nEoman empire, the most extensive and powerful which had ever \nexisted. The genius of the nation and its ancient characteristics had \nbecome completely changed by the long and terrible commotions \nwhich had prevailed, and by the great influx of foreigners which \nresulted from its extended intercourse and conquests. The spirit of \nnationality no longer retained its ancient hold on the affections of the \npeople, and, their armies being recruited from all parts of the world, \ncourage and conquest were no longer the exclusive attributes of the \nRoman citizen. Great wealth and luxury, and the helplessness which \naccompanies them, began to characterize the capital, as well as a \ngreat part of Italy. In the midst of desolating civil wars, and of \ngreat corruption, both public and private, the Roman rule had, how- \never, continued to extend itself, and she was now in a position to \ndictate terms to any nation in the known world. \n\nThe new dictator made a prudent and moderate use of the power \nacquired in such a sanguinary manner He reestablished the senate \nin almost its former authority, and apparently reserved nothing for \nhimself but the prerogative of enforcing obedience to the laws. In \nreality, however, his will, as commander of the legions and provinces, \nwas supreme, and the legislative body was, under him, what it sub- \nsequently became more openly under his successors, a mere instru- \nment in the imperial hands. By the wise and gentle counsels of \nMaecenas, his prime adviser, his measures were usually tempered \n\n\n\n164 THE PEOPLE\'S \xe2\x80\xa2BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nwith humanity and liberality ; and the nation existed under, perhaps, \nas free a government as it was fitted to enjoy. Judicious patronage \nwas also bestowed on learning and talent ; and the Augustan age, in \nwhich Horace, Virgil, and Ovid flourished, has always been regarded \nas a most brilliant period in letters. \n\nWhether from inclination, or from deep policy, he offered to resign \nall authority, and retire from public life. Entreated by the senate \nto retain his power, he consented to assume the government for ten \nyears; a period which was subsequently protracted during his life. \n\nFresh honours were heaped upon him. He received the name of \nAugustus (the august) and other titles of honour,* On the occasion \nof his receiving the consulship for the tenth time, all his acts, and \neven all which he should perform in future, were confirmed by the \nsenate \xe2\x80\x94 absolute power being thus openly conferred upon him. \nThese new honours and authorities, however, proved no temptation \nto a man who had already been possessed of unlimited control over \nthe empire. His laws and edicts were, in general, judicious and \nmoderate. His affability increased ; he allowed the greatest liberties \nto be taken in opposing and contradicting him ; and at times displayed \nhigh magnanimity toward his enemies. \n\nMeanwhile, his lieutenants, in various parts of the world, were \nbusily employed in protecting and extending the empire. The Can- \ntabrians were subdued in Spain by his son-in-law, Tiberius, and \nthe Germans by Lollius. The Scythians, Dacians, and Armenians, \nhaving taken up arms, were defeated and subdued. Equal success \nattended the Eoman arms in Africa, where the Getuli were reduced \nto submission by the consul Cossus. \n\nA more formidable contest was commenced by the Dalmatians \nand Pannonians, who, with more than two hundred thousand men, \ninvaded the Roman territories. This war, which lasted for three \nyears, was conducted by Tiberius and Germanicus, the latter of whom \ngained great renown by his exploits against these fierce and savage \ntribes. They were finally reduced; but a most fatal disaster shortly \nafter befell the Eoman arms (IT. C. 752). \n\nQuintilius Varus, with a numerous army, composed of the choicest \nlegions in the empire, was entangled among forests and marshes in \nGermany, and there, with all his forces, cut off by the barbarians. \n\n* The appellation of Csesar, to which Augustus had an hereditary claim, was \nafterwards assumed, in turn, by all the succeeding emperors. \n\n\n\nKOME. 165 \n\nThe grief of Augustus was extreme, and he was often heard to \nexclaim in sorrow, "Varus, restore me my legions!" \n\nGreat domestic troubles also combined to afflict him : his wife, the \nempress Livia, was of an imperious temper, and insisted on controlling \nhis measures ; his step-son Tiberius, of an unquiet disposition, was \nbanished, and Drusus, another, whom he tenderly loved, died in an \nexpedition against the Germans. The vicious and dissolute conduct \nof his daughter Julia also gave him great uneasiness. \n\nAt length, in his seventy -fourth year, oppressed with age and the \nfatigues of public employment, he associated Tiberius with himself \nin the empire, and appointed him his successor. Feeling his end \napproaching, he made his will ; and shortly after took a census of the \ninhabitants of Rome, who amounted to upwards of four millions \xe2\x80\x94 \na number twice that of London, the largest and most populous of \nmodern cities. Shortly afterwards he died, having lived seventy-six \nyears, and reigned forty-one. The display of grief at Rome, whether \nreal or affected, was great, and divine honours were decreed by the \nsenate to his memory (U. C. 765, A. D. 15.) \n\nTiberius, at the age of fifty-six, succeeded him, and, for a time, \ngave a fair promise of emulating the prudence of his predecessor, and \nshunning his faults. The eyes of the people were soon opened, \nhowever, by the death of Germanicus, his nephew, of whose increas- \ning fame he had become jealous, and whom he was supposed to have \ntaken off by poison. His natural tendency to tyranny was enhanced \nby the evil counsels of Sejanus, his crafty and unscrupulous adviser. \nAlways suspicious of conspiracy, and inclined to the most depraved \nvices, in the twelfth year of his reign the emperor left Rome for ever, \nand took up his residence in Capre^ (now Capri), a small and beau- \ntiful island in the bay of Naples, There, for ten years, immersed in \nthe vilest sensualities, and exercising the most atrocious cruelties, he \nstruck terror throughout the Roman empire. \n\nThe children of Germanicus and many other persons of distinc- \ntion were put to death ; spies and informers were scattered through \nthe cities, and the whole empire lived in perpetual distrust and alarm. \nSejanus himself, falling under suspicion, was executed, to the great \nioy of all, and numbers of his ftiends perished with him. \n\nAt length, tormented by disease, and worn out by his vices, the \ntyrant himself expired in the twenty-third year of his reign, being \nmurdered by the agents of Caius Caligula, the son of Germanicus, \nwhom he had appointed his successor in the empire. \n\n\n\n1(36 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nThe odious qualities of the new emperor were at first concealed; \nbut, as in the case of Tiberius, soon displayed themselves. His \nvanity, avarice, cruelty, and vice were unequalled. He took the \ngreatest pleasure in presiding at executions, and in witnessing and | \nprotracting the agonies of the tortured. His wild animals were \nusually fed with the bodies of the numerous wretches whom he con- i \ndemned ; and he is even said to have wished that the Eoman people \\ \nhad but a single neck, that he might destroy them at a single blow. \nDiscontented with the highest of human stations, he assumed to I \nhimself divine honours, and caused his statue to be erected in the \\ \ntemples throughout the empire With the caprice of unlimited \npower, he bestowed the highest honours upon a favourite horse; \nbuilt him a palace, and even thought of appointing him to the \nconsulship. He wished to suppress the works of Homer, and enacted \nso many other extravagances that it is but reasonable to suppose \nhim partially insane. \n\nIn the third year of his reign, (A. D. 41,) he undertook an expe- \ndition in person against the Germans and Britons, which, however, \nresulted in nothing ; and not long afterwards he was killed by Cherea, \na tribune of the Prastorian bands, at the age of twenty -nine. \n\nHis uncle, Claudius, a man of moderate abilities, was next pro- \nclaimed emperor at the age of fift}^, by the army, whose choice was \nconfirmed by the senate. He took possession of the royal palaces, \nand caused a great chest of poisons belonging to his late predecessor \nto be thrown into the Tiber \xe2\x80\x94 an injudicious act, if we may trust \nSuetonius, who says that they were of so deadly a nature as to destroy \nall the fish in the river. The first measure of the new emperor was \nto pass an act of amnesty for past offences, and to annul the savage \nedicts of Caligula. His administration was at first conducted with \nprudence, justice, and moderation. Having settled the affairs of \nseveral disputed provinces, he resolved to send an expedition into \nBritain, where his interference had been solicited by some of the \nnatives. Under Plautius the praetor, the Britons, with their king, \nCynobelinus, were several times defeated, and Claudius finally deter- \nmined to go over in person. He only remained sixteen days, yet \nthe senate decreed him a splendid triumph on his return. Plautius \nand Vespasian, however, carried on the war with great diligence, \nand after thirty battles, succeeded in reducing a part of the island to \na Eoman province. \n\nUnder Ostorius, who succeeded Plautius, they again revolted, but \n\n\n\nEOME. IQJ \n\nwere subdued, with the exception of the Silures or Welsh, who, in \ntheir inaccessible mountains, led by their brave king, Caractacus, \nmade a most valiant and obstinate resistance for nine years. At \nlength, being forced to hazard a decisive engagement, he was defeated, \nand, with his wife and daughter, taken prisoner. Being carried to \nEome, the people evinced the greatest curiosity to behold the man \nwho had so long withstood their arms ; while the captive prince, \nsurveying the magnificence around him, wondered how such a peo- \nple could covet his humble possessions in Britain. "With a somewhat \nunusual magnanimity in the Eomans, he was pardoned. \n\nClaudius, whose reign had for the most part been marked by \nlaudable conduct, was now induced by his wife, Messalina, to adopt \nmeasures more severe and cruel. Her dissolute conduct, which was \nalmost past belief, being discovered, she was condemned to death, and \nexecuted. The emperor was not more fortunate in his second wife, \nAgrippina, the daughter of Germanicus; who rendered his life ex- \nceedingly miserable, and finally destroyed him by poison (A. D. 55). \n\n\n\n\\j Jjd> cuOj (L iL J-t duo tO&j Ji Ji a \n\nTHE EMPERORS NERO, GALEA, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, TITUS, \nDOMITIAN, AND NERVA. \n\nNeeo, her son by a former marriage, succeeded to the throne at \nthe age of seventeen; and, as usual, commenced his reign with the \nappearance (and perhaps, in some degree, the reality) of virtue, \nhumanity, and justice. When a warrant of execution was presented \nfor his signature, he cried out, "Oh, that I had never learned to \nwrite!" As he advanced in years, and felt the corrupting influence \nof irresponsible power, the viler part of his nature began to develop \nitself, and the people were soon shocked at the murder of his mother, \nAgrippina, who had become troublesome to him. His career now \ndisplayed a singular compound of pleasure and cruelty. He was \nfond of the fine arts, and was somewhat skilled in music and other \nhumanizing accomplishments. These formed the occupation of his \n\n\n\nIQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\ngraver hours: his amusements were the invention and exercise of \ntortures and executions. His private vices were as enormous and \nunnatural as those of Tiberius and Caligula, and were displayed in \npublic with the most shameless ostentation. During his reign, a great \npart of the city was consumed by fire, and this conflagration has \nbeen attributed to him; he certainly enjoyed the spectacle, surveying \nit from a high tower, and chanting some verses on the destruction \nof Troy. \n\nThe Christians were now becoming a numerous sect in Eome, and \nupon them he endeavoured to fix the odium of the deed. The most \nhorrible punishments were inflicted on them, and the indignation of \nthe Eomans themselves (sufficiently hardened in general) was excited \nby the tortures which he devised to gratify his cruelty. \n\nTwo of his most distinguished victims, whom he sacrificed on \nsuspicion of conspiracy, were Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the \npoet, whom he commanded to take their own lives. Many of the \nmost eminent persons in Eome shared a similar fate. \n\nAt length, Sergius Galba, the governor of Spain, entreated by the \nEomans to deliver them from their oppressor, declared against him, \nand prepared to march toward the capital. The Preetorian guards \nalso revolted, and the senate, perceiving his power at an end, decreed \nthat he should be executed by scourging, after the rigorous manner \nof the ancient laws. To avoid this fate, he ended his life by stabbing \nhimself in the throat (A. D. 69), in the fourteenth year of his reign \nand the thirty-second of his age. \n\nGalba, at the age of seventy-two, was proclaimed emperor, but \nafter a reign of seven months, was killed in an insurrection of the \nsoldiers, and Otho, their instigator, was chosen in his stead. The \nthrone was now entirely at the disposition of the army, though the \nPraetorian bands at Eome arrogated to themselves a kind of special \nclaim upon its disposal. \n\nVitellius, who commanded in Germany, was proclaimed emperor \nby his legions, and a civil war ensued, which, however, was soon \nclosed by the complete defeat of Otho and his forces. Ere long, he \nkilled himself, after a reign of three months, and Vitellius was con- \nfirmed in his office by the senate, now accustomed always to declare \nin favour of the strongest. \n\nThe new emperor soon became abandoned to all the vices and \ncruelties of his predecessors. Gluttony, however, was his favourite \npursuit, and he ruined his friends by inviting himself to the most \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n169 \n\n\n\nexpensive entertainments at tlieir houses. The legions of the East, \nperceiving their power, revolted, and determined to make Vespasian, \ntheir commander, emperor. An army, sent to oppose them, was \ndefeated bj Antonius, his lieutenant, near Cremona, with a loss of \nthirty thousand men. Domestic quarrels soon occurred at Eome, in \nwhich the capitol was laid in ashes. Antonius, arriving before the \nwalls, commenced an assault, and the city was defended with great \nobstinacy by the imperial forces. Being finally taken by storm, a \nterrible slaughter ensued, and Vitellius, discovered in an obscure \nretreat, was killed by the soldiers, and his body cast into the Tiber \n(A. D. 70). \n\nVespasian, by the unanimous consent of both army and senate, \nwas now declared emperor, and set out for Eome, leaving his son \nTitus in command of the army destined for the reduction of Judea. \nThe terrible siege and destruction of Jerusalem which ensued, have \nbeen elsewhere described. The triumph, which was shared by Ves- \npasian and his son, was one of the most magnificent which Eome \nhad ever witnessed ; and a triumphal arch, erected in commemoration \nof the victory, yet remains, bearing the effigies of the sacred instru- \nments and writings of the Jewish nation. Vespasian reigned eight \nyears, generally with justice, though the imputation of avarice and \nsensuality is attached to his memory. \n\nHe was succeeded by Titus, (A. D. 79,) the stain left by whose \nformer cruelty and vices, was to some extent effaced by the pru- \ndence and justice of his reign, which in some degree resembled that \nof Augustus, During his time, occurred the terrible eruption of \nVesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pom- \npeii, and in which Pliny the Elder, the eminent naturalist, lost his \nlife. A\'terrible fire also occurred at Eome, succeeded by a dreadful \nplague, in which ten thousand were buried in a single day. \n\nMeanwhile, the Eomans had met with great success in Britain. \nAgricola, their commander, had subdued nearly the whole island, \nand converted it effectually into a Eoman province. The language \nand refinements of the victors were introduced. Fortresses, tem- \nples, and theatres were erected, and the people, formerly a race of \nbarbarians, became almost as polished and luxurious as their \nconquerors. \n\nTitus, after a reign of only two years, expired, in the forty-first \nyear of his age, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian \n(A. D. 81). \n\n\n\n170 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nAt first, the reign of the new emperor seemed distinguished by \ndecency, justice, and other virtues suited to his high station; but \nthe mask was soon thrown off, and he emulated the vices and cruel- \nties which had disgraced most of his predecessors. The splendid \nsuccesses of Agricola excited his envy. That distinguished of&cer \nhad lately subdued the Caledonians or Scotch; and sending out a \nfleet to circumnavigate the coast, had discovered Britain to be an \nisland. He also discovered and reduced the Orkneys, forming the \nwhole country into a civilized Roman dependency. Deprived of his \ncommand, under pretext of his assuming that of the army in Syria, \nhe returned to Rome, and soon after died, not without suspicion of \nunfair means used by the emperor. \n\nSymptoms of that decline in courage and discipline which eventu- \nally caused the destruction of the empire, were beginning at this \ntime to show themselves. The Sarmatians and Dacians had already \nbecome formidable by their incursions, and in several engagements \nhad defeated the Romans. They were, however, finally repelled, \nand further pacified by subsidies of money; a precedent which \nafterwards produced the most evil effects. \n\nThe cruelty and arrogance of the tyrant increased. Executions \non the most frivolous pretexts became as common as in the worst \ndays of Tiberius and Caligula, and divine honours were assumed in \nthe most impudent manner ; no statues of the emperor, except of \ngold and silver, being permitted. Lucius Antonius, governor of \nGrermany, seeing the general discontent, was encouraged to aspire to \nthe throne, and accordingly assumed the imperial ensigns. Being \nsupported by a powerful army, he maintained the contest for some \ntime, but was finally routed by Normandus, the imperial legate. \nFresh atrocities followed this unsuccessful attempt at revolt. The \nsenate and all men of distinction were kept in a state of continual \nalarm for their lives. At last, after an exhibition of human nature \nin its worst and most degraded form, for fifteen years, Domitian fell \nthe victim of a conspiracy, conducted by his wife and a number of \nhis officers, who had accidentally discovered their names upon a list \nfor execution (A. D. 96). \n\nHis statues were immediately taken down by order of the senate, \nand his memory was loaded with every species of contempt. \n\nThe senate, resolving to anticipate the decision of the army, \nappointed a successor on the very day which beheld the tyrant\'s \ndeath. Cocceius Nerva, the new emperor, a Spaniard by birth, was \n\n\n\nEOME. i71 \n\nabout sixtj-five years of age, and owed his exaltation to a life of \nvirtue, justice, and clemency. His reign, which lasted one year and \nfour months, was distinguished for honesty and magnanimity. \nTroubled by the mutinous spirit of the Praetorian bands, he appointed \nfor his successor Ulpius Trajanus, the governor of Germany, and \nsoon after expired, being the first foreign emperor who had sat upon \nthe Eoman throne (A. D. 96). \n\n\n\nLi iLub Jjoi iL Jb cU UJU tOOo dj Jj Jj o \n\nTRAJAN, ADRIAN, ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, COMMODUS, \n\nPERTINAX, DIDIUS, SEVERUS, CARACALLA, MACRINUS, \n\nHELIOGABALUS, ALEXANDER, MAXAMIN, \n\nGORDIAN, PHILIP, AND DECIUS. \n\nTrajan, also a Spaniard by birth, and a pupil of the celebrated \nPlutarch, was a man of great talents, both for peace and war, and \npossessed the qualities of a wise and successful monarch in no ordi- \nnary degree. His first exploit was to subdue the Dacians, who had \ngreatly infested the empire under the reign of Domitian. After an \nobstinate contest, Decabalus, their king, was routed, and compelled to \nacknowledge himself tributary to Rome, A second war, commenced \nby that king, and the capture of Longinus the Roman general, com- \npelled the emperor again to take the field. To invade their country \nthe more easily, he constructed a stupendous bridge across the \nDanube, and finally subdued their whole territory, and converted it \ninto a Roman province. The empire now seemed at the height \nof its splendour ; the most magnificent triumphs were celebrated, and \nambassadors from all parts, even from the remote regions of India, \ncame to solicit his favour. \n\nHis internal administration was equally successful and admirable, \nthough stained by a bigotry not peculiar to his time alone. A gTeat \npersecution of the Christians occurred, and was only stayed by the \nproceedings of Pliny, whose statement of his researches seemed to \nprove their innocence. During the emperor\'s absence on an expedi- \ntion in the East, the Jews, throughout many provinces, revolted, and \n\n\n\n][72 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ncommenced an indiscriminate massacre of tlie Greeks and Eomans. \nIn retaliation, they were every where put to death without mercy, \nTrajan, learning of these disorders, started on his return; but over- \npowered by illness, died at Seleucia, in the sixty-third year of his \nage, and the twentieth of his reign (A, D. 107). \n\nAdrian, his nephew, who succeeded to the throne, was of a \npacific disposition, and his accomplishments in art and learning were \ngreat. His private virtues, his magnanimity and benevolence, were \nno less conspicuous, though somewhat obscured by vices and sensu- \nalities peculiar to the age. The northern barbarians again becoming \ntroublesome, he broke down the immense bridge which his prede-, \ncessor had constructed over the Danube, and thus for a time checked \ntheir incursions. \n\nHe next prepared to make the tour of his extensive dominions, \nthat he might personally regulate and oversee the administration of \neach province. Passing through Gaul, Germany, and Holland, he \nsailed to Britain, and there, for the protection of the province \nagainst the Picts, and other barbarous Scottish tribes, built a wall \nacross the island. He thence passed into Spain, his native country, \nand returned to Eome. Called to the East by an insurrection of the \nParthians, he passed the winter in Athens, and at the intercession of \nGranianus, put a stop to the persecutions exercised against the Chris- \ntians. He passed into Africa, reformed the government of the \nprovince, and, among other public works, rebuilt the city of Carthage, \nwhich he called, after his own name, Adrianople. After visiting- \nmany provinces of the East, and among them Judea, he determined \nto rebuild the city of Jerusalem; and the Jews flocked in great \nnumbers to the pious undertaking. Their bigotry, however, incensed \nat the privileges granted to foreigners, inducing them again to attack \nand massacre the Greeks and Eomans throughout their country, \nSeverus, an able commander, was sent against them, and in a war of \ntwo years, demolished most of their cities, and put an immense \nnumber of them to the sword. A decree was also issiied, banishing \nthe whole race from Judea. \n\nThis insurrection was soon followed by an invasion of the bar- \nbarous nations from the north, who, entering Media and Armenia, \ncommitted great devastations. Following the unwise precedent of \nDomitian, Adrian, by large sums of money, induced them to retire, \nand thus, as it were, offered a premium to repeated incursions. \n\nAfter thirteen years passed in survejnng his extensive dominions, \n\n\n\nROME. \n\n\n\n173 \n\n\n\nthe emperor returned to Rome, where he was received with the \ngreatest demonstrations of joj and popular attachment. His time \nwas passed chiefly in literary pursuits, and in improving and human- \nizing the laws. Feeling the infirmities of age, he selected as his \nsuccessor Marcus Antoninus, afterwards called the Pious, and soon \nafter expired, in the sixty-second year of his age, having enjoyed a \nprosperous and popular reign of about twenty -four years (A. D. 138). \n\nAntoninus, the new emperor, was a native of the town in France \nnow called Nismes, and succeeded to the throne at the age of fifty. \nHis private and public career had been so unimpeachable that he \nwas compared to Numa, and he was equally a lover and patron of \nlearning with his predecessor. His reign for twenty -two years was \npeaceful and prosperous, and at the age of seventy-five he expired, \nhaving adopted as his successor Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161). \n\nAurelius, in compliance with a provision made by Adrian, asso- \nciated with himself in the empire Lucius Verus, whose vice and \nindolence formed a strong contrast with the virtue and energy of \nhis partner on the throne. Scarcely had they commenced their reign, \nwhen the empire was invaded on all sides by the barbarous nations \nwhich surrounded it. Those who attacked Germany were repelled, \nand the Britons, who had revolted, were subdued by Califurnius. \nBut the Parthians, led by their king, Yolegesus, committed the great- \nest ravages, destroying the Eoman forces in Armenia, seizing Syria, \nand alarming the whole East for its safety. To repress this formida- \nble invasion, Yerus set out in person ; but remaining at Antioch, left \nall the conduct of the war to his lieutenants, Priscus and Marius. \nThese, however, carried on the contest with great skill and energy, \nand in the course of four years entirely subdued the invaders, \nthough with a loss of half their own army. \n\nAurelius, meanwhile, had been engaged in the careful and judi- \ncious administration of affairs at Rome ; and had so largely increased \nthe authority of the senate, that the commonwealth seemed almost \nrestored. The return of Verus brought fresh distresses on the \nempire, both by his dissolute conduct, and by a destructive plague \nwhich his army disseminated throughout the provinces. Various \nnatural calamities, earthquakes, inundations, and famine succeeded; \nthe barbarous nations of the north renewed their hostilities on all \nsides, and even carried their invasions into Italy. A terrible perse- \ncution of the Christians also raged throughout the empire, these \ncalamities being ascribed to their impious innovations. \n\n\n\n174 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nThe emperor, marching against the Marcomanni, defeated them \nin a great engagement, and pursued them across the Alps. His \ncolleague, Yerus, dying about this time, he was left in entire posses- \nsion of the empire, and returned to Rome, but was recalled by a \nfresh irruption, which he also successfully resisted. Peace being \nrestored, he devoted himself to learning and philosophy, in which \nhe acquired great eminence. \n\nAt length, having gone to Vienna to repress a new invasion of \nthe Scythians, he was seized with the plague, of which he died, in \nthe fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned with virtue and j ustice \nfor nineteen years (A. D, 180). \n\nHis son, Commodus, who, on account of his father\'s virtues, was \npromoted to the throne, emulated the worst of his predecessors, in \nfolly, cruelty, and crime. His vices, if it were possible, exceeded \nthose of Tiberius and Caligula, and his ferocity was equal to that of \nDomitian. His death, like that of the latter, was accidentally brought \nabout by the discovery of a roll on which the names of -some of \nhis intimate associates were inscribed for execution. Anticipating \nthe blow, they secretly assassinated him, in the thirty-first year of \nhis age and the thirteenth of his reign (A. D. 191). \n\nHelvius Pertinax, who, amid the general joy of the nation, was \nchosen to succeed him, reigned for three months in the most exem- \nplary manner, and was then murdered in a mutiny of the Pr^torian \nbands, enraged at the order and discipline which he enforced. \n\nHaving committed this outrage, they put up the empire (which \ntheir violence completely controlled) for sale to the highest bidder; \nand Didius, a person of some note, by the production of large sums \nof ready money, obtained their votes. Their choice Avas confirmed \nby the senate, who were unable to resist, and Didius, in the fifty- \nseventh 3^ear of his age, was proclaimed emperor. His conduct on \nthe throne was of a neutral character, neither effecting any great \ndesigns, nor yet making himself odious by tyranny. The people, \nhowever, despised him, and as he passed through the streets, would \ncry out, that he Avas a thief, who had stolen the empire. The soldiers, \nalso, by whose support he had been elevated, soon became tired of \none who possessed neither courage nor liberality. \n\nSeverus, an African, was now proclaimed emperor by his army, \nand, rejecting a proposal of Didius to share the throne, advanced \nupon Rome. The senate, as usual, deferring to the strongest, decreed \nthat the unhappy emperor should be deposed and slain. \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n175 \n\n\n\nSeverus, the new ruler, was distinguislied for his ability, and for \na certain cunning and astuteness which were supposed peculiarly to \ncharacterize the natives of his country. By rewards and privileges, \nhe so far conciliated the army as to have exclusive control of all \nthings. Feeling his power secure at Eome, he marched against the \nParthians, over whom he obtained signal successes, and returned in \ntriumph. Plautian, a favourite officer, whom he had left in com- \nmand, conspired against his life. The plot being discovered, the \nemperor was inclined to pardon him, but the prince Caracalla, \nnaturally of a ferocious disposition, drew his sword, and ran him \nthrough the body. \n\nThe administration of Severus was marked by justice and impar- \ntiality. After regulating the affairs of Italy, he made an expedition \ninto Britain, where the Romans were on the point of succumbing to \nthe native population. Having left Caracalla in command of the \nsouthern province, he marched against the Caledonians, and after a \nlong and desperate contest, in which he lost fifty thousand men, \ncompelled them to purchase peace by the surrender of a consider- \nable part of their territories. For better security against their \nirruptions, he built the celebrated wall, extending from the Solway \nto the German Ocean, portions of which still remain in good preser- \nvation. He died at the city of York, in the sixty-sixth year of his \nage, having reigned in an able, though sometimes a cruel manner, for \neighteen years (A. D. 211). \n\nHis sons, Caracalla and Geta, whom he had appointed his success- \nors, were acknowledged by the army ; and on their arrival at Eome, \nthe latter was slain by his brother, whose cruelties soon became \nintolerable. During six years, he ruled after the manner of Nero \nand Domitian, and the empire lay entirely at the mercy of the \nsoldiery. He was then assassinated by order of Macrinus, com- \nmander in Mesopotamia, who was proclaimed in his stead by the \narmy, and confirmed as emperor by the senate (A. D. 217). After a \nreign of little more than a year, he was deposed and put to death by \na seditious portion of his legions, and Bassianus, a youth of fourteen, \nsupposed by them to be a son of Caracalla, was chosen in his place. \nOn his elevation, he assumed the title of Heliogabalus (the sun) to \nwhose priesthood he had been consecrated. During the four years in \nwhich he reigned, his licentiousness, gluttony, effeminacy, and prodi- \ngality, surpassed those of all his predecessors in empire and in vice. \nHe was slain in a mutiny and his body thrown into the Tiber. \n\n\n\nI^JQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nAlexander, liis cousin, was next proclaimed emperor, at sixteen. \nHis virtues and abilities liave been liigblj celebrated. His admin- \nistration of public affairs was conscientious and judicious, and lie \nalso excelled highly in various arts, sciences, and accomplishments. \nIn the thirteenth year of his reign, the country was subjected to an \ninvasion by immense tribes from upper Germany, and other northern \nbarbarians. The emperor, proceeding to the field in person, was cut \noff in the midst of his successes by a mutiny \xe2\x80\x94 the usual fate of the \nlatter Eoman emperors, whether good or bad. He was twenty-nine \nyears old, and had reigned thirteen (A. D. 235). \n\nMaxamin, the ringleader of this sedition, a Thracian peasant by \nbirth, and a man of gigantic stature, courage, and ferocity, was pro- \nclaimed in his stead, and carried on the war with great skill and \nenergy, laying waste the enemies\' country for four hundred miles, \nand defeating them in repeated battles. - He had determined to con- \nquer all the north, and, to conciliate the soldiery, increased their \npay, and fought hand to hand at their head. Wearied, however, \nby his cruelties, and fatigued with warfare, they killed him while \nsleeping in his tent, in the sixty -fifth year of his age, after a reign \nof three years. \n\nPapienus and Balbanus, who had been named as emperors, were \nboth in a brief time slaughtered by the Prsetorian bands, and the \nmutinous soldiery placed Gordian, a youth of sixteen, upon the \nthrone. After a sufiiciently prosperous reign of five years, he was \nungratefully slain by Philip, the Prcetorian prsetor, whom the army \nimmediately acknowledged (A. D. 243). \n\nAfter reigning about as long as his victim, he perished, as usual, \nby a mutiny, and the commander, Decius, was declared emperor \nby the army, (A. D. 248, U. C. 1001). His energy and wisdom \nseemed in some degree to revive the better days of the common- \nwealth; and the senate, whose authority he had increased, voted \nhim equal to Trajan. \n\nThe empire was now deeply distracted by continual contests \nbetween the Christians and heathens thror 2rhoiit its limits, and by \nperpetual irruptions of the barbarous nations upon its borders. \nThe emperor was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy after a reign \nof two years and a half. \n\n\n\nEOME. I\'j^ \n\n\n\nuiUAiixiliii Aiv \n\n\n\nGALLUS, YALERIAN, GALIENUS, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS, AUUELIAN, \nTACITUS, PROBUS, CARUS, DIOCLESIAN, CONSTANTIUS \n\nAND GALERIUS, AND CONSTANTINE. REMOVAL \n\nOF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE TO BYZANTIUM. \n\nGallus, wIlo succeeded to Decius, bouglit a disgraceful peace by \npaying an annual tribute to tbe Goths, tbus laying tbe foundation \nof future exaction and invasion. Under bis reign, a general license \nwas given of persecuting tbe Christians throughout the empire. A \ntremendous pestilence also raged over a great part of the earth, \n^milianus, his lieutenant, having gained a victory over the Goths, \nwas proclaimed emperor by the army, and in the civil war which \nensued, Gallus, with his son, was slain in battle near Mesia, after a \nreign of little more than two years (A. J). 253). The claims of \n^milianus not being acknowledged by the senate, Yalerian, who \ncommanded near the Alps, was elevated to the throne by his army, \nand endeavoured to effect some reformation in the corrupted state. \nHe was soon taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, who had \ninvaded Syria ; and it is said that the Persian, with unmanly insult \ntoward his captive, was in the habit of using him as a footstool to \nmount his horse. After suffering every outrage and indignity for \nseven years, he was put to death with atrocious cruelty. \n\nOn his imprisonment, Galienus, his son, was chosen emperor, and \nwhile enjoying the pleasures, without the fatigues of empire, a great \nnumber of competitors for power started up. These numerous \nrivals, usually called the Thirty Tyrants, filled the whole country \nwith violence and civil war. Galienus, having taken the field to \nassert his authority, was slain by his own soldiers while laying siege \nto Milan (A. D. 268). \n\nFlavins Claudius, who had distinguished himself by services \nagainst the Goths, succeeded to the throne; which, however, he \nenjoyed but two years, dying of a fever in Pannonia. He was the \nfirst emperor who, for a long time, had met with a natural death. \n\nAurelian, a Dacian, renowned i\'or his generalship and personal \n12 \n\n\n\n178 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY \n\n\n\nvalour, was next elevated to the imperial rank, and conducted the \ngovernment with great. energy and ability. Among other exploits, \nhe took Palmyra, the celebrated "Tadmor" of Solomon, and brought \nthe queen, Zenobia, to grace his triumph at Eome. He was slain \nin a conspiracy, in the sixty-third year of his age, after a reign of \nfive years (A. D. 275). \n\nThe senate, which had now regained much of its former authority, \nto supply his place, made choice of Tacitus, a man of worth and \nability, but seventy-five years of age. In six months he died, and \nthe army, by common consent, proclaimed Probus emperor. He \nhad been distinguished for personal valour and integrity, and during \na reign of six years, did much to repel the incursions of the barba- \nrians, now becoming more fierce and frequent on all sides. He was \nslain in a mutiny, the common fate of the latter emperors (A. D. \n282). Carus, his Praetorian prefect, who succeeded him, was killed \nby lightning; and his son Numerian, was assassinated by Aper, his \nfather-in-law. The murderer, in his turn, was slain by Dioclesian, \nwho ascended the throne (A; D. 284). \n\nHe was of low parentage, but of great ability, and had served in \nvarious ofiices with much, distinction. A vast swarm of northern \nbarbarians now infested the empire. Ketiring to their cold and \ninaccessible retreats at the approach of a Roman army, as soon as it \nwas withdrawn they would sally forth, and commit fresh ravages. \nAmong these savage tribes were the Scythians, Goths, Sarmatians, \nAlani, Catti, &c., who inhabited a region extending from Denmark \nto the eastern confines of Russia. They were repeatedly defeated \nby the emperor, who, after a reign of twenty years, retired from the \ngovernment, and with him his partner Maximian, whom he had \nassociated in the empire (A. D. 304, .U. C. 1057). \n\nThe successors whom they appointed, Constantius and Galerius, \nwere readily acknowledged. Both were men of courage, but the \nformer was distinguished by his virtues, the latter by his vices. \nThey shared the government of the empire, Constantius taking the \nwest, and his colleague the East. Both died, and Constantine, son \nof the former, and afterwards called the Great, was appointed as \nsuccessor to his father. \n\nMaxentius, a steady supporter of the ancient idolatrous faith, had \npossession of Rome, and Constantine marched against him. On this \njourney he is said to have seen a miraculous cross in the heavens, \nwhich caused his conversion to Christianit}^ The cause assigned is \n\n\n\nEOME. \xe2\x96\xa0^\'jy \n\nan exceedingly improbable one, but it is certain that lie professed \ntlie new religion, perhaps in deference to tbe wislies of liis soldiers, \nwlio were mostly Christians. With an army of about an hundred \nthousand, he advanced towards the gates of Eome; and his rival, \nwith forces nearly twice as numerous, sallied forth to meet him. \nThe engagement was fierce and destructive, but Maxentius was \nrouted, and in the retreat lost his life. \n\nBeing now in almost entire possession of the empire, Constantine \nabolished death by the cross, and issued edicts in favour of the \nChristians. Maximin, who held command in the east, ambitious of \nhigher authority, marched upon Licinius, the partner of Constantine, \nwith a numerous army, but was defeated, and soon after died. \n\nMutual jealousy soon caused a fresh rupture between the col- \nleagaes themselves, and with powerful forces on each side, they met ; \nLicinius relying on the protection of the ancient divinities, and his \nadversary on the prayers of the Christian clergy. After several \nengagements, the former was defeated, and surrendered himself into \nthe hands of Constantine, on condition that his life should be spared. \nThe emperor, however, violating his agreement, put him to death. \n\nFinding himself now confirmed in supreme authority, he made \nChristianity the national religion, and invested the bishops with \nextensive powers. He was diligent in the suppression of heresy, \nand banished, among others, Arius, the celebrated promulgator of \nnew doctrines, into a remote part of the empire. \n\nHis domestic life was a tragic one ; and he put to death his wife \nFausta, and his son Crispus, though for what provocation is not \nclearly understood. \n\nThe most important measure of his reign, and one which may be \nsaid to have ended the history of the Roman empire, was his \nremoval of the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, called \nafter him, Constantinople. The nation had long been in an unset- \ntled and dangerous condition, from internal corruption and foreign \ninvasion ; and this removal, by withdrawing from Italy the wealth \nand the forces necessary to protect her against the savage nations \nwhich surrounded her, was ultimately the cause of the destruction \nand dismemberment of the empire. \n\nThe situation of the new capital was, and still remains, one of the \nmost beautiful on earth. It lies on that magnificent strait, connect- \ning the Euxine with the Mediterranean, the shores of which, even \nnow, are for many leagues lined with palaces and temples. Here \n\n\n\nIQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe emperor built a splendid city, adorned with a capitol, an amphi- \ntheatre, and many churches; and about two years afterwards, to the \ngreat mortification of the Eomans, removed thither, with all his \ncourt (A. D. 332, U. C. 1084). \n\nEre long, the Goths took advantage of the withdrawal of the \ngarrisons from the Danube, and ravaged the frontiers with great \nferocity. They were, however, repulsed by Constantine, and lost \nnearly an hundred thousand of their number by famine and \nexposure. \n\nAt the age of sixty-two, the emperor expired, after a long, active, \nand eventful reign of thirty-two years (A. D. 343). Before his \ndeath, he had divided the empire among his three sons ; Constantine, \nthe eldest, having command of Gaul and the western provinces; \nConstantius, the second, of Africa and Illyricum ; and Constans, the \nyoungest, of Italy. \n\n\n\nUitiiiirxjiidil, JLV \n\n\n\nDECLINE AND DISSOLUTION OP THE EMPIRE. \n\n\n\nFeom this time the vast and unwieldy empire, which had so long \ngiven laws to the world, fell gradually into decay. Few of the princes \nwho succeeded Constantine inherited his abilities ; and the history \nof Rome henceforth presents the painful spectacle of a degenerate \nnation, enervated by luxury and effeminacy, gradually becoming the \nprey of barbarous tribes, which possessed the rude courage and \nfierceness that had been the foundation of her own greatness. \n\nThe northern races now commenced to pour down upon the fer- \ntile valleys and plains of Italy, in such vast numbers, that it seemed \nas if "the store-house of nations," the immense and unknown \nregion whence they came, must at last be exhausted. Yet fresh \nhordes still poured forth to fill the places of those who perished in \nbattle, or settled down on their newly-conquered possessions. \n\nThe eastern emperors, degenerating into luxurious oriental \npotentates, offered in general but a feeble resistance. The reign of \n\n\n\nEOME. IQl \n\nConstantius, wlucli lasted thirty-eight years, was weak and ineffi- \ncient. Julian, who succeeded him, (called the Apostate, from his \nhaving returned to the ancient religion,) was indeed a wise and \nvaliant monarch ; he expelled the barbarians from their new settle- \nments on the Ehine, and during his reign, which lasted but two \nyears, did much for the preservation of the empire. Among his \nsuccessors, Jovian and Valentinian emulated his example, and the \nlatter fortified the frontiers with castles, garrisons, and permanent \nstations of soldiery. \n\nA new and unexpected enemy was added to the former foes of \nthe empire. The Huns and Alans, a fierce and numerous people \nfrom the south-east of Russia, leaving their unexplored regions, \npoured, in immense bodies, into the country of the Goths. The \nlatter, driven into the Roman territories, in a fierce engagement, \ndestroyed the emperor Valens and the greater part of his army. \n\nFrom this time, their own forces being lessened, and difficult to \nlevy, it became customary among the emperors to engage one tribe \nof barbarians, by hire, to defend them against others; a pernicious \npractice, which brought the empire more and more under the power \nof its enemies. By a series of attacks, its limits became gradually \ndiminished. The northern tribes seized on Thrace, Mysia, and \nPannonia, and afterwards on Macedonia, Thessaly, and Greece \nitself. Italy was now defended only by its own frontier, and \nthough Theodosius, by his valour and ability, kept the enemy at \nbay for a time, after his death they proceeded almost without \nopposition. \n\nAlaric, king of the Goths, with a large body of his troops, had \nbeen engaged to assist in the defence of the empire ; but perceiving \nthe weak and inefficient rule of Arcadius and Honorius, the suc- \ncessors of Theodosius, thought he might turn his forces to better \naccount by attacking his employers. For some years his success \nwas doubtful; but at last receiving fresh reinforcements from the \npopulous forests of the north, he passed the Alps, and overran the \nfertile plains of Italy. \n\nThe inhabitants, enfeebled by long luxury, offered but little \nresistance, and the emperor Honorius, who was at Ravenna, did \nnothing to avert the storm. Rome itself, which for eight hundred \nyears had not seen a foreign enemy at its gates, was besieged, and \nsuffered the greatest extremities from famine and pestilence. The \nsenate entreating terms of peace, the invader demanded all their \n\n\n\n][32 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nriclies and slaves. Being asked what lie would leave tliem, lie \nsternly answered "their lives;" and to these hard conditions they \nwere compelled to submit. By surrendering all their valuables, and \neven stripping their temples, the invader was bought off for a time ; \nbut, whether from avarice or vengeance, he returned, and gave the \ncity up to plunder. During this terrible devastation, which con- \ntinued for three days, innumerable works of art and precious records \nwere devoted to destruction (A. D. 410, U. C. 1163). \n\nEre long the city was again ravaged by Genseric, king of the \nYandals, and for fourteen days the inhabitants, the temples, habit- \nations, and all it contained, were delivered up to the fury of his \nlicentioiis soldiery. From this time the western portion of the \nempire was in effect at an end. The Yandals and other tribes had \npossession of Spain, and the Goths and Burgundians of Gaul. The \nHuns had seized Pannonia, and Italy was again and again overrun \nb}^ various barbarous nations. Britain and Armorica were deserted, \nand left to their own guidance ; and at last, with the abdication of \nAugustulus, the very name of Emperor of the West (which had long \nbeen only a name) expired; and Odoacer, the leader of the Heruli, \nassumed the title of King of Italy. \n\nThus ended the Eoman empire, after a continuance of more than \ntwelve hundred years, during which it had conquered and governed \nthe greater part of the known world. Its decline and fall are to be \nattributed to the luxurious habits engendered by wealth, and to the \nvast extension of its dominions, which at length extinguished all \nnational sentiment, and rendered the government of such various \nand widely-extended regions impossible to any except men of the \nhighest order of talent. Its final dissolution occurred one hundred \nand forty-six years after the removal of the capitol to Constantinople \n(A. D. 476, U. C. 1229). \n\n\n\nPERSIA. \n\n\n\nuiwciltLriiuili i \n\n\n\nHISTOEY OF PERSIA BEFOEE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. . \n\nThe records of tlie early national existence of Persia, like- those \nof most oriental countries, were nearly all swept away by the first \nflood of Mahometan barbarism. It appears to have been a matter \nof conscience with these fanatical conquerors, to devote all written \nrecords to destruction ; and thus the most valuable and noble monu- \nments of history, science, and literature, have perished for ever. \nThe little information which we possess, relating to ancient Persian \nhistory, is derived principally from the sacred writings, and from \nthe accounts of early Greek historians. That singular work, the \n"Shah Nameh, or History of Kings," written mostly by the cele- \nbrated poet Ferdusi, embodies a few authentic traditions, with some \nimperfect information derived from the Greeks, and a vast mass of \nimpossible fable and imagination. \n\nIt would be vain to attempt a discrimination between the true \nand fabulous portions of the native Persian chronicles anterior to \nthe year B. C. 747. The tales of the Paishdadian kings, to one \nof whom, as to the "three emperors" of China, was attributed the \ninvention and introduction of divers useful arts ; of Tahmuras bat- \ntling with the Deeves, or magicians; or of "E Furrookh, the \nFortunate, " reigning gloriously for a period of five hundred years, \ncan scarcely claim a place in a compend of sober history. Occa- \n, sionally, among these wild legends we may notice an incident, the \nquaintness and originality of which commend it to our minds as \nbeing founded upon a truthful origin. Such is the story of the \ncourageous Kawah, who, although but a poor blacksmith, headed an \n\n\n\n184 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ninsurrection against the tyrant Zoliauk; overcame him, and delivered \nthe regal authority to Feridoon, afterwards surnamed "the Fortu- \nnate," a descendant of the former kings. Zohauk was a Syrian \nprince, who had invaded Persia, and possessed himself of the sov- \nereignty. Points of identity have been suggested by some writers \nbetween this monarch and the Nimrod of the Hebrew scriptures. \nKawah\'s leathern apron, which he hoisted as a standard in this \nwarfare, was afterwards emblazoned with precious stones, and used \nas the banner of many successive kings. It was taken as a trophy \nby the Mahometans in the time of the Caliph Omar. \n\nThe prowess and valorous deeds of Eustum, form a prominent \ntheme for the fabulous tales of Persian poets and story-tellers. That \nsuch a person existed, and that he flourished during the reign of \nManucheher, grandson of Feridoon, there canbe little doubt; but what \npart he actually took in the politics and warfare of his age, is at best \nbut a subject of uncertain conjecture. His exploits,\' as related by \nFerdusi, rival those of Hercules. \n\nIt can hardly be affirmed, with certainty, that Persia existed as an \nindependent kingdom before the time of Sardanapalus, the last of \nthe Assyrian monarchs. In the year B. C. 747, which we have \nmentioned as the earliest reliable date in Persian history, this unfor- \ntunate king, sunk in luxury and effeminacy, was overpowered and \nslain by Arbaces and Belesis, governors of Media and Babjdon, \nassisted by the forces of various other nobles who had joined in \ntheir conspiracy. \n\nBefore the time of the celebrated Cyrus, Persia is said to have \nbeen chiefly inhabited by a pastoral and wandering people, divided \ninto ten principal tribes, and owning a patriarchal government. \nThis great conqueror, whose name occurs so frequently in the prophe- \ncies of Holy Writ, having, upon the union of these hitherto distinct \nhordes, obtained the chief authority, overcame the declining king- \ndoms of Media and Babylon, and extended his conquests to the \nshores of the Mediterranean. These events took place between five \nand six centuries before the Christian era. \n\nCyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who overcame Egypt, \nand possessed himself of extensive dominions in other portions of \nnorthern Africa. It has been conjectured by some, that this mon- \narch was the Ahasuerus mentioned in the Jewish scriptures. \n\nThe impostor and usurper Pseudo Smerdis, having been dethroned \nand slain in a conspiracy headed by Otanes and six other* noblemen, \n\n\n\nPERSIA. 135 \n\nDarius Hystaspes, one of tlie number, obtained tlie throne. The \nconspirators had left it, as they supposed, to chance to decide which \nof them should be invested with the supreme authority ; but the \ningeniiity of a groom of Darius secured him the advantage. \n\nHe was the first Persian king who attempted an invasion of either \nof the European nations, and although in some measure successful, \nhe thereby entailed disaster and destruction upon his successors. He \ncrossed the Bosphorus with a large army, and took possession of \nMacedon, extending his power into Thrace. The Scythians had \npreviously checked his advance upon their dominions northward of \nthe Danube. \n\nDarius regulated and organized the civil government and the \nmihtary force of his dominions in a much more efficient manner \nthan had been before accomplished. He instituted a regular com- \nmunication with the various satrapies, in order to exercise over \ntheir rulers a wholesome restraint and supervision. He increased \nthe power and discipline of his army by the introduction of hired \nsoldiers from the Grecian states; and, upon pressing occasions, \nresorted to a system of conscription for the purpose of adding to the \nnumber of his troops. \n\nBy the command of this monarch, Scylax, a Greek navigator, \nundertook his celebrated voyage from the eastern border of Persia \nto Egypt. This was a more extensive and adventurous undertaking \nthan might at first be supposed ; no similar attempt having been \npreviously made, so far as we have any information. Of the diffi- \nculties and delays which were encountered in its accomplishment, \nwe may judge from the fact, that the voyage occupied between two \nand three years. The expedition was fitted out at Caspatyra, a town \nfive or six hundred miles from the mouth of the Indus. \n\nA successful invasion of several Indian provinces was the result \nof the information obtained by Darius from those to whom he had \nentrusted this adventure. \n\nTowards the end of this reign, the prevailing success of the \nPersian arms met with several checks and reverses. Insurrections \nbroke out in Egypt, and among the Grecian inhabitants of Asia \nMinor. His success in suppressing the revolt in the latter, encour- \naged Darius to undertake the subjection of the allies of his rebellious \nsubjects across the Hellespont. With a great force, his son-in-law \nMardonius entered Macedonia, and obtained complete possession of \nthat province and of several others upon its border; but disaster at \n\n\n\n156 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nsea, and a destructive attack by the Thracians detracted from the \nrenown and advantage of the expedition. A second attempt upon \nAthens, resulted in a total defeat of the Persian forces by the Athe- \nnians under the command of the famous Miltiades, upon the plains \nof Marathon. This engagement, than which none in the annals of \nwarfare has been more universally celebrated, occurred on the 29th \nday of September (B. C. 490). \n\nIn the midst of immense preparation to repair the losses and dis- \nhonour thus incurred, the crown devolved upon Xerxes I. by the \ndeath of his father, in the year B. C. 485. Upon a comparison of \nthe writings of Josephus with the records of the Old Testament, it \nwould seem that Darius was the king by whose protection and \nfavour Jerusalem was rebuilt, and the implements of sacred cere- \nmonies restored to the temple. During his reign, flourished ZOroas. \nter, the great philosopher and theologian of Persia, who inculcated \nthe worship of fire. Some have maintained that Zoroaster was but \na title assumed by successive legislators, and others that there were \ntwo of that name. Whether these suppositions are true or false, \nno accurate record enables us to decide. It is singular that none of \nthe Greek historians mention the name of Zoroaster, nor do they \ndescribe any other individual, whose acts or reputation would seem \nto identify the same historical character. \n\nIn the native Persian histories, we notice equally surprising \nomissions of heroes and conquerors, with whose names, from other \nrecords, we are exceedingly familiar. \n\nOf Xerxes I., whose memorable expedition and disgraceful defeat, \nhave been so minutely described by Herodotus, no mention is made \nin any of the chronicles of Persia; the dominion of his father, by \nthem styled Gushtasp, being represented as occupying about the \nspace of time included in the reigns of both. \n\nThe first military operation of Xerxes was to quell the revolt in \nhis Egyptian dominions. In this he was completely successful, his \nforces under his brother Achaemenes overrunning the country, and \ncompletely subjugating the native inhabitants. \n\nAfter this, followed a three years\' preparation for a campaign in \nGreece, which should atone for former injuries, and wipe away the \ndisgrace of the Persian arms in the preceding reign. \n\nThe whole body finally set in motion for the subjugation of that \nlittle state, including women, sutlers, and servants of the camp, was \nestimated by the most reliable Greek authors at more than two \n\n\n\nPEESIA. \n\n\n\n187 \n\n\n\nmillions of souls. Eiglity thousand of tliese were mounted troops: \nan immense train of camels and chariots accompanied them, and the \nflotilla provided for their transportation across the Hellespont and \nto cooperate at sea with the manoeuvres of the land forces, is said to \nhave been composed of three thousand vessels. The conflicting \nemotions which agitated the mind of the haughty monarch, on \nreviewing the whole of his vast armament from a height by the sea- \nshore, have formed a subject for remark by historians of all ages. \n\nThe entire force passed into Thrace, crossing the Hellespont by \nmeans of a bridge of boats, and met with little resistance from the \ninhabitants of that country. Several years are said to have been \nspent in further fruitless preparations; but when, at last, the \ninvading army, in numbers apparently sufficient to bear down all \nopposition, poured into Grreece, it was only to meet with the most \ndetermined resistance, and to sustain the most disgraceful overthrow \nand defeat. \n\nThe glorious self-devotion of Leonidas and his little band of \nSpartan warriors, at the pass of Thermopylae, opposed the first check \nto the advance of the Persians; and, crushed as they were by the \noverwhelming force of the enemy, their dauntless courage and \npatriotism aroused a flame in the hearts of their coutrymen, which \nresulted in the complete destruction of the invaders at Salamis, \nPlatsea, and Mycale. \n\nThe Persian monarch made his escape, slenderly attended, in a \nsolitary fishing boat. Of the events of his reign consequent upon \nhis return to his own dominions, we have but little and uncertain \ninformation. He was assassinated by Artabanes, a captain of the \nguards, in the twelfth, or, according to some chronologers, the twenty- \nfirst year of his reign. \n\nArdeshir Dirazdusht, known by historians as Artaxerxes Longi- \nmanus, (the long-handed,) succeeded his father Xerxes on the \nPersian throne. He reigned for forty years, and was considered a \nwise and virtuous prince; but his reign was troubled by various \ninsurrections and disturbances, which resulted in the loss of the \nGreek provinces in Asia Minor. In the south and east his aiithority \nappears to have been maintained and extended. \n\nThe accounts given of several succeeding monarchs are in the \nhighest degree imperfect and uncertain. The Persian historians \ncover the space of time intervening between the reign of Artaxerxes \nLongimanus and that of Darab H., who corresponds to Darius \n\n\n\n188 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nCodomanus, by lengthening that of the former sovereign to an \nincredible period, and by adding an account of a certain queen and \nher son, Darab the First. \n\nOf various occurrences in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, who \nis considered to have been the third monarch after Longimanus, we \nhave the most minute and highly interesting description from the \npen of the renowned soldier and historian Xenophon. This monarch \ncame to the throme in the year B. C. 405.\' The peace of his reign \nwas disturbed by the opposition of his brother, the celebrated \nYounger Cyrus, who aspired to the crown. The party of Cyrus was \nfavoured by his mother, the former queen ; and, having prepared an \narmy of more than an hundred thousand men, consisting in part of \nhired Grecian soldiers, he marched upon Susa to enforce his claims. \nBeing immensely outnumbered by his opponents, he sustained a \ntotal defeat: he was slain by the hand of his brother, and his army \nwas destroyed or dispersed. The Greek mercenaries maintained \ntheir ground with the utmost valour and determination, refusing to \nlay down their arms even after the destruction of their leader and \ntheir allies. Their own chiefs were induced by a pretended truce to \nput themselves into the enemies\' power, and were basely and perfidi- \nously assassinated. In this emergency, they appointed Xenophon to \nthe chief command, and took council as to the course which they \nshould adopt. It was finally determined to attempt a retreat through \nthe enemies\' country. \n\nThe number of Greeks who survived the battle, was about ten \nthousand, all foot soldiers. Their only route to a place of safety \nwas across a country whose natural obstacles seemed insurmount- \nable : they must force their way, pressed on every side by the enemy, \nover rough mountains, across dangerous rivers, and through inhos- \npitable deserts. The distance to be thus traversed was nearly two \nthousand miles ; and as they were unprovided with provisions, it was \nimpossible that the journey should be other than a continual warfare \nto obtain sustenance, even should their march be uninterrupted by the \nregular forces of the Persians. With such prospects before them, \nthe terrors of which were more than realized, the Grecians com- \nmenced their retreat. \n\nIt was nearly a year before they reached Byzantium, now Constan- \ntinople, and the record of their sufferings, dangers, and exposure, \nsupported with unequalled courage and fortitude, has been fully \nhanded down to us by Xenophon, their leader and historian. They \n\n\n\nPEESIA. IQQ \\ \n\nwere blinded and impeded by deep snows, especially among tbe moun- | \ntainous regions of Armenia ; numbers perished from cold and hunger ; \\ \nhordes of barbarous troops pressed upon their rear or lay in wait ; \nto intercept their progress ; and their baggage and stores, if delayed j \nby the impracticable roads, were sure to be seized and plundered. j \n\nThe preservation of the whole corps from destruction appears to i \nhave been due, in no small measure, to the skill, bravery, and i \ncraftiness of their leader. The variety and interest of the narrative j \nenchain our attention throughout the whole of this unparalleled ! \nexpedition. It presents striking pictures of manners and habits \namong the various nations through which they forced their way ; \nthe subterraneous abodes of the Armenian peasantry, and the despe- \nrately defended strongholds of the Taochians, are brought vividly \nbefore our minds. \n\nWhen the foremost of the Grecian band first obtained a sight of \nthe sea, from the summit of a mountain, their shouts brought \nforward the whole army, in a state of tumultuous joy and exultation. \nAlthough on the extreme eastern shore of the Pontus Euxinus, or \nBlack Sea, and at a vast distance from their homes, they felt that \nthe way was now plain before them. The number who perished on \nthe route, considering the difficulties encountered, and the protracted \nwarfare and exposure, was astonishingly small, being less than fifteen \nhundred. \n\nThe remaining years of Artaxerxes Mnemon were disturbed by \ncourt conspiracies, and by invasions of the Greeks of Asia Minor \nand their Spartan allies. - \n\nHis youngest son Ochus assumed the regal authority in the year \n360 B. C. under the title of Artaxerxes III. To obtain and secure \nthis position, he put to death his brother and a great number of \nother relatives, whose rivalry he feared. The arms of this monarch \nwere successful in quelling a revolt in Phoenicia, and in recovering \nthe Egyptian provinces. This last achievement was not accom- \nplished without great loss, owing to the dangerous and unknown \ncharacter of the country through which the army was obliged to pass. \n\nAn Egyptian eunuch named Bagoas, who had been invested with \nhigh authority by Ochus, in revenge for the injuries inflicted upon \nhis country, laid a plot against the life of his master, who perished \nby poison. \n\nDarius Codomanus, styled Darab II. by Persian chroniclers, next \nsucceeded to the throne, being aided in establishing his authority by \n\n\n\n190 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe same eunuch who had murdered his predecessor, and who hoped \nthereby to retain his own influence and authority. Finding the new \nmonarch httle inclined to submit to his dictation, Bagoas endeav- \noured to remove him in a similar manner; biit, being discovered, \nwas himself compelled to swallow the deadly draught which he had \nprepared for his master. \n\nTwo years from the time when Darius Codomanus ascended the \nthrone, his kingdom was invaded by Alexander, son of Philip of \nMacedon. Philip had been previously worsted in a contest with \nPersia, and a desire to avenge this disaster, combined with hopes of \nplunder and a thirst for military renown, induced Alexander to \nresolve on an expedition into the heart of Asia. In the year 334 \nB. C, with an army of only thirty -five thousand men, five thousand \nof whom were cavalry from his northern provinces, he crossed the \nHellespont. After visiting the plains of ancient Troy, and making \nofferings to the shade of his pretended ancestor, Achilles, he marched \nto the banks of the Granicus, on the opposite side of which the \nPersian army was encamped in great force. Darius had not been \nremiss in preparations to resist the invader : he had sent an immense \narmy into Asia Minor, and with a further force awaited the enemies\' \napproach in Syria. \n\nAt the Granicus, the Greeks, encouraged by the presence and" \npersonal valour of their general, forced a passage against over- \nwhelming odds, and routed the Persians with great slaughter. \nTheir own loss was trifling. Alexander pushed on to meet Darius \nand his reserved forces, whom he encountered near the borders of \nSyria, by the gulf of Issus. A terrible battle ensued, which resulted \nin the complete overthrow of the Persian army, one hundred thou- \nsand of whom were slain ; and the wife and daughter of the defeated \nprince, with much rich and valuable booty, fell into the hands of the \nvictors. The Macedonians are said to have lost in this engagement \nonly three hundred men, a disproportion so incredible, when com- \npared with the destruction of the Persians, as only to be explained \non the supposition that the army of Darius, being sp dily disorgan- \nized and put to rout, were slain as unresisting fugitives by their \nfierce and disciplined assailants. The royal captives were treated \nby Alexander with the greatest consideration and respect. \n\nPhoenicia and the sea-ports of Tyre and Sidon fell successively \ninto the power of the conqueror, the resistance of the Tyrians being- \npunished by the sale of thirty thousand captives as slaves. Proceed- \n\n\n\nPEESIA. \n\n\n\n191 \n\n\n\ning against Jerusalem, it is said that Alexander spared tlie city on \naccount of the veneration excited in his mind by the insignia and \nsolemnity of the Jewish religious rites. It is added, by some writer, \nthat he sacrificed in the temple, and that the high-priest called his \nattention to the prophecy that the "king of Grecia should overcome \nthe king of Persia." \n\nEgypt, which was the next scene of his warlike operations, offered \nlittle resistance to the successfid Greeks. From this easy conquest, \nAlexander proceeded, with renewed vigour, to carry out the pur- \nposes for which he had commenced the Asiatic campaign. The \nPersian army, to the number of about a million of men, awaited the \ninvader near the Assyrian town of Arbela. The discipline and \nvalour of the Greeks again prevailed, and by this final and decisive \nconflict the power of Alexander was established and confirmed \nthrough the greater part of eastern Asia. Darius fled from the field \nof battle, and sought an asylum in Ecbatana. Before, however, he \nhad opportunity to reassemble his remaining forces, or to arrange any \nfurther plans for defence, he was seized by Bessus, the treacherous \ngovernor of Bactriana, and basely murdered. \n\nThe native historians of Persia give a different account of the \ncircumstances attending the death of Darius, and mingle much of \nfanciful invention in their detail of the Grecian invasion. They \nendeavour to prove that Alexander wa,s a son of Darab the First, \nwhom they represent to have married a daughter of Philip of \nMacedon ; a story, the absurdity of which carries its own refutation. \n\nThe subsequent career of Alexander forms rather a portion of \nGreek than of Persian history. He died at Babylon, in consequence \nof a protracted debauch, eleven years from the time of his entry \ninto Asia; leaving the country a prey to the fierce and rapacious \nmilitary chieftains whom he had set over the various provinces. \nAbout sixteen years firom the time of his death, which took place \nB. C. 323, Seleucus, a general of great wisdom, courage, and activity, \nobtained secure possession of most of the country now known as \nPersia. His dominions were aft;erwards greatly extended, including \nthe larger pai if Alexander\'s conquests west of the Indus. The \nlong line of his successors, twenty-one in number, entitled the \nSeleucidge, retained regal authority in Persia until the establishment \nof the Parthian dynasty ; and in Syria until the Eoman conquest \nunder Pompey, B. C. 65. \n\nIn the year 250 B. C, Arsaces, a nobleman of Parthia, in revenge \n\n\n\nX92 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nfor some domestic injuries received from tlie provincial governor, \nheaded a successful insurrection, and laid tlie foundation of the \nParthian power in Persia. \n\nThe Parthians were a brave and warlike people, who had origin- \nally emigrated from Scythia and the adjacent regions, and had \ngreatly increased in power and number. The bounds of the country \nwhere they had settled, do not appear to be very distinctly defined ; \nand after they had obtained control of Persia, they became so \nmingled with the native inhabitants, that no distinction could be \ndrawn between the two races. Parthian and Persian are convertible \nterms with the Eoman writers of this period. \n\nThe Arsacidise, or descendants of Arsaces, reigned with great power \nand splendour more than four hundred years ; but for the history of \ntheir achievements, we are obliged to depend entirely upon the \nwriters of other and distant nations. The native chronicles contain \nscarcely any thing reliable concerning the events which transpired \nin this long and important interval \xe2\x80\x94 the most brilliant period in \nPersian history. \n\nThe classical reader will readily call to mind the exultation of the \nLatin poets at any advantages gained by Eoman arms over these \nformidable enemies. The memorable defeat of Crassus in Mesopo- \ntamia, which took place B. C. 53, during the reign of Orodes, the \neleventh of the Arsacidae; the check received from Antony\'s gen- \neral, Ventidius ; and Antony\'s own discomfiture and forced retreat, \nare matters familiar to those acquainted with the history of the two \ngreat Eoman triumvirates. Thirty-six years before the Christian \nera, Augustus so far extended his power and influence in the East, \nthat Phraates, then king of Persia, or Parthia, restored the trophies \nof victory previously obtained upon the occasion of the memorable \ndefeat of Crassus. \n\n\n\nPEKSIA. ]^93 \n\nFROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE CONQUEST BY ZINGHIS KHAN. \n\nA STRONG contrast appears between tlie effeminate and inefficient \npopulation whose countless forces, in a former reign, a handful of \nresolute men could disperse and destroy, and tlie warlike tribes who \nnow held undisturbed sway in Persia. The government was essen- \ntially military, resembling, in no small degree, that of Western \nEurope during the middle ages. \n\nThe native inhabitants, completely degraded and enslaved, no \nlonger retained even the semblance of influence or authority, while \ntheir Parthian masters, organized as a powerful military confederacy, \nspread the terror of their arms far and v,dde. Their mode of war- \nfare was similar to that of the knights of Europe; the force upon \nwhich they chiefly depended consisting of mounted men, clad in \ndefensive armour. The strength and speed of their horses, and their \nskill in the use of the bow, were matters of world-wide celebrity. \n\nThe period at which the Parthian power appears to have attained \nits greatest height, was during the reign of Mithridates I., the sixth \nmonarch of the Arsacidse. He subdued Syria, and placed rulers, \nfrom his own family, over Armenia, the semi-barbarous districts of \nScythia, and some portions of India. - \n\nThe fall of the long and glorious dynasty founded by Arsaces, \nresulted from a rebellion excited by Ardeshir Babegan ; alleged to \nhave been a descendant of the ancient royal line of Xerxes, or \nIsfundear, as he is called by Persian historians. Supported by the \nnobles of Ears, a province on the Persian Gulf, he made war \nagainst Artabanes IV., then monarch of Persia, and, after a suc- \ncession of engagements, defeated and slew him. \n\nThus terminated the line of the Arsacidse. It is true that several \nprinces, deriving their authority or descent from the same source, \nretained their power for a considerable period after this event. The \nkings of Armenia maintained an independent government until the \nyear A. D. 428 ; and, as we shall see hereafter, their descendants \nfinally obtained the throne of Persia. They are remarkable as \nhaving been the first monarchs who embraced Christianity. \n13 \n\n\n\n194 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nArdeshir reigned fourteen years, during whicli time, by policy \nand conquest, lie greatly strengthened and enlarged the empire. \nUnder the last of the Arsacidse, the power of the monarchy had \nbecome enfeebled, and the various provinces no longer felt the con- \ntrolling influence of a powerful central authority ; but the founder \nof the new dynasty conciliated or overcame their opposition, and, \nby a wise and firm administration, left the empire entire to his \nsuccessors. He exhibited great zeal in the restoration of the \nreligion which had been established in Persia before the Parthian \nconquest \xe2\x80\x94 a piece of policy which gained him the good-will of the \nnative inhabitants. \n\nAccording to the Persian genealogy, Ardeshir Babegan was \n\xe2\x96\xa0 descended from Sassan, a grandson of Isfundear; and his descend- \nants, who occiipied the throne until near the middle of the seventh \ncentury, are termed Sassanians. \n\nUpon the death of Ardeshir, his son Shapoor, or Sapores, \nsucceeded to the throne. Concerning the character of this prince, \nwe have the most contradictory accounts : the native historians \nrepresent him as a sagaciouS; just, and virtuous ruler, Avhile those \nof Europe condemn him for cruelty, barbarity, and insolence. His \nreign is celebrated for successful military operations against the \nEoman Asiatic provinces. The aged Emperor Valerian, attempting \nto make head against the Persian invasion, was taken prisoner at \nEdessa, and held in captivity till his death. It is reported, though \nwith doubtful authenticity, that the victor heaped every species of \ncontumely and disgrace upon his royal and venerable captive, and \nthat he finally pxit him to death with the most refined cruelty This \ntradition comes to us, however, from historians whose country had \nfelt the force of the Persian arms, and who can hardly be considered \nas candid reporters of the character and acts of a hostile and suc- \ncessful monarch. \n\nHoormuz or Hormisdas, a son of Sapores, was the next in suc- \ncession. Of this prince, Persian historians relate that, to allay \ncertain suspicions as to his good faith, which had been excited in \nthe mind of his father, he cut off his right hand, and sent it as a \npledge of fidelity. \n\nDuring the reigns of the Sassanides, the nation was involved in \nalmost perpetual hostilities with the Eomans, in which the Persian \narms in many instances met with brilliant success. \n\nThe seventh monarch of this line, Narsi, defeated Galerius on the \n\n\n\nPEESIA. \n\n\n\n195 \n\n\n\nsame spot where the army of Crassus had been routed in a former \nreign. \n\nShapoor Zoolactaf was contemporary with Constantine. He \nreigned seventy years, and maintained his ground with great ability \nagainst the force of the Roman arms. \n\nBaharam Gour, styled by Greek authorities Varanes Y., is cele- \nbrated in Persian chronicles for his private virtues, simple tastes, \nand fatherly care of his people. He perished in a marsh, while \nhunting, A. D. 438. \n\nIn the time of the Emperor Justinian, Persia was ruled by a \nmonarch whom the historians of his country have ever delighted \nto honour. Khosru Nushirwan obtained the sceptre in the year 531, \nand reigned nearly fifty years in great splendour. He is alike cele- \nbrated for the success of his military schemes, and for the justice \nand vigilance of his government. \n\nHe suppressed the dissolute sect founded by Mazdac, gave great \nattention to public works, and founded institutions for learning. By \nhis own efforts, and by the assistance of his noted minister Abuzoor- \ngamihr, the various departments of government were so regulated \nand systematized, that every abuse or unfaithfulness on the part of \ninferior and provincial officers could be discovered and corrected. \nHe took possession of all Syria, and compelled the Emperor Jus- \ntinian to a disgraceful treaty of peace, extorting from him the \npayment of a heavy tribute. At no period was the Sassanian power \nso great, or the nation which it ruled so prosperous, as under this \ncelebrated sovereign. \n\nHis son, Hoormuz III., succeeded him on the throne; a prince \nincapacitated by his vices and weakness to perpetuate the glory of \nthe preceding reign. Pie was slain, after a short period of revolt \nand mismanagement, by his own general, Baharam Choubeen, whose \ndistinguished services he had repaid by injury and ingratitude. \nBaharam endeavoured to take possession of the vacant throne, but \non account of the intervention of the Eoman emperor Maurice, was \nunable to compass his ends, and Khosru Parviz, a son of Hoormuz, \nwas made king. \n\nHis reign was marked by a long course of almost unprecedented \nsuccess, and by a final downfall, as complete and unexpected. Per- \nsonally, he was no warrior, but abandoned himself to the most \nextravagant luxury and magnificence. The splendour of his palaces, \nhis horses, his elephants, and the beauty of his mistresses, are \n\n\n\n196 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nfruitful subjects for the tales of Persian poets. His first military \ncampaign was against Syria, whicli he invaded under the pretence \nof a desire to punish the assassins of his patron Maurice. The \nwhole country was devastated; Jerusalem was taken, and its \nsplendid shrines and churches demolished; what had been reli- \ngiously preserved as the true cross was carried away; most of the \ncities were plundered, and nearly one hundred thousand Christians \nwere put to death. \n\nFrom Syria, the armies of Khosru forced their way into Egypt, \nand overran the whole country, from the mouth of the Nile to the \nborders of Ethiopia. Alexandria was taken, and the Persian forces \nextended their march through Libya, even as far as Tripoli. \n\nA like success attended an expedition into the western part of \nAsia Minor. It is said that an encampment was maintained for a \nperiod of ten years, in the immediate vicinity of Constantinople. The \nisland of Ehodes, and various cities on the coast, fell into the power \nof the Persians. \n\nAfter thirty years of success and conquest, the dominions of \nKhosru were invaded by a Eoman army under the Emperor Hera- \nclius, and a continued succession of reverses and defeats left the \nPersian monarch in a helpless and hopeless condition. Influenced \nby his natural obstinacy, he persisted, to the last, in refusing all \nterms of capitulation. \n\nHe was at length seized and imprisoned by his eldest son, Siroes, \nwho, assisted by a portion of the people, had rebelled against the \npaternal authority. This unnatural son consummated his barbarity \nhj the murder of his father and brothers. \n\nFrom this time to the accession of the last king of the dynasty \nof Sassan, few important events fall under our notice. Yezdegird, \nor Isdigertes III., at whose death terminated the long line of the \nSassanides, commenced his reign A. D, 632. At this time the \nfollowers of the Arabian prophet Mahomet, had fully entered upon \nthat system of invasion and forcible conversion to their faith which, \nin so brief a period, overthrew the religion and modified the gov- \nernment of most of the Eastern nations. A particular history of \nthe rise and progress of Mahometanism will be found in another por- \ntion of this volume; the present remarks will be confined to its \nintroduction into the empire of Persia. \n\nMahomet was born in the year 569, during the reign of Nushirwan. \nHis first communication with Persia was in the time of Khosrn \n\n\n\nPEKSIA, \n\n\n\n197 \n\n\n\nParvis, to whom lie sent a letter, announcing himself as a prophet, \nand enjoining the reception of his doctrines. The proposition was \nreceived with the utmost contempt, the letter being torn in pieces by \nthe emperor, and the fragments thrown into the river Karasu. The \nMahometans declare that, from the time of this impious act, the \nstream has never, as before, been serviceable in fertilizing the \ncountry, but has been confined in a deep channel within its banks. \n\nThe result of the first attempt made in Persia by the Arabs, for \nthe promulgation of the new religion, was unpromising. The fol- \nlowers of the prophet gained no substantial advantage, nor any \npermanent establishment in the country, until the sixth year of the \nreign of Yezdegird. Then occurred the terrible battle of Kadesia, \nin which the Arabian forces gained an entire victory, and obtained \npossession of the sacred apron of the blacksmith Kawah, covered \nwith jewels, and long used as the royal standard. One hundred \nthousand Persians were slain, and the plunder obtained by this \nvictory surpassed the wildest dreams of the rude and ignorant con- \nquerors. We can hardly conceive of the astonishment and exultation \nof these roving tribes, whose lives had been passed without super- \nfluity, nourished by the simplest food, and unacquainted with the \nrefinements of civilization, on seeing at their disposal the treasures \nof a luxurious and magnificent camp and court. The booty obtained \nfrom the wealthy capital Madayn, which was afterwards taken and \npillaged, completed their acquisitions. \n\nAt the battle of Nehavend, the Persian power was finally over- \nthrown, and the unhappy monarch only escaped with life. For a \nnumber of years, he wandered from place to place in search of an \nasjdum, and was finally murdered by a miller Avhom he had hired to \nconceal him. \n\nWith the fall of the Sassanides, ended the ancient system of \nreligion. The doctrines of Zoroaster and the Magi were compelled \nto give place to those of the invaders, and the sacred writings and \nhistorical records of the country were unsparingly destroyed. \n\nFor two hundred years, Persia remained but a province under the \ncaliphs, who, by their emissaries and governors, colonized, controlled, \nand tyrannized according to their pleasure. At the end of this \nperiod, the fiery zeal for the new religion having somewhat abated, \ndiscontent and a spirit of rebellion began to pervade the countrv. \n\nJacob Ibn Leith, a robber chieftain of the province of Seistan, \nhaving been first employed in the service of the Mahometan com- \n\n\n\nJ^98 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. \n\nmander, attempted to gain for himself the siipreme anthority, and \nactually became ruler over most of the Eastern provinces of Persia. \nHe Avas of low origin, but possessed of a daring, gallant, and enter- \nprising spirit, which secured to him the admiration and attachment \nof his followers. \n\nOn his death, in the year A. D. 877, his possessions devolved upon \nhis brother Amer, a man of luxurious habits, and ill-calculated to \nmaintain authority in times of disturbance and anarchy. His policy \nwas to conciliate the good-will of the caliph by an agreement to \ngovern in his name. For this purpose he despatched a letter to \nBagdad, which was favourably received, and" a friendly relation \nwas, in this manner, maintained between the two powers for \nseveral years. \n\nA rupture finally occurred, and Motahmed, then caliph, obtained \nthe assistance of Ishmael Samani, a Tartar chieftain, in the reduction \nof his refractory subject. On the northern side of the Oxus or \nJihon, Amer was entirely defeated by the Tartar troops, and was \nsent a prisoner to the caliph. In this engagement, the Persians \noutnumbered their adversaries in the proportion of more than three \nto one, but they were unable to sustain the impetuous attack of the \nhardy and fierce barbarians. \n\nOnly two other princes of the family of Jacob Ibn Leith \nmaintained even the semblance of authority in Persia. \n\nFrom this period until the rise of the celebrated Mahmoud of \nGhizni, in the early part of the eleventh century, the northern and \neastern portions of Persia, including the possessions across the \nOxus, were under the dominion of the dynasty of Samani ; and the \nsouthern and western provinces were governed by the Dilemee. \nIshmael Samani, who overthrew Amer, and was the first of his name \nwho reigned in Persia, is said to have been a descendant of Baha- \nram Choubeen, celebrated in the reign of the immediate descendants \nof Nushirwan. \n\nHe was the most famous monarch of his line, being no less \nremarkable for his military talents, than for his encouragement of \nliterature, and for his private virtues. \n\nThe monarchy of the Dilemee originated with the family of an \nobscure fisherman of the village of Dilem. They claimed an uncer- \ntain descent from the ancient Persian kings, but the secret of their \nsuccess lay in their own enterprising ambition, stimulated by the \npredictions of an astrologer. \n\n\n\nPEKSIA. 199 \n\nWhile Persia, thus divided, was under the control of these two \nhouses, a power had arisen in the East, which was destined to over- \nwhelm them both. A small principality in Afghanistan, founded \nby a rebellious subject of the Saman dynasty, had increased, by \nconquests in Northern India, until it became a formidable power. \n\nGhizni, or Gazna, was the capital of this province, from which \ncity the dynasty of the Ghiznivide princes derive their title. \n\nSubuktagi, prince of this district, after having repeatedly defeated \nJypaul, king of JSTorthern India, reducing him to the situation of a \ntributary, and immensely extending his own dominions, died in the \nyear A. D. 977, leaving the crown to his son Mahmoud. Of the \nnumberless victories and vast undertakings of this latter monarch \nwe can here give but a very brief synopsis. By treaties, alliances, and \nthe terror of his arms, he acquired supreme power over the terri- \ntories of the Saman and Dilem kingdoms; but his more celebrated \ncampaigns were in Hindostan. Some account of the expeditions \ninto this country will be found in another part of this volume, \nunder the title of India. Filled with the most extravagant zeal for \nhis religion, Mahmoud was continually engaged in crusades against \nthe temples and\' cities especially consecrated to Hindoo idolatry. \nHis great object seemed to be the seizure and destruction of the \nmost venerated idols; and to accomplish this, he undertook the \nmost distant and dangerous expeditions. Doubtless a desire to \nextend the religion of the prophet was used in some measure as a \ncloak for his personal ambition; and the incredible amount of \ntreasure possessed by the Indian kings and priesthood aroused to its \nfullest extent the eagerness and rapacity of the monarch and his \ntroops. The royal palace at Ghizni was resplendent with gold and \njewels, collected in the Indian campaigns, and with broken frag- \nments of idols, brought home as the most glorious trophies of \nsuccess. The weight of precious metals, and the number and \nquality of valuable gems in Mahmoud\'s possession, as recorded by \nhistorians, surpass any thing in the annals of regal magnificence. \nThe grand mosque, no less than the imperial palace, was the admi- \nration of the world, for the imposing style of its architecture and \nthe richness of its decorations. \n\nThe description given by Persian historians of Mahmoud\'s expe- \ndition into Guzerat, for the purpose of destroying the great idol of \nSumnaut, seems like a legend of romance. The huge image was \nfilled with jewels and treasure, and by its destruction Mahmoud \n\n\n\n200 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nobtained a far greater amount of booty than the ransom offered by \nthe priests as an inducement to spare it. The conqueror appears to \nhave had no suspicion of the real cause of their eagerness to save \nthe idol, and his rejection of their proposals is considered by the \nfaithful as a glorious manifestation of religious zeal and pious self- \ndenial, appropriately rewarded. \n\nMahmoud was succeeded by his son Musaood, whose reign was \nspent in vain struggles to maintain the integrity of the vast empire \nbequeathed to him by his father. While engaged in subduing \nrevolts in the East, his western provinces Avere attacked by the \nSeljuk Turks, who in the next reign extended their power through- \nout Persia. \n\nThis tribe, which had formed a settlement in Bokhara, across the \nOxus, and afterwards in the central Persian province of Khorasan, \nwas now rapidly increasing in power. The chief, Togrul Beg, took \nupon himself a royal title in the year 1042, and so rapidly extended \nhis conquests and acquisitions, that, after overrunning all Persia, he \ntook the city of Bagdad, and made the caliph a prisoner. The \naugust captive was treated with reverence and respect, and the \nvictor, by treaty, agreed to hold his acquisitions as the nominal \nviceroy of the unfortunate monarch. \n\nAlp Arslan, a son of Togrul Beg, who reigned next in succession, \nwas noted as a brave leader and a generous enemy. He left the \ncrown to his son Malek Shah, a monarch equally celebrated for his \nextensive conquests, and for the wisdom with which he administered \nthe affairs of government. In the height of his prosperity, his \npower extended from the borders of China to the uninhabitable \ndeserts of Africa. He subdued Syria and Egypt; the wilds of \nTartary formed a portion of his vast dominions; Georgia and \nBokhara submitted to his authority; yet his unceasing vigilance \nproved adequate to the government and control of this vast assem- \nblage of nations, differing so widely in language, character, and \nhabits. He traversed this extensive empire many times in person, \nfor the purpose of correcting abuses and ascertaining the true con- \ndition of his subjects. He gave great encouragement to learning \nand science, and expended large sums in public improvements. \n\nAfter the death of Malek, the empire was distracted for many \nyears by the contests of his sons for the sovereignty. The sceptre \nwas finally obtained by Sanjar, who had maintained separate con- \ntrol over Khorasan and Transoxiana from the time of his father\'s \n\n\n\nPERSIA. 201 \n\ndeath. His reign was disturbed by a war with the Turkomans of \nGuz, by whom he was at one time taken prisoner, and held in long \ncaptivity. \n\nLittle of interest attaches to the history of the few succeeding \nSeljuk kings, or to the detail of civil commotions under the sway \nof the minor princes, styled Attabegs, who ruled over the country \nfor about a century after their fall. \n\nDuring this interval of misrule and confusion, a sect sprung up \nwhose name was, for more than a century, a terror to western Asia. \nIt was founded by Hussun Subah, or Sheik ul Gebel, called by \nEuropeans the Old Man of the Mountain, and King of the Assassins. \nHe was an Arabian of obscure origin, but, by intrigue, and a \nremarkable faculty for arousing the blind and superstitious zeal of \nhis followers, finally secured the services of such a band of des- \nperate ruffians, that none, even in the highest stations, were safe \nwhen he had once marked them for destruction. Many strange and \nromantic tales are told of the secret manoeuvres of this dangerous \nconfederacy, and of the bloody tragedies enacted in furtherance of \ntheir designs. \n\nThe sect was finally annihilated upon the conquest of Persia by \nthe Mongols under Zinghis Khan and his successors. \n\n\n\nuXiiiiirioiiil, itiio \n\n\n\nFROM THE INVASION OF PERSIA BY ZINGHIS KHAN TO THE \n\nPRESENT TIME. \n\nSuch a system of wholesale destruction as was pursued by this \ncelebrated Tartar conqueror, and such scenes of devastation as were \npresented in the countries which had been ravaged by his arms, can \nfind no counterpart in the history of the world. Persia, torn by civil \ndissensions and anarchy, offered itself an easy prey to the terrible \ninvader. He overran and laid waste its fairest provinces; but it \nwas reserved for his grandson and successor, Hulagou, to complete \nits subjection, and reduce it under an estabhshed authority. \n\n\n\n202 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOrLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nThis latter monarch, having overcome all resistance to his power \nin Persia, made some amends for the ruin and devastation caused \nby himself and his predecessor, by the encouragement of learning \nand philosophy. Few of the descendants of Zinghis, who success- \nively filled the Persian throne, have been celebrated either for \nmilitary distinction or skill in government, and the latter years of \nthe dynasty were marked by sanguinary domestic contests. \n\nThe next important event in Persian history is the rise of the \ngreat conqueror Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of Karachar \nNevian, an officer in the court of Zagatai, son of Zinghis Khan. In \na more remote degree, he laid claim to a descent from the same \nancestry with Zinghis himself. Having succeeded to the princi- \npality of Kesh, he commenced a career of conquest and invasion as \nbrilliant and as destructive as that of any of his predecessors. His \nfirst remarkable camj^aign, which secured him the favour and affec- \ntion of his people, resulted in the expulsion of Tuglick . Timour, \nking of Cashgar, who had successfully invaded the country, and \nreduced many of the less powerful princes to subjection. \n\nTamerlane appears to have possessed every quality calculated to \ninspire admiration loyalty, and personal attachment in the minds of \nthe barbarous and warlike hordes who thronged under his banners. \nCondescending and affable to his companions in arms, utterlj^ \nruthless and unsparing towards his enemies, and possessed of a \nperseverance and energy which no danger or difficulty could appal, \nhe pressed on fi^om conquest to conquest. All Tartary submitted to \nhis arms; Persia, Asia Minor, and Georgia, were reduced and plun- \ndered. Apparently for the mere sake of victory and booty, he \npoured the torrent of his armies into India, and, after laying waste \nan immense tract of country, retired, careless of securing any further \nadvantages from the campaign. The immense resources and power- \nful military organization of the Ottoman empire in the East, proved \ninsufficient to resist the impetiious attack and untiring perseverance \nof the Tartar invader. Bajazet, the reigning monarch, was taken \nprisoner, and, according to some authorities, personally subjected to \ncruel indignities. \n\nIn Persia, province after province fell into the hands of the con- \nqueror. Such as opposed any resistance to his arms, were laid waste \nand plundered; and any symptoms of disafiection or revolt, in those \nover which he had extended his power, served but as a pretext for \ndelivering up the country to slaughter and devastation. The towns \n\n\n\nPEKSIA. \n\n\n\n203 \n\n\n\nand strong places of the devoted districts were plundered and razed, \nand the inhabitants butchered or sold into slaverj^ The mind turns \nwith disgust and weariness from the contemplation of the succession \nof horrors which accompanied the campaigns of the Tartar khans. \n\nA battle is fought; the opposing army is annihilated or dispersed, \nand an innumerable horde of wild and fierce barbarians is turned \nloose upon the defenceless inhabitants to slay or pillage at their will. \nA fertile and highly cultivated country, enriched with all the pro- \nducts of industry and art, is left a waste of smoking ruins. \n\nLet the scene be enacted and repeated an hundred times, and we \nmay form some idea of the progress and consequences of the wars \nwaged by Zinghis and Timur. The bodily strength and endurance \nof their followers was beyond aught that we can conceive. They \nwere ready for a desperate engagement after a forced march of \ndouble the distance that could be accomplished by any modern \narmy without refreshment. A remarkable instance of this hardi- \nhood was displayed by the troops of Timur at the taking of \nBagdad. On this occasion they forded the Tigris immediately upon \ntheir arrival at its banks, after an uninterrupted march of nearly \neighty miles ; nor did this exposure and fatigue appear to diminish \nthe ardour or ferocity of their attack. The city was taken by \nstorm, and the fugitive sultan and his troops were p^^rsued beyond \nthe Euphrates. \n\nAfter the death of Timur, in the year A. D. 1405, a contest for \nthe sovereignty arose between two of his grandsons, and terminated \nin the death of both the contending parties. The sceptre then \ndevolved upon his youngest son. Shah Mirzah, who had been viceroy \nover Khorasan during the life of his father. This prince wisely \nemployed his power and resources in restoring the prosperity and \nrebuilding the cities of the countries ravaged by his ancestors. \n\nThe successors of Timur gradually lost possession of various \nportions of the vast domains obtained by such reckless expenditure \nof life ; and the kingdom finally became divided into three separate \nprincipalities. \n\nLittle of interest or celebrity appears in Persian history, from this \ntime to the rise of Ismael Sufifee, in the beginning of the sixteenth \ncentury. He was the first native monarch established upon the \nPersian throne since their power was effectually broken by foreign \ninvasion. Of comparatively humble origin \xe2\x80\x94 being a descendant of \nSheik Suffee u Dien, an anchorite of great sanctity, who lived at \n\n\n\n204 TH^ PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nArdebil \xe2\x80\x94 lie rose step by step, until his autliority became supreme \nin Persia. It is said that Ismael owed his success in no small degree \nto the veneration and gratitude inspired by one of his pious ances- \ntors, who had used his influence with Timur in behalf of certain \nTurkish captives. The descendants of the prisoners freed by the \nintercession of the holy man were not forgetful of their obligations, \nand lent their assistance and support to his posterity. \n\nThe Sultan Selim attacked and defeated Ismael in a pitched \nbattle at the border of Azerbijan, but was prevented by death from \nfollowing up his advantages. \n\nIsmael Shah has always been esteemed by Persian historians as a \nmonarch worthy of admiration and reverence. Something of the \nbarbarian occasionally, however, appears in his deeds ; for example, \nhis using as a drinking-cup the skull of the brave prince of the \nUsbecks, after the expulsion of that tribe from Khorasan. \n\nTamasp, his son, came to the throne at an early age, and during \na long reign, maintained the integrity of his empire against the \nattacks of the Usbecks and the Ottomans. He flourished in the time of \nQueen Elizabeth, of England, who sent an ambassador to his court. \n\nThe greatest monarch of the line of Ismael, and the most \ncelebrated of modern Persian kings, was Shah Abbas. He com- \nmenced his career as governor of Khorasan, to which office he had \nbeen appointed while yet a mere child. He was prevailed upon by \nthe nobility of this province to engage in hostilities against his \nfather, and to lay claim to the crown. After a few years spent in \ndesultory warfare between chiefs of different factions, the country \nbeing meanwhile exposed to the attacks of Tartar and Ottoman \ninvaders. Shah Abbas succeeded in establishing himself firmly upon \nthe Persian throne. \n\nThe character of this powerful sovereign, whose reign was \nsplendid and prosperous beyond that of any modern Persian prince, \npresented a strange compound of public spirit, and private vice and \ncruelt}^. A devotee in his religious faith, he aspired to reputation \nfor great sanctity. Pilgrimages and self-humiliations were performed \nrather for the public eye than from the promptings of genuine faith, \nhis sensual inclinations not permitting him to obey the precepts of \nthe prophet in his private life. In foreign wars, and in the sup- \npression of domestic revolt, he was bloody and remorseless. Huge \npiles of gory heads, after a victory, attested the success of his arms. \n\nIn the improvement of the general condition of his empire, Shah \n\n\n\nPEESIA. 205 \n\nAbbas spared neitlier laboiir nor expense. Magnificent institutions \nfor learning, mosques, bridges, and otber works of public utility and \nornament, are still shown to tbe traveller as monuments of his \nmunificence and policy. The efficiency and discipline of his native \nforces were immeasurably increased by a wise encouragement of Eng- \nlish military adventurers, from whom he learned much of the \nmodern art of war. Sir Anthony Shirley, accompanied by his \nbrother and a few attendants, proceeded, at the instance of the Earl \nof Essex, to the court of the Shah, and was received with all the \nmagnificence of Eastern royalty. They enjoyed familiar intercourse \nwith the king, were promoted to the command of his armies, and \nwere maintained in the most profuse and sumptuous manner. \n\nA friendly intercourse thus commenced between Great Britain and \nPersia; and, moved by equal jealousy towards the Portuguese, who \nhad formed flourishing settlements at Ormuz, the forces of the Shah \nand those of the English East India Company united in an attack upon \nthat island. They succeeded in capturing the place, and in destroying \nits prosperity, btit with little eventual benefit to their own interests. \n\nThe different religious sects met with greater toleration in this \nreign than at any previous time since the country fell into the power \nof the Mahometans. \n\nThe most unnatural and revolting portion of the history of Abbas \nremains to be told. Excited by jealousy towards his own sons, of \nwhom, during their infancy, he had been passionately fond, he \ncaused them to be successively put to death, or deprived of sight. \nHis fury was in turn expended upon the instruments of his atro- \ncious resolves; and his declining years were deeply embittered by \nsuspicion and remorse. \n\nThe fourth in succession from Shah Abbas the Great, was the weak \nand bigoted Hussein Mirza, whose reign, for the first twenty years, \nwas spent in slothful indulgence and superstitious observances. \nThe close of his reign was disastrous to himself and his people. \nWhile the country was in a most unsettled condition, harassed by \nplundering hordes of wild Tartars, and under the sway of an imbe- \ncile monarch, a rebellion broke out among the Afghan tribes. \nUnder Meer Vais, the leader of the revolt, they had deposed the \nprovincial governor, and made successful incursions into Khorasan. \nWhen, by the death of his father, Meer Yais, and the murder of his \nuncle Abdoola, the authority devolved upon Mahmoud Ghiljee, a \nsystematic invasion of Persia was planned and accomplished. \n\n\n\n206 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nInstead of opposing a firm and vigorous resistance to the approach- \ning enemy, the miserable Hussein listened only to the suggestions \nof flinatics and the predictions of astrologers. The Afghan forces, \nalthough greatly outnumbered, were every where victorious. Ispa- \nhan yielded to the conqueror, after sustaining a seven months\' siege, \nin which every extremity of famine and suffering was endured by \nthe unfortunate inhabitants. Hussein Avas himself taken prisoner, \ncompelled to do homage to the invader, and closely confined in prison, \nwhere he remained until his assassination in the succeeding reign. \n\nAfter Mahmoud had established himself upon the throne of Persia, \nsymptoms of disaffection among his newly-acquired subjects aroused \nall the worst passions of his savage and cruel mind. He seems to have \nresolved upon confirming his authority by a universal massacre of all \nfrom whom he dreaded resistance. We have no record of the precise \nextent of this tragedy, but it was commenced by the slaughter of three \nhundred of the nobility, with their families, and of three thousand sol- \ndiers who had been in the employ of the former monarch. \n\nSuspicion, apprehension, and the indulgence of his savage \ninclinations, finally brought on paroxysms of insanity; Avhich were \naggravated by a system of seclusion and penance undertaken to pro- \npitiate the Deity in his behalf It is said that he was put to death \nby order of his mother, in order to release him from his miser}^ \n\nHe was succeeded by his cousin Ashruff, a son of Abdoolah, in \nwhose reign an alliance was formed against Persia, between Russia \nand the Ottomans. \n\nIn the mean time, Tamasp, son of Shah Hussein, who, since the \ncapture of Ispahan and the imprisonment of his father, had kept \nup a semblance of regal authority at Mazunderan, began to increase \nin power. He was joined by Nadir Kouli, an Affshar chief of low \norigin, but of great military skill and enterprise. \n\nTheir combined forces effected the overthrow of the Afghan mon- \narchy in Persia. Ispahan was retaken, and the Afghan population \ndestroyed or dispersed. Few of them reached their native province \nin safety. Ashruff fled, but being some time afterwards recognised \nby his enemies, was slain, and his head was sent to Tamasp. \n\nNadir, by whose enterprise and prowess this revolution was accom- \nplished, soon brought about the deposition of Tamasp, and took \npossessij:5n of the throne. He became Shah of Persia in the year 1736. \n\nUnder the sway of this monarch, the former military glory of the \nempire revived. The Turks were expelled from the country; \n\n\n\nPEESIA. 207 \n\nBokhara and Afghanistan, Candahar and Balkh, were subdued, and an \nexpedition into India terminated in the entire reduction of the Mogul \nempire. Some account of this campaign, and of the immense treasures \nobtained by the invaders, may be found in the description of India. \n\nNotwithstanding these brilliant successes, the life of Nadir Shah, \nby the unrestrained indulgence of his own evil passions, was made \nwretched in the extreme. Like his predecessors, Abbas and Mah- \nmoud, his mind was continually racked by feelings of jealousy \ntowards his own household, and fears of revolt among the subjects \nof his tyranny. Like them, he resorted to the most bloody and \ncruel expedients to allay these apprehensions ; which, perhaps, as in \nthe case of Mahmoud, amounted to insanity. He ordered the eyes \nof his son Eeza to be put out, upon suspicion of a conspiracy ; and \npursued a course of wholesale slaughter in the disaffected cities and \nprovinces. This unscrupulous cruelty, however, only served to \nhasten the event he so much dreaded. He was assassinated by his \nown officers, anxious to secure their lives, which were in constant \njeopardy from his caprice. \n\nWithin a few j^ears after Nadir\'s death, the empire was separated \ninto various distinct governments, until the rise of Kureem Khan \nabout the middle of the eighteenth century. \n\nThe blind Shah Rokh, a grandson of Nadir, wore the crown in \nKhorasan, by sufferance rather than by ability to cope with his \nmore powerful neighbours. Over every other province Kureem \nobtained the ascendancy, and maintained it until his death in 1779. \nHe was an upright and virtuous monarch, and governed his people \nwith patriarchal simplicity. Although of humble birth, and totally \nuneducated, his natural good sense and courage obtained him the \nsceptre, which his love of justice, moderation, and benevolence \nproved him worthy to wield. A character like this stands forth in \nstrong contrast among the selfish and cruel tyrants whose deeds, in \nthis connection, we are so frequently forced to commemorate. \n\nThe first king of the Kujur dynasty, which still retains supreme \nauthority in Persia, was Aga Mohammed, who obtained possession \nof the throne in 1795, after a long contest with Lootf Khan Zund, \ngrand-nephew of Kureem. The four sons of this last-mentioned \nmonarch had previously perished in attempts to establish their \nhereditary claims. \n\nAga Mohammed is represented to have been a man of the most \nforbidding appearance, his face being described as resembling that \n\n\n\n208 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof a " sliri veiled old woman," and of manners and habits equally- \nrepulsive. His character was a compound of ambition, avarice, \nvindictiveness, and brutal ferocity, counterbalanced by few redeem- \ning traits. Instances of almost incredible meanness in pecuniary \nmatters are related concerning liim. His cruelty and barbarity \ntowards those who excited his anger or revenge, will sufficiently \nappear from the manner in which he treated the inhabitants of the \ncity of Kerman, who had lent their support to his rival. The \nwomen and children were given as slaves to his soldiers, and all the \nmen who escaped massacre were blinded, and driven, in this help- \nless condition, into the country. The tortures and indignities which \nhe inflicted on the person of his unfortunate rival, and, for purposes \nof extortion, on the venerable Shah Epkh, stamp him as one of the \nworst wretches who ever held a throne. \n\nThe tyrant was assassinated in 1797, by two of his attendants, \nwhom, after sentencing them to death for some trifling cause, he \nhad still, with the most infatuated confidence, allowed to remain \nnear his person. \n\nHis reign was chiefly remarkable for the inroads of the Eussian \npower upon the domains of Persia. Although at times checked by \nEnglish interposition, and occasionally repulsed by the native forces, \nthe Czar acquired and still maintains possession of extensive districts \nin the Avest, which formerly were included in the Persian empire. \n\nAga Mohammed was succeeded by his nephew, Futeh Ali, in \nwhose reign the struggle with the Hussians still continued. Despite \nsome instances of success attending the Persian arms, this monarch \nwas constrained, in the year 1828, to conclude a peace upon terms \nvery advantageoiis to his opponent. \n\nUpon his decease in 1834, his grandson. Shah Mohammed, was by \nforeign interference established on the throne. This king reigned \nfor fourteen years, during which time few events of interest occurred \nin connection with the empire : he was succeeded by his son Nessur \nud Hoon, the present incumbent of the throne. \n\nFrom the extreme unpopularity of the Kujur family, and the \ngeneral tokens of discontent which appear throughout the kingdom, \nthe overthrow of the present dynasty is, by some, confidently pre- \ndicted; while the encroachment and diplomatic influence of the \nmore powerfal and rapacious European nations seem to prohibit the \nprobability that Persia will ever hereafter recover any portion of its \nformer political power or prosperity. \n\n\n\nIID I A. \n\n\n\nij i^ iLL Sf 1> 3a si io \n\n\n\nTHE ANCIENT AND CLASSIC HISTORY OE INDIA \n\nTo tlie more civilized nations of antiquity, India always appeared \na land of mystery, romance, and mythology. We first learn of its \nexistence in tlie half-fabulous expedition of Bacchus, who, in the \nremotest ages, was said to have extended his jovial conquests over \nthese distant regions. Traversing the country in a car drawn by \npanthers, he subjugated the people, less by the terror of his arms, \nthan by the genial ascendancy of the grape. At a later and more \nhistorical period, Sesostris, the famed Egyptian conqueror, is reported \nto have invaded India, but no particular record of his exploits has \nreached us. Next came the famous expedition of Semiramis, queen \nof Assyria; but all accounts of this are so stamped with exaggera- \ntion as to be only partially credible. \n\nAccording to Diodorus, having extended her empire over Bactria \nand all Western Asia, she resolved to attempt the conquest of India, \nwhich, even then, was considered the most powerful and wealthy \nregion on the continent. Many vessels were prepared for crossing \nthe Indus, and transported overland to that river; and a great \nnumber of artificial elephants, moved by concealed camels, were \nconstructed for the purpose of terrifying the enemy. After three \nyears spent in these singular preparations, she is said to have gained \nthe shores of the river with a force of nearly a million of men. \nStabrobates, a powerful Indian monarch, awaited her on the bank. \nAn engagement first took place upon the river, in which the \nnatives were defeated ; and the invader, bridging the stream, crossed \nwith her entire army. In a great battle, however, which soon \n14 \n\n\n\n210 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nensued, the sliam elephants proved no match for their real and \nhighly-trained opponents. The Assyrian army, in spite of the suc- \ncess of its cavalry, was completely routed, and Semiramis returned \nwith scarcely a third of her immense forces. \n\nDarius, the Persian monarch, afterwards subdued some of the \nwestern provinces of India, and exacted from them an ample tribute \nin gold. In the meagre account of Herodotus, Indian customs, \nalmost exactly similar to those now prevailing, are described. \nScylax, a distinguished naval commander, was despatched by Darius \non a voyage of discovery, and in two years and a half sailed down \nthe Indus, and thence followed the coast to Egypt. \n\nThe expedition of Alexander the Great, who about the ^^ear \n826 B, C. commenced his celebrated campaign, furnishes the first \nauthentic and detailed account of this interesting region. He had \nconquered Persia and Bactria, and imagined that India was the only \ncountry yet worthy of his arms. As master of Persia, he founded \nhis title upon the conquests and authority of Darius, though these \nhad long been forfeited by his successors. India was indeed an \nalmost undiscovered region, when the Macedonian invader crossed \nthe Indus. Here he encountered no resistance, and was even rein- \nforced by a native prince, named Taxiles. Arriving at the river \nHydaspes, he found its opposite bank occupied by a formidable \narmy, composed of the more warlike tribes of India, and commanded \nby the brave and magnanimous Porus. By a feigned attempt in \nanother quarter, the invading prince succeeded in transporting his \nchosen troops, over a wooded island, to the opposite shore. The \nking instantly attacked him, but after a fiercely-disputed battle, was \ndefeated and taken prisoner. Being questioned as to the manner in \nwhich he wished to be treated, he replied simply, "Like a king." \nAlexander, struck with his fortitude, accorded him his friendship, \nincreased his dominions, and ever after found him a faithful ally. \n\nThe conqueror then pressed onward into the heart of India, taking \nmany cities, and putting to death the philosophers (probably Brah- \nmins) who excited the native princes against him. He arrived \nat last on the banks of the Hyphasis, the modern Sutledge; and \nhere his soldiers, even the veterans, mutinied, and refused to march \nany farther. Immense numbers of elephants, horsemen, and war- \nchariots were said to be waiting them on the banks of the Ganges ; \nand Alexander, in spite of his grief and despair, could not induce \nthem to proceed. That his expedition might not be fruitless of \n\n\n\nINDIA. 211 \n\ngeographical discovery, lie resolved to return to Babylon, his eastern \ncapitol, by an entirely new route. By the aid of the Phoenicians in \nhis army, he speedily constructed a flotilla of two thousand vessels, \nwith which he commenced his voyage down the river, and soon \nentered the Indus, of which it is a branch. During his voyage \ndown these great rivers, (which was protracted to nine months,) he \nattacked and took many of the native cities. In storming a fortress \nof the Mali, a warlike nation, he received a dangerous wound, and \nnearly lost his life. \n\nThe fleet at length arrived at the Indian Ocean, and the crews, \naccustomed to the tideless Mediterranean, were astonished at finding \ntheir vessels alternately grounded and then floated by the tides. \nNearchus, the best naval commander in the army, was now despatched, \nwith a small fleet, to circumnavigate the coast and effect discoveries, \nwhile the king, with the main body of his troops, marched home- \nward by land. Both encountered the greatest privations and distress. \nAlexander, at last entering the rich and friendly countries of \nGedrosia and Caramania, abandoned all discipline, and gave loose to \nrevelry and frantic enjoyment. The whole army was converted into \na sort of Bacchanalian procession, in the midst of which the king, \nemulating his predecessor Bacchus, rode, surrounded by his favour- \nites, feasting, revelling, and crowned with flowers. All the soldiers \nfollowed their example, and nothing was to be seen but flagons, \ncups, and instruments of music. This triumph had been dearly \nobtained by the successful invader. Of the splendid army which \nhe had led into India, amounting to an hundred and thirty-five \nthousand men, hardly a fourth remained. \n\nFrom the very interesting accounts which the historians of that \ntime have transmitted to us, it would appear that very little change \nhas occurred in the manners, customs, and religious rites of the \nsingular people who inhabit the plains of India. The institution of \nstrongly separated castes, the hereditary transmission of employment, \nthe unnatural self-tortures of religious fanatics, and the immolation \nof widows upon the pyres of their deceased husbands, were all then, \nas now, distinguishing characteristicsi of the Hindoo race. The \nGranges is still worshipped, and the unhappy devotees of super- \nstition still expose themselves, in constrained and unnatural \nattitudes, naked to the burning rays of a tropical sun. Alexander \ntook much interest in inquiring into the strange stoicism and self- \ndenial of their philosophers, which certainly surpassed that of \n\n\n\n212 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nDiogenes and tlie whole scliool of Cynics. Calanus, one of tlie most \ndistinguislied of their number, accompanied the conqueror to Babylon, \nand afterwards, in extreme old age, astonished the Greeks by \nterminating his existence, according to the custom of his sect, by \nvoluntarily mounting a funeral-pile, and suffering himself to be \nconsumed to ashes. \n\nThe country then, as now, was highly cultivated, and swarming \nwith life. The natives, judging from the success of the invader, \nwere, with some exceptions, nearly as peaceful and unwarlike as \nat the present day. Agriculture was held in high honour, and \nthe labouring husbandmen were respected even in the midst of \nhostile armies. \n\nOn the death of Alexander, and the partition of his vast empire \namong his generals, India fell to the share of Seleucus. He is said \nto have made a successful expedition for the reduction of the country, \nalthough opposed by Sandracottus (Chadragupta), who had. already \nfounded a great empire in the east of India. An ambassador, whom \nhe despatched to Palibothra, (supposed to be Boglipoor,) the capital \nof this powerful native monarch, reported that the city was ten \nmiles in length and two in breadth, and was defended by five hun- \ndred and seventy -four towers ; that the army of Sandracottus was \ncomposed of four hundred thousand men, with twenty thousand \ncavalry and two thousand chariots. Peace was concluded between \nthe rivals, and cemented by intermarriage; Seleucus resigning his \nclaim to all the provinces east of the Indus. \n\nAfter Bactria had become a powerful and independent Grecian \nstate, few and meagre accounts have reached us of the connection \nwhich it doubtless maintained with its Eastern colonies or rivals. \n"No portion of ancient history equally interesting is involved in \ndarkness so deep and hopeless. The kings of Bactria certainly \ninvaded and reduced to obedience a portion of India, perhaps more \nextensive than was subjected by the arms of Darius or Alexander. \nColonel Tod collected in the western provinces numerous coins and \nmedals of the Bactrian monarchs. Menander, from the account given \nby Strabo, appears to have reigned over a very powerful empire. \nIn conjunction with Demetrius, he had possessed himself of Patta- \nlene at the mouth of the Indus, and at the same time pushed his \nconquests considerably beyond the Hyphasis; while in the north, \nhe had subdued all Tartary, as far as the Jaxartes. There appears \neven to have been for some time a Greek kingdom in India, inde- \n\n\n\nINDIA, \n\n\n\n213 \n\n\n\npendent of Bactria ; nay, it has been supposed by some eminent \nwriters, that many features of the Hmdoo philosophy, which cer- \ntainly bear a striking resemblance to that of Pythagoras and Plato, \nwere derived from a Grecian source; that even the Sanscrit, the \nlearned language of India, whose construction has a wonderful \naffinity to the Greek, may have been an artificial dialect derived \nfrom that noble tongue; but much doubt still encumbers this \nhypothesis. Suffice it then to remark, that after a duration of more \nthan a hundred years, the irruption of barbarous conquerors from \nthe north, and the rise of the Parthian empire, put an end to the \nkingdom of Bactria."* \n\nA maritime communication with India opened by Eudoxus, who, \nabout the year 130 B. C, under the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, \nsailed round the peninsula of Arabia into the Persian Gulf Suc- \nceeding voyagers established an important commerce with the coasts \nof Malabar, and the luxury of Eome was supplied with jewels, \nspices, and with the beautiful fabrics of silk and cotton in which the \nnatives still excel. Several of the ports frequented by these early \ntraders have been identified. The navigation of such an exposed \nand extended line of coast, was necessarily tedious and dangerous \nin the extreme, until one Hippalus, observing the course of the \nmonsoons, steered from the Red Sea directly across the ocean, and \nreduced the voyage to a comparatively safe and brief undertaking. \nCeylon, with its celebrated pearl fisheries, was already known, and \nthe Ganges, with a great city at its mouth, is described by ancient \ngeographers. \n\nAs the Roman empire became weakened and diminished, its \ncommunication with the East was lessened, and finally became \nunimportant. The irruption of the Mahometan hordes, in a few \ncenturies, cut off Europe from all communication by the ancient \nchannels of commerce. The Venetians and Genoese, the most intel- \nligent and enterprising nations of the middle ages, made no attempts \nto open a direct commerce with these distant regions ; but contented \nthemselves with trading to the shores of the Mediterranean or the \nBlack Sea, whither the precious commodities of the East were trans- \nported overland by caravans, or brought by the Arabian navigators. \n\n* History of British India. \n\n\n\n214 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\n\n\ntiiLiiiJidrAiiiiU iio \n\n\n\nTHE EARLY MAHOMETAN INVADERS AND CONQUERORS OF \nINDIA. THE AFGHAN DYNASTY. TIMTJR THE TARTAR. \n\nThe Saracens, in their miglity career of conquest, had overrun \nall Western Asia, and founded the most splendid, warlike, and \ncivilized kingdoms of their time. India, by its remoteness and \nits peculiar position, had (except in a few partial and temporary \nforays) hitherto escaped invasion ; but in the year 997, Mahmoud, \nthe son of Subuktagi, ascended the throne of Cabul and Khorasan, \nand soon proved one of the most successful conquerors of the \nday. His dominions, ere long, extended from the Caspian to the \nIndus; and reports of the boundless wealth of Hindostan inflamed \nhis desire for further conquests. After he had made several suc- \ncessful expeditions across the Indus, a powerful coalition of the \nnative sovereigns was formed against him, headed by Annindpal, \nprince of Lahore. Crossing the Indus in their turn, with one of \nthe greatest armies ever assembled in India, they attacked the Mos- \nlems, who were intrenched on the plains of Peshawer. But this \ngreat and unwarlike multitude coiild make little impression on the \nforces of Mahmoud, trained to battle and conquest. Seized with a \nsudden panic, they broke into confusion and fled, twenty thousand \nperishing in the flight. The Mahometans, assuming the offensive, \ninvaded their country, and returned laden with valuable spoils. \n\nThis campaign taught the Moslems the weakness of their ene- \nmies; and their religious zeal, always alert for the destruction of \nidolatry, was inflamed by the thirst of rapine, when they discovered \nthat the heathen temples, like those of Greece, were the depositories \nof immense treasures, the offerings of devotees. Having conquered \nthe vale of Cashmere, the way lay open to the interior of India ; and in \n1017, with a Tartar army of an hundred and thirty thousand, mostly \ncavalry, Mahmoud marched in quest of fresh victories and richer \nspoils. Kanonge, the most powerful city in India, tendered its sub- \nmission, and his pious crusade was soon rewarded by the plunder \nof the shrine of Muthra, sacred to Krishna. All was carried off \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nINDIA. 9 15 \n\nspecie of an immense amount, pearls and jewels without number, \nand gigantic idols of pure gold, with eyes of ruby and of sapphire. \n\nIn the year 1024, the conqueror, who liad already invaded the \nhapless country eleven times, undertook his last and greatest expe- \ndition. With twenty thousand camels loaded with supplies, he \nmarched across the desert, and advanced to Sumnaut, the most \nsacred and the wealthiest shrine on the Indian Ocean. It was \nstrongly situated on a peninsula, and was defended by a multitude \nof natives, inflamed with religious enthusiasm and the courage of \ndespair. For two days, Mahmoud vainly endeavoured to storm the \nsacred precincts of the temple ; on the third, an immense army was \nseen advancing to its relief. A doubtful and terrible battle ensued, \nand the invaders, for the first time, saw themselves almost vanquished \nby the fury of the native enthusiasts. Victory at last declared in \nfavour of Mahmoud; the garrison, disheartened by the defeat of \ntheir allies, abandoned their stronghold in a panic ; and the victors, \nentering the temple, were amazed at the grandeur and wealth dis- \nplayed on all sides. The priests vainly attempted, by offering \nimmense sums, to save Sumnaut, the chief idol of the place, from \nthe pious indignation of the conqueror. With a sturdy blow, he \ndashed it open, and disclosed an immense treasure of pearls, rubies, \nand diamonds, which had been carefully concealed in the image. \nThe plunder collected on this occasion greatl}^ surpassed that of any \nformer expedition. \n\nThese invasions, however productive in a pecuniary view, led to no \npermanent conquest during the life of Mahmoud, who in 1030 died, \nat the age of sixty-three. This celebrated man, the first Mahome- \ntan invader of India, appears to have joined a certain natural justice \nand legislative talent to his avarice and fanaticism. His chief fault \nvfas his rapacity, from which even his own subjects were not \nalways secure. Two days before his death, he commanded his \nimmense spoils, collected from so many distant regions, to be once \nmore displayed before his eyes, and his army, with its long array \nof cavalry and war-elephants, to defile past him; in a last procession. \n\nAfter his death, his descendants, though greatly reduced by the \nattacks of the Turks, under the dynasty of Seljuk, maintained for \nan hundred and fifty years their native dominions, without attempt- \ning any further exploits in India. Mohammed Ghori, who in 1174 \nseized the government, revived the ancient schemes of conquest, \nand assembling all his forces, advanced into the Indian country. The \n\n\n\n216 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nking of Delhi, supported by other native princes, encountered him \nwith an army of two hundred thousand men, and three thousand \nelephants. The two leaders encountered hand to hand in the thick- \nest of the fight ; but the native forces for once prevailed ; Mohammed \nwas wounded, and compelled to fly with his defeated army. \n\nUndismayed by this overwhelming reverse, he collected a fresh \narmy, and in the following year renewed the war with a fresh inva- \nsion. He was opposed by forces more formidable than before, and \nall sworn by the sacred waters of the Ganges to conquer or to die. \nDisarming their vigilance by a pretence of negotiation, he fell upon \ntheir camp by night, and so disordered their embarrassed multitude, \nthat he gained a complete victory, and carried off an immense amount \nof spoil. The king of Delhi fell, and Cuttub, an officer of Moham- \nmed, soon after seized upon his city and throne, and established, \nfor the first time, an independent Moslem sovereignty in India. \n\nEre long, the new monarch, with his ally Mohammed, made an \nexpedition against the sacred city of Benares, destroyed its idols, \nand loaded four thousand camels with the plunder of its shrines. \nMohammed, after having made nine invasions of India, and accu- \nmulated treasures equal to those of his predecessor, Mahmoud, was \nassassinated by twenty -two dagger- wounds received from a band of \nconspirators, whose relatives had perished in his wars. \n\nCuttub, the nominal viceroy of the late emperor, was, at his death, \nacknowledged as the independent sovereign of Delhi. After a reign \ndistinguished by bravery, justice, and humanit}^, he expired in 1210. \nAltumsh, his slave, and afterwards his son-in-law and chief general, \nsucceeded to the throne. He extended the new empire Avidely over \nIndia, reduced Bengal and Bahar to subject provinces, and made \nother important acquisitions. By refusing to shelter the defeated \nprince of the Afghans, he escaped the resistless arms of Zinghis \nKhan, who was then ravaging Asia, from the Caspian to the \nPacific. He died in 1236, and the throne was occupied by his \ndaughter Kizia Begum, whose talents caused her to be preferred to \neither of the princes. She was, however, overthrown, imprisoned, \nand finally put to death by her brother Byram. To him succeeded \nhis younger brother, Mahmoud II., whose virtues and simplicity of \nlife gained him universal popularity. At his death, the grand vizier, \nBalin, formerly a slave, ascended the throne, putting to death the \nchiefs who had been instrumental in his elevation, and Avho were \nunwilling to see him engross the entire power. This oriental crime \n\n\n\nINDIA. 217 \n\nexcepted, his reign appears one of tlie most admirable in tlie annals \nof Hindostan. His justice and generosity were proverbial, and bis \ncourt was, perhaps, the most refined and splendid in the world. \nMen of letters and science repaired thither from all quarters, and \nfound ample encouragement. Various unfortunate princes, dethroned \nand exiled by the conquests of Zinghis and his successors, found a \nroyal support and protection in his palace. He died in 1236. \n\nKei Kobad, his grandson, who succeeded him, was murdered by \nFerose, an Afghan usurper, who, in 1295, shared a similar fate at \nthe hands of his own nephew, the able and ferocious Allah. The \nlatter, a man of great military talent, subdued Aurungabad and the \nCarnatic, and despoiled the conquered nations of greater treasures \nthan any of his predecessors. \n\nThe Mongols (or Moguls), the successors of Zinghis, now com- \nmenced their invasion of India, but were at first completely defeated \nin Lahore. Two years afterwards, they again invaded the country \nwith two hundred thousand men, and Delhi was crowded with fugi- \ntives driven before their successful march. Allah, however, with his \nforces, sallied out, and so severely repulsed them, that they retreated \nwestward, and the danger was for a^ time averted. After a reign \nmarked by caprice, cruelty, and licentiousness, he died, probably \npoisoned by one of his profligate favourites. \n\nHis son, Mubarick I., was placed upon the throne in 1316, and \nafter three years, rendered infamous by his vices, was assassinated. \nTuglick, a slave, took his place, and after a just and moderate reign \nof four years, was succeeded by his son Mohammed III., a monster \nof crime and cruelty. It is related that, with his army, he was \naccustomed to hunt the inhabitants of any obnoxious province, for \nhis amusement, as beasts of chase. He resolved to conquer the \nworld, in emulation of Alexander; but of an hundred thousand \nmen, whom he despatched against China, the greater part were des- \ntroyed in the passes of the Himmaleh, and a mere handful returned \nto Delhi. He also made great preparations for conquest in the west; \nbut all his talents and resources were required to suppress the rebel- \nlions which his severities had excited. The Deccan, an important \nprovince of his dominions, was erected into a separate kingdom by \na Mogul chieftain, who assumed the title of Allah I. \n\nMohammed died in 1331, and was succeeded by his cousin, \nFerose III., who, in a reign of thirty-eight years, conferred great \nbenefits on the empire by his justice, clemency, and public spirit. \n\n\n\n218 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nTo him the country was indebted for numerous bridges, reservoirs, \nand other works of public utility. During the short and precarious \nreigns which succeeded, the provinces began to declare their inde- \npendence; but in 1397, the invasion of Timur the Tartar decided \nthe destinies of India. \n\nThis extraordinary man, who had already become formidable, \nperceiving the distracted condition of the country, resolved to found \na new empire in the East. He left his capital of Samarcand, and \ncrossing the Indian Caucasus, with his Scythian cavalry, attacked \nMoultan. He took Batneir, and massacred all the inhabitants. He \nthen advanced toward Delhi, and on his way, encumbered with \ncaptives, ordered a hundred thousand of them to be butchered. \nMahmoud, the emperor, was in his capital with a strong force of \nelephants, cavalry, and infantry, and might, perhaps, have made an \neffectual resistance; but by an artful manoeuvre, was enticed to take \nthe field, and instantly defeated by the more hardy and ferocious \ntroops of the invader. The city submitted, and was given up to \nunrestrained pillage, and the natives, vainly resisting, were indis- \ncriminately massacred. \n\nTimur, after a campaign in the neighbourhood of the Himmaleh, \nrecrossed the Indus, and proceeded on the memorable expedition \nwhich resulted in the capture of Bajazet, and the prostration, for a \ntime, of the Ottoman empire. \n\nAfter his departure, the Indian provinces, though acknowledging \nhis nominal sovereignty, were each, in effect, independent; though \nin 1413, at the death of Mahmoud, Chizier, a viceroy of Timur, \nadministered the government of Delhi, Agra, and other provinces, \nwith vigour and prudence. Various reigns, of little interest, suc- \nceeded. After the death of Timur, and that of his able son. Shah \nEokh, his vast dominions fell to pieces. His great-grandson, a \nyouth of twelve, named Baber, inherited the Valley of Ferghana, \nand afterwards pursued a most singular career of conquest and \nadventure, "He was the knight-errant of Asia, and spent his whole \nlife winning and losing kingdoms. The adventures which the \nromances of the middle ages ascribe to their fabulous heroes, were \nrealized in him. At one moment he was ruler of a great kingdom ; \nin the next, had scarcely a hut to shelter him ; now he was at the \nhead of a numerous army, and now he was hardly able to muster \na hundred adherents." After having won and lost Samarcand, this \nenterprising prince gained possession of Cabul, a,nd began to make \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n219 \n\n\n\nincursions into Hindostan. Eesolving to win another kingdom, \nwitli only thirteen thousand horse, he marched upon Delhi. Ibra- \nhim II., the emperor, with a thousand elephants and a hundred \nthousand cavalry, sallied out to meet him. These forces, being \ndistributed in a line, were easily broken by the active charge of the \nMoguls ; Ibrahim fell, and his army was put to flight. Baber, after \nthis decisive blow, ascended at once the throne of Delhi (1526). \nThus ended the dynasty of the Afghan emperors, who for three \nhundred years had ruled a great part of Hindostan. Several of \nthem had been originally slaves, and no family had held the throne, \nin regular succession, for any considerable time. It is said that, not- \nwithstanding some tyrannical reigns, and some merciless invasions, \nthe condition of the people was generally, during this interval, \nprosperous and happy. \n\n\n\nKj ujui J/ii iL iL Jj iLfi iL Ji Jj \n\n\n\nTHE MOGUL DYNASTY, BABEE, AKBAE, JEHANGIRE, ATIRENGZEBE. \nDECLINE OF THE IMPERIAL POWER. \n\nThe throne of Baber was yet far from" secu.re. The chiefs of \nthe late monarch and the warlike Eajpoot princes were leagued \nagainst him. An army of one hundred thousand men, commanded \nby Mahmoud, a brother of the late emperor, was assembled in the \nwest; and even the bravest captains of the invader counselled a \nretreat toward the Indus. Baber, however, refused to relinquish \nhis brilliant conquest, and animated his army by reawakening the \nold Moslem enthusiasm. He had moreover a train of artillery and \na force of musketeers, novel and formidable assistants in Indian \nwarfare. Battle being joined, his soldiers, arranged in a close square, \nmaintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy with continued \ndischarges. Watching a favourable moment, he charged with the \nchoicest of his troops, and won a complete victory. This event \nsecured his reign, which, however, only lasted till 1530, when he died. \nThe character of this singular man appears to have been more open \n\n\n\n220 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY \n\n\n\nand jovial than that of other Mahometan conquerors. He displayed \ngreat personal bravery, as well as military skill, and had a passion \nfor adventure and conviviality that seems rather to belong to the \ngay knight-errantry of Europe than to the gravity of Moslem \ndespotism. \n\nHis son, Humaioon, who succeeded him, was defeated by Shere \nKhan, a chief of the former dynasty, was compelled to fly for his life \nacross the desert, and took refuge at the court of Persia. Being \nfurnished with assistance by the Shah, he obtained the sovereignty \nof Cabul, where he reigned for nine years. Meanwhile, Shere had \ngained complete possession of the empire, and greatly enlarged its \nboundaries. After an admirable reign of five years, he died, leaving \na son of only nine years of age. Humaioon, taking advantage of \nthe opportunity, marched to recover his throne, and was encountered \nby Secunder, a nephew of the late emperor, who had succeeded him. \nAfter an obstinate battle, Humaioon defeated his rival, and \nregained possession of Delhi, from which he had been an exile for \nthirteen years. \n\nHe died, however, in the following year, (1556,) and his son \nAkbar, a youth of thirteen, ascended the throne. He had already \ndistinguished himself by his heroism in the late contest, and now, \nwith equal courage and policy, defended his throne from its numer- \nous enemies. Crossing the Ganges with only a hundred horse, he \nattacked by night the camp of the rebellious chiefs of Bengal, \ncompletely dispersed them, and killed their leader with his own \nhand. On another occasion he marched with a select troop of cavalry \nseven hundred miles in nine days, and suppressed a formidable \ninsurrection in Guzerat. By a succession of these daring feats, \nmore fitted apparently for a guerilla chieftain than the sovereign of \nfifty millions of men, he struck terror into the hearts of his ene- \nmies, and established his sway over nearly all the provinces of India \nwhich had ever been held by Mahometan conquerors. Like Will- \niam the Conqueror, he caused statistics of every province and every \nproduction of his empire to be carefully compiled. \n\nDuring his reign certain Portuguese missionaries, the first whom \nhe had seen, were invited to court, and entertained strong hopes of \nconverting the emperor ; but after a dispute with the Mahometan \nmollahs, wisely refused an insane trial of faith to which the latter \ninvited them. The proposal was made that one of their antagonists \nshould leap into a flaming furnace with the Koran, if either of the \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n221 \n\n\n\nPortuguese would follow him with the Bible 5 in order that the \nemperor might judge which of the two volumes would confer the \ngreatest protection on its devotee. Eefusing to comply with this \nfanatical test, they returned, after receiving courteous treatment, to \nthe settlement of Goa. Akbar died in 1605, after a brilliant and \nsuccessful reign of fifty-one years. \n\nHis son Selim, who succeeded him, assumed the vain-glorious \ntitle of Jehangire, or "conqueror of the world" \xe2\x80\x94 an epithet to which \nhis achievements hardly entitled him. This prince is chiefly known \nby his passion for the beautiful Noor-mahal, whose husband, Shere \nAfkun, he treacherously devoted to death \xe2\x80\x94 a striking parallel to \nthe history of David and the wife of Uriah. The brave chief came \noff" victorious in a conflict with an elephant and a tiger, to which he \nhad been meanly exposed; but afterwards was slain by a multitude \nof assassins, numbers of whom he killed before receiving his death- \nblow. The emperor gained his prize; but, struck with remorse, \nrefused to see her, and for four years she lived neglected in a corner \nof his palace. At length, his passion reawakening, she became his \nfavourite queen, and held complete control over his mind. \n\nIn the year 1607, an English mission, under Captain Hawkins, and \nin 1615, another, under Sir Thomas Eoe, were despatched to attempt \nthe opening of commercial intercourse; both were dazzled by the \nsplendour of the court, and were treated with tolerable civility ; but \nwere unable to obtain any advantageous terms from the monarch. \n\nThe latter part of his life was rendered miserable by domestic \ntroubles. His son Shah Jehan, after assassinating his own brother \nChusero, who stood between him and the throne, raised a rebellion. \nThis being suppressed by the valour and generalship of Mohabet, \nan able officer of the court, the emperor\'s jealousy, stimulated by \nNoor-mahal, alighted on the latter, who soon found himself treated \nwith ungrateful indignity. Enraged, he seized, by a sudden move- \nment, upon the person of his sovereign. Noor-mahal and her \nbrother Asiph, the prime minister, made a desperate attempt to \nrestore his liberty. In the battle which ensued, the queen, fighting \nfiercely with her own hands, sought the midst of the enemy; but \nMohabet gained the victory, and retained his captive. Having \nreleased him, and restored him to his position, the rebellious chief \nwas for a time compelled to fly. Jehangire died on the 9th of \nNovember, 1627, bequeathing the throne to Shariar, his son by \nNoor-mahal. \n\n\n\n222 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nBy tlie support of Asiph and Mohabet, Sliali Jelian, the rival \nheir, gained possession of the kingdom, and instantly fortified his \ntitle by the murder of his brother and all his nephews \xe2\x80\x94 leaving \nnone of the blood of Timur, except in the veins of himself and his \nchildren. Lodi, a distinguished chief, for some time, maintained a \nsuccessful opposition, but was .finally defeated and slain. Assisted \nby the wise counsels of his two supporters, the monarch reigned \nwith some justice and moderation. He at one time commenced a \npersecution of the Hindoo faith, but soon resumed the toleration \nso honourable to his predecessors. \n\nHe made few acquisitions of territory, but devoted himself \npassionately to the royal amusement of building. The noblest \npalaces, mosques, and mausoleums in India were erected by him, and \nseveral yet exist, attesting the magnificence of the court of Delhi. \n\nFor twenty years, his reign was prosperous and fortunate. At \nthe end of that time, his peace was continually disturbed, and finally \nhis throne itself undermined by the ambition of his sons. Dara, \nSujah, and Morad, were openly brave, ambitious, and warlike. \nAurengzebe, the youngest, a rigid Mahometan, was of a reserved \nand grave depoitment, but exceeded them all in political craft and \nforesight. Taking advantage of the emperor\'s illness, he formed an \nalliance with Sujah and Morad against Dara, the heir to the throne. \nThe latter was despatched by his father to endeavour to crush the \nformidable confederacy. With an hundred thousand cavalry, he \nawaited near Agra the attack of his rebellious brothers, Morad and \nAurengzebe. He was completely defeated, chiefly by the skill and \ncourage of the latter, who, Morad being wounded, assumed the \nentire control of the forces, and marched to gain possession of the \nemperor\'s person. This undutiful purpose he effected by a m.ost \ntreacherous stratagem, and the unfortunate monarch was over- \nwhelmed with rage and despair. \n\nThe artful usurper seized his brother Morad at a banquet, to which \nhe had invited him ; but could not feel his power secure while Dara \nand Sujah were yet at liberty. He first engaged the latter, and \nrouted him, after a desperate battle, near Allahabad. Dara, who \nwas posted in a position of extraordinary strength, in Rajpootana, \ndeceived by an artful stratagem, admitted the enemy, was defeated, \nand compelled to fly. Being treacherously delivered to the usurper, \nhe was led in rags through the streets of Delhi, and soon after \nassassinated by order of the emperor. Sujah, after another unsuc- \n\n\n\nINDIA. 223 \n\ncessful attempt, in whicli he was assisted by Moliammed, tlie son of \nAurengzebe, was betrayed, and perished among his enemies. Shah \nJehan, the dethroned monarch, survived the loss of his empire for \neight years, and was treated with every appearance of respect and \ndeference by his usurping son. \n\nAurengzebe, for many years, ruled in prosperity over the vast \nempire of the Moguls, and included nearly all India and several \nneighbouring states within its limits. His revenues amounted to \nnearly an hundred and fifty millions of dollars \xe2\x80\x94 an income, at that \nperiod, unexampled. Despite the violence, craft, and injustice \nwhich had secured his accession, he reigned, considering the age \nand the country, with much justice, moderation and virtue. The \nlower classes of Hindoos, however, then, as ever since, appear to \nhave been held in a state^ of servitude and degradation. \n\nA formidable invasion, menaced by the powerful sovereign of \nPersia, Shah Abbas, was averted by his sudden death; and a \ndangerous fanatical insurrection, headed by an old woman, was \nsuppressed, after a formidable demonstration, by an appeal to the \nMahometan enthusiasm and superstition. In the year 1686, a power- \nful force was sent into the Deccan, and after meeting a vigorous \nresistance, took possession of Golconda and Bejapore. \n\nAbout this time arose the formidable Mahratta power, so long the \nterror of the East. Sevajee, a youth of great courage and enter- \nprise, had commenced a kind of predatory warfare, with a company \nof the fierce natives inhabiting the Maharashta, a mountainous \nregion in the north-west of India. His increasing power having \ndrawn upon him the enmity of the king of Bejapore, he sought and \ngained the protection of Aurengzebe, by declaring himself his \nvassal, and thus retained possession of all his conquests. During \nthe early contests, however, he seized plunder and territory from \nboth the conflicting powers, and was thus enabled to extend his \npossessions until he commanded an army of fifty-seven thousand \nmen. The Mogul emperor, resolved to remain the entire master of \nIndia, sent a powerful force against him; which, however, accom- \nplished little against the active and resolute chief He soon captured \nSurat, the richest city in India, and plundered it of a million sterling. \nA more powerful expedition at last reduced him to extremity, and \nhe surrendered himself, on pledge of honourable treatment, to the \nMogul. He was nevertheless kept close prisoner, but at last escaping, \nonce more raised his standard on his inaccessible hills. Hence \n\n\n\n224 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhe again pounced upon the low countries, collected great plunder, \nand increased his possessions. He assumed the title of sovereign, \nand had coin struck in his name. He even took Golconda, and \npushed his conquests boldly into the Carnatic. His adventurous \ncareer was terminated by death in 1680. \n\nHis successor, Sambajee, at first successfully resisted the Mogul \narmies; but on the occasion of the conquest of Golconda and Beja- \npore, by the forces of Aurengzebe, was taken and cruelly put to \ndeath before the eyes of the emperor. His brother Eama, however, \nlong defended himself in an almost impregnable fortress of the \nCarnatic, and at length the indomitable Mahrattas, mustering in great \nforce, poured down into the plains of India, and made fresh and \nrepeated conquests. The heavy armed cavalry of the Moguls, \nresistless in a pitched battle, could make little impression upon these \nlight and dexterous horsemen, especially in the dificult passes of \ntheir own country. Allured by booty, their ranks continually \nincreased, and they gained possession, ere long, of a large portion \nof Central India. \n\nThe bigotry of Aurengzebe, in his latter years, impelled him to \nresolve on extirpating the ancient Hindoo religion. The splendid \ntemples of Benares and Muthra were levelled to the ground, and \nMahometan mosques were erected in their places. These violent \nmeasures excited the detestation of the native population, and \ngreatly aided the spread of the Mahratta power. \n\nThe emperor\'s children, following his own example, had already \ngiven him much trouble by their rebellious spirit. Mohammed, \nthe eldest, had died in prison ; Akbar, another, was in open rebellion \nwith the Mahrattas ; and the others evidently waited with an anxious \neye for the event which should allow a fresh struggle for the empire. \nThe latter part of his reign was passed in gloom and despondency. \nHe expired on the 21st of February, 1707, in the ninety-fourth year \nof his age, and the forty-ninth of his reign. His last hours were \ndeeply embittered by the remembrance of his crimes and his career \nof usurpation. He appears to have possessed, in an eminent degree, \nthe vices and virtues of the Moslem race. Though ambitious, \nfanatical, and imrelenting, he was nevertheless temperate, impartial, \nand highly charitable. \n\nAt his death. Shah Allum, the eldest son, and heir to the throne, \nmade the most liberal offers to his brothers. They, however, pre- \nferred to try the fortune of war, in which they both perished. The \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n225 \n\n\n\nnew emperor further secured his peaceful accession by a treaty with \nthe Mahrattas, who were allowed to receive a share of the revenues \nof those districts which they had been in the habit of plundering. \n\nThe Sikhs, a religious sect, whose belief was compounded of the \nHindoo and Mahometan faiths, had been cruelly persecuted by \nAurengzebe, and converted into determined enemies of the crown. \nHeaded by Gooroo Govind, whose father he had executed, they \ncommenced a formidable predatory warfare. Though in some \nmeasure suppressed by the late emperor, at his death they again \ntook the field, headed by a chief named Banda. Sallying from \ntheir fastnesses on the borders of the Himmaleh, they committed \nterrible devastations ; and the emperor, taking the field in person, \nwas enabled, with difficulty, to check their incursions. \n\nShah Allum, instead of imitating the murderous policy of his \npredecessors, delighted to be surrounded by his relations and \ndescendants. He appears to have been a virtuous and accomplished \nprince, and to have done much for the peace and prosperity of his \nempire. He died at Lahore, in 1712, after a reign of only five years. \n\nHis son Moiz-ud-dien (called Jehander Shah) succeeded him, \nbeing supported by a powerful omrah named Zulfeccar, who defeated \nand put to death his three brothers, rival claimants of the crown. \nHe proved, however, so dissolute and feeble, that ere long, with his \nadviser, he was defeated and put to death by Hussein and Abdoola, \ntwo powerful brothers, who elevated to the throne Feroksere, a \ngrandson of Shah Allum. Administering the government with \nmuch vigour, they defeated Banda, and put- him to death with the \nmost cruel tortures. At the end of seven years, they had put to \ndeath the emperor whom they had elevated, and replaced him^ \nwithin a year, with three others of the royal family \xe2\x80\x94 the two first \ndying almost immediately after their accession to the throne. \nMohammed Shah, the last, was desirous, like Feroksere, of throw- \ning off" the yoke which left him but a nominal sovereignty ; and at \nlength, by a sudden conspiracy, slew Hussein, seized Abdoola, and \nentered Delhi in triumph. He soon exhibited, however, the same \nincapacity which had already marked the descendants of Aureng- \nzebe; and his two most powerful supporters, Nizam-ul-Mulk and \nSaadut Khan, withdrawing in displeasure, formed independent \nsovereignties \xe2\x80\x94 the first in the Deccan, and the latter in Oude. \n\nThe Mahrattas now began openly to contend for the empire, and \nadvanced to Agra, overrunning the country on their way. They \n15 \n\n\n\n226 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\' SBOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nwere repulsed by Saadut; but under the weak rule of Mohammed, \nrenewed their incursion, and plundered the environs of Delhi itself. \nA far more formidable foe, however, was at hand. Nadir Shah, \nthe powerful usurper of the throne of Persia, having gained pos- \nsession of Cabul and Candahar, began to cast a covetous eye upon \nthe boundless wealth of Hindostan. A pretext for war was easily \nfound in Mohammed\'s refusal to deliver certain fugitives ; and push- \ning rapidly into India, he arrived within four days\' march of Delhi \nbefore the emperor was aware of his approach. Hastily collecting \nforces, Saadut Khan engaged him, but was easily defeated and taken \nprisoner. A treaty was then made, and Mohammed, with Nizam- \nul-Mulk, entered the camp of the enemy in confidence. They \nwere, however, treacherously seized by the invader, who at once \nmarched on Delhi. A popular resistance was punished by a general \nmassacre, and the imperial treasury was plundered of an immense \nquantity of jewels and other treasures, the accumulation of ages. \nThe spoil carried off by the Persian monarch and his oihcers was \nestimated at one hundred and fifty millions of dollars. \n\nSatisfied with the richness of his plunder, and the cession of all \nprovinces west of the Indus, Nadir Shah replaced Mohammed on the \nthrone, gave him some salutary advice, and departed. Eight years \nafterwards he was assassinated, and Ahmed Abdalla, one of his officers, \ntook possession of Afghanistan. Incited by the success of Nadir, \nhe, in 1747, passed the Indus, defeated the imperial forces, and \nplundered the city of Sirhind. Soon after this event, the emperor \ndied, and was succeeded by his son Ahmed Shah, who, after a brief \nreign, was deposed by an able officer, GrhaZee-ud-Dien, who raised to \nthe throne a son of Jehander Shah, under the title of Aulumgere 11. \n\nThe condition of the empire was as weak and distracted as \npossible when Ahmed Abdalla, enraged at an act of hostility, again \ninvaded it, marched to Delhi, and renewed the sanguinary scenes \nof the time of Nadir. After his departure, a contest between Gha- \nzee and the emperor ensued, in which the latter was assassinated \nand his body thrown into the Jumna. By this time, however, the \nMogul dynasty, as an effective power, had ceased to exist, and the \ncontest for empire lay between the Afghans and the Mahrattas, \nwhich latter, assisted by the Sikhs, now made a grand effort for the \nentire mastery of India. With an immense body of cavalry, they \noverran, not only Agra and Delhi, but the western provinces of \nMoultan and ijahore, and drove the Afghans beyond the Indus. \n\n\n\nINDIA. 227 \n\nAhmed Abdalla, with a formidable army, in turn marched into \nthe countrjr, and occupied Delhi. In a battle, which soon ensued, \nthe Mahratta army, of eighty thousand men, was almost entirely \ndestroyed. Undismayed by this disaster, they assembled in the fol- \nlowing year, to the number of an hundred and forty thousand, and, \ncommanded by the vizier and nephew of their supreme prince, \nmarched upon Delhi. The Jumna, swelled by rains, separated them \nfrom the enemy ; but Abdalla, plunging in with his whole force, \nswam across, and so alarmed the enemy that they retreated to a \nstrong intrenchment. At length, risking a battle in the open plain, \nthey were again entirely defeated, and twenty-two thousand of them \nwere taken prisoners. \n\nNothing would have been easier than for the victor to have seated \nhimself on the throne of India ; but he replaced the son of Aulum- \ngere, with the still- venerated title of "Great Mogul," upon the \nnominal throne, and retired to his own country. From this time \nthe more interesting incidents in the fate of the Indian empire are \nconnected with that wonderful power, which from the ends of the \nearth, sent its colonists and conquerors to these inviting regions. \n\n\n\nC\'H APTEE I?. \n\nEARLY EUROPEAN BISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. EXPEDI- \nTIONS OF THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH \n\nThe enterprising genius of the Portuguese once placed them in \nthe first rank of maritime adventure and discovery. The venturous \nexpeditions fitted out by John I. and Prince Henry, and afterwards \nby John II., had already, in 1486, acquainted Europe with much \nof the western coast of Africa. In that year, the last mentioned \nmonarch resolved on a grand scheme of discovery and commercial \nenterprise. Bartholomew Diaz, a skilful officer, was placed in com- \nmand of three vessels, with orders, if possible, to double the southern \nextremity of the African continent. After being driven far to the \nsouthward, and encountering storms and severe cold, the daring \n\n\n\n228 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nnavigator steered to the north, and found himself, to his siirprise, \non the eastern shore of Africa. Eeturning by the coast, he dis- \ncovered that famous promontory, which he named "The Cape of \nStorms," but on which his patron, more sanguine, bestowed the title \nof " The Cape of Good Hope." A mission, despatched to India at the \nsame time, by way of the Eed Sea, reported favourably of the \nprobable advantages of a direct traffic. \n\nThe wonderful discoveries of Columbus, made at this time, greatly \nstimulated the spirit of emulation and adventure among the Portu- \nguese. In 1495 Emmanuel, who succeeded John, fitted out another \nexpedition in three vessels, under the renowned Vasco de Gama, \nwho sailed on the 8th of July, 1497. After encountering the storms \nso terrible to early navigators, he arrived at Melinda, a town on the \neastern coast of Africa, and procured a pilot. Stretching across the \nIndian Ocean with favourable breezes, he beheld in twenty-three \ndays the long-desired coast of India. Landing at Calicut, he \ncommenced negotiations with the Zamorin, or native prince, for a \ncommercial intercourse; but owing to the jealousy of the Moorish \ntraders, who represented his expedition as piratical, made no great \nprogress. Some of his officers having been arrested, he captured a \nnumber of native dignitaries, and held them as hostages, until his \nmen were released. He still detained several to be conveyed to Por- \ntugal as witnesses of the wealth and power of his nation. Finding that \ngreat preparations for hostilities were made, he thought it advisable \nto return, and, after encountering much difficulty from storms and \nthe ravages of the scurvy, reentered the Tagus with only half of \nhis crews. \n\nThe nation lost not a moment in taking advantage of the import- \nant channel of commerce which he had discovered, A fleet of \ntwelve ships, strongly armed, and manned with thirteen hundred \nmen, was immediately fitted out ; and Alvarez Cabral, an able navi- \ngator, was appointed to the command. He embarked on the 8th of \nMarch, 1500, and stretching westward to avoid Africa, made the \nnew and brilliant discovery of Brazil. \n\nAt the Cape of Good Hope, he encountered, for two months, a \nseries of frightful tempests, in one of which perished the renowned \nBartholomew Diaz. Having lost four ships, the Portuguese fleet, \npursuing nearly the same course as its predecessor, arrived at Cali- \ncut. The captives whom Gama had carried off, were restored, \nhandsomely dressed, and read}\'" to declare to the natives their good \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n229 \n\n\n\ntreatment. Cabral was admitted to an audience witli tlie zamorin, \nwlio received him in barbaric splendour, his person being covered \nwith the most precious jewels. The Moorish influence, however, \nwas still such, that the Portuguese vessels, after waiting for months, \ncould obtain no cargoes. Irritated at this, the adventurers seized, by \npermission of the prince, a Moorish ship, which was about to depart, \nrichly laden with spices. The Moors and natives, enraged at this \nact of violence, proceeded to the Portuguese factory, and after \nmeeting a desperate resistance, slew fifty of its defenders. A few \nescaped to the boats which Cabral had despatched to their relief \nIn retaliation, the latter instantly plundered and burnt ten Moorish \nvessels, and then bombarded the city. \n\nAfter this revenge, he proceeded southward to Cochin, with which \nhe opened a friendly intercourse. A cargo of pepper, his chief \nobject, was readily obtained, and steering homewards, he reached \nLisbon in July, 1501. The king, relying on the papal grant which \nhe had obtained, as a title to all eastern discoveries, now assumed \nthe pompous title of "Lord of the IsTavigation, Conquest, and Com- \nmerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." To enforce this \nsublime pretension, he despatched a fresh fleet of twenty sail, under \nGama, who again set sail to carry out his former undertakings. \nAfter murdering many of the natives whom he had captured at sea, \nand exercising the utmost cruelty, he was attacked in his single \nship by thirty-four proas, and only escaped by cutting his cable and \nrunning to sea. He afterwards took several valuable prizes, and \nreturned to Portugal. Three expeditions, under the Albuquerques \nand Saldanha, soon followed; but after some hostilities with the \nzamorin, they returned, leaving a few hundred men to assist their \nally, the prince of Cochin, who was hard pressed by the former. \n\nFifty thousand men were on their march against the little settle- \nment of Europeans, yet Pacheco, their commander, assured his ally \nof undoubted protection. By the strong position of the city, the \naid of artillery, and the undaunted bravery of his troops, he was \nenabled to defy all the assaults of the enemy, who, after losing great \nnumbers of his men, was compelled to retreat to Calicut, \n\nThe foundation of the Portuguese power in India was thus laid. \nSoarez, who succeeded Pacheco, cannonaded with his fleet the cities \nof Calicut and Cranganor, and reduced great part of them to ashes. \nIn 1505, Francisco Almeyda was sent out with a large fleet, and \nwith the pompous title of Viceroy of India. To revenge the murder \n\n\n\n230 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nof certain Portuguese, lie destroyed the fleet of Coiilan, a port, \n\xe2\x96\xa0vvhitlier tliey had been in the habit of trading. The Portuguese \npower was next exposed to a most formidable danger. The sultan \nof Cairo, inflamed by religious fanaticism and by revenge for real \ninjuries, resolved to extirpate the infidel invaders, and accordingly \nsent a powerful fleet against them, under Mir Hocem. This admi- \nral, reinforced by Melique Az, the viceroy of Diu, with a vastly \nsuperior force, engaged Lorenzo, the viceroy\'s son, who had been \nsent to intercept him. The Portuguese commander fought for two \ndays with the most determined valour, but was at last defeated \nand slain. \n\nAlmeyda, hastening to avenge the death of his son, sailed, with \nnineteen ships, in pursuit of the enemy. On his way, he stormed \nthe hostile city of Dabul, which, after a terrible massacre of its \ninhabitants, was reduced to ashes. He then attacked the combined \nfleets of the enemy in the Gulf of Cambay, completely defeated \nthem, and obtained great spoil. This victory was disgraced by a \ngeneral massacre of his prisoners. \n\nMeanwhile, Alphonso Albuquerque, who had gained splendid suc- \ncesses in Arabia and at Ormuz, had arrived, and already presented \nhis commission as governor of India. The disappointed Almeyda, \nthough at first resisting, was persuaded to yield to the royal author- \nity, and set sail for Portugal. He never reached his native country, \nbeing slain in a fight with certain Hottentots on the southern coast \nof Africa. \n\nAlbuquerque, strongly reinforced, now cherished vast plans of \nconquest and empire in the East. In January, 1610, he arrived, \nwith a powerful fleet, before the hated city of Calicut. After a \nmost daring assault, in which the city was for a time taken, he was \ncompelled to retreat, with the loss of his associate, Coutinho, and \nmany other nobles of high rank. Undismayed at this disaster, the \nviceroy entertained fresh pla,ns of invasion and settlement. The \nzebaim or prince of the strong city of Goa was at war in the inte- \nrior, and his capital lay unprotected. Albuquerque arrived there \nwith his fleet on the 25th of February, and the city, fearing to lose \nits commerce, at once capitulated. He immediately institiited a \ngovernment of his own, and carefully stvidied the protection and \nprosperity of his subjects. \n\nThe zebaim, naturally enraged and alarmed at the loss of his \nchief city, immediately took measures to regain it; and concluding \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n231 \n\n\n\na peace witli his adversaries, several of wliom joined him, marched \nto Goa, with upwards of forty thousand men. His first attack was \nbaffled, the city being, from its insular position, difficult of access. \nNevertheless he contrived, during a stormy night, to transport over \nhis whole force, and the Portuguese commander was compelled, \nafter hard fighting, to take refuge in the fort, and afterwards in his \nfleet, which was near at hand. He then waged an active and preda- \ntory warfare, cutting off the enemy\'s vessels, and sometimes landing \nand carrying off much spoil. \n\nHaving thus discouraged and intimidated the natives, he resolved \nto make a fresh attempt on Goa; and with only fifteen hundred \nPortuguese, and a small force of native allies, appeared before the \ncity. He commenced with a long and severe cannonade, and then \nlanding, was enabled, after a desperate contest of six hours, to regain \npossession. He immediately resumed his efforts to establish a colony \nand a stable government, and entered into friendly communication \nwith the neighbouring powers. The natives were further conciliated \nby many intermarriages of the Portuguese with the ladies of the \ncountry. \n\nPursuing his conquests, the viceroy next made an exj)edition to \nMalacca, the capital of which was taken by storm, and converted into \na Portuguese settlement. During this time, and after his return, \nfresh contests ensued with the zebaim, who, though gaining at first \nconsiderable success, was finally and effectually repulsed. The next \nexploit of Albuquerque was to gain possession of Ormuz, the \nwealthy emporium of the Persian Gulf. His brilliant career was \ninterrupted by the ingratitude of his sovereign, who, probably \ndreading his increasing greatness, suddenly deprived him of his \npost. He survived this blow but a short time, dying of a broken \nheart, in December, 1515. His death was deeply deplored, not \nonly by his own countrymen, but by the native inhabitants, to whom \nhe had endeared himself by many acts of justice and conciliation. \n\nAfter the death of this great commander, the Portuguese gained \nfew accessions to their Eastern territories, though they maintained \ntheir empire already established, and their exclusive commerce, for \nmore than a century longer. They were, however, in general, \nhated by the natives, whom their persecution and rapacity kept in \ncontinued hostility. The Inquisition was, at an early day, estab- \nlished in Goa, and rivalled the worst horrors of that iniquitous \ninstitution in Europe. \n\n\n\n232 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nIn 1536, tlie colonies became involved in a formidable contest \nwith the natives of Guzerat, assisted bj a powerful force despatched \nby the pasha of Cairo. The Portuguese, besieged in the fortress of \nDiu, defended themselves with the most desperate courage ; and \nfinally, when only forty-three were fit for duty, the Turkish com- \nmander, wearied by their obstinate resistance, retired. A few years \nafterwards the siege was renewed ; but after a war, protracted for \nsome years, Alvaro de Castro, the governor, succeeded in entirely \ndefeating and dispersing the enemy. He reentered Goa with such \npomp that Queen Catherine remarked that he had indeed conquered \nlike a Christian, but had triumphed like a pagan. \n\nIn 1570, a far more critical contest awaited the colonies. Adel- \nKhan and Nizam-ul-Mulk, two great officers of the Mogul, united \nwith the zamorin in a strong effort to expel the intruders. The \nfirst, with an army of an hundred thousand men, defiled through the \nGhauts, and laid siege to Goa. The viceroy, Ataide, though com- \nmanding a feeble garrison, defended the place with great bravery and \nresolution. His troops fought with their usual courage and ferocity, \nsending cart-loads of heads into the city to animate and encourage \nthe inhabitants. With fresh reinforcements, the governor gained \nfresh advantages, and Adel-Khan, after several months^ withdrew, \nwith a loss of twelve thousand men. \n\nNizam-ul-Mulk, with an equally formidable army, had advanced \nagainst Chaul, an important settlement near Bombay. Andrada, \nthe commander, with a force of two thousand men, defended the \ntown for a month, at the end of which, a general assault took place. \nThe Portuguese, defending house by house, maintained their posi- \ntion ; and after a siege of six months, during which many thousands \nof the besiegers had perished, sustained another attack with such \nbravery and determination as to compel the enemy to withdraw, \nand soon after to enter into a treaty. The Zamorin, who had also \nbeen engaged in hostilities at another settlement, was baffled, and \ncompelled to retreat. \n\nBy such achievements the Portuguese maintained their supremacy \non the coasts of India during all the sixteenth century. But the \nmaritime power of Holland was daily increasing; and in 1599, that \nstate, which had vainly sought a passage to the East by the north \nof Asia, despatched eight ships to open a new commerce in these \ndistant regions. Their success in trading on the coasts of Java and \nSumatra, inspired the Dutch adventurers with fresh enterprise. \n\n\n\nINDIA. 233 \n\nThey soon completely supplanted the Portuguese in the spice trade, \nand ere long, by their mutual jealousy, became engaged in hostilities. \nPhilip II., who had seized the crown of Portugal, in vain endeav- \noured to suppress their maritime superiority, and as vainly attempted \nby proclamations to deter them from trading in the East. In 1605, \nthey sent out a powerful expedition, and gained possession of the \nmost important stations in the Indian Archipelago. While, how- \never, their admiral, Matalief, was absent on an expedition against \nMalacca, the Spaniards, from the Philippines, seized their new con- \nquests, and saluted the admiral with a warm cannonade on his \nreturn. He succeeded, however, in overpowering them, and massa- \ncred great numbers. \n\nIn the same year, a Dutch expedition was sent to the beautiful \nisland of Ceylon, but without much effect. The intruders, although \nsupported by the native prince, did not succeed in expelling the \nPortuguese until 1656. Having gained the complete control of the \nIndian seas and islands, they founded the city of Batavia, in Java, \nand made it their Eastern capital. \n\nAfter repeated attempts, in 1640 they gained possession of Malacca, \nand thus secured still farther their numerous possessions in the \nEastern Archipelago. They never, however, gained any extensive \npossessions on the continent of India; much of which the Portu- \nguese still retained until their contests with the English, when, as \nwill be seen, they succumbed to the superior tact and energy of \ntheir rivals. Groa, formerly their capital, is now the only possession \nthey retain of that powerful empire which they once maintained \nin a great part of India. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER Y. \n\nTHE EARLY ENGLISH EXPEDITIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. THE \n\nEAST INDIA COIIPANY. CONTESTS WITH THE FRENCH. \n\nIn the\xc2\xab reign of Elizabeth, the maritime ascendancy which Eng- \nland was destined to acquire, began first to develope its gigantic \nproportions. Eecognising at first the barbarous policy which \n\n\n\n234 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nassigned to tlie first discoverers exclusive possession and commerce \nin new regions, her enterprising mercliants, not to interfere witli \ntlie Portuguese and Spaniards, made unsuccessful attempts to reach \nthe East by circumnavigating Asia to the northward. An overland \ntraffic was also vainly undertaken ; and a succession of daring navi- \ngators made the attempt, still continued in our own day, to force the \nNorth-west passage around the continent of America. \n\nDrake, on his celebrated voyage around the world in 1579, had \ntouched at the Spice islands, and met a friendly reception from the \nking of Ternate. Cavendish, following a similar course, brought \nhome accounts of the wealth and beauty of these remote countries, \nand the friendliness of their inhabitants. A small expedition was \nfirst despatched to Goa, but the jealousy of the Portuguese pre- \nvented any successful traffic. A great part of India was, however, \ncarefully explored by the enterprising Fitch, who gave more minute \nand interesting accounts of the interior than any European who \nhad preceded him. \n\nAfter one or two more private expeditions, a company was formed, \nin 1600, under the title of the " Governor and Company of Merchants \ntrading to the East Indies." Their charter granted them a monopoly \nof Eastern traffic, with other exclusive privileges. Captain Lancas- \nter, who had already commanded an expedition to those parts, \nsailed, in April, 1601, with five vessels of tolerable size, with the \nintention of obtaining a cargo of spices, which were principally \nsupplied by the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the Moluccas. Hav- \ning opened the way for future commerce with the natives, he returned \nhome, enriched by the plunder of a large Portuguese ship. \n\nA succession of small expeditions followed, which were in general \nsuccessful, sometimes by obtaining cargoes of pepper, and some- \ntimes by the most audacious piracy. In 1611, Sir Henry Middleton, \nan eminent commander, proceeded with his vessels to Surat, and \nsought to effect an opening for commerce. The Portuguese fleet \nimmediately commenced hostilities, but were steadfastly repulsed in \nevery attempt, and met with great loss. The native authorities, \nseeing the superiority of the strangers, no longer hesitated to treat \nwith them. Some commercial interchanges were effected, but the \nviolence and unreasonable conduct of the English commander, who \nseized the person of the governor, was so offensive, that he was \ncompelled to depart without establishing a factory. On his way \nhome, he stopped all the Indian vessels which he met, and compelled \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n235 \n\n\n\nthem to a forcible interchange of goods, on Ms own conditions \xe2\x80\x94 a \nspecies of piracy wliicli, however, does not appear to have shocked \nthe commercial etiquette of the day. By subsequent expeditions, \nhowever, a slight footing was obtained at Bantam and elsewhere, \nand the first adventures produced a large per-centage on the invest- \nment, the mingled profits of trade and piracy. \n\nIn 1614, James I., to further the national commerce with the \nEast, sent out Sir Thomas Roe, as ambassador to the Great Mogul ; \nbut, as has been related, little advantage was obtained. Neverthe- \nless, a regular annual intercourse was now established with the East ; \nand the Portuguese, although threatening loudly at first, were com- \npelled to succumb to the maritime superiority of their rivals. \n\nThe Dutch proved far more formidable adversaries. Provoked \nby the settlement of the English in islands contiguous to their own, \nthey commenced a naval warfare with the rival company, in which \nthe latter suffered most severely. The dispute was at last adjusted \nby a mutual compromise, in which it was agreed that the two com- \npanies should share in the trade and commerce of the Indian seas, and \nshould be directed by a joint council of members from each. The \nDutch, however, being far the more powerful in these regions, exer- \ncised much oppression towards their partners, and finally broke up the \nentire system by the cruel "massacre of Amboyna," in which, under \nreal or pretended suspicion of a conspiracy, they first tortured and then \nput to death a number of English, resident in that place. Some repara- \ntion for this outrage was tardily enforced by the British government. \n\nThe principal British factory in Continental India was for a time \nlocated at Surat, and considerable trade was carried on. Exposed, \nhowever, to the arbitrary exactions of the Mogul and to the incursions \nof the Mahrattas, they removed, in 1687, to the island of Bombay, \nwhich had been ceded by the Portuguese, and which has ever since \nremained the capital of their possessions in Western India. On the \neastern coast, Masulipatan and Madraspatan became important settle- \nments, and Fort St. Greorge, erected at the latter, became the capital \nof the British- possessions on the coast of Coromandel. \n\nIn 1651, a physician named Boughton, having cured the daughter \nof Shah Jehan of a dangerous illness, was enabled, through the \nemperor\'s gratitude, to\xc2\xab secure to his countrymen important com- \nmercial privileges. A similar service, rendered to the nabob of \nBengal, was rewarded in a similar manner, and a factory was erected \nat Hoogle}^, on the principal commercial channel of the Ganges. \n\n\n\n236 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHere was made a first and unsuccessful attempt to establisli bj \narms the foundation of that mighty empire, wliich now controls all \nIndia. In 1686, a force of ten armed vessels and six companies of \nsoldiers was despatched to redress certain wrongs sustained by the \nresidents at the factory, and, in effect, commenced a war with the \nnabob and the Great Mogul himself The English, however, after \nperforming some brilliant feats, were compelled for the present to \nevacuate Bengal entirely. Aurengzebe, the Mogul emperor, irritated \nat these and other hostilities, issued orders for a general attack on \nall the Company\'s factories. Surat, Masulipatan, and Vizigapatan, \nwere taken, and Bombay itself was closely pressed. Only the most \nhumble submission procured peace from their powerful foe, who, in \nconsideration of the benefit of their commerce, allowed them \ngradually to resume their former intercourse. \n\nJSTevertheless, the Company, undismayed by these reverses, began \nto contemplate greater plans of conquest and pernlanent settlement. \nIn 1689, instructions were issued to their agents to extend their \nacquisitions of territory, as much as possible ; and they soon acquired, \nby purchase of the native princes, several small districts, among \nwhich was Calcutta, afterwards destined to become the Avealthj\'\' \ncapital of British India, Here was erected Fort William, and a \nflourishing settlement soon sprang up. The establishment proceeded \npeaceably for some time, increasing its operations until its annual \nsales amounted to two millions sterling. \n\nThe French had in early times made a few unsuccessful attempts \nto establish an Indian colony; but it was not until the reign of \nLouis XIV., and the enlightened administration of Colbert, that any \nreally effectual steps were taken for this purpose. In 1664, a French \nEast India Company was formed, with many exclusive privileges, \nand after signal failures at Surat and elsewhere, succeeded in estab- \nlishing a prosperous settlement at Pondicherry. They also gained \na footing at Chandernagore in Bengal, and some other unimportant \nplaces. When the war of 1744 broke out, Labourdonnais, the gov- \nernor of Mauritius, with a small squadron, sailed for India, and \ncaptured the important English city of Madras. Dupleix, the able \nand ambitious governor of Pondicherry, now formed the most \nmagnificent schemes for the aggrandizement* of his nation. He con- \ntemplated nothing less than a complete expulsion of the English, and \nfinally, a French empire extending over all India. \n\nThe nabob of Arcot, who with ten thousand men attempted to \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n237 \n\n\n\nretake Madras for his allies, the English, was completely defeated \nby the small force of Frenchmen in that city ; and_ soon after was \ninduced to form an alliance with Duj)leix. An exj^edition of the \nlatter against Fort St, David was nnsuccessful, the English garrison \nbeing strongly reinforced. A powerful squadron soon arriving, \nthe English besieged Pondicherry, but were in their turn repulsed. \nThe peace, which shortly afterwards ensued between the two \nnations, left their Indian possessions in the same condition as \nbefore the war. \n\nBoth parties, however, began to regard the native territories with \ncovetous and ambitious eyes; and the English, by interfering in a \nnative quarrel, gained the fortress of Devicottah. The French were \nplaying for a far higher stake. Dupleix had espoused the cause of \ntwo powerful pretenders, one to the throne of the Deccan, and the \nother to that of the Carnatic. He despatched his officer, D\'Antieul, \nto their assistance, with a small body of troops, who by their des- \nperate valour broke the lines of the enemy, and secured to the \nconfederate army a complete victory. The rightful inheritor of the \nCarnatic fell, and Arcot was seized by the pretender. \n\nNazir Jung, the legitimate claimant of the throne of the Deccan, \nsoon after advanced against the allies with an immense army, which \nhas been estimated at three hundred thousand men. He was sup- \nported by a small force of British, who had espoused the cause of \nMohammed Ali, son of the fallen nabob of Arcot. A mutiny \noccurred among the French officers ; their native allies were over- \nthrown, and the French troops retired to Pondicherry. D\'Antieul, \nhowever, soon revived the war in the most daring manner, and \ngained important successes. Finally leaguing with certain discon- \ntented chiefs, the French succeeded in completely defeating Nazir \nJung, (who perished in a mutiny of his own officers,) and in reestab- \nlishing his rival, Mirzapha Jung, on the throne of the Deccan. \n\nThe French influence thus became paramount in all Southern \nIndia. One or two feeble attempts of the English in behalf of their \nally Mohammed ended disgracefully ; and their fortunes were at a \nlow ebb, when the talents and courage of the celebrated Ciive gave \nan entirely new turn to the course of events. Trichinipoly, the \nlast possession of Mohammed, was closely besieged by the French \nand their native allies, when this able commander, by a bold and \nsudden movement, seized on Arcot itself. Having garrisoned the \nfort, he defended it with great bravery against an overwhelming \n\n\n\n238 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nforce of tlie enemy, wliicli was despatclied against liim, and compelled \ntliem to raise the siege. \n\nBy further assistance from the English, and by judicious native \nalliances, Mohammed soon found himself supported by a force of \ntwenty thousand men ; and the French, vastly outnumbered in their \nturn, took refuge in the great pagoda or temple of Seringham. \nThey were finally obliged to capitulate, and were made prisoners \nof war. \n\nDupleix, undisheartened, used every effort to restore the French \nascendancy. He sent a fresh expedition against Fort St. David, \nwhich, however, was completely defeated by Clive. The English \nthemselves, in attempting to seize the strong fortress of Gingee, \nwere repulsed by the French, and the latter, with their native allies, \nagain laid siege to Trichinopoly, where the brave Major Lawrence \nwas still in command. This siege was protracted, after much hard \nfighting, for a year and a half without any decided advantage to \neither party. \n\nMeanwhile, the subahdar of Deccan, who owed his exaltation \nentirely to the French, began to be tired of their control, and dis- \nbanded the foreign troops; but Bussy, their commander, reassembling \nthem, was enabled to dictate his own terms. Much territory on \nthe coast of Coromandel was ceded to the French, making them, \nincluding former acquisitions, masters of a country six hundred miles \nin extent, and producing about four millions dollars of revenue. \nDupleix, however, in the midst of his artful and ambitious career, \nwas superseded in his station, and compelled to return to France. \n\nCommissioners were now sent out by the two governments to \narrange an amicable settlement of the disputes between the rival \ncompanies. It was stipulated that each party should restore all its \nnative conquests \xe2\x80\x94 an arrangement highly unfavourable to the French, \nwho had made far greater acquisitions than their rivals. The Eng- \nlish, moreover, still continued to interfere forcibly in the quarrels \nof the native powers; and the French, nnable to resist their exam- \nple, were soon again involved in a predatory warfare with their \nancient antagonists. When the war of 1756 broke out between the \ntwo nations, the French government resolved to make a vigorous \neffort for supremacy in Indian affairs. An extensive armament was \nfitted out, and intrusted to the command of the brave and headstrong \nCount Lally, a devoted adherent to the Jacobite cause, and an invet- \nerate enemy of the English government. Landing at Pondicherry, \n\n\n\n\nTHE FORTRESS OF GINGEE \n\n\n\njL\'his strong aud a\'.most inaccessible citadel, renowned in Indian Avarfare, \nwas taken from its native possessors, about the year 1750, by Bussy, the bril \nliant and intrepid commander of the French, forces, under the administration \nof Dupleix. The English soon a.fter attacking it were repulsed with much loss , \nbut in a i\'evr years, on occasion of the revei\'ses sustained by their rivals, sue \noeeded in gaining possession of the contested fortress \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n239 \n\n\n\nin April, 1758, lie marclied without an lionr\'s delay against Fort St. \nDavid, the capital of the English settlements, took it, and razed it to \nthe ground. Bussy, who retained his complete ascendancy over the \nDeccan, attacked and reduced Vizanipatan; and the two command- \ners, joining their forces, laid siege for two months to the city of \nMadras, which was ably defended by Governor Pigot and the \nveteran Lawrence. The appearance of an English fleet, with rein- \nforcements, compelled them to retreat to Pondicherry. After three \nmonths of desultory warfare, Lally found himself besieged in the \nFrench capital, and, after a gallant defence, was compelled, in Janu- \nary, 1761, to capitulate. The city was surrendered to Colonel Coote, \nand Lally, sailing for France, was made a victim, under an absurd \ncharge of treason, to the anger and disappointment of his employers. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER 71, \n\n\n\nTHE BEITISH CONQUESTS IN BENGAL. THE WARS WITH \n\nHYDER ALI AND WITH THE FRENCH. \n\nThe British establishment at Bengal, though subordinate to others \non the coast of Coromandel, was destined, from the advantages of \nits position, to become eventually the seat of general government. \nIt already excited the jealousy of the native princes ; and when \nSurajah Dowlah, a fierce and capricious youth, became nabob of \nBengal, both avarice and alarm incited him to hostility. Marching \ntoward Calcutta, he plundered an English factory on the way, and \nimprisoned the occupants. He thence proceeded with furious haste \nto the capital, inflamed by exaggerated reports of the immense \nriches of the English. The feeble garrison offered an ineffectual \nresistance. Part of the residents made their escape in vessels doAvn \nthe river, and the small force which remained, surrendered. The \nofficers and men, an hundred and forty-six in niimber, were thrust \nforcibly into a low dungeon, only eighteen feet square, called the \n"Black Hole" \xe2\x80\x94 a name memorable for ail that is most terrible of \nsuffering and despair. Crowded together and almost deprived of \n\n\n\n2-iO THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nair, in this burning climate, their struggles and anguish were fearful \nuntil death came to their rehef The nabob was asleep, and no one \ndared to awaken him, or to remove them without his permission. \nAt about eleven in the evening thej began to die fast, and when \ntheir dungeon was opened in the morning, only twenty -three persons \nwere alive, and these delirious or insensible. The dead bodies were \nthrown indiscriminately into a ditch. The tyrant evinced the \nutmost unconcern at the fate of his victims, and seemed only troubled \nat the small amount of his plunder. \n\nThe government at Madras hastened to avenge these outrages, \nand at once despatched to Calcutta a naval and military force, under \nthe command of Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive. The place was \neasily retaken, the garrison left there by the nabob surrendering \nalmost without a blow. Surajah Dowlah, with a large force, soon \narrived, and intrenched himself in front of Calcutta. Clive sallied \nout with a force of two thousand men, and engaged the enemy \nwithout much success. A treaty was then concluded, by which the \nEnglish resumed their former stations and privileges, and relin- \nquished their revenge upon the murderer of their countrymen. \n\nClive next undertook an expedition against the French, and in \nMarch, 1757, laid siege to their fortress at Chandernagore. The \ngarrison made a brave resistance, but being exposed to a cannonade \nfrom the squadron of Admiral Watson, were finally compelled to \nsurrender. The English commander, being advised of the secret \nhostility of the nabob, now resolved on the audacious project of \ndethroning him, and substituting some native more compliant with \nthe schemes of the British. Intrigues were immediately commenced \nwith the discontented chiefs in his service, and it was finally con- \ncluded to place upon the throne Meer Jaffier, his principal military \nofl&cer, the latter promising large subsidies (it is said three millions \nof pounds) as the price of his advancement. In June, 1757, Clive, \nwith only three thousand men, of whom not a third were Europeans, \nquitted Chandernagore to attempt the subversion of a powerful \nempire. The nabob, with an army nearly seventy thousand strong, \nwas encamped at Plassey. At this place, on the 23d of June, the \nBritish attacked him, relying on the defection of Meer Jaffier, with \nthe forces under his immediate command. A protracted action \noccurred before the latter cooperated with the assailants; but on \nlearning his desertion, the nabob, as cowardly as cruel, mounted his \nswiftest elephant, and fled, escorted by a large body of his choicest \n\n\n\nINDIA. 241 \n\ncavalry. This victory, won so easily and witli such inconsiderable \nforces, transferred, in etlect, the sovereignty of India to the British. \nMeer Jaffier was forthwith saluted nabob of Bengal, Bahar, and \nOrissa; and the defeated tyrant, being shortly after captured, was \nput to death by the equally savage Meeran, the son of Jafiier, a \nyouth of seventeen, who, like another Caracalla, refused the mercy \nwhich his father was inclined to grant. The English received from \nthe plunder of his treasury eight hundred thousand pounds, besides \njewels to an immense amount. \n\nA claim was now advanced to the government of Bengal by the \nson of the Mogul, supported by two powerful native chiefs, the \nnabob of Oude, and the subahdar of Allahabad. The new sovereign, \nhowever, supported by the British, maintained his position, and \nClive, after some further conquests, resigned his command, and \nreturned to England with an immense fortune. \n\nHostilities were soon renewed by the prince, who, on the death \nof his father, had succeeded to the title of Grreat Mogul, and who \nwas assisted by a French force, under the celebrated M. Law; and \nconsiderable fighting, without important results, took place in \nthe neighbourhood of Patna, the chief point of conflict. The rule \nof Meer Jaffier proving unsatisfactory to the British council, they \ndeposed him without difficulty, and appointed his son-in-law, Meer \nCossim, in his place. The latter, by extracting money from the \nnatives, was soon enabled to pay his allies a million and a half \nsterling, the arrears due, according to agreement, for their services. \nThe Mogul army, which still continued hostilities, was completely \ndefeated by Major Carnac, and the brave Law, the chief reliance of \nthe enemy, was taken prisoner. Peace soon followed. \n\nThe English, feeling themselves the true masters of Bengal, were \nsoon involved in a contest with their viceroy, Meer Cossim, who \nwished to govern the kingdom independently. He levied and \ndisciplined troops, and soon commenced open hostilities. The \ncouncil immediately again proclaimed Meer Jaffier as nabob, and \nMajor Adams, commanding the British troops, marched against the \nrefractory chief After defeating his forces at Moorshedabad, the \nBritish attacked Meer Cossim, who, with nearly thirty thousand \nmen, was awaiting them in the plain of Geriah. The battle was \ncontinued for four hours, the assailants being little more than a tenth \nof the number of their adversaries. European courage and disci- \npline finally prevailed, and Cossim, compelled to retreat from fortress \n16 \n\n\n\n242 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nto fortress, finally cut off all hope of negotiation by tlie massacre \nof an hundred and fifty of the English stationed at Patna. This \nplace, though garrisoned by a strong force, was also, after having \nSListained a cannonade for eight days, taken by storm, and the \ndefeated chief took refuge with the sovereign of Oude, Sujah Dow- \nlah, who had already received the Mogul. \n\nThese three princes, with their united forces, now marched against \nthe English at Patna, and after a protracted contest, were repulsed \nby Major Carnac; but owing to the insubordination of the sepoys, \nor native troops, in his own camp, he was unable to follow up his \nadvantages. In May, 1764, Major Hector Munro, who succeeded \nto the command, adopted the most fierce and vigorous measures to \nsuppress the spirit of insubordination. A body of sepoj^s having left \nthe camp, and been captured, he commanded twenty-four of them \nto be blown from the mouth of a cannon \xe2\x80\x94 a merciless proceeding, \nwhich completely answered his purpose. Soon after, he attacked \nSujah Dowlah, and thoroughly defeated him, gaining possession of \na great quantity of stores, and an hundred and thirty cannon. The \nconfederation was soon entirely broken up. \n\nBy this succession of brilliant victories, the English gained com- \nplete control over the great central plain of Hindostan. Their \ncreature, Meer Jafiier, dying, they appointed his son Nujeem, a \nyouth of twenty, to the nominal throne; reserving, indeed, the \nentire military force, and much of the domestic government, under \ntheir own control. \n\nIn England, however, these continued wars, and the unbridled \nrapacity of all the Indian officials, excited the alarm of the com- \npany ; and in 1765, they sent over Lord Clive, as governor, to reform \nthe numerous abuses of their agents. The Mogul and Sujah \nDowlah, who had both been defeated, repaired to the British camp, \nand learned their fate from the lips of the new governor. The latter, \nmaking a favourable impression on the arbiter of his destinies, was \nrestored to his dominions ; the former, receiving a certain amount \nof territory, ceded, in effect, to the British, the splendid provinces \nof Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa \xe2\x80\x94 the young sovereign, whom they \nhad recently created, being compelled to retire on a pension. By \nthis treaty the company gained the title to a great extent of terri- \ntory, and largely increased its revenue. \n\nDuring the late disturbances, a young adventurer, named Hyder \nAli, had been gradually acquiring a power that was destined to be \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n243 \n\n\n\nmost formidable to tlie Englisli. After a youtli spent in riot and \ndissipation, lie suddenly evinced high military talent, and attracted \nto himself a numerous swarm of those depredators with whom \nIndia has always abounded. The pillage of this gang was so con- \nsiderable, that he was soon enabled to enlist an army of six or seven \nthousand men. By the patronage of Nunjeraj, the minister and \nreal master of Mysore, he was enabled to enlarge his forces still \nflirther, and soon aimed at the possession of the throne itself His \npatron was embarrassed by the discontentment of his troops; and \nHyder, taking advantage of the opportunity, hastened to Seringapa- \ntam, seized the public property, and acquired universal popularity \nby satisfying their demands. He gained further influence by \ndefending the country against a formidable invasion of the Mahrat- \ntas, and ere long was enabled, by his influence with the Mysorean \narmy, to wrest the sovereign power from the hands of Nunjeraj. \n\nThe youthful rajah of Mysore, vexed at seeing the control of his \nkingdom thus disputed and engrossed by others, now formed a plan \nfor his destruction; and Hyder, taken by surprise, was compelled to \nfly, leaving all his treasures in the hands of his enemies. Having \nbeen defeated in an attempt to regain his position by arms, he artfully \npersuaded Nunjeraj to join him in a scheme for the recovery of \ntheir former power. Assembling an army, he again and again \ndefeated the forces of the rajah; who, unable to withstand him, was \nagain compelled to relinquish the reins of government, and to sur- \nrender nearly all his revenues to the usurper. Nunjeraj, again \ndeceived, obtained nothing of importance. \n\nOnce firmly secured in the government of Mysore, Hyder com- \nmenced a series of successful hostilities with the surrounding nations. \nIn plundering the accumulated treasures of the capital of Bednore, \nhe was said to have gained the immense sum of twelve millions \npounds \xe2\x80\x94 a great assistance in his future ambitious career. He was, \nhowever, unable to defend his country from an immense swarm of \nthe Mahratta cavalry, who, under Madoo Eao, invaded Mysore; and \nafter experiencing several defeats, was compelled to purchase peace \nby cessions of territory and by the payment of thirty-two lacs of \nrupees (nearly two millions dollars). Eecovering from this disaster, \nhe, in his turn, made a ferocious and successful expedition against \nCalicut. \n\nThe other Indian states now became seriously alarmed at his \nincreasing power; and a hostile alliance against him was formed \n\n\n\n244 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\n\n\nbetween Madoo Eao, the English, and jSTizam Ali, snbahdar of the \nDeccan. Hostilities were commenced by all, but the first-named \nprince was detached from the confederacy by payment of a snm \neven greater than the former; and Hyder, taking advantage of the \nNizam\'s jealousy of Mohammed Ali, the ally of the English, per- \nsuaded him to enter into an alliance against the latter. Colonel \nSmith, the English commander, thus deserted by his allies, was \ncompelled, after repelling an attack of the enemy, to retreat to \nTrinomalee; while Tippoo ("the tiger"), the son of Hyder, a youth \nof seventeen, made a rapid incursion with five thousand horse into \nthe English territory, and alarmed Madras itself. Smith, having \nbeen reinforced, was soon engaged with a greatly superior force by \nthe allies, whose attack, however, by able generalship, he soon con- \nverted into a flight. Disheartened by this and other misfortunes, \nthe Nizam was easily detached from the interests of Hyder, and in \n1768 agreed to a treaty, by which the British acquired much pecu- \nniary advantage, and full liberty to appropriate the dominions of \ntheir enemy. \n\nOf this, they took immediate advantage, b}^ prompt movements \nin several directions ; and Hyder, in a few months, was deprived of \nhalf his territory. He succeeded, however, in expelling the British \nforces, which, being despatched from Bombay, had taken possession \nof his western provinces; and then, finding the demands of his \nenemies too extortionate to be complied with, kept up a protracted \nwarfare with the troops from Madras, and finally gained a signal \nadvantage over them. Soon after, by his superior knowledge of \nthe country, he surprised the British in several of their newly-con- \nquered districts, and in a few weeks, regained nearly all that he \nhad lost. One detachment of the British troops was made prisoners, \nand another cut to pieces. Negotiation still failing, he made a \ndaring excursion within five miles of Madras itself, and the council, in \nalarm, instantly agreed upon an armistice. Treaty was immediately \nentered into, and in April, 1769, it was agreed that both parties should \nbe placed upon the same footing as before the war, and enter into a \ndefensive alliance against any invaders of the territory of either. \n\nThese brilliant successes of Hyder, however, were more than \ncompensated by a fresh incursion of the Mahrattas, who, with an \narmy twice as large as his own, commenced a career of alarming \nconquest and inordinate cruelty. Hyder himself, incapacitated for \naction by a fit of intoxication, saw his army completely routed and \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n245 \n\n\n\ndispersed, and witli difficulty, on a fleet korse, and almost alone, \nreached his capital of Seringapatam. A harassing warfare was pro- \ntracted for a year and a half longer, when the invaders, on the payment \nof large sums and the cession of extensive territories, withdrew. \n\nHyder, freed from these enemies, resolved to repair his losses, in \nsome measure, by the plunder of his neighbours, and accordingly \nattacked the district of Coorg, which fell an easy prey. The bar- \nbarous victor sat in state, paying a sum of money for every head \nwhich his soldiers brought before him, until the pile exceeded seven \nhundred. The conquest of Calicut immediately followed. \n\nOn the death of Madoo Kao, in 1772, the monarch of Mysore was \nenabled to regain much of the territory which he had ceded to the \nMahrattas. He met, however, with a most obstinate resistance, in \nattempting to take the citadel of Chittledroog, the fanatical defend- \ners of which placed implicit confidence in the goddess Doorga, \nwhose shrine was in their walls. Sallying out every Monday with \nincredible fury, they returned laden with the heads of the besiegers, \nas offerings to their deity; and when Hyder, by the aid of treason, \ngained possession, two thousand of these ghastly trophies were found \npiled in a pyramid before her gate. \n\nHe had been deeply offended by the conduct of the English, who, \ncontrary to treaty, had left him unsupported in his terrible contest \nwith the Mahrattas. Fortune favoured his enmity in the war which, \noccasioned by the American struggle, broke out between England \nand France. The latter nation, ever eager to undermine the East- \nern superiority of her rival, immediately formed an alliance with \nHyder, to which he and his house, fatally for themselves in the end, \nalways faithfully adhered. The British soon reduced the French \nsettlements of Pondicherry and Mah6 ; but their grand enemy, while \nartfully maintaining a pacific attitude, was making great prepara- \ntions for a sudden and overwhelming blow. Early in June, 1780, \nquitting Seringapatam, Hyder Ali placed himself at the head of an \narmy of eighty thousand men, and commenced a career of merci- \nless devastation in the Carnatic. The smoke of burning villages \nascended all around Madras, which strong position he did not ven- \nture openly to attack. A number of strongholds were taken, and \nColonel Baillie, who, with nearly four thousand men, encountered \nthe Mysore army, was utterly defeated, and saw the greater part of \nhis corps massacred on the field. The lives of two hundred Euro- \npeans were saved by the French, of whom a small force was in the \n\n\n\n246 T^^E PEOrLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. \n\nrajah\'s service. Arcot was immediately reduced, and other strong \nphices were besieged. \n\nUpon the receipt of this disastrous intelligence at Calcutta, the \ngovernor-general* despatched Sir Ejre Coote, an officer of high \nreputation, Avith a few hundred European troops, to the scene of \naction. This general found at his disposal only seven thousand \nmen, of whom scarce a fourth were Europeans; yet he at once \nadvanced in pursuit of the enemy through a country which they \nhad converted into a perfect desert. Though swarms of the light \nIndian cavalry hovered about them, the English Avere unable, for \nsome time, to effect a general engagement. At last, encouraged by \nsome successes, and by the appearance of a French fleet on the coast, \nHyder resolved to give them battle. He had vastly the advantage, \nboth in numbers and position; but the skill of the English com- \nmander, and the courage of his troops, carried all before them; and \nthe defeated prince, foaming Avith rage, Avas again compelled to trust \nfor safety to the fleetness of his horse. \n\nA second engagement, bloody but indecisive, took place at Polil- \nloor, the scene of Bailie\'s misfortune. Soon after, Sir Eyre Coote, \ntaking the rajah by surprise, defeated him at Sholinghur, Avith a \nloss of five thousand men, and Avas thus enabled to relieve the \nimportant fortress of Yellore. During the continuance of this Avar, \nhostilities broke out between Britain and the Dutch, and Sir Hector \nMunro, with four thousand men, was despatched from Madras \nagainst Negapatam, the Indian cajDital of the enemy. Though \nstrongly garrisoned, it fell before the impetuosity of the invaders. \nAll the Dutch settlements on the same coast shared a similar fate, \nand even their important station of Trincomalee, in the island of \nCeylon, was taken by their rivals. As an offset to these advantages, \nColonel BraitliAvaite and his force of tAVO thousand men Avere \nsurrounded, and after a most gallant defence, defeated and made \nprisoners by the army of Tippoo. \n\n* Warren Hastings, celebrated for his talents, his crimes, and his memorable trial \n(in 1786) before the House of Lords, at the impeachment of the Commons. The \nheaviest charges of cruelty, corruption, and mal-administration were urged against \nhim by all the eloquence of Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and othei- distinguished orators ; the \nproof was remarkably clear; yet such was the influence of the royal favour and the \nexertions of his partisans, that, after the affiiir had been protracted for many years, \nthe culprit was finally acquitted, and suffered to pnss the remainder of his days in \ncomfortable obscurity. \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n247 \n\n\n\nThe loss of the alliance of the Mahrattas, who, by the efforts of \nHastings, had been lately detached from the interest of liyder, was \nin some degree counterbalanced by the arrival of a French force of \nthree thousand men ; yet even thus reinforced, he was defeated by \nCoote, with considerable loss, at Arnee. Very considerable advan- \ntages were also gained by his enemies on the coast of Malabar. \nTippoo, with the French officer Lally, was advancing thither with \na large force, when the former was unexpectedly recalled by the \ndeath of his father, and the necessity of immediately asserting his \nclaims to the throne. \n\nHyder Ali expired on the 7th of December, 1782, at the age of \nabout eighty. This singular man, without even the ability to read \nor write, with a disreputable early career, and gross personal failings, \nnevertheless had become, by his talents, perseverance, and dissimu- \nlation, one of the greatest sovereigns in India. He transmitted his \ncrown, his treasure, and an army of nearly ninety thousand men, to \nhis son Tippoo, an enemy of the English, even more inveterate \nthan himself \n\nVarious disagreements among the British civil and military \nauthorities prevented them from taking advantage of the death of \ntheir ancient foe. Moreover, Sir Eyre Coote, their best commander, \nonly survived his old opponent for four months. Nevertheless, \nseizing the opportunity of Tippoo\'s movement to the west, a strong \nforce, under General Stuart, was despatched against Cuddalore, at \nwhich place the French were principally stationed, Bussy, their \ncommander, however, made an able defence, and the English lost \nupwards of a thousand men in their attack. Moreover, the French \nadmiral, Suffrein, commanded the sea, and soon reinforced the \ngarrison with two thousand four hundred men. The situation of \nthe British had become exceedingly critical, when peace was declared \nbetween the two nations \xe2\x80\x94 an event by which the Sultan Tippoo \nlost most of his French auxiliaries. \n\nMeanwhile, General Mathews, who had taken the city of Bednore, \nin the west, and gained possession of great treasure, was in his turn \ncompelled to surrender to Tippoo, and, with his men, subjected to a \nrigorous imprisonment. In the south, however. Colonels Lang and \nFullerton gained most decided advantages ; and were even preparing \nto march on the capital of Seringapatam, when a treaty was again \nmade, by which it was agreed that prisoners should be released, and \neach party resume its former possessions. \n\n\n\n248 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?n \n\n\n\nTHE WARS WITH TIPPOO SAIB, AND THE CONQUEST OF MYSORE. \n\nTippoo Saib, now tlie most powerful sovereign in India, assumed \ntlie title of padisliah or sultan, and occupied a position similar to \nthat of the Great Mogul in former times. His reign was first signal- \nized by a furious crusade in behalf of the Mahometan faith. Vast \nnumbers of the Christian natives of Canara, and others cherishing a \nbelief different from his own, were seized, and forcibly subjected to \nthe most abhorred rite of the Moslem religion. \n\nThe Mahrattas, now the masters of Delhi and a great part of \nIndia, soon began to give him as much trouble as they had his \nfather. Having formed an alliance with the nizam, they resolved \nupon nothing less than a complete subversion of his empire, and a \ndivision of his extensive territories. With a strong force, they \nagain invaded the country ; but Tippoo, who possessed a military \ngenius even greater than his father\'s, manoeuvred so skilfully as to \ncompel them to suspend operations. He took the chief fortress of \nthe nizam near his boundaries, and, finally, with his whole force, \ncrossed the river Toombuddra, swollen with rain, (which had hith- \nerto separated the two armies,) took the enemy by surprise, and gave \nthem a serious repulse. He thus secured peace upon favourable \nterms, acquired a high military reputation, and was acknowledged \nsovereign of nearly all India south of the Toombuddra. \n\nFreed from this danger, he immediately recommenced the propa- \ngation of his faith by the most cruel and bigoted means. In Malabar, \nhe razed to the ground a vast number of Hindoo temples, and \ncompelled the unfortunate devotees to submit to the detested rite \nof circumcision. In 1789, he attacked the small kingdom of \nTravancore, at the southern extremity of India. While attempt- \ning, however, to storm the capital, his troops, seized with a singular \nand unreasonable panic, turned and fled. Great numbers were \ntrampled to death, and Tippoo barely escaped to his camp, after \nlosing two thousand of his men. In the following year, however, \nhe subdued and devastated the country, but soon returned to \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n249 \n\n\n\nSeringapatam, alarmed by the attitude of the English, who were in. \nalliance with the injured nation. \n\nLord Cornwallis, the British governor, jealous of the increasing \npower, and irritated by the aggressions of the sultan, had, indeed, \nresolved on war, and now took advantage of the attack upon his \nally to commence hostilities. The Mahrattas and the nizam, eager \nfor conquest, joined in the undertaking. In June, 1790, an attack \nupon Tippoo\'s dominions was commenced in several quarters by \nGeneral Medows, and Colonels Stuart and Floyd, at first with con- \nsiderable success. The latter of&cer, however, with a small force, \nwas attacked by Tippoo, and sustained much loss in a disastrous \nretreat. The sultan, moving with great rapidity, again devastated \nthe Carnatic, and, approaching Pondicherry, vainly sought a fresh \nalliance with the French. In January, 1791, Lord Cornwallis, in \nperson, took command of the forces, and instantly commenced a \nmarch into the heart of the sultan\'s dominions. After a stubborn \nresistance, the strong fortress of Bangalore was taken by storm; \nand immediately after, the English governor was reinforced by a \nlarge body of the nizam\'s cavalr}^, utterly useless, indeed, for want \nof equipment and discipline. \n\nTippoo had now gained his capital of Seringapatam, on which \nhis enemies, using the greatest exertions, were advancing rapidly; \nStimulated by the urgency of the occasion, and the exhortations of \nhis harem, he resolved to give them battle on their approach ; but, \nafter a long and obstinate contest, was compelled to retreat within \nthe walls. The English, however, from their destitution of supplies \nand their enfeebled condition, were compelled to retreat, leaving \nbehind all their artillery and other heavy equipments. \n\nMeantime, the forces of Tippoo had been every where defeated \nin Malabar; and General Abercrombie, after overcoming the most \nformidable obstacles, was in full march to join Lord Cornwallis, \nwhen he received orders to retreat, which he fulfilled with the loss \nof his artillery. The governor, with his army, was still retreating \nin a most miserable condition, when he encountered a large detach- \nment of his Mahratta allies, under the famous chiefs Purseram Bhow \nand Hurry Punt. Thus relieved, he succeeded in reducing a num- \nber of Tippoo\'s strongest fortresses, which throughout the country \nwere perched on the most inaccessible cliffs. \n\nAt length, in February, 1792, Cornwallis, with a force of about \ntwenty-two thousand men, again marched on Seringapatam. On \n\n\n\n250 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\napproacliing tlie city, tlie sultan, with, a force of about fifty t"hou.sand, \nwas seen encamped in front of liis capital. In a bright moonlight, \nthe British, in three divisions, moved forward to the attack. The \nsultan, after fighting bravely, was driven from his position, and sus- \ntained a loss of many thousand men, chiefly from desertion. He \nmade vigorous efforts to regain the ground he had lost, but to no \npurpose. Abercrombie, with eight thousand men, was about to rein- \nforce the besieging army ; the Mahrattas were in full march ; and \nit soon became evident to Tippoo that nothing but a peace, on terms \ndictated by the victors, could save his capital and his crown. Nego- \ntiations were at once commenced; and the haughty sultan was \ncompelled to submit to the severest conditions. Half his territory \nwas to be surrendered, a sum of four millions pounds was exacted \nfrom him, and his two sons were to be delivered up as bostages. \nThe latter, children of eight and ten, were delivered to Lord Corn- \nwallis, and excited the admiration of the English by the propriety \nand dignity of their demeanour. The allies forthwith commenced \nsharing the territories of their enemy, and the English gained large \nand most valuable accessions, especially on the western coast. In \n1794, the conditions having all been fulfilled by Tippoo, his children \nwere restored to him. \n\nIn May, 1798, the Earl of Mornington, afterwards Marquis Welles- \nley, arrived as governor-general. The sultan of Mysore had lately, \nwith inconceivable imprudence, entertained certain French adven- \nturers from the Isle of France, who, in the fury of republicanism, \nplanted a tree of liberty in his capital, founded a Jacobin club, and \nhailed their patron as Citizen Tippoo. Though ignorant of the \nmeaning of these mystic novelties, he was induced, by the artful \nrepresentations of his guests, to enter into a scheme for the conquest \nand division of all India. The goveror-general, aware of these \nintrigues, and dreading the French influence, even at this distance, \ncounselled immediate hostilities; and, as a precautionary measure, \ncompelled his ally, the nizam, to disband a corps of fourteen thou- \nsand men, well officered and disciplined by French adventurers. \nNo satisfaction being offered by Tippoo, a force of twenty thousand \nmen, one-fourth of them Europeans, was prepared for the invasion of \nMysore. The nizam also contributed sixteen thousand, and General \nStuart, a veteran in the wars of the East, advanced from Malabar \nwith six thousand. \n\nTippoo, marching with great address and activity, surprised a \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n251 \n\n\n\ndivision under command of the latter, who was only saved from \ndefeat by the superior courage and discipline of his troops. The \nsultan then hastened to oppose the main army, which was advancing \nagainst him from the eastern coast. His troops, however, were \nunable to resist the English in a pitched battle, and were compelled \nto retreat at Malavilly, about thirty miles from the capital, though \nwithout any serious loss. He then threw himself, with all his forces, \ninto Seringapatam, resolved to defend it to the last extremity. By \nthe 14th of April, both the eastern and western divisions of the \nBritish army met under its walls. Two strongly-intrenched out- \nposts were soon carried, one by Colonel Sherbrooke and the other \nby Colonel Wellesley, brother of the marquis, and afterwards known \nas the celebrated "Wellington. \n\nTippoo now endeavoured once more to treat, and was informed \nthat he could only obtain peace by the cession of half his remaining \ndominions, the payment of two crores of rupees (about ten millions \ndollars), and the delivery of four of his sons and as many of his \nprincipal chiefs, as hostages. He was in despair at these extravagant \ndemands, and determined rather to die with arms in his hands than \nto become a miserable dependant on the infidel foreigners. In his \ndespair, he resorted to the wildest measures which superstition could \ndictate, and, like Saul, summoned the abhorred and persecuted \nBrahmins, who, by their incantations, might furnish a ray of hope \nthat fortune would yet return. All their prognostics were unfavour- \nable ; a practicable breach was soon made in the walls ; and on the \n4:th of Ma}\'", 1799, a storming party of four thousand men, divided \ninto two columns, was despatched to attack the fortress. They met \nwith an easy victory in one quarter; in the other, where Tippoo \ncommanded in person, the resistance was gallant and determined. \nThe sultan, after killing a number of the enemy with his own hands, \nwas slain by repeated wounds. His body was discovered among a \nheap of slain, the countenance evincing such a stern and expressive \ncomposure, that it was difficult to believe him dead. He was buried \nwith royal honours in the splendid mausoleum of Lall Bang, erected \nby his father. \n\nThis able and eccentric prince, so long the chief enemy of the \nEnglish, possessed many of the virtues, as well as the bigotry and \ncruelty, which distinguished the Moslem race. His kingdom was \nfound by the victors to be flourishing, highly cultivated, and appa- \nrently well governed. He was fond of literature, and left behind a \n\n\n\n252 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nrecord of the warlike transactions of his reign. His fall was occa- \nsioned hj the hostility which his persecutions had excited among \nthe natives, and b}\'^ the superior skill and discipline of the English, \njealous of his power, and covetous of his dominions. \n\nThe victors again seized a large territory, making their acquisi- \ntions extend from coast to coast. The remaining portion of the king- \ndom of Mysore was settled upon the infant heir of its ancient rajahs, \nwho was drawn from obscurity, and placed upon a nominal throne. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEE 7HI \n\n\n\nTHE MAHRATTA WAR. CONQUEST OF CENTRAL INDIA. \n\nThe Mahrattas, after the humiliation of the Mogul empire, would \nhave been arbiters of the destinies of India, but for the severe and \nrepeated defeats which they sustained from the yet more warlike and \nenterprising Afghans. At a later period, under their celebrated \nsovereign, the peishwa Madoo Kao, they had gained great advantages \nover Hyder, and in a great degree maintained their preponderance \non the peninsula. Serious hostilities with the English had already \noccurred, though they afterwards joined in the confederacy of Corn- \nwallis, for suppressing the dangerous power of the sultan of Mysore. \nThe most brilliant exploit of the English, in these early campaigns \nwith the Mahrattas, was the storming of the celebrated hill-fortress \nof Grwalior, which had been regarded as one of the most impregnable \nstrongholds in Hindostan. Under the administration of Hastings, \nin 1782, a peace had been concluded. For a number of years, amity \nand alliance had prevailed; and after the fall of the unfortunate \nhouse of Tippoo, (which, however, the Mahratta chiefs viewed with \nalarm and jealousy,) the Marquis of Wellesley had offered them a \nshare in the partitioned territory. The reigning peishwa, embar- \nrassed by the ambitious conduct of two powerful rival chiefs, \nHolkar and Sindia, had finally embraced the cause of the latter, and \nwith his confederate had been defeated by the former in a terrible \nand obstinate battle, fought near his city of Poonah. He then threw \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n253 \n\n\n\nhimself into tlie arms of the English, who undertook to reestablish \nhis supremacy, on condition of occupying a portion of his territory \nwith their forces. By this treaty, which was concluded in 1802, the \ncompany became involved in the most severe and successful war \nwhich it had yet encountered. \n\nThe governor-general took advantage of this opportunity to \nprosecute liis long-cherished schemes of conquest and aggrandize- \nment. Powerful forces, under Generals Wellesley and Lake, were \ndespatched from Mysore and Bengal, with directions to reinstate the \npeishwa, and secure a permanent footing for the British. A similar \nexpedition was to be sent from Bombay, the first object being to \nsecure the entire coast of India, and thus cut off all communication \nbetween the French and the natives. The peishwa was replaced in \nhis capital without opposition, Holkar retreating before the forces \nof General Wellesley. Sindia, however, and the rajah of Berar, \nstill maintaining a hostile attitude, war was immediately commenced, \nand the English commander seized on the important city of Ahmed- \nnugger. Soon after, he encountered the confederate chiefs with a force \nof fifty thousand men, on the plain of Assaye. His own command \nwas less than a tenth of their number; yet, confident in the superior \ncourage and discipline of his men, he attacked them without hesita- \ntion. The result justified his expectation. The native forces were \nput to flight, after a tolerably stubborn resistance, leaving twelve \nhundred men and all their artillery on the field. This event estab- \nlished the military reputation of Wellesley, afterwards destined to \nacquire renown in a far-more-celebrated scene of action. \n\nThe chief effect of this victory was upon the minds of the natives, \nwho from that hour began to deem the British arms invincible, \nand India a country already vanquished. The great city of Burhan- \npoor, and the fort of Asseerghur, considered almost impregnable, \nwere soon after taken ; and a fresh defeat on the plain of Argaom \nstill further dispirited the confederates and encouraged the British. \nThe rajah of Berar was compelled to purchase peace by the cession \nof extensive territories to the company. \n\nIn the central regions of Hindostan, events of still greater import- \nance were enacted. General Lake, in August, 1803, had attacked \nand easily dispersed the large but inferior forces of Sindia, near Coel. \nThe strong fortress of Alighur soon fell into his hands, and he \nthence marched at once upon Delhi, the imperial capital, where the \nGreat Mogul, Shah Allum, aged and destitute, was yet permitted \n\n\n\n254 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nby tlie Maliratta chiefs to liold the shadow of power, A Mahratta \narmy, officered by the French, was drawn up to oppose the invaders ; \nbut although Lake\'s force of four thousand five hundred men was \nscarcely a fourth the number of the enemy, he did not hesitate to \nattack them. Enticing them from their position by a feigned retreat, \nhe turned and charged them while in confusion, and speedily drove \nthem from the field with a loss of three thousand in killed and \nwounded. \n\nEntering the city without further resistance, the British relieved \nthe Great Mogul from his state of scandalous indigence and disre- \nspect, and obtained in return the sanction of a name still venerated \nthroughout Hindostan. In October, the city of Agra was taken, \nand treasure to the amount of more than a million of dollars was \ndivided among the troops as prize-money. A body of fourteen \nthousand men, well supplied with artillery, which still kept the field, \nwas attacked by Lake, and after a brave resistance, destroyed or \ntaken prisoners. Detached expeditions, which had been sent into \nCuttack, Guzerat, and Bundelcund, were also eminently successful. \nBy December, Sindia was compelled to purchase peace upon the \nmost humiliating terms. A large and valuable territory on both \nsides of the Ganges, including the imperial cities of Delhi and Agra, \nwas ceded to the victors. \n\nHolkar, who, meantime, had been cautiously watching the turn of \nevents, now most imprudently resolved on war, and endeavoured \nto form a confederacy against the common enemy. Governor \nWellesley, on the other hand, determined completely to overthrow \nthe power of this formidable and hostile chief, and to divide his \nterritory among the native allies. The army of Holkar, increased \nfrom every quarter, now amounted to sixty thousand cavalry and \nfifteen thousand infantry. He was also provided with nearly two \nhundred pieces of artillery. General Wellesley, on account of a \nfamine in the Deccan, was unable to advance against him ; and Colo- \nnel Monson, who, with a few thousand men, had been left to watch \nthe movements of the enemy, was compelled, in a disastrous retreat \nto Agra, before the Mahratta chief, to leave on the way his sick and \nwounded, with all the artillery and baggage. \n\nHolkar, eluding the advance of the British general, suddenly \ninvested Delhi, which was garrisoned onlv with a small force of \nsepoys, under British officers. These, however, made such a gal- \nlant defence, that he raised the siege, and commenced a career of \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n255 \n\n\n\ndevastation in the newly-acquired territories of the English. A \ndetachment of infantry, under General Frazer, defeated that of the \nenemy at Deeg, but with the loss of their brave commander. Lake, \nafter a most rapid march, at length overtook the Mahratta cavalry, \nunder Holkar, and put them to flight, with a loss of three thousand \nmen. By invasion from various quarters, the Mahratta chief soon \nfound himself shut out from the most of his dominions. Bhurtpore, \nthe rajah of which still adhered to his cause, was resolutely attacked \nby Lake ; but after a most daring resistance, in which the forces of \nthe company were repeatedly repulsed, and lost upwards of three \nthousand men, he was compelled to forego operations, and treat \nwith the rajah, who ransomed his capital by the payment of twenty \nlacs of rupees (more than a million of dollars). Holkar, who had \nvainly attempted to relieve his ally, was reduced to an almost des- \nperate condition, when, by a sudden alliance, he gained the support \nand assistance of Sindia. \n\nThis powerful chief had viewed the exploits of his former rival \nwith admiration, and was determined, at whatever risk, to emulate \nthem. This fresh confederacy would have produced a renewal of \nthe war, but for an entire change in the policy of the British \ngovernment, and of the company, alarmed at this continual warfare \nand the enormous expense which it entailed. The Marquis of \nWellesley was recalled, and Marquis Cornwallis, in 1805, was sent \nto occupy his place. The latter, however, died soon after his arrival, \nand the council, acting on the pacific instructions which they had \nreceived from London, in November, 1805, concluded a treaty with \nSindia, by which he gained the strong fortress of Gwalior, and \nsecured other important advantages. Holkar also obtained peace \nupon terms so favourable as to leave him nearly in the same position \nas at the commencement of the late contest. \n\n\n\n256 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nuMttliXJaii XcAj \n\n\n\nTHE PINDAEEE WAR, AND THE PINAL OYEBTHEOW OF THE \n\nMAHEATTAS. \n\nA GREAT part of India was at this time overrun by troops of \nmarauders, called tlie Pindarees. Unlike tlie Mahrattas, to whose \npredatory habits their own bore a strong resemblance, they had no \nnational existence or particular place of abode \xe2\x80\x94 being simply rob- \nbers, whose numbers gave them the formidable appearance of armies. \nFinding their temporary homes in the numerous native kingdoms, \nthey were ever ready to join their leaders in any nefarious expedi- \ntion. Their aim was not the conquest, but simply the complete \nplunder of every province through which they passed, and they \ninflicted the most merciless tortures to extort treasure from their \nunhappy victims. They were the quickest and most expert riders, \nand had an almost incredible adroitness in horse-stealing. Their \nchiefs used annually to summon their forces, composed of disbanded \nsoldiers and other desperate characters, on the northern bank of the \nNerbudda; and as soon as the rivers became fordable, commenced \na career of indiscriminate plunder and devastation. \n\nAnother formidable gang was headed by Ameer Khan, a Mahom- \netan chief, who had fought for Holkar, and now aimed at establishing \nan independent power. An expedition which he made in 1809, to \ngain possession of Berar, was, however, rendered ineffectual by the \ninterference of Lord Minto, the English governor. \n\nThe peishwa, who had been reinstated in his authority at Poonah, \nsoon incurred, by his disaffection, the distrust of the English \ngovernment. The latter took advantage of the violation of a safe \nconduct, to insist on his receiving eight thousand additional troops \ninto his territories, assigning large revenues for their support, and \nyielding up the strong city of Ahmednugger. To these and other \nsevere conditions, rendering him a mere instrument of the company, \nhe was compelled to submit (June, 1817). \n\nIn 1813, the Marquis of Hastings, an able and active commander, \nhad been appointed the head of affairs in India. His talents were \n\n\n\nINDIA. 257 \n\nsoon called into requisition. The Gorkhas, a warlike people from \nthe region of the Himmaleh, had conquered the beautiful valleys of \nNepaul, and had extended their dominion until it comprised nearly \nall the mountainous regions of Northern India. The British, by \ntheir conquests, had come in contact with this formidable race, and, \nnegotiation having failed to settle the title to certain disputed terri- \ntories, hostilities were speedily commenced by both parties. The \ngovernor-general in 1814 despatched thirty thousand men to the \nscene of action. General Gillespie, who commanded a division of \nthis army, was detained on his march by the strong fortress of \nKalunga, perched on a hill, and exceedingly difficult of access, In \nattempting to carry it by storm, he fell at the head of his column, \nwhich was repulsed with loss. The officer who succeeded him, with \nthe aid of heavy artillery, made a similar attempt, but in vain ; and \nthe natives did not evacuate their stronghold until its walls were \nbattered to ruins. At the fort of Jytuk, the British, under General \nMartindale, were also repulsed; and the division marching through \nSarun lost two detachments, which were surrounded and cut off. \n\nThese disasters, though mortifying to the English, produced only \nincreased exertions to repair them. General Ochterlony and Colonel \nNichols soon gained decided advantages. Several important for- \ntresses and towns were taken, and Ameer Sing, the Nepaulese \ngeneral, was compelled to quit his principal stronghold. Negotia- \ntions were then commenced, but having been broken off, the British \nagain took the field in 1816, and after twice defeating the enemy, \nextorted a treaty, by which they gained all the points in dispute. \n\nThe next object of the English governor was to repress the preda- \ntory tribes before alluded to, and to gain such a foothold in the \nnative states as to secure a predominance over these marauders. \nBerar consented to receive a force despatched by the governor, who \nwas thus enabled, as he supposed, to check the incursions of the \nPindarees. Nevertheless, eluding the British forces, they crossed \nthe Nerbudda wth ten thousand horsemen, and commenced plunder- \ning actively in the company\'s territories. They were, however, \nrepulsed in various quarters, and compelled to retreat with consid- \nerable loss. \n\nIt was now resolved thoroughly to suppress or extirpate these \n\npests of society, and in 1817 Lord Hastings put in motion by far \n\nthe largest and most efficient army which had yet taken the field in \n\nIndia. It consisted, in all, of nearly an hundred thousand men, \n\n17 \n\n\n\n258 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwlio, commanded by tlie marquis in person, and by other eminent \nofficers, marcbed from various directions to enclose and capture tbe \nwbole body of tbe Pindarees. Botb Sindia and Ameer Kban were \ncompelled, however reluctantly, to assent to the project, and the \nlatter was forced to disband his irregular forces. The opening of \nthe campaign was retarded by the ravages of the cholera, which \nabout this time extended over a great part of India. Nearly nine \nthousand of the troops and camp-followers (principally the latter) \nof the division under the immediate command of Lord Hastings \ndied of this new and terrible disorder. In the course of 1818 it \nspread through all parts of India, and the army, in common with \nothers exposed to its attacks, suffered severely. \n\nThe Pindarees, seeing hostile forces approaching from all sides, \nthought only of escape, and Cheetoo, their principal leader, with \neight thousand men, took refuge, evading the vigilance of his \nenemies, in the territory of Mewar. Kurreem, another chief, \nattempting to fly, was defeated, and his followers were completely \ndispersed. A fresh enemy now sprung up in the dominions of \nHolkar. After the death of that chief, his officers, attached to \npredatory warfare, and dreading the permanent occupation of their \ncountry by a British force, prepared for war. General Hislop, who \nwas despatched against them, attacked their army at a great disad- \nvantage, yet, by the superiority of his troops, gained the day. The \nMahratta army retreated, leaving their artillery and three thousand \nof their number on the field. The refractory chiefs were soon com- \npelled to submit to terms dictated by the English. \n\nThe Pindarees, after sustaining severe defeats in their flight from \ndistrict to district, were finally dispersed, and most of their chiefs \nsurrendered to the British. Cheetoo, the most valiant and resolute \nof their leaders, was devoured by a tiger while lurking in the forests \nof Asseerghur. \n\nThe peishwa, Bajee Rao, who had been for some time uneasy \nunder the control of his patrons, secretly resolved to throw off \ntheir yoke. Having disarmed suspicion by the most profound dis- \nsimulation, he suddenly attacked, with a large force, the small body \nof the company\'s troops which had been stationed at Poonah, \nhis capital. These, however, defended themselves with the most \nundaunted courage until reinforced, when the peishwa, unable to \nstand a pitched battle, was forced to retreat. For six months, \neluding by superior swiftness the pursuit of his enemies, he ravaged \n\n\n\nINDIA. 259 \n\nthe Deccan ; but was finally compelled to surrender his person and \nrelinquish his title, receiving in return a pension of eight lacs of \nrupees (about half a million of dollars). All his territories were \nseized by the victors. \n\nSimilar events transpired at Nagpore, where the rajah, with an \noverwhelming force, attacked the small body of English stationed \nthere, who, however, most courageously maintained their ground \nwith a loss of a fourth of their number. This attempt, like that of \nthe peishwa, resulted in the entire subjugation of his territory. \n\nAfter the triumphant termination of this contest with the native \npowers, no further struggle of importance occurred until 1826, when \nBhurtpore, a strong and celebrated fortress, was attacked and taken \nby storm by Lord Combermere, with a force of twenty-five thousand \nmen. This expedition, , undertaken for the purpose of reinstating \nan excluded prince on the throne, had the effect of more thoroughly \nawing the native potentates, and of confirming the supremacy which \nBritain had already acquired over all Hindostan. \n\nThe administration of Lord William Bentinck, who shortly after \nsucceeded to the head of the Indian government, was distinguished \nby his attempts to ameliorate the condition of the vast masses of \nHindoos who were directly under the British authority. The hor- \nrible suttees^ or burning of widows, were suppressed, and various \nflagrant abuses were corrected. Since the year 1835, the English \ngovernment in India has been engaged in repeated and sometimes \ndisastrous conflicts, especially with the warlike nations of the west. \nThe wars with Afghanistan and Sinde, resulting in the evacuation \nof the former, and the annexation of the latter, have been the \nprincipal events of military importance. \n\n\n\n260 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nTHE RELIGION, CUSTOMS, INDUSTRY, AND CHARACTER OE \nTHE HINDOOS. \n\nBrama, YiSHJsru, and Siva, are tlie three most venerated divinities \nof the native inhabitants of India. The attributes of creation and \npreservation are ascribed to them, and their origin and adventures \nare described in the wildest flights of mythological fancy. Doorga, \ntheir chief female deity, the goddess of battle and destruction, is \none of the most popular and idolized divinities of India. Her image \nis represented as adorned with a necklace of skulls, and two dead \nbodies hang as pendants from her ears. Besides the usual simple \nofferings of the vegetable kingdom, her altars flow with the blood \nof animals, as anciently with that of human beings. A great num- \nber of minor deities are held in veneration \xe2\x80\x94 Indra, the king of \nheaven ; Surya, the deified sun ; Agnee, the god of fire ; Pavana, \nof the winds ; and Yaruna, of the waters. \n\nTheir rivers have been held sacred from the remotest times, and \nto die on the banks of the holy Granges, is considered the surest \npassport to the joys of Paradise. Long pilgrimages are performed \nfor the purpose of bathing in its waters, and infants are consigned \nto them for the purpose of sectiring their future felicity. In the \ncourts of Bengal, witnesses are sworn upon a portion of its waters \nas the surest incentive to truthful evidence. The brute creation, \nespecially the cow and the monkey, have their ardent and constant \nworshippers. \n\nThe belief in the transmigration of souls is extensively enter- \ntained, and is supposed to be the instrument of retribution in \nanother life ; the virtuous attaining higher rank and caste in their \nnext existence, while the vicious suifer lower degradation, and even \ninhabit the bodies of animals. Thus the pillager of grain becomes \na rat, and he who steals fruit is metamorphosed into ^.n ape. The \nHindoo continually supposes that he beholds in some suffering ani- \nmal a degraded human soul, expiating its sins, and receiving their \nappropriate punishment. \n\nThe idea of a heaven and a hell are also prevalent; the one \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n261 \n\n\n\nresembling in its voluptuous and sensual enjoyments tlie Mahometan \nparadise, and tlie other rendered terrible by the most imaginative \nretributory tortures. The cruel are tormented hj serpents ; the drunk- \nard is immersed in liquid fire ; and the licentious embraced by an \nimage of red hot iron. \n\nTheir temples, especially those erected or excavated in ancient \ntimes, present the grandest ideas of barbarous magnificence. At \nElephanta and Kenneri, whole hills have been formed into subter- \nranean temples and dwellings, adorned with colossal emblematic \nimages. Their pagodas are generally of a pyramidal form, composed \nof numerous stories, and strikingly reminding the beholder of the \npopular idea of the Tower of Babel. Those of Tanjore, Patun, and \nKotah, are among the most remarkable. The edifices erected in \nmodern times are generally far inferior, being adapted to the \ndiminished means of their worshippers, and barely affording accom- \nmodation to the gaudy and hideous idols which they protect. The \nrites and praises offered before them are as absurd and meaningless \nas the divinities themselves. \n\nThe penances and self-torture of the Hindoo devotees, sustained \nby a strange fanaticism, and the hope of fature felicity, are almost \nincredible. No race of men seems gifted with such fortitude and \npassive endurance. Like their forefathers, in the time of Alexander, \nthey will remain exposed to a burning sun, and to every vicissitude \nof weather, in such constrained and unnatural positions that their \nlimbs grow into helpless distortion. A traveller was astonished, on \nhis return to India, after an absence of sixteen years, to find one of \nthese unhappy beings retaining the same posture in which he had \nleft him. At the grand festival of Juggernaut, in Orissa, vast num- \nbers flock from all directions to the scene, and many perish from \nwant and fatigue. The gigantic idol, on a monstrous car, is drag- \nged from his temple by the assembled multitude, and it has been a \ncommon scene for his blinded devotees to fling themselves beneath \nthe ponderous wheels, and seal their faith with their destruction. \n\nThe suttees^ or immolation of widows on the funeral-piles of their \nhusbands, were practised to a fearful extent, until suppressed by the \nBritish government. At one place thirty-seven women, the wives \nof a deceased Brahmin, voluntarily underwent this terrible fate* \nand in Marwar, on the death of the prince Ajit, fifty-eight of his \nfavourite wives threw themselves into a mighty pile, and were con- \nsumed together. Sometimes the unfortunate victim, at the latest \n\n\n\n262 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nmoment, would gladly have witiidrawn from the dreadful fate ; in \nwhich, case, force was not unfrequently resorted to, to secure a \nreluctant martyrdom. \n\nInfanticides were also deplorably common, the unfortunate children \nbeing left to their fate afloat on some sacred river, or suspended \nin baskets to perish by birds of prey. \n\nThe division into castes, or distinct classes, has been, from the \nremotest ages, peculiar to the people of India. The highest and most \nsacred race is that of the Brahmins, who are supposed to be entitled \nto peculiar veneration, both in this world and the next. Their per- \nsons are considered eminently sacred and inviolable. The Cshay- \ntryas, or military class, rank next, and the Yaisyas, or men of \nbusiness, are the third in respect. Last come the Sudras, or labourers, \nwhose condition is that of unremitting servitude and obedience. \nTheir employments are invariably transmitted from father to son. \nIn the southern part of India, is found a yet more miserable and \ndegraded class, called the Pariahs, or outcasts, who are held in the \nmost utter contempt, and employed only in the meanest services. \nThey are compelled to herd together without the walls of the cities, \nlest the purer castes should become contaminated by their touch. \n\nThe character of the Hindoo race, in such an extended region, \nnaturally varies widely ; but the people are in general distinguished \nby their temperance and abstemiousness in living, and by the gen- \ntleness and docility of their dispositions. The national tendency to \ncraft and deceit, of which they have been accused, seems but a \nnatural consequence of the long-continued servitude to which they \nhave been subjected by their Mahometan conquerors, and latterly, \nto some extent, by their British masters. Such, it is said, is their \ndisregard of the obligations of an oath, that native testimony is \nalmost entirely unreliable where there is any temptation to pervert \nthe truth. \n\nThe literature of the Hindoos, so long locked up in their Sanscrit, \nor sacred language, and known only to the priests, was first intro- \nduced to the knowledge of Europe by the exertions of Sir William \nJones and other eminent oriental scholars. The Vedas, the most \nsacred and ancient books in the language, consist of voluminous \nwritings in verse, principally of a religious and philosophical nature. \nA very pure and enlightened idea of the Supreme Being is conveyed \nin some portions of these remarkable works. The following passage \nis deeply revered by the religious natives: \n\n\n\nINDIA. 263 \n\n"Let us adore the supremacy of that divine sun, the god-head, who illuminates \nall, who recreates all, from whom all proceed, to whom all must return, whom we \ninvoke to direct our understandings aright in our progress towards his holy seat. \n\n"What the light and sun are to this visible world, that are the Supreme Good and \nTruth to the intellectual and invisible universe; and as our corporeal eyes have a \ndistinct perception of objects enlightened by the sun, thus our souls acquire certain \nknowledge by meditating on the light of truth which emanates from the Being of \nbeings; that is the light by which alone our minds can be directed in the path to \nbeatitude. \n\n"Without hand or foot, he runs rapidly, and grasps firmly; without eyes, he sees; \nwithout ears, he hears all; he knows whatever can be known; but there is none who \nknows him. Him the wise call the great Supreme Pervading Spirit." \n\nWitli such, sublime and elevated views of the divine nature, the \nIndian mythology mixes all that is wild, absurd, and degrading. \nThe other celebrated works of the ancient Hindoos are the Puranas, \nthe Mahabarat, and the Ramayana \xe2\x80\x94 a species of confused epics, in \nwhich (doubtless with some original foundation of authenticity) the \nadventures of celestial beings, heroes and demi-gods are detailed at \ngreat and sometimes wearisome length. The poetry of these singu- \nlar productions is often of a high and deeply-imaginative character. \nDramas and love poems of considerable merit, likewise abound. \nSince the intercourse with Europeans has become peacefully estab- \nlished, considerable attention has been paid by the educated Hindoos \nto British literature. Many of the best works of the English \nlanguage have been translated into the native tongues, and works \nof merit have been composed in the English by native authors. A \nnewspaper, advocating liberal and enlightened sentiments, has also \nbeen established. \n\nAlthough great and persevering efforts have been made for the \nconversion to Christianity of the numerous native races in India, the \nresults have been less encouraging to missionary zeal than in many \nother fields of operation. The Baptist missionaries, who at the close \nof the last century commenced their pious labours, displayed the \ngreatest ardour and perseverance in their self-allotted undertaking. \nIn 1801, they published the New Testament in Bengalee, and have \nsince circulated the Scripture, translated into twenty-four native \ndialects, which are vernacular to more than a hundred millions of \nthe native population. The London, and the Church Missionary \nSocieties have also been extremely active and industrious in estab- \nlishing schools and churches, and especially in preparing for the \nconversion of the generation which is to succeed the present. \n\n\n\n264 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. \n\nThis latter project appears to offer the most rational prospect of \nan J extensive change in the belief of the inhabitants; the aaults \nbeing so wedded to their system of caMes and their ancient usages, \nthat the instances of conversion have been extremely rare. The \nmore fanatical among them have even organized societies (modelled \non those of the European missionaries) for the restoration of their \nvenerated suttees, and other revolting rites of Hindoo superstition. \nGreat blame, and perhaps justly, has been laid upon the East India \nCompany for sanctioning, by its authority, the pagan ceremonies of \ntheir superstitious subjects. It has been customary with the of&cials \nof government to levy taxes upon the pilgrims to the various shrines, \nto pay the salaries of the officiating priests and Brahmins, to keep \nthe temples in repair, and to put the balance into their own treastiry. \nIt has been charged, that in this way, in seventeen years, they drew \na sum of one million pounds from the four principal temples of \nJuggernaut, Allahabad, Gaj^a, and Tripetty. Whatever may be \nalleged in regard to preservation of order and the suppression of \nworse excesses effected by such a system, it seems evident enoiigh \nthat this large revenue, so disgracefully obtained, has been the prin- \ncipal motive with a Christian government in thus extending its \ncountenance and patronage to a system of puerile idolatry. \n\nAlthough, for many ages, the idea of boundless wealth has been \nconnected with the fertile regions of India, yet the great body of \nthe inhabitants, owing to their immense number and their condition \nof subjection, are in a state of much depression and poverty. So \nlittle are they in advance of a state of necessity, that a failure of \nthe periodical rains, on which the crops are dependant, at times occa- \nsions the most terrible results. By such an event, which occurred \nin Bengal in 1770, several millions of the unfortunate inhabitants \nare supposed to have perished of actual famine. \n\nThe principal production and almost the exclusive food of the \nlabouring classes is rice, of which two crops can be raised in a single \nyear. Cotton, which is largely raised, and which forms the entire \nclothing of the great mass of the people, is very inferior in quality \nto that of America, and is worth little for exportation. Strenuous \nattempts have been made by the British government to naturalize \nthe superior species, and improve its cultivation, but with question- \nable success ; and it seems probable that the vast manufactures of \nthis article in England will for ever remain dependant on the supply \nfrom the southern states of America. \n\n\n\nINDIA. 265 \n\nOpium, the most seductive and baneful production of the whole \nEast, is extensively prepared, and as extensively consumed, both in \nIndia and the adjoining regions, to the immeasurable detriment of \nits unfortunate devotees. Silk, though of inferior quality, is pro- \nduced largely, especially in Bengal. Sugar, which, probably from \ndeficient culture, is unable to compete with the products of the \nWest Indies, is raised to a considerable extent, and might, it is sup- \nposed, by the employment of proper means, easily supply the whole \nBritish empire. Tobacco, from the time of its introduction, has \nalways been largely produced and consumed \xe2\x80\x94 the fragrant and \nsoothing influence of the pipe being particularly adapted to the \nindolence and apathy of the inhabitants of this tropical clime. \n\nThe most important article of culture, indigo, is of comparatively \nrecent introduction, and owes its present importance entirely to the \nenterprise and capital of Europeans. Immense quantities are \nexported, and all Europe is largely supplied from this source. Pep- \nper and other spices are extensively produced. \n\nManufactures and the mechanic arts, though conducted with much \npains-taking industry, are in general, almost entirely destitute of \nthose advantages\' which capital and machinery so immensely confer. \nThe artisan, with rude and indifferent instruments, labours singly \nand unassisted, with patient perseverance. In this way are produced \nthe most delicate Indian muslins, the finest silks and calicoes, and \nthe splendid and high-priced shawls of Cashmere. In consequence, \nhowever, of the increased skill of European manufacturers and the \ncheapness of their wares, the demands for these beautiful fabrics \nhas not increased like that for other luxuries, though extensive \nimportations are still made. The monopoly of traffic, which the \nEast India Company so long maintained, has been finally suppressed; \nand the enterprise and competition of private merchants have proved \nfar more efficacious for advancing the interests of commerce than \nthe cumbrous and unwieldy system of the company. \n\nThe British residents in India, though holding complete control \nof the government, and transacting all business of importance, \nwhether military, judicial, or commercial, regard their sojourn \ngenerally as a species of exile, and devote themselves eagerly to \nacquiring the means of independence, to be enjoyed on their return \nto their own country. Their manner of life, indeed, usually becomes \nstrongly tinctured with oriental feelings and habits. Troops of \nnative servants, high-spiced Indian dishes, and the continual use of \n\n\n\n266 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe hooJcah, or water-pipe, become, witli many of them, almost neces- \nsaries of life. At tlie principal capitals, and especially at Calcutta, \ntlie ofdcials and other wealthy residents maintain a state of extreme \nsplendour and luxury. In the latter city, the quarter called Chou- \nringhee is described as a village of palaces \xe2\x80\x94 contrasting strongly \nwith the low and squalid habitations of the "Black Town," or \ndistrict allotted to the native population. \n\nThe most exciting and manly amusement of the Europeans is the \nchase, in which many, especially the military of&cers, engage with \nthe most adventurous ardour. The elephant, the royal tiger, and \nother magnificent denizens of the forest and jungle, offer the most \nattractive and dangerous sport to the courageous hunter. These \nsports are attended with much risk, not only from the ferocious \nnature of the game, but from the burning and tropical sun to which \nthe huntsman is necessarily exposed. \n\nThe population of India, over nearly all of which the British \ninfluence is now paramount, amounts to the enormous number of \nan hundred and forty millions. "Man in those regions is a weed," \nsays a well-known philosophical writer; and, indeed, if over- \nwhelming number, combined with ignorance, political weakness, \nand individual unimportance, is meant, the simile is true enough. \nThat this gentle, kindl}^, and somewhat intellectual race may be \nredeemed from their present degraded condition, and advance in \ntrue religion, civilization, and freedom, must be the wish of every \nphilanthropic mind. \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\nuxicniiriiuil, i \n\n\n\nNATIYE HISTORY OF THE CHINESE. \n\nIn considering the geograpliy, the history, and the national charac- \nteristics of this immense empire, we are alike struck by the childish \ncredulity with which the European nations, for many ages, enter- \ntained the most absurd and fabulous accounts concerning them, and \nthe utter disbelief which accompanied the publication of their first \nauthentic description by Marco Paolo, and other early travellers. \nAlthough these writers were, without doubt, guilty of numerous \nexaggerations \xe2\x80\x94 the more pardonable when we reflect upon the con- \ntinual surprise and astonishment with which their own minds must \nhave been impressed at the new and strange scenes constantly unfold- \ning before them \xe2\x80\x94 and although their strange misapprehensions will \noccasionally excite a smile, yet, in the more essential particulars, \nthe China which they describe is the China of the present day. \nThroughout all the mighty revolutions of the West; during all the \nvast changes in the physical and moral condition of the people of \nEurope; the perfection of the higher arts; the lapse to barbarism, \nwith the rule of brute force, and the almost total destruction of \nlearning and refinement; and during the revival of forgotten sci- \nences, and their wonderful modern extension, the inhabitants of \nChina have remained the same. As far in advance of the rest of \nthe world a thousand years since, as they now are behind it, in \nknowledge and policy, they still pursue the customs of their fore- \nfathers, and manifest the same untiring industry, the same deficiency \nof invention, and the same puerile fancies which distinguished them \nin the earliest period of their history, of which we have any authen- \ntic account. \n\n\n\n268 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nIn a country of sucli extent there must, of necessity, be a great \nvariety of climate and productions. At the southern extremity, lying \nwithin the tropics, and near twenty degrees north latitude, a \ndegree of heat is experienced in the summer months, correspond- \ning to that of the western hemisphere in the same latitude. The \ncountry, from its position on the eastern shore of a large continent, \nis necessarily subjected to great extremes of heat and cold, at the \ndifferent seasons of the year. In the northern parts, the winters \nmust be nearly equal in severity to those of New England. The \nsurface of the country, although hilly and varied, is, for the most \npart, within the reach of cultivation, which is carried to an extent \nunknown in any other portion of the globe, except, perhaps, in \nsome of the most populous districts of Europe. It is only by the \nmost assiduous improvement of every available spot of land, for \nthe purpose of agriculture, that the teeming population of this vast \nregion could, by possibility, be supported. \n\nThe manners and customs of the Chinese, so strongly contrasted \nwith those of other nations, offer an extensive and interesting field \nfor observation and inquiry, but our limits compel us to pass from \nthese to the drier details of their political history. Anterior to the \ntime of Confucius, the greatest of their philosophers and writers, \nwho flourished about five hundred years before the Christian era, \nthe legends of the historians of China are, in the highest degree, \nwild and extravagant. They extend through a period of several \nthousand years; from the time of Puon-koo, with his covering of \nleaves; of Eohy, Shin-Noong, and Hoang-ty, the "three emperors," \nto whom were ascribed the invention of most of the arts and orna- \nmental sciences; and through the long reigns of their numberless \nsuccessors, graced with fantastic titles and varied attributes. During \nthe reign of Shun, the last of "the five sovereigns" who immedi- \nately succeeded Hoang-ty, a great flood is recorded to have occurred, \nwhich is supposed by many to have been the same with the univer- \nsal deluge described by Moses. Yery few of the tales concerning \nthese early monarchs bear any marks of having a foundation in \ntruth, and must be classed by the modern historian with the stories \nof Theseus and Hercules, or the wild traditions of savage nations. \nIn many instances, doubtless, the name of some renowned chief, with \nhis most famous exploits, may have come down to us little altered \nbeyond a slight exaggeration from the poet or story-teller ; but M^e \nhave no criterion whereby to distinguish the true from the fictitious. \n\n\n\nll I ill \n\n\n\n\nCHINA. 269 \n\nConfucius lived in the same age with Pythagoras, and, consider- \ning the inferiority of his opportunities for literary acquirements, is, \ndoubtless, deserving of equal celebrity with that great philosopher. \nThe effect of his political disquisitions and theological essays is still \nto be seen throughout the empire, and his historical compilations \ncontain nearly all that is now known of Chinese government and \nprogress before his day. After his death, the country, divided as it \nwas into numerous principalities or petty kingdoms, was convulsed \nby civil wars, until their final union in one empire, and the estab- \nlishment of a common government, Chy-hoang-ty appears to have \nbeen the first emperor, and in his reign was erected that stupendous \nmonument of enterprise and perseverance, the great wall of China. \nThe design of this undertaking was to afford some protection to the \npeaceable subjects of the emperor, against the frequent attacks of \nthe wild and roving hordes of Tartary. The whole extent of the \nwall is not far from fifteen hundred miles, traversing high mountains \nand rivers of considerable size. Its height, though not perfectly \nuniform through its whole length, is, on an average, from twenty to \nthirty feet, and it is of sufficient breadth upon the top for several \nhorsemen to ride abreast. Strong towers occur at short intervals, \nand on the summit of the wall the roadway is flanked by a low para- \npet. The work appears externally to be a mass of solid masonry, but \nin reality it consists of an embankment of earth, enclosed between firm \nwalls of stone, slightly inclining inward, to afford greater strength and \ndurability. It is said that this fortification is carried, unbroken, over \nalmost inaccessible cliffs and precipices, where the efforts of cavalry \nto efiect a passage would be of no avail, even without this precaution. \nIt has been, like the pyramids of Ghizeh, the wonder and admira- \ntion of all ages, and in like manner appears to have totally failed in \neffectuating the purpose of its founder. None can tell, with certainty, \neven the names of the vain-glorious potentates whose mausoleums, \nerected at such inconceivable expense and toil, are scattered over \nthe Egyptian desert; and the mighty work, which we have here \ndescribed, proved, in equal measure, a monument of useless labour. \nThe reign of its constructor was rendered infamous by his futile \nattempt to destroy the writings of Confucius and other learned \nauthors, who had flourished under the patronage of his predecessors. \nWhat were his motives for this piece of barbarism, does not dis- \ntinctly appear ; perhaps, as has been asserted, he was simply actuated \nby jealousy of the fame of others; but that his orders were enforced \n\n\n\n270 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwitli rigour and ferocity is plain from tlie fact, that hundreds were \nput to death for concealing the proscribed volumes. \n\nAbout two hundred years before Christ, under the dynasty of \nHan, the predatory incursions of the Tartars, unrestrained by the \nwall of protection, built by Chy-hoang-ty, had become such a con- \nstant source of terror and disquiet, that, to propitiate them, the \nemperors of China were in the habit of giving their daughters in \nmarriage to the chiefs of the invaders. By this means, and by the \npaji^ment of heavy tribute, a separate existence was maintained for \na great length of time. \n\nFor several centuries after the Han race had ceased to fill the \nthrone, little of interest presents itself in the political history of \nthe country. A long series of wars and intestine disturbances dis- \ntracted the empire, until the accession of Tae-tsoong, the second \nemperor of the house of Tang. It was during his reign that Chris- \ntians appear, for the first time, to have penetrated into China. They \nare described as "foreigners, having fair hair and blue eyes." This \nwas in the year A. D. 640, or about that period; and the truth of \nthe narrative seems to have been corroborated by the discovery, at \na time long subsequent, of a monument, marked with a cross, and \ninscribed with Christian doctrines and the names of certain preach- \ners. The date of this inscription corresponded with the period at \nwhich these foreigners are said to have arrived. \n\nThe peace of the court, under this dynasty, was disturbed in the \nmost singular manner by the intrigues and plots of the eunuch \nattendants and courtiers, who had been first introduced by Ho-ty, the \nseventeenth emperor of the Han race, as early as the year 95. They \nretained their power and influence until the time of the last of the \nTang emperors, who was himself murdered by the agent whom he \nhad employed for their destruction. \n\nFor more than fifty years thereafter, and until the final establish- \nment of a despotic and even feudal government, the conflicts among \nvarious claimants of the throne created anarchy and confusion \nthroughout the empire. The Tartars, no longer efiiciently repelled, \nrenewed their devastations, and harassed and laid waste the country \nupon its western border. \n\nAt this disturbed and unsettled period, and among a people thus \ndistracted by the tumult of civil wars and the continual attacks of \na barbarous enemy, an art had its origin, which was destined to \neffect a greater change in the condition of the world, than any which \n\n\n\nCHINA. 271 \n\never before or since has emanated from tlie mind of man. In the \ntenth century, while the inhabitants of the now enlightened states \nof Europe were in the lowest state of ignorance and vassalage, the \npatient and laborious Chinese had brought into general use the \nart of printing from engraved blocks. Five hundred years later, it \nwas introduced into Europe \xe2\x80\x94 a. length of time which sufficiently \nmarks an almost entire non-intercourse between China and other \nnations. In the year A. D. 950, Tae-tsoo, the first of the Soong \nfamily, obtained the imperial power by the support of a number of \nmilitary chiefs. Under his rule, and that of his successors, books \nwere greatly multiplied; and from this period, the annals of the \ncountry become fuller and more worthy of belief. \n\nThe Eastern Tartars, known as "the Kin," although long pro- \npitiated by an annual payment of silk and money, finally took \nadvantage of the effeminacy of Wei-tsoong, the then reigning empe- \nror, to overrun and take possession of a large part of Northern \nChina, or Kathai, It seems probable that they would, at this time, \nhave conquered the whole country, had not the Chinese called in \nthe assistance of the Mongols, who were inhabitants of Southern \nand Western Tartary, The armies of this powerful nation, which, \nbefore this period, had made extensive conquests in the south of \nAsia, now poured into the northern provinces, expelling the first \ninvaders, and easily making themselves masters both of the Chinese \nand such of the Kin as remained within their limits. This event \noccurred in the year 1234. \n\nKublai Khan, the great leader of the Mongols, established his \ncourt at Pekin. After the discomfiture of the Chinese army, and \nthe destruction of the royal family, he employed himself in over- \nturning the religion of the country, and substituting that of Budd- \nhism. This system, with its worship of the Grand Lama, was far \nfrom acceptable to the native inhabitants, but exterior compliance \nwith it was strictly enforced ; the books of the old religion being \nordered, as usual, to be burned. \n\nPartly for the purpose of enriching the dry and parched plains \nin the vicinity of his capital, and partly to ensure a convenient \nmethod of transportation to the sea, Kublai Khan ordered the con- \nstruction of the Grand Canal, which extends for a great distance \nthrough the most fertile and populous portions of China. \n\nIn consequence of the degeneracy and weakness of his suc- \ncessors, the power of the Mongols came to an end in less than a \n\n\n\n272 THE PEOPLE\'SBOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhundred years from tlie time of his accession. A successful revolt, \nheaded by the servant of an association of Buddhist priests, ended in \nthe entire overthrow of the Tartar government, and in the estabhsh- \nment upon the throne of the victorious leader. \n\nHe organized his court at ISTanking, taking the title of Tae-tsoo, \n"great ancestor." Tae-tsoo was the founder of the Ming dynasty, \nand it was during his reign, and that of his successors, that a regular \ncommunication was first opened between the coast of China and the \nmaritime nations of Europe. The Portuguese then formed a settle- \nment at Macao ; and the zealous Jesuits, with their usual intelligence, \ncourage, and artful policy, gained no small ascendancy among the \nnatives. They also obtained a vast amount of information concerning \nthe national customs and history. \n\nIn the reign of one of the Ming princes, the celebrated Timiir or \nTamerlane projected an expedition against China, and actually took \nup his march for the purpose of effecting its conquest; but died \non his way thither, in the year A. D. 1405. \n\nThe Mongol successors of Kublai Khan, on their expulsion from \nChina, took up their abode with the Kin, or Eastern Tartars, and, \nintermarrying with the nobility of that country, retained much of \ntheir power and influence. The descendants of this mixed race \nafterwards obtained and still hold possession of the throne of China. \nThe name of the region inhabited by the Kin had been changed to \nManchow, which title was applied to the princes who derive their \norigin from this amalgamation. \n\nThe Manchows, under Tien-Ming, having attacked China, succeeded \n(after a war of many years) in dethroning the last of the Ming \nemperors. This unfortunate monarch, when he saw himself finally \noverpowered, put an end to his own life, that he might not fall into \nthe hands of his enemies. The immediate cause of his downfall \nwas an extensive revolt within his own dominions ; but the success- \nful leader of the rebels was prevented, by the intervention of the \nManchow king, from enjoying the fruits of his treason. \n\nThe new invader, by force and artful management, secured to \nhimself the imperial throne, and, dying shortly after, left it to his \nson Shunchy, in 1644. \n\nAt this period the degradation and subjection of the unhappy \nnatives was completed: the customs of tonsure and the braided queue, \nwhich are associated with all our ideas of a Chinese, were now, for \nthe first time, introduced and strictly enforced. The ancient attire \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n273 \n\n\n\nand tlie thick flowing locks, upon whick tkey formerly prided tkem- \nselves, are now to be seen only in their theatrical representations. \n\nThe authority of the Tartar emperors was long resisted by the \ninhabitants of the south of China, and by a large naval force, under \nthe command of Ching-she-loong, father of the celebrated Kos- \nhiuga. The emperor Shunchy succeeded, by heavy bribes and the \nproffer of titles, in enticing Ching-she-loong to espouse his cause, \nand to remove to Pekin ; but the son was incorruptible, and long \ncontinued to harass and plunder the cities on the sea-coast, which \nhad succumbed to the Tartar power. The only method by which \nShunchy was finally enabled to terminate his successful career, and \nto reduce him to terms, was an edict that all the inhabitants of the \ncoast should retire so far into the interior as to be beyond reach of \nthe incursions of his maritime foe. This order was forcibly carried \nout, and the country being thus laid waste, and offering neither \nbooty nor support to his armament, the naval commander was \ninduced to give up his possessions already acquired, and to take \nofiice under the established dynasty. \n\nThe Manchow emperors strove to maintain an active and military \nspirit in their nobility and soldiery, by a yearly expedition beyond \nthe wall, with a great force, well-armed and equipped. This "hunt- \ning excursion," for so it was termed, has of late years fallen much \ninto disuse, the descendants of those who introduced it having \ncontracted the effeminate habits of the country of their adoption. \n\nDuring the sixty years\' reign of Kang-hy, the Catholic missiona- \nries had met with much tolerance and favour, and a knowledge of \nChinese history and manners had, by their means, been extensively \ndiffused in Europe ; but their own imprudence drew upon them the \nviolent animosity of his successor, Yoong-ching. The priests had, \nin the most impolitic manner, resisted the constituted authorities, and \ndisgraced their cause by continual bickering among themselves, and \nYoong-ching finally determined to expel them from his dominions. \nA few were suffered to remain in Pekin, but the greater part were \ncollected at Macao, and ordered to depart by the first opportunity. \nThe good policy and intelligence of the Jesuits caused an exception \nin their favour, but the Catholic mission, in general, has never \nrecovered from the blow. \n\nKien-loong, the next emperor, commenced his reign in 1736, and \noccupied the throne for sixty years of almost uninterrupted peace \nand prosperity. He was himself a poet, and a great patron of learn- \n18 \n\n\n\n274 I\'HE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ning and the sciences. It was at his court that Lord Macartney, the \nfirst ambassador from England to China, made his appearance, and \nwas received with much respect and consideration. \n\nThis monarch committed the active administration of affairs, in \nhis latter days, to his son Kea-king, who, at his father\'s death, suc- \nceeded to the supreme authority. His intemperance and profligacy \ndrew upon him a merited rebuke from the wise and upright Soong- \ntajin, a friend and guide of the British ambassador. \n\nTaou-kuang, or Tau-kwang ("lustre of reason"), the late emperor, \nwho died, or, as the Chinese reporter expresses it, "departed upon the \ngreat journey, and mounted upward on the dragon, to be a guest \non high," on the 25th of February, 1850, was second son of Kea-king, \nand was selected by his father, in preference to the elder, on account \nof his having taken an active part in protecting him against certain \nassassins. The reign of Tau-kwang was marked by many domestic \ndisturbances and outbreaks, and his conduct, in the suppression of \nthese rebellions, has been justly condemned as displaying extreme \nduplicity and bad faith. We may cite, as an instance of this, the \nmurder of Prince Jehangir, a Tartar of the Mahometan faith, not- \nwithstanding the assurances of protection, in consequence of which \nhe had imprudently delivered himself up to the Chinese authority. \n\nThe inhabitants of the mountain districts of South-western China, \nwho have always maintained a certain independence, gave much \ntrouble during this reign by their revolts and insubordination, and \nhave never been effectually reduced to submission. \n\nSocieties and associations also exist in other parts of the empire \nwhose purposes are hostile to the continuance of the Manchow \ndynasty. \n\nNothing connected with the Chinese empire, under the govern- \nment of Tau-Kwang, excited so great an interest throughout the \nworld as the war with Great Britain; a war, whether we consider \nits object on the part of the English, or the terms upon which it was \nfinally concluded, hardly worthy of an enlightened and magnani- \nmous nation. \n\nAmong the various grievances alleged by the British government \nas the grounds of their declaration of hostilities, none appear to be \nof any great importance, except a restriction imposed by the Chinese \nauthorities upon the importation of opium. No national right is \nmore universally conceded or practised than that of regulating \nimportations, either by onerous duties or by direct and entire pro- \n\n\n\nCHINA. 275 \n\nHbitory enactments; but for no other cause tlian tlie use of this \nright, and the employment of the means necessary to enforce it, war \nwas declared against China; her sea-ports blockaded; her fortresses \ndismantled, her naval armament destroyed ; and peace in the end only \naccorded upon the payment of an enormous sum in money, and the sur- \nrender of her rightful claims concerning the question in controversy. \nUpon the death of Tau-kwang, which is reported to have been \nthe result of over-fatigue at the obsequies of a member of the royal \nfamily, his only son, Sze-hing, a youth of nineteen, took the throne, \nand is the present reigning emperor. He was regularly nominated \nor appointed by his father, according to the prescriptive custom of the \nChinese sovereigns. He had three elder brothers, who all died before \nthe decease of their father. From the known character of Keying, \nthe chief guardian of the young monarch, who has heretofore held \nhigh office at Canton, and whose occupation has brought him contin- \nually in contact with foreigners from all nations, it is anticipated \nthat the jealous and restrictive policy of China, respecting her inter- \ncourse with the rest of the world, will be materially relaxed. \n\n\n\nCHARACTERISTICS OP THE INHABITANTS OP CHINA. \n\nLittle is accurately known concerning this singular people prior \nto the expedition of Matthew and Nicholas Paolo to the court of \nKublai Khan, about the middle of the thirteenth century. These cele- \nbrated adventurers, father and uncle of the yet more famous Marco \nPaolo, or, as it is more commonly written Polo, had made a journey \nto the court of the Mongol emperor, who received and entertained \nthem with distinguished courtesy. Marco accompanied them on \ntheir second expedition to China, and entered into the service of the \nkhan, in whose employ he remained nearly twenty years. His \nintegrity and active disposition secured to him great favour\' from the \nemperor, and he filled various offices of honour and responsibility. \nThe accounts given by Marco Polo, on his return to Venice, of the \n\n\n\n276 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nextent, wealtb, and advancement of China, were generally disbe- \nlieved, or condemned as gross exaggerations ; but subsequent inquiry \nlias almost fully confirmed his report, and his description of the \nappearance, customs, and characteristics of the inhabitants apply, in \nmost essentials, as well to the Chinese of our own age as to those in \nwhose time his journal made its appearance. His style is rather \nenthusiastic than exaggerated: his narrative of facts is plain, sim- \nple, and truthful. \n\nThe Portuguese at an early period made voyages to the coast of \nChina and the adjacent islands, but their lawless and piratical con- \nduct, and their quarrels with the merchants of other nations whom \nthey encountered, contributed greatly to nourish that spirit of exclu- \nsion which has shut out so large a part of this country from our \nexamination. \n\nBefore the outrages thus committed by early European voy- \nagers, a free trade and intercourse with China were carried on by \nthe natives of Southern Asia. Junks from Chinese ports doubled \nthe Malay peninsula, and pursued a profitable traffic with various \ntowns in India. We may therefore well suppose that, had the con- \nduct of their first visiters been marked by justice and a politic spirit \nof conciliation, the natives of China would readily have facilitated \na communication, for purposes of mutual improvement and profit, \nwith those whom they now designate by no better title than "out- \nside barbarians." \n\nEven the desperate adventurer, Ferdinand Mendez Pinto, bore \nwitness to the moderation and justice of the Chinese authorities, and \nthe industrious habits of the populace, which, during his detention \namong them, fell under his observation. \n\nIt would be doing great injustice to the Chinese character to judge \nit by the exhibition of depravity, duplicity, and absurd self-import- \nance which strikes the observer at Canton. This being the only \ncity where foreign trade is generally admitted, and foreigners being \nconstantly held up by the native authorities as objects of supreme \ncontempt and distrust, it is not unnatural that those who are brought \nhabitually into contact with them, should feel at liberty to meet \nsupposed fraud with fraud ; and, always expecting deceit from those \nwith whom they deal, that they should, in their turn, overreach to \nthe extent of their ability. Neither the rabble nor the sagacious \nmerchants of Canton offer fair specimens of the national character; \nto understand this thoroughly, a residence in the interior is neces- \n\n\n\nCHINA. 277 \n\nsaiy, and an observation of the sobriety, industry and decorum of \nthe agricultural and manufacturing classes. \n\nGravity, love of country, family affection to a clannish extent, \nreverence to old age, an imperturbable coolness, frugality and con- \ntent, are prominent features in their disposition and deportment. \nThe patriarchal system of family government is here carried to a \ngreat extent; the oldest head of a family retaining authority over \nchildren and grand-children during his life. The respect paid to \nage, in general, is such, that the term "old, or venerable father," is \napplied indiscriminately to persons of any age, as a complimentary \nexpression of respect. \n\nThe more unamiable features of character noticeable in the nation \nat large, are pride and self-conceit. The charge of infanticide, which \nhas brought such opprobrium on the national character, appears to \nhave been grossly exaggerated, and the intentional destruction of \ntheir offspring is apparently confined to the most degraded and \nmiserable of the population in the larger cities. Bodies of infants \nare, indeed, frequently seen floating in the river at Canton, but \nwhen we consider the immense number of families who spend the \nprincipal part of their time upon the water in slight skiffs, we can \nreadily account for a large majority of these deaths on the score \nof accident. \n\nOf the physical conformation of the Chinese, very erroneous con- \nceptions are apt to be formed: the figures, represented upon their \ntea-caddies and porcelain, approach no nearer to the true appearance \nof the people than the caricatures of a print-shop do to those of \nwhom they are the exaggerated effigies. Such of the working \npopulation as are engaged in active and healthful employment, are \nsaid to present fine specimens of manly development ; and the angu- \nlar projection of the cheek-bones, and the wrinkled rigidity of \ncountenance which distinguish the old, is little observable in the \nyoung of either sex. Obesity is deemed a desirable and becoming \ncondition in a man, but a female figure is admired only when \nextremely slender and delicate. The strange customs of allowing \nthe finger-nails to grow to an inordinate length, and of compressing \nthe feet of female infants so as entirely to check their growth, had a \ncommon origin \xe2\x80\x94 ^being marks of freedom from the necessity of \nlabour. One would suppose that this latter practice would be \nentirely confined to the wealthy and independent, but, having been \nonce considered the token of birth and gentility, like all other \n\n\n\n278 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nabsurd fashions of the upper classes, it is, to a certain extent, aped \nby tlieir inferiors. A foot subjected to this process of bandaging in \nchildhood, never increases in length, but is hideously distorted and \ndeformed, resembling in shape rather a hoof or a club-foot, than the \ngraceful outlines of its natural form. The women who have suffered \nthis mutilation, are almost entirely disabled from walking, but their \nunsteady gait and crippled movements are admired as graces. \n\nAs in nearly all half-civilized countries, women in China are \nconsidered as an inferior order, but are by no means degraded to the \nslavish lot which is their portion among savage and barbarous \nnations, or in the Mahometan states, A man can legally take but \none wife, to whom he is espoused with much ceremony ; but this \ndoes not exclude him from the privilege of maintaining a discre- \ntionary number of tsie or handmaids, whose children are considered \nlegitimate, although not entitled to the same privileges and advan- \ntages as those of the wife. It seems that the principal object in \nallowing this species of quasi polygamy is to ensure a male succes- \nsion; for if a man has sons by his true wife, it is considered \ndisreputable to have a handmaid. The general analogy of this \ncustom to that of the old Jewish patriarchs is sufficiently obvious. \n\nThe supposed subjection of the wife to her husband, and her \nconsequent exemption from punishment for certain crimes commit- \nted in his company, which are features in the English common-law, \nare carried to a much greater and more unqualified extent by the \nChinese. The grounds for divorce are singular, including, together \nwith those adopted by most enlightened governments, ill-temper, \nthieving, and talkativeness. \n\nThe restrictions upon marriage among relations are much more \nrigid than in any other country, extending to all of the same surname. \n\nA second marriage on the part of a widow is in no case favoured, \nand in persons of a certain rank is positively forbidden. \n\nWeddings are conducted with abundance of ceremony and merry- \nmaking, and season of the year preferred for these occasions being \nthe early part of Spring, \n\nThe authority of a father over his family is supreme : he may, if \nhe choose, sell his children for slaves. The true wife, moreover, has \nabsolute control over the offspring of her husband\'s "handmaids," \n\nGrreat attention has been paid by the Chinese, from the earliest \nages, to the education of children. We are apt to look upon the \npresent system of universal instruction as an improvement of mod- \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n279 \n\n\n\nern times, but a Chinese writer, who lived two thousand years since, \nmakes mention of "the ancient system," by which common schools \nwere established in every district of every village, the country being \nminutely sub-divided for this purpose. Many valuable hints might \nbe drawn from their maxims of education, which would not be \nthrown away upon teachers of our own age and country . By one \nof these rules, the scholar is especially cautioned against "repeating \nwith the mouth, while the heart is thinking of something else." \n\nNational advancement in science and education would seem to be \nconsidered a matter of no moment in China; indeed, it would be \ndiametrically opposed to their permanent and unchangeable system \nchildren master, of government and instruction. Generation after \ngeneration, their in succession, the alphabet, a rhyming catechism, of \nchildish information, and the four books containing the Confucian \ndoctrines. These last are committed to memory entire. \n\nTo be qualified for the degree of doctor, a station of high rank \nand importance, the candidate must undergo three several examina- \ntions. The first of these takes place yearly in every educational \ndistrict ; the second, every three years at the capital of each province, \nand the third, at Pekin, also triennial. From the body of doctors, \nwhich must never exceed thirty, certain members are chosen for the \nimperial college, after a fourth examination ; and other high ofiicers \nof government generally undergo this probationary course previous \nto their selection. \n\nGreat attention is paid to the performance of funeral rites and \nceremonies. These are not confined to the\' time of burial, as else- \nwhere, but are periodically renewed. The whole population at \ncertain appointed days repair to the places set apart for interment, \nto cleanse and refit the tombs of their friends, particularly of their \nancestors, and to decorate them with fanciful ornaments of tinsel \nand coloured paper. A bigoted interference with these innocent \nexpressions of affection and remembrance was one of the chief reasons \nfor the expulsion of the monks, to which allusion has heretofore \nbeen made. On that occasion, the emperor, in one of his edicts, \nreview s the superstitious legends and doctrines which had been \ntranslated into Chinese, with considerable acumen. After reciting one \nof their tales, he proceeds: "Now this is absurd and extravagant in \nthe highest degree ; where did the Europeans become acquainted with \nthe appellatives Pei-tse and Fo-tsin, except by their intercourse and \nconversation with our Tartar brethren, from whom they have doubt- \n\n\n\n280 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nless adopted tliem in order to fabricate this idle tale. We do not \nmean rigorously to investigate wliat has been done heretofore, but \nit is obvious that this account of a Pei-tse carried to hell by devils \nis given without any kind of evidence, and does not possess the least \nshadow of truth or credibility. It would appear, in short, to be a \ntale which their ingenuity has contrived; and, upon this principle, \nwhat is there that we may not readily expect them to say or write ! \nFor the ftiture, we earnestly exhort our Tartar subjects to pay atten- \ntion to the language and admonitions of their own country and \ngovernment ; to practice riding and archery, to study the works of \nthe learned and virtuous, and to observe the social duties." \n\nIn the same imperial mandate a paragraph occurs which marks, in \na striking manner, the exceeding reverence considered as due to \nparental authority \xe2\x80\x94 this duty being, by implication, placed above \nthat of obedience to a Supreme Being. The emperor remarks, after \nvarious quotations \xe2\x80\x94 "The foregoing passages are sufficiently absurd \nand extravagant ; but this is not all ; there are other observations \nstill more false and irrational, making light of the obedience due to \nparents, and declaring that the greatest degree of impiety consists in \ndisobeying the will of the Tien-Chu (master of heaven)." \n\nThe principal festivals and holy-days of the Chinese are at the \nperiods of the new year, and of the first full moon. For several \ndays, on the coming in of the new year, which, according to our \ncalendar, corresponds to the seventh of March, labour is suspended, \nand the whole populace deliver themselves up to gayety and amuse- \nment. As the old year goes out, at midnight, commences a scene \nof indescribable tumult and confusion, and the explosion of fire- \ncrackers is incessant until daybreak. Then succeed ceremonious \nvisits and entertainments among friends and acquaintances ; an inter- \nchange of presents, of value corresponding with the rank and \nwealth of the parties, and a general demonstration of extravagant \ncourtesy and deference. \n\nThe first full moon is celebrated by the construction and display \nof lanterns, of every conceivable size, form, and material, orna- \nmented with figures made to move by means of the draught of hot \nair passing from the top. Most of these amusements, like the kite- \nflying, skating, and sliding upon sledges, in which all indulge, from \nthe gray-bearded mandarin to the ragged urchin, are of the most \nsimple and childish description. \n\nBesides these festivities, there are other celebrations, in honour of \n\n\n\nCHINA. 281 \n\nagriculture and manufactures, to whicTi great importance is attaclied. \nThe emperor himself lays his august hands to the plough, and the \nempress does reverence at the altar of him to whom is ascribed the \ninvention of manufacturing silk. A buffalo of clay, after being \nparaded with much ceremony and with numerous decorations to the \nhouse of the governor of the capital, is broken to pieces, and the \nimages with which his body is filled are scrambled for and carried \noff by the populace. \n\nIn the month of June, a boat-race is the subject of much excite- \nment and interest. Boats of great length, called "dragon-boats," \nand propelled by nearly a hundred men, are used for this purpose, \nand the contest is carried on with great eagerness and rivalry. \n\nIt would be a pleasing task, did space permit, to enter into the \ndetail of domestic habits and quaint customs which prevail among \nthis primitive people. The strange contrarieties which appear upon \na comparison of their manners with our own are amusing, and at \ntimes startling; but we must leave this more entertaining portion \nof our subject, to give a general outline of their system of govern- \nment, and their progress in the arts and sciences. \n\nThe form of government is purely patriarchal: every father \nexercises the most absolute authority over his household; every \nmandarin over the city or town under his control ; the viceroy in \nhis province, and the emperor, as pater patrioi^ over the whole nation. \nIll usage of parents is punished in the severest manner, being con- \nsidered a species of treason, equal in atrocity with resistance to the \nsupreme authority of government. By an edict of a late emperor, \na man who had ill-treated and beaten his mother, was put to death, \ntogether with his wife, the participator in his crime. By way of \nmarking still farther the enormity of the offence, his house was \nrazed to the ground; the place was pronounced accursed; the \nunfortunate inhabitants of the district placed under disabilities, and \nthe wife\'s mother was beaten, branded, and exiled. \n\nAs a general rule, parents are liable to punishment for the mis- \nconduct of their children, and are entitled to honour and reward \nupon their advancement. \n\nHereditary rank is considered of little importance^ the officers of \ncivil authority being generally chosen from the body of the people, \nas persons distinguished for merit and acquirements. The real aris- \ntocracy is one of learning and wisdom, wealth being, less than in \nany other country, a means of attaining influence and respect. The \n\n\n\n282 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndescendants of the royal family have indeed an honorary title, and \nthe privilege of wearing yellow girdles as a distinctive badge ; but \ntheir great number, and want of accompanying authority, render \nthem objects of little esteem or reverence. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 The emperor, as supreme sovereign, possessed of all temporal \npower, and as chief priest and "Son of Heaven," is regarded with \nthe greatest awe and veneration. His own dress and regalia are \ngenerally plain, though the crowds of officers attendant on his court \nare decked out in all the extravagant and gaudy robes and orna- \nments that ingenuity can contrive. His numerous strange titles \nand attributes, and the endless ceremonies with which his public \nappearance, birth-day honours, and solemn sacrifices are attended, \nare beyond the scope of our present inquiry. He is worshipped \nwith the reverence due to a deity. \n\nThe codes of Chinese law, particularly the penal code, are drawn \nup with great care and perspicuity, and have elicited the most \nfavourable expressions of commendation from learned and intelli- \ngent jurists; but the will of the emperor is superior to all, and he \ncan vary or enlarge the prescribed punishments for crime at his \npleasure. One very useful provision, however, prevents many of the \ninjurious consequences which might result from hasty action on his \npart; namely, that these special edicts are confined, in their effect, \nto the particular case in which they are issued, and never have the \nforce of precedent. \n\nTo carry on the general affairs of government, there are three \ndistinct councils; the highest consisting of two Tartars and two \nChinese ; the second, a larger body, chosen mostly from the learned \ndoctors of the imperial college, and a privy council for matters \nrequiring secret or summary procedure. \n\nThe separate departments of the appointment of officers, the \nmanagement of the revenue, the regulation of ceremonials, the \nsuperintendance of the military system, the supreme jurisdiction of \ncriminal affairs, and the control of public works, are each adminis- \ntered by a regularly constituted board or committee. There is, \nbesides, an officer for the administration of foreign affairs. \n\nTo secure prompt information at the capital, of disorders or mal- \nadministration in the provinces, emissaries are sent to different parts \nof the country to examine and report. These spies are chosen from \nthe bod}^ of censors, who, to the number of nearly fifty, are consti- \ntuted to correct abuses, and who are privileged to remonstrate with \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n283 \n\n\n\ntlie emperor himself, if his proceedings meet with tlieir disapproba- \ntion. They have two presidents, one chosen from among the \nChinese, and the other from the Tartars. \n\nEach province has a governor, except in a few instances, where two \nprovinces are united, and each city and district its appropriate \nmandarin or magistrate. It is a fixed principle, that the magis- \ntrate shall not belong to the place where he exercises authority, and \nat regular periods the various offices change their incumbents. \n\nAll civil officers and magistrates are held strictly to account, and \npunished or degraded for any rebellion or outbreak within their \njurisdiction, and this, however innocent they may have been, either \nof participation, connivance, or neglect. \n\nThe military organization of the Chinese is exceedingly weak and \ninefficient, the standing army being ill-disciplined and worse armed, \nand the militia a mere rabble, utterly incompetent to resist the attack \nof regular troops. Their clumsy and unserviceable matchlocks and \nartillery have furnished abundant theme for ridicule to the Europe- \nans who have been engaged in hostilities against them. \n\nOf the arts, sciences, and inventions of the ancient inhabitants of \nthe country, our notice must necessarily be very brief That they \nwere, at an early date, in possession of much knowledge not diffiised \nthrough Europe until within the last few centuries, appears suffi- \nciently evident. \n\nThe fact that the magnet would communicate polarity to the \nneedle is mentioned in a Chinese dictionary, of the date of A. D, \n121, and the use of the compass by mariners, before the fifth cen- \ntury, appears from other ancient records. No mention is made of \nthis property of the magnet by any European writer before the year \n1190. Long previous to this, even the precise variation of the needle \nwas known and recorded in China. \n\nWe have mentioned, in a former chapter, the early discovery of \nthe art of printing. This is practised at the present day, in much \nthe same manner as upon its first introduction, simply by means of \nengraved wooden blocks. Moveable types are used for some pur- \nposes, but not extensively, the immense number and variety of \nletters in the Chinese alphabet, rendering this improvement less \navailable, as a matter of economy, than in languages, the elements \nof which are siifficiently simple to allow all their letters to be kept \nwithin reach of the compositor. In taking impressions, the printer \nholds in one hand two brushes, connected by a single handle. \n\n\n\n284 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nWitL. one of these lie lays tlie ink upon tlie block, and passes the \nOther over the paper, which is so thin and light as to require no \ngreater pressure. A species of cerography is in use at Canton for \nthe publication of a daily journal. \n\nAnother art, which has effected the greatest revolution in military \noperations throughout the world, had its origin, if not its adaptation \nto warlike purposes, in China \xe2\x80\x94 the manufacture of gunpowder. It \nseems probable that the composition of nitre, sulphur, and "willow" \ncharcoal was known, and was the material employed for fireworks \nand other purposes, hundreds of years before the use of artillery \nwas introduced into that country. \n\nThe valuable and important arts of manufacturing porcelain and \nsilk had also a Chinese origin, and still give employment to an \nimmense number of native artisans. Many of their fabrics are of \npeculiar beauty and excellence, never having been successfully \nimitated elsewhere. \n\nIndia ink, so highly valued by artists for the delicacy and \nsmoothness of its shades, is made only in that country, and is indeed \nthe ink commonly used there for writing purposes. The material \nfrom which it is manufactured has been till very recently a question \nof much curiosity and dispute, and it has been the commonly \nreceived opinion, that it was prepared from the dark secretions of a \nspecies of cuttle-fish. It is now ascertained to be composed of lamp- \nblack, combined with certain gums. \n\nThe artisans in metals; the lapidaries; the manufacturers of \nlackered ware, of ivory, and of the infinite variety of ornamental \nand fancy work for which we are indebted to this distant country, \nexhibit the greatest skill and ingenuity. \n\nThe custom of drinking tea, so universally adopted in all parts \nof the world, was introduced by the Chinese, and for its indulgence \nwe are still dependant upon them. The use of this beverage^ which \nis very ancient in China, was unknown in England, except as a \nforeign and curious custom, until within the last two centuries. In \n1734, the whole quantity brought into Great Britain amounted to \nbut six hundred and thirty-two thousand pounds ; but so rapidly did \nthe consumption increase, that one hundred years later the importa- \ntion exceeded thirty millions. Many of the peculiarities of this \nsingular people, the details of which are both interesting and amusing, \nare necessarily omitted, from the limited extent of these pages. \n\n\n\nTIE lAHOlETAIS. \n\n\n\nudjitiliirijliiiri jio \n\nTHE INHABITANTS OF ARABIA. THEIR ANCIENT GOTERN- \n\nMENT AND RELIGION \n\nFor many ages, tlie great peninsula of Arabia, from its isolated \nposition, and from the peculiar political institutions of its inhabit- \nants, afforded little deserving of the name of history. Protected \nby their deserts, and unenvied in their poverty, the wandering \ntribes remained unchanged amid all those convulsions which effaced \nthe mightiest dynasties of the East, and overwhelmed the most \nancient and populous nations. The native inhabitants of Arabia \nwere divided into two classes, one of which pursued a prosperous \nand settled system of agriculture, or carried on an enterprising com- \nmerce along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; the other, by far more \nnumerous and distinctively national, inherited the free and roving \nhabits of their progenitor, Ishmael, "the wild man, whose hand is \nagainst every man, and every man\'s hand against him." These \n"dwellers in tents," so often mentioned in the Sacred Writings, led \nan unsettled life, roaming from place to place with their flocks and \ncamels, and finding water and pasturage at the springs and oases, \nthe resorts of their forefathers from the earliest ages. Each of these \nnumerous and independent tribes, as at the present day, was gov- \nerned by a chief or sheik, the patriarch and ruler of his people. \nLike most nations leading a clannish life, they were frequently \nengaged in deadly and hereditary feuds, revenge being handed \ndown as a sacred legacy from father to son. They were skilful and \n\n* For the principal particulars in the history of the Mahometan empire, during the \nfirst century of its duration, the author has chiefly relied upon the late admirable \nand interesting work of Mr. Irving, " Mahomet and his Successors." \n\n\n\n286 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhardy warriors, superior to all others on their native sands, and acted \nas alternate protectors and plunderers of the caravans of their more \ncivilized brethren. \n\nThe greater part of the ancient Arabians adhered to the religion \ncalled the Sabean, a term variously explained by different authori- \nties. It was originally a pure and simple belief, deriyed, it was \nsaid, from Abraham and the patriarchs. It inculcated the worship \nof one God, a system of future retribution, and the necessity of a \npure and virtuous life in order to obtain future happiness. With \nthese simple and sublime truths was associated a wild and erroneous \nreverence for the stars, which were regarded as the habitations of \nangels, intercessors with the Most High ; to whom the veneration \nof his worshippers was so great, that they dared to approach him \nonly through the medium of these heavenly influences. To this \nerror were finally superadded others of a nature far grosser and \nmore unspiritual. The stars themselves were worshipped, and their \nimages set up in forests and in temples. Each tribe paid devotion \nto some particular luminary, or to the idol by which it was repre- \nsented. Female infants were sacrificed at their shrines or were \nburied alive. \n\nThe belief of the Magians or fire-worshippers, derived from Per- \nsia, also prevailed to some extent. This system, of which the prime \napostle was the celebrated Zoroaster, inculcated a belief in two \nopposite agencies or spirits, Ormuzd and Ahorman, the Good and \nthe Evil, which were ever at warfare. The first was typified by \nlight or the sun, and the latter by darkness ; and by degrees the \ngross and open worship of the mysterious element of fire was \nsubstituted for that of the spiritual principle, of which it was an \nemblem. To dispel the abhorred condition of darkness, fires were \nkindled on the mountain-tops to supply the absence of the sun- a \nperpetual flame was maintained in the temples ; and human victims \nwere consumed to propitiate the fiery deity. \n\nThe Jewish faith, especially after the dispersion of its followers \nby the destruction of Jerusalem, was also extensively disseminated \nand its proselytes attained to considerable power. Christianity had \nalso made its way into these desolate regions. St. Paul went into \nArabia, and probably preached to the inhabitants. A few centuries \nafterwards, in the age of fanatical asceticism, the caves and deserts \nof Arabia were thickly sown with anchorites, who, by solitude and \npenance, sought a painful passage to future felicity. The Christian \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 287 \n\nbelief, tliougli taintea with, error, gained also a considerable footing \namong the native tribes. \n\nTo those who held the ancient Sabean faith, the most sacred \nregion in all Arabia was that of the city of Mecca. Within its \nwalls was the holy well of Zem Zem, which had quenched the \nthirst of their forefather Ishmael when sent forth with his mother \ninto the desert ; and the Caaba, a temple which, it was said, he had \nbuilt, assisted by his father Abraham, on the site of a cloudy taber- \nnacle, worshipped in by Adam himself. A sacred stone, brought, \nsays tradition, by the angel Gabriel from Paradise, and inserted in \ntbe wall by its builders, receives the kisses of the Faithful, even to \nthe present day. From the remotest antiquity, these relics had been \nthe object of enthusiastic pilgrimages. For four months in every \nyear, the hostile tribes laid aside their arms; the desert was trav- \nersed in security ; and thousands of pilgrims flocked through, the \ngates of Mecca, to walk seven times around the Caaba ; to kiss the \nsacred stone of Paradise ; and to drink from the well of Zem Zem. \n\n\n\nkJ Jjcu wOj (L (L fXJ (Lu Jj lib o \n\nTHE EARLY LIFE OF MAHOMET. HIS RELIGIOUS \n\nPRETENSIONS. \n\nMahomet, the founder of that wonderful and far-spread system \nof belief which bears his name, was born at Mecca, in April, in the \nyear A. D. 569. He was a descendant of the celebrated tribe of \nKoreish, and his immediate ancestors had been distinguished for \nsome generations by their patriotism and the influence which they \nswayed in the sacred city. \n\nWhen only two months old, his father Abdallah died, leaving \nbim only a few camels and sheep, and a female slave, as his inherit- \nance. The native chroniclers of Mahomet\'s career have given the \nmost marvellous and incredible accounts of prodigies and phenom- \nena which attended his birth and his earliest years. It was said \nthat, at an age when other children were still in the nurse\'s arms, \n\n\n\n288 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nlie displayed a precocity and wisdom which astonished all who knew \nhim. This is not in itself incredible, for recent times have wit- \nnessed a very similar phenomenon. It is not quite as easy to believe \nthe authors who relate that, when at the age of three, while playing \nin the fields, the angel Gabriel laid him on the ground, opened his \nbreast, extracted the heart, and, having cleansed it of that black \nand sinful drop peculiar to all mankind, gently restored it uninjured \nto its place. It seems certain, however, that from his early years, \nhe evinced a reflecting, imaginative, and probably a highly preco- \ncious mind. \n\nWhen he was in his sixth year, his mother died, and the child \nwas adopted by his grandfather, Abd al Motalleb. On the death \nof the latter, two years afterwards, his eldest son, Abu Taleb, suc- \nceeded him in the guardianship of the sacred Caaba, and the care \nof his little nephew, Mahomet. Educated in this priestly house- \nhold, the mind of the youth naturally acquired a strong tendency \nto theological speculation, while his faculties and demeanour were \nimproved by the opportunities which this city, so greatly frequented \nby pilgrims and strangers, afforded. \n\nAt the age of twelve, he was permitted to accompany his guard- \nian with a caravan to Syria. On this journey, the solitude of the \ndesert, with the wild and supernatural tales to which he listened at \nthe nightly halts of the caravan, excited his imagination, and deeply \nimpressed his memory. Having arrived at Bosra, east of the Jor- \ndan, a city inhabited by Nestorian Christians, the youthful traveller \nmade acquaintance with a monk named Sergius, who was strongly \ninterested by the intelligence of the youth, and his eager desire for \nreligious information. Here, probably, was laid the foundation of that \nzealous abhorrence toward idolatry which afterwards distinguished \nthe founder of the new religion ; and having learned the wonderful \nevents of which Syria had been the scene, and the holy beings who \nhad dwelt in its borders, he always spoke with deep reverence of \nthat ancient and mysterious land. \n\nFrom this time, Mahomet accompanied his uncle on many expe- \nditions, and though very youthf al, acted as his quiver-bearer in an \naction between the Koreishites and the tribe of Hawazan. He \nafterwards was employed by various persons as a commercial agent, \nand often travelled with caravans to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. \nBy this continual intercourse with different classes of mankind, \nhis faculties and his knowledge of human nature became yet farther \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 289 \n\nenlarged and strengthened. He was already distinguislied for his \npersonal beauty and his agreeable manners. At the age of twenty- \nfive, he was married to Cadijah, a wealthy widow of Mecca, whose \ncommercial factor he had been for some time; and was at once \nenrolled among the important persons of his native place. \n\nHis high character for truth and honesty procured him still \ngreater influence; and he was commonly known by the name of \nAl Amin, or the Faithful. He was still employed in commerce, and \nfrequently accompanied the caravans on distant expeditions. Five \nchildren were added to his household. But his mind dwelt less \nand less on the matters of the world. Eeligious musings, to which \nhe had been prone from his earliest youth, thickened upon him, and \nhe learned much concerning other forms of faith from Waraka, his \nwife\'s cousin, who had been a Jew and a Christian, and had translated \nportions of both Scriptures into the Arabic. He became more \nkeenly sensible to the evils of idolatry. The Caaba, filled with its \nmultitude of images, was strongly contrasted with that pure and \nspiritual faith which, perhaps, had first occasioned its erection. \nHis mind continually dwelt upon a project of restoring what he \nconsidered the most ancient and true religion \xe2\x80\x94 the religion of Adam \nand the Patriarchs \xe2\x80\x94 the worship of the one and only God. Engrossed \nwith these subjects, he often retired to a cavern on Mount Hara, a \nfew miles from Mecca, and there remained for long intervals, engaged \nin prayer and meditation. From exclusively dwelling on such \nthoughts, he continually dreamed on the object of his wishes; and \nwas at length subject to frequent trances, in, which he became, to \nall appearance, insensible to surrounding objects. \n\nWhatever he beheld or imagined, however, he kept a profound \nsecret until his fortieth year. At that time, while passing the holy \nmonth of Eamadhan, according to his wont, in fasting and prayer, \non his favourite mountain, he heard, it is said, a voice calling him, \nand beheld a light of such intolerable brightness, that he fainted \naway. On recovering, he beheld the angel Gabriel, who exhibited \nto him the decrees of God, written on silk, and saluted him as the \nprophet of the Most High. Trembling, and but half-assured of \nthe sacred authenticity of his vision, he sought Cadijah, who con- \nfirmed his wavering faith, and expressed the fullest confidence in \nhis sacred mission. His friend Waraka zealously concurred in this \nconviction, and Mahomet, thus supported, became a fall and earnest \nconvert to the reality of his divine calling. \n19 \n\n\n\n290 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHis third proselyte was Zeid, an Arab slave, "whom lie had \nadopted, and who was devotedly attached to him. The prophet, \nhowever confident of his ultimate success, was compelled, by dread \nof the prevailing superstition, to proceed with some secresy and \ncaution ; and during the first three years, made only forty converts. \nTheir meetings were held privately, sometimes in a cave near the \ncity. At one of these assemblies, a rabble discovering their pro- \nceedings, broke into the retreat, and a fight ensued, in which one \nof the assailants was wounded. The uncle of Mahomet, Abu \nLahab, a proud and wealthy man, was one of his fiercest opponents. \nThe pretender was taunted with insanity \xe2\x80\x94 a supposition which his \nworn and abstracted appearance certainly countenanced. \n\nIn the fourth year, however, in pursuance of a fresh command, \nhe summoned his tribe to a hill near Mecca, and publicly unfolded \nhis claims and his mission. Abu Lahab was enraged yet farther, \nand the meeting broke up in disorder. At a second assembly, which \nhe summoned in his own house, he again announced, at full length, \nhis supposed revelations, and inquired who would be the chief or \nvizier under him in his new undertaking. His cousin, the youthful \nand enthusiastic Ali, amid the sneers of his family, joyfully accepted \nthe offer; and afterwards, when advanced in years, inherited the \npower attained by the despised pretender. Mahomet now openly \nand earnestly proclaimed himself the prophet of God, sent to extir- \npate idolatry, restore the true religion, and soften the rigour of the \nJewish and the Christian faiths. While reverencing the patriarchs, \nMoses, and Christ, and fully admitting their divine mission, he \nclaimed for himself a still fuller and a final authority, destined to \nsupersede all that had gone before. The Koran, which he delivered \nin chapters from time to time, purports to be the very words of God, \ncommunicated through his instrument, Mahomet. The name of \nIslam, an Arabian word, implying "submission to God," was applied \nto the new religion, and forms the keystone of its tenets. The leading \narticle of his faith was contained in the celebrated words, reverenced \nto this day by hundreds of millions of Moslem believers \xe2\x80\x94 "There is \nno god but God, and Mahomet is the prophet of God. " A belief in \npredestination, in the resurrection of the body, in the last judgment, \nand in a faturity of reward or punishment, was also inculcated. M uch \nof this extraordinary and imaginative work was derived from the \nJewish writings and from the Bible, although with many strange \nperversions. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 291 \n\nSo strongly did the new law-giver oppose idolatry, that he con- \ndemned all images and representations of the human form, affirming \nthat the makers would be compelled in the next world to furnish them \nwith souls, or to undergo punishment. Charity and the eternal laws \nof justice were strongly inculcated\' \xe2\x80\x94 all the finer passages, enforcing \nthe mutual duties of mankind, being drawn from the inspired lan- \nguage of the Saviour. The importance of prayer was particularly \nenforced ; and amid the ceremonies prescribed by the new religion, \na number of those pertaining to the old were, in a politic manner, \nretained \xe2\x80\x94 among them the pilgrimage to Mecca, and such rites at \nthe Caaba and the well of Zem Zem, as were untainted by idolatry. \n\n\n\nTHE LIFE OF MAHOMET, FEOM THE PROMULGATION OF HIS \nDOCTRINES UNTIL HIS "HEGIRA," OR FLIGHT TO MEDINA. \n\nLike nearly all who, whether truly or falsely, first claim the \ndangerous honours of an inspired reformation, Mahomet was speedily \nexposed, in exercising his new vocation, to ridicule and personal \nviolence. Some thought him a sorcerer. Others said he was pos- \nsessed by a devil. Taunts and insult followed him in the streets. \nDirt was thrown on him while praying in the Caaba, Worse than \nall, Amru, one of the wittiest satirical poets of the day, made the \nnew doctrine the object of his pleasantries, which proved more for- \nmidable to its spread than the weapons of the most bigoted idolaters. \nThe prophet was continually importuned to enforce his claims by \nmiracle, like the divine ambassadors of old. He replied that the \nKoran, proceeding from an unlettered man, was the greatest miracle \nthat could be produced. The pretended tokens of his divinity, \nrecorded by some Mahometan authors, and the gross artifices to \nwhich some Christian commentators have attributed them, appear, \nsays Mr. Irving, equally without foundation. The truth appears to \nhave been that at this time he was supported by a real religious \nenthusiasm, founded on the strange visions, and epileptic trances to \nwhich he was subject. \n\n\n\n292 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe Koreisliites, alarmed at the earnestness of his attacks on their \nfavourite idolatries, now proceeded to fresh insults and violence. He \nwas attacked and nearly strangled in the Caaba; and his daughter \nEokaia, with a fevr other of his more defenceless disciples, were \ncompelled to cross the Eed Sea, and take refuge in the Christian \nkingdom of Abyssinia. A law was passed, banishing all believers \nin the new heresy, and Mahomet himself was compelled to leave \nthe city, and take refuge in the house of a convert named Orkham, \non the hill of Safa, sacred in Arabian tradition. Even here he was \nsought out and maltreated by Abu Jhal, an enthusiastic Koreishite. \nThe nephew of the latter, Omar, a youth of gigantic strength and \nfierceness, was next despatched to kill him. On his way, he dis- \ncovered that his own sister was a secret convert to Islam, and, being \npersuaded by her, publicly embraced the new religion, and protected \nthe prophet and his followers while they worshipped in the Caaba. \n\nMahomet, still endangered by the violence of his enemies, next \nlived for three years in a castle belonging to his uncle Abu Taleb, \nwho still afforded him all the protection in his power. At the insti- \ngation of Abu Sofian, the head of another branch of the tribe, a \ndecree was passed, written on parchment, and hung up in the Caaba, \nforbidding all intercourse with the contumacious family until \nMahomet should be delivered up. By this, he and his adherents \nwere reduced to great extremities, and at times were half-famished \nin their beleaguered stronghold. At the annual season of the pil- \ngrimage, however, when the Arabs were accustomed to lay aside all \nhostilities, he ventiired into the city, and by his earnest exhortations, \nmade many converts among the crowds resorting to the Caaba. \n\nAt length, after three years passed in this species of excommuni- \ncation, he was permitted to return to Mecca. Fresh conversions, \nboth of citizens and strangers, speedily ensued. The prophet was \nnow deprived by death of his uncle and protector, Abu Taleb, and \nhis faithful wife Cadijah, the two persons to whom he had been \nprincipally indebted for his exaltation and protection. He had \nalways been faithful to the latter, but, after her death, indulged in \nthe Arabian custom of taking a plurality of wives. He allowed, \nby decree, four to each of his followers ; but placed no restraint on \nthe number of his own, shrewdly remarking that a prophet was not \nto be confined within the same limits as ordinary mortals. \n\nThe death of his uncle left him unprotected against the rage of \nthe hostile branch of the Koreishites, headed by Abu Jahl and Abu \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 293 \n\nSofian. He sought refuge at Tayef, but endeavouring there to pro- \npagate his doctrines, met with much outrage and violence, and was \nfinally ignominiously driven from the city. He was compelled to \nremain awhile in the desert, and there, while reading the Koran in \nthe lonely valley of Naklah, was overheard, as he says, by a com- \npany of spirits or genii, who confessed and applauded the truth of \nhis doctrines. Arabian mythology abounds in tales of these Avonder- \nful beings, many of whom are considered to have embraced the true \nreligion. Others still continue perverse and heretical; and the \nangels drive them away with flaming darts, as they attempt to \npenetrate the abodes of the blessed. When the Arab beholds a \nmeteor or shooting-star, he imagines it to be a bolt hurled at one \nof these rebellious and misbelieving spirits, and piously exclaims, \n"May the enemy of God be transfixed!" They were also supposed \nto inhabit the bodies of certain reptiles ; and Mahomet warned his \nfollowers not to kill too hastily any serpent whom they might \nfind in a house. "Warn him to depart," he says; "if he do not \nobey, then kill him, for it is a sign that he is a mere reptile, or an \ninfidel genius." \n\nHe at length returned to Mecca, and lived concealed in the house \nof one of his disciples. It was now ten years from the memorable \nday on which he had first announced his prophetic claim; ever \nsince that day he had been continually exposed to misfortune, \nenmity, and persecution; yet, impelled by his natural firmness, and \nperhaps some real conviction of the sanctity of his mission, he still \npersevered unweariedly in spreading his doctrines. At the annual \nseason of immunity from violence, he once more ventured forth, and \nmingled with the crowds whom devotion had gathered in the city. \nHis preaching attracted the attention of certain pilgrims from the \ncity of Yathreb, since so honoured, under the name of Medina, by \nall true Mussulmans. These strangers had heard much from the \nJews concerning their expected Messiah, and were readily won to \nacknowledge him in the person of Mahomet. On their return, he \nsent with them some of his disciples to propagate the new faith and \nto prepare for his friendly reception. Numbers of the persecuted \nsect soon followed them from Mecca, and the faith spread with rapid- \nity throughout the city of refuge. More than seventy of the new \nconverts repaired to Mecca, distant two hundred and seventy miles, \nand at a midnight meeting on the hill without the town, invited the \nprophet to take up his abode in their city. He consented, exacting \n\n\n\n294 ^\'HE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nin return the abjuration of idolatry, and implicit obedience to bis \ncommands. \n\nIt was indeed evident tliat be could no longer remain in Mecca. \nAbu Sofian, bis inveterate foe, was governor of tbe city, and tbe \ncbiefs of tbe Koreisbites bad resolved on bis assassination. Tbe \nmurderers were actually despatcbed to bis bouse ; but by tbe fidelity \nof Ali, wbo took bis place on tbe coucb wbere be usually reclined, \nbe escaped by stealtb from tbe city, and witb bis devoted adberent, \nAbu Beker, remained for tbree days concealed in a cave on Mount \nTbor. On tbe fourtb day, tbey fled on camels toward Medina ; and \na cbieftain named Soraka, wbo witb bis troop overtook tbem, was \nso affected by tbe eloquence of Mabomet, as to relinquisb bis intended \nattack, and depart. Tbe persecuted aspirant to divine bonours \nreached Medina without further trouble, and made a triumphal \nentry into tbe Faithful City. He was soon joined by bis family and \nhis remaining adherents. This celebrated "Hegira," or "Flight of \nthe Prophet," occurred in the year 622 A. D. ; and is the era from \nwhich all Moslem nations date their chronology. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER I? \n\n\n\nFROM THE HEGIRA TO THE CAPTURE OP MECCA. \n\nFeom this period, with the change of circumstances, an entire \ncorresponding change seems to have taken place in the feelings and \nconduct of Mabomet. If hitherto, powerless and persecuted, he \nhad displayed patience, and a sincere confidence in tbe divinity of \nbis calling, his character was unfitted to withstand the temptations \nof power and tbe opportunity of vengeance. He was now at the \nbead of a formidable sect, composed of converts in Medina and \nrefugees from Mecca. Thirteen years of persecution bad, doubtless, \nleft their natural effects upon his mind; and tbe hatred of idolatry \ncame very opportunely to aid the ancient spirit of revenge. \n\nAs yet, the religion be inculcated was one of much purity and \n\n\n\n\n/^^^ r ^^ ^ -9 . \n\n\n\nTHK HECtIRA, or I\'LIQ-HT OF THE FALSE FEOfHET MAHOMET \n\n\n\nAfti-.r btting compHil^d, "by tbe violence oC his enemiH,^, to quit l\\[edina, tli-\' \nprophet for three ti;iys remained hid in a sohtary cave -z^ Mount Thor. At tr. \nend of th\'it tirr.e,, he secretly dep:)i\'ted with a single oompianion, the faitniul Ah\'. \nBeker Urging their c:i.raels hastily over the desert, they arrived in safety at thf \nstrong and irit^ndiy city of Medina This memorable Flight, from which all Mosjen \nnations date their chronology, occurred in the 022d year of the Christin.n era, \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS, 295 \n\nhumanity. Charity, which included, in his definition, all the kind- \nness and courtesy which mortals can display to each other, was \nespecially enforced \xe2\x80\x94 a beautifu.1 theory, which was but indifferently \nillustrated by his subsequent proceedings. The inference can hardly \nbe avoided, that from this time, mixed perhaps with some real \ntrances and visionary delusion, his mind lapsed farther and farther \ninto a system of imposture, which he perceived to be efficacious in \ncarrying out his ends. \n\nHis first act was to erect a mosque, of simple and primitive \nconstruction \xe2\x80\x94 a work in which he assisted with his own hands, and \nwhich, beautified and enlarged, remains to this day an object of the \ndeepest veneration to the Faithful. It contains the ashes of the \nprophet, and of others memorable in the history of Islam. \n\nSoon after his arrival at Medina, he married the beautiful child \nAyesha, the daughter of Abu Beker, to whom he had been betrothed \nfor some years. During his subsequent career, he availed himself \nof the license which he had assumed to take to himself a number of \nwives truly oriental \xe2\x80\x94 his natural susceptibility or sensuality inciting \nhim to add to his household every beautiful woman who crossed his \npath. The attachment of Ali, his devoted follower, was yet further \nstrengthened by a marriage with Fatima, the youngest daughter of \nthe prophet. \n\nOn finding his strength so much greater than he had anticipated, \nhis preaching assumed a different tone, and he announced that the \npeaceful mission of former saints and prophets having proved insuf- \nficient to convert the refractory nations, he had been intrusted, as \nthe last of the prophets, with the terrible argument of the sword. \nAll who refused conformity to the new religion were to be openly \ndespoiled or slain ; the eternal society of houris was to be the reward \nof those who fell in fighting for the true fiiith ; and the doctrine of \npredestination, proclaiming that none could die before their allotted \ntime, was adduced to strengthen the courage of the faithful. \n\nThese doctrines were peculiarly acceptable to a warlike and pre- \ndatory people ; and little time was lost in carrying them into profitable \nexecution. Some unimportant expeditions, despatched to plunder \nthe caravans of the Koreishites, were first undertaken, though with \nlittle result. In the second year of the Hegira, Mahomet, with a \nlittle more than three hundred men, sallied forth to attack a large \nand wealthy caravan, which his old enemy, Abu Sofian, was con- \nducting from Syria to Mecca. He lay in ambush, awaiting the \n\n\n\n296 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nexpected plunder, by a brook called Beder ; but the enemy having \nintelligence of bis designs, changed their route, and evaded the \ndanger. A large force which had been despatched to their assistance \nfrom Mecca, under Abn Jahl, pressed forward, and, weakened by \nthirst and fatigiie, engaged the Moslems. The latter, refreshed by \nrest, and enjoying the advantage of position, gained a complete \nvictory. The Koreishites fled, leaving seventy of their number \nprisoners, and as many dead on the field. Among the latter was \nAbn Jahl, the inveterate enemj^ of the faith of Islam. His head \nwas brought to Mahomet, who exulted over the fate of the "Pha- \nraoh of his nation." Such was the commencement of that wonderful \nseries of victories and invasions which has so materially changed the \ndestinies of the Eastern world. \n\nEeturning to Medina in triumph, with the plunder of his enemies, \nMahomet assumed a yet more decided tone, and ruled with a more \narbitrary sway. The Jews of that city had incurred his enmity, by \ntheir poetical satire and the ridicule which they had thrown upon \nhis doctrines. Several of them were, in revenge, assassinated by \nthe Moslems ; and the prophet, taking advantage of a general fray, \nconfiscated all their wealth, which was considerable, and banished \nthem, to the number of seven hundred men, to Syria. Moreover, \nirritated at their opposition, he substituted Mecca for Jerusalem, \nwhich he had at first made the Kebla or point of prayer to which \nall true Moslems must turn when at their devotions. \n\nIn the third year of the Hegira, Abu Sofian took the field, with \nthree thousand men, burning to avenge the disgrace of their arms \nand the slaughter of their friends. Mahomet, urged b}^ the zeal of \nhis followers, went out to meet them, with scarce a third of their \nnumber, and this scanty force was soon diminished, by defection, to \nseven hundred men. While posted on the hill of Ohod, about six \nmiles from Medina, his forces were attacked by those of the enemy. \nHis warriors\' fought with the greatest desperation, and performed \nprodigies of valour. The prophet, though not given to fight in \nperson, slew with his own hand an idolater, who had attacked him, \nand received a number of wounds on his own person. He was \ndragged from among the wounded by his remaining adherents, and \ncarried to the summit of a rock, whither the Koreishites, busied with \nplunder and the mutilation of the dead, did not pursue them. Abu \nSofian, content with his victory, and not venturing to attack the \ncity, soon after made a truce for a year, and withdrew to Mecca. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 297 \n\nTo revenge the defection of a certain Jewish tribe, the leader of \nIslam now proceeded to banish them from the country, and seize on \ntheir property. A singular instance of the devotion of his follow- \ners occurred about this time. The prophet had been smitten by the \ncharms of Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, his adopted son. The latter, \nwith a pious zeal which seems a little ludicrous, made all haste to \nobtain a divorce; and his patron presently added the lady to the \nalready tolerably extensive list of his consorts. This proceeding \ngave considerable scandal to the Faithful, which, however, was \nquieted by an opportune revelation, drawing a nice distinction \nbetween the wife of a natural son and of a son by adoption. \n\nBy an expedition against the hostile tribe of the Beni Mostalek, \nMahomet gained a great booty in camels, sheep, and prisoners. This \nsuccess was somewhat alloyed by a suspicious occurrence, on the \nreturn, which threw a doubt upon the fidelity of his favourite wife, \nAyesha. Medina rang with fresh scandal ; but a revelation, equally \nconvenient with the former, announced her innocence, and prescribed \na handsome castigation for her calumniators. This was duly inflicted, \nespecially upon an unfortunate poet, named Hasan, who had cele- \nbrated the obnoxious circumstance in a copy of satirical verses. \n\nThe truce with Mecca being ended, Abu Sofian, reinforced by con- \nfederate tribes, and by many of the banished Hebrews, marched \nagainst Medina with a force of ten thousand men. By advice of \nSalman, an able Persian convert, a deep moat was dug for some \ndistance in front of the city, and Mahomet, with three thousand men, \nstood prepared to defend it. After a partial skirmish, of no great \nimportance, he despatched an artful emissary, who succeeded in \ninstilling distrust and mutual suspicion among the chiefs of the con- \nfederate camp. At this moment, a cold and furious storm of rain \nset in ; the tents were blown down ; and the besiegers retreated in \nconfusion, supposing that the very elements, by the enchantment of \nthe prophet, had been invoked against them. The Beni Koraida, \na tribe of Jews, who had been engaged in the late assault, were in \ntheir turn besieged in their stronghold, and compelled by famine \nto surrender. The men, seven hundred in number, were butchered \nand thrown into a common grave, and the women and children were \ndevoted to slavery. \n\nAfter six years had elapsed since his flight from Mecca, Mahomet \nbecame desirous of once more revisiting that sacred, though hostile \ncity, and, in the holy month devoted to peace, set forth on his \n\n\n\n298 ^\'HE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\npilgrimage, attended by fourteen hundred of Lis followers. He was \nunable, however, to obtain admission \xe2\x80\x94 the dread and jealousy of the \nKoreisli proving stronger than all bis claims and promises. Their \nenvoys were astonished at the reverence paid to him by his fanatical \nsubjects. "I have seen," said one, "the king of Persia and the \nemperor of Constantinople, surrounded by their courts; but never \ndid I behold a sovereign so revered by his subjects, as is Mahomet \nby his followers." A hair from his head, the paring of a nail, was \nheld a sacred relic. A treaty was made, providing for the future \nadmission of Mahomet and his people, under certain limitations, and \nthey returned for the present to Medina, without having tasted the \nwell of Zem Zem, or made their seven circuits round the Caaba. \n\nTo gratify the predatory inclinations of his followers, he next led \na powerful expedition against Khaibar, a wealthy and powerful city \nof the Jews. After a siege of some time, a breach was made in the \nwalls by battering rams; and Omar, Abu Beker, and other champions \nheaded assaults with great bravery, but without success. It was \nfinally taken by the impetuous valour of Ali, "The Lion of God," \nconcerning whose exploits the Moslem writers narrate the most \nincredible stories. Kenana, the defeated prince, was tortured and \nput to death. In the midst of his triumph, the prophet nearly met \nhis death, having commenced to dine upon a poisoned shoulder of \nmutton ; which unwholesome dish, indeed, according to the Mahome- \ntan writers, spoke aloud, and warned him of his danger, though too \nlate to secure him entirely from injury. \n\nWhile, by various hostile expeditions, the adventurer was rapidly \nextending his sway among the Arabian tribes, he did not neglect \nto inform the neighbouring political powers of his divine preten- \nsions. Khosru II., the great and victorious monarch of Persia, \nreceived his overtures with contempt, tore his letter in pieces, and \nsent orders to his viceroy at Yemen to restore Mahomet\'s reason, \nor to send his head. Heraclius, the Eoman emperor of the East, \nsomewhat depressed at this time by the successes of Khosru, with \nwhom he was at war, received the envoy sent to him more civilly, \nbut probably attached little importance to the circumstance. The \ngovernor of Egypt, a nominal viceroy of the emperor, also considered \nhis message respectfully; and, among other delicate attentions, sent \nthe prophet two beautiful Coptic slaves. The latter was exceedingly \ndesirous to have taken one of them as his concubine ; but this his \nown Koran forbade, on penalty of stripes. A convenient revelation \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS, \n\n\n\n299 \n\n\n\nagain smootlied over the difficulty; and the beautiful Mariyaii long \nremained his favourite. \n\nAt the allotted time, Mahomet, numerously attended, made his \npilgrimage to Mecca, He reverently performed the usual rites, and \ngained many converts; among them, Khaled, a fierce and intrepid \nwarrior, and Amru, his former satirist, afterwards so celebrated in \nthe history of Saracen conquest. \n\nA Mahometan envoy had been slain at Muta, a town in Syria, \nsubject to the emperor. To avenge his death, an army of three \nthousand men was despatched, under Zeid, against the obnoxious \ncity. When near it, they encountered a greatly superior force of \nGreeks and hostile Arabs. A furious conflict ensued, in which \nZeid was mortally wounded, and Khaled broke nine cimeters fight- \ning desperately hand to hand with the enemy. Succeeding to the \ncommand, the latter, by dexterous manoeuvres, defeated them on \nthe following day, with great slaughter, and returned to Medina, \nladen with spoil. He received, in consequence of the valour displayed \nin this action, the honourable title of the "Sword of God,"\' \xe2\x80\x94 a dis- \ntinction which incited him to exploits of fresh energy and daring. \n\nThe sway of Mahomet now extended over a great number of the \nArabian tribes. A most formidable force was ever at his command. \nWith increased power, came enlarged views of conquest and uni- \nversal conversion to the faith of Islam. To gain possession of his \nnative place, the holy city of Mecca, to purify it of idolatry, and \nconvert the Caaba into a shrine for the Faithful, was now his most \ncherished desire. Some trouble having occurred with the Koreish- \nites, the latter, in alarm, despatched Abu Sofian to avert the dreaded \nwrath of the prophet; but he could obtain no satisfactory reply. \n\nPreparations for invasion had been made with the greatest secresy \nand promptitude; and, only seven years afl;er his memorable flight, \nMahomet, with ten thousand men, took the road to Mecca. Abu \nSofian was captured on the way, and was made a reluctant convert \nby the threat of instant decapitation. Being released, and returning \nto the city, he assured the inhabitants of the vanity of resistance. \nThe victor approached his ancient home, advancing slowly, by \nreason of the vast multitudes who thronged around him. He \nrepressed hostilities, which had been commenced by the fiery Kha- \nled, and entering the city, proceeded at once to the Caaba. Here \nhe made the seven circuits of adoration, touching at each the sacred \nblack stone inserted in the wall. He then threw down and des- \n\n\n\n300 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntroyed the three hundred and sixty-five idols which defiled its walls, \nnot sparing even the images of Abraham and Ishmael. He drank \nfrom the well of Zem Zem, and appointed his uncle Al Abbas, who \nhad presented him with the cup, as guardian to the sacred fount- \nain \xe2\x80\x94 an office which his descendants retain to the present day. He \ntreated his former enemies with much clemency and magnanimity, \nand proclaimed Mecca as an inviolable sanctuary, while the earth \nshould endure. The fears of his friends from Medina, lest their \ncity should be deserted for the new acquisition, were quieted by the \nassurance that he would never abandon those who had first espoused \nhis forlorn and persecuted cause. The work of forcibly converting \nthe neighbouring tribes was immediately commenced by his fierce \nlieutenants, Khaled and others. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ? \n\n\n\nFROM THE CAPTURE OF MECCA TILL THE DEATH OF \nMAHOMET. \n\nWhile thus in the full tide of success, a formidable confederacy \nwas formed against the power of Islam, by the powerful and warlike \ntribes of the mountains. The people of Tayef, who had formerly \ndriven him ignominiously from their city, were at the head of this \nleague ; and the various hostile tribes assembled in a valley between \nthat city and Honein. Mahomet, with about twelve thousand men, \nmarched against them. While passing through a deep and gloomy \ngorge in the mountains, his army was suddenly assailed by the \nenemy, who were posted on the heights above. A general panic \ntook place. The Moslems turned and fled, amid the ill-suppressed \nexultation of the late unwilling converts, who accompanied them. \nThey were finally rallied by Al Abbas, and returned to the scene of \naction. "The enemy had descended from the heights, and noAv a \nbloody conflict ensued in the defile. \'The furnace is kindling!\' \ncried Mahomet, exultingly, as he saw the glitter of arms and flash \nof weapons. Stooping from his saddle, and grasping a handful of \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \n\n\n\n301 \n\n\n\ndust, he scattered it in the air toward tlie enemy. \' Confusion on \ntheir faces!\' cried he; \'may this dust blind them.\'"* The idolators \nwere defeated, and took refuge in their camp and in the city of Tayef. \nThe former was soon taken and plundered, but the city made such \na determined resistance, as to defy all the engines of the assailant \nand the fanatical fury of his followers. He was compelled to raise \nthe siege, and departed with an immense booty in camels, sheep, \nsilver, and slaves. Malec, the chief of the enemy, was, however, \nsoon after converted by liberal presents and restitution of spoils. \n\nMahomet, having conciliated his lukewarm adherents by a politic \ndistribution of plunder, returned to Mecca; and thence, having \nappointed a religious instructer and a governor, took the way to \nMedina. The birth of a son, named Ibrahim, at this time height- \nened the joy of his successes; for he had long desired an heir to his \nname, his fame, and his spirit of prophecy. \n\nHis influence and authority continued to spread in a wonderful \nmanner. Tribe after tribe sent in its adhesion to his faith or \nauthority. His talents for government were found equal to the \nemergency ; and he strengthened his power by taking liberal tithes, \nunder the name of alms, from all true believers, and forced contri- \nbutions, under the same title, from the subject tribes of infidels. \nTayef, which longest withstood his arms, was finally compelled to \nyield, and the inhabitants were forced to witness the destruction of \ntheir idols, and, by the threat of instant massacre, relucantly to \nbecome unconditional converts to Islam. \n\nThis formidable increase of power, with the hostilities near Muta, \nhad, it is said, awakened the attention of Heraclius. who assembled \na force on the borders of Arabia. Mahomet, on his part, resolved \nto carry the war into Syria, and, despite the torrid heat of the \nseason, began to assemble his forces. To those who alleged the \nweather as an excuse for not serving, a pertinent revelation remarked \nthat "the fire of hell was hotter than the desert." An army of \nthirty thousand men was mustered ; and, with the prophet in their \nmidst, took the road to Syria. Although overcome with heat and \nthirst, he would not allow the army to encamp or rest in the cool \nregion of Hedjar, on account of a marvellous story concerning the \ndestruction of the inhabitants, to which he had listened in his youth. \nThey arrived at last at Tabuc, a small town on the borders of the \nempire, and about half-way between Medina and Damascus. Several \n*Iiiving\'s "Life of Mahomet." \n\n\n\n302 \'i\'JtJE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof the neighbouring princes submitted, and others were forcibly \nmade tributary. Despite the zeal of Mahomet, who was bent on \nthe invasion of Syria, his troops, disheartened by accounts of \nimmense forces assembled against them, became unwilling to proceed \nfurther. No revelation announced the necessity of advancing ; and, \nwith some reluctance, the prophet consented to a retreat, deferring \nthe completion of his enterprise to a future period. The army \nreturned laden with spoil, and those who had impeded the setting \nforth of the expedition were punished by excommunication. At \nthis time died Abdalla Ibn Obba, the chief of the lukewarm party \nin Medina, called the "Hypocrites," and long a political opponent of \nMahomet, The prophet was prevailed on to put up prayers for the \ndeceased, but privately consoled himself and the orthodox with the \nassurance that it would be unavailing. \n\nThe reverend law-giver found much greater difficulty in regulating \nthe affairs of his household than of the nation. At one time, irri- \ntated by their clamorous jealousy, he abstained from the society \nof his wives for a whole month, and then, by special revelation, \ntook as his companion the Coptic slave, who was the particular \nobject of their suspicion. \n\nWhen the yearly resort to Mecca again occurred, he caused Ali \nto proclaim publicly to the pilgrims that, by an especial revealment, \nat the expiration of four months, no time or place, however sacred, \nshould protect the idolaters. At the end of that time, no alterna- \ntive except submission to tribute, conversion, or extermination, was \nto be left to the unbelievers. This stringent regulation was soon \nenforced by various expeditions against the refractory tribes. Sub- \nmissions came pouring in; and even the lieutenant of Heraclius, \nin Amon, gave in his submission. \n\nIn the midst of these successes, Mahomet\'s exultation was deeply \nalloyed by the death of his only son Ibrahim, an infant of fifteen \nmonths, and the only hope of his house. His health was already \ngreatly impaired; and feeling that he had little strength remaining, \nhe resolved to expend it in a solemn pilgrimage to Mecca. On learn- \ning this intention, devotees thronged from all parts of Arabia, to join \nin the pious undertaking. Accompanied by his nine wives, and \nescorted by more than an hundred thousand of his faithful followers, \nthe prophet set out on his last pilgrimage. No enemies beset the \nway as formerly, for all Arabia was now submissive to the faith of \nIslam. Arrived at the Sacred City, he rigidly performed all the \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS, 303 \n\naccustomed rites, and slaughtered a great number of camels, accord- \ning to custom, as a sacrifice. He preached and prayed long and \nfervently, and his words were recorded and treasured u.p as a guide \nto all true believers. \n\nAfter his return, his health became more and more impaired ; yet \nhe prepared largely for his favourite project, the invasion of Syria \nand Palestine. In the eleventh year of the Hegira, a powerful army \nwas assembled, and the command entrusted to Osama, a youth of \ntwenty, the son of Zeid, whose devotion and death in the cause of \nthe prophet procured this high honour for his offspring. The \nyouthful general, after receiving the sacred banner from the hands \nof Mahomet, had marched only a few miles, when tidings came \nwhich arrested his advance. Mahomet had been taken violently \nill. His disorder commenced with delirium. Starting from his \ncouch at midnight, he called upon a slave to accompany him, say- \ning that he was summoned by the dead in the public burying-place \nto come and pra}^ for them. Arrived in the great and lonely ceme- \ntery, he addressed its sleeping dwellers in words of wild, pathetic \neloquence, and declared that he should soon be with them. His \ndisorder increased, and became a burning fever, in which he \nexclaimed that he felt tormented by the poison of Khaibar. He \nrecovered sufficiently to appear once more in public, prayed fer- \nvently, and exhorted all to whom he might have acted unjustly, to \nspeak, and give him the opportunity for reparation. His last \nexhortations were eloquent with the language of piety, and remind \nus of the pure and simple doctrines which he preached, while yet \nuntainted with sensuality and ambition. He died, apparently, in \nthe full assurance of Paradise, and his deluded followers, frantic \nwith grief, could hardly be persuaded that the object of their vener- \nation had gone on the common path of mortality. They were \nconsoled, and reassured in their faith by Abu Beker, whose friend- \nship and long intimacy with their chief seemed to mark him as his \nfit successor. \n\nMahomet died in the eleventh year of the Hegira, A. D. 632, \nhaving just completed his sixty-third year. His body, according to \nwords which he had spoken, was buried on the very spot where he \ndied, a grave being dug beneath the bed on which he breathed his \nlast. The house adjoined the mosque, which, by enlargement in sub- \nsequent times, encloses the spot where his remains were deposited, \nand which is an object of pious veneration to all true Mussulmans. \n\n\n\n304 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nIn estimating tlie true character of this extraordinary man, great \ndifficulties are experienced. The records which we possess, espe- \ncially of his sayings, are of a somewhat unreliable character; and \nthe Koran itself has, in the opinion of the best judges, been subjected \nto grievous interpolation and mutilation. His early career was \ncertainly that of an unselfish and sincere enthusiast ; and the pre- \ncepts and theological maxims which he then promulgated, were \nmostly of a pure and elevated nature. The growing corruption of \npower seems to have dimmed, though it never entirely quenched \nthe fire of his prophetical delusion. In the language of Mr. Irving, \nfrom whose interesting work many of these particulars are drawn, \n"If we are far from considering Mahomet the gross and impious \nimpostor which some have represented him, so also are we indis- \nposed to give him credit for vast forecast, and for that deeply \nconcerted scheme of universal conquest which has been ascribed to \nhim. He was, undoubtedly, a man of great genius and a sugges- \ntive imagination, but it appears to us that he was in a great degree \nthe creature of impulse and excitement, and very much at the mercy \nof circumstances. His schemes grew out of his fortunes, and not \nhis fortunes out of his schemes. He was forty years old before he \nfirst broached his doctrines. He suffered year after year to steal \naway, before he promulgated them out of his own family. When \nhe fled from Mecca,, thirteen years had elapsed from the announce- \nment of his mission, and, firom being a wealthy merchant, he had \nsunk to be a ruined fugitive. When he reached Medina, he had no \nidea of the worldly power that awaited him ; his only thoiight was \nto build a humble mosque where he might preach ; and his only \nhope that he might be suffered to preach with impunity. When \npower suddenly broke upon him, he used it for a time in petty \nforays and local feuds. His military plans expanded with his \nresources." \n\nHe appears to have been distinguished in the exercise of many \nprivate virtues. He was sober, abstemious, and so destitute of the \nvice of avarice, that, though able to command all the treasures of \nArabia, he hardly left a coin at his death. With the exception of a \ntoo great susceptibility to female charms, he seems to have been \nsingularly superior to all the allurements of sensuality. He did not \ndisdain labour with his hands, performing cheerfully the meanest \nduties of his household. His justice, affability, and kindness of \nheart, endeared him to all his followers ; and he was remarkable for \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. gQg \n\nliis charity, even among the generous natives of his own land. To his \nlast breath he exhibited an appearance of devotion, submission, and \nreligious abstraction which cannot have been entirely feigned. In \nthe language of his biographer, "It is difficult to reconcile such \nardent, persevering piety, with an incessant system of blasphemous \nimposture; nor such pure and elevated and benignant precepts as \nare contained in the Koran, with a mind haunted by ignoble pas- \nsions, and devoted to the grovelling interests of mere mortality; \nand we find no other satisfactory mode of solving the enigma of \nhis character and conduct, than by supposing that the ray of mental \nhallucination which flashed upon his enthusiastic spirit during his \nreligious ecstasies in the midnight cavern of Mount Hara, continued \nmore or less to bewilder him with a species of monomania to the \nend of his career, and that he died in the delusive belief of his \nmission as a prophet." \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH ?I \n\n\n\nTHE CALIPHAT OF ABIT BEKER. THE WARS IN SYRIA. \n\nTHE CAPTURE OP DAMASCUS, AND THE DEFEAT OF \nTHE IMPERIAL FORCES: \n\nThe prophet, though dead, had left his mantle of genius and \nfanaticism to several distinguished followers. His death was suc- \nceeded by a career of invasion and conquest, the most rapid and \nwonderful which the world has ever witnessed. In less than ninety \nyears from the time when their founder fled from Mecca, a ruined \nand persecuted man, his faith and his successors held sway over \nnearly all Southern Asia and Northern Africa; and alarmed the \nnations of Europe with a dread of the extinction of all Christian \ngovernment. \n\nAli, the cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet, who had first openly \n\nespoused his cause, and had been declared his lieutenant, appeared, \n\nby natural right, his successor in government; but Abu Beker, the \n\nfather of Ayesha, by his superior influence, obtained the oflice from \n\n20 \n\n\n\n306 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe powerful cliiefs who held it in their hands. He assumed the \nmodest title of caliph, or successor, a name which has distinguished \nsome of the most brilliant dynasties of the East. \n\nThe new sovereign was sixty-two years of age, and had been a \ncompanion of Mahomet in all his dangers and successes. He was \nsagacious, enterprising, and, like his master, wholly superior to the \nenticements of personal aggrandizement. On his accession, the \nempire of Islamism, freed from the terror inspired by the name of his \npredecessor, shrank suddenly into very narrow limits \xe2\x80\x94 Mecca, Medina, \nand Tayef alone remaining faithful to the Mahometan dominion. \nNot content with throwing off the yoke, and refusing to pay tribute, \na large body of Arabs from the revolted tribes marched against \nMedina itself The renowned Khaled, \'\'the Sword of God," was \ndespatched against them, at the head of four thousand five hundred \nmen ; and soon defeated them, and beheaded Malec, their chief leader. \n\nHis next expedition was against Moseilma, a rival prophet, who \nhad acquired great power, and whose pretensions Mahomet himself \nhad been unable to suppress. The Moslems were at first defeated, \nwith a loss of twelve hundred men ; but being rallied by the indomit- \nable Khaled, finally gained the victory. Moseilma fell, fighting \ndesperately, and ten thousand of his followers strewed the field. \nBy the military skill and daring of the victor, all Arabia, within a \nyear, was again brought under the rule of Islam. Abu Beker, \nfirmly established in the caliphat, now commenced a compilation \nof the Koran, which heretofore had only possessed a scattered and \npartially traditionary existence. \n\nThe caliph next resolved, in compliance with the dying wishes \nof his predecessor, to propagate the Mahometan faith in new regions \nby the sword. The opportunity was favourable, the Greek and Per- \nsian empires being exhausted by long and desolating wars. In the \ntwelfth year of the Hegira, he summoned all the chiefs of Arabia \nto unite in the long-cherished conquest of Syria \xe2\x80\x94 that fertile land, \nwhich offered the richest inducements of plunder and enjoyment to \nthe dwellers in the desert. An immense host of his followers \nthronged from all parts to obey the summons. The army was dis- \nmissed from Medina, under Yezed, with injunctions not to commit \nany wilful waste or destruction, but, at all events, to enforce tribute \nor conversion. The Saracen chief set forth, and on his way defeated \nan advanced force of the Emperor Heraclius, killing twelve hund- \nred men, and despatching great booty to the caliph. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 3O7 \n\nOther armies were speedily enlisted and sent in the same direction, \none of them commanded b}^ Amru, formerly the witty satirist, and \nnow one of the most distinguished supporters of Islam. The com- \nmand of the entire forces was at first entrusted to Abu Obeidah, \nand afterwards to Khaled, The latter, after a most brilliant cam- \npaign, in which he had conquered Irak, a Persian province, and \ndefeated one Persian army after another, carried his standard, "the \nBlack Eagle," to the banks of the Euphrates, and summoned the \nhaughty monarch himself to pay tribute or embrace the faith. \nTrain after train, laden with almost every description of spoil, had \nentered the gates of Medina. \n\nWith fifteen hundred horse, the victorious commander hurried to \nthe scene of action in Syria. The Moslems, with insufiicient force, \nwere besieging the strong city of Bosra, and by a resolute sally of \nthe imperial garrison, were suffering a bloody defeat. At this \ncritical moment, the standard of Khaled was seen; and, charging \ndesperately with his small force of cavalry, amid shouts of "Allah \nAchbar !"* he drove the enemy back into the city. After another \nfurious and indecisive encounter, the place was taken through the \ntreachery of Romanus, the governor, who at once embraced Islamism. \n\nThe Moslems, elated with victory, now resolved to lay siege to the \nstrong and ancient city of Damascus. Charmed with the fertility \nand beauty of the country, which seemed to them a foretaste of \nParadise, these children of the., desert, nearly forty thousand in \nnumber, encamped before its walls. The garrison sallied forth to \noppose them under two rival governors, Caloiis and Azrail, the \nformer of whom had vowed to bring back the head of Khaled on \nthe point of his spear. The Mahometan leader, however, engaged \nthem successively in single combat, took them prisoners, and, on \ntheir refusal to embrace the faith of Mahomet, cut off their heads, \nand threw them over the walls into the city. The citizens, in alarm, \nwould fain have bought off the invaders ; but were sternly refused \nany alternative except Islamism, tribute, or death. \n\nThe Emperor Heraclius, who was at Antioch, on learning the \ncondition of the city, instantly despatched to its relief a force of an \nhundred thousand men, commanded by Werdan, prefect of Emessa. \nA small force of a thousand men, which, under the champion Derar, \nwas sent to harass their movements, was defeated, after desperate \nfighting; but Khaled, with most of his forces, sallied forth against \n\n*\xc2\xabGod is Great." \n\n\n\n308 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe advancing enemy, and relieved his companions. Complete \nsuccess attended the series of furious attacks which the Moslem hero \nmade upon the divisions of the enemy, as one after another arrived \non the field. "In this manner a hundred thousand troops were \ndefeated, in detail, by less than a third of their number, inspired by \nfanatic valour, and led on by a skilful and intrepid chief. Thou- \nsands of the fugitives were killed in the pursuit : an immense booty, \nin treasure, arms, baggage, and horses, fell to the victors, and Khaled \nled back his army flushed with conquest, but fatigued with fighting \nand burthened with spoil, to resume the siege of Damascus." \xe2\x80\x94 \nIrvingh Mahomet and his Successes. \n\nAnother army of seventy thousand men was forthwith levied to \noppose the invaders, and was placed under command of Werdan, \nat Aiznadin. Khaled, on his part, summoning all the Moslem \ngenerals within call to meet him on the field, took up his march at \nonce for the enemy\'s c^mp. Taking advantage of this diversion, \nten thousand men, under command of a leader named Peter, and six \nthousand cavalry, under Paul, his brother, sallied from Damascus, \nand fell upon the rear of the retreating enemy, capturing much \nbooty, and taking most of their women. Both, however, were finally \nrouted by Khaled, and their heads struck off, as usual. \n\nThe reinforcements of the Moslem commander arrived at the \nplace of rendezvous with wonderful punctuality. The Christian \nhost, disheartened by their previous defeat, vainly endeavoured to \ntreat with the enemy \xe2\x80\x94 the haughty Arabian cutting short all nego- \ntiation with his three customary alternatives. He accepted, indeed, \nthe proffer of a single combat with "Werdan. The latter, however, \nit is said, laid a scheme for the assassination of his opponent, which, \nbeing detected, he was by a counter-plot drawn into the power of \nhis adversary, and instantly beheaded by a blow from the cimeter of \nDerar. His gory head, displayed on the point of a lance, dispirited \nhis forces ; and Khaled, taking advantage of their discomfiture, \ncharged with his accustomed impetuosity, and carried all before \nhim. The imperial ranks were easily broken, and a general massacre \nensued. The fugitives hurried off in all directions ; and an immense \nspoil rewarded the victors. \n\nAbda\'lrahman, the son of the caliph, was at once despatched \nwith the tidings to Medina. On learning the profitable nature of \nthe warfare, crowds of Arabs flocked in to offer their services; but \nby the advice of Omar, these were rejected, except in the case of \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. gQg \n\nthe tribe of Koreish, who, under Abu Sofian, were permitted to \nraise a force, and to share in the glory and profit of the war. \n\nThe garrison of Damascus, though dismayed at the defeat of \ntheir friends and the return of the victorious besiegers, still held out \nstubbornly ; and under Thomas, their brave and able leader, repulsed \nthe assailants from the wall with much vigour. This active and \nresolute commander, the son-in-law of the emperor, headed a des- \nperate sally from the gate ; but after fierce fighting, was driven back, \nwith his men, into the city. At the dead of night, when the Mos- \nlems were sleeping, weary with combat, a fresh and furious sally was \nagain made from each of the gates. Taken by surprise, the besiegers \nwere at first slaughtered in all directions, but being at length rallied \nby the indefatigable Khaled, repulsed the Christians, who retreated \nwithin the walls, leaving several thousand of their number dead \nupon the field. \n\nTwelve months had now elapsed since the Saracens first sat down \nbefore the walls of Damascus, and the inhabitants vainly endeav- \noured to treat with Khaled, who was bent on taking their city by \nstorm. They had better fortune with the humane Abu Obeidah, \nthe former general-in-chief, who gave them a written agreement, \nprotecting their property and their religion. His forces were peace- \nably admitted at one gate while those of Khaled, who had gained \nadmission through the treachery of a priest, were entering at another, \nand making a general massacre. The influence of Obeidah was \nhardly suf&cient to induce his fierce colleague to stay the work of \ndestruction, and abide by the agreement. The greater part of the \ninhabitants became tributary to the caliph ; but many, headed by \nThomas, resolved to take refuge, with their families and all their \nportable wealth in Antioch. \n\nKhaled, who watched the departure of this melancholy multitude \nwith evil eyes, had promised them three days of grace before \nreceiving any molestation ; and at the expiration of that time, with \nfour thousand horsemen, started in pursuit. After a tedious and \nterrible march over the rugged mountains of Lebanon, he finally \novertook the exiles, who were resting in a flowery meadow, on their \nway to Constantinople. The Christians fought bravely, but Thomas, \ntheir admirable leader, being slain, were defeated, and all except one \nwere killed or taken prisoners. Among the latter, was the beautiful \nwife of Thomas, the daughter of the Emperor Heraclius. As the \nMoslems returned with their booty and captives to Damascus, an \n\n\n\n310 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\naged bishop besought her release from Khaled. It was granted, but \nwith an uncivil message to the emperor, that he would soon be him- \nself a captive in her place. \n\nThe immense plunder which had been secured bj these various \nvictories was now divided \xe2\x80\x94 four parts being shared among the \nofficers and soldiers, and the fifth being despatched to the caliph at \nMedina. Abu Beker, however, was not destined to hear of the last \nsignal triumph of the faith of Islam in his reign. He expired on \nthe day that Damascus surrendered, having directed Omar, as \nMahomet had done to himself, to perform the religious functions of \nhis office in his stead. Omar, a stern, devout, and unambitious man, \nwould have declined the honour and the responsibility; but the \nentreaties of the dying caliph prevailed with him. \n\nAbu Beker, the ancient companion of Mahomet, and the first of \nhis successors, expired in the sixty-fourth year of his age, having \nreigned a little more than two years. He was universally lamented \nby his subjects, to whom his equity, moderation, and private virtues \nhad justly endeared him. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH ?n. \n\nTHE CALIPHAT OP OMAR. THE CAPTURE OF EM ESS A, \n\nBAALBEC, JERUSALEM, ANTIOCH, AND CESAREA. \nFINAL CONQUEST OF SYRIA. \n\n\n\nThe new caliph, who, in compliance with the wishes of his pre- \ndecessor, had been readily elected to his office, was the father of \nHafsa, a wife of the prophet. He was at this time fifty -three years \nof age, and was unsvirpassed for strength, valour, and fanaticism in \nthe Mahometan faith. Bigotry apart, his justice was exemplary; \nand his sincerity was fully proved by his abstinence from sensuality, \nand by the rigid self-denial which characterized his entire career. \nHe assumed the title of "Commander of the Faithful," a name \ninherited by his successors, and since ado23ted by other distinguished \nEastern potentates. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. ^-^^ \n\nKlialed, whose rash and unscrupulous character was displeasing \nto him, was forthwith deprived of the command of the Syrian army, \nand Abu Obeidah, a man of greater virtue and less military talent, \nwas substituted in his place. The change was highly unpopular \namong the soldiers; but Khaled, with great magnanimity, enlisted \nzealously under the command of his new chief, who in turn, aware \nof his courage and abilit}^, treated him with the highest deference. \nThe new commander, after gaining considerable plunder by a vic- \ntory which Khaled obtained over the Christians at Abyla, sat down \nbefore the wealthy city of Emessa (the modern Hems). The citi- \nzens, by a heavy ransom, purchased a truce for one year, and the \ninhabitants of the neighbouring region, submitting to the mild \nterms of Abu Obeidah, enrolled themselves in great numbers as \ntributaries of the caliph, \n\nOmar, however, displeased at this want of activity in conquest, \nsent a reproachful missive to his general, who, in consequence, \nleaving Khaled with a part of the forces near Emessa, marched with \nthe remainder upon Baalbeo. This strong and beautiful city, built, \nit is said, by Solomon, and containing some of the most splendid \nremains of antiquity, was situated in the great valley which lies \nbetween Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It was a place of much \nwealth and commerce, and promised a valuable spoil. Herbis the \ngovernor, on learning of the approach of the Moslem forces, sallied \nout to meet them, but was repulsed, and driven back into the city \nwith considerable loss. The place was summoned to surrender, but \nthe governor, smarting with wounds and -defeat, tore the letter in \npieces, and deigned no reply. A brave and successful repulse of \nthe assailants inspirited the garrison to make a fresh sally, in which \nthey made great slaughter among their opponents, who were taken \nby surprise. Herbis, however, in a second similar attempt, was cut \noff from the city, and compelled to surrender it upon very severe \nconditions. The Saracens took possession, in the year A. D. 636. \n\nThe victorious general returned at once to Emessa, where the \nyear of truce had expired, and, "In the name of the most Merciful \nGod," (the customary Moslexxi formula,) summoned the garrison to \nsurrender. A bold and successful sally was the reply; and Obei- \ndah, seeing the difficulty of reducing the place by force, had resort \nto stratagem. Promising to carry his arms elsewhere, he purchased \nof the Greeks so many provisions, that their supplies were nearly \nexhausted. He then left the city, and seized upon the towns of \n\n\n\n312 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nArrestan and Shaizar; but soon returned, and again invested \nEmessa. The defenders, unprepared for a siege, were compelled to \ntry an engagement. The governor, a man of great courage and of \ngigantic size, took the sacrament in public, caroused all night, and \nsallied furiously against the Moslems in the morning. The fight \nlasted desperately all day, without any decisive result; but on the \nfollowing day, by a feigned retreat, the Greeks were thrown into \nconfusion, and utterly routed, with the loss of their commander and \na great number of fighting men. \n\nEmessa surrendered ; but the Moslems were unable to reap the \nfruits of their victory. An immense army of the Greeks was \napproaching, and by advice even of the intrepid Khaled, the \ninvaders retreated to Yermouk, on the borders of Arabia. The \nEmperor Heraclius, justly alarmed for the safety of Syria, had again \nlevied a great force, consisting of eighty thousand of his subjects \nand sixty thousand friendly Arabs, and had despatched them \nagainst the enemy, under a distinguished general, named Manuel. \nAs this formidable force marched against the retreating Moslems, it \ninflicted every injury on the provinces which had submitted to the \nlatter, and had become tributary. \n\nA negotiation which Manuel had offered, as he approached, was \nrejected by Abu Obeidah, and a messenger was despatched to the \ncaliph Omar, at Medina, entreating speedy reinforcement. Eight \nthousand fresh troops were, accordingly, at once despatched to his \nassistance, and these on their way defeated a prefect of the emperor \nwith much slaughter, and arrived at Yermouk with the heads of \ntheir enemies displayed in great numbers on the points of their \nlances. A personal interview between Manuel and Khaled, the \nreal commander of the Moslem host, led to no result; and both par- \nties engaged in a fierce battle. From the valour and number of the \ncombatants, this important struggle was prolonged in a desperate \nmanner for several successive days\xe2\x80\x94 the discipline and steadiness \nof the Grecian phalanx proving almost insurmountable, even by the \nfurious fanaticism of the Moslems. The Christians were finally \ndefeated, with the loss of their general, and with a terrible slaughter \n(A. D. 636). \n\nAfter this signal success, the caliph determined, by the advice of \nAli, to gain possession of Jerusalem. This celebrated . city (at that \ntime called J51ia, from the Emperor ^lius Adrian, who had rebuilt \nit) was then, as now, an object of deep veneration, not only to the \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 3]^3 \n\nJews and Ctiristians, but to tlie Moslems, on account of its sacred \nassociations. The latter, indeed, considered that they had an espe- \ncial claim upon it, as being the place to which their prophet (as he \naverred) had made his famous nocturnal journey, and whence, in \ncompany with the angel Gabriel, he had explored the Seven Heav- \nens. It was strongly fortified, and the defenders, relying on the \nsanctity of their city, and emboldened by the advantage of their \nposition, withstood for four months the attack of Abu Obeidah and \nhis whole army. \n\nThe Patriarch Sempronius finally consented to a capitulation, if \nthe caliph would come from Medina, and receive it in person. Omar, \nviewing the religious, as well as the political importance of the place, \nconsented, and having appointed Ali as his temporary vicar, set out \nin the simplest manner on his important mission. This mighty \npotentate travelled on a red camel, with a pair of saddle bags con- \ntaining a few dried dates and sodden grain for provision, with a \nwooden dish, and a leathern bottle filled with water. In this unpre- \ntending style he approached the Holy City, dictating on his way \nthe most absolute and peremptory commands. On his arrival, \nJerusalem instantly surrendered, upon such severe conditions as \nthe Mahometan conquerors were wont to impose upon the van- \nquished. The Christian rites and places of worship were only \nsuffered to exist under the most degrading terms, and the most \nslavish deference to the followers of Islam was sternly enforced. \nThe lives and property of the citizens, however, were spared. The \nconqueror was politely conducted by Sempronius through the vari- \nous places of interest in the sacred city ; but when the Arab, in his \npatched and dirty garments of sheepskin, seated himself in the \nChurch of the Resurrection, the worthy patriarch (probably in a \ntongue unknown to his guest) groaned forth, in the bitterness of his \nspirit, that the "abomination of desolation," foretold by the prophet \nDaniel, had come at last, and was fairly "set up in the holy place" \n(A. D. 637). \n\nOmar, after having founded a mosque on the site of Solomon\'s \ntemple, and given instructions to his generals for the complete con- \nquest of all Syria and Egypt, returned to Medina in the same quiet \nand unpretending manner in which he had left it. Abvi Obeidah \nmarched for Aleppo, levying rich contributions on the terrors of the \nintervening country. Youkenna, who commanded the citadel of \nthat wealthy place, was a man of most crafty, warlike, and furious \n\n\n\n314 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndisposition. He marched forth with twelve thousand men, and \nsurprised an advanced guard of the Moslems, which he cut to pieces \nor dispersed. On learning, however, that the more peaceful and \nwealthy citizens of Aleppo had made a private treaty with the \nassailants, he turned back in a rage, put three hundred of them to \nthe sword, and with a sweep of his cimeter cut off the head of his \nown brother, Johannas, who was vainly endeavouring to mitigate \nhis fury. \n\nA desperate battle with the approaching Moslems, under Khaled, \nforthwith ensued. Three thousand of Youkenna\'s troops were slain, \nand he was compelled to retreat within the castle, which was strongly \nfortified. An assault upon this was unsuccessful, and iifty prisoners, \nwhom the ferocious governor took in a sally, were beheaded on the \nwalls, and their heads thrown down among the besiegers. Three \nhundred of the garrison, who were soon after captured by the Mos- \nlems, shared a similar fate, by way of retaliation. The craft and \nvalour of Youkenna enabled him to defend this almost impregnable \nfortress for more than half a year ; but it was finally taken by sur- \nprise, and the cruel and unprincipled chief, with several of his \nofficers, embraced the Moslem religion, and thus secured their wives \nand property from the greediness of the victors. \n\nLike most of the numerous renegades to Mahometanism, his \nzeal, when once fairly embarked, outstripped that of its legitimate \nsupporters. By the most outrageous treachery toward his former \nChristian associates, he gained important advantages for the enemy ; \nand even so far won the confidence of the Emperor Heraclius, at \nAntioch, as to obtain the command of that important city, and of \nthe army stationed there. A gang of renegades, by whom he was \naccompanied, furthered his plots. Abu Obeidah advanced against \nthis city, the capital of Syria, with a formidable force, subduing all \nthe country on his way. The "Iron Bridge," a strong post, com- \nmanding the passage of the Orontes, was treacherously surrendered \nby the garrison, and Antioch was thus left unprotected against the \nadvance of the enemy. The Moslem troops approached the walls, \nand the emperor, completely disheartened by learning the treason \nof Youkenna, fled privately to the sea-shore, and set sail for Con- \nstantinople. His generals made a brave defence, which, however, \nthe treachery of Youkenna and the valour of their adversaries ren- \ndered of no avail, and the city, paying an enormous ransom for \nsafety from pillage, submitted to the enemy (A. D. 638). \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \xc2\xa715 \n\nAbu Obeidah, who, for a Maliometan, was a strict moralist and \ndisciplinarian, prohibited his followers from any intercourse with \nthe Grecian females, whose beauty was so attractive to these rude \nsons of the desert. The worthy caliph, however, says Mr. Irving, \nwept on hearing of this piece of severity to his faithful adherents, \nand seating himself on the ground, forthwith wrote a letter, (doubt- \nless much to the satisfaction of the army,) allowing the fullest liberty \nin those regards which the most zealous polygamist could desire. \n\nFresh successes soon repaid the enterprise of the invaders. \nKhaled had been carrying his victorious arms far to the eastward ; \nand Amru, with the forces under his command, advanced against \nCeesarea, where Constantine, the emperor\'s son, was stationed with \na large army. The prince held a personal conference with the \nMahometan leader, but to no purpose \xe2\x80\x94 the latter insisting that the \nancestors of the Arabs had been expelled from the pleasant land of \nSyria to the desert, and that they were only regaining their rightful \npossessions. Islamism, tribute, or the sword, were sternly presented \nas the only alternatives. Constantine, fearing to encounter the \nenemy with his dispirited forces, shut himself up in the walls of \nCsesarea. \n\nYoukenna, by almost inconceivable craft and treachery, had \nagain managed to deceive his former friends, the Christians, and \nhad thus gained possession of the ports of Tripoli and Tyre, together \nwith the imperial fleet, and many munitions of war. The prince \ntaking alarm, fled, with all his treasure, to Constantinople, and the \ncity speedily surrendered, paying a heavy ransom to the victor. \n\nOther important places followed the example, and thus, after a \ncontest of six years, all Syria, in the seventeenth year of the Hegira \n(A. D. 639), fell into the hands of its Moslem invaders. Abu Obei- \ndah, and other distinguished ofiicers, did not long survive this event, \nbeing carried off by a pestilence, which soon desolated the country. \nKhaled, "the Sword of God," so long renowned as the bravest, \nfiercest, and most fanatical chief of the new religion, died in \npoverty and disgrace, under the displeasure of the caliph. He \nwas deeply lamented by the soldiery, whom he had so often led to \nvictory. \n\n\n\nglQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH 7111. \n\nTHE CALIPHAT OF OMAR CONTINUED. CONQUEST OF EGYPT \n\nAND OF PERSIA. DEATH OF OMAR. \n\nIn pursuance of the orders of the caliph, Amru, with only five \nthousand men, next marched against the once powerful kingdom of \nEg3rpt, now a province of the Greek empire. He took Farwak (the \nancient Pelusium) after a month\'s siege, and thence moved against \nMemphis, a strong city, then situated near the site of the modern \nCairo, but of which hardly a vestige now remains. The Arabs, \nunprovided with military engines, and bravely resisted by the \nGreek garrison, spent seven months fruitlessly in endeavouring to \nreduce the city. A reinforcement of four thousand men was then \ndespatched by Omar to their assistance; and the place was soon \nafter taken by the treachery of Mokawkas, the governor, an Egyp- \ntian Copt, who secretly detested the Grecian rule. Tribute was \nforthwith levied on the province, and Amru, with his army, took \nthe road to the renowned city of Alexandria. It was only an hun- \ndred and twenty-five miles distant, yet the Moslems met such a \ndetermined resistance from the imperial forces on their way, that it \nwas twenty-two days before they arrived at the walls. This popu- \nlous and wealthy city was strongly fortified, garrisoned by Greeks, \nand open to assistance from the sea. \n\nThe slender force of Amru seemed entirely inadequate to his \nundertaking ; yet he summoned the garrison, in the usual haughty \nterms, to surrender. They, in return, made a furious sally, and \nmuch desperate fighting ensued. The Arab chief took a strong \ncitadel by storm ; the whole contest became concentrated on this \nspot, and he was taken prisoner, and carried before the governor. \nThe latter, unaware of his rank, was induced, by the artful repre- \nsentations of one of his fellow-captives, to release him, and the \nrejoicing shouts of the besiegers notified the garrison of their cre- \ndulity and loss. The siege was still obstinately contested for \nfourteen months, during which time the Moslem army, repeatedly \nreinforced, lost twenty-three thousand men. \n\nNothing, however, could resist the fanatical valour and perse- \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 33^7 \n\nverance of the besiegers. Alexandria was at length taken, and its \nGrecian defenders dispersed by sea and land. Leaving a small \ngarrison to guard the new acquisition, Amru hastened with most \nof his forces after the fugitives. Those in the fleet taking advan- \ntage of this circumstance, recaptured the city, and put most of its \nMoslem defenders to the sword. The invader, sufficiently vexed at \nhis negligence, instantly returned; and after a fierce assault, again \ngained possession of the place, and drove the Greeks to their ships \n(A. D. 640). \n\nThis new and splendid acquisition of the Mahometan arms \ngreatly increased the wealth and resources of the caliph. The city, \nas the victor stated in his letter to Omar, contained four hundred \ntheatres, four thousand palaces, and five thousand baths, and was \nfilled with wealth and magnificence. Plunder was strictly forbidden, \nand an account of all valuable articles was taken, for the benefit of \nthe cause of Islam. The wonderfnl collection of manuscripts, \nknown as the Alexandrian library, was brought to the notice of \nthe victor by a learned man, named John the Grammarian, who \nsolicited that they might be bestowed upon him. Amru referred \nthe matter to the caliph, who, with the sternness and bigotry charac- \nteristic of an illiterate Mahometan, ordered their destruction, alleging \nthat if they were in conformity with the Koran, they were useless ; \nif opposed to it, pernicious. Literature has doubtless experienced \nan irreparable loss in the destruction of this noble collection, which \nhas been estimated at half a million of books, and which served for \nsix months as fuel for the numerous baths in the city. \n\nAfter the fall of its capital, all Egypt submitted, and was made \ntributary to its conquerors. Heraclius, already in a decline, was so \nafiected by the loss of his province, that he underwent a paroxysm, \nwhich speedily proved fatal. His son Constantine succeeded him \nin the remains of the empire. \n\nAmru, now in full possession of the newly-acquired territory, \ngoverned it with much justice and wisdom. In a severe famine \nwhich afflicted Arabia, he despatched great quantities of grain to \nthe assistance of his countrymen ; and, to further the means of com- \nmunication, caused a canal, which had been commenced by the \nEmperor Trajan, to be dug from the Nile to the Eed Sea. (This \nsplendid work of public utility, however, fell into disuse, and was \nsuffered to go to ruin, after the removal of the caliphat from Medina \nto Damascus.) \n\n\n\n318 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe Persian empire, on the frontiers of which Khaled, in the \nreign of Abu Beker, had gained some signal successes, had been \nfor some time in a state of great distraction, and numerous pre- \ntenders had successively gained the crown for brief periods. In \nthe year A. D. 632, Arzemia, the daughter of Khosru II., a woman \nof great beauty and talent, had been called to the throne. Mosenna, \nwho had succeeded Khaled in the command of the Eastern forces, \nwas appointed emir or governor of Sewad, the Persian province \nalready conquered; but for some time no fresh acquisition was \nmade. Omar, to stir up the spirit of enterprise, had finally sent a \nnew commander, named Abu Obeidah Sakfi, with reinforcements, \nto carry on the war. \n\nThe latter, after defeating the forces of Narsi, a Persian prince, \nwas called on to encounter a formidable army despatched by Arzemia \nand headed by an able general named Rustam. This force was \nstrengthened by thirty elephants, and encouraged by the presence \nof the "sacred banner," which was regarded with the deepest \nveneration, and on which the fate of Persia was supposed to depend. \nThe Moslems, only nine thousand in number, threw a bridge across \nthe Euphrates, and boldly attacked the vastly superior force of the \nenemy. Sakfi, while fighting bravely, was crushed to death by an \nelephant, which he had wounded; his army was entirely defeated, \nand four thousand were slain or drowned in the Euphrates. \nMosenna rallied a small number, and sent to Medina, entreating \nimmediate assistance. Dissensions in the Persian camp alone saved \nthe Moslems from further discomfiture (A. D. 634). \n\nThe Arab chief, being reinforced, for some time confined himself \nto predatory excursions ; but was finally brought to an engagement \nby Mahran, a general of the queen, who, with twelve thousand \ncavalry, had been sent against him. The battle commenced unfavour- \nably for the Moslems, and Mosenna, tearing his beard with vexation, \nwith dif&culty rallied his discomfited troops. He finally put the \nPersians to flight, killing their general with his own hand. He soon \nafter gained an immense booty by plundering the fair at Bagdad, \nthen a mere village, but since the renowned capital of the Abassides. \n\nArzemia being put to death by her discontented nobles, Yezde- \ngird, a youth of fifteen, was placed upon the Persian throne. \nRustam, her principal murderer, was placed at the head of a power- \nful army, and despatched against the encroaching Arabs. To oppose \nhim, Saad, a distinguished leader, and an ancient friend of the \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. gig \n\nprophet, was sent with a choice body of troops from Medina, Being \njoined b\\^ many recruits, he found himself, on his arrival at the \nMoslem camp, in command of thirty thousand men. Mosenna, \nthree days after, expired. The new commander, before entering \nupon hostilities, despatched certain discreet and ancient messengers \nto the Persian court, making the customary summons, and propound- \nin o- the usual alternatives. These envoys were received with some \nmoderation; but were dismissed loaded with sacks of earth, as the \nonly portion of Persian soil that would be accorded to the invaders. \nThese they quietly transferred to the backs of their camels, and \npresented them to Saad as an earnest and omen of their future con- \nquest and possession. \n\nThe hostile armies encountered on the plains of Kadesia, not far \nfrom the Euphrates. The Persian host far outnumbered their oppo- \nnents; but were greatly inferior in activity, personal skill, and \nfanatical courage. Their elephants were driven back, and the \nMoslems received a reinforcement in the first day of the battle \xe2\x80\x94 \ncalled, from this circumstance, the Day of Succour. On the third \nday the Moslems were again inspirited and their enemies disheart- \nened by the arrival of a pretended reinforcement, which was in \nreality a detachment which the craftj?- Saad had instructed to make \nits appearance on the road from Damascus. The combat, amid \nclouds of dust, was continued furiously all that day, and was even, \nby the desperate exertions of Rustam, protracted through the night. \nOn the fourth, exhausted and wounded, he was killed; his head, \nelevated on a lance, struck terror into his soldiers, who dispersed \nand fled. Thirty-seven thousand of the Persians had fallen in this \nfatal contest. The Moslems had lost less than a fifth of that number. \nThe plunder was immense, and the Sacred Standard, covered with \nthe richest jewels, was taken by the victors (A. D. 686). \n\nTribute was instantly levied on the conquered region, and mosques \n\xe2\x80\xa2 were erected in all directions. By order of Omar, the city of Bas- \nsora, ever since a celebrated mart of commerce, was founded at the \njunction of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Persians were com- \npletely disheartened, and Saad pursued his conquests almost without \nresistance. With sixty thousand men, he marched upon Madayn, \ntheir capital, formerly the famous and classic Ctesiphon, which had \nonce repulsed the arms of the victorious Eomans themselves. \nYezdegird and his court fled in a shameful panic, and the wonder- \ning Arabs entered the splendid city, which they sacked and pillaged \n\n\n\n320 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof immense treasures. The spoil was so great, that each of this \nnumerous host received twelve hundred dirheras of silver; and nine \nhundred camels were required to convey to Medina the fifth part \nallotted to the caliph. A silken carpet, covered with gems, was \namong his portion, which, by advice of Ali, was cut into equal \npieces, and divided among the chiefs (A. D. 637). \n\nHashem, the brother of Saad, with twelve thousand men, was \nnext despatched in pursuit of the fugitive Yezdegird. After a siege \nof six months, distinguished by desperate fighting, he succeeded in \ntaking Jalula, in which the remains of the Persian army had taken \nrefuge. The unfortunate monarch retreated through the mountains \ninto Eei, an ancient city, the Eages of Scripture. The zeal of \nthe Mahometan chief for further conquest was, however, for the \npresent, repressed by the prudence of Omar. By order of the caliph, \nthe city of Cufa was founded on the western bank of the Euphrates, \nMadayn being totally dismantled for the sake of its materials, and \nalmost bodily carried away. The luxury of Saad\'s residence, how- \never, coming to the ears of the caliph, he despatched a messenger \nto burn it, who punctually fulfilled his orders \xe2\x80\x94 the general, with that \nunswerving obedience which as yet marked the Mahometan charac- \nter, removing to a more modest abode. \n\nHormuzan, the satrap of Ahwaz or Susiana, who lived in almost \nroyal state and authority, next attempted to check the increasing \npower of the Arabs, but was repeatedly defeated, and was forced to \nsurrender great portion of his territories. Again commencing \nhostilities, he was again defeated, and took refuge in his fortress of \nSusa, where, after a brave defence of six months, he was compelled \nby treachery to surrender. He was despatched to Medina, when \nOmar, with characteristic sternness and simplicity, gave him an \ninstant choice between Islamism and decapitation. He embraced the \nformer, and was received into the confidence and favour of the caliph. \n\nSaad being suspended from his command, the youthful monarch \nof Persia took fresh courage; and summoned his available forces \nfrom every part of the empire to make one grand and final effort \nfor the expulsion of the intruders. The chiefs of the yet uncon- \nquered provinces called out their forces, which, to the number of an \nhundred and fifty thousand, were assembled at Nehavend, not far \nfrom the ancient Ecbatana. \n\nOmar would now fain have taken the field in person, but was \ndissuaded by his counsellors, and by their advice the command was \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 321 \n\nbestowed upon Nu\'man Ibn Mukry. Firuzan, the Persian com- \nmander, though greatly superior to the Arabs in the number of his \ntroops, intrenched himself at Nehavend in a strong position, resolved \nto tire out his enemies by delay. The latter for two months vainly \nendeavoured to effect an engagement with their adversaries; but \nfinally, by a feigned retreat, drew them a considerable distance jfrom \ntheir intrenchments. The Moslem chief having prayed, like some \nclassic hero of old, for the crown of martyrdom, as well as that of \nvictory, turned, and furiously attacked the pursuing enemy. Both \nhis wishes were granted ; he fell, after seeing the Persians completely \nrouted. An immense slaughter was made, and one hundred thousand \nof the defeated army are said to have perished in the battle and the \nflight. This contest, which decided the fate of Persia, and which is \ncalled in Arabian chronicles, the "Victory of Victories, " occurred A. D. \n641, only twenty-one years after the flight of the prophet to Medina. \n\nFurther victories ensued, and Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana, \nand the second city in Persia, was taken^ after a desperate battle, \nwhich lasted for three days. Eei, bravely defended by a Persian \nnoble left by the emperor, was also, after an unavailing resistance, \ntaken by treachery. Fresh conquests were made. Tabaristan and \nAzerbijan, the land of the Fire- worshippers, were speedily over- \ncome and made tributary. The temples and altars of the latter \nwere overthrown. . A campaign was also made in the mountains of \nthe Caucasus, where, however, a brave and warlike people, the \nancestors of the present Turks, made a stubborn and successfal \nresistance. The Moslems were defeated and compelled to retreat, \nwith the loss of Abda\'lrahman, their leader. \n\nAfter witnessing these brilliant successes, and having reigned \ntriumphantly for more than ten years, the Caliph Omar was assas- \nsinated in the mosque by one Firuz, a fire-worshipper, and a slave at \nMedina. Though mortally wounded, he summoned strength to \nfinish the prayer in which he was engaged ; and was then borne to \nhis house, thanking God that he had not fallen by the hand of a \nMoslem. He refased to nominate a successor, but appointed a \ncouncil of six;, by whom the matter should be determined. His \nfriends comforted him with the remembrance of his justice and \nimpartiality. He entreated them to testify as much at the day of \njudgment, and, for greater security, exacted firom them a written \ntestimonial, to be buried with him in the grave. He expired in the \nsixty -third year of his age. \n21 \n\n\n\n322 \' THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nDuring tlie reign of this extraordinary man, who combined the \nmost simple and almost barbarous manners with the most far-sighted \nviews and the most wonderful control over the minds of men, the \nempire of Islam laid strong and deep the foundation of its greatness. \nSyria, Egypt, and Persia had been successively and effectively sub- \ndued; and the treasure and tribute from the conquered provinces \nafforded means and incentives for yet wider schemes of empire and \ndominion. No event in history is half so singular as that a few \nilliterate and semi-barbarous Arabs should, in the course of a few \nyears, gain and successively rule such distant and extensive regions. \nNo doubt there was something in the creed which impelled them \nsingularly adapted to the genius and the capability of the race ; but \nthat the talent for government and the personal influence which is \nindispensable in new empires should be possessed by each of these \nfellow-fugitives of the prophet, shows, indeed a most remarkable \ncoincidence of men and circumstances. \n\n\n\nTHE CALIPHAT OF OTHMAN. THE INVASION OP NOETHEEN \n\nAFEICA. NAYAL SUCCESSES OE THE MOSLEMS. \n\nThe six councillors selected by Omar had all been intimate asso- \nciates of the prophet, and appointed one of their number, Othman, \nhis former secretary, to the caliphat. He had been the companion \nof Mahomet in the Hegira, and had successively married two of his \ndaughters. He was now seventy years of age, generous and charit- \nable, but inclined to nepotism and favouritism. \n\nIn the commencement of his reign, the conquest of Persia was \ncompleted. Assyria and Mesopotamia were speedily subdued, and \nthe proud cities of Ispahan and Istakar were brought under the \nsway of Islam. The unfortunate Yezdegird, flying from his enemies, \nled a wandering life, with his shadow of a court, for many years, \nbut was finally put to death, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. \nHis kingdom became the undisputed territory of the caliphs. \n\nThe weakness and favouritism of Othman were soon manifest. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \n\n\n\n323 \n\n\n\nHe displaced from the government of Egypt the brave and politic- \nAmru, who had conquered it, and who was universally popular, and \nappointed in his place Abdallah Ibn Saad, his own foster-brother. \nTaking advantage of the public discontent, Constantine despatched \na fleet and army, and succeeded in retaking Alexandria. Here- \nupon, Amru Avas again reinstated in his command, and, after an \nobstinate resistance of the Greeks, again took the city, and threw \ndown its walls. Having accomplished this, he was again displaced, \nand Abdallah once more appointed in his stead. \n\nThe latter, emulous of his renown, determined to exalt his own \nfame by some new and brilliant expedition. The northern part of \nAfrica, after experiencing strange vicissitudes of government, and \nbeing successively under the control of the Carthagenians, the \nRomans, and the Vandals, was now a province of the Eastern Empire.*^ \nAbdallah, with forty thousand Arabs, supplied with camels, crossed \nthe sandy deserts of Lybia, and after a fatiguing march arrived \nbefore the strong city of Tripoli. A Greek force, which was sent to \nreinforce it, was surprised on the shore, and defeated with great \nslaughter. Gregorius, the Roman praetor, with an immense body of \ntroops, hastily levied, encountered the invaders under the walls of \nthe city. The battle, desperately fought, was continued for several \ndays, but was finally decided by the valour of Zobeir, a noble Arab, \nof the tribe of Koreish, who arrived at a critical moment, with a \nsmall reinforcement. Gregorius was slain, and his army was pur- \nsued to the city of Safetula, which was taken by the victors. \n\nThe forces of Abdallah, were, however, too much reduced to \nenable him to maintain his conquests ; and he returned to Egypt, \nhaving acquired great booty. \n\nHitherto, the Moslems, restrained by Omar, had obtained no naval \nadvantages. Moawyah Abu Sofian, a son of the ancient enemy of the \nprophet, had been appointed by Omar as emir or governor of Syria, \nand by permission of Othman, in the twenty-seventh year of the \nHegira, launched a fleet upon the Mediterranean. He soon gained \npossession of the island of Cyprus, belonging to the emperor, and made \nit tributary. After further successes, he encountered Constantine him- \nself, while cruising with a large fleet in the Phoenician Sea, defeated \nhim, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. Among other exploits, \nhe took the island of Rhodes, and barbarously threw down the cele- \nbrated colossal statue, which stood at the entrance of the harbour. \n\n* Sometimes called the Greek, and sometimes the Roman Empire. \n\n\n\n324 "^HE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nIn the midst of these successes, Othman, from his favouritism, \nand the prodigality with which he lavished the public spoil upon \nhis attendants, had become exceedingly odious to great numbers of \nthe Faithful. Other causes augmented this ill-feeling, and a certain \nconverted Jew, named Ibn Caba, made a seditious journey through \nthe various provinces, fomenting the discontent, and inciting the \ndisaffected to appear in force at Medina, under pretence of a pil- \ngrimage to Mecca. At the appointed time great numbers, from all \nthe provinces, made their appearance, and summoned the aged \ncaliph to redress their wrongs or to quit the high office which he \noccupied. \n\nAt first he endeavoured by submission to allay the storm, and \nfrom the pulpit of the mosque made a public profession of peni- \ntence. He also made many liberal promises and donations, and, to \ngratify the malcontents, consented to recall Abdallah, and put in his \nplace Mahomet, the brother of Ayesha, who had been the favourite \nwife of the prophet. The new governor, however, on his way, \nintercepted a slave, bearing a letter to Abdallah, purporting to be \nfrom the caliph, and ordering the execution of the new emir, and \nthe imprisonment of the Egyptian deputies. Mahomet turned back \nfuriously to Medina. Othman averred that the letter was a forgery \nof some enemy, and refused to give up his secretary, Merwan, the \nobject of popular fury. In spite of the efforts of Ali, Zobeir, and \nTelha, an old companion of the prophet, the aged caliph was \nbesieged in his house, and soon after murdered by a ferocious mob, \namong whom was Mahomet himself His body lay exposed for \nthree days, and was finally buried without funeral ceremonies. This \nunfortunate sovereign had reigned twelve years, and was eighty two \nyears old at the time of his death, which occurred in the year \nA. D. 655. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 325 \n\n\n\nij jJ3j dX if Jj ^ dJi lA) \n\n\n\nTHE CALIPHAT OF ALL THE REBELLION OP 3I0AWYAH. \n\nDEATH OF ALL CALIPHAT OF HIS SON HASSAN. \n\nAli, who had. married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, had \nbeen bj many considered, from the first, as the rightful inheritor of \nhis honours. He had been the only one who, at the first public \nannouncement at Mecca of the divine pretensions of Mahomet, had \npublicly espoused his cause. He had been at that time nominated \nby the prophet as his vizier and vicegerent, and by his undaunted \ncourage in the cause, had gained the title of " the Lion of God." His \neloquence and generosity had endeared him to the people. Zobeir, \nTelha, and Moawyah were all ambitious of the distinction; but the \ndeputies, fearful of a disruption of the Moslem power, demanded \nthe instant election of a new caliph. All opposition succumbed to \nthe urgency of the moment, and Ali, with the apparent consent of \nall, was publicly inaugurated in his high office. \n\nAt the very outset of his reign he was surrounded with difficulty \nand opposition. Ayesha, his ancient enemy, with Telha and Zobeir, \nset out for Mecca under pretence of pilgrimage, but in reality to \nexcite an insurrection. The bloody garment of Othman had been \nsent to Syria, where the Moslems were frantic with rage at his mur- \nder, and laid the blame upon his successor. The disappointed Moaw- \nyah openly fomented their anger, and the new governor, whom Ali \ndespatched to supersede him, found the province in open rebellion, \nand was compelled to return. Those whom he had sent to Persia \nand to Egypt, met a similar reception. Moawyah, in token of con- \ntempt, returned a blank answer to the letter of the caliph requiring \nhis allegiance. An army of sixty thousand men stood ready to \nenforce his pretensions to the chief authority. \n\nAyesha and her allies having gathered a force of six thousand \nmen at Mecca, took the road to Bassora, avowing their determina- \ntion to revenge the death of Othman. On their arrival before the \nwalls of that city, the inhabitants, who were divided into two fac- \ntions, held a furious dispute in the mosque, and ended by throwing \ndust in each others\' faces \xe2\x80\x94 a common oriental mode of exhibiting \n\n\n\n326 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndispleasure. They repaired without the walls, where Ajesha (the \n"Mother of the Faithful\'\') harangued them from her camel in the \nshrillest tones. More dust was thrown, and a fight ensued, which \nlasted until the hour of prayer separated the combatants. The \nplace, however, was taken by surprise, on a stormy night, and the \nunfortunate governor, with his beard and eyebrows plucked out, \nwas dismissed to make his complaints before the perplexed and \nembarrassed caliph. \n\nTo suppress this insurrection, the latter sallied from Medina with \na small force, which by the time he reached Bassora, amounted to \nthirty thousand men. The rebellious chiefs, softened by his mild- \nness and eloquence, would have drawn back, but the malignant \nspirit of Ayesha precipitated a contest. On her gTeat camel Alascar, \nshe mingled in the thickest of the fight, encouraging her troops. \nTelha was slain, expressing his repentance, and renewing his alle- \ngiance with his dying breath. Zobeir, in sorrow of heart, left the \nbattle, and on his way to Mecca, was put to death by an overzealous \nadherent of Ali. The latter, on beholding his head, wept bitterly, \nand cursed his executioner, who, frantic with rage and mortification, \nplunged his sword into his own bosom. After an obstinate and \nsanguinary conflict, the rebels were defeated, and Ayesha, the soul of \nthe conspiracy, was captured. The caliph, with his accustomed i \nmagnanimity, sent her in honourable state to Medina, where, how- i \never, she was restricted from further intermeddling with politics. \nThe victor, in gratitude to the inhabitants of Cufa, from whom he \nhad received enthusiastic assistance, made that city the seat of his \ngovernment (A. D. 655). ; \n\nThe authority of Ali was thus completely established in all his \nprovinces, except that of Syria, where Moawyah openly laid claim j \nto the caliphat, and was supported by Amru, who hoped by this \nalliance to regain his government of Egypt. Having vainly attempted \nconciliation, the caliph, with ninety thousand men, marched toward \nthe refractoiy province. The allies, with nearly that number, \nencountered him on the plain of Seff Seffein, on the banks of the \nEuphrates. For several months, actuated by a desire to spare the \neffusion of blood, Ali studiously avoided an engagement ; yet so \ndesperate was the skirmishing, that seventy thousand are said to \nhave fallen; among them a great part of the few remaining com- \npanions of the prophet. On one occasion, the caliph, with twelve \nthousand horse, made a furious charge against the enemy, and broke \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 327 \n\ntheir ranks ; but his generous heart revolting from the slaughter of \nhis countrymen, he sought out Moawyah, and entreated him to stake \ntheir rival pretensions on the result of a single combat. The rebel- \nlious emir, however, shrank from a contest with this renowned \nchampion \xe2\x80\x94 "The Lion of God;" and the Syrian army, when on the \npoint of defeat, disarmed the courage of their adversaries by placing \nthe Koran on the points of their lances, and crying out for an arbi- \ntration to be decided by its contents. Each claimant of the caliphat \nappointed an umpire, but the shrewdness and trickery of Amru, \nwho represented Moawyah, proved too much for the honest inefii- \nciency of the representative appointed by the caliph; and the \nparties separated with mutual hatred and discontent (A. D. 657). \n\nThe declining power of Ali was next menaced by the Karigites \nor Seceders, a fanatical and formidable sect, which assembled in \narms to the number of twenty-five thousand. The mildness and \nclemency of the caliph, however, reduced the number to four thou- \nsand, and these, making a desperate attack upon his camp, were cut \noff almost to a man. \n\nBy the treachery of Moawyah, Egypt was speedily embroiled in \ncivil war, and by his contrivance Malec, whom Ali had despatched \nas governor to allay the discontent, was poisoned on his way. \nAmru, with a considerable force, hastened to the scene of his for- \nmer exploits, and, uniting with the insurgents, gained possession of \nthe country, which he ruled as the viceroy of Moawyah, Mahomet, \nthe brother of Ayesha, who had been governor, was put to death \nby the adherents of Othman, in revenge for his share in the mur- \nder of that sovereign. A great part of Arabia was soon conquered \nby the ambitious rival of the rightful caliph. \n\nThe latter, though disheartened at these reverses, was preparing \nto invade Syria with sixty thousand men, when a strange conspiracy \nended for a time these civil dissensions. Three Karigites, fanatic- \nally discussing the misfortunes of Islam, agreed to restore unity to \nthe great Moslem family, by simultaneously despatching, on a given \nday, the three most prominent aspirants to sovereignty. Their plot \nwas partially successful. Moawyah, while officiating in the mosque \nat Damascus, was desperately wounded, but finally recovered. \nAmru was only saved by the mistake of the assassin, who killed \nthe iman who at the time chanced to occupy his place. The gener- \nous Ali, mortally wounded in the mosque at Cufa, ordered that his \nmurderer should be mildly treated, and that, if he should die, no \n\n\n\n328 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntorture should be employed in the execution of the criminal. This \nkindly and magnanimous sovereign, the noblest, if not the wisest, \nof the Arabian caliphs, three days afterwards expired, at the age \nof sixty-three, and after a stormy and embarrassed reign of only \nfive years (A. D. 660). His memory has ever been held in the \ndeepest veneration by the Persian Mahometans. \n\nHis son Hassan, a peaceful, honest, and unenergetic man, was \nforthwith elected in his place, and, stimulated by the zeal of Hosein, \nhis brother, and other valiant chiefs, put himself at the head of the \narmy, which the late caliph had prepared for the invasion of Syria. \nFeeling himself, however, inadequate to the command of his fiery \nand contentious followers, he soon made overtures to Moawyah, \noffering to resign the caliphat, on condition of receiving a princely \nrevenue, and the succession after the death of the latter. These \nterms were acceded to by his rival, who thug, in the forty-first year \nof the Hegira, assumed that sway over the entire Moslem empire \nwhich he had coveted so long. \n\n\n\nLJ Jbuj wiJb cL uj (ij (JuO iZ\\) Jj \n\n\n\nTHE SYEIAN C ALIPH AT.\xe2\x80\x94 REIGN OF MOAWYAH I. THE \n\nSIEGE OE CONSTANTINOPLE. WARS IN APRICA. \n\nTHE REIGN OF YEZID. \n\nMoawyah, the chief of the illustrious house of Ommiah, and \nthe founder of a splendid line of oriental sovereigns, assumed full \ndominion over the various Mahometan nations in the forty -first year \nof the Hegira (A. D. 662). The ability and rigour of his rule \nsoon stifled all opposition, and his taste for letters and the sciences, \nfurthered by influences from his Grecian provinces, began to throw \nsome refinement over the rude and successful arms of Islam. The \nnew caliph was ably supported by Ziyad, his illegitimate brother, \nwhom he conciliated by a public acknowledgment of their relation, \nand who, in various difficult and important posts, strongly upheld \nhis interest and the tranquillity of the empire. At the death of the \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 329 \n\nlatter, his son Obeid\'allah, wlio inherited his talents and severity, \nsucceeded to his authority. \n\nAmru had been confirmed in his government of Egypt, to which \nhe had a natural claim, both by his conquest of that country and his \nsubsequent able administration. He did not long survive the res- \ntoration of his power and honours, dying at an advanced age, in the \nforty-third year of the Hegira (A. D. 663). \n\nThe conquest of Constantinople had always been a favourite \nproject of the Mahometan sovereigns ; and the prophet himself had \npromised a fall remission of sins to the army which should achieve \nit. The present extent and security of the Moslem empire seemed to \nafford a fitting opportunity for the exploit; and the weakness and \nincapacity of the Emperor Constantine (the grandson of Heraclius) \nmenaced no prospect of a formidable resistance. The caliph accord- \ningly prepared powerful armaments, both by land and sea. The com- \nmand was intrusted to an ancient general, named Sophian, who was \naccompanied by a few of the yet surviving veterans who had fought \nin the early wars of the prophet. The emperor\'s son Yezid, and \nHosein, the noble son of Ali, also took a prominent part in the \nexpedition. \n\nFew particulars of this long and important contest have reached \nus. The Moslem forces, disembarking near Constantinople, besieged \nin vain for some time the strong and well-defended capital of the \nempire. At the approach of winter, they retired to an island about \neighty miles distant, which they made their head-quarters, and \nwhence, for six years, they made desperate and futile attempts to \ngain the disputed city. After losing great numbers, they were com- \npelled to return, having ravaged the coasts of either continent. \nThe Christians, taking courage from their successful defence, became \nassailants in their turn, and made demonstrations so formidable that \nMoawyah, aged and desirous of rest, was fain to purchase, by a \nconsiderable tribute, a truce for thirty years. \n\nDuring this contest, Northern Africa, so suddenly conquered, \nwas retained with difficulty, and seemed gradually slipping from the \nhands of the Faithful. To restore their ascendancy, the caliph des- \npatched from Damascus the valiant and enthusiastic Acbah, who, \nwith ten thousand horse, sped hastily thither, his forces augmenting \non the way. He retook Cyreue, and, pressing still westward, \nfounded the city of Caerwan, about a hundred miles from Carthage. \nBy the intrigues of Muhegir, governor of Egypt, the victorious \n\n\n\n330 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ngeneral was recalled; but bis merits being made known to the \ncaliph, was reappointed to the command, and during the succeeding \ncaliphat, performed many exploits. He put Muhegir, who, through \njealousy, was destroying the new colonies, into irons, and, pursuing \nhis victorious career through Mauritania, was only stopped by the \nwaters of the Atlantic. Spurring his horse into the waves, he \ndeclared that, unless thus prohibited, he would have carried the \nsword of Islam farther yet. He was subsequently surrounded, with \na small army, by an immense host of Greeks and Moors, who, though \noften at war with each other, were now united against the common \nenemy. He released Muhegir from his chains that he might strike \na last blow in behalf of Islam, and gain the abodes of Paradise. The \nwhole band, fighting most desperately, were cut off almost to a man. \n\nMoawyah, conscious of his approaching end, had named his son \nYezid as his successor \xe2\x80\x94 a step upon which none of the caliphs had \nhitherto ventured. Such, however, was his entire control over the \nMoslems, that fealty was sworn to his heir without opposition; and \nthe house of the Ommiades thus became the first hereditary \nMahometan dynasty. He died A. D. 679, at the age of seventy \nyears, after a generally successful reign of nearly twenty. Though \nhis accession to the throne was stained by violence, craft, and cruelty, \nhis reign seems for the most part to have been marked by justice, \nclemency, and generosity, and his personal influence to have been \nequal to that of any of his predecessors. The luxuries of Syria and \nother conquered nations were, in his reign, introduced into the \nhitherto simple and primitive court of the caliphs; and his capital, \nDamascus, presented a strong contrast to the ascetic and religious \nstate which had been maintained at Medina. \n\nYezid, who, at the age of thirty-four, came to the throne, was of \na selfish and sensual nature ; and his reputation was stained by the \nimputation of the murder of Hassan, who, according to agreement, \nwas to have succeeded Moawyah in the caliphat. His authority \nwas, however, generally acknowledged, and he sent immediate \norders to Medina to exact allegiance from Hosein, and from Abdal- \nlah, the son of Zobeir. Ambitious and dissatisfied, they fled to \nMecca, and declared openly against the caliph. Hosein, as the son \nof Ali, and the grandson of the prophet, was regarded by many as \nthe rightful heir to the sovereignty ; and on receiving an invitation \nfrom the people of Cufa to repair to their city, he set out from \nMecca with his family and a slender escort. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 33;!^ \n\nHis expectations, however, were deceived. Obeid\'allaTi, tlie fierce \nand saguinary son of Ziyad, had suppressed the premature revolt \nwhich had been commenced in his favour, and had sent the head of \nMuslim, his most faithful and active adherent, to the Caliph Yezid. \nHosein himself, being surrounded by a large force near the Eu- \nphrates, was refused any alternative except the oath of fealty or \nimmediate death. He preferred the latter, and all his little train, \nin spite of his remonstrances, joined in the resolution. Selling \ntheir lives as dearly as possible, this heroic band was cut to pieces, \nafter slaying eighty-eight of the enemy, The gory head of Hosein \nwas brought before Obeid\'allah, who brutally smote it on the mouth \nwith his staff \xe2\x80\x94 an outrage which caused an aged Arab to exclaim \npathetically that he had seen those lips pressed by the prophet of \nGod. The caliph, however, on receiving the ghastly trophy, shed \ntears, and cursed the unsparing emir who had sent it. He treated \nthe unfortunate children of his rival with kindness and magnanimity. \n\nFrom the religious feeling and the animosity excited by these \nevents, sprang up the celebrated and rival Persian sects of the Shy- \nites and the Sonnites ; the former of whom hold the house of Ali \nin the deepest veneration, and canonize Hosein as a martyr and a \nsaint. The day on which he perished is held as a solemn religious \nfestival, sacred to his memory throughout the Eastern world. "The \nhistory of Islam," says Mr. Macaulay, "contains nothing more touch- \ning than that mournful legend : how the chief of the Fatimites, when \nall his brave followers had perished around him, drank his latest \ndraught of water and uttered his latest prayer \xe2\x80\x94 how the assassins \ncarried his head in triumph \xe2\x80\x94 how the tyrant smote the lifeless \nlips with his staff \xe2\x80\x94 and how a few old men recollected with tears \nthat they had seen those lips pressed to the lips of the prophet of \nGod. After the lapse of nearly twelve centuries, the recurrence of \nthis solemn season excites the fiercest and saddest emotions in the \nbosoms of the devout Moslems of India. They work themselves \nup to such agonies of rage and lamentation, that some, it is said, \nhave given up the ghost from the mere effect of mental excitement. \nThey believe that whoever during this festival falls in arms against \nthe infidels, atones by his death for all the sins of his life, and passes \nat once to the gardens of the Houris." \n\nAbdallah, the son of Zobeir, already hostile to the house of \nOmmiah, now commenced to inflame the resentment of the Arabs \nby elot[uent denunciations of the late murder. At a public meeting \n\n\n\n332 THE TEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nin tlie mosque at Medina, the calipli\'s authority was universally dis \nowned, and the adherents of his house were besieged in the palace \nof the governor. Meslem, an aged but ferocious general, was des- \npatched, with seventeen thousand men, to their relief. He took the \ncity by storm, after a brave defence, and delivered it up to massacre \nand pillage for three days (A. D. 682). Proceeding to inflict the \nsame vengeance on Mecca, he died on the way, and Hozein, the \ncommander who succeeded him, laid siege to the rebellious city. \nFor forty days it was stoutly defended by Abdallah and his adhe- \nrents, and at the end of that time was saved from further violence \nby tidings of the death of Yezid. He died A. D. 683, after a reign \nof three years and a half. \n\n\n\nTHE RIVAL CALIPHS OF DAMASCUS AND MECCA. \n\nTRIUMPH OF ABD\'ALMALEC. \n\nThe son of Yezid, Moawyah II., a youth of twenty-one, resigned \nthe authority, after holding it only six months, and soon after died. \nThe principal men of Damascus appointed in his place Merwan, an \nartful man, who had been secretary to the Caliph Othman; stipu- \nlating, however, that he should be succeeded by Khaled, the son of \nYezid. His sovereignty, for the present, extended only over a part \nof the great Mahometan empire \xe2\x80\x94 Arabia, Egypt, and several of the \nPersian provinces adhering to the rival caliph, Abdallah, who held \nhis court at Mecca. Obeid\'allah, who had prematurely attempted \nthe assumption of independent power, was expelled from Bassora, \nand, flying ignominiously to Damascus, gave in his adhesion to Mer- \nwan. Dehac, the governor of Cufa, who with a large force declared \nfor Abdallah, was defeated in a murderous engagement, and his \nhead was presented to the Syrian caliph. Amru Ibn Saad, the \nactive general of the latter, recovered Egjrpt, and signally defeated \nMusab, the brother of Abdallah, who was advancing with an army \nto its assistance. Abd\'alaziz, the son of the caliph, was appointed \ngovernor of the reconquered province. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 333 \n\nBy a singular species of contrition, the people of Cufa, to wliose \ndesertion and insincerity Hosein owed his death, were suddenly \nsmitten by the united passions of grief and revenge. Four thou- \nsand of them, assuming the title of "Penitents," fanatically set forth, \nresolved to avenge his death, and reinstate the descendants of Ali in \nthe sovereignty ; but were encountered in Syria by the fierce Obeid\'- \nailah, with an army of twenty thousand horse, and were cut to pieces. \n\nAfter the disastrous fate of the gallant Acbah, the Mahometan \narms had lost ground in Northern Africa ; and the native inhabit- \nants, powerfully reinforced from Constantinople, had taken the city \nof Caerwan, and compelled the invaders to retreat to the eastward. \nAbd\'almalec, the son of the caliph, was sent with an army to \nretrieve these misfortunes ; and, joining his forces to those of the \nMahometan commander, defeated the enemy, and retook the city. \nAfter a brilliant campaign, which reassured the ascendancy of the \nMoslems, he returned to Damascus; and, in violation of the pledge \nof Merwan, was appointed his successor in place of Khaled, The \naged caliph^ however, presently met his end, after a reign of less \nthan a year, being murdered, it is said, by the mother of Khaled, \nwhom he had married. \n\nAbd\'almalec, at the age of forty, came to the throne with a high \nreputation for valour, wisdom, and learning \xe2\x80\x94 qualities which, how- \never, were soon obscured by a sordid covetousness. To attract the \ntrue Moslems from Mecca, the seat of his rival Abdallah, he con- \nsecrated Jerusalem as a place of pilgrimage, and enlarged the \nmosque of Omar, on the site of the temple of Solomon, \n\nA singular and truly Arabian character began at this time to \nplay a conspicuous part in the shifting scenes of oriental policy. \nHe was the son of Abu Obeidah, and became, from his extraordi- \nnary career, generally known by the title of Al Moktar, or The \nAvenger. He had been a zealous adherent of the house of Ali, \nand while a prisoner had lost an eye from a blow of the ferocious \nEmir Obeid\'allah, After fighting in the defence of Mecca, he \nreturned to Cufa, and, burning to revenge the death of Hosein, \nbecame leader of a numerous sect, which still adhered to the house \nof Ali, Supported by this powerful faction, he proceeded to punish \nunrelentingly all who had been concerned in the martyrdom of the \ngrandson of the prophet; and after causing a great number of \nexecutions, found himself completely established in the sovereignty \nof Babylonia. \n\n\n\n334 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nMahomet, the brotlier of Hosein, witli his family, was imprisoned \nin Mecca by the suspicious Abdallah ; but was rescued and carried \noff in triumph by a few hundred hardy and resolute warriors, whom \nAl Moktar sent to his assistance, and who took the caliph by sur- \nprise. Abd\'almalec had despatched a powerful army against the \nnew pretender, under Obeid\'allah, his ancient enemy and oppressor. \nThey were encountered at some distance from Cufa by Ibrahim, \nthe -valiant general of Al Moktar, and were routed with great \nslaughter. The head of their sanguinary leader was brought before \nthe Avenger, who smote it with a savage satisfaction, as the dead \nman had smitten the face of his victim Hosein, and that of his \nformer prisoner. \n\nThe usurper did not long enjoy his triumph. He was attacked by \nMusab, the brother of Abdallah, was routed, and compelled to retreat \ninto the citadel of Cufa. Here he was slain, after a valiant defence, \nand his garrison, seven thousand in number, were put to the sword by \nthe enraged victor. He had well earned his name of the Avenger, \nhaving put to death, before his fall, nearly fifty thousand of his \nenemies, besides those who perished in battle. \n\nMusab was now in full possession of the conquered province; and \nAbd\'almalec resolved, in person, to wrest it from his hands. On \nhis march, he learned that his cousin, Amru, to whom he had \nintrusted the government in his absence, was aiming at the sove- \nreignty. He returned rapidlj^, and a bloody combat ensued in the \nstreets of Damascus. An apparent reconciliation was effected ; but \nthe caliph, getting possession of the person of his rival, struck off \nhis head, aud again marched for Babylonia. Musab encountered \nhim with his army, not far from Palmyra; but being deserted by a \npart of his forces, was offered his life by the victorious sovereign. \nHe. refused the offer, determined to conquer or die; and with his \nvaliant son Isa, was slain, fighting bravely to the last. The con- \nquest of Babylonia and Irak was thus fully secured, and the victor \nentered the citadel of Cufa in triumph. \n\nThe head of Musab was brought to him ; and an aged resident in \nthe castle could not forbear remarking that in that very fortress he \nhad seen the head of Hosein presented to Obeid\'allah; that of \nObeid\'allah to Al Moktar ; his in turn to Musab ; and now that of \nMusab to Abd\'almalec. The caliph, whose whole nature was \nimbued with superstition, imagined a fresh seqence to this series of \nevents; and, lest his own name should figure in a similar recital, \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 335 \n\ncaused tlie ill-omened edifice to be levelled with the ground. He \nthen returned to Damascus, having appointed his youthful brother,\' \nBesher, as governor of the province\xe2\x80\x94 the real power, however, \nbeing confided in an able and experienced vizier named Musa. \n\nBy these, and further dissensions in the Moslem empire, the \nstrength of the Syrian caliphat was much diminished. The Greeks \nbegan to make successful incursions; and Abd\'almalec, to purchase \npeace of the emperor, was compelled to pay additional tribute. \n\nHaving by this humiliating condition secured the forbearance of \nhis Christian neighbours, the Syrian caliph resolved upon a grand \neffort to overthrow Abdallah, his Meccan rival, and once again \nunite the children of Islam under a single Commander of the Faith- \nful. Al Hejagi, a fierce and able commander, was despatched against \nthe Sacred City, where Abdallah, with his few devoted adherents, \ndefended themselves, for a long time, with unavailing courage. \nFinding his ranks so thinned by desertion that a further defence \nwould be ineffectual, the Arabian caliph, now aged and infirm, \nsallied forth with a few brave men, and, after making great havoc \namong the enemy, fell, covered with wounds (Hegira 73). Arabia, \nafter the loss of its sovereign, submitted to the rival power. \n\nThe arms of Al Hejagi were next turned against the emir of \nKhorasan, an officer of the late caliph, to whom the head of Abdal- \nlah had been sent as a warning against contumacious resistance, \nThe spirited emir, however, carefully embalmed the sacred object, \nmade the caliph\'s messenger eat the letter he had brought, and sent \nhim back with a defiance. He was, however,- overcome by Al Hejagi, \nand finally slain. \n\nBesher having died, Al Hejagi was appointed as governor of the \nprovince of Babylonia; and Musa, falling into disgrace, was com- \npelled to seek the protection of Abd\'alaziz, the caliph\'s brother, and \ngovernor of Egypt. The new emir, by his severity and military \nskill, soon reduced the refractory cities to subjection ; and suppresed, \nin succession, several formidable rebellions, which had menaced the \ncaliphat itself His tyranny, and the terrible frequency of his \nexecutions, however, caused his memory to be deeply detested in \nall the countries which had owned his sway. \n\n\n\n336 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\n\\j (Lui lOoj cL Jj cLi Oju l60o (I; Jj Jj o \n\n\n\nREVIVAL OE THE SPIRIT OF CONQrEST. THE REIGN OP WALEB. \n\nPINAL SUBJUGATION OF NORTHERN AFRICA. \n\nThe Moslem dominions were now, indeed, reunited under a sin- \ngle commander of the Faithful ; but the Mahometans, by their own \ndissensions, had lost that first flush of success which threatened their \nentire ascendancy over the civilized world. That ascendancy was \nnow in a great degree to be restored. Abd\'almalec, secure upon his \nthrone, at once renounced the onerous and humiliating tribute of \ngold, women, and Arabian coursers, which had been for some time \nenforced by the Greek emperors. Taking advantage also of the \nunpopularity of Leontius, the new emperor, he even despatched an \nexpedition against the Christians, and acquired some spoil and \nterritory. \n\nAfrica, however, was at this time destined to be the scene of \nmore famous exploits than the arms of Islam had for some time \nachieved. The Moslems had successively lost many of their acquisi- \ntions in that country; and the fleets and armies of the empire had \nregained various important stations, especially on the sea-coast. In \nthe seventy-seventh year of the Hegira (A. D. 698) the caliph, anx- \nious to recover his lost ground, despatched Hossan, an able general, \nwith forty thousand men, into the north of Africa. His first blow \nwas aimed at the important city of Carthage, which had been rebuilt \nby the Roman emperors, and which was now strongly garrisoned by \nthe imperial forces. After a long siege, he took it by storm ; many \nof the inhabitants were slain, and others escaped by sea. \n\nThe Moslem army, in the midst of its triumph, was, however, \ncompelled to retreat to Caerwan, by a large force of imperialists, \nwhich, reinforced by the Goths from Spain, and commanded by the \nPrefect John, made its appearance before the place. Having in his \nturn received reinforcement, Hossan again marched to the scene of \naction, defeated the prefect, and compelled him, with the remnant \nof his forces, to embark for Constantinople. Carthage was again \ntaken and delivered to the flames. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \n\n\n\n837 \n\n\n\nHaving tlius expelled the forces of the empire from the contested \nshore, the Moslem commander was enabled to turn his arms against \nthe hostile natives. These, headed by an heroic and patriotic queen, \ncalled Cahina, or the Sorceress, united so zealously in opposing \ntheir invaders, that Hossan, after repeated battles, was compelled to \nretire to the frontiers of Egypt. To prevent his return, Cahina \ncaused all the country to be laid waste. The desired effect was not \nproduced. The Moslems returned in increased numbers, and the \nheroic queen was defeated and captured. Refusing either to pay \ntribute or embrace Islamism, she was forthwith beheaded in presence \nof the Mahometan general. \n\nThe victor, however, receiving an appointment to the government \nof Barca, incurred the jealous displeasure of Abd\'alaziz, who stripped \nhim of his offices, and reduced him to ruin \xe2\x80\x94 appointing in his place \nMusa, the former vizier of Babylonia, who was destined to perform \ngreater achievements in the west than any of his predecessors. This \ncelebrated conqueror, when he received the command of the Mos- \nlem forces in Northern Africa, although sixty years of age, was \nfilled with ardour and the spirit of enterprise. His courage, gener- \nosity, and affability soon endeared him to the army ; and he resolved \non the difficult attempt of subduing the warlike tribes who inhabited \nthe range of Mount Atlas, and ravaged the plains beneath. He \ndefeated them in battle, and his sons Merwan and Abd\'alaziz pene- \ntrated into their strongholds, and brought back immense booty and \nalmost innumerable captives. \n\nThese exploits soon restored him to the favour of the caliph ; and \nhis ranks were recruited by volunteers, who came from all quarters \nto fight under so liberal and courteous a leader. His army no longer \nconsisted of Mahometans alone. Great numbers of Jews, idolaters, \nand others, allured by the love of plunder and victory, hastened to \nenlist under his banner; and thus reinforced, he was enabled to \noverthrow the powerful Berber tribes of the Zenetes, the Gomeres, \nand the Mazamudas, who had joined in a formidable confederacy \nagainst the encroaching power. \n\nThe naval exploits of Moawyah I. had opened the way for more \nextended enterprises ; and fleets from Syria and Egypt had already \nengaged their Christian enemies on the seas. By order of the \ncaliph, Musa founded and completed an extensive dock-yard and \narsenal at Tunis, whence his fleets, under the command of his son \nAbdolola, plundered the hostile coasts of Sicily. \n22 \n\n\n\n338 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nAbd\'almalec, however, did not long survive this renewal of the \nMoslem successes. He expired at Damascus at the age of sixty, in \nthe eighty-sixth year of the Hegira, leaving a reputation for talent \nand valour, as well as cruelty, superstition, and treachery. His son \nWaled succeeded without opposition to the power and splendour \nwhich already distinguished the court of Damascus. The great pas- \nsion of the new sovereign was for building, and many of the noblest \nedifices of the Mahometan faith, in various cities of the East, owe \ntheir erection to him. He constantly employed twelve thousand \nAvorkmen on the grand mosque at Damascus, which, to his deep \nregret, he did not live to see completed. \n\nWhile he thus devoted himself to works of art and refinement, \nor enjoyed the luxurious indolence of his seraglio, his lieutenants \nwere widely extending his empire in various directions. His brother \nMoslema invaded Asia Minor, gained important successes in the \nprovince of Cappadocia, and subdued a great part of Pontus, Arme- \nnia, and Galatia. Khatiba, the son of the latter, the emir of \nKhorasan, equally enterprising, invaded Turkistan, defeated a great \narmy of Turks and Tartars, and took their capital Bochara. He \ngained a yet more brilliant triumph in the reduction of the great \ncity of Samarcand, which he made tributary, and where he erected \na mosque, and made many converts to the faith of Islam. Mohammed \nIbn Casem, another commander, gained great successes in Central \nIndia, and planted his standard on the banks of the Ganges. \n\nThe fleets of Musa, commanded by Abdolola, continued to scour \nthe Mediterranean, ravaging the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia, and \ncarrying off immense booty and many beautiful captives. Aided \nby Abd\'alaziz, another of his valiant sons, the governor subdued the \nkingdoms of Fez, Duquella, Morocco, and Sus, and brought nearly \nall Northern Africa fully xmder the sway of the caliph. His mod- \nerate and paternal government improved and conciliated the nations \nthus brought under subjection. As yet, the strong cities of Ceuta \nand Tangiers, at the Straits of Hercules, defied his arms. These \nimportant posts were now in the hands of the Gothic inhabitants of \nSpain ; and Musa resolved to complete his conquests by their reduc- \ntion. Tangiers, after an obstinate defence, fell into his hands; but \nCeuta being ably defended by Count Julian, a distinguished Gothic \nnoble, held out successfully. The Moslems, in repeated attempts to \nstorm the fortress, were repulsed with great loss, and, after a siege \nof several months, began to despair of effecting their object, when \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 339 \n\na memorable occurrence not only completed their African acliieve- \nments, but opened to them a new and surprising career of European \nconquest. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER II Y. \n\nTHE CONUTJEST OF SPAIN, AND THE INVASION OP PRANCE. \n\nEoDERic, the last of the Gothic sovereigns of Spain, was at this \ntime upon the throne of that country. He was addicted to pleasure \nand licentiousness ; and it is related by Spanish chroniclers that he \nhad committed a disgraceful outrage upon the beautiful Cava, \ndaughter of Count Julian, the governor of Spanish Andalusia and \nAfrican Mauritania. Burning to avenge this injury, the haughty \nnobleman sought his Moslem adversary, and, depicting the feebleness \nand Tinpopularity of the Gothic monarch, invited an invasion of his \ncountry, Musa, fired with fresh ambition, obtained the consent of \nthe caliph; and in the spring of the year 709, Tarik, an intrepid \nSaracen chief, was despatched with seven thousand men to com- \nmence the work of conquest. Landing at Mount Calpe, and con- \nducted by the traitor Julian, the Moslem arms met with signal \nand immediate success. The king, hitherto immersed in luxury at \nhis court of Toledo, was alarmed into action, and, with an hundred \nthousand men, took the field. His enemies, only a fifth of that \nnumber, were, however, emboldened by victory, and by the stern \nexhortation of their leader, who reminded them that no refuge but \nthe sea was behind them. After seven days of skirmishing, a \ngeneral engagement took place, on the banks of the river Guadelete, \nin Medina-Sidonia. Eoderic, by the fresh treachery of a powerful \nchief, was signally defeated, and, flying from the field, perished in \nthe waters of the Gaudalquiver. \n\nThe victorious general, pursuing his conquest, marched to the \nBay of Biscay, the Moslems being eagerly assisted by the numerous \nJews, who gladly took part in throwing off the yoke of the Gothic \nChristians, their ancient persecutors. Musa, emulating these exploits, \nspeedily followed with his army, made fresh conquests, and even \ncarried his standard beyond the Pyrenees. Tarik, of whose renown \n\n\n\n340 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. \n\nhe was jealous, was deprived of his command, and even insulted by \na blow. The aged conqueror was meditating a march through all \nSouthern Europe, when he was recalled by the caliph to give an \naccount of his arrogance and mal-administration. His disgrace \nsaved Europe from a formidable and perhaps fatal invasion. \n\nThe conquest of Spain was fully completed in about five years, \nand the native inhabitants were permitted, on payment of a moder- \nate tribute, to enjoy their laws and religion. Ere long the Saracen \nor Moorish governor again crossed the Pyrenees, seized on the \nFrench province of Languedoc, and overawed all the country \nbetween the mouth of the Ehone and that of the Garonne. In the \nyear 731, the daring and ambitious Abd\'alrahman, who then com- \nmanded the Spanish province, made an expedition into France with \na great army, defeated Eudes. the French commander, and overran \nall Aquitain and Burgundy. The conquest of France, and perhaps \nof all Christian Europe, was averted by the valour and skill of \nCharles Martel, then "mayor of the palace" to the feeble sovereign, \nThierry II., and in fact the real ruler of France. He assembled a \ngreat force of French and Germans, and encountered the invaders, in \nthe centre of the kingdom, between the cities of Tours and Poictiers. \n\nAfter a battle, which, from the number and obstinacy of the com- \nbatants, lasted seven days, the Mahometan ranks, overpowered by the \nsuperior strength and stature of their adversaiies, met with a most \ndisastrous defeat, and were compelled to retreat, leaving the bones \nof many thousands of their number upon the field. This battle, per- \nhaps the most important in the history of the world, stayed for ever \nthe tide of Mahometan invasion, at that time threatening to overflow \neven the imperfect Christianity, and the germ of civilization, which \nthen existed in Western Europe. For although undoubtedly the \nSaracens afterwards attained a degree of learning and refinement as \nyet unknown among other people, the peculiar nature of their faith, \nand perhaps of their national character, has hitherto prevented any \nMahometan nation from making advances which will sustain a com- \nparison with those of the Saxon and Norman races, impelled by the \ngenius of Christianity. \n\nDuring the domestic dissensions which soon after agitated and \ndivided the caliphat, the Saracens lost ground, and in the year 759, \nPepin the Short, the son of Charles, and the inheritor of his genius \nand authority, succeeded in completely expelling them from their \nacquisitions in the south of France. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. g^l \n\n\n\nTHE DITISION OF THE CALIPHAT. THE DYNASTIES OF \n\nSPAIN, AFRICA, AND BAGDAD. FURTHER CONaiJESTS, \n\nDECLINE OF THE SARACENIC POWER. \n\nThe Ommiades, or Syrian Caliphs, wlio for ninety years had held \ntheir dominion, founded on the ruin of the house of Ali and the \ndescendants of the prophet, were, in the year 750, compelled to \ngive place to a new power. Abu Moslem, the governor of Khor- \nasan, a devoted Fatimite, espoused the cause of Ildrahim, a descend- \nant in the fourth degree of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet \xe2\x80\x94 an \nArabian chief, whose name thenceforth distinguished the Abassides, \none of the most illustrious of Mahometan dynasties. A bloody \ncivil war ensued throughout the Moslem dominions ; but Marvan, \nthe reigning caliph, was finally defeated, and lost his life, while con- \ntending for his throne in Egypt. Saffah, the brother of Ildrahim, \ngained possession of the sovereignty, and sought to cement his \npower by the extermination of the entire family of the rival dynasty ; \na savage expedient, in attempting which, thousands of innocent per- \nsons were remorselessly assassinated. The new sovereign fixed his \ncourt at Cufa, but his successors transferred it to the magnificent \ncity of Bagdad, erected by Almanzor, the second of the dynasty; \nand were thenceforward known by the celebrated title of "the \nCaliphs of Bagdad." \n\nDuring the reign of Sblyman, the successor of Waled, Constanti- \nnople, the capital of the Emperor Anastatius, had again sustained \nsuccessfully a siege of thirteen months, during which many thou- \nsands of the fanatical Moslems had fallen under its walls (A. D. \n718). In the reign of Mohadi, the third sovereign of the Abassidan \nline, the war with the empire was renewed, and tribute was once \nmore exacted from the defeated Greeks. (During many succeeding \ncenturies, the Moslems, from their various provinces, carried on an \nactive warfare with the nations of Southern Europe, and gained \npermanent or temporary possession of almost every island in the \nMediterranean. A body of the Saracens, in the middle of the ninth \ncentury, cruising from Sicily, even sailed up the Tiber, and laid \n\n\n\n342 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nsiege to Rome itself. They defeated the forces of the Emperor \nLothaire, and the city was only saved by the courageous conduct of \nthe Pope, Leo lY.; and by a tempest, which scattered and enfeebled \nthe Moslem armament.) \n\nThe new line of caliphs, though destined to enjoy a long and \nmemorable sway over extensive dominions, were unable, in the \nuniversal confusion, to retain their empire entire. The young \nAbd\'alrahman, a member of the house of Ommiah, escaping from \nthe assassins of Saflfah, had taken refuge in Africa. The Saracen \nor Moorish colonists of Spain had always been deeply attached to \nthe fallen dynasty, and now offered, their support and allegiance to \nthe exiled adventurer. He landed amid general rejoicing, suc- \nceeded in gaining the absolute sovereignty of the nation, and \nbequeathed his power to a succession of Ommiad princes. \n\nRefinement succeeded power, and at a time when nearly all Europe \nwas sunk in barbarism, a brilliant and intellectual race of Mahometans \noccupied the fairest regions of the south-western peninsula. Nothing \nin Europe could compare with the splendour and luxury of the \ncapital cities of Cordova and Granada. The most magnificent \nmosques and palaces attested the wealth of the sovereigns and their \nzeal for religion ; while the high advancement of learning and the \nsciences, made the court of the caliphs the frequent resort of men \nof intellect and attainments. \n\nIn the eleventh century, the power of the Spanish caliphs, by that \ntime tyrannical and luxurious, was overthrown, and the various \ndistricts, seized upon by powerful nobles, became divided into a \ngreat number of petty principalities. Thus the nation lost much of \nits power ; and the Gothic nobles, who still in a mountainous district \nmaintained their indejDendence, commenced the work of restoring \ntheir country to the Christian rule. After many centuries of almost \nuninterrupted warfare, the Moors, continually losing ground, were \nreduced to the small but beautiful kingdom of Granada, one of the \nmost enchanting regions on earth. From this last refuge, after a \ngallant and protracted defence, they were finally expelled, at the \nclose of the fifteenth century, by the forces of Ferdinand and \nIsabella, the sovereigns of Castile and Arragon. By the treaty of \nsurrender, toleration and protection were solemnly guarantied to \nall the Moslems who should remain in Spain ; yet the most disgrace- \nful persecution soon ensued, and great numbers were compelled to \nsuffer martyrdom, or to embrace the faith of their conquerors. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \n\n\n\n343 \n\n\n\nFinally, in tlie reign of Philip tlie Third, that weak prince was \ninduced, by the influence of the clergy, to issue an edict, banishing \nthe whole race from Spain, and confiscating the greater part of their \nproperty. They were transported by the royal fleet to Africa, where \nfrom want, exposure, and the attack of the Bedouins, an immense \nnumber of them perished in the desert. The few who offered resist- \nance to the act of expulsion were, after a brave and patriotic defence \nin the mountains, overpowered and put to death. Thus ended the \nMoorish empire \xe2\x80\x94 ^the most enlightened, tolerant, and chivalrous, \nAvhich has ever occupied the Spanish peninsula. \n\nThe loss of Spain to the Abassidan caliphs was, ere long, suc- \nceeded by that of Egypt and Northern Africa. In the year 812, \nAli Ildrahim, the viceroy of the latter country, set up an independent \npower in the north-western provinces. The Fatimite dynasty, which, \nabout a century afterwards, succeeded to the sovereignty, by degrees \ngained possession of the whole field of Mahometan conquest. Moez, \nthe last of this line, subjugated Egypt, and founded the city of Cairo. \nAfter his death, the country, for five centuries, remained in a dis- \ntracted and turbulent condition; numerous kingdoms acquiring a \nseparate existence, among which were those of Morocco, Tunis, and \nAlgiers. From these active maritime states, for many centuries, \nswarms of piratical cruisers issued forth, sweeping the seas, making \ndescents upon the coasts of Europe, and carrying off great booty and \ninnumerable captives. Though most of the Northern African states \nhave been claimed as fiefs by the sultan of Turkey, and though they \nhave generally admitted his nominal sovereignty, the throne of each \nhas been the prey of a succession of adventurers, and its capital a \nscene of repeated treachery and bloodshed. \n\nEgypt, whose history has already been given, was held by various \ndynasties of powerful Mahometans. The most illustrious sovereign \nof this country was the famous Saladin, whose refinement, chivalry, \nand magnanimity illumine the dark and violent age in which he \nwore the crown. \n\nThe house of the Abassides, after losing all their territories in the \nwest, held in their capital of Bagdad a powerful and enlightened \nsway, for nearly two hundred years, over the yet extensive dominions \nwhich remained faithful to their interests. Their power, however, \ngradually succumbed before the various schisms which at this time \ndistracted the Mahometan faith and divided the empire. Eadhi, the \ntwentieth of the line, was the last who retained any political \n\n\n\n844 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nimportance: "the last," says the Arabian historian Abulfeda, "who \nharangued the people from the ptilpit, who passed the cheerful hours \nof leisure with men of learning and taste ; whose expenses, resources, \nand treasures, whose table or magnificence, had any resemblance to \nthose of the ancient caliphs" (A. D. 940). \n\nFor three centuries longer, however, the descendants of the \nprophet\'s family maintained a precarious semblance of state and \nauthority, though usually completely in the power of others. The \nTurkish and Tartarian guards, which these sovereigns had intro- \nduced for their protectors, soon became their masters; and Bagdad \nwas, for long periods, the prey of a licentious soldiery, more fierce \nand uncontrollable than the Mamalukes of Egypt or the Janissaries \nof Turkey. The governors of their various provinces were mostly \nenabled, by successful rebellion, to establish separate principalities ; \nand finally, in the year A. D. 1258, the hordes of Tartars, who, under \nHoulagou, the grandson of Zinghis Khan, were then overrunning \nwestern Asia, laid siege to Bagdad. After a siege of two months \nit was taken by storm, and the Caliph Motassem, the last sovereign of \nthe Abassides, was murdered, with peculiar barbarity by the victor. \n\n\n\nu ti fl I i iLi Sa Avi, \n\n\n\nTHE TARTAR CONQUESTS AND INVASIONS. \n\nThe splendid and powerful dynasties founded in India by the \nEastern Mahometans have already been described in the account of \nthat country. A new and more terrible power than theirs was \ndestined to whelm Asia in fresh calamities. Tartary, the Scythia \nof the ancients, and the "store-house" of innumerable warlike \nhordes, has always been inhabited by a fierce, nomadic, and preda- \ntory race. Gross in their habits, and puerile in their superstitions, \nthese tribes have perhaps never been surpassed for personal valour \nand endurance, or for fixed unity and tenacity of purpose. " They \nare more obedient," says an ancient traveller, "unto their lords and \nmasters, than any other, either clergy or lay people, in the whole \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. \n\n\n\n345 \n\n\n\nworld." Zingliis Khan, tlie most remarkable of tlie conquerors and \ndevastators of Asia, was born A. D. 1154, of an imperial family in \nCentral Tartary. Disinherited at the age of thirteen, by orphanage, \nhe was educated and preferred to honour, by the khan of the Kareits, \na friend of his father. Expelled in turn from this court, and suffer- \ning great hardships, he finally acquired an independent power, and \nso aroused the superstitious deference of the natives, that his \nstandard, when hoisted, attracted them in countless numbers. His \njSrst exploit was the conquest of Northern China, from which five \nimportant provinces were soon dismembered. \n\nAt this time (A. D. 1218) the vast territory extending from India \nto Turkestan and the Persian gulf was ruled in effect by a powerful. \nMoslem prince of the name of Muhammed. With equal folly and \ncruelty he had rejected a fr-iendly intercourse proposed by Zinghis, \nand had murdered his ambassadors. The Tartar sovereign, with an \nimmense army, marched to avenge this outrage, and in a great \nbattle, north of the Jaxartes, the fate of Western Asia was decided. \nThe victorious barbarians at once overran the country, committing \nthe most hideous murder and devastation. After having seized \nPersia and maiiy other provinces, the victorious ravager expired \n(A. D. 1227), while urging his sons to complete the conquest of the \nChinese empire. His eldest son, Oktai, succeeded to the throne, and, \nfor a century, during which the Zinghishanidan dynasty pursued its \ncareer of conquest and devastation, Asia presented a spectacle of \nwar and massacre on a scale of unprecedented magnitude. The \ncelebrated battles of the west are insignificant, compared with those \nin which hundreds of thousands of the ferocious Mongols engaged \nequal numbers of their less active and almost invariably defeated \nresistants. China, on which further encroachments had been made, \nand in which millions of the native inhabitants had been slaughtered, \nwas finally, in the middle of the thirteenth century, completely con- \nquered by Kublai Khan, the fifth successor of Zinghis. \n\nThe victor, in fruitlessly attempting the conquest of Japan, lost \nvast numbers of his people ; but nearly all the circumjacent king- \ndoms of Asia fell under his sway. With a thousand ships he set \nsail for fresh conquests, and took possession of Borneo, in the Indian \nArchipelago. Bagdad had already been taken, and the last of the \ncaliphs ignominiously put to death. Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, \nand Palestine soon fell under the power of the Mongols. Their \nattack on Egypt was indeed repelled by the skill and bravery of \n\n\n\n346 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe Mamalukes; and the Greek empire, from some unknown cause, \nescaped the fury of their attack. But Turkestan, Russia, and \nHungary speedily fell before the number and ferocity of the invaders. \nIn vain did the Pope remonstrate with the formidable potentate, \nwhose armies threatened to overwhelm alike the Mahometan and \nChristian world. The khan himself claimed a spiritual supremacy, \nand would accept no terms but those of unconditional homage and \nsubmission. The domestic quarrels of the conquerors alone saved \nEurope from further devastation. About the year A. D. 1295, the \ndynasty of Zinghis fell to pieces, and the great Asian empire-acquired \nby his successors became divided into a number of kingdoms, under \nseparate and rival chiefs of the Mongols. \n\nThe tempest of Tartar invasion, after having been lulled for \nnearly a century, again commenced with additional fury. Timur, \nor Tamerlane,* a descendant of the relatives of Zinghis, and the most \nfortunate of Eastern conquerors, was born in April, A. D. 1336. \nHe inherited the principality of Kesh in Transoxiana, and by his \ncourage and patriotism, after a long and bloody contest, had succeeded \nin delivering his country from the tyranny of the Calmucs of \nCashgar, and in acquiring extensive authority. By general con- \nsent, in the year 1370, he assumed the imperial title, and made the \nbeautiful city of Samarcand his capital. He now resolved on fresh \nconquests, and the Mongol natives flocked eagerly round his standard. \nAfter desperate warfare, he became master of all Tartary, and as \nhas been related in the description of India, made a careless and \nflying conquest of that wealthy region. Persia, in turn, was brought, \nby easy conquest, entirely under his sway. \n\nFrom this period, the history of the Tartarian sovereigns is prop- \nerly Mahometan. Zinghis was simply a deist, and his followers \nmostly idolaters, though toleration to all religions was extended by \nhis successors. But the invaders had now, in a great measure, \nadopted the faith of the nations they had conquered. Timur was a \nzealous Mussulman of the sect of Ali, and had built a splendid \nmosque at Samarcand. His great rival and enemy, Bajazet, the \nsultan of Asiatic Turkey, and the terrible leader of the Ottoman \nforces, was also a devoted Moslem and a dreaded enemy of the \nChristians. A jealousy between these haughty sovereigns was \nreadily excited by the protection afforded by each to the princes \ndethroned and exiled by the other. \n\n* literally, " Timur lenk;" i. e. Timur the lame. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 347 \n\nThe contest between them was, however, deferred for two years, \nTimur being engaged in the conquest of Syria, and Bajazet in over- \nawing the Greek emperor at Constantinople. At length, in July, \nA. D. 1402, Timur, by a rapid march, penetrated the Ottoman king- \ndom, and the rivals, with immense forces, encountered on the plains \naround Angora. An overwhelming victory secured to Timur the \nkingdom of Anatolia and the person of his rival. The unfortunate \nBajazet, during the brief remainder of his life, was exposed to igno- \nminious treatment, and is even said to have been confined in an \niron cage by his barbarous conqueror. The victor did not long \nsurvive him. He perished of a fever, A. D. 1405, while marching \nwith an immense army of cavalry to effect the reconquest of China. \n\nThis extraordinary man presented a singular mixture of refine- \nment and barbarity. He was a zealous patron of art and learning, \nand delighted in the society of men of genius and intellect ; yet his \ncourse was marked by the most ruthless massacre and unsparing \ndestruction. Four pyramids, each composed of nearly an hundred \nthousand heads, marked the line of his Persian and Indian \ndevastations. \n\n\n\nuciiAiriiljii AVi.Ao \n\nTHE TURKS. THE SELJUKIAN DYNASTY, \n\nThe Turks or Turkomans, a warlike race dwelling north-east of \nthe Caspian Sea, had often been embroiled with the powerful sover- \neignties, which, one by one, held their sway over Southern Asia. \nThey had already made considerable encroachment, when, in the \nearly part of the eleventh century, Seljuk, the chief of&cer of their \nsovereign, fled in disgrace with his family and adherents, into the \nterritories adjacent to Samarcand; and, embracing the Moslem reli- \ngion, founded a fresh and formidable dynasty. The powerful \nMahmoud of Ghizni, jealous of his increasing authority, had impris- \noned his son Israel. This injury w^as avenged, in the reign of \nMusaood, son of Mahmoud, by an overwhelming invasion, headed by \nTogrul Beg, the grandson of Seljuk. The hostile armies met on \nthe field of Zendecan, A. D. 1038. Masaood, after displaying the \n\n\n\n348 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nutmost heroism, was defeated, and soon after perished. Persia fell \ninto the hands of the victor, whO; with a mixture of policy and \nmagnanimity, restored the caliph of Bagdad as his spiritual lord, \nand in return was invested with the control, as viceroy, of the whole \nworld of Islamism (A. D. 1055). The alliance was cemented by a \nmarriage of Togrul\'s sister with the caliph, and of the caliph\'s \ndaughter with the victor. \n\nAlp Arslan (the Great Lion) succeeded his uncle Togrul on the \nthrone of the conquered dominions, now extending from the Tigris \nto the Jihon (A. D. 1063). He made war upon the Greek empire, \nand gained possession, by conquest, of the important kingdom of \nArmenia. The Emperor Diogenes, by his valour and militar}^ skill, \nrecovered some of his losses; but finally, in a great battle, was \ndefeated and captured, by the Turkish sovereign (A. D. 1071). \nThe victor behaved with the highest magnanimity, and when his \ncaptive, smarting under defeat, declared the fate which would have \nawaited him, if defeated. Alp smiled, and simply remarked that the \nsentiment was not that of a Christian. The emperor was set at \nliberty on reasonable conditions, which, however, he was not enabled \nto fulfil, being deposed by his rebellious subjects. \n\nThe power and prosperity of the sultan continued to increase. \nThe fairest portion of Asia was under his dominion, twelve hun- \ndred princes or chiefs waited his movements, and two hundred \nthousand troops followed him to battle. While engaged in the sub- \njugation of Turkestan, the original seat of his family, he was mortally \nwounded by a prisoner of rank, whom, contrary to his usual clem- \nency, he had ordered to a cruel execution (A. D. 1072). He was \ndistinguished, like many other oriental conquerors, by a love of \nscience and learning. \n\nHis son, Malek Shah, was immediately placed on the throne, and \nwas saluted as "Commander of the Faithful"\' \xe2\x80\x94 a title now applied, \nfor the first time, to any except the caliphs, who had been the pon- \ntiffs as well as the temporal lords of Islam. This sovereign, destined \nto carry the power and glory of his house to the highest point, \nsecured his accession with some difficulty. In a most sanguinary \nbattle, he defeated and captured his uncle Kadered, who had laid \nclaim to the sovereignty, and who soon shared the usual fate of \npolitical captives in the East. His successes thenceforward were \nnumerous and brilliant in the extreme, and by conquest and policy \nhe gained vast accessions of dominion. \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 349 \n\n" Persia was his, the emirs of Syria paid their submission of tribute and respect, \nand the appearance of the governor of Transoxiana, as a prisoner, at Ispahan, the \ncapital of the Seljuk provinces, and the sultan\'s name on the coins of Cashgar, showed \nthe extent of the power of Malek Shah in Tartary. Daily prayers were offered for \nhis health in Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Bagdad, Rhei, Ispahan, Samarcand, Bokhara, \nand Cashgar. * * * In twelve journies, he encompassed twelve times the whole \nof his vast territories, dispensed the benefits of justice, and showed himself the \nfather of his people. The pious Mussulman, in his pilgrimage to Mecca, blessed the \nsultan\'s name for the places for relief and refreshment which cheered the Arabian \ndesert; and the afflictions of human nature were soothed and mitigated by the hos- \npitals and asylums which he built. Under his patronage, the astronomers of the \nEast engaged in the- reformation of the calendar. * * * A new era was now \nintroduced into Muhammedan chronology, and the GelalcEan style is scarcely inferior \nin accuracy to the Gregorian calendar. Since the brilliant days of the Caliphat of \nBagdad, letters had not been encouraged by a more enlightened patron than Malek, \nand a hundred poets sounded his praises in the halls of Ispahan. Mosques and col- \nleges displayed his love for religion and literature, and his useful magnificence was \nseen in his spacious high roads and bridges, and in the number of his artificial canals \nand irrigations."* \n\nMucli of the credit due to this magnificence, hberalitj, and policy, \nbelongs justly to his vizier, the celebrated Nedham, a man of extra- \nordinary fidelity and shrewdness. On one occasion, when the sultan \nin a skirmish had fallen into the hands of the Greek emperor, with \nwhom he was at war, the admirable management of his minister \nrestored his liberty, and kept his authority unharmed. Notwith- \nstanding these high services, the vizier, by a domestic intrigue, was \ndeprived of his power, and was compelled to return to his master \nthe turban and inkstand, the tokens of his rank. He complied, \nadding, however, the haughty message, that the prosperity of the \nempire was surrendered with these honoured insignia; and soon \nafter, in the ninety-fourth year of his age, perished by the hand of \nan assassin despatched by his jealous successor in office. The \nremainder of his master\'s reign was short and inglorious. He fell a \nvictim to his passion for the chase (A. D. 1092). \n\nThe great empire which had been so rapidly formed, fell almost \nas rapidly in pieces ; and the successors of Malek, after a long suc- \ncession of civil wars, formed four contemporary dynasties, consisting \nof Persia, of the province of Kerman, of Syria, and of Anatolia or \nAsia Minor. The latter kingdom, wrested from the emperors, had \nbeen governed by Sulyman, a prince of the family of Malek, who \nfixed his capital at Nice, once famous in the history of Christian \n\n* Mills\' "History of Muhammedanism." \n\n\n\n350 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntheology. Another power was yet to arise amid the fragments of \nthese kingdoms, and to maintain in different regions, and with varied \nsuccess, a struggle, which has lasted even to the present day. \n\n\n\nLiiAirijiii oL i i i i \n\n\n\nTHE TURKS, THE DYNASTY OF OTHMAN. THE OTTOMAN, OR \n\nPRESENT TURKISH POWER. \n\nA RACE of Turks, dwelling originally on the north of the Cas- \npian, descended, in the middle of the twelfth century, into the \nprovince of Khorasan, and finally became the subjects and soldiers \nof the sultans of that province. Dispersed and routed by Zinghis, \nthey subsequently rallied under the brave Gelaleddin, the son of the \ndethroned Muhammed ; and after the final defeat of that chivalrous \nprince, by Oktai, were again disbanded and dispersed. They entered \nthe service of various chiefs, and in the commencement of the \nfourteenth century a portion of them, with Solyman Schah, passed into \nAsia Minor. Under his son Ortogrul, they served the Seljukian sul- \ntans of Iconium, and afterwards became united and mingled with that \npeople, among whom they dwelt. At the death of Ortogrul, in 1289, \nhis power devolved upon his son Othman, whose name has ever \nsince distinguished the most powerful of the remaining Mahometan \ndynasties. \n\nThis celebrated chieftain, the founder of the present Turkish \npower, from a predatory and comparatively humble career, emerged \nas a formidable invader and conqueror. Crossing the mountains, he \nentered Bithynia, then a province of the empire ; and during a con- \ntest which lasted twenty-seven years, gained important acquisitions ; \namong them the celebrated cities of Nice, Nicomedia, and Prusa; \nthe latter of which became, for a time, the Ottoman capital. He \ndied in 1326, and was succeeded by his son Orchan. \n\nThe latter completed the subjugation of the province, and his \nmarriage with the daughter of the Greek emperor evinces the \nextent of his influence and the terror of his arms. His son, the \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. ^^^ \n\ncelebrated Amurath, who came to tlie throne in 1360, subdued nearly \nall Thrace, surrounded the imperial capital by his conquests, and \nmade Adrianople the seat of his European government. He \nrefrained from the easy conquest of Constantinople, satisfied with \nthe frequent attendance at his court and camp of the Emperor John \nPalasologus and his four sons. \n\nHe turned his arms, however, against the fierce and warlike \nSlavonic nations dwelling between the Danube and the Adriatic; \nand in a series of successful campaigns reduced their insolence, and \nstrengthened his own forces by great numbers of recruits selected \nfrom the strongest and most beautiful of the captive youth. This \nformidable corps, entitled the Janissaries, ("Yengi Cheri," or new \nsoldiers,) for centuries after struck terror into the inhabitants of \nChristian Europe, and finally, at times, overawed their own masters, \nthe sultans. At the battle of Cassova, the independence of the \nrefractory tribes was finally crushed ; But Amurath, while walking \nover the field of battle, was mortally wounded by a Servian warrior, \nwho started from a heap of bodies, and suddenly stabbed him in a \nmortal part (A. D. 1389). \n\nHis son and successor, the famous Bajazet, during a reign of \nfourteen years, extended his conquests still more widely. After a \ncareer of successful invasion against both his Christian and Mahom- \netan neighbours, he took the field with a large arni}^, and marched \ntoward Central Europe. Sigismond, with the Hungarian army, \nreinforced by great numbers firom France and Grermany, encountered \nthe infidel invader on the banks of the Danube. The Christians \nwere completely defeated, and the greater part of them were slain \nor driven into the river. The victor, in the pride of his heart, now \nthreatened the conquest of all Ital}^ and Grermany, and boasted that \nhe would feed his horse with a bushel of oats upon the altar of St. \nPeter\'s itself A severe attack of the gout deferred the execution \nof this infidel design ; and the grand conflict with Timur the Tartar, \nin which he lost his kingdom and his liberty on the plains of Angora, \naverted the storm so dreaded by all Catholic Europe. \n\nAfter his death in captivity, (A. D. 1403,) his empire was dis- \ntracted by dissensions among his children until the year 1413, when \nMahomet, the youngest, restored the unity of the empire ; and at \nhis death in 1421, bequeathed it to his son Amurath II. Mahomet \nII., the son and. successor of the latter, a prince of great ambition \nand military genius, completed the destruction of the Eastern empire, \n\n\n\n352 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nlong since tottering to its fall. In 1453, lie besieged and took Con- \nstantinople, where the valiant and patriotic emperor, the last of the \nConstantines, died fighting sword in hand, while vainly withstand- \ning the assault of the Moslems. - This beautiful and classic spot has \never since been the capital of the Turkish power, Prusa and Adri- \nanople sinking into provincial towns. Yet at no time have the \nintruders felt secure of a continued footing in Europe ; and it has \nalways been common for many of them to enjoin the sepulture of \ntheir bodies on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, believing that \ntheir descendants will yet be eompelled to retreat into Asia. \n\nUnder the successors of Mahomet, the Turkish power and ter- \nritory continued to increase. Up to the time of Solyman the \nMagnificent (A. D. 1566), an active and valiant race of princes held \nthe throne, and extended its dominions. Syria, Egypt, and all \nGreece, both insular and continental, were successively brought \nunder their sway. Under Mahomet IV., the Janissaries, the most \nformidable body in their armies, were increased to the number of \nforty thousand. In the long and desolating wars, which for many \nyears the sultans of Turkey waged against ,the European powers, \ntheir superior discipline and enthusiasm enabled them to cope \nagainst formidable odds, and to maintain possession of most of their \nconquests. The Mediterranean was for centuries the scene of fierce \nand obstinate contention between the Mussulmans and the maritime \nstates of Southern Europe; and the scale of victory was almost \nequally balanced, each party, in turn, obtaining the ascendant. At \nthe great naval battle fought in the Gulf of Lepanto, 1571, the Mos- \nlems sustained an overwhelming defeat from the allied Christians, \nunder the command of the celebrated Don John of Austria. So \nimportant to the salvation of Christendom was this victory considered, \nthat, on hearing of it, the Pope, in the joy of his heart, exclaimed, \nwith a species of profane piety, "There was a man sent from God, \nand his name was John!" \n\nHungary and Austria were the scene of long and destructive \nwars, in which, however, the invading Moslems were finally com- \npelled to retreat. The decline of their power, indeed, commenced \nsoon after the death of Solyman, and owing to a succession of weak \nand inactive sovereigns, and to the increase and jealousy of the \ngigantic power of Eussia, their influence and territories gradually \ndiminished. Under the reign of Catharine II., their forces were \nagain and again defeated, and their frontier pushed farther and \n\n\n\nTHE MAHOMETANS. 353 \n\nfarther backwards, while her haughty inscription on the southern \nhighway* indicated her ambition, and foreshadowed the policy of \nher successors. \n\nThat the Turkish-European empire has not been, ere the present \ntime, crushed and absorbed by its ambitious rival, is due only to \nthe jealousy of the other great European powers, which, for their \nown security, have in general protected the rights of the sultan, and \ninsisted on preserving the integrity of his dominions. A refusal to \nsanction the Russian system of aggrandizement, was one of the \nleading causes which severed the alhance of Napoleon and Alexan- \nder, and embroiled Europe in the most destructive war which it \nhas ever experienced. \n\nUndoubtedly, the dismemberment of the Greek provinces is the \nmost disastrous event which Turkey has experienced in modern \ntimes. The revolution which commenced in 1821, and which, eight \nyears afterwards, resulted in the independence of Greece, is perhaps \nthe most striking instance of a revival of national spirit, after cen- \nturies of degradation, which modern times have witnessed. Few \nstruggles for liberty have been more arduous and patriotic than that \nof the brave inhabitants of this classic land. The exploits of their \nmost famoas ancestors were emulated by the devotion of Botzaris, \nMiaulis, and other distinguished chiefs in the late contest for freedom. \nThe glorious defence of Missilonghi, and the "new Thermopylae" \nwhich their oppressors found in the narrow defiles of the Pelopon- \nnesus, proved sufficiently that much of the old heroic spirit yet \nexisted in the bosoms of the Greeks. \n\nThis long and disproportioned struggle would, however, probably, \nin the end, have proved unavailing, but for the intervention of the \nEuropean powers, whose protection, for once, was extended over the \ncause of a patriotic and suffering people. On the 20th of October, \n1827, the combined English, French, and Russian squadrons, under \nthe command of Admiral Codrington, entered the Bay of Navarino, \nwhere the Turkish fleet, strongly reinforced from that of Egypt, lay \nat anchor. The allied armament had received strict orders not to \nengage in hostilities unless absolutely compelled ; but the rashness \nof a Turkish commander, who fired upon the advancing squadron, \nprecipitated a general engagement. In this second Lepanto, the \nMahometan fleet was almost entirely destroyed, and great numbers \nperished in their vessels or in the waves. A detachment of the \n* " This is the road to Byzantium." \n\n23 \n\n\n\n354 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nFrencli army was also landed, and the Turkish forces were com- \npelled to retire. The Sublime Porte perceived the necessity of \nsubmission, and a new Grecian kingdom, comprising nearly all the \ncelebrated classic states, was soon after erected, under the protection \nof the allied powers. \n\nTime, of late, seems doing its appropriate work among the Turk- \nish Moslems, more rapidly than at any former period. Mahmoud, \nthe late sultan, though exceedingly desirous of effecting reform, was \nimpeded by a thousand prejudices and obstacles. In carrying out \nhis measures, he was compelled to destroy, at one terrible massacre, \nin the streets of Constantinople, the greater part of his Janissaries, \nwhose mutinous spirit had endangered his very throne. This \nrenowned body, which had degenerated into a lawless and licentious \nsoldiery, like the Praetorian bands of Eome and the Mamalukes of \nEgypt, was thus, perhaps of necessity, suddenly and fatally brought \nto an end. \n\nAbdul Meshid, the present sultan, was born in April, 1823, and \non the death of his father Mahmoud, in 1839, succeeded to the \nthrone. He is a young man of generous feelings, and though, like \nmost oriental princes, somewhat addicted to sensuality, is believed \nto be deeply devoted to the welfare of his people. Eeform and the \ndiffusion of civilization have always been his favourite objects; and \nthe generous protection which he has extended to Kossuth and other \nillustrious Hungarian exiles, evinces a high spirit of independence \nand magnanimity. \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nu iLj) il i i Ji iri i \n\n\n\nANCIENT HISTORY OF SPAIN THE C AETH AGENI ANS, \n\nROMANS, AND GOTHS. THE SARACEN CONQUEST. \n\nAt a very early period, tlie mineral and agricultural wealth of \nthe Spanish peninsula appears to have attracted the Phoenicians, \nthe most commercial and enterprising people of antiquity. The \ncity of Cadiz, it is supposed, was founded by them about one thou- \nsand years before the Christian era; and with their colonists, the \nCarthagenians, they became in time possessed of many settlements \non the sea coast. The latter nation, having thus secured a footing, \nmade strenuous efforts to effect the entire conquest of the country. \nThe resistance of the natives was fierce and prolonged; but, though \nin alliance with the Komans, they were, for the most part, subdued, \nand brought under the yoke of their invaders. The successes of \nAsdrubal and Hamilcar were carried yet farther by the famous \nHannibal, the hereditary and implacable foe of the Eoman people. \nA triumphal arch, erected by the latter to commemorate his \nvictories, is still to be seen at Martorel ; being one of the few monu- \nments which still exist of that extraordinary people. \n\nThe siege and capture of the city of Saguntum, their faithful \nally, aroused the Eomans to a more vigorous opposition. Large \narmies, headed by their ablest leaders, were despatched against the \ninvaders, who had gained possession of all the southern portion of \nthe peninsula. The contest was long and obstinate; but Scipio \nAfricanus, the most renowned and able general of his day, finally \nsucceeded in expelling the Carthagenians from the disputed terri- \ntory (B. C. 210). \n\nTo convert the whole country into a Eoman province was, as \n\n\n\n356 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nusual, the policy of the victors. The natives courageously withstood \nthis oppressive project, and their resistance, protracted in various \ndistricts for nearly two hundred years, evinced the same stubborn \nand unyielding patriotism which has distinguished them in similar \ncontests at a later day. During the civil wars, which for so many \nyears distracted the commonwealth, Spain was the theatre of fierce \ncontention, and frequently played an important part in the grand \ncontest for empire, which finally resulted in the complete ascendancy \nof Caesar. Under Augustus, it was fully pacified and subdued ; and \nwas, for some centuries, one of the most refined and wealthy of the \nEoman provinces. It was the native country of the emperors Adrian \nand Trajan, of the philosopher Seneca, and the poets Lucan and \nMartial, as well as of many others highly distinguished in Eoman \nhistory. \n\nIn the early part of the fifth century, despite the resistance of the \nnative inhabitants, and the inefficient succours despatched by the \nEmperor Honorius, the barbarous tribes which had already over- \nwhelmed France, poured across the Pyrenees, and soon overran the \ncountry. These invaders (the Alans, Yandals, and Suevi,) were \nsoon after followed by a host of Yisigoths, under their king Altauf, \nwho established himself in Catalonia, and founded the Gothic mon- \narchy of Spain. His successors speedily subdued or expelled the \nrival invaders, and greatly extended the limits of the new kingdom. \nA nominal sovereignty was still, for the most part, conceded to the \nEoman emperor. \n\nThe history of these early Grothic reigns aifords, in general, little \nmatter of interest. The throne was frequently deluged with blood, \nand the government disturbed by conspiracy and rebellion. Eeli- \ngious persecutions, caused by conflicting opinions among the \nChristian inhabitants, raged with great fury. Euric, in the latter \npart of the fifth century, gained possession of Eastern Spain and \nSouthern France, and shook off the allegiance which had hitherto \nbeen claimed by the emperors. Leovigild, a century later, succeeded \nin extending his control over nearly the whole peninsula. His war- \nlike and legislative qualities strengthened and improved his kingdom ; \nbut his character was tarnished by cruelty and avarice. The mon- \narchy was at times hereditary, and at others elective, and was the \nsubject of such sanguinary contests as usually distinguish a rude and \nunsettled form of government. \n\nEarly in the eighth century, Eoderic, the last of these Grothic \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n357 \n\n\n\nsovereigns came to tlie throne. He had been distinguislied by bis \nambition and his opposition to the authority of Witiza, his prede- \ncessor; but on his accession, abandoned himself to ease and luxury \nin his capital of Toledo. A licentious outrage which he committed \non a beautiful attendant of his queen, named La Cava, proved the \nsource of his ruin. The injured damsel fled to her father, the \npowerful Count Julian, governor of Andalusia in Spain and of \nMauritania in Africa. He was at this time making a gallant defence \nagainst the Saracens, who, under the celebrated Musa, had conquered \nall Northern Africa, except the province under his command. \nEnraged at the injury inflicted on his honour, he made peace with \nthe enemy, and, painting in glowing colours the wealthy and unpro- \ntected condition of Spain, invited an invasion of his country. \n\nWaled, the caliph of Damascus, readily consented to a scheme so \npromising, and Tarik, an active and resolute Saracen chief, was des- \npatched with seven thousand men on a new career of conquest. \nOn arriving at the hostile coast, to show his followers the futility \nof a retreat, he burned his galleys, and soon gained great successes. \nIn the year 711, being reinforced, he encountered the Gothic king, \nwhose force was vastly superior, on a plain near Xeres de la Fron- \ntera, on the banks of the Guadalete. The fiery enthusiasm of the \nMoslems could not be withstood by the Christian host, which vras \ngreatly weakened by the treachery of Opas, a powerful chief, the \nbishop of Seville, and brother of the late monarch. The army of \nEoderic was defeated with prodigious slaughter, and the unfortu- \nnate monarch lost his crown and his life. \n\nSeville and Cordova were speedily taken, and Musa, emulous of \nthese successes, hastened over with his whole army, and pursued a \nfresh career of victory and conquest. A great part of the peninsula \nwas speedily subdued; many of the inhabitants took refuge in \nFrance; great numbers submitted to the payment of tribute; and \nthe shattered remains of the Gothic Christians, who still resisted, \nwere forced to take refuge among the inaccessible mountains of \nBurgos, Biscay, and Asturias, in the north-west of Spain. \n\n\n\n358 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nuJbXtilJTXdijil, ii \n\n\n\nTHE FORMATION OF NEW CHRISTIAN STATES: ASTURIAS, \n\nNAVARRE, LEON, CASTILE, AND ARRAGON. CON \n\nTINUED CONTESTS WITH THE MOORS. UNION \n\nOF LEON AND CASTILE. \n\n\n\nOn the disgrace and recall of Musa, the government of Spain \nwas committed to his son Abd\'alaziz, whose clemency, activity, and \npublic spirit did much to repair the inevitable calamities of war. \nAlahor, his successor, emulated these excellent qualities in his \nadministration, and resolved to carry the Moslem arms yet farther. \nCrossing the Pyrenees, he reduced a great part of the south of \nFrance, and returned in triumph. \n\nThe Gothic nobles, though defeated and expelled, still retained \ntheir courage and their hopes, Don Pelagio, a prince of the royal \nfamily, was, in 718, again invested with the royal title; and from \nthe mountainous province of Liebana, Avhich he held, defied the \ninvaders, and defeated with much slaughter the armies which they \nsent against him. He soon gained possession of the Asturias, and \nmultitudes of the Christians hastened to j)lace themselves under his \nprotection. After holding the government of his little kingdom for \nnineteen years, he died, leaving a high reputation in the annals of \nSpain, as the founder of a new Christian monarchy. \n\nDon Alphonso, his son-in-law and second successor, (A. D. 742,) \nregained a great part of Galicia from the Moors, and further secured \nhis mountainous kingdom by converting the level country at its base \ninto a frontier of desert. By his great zeal for building churches, \nhe acquired the appellation of the "Catholic" \xe2\x80\x94 a name which the \nSpanish sovereigns have ever delighted to assume. He died in 757. \n\nAfter the establishment of an independent Moslem sovereignty, \nunder Abd\'alrahman, the invaders made a fresh attempt to subvert \nthe little Christian monarchy, but were defeated with great slaughter \nby Froila, the son of Alphonso. About the same time they received \na fresh blow in the formation of the independent kingdom of \nNavarre, under Don Garcia Ximenes, a man of great and successful \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n559 \n\n\n\nabilities. These hostilities with the Moslems were occasionally \ninterrupted by intervals of peace and alliance; and Mauregato, \nwho gained possession of the Gothic crown in 783, fortified his \npower by conciliating the "Commander of the Faithful" at Cor- \ndova, and even by introducing a body of Saracens into his own \ndominions. \n\nUnder Alphonso, styled "El Casto" or the Chaste, who ascended \nthe throne in 791, the Spanish court was removed to Oviedo. Three \nyears afterwards, a hostile expedition, despatched by Isseem, the \nMoorish sovereign at Cordova, was repulsed with much loss; and \nfurther successes again inspirited the Christians, Two fresh attempts, \nin the middle of the ninth century, under Abd al\'rahman II,, shared a \nsimilar fate; but eight thousand troops, who were in turn despatched \nfrom Oviedo against the Moslems, met with fatal defeat and slaughter. \nAlphonso III., who in 866 came to the throne, strengthened his own \nand the Christian cause by a marriage with a princess of Navarre, \nand an alliance with that state against the Moslems ; and was thus \nenabled to pass the Douro, and gain some accessions of territory. The \nkingdom of Leon, from which the Spanish monarchs now took their \ntitle, was, in 884, still further strengthened by the rise of its renowned \nneighbour, the Christian principality of Castile. \n\nFor a long series of reigns, the contests between the Christians \nand their rivals continued ; the former frequently sallying from their \nfastnesses in the mountains, and carrying off much booty from the \ninhabitants of the lower countries. Great numbers of slaves were \nalso taken in these expeditions, and many small acquisitions of terri- \ntory were gradually made. Don Ordogno, who in 914 ascended the \nthrone, reduced several of the Moorish towns, and signally defeated \nan army of eighty thousand men, which had been brought from \nAfrica to oppose him. In 923 he made a fresh marital alliance with \nNavarre, and another successful campaign against the Moors. Eamiro \nII., in 932, carried his incursions yet farther to the southward; took \nthe city of Madrid by assault, insulted the Moorish garrison at Tole- \ndo, and returned with prodigious booty and a multitude of captives. \nAben Ahaya, the Moslem prince of Arragon, was compelled to \nbecome his feudatory vassal. \n\nThe latter entreated assistance from the sovereign of Cordova, \nwho, with an army of an hundred and fifty thousand men, drawn \nprincipally from Africa, in his turn made a successful irruption into \nthe Christian kingdom ; but was finally defeated by Eamiro, with \n\n\n\n360 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nimmense loss, on the plains of Simancas. Fresh and profitable \nexpeditions of the Christians soon ensued. \n\nThe Normans, who had already made troublesome descents on the \ncoast of Galicia, about the year 970 made a formidable invasion of \nthe Spanish territory, and marked their course with rapine and mas- \nsacre, until they were attacked and cut to pieces among the mountains \nof Castile. In the reign of Eamiro III., a few years afterward, a civil \nwar broke out among the Spaniards themselves, and in a bloody \nthough indecisive engagement, more are said to have fallen than in \nany battle with the Saracens. \n\nThis disaster was succeeded, in 982, by a fresh irruption of the \nMoors, who, after gaining possession of the cities of Simancas and \nZamora, marched into the Spanish kingdom, under Almancor the \nchief vizier of the king of Cordova. The Christians, under Bermiido \nII., despite a gallant resistance, were outnumbered and completely \nrouted near the banks of the Ezla. Their sovereign, with all his \ncourt, retreated to Asturias, carrying the royal treasure and the \nbodies of his august predecessors. Leon, his capital city, was taken, \nand completely demolished by the victor, who, however, after meet- \ning a vigorous repulse in Asturias, returned to his own country. In \nthe following year, nevertheless, he gained signal advantages in \nGalicia and northern Portugal. \n\nBermudo, with the assistance of Navarre and Castile, prepared \nfor further resistance; and Almancor, powerfully reinforced from \nAfrica, encountered the confederates on the plain of Osma. The \nInfidels were utterly defeated, losing, it is said, an hundred thousand \nmen, besides their camp and baggage. The Moslem general, in \ndespair, put an end to his life by starvation. \n\nAmong the various Christian kingdoms which were now rapidly \nincreasing in strength and number, we find an almost uninterrupted \nsuccession of alliances, inter-marriages, quarrels, and reconciliations. \nDespite, however, these domestic intrigues and hostilities, a continual \nwarfare was carried on against the Saracens \xe2\x80\x94 sometimes in petty \npredatory excursions, and sometimes, by union of the Christian \nforces, in expeditions on a larger scale. Ferdinand, prince of \nCastile, who had also gained possession of Leon, was enabled, \nabout 1140, to reduce many of their important strongholds, and \neven to compel the Moorish princes of Toledo and Saragossa to \nbecome his tributaries. Leon had been raised from its ruins, and \non rebuilding the Church of St. John the Baptist, he compelled \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 361 \n\nthe Moorish sovereign of Seville to send him the body of St. Isidore \nto be deposited in the sacred edifice. \n\nAlphonso yi., who in 1074 inherited the united kingdoms of \nLeon, Galicia, and Castile, made further acquisitions of territory, \nboth from his Christian and Mahometan neighbours. He gained \npossession of Toledo, after four campaigns ; and, resolved to make \nit his metropolis, took much pains to people it with Christians. In \nPortugal he became possessed of several important places; but in \ndefending his tributary, the Moorish prince of Huesca, sustained a \nsevere defeat from his encroaching rival, Don Pedro of Arragon. \nHe married Zaide, daughter of the king of Seville, a Moslem lady, \nwho readily exchanged her religion for a Christian diadem. \n\nThis Infidel alliance proved unpropitious. Having, with his ally \nof Seville, invited Joseph, the powerful sovereign of Barbary, to \nassist them in reducing the numerous Moorish principalities, that \nmonarch, preferring to further his own interests, made himself master \nof Seville and other important cities ; conquered the greater part of \nAndalusia ; invested Toledo itself; and compelled the Spanish mon- \narch to retire to his hereditary dominions. \n\nThe reign of Alphonso is rendered illustrious by the exploits of \nthe famous Gid^ Ruy Diaz de Yivar, the favourite hero of all Spanish \nballads and legendary history. After a most brilliant career in arms, \nand having held the destinies of kingdoms in his hands, he was \ndisgraced and banished by the king. His exile was attended by a \nbody of faithful friends and followers, by whose aid he waged a par- \ntisan warfare against all his enemies, and became the especial terror \nof the Mahometans. He finally conquered Valencia, and established \na kind of principality, which his chivalrous renown caused to be \nrespected by all the surrounding powers. \n\nToward the close of Alphonso\'s reign, his army experienced a \nterrible defeat from the African monarch, at Uclea, and his son, the \nyoung Prince Sancho, fell in the engagement. On the death of this \nsovereign, Alphonso, the king of Navarre and Arragon, took violent \npossession of his dominions, and for some time excluded the legiti- \nmate heir, Alphonso VII., who, however, by prudence and courage, \nfinally regained possession of his crown. The latter also repelled \na formidable invasion of Don Alphonso, king of Portugal; and, \ndefeating the Moors with prodigious slaughter, drove them to the \nvery gates of Cordova. So predominant were his power and author- \nity, that he received the title of "emperor" from the surrounding \n\n\n\n362 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nstates. Strongly reinforced from Arragon and Montpelier, and from \nthe Italian cities of Pisa and Genoa, he besieged and took the Moor- \nish stronghold of Almeria, long a terror to the Christians, and the \nport whence had issued the most formidable piratical expeditions. \nAt his death, in 1157, his dominions extended from the mountains \nof Biscay to those of the Sierra Morena ; and his imperial title, \nconfirmed by the homage of Navarre and Arragon, commanded the \nrespect of all his contemporaries. \n\nUnder the inefl&cient rule of his sons, Sancho and Ferdinand, the \nSaracens speedily recovered many of their possessions which had \nbeen lost during the late reign; and the knights templars, who had \nhitherto defended the important town of Calatrava, were compelled \nto relinquish their undertaking. The king of Castile then offered it \nto any one who would undertake its defence. Raymond, the Abbot \nof Yitero, and Diego Velasquez, a Cistercian monk, undertook the \nhonourable and dangerous office : twenty thousand followers enlisted \nunder their banners; and the victorious result of their attempt \ncaused the institution of the famous order of religious chivalry, \ncelebrated under the name of the city which they kept so bravely. \nThe Castilian successes, thus revived, continued to increase, and \nthe division of the Christian states alone secured the Saracens from \nfarther encroachments. \n\nAt the close of the twelfth century a Castilian army, under the \narchbishop of Toledo, was despatched against the Moors of Andalu- \nsia. This prelate conducted with such severity, that Jacob Aben \nJoseph, the king of Morocco, set on foot a kind of religious crusade \nin behalf of his persecuted fellow-Moslems, and with a great force \ndisembarked on the shore of Spain. Without waiting for the assist- \nance of the neighbouring states, the king of Castile sallied out \nagainst the enemy, and encountered them in the vicinity of Alarcos. \nHis army was cut to pieces, and he retreated to Toledo with the loss \nof twenty thousand men (A. D. 1195). Alarcos, Calatrava, and the \nsurrounding country were immediately laid waste, and the clergy, \nwherever found, were put to death without mercy. The domestic \nquarrels of the princes of Leon, Castile, and Arragon, which now \nthreatened their total destruction, yielded to the emergency; and, \nby a species of guerilla warfare common in Spain, the Moors were \nfinally weakened, and compelled to retire into Andalusia. Peace \nwas soon after concluded with the African monarch. \n\nMohammed, his successor, in the beginning of the next century, \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 363 \n\nwith, a great army again landed in Spain; and as it was evident \nthat his object was the complete subjugation of Castile, Alphonso \nIX,, the sovereign of that state, invoked the religious feelings of \nhis neighbours for assistance in preserving a Christian principality. \nBy the sanction of the Pope, great numbers from France, Germany, \nand Italy hastened to his aid ; a grand rendezvous was held at \nToledo; and in a decisive battle fought near Tolose, the Christian \nconfederates gained a complete and overwhelming victory. The \nquantity of spears, javelins, and arrows found on the field was so \ngreat, that it is said to have served the victors with fuel for two \ndays after the battle. In commemoration of this event, which \ndetermined the fate of the Spanish Moslems, an annual festival was \ninstituted, entitled the "Triumph of the Holy Cross." \n\nThe history of the Christian principalities, for a considerable time, \npresents nothing but domestic intrigues, quarrels, and jealousy. \nThough generally related or connected by marriage, these petty \nsovereigns appear to have omitted no opportunity of despoiling \neach other, when a favourable chance was presented. In 1219 the \narchbishop of Toledo assembled a numerous army for a fresh cam- \npaign against the Infidels, but lost ten thousand of his men in a \nfruitless attempt to take the fortress of Requena. Domestic dissen- \nsions, however, and division into numerous small principalities, \ngreatly weakened the Moors, and prepared the way for their final \noverthrow and expulsion. They now sustained losses in Estrama- \ndura, which had hitherto defied its Christian assailants. \n\nIn 1231, the states of Leon and Castile, bj the voluntary resigna- \ntion of the heiresses to the former, were solemnly united under \nFerdinand, king of Castile \xe2\x80\x94 an event which made that state the most \npowerful on the Spanish peninsula, and opened the way for further \nunion and consolidation. \n\nThe Spanish Christians had, of late, made considerable advances \nin learning, and the arts and sciences. The celebrated University \nof Salamanca was founded, in 1222, by the king of Leon, and for \nmany centuries maintained almost the highest reputation in Europe. \nAbout the same time Ferdinand of Castile founded the magnificent \ncathedral of Toledo, which is still the admiration of architects and \ntravellers. \n\n\n\n364 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nU M, dX i i 2ll dii i i i e \n\nFROM THE UNION OF LEON AND CASTILE TO THAT OF CASTILE \nAND ARRAGON, UNDER FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. \n\nThe dominions of tlie chief Spanish monarcliy had become so \nextensive, that Ferdinand, anxious to secure their protection, offered \nmany and successful inducements to those who should settle on his \nboundaries. The Mahometan king of Murcia sought his protection ; \nand even the powerful sovereign of Granada rendered homage and \nvaluable tribute, for assurance of peace, and undisturbed possession \nof his domains. The Castilian sovereign also besieged Seville by \nsea and land, took it, after a siege of several months, and repeopled \nit with Christian inhabitants (A. D. 1248). \n\nHis son Alphonso X., surnamed the Wise, made strenuous efforts \nto secure his nomination as emperor of the Grerman empire; but \nwhile engaged in foreign intrigues, his crown was repeatedly endan- \ngered by domestic conspiracy. On the election of his rival, Eodolph \nof Hapsburg, to the imperial dignity, he hastened to gain the influ- \nence of the Pope, then the chief arbiter of European affairs ; but ere \nhe effected any thing, was recalled by a formidable invasion of the \nMoors and Africans, and the death of his son Ferdinand. His \nsecond son, Don Sancho, soon afterwards, taking advantage of his \nfather\'s age and unpopularity, procured his own elevation to the \nregency. The dethroned monarch sought and obtained the assist- \nance of his hereditary foe, the king of Morocco ; but did not long \nsurvive these domestic injuries. He died A. D. 1284. \n\nThe jealousy of Portugal and Arragon, and continual contentions \nfor the crown, involved Castile in fresh war and domestic dissension. \nSome advantages were gained over the Moors, who, however, now \nstoutly maintained their ground, and even regained possession of \nthe important fortress of Gribraltar. An invasion of Castile, under \nHenry de Solis, viceroy of Navarre, in 1335, was repulsed with \ngreat slaughter. Four years afterwards, Abul Hassan, the king of \nMorocco, enraged at the death of his son, who had fallen in fighting \nthe Castilians, commenced hostilities, with a powerful fleet and \narmy, in the most implacable manner. The Castilian fleet was \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n865 \n\n\n\ndestroyed, and the city of Tarifa closely beset. By tlie assistance \nof Portugal and Arragon, however, he was repulsed and signally \ndefeated. Algesiras, one of the strongest Moorish stations, was soon \ncompelled to surrender. Gibraltar was besieged for twelve months, \nbut was saved from surrender by a plague which broke out in the \nChristian camp, and carried off, among others, the king of Castile \n(A. D. 1349). \n\nDon Pedro, on whom, by this event, at the age of sixteen, the \ncrown devolved, was a wretch of such brutal and unrelenting dispo- \nsition as to be distinguished by the title of "The Cruel." His \nseverities produced revolt, which was suppressed and punished by \nexecutions, excessive in number and atrocity. His own brother, \nDon Frederic, and his cousin, Don Juan of Arragon, were inhumanly \nbutchered in the royal palace. Others of his relations were barbar- \nously put to death. Abu Said, king of Granada, with whom he \nwas at war, submitted, and was received at court with apparent cor- \ndiality ; but, to gain possession of his wealth, was suddenly exposed \nto insult and contumely, and was massacred, with all his attendants. \n\nThe king\'s brother, Henry of Transtamare, who had escaped \nfrom his fury, raised a powerful force in France, under the renowned \nBertrand de Guesclin, and asserted his pretensions to the throne of \nCastile. The tyrant, assisted by Edward the Black Prince, of England, \nwas at first successful in this civil warfare ; but being finally defeated \nin battle, was slain by the hand of his enraged brother (A. D. 1369). \nThe victor seized the crown, and wore it securely until his death, \nwhich occurred ten years afterwards. His son Juan, who succeeded \nhim, instituted the renowned order of knighthood, styled that of \n"The Holy Ghost." \n\nEarly in the fifteenth century, the Saracens, assisted by fleets from \nthe piratical states of Africa, again resumed hostilities; but were \ndefeated both by land and sea. A sanguinary war with Arragon, \nand a great victory over the Moors of Granada, securing a complete \npredominance over the latter, shortly afterwards ensued. \n\nDuring the reign of Henry IV., who came to the throne in 1453, \nCastile was the scene of a singular piece of rebellious pageantry. The \nmarquis of Yillena, with other powerful revolted chiefs, caused a \nplatform to be erected on the great plain near Avila, and on this, \nexposed to the view of the surrounding multitude, was placed an \nefiigy of the king, royally attired and seated on a throne, with crown \nand sceptre. His deposition was read aloud, and Villena, with the \n\n\n\n366 TEE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\narchbishop of Toledo and other chiefs of the conspiracy, stripped \nthe image successively of all its regal habiliments, and finally kicked \nit from the throne, with much abusive language. His brother, the \nyouthful Don Alphonso, was proclaimed in his stead. \n\nThis piece of acting, however, proved easier than an actual de- \nthronement; their young protege died suddenly and mysteriously, \nand the king secured his crown by acknowledging his sister, the \ninfanta Isabella, as his rightful successor. This princess, so celebrated \nin historj\'-, had refused to accept the crown at the expense of her \nbrother\'s interest. Her high prospects of dominion induced many \nof the surrounding princes to seek her hand. Ferdinand, heir to the \ncrown of Arragon, was the favoured suitor ; and the death of Henry, \nin 1474, and that of the king of Arragon in 1478, at length united \nthese powerful and often hostile kingdoms, as it were, under a single \nsovereignty. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH I? \n\n\n\nFERDINAND AND ISABELLA. SUBJUGATION OF THE MOORS. \n\nCHARLES I. (THE EMPEROR CHARLES V.) \n\nThe celebrated sovereigns v/ho now respectively held the thrones \nof Castile and Arragon, though firmly united, rather by policy than \naffection, were not devoid of a certain jealousy of each other\'s share \nin the administration. Nevertheless, by their wise and harmonious \nregulations, they speedily restored prosperity to the nations so long- \ndisturbed and laid waste by civil war. The establishment of that \nhorrible tribunal, the Inquisition, caused by the fanaticism of Tor- \nquemada, the queen\'s confessor, and by the bigoted compliance of \nthe sovereigns, soon followed\' \xe2\x80\x94 an event which, for centuries, \nentailed the severest evils on the country, and produced the worst \npossible effect upon the national character. The first consequence \nof its severities was to drive into exile a great number of Jews and \nMahometans, who had heretofore enjoyed toleration. \n\nIt soon became evident, indeed, to the unfortunate Moors that the \nday had arrived when the beautiful land, won by the valour of their \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n367 \n\n\n\nancestors, must be finally abandoned to its original possessors. The \ndelighful kingdom of Granada was now the only independent prin- \ncipality remaining; and the sovereigns, incited by bigotry and \nambition, had fully resolved upon its subjection. The domestic \nquarrels of the Mahometans facilitated their views. The latter lost \ntown after town, and were finally cut off from communicating with \nAfrica, and beleaguered in the valley of Granada, and soon in the \ncity itself \n\nFor eight months, with an army of seventy thousand men, the \nking and queen besieged this unfortunate capital, the last stronghold \nof the Moors ; and many romantic and chivalrous deeds were per- \nformed, both by the Saracens and their besiegers. The city was \nfinally compelled to surrender, and its splendid palaces, fountains, \nand gardens, for nearly eight centuries the delight of the Moorish \nsovereigns, fell into the hands of the victors (A. D. 1492). The \nunfortunate king, Abu Abdallah, departed for Africa. With his \ntrain, he paused upon the summit of a mountain which commanded \nthe last view of his kingdom, and wept at the loss of this beautiful \ninheritance. The place is still called "El ultimo suspiro del Moro;" \n"the Moor\'s last sigh." The subjected Mahometans, though at first \nassured of toleration, were all, as will be seen, eventually driven \nfrom the country. \n\nAt the same time with these signal successes, a glory far more \nreal and permanent was acquired hj Isabella in her patronage of \nColumbus, the greatest name in the annals of navigation or discovery. \nThis illustrious man, after half a life-time spent in vainly endeav- \nouring to secure the means for his noble undertaking, was enabled, \nby the assistance of the queen, to fit out three small vessels, in \nwhich, on the 3d of August, 1492, he set sail in quest of u.ndiscovered \nworlds. The brilliant and wonderful success which awaited him, \nand the important and interesting part which the Spaniards after- \nwards played in the newly-discovered hemisphere, are matters rather \nof American than of European history. \n\nJoanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was about this \ntime married to Philip, archduke of Austria, sovereign of the \nNetherlands, and son of the Emperor Maximilian. This imion \nresulted in the birth of a son, destined to inherit vast dominions, \nand to acquire by far the most conspicuous place in European war \nand policy. To this grandson, named Charles, Isabella at her death \nbequeathed her kingdom, leaving the regency with Ferdinand until the \n\n\n\n368 \n\n\n\nTHE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY \n\n\n\nprince should come of age. The latter, assisted by his able adviser, \nthe Cardinal Ximenez, continued to hold a firm and succesful \nsway over the greater part of Spain, and even enlarged his territo- \nries by forcible acquisitions from France. His distinguished general, \nGonsalvo de Cordova, entitled the "Great Captain," had already \ngained for the Spanish crown the important principality of Naples. \n\nAt the death of Ferdinand, which occurred in 1516, all his \ndominions, with those of Isabella, devolved upon his grandson, who \nwas immediately acknowledged, under the title of Charles I. The \ntalent and policy of the new monarch soon gained him a fresh \nextension of territory ; and at the death of Maximilian, in spite of \nthe opposition of his rival, Francis I., king of France, he was in \n1519 elected emperor of Germany. Leaving Cardinal Adrian as \nregent of Spain, he betook himself to his new dominions ; and was \nsoon engaged in that sanguinary war with the French monarch which \nso long ravaged the plains of Italy. \n\nThe battle of Pavia, in 1524, placed at his disposal the person of \nhis rival, and Francis only regained his liberty by a promise of the \ncession of much territorj^, and the surrender of his two sons as \nhostages. Secure in his own kingdom, however, he immediately \nviolated his agreement, receiving absolution from the Pope; and \nsoon effected a league hostile to the emperor, with the Pope, the \nking of England, the Swiss, and several of the Italian states. This \nformidable alliance, which assumed the title of the "Holy League," \nmet at first with defeat and disaster. The imperial forces took Milan \nand Eome, and committed the greatest devastations throughout Italy. \nNeither age nor sex was spared, and the ferocious Spaniards, their \ncruelty for once overcoming their superstition, tortured and mur- \ndered the Catholic prelates indiscriminately with the rest. The \nPope himself, Clement YIL, was imprisoned until he should con- \nsent to pay an enormous ransom. Perceiving the general odium \nwhich these deeds occasioned in the Catholic world, Charles, in the \nmost hypocritical manner, professed his regret, and even ordered \nprayers to be put up in all the churches for the Pope\'s liberation \xe2\x80\x94 a \npious wish, which a word to his ofiicers in Italy would have gratified. \n\nFrench arms, supported by an English subsidy, however, soon \naltered the aspect of Italian affairs ; Clement was released ; and in \n1529 a peace was definitely concluded, on very expensive terms to \nthe king of France. The important events in German history which \nsucceeded these transactions, hardly belong to the present subject. \n\n\n\n\n\nSpanish Costume, \n\nOF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, \n\n\n\nSpanish. Costume, \n\nOi^ TUS; SIXTEENTH CfiNTUHY \n\n\n\n\n\nSpanish Ccrtume, \n\nTHE FIFTEENTH CEN\'i-URT. \n\n\n\nSpanish Costum\'=^, \n\nOF THE S EVENTEF, NI\'H CiLNTDRY \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n369 \n\n\n\nA maritime war witk the Infidels was still actively carried on, \nand large sums were voted by the Castilian states for the prosecu- \ntion of this ancient quarrel. Barbarossa, the piratical monarch of \nAlgiers and Tunis, had long ravaged the southern shores and the \nislands of the Mediterranean ; and the emperor was finally induced \nto take up arms in person for the suppression of his power. With \na powerful armament, he set sail for Africa; and after reducing the \nstrong fortress of Goletta, defended by six thousand Turks, proceeded \nto Tunis. A vast number of the inhabitants were massacred by his \nenraged soldiery ; and having established Muley Hassan, the deposed \nmonarch, as a mere viceroy of his own, the emperor returned. \n\nThe war with France was soon renewed by the pretensions of \nthat power to the duchy of Milan. Both parties again took up \narms, and Charles, with fifty thousand men, marched to invade the \nsouthern provinces of France, while his generals made a similar \nattempt in Champagne and Picardy. Both expeditions were unsuc- \ncessful, and after experiencing great losses from famine and disease, \nthe invaders were compelled to retreat. Elated at this good fortune, \nthe French in their turn commenced hostilities in Flanders and \nItaly; and soon shocked the proprieties of Christian Europe by \nentering into an alliance with the Turkish emperor, Solyman the \nGreat, the determined foe of their enemy. By the intervention of \nthe Pope, peace was again restored. ; \n\nIn the Spanish Cortes^ or assembly, the nobles and prelates had \nopposed the levying of a certain tax. The emperor hereupon dis- \nmissed the convention, and from that time ceased to summon either \nof the privileged orders on a similar occasion. While irritated by \nthis opposition, he received news of the revolt of Ghent, one of his \nprincipal Flemish cities. He hastened thither, and, unmollified by \nthe immediate submission of the citizens, punished their defection \nwith numerous executions and banishments, and with the imposition \nof onerous burdens (A. D. 1540). \n\nThe difficulties in his own kingdom, a new war with France, and \nthe alarming successes of the Turks in Hungary, brought the empe- \nror, hitherto haughty and persecuting, to make some concessions to \nhis Protestant subjects in Germany. Having by this act of concilia- \ntion obtained supplies, he made an expedition against Algiers. The \nattempt was unsuccessful, and he was compelled to retire with much \nloss. After further indecisive hostilities with France, peace was once \nmore concluded by the mutual restoration of certain conquests. \n24 \n\n\n\n370 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. \n\nConcluding a disadvantageous peace with, tlie Turks, he entered \ninto a solemn league with the Pope for the extirpation of heresy; \nbut various misfortunes awaited him, especially in Italy, where his \nforces were defeated with great slaughter. Sienna threw itself into \nthe hands of France, and the Turks gained possession of Transylva- \nnia. The marriage of his son Philip with Mary, queen of England, \nseemed in some degree to compensate these losses by a prospect of \nannexing that important island to his dominions. \n\nAt length, in the year 1555, wearied by public business and the \ncares of empire, he resolved to resign his crown to his son Philip, \nand retire to seclusion and rest for the remainder of his days. At \na public assembly at Brussels, he renounced the government of \nthe Netherlands to his son, and soon afterwards that of Spain and \nthe vast acquisitions in America. Of all his immense possessions, \nhe reserved for himself only a pension of an hundred thousand \ncrowns ; and, with a few attendants, retired to a small dwelling near \nthe monastery of St. Just. Here, for a little more than two years, \nhe occupied himself in devotion or quiet amusement, and in 1558 \ndied, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. \n\nDaring the forty years in which he had controlled the destinies \nof Spain and of great part of Europe, the most important events had \ntranspired. The Reformation, in spite of fierce and cruel opposition, \nhad continued to proceed with giant strides. The most extensive \nand wonderful conquests had been made in the western world ; and \nSpain, which had so suddenly risen into importance, perhaps reached \nunder Charles the acme of her greatness. The numerous and deso- \nlating wars which his pride, ambition, and bigotry had caused, \nthough inflicting great injuries on his subjects in Italy and the \nNetherlands, had only increased the reputation of Spain, and the \ndread of her power among the surrounding nations. \n\n\n\n\nCHAELES I. OF SPAIN (THE EMPEROR CHARLES Y OE GERMANY), \n\n\n\nRESKJNl NR \'I HE rR(>-SVM TO HIS RON PHIT.IP \n\n\n\nIn n great n.ssenil.lj, the eiaj)eror recounted his various civil n.ud uilitary \nservices to the State, and declared his intention, heing \xe2\x96\xa0worn out "with the cares \nof public life, to I\'esign the hurden of royalty to his son. Having addressed a \nfe-w impressive -words to the latter, -who knelt, and kissed his hand, Charles \nsolemnly divested himself of his numerous dominions, and hesfowed them on \nthe prince. He then retired tc a secluded abode, where the bviei\' I\'emainder of \nhis life "WHS paosed in t rmiqu illity and devotion \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n871 \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?, \n\n\n\nFROM THE ABDICATION OF CHARLES I. TO THE DEATH OF \nCHARLES II. THE LAST MONARCH OF THE AUSTRIAN LINE. \n\nPhilip II., wlio thus in 1555 ascended the Spanish throne, inherited \nthe feuds which his father, overwearied with contention, had laid \ndown. A truce for five years, which he had concluded with France, \nwas broken up by the intrigues of the Pope. To overawe the latter, \na force of ten thousand men, under the duke of Alva, was despatched \ninto his dominions, where a French army supported his authority. \nA force of fifty thousand, reinforced from England, was assembled in \nthe Netherlands, and placed under command of the duke of Savoy, \none of-the ablest generals of his time. He defeated the French with \ngreat loss before the contested town of St. Quentin, and made pris- \noner of their leader, the gallant Montmorency. Other advantages \nfollowed ; and nothing but the indecision of Philip prevented his \nforces from marching in triumph to Paris itself \n\nHenry II., king of France, immediately recalled the duke of \nGuise from Italy, and that brilliant commander, by the capture of \nCalais and Thionville, revived the spirits of the nation. The hostile \narmies, in great force, were encamped near each other on the frontiers \nof Picardy; but negotiation prevented further hostilities; and in \n1559 a peace was concluded by the marriage of Philip with the \ndaughter of Henry \xe2\x80\x94 ^his first wife, Mary of England, having lately \nexpired. \n\nAn expedition despatched for the recovery of Tripoli, under the \nduke of Medina Cseli, met with signal disaster, being surprised by \nPiali, the Turkish commander, with the whole naval force of the \nOttoman empire. Forty gallies were sunk or captured by the Infi- \ndels. A great armament, fitted out in turn by the sultan and the \ndey of Algiers, however, received a sharp and decisive repulse from \nthe Christian garrisons of Oran and Mazal quiver (A. D. 1563). These \nhostilities induced fresh severities toward the unfortunate Morescoes, \nor Moorish inhabitants of Spain, and prepared the way for their \nultimate expulsion. \n\nAbout this time Philip transferred his court from Toledo to \n\n\n\n372 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nMadrid, and issued a formal manifesto, annexing all the Spanish- \nAmerican discoveries to the crown of Castile. His son, Don Carlos, \nwho had formed an intention of retiring from the kingdom, was \nplaced in confinement, and soon afterwards died. \n\nA tyrannical edict, enforcing an entire change of the language, \ncustoms, and national habits of the Morescoes, was met in Granada \nby a spirited revolt, and the Mahometan inhabitants, proclaiming a \nking of their own, maintained a determined resistance for several \nyears, during which some of the finest provinces in Spain were \ndepopulated by civil war. The rebellion was finally suppressed, \nwith the death of the Mahometan leader. At this time (A. D. 1571) \nDon John of Austria, brother of the king, with a large force of \nChristian confederates, gained a most splendid naval victory over \nthe Turks in the gulf of Lepanto. Fifty-five of the Infidel galleys \nwere destroyed, and one hundred and thirty were taken. \n\nOn the death of Henry of Portugal, the Spanish monarch laid \nclaim to the vacant throne ; and after two victories, gained by his \ngeneral, the duke of Alva, succeeded in obtaining a reluctant sub- \nmission to his pretensions. Appointing a regent, he returned to \nSpain, where his attention was soon engaged by preparations for the \nmost formidable expedition which Spain had ever despatched to a \nhostile coast. This mighty armament, called the "invincible arma- \nda," was destined for the subjugation of England, and its forcible \nconversion to the Catholic faith. With thirty thousand men, in an \nhundred and thirty vessels, it sailed from Lisbon on the 27th of \nMay, 1581. Tempests and the active annoyance of the English \nfleet, however, effected the complete destruction or dispersion of \nthis vaunted expedition ; and the English, in their turn, assuming \nthe offensive, made successful descents upon the Portuguese coast, \ntook the city of Cadiz, and did immense damage to the Spanish \nmarine. A powerful fleet, which was again fitted out to avenge \nthese injuries, shared a similar fate with the armada, being almost \nentirely destroyed by storms, or driven back to the port of Ferrol. \n\nThe king expired in 1597, in the seventy-first year of his age, \nand in the forty-second of a reign distinguished by selfishness, \nbigotry, and disappointed ambition. \n\nHis son Philip IH., upon the death of Elizabeth of England, con- \ncluded peace with her successor, the mean and pedantic James I., \nat whose court Spanish influence was thenceforth predominant. A \ndestructive war with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, was \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n373 \n\n\n\nalso terminated ; and these patriotic states, which had suffered the \nmost cruel persecution under the late monarch and his general, the \nremorseless duke of Alva, subsequently, after a noble and protracted \nstruggle, obtained their independence. The intolerance of the eccle- \nsiastics, in 1609, occasioned a fresh edict for the expulsion of the \nMoors ; and these unhappy people were, on several occasions, trans- \nported or banished to Africa \xe2\x80\x94 a piece of barbarous severity which \ncost the Spanish crown the loss of several hundred thousand of its \nmost useful and industrious subjects. \n\nIn 1619 the king made a tour through Portugal, and was received \nwith magnificent demonstrations. In a full assembly of the states, \nhis son was acknowledged heir- apparent to the Portuguese crown. \nHostile demonstrations in Switzerland and Italy were suppressed by \nprompt and decided movements, and Philip, after a reign of twenty- \nthree years, distinguished by no very brilliant national achievements, \nexpired, and left the crown to his son Philip IV. (A. D. 1621). \n\nUnder the rule of this prince and his indiscreet minister Olivarez, \nPortugal threw off the Spanish yoke, and proclaimed as her king, \nunder the title of John IV., the duke of Braganca, the founder of a \nnew royal dynasty. The province of Catalonia revolted, and the \nSpanish arms were completely unsuccessful in attempting to suppress \nthis rebellion or to recover the forfeited crown of Portugal. The \nunfortunate and unpopular minister was disgraced and banished. \nFresh reverses and signal defeats by the Dutch and the French soon \nensued (A. D. 1645). \n\nThe war with Portugal was for many years obstinately continued ; \nbut in 1661, the Marquis de Carracena, commanding the Spanish \nforces, was defeated with immense loss on the plain of Montes \nClaros. Four thousand veteran soldiers of his army were slain, and \na greater number taken prisoners. The Portuguese immediately \ninvaded Andalusia. \n\nThe king did not long survive these successive misfortunes. He \nexpired in 1666, in the forty-fifth year of a reign continually troubled \nby insurrection and warfare, mostly disastrous. His son Charles II., \nat the age of four, succeeded him, under the regency of the queen- \nmother, who acknowledged the independence of Portugal, and con- \ncluded a dishonourable peace with Louis XIV., king of France. \nAfter the young monarch attained his majority, the queen, who, \nmuch to the detriment of the nation, had long controlled its interests, \nwas removed from court, and the chief power became vested in Don \n\n\n\n374 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY.. \n\nJuan, tlie governor of Arragon, an illegitimate brother of the late \nking, and a man of high talent and sagacity. His death restored \nher to her former position, and the country, from mal-administration, \nsuffered exceedingly. France and Portugal made serious encroach- \nments on the Spanish territory, and peace could only be obtained on \nthe most humiliating and disadvantageous conditions (A. D. 1684). \nThe insolence of Louis XIV., five years afterwards, occasioned a \nrenewal of hostilities, in which Spain succeeded in coping with her \nadversary with a more favourable result. The arrival of great \nquantities of silver from her wealthy colonies in America enabled \nher to protract the contest upon more advantageous terms. At the \npeace of Eyswick, in 1697, most of the recent conquests were mutu- \nally restored. \n\nThe king was without offspring, and the intrigues and clamours \nrespecting the succession deprived him of peace. His disappoint- \nment in regard to heirs was supposed to be the result of witchcraft \nor the malignity of some evil spirit; and accordingly, he was sol- \nemnly exorcised, but, as may be supposed, without any satisfactory \neffect. A partition of the Spanish empire, at his death, had \nalready been resolved on by the principal powers of Europe ; but \nby the influence of the Pope and his confessor, he was prevailed on \nto make a will in favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of his \neldest sister and of Louis XIV. He soon after expired, in the \nthirty -fifth year of his reign, and with him ended the branch of the \nhouse of Austria, which had given five sovereigns to the Spanish \nnation (A. D. 1701). \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?L \n\nTHE HOUSE OF BOUEBON, UNTIL THE PRENCH REYaiUTION. \n\nThe new sovereign was received with much loyalty and enthu- \nsiasm ; and, by his kindness of heart, aiFability, and clemency, con- \nciliated the hearts of all. The foreign relations of Spain were now \nfor a considerable time managed by Louis, whose intrigues had \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n375 \n\n\n\nplaced Ms grandson on the throne; and whose exultation at the \nsuccess of his schemes had broken forth in the significant remark \nthat "the Pyrenees were no more." An insurrection in Naples ere \nlono- compelled the youthful monarch to embark in person for that \nvaluable dependency of the Spanish crown ; and by his clemency \nand generosity, he soon revived a spirit of loyalty and content. \nNot long afterwards, he highly distinguished himself at the battle \nof Lazara, in the war which the imperial and allied forces were then \nwaging against France. \n\nOn returning to his kingdom, the most formidable difficulties \nbeset his throne. The "war of the succession," occasioned by the \nambition of the house of Austria and the anti-Gallican enmities of \nWilliam III. of England, immediately broke out. The Germanic \nempire, with England, Holland, and other continental powers, had \nresolved to check the increasing power and ambition of the French \nmonarch. In accordance with this scheme, the Archduke Charles \nof Austria, great-grandson of Philip III., supported by these allies \nand by Portugal, laid claim to the crown of Spain, and was pro- \nclaimed at Yienna, under the title of Charles III. The important \nfortress of Gibraltar was taken by an English squadron, under Sir \nGeorge Eooke. An attempt to regain it was unsuccessful, and was \nattended with prodigious loss. The Portuguese soon gained pos- \nsession of several important towns ; and the national embarrassment, \ncaused by these losses, and by the entire destruction of the Spanish \ncommerce, was yet further augmented by the popular prejudice \nagainst French customs and influence. \n\nAn English fleet, under the earl of Peterborough and Admiral \nShovel, landed two thousand men at Barcelona. The city was \ntaken, and shortly after all Catalonia and Valencia acknowledged \nthe claim of the archduke. The king hastened to the scene of \naction, assisted by the French; but was compelled to make a \ndisastrous retreat. \n\nThe chief nobles being convoked, announced their determination \nsteadfastly to support the new dynasty; and Madrid, which had \nbeen taken by the allied forces under the archduke and Peterbo- \nrough, was soon reconquered by the rightful monarch. In 1707, \nthe confederates, under the Marquis de las Minas and the earl of \nGal way, again took the field with sixteen thousand men. They \nsustained, however, a most overwhelming defeat at the battle of \nAlmanza, and their standards, baggage, and artillery fell into the \n\n\n\n376 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nhands of the royal forces. Arragon and Valencia were severely \npunished for their late defection. \n\nIn a subsequent campaign, the. pretender, by a victory of his \ngeneral, Count Staremberg again gained possession of the capital; \nbut was soon compelled to retire, and experienced such further dis- \nasters as induced him to relinquish his attempts, and to return to \nhis hereditary dominions. In 1713, a peace was concluded, by \nwhich the title of the Spanish house of Bourbon to the crown of \nSpain, America, and the Indies, was formally recognised by Austria. \n\nThe kingdom, in an interval of peace which succeeded these civil \ndissensions, sloAvly recovered its prosperity; and by the talented \nadministration of Cardinal Alberoni was once more placed in a \nrespectable and somewhat formidable European position, Philip V. \nexpired in 1746, after a reign of nearly forty-six years, a great part \nof which had been disturbed by faction, rebellion, and foreign \ninterference. \n\nThe reign of his son and successor, Ferdinand YL, was marked \nby no events of much national importance. At his death, in 1759, \nhis brother, Charles III,, who had held the crown of Naples, suc- \nceeded to the throne. His attachment to the interests of his family \nin France speedily involved him in war with Great Britian and Por- \ntugal ; which, however, after some disasters to Spain, was ended by \ntreaty in 1763, In attempting to introduce the French dress and \ncustoms into his kingdom, the king strongly provoked the national \nprejudices and antipathies of the Spaniards, An edict, suppressing \nflapped hats and long cloaks, their apparel from time immemorial, \nexcited the most violent insurrections. In Madrid eighty of his sol- \ndiers were killed, and the fury of the popvilace was only appeased by \nthe dismissal of his minister and the annulment of the obnoxious \nrequirement. The Jesuits, whom the king suspected of fomenting \nthese disturbances, were, not long afterwards, to the surprise of all \nEurope, expelled from the kingdom in a body. \n\nIn 1775, the most extensive preparations were made for an inva- \nsion of Algiers, which by its piracies still continued a pest to all \nthe Christian nations on the Mediterranean. An immense armament, \ncommanded by Don Pedro Castejon and Count O\'Eeilly, proceeded \nto the Infidel sea-port, and effected a landing ; but after an obstinate \nengagement of thirteen hours, was compelled to reembark, and leave \nthe enterprise unaccomplished. \n\nFour years afterwards, Spain took the part of France in her \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n377 \n\n\n\nhostilities with Great Britain, and made strenuous efforts, tliougli \nwithout success, to regain the fortress of Gibraltar. The British \nsettlements on the Mississippi were indeed reduced ; but the Spanish \nmarine suffered several severe reverses from the superiority of that \nof the enemy. \n\nThe siege of Gibraltar, which had been for a long time fruitlessly \nprotracted, was in 1782 renewed with great vigour. An hundred \nand seventy pieces of the heaviest artillery played without intermis- \nsion upon the devoted town, which was soon laid in ruins, with the \nmost terrible carnage among its unfortunate inhabitants. The gar- \nrison, protected by their natural and almost impregnable defences, \nsuffered comparatively little, and even made a daring and successful \nsally, by which a great part of the enemies\' works were destroyed. \nFort St. Philip, however, after a long and gallant resistance, was \ncompelled to capitulate to the united French and Spanish forces ; its \nfew remaining defenders, as they laid down their arms, exclaiming \nwith energy, that they surrendered them to God, and not to the \nenemy. \n\nA grand attempt for the reduction of the chief citadel was now \nmade. The army, increased by French auxiliaries to forty thousand \nmen, pressed the attack vigorously from the land, while a number \nof floating batteries, of the most powerful construction, played upon \nthe fortress from the water. The allied fleet, overwhelming in force \nand number, cruised off the entrance of the straits to prevent any \nsuccour despatched to the garrison by sea. So certain was the fall \nof this long-disputed stronghold considered, that the Spanish nobility \nthronged to the scene, and the French princes repaired thither from \nVersailles, in full expectation of witnessing the humiliation of the \nBritish. The latter, only seven thousand in number, under their \nbrave commander, General Elliot, determined to resist to the last. \nFor many hours the fortress sustained a tremendous fire, the heavi- \nest and most incessant which had yet been known in warfare; but \nfinally the destruction of the floating batteries by fire, and the panic \nwhich this occasioned among the besiegers, saved the garrison from \ntheir immediate danger. The attempt to gain possession by storm \nwas relinquished, though a close siege by a powerful military and \nnaval force was still continued. Nevertheless, Lord Howe, the \nBritish admiral, in spite of the greatly superior force of the enemy, \nsailed through the straits in a tempest which dispersed their vessels, \nand fully relieved the garrison. \n\n\n\n378 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nA treaty of peace was signed in 1783, and the immense military \npreparations, provided for the reduction of Gibraltar, were directed \nagainst Algiers. That piratical city was accordingly bombarded \nfor two successive years, with no other result than the infliction of \nconsiderable damage; and in 1786, by the intervention of the Sub- \nlime Porte, a treaty of ]3eace was concluded, by which the war \nbetween Spain and the African Mahometans, waged for so many \ncenturies, was brought to a close. \n\nFlorida Blanca, the prudent and moderate minister of Charles, \nmade several internal improvements, and succeeded in materially \nchecking the power of the Inquisition. This horrible tribunal, which, \nin the reign of Philip V., had consigned three thousand persons to \nthe flames, the galleys, or perpetual imprisonment, exercised its \noppression during this reign upon only sixty victims \xe2\x80\x94 an improve- \nment in some degree due to the more enlightened spirit of the age, \nand partly to the horror which its atrocities had excited in other \nEuropean nations. \n\nThe brief remainder of the king\'s reign was harassed by domestic \nintrigue, and saddened by domestic misfortunes. He expired in \n1789, in the seventy-third year of his age, and the twenty -ninth of \nhis reign. His son Charles lY., at the age of forty, succeeded to \nthe crown. He was a prince of very moderate abilities, and became \nthe object of general ridicule from his wilful blindness to the utter \nprofligacy of his wife, the infamous Louisa Maria. Her influence \nsoon raised her chief lover, Manuel de Godoy, to the highest rank \nof the nobility, and placed him at the head of political affairs. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH TIL \n\nCHARLES IV. ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE. ABDICATION OF \n\nTHE KING. \n\nSpain, like most of the other European nations, was speedily \ninvolved in the great struggle arising from the French Eevolution. \nThe king, anxious to save the life of his relative, the unfortunate \nLouis XVI., had addressed a letter in his behalf to the sanguinary \n\n\n\nSPAIN. oyg \n\nNational Convention. His application was sullenly rejected, and \non the 4tli of March, 1798, the rash and irritable faction which then \ncontrolled the destinies of France declared war against the Spanish \ngovernment\xe2\x80\x94 alleging as the principal cause this very justifiable \ninterference. A powerful Spanish army, reinforced by Portuguese \nauxiliaries, hereupon crossed the Pyrenees, under Picardos, the gov- \nernor of Catalonia, took the important frontier fortress of Bellegarde, \nand wintered in the enemies\' country. In the following spring, \nhowever, they were twice defeated by Dugommier, with a loss of \ntheir equipage, artillery, and nine thousand prisoners. They were \ncompelled to retreat, and Bellegarde, which they had garrisoned, \nafter a siege of five months, surrendered. The victor, in his turn, \nimmediately invaded Catalonia, and, at his death in a fresh victory, \nhis forces, commanded by Perignon, again and again defeated the \nSpaniards, and drove them from their strongest intrenchments. The \nlatter also sustained similar misfortunes in the warfare at the western \nend of the Pyrenees. \n\nThe complete defeat of their forces at Sistella in 1795, and the \nthreatened advance of the French upon their capital itself, reduced \nthe king and his minister to sue for peace; a treaty was presently \nconcluded, by which France relinquished her late conquests, receiv- \ning in return the full possession of St. Domingo, and the political \nsupport of the Spanish government. The king, in his joy at these \nfavourable conditions, bestowed on Godoy the title of "Prince of the \nPeace," by which he has been most generally known. From this \ntime until her memorable struggle for independence, the policy of \nSpain became entirely subservient to that of her victorious enemy \nand ally. \n\nIn 1796, an alliance, offensive and defensive, was signed between \nthe two nations, and war was speedily declared against England by \nthe court of Madrid. In the following year, Cordova, the Spanish \nadmiral, with twenty-seven sail of the line, encountered Sir John \nJervis, who commanded only fifteen of the British, off Cape St. \nVincent. Notwithstanding this disparity of force, the English gained \nthe victory, taking four ships of the hostile squadron, and compelling \nthe remainder to retreat into the port of Cadiz. The island of Trin- \nidad was soon after taken by an English expedition, and Minorca, \none of the most important stations in the Mediterranean, met a sim- \nilar fate. Eussia, displeased at the alliance with the French republic, \nin 1798 declared war against Spain. \n\n\n\n380 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nISTapoleon, at this time first consul, extorted from his Spanish \nallies the cession of Louisiana, and even compelled the unfortunate \nking to join in a hostile alliance against Portugal, (the royal family \nof which were his immediate connections,) and to occupy the terri- \ntory with an armed force. That feeble and unprotected nation was \nforced to pay a large sum to her oppressor, and to cede a portion of \nBrazil for the enlargement of the French colonies. Godoy, to whose \ninfluence were ascribed this utter subservience to France and the \nother national misfortunes, was universally detested ; and a powerful \nparty soon rallied around Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, the eldest \nson of Charles, and consequently heir to the throne. \n\nThe brief and hollow peace which, at the beginning of the nine- \nteenth century, had been concluded between France and England, \nwas speedily broken (March, 1803) by the perfidious conduct of the \nlatter, and a war recommenced, destined to involve all Europe in \nfresh calamities. Large subsidies were drawn from Spain to aid \nthe French government, and England, though by especial agreement \nat peace with that country, despatched, in 1804, a piratical expedition, \nwhich captured several of her treasure-ships, under circumstances \ncalculated strongly to arouse the national pride and desire of ven- \ngeance. War against England was accordingly again declared in \nthe following month, by the Spanish government, and naval hostili- \nties were immediately recommenced. On the 21st of October, 1805, \nthe combined French and Spanish fleets, with forty vessels, under \nAdmirals Villeneuve and Gravina, were encountered by the renowned \nNelson, with thirty sail, off Cape Trafalgar. This action, perhaps \nthe most memorable in naval warfare, resulted in the almost complete \ncapture or destruction of the superior force ; and left the supremacy \nof Britain on the seas almost without the shadow of an opposition. \n\nThe alarm which the grasping policy of Napoleon had so gener- \nally excited, finally extended even to the court of Spain; and a \nsecret treaty was made with Russia, Portugal, and England, for a \njoint movement against their common enemy on a favourable oppor- \ntunity. Li October, 1806, the Prince of the Peace had the impru- \ndence to issue a proclamation, calling the people to arms in a manner \nwhich sufficiently indicated an intention to commence hostilities with \nFrance. In the same month occurred the wonderful campaign of \nPrussia, and the complete subjugation of that hostile country. The \nSpanish government, in alarm, humiliated itself before the victor. \nThe obnoxious order was instantly recalled and countermanded, the \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 381 \n\nmost humble entreaty was used to deprecate the imperial resentment, \nand money was lavishly employed among the most influential of the \nFrench diplomatists. \n\nNapoleon, though doubtless determined from this moment to \noverthrow a government upon which he could place no reliance, \nappeared satisfied for the present with the most abject submission \nto all his commands, and the contribution of a large body of Spanish \ntroops to assist in his northern campaigns. A treaty was forthwith \nmade for the partition of Portugal, and its occupation by the French \nand Spanish forces. It was announced in the Momteur, the imperial \norgan at Paris, that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign;" \nand General Junot, with a large army, advanced rapidly to Lisbon. \nThe royal family fled on his approach, and took shipping in haste \nfor their colony of Brazil. \n\n. The emperor, once in possession of the kingdom, paid small heed \nto the agreement for sharing the spoil with his Spanish dependants. \nThe domestic quarrels of the latter came opportunely in aid of \nhis ambitious designs. Ferdinand privately sought his protection \nagainst his parents and the Prince of the Peace ; and the latter, in \nturn accusing the heir-apparent of a conspiracy, held him for a time \nin arrest. The northern provinces of Spain, at the commencement \nof the year 1808, were filled vv\'ith French troops, professedly on \ntheir march to Portugal. Godoy vainly endeavoured to recall from \nthat country a counterbalancing force. Secret orders were despatched \nto the French generals to possess themselves dexterously of all the \nSpanish fortresses within their reach. By various stratagems, this \nscheme was accomplished with the most perfect success; and Barce- \nlona, Figueras, Pamplona, and St. Sebastian, were soon strongly \ngarrisoned by the intruders. \n\nMurat took command of the French forces, and his master, though \nstill maintaining an appearance of friendliness toward the royal \nfamily, assumed more openly the tone of a. dictator. The king and \nqueen, with their favourite, now thought of seeking a refuge, like \nthe family of Braganza, in their American colonies. This scheme \nwas opposed by Ferdinand; and the inhabitants of Madrid, enraged \nat Godoy, to whom they ascribed these misfortunes, destroyed his \npalaces, and forced him to seek safety in concealment. The king, \nyielding to the storm, publicly dismissed from office the obnoxious \nminister, who was with difficulty saved from the fury of the popu- \nlace, and committed to prison. Two days afterwards, Charles, weak- \n\n\n\n382 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nminded, and terrified by these disorders, resigned his crown in favour \nof Ferdinand \xe2\x80\x94 a step which filled the whole nation with enthusiastic \nrejoicing (March 20th, 1808). \n\n\n\nCHAPTER Ylll. \n\n\n\nDETHRONEMENT OF THE BOURBONS, AND ACCESSION OF JOSEPH \nBONAPARTE. RESISTANCE OF THE SPANIARDS. \n\nFerdinand VII., aware of the insecure tenure of his authority, \nomitted nothing which could conciliate the French emperor; but, \nto his mortification, Murat, who marched instantly to Madrid, care- \nfully avoided any recognition of his royalty ; and his father, anxious \nto save the life of his imprisoned favourite, wrote to Napoleon, pro- \ntesting against his abdication, as extorted by force. , To all Ferdi- \nnand\'s overtures, the arbiter of his destinies preserved an attitude \nof mysterious non-committal ; and finally, by the intrigues of the \nFrench officers, the prince was induced to repair to Baj^onne, across \nthe frontier, and urge his claims in person before the emperor. \n\nHe was received with courtesy; but was soon informed of Napo- \nleon\'s intentions that the Bourbons should cease to sit upon the \nthrone of Spain. In exchange for the required cession of his title, \nhe was promised the kingdom of Etruria. On perceiving his obsti- \nnate reluctance to this arrangement. Napoleon ordered Murat to^ \nforward to Bayonne the old king and qneen, with their imprisoned \nfavourite, the Prince of the Peace. On their arrival, the latter was \nforthwith released, and reinstated in his former office. The weak \nand vacillating Charles was immediately persuaded to nominate \nMurat lieutenant-general of the kingdom ; and on the following day \nto make a formal cession to Napoleon of Spain and the Indies, \nreceiving in return the means of a luxurious residence in France. \nAt the meeting of Ferdinand and his parents before the emperor, a \nmost revolting scene of mutual abuse and recrimination ensued, \nwhich, however, resulted in the most entire renunciation of all his \nrights in favour of his father, who had already transferred them to \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 383 \n\nNapoleon. With his brother and his uncle, he was then conducted \nas a state prisoner to Valencaj. \n\nThe Spanish population, especially in Madrid, disappointed in \nregard to the execution of Godoy, which they had eagerly expected, \nand resenting the French interference, was now ready for revolt. \nThe transmission of the remainder of the royal family to Bayonne \nexcited a furious insurrection in the capital, and many of the French, \ntaken by surprise, were cruelly massacred. Murat, indeed, sup- \npressed this outbreak with much slaughter, and executed a great \nnumber of the insurgents ; but the flame of revolution speedily broke \nout in the provinces, and all Spain ere long was involved in hostili- \nties. Juntq^^ or councils of the most prominent persons, were formed \nat once in all the provincial districts and most of the larger towns ; \ntroops were levied, and desperate efforts were resolved on to rid the \npeninsula of its invaders. Great cruelty and atrocity accompanied \nthis outbreak, and many persons were massacred by the infuriated \ninsurgents; among them, several of the local governors, who vainly \nattempted to suppress the movement. The junta of Seville, which \nwas acknowledged as the chief of these councils, under its president, \nSaavedra, on the 6th of June, 1808, proclaimed Ferdinand YII,, and \nin his name declared war against France and ISTapoleon. \n\nOrders were issued for the immediate enrolment of the entire male \npopulation, and despatches w^ere forwarded to England, proposing \nalliance and entreating armed assistance. In Portugal, these tidings \nwere received with enthusiasm, and a general insurrection of that \nkingdom, which Junot was unable to suppress, soon ensued. \n\nNapoleon had resolved to place his brother Joseph, then king \nof Naples, upon the Spanish throne; and accordingly summoned a \nspecies of Cortes^ composed of many prominent representatives of \nthe church, the nobility, and the citizens. Ninety-one in number, \nthey assembled at Bayonne on the 15th of June ; and, whether from \nviews of policy, necessity, or private interest, subscribed to the con- \nstitution which Bonaparte had prepared, and recognised his brother \nas king of Spain and the Indies. (Murat, to reward his late services, \nreceived the throne of Naples, thus left vacant.) On the 9th of July, \nthe new sovereign entered his kingdom, and issued a most concili- \nating proclamation ; but was compelled to wait at Yittoria until his \ngenerals should clear a path to his capital. \n\nEngland, suflEiciently anxious for an opportunity to embarrass her \nancient enemy, had eagerly responded to the call of the insurgent \n\n\n\n384 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\njuntas; prisoners had been released, supplies despatched, and mili- \ntary assistance promised. Murat, on his part, before leaving the \nkingdom, had taken active measures to suppress the popular move- \nment, and had ordered powerful forces into the most disaffected \nprovinces \xe2\x80\x94 in some cases with success, and in others with failure. \nThe Spanish forces, indeed, at an early day, experienced a signal \ndefeat. Tlie Castihan and Galician armies, thirty thousand strong, \nunder Cuesta and Blake, lay encamped at Rio Seco. On the 14th of \nJuly, Bessieres, the French commander, with only half that number, \nattacked and drove them from their position, with a loss of seven \nthousand men; and Joseph, six days afterwards, made a triumphal \nentry into Madrid. The public discontent, however, was sufficiently \nmanifest. Tapestry, according to order and to the ancient custom, \nwas indeed hung from the windows, but it was ragged and soiled; \nand the bells, put in motion by command of the authorities, tolled \nas for a funeral. \n\nThe late success of the French was soon after counterbalanced by \nthe misfortune of Dupont, who, with nearly twenty thousand men, \nwas surrounded at Baylen by a greatly superior force of Spaniards, \nunder Castanos, and compelled to surrender. The agreement to \ntransport the prisoners . to France was violated ; numbers were put \nto death ; and the remainder were confined in hulks at Cadiz, where \nthe greater portion of them miserably perished. The spirits and \nconfidence of the insurgents were thus highly elevated, and those of \nthe new sovereignty proportionately depressed; and Joseph, after a \nresidence at his capital of only ten days, once more withdrew to \nVittoria. Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, was besieged by the \nFrench fc7 two months with great energy; but the garrison and \ncitizens. \' under Palafox, made such a brave and determined resist- \nance, that the city, though almost laid in ruins, still held out. This \nsiege was distinguished by the bravery of a young woman, \'\'the \nMaid of Saragossa," who tended a piece of artillery which the garri- \nson had deserted, and vowed never to quit it while a Frenchman \nremained before the city. The besiegers, wearied out, were finally \ncompelled to retreat, \n\n" Foiled by a woman\'s hand, before a battered wall." \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 335 \n\n\n\n\\J Jidi JX JJ di oli a XtA) \n\n\n\nTHE PENINSULAE WAR. \n\nSir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards tlie duke of Wellington) \nlanded in Portugal in August, with thirteen thousand men. After \nsome indecisive hostilities, the French forces, under Junot, evacuated \nthat country on favourable conditions ; and an opportunity was pre- \nsented for the British arms to cooperate with those of the insurgent \nSpaniards. But the latter, attached only to their own principalities, \nand never fairly impelled by a universal national sentiment, could \nagree upon no system of united operations. The numerous juntas, \ndelighted with their new power, were unwilling to relinquish any \nportion of it to a central authority; and the opportunity afforded \nby the victory of Baylen was thus permitted to fall to the ground. \n\nA central junta of thirty -five members, under the presidency of \nthe aged Florida Blanca, was at length appointed. But the time for \neffective action appeared to have passed. An hundred thousand \nmen were now pouring into Spain, under command of the celebrated \nNey, and Napoleon was expected speedily to arrive, and take the \nchief direction in person. Before his arri- \\ however, the Spanish \narmies, composed of an hundred and thirty i lousand men, in differ- \nent divisions, under Blake, Belvedere, Castafios, and Palafbx, were \nformed in a crescent around the invaders. The people and the jwita \nwere eager to hear of a pitched battle ; but their generals, better \nknowing the disparity of the two forces in courage and discipline, \nwaited for fresh reinforcements. \n\nThe English, embarrassed by the bad conduct of their allies, were \nunable to make any effectual advance ; and Blake, who first engaged \nthe enemy, was defeated by Lefebvre. Napoleon himself entered \nSpain in November, and his genius was soon apparent in the suc- \ncessive defeat and dispersion of each of the hostile armies. The \njunta fled in dismay, and on the 5th of December the victorious \nemperor entered Madrid. \n\nThe haughty tone which he assumed, and the salutary reforms \nwhich he immediately effected in ecclesiastical abuses, kept up the \nnational exasperation ; which, however, he little heeded, being espe- \n25 \n\n\n\n386 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nciallj bent upon reducing the soutli of Spain and Portugal, and \nexpelling the English, who had now been considerably reinforced. \nGeneral Moore, who, with twenty-five thousand men, had attempted \nto create a diversion in favour of the Spanish forces, was compelled \nto retreat to the sea-coast, with his army reduced, by suffering and \nwant of discipline, to a disorderly rabble. Napoleon, recalled to the \nnorth by news of the menacing attitude of Austria, relinquished the \npursuit to Marshal Soult, who, with a greatly superior force, pressed \nhard upon the retiring ranks of the English. The latter reached \nOorunna; but before they could embark, were obliged to fight a \nsevere battle, in which the honour of their arms was fully redeemed, \nthough at the expense of the life of their brave and devoted leader \n(January 17th, 1809). \n\nThe Spanish arms, meanwhile, had met with fresh reverses, and \nSaragossa, into which Palafox, after his defeat, had thrown himself, \nwas again closely besieged. "War to the knife" was the only \nanswer which he returned to an attempt at negotiation. Neverthe- \nless, after a siege of several months, distinguished by all the horrors \nof war and pestilence, the city was compelled to capitulate. It is \ncalculated that, at this time, there were two hundred and seventy \nthousand French troops distributed at different places in the \npeninsula. \n\nJoseph, on the 22d of January, had reentered Madrid, where he \nwas received with much apparent loyalty and affection; and plans \nwere laid for the immediate reconquest of Portugal. Soult, who \nwas now appointed to the chief command, took Oporto by storm, \nbut was unable to subdue the refractory kingdom, strongly aided \nby reinforcements from England, and directed by the genius of \nWellesley, who in April arrived as commander-in-chief He was \ncompelled to retreat in a disastrous manner, and the English com- \nmander marched into Spain for the purpose of assisting Cuesta, who \nwas engaged with the French General Victor. The impracticability \nof the Spanish commander, who had scruples about fighting on a \nSunday, prevented any advantage which their junction might have \neffected ; and Joseph, with Marshal Jourdan and a large force, arrived \non the scene of action. These met, however, a severe repulse in \nattacking the allied forces at Talavera, and were compelled to retreat. \nThe fruits of this advantage were lost by the incapacity of the \nSpanish officers ; Blake and Vanegas experienced fi\'esh defeats, and \nWellesley himself was forced to retreat towards the frontier. \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 387 \n\nAreizao-a, who succeeded to the command of the principal Spanish \narmv, of fifty thousand men, was in his turn totally defeated at \nOcana, and the subjugation of Spain seemed inevitable. The natural \nspirit and obstinacy of the national character, however, displayed \nitself in a manner far more formidable than in the open field. \nNumerous bands of guerrillas^ or irregular and undisciplined com- \nbatants, took up arms. From their general dispersion and knowledge \nof the country, it was almost impossible to capture or defeat them, \nwhile they were enabled greatly to harass the enemy, and often \ntreated with barbarous cruelty such of the Frenchmen as fell into \ntheir hands. \n\nOn Joseph\'s announcement of his intention of assembling the \nCortes, the Junta, to anticipate him, convoked them in its own name \nto meet at Cadiz, and presently retreated to the security which that \ncity still afforded. Andalusia and Granada immediately submitted to \nthe victors. The greater part of Spain was now in possession of the \nFrench ; but from the activity and ferocity of the guerrilla bands, \nthey were only secure in such places as they occupied with a consid- \nerable force. Cadiz, strongly reinforced from England and Portugal, \nwas closely besieged. \n\nWellesley (now Lord Wellington), in the latter country, was busily \nengaged in strengthening the celebrated and almost impregnable \n"lines of Torres Vedras," which protected the capital of that kingdom \nand its immediate vicinity. Massena, early in the summer of 1810, \nadvanced with a large force to effect the reconquest of Portugal, and \nto "drive the English into the sea." After taking Ciudad Eodrigo \nand the strong Portuguese fortress of Almeida, he marched toward \nLisbon. The British commander, retreating before him, was com- \npelled to give him battle on the ridge of Busaco \xe2\x80\x94 an action in \nwhich, from his superiority of position, he gained a decided advan- \ntage. He then retreated within his lines, the natural and artificial \ndefences of which were so strong, that his pursuer was unable to \nforce them. The British and Portuguese troops within these lines \namounted to an hundred and thirty thousand men ; and Massena, \nin jSTovember, finding it impossible to effect a passage, withdrew to \nSantarem, on the Tagus. \n\nIn the desultory warfare, which meanwhile was carried on in Spain, \nthe French had been generally successful. The exertions of Soult, \nVictor, St. Cj^r, and especially Suchet, had brought much of the \ncountry into apparent subjection. Cadiz still held out, and thither \n\n\n\n388 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nthe deputies to tlie Cortes^ elected in spite of tlie French, made their \nway in September, They decreed levies of an hundred and fifty \nthousand men, and immediately proceeded to frame a national con- \nstitution, based upon the most liberal and enlightened principles. \n\nSpain, however, was then, as now, in too deplorably ignorant \nand bigoted a condition to appreciate or receive benefit from these \nsalutary reforms. The nobility, as usual, beheld with jealousy the \npopular nature of the new government; and the clergy, enraged at \nthe suppression of the Inquisition and of other ecclesiastical abuses, \nthrew their powerful interest into the scale against the innovating \nassembly. The injudicious attitude of the Cortes toward the Amer- \nican colonies produced effects still more disastrous. \n\nThese wealthy dependancies had continued firmly loyal to the \ndethroned family, and had despatched their revenues, in British \nships of war, regularly and liberally to the support of the contest \nagainst France. Finding their rights overlooked, and the oppressive \ncolonial restrictions unremo ved by the new government, they disowned. \nthe authority of the late assemblies; and the northern provinces of \nSouth America, under the title of the Venezuelan Confederacy, pro- \nclaimed themselves independent of the mother-country, though still \nacknowledging Ferdinand as their rightful sovereign. A useless \nattempt to suppress this movement deprived Spain of the forces \nnecessary for the assertion of her own nationality. \n\nIn March, 1811, Massena having lost great numbers of his troops, \nand perceiving his attempt on Portugal to be hopeless, from the \nincreased strength of the enemy, retreated into Spain, closely pur- \nsued by the British. This retreat, in which he lost six thousand \nmen, has been considered a masterpiece of military tactics, though \ndisgraced by much cruelty and devastation of the country through \nwhich he passed. Almeida was blown up and evacuated by the \nFrench, and their fortress of Badajoz, on the Spanish frontier, was \ninvested by a large force under Marshal Beresford. Soult advanced \nto its relief, and the English commander was compelled to raise the \nsiege. In the sanguinary contest which ensued at Albuera, he suc- \nceeded in repulsing the attack of the French marshal, but with a \nloss of seven thousand of his troops, principally English. Welling- \nton then joined him, and the siege was renewed; but after two dis- \nastrous attempts to take the place by storm, they were compelled to \nretreat into Portugal before a superior force of the enemy. At the \nsame time the French armies in other parts of the Spanish peninsula, \n\n\n\np a, f. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n05^ a \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 -^ . IQ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n- - \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nB --o \n\n\n\n\n\n\n/I u^l \n\n\nCQ B \'^ \n\n\n\n\nH \n\n\nIfl \n\n\n" ^ B \n\n^ Ct) \n\n\n\n\nt \n\n\n1| \n\n\n\'-5 2.\'^ \n\n\n\n\nt?: \n\n\n\n\nS- ^\'\'^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n*TJ \n\n\nA iUES \n\n\n>_, CD \n\n\n\n\ntt \n\n\n\n\n-T p \n\n\n\n\na \n\n\n\n\nJ \xc2\xbb N \n\n\n\n\nc \n\n\n(3 ?Ti i*fr \n\n\nD\' - \n\ni- \n\n\nCl \n\n\n\n\nfe; \n\n\n\'pit \n\n\n\n\na \n\n\nc \n\n\n^^i^^ Tii \n\n\n"^ ^ \n\n\n\n\nhr \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0, \xe2\x96\xa0 J \n\n\n-^ H.^3 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2^ \n\n\n\n\nN , li \n\n\nCT S-l \n\n\ns \n\n\n\n\n\\ \'m \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1-^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n73 \n\n\n\n\n\n\'i \n\n\nCQ Q \n\n\nM \n\n\n\n\n\'/iWljrlfl \n\n\n"" \n\n\nJ) \n\n\n1\xe2\x80\x94 { \n\n\n\n\nl-H -3 \n\n\nS \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa22; \n\n\n\' lllli \n\n\ncl- "^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\xc2\xbb\xe2\x96\xa0 P\'^ \n\n\n\n\nc \n\n\nt M\xe2\x84\xa2ffl \n\n\nCD C \n\n\n-\'( \n\n\n\n\n\'\' W! \n\n\nB CD \n11^ \n\n\n1) \n;1 \n\n\na \n\n\n\n\nS-"2 \n\n\nU3 \n\n\nCO \nI\xe2\x80\x94 1 \n\n\n<\'\' C3 S\' \n\nf :? <j \n\n\n-4 \n\n\nc \n\n\nvi \n\n\nP CD ^ \n\n\ni; \n\n\n^ \n\n\nm \n\n\n1^5. \n\n\nd \n\n\nt> \n\n\n- P\'CR \n\n\n;*- \n\n\n\n\n\\ liiiMi \n\n\nCD p- C \n\n\n\n\n1-^ \n\n\nI IB \n\n\nK ^ \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\'TO \n\n\n-- ^ > \n\n\n\n\nC \n\n\n\'/M \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\np-3 ^\' \n\n\n\n\nC \n\n\nUi \n\n\nj: = 2 \n\n\n\n\n"r- \n\n\nB \n\n\n" \xe2\x80\x9e - \n\n\n\n\nb \n\n\n\'11 \n\n\n7 ; ^ \n\n\n\n\nc \n\n\nMi \n\n\n\n\nSPAIN. 389 \n\ngained great advantages over the native troops; and met with more \ngeneral success than at any time since the departure of the emperor. \n\nThe Cortes, at Cadiz, were still engaged about their constitution, \nand the mutual jealousy of the various parties prevented the appoint- \nment of , a commander-in-chief \xe2\x80\x94 now absolutely essential to any \nprospect of independence. All the American provinces were in full \ninsurrection. Venezuela, Chili, Peru, and Buenos Ayres, were \nwaging a successful revolt, Mexico, overawed by the arrival of \nsome of the best Spanish regiments, was indeed reduced to a tem- \nporary submission. \n\nIn this disastrous condition of affairs, a brilliant exploit of Lord \nWelling-ton inspired the Spaniards with fresh confidence. In Jan- \nuary, 1812, he appeared suddenly before the strong and important \nfortress of Ciudad Eodrigo ; and before Marmont, the chief French \ncommander, could advance to its relief, succeeded in taking it by \nstorm. This was the commencement of a spirited and successful \ncampaign. Badajoz fell in a similar manner, and the French were \ncompelled entirely to evacuate Estramadura and Portugal. In July, \nMarmont was completely defeated by Wellington, at Salamanca, with \na loss of fourteen thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. \nThe victorious general marched to Madrid, which he entered on the \n12th of August, Joseph, with a greatly inferior force, retreating \nbefore him. The new constitution was sworn to with universal zeal, \nand the English general, under the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, \nwas appointed commander-in-chief during the continuance of the war. \n\nThe junction of the French forces compelled him, in the autumn, \nto quit the capital, and to move northward. After passing a month \nin unsuccessful attempts to storm the strong citadel of Burgos, he \nwas compelled by the advance of the French to make a disorderly \nand undisciplined retreat, and take up his winter-quarters on the \nPortuguese frontier. \n\n\n\n390 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nEXPULSION OP THE FRENCH, AND RESTORATION OF THE ; \n\nBOURBONS. i \n\ni \ni \n\nThe disasters which Napoleon experienced soon after these events, \\ \n\nfrom his rash expedition into Eussia, seemed to present the fairest ; \nopportunity which Spain had yet seen of asserting her freedom. He \n\nwas no longer able to supply his peninsular armies by pouring fresh | \n\ntorrents of soldiers over the Pyrenees, but was rather in need of his | \n\nold companions in arms to withstand the advancing tide of the north- I \nern confederacy. Soult, with thirty thousand veterans, was recalled, \n\nearly in the year 1813, while fresh reinforcements enabled Welling- \\ \nton to take the field in May with seventy thousand English and \nPortuguese, in addition to the Spanish armies under Castanos and \n\nEspaiia. About an hundred and sixty thousand French troops were j \n\nstill distributed in Spain. j \n\nAfter various indecisive manoeuvres, Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, | \n\nwith the principal body of the French forces, took their stand at i \n\nVittoria, resolved to make a final struggle for the Spanish crown. i \n\nThey were posted on the very ground where, five centuries before, i \n\nEdward the Black Prince had defeated the renowned Constable du j \n\nGuesclin, and for a time preserved the crown of Spain to Peter the j \nCruel. On the 21st of June, AVellington, with the combined British, \n\nSpanish, and Portuguese armies, attacked their position. In this { \n\nbattle, decisive of the fate of Spain, the French were utterly defeated, | \nw^ith the loss of all their baggage, artillery, and equipments; and \n\nJoseph himself narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. ; \n\nThe victory was actively followed up ; and ere long all the French I \nforces had retreated across the Pyrenees, except the army of Suchet \n\nand the garrisons of Pamplona and St. Sebastian. Soult was now i \n\nplaced at the head of the French forces, and, by the aid of reinforce- | \nment and reorganization, with an army of an hundred thousand men, \nresumed hostilities in the neighbourhood of the Pyrenees. He was, \nhowever, after some hard fighting, compelled to retreat into France ; \nand the fortress of St. Sebastian, after a defence which cost the lives \nof four thousand of the besiegers, was taken by storm, and great \n\n\n\nSTAIN. \n\n\n\n391 \n\n\n\nnumbers of the garrison and the citizens were massacred. By Octo- \nber, the English commander was enabled to cross the frontier; and \nthe fall of Pamjjlona, soon after, left him at liberty to make a cam- \npaign of invasion in the French territories. The misfortunes which \nNapoleon at this time experienced in his tremendous struggle against \nthe allied powers, deprived him of the means of repelling the \ninvaders. \n\nThe royal family of Spain, which had so long vanished from the \npublic view, now began once more to attract attention. The old \nking and queen, with their favourite Godoy, were living quietly at \nEome, the common refuge of deposed or abdicating princes. Fer- \ndinand, who was still detained at Yalencay, had done nothing to \nentitle himself to any other sentiment than the contempt of his \ncountrymen. He had, in the most abject manner, written to con- \ngratulate Joseph on his accession to the Spanish throne, and to \nNapoleon to felicitate him on his victories. A scheme devised by \nthe British for his escape he denounced to the latter, and continually \nimportuned him for the hand of some princess of the Bonaparte \nfamily. His time, it is said, was principally occupied in embroider- \ning a robe for some image of the Virgin Mary. The Spanish nation, \nhowever, ignorant of these degrading facts, or disbelieving them \nas reported by the French, preserved its loyalty and veneration \nunchanged. \n\nNapoleon, after his calamitous defeat at Leipsic, perceived the \nimpossibility of retaining a footing on the Peninsula, and agreed to \nrelease his captive, and recognise him as king of Spain and the Indies, \non condition of the renewal of former alliances and the evacuation of \nSpain by the English. By an act of the Cortes, however, any act \nof the king during his captivity had been declared nugatory; and \nthe regency, through its president, the Cardinal de Bourbon, returned \na loyal answer, but refused to comply with the stipulations. The \nprince was therefore still for the present detained in imprisonment. \n\nEarly in the year 1814:, Lord Wellington, with the allied forces, \nresumed operations, which had been delayed by the severity of the \nweather, and pushed his invasion yet farther into the French prov- \ninces of the south. As a last resort, the emperor now commanded \nthe release of Ferdinand, stipulating, however, for the safe return \nof his garrisons on surrendering the Spanish fortresses which they \noccupied. Most of these, however, were already lost through the \ntreachery of Yan Halen, a renegade to both parties. The almost \n\n\n\n392 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF.HISTOEY. \n\nimmediate overthrow of the imperial power, and the consequent \nabdication of Napoleon, which succeeded, made this loss, indeed, a \nmatter of little moment to his fallen fortunes. \n\nThe weak and bigoted Ferdinand was received with such enthu- \nsiastic rejoicing and loyalty as would have been appropriate to the \nwelcome of the highest patriotism and ability. The ignorant popu- \nlace, every where influenced by their priests, cried out as he passed, \n"Down with the Cortes!" "Long live the absolute king!" To a \npeople who thus clamorously demanded slavery, their wishes were \nspeedily granted. The king, disowning his former acts, at once \nassumed an arbitrary tone. He dissolved the Cortes, declaring that \nbody, from the absence of the nobility and clergy, an illegal assem- \nbly, and abrogated the constitution which they had been at such \npains to prepare. On the 13th of May he entered Madrid, where, \non account of these measures, he was received with additional \nenthusiasm by the ignorant and priest-ridden populace. \n\nThe chiefs of the liberal party were forthwith punished by ban- \nishment, imprisonment, and enrolment as common soldiers. Their \nlives were spared only by the interference of the English, to whom \nthe king had been so recently indebted for his crown. The Inqui- \nsition, though with limited power, was immediately reestablished. \nThus terminated a struggle which had caused incalculable suffering \nand loss of life, and in which the sympathies of unprejudiced \nobservers were perplexed between a fierce, bigoted, and slavish \npatriotism, and an enlightened foreign usurpation. \n\nThe contest with the American colonies was still maintained, and \nFerdinand lavished the resources of the kingdom in a vain attempt \nto reduce them to subjection. All the vast continental American \npossessions of Spain, acquired by such valour, craft, and cruelty, \nsucceeded in maintaining their independence, and Cuba and Porto \nllico alone remained of her once numerous western colonies. These \nunsuccessful attempts to force an absolute government on distant \nand extensive provinces were attended with circumstances of the \nmost odious and revolting cruelty. \n\nThe king, after a bigoted and disastrous reign of nineteen years, \ndied in 1833, bequeathing to his country a legacy of civil war. He \nhad formally excluded his brother Don Carlos, the legitimate heir, \nfrom the succession, leaving his infant daughter, Isabella, heiress to \nthe throne, under the regency of the Queen Maria Christina. The \ndesolating civil contests which this arrangement occasioned, and which \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n393 \n\n\n\nwere aggravated by tlie interposition of tlie Frencli and Britisb, \ngovernments, are generally known. Spain for many years was the \ntheatre of a fierce partisan and guerrilla warfare, between the adhe- \nrents of Don Carlos and of the queen, in which her soil was repeat- \nedly deluged by the blood shed in private combat and massacre. \nThe triumph of the latter party was assured by the protection of \nthe French and British governments, and comparative tranquillity \nhas been restored to Spain. \n\nThat country, however, enslaved by superstition, and long the \nscene of unrelenting domestic hostilities, is at present in a miserable \nand deplorably unadvanced condition. No nation in Europe is so \nfar behind the age in all that relates to the welfare and political \neconomy of a great people. The national character, inherited from \nthe days of the Inquisition, is in general revengeful, cruel, and unre- \nlenting. The savage nature of their national amusementS; and \nespecially that of bull-fighting, may have some tendency to foster \nthis unamiable disposition. The delight which the tortures and \nmutilation of animals bestow, in this barbarous sport, may naturally \nincrease the indifference to human life and suffering, which forms \nthe principal stigma of the Spanish character. In justice to this \nunfortunate people, whose opportunities for development, of late \nyears, have been comparatively few, the better features of their \ncharacter should not be overlooked. They are distinguished by \nhonest}^ hospitalitj^, and a certain pride, which, if sometimes ludi- \ncrous, is yet a great incentive to magnanimous actions, and a pre- \nservative against the lower and more degrading propensities. \n\n\n\n& E R 1 A ii; \n\n\n\nTHE ANCIENT GERMANS. THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. THE \n\nELECTIVE EMPIRE. \n\nThe "Germania" of the Eomans comprised a vast region of coun- \ntry, extending over all the north-western portion of Europe. The \nwars and conquests of that wonderful people, who made permanent \nsettlements and military stations in various parts of this territory, \nhave afforded us full descriptions of its ancient inhabitants. Thoiigh \ndivided into almost innumerable tribes and nations, these rude deni- \nzens of the forest all possessed a certain similarity in their national \ncharacteristics. The light hair and the blue eye, the huge stature \nand the rugged manners, with the fierce love of independence, were \ncommon to them all. Unacquainted with the arts of civilized life, \ntheir subsistence was dependant upon their herds and the precarious \nchances of hunting. Like most northern nations, they were addicted \nto drinking, and regarded the vague plans and reveries of intoxica- \ntion as the result of divine inspiration. It would seem, indeed, that \nunlimited confidence was not reposed in the certainty of these sug- \ngestions; for the tribes were accustomed to debate all important \nmatters twice over \xe2\x80\x94 once in the evening, when drunk, and once on \nthe following morning, when sober. \n\n* In a country so extensive as that great tract which bears the common name of \nGermany, and composed of such numerous principalities, each with separate and \nvoluminous annals, every thing like a detailed historical account, in a work of the \npresent plan, is obviously impossible. Some of the more remarkable and important \nphases of its history will be briefly stated, and the affairs of Austria and Prussia, \nwhich, from their relations with German states and the Germanic empii\'e, are con- \nnected with the subject, will also be casually mentioned. \n\n\n\nGEKMANY. \n\n\n\n395 \n\n\n\nTheir government, in general, was strictly democratic, the leader \nof one tribe or of several being elected by a species of universal \nsuffrage, and the military and civil authorities being kept carefully \ndistinct. Their rude virtues were such as contain the germ of a \nhigh civilization \xe2\x80\x94 bravery in men and chastity in women being the \nfirst requisites of their moral code. Their theology was crude and \nbarbarous, consisting in the worship of the heavenly luminaries, \nthe fire, and the earth, and in reliance on their priests for the inter- \npretation of the will of the gods. They believed in a future world, \nwhere the brave should meet together and carouse, drinking beer \nfrom immense horns or from the skulls of their enemies. \n\nA portion of these barbarous tribes (then called the Cimbri) waged \nan active aggressive war with the Romans from B. C. 114 to B. C. \n101, when they were completely defeated by Marius. Csesar, after \nhis conquest of Gaul, repulsed their king, Ariovistus, (who wished \nto seize that inviting province,) and made two expeditions across the \nRhine. Tiberius, acting as general to Augustus, also made a success- \nful invasion of their country as far as the Elbe ; but soon afterwards \n(nine years before the Christian era) the defeat of Quintilius Yarns, \nand the destruction of all his forces, surrounded in a marshy forest, \ncut short this career of conquest, and caused the emperor frequently \nto exclaim, in anguish, "Varus, restore me my legions!" Despite \nthe skill and courage of the renowned Germanicus, the Romans never \nfully recovered their lost ground ; and on the decline of the empire, \nthose warlike nations, the Visigoths, the Heruli, the Alemanni, and \nthe Franks, year by year pushed their encroachments farther on the \nimperial provinces. \n\nThe latter people completely conquered Gaul, and founded a new \nkingdom, the modern France, of which Clovis was the first sovereign, \nand which afterwards held sway over a great part of Germany. \nDuring both the "Merovingian" and " Carlo vingi an" dynasties {see \nFrance), sanguinary wars were carried on with the Saxons and other \nGermanic nations. When, in 771, Charlemagne ascended the throne \nof the Frankish kingdom, the influence of the clergy was sufficient \nto induce him to wage an uncompromising war against the heathenish \nnations of Saxony. These were finally subdued, and their leaders, \nWittekind and Albion, embraced Christianity. The arms of the \nnevv^ monarch were almost uniformly successful. Bavaria, Pomera- \nnia, and many other provinces, were brought under his sway, and in \nthe year A. D. 800, he was solemnly crowned as "Emperor of the \n\n\n\n396 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nWest" at Eome, by the Pope Leo II. He died in 814, and whs \nburied at Aix-la-Chapelle. Here, tAvo centuries after, the Emperor \nOtho III. foimd his mouldering remains, seated on a throne in his \nimperial robes, and royally arrayed with crown and sword. His \ndominions, at the time of his death, included France, Germany \nthe Low Countries, and portions of Italy, Hungary and Spain. \n\nHis son Louis le Debonnaire (the Good-natured), in dividing his \nterritories among his rebellious sons, assigned to Louis, the third, \n(thence called Louis the German,) the extensive states of Germany. \nThis sovereign, by alienating his domains to various powerful sub- \niects, developed still further the feudal constitution of that countr3^ \nHe gained by arms several accessions of territory, caused the Bible \nto be translated into the German language, and expired in 876. His \nson Charles (the Fat), who, by the death of his relations, held sway \nover nearly all the territories of Charlemagne, evinced such weakness \nand incapacity, that in 887, by the common consent of all his subjects, \nhe was deposed from the government of these extensive dominions. \n\nOn this second breaking up of the Empire of the West, the states \nof Germany, composed of powerful nobles, assumed to themselves \nthe power of appointing the sovereigns of that country ; the various \nduchies and ecclesiastical principalities having by this time gained a \ncomplete control over the national affairs. In 912, Conrad, count \nof Franconia, was thus elected to the throne, and at his death, seven \nyears afterwards, Henry, duke of Saxony. \n\nThe Huns, a warlike and predatory people, had for some time \nravaged the country with repeated incursions ; and the new sover- \neign, to repel their attacks, introduced many important changes \namong the states of Germany. He walled many cities and built \nothers, and compelled a ninth part of the population to take up their \nabode in these fortified places. He levied powerful forces, gained \nextensive territories from the Sclavonians, and, at the great battle \nof Merseburg, entirely routed and cut to pieces the army of the Huns. \n\nHis son, Otho the Great, who in 936 succeeded him by election, \nmarried a daughter of Edward, king of England. His ascendancy \nin Italy was such, that in 962, he was crowned ernperor by Pope \nJohn XII., and soon afterwards deposed the pontiff himself In \n964, the council of Rome decreed to him the power of electing the \nPope, as well as of appointing all ecclesiastical dignitaries in his \nown dominions. He died in 973. Under his immediate successors, \nno very memorable events occurred. \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n397 \n\n\n\nAt this period, the emperors Lad no permanent residence, but \nlield their court in various provinces of the extensive empire, their \nstate and magnificence being maintained in each bj domains espe- \ncially appropriated to their temporary support. Their relations to \nthe numerous principalities of wliich they were the head was in \ngeneral well defined and settled. "The emperor had the right of \nconferring all the great benefices; of confirming or annulling the \nelection of the Popes; of convoking councils, and causing them to \ndecide on ecclesiastical affairs ; of conferring the title of king on his \nvassals ; of granting vacant fiefs ; of receiving the revenues of the \nempire accruing from the domains, tolls, gold and silver mines, trib- \nutes of the Jews, and fines ; of disposing of Italy as its sovereigTi ; \nof establishing fairs and cities, and conferring civic rights ; of con- \nvoking diets, and fixing their duration ; of coining, and of granting \nthat privilege to the states, and of causing justice to be administered \nin the territories of the states. \n\n"The states, in their collective capacity as the Diet, elected the \nkings of Germany, appointed their guardians, passed laws, declared \nwar, and concluded peace ; decided the disputes of other states, and \njudged and condemned other states accused of crime and rebellion. \nIn their own territories, the states could form alliances among \nthemselves, declare war, and build fortresses ; send ambassadors to \nforeign princes; transmit their fiefs to their sons; assemble their \nprovincial states, and cause their vassals to be tried by them. The \nstates were also privileged by the emperor to coin money, to estab- \nlish fairs, to exact tolls, to receive Jews, administer justice, and \npossess gold mines."* \n\n\n\nTHE PRANCONIAN EMPERORS. CONTESTS WITH THE PAPACY. \n\nCoNEADE II. duke of Franconia, the first of a new line of mon- \narchs, was elected to the sovereignty in 1024, and soon afterwards \nwas crowned king of Italy at Milan. His grandson, Henry lY., \n* Hawkins\'s Germany. \n\n\n\n398 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwlio in 1056 received the crown of Germany, found the imperial \npower seriously menaced by the ambition of his great nobles and the \nincreasing power of the charch. Eudolf and Bertold, the dukes of \nSuabia and Carinthia, while he was engaged in a war with the \nSaxons, united their arms against him. Having also quarrelled with \nthe Pope (the famous Hildebrand), he resolved on deposing him from \nthe papacy, and accordingly, in a diet, summoned at Worms, effected \nhis purpose. But the pontiff, assembling more than a hundred \nbishops, launched an excommunication at his enemy and all con- \ncerned in the process ; and so universal was the influence of this \nspiritual weapon, that Henry thought it prudent to cross the Alps, \nand sue for absolution in person. For three days, in penitential \ngarments and with naked feet, kneeling in winter weather without \nthe walls of Canasso, he besought the forgiveness of the pontiff; who \nfinally accorded him absolution, on condition that he should be \nreconciled with his feudal enemies. \n\nThe latter were afterwards crushed, and the Pope himself was \nexpelled from Pome ; but public sentiment proved too strong for the \nskill and valour of the emperor. His own children revolted against \nhim, and in 1106, the fiftieth year of his reign, he was compelled to \nabdicate in favour of his son Henry Y. He soon after died of grief \nand vexation, and his body, still excommunicated, was permitted to \nremain five years above ground before released from the curse which \ninterdicted burial or any rite of religion. \n\nThe new monarch renewed the contest with the popedom; and in \n1111, seized the Pontiff, Paschalis II., in a solemn ecclesiastical \nassembly at the spiritual capital. Eleven years afterwards, the dis- \nputes in question, under Pope Callixtus TI., were adjusted by a \ncompromise. \n\nBy this time, the increasing wealth of the artificers and other \ncitizens had raised them into political importance ; and many of the \ncities, by mutual alliance, gained protection from violence, and a \nspecies of independence. The power of the emperor, assailed both by \nthe church and nobility, had dwindled almost to a shadow, when, in \n1152, the celebrated Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa, and already \nfamous for his military achievements, was elected to the throne. He \nwas soon involved in a fresh and obstinate conflict with the papal \npower. \n\nThe conclave of cardinals, in 1159, had elected as Pope the brave \nand talented Alexander III. Displeased and jealous, the emperor \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n399 \n\n\n\nsummoned a rival synod at Pavia, whicTi elected an anti-pope or \nopposition pontiff, under the title of Victor IV. Alexander at once \nbetook himself to excommunication, and endeavoured to enlist tlie \nsympathies of the Christian courts in his favour. But the imperial \narmy, headed by the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne, advanced \ntoward Eome, and he was compelled to fly to Montpelier. His cause \nwas embraced by the cities of Lombardy and many others ; and \ntwo great factions were formed \xe2\x80\x94 the Guelphs, who favoured the \nPapacy, and the Grhibellines, who opposed it. \n\nThe emperor, with his army, entered Italy, and burned several \nof the refractory cities \xe2\x80\x94 among them Milan, commanding that salt \nshould be strewn on the place where it had stood. The fortresses \nwere placed in the hands of the Ghibellines. Alexander and the \nLombards still struggled with great courage and resolution; but \nwere finally defeated, and the victor entered Rome in triumph. \nNevertheless, ten years afterwards Milan was rebuilt, and garrisoned \nby fifteen thousand men. The emperor, in a second campaign, was \ncompletely defeated, and after this dispute had continued eighteen \nyears, the parties, weary of war, became reconciled, and Frederic \nacknowledged Alexander his spiritual lord. In a grand public \nassembly, in the great square at Venice, he prostrated himself, and \nkissed the foot of the haughty pontiff, who, not content with this \nact of humiliation, placed his foot, in token of superiority, on the \nimperial neck. The ancient portico of St. Mark\'s, the theatre of \ninnumerable great and fantastic scenes of history, perhaps never \nwitnessed an exhibition more strange and memorable. \n\n* * " In that temple-porch \n\nDid Barbarossa fling his mantle off, \nAnd, kneeling, on his neck receive the foot \nOf the proud pontiff, thus at last consoled \nFor flight, disguise, and many an aguish shake \nOn his stone pillow. "* \n\nThe Italian republics, founded by the talents and courage of Alex- \nander, still retained their independence. \n\nIn 1188, the emperor held a diet at Mainz, and there, with a great \nnumber of his nobility, assumed the cross, and started on a crusade. \n\n* The Pope, on one occasion, was compelled to fly in disguise to Venice, and is \nsaid to have passed the first night upon the steps of San Salvatore, near the Rialto. \nThe circumstance is still recorded by a tablet at the door. \n\n\n\n400 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHe penetrated to Syria, defeating the Seljuk Turks on his way; but \nperished in 1190, from the effect of bathing in the cold stream of \nSaleph. \n\nHis son Henry YI. attained greater power than any German sov- \nereign since the days of Charlemagne. His reputation is stained by \nthe mean imprisonment of the famous Eichard Coeur de Lion, king \nof England, whom he took from the duke of Austria, and detained \nfor some time, extorting the payment of a heavy ransom. He had \nnearly succeeded in rendering the imperial throne hereditary, when \ndeath cut short his ambitious plans, before he had completed his \nthirty-second year. \n\nHis brother Philip, who succeeded him, was murdered in 1208, \nand Otho IV., the duke of Brunswick, was elected to the throne, \nwhich he had already sought to gain by arms. He soon became \nembroiled with the Pope, Innocent III., who, after the customary \nfashion, launched at him an excommunication. This, and the oppo- \nsition of the German princes, compelled him to succumb before the \npretensions of the son of Henry YL, who in 1212 entered Germany, \nand was crowned at Mainz. \n\nThis prince (Frederick II.) was a man of high talent, energy, and \ncourage. He was much attached to literatiire, and was himself an \nauthor of no small repute. In the heroic verses composed by the \nemperor and his associates, a high tone of religion and chivalry pre- \nvailed. The corruptions of the age were attacked; the famous \nexploits of Eichard and Saladin were celebrated; and devotion and \nromance were cultivated with equal zeal. The moral condition of \nthe country at this period may be conjectured from the fact that, in \n1215, the emperor exacted from his nobility a solemn oath not to \ncoin bad money, levy oppressive tolls, or steal on the highway. \n\nFrederick had been induced by the papal authority to undertake \na crusade for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. His delay in \nfulfilling this engagement procured him an excommunication from \nthe Pope, Gregory IX. In 1229, he accomplished his vow, but \nwithout bloodshed \xe2\x80\x94 Meledin, the sultan of Egypt, ceding t.o him, \nwithout hostilities, the sovereignty of Jerusalem and other sacred \ncities of Palestine. During most of his reign the emjDeror was con- \ntinually involved in contests, spiritual or temporal, with the Popes ; \nand in 1240 was again excommunicated, on a pretended charge of \nblasphemy. The success which had attended the early part of his \nreign, finally deserted him; public prejudice, stimulated by the \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMilitary Costume, \n\nOF TITE TWTTT.FTH OENTTt^Y \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMilitary Costume, \n\nOF TH3Z THIHTKENTH CKNTURY \n\n\n\nGEKMANY. \n\n\n\n401 \n\n\n\nenmity of the church, was against him ; various successful pretenders \nto the sovereignty started up ; and after many misfortunes, and wit- \nnessing the complete overthrow of his dignity, he died in 1252. \n\n"During the troubles of this period, the imperial power diminished, \nwhile that of the states increased ; the latter now arrogated to them- \nselves the right of deposing as well as electing the emperor, and \nclaimed a voice in the creation of princes and in the distribution of \nfiefs ; in their own territories, now hereditary, the chiefs ruled with \nunbounded sway, and though much harassed by their own nobles, \nwould admit of no interference from the emperor, \n\n"Neither Conrad, the son of Frederick, who fell in the defence \nof his hereditary possessions; nor William, who perished prema- \nturely by a different fate; nor the duke of Cornwall, brother of the \nEnglish king, who was elected by some of the princes, and only \nknew how to sell privileges in order to reimbvirse himself for the \nsums they had cost him ; nor Alphonso of Castile, to whom others \nconfided the crown ; nor any prince in Christendom, found himself \npossessed of the power requisite for restoring the royal authority in \nGermany, and the imperial dignity in Europe, to that degree of \neminence which had been maintained during the three preceding \ncenturies. The supreme magistracy of the European commonwealth \nfell into such a state of weakness, that the three-and-twenty years \nwhich followed the death of Frederick are termed by many an inter- \nregnum, or a period of vacation of the throne; and so we may \nconsider them, without doing injustice to the character of the age."* \n\n\n\nu (LtL lijj iL iL Ju Jjo X i Jj o \nTHE EMPIRE UNTIL THE REPORMATION. \n\nDuring this suspension of the "Holy Eoman Empire,"f great \nchanges occurred, both in the political and moral aspect of the \ncountry. The royal domains were seized by the numerous petty \n\n* Hawkins\'s Germany. \n\nf So termed from the coronation of Charlemagne at Rome. \n26 \n\n\n\n4-02 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nprinces who controlled tlie different states: diets for justice were \ndiscontinued; private revenge and rapacity were unrestrained; and \nthe nobility, from their innumerable fortresses, held complete con- \ntrol over the lives and property of all within their immediate \nneighbourhood. \n\nSeveral attempts had been made to institute an effectual govern- \nment. In 1255, the states had united for mutual defence in a grand \nleague, called the "Rhenish Confederacy," and various lesser associa- \ntions had been formed for the same object. The " Hanseatic League," \ncomposed of eighty of the first cities in Germany, was established \xe2\x80\x94 \nLubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic being at the head. This \ncelebrated confederacy took the interests of commerce especially \nunder its protection, and maintained extensive establishments for \nthat purpose at London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novogorod in Russia. \n\nAn electoral college, composed of the chief temporal and spiritual \nprinces of Germany, and excluding the lesser nobility, was next \nform,ed; and this body, in 1273, alarmed by a menace of the Pope \nthat he would appoint an emperor himself, proceeded to an election. \nRudolf, count of Hapsburg, a man of great ability and political \nvirtue, was their choice. He ruled with paternal benevolence, \nsecuring, indeed, the ascendancy of his house by providing powerful \nprincipalities for his children. \n\nAt his death, in 1291, Adolf, count of Nassau, Avas elected \nemperor ; but the opposition and violence of Albert duke of A^is- \ntria, the son of Rudolf, were too powerful to be overcome. The \nlatter procured the deposition of his rival, and his own election ; and \nfinally, at the battle of Gelheim, in 1298, slew the unfortunate \nmonarch with his own hand. The valour and policy of the new \nsovereign enabled him to overawe both the states and the people, \nand to carry out his arbitrary and ambitious designs; but his \nmeasures excited such enmity, that in 1308 he was murdered in \nSwitzerland by his own nephew, John. \n\nHenry YII. (count of Luxemberg), who was elected in his stead, \ndied in 1313, and for four years the country was distracted by war, \non account of the rival pretensions of Louis of Bavaria and Frederic \nof Austria. The defeat of the latter at Muhldorf placed his rival \non the throne. The imperial domains had become too limited for \nthe support of a transitory court, and accordingly Louis V. resided in \nhis hereditary domains until his death, which occured in 1347. \n\nThe crown was then offered to Edward III. of England, and on \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n40^ \n\n\n\nLis refusal to accept it, was conferred on Charles of Luxemburg \n(Charles IV.) king of Bohemia, who, by a large sum of money, pur- \nchased the concurrence of his rivals. During an administration of \nthirty years, he applied himself diligently, both in Italy and Grer- \nmany, to the aggrandizement of his house and the accumulation of \ntreasure. For sums of money he sold municipal freedom to various \ntowns and nobles of the former country. The commencement of his \nreign was disturbed by a most atrocious persecution of the Jews, \nwho were accused as the authors of a pestilence then ravaging \nEurope. Great numbers were put to death in the most barbarous \nmanner, two thousand being burned at Strasburg alone. The \nnobilit}!^, who were mostly indebted to the persecuted race, abetted \nthese atrocities in spite of the imperial efforts to check them. \n\nAbout this time a taste for penance and self-discipline became so \ngeneral, that men devoted themselves to the most grievous self- \ninflicted tortures. Flagellation was greatly in vogue, and two \nhundred of these unhappy fanatics entered S]3ire on one day, and, \nhaving stripped, beat themselves with scourges pointed with iron. \nA papal edict was found necessary to abate this insane species of \nfanaticism, which was spreading through Europe with alarming \nrapidity. \n\nAt the death of Charles, in 1378, his son Winceslaf was chosen in \nhis place. The latter, however, gave much offence to the states by \nremaining in his kingdom of Bohemia, and indulging, it is said, in \nevery species of licentiousness and cruelty. Two attempts were \nmade to take him off by poison ; but these (says a grave author) \nonly added to the misfortunes of the empire ; for the noxious potion, \ninstead of killing him, left him affected with an unquenchable thirst, \nwhich resulted in habitual drunkenness and an aggravation of his \nnatural eccentricity. He was deposed, after a brief reign, by the \nelectors, and several high princes rapidly succeeded each other on \nthe throne. \n\nIn 1411, Sigismund, king of Hungary, brother of Winceslaf, was \nchosen to the throne, and at once proceeded to attempt the pacifica- \ntion of the empire and the suppression of the religious schisms which \nhad distracted the church. In 1414, he summoned a grand ecclesi- \nastical council at Constance ; and hither, it is said, repaired eighteen \nthousand prelates and priests, sixteen thousand princes and noble- \nmen, besides a great number of courtesans \xe2\x80\x94 the latter, by especial \nprovision of the civil authorities. \n\n\n\n404 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe celebrated John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who were \namong the earliest to broach reformed doctrines, had been cited \nbefore this tribunal; and on the 6th of July the former, after \nundergoing the mockery of a trial, was, in despite of a safe-conduct \ngranted by the emperor, cruelly put to death at the stake. Jerome \nsoon shared the same fate. \n\nThe council then proceeded to settle the spiritual supremacy by \ndeposing three rival Popes, and electing Martin V. as the true head \nof the church. This pontiff, aware that many of the deputies were \nanxious for reform in the scandalous abuses which had crept into \nthe papacy, immediately dissolved the assembly. \n\nThe martyrdom of Huss and Jerome awakened a spirit of deep \nresentment; and for eighteen years the emperor was compelled to \nmaintain an obstinate warfare with Zisca, Procopius, and other \nenthusiastic leaders of the persecuted and now formidable sect. He \nwas also engaged in disastrous hostilities with the Turks, and nar- \nrowly escaped falling into their hands at Nicopolis. \n\nAt the death of Sigismund, in 1437, Albert and Frederick, dukes \nof Austria; filled the imperial throne. During the long reign of the \nlatter, great confusion and continual civil wars prevailed in the \nempire. He died in 1493, and his son Maximilian I., a man of \ngreater ability and energy, came to the throne. He endeavoured \nstrenuously to enforce the municipal administration of justice; and \nto check, in some measure, the feuds among the more powerful \nchiefs, instituted a supreme court, composed of a judge, four presi- \ndents, and fifty assessors \xe2\x80\x94 the latter chosen by the states. He also \nmaintained a body of regular troops, the famous or notorious lanz- \nhnecJits. The states, however, were too powerful and too numerous \nto be overawed by a superior of such limited means, and the emperor \nheld only the position of a president of an assembly of sovereigns. \n\n\n\nGEKMANY. 4()5 \n\n\n\nCHAPTEB I?, \n\n\n\nTHE REFORMATION. MARTIN LUTHER. THE INDULGENCES, \n\nETC. \n\nAt tlie commencement of tke sixteenth century, the power of the \npapacy appeared at its height. Tainted with the deepest corruption, \nand often wielded by those who disowned its doctrines and despised \nits ceremonies, this wonderful machine of spiritual government had \ntriumphed over all its foes, and now exacted reverence and tribute \nthroughout the Christian world. The imperial power and ambition, \nso often opposed to it, had always, in the long run, been compelled \nto succumb to the fulminations of Rome ; and the few dauntless men \nwho had dared to withstand its doctrines or usages, had mostly \nperished at the stake or on the field of battle. \n\nThe mind of the European world had long, however, been gradu- \nally ripening. The invention of printing had allowed men to \ncompare more generally the thoughts of others with their own; and \nmany were in secret awaiting an opportunity to lift their voices in \nprotestation against the abuses with which all professed religion was \nso shamefully defiled. As early as May, 1510, the imperial diet, \nassembled at Augsburg, had handed to the emperor a statement of \nten crying grievances against the Pope and clergy. A strong pop- \nular movement of the same nature appeared two years after, in the \nEhenish provinces. \n\nThe circumstances were auspicious. Maximilian, a prince attached \nto learning and refinement, was not particularly devoted to the papacy. \nHe had even entertained the project of seizing it into his own \nhands \xe2\x80\x94 a scheme which Henry YIII. of England, so far as his own \nrealms were concerned, not long after realized. The learning and \ngenius of Reuchlin and Erasmus, though not aiming at open reform- \nation, had done much to prepare the vray for a purer religion and a \nsystem of worship less encumbered by dogmatical puerilities. It \nwas in the midst of a general sense of spiritual degradation and \noppression, and of an anxious longing for something better, that one \nof those famous men arose, who are fated to change the entire desti- \nnies of nations. \n\n\n\n406 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nMartin Luther was born on the 10th of November, 1483, at the \ntown of Eisleben, in Saxony. His parents were exceedingly poor, \nbut industrious, and his father, a man of stern, ascetic disposition, \nwas deeply attached to literature and religion. The resolute and \nindependent temper of the young reformer caused him to be treated \nwith great and needless severity, both at home and at school, and \nhe has himself recorded that he was flogged fifteen times in a single \nday. Few children perhaps ever passed through a youth more \nunfavourable to the development of the finer feelings and the ame- \nnities of life \xe2\x80\x94 yet Luther was always remarkable for his kindness \nof heart and his universal tenderness toward all, either of the human \nor brute creation. His natural disposition was, doubtless, most \nexcellent and admirable. \n\nAt the age of fourteen, he was sent to the school of the Franciscan \nmonks, at Magdeburg, and was forced to depend on public charity \nfor a subsistence \xe2\x80\x94 often, with his companions, begging from door to \ndoor. In this trying situation, and afterwards in similar circum- \nstances, at Eisenach, his sweetness of disposition and desire for \nlearning never forsook him. He studied ardently, and at length \nwas so fortunate as to find, at the latter place, a kind-hearted family \nnamed Cotta, who relieved his wants, and made him a welcome \ninmate of their house. This kindness had the happiest efifect both \non his temper and his acquirements. After a studious and bril- \nliant career as a scholar, during which he acquired the respect and \naffection of all who knew him, he went in 1501 to the university of \nBrfurth. Here his genius and acquirements soon made him the \nadmiration of the whole institution. \n\nHe had been here two years, and was twenty years old, when he \none day discovered a Bible in the public library. With all his \nlearning, he had never before encountered it, so rare a book was it \nat this time. Some small portions, incorporated into the church \nservice, were all which he had supposed to exist. He read it with \nthe deepest interest, and the effect on his enthusiastic mind, seeking \nfor truth, was naturally strong in the extreme. \n\nAs yet, however, he was a zealous believer in all the tenets and \nusages of the church. At the age of twenty-one, alarmed in his con- \nscience by the terrors of a thunder-storm, he determined to enter a \nmonastery, and devote himself entirel}^ to the service of God. \nAccordingly, amid the lamentations and dissuasions of his friends, \n"in 1505, he entered the convent of St. Augustine, at the town of \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n407 \n\n\n\nErfurth. Here the monks, thougli proud of so eminent a convert, \nemployed liim in the meanest offices. If he tried to study or med- \nitate, he was sent through the town with a sack to beg provisions \nfor the brotherhood. Nevertheless, with characteristic patience and \ngentleness, he bore his hardships cheerfully, and still sought to \nimprove himself in theological study. In hopes to attain heaven \nby self-discipline, he practised the most rigid fasting, maceration, and \nwatching. Nothing but a frame of iron and an indomitable spirit \ncould have withstood these self-inflicted sufferings. \n\nAll was in vain; peace of heart and assurance of salvation never \ncame near him ; and his mental anguish and solitary musings were \nascribed by the fraternity to a secret intercourse with the devil. \nHe was reduced almost to a condition of utter despair, when the \nkind and soothing exhortations of Staupitz, the able and benevolent \nvicar-general, awoke him to a truer sense of real religion than could \nbe found in vows or self-inflicted penance. After mental conflicts \nof so severe a nature as almost to amount to insanity, his mind \nstruggled forward into something more of light and hope. \n\nHe was made a priest in 1507, and in the following year was \nappointed as professor in the university of Wittemburg by Frederic, \nthe elector of Saxony. Still a monk, he changed his abode only \nfrom the convent of Erfurth to that of Wittemburg. He preached, \nand a fervour and eloquence never known before carried away his \nhearers. The active and useful life which he led at this place, while \nit highly added to his reputation, disciplined his mind to a more \nhealthy and hopeful condition. In 1510; he was despatched on a \nmission to Rome, whence he returned deeply scandalized by the \ncorruption and hypocrisy of the Italian clergy. Soon after, he was \nmade a Doctor of Divinity, \n\nFor seven years longer, he led a life of great activity and useful- \nness, performing manifold functions as a professor, a clergyman, and \na philosophical author, Yarious innovations against the false theol- \nogy and philosophy of the day had, indeed, already proceeded from \nhis powerful pen. At the end of that time an event occurred, which \nwas destined to eliminate all his capabilities of energy and firmness, \nand to change the destinies of Christian Europe. \n\nJohn Tetzel, a Dominican prior, had been, for fifteen years, a \nprincipal agent in Germany for the sale of indulgences. Gifted with \na tremendous voice, some eloquence, and a deal of coarse humour, he \nhad been unusuallv successful in extracting money from the pockets \n\n\n\n408 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof all devout and liberal Catholics. His talents, just at this time, \nfound an extraordinary field for their exercise ; for the Pope, Leo X., \nwas engaged in the enterprise of rebuilding St. Peter\'s Church on a \nscale of unprecedented magnificence, and the papal treasury was like \na maelstrom that swallowed all within the sphere of its attractions. \nFew grosser or more profitable impositions have been practised on \nthe credulity of mankind than that which declared, without repent- \nance or reformation, the complete remission of sins for a pecuniary \ncompensation. \n\nIn this shameless spii^itual trafiic, besides general contributions, \nevery particular sin was regulated by a fixed tariif. Polygamy \ncost six ducats, and murder eight; while perjury and sacrilege came \nas high as nine. One Samson, however, in Switzerland, was more \nreasonable in his scale of prices \xe2\x80\x94 charging only one ducat for a parri- \ncide and four livres for an infanticide. Tet2el, in his public descrip- \ntion of the torments of purgatory, and the necessities of the church, \ngenerally concluded by thrice calling to the people, "Bring your \nmoney! bring money! bring money!" According to Luther, "he \nuttered this cry with such a dreadful bellowing, that one might have \nthought some wild bull was rushing among the people, and goring \nthem with his horns." \n\nTo do the Pope justice, his bull respecting indulgences enforced \nrepentance and confession ; but these requisites were declared needless \nby his over-zealous commissaries. It would be impossible to recount \nhalf the knavish tricks and impositions by which money was extracted \nfrom the terror and credulity of the people. On one occasion, indeed, \nTetzel met with a shrewder practiser than himself. A Saxon gen- \ntleman, having bargained for thirty crowns for permission to commit \nan act of violence, took his money\'s worth upon that functionary \nhimself, for whom he lay in wait, and, having beaten him grievously, \ncarried off the rich chest of indulgence-money which he had helped \nto fill. On his trial for this audacious act, the indulgence, which \nhe exhibited, secured his acquittal. \n\nIndeed, the whole German public was fast awaking to a sense of \nthe imposture ; and even the common people cried out against the \nPope, who, having the keys of heaven and hell, exercised his power \nof releasing the wretched souls in purgatory so charily and expen- \nsively. The strong sense and ardent piety of Luther were deeply \nmoved by the account of Tetzel\'s successful impudence, and he cried \nwith an energy characteristically forcible, "God willing, I will make \n\n\n\n\nDOCTOR MARTIN LUTHER. \n\n\n\nThis wonderful man, who effected such a complete change in the theologicM.\'\'. \nMffairs of Europe, -was "born at Eisleben, in Sasonj^^ on the 10th of Novembei\', \n1-183. His p:irentage was one of obscurity and poverty. Erom a fanatical monlc \nol\' ta-^ zVugustine order, he became one of the most original thinkers and most \ncl\'iring mnov.ators whom the world has ever witnessed. He expired at the pjluce \nof his liirth on the 18th of Eebruary, 1546, after along and turbulent life, passed, \nfor the mo.\'?t part, in continued contests "with the Pope, the Priests, and, accord- \ning to his own belief with the Enemy of Mankind. \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. 409 \n\na hole in liis drum !" The opportunity was soon presented. Several \nof the citizens of AYittemburg, in confessing their sins to him, justi- \nfied the continuance of these, on the ground that they had purchased \nindulgences, which they exhibited. He assured them of the ineffi- \ncacy of such instruments, enjoined repentance and reform, and \nrefused absolution on any other conditions. He immediately \npreached the same doctrine forcibly from the pulpit. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?. \n\nTHE REFORMATION CONTINUED. THE "THESES" OE LTJTHER. \n\nCONTESTS WITH ROME. THE DIET AT WORMS. \n\nEvents of the highest theological interest succeeded with startling \nrapidity. On the 31st of October, 1517, on a great public occasion, \nthe reformer, whose heart was now fully enlisted in the work, affixed \nto the door of the church at Wittemburg ninety -five theses or propo- \nsitions, boldly attacking the efficacy of indulgences, and enforcing \nmany strong and natural truths in regard to morality and religion. \nThese sound, and at that time novel, theological assertions, spread \nwith unexampled rapidity throughout Germany and all Christendom, \nand elicited high compliments from the most learned, pious, and \neminent persons of the daj^ Even the Pope, Leo X., whose name \nand office were respectfully treated, appears to have felt admiration \nrather than displeasure at the assailant of his emissaries. \n\nThe rage of the priestly and monkish fraternity in general was, \nhowever, unbounded ; and clamours for the burning of this audacious \nheretic arose on all sides. Tetzel especially raved against him in \nthe fiercest manner, and publicly burned the obnoxious theses^ bitterly \ninvoking the same fate for their author. His own, however, which \nhe had written in opposition, were seized, and publicly destroyed in \nthe same way by the enthusiastic students of Wittemburg. Luther, \nwith contemptuous coarseness, compared the invectives of his adver- \nsary to the braying of an ass. His friends, however, became alarmed, \nand his chief protector, the duke Frederick of Saxony, was filled \n\n\n\n410 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nwith, uneasiness at tlie prospect of provoking tiie papacy. The \nreformer, nevertheless, in the most public manner, maintained with \ngreat eloquence and learning the truth of his propositions. The \nEmperor Maximilian, perceiving the resolute genius of the enthusi- \nast, and the weight which he would carry in a contest with the papal \npower, wrote to the elector to "take care of the Monk Luther, for a \ntime may come when we shall have need of him." \n\nThe Pope, when urged by those around him to interfere in the \nmatter, had coolly answered that it was only a squabble among \nthe monks, and that the best way was to take no notice of it. The \nmore zealous of his supporters, however, both in Italy and Germany, \nentered the lists with alacrity, and attacked the new doctrines and \ntheir author with great acerbity. He, on his part, by the publication \nof popular tracts, greatly increased the diffusion of his sentiments. \n\nNevertheless, he still continued to hold the papal authority in \nhigh veneration; and in a touching and eloquent lettter to Leo X., \nwhile averring the impossibility of retracting his views, placed his \nlife and fortunes at the disposal of his spiritual chief. But the \nlatter now considered that the spirit of reform which had set half \nGermany in a flame, was too formidable to be passed over in silence. \nAn ecclesiastical court was appointed, and the reformer was sum- \nmoned to appear before it, at Eonae, in sixty days. At the inter- \ncession of his friends, however, this was not insisted on; and the \npapal legate De Yio, then in Germany, was commissioned to dispose \nof the case. The Pope,: indeed, commanded, in case of obstinacy \nand refusal to retract his errors, that the audacious innovator should \nbe seized and despatched to Pome. Strong efforts were also made \nto deprive him of the protection of the elector. Maximilian, from \npolitical considerations, was already strongly in the papal interest. \n\nLuther, on his part, was encouraged by the friendship of a new \nand admirable companion, the celebrated Melancthon, who, though \nvery young, was already highly distinguished by his talents, learn- \ning, and piety. The great work of translating the Bible in German, \nwhich the former had already commenced, was exceedingly furthered \nand encouraged by the classic zeal of his new associate. \n\nThe order for his appearance at Augsburg before the cardinal \nlegate soon arrived, and his friends, knowing his bold and uncom- \npromising spirit, looked on him as a man devoted to certain \ndestruction. He nevertheless set out immediately, travelling, with \nhonourable poverty, on foot. He arrived, after a weary journey, \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. ^n \n\nand on the llth of October, 1518, presented liimself before the car- \ndinal. The conference commenced with civility, but after several \ninterviews, degenerated into a scene of fierce polemical wrangling \xe2\x80\x94 \nthe cardinal insisting on a full retractation, and Lnther, with eq^ial \nstubbornness and zeal, contending for the truth of his doctrines. \nFeeling, indeed, that he had shown in his style too little deference, \nas a monk, to the head of his church, he did not hesitate to make a \nhumble acknowledgment of his supposed error, and begged that \nthe questions in issue might be referred to his Holiness in person. \nSoon after, having reason to dread that the emperor would deliver \nhim up a prisoner, he secretly quitted Augsburg, and returned to \nWittemburg. \n\nThe cardinal forthwith demanded of the elector his banishment or \ntransmission to Eome ; but the latter, moved by the eloquence and \nmagnanimity of his protege, refused compliance. He was neverthe- \nless anxious to be rid of him; and Luther, too proud to accept a \nreluctant protection, was on the eve of departing for France, when \nhis patron, trusting yet to bring about an accommodation, desired him \nto remain. The prospect of this, however, seemed hopeless ; and on \nthe 28th of November, the Great Eeformer, taking the offensive, \nboldly demanded that the matters in question should be referred to \na Greneral Council of the church. Since learning the Pope\'s enmity, \nhis respect for that high dignitary had undergone a wonderful dimi- \nnution ; and in his new publication, though still acknowledging the \npapal authority, he boldly averred \xe2\x80\x94 "Seeing that the Pope, who is \nGrod\'s vicar on earth, may, like any oth-er man, fall into error, \ncommit sin, and utter falsehood, and that the appeal to a Greneral \nCouncil is the only safeguard against acts of injustice which it is \nimpossible to resist \xe2\x80\x94 on these grounds I find myself obliged to \nhave recourse to it." \n\nIn a nation naturally enthusiastic, and prone to theological specula- \ntion, this succession of events had awakened the deepest interest \nand excitement; and Germany was fast getting ripe for religious \nreformation. Miltitz, the new legate, who in December, 1518, was \ndespatched with conciliatory overtures to the elector, was surprised \nto find the people, in a great majority, throughout his route in Ger- \nmany, firm adherents to the Eeformer, and highly distrustful of the \nPapal See. The death of Maximilian in 1519, and the Pope\'s \ndesire for the powerful cooperation of Frederick in the imperial elec- \ntion, induced him to allow some respite to the intractable reformer ; \n\n\n\n412 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nand during the ensuing year, in tlie midst of great discussion and \nexcitement, and the active warfare of universities, he desseminated \nhis doctrines still more widely. \n\nOn the 28th of June, 1520, Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), an \ninveterate enemy of religious reform, was elected emperor, and the \nzealous supporters of the papacy clamoured loudly for the death of \nLuther, some averring that it was proper to kill him wherever he \nshould be found. On the other hand, many powerful nobles of Ger- \nmany, welcoming his doctrines and admiring his spirit, voluntarily \ninterposed their protection. He soon made a fierce and able attack \non the papacy itself, and exposed the corruptions of the Eomish \nsystem with the highest force and energy. He boldly advocated the \nmarriage of priests, the disuse of monasteries, with many other \nreasonable reforms, and called boldly upon the empire to oppose its \nresistance to the time-honoured papal encroachments. This power- \nful and eloquent appeal, addressed to the German nobility, spread \nwith unprecedented rapidity through the country. \n\nThe Pope and cardinals, on their part, declared Luther and all \nhis adherents excommunicated at the end of sixty days, except on \ncondition of previous submission and recantation. The reformer, \nno longer preserving even the appearance of veneration to the hie- \nrarchy, replied by a bold and warning letter, addressed to the Pope \non terms of equality; and with it, for his spiritual benefit, despatched \nhim a small work upon Christian liberty. He also publicly appealed \nto the states, and, accompanied by the professors and students of \nhis university, made a solemn bonfire of the Pope\'s late bull, as \nwell as of the decretals and other documents revered by the Eomish \nchurch. Melancthon, with great learning, eloquence, and spirit, \nsupported these bold and uncompromising measures. \n\nThe Emperor Charles, who was then in full council at Cologne, \nreadily conceded to the papal nuncio the privilege of publicly burn- \ning the heretical works of Luther and his associates throughout the \nempire; but shrank from the responsibility of consigning their \nauthors to a similar fate. He referred the matter to the elector of \nSaxony, to whom he in reality owed his crown, and who still \nextended his protection over the proscribed believers. Continually \nurged, however, by the papacy, to take some action, he wrote to \nthe elector that he must despatch Luther to answer before a grand \nimperial Diet, which had been summoned to meet at Worms in Jan- \nuary, 1521. The duke was in great perplexity, but Luther avowed \n\n\n\nGERMANY. 4^3 \n\nhis firm intention of obeying the citation, and appearing before the \nDiet at whatever personal risk. \n\nThe excommunication of Eome had now been launched, and the \nnuncio Alexander, before that august body, was already calling, with \ngreat vehemence and eloquence, for the unconditional punishment \nof the obstinate recasant. He declared the errors and heresies of \nLuther were sufficiently gross and numerous to warrant the burning \nof an hundred thousand heretics. So great was the effect of his \nimpetuous eloquence, that a majority of the Diet would willingly \nhave sacrificed Luther; but several of the most powerful magnates, \nwhile not defending him, complained bitterly of the corruptions and \nextortions of the church. A list of grievances, to the number of an \nhundred and one, was drawn up, and laid before the emperor. \n\nSo great had the excitement become, that Charles perceived that \nnothing short of the appearance of Luther could bring matters to \nany settlement ; and accordingly sent him a summons to appear \nbefore the Diet, with a safe-conduct, ensuring his protection. The \nalleged culprit, who was almost adored throughout Germany, made \na kind of triumphal procession to the place of his trial. In vain \ndid the people call on him to remember the fate of John Huss, who, \ndespite the safe-conduct of the Emperor Sigismund, had been burned \nby the Council of Constance. The portrait of the martyred Savona- \nrola, which was significantly exhibited to him by a monk, had no \ngreater effect. As he approached the city, a messenger was des- \npatched by a confidant of the elector to dissuade him from entering \nits dangerous precincts. The undaunted reformer, whose mind was \nnow fully made up for triumph or martyrdom, only answered, "Tell \nyour master, that though there should be as many devils at Worms \nas there are tiles on the roofs, I would enter it!" \n\nHis appearance, on the 16th of April, produced the highest \nexcitement and curiosity. The Eomish advisers of Charles (who \nwas in great perplexity, and who had even tried to deter him from \nentering) proposed to cut the Gordian knot by following the example \nof Sigismund, and consigning the audacious heretic to the flames. \nThe emperor, however, resolved to adhere to his safe-conduct, and \nLuther on the following day made his appearance before the Diet, \ncomposed of many of the most renowned princes, nobles, and eccle- \nsiastics of Germany and Europe. The emperor presided, and the \nAugustine monk who had created such an unparalleled disturbance \namid these powers and dignitaries, was asked if he acknowledged \n\n\n\n4-14 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntlie voluminous writings before tlae assembly as bis own. He did ; \nand to tbe question wbether he intended to retract, desired a day\'s \ndelay. It was granted, and on tbe following day be delivered a \nmost eloquent, modest, and toucbing reply, urging tbe trutb of bis \ndoctrines, and refusing to recant; yet admitting tbat be migbt bave \nbeen too barsb and zealous in bis personal strictures. To an omin- \nous tbreat from tbe cbancellor, be only replied, "May God be my \nbelper! for I can retract notbing." Tbe emperor and all present \nwere moved to admiration by bis undaunted bearing. \n\nFrederick, proud of bis protege, now resolved to protect him \nmore openly ; and for several days tbe most learned and influential \npersons attendant on the Diet strove to induce him to retract or to \nmake some submission to tbe papal authority. All was in vain; \nand tbe emperor, eager to annul tbe effect of bis safe-conduct, com- \nmanded him to quit the city. An imperial edict, denouncing tbe \nseverest punishment against him, was presently issued. . This instru- \nment averred, among other charges, " The Augustine monk, Martin \nLuther, regardless of our exhortations, has madly attacked the Holy \nChurch, and attempted to destroy it by writings full of blasphemy. \n* * * * This being, who is no man, but \n\nSatan himself, under the semblance of a man in a monk\'s hood, has \ncollected, in one offensive mass, all the worst heresies of former ages, \nadding his own to tbe number. \xe2\x80\x94 We bave therefore dismissed from \nour presence this Luther, whom all reasonable men count a madman, \nor possessed by the devil ; and it is our intention that so soon as \nthe term of bis safe-conduct is expired, effectual measures be forth- \nwith taken to put a stop to his fury." \n\nHis immediate arrest was enjoined, at the expiration of this pro- \ntection, and it is said that Charles always regretted that be had not \nviolated it while he bad tbe opportunity, and consigned Liitber to \nthe stake at tbe assembly of Worms. \n\nThe object of all this fury was quietly journeying back to Wit- \ntemburg, when, in a narrow defile, he was seized by five horsemen, \nand carried forcibly away to the solitary castle of Wartburg. A \nstrong and friendly hand had been interposed to save him from \ndestruction. Tbe elector Frederick had taken this singular means \nof preserving him from tbe imperial power, as well as from his own \nperilous enthusiasm. But throughout Grermany, the popular grief \nwas at first extreme; for it was supposed tbat he had been spirited \naway by his enemies. \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. 415 \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?I \n\n\n\nSPEEAD OE THE REEORM ATIO N, THE BIBLE. THE \n\nPEASANT-WAR. PERSECUTIONS. \n\nIn tliis lonely and secure retreat, the too daring reformer was \ncompelled to pass a considererable time. "Happy and safe in his \ndungeon, he could return to his flute, sing his German psalms, trans- \nlate his Bible, and thunder away at the Pope and the devil quite at \nhis ease." He busied himself in study and in theological writing \nand correspondence. He was, however, as he averred, often griev- \nously disturbed in this avocation by the personal presence of his old \nadversarj^ the devil, who carried his annoyance so far as to provoke \nthe reformer on one occasion to fling his inkstand at the head of his \ninfernal persecutor. The mark which it made upon the wall is still \nreverentially shown at the castle of Wartburg. \n\nHe was, however, greatly annoyed by the excesses and impru- \ndences which characterized the early dissemination of the reformed \nopinions; and especially at the extrava.gant doctrines which were \nnow starting up like mushrooms in Grermany and elsewhere. Early \nin 1522, without permission of the elector, he quitted his retreat, and \nreturned to Wittemburg \xe2\x80\x94 assigning to his patron, among other \nweighty reasons, the following: "Satan has entered my sheep-fold, \nand committed ravages which I can only repair by my own presence \nand lively word." \n\nHe was engaged in publishing his famous translation of the Bible, \nwhen its circulation was prohibited by a great number of princes \nand bishops. Every effort was made to suppress it; yet, despite of \ntheir exertions, this vigorous and admirable translation met with the \nmost encouraging success, gave a fresh impetus to the Reformation, \nand produced the most favourable effect on the moral and social \ncondition of all parts of Germany in which it was allowed to circu- \nlate. Luther readily took up the gauntlet, and, without respect to \npersons, attacked in vehement language the suppressors of the scrip- \ntures. Reading accurately the signs of the times, he warned them \nof impending danger, and declared that he saw the sword of civil \nwar suspended over Germany. In the following year, he answered \n\n\n\n416 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe famous joamplilet of Henry VIII. of England, with a force and \nscurrility which threw that of his royal antagonist quite in the shade. \nThe abusive epithets of Henry were retorted by rejoinders in a sim- \nilar strain, aptly describing the English monarch as "a hog of hell," \nand using many other choice specimens of vituperation. \n\nIn the midst of all the labours of theological disputation, and the \nnumerous cares of his own congregation, the reformer, with the aid \nof his associates, laid the foundations of a new church \xe2\x80\x94 that wide- \nspread system called after the name of its founder \xe2\x80\x94 the Lutheran. \nIts doctrines and ecclesiastical government began to assume a settled \nform. The mass was performed in German instead of Latin, as here- \ntofore \xe2\x80\x94 and the common people were thus enabled to accompany \nthe forms of worship with feeling and understanding. Though \noccupying no fixed rank in the new religious establishment, he \nmaintained, by the authority of his name and character, a kind of \nsupremacy over the whole body of the reformed believers, and even \nemployed the terrors of excommunication upon its refractory mem- \nbers. The most onerous and perplexing charge which fell into his \nhands Avas the care and support of numerous nuns, who, escaping \nfrom their convents, took refuge with the leader of the reformation ; \nand his simplicity and good-nature were occasionally imposed upon \nby guests of a more questionable character. \n\nHis predictions of a civil struggle were soon awfully verified by \nthe "war of the peasants," which broke out in 1524, in many parts \nof Grermany, and was characterized by frightful excesses. The til- \nlers of the soil, complaining justly both of their temporal and eccle- \nsiastical bondage and oppression, rose in great numbers, against their \nfeudal superiors. Luther, by a most admirable appeal, addressed both \nto the peasants and their lords, in vain endeavoured to allay the \nconflagration. A civil war, almost of extermination, ensued. In \nFranconia alone, nearly three hundred castles and monasteries were \nlaid in niins. In Alsace, the duke Antony of Lorraine put to death \nmore than thirty thousand of the insurgents. The nobles finally \nsucceeded in suppressing the revolt \xe2\x80\x94 a triumph which was stained \nby atrocious cruelties. \n\nGreat dissensions now occurred among the reformers themselves ; \nand a fierce theological controversy was waged between Wittemburg \nand the Swiss and Ehenish ecclesiastics, headed by Zwingle, Bucer, \nand other distinguished seceders from the church. The grief and \nperplexity of Luther were extreme ; but he found some consolation \n\n\n\n\n\nAustrian Peasar. t. \n\n\n\nGerman Peasant,, \n\nOF THE SEVENTEEN!\' H CE"NT"CTRY \n\n\n\n\nIsabel, of Jjavariu, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0^\xe2\x80\xa2IFK OF OHA.ULES VI. OF FliANCJi \n\n\n\nAustrian Lady of Rank \n\n\n\nGEEMAN Y. \n\n\n\n417 \n\n\n\nill a liappy and well-assorted marriage. In August, 1526, he espoused \nCatharine Von Bora, an escaped nun, of beautiful person and excel- \nlent disposition. This act elicited a fresh outcry from the Catholic \nworld, which insisted that the " Anti-christ " (who, it had long been \nprophecied, should be born of a monk and a nun) would be the \nlegitimate offspring of this sacrilegious union ; but Erasmus, though \nnow a formidable opponent of Luther, sneeringly reminded them \nthat, if such was the fact, there were many thousands of Anti-christs \nalready in the world. The fierce and excitable champion of the \nEeformation proved, indeed, a most affectionate and exemplary \nhusband and father. \n\nThe emperor, though still exceedingly anxious to punish the \naudacious heretic, and to suppress his doctrines, saw plainly the \nimpossibility of effecting his purpose, on account of the protection \nafforded by the elector, and the strong popular feeling in favour of \nthe new religion. His contests with Francis I., and the necessity \nof repelling the Turkish invasions from Hungary and the eastern \nbounds of the empire, also greatly engrossed his attention, and perhaps \nemployed the means which might otherwise have been used to crush \nthe reformers of Wittemburg. Nevertheless, in the Low Countries, \nwhich were under his immediate control, persecution had already \ncommenced; and on the 1st of July, 1523, Esch and Voes, two young \nAugustines of the reformed opinions, suffered at the stake in Brussels \n\xe2\x80\x94 being the first of that vast "army of martyrs" who were destined \nto lay down their lives in furtherance of the Great Reformation. \nLuther commemorated the fate and the influence of these youthful \nsufferers in one of his noblest hymns, which, from the lips of thou- \nsands, long echoed through the heart of Germany. \n\n"Flung to the heedless winds, \n\nOr on the waters cast, \nTheir ashes shall be watched, \n\nAnd gathered at the last; \nAnd from that scattered dust \n\nAround us and abroad \nShall spring a plenteous seed \n\nOf witnesses for God." \n\nA most fierce and violent persecution, under the auspices of the \nCatholic League, soon ensued throughout a great portion of Europe, \nIn many parts of Germany, however, under the protection of pow- \nerful princes and nobles, the advocates of the new faith continued \n\n27 \n\n\n\n418 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nboldly to preacli and propagate their doctrines; and tlie emperor, \nthough at mortal enmity with the whole system, was yet compelled \nby motives of policy to admit a toleration which it would have been \nout of his power to abrogate entirely. Luther, amid a thousand scenes \nof embarrassment, peril, and mental distress, continued during his \nwhole life to labour diligently both for the improvement and prop- \nasration of the belief which owned him for its founder. In his latter \ndays, from infirmity and care, he became weary of life, and regretted \ndeeply that, being no longer able to serve the church in his life, his \ndeath was not destined to afford an example of useful and famous \nmartyrdom. He died on the 18th ot February, 1546, at Eisleben, \nwhere he was born, expressing, in his last words, a firm reliance on \nthe faith \' which he had so long and earnestly professed. \n\nIn estimating the character of this extraordinary man, great \nallowance must be made for the ignorance and uncertainty of the \nage, for the infinite obstacles with which he was forced to contend, \nand especially for the physical ardency of his nature, excited and \nshattered by the most severe mental conflicts and unavailing self- \ninflicted severities. His morality, piety, self-sacrifice, and conscien- \ntious industry, were almost beyond any thing recorded in history. \nHis heart was in general overflowing with love for all created things. \nYet the vehemence of his temper and his combative propensity, \naroused by furious opposition, lent a fierceness and personality to \nhis polemical writings, which sometimes he had occasion to regret. \n\nAware of this constitutional impetuosity, he writes to a friend, \n"My style, rude and unskilful, vomits forth a deluge, a chaos of \nwords, boisterous and impetuous as a wrestler contending with a \nthousand successive monsters. * * * I feel, \n\nhowever, some comfort from the consideration that our common \nFather hath need, in this immense family, of each servant; of the \nhard against the hard, the rough against the rough, to be used as a \nsharp wedge against hard knots. To clear the air and fertilize the \nsoil, the rain which falls and the dew which sinks is not enough \xe2\x80\x94 \nthe thunder-storm is still required." \n\nSometimes, like the prophet Jonah, he deems that he \'^does well \nto be angry."\' \xe2\x80\x94 "Thou canst not think," he writes to a third," how \nI love to see my adversaries daily rising up more against me. I am \nnever haughtier or bolder than when I hear that I have ofiended \nthem. Doctors, bishops, princes \xe2\x80\x94 what are they to me ? * * \nI have such a contempt for these Satans, that if I were not retained \n\n\n\nG E E M A N Y . \n\n\n\n419 \n\n\n\nhere, I would straight to Eome in mj hate of the devil and all these \nfuries. But I must have patience with the Pope, with my disciples, \nwith Catharine Von Bora, with every one." \n\nHis imaginative and enthusiastic mind was thoroughly imbued with \nsuperstition; and he traced the direct agency of the Lord, or the \nintrusive presence of Satan, in almost every striking event of life. \nHe repeatedly described the personal annoyance and temptation \nwhich he had experienced from this infernal adversary; and was \nsupplied with a vast stock of anecdotes, frequently drawn from his \nown observation, founded on the malicious interference of evil spirits. \nOn one occasion, he even urged upon the prince of Anhalt the pro- \npriety of throwing into the river Moldau an unfortunate child, whose \nfantastic habits and demeanour had shocked the inhabitants of Des- \nsau. It did nothing but eat, and would consume as much food as \nany four labouring men ; it laughed at any misfortune in the house, \nbut went weeping and moping when all was well; proof positive, \nhe considered, that it was a mere lump of flesh animated by the \ndevil for malicious purposes. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER YII. \n\nRELIGIOUS DISPUTES. THE THIRTY TEARS\' WAR. \n\nUnder the Emperor Charles V. (more especially mentioned in the \naccount of Spain) the imperial power certainly had attained its \nheight. The Germanic empire, Austria, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Bur- \ngundy, and immense possessions in the new world, had all become \nunited under the house of Hapsburg. Bohemia and Hungary were \nalmost added to the list. Nothing prevented yet further accessions \nto this vast accumulation of power and territory except the power- \nful opposition of Francis I., and the domestic resistance among the \nstates, excited by Luther and the Eeformation. \n\nIn 1530, the Protestant party, now formidable in power and num- \nbers, had delivered to the emperor, in the diet at Augsburg, the \ncelebrated Confession of Faith which takes its name from that city. \nThe princes of the reformed party, by a solemn league at Smalkalde, \n\n\n\n420 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ngained sufficient political importance to ensure for some time tolera- \ntion in their respective dominions. At the death of Lnther and that \nof Francis I. (which occurred nearly at the same time) the emperor \nentered into a solemn league with the Pope, Paul III., for the extir- \npation of heresy ; and immediately took up arms against the reformed \nstates of Germany. This war, conducted on the part of the states \nby the elector of Saxony, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and other \neminent Protestants, opened very unfavourably for the reformers. \nTheir forces were defeated, the elector was captured and threatened \nwith instant execution, and the fiery landgrave was compelled to \ndemand pardon of the emperor on his knees. Nevertheless, the \nresistance of the combined districts was so stubborn and prolonged, \nthat Charles, in 1555, was compelled to liberate the imprisoned \nprinces, and to conclude a formal treaty of peace, ensuring toleration \nto the reformed religion. \n\nIn the same year, wearied out with contests and the cares of \nempire, he made that memorable resignation of his dominions which \nhas furnished such a fruitful theme for moralists and philosophers. \n(See Spain, page 370.) In the reign of his brother, Ferdinand I., \nwho succeeded him in the empire, a general assembly of the Protest- \nants was held at Naumburg, and all the changes which had been \nmade in the "Confession of Augsburg," in order to approximate it \nto the systeni of Calvin, were corrected. \n\nThis emperor, after a prudent and judicious reign, expired in \n1564. His son, Maximilian, evinced equal judgment and moderation. \nToleration was maintained, and in 1568 the emperor accorded to \nthe Austrian Protestants the full exercise of their religion. At his \ndeath, in 1576, the succession devolved upon his son Rudolf II., who \nis described as having been "a great distiller, a good astronomer, a \nvery tolerable esquire, but a very bad emperor." \n\nHis reign was troubled by fierce contests between the rival Pro- \ntestant sects of Augsburg and Geneva, and by the ambition of his \nbrother Matthias, who compelled him to abdicate the crowns of Bohe- \nmia and Hungary. He died in 1612, and Matthias, who succeeded \nhim, in 1619. Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand I., who (on the \nrefusal of the duke of Bavaria) was next selected to fill the throne, \nhad been educated in Spain, and was embued with sentiments of the \nmost absolute despotism and the most intolerant bigotry. That great \ncontest between the Catholics and Protestants, called from its duration \nthe Thirty Years\' War, broke out immediately on his accession. \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n421 \n\n\n\nIn this long and disastrous contest, the German, Danish, Swedish, \nand French nations were successively involved. Bohemia, which \nfirst set the example of resistance to the imperial authority, was \nquickly subdued; and Christian of Brunswick and Count Mansfield, \nthe Protestant leaders in the north of Grermany, were completely \ndefeated by the celebrated Tilly. The successes of the latter were \ndisgraced by the most atrocious outrages and oppression in the \nunfortunate states which had resisted. Christian IV., king of Den- \nmark, who next was placed at the head of the confederacy, though \ndistinguished by many characteristics of the ancient northern heroes, \nwas unable to withstand the greatly superior forces of the empire. \nBeing defeated by Tilly, in 1626, at the battle of Lutter, he was \ncompelled to make peace, with a loss of a portion of his dominions. \nGermany was again ravaged by the cruel and victorious imperialists. \n\nThe cause of the Protestants appeared desperate, when, in 1630, \nthe famous Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed at Usedom, \nand by his skill and the valour of his forces, completely turned the \ntide of warfare. Aided by several powerful German princes, and \nencouraged by foreign alliances, he commenced a series of brilliant \nand successful campaigns. At Leipsic, with forty thousand men, he \ndefeated an equal number under Tilly, with a loss of twelve thousand \nin killed, wounded, and prisoners. He was soon master of the whole \ncountry, from the Elbe to the Ehine, and erected a pyramid on the \nbanks of the latter, that posterity might know how far his victorious \narms had been carried. \n\nThe imperial general soon sustained another overwhelming defeat, \nand lost his own life in the action. Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, \nwho was now in command of the Austrian forces, met with better \nsuccess ; and succeeded in repulsing a furious attack which the king \nof Sweden, with sixty thousand men, made upon his intrenchments. \nThe latter, soon afterwards, fell in the sanguinary battle of Lutzen, \nwhere, however, his troops again defeated the imperial army, with a \nloss of six thousand men. \n\nThe emperor still persisted in carrying on the war, and Germany \nfor a long time continued to be ravaged by hostile armies. The \nrenowned Wallenstein, whose ambition had occasioned deep jealousy \nto the court of Vienna, perished by the hand of an assassin despatched \nfor his arrest. \n\nSoon after, the emperor himself expired, after a reign of eighteen \nyears, mostly disastrous to his subjects and to the power of the \n\n\n\n422 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, \n\nempire. His son Ferdinand III., who received the crown, succeeded \nin tranquillizing the interior of Germany, but for many years was \ncompelled to wage destructive wars with the foreign confederates. \nThe victories of the French, under Conde and Turenne, and those \nof the Swedes, under Banier, Wrangel, and Torstenston, finally com- \npelled the emperor to negotiate for peace. By the treaty of West- \nphalia, in 1648, Sweden and France, especially the latter, gained \npossession of districts of Germany; the successful German princes \nalso obtained advantages ; and freedom in the exercise of their reli- \ngion was fully guarantied to the Protestants. A. bull of the Pope and \na remonstrance of the king of Spain, called forth by this settlement, \nwere alike disregarded. \n\nFor nearly a century longer, the princes of the Austrian house \nof Hapsburg continued to hold the throne of the empire and of their \nhereditary dominions \xe2\x80\x94 the contests concerning the Spanish succes- \nsion, and the rise of the independent kingdom of Prussia, being \namong the most prominent events in the imperial history. The \nlatter country, now composed of more than fifty provinces of ancient \nGermany,, was founded upon the duchy of that name, and its first \nsovereign was the duke Frederick III., who having largely increased \nhis hereditary possessions, assumed the crown in 1701, as Frederick \nI., of the new kingdom of Prussia. At his death, in 1713, his son, \nFrederick William I., a severe, prejudiced, and disagreeable person, \nsucceeded him. The amusements of this refined sovereign consisted \nin kicking, cuffing, and otherwise maltreating all who fell under \nhis displeasure, and in exercising the most odious oppression toward \nthe members of his own family. By such harsh and brutal treat- \nment, the character of his son Frederick was, no doubt, materially \ninjured. The kingdom, however, enjoyed considerable prosperity \nduring his reign, and at his death in 1740 he bequeathed to his son, \nFrederick II., (the Great) a considerable treasure and a tolerably \neffective army. \n\nIn the same year, by the death of the emperor, Charles VI., the \nlast male descendant of the house of Hapsburg, his daughter Maria \nTheresa succeeded to his hereditary dominions. After some contests \nwith the elector of Bavaria, who, under the title of the emperor \nCharles YII., disputed her pretensions, she gained the advantage; \nand on his death her husband, Francis I., duke of Lorraine, was in \n1745 elected to the imperial dignity. \n\nThe ambition of Frederick, seconded by his almost unrivalled \n\n\n\n\nFREDERICK THE GREAT, KINO OF PRUSSIA \n\n\n\nTaib celebrated and eccectric soveTeigr. avhs Voi\'l on tae 24th d;iy ol\' January, \n1712. His youth was rendered un\'imi\'Y\'y, and uis diti:\'Osition deeply injured by \nthe harshness and cruelty of his father, Frederick Wilnam I., an odious and \nvulgar tyrant. After his accession to the tin-one, vn 1740, his an-;bition involved \nPrussia in a series of devastating wars, in vrhich, at the expense of the lives and \nhappiness of his people, he displayed the highest talents as a military com- \nmander. He died on the 17th of Augu.^t, 1786 ; his death being hastened by thn \ngreatest \xe2\x96\xa0^ill\'ulness and indiscretion m hi,^ diet \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n423 \n\n\n\ntalents for warfare, soon involved the greater part of Europe in \nfierce and protracted hostilities. Taking advantage of the unpro- \ntected situation of the empress-queen, he gained possession of the \nimportant province of Silesia. Strengthened by the devoted attach- \nment of her Hungarian subjects, and by the powerful alliance of \nFrance and Eussia, Maria Theresa made a determined effort to hold \nthe contested district. Frederick, encouraged by the promise of \nassistance from England, resolved on a stubborn resistance; and in \n1756 commenced a brilliant and successful campaign against the \nimperial forces in Saxony. The foreign confederates, in overwhelm- \ning force, marched to the assistance of their Austrian ally; but the \nPrussian monarch, by Tinparalleled exertions, raised fresh armies, \nmarched into Bohemia, and defeated an hundred thousand Austrians \nin a pitched battle near the city of Prague. Each of the hostile \nforces sustained a loss of nearly twenty thousand men. The fugi- \ntive army took refuge in Prague, which was immediately besieged \nby the victor. Marshal Daun, the Austrian commander, with sixty \nthousand men, hastened to its relief In the battle of Kolin, June \n18th, 1757, the Prussian army lost eight thousand men, and was \ncompelled to retreat. \n\nThe arrival of the Eussian forces seemed to render the condition \nof Frederick almost desperate ; yet by a series of rapid and brilliant \nmanoeuvres, he was victorious on all sides. The French, who had \nalso entered Germany, sustained a memorable defeat at Eosbach. \nAt Leuthen, in December, the Austrian army, under Daun, met with \nanother startling defeat from the Prussians, under Frederick, whose \nnumbers were but little more than half those of the enemy. The \nSwedes, who had joined the hostile alliance, were likewise repelled. \n\nThis memorable contest, called from its duration "The Seven \nYears\' "War," was protracted, in a most obstinate manner, until the \ncommencement of the year 1763. The death of the empress of \nEussia, and the entirely different policy of her successor, Peter TIL, \nhad rid Frederick of one of his most formidable enemies, and secured \nhim a powerful auxiliary. By the treaty of Hubertsburg, peace \nwas restored to the numerous conflicting parties, complete restitution \nbeing made of all prisoners and conquests. The Prussian monarch \nretained Silesia, for which half a million of lives had been sacrificed \nin vain. \n\nThis disastrous Septennial Warfare, which from necessity has been \nvery briefly described, was doubtless, excepting the wars of Napo- \n\n\n\n424 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nIcon, the most sanguinary which Europe has ever witnessed. "In \nthis long and unequal conflict," says an able writer, "Prussia had \nresisted the three great military powers of Europe \xe2\x80\x94 France, Austria \nand Eussia \xe2\x80\x94 reinforced by the troops of the Circles, of Saxony, and \nof Sweden. The success of this seemingly impracticable undertaking, \nin which, had Frederick failed, his name would have been numbered \nwith the wildest names in Romance, was facilitated by the following \ncircumstances: the timid and interested caution of the Austrian \ngenerals, who, while they spared their own troops, disgusted their \nallies by continually exposing them to enterprises of difl&culty and \nposts of danger; the seasonable demise of the Empress Elizabeth, \nwhich converted Russia from an implacable enemy into a useful \nauxiliary; the patriotic zeal of the Prussian subjects, and the disci- \nplined bravery of the Prussian troops ; above all, the king\'s incom- \nparable conduct and invincible courage, his cool combination and \nardent execution,"* \n\nJoseph II., in 1765, succeeded his father, Francis I., in the impe- \nrial dignity. His reign was distinguished by bold attempts at reform \nand improvement. Unfortunately his ardour outstripped the intel- \nligence and the wishes of his subjects. Religious toleration and \npolitical reform were unpopular with a priest-ridden and prejudiced \npeople; the work of his life perished with him; and Austria has \nsince been under the sway of princes sufficiently bigoted and far \nenough behind the spirit of the age to satisfy the most obstinate \nopponent of liberty and progress. \n\nThe wonderful events which succeeded the French Revolution, \nand which for so many years, convulsed all Central Europe, have \nbeen elsewhere alluded to. Germany, whose political constitution \nhas been so repeatedly altered, and which at times has seemed upon \nthe eve of great political reform, appears at present nearly as far \nfrom real freedom and unity of sentiment as ever. Though doubt- \nless the great mass of the population in nearly all the German states \nare sincerely desirous of liberty and self-government, it may be \ndoubted whether the predominant influence of her powerful neigh- \nbours, inclined to despotism, will not for a long time suppress any \nprogressive movement which may emanate from the people, whether \nin the shape of reform or revolution. \n\n* Gillies\'s Frederick 11. \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nEARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. \xe2\x80\x94 THE TARTARS. \xe2\x80\x94 ASCENDANCY \nOF THE MUSCOVITE DYNASTY. ITAN THE GREAT \n\nThe early history of those numerous tribes and nations of wliic]i \nthe vast Eussian empire is composed, is almost entirely lost in the \nmists of antiquity and barbarism. A great portion of its immense \ndomains, especially in the neighbourhood of Asia, is still inhabited \nby a rude and primitive people, not much advanced beyond their \nancestors, the ancient Scythians and Sarmatians. The Slavi, the \nmost prominent of these migratory and warlike races, came originally \nfrom the East, and by degrees overran a great part of Asia and \nEastern Europe. Their descendants constitute at this time a consid- \nerable portion of the population of the globe, being widely distrib- \nuted over a space of nearly half its longitude. The Finns, the \nTartars, and the Mongols also form a considerable part of the \ncomponent elements of Russian population. \n\nThe chief capital of the Slavic race, in European Russia, was \nNovgorod \xe2\x80\x94 a city, it is said, of such power and resources as to give \nrise to the popular Russian proverb \xe2\x80\x94 "Who shall dare to oppose God \nand Novgorod the Great!" Its commerce is said to have extended \nto Constantinople, Persia, and even India. Little authentic is known \nof its history until the latter part of the ninth century. This pow- \nerful state and that of Kief, founded by the same people, were much \ndisturbed by civil contentions; and certain parties solicited the \ninterference of the warlike nations of the Scandinavian peninsula. \nAccordingly, in the year 862, Rurik, a powerful chief of the Russ \nfamily, entered the country with a large force, gained possession of \nNovgorod, and founded an absolute principality\' \xe2\x80\x94 \'the grand duchy \nof Great Russia (so called from the name of his family). \n\n\n\n426 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nUnder Oleg, wlio succeeded liira, the city of Kief became a capital \nof importance, and large territories, witli great numbers of subjects, \nwere added to tlie new empire. With eighty thousand of his \nbarbaric followers, he made a successful expedition to Byzantium \n(Constantinople), and extorted severe terms from the Emperor Leo, \nBy his military and political talents, he continued to extend his \ndominions, and laid the foundation of the Russian empire. An \nimmense horde of those warlike depredators, which in 941, under \nIgor, his successor, again invaded the Greek empire, was, however, \ncompletely repulsed, and two-thirds of the number perished in the \nexpedition. \n\nVladimir, a descendant of Rurik, in the year 988 married the \nPrincess Anne, a daughter of the Grecian emperor, and embraced \nthe Christian faith. His influence and his absolute authority enabled \nhim to extend the new religion widely among his subjects \xe2\x80\x94 whole \ndistricts, at his command, undergoing the rite of baptism by a simul- \ntaneous movement. The Greek church thus became, what it has \never since remained, the national religious establishment of Russia; \nand soon gained strength to compete with its powerful rival, the \nRomish Catholicism, which might otherwise have held a monopoly \nof European Christianity. \n\nSuccessive; civil wars, and divisions and reunions of the empire, \nfor more than two centuries, present no details of particular interest. \nIn the early part of the thirteenth century, the ferocious Mongols, \nunder Zinghis Khan and his descendants, had ravaged the greater \npart of Asia, and overthrown the most ancient and powerful king- \ndoms of that continent. Southern Russia had already been exposed \nto some alarming invasions, and the weakness and dissensions of \nher numerous princes prevented any united movement to resist this \nferocious enemy. In the year 1237, Baty, the grandson of Zinghis, \nappeared with an immense force on the frontiers. After ravaging \nBulgaria, he penetrated at once into the heart of Russia, which soon \nunderwent all the terrible evils which these barbarous hordes were \naccustomed to inflict. Wherever they marched, an unpeopled desert \nwas left behind them. Nearly all the country, except Novgorod, \nwas soon reduced to subjection. The conquerors, indeed, left to the \nnative grand-dukes a show of authority, though enforcing vassalage \nand tribute. They, nevertheless, took entire possession of the king- \ndoms of Kasan and Astrachan, at that time comprised under the \nname of Kaptshak. \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. \n\n\n\n427 \n\n\n\nIvan I., prince of Moscow, who, early in the fourteenth century, \ncame to the throne of that principahty, succeeding in becoming the \nlieutenant and chief representative of the Tartar sovereign, Usbek \nKhan, and, in collecting the customary taxes in the name of the \nlatter, was enabled greatly to extend his own empire. By the \nauthority of the khan he exacted tribute and submission of the \nRussians, and by the gold of the Russians secured the countenance \nof the khan. In the latter part of the same century, a general and \nunited effort was made to free the country from its Tartar oppress- \nors. The heroic Dmitry of Moscow, the chief prince of the Rus- \nsians, with an army of two hundred thousand men, encountered the \ninvading enemy, of far greater force, on the banks of the river Don, \nand defeated them with immense slaughter. The victors were, \nhowever, soon defeated in their turn. Moscow was laid in ashes, and \nDmitry was again forced to submit implicitly to the will of the khan. \n\nIn 1398 the ferocious Tamerlane, with an army of four hundred \nthousand men, entered Russia, laying the country waste wherever \nhe went. The more inviting conquest of India, however, ere long, \nturned his arms in another direction. The Muscovite dynasty, \nfounded by Ivan, had gradually acquired the highest ascendancy in \nRussia. Ivan III. (the Great), his descendant, who in 1462, at the \nage of twenty-two, came to the throne, pushed his ambitious plans \nfarther than any of his predecessors. By his subtle policy, he dis- \narmed the jealousy of his feudal superiors, the Tartar sovereigns, \nand at the same time evaded payment of the customary tribute. As \nsoon as he felt strong enough, he seized upon Kasan, in spite of the \nopposition of the khan; and was soon able to effect the subjugation \nof Novgorod and other refractory provinces. He boldly assumed \nabsolute authority over the conquered districts. \n\nA fresh and formidable invasion of the Tartars was disconcerted \nby the conduct and valour of his chiefs, who redeemed the errors \nof their pusillanimous sovereign. The complete expulsion of these \nforeign intruders, and future freedom from their exactions, was the \nresult. Ivan was thus enabled completely to overawe a number of \nthe remaining Russian principalities, and to reduce them to implicit \nsubmission. All Russia was ere long brought under his sway, and \nhe assumed the title of Gzar or emperor \xe2\x80\x94 a term signifying, in the \nPersian language, supreme authority. \n\nA marriage with the Greek Princess Sophia, and a close alliance, \nboth social and political, with Byzantium, strengthened his power \n\n\n\n428 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nyet farther. In the midst of these wonderful successes, he paid con- \nstant attention to the improvement of the empire and the introduc- \ntion of southern art and refinement into his vast but uncivilized \ndomains. Moscow began to assume a respectable rank among the \nEuropean capitals. "The palace of the Kremlin, with its fortresses \nand church, arose in all the grandeur of Eastern luxury and barbaric \nstrength: miners and engineers, architects, founders, and minters, \nwere invited from Germany and Italy into those icy regions which \nthey hitherto trembled to penetrate, but where their skill and their \nlabours were now liberally rewarded: the mines of Petchora were \npierced ; and the Russians, for the first time, received a coinage in \nsilver and copper, designed and executed in their own capital. \nThese dazzling events, to which were added pageants, and proces- \nsions, and public entertainments on the \'most gorgeous and lavish \nscale, gave a new direction to the passions of the people. The arts \nand sciences had taken root among them, and Russia was no longer \ncontent to enjoy the unsocial advantages of her ancient habits."* \n\nThe dangerous power of the boyars or nobles, who had heretofore \nexercised a subordinate despotism, was suppressed by the czar in \nthe severest manner, and their privileges were limited and defined. \nThe laws, still rude and imperfect, were much improved, both in \ntheir tenour and administration. The military resources of the \ncountry were developed and exercised ; and Russia began to figure \nas a prominent nation in the European world. Her power had been \nconcentrated, and four millions of subjects had been added to her \nsway by the policy of the emperor and the valour of his generals. \nHe died in 1505, after a reign of forty-three years, marked by energy, \ncraft, and astonishing political success. \n\n* Bell\'s History of Russia. \n\n\n\nRUSSIA, \n\n\n\n429 \n\n\n\nIVAN THE TERRIBLE. FOREIGN WARS. ACCESSION OP THE \n\nHOUSE OP ROMANOFP. \n\nYassali Ivanovitch, the son of Ivan, succeeded, during a reign \nof twenty-eight years, in enlarging yet farther the bounds and con- \nsohdating the strength of the Russian empire. After his death, and \nduring the minority of his infant son, Ivan IV., the regency was \ncontested between several powerful families, to the great injury of \nthe country. The prince, from his naturally vindictive disposition, \nand the evil counsel of those around him, displayed the most preco- \ncious cruelty and depravity. Torturing animals and insulting his \ninferiors were his principal amusements; and at the age of only \nthirteen, he gave proof of his ferocious disposition by causing Schu- \nisky, one of the most powerful nobles of his court, to be worried \nand devoured by dogs. His evil counsellors applauded every fresh \natrocity, and whoever fell under his vengeance or suspicion was \nsacrificed on the spot. "This terrible system continued for three \nyears. The pupilage of the prince was an uninterrupted scene of \nhorror ; and he was crowned czar of all the Russias in his eighteenth \nyear, after a minority of blood." \n\nThe influence of better advisers and of his beautiful wife Anasta- \ntia wrought for a time a favourable change ; and for thirteen years \nduring which the latter lived, the demoniac ferocity of his disposi- \ntion seemed partially subdued, and he exhibited the qualities of a \nwise and able sovereign. He quelled the refractory Tartar province \nof Kasan, and added Astrachan to the imperial dominions. Siberia, \na region cold and desolate, but abounding in the richest furs and \nminerals, was explored and added to the empire under his auspices. \nThe improvement of laws and the introduction of useful arts also \neno-ao;ed his strict attention. \n\nThe death of the empress, in 1560, removed the check which had \nhitherto restrained the natural vindictiveness of his disposition. \nHis reign, from this time, surpasses in madness and atrocity that of \nany tyrant recorded in history. The cruelties which he exercised \nin suppressing the opposition which his . severity excited, are too \n\n\n\n430 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nnumerous and too horrible to be detailed. The ignorant populace, \naccustomed to regard their czar as the representative of God upon \nearth, mostly submitted, with a pious awe to the shocking enormi- \nties which he committed; and even, with a horrid interest and \ncuriosity, flocked eagerly to witness the unheard-of tortures which \nhe inflicted on his victims. The Strelitz or select body-guard, first \nenrolled by him, were the principal instruments of his atrocities. \nHis daily occupation consisted chiefly in acts of devotion, and in \nwitnessing the tortures of the accused. \n\nWhole towns were at times depopulated by his fury. Suspecting \nthe loyalty of Novgorod, he marched to that celebrated city, and \ndelivered it to plunder and massacre. Day after day, he witnessed \nthe execution of five hundred to a thousand of the citizens by torture \nor fire. He left sixty thousand of them dead in the streets of the \ncit}^, which for a long time presented the appearance of a vast \ncemetery. His unfortunate and superstitious subjects still reposed \nimplicit confidence in his impious declaration of supremacy: "I am \nyour Grod, as God is mine." Meanwhile, the empire, unprotected by \narms or policy, suffered great misfortunes from the hostilities of the \nsurrounding nations, especially of Poland. \n\nFearing the worst, he sought the hand of Elizabeth of England, \nand entreated, at all events, an asylum in case he should be driven \nfrom his dominions. His crowning crime was the murder of his \neldest son, whom in a fit of passion he struck to the ground with \nan iron rod, which he usually carried. His own death occurred \nsoon after, in 1580. He died overwhelmed with the pangs of con- \nscience, after a reign of thirty-four years, leaving behind the name, \nso fearfully earned, of "Ivan the Terrible." \n\nOn the death of Feodor, his son, a weak-minded prince who held \nonly nominal power, the line of Eurik came to an end ; and in 1598 \nBoris Gudunof, a bold and artful man, of Tartar descent, through the \ninfluence of the Patriarch of the Greek church, gained possession of \nthe throne by election of the nobles. To conciliate the latter, he \nhad already procured the enaction of that infamous law by which \nthe last vestiges of freedom were taken from the peasants, and their \nserfdom was made inseparable from the soil they tilled. On his \ndeath by suicide, which soon occurred, the throne was successively \nheld by two pretenders, and the Poles gained almost complete \nascendancy over the affairs of Russia. They seized upon Moscow, \nand Sigismund, their king, confidently anticipated the annexation of \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. \n\n\n\n431 \n\n\n\nthe vast Eussian empire to his little kingdom. Througli the influ- \nence of the clergy, however, the intruders, after a most sanguinary \ncontest, were expelled from the country ; and the people, by com- \nmon consent, in 1613, placed on the throne Mikhail Komanoff, a \nyouth of thirteen, allied to the royal house of Eurik. \n\nThe great council of boyars and citizens, to which he owed his \nelevation, were fully aware of the necessity for some limitation to \nthe imperial power; and the youthful czar, accordingly, was com- \npelled on his accession to take a solemn oath, giving the laws an \nunqualified preference to his own authority. On his election, the \nfeuds and contests for the crown were almost instantly quieted, and \nthe nation experienced a calm which it had not enjoyed for many \nyears. The extravagant loyalty of the Eussians welcomed with \nexultation even this indirect representative of their ancient rulers, \nand he was enabled to administer the government with moderation \nand success. The invasion of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who \nsought to enforce the payment of a loan, soon afterwards ensued. The \nbrilliant successes of the Swedish monarch, at first, almost seemed \nto threaten the conquest of Eussia; but in 1617 a treaty was con- \ncluded, by which\' the invader compelled her to submit to the cession \nof considerable territory. A treaty on similar disadvantageous terms \nwas made with the Poles, who had again invaded the empire. \n\nNational intercourse and the exchange of embassies now began \nto assume a settled form, and the czar was in regular diplomatic \nconnection with the courts of England, Denmark^ Holland, and the \nGerman empire. After a reign of thirty-two years, distinguished \nby the love of peace and moderation, he expired in 1645, leaving \nthe throne to his son Alexis, a youth of fifteen. \n\nThe Cossacks of the Ukraine had become involved in a fierce war \nwith Poland, and solicited aid of ncAV the czar, offerings on condition \nof assistance, to become his vassals. The emperor, to ascertain the \nwill of Providence, ordered a fight between two wild bulls, to one \nof which he gave the name of Eussia, and to the other that of Poland. \nOn seeing the latter come off victor, he was desirous of relinquish- \ning the scheme ; but the remonstrances of the Patriarch prevailed, \nand the Ukraine, by this movement, was finally annexed to the \nEussian empire. \n\nAlexis died in the year 1676, after a reign of thirty years, much \nof which was passed in hostility with his neighbours. He had been, \non the whole, successful in consolidating the empire, and had recov- \n\n\n\n432 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nered many of tlie provinces wrung from his predecessors. He had \nbeen twice married, and Feodor, his eldest son, a prince somewhat \nfeeble in mind and body, came to the throne. \n\nBy the skill and military genius of the minister Galitzin, an advan- \ntageous truce for twenty years was concluded with the Turks, with \nwhom for some time Eussia had been engaged in war. The C2a,r \nFeodor, after a reign of only six years, distinguished rather by hon- \nesty than ability, expired in the year 1682. \n\n\n\nPETER THE GEEAT. PERILS OP HIS YOUTH; HIS EPPORTS POR \n\nREFORM; HIS CRUELTIES; HIS TRAVELS IN EUROPE, WAR \n\nWITH CHARLES XII. OP SWEDEN. \n\nThe Emperor Feodor, on his death-bed, had nominated as his suc- \ncessor his half-brother Peter, the son of Alexis by his second \nmarriage (into the family of Narishkin) \xe2\x80\x94 Ivan, his own brother, \nbeing exceedingly deficient, both in mental and bodily endowments. \n\nThe Princess Sophia, sister of the deceased emperor, a woman of \ngreat beauty, courage, and ambition, resolved, in the name of Ivan, \nto gain possession of the throne for herself. The strelitz or body- \nguard, fourteen thousand in number, were easily won over by her \nfascination and liberality. More than sixty of the family of Narish- \nkin were put to death by this licentious soldiery, which for three \ndays committed the greatest excesses in the streets of Moscow The \nCzarina Natalia, the widow of Alexis, was compelled to fly for her \nlife, carrying with her the youthful Peter, a child nine or ten years \nof age. They were overtaken; and a ruffian had seized the prince \non the very altar, and was about to sever his head from his body, \nwhen a fortunate accident drew away the murderers, and Peter the \nGreat was preserved to Eussia. \n\nThe entreaties of Ivan, who felt his own incapacity, for the asso- \nciation of Peter in the empire, could not be resisted; and Sophia \nwas compelled to yield. By surrounding the youthful prince with \nsensual and debasing influences, however, she trusted to incapacitate \nhim from playing any important part in the government. Fifty \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. 433 \n\nyoung Eussians, of the most dissolute tastes, were placed about his \nperson ; and it was confidently anticipated that his health and intel- \nlect would soon succumb before the degrading habits into which it \nwas their business to initiate him. The event did not answer these \nexpectations. Instead of sinking to their level, the young prince, \nfilled with spirit and ambition, elevated them to his own ; and amid \nall the profligacy into which these ^^amusers^^ led him, he cherished \nschemes of improvement and reform. His tastes were military, and \nby continual drilling he soon made these dissipated youths the \nnucleus of an alert and disciplined soldiery. \n\nBy the aid of a talented Swiss, named Lefort, one of these com- \npanions, he persevered in acquiring, as far as possible, a liberal \neducation. Sophia, who hitherto had actually held the government, \nand had even issued coins in her own name, began at length to be \nalarmed at the genius and activity of Peter, who had now attained \nthe age of seventeen, and frequent quarrels ensued between them. \nSix hundred of the strelitz were despatched for his assassination; \nbut the nobles and the army rallied around him ; the assassins shrunk \nback; and the affair ended in his complete establishment on the \nthrone of Russia. Grreat numbers of the strelitz were barbarously \nexecuted ; the obnoxious ministers were banished ; and Sophia was \ncompelled to shave her head, and retire for life to a nunnery. From \nthis time, (December 11th, 1689,) Peter held the absolute control of \nthe government; though Ivan, who lived till 1696, enjoyed a nom- \ninal association in the imperial title. \n\nUnder the able and enterprising policy of the yo\\ithful sovereign, \nthe power and resources of Russia were rapidly developed. A stand- \ning army was speedily organized: Azof, on the sea of that name, \nwas taken from the Turks, and the foundation of a naval establish- \nment on the Euxine was immediately laid. Internal improvements \nwere also zealously encouraged. The czar, indeed, still retained \nmuch of the barbarous ferocity which had characterized his prede- \ncessors, and an insurrection of the strelitz, which occurred in 1697, \nwas punished by wholesale executions, conducted in a spirit of the \nmost revolting cruelty. \n\nIn the same year he undertook his celebrated journey, traversing \nthe more civilized nations of Europe with a view of introducing \ninto his own country the arts and improvements which had rendered \nthem so prosperous and powerful. He passed through several north- \nern provinces, through Prussia and Germany, and finally, in a species \n28 \n\n\n\n434 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof incognito^ settled himself in an obscure and miserable lodging at \nthe Dutch port of Saardam, Here, under the name of Peter Tim- \nnierman, he devoted himself zealously to acquiring a knowledge \nof the art of ship-building. He hired himself as a common work- \nman, wrought diligently, and lived exclusively on the slender wages \nwhich he received for his labour. His suite, though compelled to \na reluctant compliance with this caprice, took care to live, as far as \npossible, in a less diligent and more luxurious manner. \n\nIn England, whither he soon after repaired, he pursued his favour- \nite object with unabated ardour; and besides perfecting his marine \nacquirements in the public dock-yards, applied himself with great \ndiligence to the study of many useful arts and sciences. Thence he \nproceeded to Austria, and was on the point of quitting that country \nfor Italy, when a fresh insurrection of the strelitz, instigated by \nSophia, caused his hasty return to Moscow. On his arrival, he \nfound the insurgents already defeated and in prison ; and at once \nproceeded to take a savage vengeance which almost eclipsed the \ninsane ferocities of Ivan the Terrible. Two thousand of these unfor- \ntunate wretches were subjected to every variety of torture, under \nthe eye of the czar, who with his own hand eagerly assisted in the \nhorrible task. All were put to death, and Peter, stimulating him- \nself with; wine, cut off head after head as long as he could wield the \naxe of the executioner. \n\nEven these horrors could not satisfy the infernal cruelty and vin- \ndictiveness of his disposition. "For five succeeding months, Eussia \nwas destined to witness the axe, the gibbet, and the wheel in con- \nstant activity. The whole empire was shaken with apprehension, \nand the name of Peter at last became a word of terror to the popu- \nlation." On one occasion, with his own imperial hand, he struck \noff eighty heads in vicAv of the people. The insurrections produced \nby these outrages were suppressed with fresh energy and fury. The \nentire force of the strelitz was broken up by execution and disband- \nment. His unfortunate wife Eudokhia was consigned to the cloisters \nfor life. \n\nIn strange contrast to these atrocities, followed an enlightened \nand persevering sj^stem of reform and national improvement. Eeli- \ngious freedom, despite the opposition of the priesthood, was estab- \nlished ; the tyrannical usages respecting females were abrogated ; and \nthe amusements and refinements of more civilized nations were, \nthough rather arbitrarily, introduced among the people. \n\n\n\n\nBRONZE STATUE OF PETER THE GKEAT AT HT. PETERiSBURGH, \n\nDF.SIRNED BY FALCONET, AND ERECTED BY CATHARINE IT \n\nHeight of the figure, 11 ieet; of the horse, 17 feet; weight of the group, 30,G3 ; 11-; \nMounted ou a solid hlock of granite, weighing upwards of 1,000 tons. \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. \n\n\n\n435 \n\n\n\nThe grand desire of Peter had long been to gain possession of \nsome eligible sea-port on the Baltic, bj means of which the naval \npower of Russia (always his prime object) could be extended. In \n1700, he formed an alliance with Denmark and Poland for the pur- \npose of wresting from Sweden certain provinces, of which that \nkingdom, by warfare or policy, had become possessed. The cele- \nbrated Charles XII., at this time only eighteen years of age, was on \nthe throne of that country, and his youth and inexperience seemed \nto offer a fair opportunity to the aggressive designs of his rivals. \nHis military genius, however, at the very opening of the campaign, \nbroke forth with great splendour. He speedily compelled the Danish \nmonarch to accede to his terms ; the Polish forces met a severe check \nat Riga; and Peter, thus left to his own resources, invaded Ingria \nwith sixty thousand men. This force, taken by surprise at Narva \nin the absence of the czar, was also defeated by Charles with severe \nloss, and Peter could only console himself by remarking that the \nSwedes would finally teach him how to beat them. \n\nHe employed the ensuing winter in reorganizing his army, and \nin providing munitions of war; and in 1701, again took the field \nwith a respectable force. During that and the succeeding year, he \ngained several successes over the Swedish generals \xe2\x80\x94 Charles mean- \nwhile pursuing his victorious career in Poland. A considerable \nportion of the disputed territory was soon conquered by the Russian \nforces; and near the mouth of the Neva, at the junction of Lake \nLadoga with the Grulf of Finland, the czar laid the foundations of \nthe famous city of St. Petersburg. The neighbourhood of this \nlocality was a vast morass, almost destitute of materials for building; \nyet Peter pushed forward the undertaking with his accustomed \nenergy and disregard of human life or suffering. In less than a \nyear, thirty thousand buildings, of various kinds, had been erected ; \nand during that time an hundred thousand of his unfortunate sub- \njects, drawn from every part of the empire to labour in this inclem- \nent region, had perished from toil, privation, and exposure. \n\nHis successes continued. Ingria and Courland were soon con- \nquered ; and Peter was enabled to resume his attention to the \ndomestic affairs of his empire. In 1707, Charles, whose arms had \nhitherto been employed in other quarters, took the field against \nRussia, with an army of forty-five thousand men, declaring that he \nwould treat with Peter at Moscow alone. A succession of triumphs \nmarked the commencement of his campaign. Peter, narrowly \n\n\n\n436 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. \n\nescaping from his hands, retreated before him, laying waste the \ncountry to retard the progress of the victorious invader. \n\nOn the 25th of June, 1708, a severe action, in which the Swedes \nsustained much loss, was fought on the banks of the Beresina. \nCharles, however, still pushed on for Moscow, though the country \nwas laid waste through the entire route, and his troops were greatly \nexhausted by famine and fatigue. Suddenly, to the surprise of the \nczar, he turned off into the desert and inhospitable country of the \nUkraine. This movement was caused by a secret negotiation with \nMazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cossacks, who had promised \nhis own support and that of his people to the invader. This change \nin the campaign proved the ruin of the Swedish cause. Mazeppa \nwas unable to fulfil his engagements ; and two miserable regiments \nwere all that he could bring to the assistance of his ally. General \nLewenhaupt, who, with the remainder of the Swedish army, \nattempted to effect a junction with his master, was intercepted and \nattacked by a force of nearly sixty thousand Eussians, commanded \nby the czar in person. The Swedes sustained a terrible defeat, \nleaving nearly half their number upon the field of battle. \n\nCharles, in the midst of a Russian winter, was now, with only \ntwenty-five thousand men, worn out with privation and fatigue, \ntraversing a frightful country, which afforded scarcely any suste- \nnance for his army. He lost his way, and, after marching and \ncounter-marching for three months, was compelled to retrace his \nfootsteps; and finally, in the month of May, 1709, sat down with \nthe remnant of his army, now reduced to eighteen thousand men, \nbefore the fortified town of Pultowa, garrisoned by the Eussians. \n\nPeter, with nearly three times the number of his adversary \nhastened to attack him; and arrived before the walls on the 15th of \nJune. By an artful manoeuvre, he succeeded in throAving reinforce- \nments into the garrison; and his rival exclaimed, in chagrin, "I see \nwell that we have taught the Muscovites the art of war!" After \nseveral skirmishes had occurred, Charles took the offensive, and \nmade a furious attack on the Eussian intrenchments. His officers \nand men behaved with the greatest valour, and, sword in hand, car- \nried the works in two places. Both sovereigns mingled in the \nthickest of the fight, and distinguished themselves equally by gen- \neralship and personal bravery. After a desperate battle of two \nhours, the Swedish forces, outnumbered and fatigued, were utterly \ndefeated, and were almost entirely slain or made prisoners. Charles, \n\n\n\nKUSSiA. 437 \n\nwitli a few attendants, fled precipitately, and songlit a refuge in \nTurkey. LewenTiaupt, with, thirteen thousand men, the relics of his \nforce, was about the same time compelled to capitulate, and his troops \nwere sent as colonists into the almost uninhabited wilds of Siberia. \nSuch was the sudden and unlooked-for downfall of the greatest \nEuropean conqueror of his day ; who, at an almost boyish age, had \nhumbled all the states in his vicinity, had dethroned and appointed \nsovereigns, and had successively dictated terms in three hostile cap- \nitals. Eussia, which for a time had appeared an easy prey, waiting \nonly for his leisure, now saw her principal foe a fugitive and exile \nin a distant land. Winter and famine, her strongest allies, had done \ntheir work: \n\n" And Moscow\'s walls were safe again \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nUntil a day more dark and drear, \n\nAnd a more memorable year, \n\nShould give to slaughter and to shame \n\nA mightier host and haughtier name." \n\n\n\nCHAPTER 17. \n\nPETER THEGREAT CONTINUED. DISASTROUS WAR WITH THE \n\nTURKS. FRESH CONQUESTS AND IMPROVEMENTS. \n\nDEATH OF HIS SON ALEXIS. EXPEDITION TO \n\nTHE CASPIAN SEA. DEATH OF PETER. \n\nBy the late war, Livonia, Ingria, and Finland had been secured, \nand the czar\'s grand project of making Eussia a maritime power \nseemed destined for accomplishment. Danger soon menaced him \nfrom another quarter. The influence of the fugitive Charles, and \nthe jealousy of Eussian encroachments in the south, determined the \nsultan of Turkey to renew hostilities. Peter\'s ambassador was pub- \nlicly arrested at Constantinople, and committed to the "Castle of \nthe Seven Towers." Grreat military preparations were made; while \nthe czar, on his part, by levying forces and equipping fleets, pre- \npared with great assiduity to meet the enemy. \n\nAt this time (March 6th, 1711) he publicly acknowledged his \n\n\n\n438 \'-THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nmarriage with Catharine, to whom he had been piivately united four \nyears before. She was originally a girl of humble condition, named \nMartha, who, in the early campaign in Livonia, had become the mis- \ntress of Menzikoff, the imperial favourite. Peter, attracted by her \nfascinations, took possession of her in 1704, and was ever afterwards \ndevotedly attached to her. Without distinguished beauty, her \nmanners and her mind were so superior as to inspire him with the \nstrongest attachment and esteem. \n\nThe only available force for the Turkish campaign consisted of \nless than forty thousand men; and with these the czar took up his \nmarch to meet the enemy. Disappointed in regard to reinforce- \nments, he found himself, after a fatiguing march, in the midst of a \ndesolate country near the river Pruth. The Turkish army, two \nhundred thousand in number, had passed the Danube, and on the \n27th of June crossed the Pruth in sight of the Russians. The little \narmy of Peter, completely surrounded, was formed into a hollow- \nsquare, on one side of which the Turks precipitated themselves with \ngreat fury. Por three successive days, these attacks were repelled \nwith great bravery, though at an immense expense of life. The \nammunition of the Eussians was finally exhausted, and Peter, over- \ncome with despair, retired in solitary gloom to his tent. Sixteen \nthousand of his soldiers had fallen, and further resistance seemed \nutterly hopeless. At this juncture, the tact and energy of the Czarina \nCatharine proved hi^ salvation. In despite of his orders, she entered \nthe tent, aroused his spirits, and suggested a scheme for obtaining \nterms from the enemy. All her jewels and those of the other women \nin the camp were despatched as a conciliatory offering to the grand \nvizier, who commanded the enemy; a truce was granted, and nego- \ntiations were commenced. Peter was compelled, however, to pur- \nchase peace upon severe terms : among them, by the cession of Azof \nand a complete withdrawal from the Baltic. \n\nThese disasters were soon compensated by fresh successes in the \nnorth. The czar, in alliance with Denmark, Hanover, and Bran- \ndenburg, commenced hostilities afresh against the Swedes. The \nlatter, in the absence of their sovereign, were unable to offer an \neffectual resistance, and Pomerania, won by the valour and policy \nof Gustavus Adolphus, was speedily wrested from their hands, and \npartitioned among the victors. Peter likewise gained distinguished \nnaval successes on the Baltic, and alarmed the capital of Stockholm \nfor its safety. He certainly contemplated, at this time, a descent \n\n\n\nEUSSIA, \n\n\n\n439 \n\n\n\nupon Sweden itself, and with that view built within a twelvemonth \nfifty ships of war, besides a variety of galleys and other vessels. \n\nHis new capital grew with immense rapidity ; and refinements and \nluxuries, heretofore unknown, were introduced into these desolate \nregions. Manufactures and trade began to flourish, and the city \nrapidly acquired commercial importance. The court, the diplomatic \ncorps, and the chief nobility, all transferred thither from Moscow, \nadded to its attractions. The power of Peter, indeed, now seemed \nto have attained its height. "Livonia, Esthonia, Carelia, Ingria, \nand nearly the whole of Finland were now annexed to the Russian \nempire. He had established outlets to the sea, by which he could \ncommunicate in security with civilized Europe ; and within his own \nterritories he had created new establishments adapted to the various \ndepartments of industry, to the army, the navy, and the laws. Prince \nGalitzin occupied Finland with a disciplined army ; Generals Bruce \nand Bauer had the command of thirty thousand Russians, who were \nscattered through Poland; Marshal Scherematof lay in Pomerania \nwith a large force ; Weimar had surrendered by capitulation ; and all \nthe sovereigns of the north were either his allies or his instruments." \n\nHe now undertook a second journey through Europe, and, with \nthe Czarina Catharine, set out for Copenhagen. He received the \nhighest honours in Denmark, Holland, France, and Prussia, and \nreturned to his empire with a fresh supply of knoAvledge, the fruit \nof diligent study and research. \n\nSoon after his return, his revengeful and irritable temper led him \nto the commission of an atrocious and unnatural crime. The Czar- \nevitch Alexis, his son by Eudokhia, was at this time twenty-nine \nyears of age, and had in a variety of ways offended the stern and \noverbearing temper of the emperor. He was of a reckless and dis- \nsipated character, and viewed the favourite projects of the czar with \nindifference or dislike. In 1717, under pretext of joining his father, \nwho had commanded his presence at Copenhagen, he quitted Russia, \nand took refuge from the anger of the czar with the Emperor Charles \nVI. His father, by a promise of clemency, induced him to return, \nand the unfortunate prince arrived at Moscow in February, 1718. \n\nHere, however, he was compelled in the most solemn form pub- \nlicly to assent to the renunciation of his inheritance, and was then \nremanded to a dungeon. The most frivolous accusations, at the \ninstance of the czar, were brought against him. He was examined \nwith such pertinacity and severity as almost to destroy the feeble \n\n\n\n440 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nportion of reason Avhicli nature had allotted him. His friends and \ncompanions, in great numbers, were tortured or executed. On the \n24th of June, he was brought before a solemn tribunal, composed \nof the chief grandees of Eussia: his father stood forward as his \naccuser, demanding punishment. He was sentenced to death, as a \nmatter of course, by a unanimous vote of this servile assembly, and \nwas remanded to prison. A few days afterwards,rhe died in a mys- \nterious manner in his dungeon. A sudden attack of apoplexy was \npublicly assigned as the cause ; but there is little doubt that he died \nof poison, probably administered by the hands of his own father, \nwho wished to avoid the odium of a public execution. \n\nDuring the continuance of this domestic tragedy, the zeal of the \nczar for the advancement and prosperity of his empire never flagged \nfor a moment. Every improvement in commerce, manufactures, \nand police was Introduced, and zealously extended through the \ncountry, St, Petersburg became a port of great commercial import- \nance; and the trade of Archangel and other northern ports was \ndiverted to the new capital. \n\nThe preliminaries of a peace with Sweden were arranged; but \nbefore it was concluded, Charles (who, after an exile of five years, \nhad returned to his kingdom,) was killed by an accidental shot \nbefore the walls of Frederickstadt, a petty fortress in Norway. \nPeter, with a singular outbreak of emotion, burst into tears on hear- \ning of the death of his ancient rival, and exclaimed, "My dear \nCharles, how much I lament you !" Some further hostilities occurred ; \nbut in 1721, a treaty of peace was signed, by which Eussia made \nacquisitions of territory of the highest importance to her political \nand commercial prosperity. \n\nThe emperor\'s son, Peter Petrovitz, the heir to the throne, had \ndied two years before these events, and the czar, to secure the car- \nrying out of his plans, caused his nobles and subjects to take a \nsolemn oath of allegiance to any person whom he should nominate \nas his successor. \n\nThe Afghans and other warlike Persian tribes, revolting against \nthe authority of the shah, had committed great outrages on the \nEussians at Shamachia. Peter, to avenge this injury, and to make \nhimself master of the shores of the Caspian Sea, in 1722 set out on \nan expedition to the East, He reached the Caspian, and took pos- \nsession of the city of Derbent; but the difficulties of the climate and \nthe country, with the loss of his vessels by tempests, compelled \n\n\n\nSUSSIA. \n\n\n\n441 \n\n\n\nliirn to return. Bj treaty with the shah, however, he obtained pos- \nsession of the coveted provinces. \n\nIn 1724, Catharine was crowned as empress, with the greatest \nsolemnity and magnificence, the imperial manifesto making a touch- \ning allusion to her virtues and her services to the state, especially \nin the disastrous defeat of the Russians on the Pruth. This august \nceremony was considered as an indirect manner of expressing the \nczar\'s intentions that his consort should be his successor on the throne. \nHe did not long survive this testimony of affection and gratitude. \nA disorder, aggravated by his refusal of medical advice, had been \nfor some time preying on his constitution, and his ardent tempera- \nment led him to encounter an exposure which proved fatal. He \nexpired on the 28th of January, 1725, after a fruitless attempt to \nexpress by writing his wishes as to the succession. \n\nWhile it is impossible to withhold respect and admiration for the \nwonderful talents and the indomitable perseverance of Peter, the \nmind, in contemplating his career, is continually shocked by instances \nof personal grossness, of frantic rage, and unrelenting cruelty. The \nunion in a single person of the sagacious legislator and the remorse- \nless tyrant, seems peculiar to the sovereigns of Russia; and assuredly, \nin either character, the energetic deeds of Peter have never been \nsurpassed by his predecessors or successors in empire. The better \nportion of his character has, however, been mostly preserved in the \nmemories of mankind; and Russia, which from a vast semi-barbar- \nous province, he raised into a civilized and mighty empire, has \nalways regarded his name with the deepest veneration. Every relic \nof his career is treasured with religious respect \xe2\x80\x94 his tools, his work- \nshop, his little vessel, and the plain mechanical dress which he pre- \nferred to any of the trappings of royalty. A magnificent equestrian \nstatue, erected to his memory by Catharine II., still stands at St. \nPetersburg; the horse treads beneath his feet the serpent of Envy; \nand the rider proudly extends his hand over the vast capital which \nhis genius and energy had raised from the surrounding forests and \nmorasses. \n\n\n\n442 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?. \n\nCATHARINE I., PETER II., ANNA, IVAN, ELIZABETH, \nAND PETER III. \n\nBy the address of Menzikoff, her favourite and adviser, Catharine \nwas proclaimed empress without opposition on the very day of her \nhusband\'s death. The commencement of her reign was distinguished \nby acts of grace and conciliation to her subjects, and by a formidable \nincrease of the military and naval power of the empire. Ere long, \nhowever, the discretion and virtue which had so long marked her \ncareer, yielded to the enticements of unlimited power; her favours \nwere lavished on a succession of worthless minions, and her palace \nbecame a scene of gross excess and licentiousness. She expired, \nafter a brief reign, on the 17th of May, 1727, leaving a will by which \nPeter, the son of the unhappy Alexis, was appointed her successor, \nunder the guardianship, among others, of Anna and Elizabeth, \ndaughters of Peter the Great. \n\nThe marriage of the new emperor, at this time only eleven years \nof age, to the daughter of Menzikoff, was also provided for ; but the \nyouthful prince, contemplating this union with disgust, was easily \npersuaded to consent to the disgrace and banishment of the late \nfavourite ; who, after a life of extraordinary success and splendour, \nended his days in a dismal exile at Siberia. The influence of the \nfamily of Dalgoruky (into which the young czar had married) was \nnow complete; but his sudden death, in 1730, disconcerted their \nambitious designs. With him expired the line of Eomanoff, of which \nhe was the last male representative. \n\nAnna, duchess of Courland, a daughter of Ivan, (half-brother of \nPeter the Great, and for a time his associate on the throne,) was next \nelected empress by an assembly of the council, the senate, and \nthe great officers of state; various conditions, restricting the impe- \nrial authority and increasing that of the council, being annexed. \nSecure upon the throne, however, she at once assumed unlimited \nsovereignty, and the country was governed by her favourite Biren, \nwho conducted himself with great insolence and cruelty. \n\nThe provinces acquired by Peter from the Shah of Persia, had \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. \n\n\n\n443 \n\n\n\nproved a source of great loss and vexation; an hundred and thirty \nthousand Eussians, in a few years, had perished from war and the \npestilential climate. They were accordingly receded to the shah, \nand, the empire being strengthened by his alliance and that of Aus- \ntria, a war with Turkey was recommenced. This contest was \nprotracted for a number of years; but finally the defection of the \nlatter ally compelled Eussia, in 1739, to make peace. Little advan- \ntage had been obtained, and the lives of an hundred thousand \nEussians had been sacrificed in vain. \n\nAfter the death of the empress, in the following year, the govern- \nment, for a brief period, was held by the German relations and \nfavourites to whom had been committed the guardianship of her \ninfant grandson Ivan, the heir to the throne ; but on the night of \nthe 6th of January, 1742, the Princess Elizabeth, (daughter of Peter \nthe Great,) by a bold and sudden movement, overthrew the regency, \nand gained possession of the throne. The intrigues of a surgeon, \nnamed Lestocq, her daring and artful adviser, and the devotion of \nonly three hundred soldiers, had enabled her, by a coup de main, to \nseize upon the persons of all opposed to her ; and the general dislike \nof a German regency was such, that she kept peaceable possession \nof the throne thus suddenly and singularly acquired. The chiefs \nof the defeated faction, composed of men of the highest rank and \ninfluence, were mostly banished to Siberia. \n\nHostilities with Sweden, which for some time had been discon- \ntinued, were now revived ; and that unfortunate nation, overmatched \nand defeated, was compelled, by the treaty of 1743, to relinquish \nfresh portions of her territory. Since that time, indeed, the influ- \nence of Eussia, has been so predominant over the court of Stockholm, \nthat Sweden can be considered as little more than an appanage to \nthe empire of the czars. In the protracted wars waged between \nPrussia and Austria, the forces and the influence of Elizabeth were \nalways opposed to Frederick the Great, against whom she had a \nviolent personal antipathy. \n\nShe had nominated, as her successor, her nephew, the youthful \nPeter, duke of Holstein; the degrading nature of whose tastes, and \nwhose tendency to drunkenness and excess, would, she trusted, pre- \nvent him from becoming a formidable tool in the hands of ambitious \nadventurers. Catharine, a daughter of the prince of Anhalt, with \n"whom the empress caused him to be united, was a woman of \nunbounded licentiousness and infamy of life ; but Elizabeth, whose \n\n\n\n444 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhabits were equally scandalous, exhorted hirn to patience and mod- \neration ; and this unfortunate prince was enabled, only by threatening \na public use of the cudgel, to remove from court Poniatowsky, \nthe Polish ambassador, and the avowed paramour of his infamous \nconsort. \n\nElizabeth died on the 29th of December, 1761, and the hapless \nPeter ascended the throne without opposition. An immediate change \nin Russian policy occurred. Frederick, for whom he cherished the \nmost enthusiastic esteem, was saved from destruction by the prompt \naction of his Russian admirer. The humanity and magnanimity of \nthe czar, in spite of his errors and weakness, must command our \nsympathy. Clemency, liberality, and reform, were the order of the \nday ; and the wretched families exiled to Siberia by his predecessor \nwere speedily restored to their country. \n\nUnfortunately, he neglected to conciliate the national tastes and \nprejudices of his people; and his habits of sensuality and drunken- \nness prevented him from observing the active and untiring efforts \nof Catharine to form a separate faction for herself This abandoned \nwoman, after a long career of almost unparalleled intrigue and dis- \nsipation, had resolved to depose her unsuspecting husband, and to \nplace the crown upon her own head. Five brothers, named Orloff, \nand another favourite named Potemkin, were her principal advisers ; \nbut she had numerous and powerful allies, especially among the \npriests, who were enraged at the schemes which Peter had devised \nfor curtailing their power and their revenues. \n\nThe plan of the conspirators was skilfully matured, and on the \n9th of July, 1762, Catharine put herself at the head of a great \nnumber of the troops and citizens of St. Petersburg, and in the chief \nchurch of the city, amid a crowd of ecclesiastics, was solemnly pro- \nclaimed sole sovereign of Russia. A report was spread that Peter \nhad met with death from an accident; and with a suddenness com- \nmon enough in Russian history, she stepped at once into undisturbed \npossession of the throne. \n\nThe unfortunate Peter, unwilling to fly, and unable to resist, was \ncompelled to sign an act of abdication, and was then committed \nclose prisoner to the fortress of Robscha. The usual fate of dethroned \nprinces, especially in the East, speedily overtook him. The physi- \ncian of the empress, with others, was despatched to his dungeon; \nand, under pretext of drinking with him in a friendly manner, con- \ntrived to put a deadly poison in his cup. The effect, however, was \n\n\n\n\nTHE RETREAT FROM RUSSIA. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\'A. STORMY wind a.iso began to arise, and whirl the snow f i\'O ni the t?a,rth, as \nwell a,s that from the heavens, into dis!Zy eddies around the soidiers\' heads \nThere were many hurled to the earth in this nuanner, where the sa\'me snows \nfurnished them with .an instant grave; Under which they were concealed until \nche next summer came, and displayed their ghastly rem.ains in the open a,;r \nA great number of slight hillocks on each side of the road intim.ated, m tho \nnaean while, the fate of these unfortunate men." \xe2\x80\x94 Scott\'s Life of Napoleon \n\n\n\nEcrssiA. \n\n\n\n445 \n\n\n\ntoo slow for the impatience of tlie assassins : Orloff and otTaers of \nthe conspirators rushed into the apartment; and the unfortunate \nczar, after a vain struggle, was strangled on the floor of his dungeon. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?L \n\nCATHARINE II. AND PAUL. \n\nThe long and (as it is usually termed) successful reign of Catha- \nrine II., was marked by a degree of profligacy, such as even the \nEussian court had never known before. Her lovers might almost \nbe counted by hundreds ; and her whole career, as well of personal \nvice as of political and military success, has well entitled her to \nthe appellation of "the Northern Semiramis." \n\nThe unfortunate Ivan, who had long been kept in imprisonment, \nand for whose escape a plot had been undertaken, was killed in the \nattempt, and the empress was thus freed from one, another possible \nrival to the throne. The empire, especially the Cossack portion, \nwas, however, long annoyed by a rebel chief, named Pugatschef, \nwho assumed the title of Peter III., and imposed upon many the \nbelief that he was really the czar, escaped from his dungeon. He \nwas finally captured and executed. \n\nUnder her reign occurred the infamous partition of Poland, at \nthree successive periods, by which the nationality of that noble \ncountry was extinguished, and its territories divided among the \nimperial vultures of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. \n\nIn 1769 a Russian army invaded the Crimea; and for many years \na series of hostilities continued, by which Russia gained continual \naccessions of territory, and the Ottoman empire was reduced to so \nfeeble a condition, that its independence and the security of the \nremainder of its possessions have since been mainly dependant upon \nthe protection of the other European powers. Sweden also met \nwith fresh reverses, and became farther and farther entangled in the \nweb of Russian policy and dictation. Catharine II. died in 1796, \nafter a reign of thirty-eight years, considered glorious or infamous, \naccording to the view of her successes, or of her vices and her crimes. \n\n\n\n4,4:6 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. \n\nThe unhappy Paul, her son, born in 1754, although named as heir \nto the throne, had been, for many years, the victim of the grossest \nneglect and persecution. His mind, naturally eccentric, had thus \nperhaps become tinged with a degree of insanity; the result was, \na singular species of capricious and meddling despotism. Besides \ngreat and real grievances, his officers and subjects were annoyed \nby the trivialties of a petty and whimsical interference. The print- \ning-press was proscribed, and certain French words, to which he \nhad an aversion, were not permitted to be used. The shape of a \nhat, the colour of a riband, must all be submitted to the dictation \nof the czar. \n\nA war with Persia had been commenced by Catharine, and vari- \nous provinces were thus added to Eussia in the East; Georgia, in \nthe year 1800, being incorporated by Paul with his own dominions. \nIn the hostilities which at this time, in consequence of the French \nEevolution, were raging in Europe, Paul, for a time, took the anti- \nGallican part with his usual fierceness and impetuosity; and in the \ncampaigns of Italy, his general, the famous Suwarrow, at a great \nexpense of human life and suffering, waged an obstinate war \nwith the generals of the French republic. Moreau was obliged to \nretreat before the Eussian commander, who, in 1799, entered Milan \nas a conqueror. The French were soon compelled to effect the total \nevacuation of Lombardy and Piedmont. At the sanguinary and \nhard-contested battle of the Trebbia, Macdonald, with inferior forces, \nfought the Austrian and Eussian armies for three days, during which \ntwelve thousand of his men were killed and wounded, and the allies \nmet with nearly an equal loss. He was, however, forced to retreat. \n\nThe subseqent campaign of Suwarrow and Korsakow, much of \nwhich was conducted among the rugged and difficult passes about \nSwitzerland, proved, however, disastrous in the extreme; and the \nformer, compelled to retreat across the Alps, lost thousands of his \nsoldiers in the terrible passage. Of eighty thousand men, of which \nhis array had been originally composed, a miserable remnant alone \nreturned to their country. Suwarrow, defeated and disgraced, soon \nafter died of a broken heart. \n\nIn the following year (1800) the czar, always irritable and impetu- \nous, quarrelled with his allies, and, with his customary caprice, \ndisplayed a sudden and violent admiration of Napoleon, who had \nnow returned from his Egj^ptian expedition, and was the : most \nprominent person in the French republic. The latter, by restoring \n\n\n\n\nNICHOLAS I., EMPEROR OE RUSSIA \n\n\n\n"I HA\';f, r^s:(i>-d ju >r, P- t\'-:i\\sl n r>4 .\';, r .\'<oii:\'- ye:irs, and hrive seeu liic Emperor \nK^ohojus MWijo.-t (Vii\'^y inii\'iiig r[:\\^ r ; :ij e I v^iniiiued there The above engravibg \nIS taken iVom a j.-ortrait I y AVright, which, froni its extraordinHry resemblance \nto the oi\'igina,!. ci\'eated much sensation. I recoguised the emperor ii.stantane \nouslyl\'roMi t\\ii.-i ilriwir;g, though surronnd\'-d. h;,\' :he great officers of his house \nhold \'JOHN HALFIN \xe2\x96\xa0\' \n\n\n\nE U S S I A . 447 \n\nthe Eussian prisoners, and by otlier delicate attentions, skilfully \nincreased this favourable disposition. The czar was soon completely \nunder the influence of the new and brilliant object of his attach- \nment, and the policy of France, supported by such a powerful ally, \nrapidly rose in the ascendant. Severe blows were struck at the \ncommercial prosperity of England, and a scheme was even devised \nfor the overthrow of her supremacy in the East Indies. \n\nAll the plans and wishes of the first consul were, however, for \na time, frustrated by the assassination of his unfortunate ally, which, \nafter the Eussian fashion, speedily occurred. The mind of Paul \nhad for some time been evidently impaired, his despotic caprices \nincreased in frequency, and a conspiracy, headed by Count Pahlen, \nthe governor of St. Petersburg, prince Zubof and others, had been \narranged for his deposition, and perhaps for his murder. He was \nsurprised at night, in the palace of St. Michel, was seized by the \nconspirators, and required to sign an abdication. On his refusal, a \nstruggle ensued, and the unfortunate czar, overpowered and flung on \nthe floor, was strangled with a sash. \n\nNapoleon, on learning of this event, was overwhelmed with grief \nand vexation, and dwelt so pertinaciously on the topic, that Fouch6, \nhis cool and able chief of the police, exclaimed, with some impatience, \n"What would you have! it is a method of vacating the throne \npeculiar to the institutions of that country." Indeed, there was \nnothing new or singular in the circumstance. " The only matter of \nsurprise," says an interesting writer, "is, not that Paul was assassin- \nated, but that, in a country where such deeds are of common occur- \nrence, he was permitted to live so long." \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?n \n\n\n\nALEXANDER AND NICHOLAS. \n\n\n\nThe youthful Alexander, for whose elevation the deposition and \ndeath of his unfortunate father had been projected, though filled \nwith horror at the fatal result, was proclaimed, amid the great exulta- \ntion of his people, and thus, on the 24:th of March, 1801, ascended \n\n\n\n448 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe throne of all the Eussias. It was, liowever, ominously remarked \nby a lady of rank, at tlie coronation, that the "young emperor walked \npreceded by the assassins of his grandfather, followed by those of \nhis father, and surrounded by his own," \n\nThe policy of Eussia changed forthwith. Alliance with England \nwas immediately made, and hostilities with France, as a matter of \ncourse, soon followed. In the account of the latter nation, the wars, \ntreaties, and political relations of France and Eussia, during the \nremainder of the career of Napoleon, will be found briefly narrated. \nIn the splendid and overwhelming victory of Austerlitz, decisive \nof the fate of Austria, the two northern sovereigns lay completely \nat the mercy of their imperial victor from the south ; and Alexander \nwas happy to retire, with the remainder of his forces, to his own \ndominions. \n\nAfter the campaign of Prussia, in 1806, when that nation, in an \nincredibly short space of time, was defeated and conquered by \nNapoleon, further and most sanguinary hostilities, highly disastrous \nto the czar, occurred between France and Eussia. \n\nAlexander, seeing his forces again and again defeated, and desir- \nous of leisure to pursue his ambitious designs on Turkey, now \nchanged his policy entirely. He entered into strict alliance and \napparently personal friendship with the "Man of Destiny," before \nwhom every throne on the continent, except his own, had tottered \nor fallen to the ground. By the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, all the \nambitious schemes of Napoleon were recognised by the czar, and \nextensive plans for conquest and partition were agitated by the \nimperial allies. The entire policy of France was adopted, and with \nsuch a support, seemed secure of controlling, with hardly an effort, \nthat of all continental Europe. \n\nMutual jealousy, ere long, broke up these promising projects. \nNapoleon perceived that he had lent a too hasty encouragement to \nthe designs of his ally upon Turkey; and that the Eussian empire, \nonce in possession of a foothold on the Mediterranean, might become \ntoo preponderant for the safety of his own possessions. His refusal \nto permit the spoliation of the sultan, combined with the unpopular- \nity in Eussia of the new alliance and the acts restricting commercial \nintercourse, estranged the Eussian sovereign, and precipitated hos- \ntilities. Negotiation was for a long time carried on between the \ntwo powers, each for a time shunning the responsibility of again \ncommitting Europe to a general war. \n\n\n\nKUSSIA. \n\n\n\n449 \n\n\n\nAll attempts at a pacific arrangement, however, proved fruitless ; \nand in the summer of 1812, the French emperor, with nearly half a \nmillion of men, set out upon his memorable expedition to conquer \nthe wilds of the Northern empire. The sanguinary battle of Boro- \ndino, on the 5th of September, opened his way to the ancient capital \nof Eussia ; and on the 14th, with the army under his immediate \ncommand reduced by fighting and hardship to about an hundred \nthousand men, he entered Moscow, and took up his quarters in the \nimperial palace of the Kremlin. \n\nThe city was deserted, except by ruffians and incendiaries; and \nthe memorable conflagration which, during the next four days, laid \nit in ashes, disconcerted all the plans of Napoleon, and rendered \nretreat inevitable. After a month passed in vain and fruitless \nattempts at negotiation with the czar, who knew his advantage too \nwell to treat, the French army, in three divisions, commenced a \nretrograde movement toward the frontier. The horrors of this dis- \nastrous retreat, aggravated by a winter unusually early and severe, \nperhaps surpass any thing recorded in the calamities of warfare. Day \nafter day, the unfortunate soldiers of the "Grand Army," accustomed \nto the milder climates of Italy and France, sank in great numbers by \nthe road-side, or perished in bravely but vainly resisting the attack \nof the Russian forces. At the passage of the Beresina, eifected before \na greatly superior force of the enemy, such numbers perished, that, \naccording to the Russian official account, thirty-six thousand bodies \nwere counted, on the thawing of the river, in the following spring. \n\nThe downfall of the European supremacy of France, for which \nthese calamitous events were the signal, almost immediately suc- \nceeded; and after a series of campaigns, dreadfully destructive of \nhuman life, the allied sovereigns, among them the Czar Alexander, \nentered the French capital in triumph, and imposed upon the nation \nthe antiquated sway of the Bourbons. Some magnanimity and \nremembrance of former friendship induced the Russian monarch to \neffect a somewhat considerate arrangement in behalf of the abdicated \nemperor; and the sovereignty of Elba, which was thus assigned to \nhim, afforded, not long after, the means of that memorable enterprise, \nwhich for a brief period placed him once more on the imperial throne, \nand resulted in an overthrow more utterly complete and final. \n\nThe Emperor Alexander, in 1825, (quite contrary to anticipation \nand to the frequent fate of Russian sovereigns,) died a natural death \n\xe2\x80\x94 a fever, with which he was attacked in journeying through an \n29 \n\n\n\n450 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n"unliealtliy province of his empire, proving speedily fatal. His \nbrother Nicholas, who succeeded him, and who is the present sov- \nereign of Eussia, proved a prince of great intelligence and legislative \ntalent; but ambitious, unprincipled, and apparently remorseless in \nthe extreme. The cruelties inflicted by his authority upon the \nunfortunate Poles, who, in 1830, made a brave but unsuccessful \nattempt to regain their nationality, must for ever stamp his memory \nwith the deepest odium and abhorrence. These outrages, inflicted \nunder the personal tyranny of his brother, the Grand-duke Constan- \ntine, have provoked a feeling of hatred toward the imperial family \nof the most deep and enduring nature ; and any favourable oppor- \ntunity would probably be the signal for a new and desperate attempt \nat Revolution. \n\nDespite these and other minor atrocities, the czar has displayed \ngreat liberality and enterprise in introducing arts and improvements \ninto his immense dominions. Mechanical genius has been most lib- \nerally encouraged, and several Americans, by assiduously promoting \nthe favourite objects of the czar, have acquired high station or emol- \nument. The war which, for many years, the Russian army has been \nwaging against the brave mountaineers east of the Black Sea, has \nhitherto principally resulted only in the loss and destruction of \nimmense numbers of the imperial forces. A watchful and greedy \neye is still kept upon Turkey, which for centuries has been the \nprize most coveted by Russian ambition; but the jealous attitude \nof England, of France, and other continental powers, has hitherto \nprevented any very decided act of aggression on the remainder of \nthe Ottoman empire. \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nUiLliiiljTiLjliii X \n\n\n\nTHE EARLY INHABITANTS OF TRANCE. THE ROMANS; \n\nTHE FRANKS. THE MEROVINGIAN AND CARLO- \n\nVINGIAN DYNASTIES. \n\nFrance, the ancient Gaul, wHicli lias long oeen one of tlie most \nrefined and powerful nations on earth, was originally inhabited bj \nan uncivilized race, which probably emigrated from Germany. \nThey lived in the usual primitive manner, by hunting and fishing, \nand dwelt in miserable huts of wood or clay. Their religious rites, \nlike those of the Britons, were Druidical, and human sacrifices \nwere not unfirequent. \n\nAbout sixty years before Christ, Julius Csesar, in his wonderful \ncareer of western conquest, subdued these barbarous tribes, and \nintroduced Roman governors and colonists. The newly-acquired \nregion became of considerable commercial importance, and many \nsplendid remains of Eoman architecture attest its wealth and civili- \nzation. Paris was, at that day, a considerable city, and Marseilles \n(Massilia) was even then a flourishing sea-port. \n\nThe country was held by its conquerors about as long as their \nother western possessions. In the beginning of the fifth century, a \ntribe of Germans, called Franks (Freemen), led by their king, Phara- \nmond, established themselves in the northern part of France. Among \nthe kings of this "Merovingian" dynasty, the name of Clovis, who \nreigned from 481 to 511, is most distinguished. He became converted \nto Christianity about the middle of his reign, and introduced the \nnew religion into his dominions, then widely extended by force and \npolicy. After a reign of thirty years, passed mostly in war and \nviolence, he expired, leaving to his successors a monarchy of which \n\n\n\n452 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhe may be considered the founder. The celebrated Salic Law, an \narticle of which excluded females from the throne of France, origin- \nated with this monarch. \n\nThe next important name in the history of this dynasty is that \nof Dagobert, who in 628 succeeded, with his brother, to the throne, \nand, soon afterwards, by the murder of the latter, gained entire \npossession of the sovereignty. Despite his crimes, the kingdom, \nthrough his ability and justice, increased greatly in wealth and \npower. He died in 638, and for a century his successors held a \nmerely nominal royalty, the true power being usurped by their \nofficers, the "mayors of the palace." Of these, the most remarkable \nwas Charles Martel, who, in 714, inherited the authority of his \nfather Pepin. The genius and valour of this prince saved South- \nern Europe from the destruction which seemed impending over her. \nA vast body of Saracens, having overrun Spain, marched into \nFrance, and threatened its entire conquest. Charles, in a terrible \nbattle, near Tours, which lasted for seven days, utterly defeated \nthem, and three hundred thousand of their number are said (prob- \nably with exaggeration) to have left their bones in France. This \nbattle, like that of Marathon, where the Persian hordes were repelled \nfrom overwhelming a more civilized race, has been considered as \none of those contests most decisive of the fate of human advance- \nment. In 737, he relinquished the farce of appointing a nominal \nsovereign, and openly mounted the throne, which he had long pos- \nsessed in reality. His son Pepin, after his death in 741, assumed \nthe royal title, and the Merovingian line (named from Meroveus) \nwas extinguished by the Carlovingian (named from Charles, the son \nof Pepin). During the reign of Pepin, (called the Little,) France \nmade great advances in wealth and political importance, and the \nfame of her sovereign extended into the distant regions of the East. \nHis renown, however, was destined to be overshadowed by that of \nhis son, the famous Charlemagne (Charles the Great), who on his \ndeath, in 768, ascended the throne. \n\nThis renowned monarch was of gigantic stature, and his ambi- \ntion was fully sustained by his energy and talent. Though fond of \nlearning, and a liberal patron of religion, literature, and science, he \nwas unable to write \xe2\x80\x94 a deficiency common in that barbarous age. \nConquest was his chief passion, and his political sagacity enabled \nhim to retain firmly the territories acquired by his arms. In 777, \nreturning from an expedition into Spain, he met with a signal mis- \n\n\n\nFRANCE. 453 \n\nfortune. The rear of iiis army, while defiling through the narrow \npass of Eoncesvalles, in the Pyrenees, was attacked by the mount- \naineers, and cut off, almost to a man. His nephew, the renowned \nEoland, fell, fighting valiantly, and his bravest peers died with him. \nNo incident in warfare has been offcener celebrated in the ballads, \nsongs, and other primitive records of the two nations. \n\nBy the energy of Charlemagne, the Northmen or Normans, who \nhad long harassed -the shores of Southern Europe, were repelled, \nand the coasts were protected by a powerful navy. His empire was \ncontinually enlarged, until it extended over France, Italy, Germany, \nmost of Central Europe, and a large part of Spain. In the year \n800, he received from the Pope, at Eome, with the most solemn \nceremonies, the title of "Emperor of the West." His fame, like \nthat of his father, extended to the remotest regions of the East, and \nhe maintained a friendly intercourse with the great Caliph Haroun \nal Raschid. His capital was in the city of Aix, where his time was \nprincipally passed, and where, in 813, he resigned the throne of his \nvast dominions to his son Louis. He died early in the following \nyear, in the seventy-second year of his age, and the forty-fourth of \nhis reign. \n\nLouis, called the "Good-natured," possessed little of his talents. \nHe died in 840, after a reign of twenty years, embittered by the \nrebellious conduct of his sons. The great empire, cemented by the \nvalour and genius of his father, was rapidly dismembered. After \nmuch warfare and contention among the undutiful heirs, Charles, \ncalled the Bald, took France ; Lothaire, Italy ; and Louis, Germany. \nThe former died in 877, and was succeeded by his son, under the title \nof Louis II. \n\nThe political condition of France, and much of the empire, was \nstrictly feudal ; lands being held of the king by his nobles, on a \nmilitary tenure, and tilled by the enslaved native inhabitants or serfs* \nThe most powerfal vassals were the Twelve Peers of France, who, \nlike all great nobles of the time, exercised an almost independent \nsovereignty within their own limits, \n\nLouis II. died after a reign of two years, and his kingdom was \nagain dismembered; Bozon, a powerful noble, seizing the kingdom \nof Provence, and the remainder being divided between his children, \nLouis III. and Carloman. They died, after a brief reign, and in 884 \nthe crown was bestowed by the leading nobles and clergy on Charles \nthe Fat, son of Louis of Germany. Nearly the whole empire of \n\n\n\n454 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOET. \n\nCharlemagne was thus reunited under his descendant ; but in vain. \nThe Normans had again commenced their fierce incursions, and in \n884 beleaguered Paris itself, which, however, successfally resisted a \nsiege of several years. The incapacity of Charles was so gross, that \nin 888, by common consent, his authority was disowned, and Count \nEudes, a valiant lord, was chosen in his place. At his death in 898, \nCharles (called the Simple), a son of Louis II., and who had already \nbeen proclaimed by the bishops and nobles, was acknowledged king. \n\nIn the the year 911, RoUo, a brave and politic leader of the \nNormans, gained such advantages, that Charles was compelled to \nsurrender to him the large and fertile province still called Nor- \nmandy. This infusion of a new and vigoroTis race proved of the \ngreatest advantage to the French nation and to Europe. The \nNormans, though still distinguished above all other nations by their \nvalour and military skill, cultivated refinement and policy; and their \nprovince soon became highly prosperous, powerful, and, for that age, \nintellectual and refined. Charles was deposed on account of his \nincapacity, and Eaoul, who succeeded him, died in 935. \n\nThrough the influence of Hugh the Fair, the nephew of Eudes, \nand for many years the real ruler of the kingdom, Louis lY., a son \nof Charles, and English by education, was placed upon the throne. \nBeing a man of ability, he soon refused to submit to the dictation \nof Hugh, and the latter, assisted by the duke of Normandy, waged \nwar against him. He died in 954, and was siicceeded by his son \nLothaire. \n\nIn the course of the latter\'s reign, Otho, emperor of Germany, \ninvaded France with a large army ; but was unable to take the \ncapital, which was strongly fortified by Hiigh Capet, son of Hugh \nthe Fair, and Count of Paris. Lothaire died in 987, and his son \nLouis Y., to whom Capet was guardian, followed him in a few \nmonths. With him ended the Carlovingian dynasty, under vfhich, \nowing to a want of capacity and courage, the limits of the kingdom \nhad been reduced to a comparatively small territory. During this \nperiod the French had acquired their present name (from the Franks) \nand the foundation of their present language, which is based upon a \nmixture of the Frank and Latin tongues. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 455 \n\n\n\nUitltiljTXJail, dij, \n\n\n\nTHE HOUSE OE CAPET. \n\nHugh Capet, finding no one in a condition to oppose him, in 987 \nseized upon the throne. His devotion and his gifts secured the \nsupport of the clergy, the most influential part of the community; \nbut he experienced much difficulty from the opposition of the power- \nful and factious nobles of his time. These petty tyrants exercised \na complete despotism within the limits of their own territories, and \nwere almost continually engaged in a savage and predatory warfare \nwith each other. In this "iron age," as it is justly termed, the little \nlearning extant was confined to the priests, Gerbert, the king\'s \nsecretary, was, indeed, distinguished for his attainments, and after- \nwards held the popedom, under the title of Sylvester II. \n\nEobert (the Pious) succeeded his father Hugh, in 996. His reign \nwas distinguished by a singular delusion. Like certain fanatics of \nour own time, mankind generally supposed the world to be coming \nto an end; and the year 1000. or 1001 was fixed upon as the date of \nits termination. From neglect in cultivating the land, a famine \nnearly ensued. The church now began to evince the extent of its \npower. Eobert had refused to separate from his wife Bertha, who \nwas his distant relation. The Pope, to enforce obedience, excom- \nmunicated him, laid the kingdom under an interdict, and finally \ncompelled him to submit to a separation. Persecutions for heresy \nwere also common, even at this early age, and the cruel custom of \nburning heretics was often practised. Robert died in 1031, after a \nreign of thirty-four years, passed chiefly in the observance of the \nbigoted and unenlightened rites of the religion of his day. \n\nHis son Henry I. succeeded him, being supported by the power- \nful duke of Normandy, called Robert the Devil. He married Anne, \na princess of Russia, and reigned in rather an insignificant way, \nuntil his death in 1060. During this time Robert had died on a \npilgrimage in Palestine, and his son William (afterwards the cele- \nbrated "Conqueror" of England) had, though very young, ably and \nsuccessfully maintained his claim to the dukedom. \n\n\n\n456 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe remarkable institution and code of " Chivalry" was now \nfounded, and flourished greatly from this time. It was originally an \nassociation for the defence of the weak, for deference and respect to" \nage and to the fair, and for performing feats of knightly gallantry. \nThough some of these objects were but partially secured, (the \n"knights" finally becoming great oppressors and ravishers them- \nselves,) it yet imparted a more generous tone to the savage warfare \nof the times, and hastened the march of civilization. \n\nPhilip, at the age of seven, succeeded his father, under the guard- \nianship of the able and virtuous Baldwin, earl of Flanders. On \nassuming the government, at the age of fourteen, his vices and \nincapacity soon became apparent. Events of the greatest import- \nance to Europe occurred during his reign. William of Normandy, \nhis nominal vassal, conquered the kingdom of England, and became \nfar more powerful and independent than his sovereign who took \nthe mean satisfaction of assisting and abetting his revolted sons. \nAnother body of Normans, headed by Eobert Guiscard, a descend- \nant of Rollo, seized the kingdom of Sicily from the Saracens, and \ngained an extensive footing in Italy. A still more important enter- \nprise was the first crusade, which in the last of the eleventh century, \ndistracted all Europe, and especially allured and carried away the \nexcitable French. \n\nPilgrimages to the Holy Land had long been practised, and under \nthe humane and enlightened rule of the Saracens, the multitudes \nwho resorted to the tomb of Christ, at Jerusalem, were tolerated \nand protected. But in 1094, when the fierce and bigoted Turks \nincluded the Holy City in their conquests, the pious devotees who \nresorted to the Holy Sepulchre, met with great indignity and cruelty ; \nand a spirit of revenge was awakened throughout Christian Europe. \nPeter the Hermit, who had himself witnessed the atrocities of the \ninfidels, travelled from city to city, and exhorted princes and people \nto rescue the Sepulchre of their Saviour from the thraldom of \nMahomet. A vast religious enthusiasm was thus aroused. The \nknights were eager for a new field of distinction ; the people were \nzealous to gain a remission of their sins, as promised by the Pope ; \nand the cross was assumed throughout France with the greatest \nalacrity. \n\nA vast number of feeble and unwarlike pilgrims first commenced \nthe expedition over land ; but nearly all perished on the way from \nexposure, fatigue, and attack b}^ the nations through which they \n\n\n\n\nPETER THE HERMIT, \n\nJ:\'KA"i;iNU FOB THE 30CCESS OK THE UBUa.-.DiLK3 \n\n"I MEAD not to class Peter the Hermit amoDg grent D3en; I\'Ut certa:jj 1 3- he \ndeserves the character of one of the most extruordiiiai\'v men tliat Eui-ope ever \nproduced, if it wem "but for the circumstance of having convtiised a world \xe2\x80\x94 led \none continent to comlDat to extermination against another, and yet left histo- \nrians in douht -whether he vras madman or prophet, fool or politician " \xe2\x80\x94 His-iohy \n\nOF ChIVALET and the CRUSADEa \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDEPARTURE OF THE EIR^T CRUSADE, \n\nLED BY I\'ETltR THE HERMIT AND WALTE]l THE PENNILESS \n\nThe Counts Palatine ^vere already full oi\' the desire to undertake thi;^ \n_\'rtirney and the knights of an inferior order soon felt the same zeai Th\',- \npocr theniselves scon cauglat tlae flanie so ardently, that no one paused to \nthink of the smallness of his wealtb, out each set about selling his property \n\xe2\x80\x94 , \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 -Who shall tell the children and the infirm that, animated by the \nsame sjjiric, hastened to the Avar? Who shall count the old men and the young \nmaids who hui\'ried forward to the fight? \xe2\x80\x94 not "v/ith the hope of aiding, but for \nthe croAvn of martyrdom to be lyon anaid the sTvords oj\' the infidels \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe poor harnessing their oxen to two-^vheeled carts, in which they placed \ntheir scanty provisions and tlieir young cliildren ; and proceeding onward, while \nthe babes, at each town or castle that they saAV, d.emanded eagerly -whether that \nwas Jerusalem " \xe2\x80\x94 Description of the Eirst Crusade, by an Ete-witness \n\n\n\nFRANCE. ^g\'J\' \n\npassed. To this succeeded a great and well-appointed armament of \nthree hundred thousand men, commanded by Godfrey of Bouillon, \nEobert of Flanders, Eobert of Normandy, son of the Conqueror, \nHugh, the king\'s brother, and other lords and nobles of high renown. \nIn three great divisions, they arrived in the East, where private \nambition and private conquests soon allured many of the leaders \nfrom the sanctified undertaking in which they had embarked. A \nportion, under Baldwin and the two Eoberts, at length, in 1099, \narrived imder the walls of Jerusalem, which they took by storm, \nafter a fierce resistance. Godfrey was chosen king of Jerusalem, \nand assumed a crown of thorns, with the title of "Defender of the \nHoly Sepulchre." The greater part of the Crusaders then returned, \nleaving for the defence of their conquest two associations of military \nmonks \xe2\x80\x94 the Knights Templars, and the Knights Hospitallers, or \nKnights of St. John. The work, however, was not completed. The \nMahom^etans finally regained possession of the Holy City; and \nthough seven crusades were afterwards sent against them, retained it, \nas they continue to do to this day. \n\nMeanwhile, the king, abandoned to sensuality, relinquished the \ncares of government to his son Louis, a prince of just intentions \nand amiable temper. He died in 1108, after a useless and feeble \nreign of fifty years, leaving to his heirs the kingdom of France, \nhardly larger than some of its present departments. \n\nUnder his son Louis YL (called the Fat) it began, however, to \nincrease in territory, wealth, and importance. Much of this improve- \nment was due to the protection extended oyer artisans and merchants, \nwho were granted charters for mutual defence and municipal govern- \nment. As these classes increased in wealth, their taxes enriched \nthe royal treasury. The arts and sciences improved ; and commerce, \nsecure from the depredations of the nobility, flourished to an extent \nbefore unknown. Such was the foundation of those powerful civic \ncorporations which afterwards exercised such influence in the \ngovernment of the nation. \n\nLouis was soon engaged in war with his powerful vassal Henry L \nof England; and, at the instigation of the latter, the emperor of \nGermany also commenced hostilities against France. It was found \nnecessary to raise the oriflamme^ or sacred national banner, around \nwhich a large army instantly rallied, and compelled the invader to \nretreat. In 1137 the king died, deeply lamented by the subjects whom \nhe had governed justly, and whose condition he had greatly improved. \n\n\n\n458 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nDuring liis reign, literature, sucli as it was, made considerable \nprogress, and tire wandering Troubadours or Provencal minstrels, \ndiffused a general taste for song and poetry. The celebrated \nAbelard gave lessons in philosophy, and was listened to by atten- \ntive crowds. \n\nLouis VII., who succeeded his father, was a prince of strong \nfeelings, but moderate abilities. While engaged in war with Thi- \nbault of Champagne, his powerful and rebellious vassal, a calamitous \nincident occurred, which wrought strongly on his imagination and \nconscience The church of Vitry, in which great numbers had taken \nrefuge from his assault, was set on fire, and thirteen hundred of the \nunfortunate citizens perished in the flames. Overcome with remorse, \nthe king vowed a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; which, by the zeal and \neloquence of Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, was converted into another \ncrusade. An expedition of two hundred and fifty thousand men, \nwhich he led into Palestine, failed to accomplish the undertaking ; \nand of this great multitude, very few ever regained their native \ncountry. The king returned in disgrace, and was met by the \nuniversal reproaches of his subjects. \n\nHis wife Eleanor, whom he divorced, immediately married the \nduke of Normandy, (afterwards Henry II. of England,) and her \nlarge continental possessions were thus added to the crown of Eng- \nland. After a reign of forty-seven years, much of which was passed \nin unimportant wars with England, the king died, in 1180 and was \nsucceeded by his son Philip II. \n\nThis prince, afterwards called Philip Augustus, was the ablest \nmonarch who had ruled the French since the days of Charlemagne. \nHe maintained a standing army, and gradually changed the govern- \nment from an almost nominal sovereignty into an absolute monarchy. \nThe city of Paris was greatly enlarged and improved during his \nreign, and was surrounded by a strong wall. Commerce was encour- \naged and facilitated. He was a patron of letters, and encouraged \nthe writers of romances and of marvellous tales, which then, as at \nour own day, constituted the most popular department of literature. \n\nThe policy of Philip was of rather a low and tortuous character. \nHe gratified his jealousy of Henry II. by supporting his sons in \ntheir unnatural rebellion. Eichard, the eldest, assumed the crown \non the death of his father, in 1189, and entered into an agreement \nwith Philip for a fresh crusade. After much delay, the two mon- \narchs, mutually jealous of each other, sat down before the strong \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\n459 \n\n\n\ncity of Acre, the key of the East. In storming this place and in \nhis encounters with Saladin, the chivalric sultan of Egypt, Ei chard \nacquired, by his desperate valour, the name of Coeur de Lion, by \nwhich he has ever since been distinguished. Philip soon took his \ndeparture for France, taking a solemn oath that he would commit \nno hostilities in the absence of Eichard \xe2\x80\x94 an oath from which he \ntreacherously but vainly besought the Pope to release him. Never- \ntheless, learning that Eichard was captive in Germany, he made an \nattack upon his Norman possessions. \n\nIn the fourth crusade, which succeeded, Philip refused to proceed \nto the Holy Land in person ; but levied taxes to forward the enter- \nprise. Great numbers of his subjects embarked in the new expedition, \nwhich was headed by Baldwin, count of Flanders. Joining their forces \nwith those of Venice, under Dandalo, the blind and venerable doge \nthey were diverted from their purpose by a new enterprise, the con- \nquest of the Greek empire. Constantinople was taken, and Baldwin, \nin 1204, being chosen emperor, founded a new dynasty in the East. \n\nJohn, who succeeded Eichard in 1199, murdered his nephew \nArthur, the lineal heir to the throne, whose cause had been espoused \nby Philip. The French king, pleased with the opportunity, sum- \nmoned John, as his vassal, to trial for this crime ; and on his refusal \nto attend, declared his fief of Normandy forfeited. The weak and \nwicked monarch could oppose no effectual resistance. Normandy \nreverted to the crown of France, and his provinces of Maine, Anjou, \nand Touraine were speedily wrung from him by conquest. A large \narmy was also prepared, at the request of the Pope, for the invasion \nand conquest of England; but on the submission of John, the pon- \ntiff issued his commands for its disbandment, greatly to the \nmortification of the French monarch, who easily perceived himself \nthe tool of this domineering and unscrupulous churchman. \n\nPhilip, thus far highly successful in his ambitious schemes, was \nnext exposed to the attack of a formidable confederacy. England, \nFlanders, and Germany were united against him, and with an army \nof fifty thousand men, he encountered the confederates, of an over- \nwhelming force, at Bouvines, on the 27th August, 1214. After a \nmost desperate battle, in which Philip was dragged from his horse, \nand exposed to the greatest danger, he won a complete victory. It \nseems to have been customary for ecclesiastics to engage in warfare, \nand on this occasion, the warlike bishop of Beauvais, armed with \nan iron mace, or club, did great execution among the enemy. \n\n\n\n460 THE PEOFLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nA severe persecution, occasionally afterwards renewed, was carried \non against the Albigenses, a sect of Christians in Languedoc, and the \nmost atrocious cruelties were committed. An unsuccessful enter- \nprise, under Prince Louis, to gain the throne of England, and an \nequally futile crusade, despatched into Egypt, were the last import- \nant movements under the reign of Philip. He died in 1223, in the \nfifty-eighth year of his age, and the fourth of a reign in "which the \nstrength and territory of France had been extraordinarily increased. \n\nLouis VIII., who ascended the throne on the death of his father, \nwas thirty-six years of age, and feeble both in mind and body. \nDuring his brief reign of three years, he waged war with Henry III. \nof England, and carried on a bitter persecution against the Albi- \ngenses. While engaged in the latter, he died in 1226, of a fever \nwhich carried off great numbers of his soldiers. \n\nHis queen, Blanche, who became regent and guardian of her son, \nLouis IX,, was a woman of great energy and kindly disposition, \nthough rash and arbitrary. She maintained the rights of the throne \nuntil it was occupied by the king, at his majority. This monarch, \ncalled from his piety St, Louis, was of a remarkably just and reli- \ngious disposition, though enslaved by the bigotry of his times. In \nthe year 1244, while in a trance, he received, as he imagined, a \ndivine command to assume the cross. Four ^^ears afterwards he \nsailed to Egypt with a gallant armament, seized the town of Dami- \netta, and advanced towards Cairo. The expedition was, however, \ndefeated by an inundation of the Nile ; his troops perished of pesti- \nlence; and in April, 1250, he was compelled to surrender himself \nand the remains of his army as prisoners to the sultan of Egypt. \nHe finally regained his liberty by payment of an immense ransom, \nand, after an absence of four years, returned to France, Here he \napplied himself to the more truly religious task of redressing abuses \nand administering equal justice to his subjects. The "Parliament \nof Paris," a grand council of all the principal persons in the king- \ndom, was now constituted as a "High Court of Appeals." \n\nIn July, 1270, the king, attended by many of his nobles, had the \nfolly to embark in another crusade ; and first effected a landing in \nAfrica, enthusiastically hoping to convert the infidel king of Tunis. \nPestilence, however, caused by the excessive heat, broke out in his \ncamp, and this generous, but misdirected monarch fell a victim to it, \nafter a virtuous, though bigoted reign of forty-four years. \n\nHis son Philip III. (surnamed the Bold) was a prince of excellent \n\n\n\nFEANCE. ^Ql \n\ndisposition, but of very inferior abilities. His barber, or physician, \nPierre le Brosse, bad gained ahuost complete influence over his mind, \nand even tried to effect, by false accusations, the ruin of the queen. \nHis falsehoods and treasonable designs being detected, however, he \nwas finally condemned and executed. \n\nThe French invaders had for a considerable time kept possession \nof Sicily, and exercised much cruelty upon the inhabitants. A most \nterrible conspiracy was organized for their destruction. The plot, \nalthough known to numbers, was kept secret for years, and the \nintended victims were perfectly unsuspicious. At length, on Easter- \nday, 1282, at the tolling of the vesper-bell, the inhabitants rose \nthroughout the island, attacked their enemies by surprise, and slew \nthem all, with a single exception. \n\nAn expedition which Philip undertook for the conquest of Arra- \ngon, was disconcerted by the loss of his fleet, which was destroyed \nor captured by Andrew Doria, the great Genoese admiral; and \nshortly after, in 1285, the king expired, after a reign of fifteen \nyears, during which the French nation had enjoyed an unusual \namount of happiness and prosperity. \n\nHis son Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, next ascended the throne. \nSome of the most barbarous and perfidious acts on record soon dis- \ngraced his reign. The new sovereign was by no means deficient \nin ability, especially in craft and cunning; but he was avaricious, \nunprincipled, and outrageously cruel. He was soon engaged in war \nwith England, and, by treachery, gained some advantages. He \nentrapped the earl of Flanders by an invitation, imprisoned him at \nParis, and despatched a force of fifty thousand men against his terri- \ntories. These, however, met with such a terrible defeat at the hands \nof the Flemish citizens, that, after the battle, four thousand golden \nspurs, the badges of knighthood, were collected on the field. The \nking, however, was now in alliance with Edward of England, who \nhad married his sister Margaret, and was enabled to turn his \nresources against them, and in turn to gain the advantage. \n\nCovetous of the wealth of their order, he next instituted a most \natrocious persecution against the Knights Templars. Finding that \nhe was unable legally to destroy the institution, he gave orders for \nthe arbitrary arrest of all its members who were in the kingdom. \nTheir property was confiscated, and many of them were subjected to \nthe most cruel tortures, to extort a confession of pretended crimes. \nJacques de Molay, the Grand Master, who hastened from Cyprus to \n\n\n\n462 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndefend the reputation of liis Order, was, after a villanous mockery \nof trial, burned alive, by especial order of tbe king. Tlie Pope, \nwho had at first protested against these atrocities, readily connived \nat them, on receiving a share of the spoils. \n\nAlthough, by oppressive taxes, the king had completely alienated \nhis people, yet by way of depressing the nobility, he admitted them \nto a voice in the general assembly; and the States General were \nafterwards composed of the clergy, the nobility, and the deputies of \nthe people, \n\nPhilip died in 1314, from a fall received while hunting, in the \nforty-sixth year of his age, and the twenty-ninth of his reign. \n\nHe was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis X., called Hutin (the \nPeevish), who left the control of government to his uncle, Charles \nof Yalois. He died after a reign of nineteen months, chiefly \nremarkable for the emancipation of the serfs, whom he compelled \nto purchase their freedom, to replenish his exhausted treasury. \n\nHis brother, Philip Y., came to the throne in 1316, and after an \nunimportant reign of six years, was succeeded by his younger \nbrother, Charles IV., at whose death, in 1328, the crown, in default \nof male heirs, passed to Philip, son of Charles of Yalois. The \ndirect line of Capet thus came to an end, after retaining the throne \nfor more than three centuries. \n\n\n\nTHE HOUSE OP VALOIS. \n\nPhilip YI., surnamed (why, it would be hard to say) the For- \ntunate, received the crown at the age of thirty -four, and was soon \ncalled upon to defend it from the impudent and unreasonable claims \nadvanced by Edward III., king of England. Although the preten- \nsions of Edward, derived from his mother, a daughter of Philip lY., \nwere rendered null by the Salic law, and even if that law were \nnon-existent, were inferior to those of another branch, yet he obsti- \nnately persisted in assuming the title and arms of the king of France \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n463 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 a piece of folly whicli the sovereigns of England, until very \nrecently, have all imitated. \n\nEdward and his son, the famous Black Prince, with a large army, \nlanded in France. On the 23d of August, 1346, was fought the \nbattle of Crecy (Cressy), in which the superiority of the English \narchers secured them a complete and terrible victory. More than \nthirty thousand of the French perished in this disastrous conflict, \nincluding a vast number of knights, nobles, and all the flower of \nFrench chivalry. Edward immediately laid siege to Calais; and \nthe unfortunate inhabitants, after bravely resisting for more than a \nyear, were reduced to the greatest suffering from famine. The town \nwas finally compelled to surrender, and the lives of the citizens \nwere saved by the heroic conduct of Eustace de St. Pierre, who, \nwith five of his fellow-burgesses, offered their lives as a ransom for \nthe rest. They were spared, with much reluctance, at the inter- \ncession of Philippa, Edward\'s queen. At length, after France had \nbeen terribly devastated, and in parts almost depopulated, a peace \nwas concluded. \n\nSoon afterwards, in 1350, Philip died, in the fifty-seventh year of \nhis age, and the twenty-third of his reign. During his time, the \nprovince of Dauphiny had been ceded to the French territories, in \nconsideration that the king\'s son should always bear the title of the \n"dauphin." John, his eldest son, at the age of forty, ascended the \nthrone, and the war with England was soon revived. Prince \nEdward, who had led a small army from Gascony, was ravaging the \ncountry, and John with an immensely superior force, attacked him at \nPoictiers. But the English position was strongly fortified ; a sudden \npanic seized the French ranks; and the contest resulted in a victory \nfor the English, as brilliant, though less bloody, than that of Crecy. \nThe king and his son Philip, being taken prisoners, were treated \nby the victor with the utmost respect and courtesy, and were carried \nto London. \n\nThe condition of France, left without a ruler, was now wretched \nin the extreme. The nobles, attempting to reduce the people again \nto a condition of serfdom, committed the most atrocious cruelties ; \nand the peasantry, driven to desperation, commenced a furious \nattack on their oppressors. The castles of the nobility, in many \nplaces, were pillaged, and their inmates ravished and massacred. \nThis Jacquerie^ as it was called, from Jacques Bon Homme, (Jack \nGoodfellow, a favourite leader,) became so formidable that all parties, \n\n\n\n464 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nEnglish, and Frencii, united to put it down, and it was finally sup- \npressed, with immense slaughter. \n\nThe dauphin, who, during the captivity of his father, held the \nregency, was unable to procure the extortionate sums whicli were \ndemanded for his ransom; and King Edward, with a large array, \nmarched to the very walls of Paris. A terrible storm of thunder \nand lightning, however, had such an effect upon his superstitious \nmind, that he consented to a peace, renouncing his pretensions, and \nagreeing to release King John on the payment of certain stipulated \nsums. John was set free, and returned to his own country, but \nfound himself unable, from the poverty of the nation, to complete \nhis engagements. Therefore, declaring that if good faith were \nbanished from every other place, it should at least be respected in \nthe words of a king, he returned in the most honourable manner to \nhis captivity, and died a prisoner in England, April 8th, 1364. He had \nreigned fourteen years, marked by bravery, honour, and misfortune. \n\nCharles V., called the Wise, was already distinguished for his \nabilities and intellectual accomplishments. He was fond of the \ncompany of literary men, among whom the celebrated Petrarch \nconversed with him, and admired his taste and learning. The royal \nlibrary, which in his father\'s day had consisted of twenty volumes, \nhe increased to nine hundred. It is, at present, the largest in the \nworld, containing more than a million of volumes. Several works \nof great interest were written during his reign, of which the chroni- \ncles of Froissart are the most important. By order of the king, \nmany of the Greek and Latin classics were translated into French, \nindifferently enough, it is true. The university of Paris was already \nthronged with students from almost every nation of Europe. \n\nHis political abilities were also great. He regained the province \nof Guienne from the English, his brave Constable, Du Guesclin, carry- \ning all before him. This renowned knight died while besieging a \ncertain castle; but so great was the respect felt for him even by his \nenemies, that in accordance to agreement, the fortress surrendered, \nand the keys were solemnly laid upon his bier by the governor. \n\nCharles the Bad, king of Navarre, had long disturbed the French \nnation by his treachery and enmity; and finally filled the measure \nof his crimes by administering a slow poison to Charles, his relative \nand fellow-sovereign. Under the influence of this cruel potion, \nlie lingered for a time, and finally expired in 1380, at the age of \nforty- four, having reigned sixteen years. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n465 \n\n\n\nCharles VI. (the "Well Beloved"), at the age of thirteen, came \nto the throne, the duke of Anjou being appointed regent. The \nlatter, a selfish and ambitious man, took advantage of his power to \nattempt the gaining a kingdom of his own. Seizing the public \ntreasure, and assembling a large army, he marched into Italy, where \nJoanna of Naples had bequeathed to him her possessions. His force \nwas, however, almost entirely cut off, and he survived but a short \ntime the destruction of his ambitious hopes. \n\nThe duke of Burgundy succeeded to the regency, and in 1386 \nplanned a formidable invasion of England. Nine hundred vessels \nwere prepared, but the expedition was dispersed by a storm, and \nrendered incapable of effecting its object. The king, who, on his \ncoming of age, in 1388, assumed the government, gave promise, by \nhis wise and equitable measures, of an excellent reign. Unfortu- \nnately, exposure to the sun brought on a furious attack of insanity ; \nand when he had partially recovered, a terrible accident which \nbefell several of his noble companions occasioned a renewal of his \ndisorder. For thirty years, during which this unhappy monarch \nreigned nominally, he had only occasional glimpses of reason, and \nwas treated with brutal neglect by his queen, Isabella of Bavaria, \nwho kept possession of his revenues. \n\nIn the latter part of his reign, Henry Y. of England, seeing the \ndefenceless state of the kingdom, again advanced the absurd claim \nof Edward III., and invaded France with a large army. After \nravaging the country far and near, he encountered the French, of \ngreatly superior force, near Agincourt, on the 26th \'=^^ October, 1415. \nThe latter, attacked upon disadvantageous ground, and exposed to \nthe galling fire of the English archery, were entirely defeated, and \ngreat numbers of them perished. \n\nHenry, who, on account of the mortality from disease in his army, \nhad been compelled to return to England, soon recommenced the \nwar, and in a short time gained possession of all Normandy. Over- \nawing the feeble opposition of the French nobles, he was declared \nregent of the kingdom, and successor to the crown; the imbecile \nking being made to assent publicly to this arrangement. Henry, \nhaving been crowned at Paris, died soon afterwards, leaving the \nduke of Bedford regent of France. The unhappy king himself \nexpired in 1422, at the age of fifty-five, after a reign of forty-two \nyears, mostly passed in insanity. \n\nDuring his reign, a curious instance of the trial by ordeal occurred. \n30 \n\n\n\n466 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nA man named Aiibry had been murdered by nis enemy, Eobert \nMacaire, and the corpse bad been buried in tbe forest of Bondi. \nTbe dog of the murdered man, who had witnessed the crime, brought \na friend of his master, and showed him the body. Meeting Mac- \naire, he attacked him furiously, and by continually exhibiting his \nenmity, awakened suspicion. The murderer avowed his innocence, \nand it was resolved to refer the matter to Providence by a public \nfight between the dog and the accused. The man was allowed a \nclub, and the dog was provided with a barrel for shelter when \nweary. After a long and desperate contest, the criminal was over- \ncome by his brute antagonist, confessed the crime, and was executed. \nThe game of cards, since so universal, was invented in the reign \nof Charles, to divert his mind, in the melancholy complaint to which \nhe was so long subjected. \n\nOn his death, the dauphin was at once proclaimed king, by the \nfew loyal nobles who remained with him, under the title of Charles \nYII. He was crowned at Poictiers\xe2\x80\x94 Eheims, the ancient place of \ncoronation, being in possession of the English. His fortunes, how- \never, appeared desperate ; when, in 1428, an extraordinary event \ncame to his relief Joan, the daughter of a poor peasant, Jacques \nDArc, residing at Domremy, began, at the age of thirteen, to imagine \nherself inspired. She saw visions of saints and angels, and heard \nthem exhorting her to repair to the deliverance of her country. By \nfrequent exercise, she had become accustomed to riding on horse- \nback and other manly exercises, and at the age of seventeen repaired \nto Charles, and informed him of her divine mission. A commission \nof ecclesiastics was appointed to examine her claims; and, either \nconvinced of the reality of her inspiration, or aware of the political \nvalue of her enthusiasm, they solemnly reported in favour of the \ntruth of her pretensions. Arrayed in complete armour, and mounted \non a splendid gray charger, she repaired to Orleans, which was then \nclosely besieged by the English. She was received with the highest \nreligious enthusiasm, and, leading the troops in person, commenced \nan energetic warfare with the English. They were, on almost every \noccasion, defeated ; great numbers of them, struck with a religious \nawe, deserted ; and Talbot, the English commander, was compelled \nto raise the siege. Other successes followed, and Charles, according \nto her prediction, was soon enabled to enter Eheims victoriously, \nand be solemnly crowned after the manner of his ancestors. She \nthen entreated permission to retire to her home, afl&rming that her \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n467 \n\n\n\nmission was accomplislied. The king however, desirons of availing \nhimself of her services during the remainder of the war, would not \nassent. Her family was enriched and ennobled, and she recom- \nmenced her exploits. \n\nAt length, being treacherously deserted in a skirmish by her \ncompanions, who were jealous of her superior renown, she fell into \nthe hands of the duke of Burgundy, who sold her for a large sum \nto the duke of Bedford. The English meanly resolved to avenge \nthemselves on this woman, before whose arms they had so often fled. \nA commission of priests and others, headed by the infamous \nFrench bishop of Beauvais, was appointed to try her on a charge of \nsorcery. She was convicted, and, to the eternal dishonour of all \nconcerned, and especially of Charles, was burned as a witch in the \nmarket-place of Rouen on the 30th of May, 1431. Many of those \nwho, according to the superstition of the times, had believed in her \nguilt, on witnessing the constancy and piety of her end, were struck \nwith remorse, and went away^ exclaiming, in anguish, "We are lost! \na holy person has been burned." \n\nThis cruel and cowardly act availed the English little. They lost \ncity after city, and were speedily driven out of all France, except \nCalais. Charles, after an absence of seventeen years, reentered his \ncapital, in November, 1437. In the following year a dreadful fam- \nine and pestilence laid waste the country ; and it is said that wolves \nroved through the deserted streets of Paris. \n\nIn 1440, peace was concluded, and the duke of Orleans, the \nking\'s cousin, who had been a prisoner in England for twenty-five \nyears, returned to his country. His son afterwards became king of \nFrance. The latter days of King Charles were much disturbed by \nthe rebellious and unnatural conduct of the dauphin, an odious \nwretch, who afterwards, under the title of Louis XI., so long tyran- \nnized over the French nation. He had taken refuge with the duke \nof Burgundy, but still continued his machinations against the life of \nhis father. The unhappy monarch, continually dreading poison, \nrefused to take food, and thus, it is said, perished of starvation, in the \nyear 1461. He had lived fifty-eight years, and reigned thirty-nine. \n\nLouis, supported by his powerful ally and vassal, the duke of \nBurgundy, after being crowned at Rheims, proceeded to Paris, and \nassumed the government. His disregard of their order excited dis- \ncontent among the nobles, and a powerful league was formed against \nhim, headed by the dukes of Berri and Br^tagne, and Charles, the \n\n\n\n468 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nCount of Charalois, son of Burgundy. A large army was assembled \nby the malcontents ; but by liberal and politic promises, be contrived \nto break up the confederacy. \n\nHe soon found himself in a more perilous condition. Charles, \nwho had succeeded his father in the powerful principality of Bur- \ngundy, was a man of fiery courage and ungovernable passions. It \nwas agreed that Louis and himself should hold a personal conference \nat Peronne, a town of Burgundy; and the former, with but few \nattendants, came thither, and was lodged in the castle. During their \ninterview, news came that the people of Liege, a town of Flanders \nbelonging to Burgundy, had been excited to insurrection by the \nemissaries of Louis. The duke, terribly incensed, made him pris- \noner on the spot, and for two days remained in a state of furious \nagitation, unable to decide upon his execution. At length, by the \ninfluence of his chief ofl&cers, who were in the pay of the captive \nmonarch, he spared his life, though upon humiliating conditions ; and \nthe king, compelled to accompany Charles to Flanders, was forced \nto witness and sanction the indiscriminate execution of those whom \nhe had incited to revolt. \n\nEdward lY. of England, a warlike and ambitious princC; entered \nFrance, by his port of Calais, in 1475, with a large army, and laid \nclaim to the crown. By a dexterous use of bribery, the politic \nLouis was, however, enabled to purchase peace, and the two mon- \narchs held a personal interview upon a bridge, with a strong grating \nbetween, to prevent treachery. Through this cautious obstacle \nthey managed to embrace, held a conference, and separated upon \nfriendly terms. \n\nThe duke of Burgundy, attempting to conquer Switzerland, \nexperienced two terrible defeats from the brave mountaineers. \nAfter the battle of Morat, the remains of his slaughtered army \nwere heaped into a huge pyramid, as their only burial. \n\n" Here Burgundy bequeathed his tombless host, \nA bony heap, through ages to remain, \nThemselves their sepulchre." \n\nA portion of this fatal mound remained until recently, though much \ndiminished by the pious care of the Burgundians, all of whom pass- \ning that way, carried home some relics of their countrymen. Charles \nhimself soon afterwards lost his life, by treachery or violence, while \nbesieging the town of Nancy. \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\n469 \n\n\n\nLouis publicl}\'- gave thanks for the death of the duke, and imme- \ndiately seized his territories; the people, worn out bj disastrous \nwars could offer no resistance, Edward IV. was dead, and Louis \nnow seemed at the height of his power; yet he was utterly miser- \nable. Aware of the hatred of his people, whom he had terribly \noppressed, he immured himself for life in the castle of Plessis, \nwhich was strongly fortified and guarded by his Scottish archers. \nHere, surrounded by gibbets, on which his unhappy subjects were \nsuspended, he led an unenviable life, governing by his barber and \nhis executioner, and vainly trying to ward off the approach of death \nby collecting a great quantity of relics. The Pope sent him many \narticles of this nature; and even the Grand Turk considerately \ndespatched a supply; but all in vain, for he expired in August, \n1483, after an odious and oppressive reign of twenty-two years. \n\nDuring this time, however, either by bequest, purchase, or con- \nquest, nearly all the important principalities in the limits of the \nancient kingdom had come into the hands of the sovereign, whose \npower and independence were thus wonderfully increased. \n\nHis son Charles VIIL, who, on account of his father\'s jealousy, \nhad hitherto been deprived of all means of improvement, was of a \nmost excellent and amiable disposition, but deficient in judgment \nand sagacity. As he was only fourteen, his guardianship, by the \nwill of Louis, was conferred on his eldest sister. Her authority was \nconfirmed by the States General, and the duke of Orleans, who had \nopposed her, fied to Bretagne. War was hereupon commenced \nagainst that province ; Orleans was taken prisoner, and closely con- \nfined; and Charles secured the dukedom by marrying the Princess \nAnne, its sole heiress. \n\nCharles of Anjou had bequeathed to Louis his claim upon Naples, \nand the young king, anxious to acquire military glory, in 1494, \nset out for Italy, with eighteen thousand men. Proclaiming himself \nthe enemy of the Italian tyrants, he passed triumphantly through \nthe peninsula. Rome and Naples threw open their gates, and wel- \ncomed him as a deliverer. "While, however, the French abandoned \nthemselves to revelry and military license, a powerful confederacy \nwas formed against them, consisting of the Emperor Maximilian, \nFerdinand of Spain, and the Italian princes. Charles was com- \npelled to return immediately, and, with only nine thousand men, \nencountered an army of more than four times his number, in the \nvalley of Fornova. Leaving three thousand of the enemy dead \n\n\n\n470 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nupon the field, he retreated into France, and was compelled to aban- \ndon his Italian conquests. \n\nIn his domestic administration, he displayed great love of justice, \nand a desire for reform. His people, however, did not long enjoy \nthe benefit of these virtues, for he expired, from the effects of an \naccident, in April, 1498, in the fifteenth year of his reign, and the \ntwenty-eighth of his age. His surname of "the Courteous" indi- \ncates his amiable deportment; and no sovereign ever died more \nbeloved by all with whom he came in intercourse. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEE I?. \n\nTHE HOFSE OP VALOIS CONTINTTED. \n\nAs Charles left no children, he was succeeded by the duke of \nOrleans, great grandson of Charles Y., who, at the age of thirty- \nsix, ascended the thrOne, under the title of Louis XII. Educated \namid reverses, he had learned wisdom from misfortune; and so studi- \nously promoted the good of his people as to receive their enthusiastic \naffection. Commerce, science, and literature were zealously encour- \naged; taxes were lessened; and the administration of justice was \nimproved. In his foreign affairs, he was at first less prudent and \nless fortunate. \n\nHaving certain claims upon Milan, he took possession of that \nduchy and of the republic of Genoa; and then, by agreement with \nFerdinand of Spain, despoiled the king of Naples of his territories. \nThe allies quarrelled, however, about the division of their spoil; \nand Gonsalvo de Cordova, the "Great Captain," by treachery and \nmilitary skill, secured the whole for his master, Ferdinand. \n\nIn 1508, the celebrated Pope Julius II., one of the most able \nmen that ever sat upon a throne, induced Louis, Ferdinand, and the \nEmperor Maximilian, to suspend their mutual hostilities, and turn \ntheir arms against the republic of Yenice, which had become formi- \ndably powerful. The Yenetians were thus despoiled of considerable \nterritory. In 1510, Julius and Louis engaged in hostilities, and the \n\n\n\nFEANCE. ^Jl \n\nformer was completely overcome. Two years afterwards, assisted \nby Ferdinand and the Venetians, he renewed the war; but, with his \nallies, was defeated by the French, in a great battle at Eavenna, \nand died in the following year. Leo X., another distinguished \npatron of art and letters, succeeded him. \n\nIn 1513, Henry VIII., the youthful king of England, who had \nespoused the cause of Maximilian, assisted in defeating the French \nat Guinegate ; but in the following year Anne, the widow of Charles, \n(whom Louis had married,) dying, peace was concluded, and cemented \nby the marriage of the French king to Mary, sister of the English \nmonarch. Louis did not long survive this alliance. He died Janu- \nary 1st, 1515, in the fifty-third year of his age, after a reign of \nseventeen years. His care for the happiness of his subjects gained \nhim the enviable title of "Father of his people," \n\nIn default of direct male heirs, the crown next passed to the count \nof Angouleme, cousin of the late monarch, who became king, under \nthe title of Francis L, at the age of twenty-one. This gallant and \nchivalrous prince possessed some faults natural to those of his \ntemperament. He was headstrong and dissipated; and his court, \nfilled with the most beautiful and sometimes frailest ladies in the \nrealm, presented a striking contrast to the gravity of his predecessors. \n\nMilan was still the object of his desires; and in spite of the \nopposition of the Pope, the emperor, and Ferdinand, he came off \nvictorious. The brave Chevalier Bayard crossed the Alps, and sur- \nprised the enemy ; Francis in person defeated the Swiss, and \nMilan submitted. \n\nCharles I., grandson of Ferdinand, perhaps the most able sovereign \nof his time, had inherited immense possessions, both in the old and \nnew worlds. In seeking the office of emperor of Germany, which \nis elective, he found a rival in Francis. The most disastrous wars \nwere incurred from this mutual jealousy. Both sought the friendship \nof Henry VIII., but Charles, gaining the first interview, and being \nnephew to Queen Catherine, gained the advantage. Nevertheless, the \nFrench and English sovereigns, by mutual agreement, met at a place \nnear Ardres, called, from the magnificence displayed, the "Field of \nthe Cloth of Gold." For eighteen days, while occasionally discussing \ngraver matters, they mingled in youthful amusements, and lived in the \ngreatest intimacy. Both excelled in martial sports ; but Henry, one \nday, seizing his fellow-sovereign by the collar, and provoking him \nto wrestle, received a severe fall, and was laid flat upon his back. \n\n\n\n472 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe king of Spain had gained his object, and had become emperor \nunder the title of Charles Y. Francis, enraged at his disappoint- \nment, and easily finding a pretext for war, sent an army into Spain \nand another into Italy. The latter, ill-commanded, was repeatedly \ndefeated and repulsed \xe2\x80\x94 the constable of Bourbon, the best general \nin France, remaining unemployed at home. Louisa of Savoy, the \nking\'s mother, and a woman of detestable character, wished to marry \nhim. He rejected the proposal in such terms that the king gave \nhim a blow. His possessions, under pretext of law, were soon \nstripped from him, and, eager for revenge, he entered the service of \nthe emperor. The latter made him liberal promises, and he invaded \nFrance; but being joined by no one, was compelled to retreat. \n\nFrancis had been for some time besieging the city of Pavia, when \na large force, under the constable and Lannoy, came to its relief \nOn the 23d of February, 1525, a desperate battle was fought, in \nwhich Francis, after displaying great personal valour, was iitterly \ndefeated, and was taken prisoner. He wrote to his mother the \ncelebrated despatch, "Madam, all is lost, except honour." The \nemperor, demanding unreasonable terms, kept his rival close prisoner \nfor a year, during which he had nearly died from confinement and \ninquietude. He finally accepted the emperor\'s conditions, and was \nreleased, leaving his two sons as hostages; but, on regaining his \ndominions, dishonourably refused compliance, alleging that the \npromises of a captive were not binding. \n\nIn these desolating wars fell the brave and honourable Chevalier \nBayard, "the knight without fear and without reproach," He was \nconsidered, in his own day, as ever since, the model of pure chiv- \nalry, and the king himself besought knighthood at his hand on the \nfield of battle. Finding him mortally wounded, the duke of Bourbon \nlamented his fate, to which Bayard replied, "I am not to be pitied; \nbut those who are fighting against their country." \n\nIn 1529, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which Francis paid \na heavy ransom for his sons, and married Eleanor, the emperor\'s \nsister. Eelieved from the anxieties of war, he devoted much atten- \ntion to literature and the fine arts. Benvenuto Cellini and other \ndistinguished artists adorned his court. Palaces were rebuilt, and \nstatues and paintings of high merit were produced. The climate at \nthis time underwent a remarkable change, and from 1528 to 1534, \nFrance was under a perpetual summer. Nature, in consequence, \nexperiencing no period of rest, was unable to bring her products to \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n473 \n\n\n\nmaturity, and a terrible famine was the result. This, and the usually- \nattending pestilence, carried off a fourth of the inhabitants of France. \n\nThe war with Charles was renewed in 1536, and continued for \neight years, during which the emperor was generally assisted by \nHenry. Peace was concluded in 1544; and three years afterwards \nFrancis, who had been ill for a long time, expired, on the 31st of \nMarch, 1547, in the fifty-third year of his age and the thirty-second \nof his reign. The courage and magnificence of this king delighted \nthe French nation, ever fond of glory and display; and he has \nalways been an especial favourite of their historians. \n\nHis son Henry II. succeeded, and with his queen, Catherine de \nMedicis, was entertained, on their public entry into Paris, among \nother amusements, with the execution of several heretics ; \xe2\x80\x94 a dread- \nful spectacle, which so affected the king, that he never entirely \nrecovered from the shock. In 1555, the Emperor Charles V., so \nlong the enemy of France, voluntarily resigned his immense posses- \nsions to his son Philip II., and retired into a convent. The Pope, \nbeing at enmity with Philip, sought the aid of Henry, who des- \npatched the duke of Guise, with a powerful force, to attempt the \nconquest of Naples. He was, however, unable to accomplish any \nthing; and Philip, on learning of the movement, invaded France \nwith fifty thousand troops. The duke of Savoy, their commander, \nlaid siege to St. Quentin, and on the 10th of August, 1557, the \nFrench, commanded by the Constable Montmorenci and Admiral \nColigni, suffered a terrible defeat. The incapacity of Philip alone \nsaved France from greater misfortunes. In, January, 1558, the town \nof Calais, which had long been the only foothold of the English in \nFrance, was taken by the duke of Guise, in a sudden and daring \nattack, to the great delight of the whole nation, and the correspond- \ning discomfiture of the English. In 1559, peace was concluded, \nand was ratified by the marriage of Philip to the eldest daughter of \nHenry. The occasion proved fatal to the French monarch. In the \ntournament which was celebrated in honour of the alliance, he \nreceived a fatal inj ury from the lance of one of his opponents ; and \nafter lingering eleven days, expired, on the 10th of July, 1559, in \nthe forty-first year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign. \n\nHis son Francis II., at the age of sixteen, came to the throne. \nHis mother, Catherine de Medicis, a daughter of the most celebrated \nhouse of Florence, assumed the entire direction of affairs. This \ninfamous woman, talented and unprincipled by nature, had been \n\n\n\n474 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. \n\neducated amid tlie dark and tortuous politics of an Italian court. \nShe was naturally cruel, and Avas, moreover, a bigoted enemy of the \nreformed religion, which had now extended widely through the \nkingdom. The duke of Guise and his brother the cardinal, ardent \nCatholics, were in league with the queen; and the Bourbons, (of \nwhom Anthony enjoyed the title of King of Navarre,) the opponents \nof this powerful family, were banished from court. A savage per- \nsecution of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were called, \ncommenced. The courts established for the suppression of heresy \ncommitted such numbers to the flames, that they acquired the terri- \nble title of ^^ Les chamhres ardentes,^^ \xe2\x80\x94 "burning chambers." The \nwise and admirable chancellor, I\'Hopital, in vain endeavoured to \nstay these cruelties. He succeeded, however, in preventing the \nintroduction of the inquisition. \n\nThe persecuted party was too powerful to submit without resist- \nance. Henry de Bourbon, prince of Cond^, and brother to the king \nof Navarre, was at the head of the reformed believers. The Admiral \nColigni, and many others of high rank, were of the same persua- \nsion. Their plans for self-defence being discovered, the prince was \ncondemned to lose his head. By the exertions of I\'Hopital, the \nexecution was delayed; and meanwhile the young king, who for \nsome time had been ill, expired on the 5th of December, 1560, after \na reign of only sixteen months. \n\nHis brother, Charles IX., at the age of ten years, succeeded him, \nunder the guardianship of Catherine. This event saved the life of \nConde, and gave a check to the Guises ; for the queen, to counter- \nbalance their influence, entered into alliance with the Bourbons, and \neffected an apparent reconciliation of the two rival families. As \nCha-^les grew up, it became manifest that his disposition, naturally \nharsh and eccentric, had been greatly injured by evil education. The \ncountry was soon in a condition that might have tried a wiser and \nabler ruler. The Catholics, alarmed at the increasing number of \nthe Huguenots, and the toleration extended to them, began to think \nof again resorting to force. An accidental affray, in which the duke \nof Guise was injured, brought on a devastating civil war. This \ncontest, which for a long time divided France, was distinguished by \na ferocity unusual even in civil warfare. Friendship and relation- \nship seemed set at nought, and innumerable private massacres were \ncommitted. Cond4, who commanded the Huguenots, was defeated \nat Dreux, and taken prisoner by Guise, who, however, treated him \n\n\n\nPEANCE. \n\n\n\n475 \n\n\n\nwitli mucli confidence and magnanimity. The duke himself, the next \nyear, 1563, fell by the hand of an assassin, and died, exhorting the \nqueen to make peace between the contending parties. His wishes \nwere complied with ; and the Huguenots received favourable terms. \n\nIn 1567, the reformed party, oppressed and deceived, again took \nup arms. The Constable Montmorenci was killed early in the war, \nand on the 18th of March, 1569, Conde himself, after displaying \ngreat skill and valour, fell upon the field of Jarnac. His forces, \noverpowered by the enemy, under Tavannes, who were four times \ntheir number, were compelled to yield. At the death of Cond6, the \nprince of Beam, heir to ISTavarre, (afterwards the famous Henry IV.) \na youth of sixteen, became the head of the reformed party. He was \nalready distinguished by his intelligence, prudence, and amiable \nmanners. \n\nIn 1570, peace was concluded, and, to cement it, a marriage between \nHenry and the king\'s sister, Margaret, was resolved upon, "With \nthe principal persons of his party, he repaired to Paris. The young \nsovereign, now king of Navarre, was married in 1572, and during \nthe festivities of the occasion, a most horrible plot was matured for \nthe extirpation of the Protestant party. Some of the leaders sus- \npected treachery, and one of them said to Coligni, "I am going to \nquit Paris, because they seem too fond of us." For two years, \nCatherine and the duke of Guise (who inherited more than his \nfather\'s hostility to the reformation) had been engaged in preparing \nthis atrocious scheme: the king had been prevailed on to give his \nconsent ; and their enemies had been invited to Paris for the express \npurpose of ending the matters in dispute by a general massacre. On \nthe 2-lth of August, 1572, six days after the marriage, at a given \nsignal, the tolling of the great bell of the palace, an indiscrimi- \nnate slaughter of the Protestants commenced. Five thousand of \nthem were murdered in Paris, and at least seventy thousand in the \nprovinces. The brave and venerable Admiral Coligni was killed by \nthe express commands of the duke, who presided over the massacre ; \nand it is said that Charles himself fired with a musket, from his \npalace window, upon the unfortunate victims as they ran through \nthe streets below. A public thanksgiving was offered for the suc- \ncess of this wholesale butchery, which occurred upon the night of St. \nBartholomew, and has taken its name from that circumstance. Two \nmillions, however, of the Huguenots, remained; and, rather than \ndrive them to desperation, a peace was concluded. \n\n\n\n476 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nFrom the time of his implication in this terrible crime, Charles \nenjoyed no rest. He was continually tormented by remorse, and it \nis supposed that his fate was accelerated by a slow poison. He died \non the 80th May, 1574, in the twenty-fourth jeax of his age, after a \nreign of thirteen years. During this disturbed and bloody period, \nit is remarkable that many improvements were effected in the laws, \nand in the administration of justice. These reforms were due to \nthe untiring and benevolent efforts of the chancellor, I\'Hopital, the \nmost enlightened and virtuous public character of his age. \n\nThe king\'s brother, Henry of Anjou, who by this event became \nheir to the throne, had been elected king of Poland, and was in that \ncountry at the time of Charles\' death. Delighted with his new pros- \npects, he fled from his kingdom suddenly, by night, and hastened to \ntake possession of his native domains. He was now in his twenty- \nthird year. His habits were exceedingly effeminate, and his amuse- \nments childish in the extreme. His country, meanwhile, was \ndistracted by the religious contests which still prevailed. The \nduke of Guise, after the peace of 1576, formed a powerful "League" \nof the Catholics to oppose the reformation. The king himself and \nPhilip of Spain joined the confederacy; and in the war which ensued, \nthe Huguenots were compelled to resist a most powerful combina- \ntion of enemies. Henry of Navarre was now the next heir to the \nthrone, and the Catholics were filled with alarm, on account of his \nreligion and his talents. The ambitious and powerful duke of Guise \nwas, however, the most influential person in the kingdom, and his \npopularity and his evident designs on the throne excited the king\'s \njealousy. On his arrival at Paris he was received with such enthu- \nsiasm by the citizens, that Henry resolved to secure himself from \nfurther trouble by assassination; and accordingly the duke, being \nsummoned to attend the royal council, was murdered in the halls of \nthe palace, by the king\'s emissaries. His brother, the cardinal, \nperished in the same manner, the next day. \n\nThe "League," enraged at this atrocity, took up arms, and the \nSorbonne, the great ecclesiastical tribunal, declared that the king \nhad forfeited the throne. With some difficulty, he obtained the sup- \nport of the king of Navarre, who, with a considerable army, came \nto his assistance. In 1589, they appeared with a large army before \nParis; but the alarm of the citizens was relieved by an unexpected \nevent. A fanatical monk, named Jacques Clement, instigated by \nthe League, having gained an interview with the king, stabbed him \n\n\n\n\nFrench (Jostutrie, \n\nIN THE REIGN OF LOUIS XI \n\n\n\ni\'rench CosLuu-Le, \n\nIN THE RETRN OP LOUIS VI. \n\n\n\n\nFrench Costume, \n\nIN THE BEIGN OF LOUIS XIll \n\n\n\nFrench Costume, \n\nOF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTtFRT \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n477 \n\n\n\nmortally. He died, bequeathing his crown to Henry of Navarre, \nand entreating him to embrace the Catholic faith. The news of his \ndeath was received with frantic joy by the Parisians, and his assas- \nsin was consecrated as a saint by the entire priesthood, the Pope \nincluded. With this sovereign ended the line of Yalois, which for \ntwo hundred and sixty-one years had ruled the kingdom. During \nthese long and disastrous civil wars, the condition of France was \nwretched in the extreme. Even in time of nominal peace, fights, \nmassacres, and bloody revenges were of daily occurrence, and the \nmorals of the people had terribly deteriorated. Learning and \nrefinement had, however, made considerable progress. The poetry \nof Eonsard, and the admirable essays of Montaigne had already \ndelighted the world. Literature was more zealously pursued than \nat any former time. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEE?. \n\nTHE HOUSE OF BOFRBON, HENRY IT. AND lOTTIS XIII. \n\nHenry IY., deservedly known in history as Henry the Great, \ndid not arrive at the throne without experiencing the most formi- \ndable opposition. The League was still arrayed against him, and \nhastened to proclaim as king the Cardinal Bourbon, his uncle, under \nthe title of Charles X. At the age of thirty-six, he commenced a \nsuccessful struggle for the throne. Gay, amiable, and cheerful, he \nendeared to himself all who approached him. The peasantry espe- \ncially, for whose welfare he was always anxious, adored him, and \nwhen not restrained by religious bigotry or the control of their \nmasters, were ready to espouse his cause. \n\nThough secretly desirous of assuring his title to the throne by a \npublic conversion to Catholicism, he thought the time unfavourable, \nand accordingly rejected the overtures of those who, on that condi- \ntion, would have supported him. He issued, however, an edict, \nassuring support and protection to the Catholic religion, and then, \nwith his few remaining followers, retreated to the coast near Dieppe. \nThe duke of Mayenne, chief commander of the League, with twenty \n\n\n\n478 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthousand men, marched in pursuit; Henry, with a small force of \nfaithful followers, less in number than a fourth of the enemy, awaited \nhim at the castle and village of Arques. By the treachery of the \nforeign mercenaries, who, under pretence of joining his little army, \ngot safe within the intrenchments, he had almost sustained an entire \ndefeat; but throwing himself into the midst of the fight, and per- \nforming acts of the greatest heroism, he succeeded in repulsing the \nenemy, and gained an important victory. \n\nReinforced by the troops which Queen Elizabeth of England had \ndespatched to the \'aid of the Protestant cause, he advanced to Paris. \nUnable to gain possession of the capital, he waged war in the prov- \ninces, and succeeded in reducing several towns. On the 14th of \nMarch, 1590, Mayenne, with sixteen thousand men, encountered the \nking, whose forces were greatly inferior in number, on the celebrated \nfield of Ivry, Henry exhorted his faithful adherents to follow his \nwhite plume, assuring them that it would ever be found on the \npath to honour and victory. Leading the charge in person, and \nkilling the standard-bearer of the leaguers with his own hand, he \ndispersed the enemy, and utterly defeated them. Further advan- \ntages followed, and he was soon enabled to invest the city of Paris, \nwhich, bigoted in the Pomish faith, stoutly withstood him. His \ncompassion, in allowing provisions to enter the city, and the useless \ninhabitants to pass his lines, prevented him from reducing it ; and \nthe approach of Mayenne and the Spaniards compelled him to \nraise the siege. \n\nPhilip of Spain was anxious to secure the crown for his own \ndaughter, the infanta ; but failed to carry his point with the assem- \nbled nobles, whom Henry had privately informed of his disposition to \nbe converted. He was already listening to the arguments of the \nmost learned Catholic divines; and in spite of the opposition of \nSpain, and of the papal legate, (who styled him a "relapsed heretic,") \nit was sufficiently evident that his heretical opinions were the only \nbar to his certain accession to the throne. \n\nIndeed, it had been manifest for some time that the king could \nsecure peace to the country and toleration to the Huguenots only \nby embracing the Catholic religion. This piece of policy was \nadvocated by Sully and other eminent men of the reformed faith ; \nand accordingly, in July, 1593, Henry made a public profession of \nhis Catholicism in the Church of St. Denis. The Parisians, sallying \nin vast numbers from their .walls, crowded around him with enthu- \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 4Y9 \n\nsiastic joj; and lie was soon enabled to unite the kingdom in \ncomplete submission. \n\nEntering Paris on the 22d of March, 1594, he was received with \nmuch enthusiasm, and soon proclaimed a general amnesty; his \nformer opponents, their bigotry being quieted, were charmed with \nthe kindness and frankness of his manners. The miserable domestic \nwars, in which France, for thirty-seven years, had been involved, \nwere thus terminated ; and the rights of the Huguenots were finally \nassured by the celebrated "Edict of Nantes," securing to them perfect \ntoleration, and making them eligible to all offices of honour and dignity. \n\nHenry, aware of the importance of the friendship of the Pope, \nused every effort to conciliate him, and was finally solemnly acknowl- \nedged as king, and received full absolution. Mayenne and other \nobstinate leaguers, on learning this, submitted, and gave in their \ncomplete adhesion. The Jesuits, however, who were supposed to \nhave countenanced two attempts iipon his life, were expelled from \nthe kingdom. The Spaniards, who still maintained hostilities, \nwere finally driven from France, and in 1598 terms of peace were \nagreed upon. \n\nThe remainder of Henry\'s reign, though on the whole prosperous \nand successful, was troubled by the quarrels and treasonable schemes \nof his nobles, one of whom. Marshal Biron, was publicly executed \nas an example to the rest. He was married in 1600 to Mary de \nMedicis, but still retained that proneness to intrigue and licentious- \nness which formed the least estimable part of his disposition. \n\nThe king\'s genuine kindness of heart, and his frankness of dis- \nposition, had, however, made him universally popular. He longed, \nhe said, to see the day when every peasant of France should have a \nchicken in his pot. Taxes, though still high, were now paid with \ncheerfulness. An insurrection of the peasantry in Guienne was \nquelled, without sanguinary measures, by redressing their wrongs. \nParis, which on his entry was half-deserted and ruined, sprang \ninto new prosperity under his wise and liberal government. France \nhad never enjoyed the prospect of such happiness and advancement. \nAll these fair anticipations were destined to be disappointed. \n\nThe king was for some time oppressed with the anticipation of \nhis impending end ; he was depressed in spirits, and intimated that his \ndeath was near at hand. His prognostications were fatally realized. \nOn the 14th of May, 1610, while passing in his carriage slowly \nthrough a crowd, an assassin, named Eavaillac, inspired by fanati- \n\n\n\n480 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ncism, leaped upon the wlieel, and stabbed bim twice in tbe breast. \nHe survived but a brief time, and expired amid the heartfelt \nlamentations of the whole kingdom. He was in the fifty-seventh \nyear of his age and the twenty -first of his reign. The murderer \nwas put to death with the most studied and barbarous tortures. \n\nHis eldest son, Louis XIII., was, at the age of nine, proclaimed \nking, and the regency conferred on his mother, the king\'s widow, \nMary de Medicis. She was a liberal patron of arts and letters, but \nwas unfit to govern, and confided all her power to an Italian adven- \nturer, whom she raised to the title of Marquis D\' An ere and marshal \nof France. The nobility, enraged at his insolence, resolved on his \ndestruction; and de Luynes, the companion of the young king, now \nat the age of sixteen, persuaded him to sign an order for the \nmarshal\'s arrest. Yitry, the captain of the guard, in executing this \nwarrant, maliciously shot his prisoner, whose body was soon sus- \npended on one of the numerous gibbets which he had erected to \noverawe the people of Paris. \n\nDe Luynes, who, by his influence with Louis, succeeded him in \nauthority, was also excessively arrogant and haughty. Universal \ncorruption prevailed at court, and the country was miserably mis- \ngoverned \xe2\x80\x94 murders and robberies being constant, even in the streets \nof Paris, and their perpetrators often being the servants of the \nnobility and gentry. The king, who was weak-minded and indolent, \nleft every thing to his favourite, the duke de Luynes, who kept \nhimself almost inaccessible to the public. At the death of the latter, \nin 1621, his place was filled by one of his confidants, Armand du \nPlessis, afterwards Cardinal Eichelieu, and for many years the real \nruler of France. \n\nThis extraordinary man, who was an ecclesiastic by education, \nand a soldier and politician by nature, was made a bishop at the age \nof twenty-one \xe2\x80\x94 a circumstance which never deterred him from \nassuming armoiir, and taking the field in person. His ambi- \ntion and vanity were both excessive, and he aspired to excel in \nevery department of genius \xe2\x80\x94 war, statesmanship, letters, and even \ndancing \xe2\x80\x94 his performances in which latter branch of the fine arts \nare said to have convulsed the queen with laughter, and caused her \nto incur his mortal enmity. \n\nBy adroit and daring measures, he completely overthrew the \nnobles who were in league against him, and made himself entire \nmaster of the state. He besieged and took the strong city of \n\n\n\nTKANCE. 4.QI \n\nRochelle, the last refuge of the Huguenots, after a desperate defence, \nin which only four thousand out of fourteen thousand of its defenders \nsurvived. The power of the reformed faction was thus completely \nbroken, and it was compelled entirely to succumb to the more \nnumerous party of the Catholics. After a long and troubled admin- \nistration, during much of which France was engaged in contests \nwith Austria, he expired, and with him the extensive and ambi- \ntious plans which he had formed, and but partially realized. He \ndied in 1622, and the king, who had long been a mere puppet in his \nhands, followed him in May, 1643, leaving his son Louis XIV., a \nchild of four years old, heir to the crown. He was forty-one years \nof age, and had reigned thirty-three. \n\nDuring this reign, the cardinal, who like Wolsey, was a magnifi- \ncent patron of art and letters, did much for the encouragement of \nscience and genius. He reared a splendid palace, still the ornament \nof Paris, and founded the "Jardin des Plantes," that admirable \ninstitution, the most complete in the world, for the promotion of a \nknowledge of Natural History. He encouraged Corneille and Moliere, \nthe latter the most brilliant name in French literature, and tried, \nbut vainly, to emulate their excellence in his own writings. He also \nfounded the celebrated Academy, to which, amid some folly and \nfalse philosophy, Europe owes so much of refinement and liberality. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER 7L \n\nTHE HOUSE OF BOURBON. LOUIS XIY. AND lOUIS XV. \n\nBy the king\'s will, affairs were to be administered by a council, \nthe queen, Anne of Austria, having a nominal regency. Anne, \nhowever, usurped all the powers of government to herself and her \nfavourite, cardinal Mazarin, an Italian adventurer, hated by the \nentire nation. By his supple and insinuating course, the reverse of \nRichelieu\'s, he, however, continued in power for many years. The \nwars kindled by the late cardinal survived him, and France, which \nfor some time had been gratified by no victory of importance, soon \n81 \n\n\n\n482 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nlearned witli joy, in 1643, of the important triumpli of Eocroi, The \nSpaniards, twenty-five thousand strong, were besieging the town of \nthat name, and the due d\'Enghien, better known afterwards as "the \nGreat Conde," marched, with inferior forces, to its assistance. By \nhis skilful dispositions, and by the most extraordinary personal \nvalour, he succeeded in defeating the enemy, and annihilating the \nflower of the Spanish army. This decisive action completely over- \nthrew the military ascendancy of Spain, and highly animated the \nnational desire of the French for military glory. In 1645 the youth- \nfal hero, aided by Turenne, gave the imperialists a severe defeat \nat Nordlingen ; and in 1 648 defeated them at Lens. \n\nThe emperor was finally compelled, in October, to conclude the \ntreaty of Westphalia, by which France gained, important acquisi- \ntions, and found herself in better condition to resist the attacks of \nSpain, which yet continued hostile. \n\nThe cardinal, always unpopular, as a foreigner and a favourite, \nsoon found a most formidable opposition, proceeding from the magis- \ntracy or parliament. Popular rights, though little understood, were \nbeginning to be recognised, and the commons, debarred from hold- \ning of&ce or honours, commenced an obstinate resistance of the \nroyal edicts. The parliament, which in reality had no legislative \npower of importance, began to allege its authority to withhold \nsanction from the regal imposition of taxes. The queen Avas excess- \nively indignant at this assumption, and Mazarin vainly sought to \ntemporize. The popular party insisted on immediate reform, and \nsent in a schedule of demands, which was received with fresh indig- \nnation by the court. Elated by the victories of Conde, the latter \nresolved to suppress the obnoxious movement by violence, and six \nof the most important magistrates were arrested. Great popular \ntumults immediately succeeded. The coadjutor (afterwards bishop \nand cardinal) De Retz, a man of high talents, but of artful, intriguing, \nand seditious temper, proved a most able and formidable adviser of \nthe people. Barricades were instantly thrown up in all the principal \nstreets of Paris ; the troops were unable to repress the populace ; \nand the court was compelled to yield up its prisoners. Taking \nadvantage of a temporary lull, the queen and her favourite, with \nall the court, fled to St, Germains, where, for a time, they were \nreduced to great straits for want of the common conveniences of life. \nThe civil contest which succeeded, called the war of the "Fronde," \nthough thus commencing with a question of popular rights, soon \n\n\n\nFRANCE. 483 \n\ndegenerated into a mere struggle for power and emolument among \na crowd of venal and ambitious nobles. As interest prompted, tliey \ntlirew their influence into the scale of tlie cardinal or ttie popular \nparty \xe2\x80\x94 De Retz and Cond6 themselves being no exceptions. The \ncontest took its name from the "frondeurs," or juvenile slingers, who \nhad been active in the first demonstration, and was rather character- \nized by an effusion of wit and satire than of bloodshed. Many \nladies of the first rank took an active part in the intrigues and even \nthe open hostilities of this quarrel. \n\nIn 1649 the court, which had returned to Paris, was again com- \npelled to fly, and Cond6, with twelve thousand men, was sent to \noverawe the city. Some inconsiderable skirmishes took place, and \npeace was restored, for a time, by the admirable boldness and \npatriotism of Mole, president of the magistracy. Oond6 himself, \nwho had been intriguing with the Fronde, and whose haughtiness \ndispleased the court, was soon after arrested, and, to the surprise of \nall, the cardinal formed a league with De Eetz and other violent \nleaders of the insurrectionary movement. The partisans of Cond6, \nhowever, withstood the government in the provinces, and the parlia- \nment insisted on his liberation. The dismission of Mazarin was \nalso demanded, and the favourite, yielding for awhile to the storm, \nleft the kingdom in disgrace. Cond6 was released, and might easily \nhave held the highest position in the government but for his quarrels \nwith De Eetz and other powerful leaders of the Fronde. The wily \nMazarin, seeing his opponents weakened by their quarrels, soon \nreturned, levied an army, and joined the queen, with whom he was \nsupposed to be connected by closer ties than those of politics. By \njudicious alliances with the nobility, he greatly strengthened his \nposition, and with a considerable force advanced toward Paris. \nConde, who had been engaged in a desultory warfare with the royal \nforces, was already there. With very inferior forces, he withstood \nthe attack of Turenne with the most desperate valour, and for a \ntime maintained his position in the capital. The burgesses, how- \never, refusing to sanction his schemes, he delivered them to the \noutrage and massacre of the mob. This act so tarnished his cause \nthat he was compelled to retreat. The court entered Paris in tri- \numph; the magistracy entirely succumbed, and all the contested \npoints were yielded by the parliament. Mazarin soon returned \npublicly to his post, while Conde, ruined at home, took service with \nthe Spanish king, and was appointed general over his forces. His \n\n\n\n484 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ngreat rival and opponent, Marshal Turenne, commanded the French, \nand after a series of engagements, in which he was almost uniformly \nsuccessful, compelled the enemy to ask for peace. The "treaty of \nthe Pyrenees," concluded in 1659, restored peace to the two nations, \nLoiiis marrying the daughter of the king of Spain, and renouncing \nall claims to the Spanish throne. Two years afterwards, Mazarin \ndied, having preserved his power by subtle and unscrupulous policy \nfor nearly eighteen years. On this event, the king, at the age of \ntwenty-three, took the government into his own hands; and during \nthe remainder of a reign of seventy-three years, never afterwards \nrelinquished the supreme control to any minister or favourite. \n\nThe predominant quality of the young monarch was an intense \nselfishness. He was by no means destitute of abilities, though not \nbrilliant; and he was served by able officers, both in war and the \nstate. Colbert, the minister, had brought his finances into a flour- \nishing condition ; and with Turenne for a general, and Vauban for \nan engineer, he commenced a system of aggrandizement at the \nexpense of his neighbours. He was at first foiled by the alliance \nof several northern powers, but having succeeded in detaching \nCharles II., of England, from the confederacy, invaded Holland on \na trivial pretext, in 1672, with a formidable army. \n\nThe defenceless and feeble republic was soon reduced to extremity- \nIt was in serious contemplation among the citizens to leave their \ncountry for ever, and found a new nation in the East Indian Archi- \npelago. Peace was impossible; for nothing short of the most abject \nservitude would satisfy the victor. In this miserable state of affairs, \nthe young prince of Orange, (afterwards William III., of England,) a \nman of high talents and of indomitable courage, was placed at the \nhead of their government. \n\nTheir new leader adopted the most energetic means of defence. \nThe sluices were opened, and the country was laid under water; thus \nat least protecting the capital until winter should render the ice pass- \nable. In the following year Spain declared in their favour, and \nWilliam, with the imperial forces, making a demonstration upon \nFrance itself, Louis withdrew his army. The following year, Charles \nwas compelled by the popular feeling to relinquish his alliance with \nLouis. The latter nevertheless maintained the war, and Turenne, \nhis general, although ill-supplied, carried on an energetic campaign \nagainst the allies. In pursuance of the savage orders of Louvois, \nthe minister of war^ a large and fertile district of the frontier was \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n485 \n\n\n\nlaid waste with fire and sword. At tlie field of Senef, Cond6 \nengaged the Dutch and Spaniards, commanded by the prince of \nOrange, and, after a murderous encounter, in which twenty thousand \nmen were left upon the field, gained a doubtful victory. Turenne, \nafter exhibiting the most remarkable skill and perseverance in his \ncampaign against the imperialists and other allies, was killed, in \n1766, by a cannon-shot. The war, after this event, languished, and \nfew actions of importance occurred. At length, in 1678, by the \nmediation of England, a peace was concluded, at Nimeguen, leaving \nmatters much as they were before the war; France, however, having \nacquired some accession of territory. During these conflicts, Louis, \nwho was much fonder of the renown than of the perils or fatigues \nof warfare, had occasionally joined his armies; but for the most part \nleft the weight of the campaign to his generals. He was, neverthe- \nless, overwhelmed with adulation as a second Alexander. \n\nThe chief influence at court was that of Madame de Maintenon, \nwhom the king, in 1685, two years after the death of his wife, pri- \nvately married. She was the widow of Scarron, an eminent wit, \nand a man of the most fascinating address, though terribly deformed \nand crippled in consequence of an unfortunate accident. She had \nbeen governess to a lady of the court, and in this situation attracted \nthe attention of the king, who was charmed with her agreeable man- \nners. She was never publicly acknowledged as queen. Louis, as \nwell as his favourite, was attached in a most bigoted manner to the \nChurch of Eome; and in the year 1685, Le Tellier, a fanatical \nRomanist, the father of Louvois, persuaded him to commence a \nhorrible persecution of his Protestant subjects. \n\nSeveral measures of the most alarming nature had already been \ntaken, and in 1685 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the only \nsafeguard of the reformed religion, induced many to seek a home \nin lands less exposed to persecution. To check this spirit of emigra- \ntion, the severest measures were adopted; and the dragoons who \nwere quartered among the unhappy Huguenots, committed the most \nfi-ightful excesses. Robbery, torture and murder left the persecuted \nsect no alternative but flight; and in attempting this, thousands \nwere seized by the brutal soldiery, and underwent fresh atrocities. \nNevertheless, it is said, not less than half a million found means to \nescape from the kingdom. \n\nThis cruel measure inflicted an irreparable injury on France, \nThe people thus forced into exile were among her most valuable \n\n\n\n486 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ncitizens, and tliej took with them to other countries the arts and \nmanufactures hitherto peculiar to herself. These unfortunate exiles \nwere distributed among various nations. Great numbers took refuge \nin the southern states of America, then newly-settled colonies of \nGreat Britain ; and they were every where received with kindness \nand sympathy. \n\nMeanwhile, an alliance between Spain, Germany, and Holland, \nhad been brought about by the prince of Orange, the inveterate \nenemy of the French. In 1688, by the flight of James II., he gained \nthe throne of England \xe2\x80\x94 a position which, however, he considered \nmerely secondary to his grand plan of a European confederacy. \nFrance was now engaged in war with Austria, and to prevent the \nenemy from finding resources, a most barbarous measure was resolved \non by Louis, and his minister Louvois. The beautiful palatinate \nof the Rhine had in some measure recovered from its former devas- \ntation. An army of one hundred thousand men was now sent, in \nthe winter of 1688-9, with orders to reduce it to a perfect desert. \nEvery thing which fire and sword could destroy, was consumed ; and \ntlie wretched inhabitants were left without food or shelter. In the \ncampaigns which followed, the French, under Marshal Luxemburg, \ngained the advantage over Prince Eugene and his allies ; but at sea \nunder admiral Tourville, they experienced a most signal defeat. At \nlength, all parties being exhausted by war, and Louis having further \ndesigns, the treaty of Rj^swick was concluded in 1697, by which \nmatters were left much as at the commencement of the contest. \n\nLouis had concluded peace only to subserve other schemes of his \nambition. The king of Spain was dying, and the French monarch \nwished to be in a condition to assert the claims which in 1659 \nhe had solemnly renounced. The dying monarch, however, left his \ndominions by will to Philip, the grandson of Louis, and one of the \ndirect heirs; a scheme for partitioning the kingdom had been on \nfoot, but was now abandoned. \n\nThe Emperor Leopold, whose claim was equal to that of Louis, \naggrieved at this arrangement, commenced hostilities; and his \narmies in Italy, under Eugene, gained decided advantages over \nthose of Louis under Catinat and Marshal Villeroi. The French \nmonarch now provoked another enemy in England, by publicly \nacknowledging in 1701 the son of James II. as king of England, \nin compliance with a promise made to the dethroned monarch on \nhis death-bed. The famous duke of Marlborough was appointed to \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 437 \n\ntlie command of the allied forces, and in a series of brilliant cam- \npaigns, reduced the French to a deeply humbled condition. With \nEugene, at the battle of Blenheim, in August, 1704, he defeated \nthe French, nnder Marshal Tallard, who lost forty thousand men \nout of fifty-six thousand, with which he had commenced the \nengagement. In 1706, with sixty thousand men, he encountered \nthe French, of equal force, under Marshal Villeroi, at Rami] lies. \nThey again sustained a disastrous defeat, with a loss of thirteen \nthousand men. Various towns were taken; and, in 1708, Louis \nwould willingly have made peace ; but the terms of the allies, elated \nby success, were too unreasonable. \n\nOn the 11th of September, 1709, a most terrible battle was fought \nnear the town of Mons, which was besieged by Marlborough and \nEugene, and which Marshal Yillars attempted to relieve. The two \narmies, each ninety thousand strong, met at Malplaquet, and the \nallies, though losing the greater number of troops, again gained \nthe advantage. \n\nSir George Rooke, with an English fleet, early in the war had \ntaken the strong fortress of Gibraltar, which ever since has been an \nimportant military and naval post of the English. \n\nIn 1710, Louis offered great concessions, but was unable to secure \na peace. His case seemed desperate. An army of an hundred and \ntwenty thousand men, under Marlborough and Eugene, was ready \nto march into his territory; an effectual resistance could scarcely \nhave been made ; and but for the defection of England, terms of \npeace might have been dictated at Paris itself. But the English \nministry, of a Jacobite tendency, was in secret treaty with France ; \nthe enemies of Marlborough procured his disgrace ; and England, \ndeserting her allies, recalled her forces from the Netherlands, and \nmade a separate peace. \n\nEugene, left alone, was defeated by Villars at Denain; and a \ngeneral peace was signed at Utrecht in 1713, the emperor alone \nmaintaining a hostile attitude. Spain was secured to Philip, and \nother matters were left on nearly the same footing as at the com- \nmencement of the war. \n\nThe reign, which began so brilliantly, was now drawing to an \nend in gloom and misfortune. France, by these long-continued wars, \nwas reduced to the most wretched condition; and "Le grand mon- \narque," as his flatterers delighted to call him, now seventy-six years \nold, beheld himself reduced to a condition of political weakness and \n\n\n\n488 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndegradation. He had also experienced great domestic affliction. \nHis son tlie dauphin, his grandson, who succeeded to the title, and \nthe eldest son of, the latter, were hurried in rapid succession to the \ngrave, not without dark suspicions of poison. The second of these, \nLouis of Burgundy, the heir to the throne, was a prince of admir- \nable disposition, and the hope of the French nation. The duke of \nBerri, another grandson, soon followed, and the sole heirship to the \ncrown thus devolved upon the infant son of Louis of Burgundy. \n\nOn the 1st of September, 1715, Louis himself expired, not with- \nout remorse at the condition of the splendid kingdom which he had \nused only as an instrument to serve his ambition, vanity, and pleasure. \nLike some of his predecessors, he exhorted the next heir to avoid \nthose selfish and oppressive measures from which he himself had \nnot been able to refrain. The people, despite their love of splen- \ndour and finery, openly rejoiced at the death of their oppressor. \nHe had reigned seventy-three years, and lived seventy -seven. \n\nDuring this reign, the longest in the annals of France, or per- \nhaps any other nation, great improvements had taken place in \ncommerce and arts, owing principally to the wise encouragement \nof his enlightened minister, Colbert. The manufactures of glass, \nsilk, and carjoeting, were carried to much perfection. Internal \nimprovements of high importance were commenced : and a success- \nful commerce was opened with the East Indies. \n\nLouis, though without taste for learning himself, was yet, by the \nadvice of his minister, and his love of adulation, a liberal patron of \nliterature. The admirable Moliere, the ornament of his reign, was \ndistinguished by the royal favour. The age produced many emi- \nnent writers, Eacine, La Fontaine, Montesquieu, and Fontenelle, \nare still classics in the French language. Grreat attention was paid \nto classical literature, and the best authors of antiquity were care- \nfully revised and published "in usum delphini," \xe2\x80\x94 for the use of the \ndauphin. The object of these attentions, however, did not take to \nthem very kindly, but had rather an aversion to letters. \n\nIn no reign have the ecclesiastics been distinguished by more \ngenius and piety. Bossuet, Bourdalou.e, and especially the admir- \nable Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, were distinguished by their \nlearning, eloquence, and virtues. The latter, who was tutor to the \ndauphin, composed, for the use of his pupil, the celebrated "Telem- \nachus" giving especial precepts of wisdom and virtue for the use \nof kings. \n\n\n\nFEANCE, 439 \n\nThe great passion of Louis was for building, in which he squan- \ndered incredible sums, wrung from his people by taxation. His \ncharming and beautifully-situated palace at St. Germains he forsook \nbecause it commanded a view of the church of St. Denis, where \nhis ancestors were deposited, and where he must one day join them. \nAt an expense of nearly a thousand millions of francs, he converted \nthe marshy grounds of Versailles into a royal residence, which, it \nhas been said, "might lodge all the kings of Europe." In this \nabode of grand and dignified enjoyment, every thing was regulated \nby an etiquette of the most stately absurdity. A great number of \ncourtiers assembled early in the morning to behold their sovereign \nperform the ceremony of shaving and dressing, encumbered with \nthe most frivolous forms and observances. He dined before a great \ncrowd of the nobility, and, at night, was put to bed with cere- \nmonies equally cumbrous and ridiculous. \n\nLouis XV. was only five years old at the death of his great grand- \nfather, and the duke of Orleans, a nephew of the late king, assumed \nthe regency. This singular man had naturally an excellent dispo- \nsition ; but evil education, and an irresistible turn for levity, rendered \nhim morally depraved. His first measures Avere liberal and popular, \nand excited favourable hopes. His incapacity, however, soon laid \nthe nation open to a terrible injury. The treasury, exhausted by \nLouis XIV., was greatly embarrassed, and an artful Scotchman, \nnamed John Law, proposed a scheme for its relie\xc2\xa3 This was the \nestablishment of a vast bank, the stock of which should be paid in, \nin government securities. To tickle the fancy of the Parisians, the \nnew corporation was granted the exclusive privilege of trading to \nChina, Senegal and Mississippi, from the latter of which it takes its \npopular name. As in the South Sea scheme of England, public \nenthusiasm rose to an enormous height. Multitudes hastened to \ninvest their all in the delusive plan ; and when the bubble burst, an \nimmense number were utterly ruined. The national debt had also \nbeen doubled. \n\nIn 1722, the regency expired, and the king, at the age of thirteen, \ntook the nominal direction of affairs; Orleans, however, still in \nreality controlling the government. The latter died in the following \nyear, and was succeeded, as prime minister, by the duke of Bour- \nbon ; who, in his turn, soon surrendered his office to the Cardinal de \nFleury, an aged, honest, and pacific ecclesiastic. His administration \nwas at first distinguished by nothing of importance, except the com- \n\n\n\n490 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nmencement of tliose furious struggles for power between tlie Jesuits \nand their rivals, the Jansenists, which afterwards agitated the \nwhole of France. In 1733, Fleurj, much against his will, was com- \npelled to engage in war. Stanislaus, the king of Poland, (whose \ndaughter Maria was now queen of France,) had been expelled from \nhis throne by Austria and Eussia. An opportunity to replace him \noccurred, and, urged by the general clamour for warfare, the minister \nsent forces, under some of the old generals of Louis XIY., to aid \nhim. They effected little, and after a contest of two years, the \ndispute was adjusted by granting to the dethroned prince the \nimportant duchy of Lorraine, which was to be added to the French \nterritories at his death (1735). \n\nPeace now ensued for five years. In 1740 commenced a series of \nmost important events, in which all Europe was soon involved. \nFrederick the Great, who had lately succeeded to the throne of Prus- \nsia, took advantage of the improteeted state of Maria Theresa, empress \nof Austria, to seize the important province of Silesia. France, \nanimated by ancient hatred, also took up arms against her ; but the \nFrench forces in Bohemia and Bavaria were finally overpowered \nby the enemy, and compelled to retreat. In 1748, under Marshal \nNoailles, they were defeated at the battle of Dettingen by the British, \nunder George II. and the duke of Cumberland. \n\nIn 1745, Marshal Saxe, with an army of ninety thousand men, \nand accompanied by the king of France and the dauphin, laid siege \nto Tournay. The duke of Cumberland, with fifty thousand, coming \nto its relief, engaged him at Fontenoy, and after a severe and doubtful \nstruggle, was compelled to retire. The capture of several important \nFlemish cities succeeded this victory. In the following year, though \nsuccessful in Flanders, the French forces were defeated at Piacenza, \nin Italy, and driven from that country. The brilliant successes of \nSaxe, however, continued; the allies became weary of war; and, in \n1748, peace was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. No \nresult of any importance to France had been attained. \n\nThe first movements of that mighty revolution of thought, which \nafterwards changed the destinies of Europe, now began to be felt. \nLouis himself, immersed in sloth and sensuality, could not but per- \nceive it. "The monarchy is very old," said he, "but it will last my \ntime." The exciting cause of the popular change of feeling may be \nfound in the contest which arose between the church and the new \nphilosophers, and in the ridiculous quarrels of the church itself A \n\n\n\nTEANCE. \n\n\n\n491 \n\n\n\nhost of brilliant and eager intellects, wearied at the absurdity and \ncruelty of the French Catholic Church, sought refuge in the opposite \nextreme of skepticism and irreligion. Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, \nD\'Alembert and others, skilfully exposed the failings and attacked \nthe power of the ancient system. The leading clergy, as Jesuits, \nand the parliamentary faction, as Jansenists, carried on a furious and \nludicrous warfare. The court, which favoured the former, perse- \ncuted the latter. The cruel executions of Calas, falsely accused of \nmurder, and of La Barre, accused of sacrilege, greatly strengthened \nthe party of those who attacked the church. \n\nThe king, who had always been ruled by his mistresses, was now \nunder the influence of Madam de Pompadour, who entirely con- \ntrolled the government, and managed foreign relations, war, and \nall the most important matters of the realm. Immense sums were \nsquandered by the king on his seraglio and his favourites. \n\nIn the East, that contest for the Indian empire had commenced, \nwhich finally resulted in favour of England. In North America, a \nmutual jealousy, destined to end in a similar result, was already \nembroiling the colonists. Frederick had now entered into alliance \nwith England, and Louis and his mistress, resenting some of his \nwitticisms, in 1756 joined their fortunes to those of Austria. An \nexpedition, under the due de Hichelieu, took the island of Minorca. \nFrederick opened the campaign with a brilliant victory over the \nAustrians and Saxons ; and the Seven Years\' War, in which, almost \nsingle handed, he fought against all Europe, commenced. \n\nIn 1757, an attempt was made upon the life of the king by a half- \ninsane wretch, called Damiens. The injury to his person was imma- \nterial, and the unfortunate man was put to death by the most \nbarbarous torments. \n\nIn the same year, the French arms, under Eichelieu, were highly \nsuccessful, and the duke of Cumberland was compelled to surrender \nHanover. At the battle of Rosbach, however, Frederick, with a \ngreatly inferior force, defeated fifty thousand French and Germans ; \nand instantly celebrated their flight with certain obscene and witty \nverses. In 1758, Clermont, who had succeeded Richelieu, met with \na series of defeats and disasters, and was compelled to retreat into \nFrance. In 1759, the French again fought with disadvantage at \nMinden. The aid of Spain, which supported her, proved valueless. \nHer ships and colonies were taken by the English ; and in 1763, \nby the treaty of Paris, she ceded Canada and other provinces to \n\n\n\n492 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthem, certain otliers being restored to her. At the same time when \nthis disgraceful peace was signed, Prussia and Austria entered into \ntreaty. Frederick still held Silesia, for which more than a milhon \nof men had been vainly sacrificed. \n\nDuring this time, a fierce struggle had been going on between the \ncourt and clergy and the parliament. This body, which had here- \ntofore done little except to register the edicts of the king, was now \nat open issue with the high church party, and sometimes with Louis \nhimself. Kemonstrances were poured in against Jesuitism and taxa- \ntion, and the refractory members were often arbitrarily committed \nto prison. It was finally broken up entirely, and the members \nexiled to different parts of the kingdom. The due de Choiseul, \nprime minister, who refused to lend his influence to the court party, \nwas deprived of office, and banished to his country-seat. \n\nThe dauphin and his wife, and the queen, had died in rapid suc- \ncession, and the son of the former, now heir to the throne, was in \n1770 married to Maria Antoinette, daughter of the empress of Aus- \ntria. The king continued to be entirely devoted to sensuality, and \nMadame du Barry, his latest mistress, held complete control over his \npolitical action. On the 10th of May, 1774, in the midst of the \nhumiliation and discontent of his kingdom, he expired of the small- \npox, in his sixty-fifth year, after a reign of fifty-nine years. \n\nNature had gifted this monarch with singular personal advan- \ntages. He had a handsome countenance and a royal demeanour, \nbut his intellect was narrow, and he was during the greater part of \nhis life a slave to sensuality. No court in Europe exhibited such \nundisguised and oriental licentiousness. His seraglio, entitled the \n"Pare au Cerfs," was the scandal of Paris itself, not easily alarmed \non the score of decorum. He left an embarrassed treasury, a wide- \nspread discontent among all classes, and a state of great indigence, \nsuffering, and disaffection among the entire labouring classes. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 493 \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?,IL \n\nTHE HOUSE or BOURBON CONTINUED. LOUIS XVI. \n\nAND THE EEVOLUTION. \n\nThe young king, at his accession to the throne, was twenty years \nof age. He was naturally feeble-minded, though conscientious ; and \nhis education had been rather that of a monk than a king. The \ncount de Maurepas, an aged and astiite politician, was appointed \nminister; and Turgot, an enlightened financier, was placed over the \ntreasury. He at once brought forward a plan for relieving the \npeople of their excessive and exclusive taxes, and for distributing a \nportion of the burden among the clergy and nobles, each of which \nbodies held a third of all the property in the kingdom. So great, \nhowever, was the opposition of the privileged classes, that he and \nhis friend Malesherbes, also an enlightened statesman, were expelled \nfrom ofl&ce. \n\nNot long afterwards, the celebrated ISTecker was appointed in his \nplace, who, by a system of continual borrowing, kept the apparatus \nof government, for a time, from stoppage. A new qiiarrel soon \ncommenced with England. The French ministry had for some time \nentertained the project of assisting the North American colonies in \ntheir struggle with the mother-country; La Fayette and other men \nof distinction had already entered their service; and in 1778, the \nvictory of Saratoga decided the court to enter into a treaty, acknowl- \nedging their independence. AVar with England followed as a matter \nof course. In 1779, an alliance was formed with Spain, and England \nbeheld for the first time in an hundred years the channel scoured by \na hostile fleet, and her sea-ports threatened with invasion. They \nfailed, however, in a demonstration against Gibraltar, and several \nships were captured by Eodney. A French army and fleet were \ndespatched to the assistance of the Americans, and aided them in \nachieving important successes. The surrender of the British under \nCornwallis, at Yorktown, in 1782, decided the event of the struggle. \nAfter gaining further advantages, in April, 1782, the French fleet of \nthirty-four sail, under the Count de Grasse, encountered that of Eod- \nney, in the West Indian seas, and after a desperate fight, was utterly \n\n\n\n494 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndefeated, with a terrific loss of life. In the same year, a most for- \nmidable attack was made upon. Gibraltar by the combined French \nand Spanish fleets. After a long and tremendous cannonade on both \nsides, the floating batteries, constructed for the siege, took fire, and \nthe fortress, by its natural strength and the valour of its defenders, \ncompelled its assailants to retire. \n\nIn 1783, treaties of peace were signed by the conflicting parties ; the \nindependence of the United States being acknowledged, and certain \ncolonies being receded to France and Spain. \n\nMaurepas was dead, and Necker out of ofl&ce; the treasury was \nempty, and Calonne, who filled the place of the latter, as a last \nresort, assembled the "notables" or privileged orders. Showing \nthem the condition of the public finances, he proposed that they \nshould share the burden of taxation. His plan was defeated, and, \npartially for good reasons, he was driven from office ; but the agita- \ntion for reform increased. It soon became evident that the "states- \ngeneral," whose meeting was continually dreaded by government, \nmust be convoked. The king, by dismissing imnecessary officers, \nand reforming his court, sought, as far as possible, to avert the \ncoming storm. The duke of Orleans, the king\'s cousin, an ambi- \ntious and unprinciiDled man, secretly encouraged insurrection. He \nwas banished from Paris; but throughout the provinces, the people \noffered resistance to the troo^DS of government. In this extremity, \nBrienne, the minister, as a last resort, in 1788, convoked the states- \ngeneral. Having done this, he retired from office, and Necker again \ncame into power. \n\nIt was decided that the deputies from the "third estate " or people \nshould equal in number that of the nobility and clergy united. \nThe two latter, by their selfish obstinacy, had heretofore defeated all \nefforts for the relief of the kingdom, and justly dreaded the day of \nreckoning which approached. On the 4th of May, 1789, this \nassembly, perhaps the most important of all national conventions, \nin its influence on the destinies of mankind, came together at Ver- \nsailles. Public expectation was raised to the highest pitch ; distress \nand famine kept the lower classes constantly on the verge of insur- \nrection, and the money and secret influence of Orleans fomented the \ndisturbance. The question was first raised, whether this numerous \nbody, consisting of twelve hundred members, should act and vote \nin common, or each order separately. The privileged classes insisted \non the latter. After long disputes and ineffectual attempts at adjust- \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\n495 \n\n\n\nment, tlie commons took the bold and decisive step of assuming the \nentire legislative power to themselves, and forthwith commenced \ntheir action under the title of the "National Assembly." The most \ndistinguished man in this celebrated body was Mirabeau, a noble by \nbirth, but an ardent advocate of popular rights. He had himself \nbeen a victim to the infamous system of ^\'lettres de cachet.\'\'^ By \nthese atrocious missives, which were simply orders from the king \nfor the indefinite imprisonment of any person in the realm, hun- \ndreds had passed their lives in dreary and hopeless confinement \xe2\x80\x94 \nthe influence of any person of high rank being generally sufficient \nto consign an obnoxious relative or inferior to a dungeon. Burning \nwith revenge and patriotism, this great orator came to the assembly. \nThe clergy, overawed by the daring movement of the commons, \nsuffered themselves to be absorbed among them ; but the assembly, \nenraged at their accidental exclusion from the hall, (which was being \nprepared for a royal sitting^) adjourned to a tennis court, and there \ntook a solemn oath never to adjourn till they had provided a \nconstitution. By the influence of the courtiers, headed by the \nComte d\'Artois, (afterwards Charles X.) the king was induced, at \nthe ^\'\'sitting " referred to, to use harsh and menacing language. This \nincreased the obstinacy of the deputies and the popular indignation. \nThe king was compelled to follow the counsel of Necker, the popu- \nlar minister ; many of the nobility, led by the duke of Orleans, joined \nthe assembly; and finally, on the 27th of June, the three "Estates" \nsat together in the same hall. \n\nIt was too late. The populace, seeing the effect of their clamour, \ncommenced to overawe the assembl}^, and successfully resisted the \nmilitary rule. Numbers of foreign troops had been assembled at \nVersailles; and during a confused affray between the royal guards, \nthe Grermans, and a popular procession, blood was spilled. On the \n14th of July, the people, who had supplied themselves with mus- \nkets and artillery from a piiblic magazine, marched in great force \nto the Bastile. This gloomy pile, for so many years the chief dun- \ngeon of the French monarchs, was defended by a very small force \nof troops. The guards, with which the municipal authorities wished \nto replace its garrison, themselves joined in the attack; the prison \nwas seized by the insurgents, and the commander, de Launay, Avas \nmurdered. At this alarming step, the Comte d Artois and his party \nfled precipitately from the country which their pride and obstinacy \nhad thus involved in a civil war. \n\n\n\n496 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThis event was received with transports of joj by the liberal \nparty, and did much to conciliate and satisfy even the niost des- \nperate. La Fayette, a man of known probity and moderation, was \nplaced at the head of the national guard, and did his best to effect \na reconciliation of the people and the sovereign. The former were \nassured that the court perceived the justice of their cause, and for \na brief period all was confidence and good feeling. The tri-coloured \ncockade, composed of red and blue, the colours of Paris, and \nwhite, that of Bourbon, was every where adopted. Still, consider- \nable turbulence, instigated, it is supposed, by Orleans, occasionally \nburst forth; and the populace hanged up to the lamp-post two \nobnoxious officers of the revenue. \n\nIn the provinces, much greater violence prevailed; and many \nchateaux of the nobility were plundered and burned by the peasants, \nwho thus revenged the accumulated wrongs and opj)ressions of many \ncenturies. To conciliate these, feudal abuses were abolished by the \nassembly. The nobles and clergy also made a voluntary and open \nsacrifice, though too late, of all their privileges and exemptions. \nDuring two months of comparative quiet, which followed, the assem- \nbly was occupied in providing the basis of a constitution. ISTecker \nexhibited the miserable condition of the public finances, and some \nof the ultra reformers proposed to cut the Gordian knot by a national \nbankruptcy \xe2\x80\x94 a measure defeated by the eloquence and honesty of \nMirabeau. Meanwhile, the constant agitation had caused a great \nscarcity of provisions, and the ignorant multitude could find but \none remedy \xe2\x80\x94 to proceed to Versailles, and demand bread of the \nking. An imprudent military demonstration of the court inflamed \nthis discontent into phrensy. On the 5th of October, a vast rabble \nled the way to Versailles ; the national guard, which La Fayette was \ncompelled to lead, came next; and half Paris folloAved in their train. \nOn the same day, as if by previous concert, Eobespierre and other \nviolent revolutionary leaders started up, with fierce accusations of \nMirabeau and others of the constitutional party. Immense numbers \nsoon surrounded the assembly and the palace, demanding bread. \nSome violence occurred, and the king\'s body-guard was compelled \nto retire. During the night, through the culpable negligence of La \nFayette, who had charged himself with the protection of the royal \nfamily, a band of ruffians broke into the palace, slaughtered a num- \nber of the guard, who tried to oppose them, and rushed with fury \nto the chamber of the queen, who was excessively unpopular. She \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 497 \n\nverj narrowlj escaped, and any further violence was prevented by \nLa Fayette. The king and queen, the latter of whom showed \nunshaken courage, were compelled to accompany this vast mob to \nParis ; the heads of their unfortunate guards being borne on pikes \nbefore them. \n\nFor more than a year, tolerable quiet prevailed. The duke of \nOrleans had been compelled to retire, and the assembly proceeded \nwith rash precipitancy in the work of reform. The vast amount of \necclesiastical property was appropriated to the state. France was \ndivided into departments. The judiciary was remodelled, and titles \nof honour were abrogated. A class of violent republicans, how- \never, refused to be satisfied even with these sweeping measures ; and \nin the convent of the Jacobins (from which their party took its \nname) a formidable club was organized to change the government \nentirely. \n\nMirabeau, who had heretofore been the staunchest supporter of \npopular reform, saw the danger toward which too precipitate legis- \nlation was hurrying the state, and used his powerful influence to \nretard further action; but this great man, who might, if he had \nlived, have saved France from the excesses which followed, expired \nfrom a disease of the heart, produced by long-continued excitement. \n\nLouis now meditated an escape from his enemies, and resolved to \njoin a camp of royalists on the frontier. On the night of the 19th \nof June, the royal family secretly left Paris, and travelled rapidly \nto their destination; but, when they arrived at Varennes, were \nrecognised, and compelled, by a decree of the assembly, to return. \nThe anxiety of the people to retain the persons of their monarch \nand his family, was principally caused by the belief that they might \nbe held as hostages in the approaching war which was menaced by \nthe emperor of Austria and other European powers. An act sus- \npending his royal functions was forthwith passed, and dethronement \nbecame commonly agitated. A collision soon occurred between the \npeople and the authorities, in which La Fayette, commanding the \ntroops, dispersed a formidable body of insurgents, killing or wound- \ning some hundreds of them. On the 30th of September, 1791, the \nassembly, having presented their constitution to the king, and seen \nit solemnly approved by him, dissolved itself, declaring its members \nineligible to future election. \n\nThe constitution was weak and impracticable in itself; and in the \nnew "legislative" assembly its hearty supporters were completely \n32 \n\n\n\n498 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\noutnumbered bj the Girondists or moderate republicans, and the \nJacobins or anarcbists. The newlj-elected assembly met on the 1st \nof October, and a dispute with the monarch commenced almost \ninstantly. Laws directed against the priests, who were endeavour- \ning to excite revolt, and the emigrants, who had assembled in arms \non the frontier, were passed, and met with an imprudent veto from \nthe king. This rash and impolitic act was received with fury by \nthe republicans. France Avas menaced with invasion from abroad \nand conspiracy at home; and their rage at being defeated in these \nnecessary measures, produced a desire for a complete change of gov- \nernment. The emperor haughtily demanded that France should \nretrace her revolutionary career ; \xe2\x80\x94 the assembly at once replied by a \ndeclaration of war (April, 1792). \n\nAt first the French arms sustained some reverses\' \xe2\x80\x94 a circum- \nstance that emboldened the court to persist in its refusal of the \nobnoxious laws, and of another for the formation of a "federal" \ncamp near Paris. Enraged at their disappointment in regard to the \nlatter, the people every where armed themselves with pikes, for the \ndouble purpose of resisting an invasion and intimidating the court. \nOn the 20th of June, forty thousand of the populace, thus armed, \nassembled, with Santerre, a brewer, at their head. After defiling, \nby invitation, through the assembly, they marched to the palace of \nthe Tuileries. Eushing up the grand stair-case, they found the mon- \narch, with a very few attendants, and demanded his assent to the \ndecrees which he had rejected. The king, who displayed the great- \nest calmness and courage, presented himself before this immense and \ntumultuous assemblage, and replied, " This is neither the time nor the \nplace." To please them, he joined in the popular cry, " Yive la nation/\' \nand put on a red cap, the badge of the Eevolution. By the efforts \nof the Girondists, who began to be alarmed at the spirit they had \nconjured up, this formidable assemblage finally disbanded. \n\nLa Fayette, a firm adherent to the constitution, on learning the \nperils and degradation of the monarchy, left his forces, and hastened \nto the capital. The assembly, to which he complained, gave him \nno satisfaction; and he then repaired to Louis, and offered his per- \nsonal assistance and support. This the king, who disliked him \npersonally, refused, and soon found himself left unsupported by a \nsingle man of influence or talent. He likewise rejected an alliance \nwith the Girondists, who, awed by the menacing attitude of the peo- \nple, began to see the necessity of supporting the executive. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 499 \n\nThe troops from the provinces, distinguished (especially the Mar- \nseillais) by their ultra revolutionary feeling, had thronged to Paris ; \nand dethronement was the universal cry. Circumstances increased \nthe popular agitation. The national guard, to which moderate men \nlooked with some hope, was worsted in a contest with the Marseillais. \nThe infamous manifesto of the duke of Brunswick, proclaiming a \nsavage retribution for any insurrection against the king, soon reached \nParis, and added to the popular fury. The clubs openly petitioned \nthe assembly to abolish the monarchy. The king, though aware of \nthe approaching storm, now refused to fly. \n\nOn the 10th of August, by a preconcerted plot, the revolutionary \nparty, summoned by the tocsin, gathered from all quarters, and formed \ninto columns for attacking the palace. Only a single regiment of \nSwiss, a few royalists, and some of the national guard, without a \nleader, were all that could be opposed to the immense force of the \ninsurgents. The queen snatched a pistol from one of the attendants, \nand entreated Louis to inspirit his men by personal action. But his \ncharacter was not suited to the occasion ; his appearance rather dispir- \nited than encouraged his forces; and, deserted by all, except the \nSwiss, the royal family, with great difficulty, took refuge with the \nassembly. \n\nMeanwhile, some of the Swiss had been massacred by the ferocious \npike-men, and their comrades fired among the assassins. A general \naction was thus brought on, in which, after a desperate defence, the \ngreater part of the Swiss and royalists were slain. The mob had \nlost three thousand of their number. The assembly, overawed by \nthis demonstration of popular force, immediately suspended the king \nfrom his office, voted the summoning of a national convention, and \nrecognised the usurped authority of the new municipality of Paris. \nThe government was intrusted to a ministry, composed of Girondists \nand Jacobins. The latter, at whose nod the populace stood ready \nto take up arms, now felt their power, and pushed their measures \naccordingly. Their chiefs were Marat, a blood-thirsty fanatic, Dan- \nton, a rough, brutal and talented demagogue, and Robespierre, a \nselfish, cold-blooded and remorseless seeker for power and popularity. \n\nThe municipality, which they controlled, now commenced a sys- \ntem of dictation to the assembly, and usurpation of legislation to \nthemselves. At their dictation, couched in the most insolent terms, \na resolution was passed, constituting an arbitrary criminal tribunal, \ncomposed of one member from each section of the city. The enemy \n\n\n\n500 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwere advancing into tlie kingdom, and Paris itself miglit soon be in \ntlieir hands. The citizens, inspired by the fierce courage of Danton, \nprepared for a desperate resistance; and with a horrible feeling \ndetermined that, if defeated bj their enemies, the royalists at least \nshould not enjoy the triumph. \n\nFor some time, the prisons had been crowded with unfortunate \npersons, committed by the tribunal on suspicion of royalism. Every \nmeans were taken to stimulate the ferocity of the rabble, and assas- \nsins were hired by the leaders of the Jacobins. On the 2d of \nSeptember, a report was spread that the enemy was in fall march \nfor Paris. The tocsin sounded, and a horrible massacre, precon- \ncerted for some time, commenced. The first victims were upwards \nof two hundred priests ; and, breaking into the prisons, the assassins \ncontinued their murderous work nearly all night, occasionally \nrefreshing themselves with wine. The number who perished in this \nsecond "day of St. Bartholomew" has been estimated at thirteen \nthousand. \n\nMuch of the atrocity justly attributed to the Revolution was \nprovoked by the haughty and imprudent tone of Austria and Prus- \nsia, who had menaced France with condign punishment, if certain \nevents should occur \xe2\x80\x94 the surest method, with a jealous and excited \npeople, of hastening their accomplishment. Thus it proved in the \npresent instance. Paris, threatened with the horrors of military \nlicense, took bloody and instant revenge on all whom she considered \nfriendly to her foes. A fresh massacre of prisoners soon occurred \nat Versailles. \n\nMeanwhile, Dumouriez, the French commander, exhibited great \nskill and courage in repelling the enemy, who had already invaded \nthe country. The duke of Brunswick and the Prussians were \nrepulsed at Yalney, and the Austrians were driven from Lille. The \nlatter, twenty-five thousand strong, were totally defeated by Dumou- \nriez, at Jemappes, with a loss of six thousand men. Louis Philippe, \nson of Orleans, and since king of the French, distinguished himself \nin this action. Belgium was immediately occupied by the victors. \n\nThe "National Convention" had assembled on the 20th of Sep- \ntember, and was composed of three parties \xe2\x80\x94 the Gironde, which took \nits name from that of the department represented by several of its \nmembers \xe2\x80\x94 the furious Jacobins, called "The Mountain," and the \nneutral party, who bore the appellation of the Plain. Its first act \nwas to abolish royalty and the existing system of judicature. A \n\n\n\nFEANCE. ^Qi \n\nfierce quarrel between tlie Mountain and tlie Gironde, destined to \nend in the utter destruction of tlie latter, soon commenced. Tlie \nGironde, composed principally of men of talent, virtue, and classic \nenthusiasm, proposed a law for the prevention of massacres and the \nprotection of the Convention. Danton, Robespierre, and Marat were \ndenounced as the instigators of the late sanguinary proceedings and \nthe projectors of fresh outrages. They, however, defended them- \nselves with such art and audacity as to avert the danger, and secure \nthemselves a greater influence in the Convention. \n\nTheir power and their principles were soon manifested in the \ntreatment of the king and his family. These unfortunate persons \nwere removed from the palace of the Luxembourg to the Temple, \ntreated with much indignity, and finally separated. The more \nfurious Jacobins now began to demand the trial and execution of the \nking. The Revolution was felt to be incomplete, unless, like that of \nEngland, cemented by the blood of a king. Besides, violence against \nroyalty was regarded as the most conclusive token of patriotism; \nand the vile bidders for popular favour strove to outvie each other \nin the indignities and insults offered to their helpless prisoners. \nRobespierre first suggested the proposal to the assembly, and soon \nafterwards moved a resolution, which was passed, for his trial before \nthe Convention. \n\nOn the 11th of December, 1792, the unfortunate monarch, bearing \nhimself with calmness and dignity, was placed at the bar, and spoke \nin vindication of his reign. Counsel was allowed him, and on the \n26th, an able and eloquent defence was submitted to the Convention. \nOn his withdrawal, a furious debate commenced, and was continued \non the following day \xe2\x80\x94 Robespierre and the Mountain demanding \ninstant execution; and the Gironde vainly opposing them. The \nfinal vote was not taken until the 16th of January, and, in the \nmean time, fear of popular violence had induced many to join the \nmore sanguinary party. The vote for the execution passed by a \nsmall majority, the duke of Orleans, (now Philip Equality,) to the \nsurprise and horror of all, giving his voice in its favour. On the \ntwenty -first, the king was conducted through a vast multitude to \nthe scaffold, and after a few sentences, declaring his innocence, and \nforgiveness of his enemies, was beheaded. \n\nThe monarch, who was thus judicially murdered, would probably, \nin better times and under better influences, have made an excellent \nand popular king. He was, without doubt, sincerely desirous of \n\n\n\n502 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nameliorating the condition of his people ; and, if he had possessed \nmore firmness of character, might have succeeded in accomplishing \nthis object, without permitting the horrible scenes which followed. \nHe owed his death to the evil counsels of his Austrian queen, to the \ninjudicious and violent conduct of his friends abroad, and to the \nfurj of a populace exasperated by former wrong and intoxicated \nwith present triumph. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER YIIL \n\nTHE CONVENTION, AND THE REIGN OF TEEROR. \n\nDisorder rapidly increased. Provision was scarce, and a famine \nthreatened the city. Moreover, news daily came of the success of \nthe enemy, and the discomfiture of the French troops on the frontier. \nIn March, 1793, the Convention, overawed by a ferocious mob, \nwhich had been excited by the Jacobins, instituted a fresh tribunal \nto receive denunciations and punish the enemies of the republic. \nThe Gironde grew weaker and weaker. They had calculated on \nthe support of Dumouriez ; but that officer had already engaged in \na quarrel with the Convention, had refused to obey its summons to \nbetake himself to Paris, and "carry his head to the tigers," and had \nfinally been compelled to take refuge with the enemy. La Fayette, \nwho had some time before been forced to abandon France, was a \nprisoner in the dungeons of Olmutz. This defection of the once \npopular general, was alleged against the Gironde, who vainly strove \nto retort the accusation upon the fierce and influential Danton. The \nprovinces, nevertheless, generally supported the former, whose able \nand eloquent leaders, Vergniaud, Barbaroux, Brissot, and Condoret, \nhad made a more favourable impression on the popular mind than \ntheir blood-thirsty adversaries. The insurrection of La Yendee and \nother disturbances gave the more violent party strength to pass a \nlaw, afterwards productive of terrific consequences \xe2\x80\x94 that of empower- \ning the municipal authorities all over the country to seize upon the \nsuspected. Meanwhile, the Austrians continued successful ; La Yen- \ndee, espousing the cause of royalty, was in full and formidable \ninsurrection; and the populace, still overawing the Convention, \n\n\n\nPEANCE. 503 \n\ndemanded vengeance on the moderates. On the 1st of June, a great \nand well-organized mob, led by the infamous Henriot, surrounded \nthe Convention, and demanded, haughtily, the exclusion of the \nGirondists. The deputies, after vainly attempting escape, were kept \nclose prisoners until they voted the arrest of thirty prominent \nmembers of the obnoxious party. \n\nSome of the proscribed leaders escaped to the provinces, and met \nwith a general support from the people. Eemonstrances poured in \nto the Convention, and forces began to be levied against the anar- \nchists. Though proceeding from a real majority, these demonstrations \nwere at once suppressed by the quicker and more resolute move- \nments of the ultra revolutionists. The assassination of the odious \nMarat, by a young enthusiast named Charlotte Corday, only endeared \nhis memory and his sanguinary system to the populace. Taking \nadvantage of the public indignation at the advance of the allied \narmies, and the surrender of Toulon to the English, the " Committee \nof Public Safety," directed by Eobespierre and Danton, now in \neffect usurped the supreme power. While the latter fiercely sought, \nby almost unlimited impressment and seizure of property, to pro- \nvide for the national defence, his more savage and cowardly col- \nleague glutted the rabble with fresh "batches" for the guillotine. \nThe queen, after an odious mockery of trial, shared the fate of her \nhusband, preserving her courage and haughty demeanour to the last. \nVergniaud and a number of eminent Girondists soon followed. The \nbeautiful and accomplished Madame Roland, Bailly, mayor of Paris, \nthe duke of Orleans, and crowds of others also passed under the axe. \n\nIn the provinces, the ferocious agents of the Convention exceeded \nall former horrors. At Bourdeaux, Arras, and Marseilles, the guil- \nlotine and other instruments of death were kept in full operation. \nAt Lyons, which had resisted, six thousand were slain, and an \nattempt was made to demolish the city entirely. In the midst of \nthese domestic horrors, the republican armies, animated by a nobler \nzeal, resisted the enemy with antique heroism. Austria, Prussia, \nSpain, and England were now all in arms against France, and all \nwere destined to be defeated. Toulon, held by an English garri- \nson and fleet, was closely besieged, and the enemy were finally \ncompelled to evacuate it, having first destroyed the French fleet and \nmagazines. This result was chiefly due to the military skill of \nNapoleon Bonaparte, a young Corsican officer of artillery, who \nrepaired the mistakes and disasters of his insufiicient employers. \n\n\n\n504 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nThis man, whose name is the most celebrated in history, was born \nin Corsica in 1769, and at this time was twenty-four years old. He \nhad been educated in the royal military school, at Brienne, and \nfrom early youth had been distinguished by his talent and untiring \nindustry. \n\nThe Convention had now completely succumbed to the "Reign of \nTerror." It was the mere instrument in the hands of Robespierre \nand his colleagues, and its members sought eagerly the highest \nbenches of the Mountain, in order to gain the reputation of ultra- \nrepublicanism. Danton, however, who, with all his sensuality and \nferocity, was not destitute of human feeling, became weary of this \nscene of bloodshed, and retired into the country. A scandalous \nfarce was next enacted at the capital. The archbishop of Paris, \nwith other of the apostate clergy, openly renounced Christianity, \nand joined in worshipping the goddess "Reason," who, in the per- \nson of a well-known actress, was enthroned at the church of Notre \nDame. Robespierre, however, set his face against atheism, and at \nhis iiistance, the leading anarchists, whose power he dreaded, were \nsent to the guillotine (24th of March, 1794). He was also jealous \nof Danton, who wished to stay the effusion of blood; and this \n"bold bad man" was suddenly arrested, with several of his party, \nand lodged in prison. "Fool!" he exclaimed, "I alone could have \nsaved him." When arraigned before the tribunal, and asked, accord- \ning to form, his name and residence, he haughtily replied: "My \ndwelling will soon be annihilation; my name will be found in the \nPantheon of History." They were all despatched to the never-fail- \ning guillotine, which had received so many of their victims before \nthem. The last relics of the nobility and royalty soon followed \nthem ; and to these succeeded crowds of nuns, taken en masse from \ntheir convents to be butchered, or of peasant women from La Ven- \ndee. The Princess Elizabeth, sister to Louis, perished at this time, \nwhen the murderers, for want of victims, sought their prey among \nthe weaker and more helpless sex. Still greater atrocities were \nperpetrated in the provinces; great numbers suffered in the "/^^s^7- \nlades,^^ despatched by cannon and musketry, and greater still in the \n^^noyades,^^ where thousands were taken in hulks to the midst of \nrivers, and then drowned by scuttling the vessels. These horrid \nscenes occurred in many parts of the country. \n\nRobespierre now endeavoured to found his power upon some \nsurer and more reputable footing than that of mere massacre. He \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 5Q5 \n\nwas not fond of blood, like those of his colleagues who butchered \nfor amusement or from mere ferocity^ \xe2\x80\x94 but simply regardless of it. \nIn superseding the functions of some of these wretches, he excited \ntheir anger, and a secret conspiracy was formed for his overthrow. \nArtful reports were circulated, to the effect that he had a list of pro- \nscription including half the Convention. This body, which for some \ntime had tremblingly obeyed his commands, took the alarm, and \ngathered courage from despair. The situation of the tyrant at this \ntime has been a^tly compared to that of the buccaneering chief, \nwho, descending the river Orellana with a party of his crew, slew \none after another, through jealousy, until the remnant, to save their \nown lives, took that of their ferocious commander. Perceiving the \ndanger, he organized a fresh insurrection, which, at the critical \nmoment, might break forth in his favour, and then addressed the \nConvention in a speech of many hours, recounting his services, and \ndenouncing his opponents. Some defended themselves; others \npressed him to name his enemies. It is probable that if, at this \nmoment, he had demanded the heads of a limited number of his \nmost dangerous foes, the majority, to save their own, would have \ncom.plied. But he refused, and the members, each thinking his own \nname might be on the fatal list, drew closer together in self-defence. \nOn the following day, the 27th of July, Tallien, Billaud, and other \npowerful orators, launched unmeasured denunciations against the \ndictator. For a long time, phrensied with rage and despair, he vainly \nendeavoured to be heard. "President of assassins," he screamed in \nthe harshest tones, "for the last time, I demand liberty of speech." \nIt was denied him, and a decree was unanimously passed, ordering \nhis arrest, and that of four of his companions. The keepers of the \nprisons, however, refused to receive them, and Henriot, with his \ngens d\'armes, rescued them, and conveyed them to the Hotel de \nVille. Even now, had a man of true action been among them, these \nvillains might have come off triumphant, and resumed their sway ; \nbut the night was passed in vain consultation ; their forces gradually \ndispersed; and in the same night they were captured by a party of \nsoldiers in the interest of the Convention. Eobespierre vainly \nattempted to despatch himself with a pistol, but was reserved for \nthe guillotine. Sentence of outlawry had already been passed \nagainst the chiefs of the Terrorists, and on the next day, 10 Ther- \nmidor (28th of July), twenty-one in number, they left their heads \nin the Place de la Eevolution, where so many worthier victims had \n\n\n\n506 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nperislied before them. An immense crowd witnessed their fate witli \nexultation; Eobespierre was executed last, and the axe descended \nupon him in the midst of tremendous applause. Thus ended the \n"Eeign of Terror." \n\n\n\nTHE CONVENTION AND THE DIRECTOEY. \n\nThe leaders of the new movement, still embarrassed by the violence \nof some who had aided them, and dreading unpopularity, adopted \nonly by degrees a milder policy. The worst agents of the Terror- \nists were sent to the scaffold, amid universal satisfaction. Their \n"suspected" victims in the prisons, who for a long time had beheld \nthe guillotine in daily view, were gradually discharged. This humane \nand rational movement was greatly aided by the Parisian youth, \nwho, neither suspected of royalism, nor degraded by the crimes of \nthe Eevolution, now played an influential part in restoring order \nand the refinements of life. By their aid the Jacobin club, so long \nthe focus of insurrection and the instigator of massacre, was closed. \n\nThe few surviving members of the Gironde were recalled; and \nthe desire for domestic peace began to be half-realized. But a formi- \ndable circumstance embarrassed the restorers of order. The late \ngovernment, which, though hated, was universally obeyed, had com- \npelled the producers and holders of provisions to furnish them to \nthe citizens at low prices. The terror of death removed, they \nrefused compliance with the edicts, and the capital was again men- \naced with famine. Moreover, the remaining Terrorists, foreseeing \ntheir fate, incited the rabble to fresh insurrection. In the spring of \n1795, the cry for "bread" was resumed and riots recommenced. \nThese were at first suppressed by the youth, who always stood for- \nward as supporters of order; and in April, in the midst of a violent \npopular demonstration, the leading anarchists (Billaud-Varennes and \nothers) were condemned to transportation. The people, who tried \nto rescue them, were defeated by the troops of the Convention, afi;er \na sharp action. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n507 \n\n\n\nOn tlie 20t\'h. of May, liowever, a large and furious mob surrounded \ntlie assembly, defeated its guard, and murdered one of tlie members. \nThe President, Boissy D\' Anglas, exhibited the most heroic courage ; \nbut the populace gained the complete ascendancy; and the remains \nof the Mountain, supported by them, passed a series of violent popu- \nlar decrees. The same night, however, the members gathered a \nforce, expelled the mob, annulled the decrees, and ordered the arrest \nof the Mountainists. The "Thermidoriens," (as the assailants of \nEobespierre called themselves) were now completely victorious. \nThe Fauxbourg St. Antoine, long the head-quarters of insurrection, \nthreatened with bombardment, submitted, and gave up its cannon. \nThe leading Jacobins were seized, and six of them condemned to \ndeath. On hearing their sentence, one stabbed himself with a knife, \nand passed it to his companions, who all followed his example. Only \none or two survived long enough to be guillotined. In the provinces \na heavier retribution awaited the vanquished party. In Lyons and \nmany other places, those who had supported the "Eeign of Terror," \nwere massacred in great numbers by the indignant people. \n\nMeanwhile, the arms of France had been almost every where \nsuccessful. The royalist insurrection of La Vendee was suppressed \nwith terriiic loss of life, in the winter of 1793-4. Carnot, a fierce \nand sanguinary republican, but a patriotic and able minister of war, \nplanned an effective campaign in Flanders. The Austrian, Prus- \nsian, and English forces, amounting to two hundred thousand men, \nwere defeated, or outgeneralled by Jourdan, Pichegru, and Berna- \ndotte, and forced to retire. Flanders and Holland were soon overrun, \nand all west of the Ehine was ere long in possession of the French. \nSpain, Prussia, and other states were now willing to sign treaties of \npeace. England alone still maintained an attitude of uncompromis- \ning hostility ; and Austria, supported by her subsidies, consented to \ncontinue the war. This course, which Pitt, the English minister, \nthought proper to pursue, was dictated by national pride and jeal- \nousy. Hatred of republicanism, and a dread of its increasing power \nand influence, were also powerful motives with a tory court and \nministry. Luckily, their ability was inferior to their wishes. An \nexpedition of emigrant royalists which was despatched to Quiberon, \nto commence an insurrection, was defeated with much loss by Gen- \neral Hoche, and the unfortunate prisoners were executed as traitors \nto their country. \nIn spite of these successes, the Convention was excessively unpopu \n\n\n\n508 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nlar. It had been deeply implicated in the worst scenes of the Eeign \nof Terror, and thus was obnoxious to all moderate men ; while, by \nreceding from the worst fury of the Revolution, it made enemies \namong the anarchists. Into the three years during which it had held \ncontrol of the nation, was crowded an immense amount of tyranny, \nbloodshed, and suffering; and all classes apparently longed for a \nmore trustworthy government. A new constitution had been \ndecreed, by which authority for the future was to be vested in a \ncouncil of five hundred members, and another of two hundred and \nfifty, called the "Ancients," with five directors for an executive. It \nwas also voted that the present Assembly should select from its own \nbody two-thirds of the ensuing legislature. These measures were \nsubmitted to the army and to the primary assemblies of the people, \nand approved by both \xe2\x80\x94 artifice and collusion being probably used in \nthe latter. The more respectable citizens of Paris, composing the \nnational guard, approved the new constitiition ; but, indignant at \nseeing this body of selfish demagogues perpetuate their power in \nsuch an arbitrary manner, took up arms to oppose them. General \nMenou, who was first employed against them, efiected nothing, and \nthe fall of the Convention seemed inevitable. At this juncture, a \nfew words from Barras, afterwards the chief of the directors, decided \nthe fate of France, He said to his colleagues: "I have the man for \nyou- \xe2\x80\x94 -a little Corsican officer, who will not stick at trifles." \xe2\x80\x94 Bona- \nparte, to whom he alluded, had been in disgrace and unemployed \nsince the fall of Robespierre, with whose brother he had been inti- \nmate. Glad of an opportunity to regain the confidence of govern- \nment, he accepted the command of five thousand regular troops, \nwhich the Convention had at their disposal. On the 6th of Octo- \nber, the citizens, vastly outnumbering his force, made an attack \non the Convention; but his plans were laid with such judgment, \nthat after suffering severely from a fire of artillery, they were dis- \npersed, and fled. The Convention, triumphant over its enemies, on \nthe 26th played the farce of a dissolution. \n\nIt came together, with the addition of two hundred and fifty \nnewly-elected member^, in October, 1795, and the latter number \nwas selected from the more aged to form the council of "Ancients." \nFive directors, all regicides, were appointed \xe2\x80\x94 Barras being the \nprincipal. The condition of the country, and of Paris especially, \nwas wretched in the extreme. Famine was impending ; the govern- \nment had no funds; such a vast number of assignats (amounting to \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n509 \n\n\n\nnineteen tlionsand millions of francs) liad been issued, that the cur \xe2\x96\xa0 \nrency was utterly disordered. A forced loan was made, and fresh \npenal laws enacted against the opposers of government. The reign \nof brutality and blood was nevertheless over. The daughter of \nthe unfortunate Louis was delivered to her friends. The young heir \nto the crown (Louis XVII.) had already perished of ill-treatment. \nThe executive, possessing tolerable unity, and backed by a standing \nforce, firmly maintained its position. \n\nFrom this period, the history of France is almost merged in that \nof Napoleon. In March, 1796, he married Josephine, widow of \nYiscount Beauharnais, and at the same time received command of \nthe army of Italy. The effect of his military genius was soon \napparent. The Austrians, under Beaulieu, were defeated in a \nsingle week at Montenotte, Dego and Millesimo; they lost ten \nthousand men in battle, and fifteen thousand prisoners; all Pied- \nmont submitted; and the road to Italy lay open to the French \narmies. The of&cious instructions of the Directory met with short \nand peremptory replies from the young general. Pursuing his \nmarch, he found the Austrians posted at the bridge of Lodi, which \nthey raked with thirty cannon. Despite this tremendous fire, a \nlarge column of grenadiers, led by the bravest of his generals; \nrushed upon it, and after much loss defeated the enemy. The last \ndisposable force of Beaulieu was thus routed and dispersed. \n\nOn the 14th of May, Napoleon entered Milan in triumph, and \nlevied heavy contributions of money and valuable paintings upon \nthat and other cities. His Austrian opponents were soon expelled \n\xe2\x96\xa0from all Italy, except Mantua, where they were besieged. Eome, \ndreading his approach, purchased his clemency by a great sacrifice \nof money and works of art. \n\nThese achievements had been accomplished in a single month by \nforty thousand men. In Germany, an hundred and fifty thousand, \ncommanded by Moreau and Jourdan, had been for some time \ncautiously contending with disadvantage, against an equal number, \nled by the Archduke Charles and General Wurmser. The latter, \nafiier the misfortunes of Beaulieu, was appointed to command the \nnew army of Italy, which was increased to sixty thousand men. \nThe French general was besieging Mantua, when tidings came of \nthe defeat of Massena and Guyeux, who were left to oppose this \nfresh enemy. He raised the siege instantly, and taking advantage \nof the separation of the Austrians, defeated them in succession at \n\n\n\n510 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\nLonato and Castiglione. Wiirmser, witli the remainder of his \nforces, retreated into the Tyrol. \n\nThe siege of Mantua was resumed, and in September the Aus- \ntrians, renewing the campaign, were again defeated at Roveredo, \nColliano, and Bassano. Wurmser, with fifteen thousand men, the \nremains of his arni}^, took refuge in Mantua, and the siege was \nformed for the third time. The successful general began legislating \nfor the conquered districts; and a portion of Italy, liberally inclined, \nwas formed into the \'\'Cisalpine Republic." \n\nAustria, undisheartened, sent a fresh army, under Marshal \nAlvinzi, who, reinforced by the relics of Beaulieu and Wurmser, \nmarched toward Verona, repulsing all attempts to retard him. \nNapoleon, with outnumbered and wearied forces, was almost in \ndespair, and resolved on a desperate effort. With only thirteen \nthousand men, he crossed the Adige, and endeavoured to surprise \nthe enemy in the rear ; but failing in this, was engaged for three days \nin a fiercely-contested battle at Areola. The bridge and causeway \nleading to that town were occupied by the Austrian forces ; and the \nfire was so tremendous that the French were repulsed in repeated \nattacks. To animate his troops, Napoleon seized a standard, rushed \non the bridge, and planted it with his own hand. After being \nexposed to the greatest personal danger, he succeeded, on the 17th \nof November, in completely defeating the enemy. Alvinzi lost \neighteen thousand men, and retired into the Alps. \n\nIn spite of these manifold defeats, another Austrian army was \nenlisted, and placed under his command. On the 14th of January, \n1797, he made a powerful attack on the forces of Napoleon, which \nwere posted on the heights of Rivoli. The Austrians met with a \ndetermined resistance, and were utterly routed. Provera, who, with \nanother division, had attempted to relieve Mantua, was also defeated ; \nand finally that city itself, after a long and gallant resistance, was \ncompelled by famine to capitulate. The papal forces, which had \nmoved in favour of Austria, were routed at Imola ; and the Pope \nwas compelled to purchase peace by fresh sacrifices of treasure and \nart. "Thus terminated the first campaign of Bonaparte; the most \nbrilliant in modern history, considering the armies and the empire \nconquered, and the unequal numbers with which this was achieved." \n\nThe Directory, elated by these advantages, would listen to no \nterms of peace, either with England or Austria; and Bernadotte, \nwith thirty thousand troops from Germany, was ordered to effect a \n\n\n\nFEANCE. ^11 \n\njunction with ISTapoleon. Early in March, 1797, the latter crossed \nthe Alps, defeating the archduke at the Tagliamento. Town after \ntown was taken, and in a fortnight the victorious army had advanced \nwithin twenty-four leagues of Vienna. But the promised reinforce- \nments did not arrive ; and Napoleon, wisely cautious of attempting too \nmuch, proposed an armistice, which was signed at Leoben in April. \nHe took advantage, however, of certain massacres committed on the \nFrench, to suppress the ancient oligarchy of Venice; which, after \nan existence of twelve hundred years, changed her government to \na democracy, and submitted entirely to the will of the conqueror. \n\nWhile these splendid successes continued abroad, the Directory, a \nmajority of which were short-sighted demagogues, was excessively \nunpopular at home. Another third of the council, according to the \nconstitution, was elected, and thus gave a majority over the Directory \nto the moderates. The royalists also began to agitate, and supported \nthe latter. Barras, Eeubel, and Lepaux, a selfish, unprincipled \nmajority of the former, had hitherto ruled the country; and deter- \nmined to try military force before resigning their power. Napoleon, \nwho owed his elevation to their patronage, despatched Augereau, an \nable general, to assist them. They resolved on the same course \nwhich Cromwell had tried so successfully on the English parliaments. \nOn the 4th of September, Augereau, with his forces, surrounded the \ncouncils at midnight, and then, and on the following day, arrested \na great number of the majority. Seventy of the most distinguished \nwere arbitrarily transported to the deadly climate of Cayenne. \nEvery where, the favourers of a reaction were seized, and exiled from \nthe country. The Jacobin minority, which remained, conferred \nalmost despotic power upon the directors, and the reign of terror \nseemed about to revive. They cancelled two-thirds of the national \ndebt; and rejected honourable terms of peace with England and \nAustria. Napoleon, however, was resolved to have his own way \nwith the latter, and accordingly entered into negotiations. Cobent- \nzel, the Austrian plenipotentiary, interposing vexatious delays, the \nenraged victor dashed to the ground a splendid porcelain vase, \nexclaiming that he would thus shatter the empire, unless instant \npeace was concluded. Terrified into terms, the Austrian submitted; \nand the treaty of Campo Eormio was signed, by which Austria, as \nsome recompense for her losses, basely took possession of her ancient \nally, the state of Venice. \n\nThe triumphant young general, returning to Paris, was received \n\n\n\nf5J[2 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwith the highest honours. He soon perceived the incapacity and \nunpopularity of the present rulers of France, and doubtless cherished \nambitious schemes for his own advancement. But, to use his own \nexpression, "the pear was not yet ripe;" and after some futile \npreparations for the invasion of England, he conceived the idea of \nattacking that power in her Indian possessions, and of forming an \nEastern empire for himself An expedition to Egypt, as the most \nvulnerable point of attack, was resolved on; the Directory were glad \nto get rid of one whose influence they were beginning to dread ; and \nthe funds for the undertaking were on a frivolous pretext extorted \nfrom the small and defenceless state of Berne. Twenty-five thousand \nmen, mostly veterans, and officered by distinguished generals, four \nhundred transports, and fifteen men-of-war, composed this splendid \nexpedition, which sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798. \n\nTaking possession of the island of Malta on its way, the expedition \nreached Alexandria on the 1st of July, and marched to Cairo. The \nMamalukes, under Mourad Bey, fought desperately at the "Battle of \nthe Pyramids," charging the immoveable squares of the French with \nthe most reckless impetuosity ; but were utterly defeated, and vast \nnumbers of them perished on the field, or in vainly attempting to \nswim the Nile. At the same time the French fleet, in the Bay of \nAboukir, was defeated and almost destroyed by that of the English, \nunder Admiral Nelson. \n\nThe enlightened and legislative mind of Napoleon soon established \na better government in Egypt than that unhappy country had known \nfor centuries; but he was recalled to military action, in 1799, by \nthe hostility of the Turks. Marching across the desert, he took the \nport of Jaffa by storm, and cruelly massacred several thousand pris- \noners, who had surrendered. He then laid siege to Acre, which \nwas defended by the ferocious Pasha Djezzar (the Butcher) and assisted \nby the English fleet. After many desperate assaults, in which the \nflower of his army was destroyed, he relinquished the hopeless \nundertaking, and returned to Egypt. In July, a Turkish army of \neighteen thousand men, commanded by Mustapha Pasha, landed at \nAboukir. The French commander immediately gave them battle; \nand, charged by the cavalry of Murat, they were utterly defeated, \ntwelve thousand perishing on the field and in the neighbouring \nsea. The remainder surrendered. Mustapha was brought before the \nvictor, who courteously said that the sultan should be informed of the \nvalour he had displayed, although defeated. "Spare thyself the \n\n\n\nFEANCE \n\n\n\n513 \n\n\n\ntrouble," replied the liauglitj Turk; "my master knows me better \nthan thou canst." \n\nHaving accomplislied this, the French commander resolved upon \nreturning to France, where his own interests and those of the republic \nalike seemed to demand his presence. The directors, by practically \nannulling the freedom of elections, had added to their unpopularity. \nThey had increased the enmity and jealousy of foreign powers by \ndethroning the Pope, and revolutionizing and overawing the neigh- \nbouring countries. A coalition between Eussia, Austria, and Eng- \nland was formed for the purpose of humbling the French republic. \nThe court of Naples moved first, but was defeated, and compelled \nto fly from the kingdom, which was constituted into the "Partheno- \npean republic." To defend France from her powerful opponents, \nwhose forces amounted to three hundred thousand men, a conscrip- \ntion was now, for the first time, levied throughout the country, \nJourdan, one of their ablest generals, was defeated, and compelled to \ncross the Ehine. Scherer, in Italy, met the same fate, and yielded his \ncommand to Moreau, whose skill and capacity came too late to save \nItaly. On the banks of the Trebia, Macdonald was defeated by \nSuwarrow, with terrible slaughter, in a battle which lasted for three \nsuccessive days. Massena, in Switzerland, had been compelled to \nretreat, and the English and Eussians invaded Holland. \n\nThese and other reverses so weakened the government that three \nof the directors were compelled to resign. They were succeeded by \nothers, who, by forced loans and extended conscriptions, sought to \ncarry on the government with vigour. The gallant young Joubert, \nwho was next sent against Suwarrow, was on the 15th of August, \n1799, defeated at Novi, and died on the field of battle. All Italy \nwas thus lost to the French. In Holland, however, the British, under \nthe duke of York, had been compelled to evacuate the country; \nand at Zurich, Massena had given a terrible defeat to Korsakow and \nhis Eussians. Suwarrow was com^pelled to retreat over Mount St. \nGothard, with a loss of two-thirds of his force. \n\nAt this crisis, Napoleon, after a perilous passage, landed at Frejus, \non the 9th of October. He hurried to Paris, meeting on the way \nall the evidences of wretched misgovernment. On his arrival, though \naffecting seclusion, he was continually surrounded by nearly all who \nhad influence in the state or the army. The "pear" was evidently \nripe; but he would have been contented at this time with a place \nin the directory, which, however, the foolish incumbents of the \n83 \n\n\n\n514 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nexecutive refused him. He immediately resolved on a more import- \nant step and a higher elevation. \n\nNearly all the of&cers in Paris were strongly in his interest. The \nsubtle Abb6 Sieyes, and Ducos, one of the directors, were in league \nwith him. On the 9th of November, he held a general levee of the \nmilitary chiefs. The Council of Ancients appointed him to command \nthe troops of the capital. To a message from the Directory, he \nhaughtily retorted their incapacity and the misfortunes of France. \nBarras, persuaded by Talleyrand, resigned. Sieyes and Ducos vol- \nuntarily did the same. Gohier and Moulins, who were refractory, \nwere arrested. The Directory thus set aside. Napoleon harangued \nthe Ancients, asserting the worthlessness of the constitution, and his \nintention of reforming the government. He was received with \napplause, and went to try his eloquence with the more obstinate \n"Five Hundred." Here, however, he was received with fury, and \nnearly lost his life in their hands. Rescued by his grenadiers, he \nwould have been immediately outlawed, but that his brother Lucien, \nwho was President, refused to put the vote. The latter, leaving the \nassembly, declared it dissolved on account of the violence of its \nmembers. This decision was immediately enforced by Murat with \na company of grenadiers. "With fixed bayonets they cleared the \nhall, the members escaping through the windows, and leaving their \n"togas" (worn in imitation of Rome) torn among the bushes. \n\nThe same evening, the Ancients, with a few of the Five Hundred, \nassembled, abolished the Directory, and appointed a provisional \nexecutive of three consuls in its stead. \n\n\n\n\xc2\xbbj LuiL iXrAj Jj iL Jj iLii tioo \n\n\n\nTHE CONSULATE. \n\n\n\nNapoleon, Sieyes and Ducos, were appointed provisional consuls, \nand directed to prepare a constitution. The plan of Sieyes for a \n"grand elector," with only the shadow of authority, was instantly \nrejected by the former. "What man of spirit," said he, "would \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 5]^5 \n\nconsent to fatten like a pig on so many millions a-year?" He then \nproduced his own scheme. Three consuls were to be appointed, the \nfirst, however, alone being intrusted with power. He was to name \na senate, and that a tribunate, all the members of both being \nappointed for life, and receiving handsome salaries. This almost \nabsolute system was presented to the people in their primary assem- \nblies, and sanctioned by nearly four million votes \xe2\x80\x94 so gTeat was the \npopularity of Napoleon and the disgust at the excesses of the Revo- \nlution. Assured in office, as First Consul, with Cambacer^s and \nLebrun as nominal assistants, with Talleyrand as minister of foreign \naffairs, and Fouche as chief of police, the new dictator entered the \npalace of the Tuileries, and commenced his legislative career. \n\nEngland and Austria unwisely refused the peace which he offered ; \nand he soon saw the necessity of retrieving the reputation of France \nby another splendid campaign. To blind the enemy, he quietly \nassembled a strong force at Dijon, under the title of the Army of \nReserve, but in reality destined to recover Italy. On the 6th of \nMay, 1800, the first consul left Paris; and on the 20th, with an \narmy of forty thousand men, made the celebrated passage over \nMount St. Bernard. In this remarkable exploit, like Hannibal, he \ncontended with the greatest obstacles, caused by cold, snow, and the \ndifficulty of the ascent. At any unusually difficult passage, the \ndrums would sound a charge, and the troops, dragging their cannon \nin wooden sheathes, surmounted the obstacle. He entered Italy, \nand the Austrian general, Melas, could hardly credit the report. \nSeveral towns of Northern Italy were immediately taken. Genoa, \nhowever, after a brave defence by Massena, had already fallen, and \nthe officers of Melas pushed on in pursuit of the French. They \nwere, however, completely defeated by Lannes, at Montebello, with \na loss of five thousand men. Napoleon, fearing lest his opponents \nshould escape, took up a disadvantageous position at Marengo, and \non the 14th of June, being surprised by them, was almost defeated. \nHalf his army was in retreat, when he was reinforced by Dessaix, \nand, planting a strong battery, resisted the approach of the enemj. \nExposed to a tremendous fire, and charged furiously on either side \nby Dessaix and Kellerman, they were broken, and completely \ndefeated. Dessaix fell by a musket-ball in the heat of the action. \n\nAustria, after this decisive victory, readily listened to terms of \npeace. By the conditions of an armistice, all the conquests of \nSuwarrow were abandoned, and Napoleon returned in triumph to \n\n\n\n516 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nParis. Nevertlieless, tlie defeated nation, after tlie expiration of \nthis, resumed hostilities in Germany. The Archduke John, who \ncommanded there, was, however, utterly defeated by Moreau, at \nHohenlinden, and Austria then signed a treaty as favourable to the \nFrench as that of Campo Formio. \n\nThe first consul, on the 25th of December, narrowly escaped \nassassination. An "Infernal Machine," prepared by certain furious \nroyalists, was exploded near his carriage. Eighty persons were \nkilled or wounded, but the chief object of this atrocious design was \nunhurt. This defeated attempt strengthened his hands, and enabled \nhim to suppress the remains of Jacobinism, and gain more full and \nirresponsible authority. He now resolved, it is probable, upon \nreorganizing a monarchy, and, as an important auxiliary to govern- \nment, reestablished, with the sanction of the Pope, the Catholic \nchurch, in union with the state. To the remonstrances of the Kevo- \nlutionists, he replied: "I was a Mahometan in Egypt, and I will be \na Catholic here, for the good of the people." On Easter Sunday, \n1802, a solemn Te Deum at Notre Dame commemorated the reinstal- \nlation of the Eomish hierarchy. Napoleon attended, and his generals, \nwith covert sneers, were compelled to do the same. \n\nThe British, unable to assail their foe in any other quarter, had \ndespatched an expedition to Egypt, under General Abercrombie. \nTaking Malta on its way, it arrived ; and the French, after suffering \na defeat, capitulated, on condition of being transported to their \ncountry. The consul, meanwhile, made great preparations at Bou- \nlogne for an invasion of England ; and though it may be doubted if \nhe seriously intended it, great alarm was occasioned to the enemy, \nA peace, however, was concluded at Amiens, in March, 1802, by \nwhich the French were to regain Malta and other important posses- \nsions, and agreed to evacuate Southern Italy. \n\nIn May, Napoleon was declared by the legislative body first con- \nsul for life ; he had already been chosen president of the Cisalpine \nEepiiblic. Piedmont was annexed to France, and her preponderant \npower in Southern Europe was otherwise plainly exhibited. The \nEnglish ministry, jealous of this increasing dominion, scandalously \nbroke the treaty so lately signed at Amiens. They refused to sur- \nrender Malta and the Cape of Good Hope, alleging the most frivolous \nand untenable pretences. A furious paper warfare was also kept up \nbetween the presses of the two nations, and Napoleon had the folly \nto enter it in person. He was, nevertheless, sincerely desirous of \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 517 \n\npeace, and met tlie insolent demands of the British government \nwith moderation and temper. England, however, in May, 1803, \ndeclared war, by laying an embargo on French vessels, and issuing \norders for the seizure of French colonies. To revenge this perfidi- \nous surprise. Napoleon detained all British subjects who chanced to \nbe within the jurisdiction of France. He also immediately occupied \nISTaples, and took possession of the electorate of Hanover, pertaining \nto the British sovereign. Eussia remonstrated in vain, and Prussia, \ntempted by the offer of Hanover, was half-inclined to enlist in the \ncause of the favourite of fortune. The Emperor Alexander, of \nEussia, succeeded, however, in detaching her from his interests ; and \nthe "continental system," excluding England from all the ports of \nEurope, could not yet be fully effected. Napoleon now seriously \nturned his thoughts to the invasion of England ; and a powerful army \nand flotilla were assembled at Boulogne. \n\nIn the year 1804, a formidable conspiracy of the royalists was \ndetected. Moreau, who was deeply implicated, was compelled to go \ninto exile. General Pichegru and Captain Wright, an Englishman, \ntwo of the accused, were found mysteriously dead in their prisons. \nGeorges Cadoudal and others, whose object had evidently been assas- \nsination, were publicly tried and executed. During the progress \nof this discovery, Napoleon committed a most violent and arbitrary \nact. The young due d\'Enghien, a member of the royal family of \nBourbon, was seized in a neutral territory, where he was probably \nawaiting the results of the conspiracy at Paris, was hurried to Vin- \ncennes, tried by a court martial on the charge of bearing arms \nagainst France, and immediately executed. This cruel and unlaw- \nful act was caused by Napoleon\'s anger at the repeated schemes for \nhis assassination, and his wish to alarm the contrivers of conspiracy. \n\nThe defeated project only increased his power. The senate, \nunder pretext of ensuring the perpetuity of government against \nsuch attacks, passed a decree on the 18th of May, 1804, creating \nhim "Emperor of the French," and leaving the question of heredi- \ntary right to the people. This was confirmed by a vote of only \nthree millions to two ; the republican spirit being yet predominant \nin many parts of France. Court officers, bearing the titles of the \nancient regime^ were also created; and seventeen of the principal \ngenerals were declared marshals of France. The army at Bou- \nlogne, to which the emperor presented himself, hailed his elevation \nwith enthusiasm. The Pope himself proceeded to Paris for the \n\n\n\n518 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\npurpose of crowning the successor of Charlemagne. The ceremon j \ntook place on the 2d of December, with great magnificence, in \nNotre Dame. Napoleon, however, taking the crown from the pon- \ntiff, placed it on his own brow, and that of Josephine on her\'s. He \nwas then solemnly consecrated by the Pope, and listened to a sermon, \nin which his Holiness compared himself to Samuel, and the new \nemperor to David. \n\n\n\nTHE EMPIRE. \n\nAlmost immediately on his accession to the throne, the emperor \nwas menaced with fresh hostilities. England, emboldened by the \nsupport of Kussia, openly and piratically seized upon the vessels of \nSpain, a nation with which she was at peace, but which was sup- \nposed to be secretly in the interest of France. This produced an \nalliance between the two latter countries, and encouraged the hopes \nof Napoleon, that their united fleets might yet dispute the empire \nof the seas with their common enemy. A fresh defeat, however, \nsoon proved their inferiority. In the spring of 1805, he received \nthe title of "King of Italy," and the "iron crown" of Charlemagne. \nGenoa and other important places were added to the empire. \nAlthough his attention was now apparently absorbed by the great \npreparations at Boulogne, he was well aware, from the menacing \nattitude of the northern powers, that the field of battle lay in \nanother direction ; and he secretly planned campaigns against the \nthreatened coalition. \n\nIn April, 1805, England, Eussia, Austria, and Sweden concluded \na hostile alliance against him \xe2\x80\x94 Prussia, like the bat in the fable, \nhovering between the two interests, and waiting the event to espouse \nthat of the victor. Napoleon vainly endeavoured by negotiation \nto avert the storm; but learning that the Austrians had occupied \nMunich, the capital of his ally, gave orders for the formidable \n"Army of England" to march toward the Ehine. A splendid tri- \numph was the result. Mack, the Austrian General, with his whole \n\n\n\nFEANGE. 519 \n\narmy, was shut up in Ulm, and compelled to capitulate. Sixty \nthousand men, two hundred pieces of cannon, and eighty stand of \ncolours were taken. In a campaign of fifteen days, the Austrians \nwere expelled from Bavaria. The usual ill-fortune of France, how- \never, awaited her at sea. On the 21st of October, the day after the \nsurrender of Ulm, the combined French and Spanish fleets were \ndefeated and almost annihilated by Nelson at Trafalgar. \n\nPursuing his conquests, Napoleon marched into Austria, and, on \nthe 15th of November, entered Vienna in triumph. The emperors \nof Eussia and Austria, with eighty thousand men, had rallied at \nOlmutz: their opponent, with one-fourth less, determined to give \nthem battle. As the enemy approached, he used the most artful \nmanoeuvres to convince them of his weakness, and that he meditated \na retreat. His imperial rivals, yet inexperienced in the art of war, \nfell completely into the snare, and by attempting to surround him \nat Austerlitz, and prevent his escape, materially weakened their \nlines. On the 2d of December, the "sun of Austerlitz" rose with \nunclouded splendour. So certain of victory did Napoleon feel, that \nin a printed order, he informed his troops of the probable manoeu- \nvres of the battle. It befell as he anticipated. The Eussians, \nattempting to cut off his right, were charged and dispersed. At \nAusterlitz, however, the French were repulsed, and were pursued \nby the Eussians, until General Eapp, by a brilliant charge, restored \nthe day, and, after a desperate conflict, routed the Eussian Guard in \npresence of its emperor. Attempting to retreat over the lake, a \nterrible event added to the destruction of the vanquished. The ice \ngiving way, precipitated thousands into a watery grave. Ten thou- \nsand were slain, and the effective force of the allied army was \nreduced to one-half. \n\nAfter this disaster, Alexander retired to his dominions : Austria \nreceived reasonable terms from the victor; and Prussia, whose \nambassador had arrived just before the battle with a menacing \nmessage, (changed by the event into a congratulation,) was terrified \ninto resigning a portion of her dominions. Hanover, however, \nbelonging to her ally, the king of Great Britain, was allotted to her as \nsome compensation. New kingdoms were parcelled out in Germany \nto support the influence of France. From his newly-acquired territo- \nries in Italy, the emperor formed principalities and dukedoms for his \nfavourite generals and a few eminent civilians. His brother Joseph \nwas made king of Naples and Louis, another, king of Holland. \n\n\n\n520 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHis power, in reality, now extended over all Southern Europe: \nAustria, Spain, and Germany submitting completely to his dictation. \nPrussia, however, which had greedily accepted Hanover, was alarmed \nby learning that Napoleon had offered to restore it to England, as a \ncondition of peace. The "Confederation of the Khine," by which \nNapoleon, emulating Charlemagne, became the feudal master of \nGermany, was a source of yet further trouble and jealousy; and in \nAugust, 1806, the court of Prussia madly resojved to attack the \npower which had humbled the imperial armies of Austria and Eus- \nsia. In September, they invaded the territories of some of the \nsmaller states, and in a bulletin imperiously warned the French to \nquit Germany altogether. Napoleon, with his customary fondness \nfor paper warfare and personality, answered with another, ridiculing \nthe queen and court. Marching on the Prussian army, by an able \nmanoeuvre, he cut them off from their country and their supplies. \n\nOn the 14th of October, two decisive actions took place within a \nshort distance of each other. At Jena, the Prussians, under Prince \nHohenlohe, engaged the main body of \'the French, imder Napoleon \nhimself; they were utterly routed, and compelled to fly. At Auer- \nstadt, Davoust found himself compelled to contend against the chief \npart of their army, three times his own number, and commanded \nby the king and the duke of Brunswick. Formed into squares, the \nFrench infantry resisted repeated charges of cavalry, led on by \nBlucher. The duke of Brunswick and the king, who succeeded \nhim, were equally unsuccessful ; and finally this valiant and auda- \ncious infantry charged in their turn, broke the enemies\' lines, and \ndrove them in mingled confusion with the fugitives of Jena. \n\nThis victory decided the fate of Prussia. On the following day, \nErfurt, with one hundred pieces of cannon, and fourteen hundred \nmen, surrendered to Murat. The column which commemorated the \ndefeat of the French at Eosbach, by Frederick the Great, was sent to \nParis ; and the sword, star, and colours of that hero shared a similar \nfate. On the 27th, Napoleon entered Berlin, where he conducted him- \nself in all respects as the absolute master of the destinies of Prussia. \nIndeed, the whole kingdom was in his hands. Nearly every fortress \nand important town had surrendered, and King Frederick had fled \nbeyond the Oder. Feeling himself now master of nearly all the \nports of Europe, he issued the celebrated "Berlin decrees." \n\nAlleging as his pretext the numerous violations of national law \ncommitted by England, he declared that country in a state of block- \n\n\n\n\nNAPOLEON BONAPARTE, \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nBorn at, Ajaccio m Coi-\xc2\xabic:i,, August 15th, 17G9 First Consul of France, 1709 \nEmperor of France, 1804. Emperor of Ellia, 1814 Emperor of France, 181a \nExiled to St Helena, October, 1815. Died Mat 5ta. 1821 \n\n\n\n\'Oil, more or ie.\'9S ttmn mn.n \xe2\x80\x94 in bigti or low, \nBattling Avitb nations, fiyin.R from the field ; \nNow niaVing monarchs\' necks thy ioot-stool, now \nMore than thy meanest soldier taught to yield , \nAn empire thou couldst crush, comimand, rebuild. \nBut govern not thy pettiest p.assion, noi\'. \nHowever deeply in men\'s spirits skilled. \nLook through thine own, nor curb the lust of war. \nNor learn that tempted Fate will leave the loftiest star \n\nChildi: HAROi-n, Canto III. xsxviii \n\n\n\n\nMARSHAL SOUL \n\n\n\nKscHoi^AS Jean dk Dieu Soult, Marshal of France and Duke of Dalmati.-i, wr-i.\xc2\xab \nbom at Amans, March. 29th, 1769 His fathfjr Tfas an obscure notarj^ His career \nin the army "was distinguished by the most obstinate courage, and by great skill \nas a tactitian, especially in Spain, "where he filled the mos"^ "respcnsible stations \nOn the return of Napoleon from Elba, he again espoused his cause, and held a \nconanaand at Waterloo After residing some years in Fvussia, in 1819 he returned \nto France, and "was again created marshal and peer by Charles S. He has held \nseveral exalted posts, and until recently, not"withs tanding his advanced age, \nhas taken an active part in political affairs \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 521 \n\nade, and attempted entirely to destroy her commercial intercourse. \nIn an attempt so vast and difficult, lie met with a thousand obstacles, \nthe natural current of trade, like that of water, insinuating itself \nthrough every crevice and loop-hole of his system. Nevertheless, it \nsucceeded to such an extent as greatly to enhance the price of nearly \nall foreign commodities, and dangerously to lessen his popularity. \n\nFrom Berlin he proceeded to Warsaw, and was received with \nexultation by the Poles, who hoped, with his assistance, to revive \ntheir nationalitj\'-. This question, however, he kept in studied abey- \nance, meanwhile recruiting his forces from the enthusiastic youth, \nwhich flocked to his standard. In January, 1807, he took the field \nagainst the Russians, who still kept up hostilities. He pursued \nBeningsen, the Russian commander, as far as Eylau, where he halted, \nand drew up in order of battle. The forces on each side were about \nequal. After a murderous engagement, the Russians were retreat- \ning, when reinforced by a body of Prussians, under Lestocq. The \nengagement was renewed, but without any decisive result. A terrible \nslaughter had taken place; and Beningsen, having maintained his \nground in the battle, was compelled on the following day to retreat. \nBoth armies now waited for reinforcements, and, after some inde- \ncisive actions, met at Friedland on the 14:th of June, the anniversary \nof Marengo. The Russian general, with the greater part of his \narmy, had passed the bridge at that place, to attack the forces under \nNey. Napoleon, with his whole disposable force, hurried to his \nassistance, and assailed the Russian army in this critical and disad- \nvantageous position. Separated by the bridge, and exposed to a \nheavy cannonade, varied with charges of cavalry, they were finally \nrouted and dispersed by the infantry. Thousands perished in \nattempting to swim the river, and still greater numbers were slain on \nthe field. Further advantages followed, and Napoleon was soon able \nto vaunt, in a proclamation to his soldiers, "in ten days\' campaign, \nyou have taken one hundred and twenty pieces of cannon; killed, \nwounded, or taken sixty thousand Russians," &c. &c. \n\nThis important victory instantly brought the Russian emperor to \nterms. On the 25th, the two sovereigns met upon a raft in the \nNiemen, and were soon on terms of the greatest intimacy and friend- \nship. The unfortunate monarch of Prussia, arriving as a suppliant, \nand deserted by his ally, was compelled to acquiesce in the harshest \nterms. His share of Poland was erected into the independent duchy \nof Warsaw. All his territories west of the Elbe were taken from \n\n\n\n522 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhim. An enormous contribution was levied on his kingdom to \ndefray the expenses of the war. Out of nine million subjects, he \nwas permitted to retain only five. French garrisons were kept in \nseveral of his most important fortresses. He was compelled to shut \nhis ports against England. Jerome Bonaparte became king of \n"Westphalia \xe2\x80\x94 his kingdom being composed of territory conquered \nmostly from Prussia. Napoleon also, with great want of magna- \nnimity, indulged in much personal abuse and vituperation of the \ndefeated nation. \n\nAlexander was now completely won by the personal fascinations \nand ambitious views of his ally, and was inspired by similar designs \nfor his own aggrandizement. A grand scheme, comprising the \nconquest of a great part of the world, was discussed at Tilsit, and \nsecretly adopted. Napoleon was to commence with Spain, and \nEussia with Sweden and Turkey. Europe was already, in their \nimaginations, dismembered and divided between them. Circum- \nstances peculiarly favoured their views. England had now nearly \nthe whole continent against her. By the piratical expedition against \nthe capital and fleet of Denmark, she had aroused the indignation \nof all civilized nations. Only her superiority at sea, and her insu- \nlar position, had hitherto preserved her from invasion. Sweden and \nPortugal alone continued commercial intercourse with her; and to \nsuppress that of the latter. General Junot was despatched in October \nfrom Bayonne with thirty thousand men. \n\nIn this hour of almost unlimited power and glory, the decline of \nNapoleon may be said to commence. He suppressed the tribunate, \nthe last vestige of the revolution; decreed the establishment of \nhereditary titles ; and increased the limits of the conscription. In \nthe latter part of 1807, he kept six hundred thousand soldiers under \narms. A far nobler and more useful occupation, that of forming \nhis celebrated "Code," at this time also engaged his attention. \n\nThe condition of Spain was, at this period, almost as weak as pos- \nsible. The king, Charles IV., was ruled by his queen, and she by \nher favourite, the notorious Godoy, styled "Prince of the Peace." \nThe latter connived at all the ambitious schemes of the emperor \nupon Portugal. Junot had hardly entered the Portuguese territory \nbefore the royal family put to sea, and took refuge in Brazil. Their \nkingdom was quietly occupied by the French general. A second \nand third army crossed the Pyrenees, and early in 1808 a large part of \nthe disposable forces of France were already in Spain. Meanwhile, \n\n\n\nTEANCE. 523 \n\nthe besotted king and his son Ferdinand, quarrelling, sought each \nin turn the favour of Napoleon. The latter despatched a splendid \npresent to the king, and with it orders to his generals to take pos- \nsession of the inost important fortresses within their reach. An \ninsurrection in the capital compelled the king to abdicate in favour \nof Ferdinand. Murat at once marched upon Madrid, and Ferdinand, \nvainly thinking to gain the countenance and protection of Napoleon, \nhastened to Bayonne. The king and queen also arrived, and the \ntwo parties mutually pleaded their cases before him ; but with such \nweakness and recrimination, that the emperor, in disgust, resolved \nto set aside the whole family, and substitute a member of his own. \nMeantime, the people of Madrid, enraged at the departure of Fer- \ndinand, rose against the French, and massacred numbers, especially \nof the stragglers and the sick. Murat and Grouchy replied by a \nwholesale military execution. Charles and Ferdinand, partly by \nthreats and partly by cajolery, were induced to resign their claims \nto the throne. Napoleon then summoned an hundred and fifty \nnobles, under the title of the "Cortes," to assemble at Bayonne. \nThe emperor\'s claim that Joseph Bonaparte should be king of Spain \nwas acceded to by these, and he was forthwith proclaimed; his \nformer kingdom of Naples being assigned to Murat, the brother-in- \nlaw of Napoleon. \n\nOn the same day that Ferdinand abdicated, Alexander issued a \nukase, annexing Sweden to his dominions, and took steps to gain \npossession of it. His task was an easier one than that of his ally, \nwho had to overcome the resistance of a savagely patriotic nation. \nWhen the accession of Joseph was generally known, insurrections \nand massacres of the French were commenced throughout the king- \ndom ; and, in a short time, native forces of a formidable character \nwere arrayed against them. In the North, under Cuesta and Blake, \nthe insurgent armies were defeated at Eio Seco and elsewhere, with \ngreat slaughter; but Dupont, with a considerable force, in attempt- \ning to reach Cadiz, was compelled to surrender to them at Baylen. \nSimilar insurrections broke out in Portugal ; and the British gov- \nernment despatched to their assistance a force of fifteen thousand \nmen, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, which in August, 1808, landed \nin the Tagus. The battle of Yimiero, in which Junot, attacking \nthe British with inferior forces, was defeated, soon followed. By \nthe convention of Cintra, the French were transported, with all \ntheir plunder, to their own country. \n\n\n\n524 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nAustria also, affronted by lier exclusion from the treaty of Til- \nsit, and alarmed at the tokens of a universal empire, meditated the \nresumption of hostilities, and increased her forces. She was, never- \ntheless, excluded from the conference of Erfurt, where the two \nleading powers again discussed and settled the affairs of Europe. \nAware of the necessity of suppressing the Peninsular troubles \nbefore engaging a fresh enemy, Napoleon despatched his choicest \nforces to Spain, and early in November, 1808, crossed the Pyrenees \nin person. The insurgent forces were about an hundred thousand \nin number; but were so divided as to be easily crushed in succes- \nsion. Blake was defeated at Espinosa, Belvedere at Burgos, and \nCastanos at Tudela, The victor immediately pushed on, and took \nMadrid. The inquisition was forthwith abolished, and the convents \nwere suppressed. \n\nHe was driving the British, now a little more than twenty thou- \nsand in number, from the Peninsula, when tidings of fresh prepara- \ntions on the part of Austria reached him, and caused him to hurry \nnorthward without a moment\'s delay. Soult, whom he left in com- \nmand, pursued the army of Sir John Moore to Corunna, where, on \nthe 16th of January, 1809, previous to their embarkation, a battle \nwas fought, in which the French were repulsed, and the gallant com- \nmander of the English was killed by a cannon-shot. The enemy \nmagnanimously erected a monument over his remains. \n\nThe Austrian government, resolving upon a coup de main, had \nraised, by incredible exertions, an army of two hundred thousand \nmen, destined to act against France and Italy ; and another to keep \nin check the emperor Alexander. The Archduke Charles, who \ncommanded the former, taking the French by surprise, invaded \nGermany. Napoleon, hastening, with hardly a Frenchman, to the \nscene of action, took command of the Bavarians and other friendly \nforces, defeated the enemy at Ebensberg, and compelled a large \ndivision of their forces to surrender at Landshut. Hence, coming to \nthe rescue of Davoust, who was engaged with the enemy at Eckmuhl, \nhe took the Austrian army by surprise in their flank, and gained a \ncomplete and overwhelming victory. Davoust was made prince \nof Eckmuhl on the field; and another astonishing proclamation \nannounced to the Parisians the capture, within a single week, of an \nhundred cannon, forty stand of colours, and fifty thousand prisoners. \n\nThe conqueror once more took the road to Vienna; and on the \n12th of May, one month from the commencement of hostilities, \n\n\n\nFKANCE. 525 \n\nreceived its surrender. His first act was to issue a decree, affirming \nthe title of Charlemagne, his predecessor, to the states of Eome, \nand formally annexing them to the French empire, leaving to the \nPope his title of bishop and a revenue of two millions of francs. \nThe Archduke Charles, marching through Bohemia, now arrived on \nthe opposite side of the Danube ; but all the bridges having been \ndestroyed, it was difficult to effect an engagement. Imitating the \nmovement of Alexander at the Hydaspes, Napoleon passed down to \nthe woody island of Lobau, and on the 22d of May succeeded in trans- \nporting, by a temporary bridge, forty thousand of his troops to the \nopposite bank. A desperate encounter took place in the village of \nEssling. The French, wanting ammunition, and cut off from supplies \nby the partial destruction of their bridge, suffered greatly from a \nfire of artillery, and finally retreated to the island with much loss. \nIn this bloody engagement fell Marshal Lannes, the duke of Monte- \nbello, a man of extraordinary bravery, called the "Roland" of the \nFrench army. Napoleon, who had trained him under his own eye, \nwas deeply affected by the sufferings and death of this faithful fol- \nlower, who, to the last moment, deliriously repeated the name of \nhis master, and called on him for assistance. The emperor, despite \nthe great losses which his army had sustained, still stubbornly held \nhis ground, and converted the island into a fortified camp. \n\nOn the night of the 4th of July, being reinforced till his army \namounted to an hundred and fifty thousand men, he again threw \nbridges over the river, and crossed it with his forces. On the 6th \nhe attacked the archduke, whose army was strongly posted at \nWagram. Several of the ablest leaders of Napoleon had been \nkilled or disabled, and the event of the battle at first seemed favour- \nable to the Austrians. An hundred cannon were, however, brought \nto bear upon their centre, and Macdonald, charging with the infantry \ninto the gaps caused by the artillery, broke their ranks, and won the \nday. Twenty thousand prisoners were taken. An armistice was \nconcluded on the 15th, and Napoleon took up his residence at one of \nthe imperial palaces near Vienna. \n\nDuring this time, events important to his interests had been every \nwhere transpiring. The Pope, placable enough till his own interests \nwere invaded, now, using his only weapon, had launched an excom- \nmunication at him, and had in consequence been carried off a pris- \noner. He was regarded as a martyr to the cause of religion, and \nreceived the hearty sympathies of the Catholic world. In the Tyrol, \n\n\n\n526 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe insurgent mountaineers still held out. The Poles, under Ponia- \ntowsky, had been defeated by Austria. England had despatched a \npowerful expedition to the Low Countries, which, however, proved \na complete failure, leaving the bones of half its numbers on the \ndeadly island of Walcheren. \n\nOn the Peninsula, Soult, after expelling the British, and overrun- \nning various provinces, was himself repelled from Portugal, in May, \nby Wellesley, who had returned from England, and resumed the com- \nmand. The latter, pursuing his advantage, marched into Spain, and \nwith twenty thousand British and thirty thousand Spaniards, under \nCuesta, encountered the French, equally strong, at Talavera. They \nwere commanded by Victor, and King Joseph was present in person. \nOn the 28th of July, the attack was commenced by the French in \ncolumns, and at one time was almost successful; but owing to the \nable dispositions of the English commander, and the strength of his \nposition, they were repulsed, and the advantage remained with the \nallies. Wellesley, however, was compelled to fall back into Portugal. \n\nNegotiations for peace, meanwhile, went on at Vienna. Alexander \nhad shown himself, if not a faithless, yet a lukewarm ally. Napoleon \nfelt the necessity of some firmer union with one, at least, of the great \npowers of Europe. Moderate terms therefore were granted to the \ndefeated nation, and by secret agreement, the alliance was to be \nratified by the marriage of the victor to a princess of the royal house \nof Austria. Other circumstances had strengthened this conclusion. \nHe had no heirs by Josephine, and the son of Louis, whom he had \ndestined to be his successor, died in infancy. The unhappy empress, \nafter vainly attempting to avert her fate, yielded an apparent con- \nsent, and was present at the solemn dissolution of their marriage. \nShe retired to Malmaison ; and in March, 1810, Napoleon was married \nto the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis. \n\n\n\n\nivIAKcHAL LAKKES \n\n\n\nJean Lannes, Marshal of France, and Duke of Montebello, was born in Kor \nrriandy, April, 1769, of humble j>arentage, his father being a mechanic. By his \nsconderful daring and impetuosity, he gained the titles of the "P^oland" and \nthe "Ajax" of the French arnay After a career of extraordinary brilliancy \nand glory, he "was mortally wounded in May, 1609, at the disastrous battle of \nEsslmg. Napoleon, upon whose nanae he called deliriously while he survived, \nwas affected to tears by the loss of this faithful comrade and servant, whose \nmilitary genius he had fostered with personal assiduity "I foui^d him a dwarl." \nsaid he "I lost him a giant \n\n\n\nFRANCE. 527 \n\nTHE DECLINE AND FALL OP THE EMPIRE. \n\nThe power and glory of Napoleon had now, apparently, reacted \ntheir point of culmination. His territories were greatly enlarged, \nand the firmness and perpetuation of his dynasty seemed to be \nsecured by the new alliance. But various and apparently insuffi- \ncient causes were gradually undermining the vast structure which \nhad been reared too hastily and wilfully to be permanent. His \narbitrary measures, and, in particular, such as were depressing com- \nmerce, had alienated the attachment of great masses of his subjects, \nparticularly those whose interests especially suffered. His army, \nstill by far the most formidable in the world, had lost the early and \nresistless enthusiasm of the republic, and found its devotion to the \nperson of the emperor an unequal substitute. His generals, incom- \nparable for bravery and military science, were, with few exceptions, \nmore attached to their own aggrandizement and to the spoils they \nhad acquired, than to the views of their sovereign or his personal \nschemes of ambition. \n\nHis brother Louis, unwilling to enforce, to the ruin of his subjects, \nthe utmost severity of the continental system, was compelled, by ill- \nusage, to resign his kingdom of Holland, and to behold it formally \nincorporated with the French empire. Sweden, which, by the depo- \nsition of her monarch, was in search of a sovereign, made choice \nof Marshal Bernadotte, whom Napoleon, distrusting his friendship, \nallowed, with much reluctance, to accept the throne. In Spain, \nJoseph succeeded in 1810 in reducing the revolted provinces; the \nguerilla or partisan warfare being, however, still continued. Massena, \nwith eighty thousand men, pursued Wellington with thirty thousand \nBritish, in Portugal, until the latter, stopping at the almost impreg- \nnable "lines of Torres Vedras," opposed an obstinate resistance. \nAfter losing a great part of his army by disease, famine, and fatigue, \nthe French commander was compelled to retreat into Spain, leaving \ndestruction wherever he passed. Marmont, who succeeded him, \naccomplished nothing; and Soult, who in turn took the command, \nsustained an important reverse at Albuera. \n\n\n\n528 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nA far more formidable conflict was approacliing. Napoleon, who \nbegan to see the impolicy of allowing the Kussian emperor to annex \nTurkey to his dominions, had refused even at Erfurt to sanction a \nplan for the conquest of his ally; and a coldness on the part of \nAlexander resulted. The occupation of the duchy of Oldenburg, \npertaining to a connection of the latter, was a further cause of ill- \nfeeling. The British influence again prevailed at St. Petersburg, and \nthe continental system was abrogated in Eussia. Both parties, while \ncarrying on negotiations, made gigantic preparations for the event \nof war, and concentrated large armies on their frontiers. Bernadotte, \nwho had impudently demanded Norway as the price of his adhesion \nto Napoleon, was provoked by an invasion of his territories into an \nalliance with Eussia. Turkey kept quiet, and England, of course, \ncontinued hostile. But all the remainder of Europe seemed at the \ndisposal of Napoleon in the ensuing contest. France, Italy, Holland, \nGermany, Prussia, and Austria, were all prepared, some from fear \nand some from attachment, to place their forces at his command. \n\nNapoleon, it is probable, sincerely wished fOr peace, but not at the \nexpense of his ambition or his interests. But negotiation, both \npublic and private, proved ineffectual to reconcile the conflicting \ninterests, and early in 1812 war seemed inevitable. The French \nemperor, m May, held a levee at Dresden, of the various powers \nwhose services he had demanded. Probably so brilliant and aiigust \na court was never assembled to do homage to any human being. \nAmong the sovereigns, who "jostled each other in his ante-chamber, " \nmight be seen the emperor of Austria, the king of Prussia, and a \nlong array of lesser potentates. "The reunion of Dresden seemed \na parting pageant, given to Napoleon by Fortune ere she abandoned \nhim. The richest incense that could be burned to human pride was \nthere offered to Bonaparte." It was evident, however, that he could \nno longer rely upon the enthusiastic support of those distinguished \nchiefs who had served him so long and faithfully, and on whose \nearnest devotion he had hitherto implicitly relied. Having acquired \nfortunes, and become the masters of families, they were less disposed \nthan formerly to tempt fortune, and greatly preferred the enjoyment \nof what they had already acquired. At a private supper to which \nthe emperor, then at Dantzic, invited Murat, Berthier, and Eapp, \nthis feeling was plainly expressed. The three generals sat with \ngrave reserve. " I see very clearly, gentlemen, " said Napoleon, "that \nyou are no longer desirous of going to war. Murat would prefer \n\n\n\n\nNAtOLELiN oJr OWNING THE EMPKESb JOSEPHINE \n\n"But Dot even from the Head of the Catholic Church would Nnpoleon eoi3 \nsent to receive as a boon the golden symbol of sovereignty, which he was \nsensible he owed solely to his own unparalleled train of military and civil sue \ncesses The crown having been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon took it from \nthe altar v/ith his own hands, and placed it on his brows He then put the \ndiadem on the head of his Empress as if determined to show that his author- \niry wi=: th \xc2\xb0 rhild of hi?^ own actions \xe2\x96\xa0\' \xe2\x80\x94 ycorr\'s Life of Napoleon \n\n\n\n\nTHE PRIVATE SUPPEK AT DANTZIC \n\nv.p^r^::::::iir Lv^rtietHrt:^ ^^^--^^^^ \xe2\x80\x94 - --- \n\nfarther warfare ,See page 528.\' ""\'"^ *^^\'" disinclination to \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 529 \n\nnever again to leave the fine climate of liis kingdom; Bertliier \nwants to hunt over his estates at Grosbois ; and Kapp is impatient \nto return to his hotel in Paris." \xe2\x80\x94 It was very true. A silence fol- \nlowed, first broken by Eapp, who honestly confessed the fact. \n\nOn learning the ineffectual result of his last private embassy, the \nemperor immediately betook himself to his immense army beyond \nthe Vistula. This gigantic force, probably the most numerous that \nhas ever been collected, was estimated at nearly eight hundred \nthousand men. The difl&culty of supporting such a mass was enor- \nmous, and compelled Napoleon to waste upon the comTnissariat that \nattention which he should have devoted entirely to the campaign. \nOn the 24th of June, 1812, he crossed the Niemen, unchallenged \nsave by a single Cossack, and marched in pursuit of the Eussian \narmy. The latter, however, retreated without attempting any \ndefence, and he entered the city of Wilna without opposition. A \nlarge force, under Macdonald, kept along the Baltic. The Eussians, \nwho, in two large armies, were commanded by De Tolly and Bagration, \nwere divided ; an opportunity of cutting off the latter was lost by \nthe insubordination of Jerome, who was, in consequence, sent home \nin disgrace. For two weeks, the French army, encumbered by its \nown bulk, and the difficulty of support, remained at "Wilna. Napo- \nleon then marched upon Smolensko, and, after a stubborn resistance \non the road, and a murderous assault, gained possession of its burning \nruins. In despite the remonstrances of his generals, with one hun- \ndred and twenty thousand men he pushed on for Moscow, now \neighty leagues distant. \n\nKutusoff had by this time been appointed to the command of the \nEussians, and, with a somewhat superior force, awaited him at Boro- \ndino, on the river Moskwa. On the 6th of September, the action \ncommenced; the Eussians being strongly fortified and the French \nattacking. Several of the French leaders were disabled early in \nthe action, and it was only after three severe battles, Bagration having \nfallen, that the Eussians were beaten from their intrenchments, and \ncompelled to abandon the field. Eight of the French generals fell, \nand the only trophies of this severely-contested victory were a few \nbroken cannon, and less than a thousand prisoners. Ney, for his \nheroic conduct, was immediately created "prince of the Moskwa." \n\nThe fate of Moscow, however, was decided. On the lith of Septem- \nber Napoleon entered it, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, \nthe ancient palace of the czars. He did not long enjoy his new \n34 \n\n\n\n530 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\npossessions. Fires broke out in several quarters, and on the 17tli \nspread over the entire city. Napoleon with difficulty escaped, and \nbeheld from a short distance this magnificent spectacle, which too \ntruly foreboded the frustration of his schemes. It seems doubtful \nwhether this destruction of the ancient capital of Russia was the \nwork of private incendiaries or of Rostopchin, the governor. It was \nnow evidently impossible for the French army to winter here, as the \nemperor had intended, and he instantly conceived the daring idea \nof marching upon St. Petersburg. But his generals, weary of war, \nwould not concur in this audacious scheme : they counselled a retreat : \nwhile Napoleon, with apparent infatuation, lingered for a month in \nthe Kremlin, amid the ruins of the city, vainly waiting an answer \nto his proposals for peace. \n\nOn the 19th of October the army, heavily encumbered with spoils, \ncommenced its retreat \xe2\x80\x94 that horrible retreat which exhausts all con- \nceptions of human suffering and despair. On the road to Kalouga, \na sanguinary engagement took place between a portion of the hostile \narmies ; but the main bodies, under KutusofP and Napoleon, as yet \ncautiously avoided each other. The French army, in three divisions, \nmarched toward Smolensko, suffering terribly from cold and famine, \nand harassed by clouds of Cossacks, who hung upon their rear, and \ncut off every straggler from the ranks. The trophies and the plun- \nder were abandoned in the deep snow, through which the army \ncould hardly force its way. Arriving at Smolensko, reduced, in \neffective numbers, to a third of the conquerors of Moscow, they \nfound famine awaiting them, and hostile armies surrounding them \non all sides. The conduct of Ney, who commanded the rear-guard, \nwas, during the whole retreat, a miracle of courage, talent, and for- \ntitude. With five thousand men, he kept Kutusoff, with eighty \nthousand, at bay, and brought his division to Napoleon. The \n\'\' Grand Army, " now reduced to fourteen thousand men, worn out \nwith privation and fatigue, still retreated, seeking to escape the \nenemy by crossing the Beresina. Meeting by chance the army of \nVictor, they resolved, thus reinforced, to attempt the passage. Two \nfrail bridges were thrown across the stream, and a portion of the \narmy crossed in safety. During this terrible passage, the Russian \narmy, in overwhelming force, was pressing on their rear. Great \nnumbers were drowned by the breaking of one of the bridges, and \nby being forced into the water. Their bodies were almost immedi- \nately frozen into the wintry stream, and when counted by the Rus- \n\n\n\n\n.lARSHAL NET \n\n\n\nLIirTiAJL Net, Marshal of France, acd Prince of the iloskwa, -wVas; boiu of \nobscure parentage, at Sarre Louis, in 1770. During the whole of Napoleon\'s \ncareer, l(e ^was distinguished hy such dauntless valour as to receive iroui hi.-i \nsovereign the most implicit confidence, and justly to earn the title of the \n"J3raveat pf the Brave." His conduct in the terrible retreat of Russia was, \nperhaps, the most hertjio of any Avnich is recorded in history His high mili- \ntary qualities -were equalled by his humanity and tindness of heart. He led \nthe last ojiarge of the Guard at Waterloo, and on the second return of thi \nBourbons, "was executed by the cov^ardly rulers who had been reinstated l>y \nforeign arms. \'\'Thus," says Col. Napiej-, a magnanimous English historian, "be \nAvho had fought five HUHDREn BATTiEs for France \xe2\x80\x94 not one against her \xe2\x80\x94 wis \nsliot a,s a ti\'aitor \n\n\n\nFSANCE. \n\n\n\n531 \n\n\n\nsians in the following spring, were found to amount to thirty or \nforty thousand. \n\nTidings now came of disturbances in Paris ; and Napoleon, leaving \nthe relics of his forces to struggle with fresh disasters, departed \nsecretly on a sledge, and hastened, almost in disguise, to his own \ndominions. The vast army, of nearly five hundred thousand, which \nhe had brought into action, was almost annihilated. It has been \ncomputed, by accurate judges, that of this immense force one hun- \ndred and twenty-five thousand were slain in battle, one hundred \nand thirty-two thousand perished from cold and famine, and one \nhundred and ninety-three thousand were made prisoners. Though \nmany of the national trophies were destroyed, the Eussians took \nseventy-five eagles or colours and nine hundred cannon. \n\nAll Europe, taking heart at the misfortunes of its late master, \nnow seemed ready to rise against him. The Prussians, under Yorck, \ndeserted Macdonald. Murat, forsaking the remains of the army \nintrusted to his charge, fled to his own kingdom of Naples, ere long \nto betray his master, and join the enemy. Austria and England \nentered into alliance with Russia, Prussia almost immediately joined \nthem, and the French were compelled to adopt the Elbe, instead of \nthe Oder, as a line of defence. Bernadotte and the Swedes, subsi- \ndized by England, joined the hostile alliance. \n\nNapoleon, on his part, made every effort of preparation and \ndefence. To supply the loss of those who had perished in the \nsnows of Russia, the conscription was drawn for years in antici- \npation. In April, 1813, he joined the army of forty thousand men, \nwhich yet remained in Germany, with eighty thousand young con- \nscripts, entirely ignorant of war \xe2\x80\x94 "sucking pigs," as an old general \ntermed them, in despair. The allies, in great force, advanced \nagainst him, but were defeated, under Blucher, by the courageous \n3^outh, whom Napoleon had already inspired with his own hardi- \nhood and enthusiasm. He immediately occupied the disputed cities \nof Leipsic and Dresden. Encouraged by these successes, he refused \nto accede to the terms of Austria, who now demanded, as the price \nof her neutrality, a considerable augmentation of territory. At \nBautzen, on the 21st of May, he again attacked the enemy, defeated \nthem, in a position of great force, and drove them into Bohemia. \nThe Russian and Prussian armies retreated into Austria, and Napo- \nleon, still refusing the demands of the latter, saw his father-in-law \nconclude a formal alliance with his enemies. Austria had an army \n\n\n\n532 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof two hundred thousand men ready for action ; tlie Eussian and \nPrussian armies were reinforced; yet the emperor resolved to hold \nout at Dresden. General Moreau, long banished for conspiracy, had \nnow entered the service of Alexander, and was directing the enemies \nof his country, while Bernadotte, with his kingdom, was also in \narms against his former master. \n\nOn the 2ist of August the Austrians, under Prince Schwartzen- \nburg, in overwhelming force, attacked Dresden, which was gallantly \ndefended by twenty thousand French; when Napoleon, returning \nfrom the pursuit of Blucher, repulsed them. Two daj^s afterwards, \nhe completely defeated them, with the loss of their cannon and \ntwenty thousand prisoners. Moreau, his ancient rival, was mortally \nwounded in the action. This advantage was, in a great degree, \ncounterbalanced by the misfortune of his general, Yandamme, who, \nwith his division, was compelled to surrender to a superior force of \nRussians and Prussians. The allies now pursued a singular system \nof tactics, recommended it is said by Bernadotte. At the approach \nof the emperor, they invariably retreated ; but when engaged with \nhis generals, put forth their utmost efforts, and frequently ventured \nto give battle. Thus, Oudinot was defeated at Buren by Berna- \ndotte, and Macdonald by Blucher, at the Katzbach, " The campaigns \nround Dresden resembled what Homer recounts of the siege of \nTroy. When Achilles rushed forth, all was rout, fight, and slaugh- \nter; when he retired, his enemies showed courage, and never failed \nto gain the advantage." He was soon compelled, by the increasing \nforces of the enemy, to transfer his quarters to Leipsic. \n\nOn the very day of his arrival (October 16th), the allies, in over- \nwhelming force, began to close around it, but, after some desperate \nfighting, gained little advantage. On the 18th, the French, attacked \nby three times their number, made a most gallant defence, and suc- \nceeded, amid great slaughter, in maintaining their position. It was, \nhowever, evidently necessary to retreat still farther; and on the \nfollowing day, with nearly three hundred thousand of the enemy \npressing upon them, the remains of the French army commenced to \ndefile over a frail bridge that served as their only outlet from the \ncity. "With a few troops, Macdonald and the gallant Prince Ponia- \ntowsky defended this disastrous retreat. By the premature destruc- \ntion of the bridge, great numbers perished, and others remained \ncaptive in the city. The French army lost, on this terrible day, \ntwo hundred cannon and fifty thousand men. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n633 \n\n\n\nExcept the ancient limits of France, little was now left to liim \nwho had so lately been dictator of Europe. Holland, Italy, and \nmost of liis other dependencies espoused the cause of the enemy. \nIn Spain, the English, under Wellington, had driven the remainder \nof his troops across the Pyrenees. The allies, in overwhelming \nnumbers, were on the frontiers of France itself, yet Napoleon refused \ntheir proposition of making the Rhine his boundary. \n\nA movement, equally formidable to his power, was also com- \nmencing within his own kingdom. Both the royalists and republi- \ncans had now conceived hopes of his entire overthrow, and laid \nplans for the substitution of their own systems. Instead, however, \nof conciliating the opposition, he resolved to suppress it by force, \nand at once dissolved the feeble legislative assembly, which had \nventured to offer a remonstrance. \n\nThe garrisons which he had left in Germany were one by one \nreduced, and, under Bulow and Blucher, the allied forces crossed \nthe Ehine, while Wellington advanced from the Pyrenees. On the \n25th of January, 1814, Napoleon left his capital, to defend, with \nfeeble and diminished forces, the empire that yet remained to him. \nSchwartzenburg and Blucher, with an hundred and fifty thousand \nmen, were already on their way to Paris. The French army was \nless than half their number, consisting mostly of raw recruits. \nNevertheless, the emperor, fighting hand to hand with the enemy, \ndrove Blucher from Brienne, the scene of his own youthful studies \nand education. On the 1st of February, the latter, reinforced by \nSchwartzenburg, and aided by the presence of Alexander and \nFrederick of Prussia, attacked the French at La Pothiere with over- \nwhelming force. After an heroic resistance, the latter were compelled \nto retreat, under cover of night. The allies now continually rose in \ntheir demands, and refused peace, except on condition that France \nshould be reduced to its ancient limits. Napoleon, refusing their \nterms, hastened, with the wreck of his army, in pursuit of Blucher, \nwho had made a hurried march towards Paris, defeated him at \nChampaubert and Montmirail, with the loss of two-thirds of his \narmy, and drove him with the remainder in fiill retreat. On the \n18th, he also defeated the Austrians at Montoreau. Schwartzenburg \nretreated, but Blucher, with a fresh force of an hundred thousand, \nresolved to effect a union with the Russians, and renew the march \nto Paris. To defeat this scheme, Napoleon, marching against the \nRussians, gained, at great loss, a victory at Craonne. At Laon, \n\n\n\n534: THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhowever, by tlie unsldlfulness of Marmont, he experienced a severe \nreverse, and lost such a portion of his force as to render further \nresistance almost hopeless. \n\nThe allies, elated by their success, now refused to treat at all, and \nfrom all directions pushed their forces toward the capital. The \nroyalists, also, began to assume a bolder and more open attitude, and \nBordeaux, supported by Wellington, declared for the Bourbons. \nTheir partisans in Paris, directed by the astute and treacherous Tal- \nleyrand, opened a negotiation with the allied sovereigns in behalf \nof the exiled family, and gained the support of Alexander. Kapo- \nleon, still obstinately defending his country, was defeated, with the \nmiserable remains of his army, at Arcis. Still undismayed, he \nmarched to surprise the allied forces in their rear. Marmont and \nMortier, however, who were to have joined him, were compelled by \nthe advance of the enemy to retreat upon Paris, and on the 30th \nof March, with a scanty force, attempted to defend it from the over- \nwhelming forces of the allies. A gallant attempt to withstand their \nattack was made, and many of the young pupils of the Polytechnic \nschool died fighting bravely in defence of their country ; but resist- \nance was in vain ; Paris capitulated, and on the 31st, Alexander \nand Frederick entered the city. \n\nNapoleon, scarcely able to credit the loss of his capital, again \nvainly attempted to treat with the victors. But the caiise of the \nBourbons, supported by a powerful army of foreigners, and by the \ngeneral weariness of war, prevailed; the senate, convoked by Tal- \nleyrand, voted the crown forfeited by various misdemeanours, and \nappointed a provisional government. The emperor, now almost \ndeserted, made one more appeal for assistance to his marshals, and \non their refusal, declared his willingness to abdicate in favour of his \nson. This offer was refused, and after beholding nearly all his \nfriends and ofl&cers desert to the enemy, he signed an unconditional \nabdication at Fontainbleau on the 11th of April, 1814. \n\nHe had utterly refused to stipulate for any terms of personal \ninterest; but by the influence of his former friend, Alexander, the \ntitle of Emperor was still secured to him, and the little island of \nElba was allotted as the scene of his sovereignty. Thither he \nrepaired, for a few months to exercise his talents in petty schemes \nand difl&culties, until his destiny called him, for a brief period, to \nfigure for the last time in that mightier and more tragical scene, \nwhich closed the great drama of the fortunes of Europe. \n\n\n\nTEANCE. \n\n\n\n535 \n\n\n\nTHE RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS, AND THE "HUNDRED \nDATS" OF NAPOLEON. \n\nLouis XVIII.,* who had thus been elevated by the arms of \nforeigners to the ancient throne of his ancestors, was a man of \nmoderate intellect, and more adapted to the life of a retired scholar, \nthan to the sovereignty of a great and impetuous nation. His first \naccession was, however, eagerly welcomed by a people suffering \nunder the worst calamities of war, and desirous of some interval of \nrest. The army alone, by its dark and sullen demeanour, evinced \ndissatisfaction with the change. The manner of his first political \nact, that of granting a charter to the nation, was unpopular, as recog- \nnising its only source in the will of the new sovereign. Discontent \nwas also strongly felt at the reduction of France within her former \nlimits \xe2\x80\x94 a misfortune, whether real or supposed, only to be ascribed \nin reality to him who had enlarged them. \n\nOther and more real grievances soon supervened. By attempting \nto restore the more bigoted and odious attributes of the church, the \ncourt disgusted and alienated the liberal and intellectual. A serious \ninsurrection was excited by the refusal to bury an actress in conse- \ncrated ground, and the government was compelled to yield. \nEestrictions on the press, and the constant dread of the emigrants\' \nresuming their forfeited estates, produced farther discontent and \nuneasiness. The strange mixture of an ancient and absurd noblesse, \nand of blood-stained revolutionists, which composed the new court \nand ministry, inspired ridicule and distrust, rather than confidence \nor respect. \n\nThe first reactionary movement was made by the old Jacobin \nparty, which, after being so many years repressed by the strong \nhand of Napoleon, started into a new and formidable existence under \nthe feebler and more obnoxious sway of the Bourbons. Carnot, the \nold revolutionary minister at war, now holding an important of&ce, \n\n\n\n* The unhappy son of Louis XVI., a mere child, who had perished from ill-treat- \nment during the Revolution, was enrolled by the royalists as Louis XVII. \n\n\n\n536 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, \n\nwas at the head of this conspiracj. Fouch^, the wily and -unprinci- \npled ex-minister of police, was also deeply implicated. But all their \nprojects seemed likely to fall to the ground for want of a leader \nwho could influence the army. After vainly attempting to procure \na chief elsewhere, they turned their thoughts to Elba, and com- \nmenced negotiations for replacing Napoleon at the head of affairs. \nImportant concessions to the republican spirit were, undoubtedly, to \nbe the price of his reinstatement on the throne. Murat, who still held \nthe kingdom of Naples by a precarious tenure, again opened com- \nmunications with his brother-in-law, whom he had lately betrayed. \n\nThe plot being ripe, Napoleon, on the 26th of February, 1815, \nembarked from his little island, with a force of about a thousand \nmen, to undertake the reconquest of France. He landed at Cannes \non the 1st of March, and at once commenced his march toward the \ncapital. At Grenoble he encountered a force of three thousand \ntroops, and throwing himself in their midst, was received with the \ngreatest enthusiasm. The government, now thoroughly alarmed, \nbegan to take measures for self-defence, and the Comte d\'Artois, \nthe king\'s brother, vainly attempted to harangue into fidelity the \ntroops at Lyons. "You deceive yourself," said an old veteran; "no \nman here will fight against his father: I will cry Vive NajpoleonP^ \nThe soldiers welcomed and mingled with those of their ancient com- \nmander. Here he appointed the ministers of a new government, and \non the 13th resumed his march, the troops declaring in his favour \nwherever he came. Ney, who had gone with a considerable force \nto intercept him, was won over by a letter addressed to "the bravest \nof the brave," and forthwith joined him, with all his troops. At \nMelun, the last army of the royalists, commanded by Macdonald, \nwas posted to repel the invader. Almost unattended, he drove into \ntheir midst, and was received with a general shout of " Yive \nNapoleon P\'\' \n\nLouis, anticipating this result, on the 20th of March fled from \nParis with a small escort, and succeeded in reaching Ghent in \nsafety. His victorious rival, entering Paris on the evening of the \nsame day, again took possession of the Tuileries, and was welcomed \nby the principal contrivers of this wonderful conspiracy. "Never, \nin his bloodiest and most triumphant field of battle, had the terrible \nascendancy of Napoleon\'s genius appeared half so predominant as \nduring his march, or rather his journey from Cannes to Paris. He \nwho left the same coast, disguised like a slave, and weeping like a \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\n537 \n\n\n\nwoman, for fear of assassination, returned in grandeur like that of \nthe returning wave, which, the farther it has retreated, is rolled back \nupon the shore with the more terrific and overwhelming violence. \nHis look seemed to possess the pretended power of northern magi- \ncians, and blunted swords and spears." \n\nReinstated on his throne, but holding it by an insecure tenure, \nhe naturally desired peace, as well for the interest of his kingdom \nas of himself. But the allied powers returned no answer to his \novertures; and the "Congress of Vienna," which was still sitting, \n(to disnfember and prey upon the weaker countries,) resolved on \nunrelenting hostilit3^ Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia \nagreed that each should furnish an hundred and fifty thousand \ntroops for the approaching attempt to destroy their ancient conqueror. \nThe actual number that was levied exceeded, however, a million. \n\nThe position of Napoleon, indeed, appeared almost hopeless, from \nthe commencement. France, exhausted by murderous wars in other \ncountries, was absolutely destitute of the bone and sinew neces- \nsary to defend her. The failure of Murat, who, threatened with the \nloss of his throne, had prematurely taken up arms, and been utterly \nruined, was a great blow to the cause of the restored sovereign. His \nassistance, if deferred a little longer, would have been invaluable. \nThe constitution which the emperor now granted, was objectionable \nto the liberals, on the ground that (like that of Louis, which it much \nresembled) it professed simply to emanate from the imperial will, \nwithout recognising the authority of the nation. The Parisians, \nthough fond of spectacles, viewed with coldness the splendid \npageantry of the "Champ de Mai," which celebrated the organ- \nization of the new government. The chamber of peers, mostly \ncomposed of his generals or personal friends, was tolerably devoted \nto the interest of Napoleon ; but the chamber of deputies or com- \nmons contained a strong infusion of the ancient Jacobinical feeling. \n\nThe immense armies of the allies were now put in motion, and \nthe whole eastern frontier was menaced with invasion. By desperate \nexertions, a force for the national defence was raised, and from this \nNapoleon selected about an hundred and thirty thousand soldiers \nfor his last fatal campaign. The first enemies to be encountered \nwere the English and Prussians, who, with greatly superior forces, \nseemed to await his attack. After some masterly manoeuvres, on \nthe 16th of June he engaged the Prussian force of eighty thousand \nmen, under Blucher, at Ligny. Though superior in number, they \n\n\n\n538 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwere defeated, with a loss of ten thousand men, and compelled to \nretreat. On the same day Ney, with a portion of the army, engaged \nthe British at Quatre Bras, but after obstinate fighting, no decisive \nresult was attained. Wellington, however, retreated towards Brus- \nsels, and took up his position near the village of Waterloo, a few \nmiles from the city. Napoleon followed him, and on the 18th of \nJune, the two armies, each about seventy thousand in number, \nencamped opposite to each other. Both were distressed, but espe- \ncially the French, by the tempestuous weather to which, for some \ndays previous, they had been exposed. The forces under the com- \nmand of Wellington were composed about equally of British and \ncontinental troops. Those of Napoleon were all that remained of \nthat splendid army, so long the terror of Europe. The plan of each \ncommander was exceedingly simple; Wellington being only intent \non holding his position until reinforced by Blucher ; and Napoleon \nstaking his last hopes on the desperate attempt to destroy the two \narmies in succession before they could effect a junction. \n\nA little before noon, the action commenced with a furious can- \nnonade, and a desperate attack, led by Jerome, upon the Chateau \nof Hougoumont, occupied by the British. The latter succeeded in \nholding this important post. An attack on the English centre was \nequally unfortunate. The charging columns had penetrated the \nforces of the enemy, but being attacked on all sides, lost many of \ntheir number in the fight, as well as two thousand prisoners, who \nwere surrounded. The British cavalry were, in their turn, repulsed \nwith much loss. They also lost the farm of La Haye Sainte, an \nimportant position. On the right, the French cavalry made repeated \ncharges upon the squares of the British, which, however, they were \nunable to break. In repeating this desperate attempt again and \nagain, the greater part of them were destroyed. The Prussians, \nunder Bulow, had now reached the field, and attacked the French \nright; and Napoleon, at last aware of the approach of Blucher \nwith an overwhelming force, resolved on a last and desperate effort \nto destroy the English before he could arrive. The imperial guard, \nwho had been hitherto kept in reserve, were formed into two \ncolumns, and ordered to charge the English line. To the exhorta- \ntions of their sovereign, the}\' answered, for the last time, with cries \nof Vive VEmpereur! and, led by the celebrated Ney, moved on to the \nattack. The fire which they encountered, however, was too heavy \nto admit of success, and in spite of the efforts of their heroic leader, \n\n\n\n\nAN OFFICER OF THE lilPERIAL GUARD OF NAPOLEON, \n\n\n\ntN FUr.r, ONIFOULI \n\n\n\nFEANCE. 539 \n\ntlie J were compelled to retreat in confusion. The rout now became \no-eneral, and the flying ranks were fiercely pursued by the army of \nBlacher, which had just arrived. Great numbers of the defenceless \nfugitives were slaughtered by the Prussians, yet smarting under \nancient and recent defeat. Many deserted or were dispersed, and \nprobably not half of the army then engaged was ever again assem- \nbled under arms. \n\nThe defeated emperor hastened to Paris, aware that the Jacobins \nin the assembly would take advantage of the crisis to attempt the \noverthrow of his government. This apprehension was better founded \nthan his reliance on his own authority. Indeed, it was evident to \nall, that a second abdication alone could preserve France from the \nmiserable condition of a conquered country. His brother Lucien \nvainly pleaded his cause before the assembly, and entreated their \nfidelity. "We have been faithful," answered La Fayette; "we have \nfollowed your brother to the sands of Egypt \xe2\x80\x94 to the snows of Eus- \nsia. The bones of Frenchmen, scattered in every region, attest our \nfidelity." In a general council held by the emperor, he reiterated \nhis views, and delicately suggested abdication as the only remedy \nfor the impending evils. The unfortunate sovereign, distracted by \nvarious counsels, and unwilling to quit the scene of his deepest inter- \nests, could not effect a determination. "The best counsel," says his \nbiographer, "was, perhaps, that of an American gentleman, who \nadvised him instantly to retreat to the North American States, where \nhe could not, indeed, enjoy the royal privileges and ceremonial, to \nwhich he was more attached than philosophy warrants, but where \nthat general respect would have been paid to him, which his splendid \ntalents and wonderfal career of adventure were so well calculated \nto enforce." On the 22d of June, only four days after the battle of \nWaterloo, in compliance with the eager desire of the assembly, he \nmade an abdication in favour of his infant son, the " King of Rome." \nThe deputies, though refusing formally to acknowledge the new \nsovereign, proclaimed him by general acclamation. Carnot still \ncherished the hope of resistance, and presented to the assembly an \nexaggerated statement of the available forces yet remaining. This \nwas furiously contradicted by ISTey: "Not a man of the Guard," he \ncried, "will ever rally again. I myself commanded them \xe2\x80\x94 I myself \nwitnessed their total extermination, ere I left the field of battle; \nthey are annihilated. The enemy are at JSTovelles, with eighty thou- \nsand men. They may, if they please, be in Paris in six days. There \n\n\n\n540 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nis no safety for France, but in instant propositions for peace," When \nthis fiery and determined commander could speak thus, resistance \nmight well be deemed hopeless ; yet Napoleon, with an honourable \ndesire to serve his country in the worst emergency, still lingered in \nthe vicinity of Paris, and offered his services once more to meet the \nenemy, or to defend the capital to the last extremity. These pro- \nposals were rejected by the provisional government, which feared to \nintrust him again with the means of acquiring power. He left \nParis, and on the 3d of July arrived at Eochefort, where two frigates \nhad been placed at his disposal to convey him to America. \n\nBut the coast was lined with English cruisers ; the Bellerophon \nline-of-battle ship was blockading the port; it was impossible to \nforce a passage ; and he would not consent to any plans for a secret \nescape. In answer to his negotiations for a passage to America, the \ncaptain of the English ship suggested to his officers the propriety of \nhis seeking an asylum in England, though refusing to make any \ndefinite pledges concerning his reception. Kejecting, therefore, the \nwarlike proposals of the relics of his army, which could only have \nbrought further devastation on France and destruction to themselves, \nhe embarked in the Bellerophon, and on the 24th arrived at Tor- \nbay, on the coast of Devonshire. He had already despatched the \nbrief and well-known letter to the Prince Eegent, invoking the hos- \npitality of England. It was, however, determined by that mean- \nspirited prince and his advisers to keep him close prisoner during \nthe remainder of his life. He was transferred to the distant island \nof St. Helena, where, after a few miserable years, exposed to the \nannoyances of an impertinent keeper, he expired on the 5th of May, \n1821. His remains were interred on the spot; but many years \nafter, in compliance with his will, were transferred to Paris, and \ndeposited, with magnificent and imposing ceremonies, beneath the \ngreat dome of the Invalides. \n\n\n\n\nTHE DISINTERMENT OF THE REMAINS OE NAPOLEON \n\n\n\n"It whs iude\'rd Niij\'O.-^ou," shvs aijoiu^r eye-witnebs, M. Eiiia:LU^J ile L.-iS \nCases; "NapoiTOn d\'-roid of life, but aot destroyed! . One \\rou":d aimost \n\nhave said that he was stiji at that last day of his career of toils aud dangers , \nat that first day of eternity. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 G-eneral Bertrand gazed upon him. \nlike one -who \'was ready to sint to the earth Ivlany sobbed convulsively Other.s \nrem.aine.d in silent sadness, their eyes filled v/ith moisture. The iace of tli--\' \nvoung Comte de Chabot was deluged with tears \' \xe2\x80\x94 HisToiaE nv. t \'V.upy.-Ri-yjK \nNapoi-eon \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n541 \n\n\n\ntjiiAjri.iliii AiV, \n\n\n\nTHE SECOND EESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS, AND THEIR \n\nEXPULSION, LOUIS PHILIPPE, AND HIS EXPULSION. \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 THE REPUBLIC. \n\n\n\nThe great actor having vanislied from tlie scene, succeeding events \nappear comparatively tame and unimportant. After tlie departure \nof Napoleon, the provisional government vainly attempted to excite \nan enthusiasm for the defence of the country. To their exhorta- \ntions, the soldiers answered sullenly, "Why should we fight any \nmore? "VVe have no longer an emperor!" The royalists, encour- \naged by the approach of the allies, also made demonstrations in some \nof the provinces, though not daring to move openly in Paris. \nMeanwhile, the remaining forces, under Soult and Grouchy, were \ncompelled to retreat upon the capital, whither, on the 1st of July, \nthey were followed by the allied armies. After some fighting, in \nwhich the French displayed all their accustomed bravery, an armis- \ntice was concluded, and on the 7th, after the city had been completely \nevacuated by its defenders, the hostile forces took military possession. \n\nThe allied powers refused to acknowledge the provisional govern- \nment or the Chambers, (which accordingly were forcibly dissolved ;) \nand sullenly announced that Louis XVIII. woilld reenter his capital. \nOn the 8th he entered, accompanied by some of the most distin- \nguished marshals, and, protected by foreign arms, again took posses- \nsion of his crown and palaces. Severe conditions were exacted from \nthe defeated nation. Several of her most important fortresses were \ntaken from her, and others held for a time by foreign garrisons. \nLarge contributions of money were exacted, and the splendid museum, \nthe finest in the world, was stripped of its treasures, which were \nrestored to the nations from which they had been originally taken. \n\nThe course of the new government, thus again imposed iipon the \nnation, was even more unsatisfactory and irritating to the people. \nThe brave Marshal Ney was privately executed. La Bedoyere, one \nof the prime supporters of the emperor, shared the same fate. Lava- \nlette was saved only by the devoted and heroic conduct of his \nwife, who remained in prison while he escaped in disguise. Toward \n\n\n\n542 \'\'\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0^HE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe close of the year, a general amnesty was proclaimed. The \nunpopularity of Louis continued. He substituted the white flag in \nplace of the tri-colour, to which the nation was much attached; and, \nto gratify the ultra royalists, violated, in several particulars, the \ncharter which he had granted. The legislative body became gradu- \nally divided into two parties, which, however varying in principle, \nhave ever since retained their appellations. The "extreme right," \nor ultra royalists, were continually opposed by the " extreme left," or \nultra liberals. The moderate party occupied the "centre." \n\nThe distracted condition of Spain, so long in a state of civil war- \nfare, determined the French government to interfere with an armed \nforce; and in 1823 the duke d\'Angouleme, with a large army, \nmarched into that country, advanced from Madrid to Cadiz, and \ngratified the national vanity of the French by an appearance of con- \ntrol and dictation in the political affairs of the Peninsula. \n\nOn the 16th of September, 1824, the king died, and was succeeded \nby his brother, the Comte d\'Artois, under the title of Charles X. \nThe late king, though sometimes over-influenced by his royalist \nrelatives, was in reality a man of moderate views, and probably \nsincerely desirous of the welfare of the people. His successor repre- \nsented the worst class of legitimatists and uncompromising royalists. \nHis first measure was a judicious one. By granting annuities to \nthose whose lands had been seized by government during the Eevo- \nlution, he assured the title of the possessors, and removed one for- \nmidable source of opposition, and the temptation to effect revolutions. \n\nMore obnoxious measures succeeded. Further restrictions were \nplaced upon the liberty of the press. To secure a majority in the \nupper house, a large number of peers was created. The chamber \nof deputies was dissolved, in hopes that the court influence would \nbe more predominant in the next. The result proved quite the \nreverse, and the royalist ministers were compelled to resign. The \nmore liberal statesmen who succeeded them, retained office only for \na short time; and in 1829 the king appointed a new ministry, at the \nhead of which was the Prince de Polignac, a name odious to the \nwhole nation from the former career of the family which he repre- \nsented. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies being found too \nrepublican, was dissolved immediately after its meeting, and a new \nelection was ordered, which, however, resulted still more unfavourably \nto the court. \n\nOn the 4th of July, 1830, the city of Algiers, so long a pest to all \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n543 \n\n\n\ncivilized communities, was taken by a Frencli force, and the foundation \nof the important province of Algeria was laid. The success of this \nexpedition, though very popular, could not allay the public irritation, \nstimulated by further acts of an arbitrary character. Great discon- \ntent had been caused by the mean and spiteful attempt of the Bour- \nbons, on their first restoration, to efface every vestige of the glories \nof ISTapoleon. His statue had been taken from its lofty column in \nthe Place Yendome, and melted to form that of the horse of Henry \nIV. His name had been carefully erased from public buildings and \nmonuments. This miserable persecution of a name and a memory \nwas continued even now, so long after the death of its object, and \nthe statues or portraits of the greatest sovereign who had ever ruled \nover France were proscribed by the petty legitimacy which had \nbeen foisted on the throne. \n\nPerceiving the unfavourable prospects of the session, Charles, on \nthe 26th of July, 1830, issued an ordinance, abolishing the freedom \nof the press, and arbitrarily and against law dissolved the Chambers, \nwhich had not yet convened; and appointed, equally without \nauthority, a new mode of election, better calculated to serve his \nviews. The charter was thus entirely subverted, and great agitation \nensued in Paris. On the 27th, in spite of the ordinance, numbers of \nthe deputies met, and protested against it. On the 28th they pro- \nceeded in a body to the Tuileries, and represented to Marmont, \ncommander of the forces, that the people would forcibly oppose the \ngovernment. The king ordered him to suppress the popular move- \nment by military force. Meanwhile, tri-coloured flags and cockades \nbegan to be displayed, and the old uniform of the National Guard \nwas assumed by many of the citizens. A contest commenced between \nthe people and the king\'s guard, in which the latter were exposed to \na harassing fire and discharge of missiles from the windows. At \nnight barricades were thrown up in the principal streets, and on \nthe following day, after a desperate contest between the troops and \nthe people, the former, with the exception of the king\'s guard, \ndeclared for the popular cause. Several thousands of the citizens \nhad been already killed and wounded. The guards quitted Paris; \nthe obnoxious ministers resigned their of&ces ; and the king repealed \nhis ordinances. It was too late. The people, now thoroughly \naroused, were determined on a change of government. The deputies \nmet, and the National Guard, with La Fayette at its head, was called \nout. His personal influence was such that the city was almost \n\n\n\n544 THE TEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ninstantly quieted, and tlie " Ee volution of Three Days " was disgraced \nby no excesses whatever. \n\nOn the 30th the duke of Orleans (son of Egalit^, who had prompted \nand who perished in the first Revolution,) was appointed the tem- \nporary head of government. On the 2d of August, the king formally \nabdicated in favour of his grandson, and fled to England. After \nmuch collision of sentiment, the influence of La Fayette determined \nthe Chambers to declare in favour of a limited monarchy, and to place \nthe duke of Orleans on the throne. The career of this prince had \nbeen one of uncommon adventure and vicissitude. He had, while \nvery yoimg, distinguished himself in defence of the republic, had \nseen his father perish on the scaffold, and had been compelled to fly \nfor his own life. He had taught mathematics in Switzerland, and \nresided as a private citizen in the United States. \n\nFrom 1800 until the fall of Napoleon, he had quietly resided in \nEngland, and since the accession of the Bourbons, had been intrusted \nwith military command on account of his relationship, and deprived \nof it on account of his too liberal principles. From a monarch \ntrained in such a school of adversity the nation naturally expected \nprudence and regard to popular right. He was accordingly, on the \n9th of August, publicly proclaimed "King of the French," a title \nconstructed purposely to exclude the feudal principles of a monarchy, \nand to recognise the political existence of the people. \n\nThe government of the "Citizen King" proved, in many respects, \nfirm and sensible. The French footing in Africa was maintained \nand extended, though at a very considerable cost both of life and \nmoney; and, in the general pacification of Europe, this turbulent \nand half-conquered province was considered as affording an excellent \nschool of warfare to the oflicers and soldiers of the French army. \nThe foreign relations of France, during his reign, were generally \nmanaged in a spirit of prudence and conciliation ; and perhaps no \ngovernment of that country ever succeeded in inspiring the other \nEuropeon powers with greater confidence and friendliness. \n\nThe king, whose private fortune was immense, was perhaps one of \nthe most liberal and judicious patrons of art and science whom \nFrance has ever known. The taste and pride of the nation were \ngratified by the erection or completion of magnificent structures, and \nby the most lavish expenditure upon such exhibitions of native \ntalent as exalted the glory of the French people. The restoration \nof the remains of Napoleon, which his influence with the British \n\n\n\nFKANCE. 545 \n\ngovernment procured, occasioned a pageant, from its grandeur and \nassociations perhaps the most interesting of modern times. Brought \nfrom their island-grave in St. Helena, and followed by the old sol- \ndiers of the empire, the mortal relics of the emperor were borne on a \ngorgeous car, amid an innumerable multitude, to their final resting- \nplace. The king "in the name of France" solemnly received them \nfrom his son, the Prince de Joinville, who had been honoured with \nconveying them across the seas ; and amid the most impressive cere- \nmonies, the corpse of Napoleon was deposited beneath the great dome \nof the Invalides, hung round with trophies of his victorious career. \n\nAlthough possessing the throne only by tenure of a sudden revo- \nlution, Louis Philippe, whether from supposed necessity, from incli- \nnation, or from distrust of his subjects, lapsed farther and farther \ninto arbitrary measures. Unquestionably, there has always been \nin France, and especially in Paris, a considerable class of ultra- \nrepublicans and lawless agitators, whom no government would \nsatisfy, and whose only object is the seizure and division of the \nproperty of others. But in his efforts to suppress this Jacobinical \nspirit, measures were taken which also completely destroyed the \nliberties of the people. Suffrage was restricted to a comparatively \nsmall portion of the citizens, and the government, by its immense \nsystem of patronage, and the myriads of offices at its disposal, was \nusually enabled to control both the popular elections and the action \nof the assembly. \n\nSevere restrictions were placed upon the liberties of the press, and \nprosecutions against offending editors were urged with great and \nunrelenting rigour. These extremities naturally produced deep \nindignation among the more violent spirits of the popular party, \nand the life of the king was so frequently attempted by assassins, \nthat without a strong escort he was unable to make his appearance \nin public. An "infernal machine," prepared by Fieschi and other \nconspirators, was almost successful in its purpose. A large number \nof muskets, arranged so as to command the passage of a street, were \nsimultaneously fired as the royal procession defiled past. The king \nescaped, but many persons in attendance were killed or wounded. \nAmong the former was the celebrated Marshal Mortier. \n\nNotwithstanding the fierce spirit of insurrection which these \n\nattempts evinced, the king for eighteen years continued to hold an \n\nuninterrupted and apparently a perfectly assured and settled sway \n\nover the excitable and capricious nation which had called him to the \n\n35 \n\n\n\n546 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthrone. With, a standing army of some hundred ttonsand men, \nand a line of fortifications commanding the city of Paris, his power \nwas considered as secure as that of any European sovereign. How \nfruitless such precautions may be against the united movement of \nan indignant people, our own times have witnessed with astonishment. \nThe wonderful revolution of February, 1848, by which Louis \nPhilippe was driven from his throne, and the startling events which \nwith such rapidity have since succeeded one another, are matters at \npresent rather of news than of history, and must be considered as \nthe commencement of a new political cycle, whose destiny, of all the \nEuropean future, it is perhaps most difficult to foretell. After the \ncommencement of this singular revolution, at first so eminently \npeaceable and successful, a host of names attained temporary dis- \ntinction ; and after being borne aloft, for a brilliant moment, on the \nwave of popular impulse, were successively whelmed beneath its \nfury. The terrible insurrection of the barricades, at Paris, which \nsoon ensued, sufficiently proved a condition of deep popular ignorance \nand distress, stimulated by the incendiary appeals of a few wrong- \nheaded and bad-hearted demagogues. It is to be trusted that the \nthousands who perished in that mad and obstinate resistance to a \ngovernment of the popular choice, have not died in vain ; and that \nthe capacity of the French nation for self-government may be fully \nevinced in a long, successful, and peacefally-glorious career of the \nEepublic, purchased by so many years of alternate tyranny, anarchy, \nand war. \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n547 \n\n\n\nTHE RULERS OF FRANCE, \n\n\n\nThe Romans, B.C. 60toa.d.420 \n\nPharamond, Chief of the Franks, . . . , . . 420 " 428 \n\nClodion, 428 " 448 \n\nTHE MEROVINGIAN KINGS. \n\nMeroveus, 448 " 458 \n\nChilderic, 458 \xc2\xab 481 \n\nClevis, 481 " 511 \n\nDescendants of Clovis, 511 " 628 \n\nDagobert I., great-grandson of Clovis, 628 " 638 \n\nClovis II., . . . 638 " 655 \n\nLes Rois Faineans (" the sluggish kings,") nominal sovereigns, . 655 " 737 \n\nPepin d\'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, 688 " 714 \n\nCharles Martel, son of Pepin, 714 " 741 \n\nPepin the Short, son of Charles, 741 " 768 \n\nCharlemagne, son of Pepin, 768 " 816 \n\nThe Carlovingian Kings, or Successors of Charlemagne, . . 816 " 987 \n\nHOUSE OF CAPET. \n\nHugh Capet, 987 " 996 \n\nRobert (the Pious), son of Hugh, 996 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 1031 \n\nHenry I., son of Robert, 1031 " 1060 \n\nPhilip I., son of Henry, . . 1060 " 1108 \n\nLouis VI., son of Philip, . . . . . . :. . 1108 " 1137 \n\nLouis VII., son of Louis VI., 1137 " 1180 \n\nPhilip IL (Augustus), son of Louis Vn., . . . . . 1180 " 1223 \n\nLouis VIIL, son of Philip IL, 1223 " 1226 \n\nLouis IX. (St. Louis), son of Louis VIIL, .... 1226 " 1270 \n\nPhilip III. (the Bold), son of Louis IX., . . . . . 1270 " 1285 \n\nPhilip IV. (the Fair), son of Philip III., . . . . . 1285 " 1314 \n\nLouis X. (the Peevish), son of Philip IV., . . . . . 1314 \xc2\xab 1316 \n\nPhilip v., son of Philip IV., 1316 \xc2\xab 1321 \n\nCharles IV. (the Fair), son of Philip IV., 1321 " 1328 \n\nHOUSE OF VALOIS. \n\nPhilip VT., grandson of Philip HI., 1328 " 1350 \n\nJohn (the Good), son of Philip VL, 1350 " 1364 \n\nCharles V., son of John, 1364 " 1380 \n\nCharles VL (the Well-beloved), son of Charles V 1380 " 1422 \n\nCharles VII., son of Charles VI., 1422 \xc2\xab 1461 \n\n\n\n548 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nLouis XL, son of Charles VII., from 1461 to 1483 \n\nCharles VIH., son of Louis XL, 1483 " 1498 \n\nLouis Xn., great-grandson of Charles V., 1498 " 1515 \n\nFrancis L, great^great-grandson of Charles V., . . . . 1515 " 1547 \n\nHenry IL, son of Francis L, 1547 " 1559 \n\nFrancis 11., son of Henry IL, 1559 " 1560 \n\nCharles IX., son of Henry 11. . 1560 \xc2\xab 1574 \n\nHenry IIL son of Henry IL, 1574 \xc2\xab 1589 \n\nHOUSE OF BOURBON. \n\nHenry IV. (the Great), eleventh descendant of Louis IX., . . 1589 " 1610 \n\nLouis XHL, son of Henry IV., 1610 " 1643 \n\nLouis XIV., son of Louis XIIL, 1643 " 1715 \n\nLouis XV., great-grandson of Louis XIV., .... 1715 " 1774 \n\nLouis XVI., grandson of Louis XV., 1774 " 1793 \n\nLouis XVII., son of Louis XVI., (died from m-treatment during the Revolution.) \n\nThe Republic, 1793 " 1799 \n\nThe Consulate, 1799 " 1804 \n\nThe Empire, 1804 " 1814 \n\nLouis XVIIL, brother of Louis XVI., 1814 " 1815 \n\nThe Hundred Days of the Empire, 1815 \n\nLouis XVIIL (restored), \xe2\x96\xa0 . . . 1815 " 1824 \n\nCharles X., brother of Louis XVIIL, 1824 " 1830 \n\nLouis Philippe, sixth descendant of Louis XIIL, . . . 1830 " 1848 \n\nThe Republic, 1848 " \n\n\n\nE N GL AI D. \n\n\n\nuj^iiirxiiiiU i \n\n\n\nBRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS. \n\nLess than two thousand years since, Britain, now one of the most \npowerful and civilized nations on earth, was mostly an uncultivated \nforest, inhabited by a rude and barbarous people, not much superior \nin their manners and mode of life to the Indians and other savages \nof our own day. They seldom tilled the earth, but lived principally \non the milk and flesh of their cattle ; commerce was unknown, and \nthe humanizing arts had not the slightest existence. These people \nwere a branch of that great Celtic race which occupied the most of \nWestern Europe, and which had been partially subdued and civil- \nized by the Eomans. In Britain, they were divided into small \nindependent tribes, often at warfare with each other. \n\nThe whole nation was principally under control of the priests or \nDruids, who were the repository of all the national knowledge and \nlearning, probably little. Their chief doctrine was that of the trans- \nmigration of souls, and their religious rites were bloody and revolting. \nThe nobility tyrannized without restraint over the common people, \nand each petty prince possessed despotic power. To the Eomans, \nthose wonderful conquerors and civilizers of mankind, is due their \nfirst step in that march of improvement which has resulted so \nremarkably. \n\nB. C. 55, Julius Oassar, who had just effected the conquest of Gaul, \nresolved to gain fresh renown by the invasion of an island which \nwas regarded as lying beyond the limits of the world; and with \ntwo legions effected a landing on the coast of Kent, defeating the \nundisciplined forces which opposed him. Circumstances compelled \nhis return to Gaul, but in the following spring he again landed with \n\n\n\n550 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nj&ve legions and two thousand horse, defeated Cassivelaunus, under \nwhom the natives had united, received the submission of several \nstates, imposed tribute, and departed. His remaining years were \noccupied in contesting the empire with his rivals, and no further \nconquests were made for a considerable time. Under Augustus and \nTiberius, some intercourse with Eome was continued, and duties \nwere levied by them on the commerce which had commenced \nbetween Britain and Gaul. \n\nA. D. 43, nearly an hundred years after the invasion of Caesar, \nClaudius, who was then emperor, issued orders to Plautius, the com- \nmander in Gaul, to recommence hostilities \xe2\x80\x94 the pretext being the \ncomplaint of a British prince, who had been exiled. The Eoman \ngeneral subdued the southern portion of the island, and was soon \njoined by the emperor, who, however, only remained sixteen days. \nThe war was still continued by Plautius, by Yespasian (afterwards \nemperor), and by Ostorius. The latter defeated Caractacus, the \nvaliant prince of the Silurians or Welsh, who, in their inaccessible \nmountains, had long set the Eoman arms at defiance. The defeated \nchief was carried captive to Eome, where his courage and magnanim- \nity gained him honourable treatment. The Silurians, however, for \nten years, maintained a stubborn resistance, but were at last van- \nquished by Suetonius, who defeated them with great slaughter in \nthe isle of Mona (Angiesea), which was the principal stronghold of \nthe Druids and their followers. \n\nThe Icenians, with other native tribes, provoked by the oppres- \nsion of their new rulers, revolted, and for a time were successful, \ncommitting great slaughter upon the foreigners and their adherents. \nIn London (which even then was a place of some importance) and \nits vicinity, they put to death seventy thousand persons. Their \nqueen, Boadicea, was finally defeated with great loss in a pitched \nbattle, and the Eomans regained their superiority. After various \nreverses, about the year 80, Vespasian committed the government \nto Agricola, a man distinguished for his virtues and military talents. \n\nBy the justice and mildness of his administration, he conciliated \nthe natives, and reduced the hostile tribes to subjection. The Cale- \ndonians, a powerful nation in the north of Scotland, in the year 85, \nmade a formidable incursion. They were thirty thousand in num- \nber, each clan being led by its chief, and the whole being under the \ncommand of an able leader, named Galgacus. The Eoman com- \nmander, engaging with them near the Grampians, gained a complete \n\n\n\nENGLAND 55]^ \n\nvictory. Ten thousand of the Highlanders were left dead upon \nthe plain, and the hostile tribes were compelled to give hostages \nto the Eomans. \n\nFrom this time the latter held undisputed possession of all the \ncountry south of the Scottish friths. By degrees their language \nand customs were diffused among the people ; temples, theatres, and \nother public buildings were erected; and the province felt a com- \nplete dependance upon Kome. The Emperor Hadrian, during his \nvisit, constructed a wall across the island, extending from the Sol- \nway to the Tyne, for the purpose of checking the Caledonians, who \nstill continued their incursions. \n\nThe Christian religion was introduced into Britain, as well as into \nthe other Eoman provinces, and soon became the prevailing faith \nthrough the civilized part of the island. Under the later emperors, \nthe prefects appointed by them, feeling secure in their distant island, \noften declared themselves independent, and assumed the imperial \npurple. As the empire became weaker by internal corruption, and \nby the success of her barbarian neighbours, the Eoman legions were \ngradually withdrawn for the defence of the mother-country. The \nPicts or Caledonians, the Scots from Ireland, and the Saxons from \nthe main-land, all harassed the unhappy country with their incur- \nsions. London was taken and plundered by the Picts, who, though \nfinally defeated, still kept up their attacks. At length (A. D. 420), \nthe last Eoman legion, amid the lamentations of the weak and \nunfortunate Britons, quitted their shore for ever ; and they were left \nunprotected from the ravages of their numerous invaders. \n\n\n\nTHE SAXON INTASIONS, AND THE HEPTAECHT. \n\n9 \n\nIn the year 449, after various domestic dissensions had further \nweakened the defenceless kingdom, Yortigern, a native prince, \nbeing hard pressed by a rival, and continually troubled by the Pict- \nish invasions, took the fatal step of inviting to his assistance a body \n\n\n\n552 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nof Saxon mercenaries. The tribes inhabiting the forests of Ger- \nmany and the western shores of Central Europe, were a race far \nsuperior to the Britons in courage and enterprise. Already their \nstrong and well-rigged vessels had penetrated to distant shores, on \nerrands of piracy or commerce. Hengist and Horsa, two renowned \nchiefs, complied with the invitation of Yortigern, and landed in \nBritain with three ships and sixteen hundred men. \n\nStrengthened by further reinforcements, they successfully repelled \nthe Picts and Scots ; but, unsatisfied with the Isle of Thanet, which \nhad been bestowed upon them, they made further demands. These \nnot being complied with, they turned their arms against their allies, \nand a series of hostilities commenced, which in the end resulted in \nthe entire subjugation of the island by its new invaders. Horsa \nwas slain; but Hengist, by a series of victories, gained possession \nof the whole of Kent, and thus founded the first kingdom of the \nSaxon Heptarchy. Fresh numbers of the foreigners flocked over. \nA chief named Ella, after a contest of several years, gained posses- \nsion of further territories, and constituted the kingdom of South \nSaxons, now Sussex. Another body, under Cerdic, formed the \nprincipality of West Saxons or "Wessex. Others, landing on the \neastern coast, took the name of East Saxons, and their territory \nwas called Essex. Norfolk and Suffolk were conquered and settled \nby the Angles, and named from them East Anglia. To this race \nEngland is indebted for its present name. Deira and Bernicia, \ntwo British principalities, were subdued by the same people, and \nformed the kingdom of Northumbria, the most powerful in Britain. \nMercia was for the most part conquered and settled by the same \npeople. Thus was formed the Heptarchy, or seven kingdoms of \nthe German invaders. \n\nThese changes occupied a period of nearly an hundred and fifty \nyears, during which the Britons opposed an insuflicient resistance to \ntheir fierce and warlike foes, and were gradually reduced to com- \nplete subjection. Only the dwellers in the mountainous district of \nWales, and the scattered tribes which took refuge thither, remained \nan independent and separate people. In other parts of the island, \nthe nationality of the native race was so completely effaced, that their \noriginal language became entirely disused, and modern English con- \ntains very few traces of the language of the original inhabitants. \n\nAll Britain was now divided between the new and victorious race \nof Anglo-Saxons, the original Britons, who had retreated into \n\n\n\n\nA DRUID AND DRUIDESS, \n\nOF THH RAH.I.T INHABITANTS OF BRITAIN \n\n\n\n\nA DKUIDICAL ALTAR OR MONUMENT \n\n\n\n\nCROSBY ,\', \n\n\n\nA r3FlITISH WARRIOK OF THE SOUTHERN \n\nIN THE COSTUIJE OF HIS TIMB \n\n\n\n\nA KNId-HT TEMr-LAR, IK" EULL ARMOUR. \nThe celelDrati^d ordev of the Knights of the Temple, Defenderrs of the Holy \nSepulchre, \'.eas founded lu 1118, liy the Pritriarch of Jerusalem; and was sup- \npressed, under circum.stances of atrocious cruelty, in 1314, hy the Fope, and \nf\'hliip the Fair, Kir.g of France \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 553 \n\nWales, and the Picts and Scots, in the nortliern part of the island. \nPetty wars continually prevailed, not only between tlie different \nraces, but tlie separate tribes of eacb among themselves. \n\nThe most important event of these times was the second introduc- \ntion of Christianity into the island. In the year 596, Gregory, a \nzealous pontiff, eager to effect the conversion of the heathen Sax- \nons, depatched into Britain a monk named Augustine, with forty \ncompanions. Ethelbert, king of Kent, where they landed, was \nmarried to a Christian princess, sister of the king of Paris. Though \nsomewhat apprehensive of their power, as magicians, he gave them \npermission to disseminate their doctrines among the people. This \nthey did with such effect, that great numbers embraced the new \nreligion, and among them the king and his court. Ten thousand \nare said to have been baptized on a single Christmas. \n\nThe first church was erected in Canterbury, on the site of the \npresent cathedral ; and shortly afterwards another, dedicated to St. \nPeter, was reared on the banks of the Thames, where Westminster \nAbbey now stands. The faith continued to spread, and ere long \nwas firmly established in all the Anglo-Saxon states. \n\nAfter nearly two centuries further had elapsed, during which time \nMereia had been at times the predominant power, and various unin- \nteresting wars had been waged among the different principalities, \nthe royal line of Wessex rose into great eminence. Egbert, the \nking, who had been for some years an exile in France, and a guest \nof the great emperor Charlemagne, returned to Britain in the year \n800, and assumed the crown. After devoting some time to the \nimprovement of his realm, in 809 he attacked the Britons of Corn- \nwall, and in fourteen years reduced them to submission. He was \nnext engaged in war with Mereia, the forces of which he completely \ndefeated. Kent submitted to him, and the East Anglians revolted, \nand espoused his cause. The king of Mereia, still struggling for \nthe supremacy, was slain in battle; and in 827 Egbert invaded and \nconquered his kingdom. He next seized Northumbria, and finally \ncrowned his successes by the conquest of Wales. \n\n\n\n554 TWE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\n\nTHE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. \n\nThe whole island soutli of tlie fritlis was now united under Egbert. \nThis prince, the first ruler of the British nation, was a man of great \ntalents and ambition, both probably matured by a residence at the \ncourt of Charlemagne. He gave his kingdom the name of Angle- \nland (England), which, with little alteration, it bears to this day. \nScarcely had he reduced his new dominions to order, when he was \ncalled upon to repel the most formidable enemy which the nation \never encountered. \n\nThe Northmen or Danes, inhabitants of Denmark and Norway, \nand destined to be the scourge of all adjoining nations, first landed \nin England on the coast of Dorset, with a small force, in the year \n787. Ere long they descended on Northumbria, and plundered the \nmonasteries. In 833 they came, with thirty-five vessels, to Char- \nmouth, in Dorset, where Egbert gave them battle, but was unable \nto repulse them from the country. Two years afterwards a large \nbody joined the Britons of Devon, and invaded Wessex, but were \ndefeated by Egbert. That monarch died in the following year, leav- \ning Wessex to one of his sons, Ethelwulf, and Sussex, Kent, and \nEssex to Athelstane, the other. \n\nThe Danes continued to make yearly incursions upon the southern \nand eastern coasts ; but were, in general, bravely resisted. Encour- \naged, however, by spoil, in the year 851 they sailed up the Thames, \nplundered London and Canterbury, and advanced into Stirrey. \nHere, however, they were encountered by Ethelwulf, and defeated \nwith great slaughter. At the death of that prince, in 858, his sons \nEthelbald and Ethelbert succeeded. The latter, surviving, found \nhimself in possession of the whole kingdom in 860. \n\nThe Danes continued their ravages. They burned the city of \n"Winchester, and after receiving a large sum from the people of Kent \nas the price of peace, devastated the country. \n\nEthelbert dying in 866, his brother Ethered ascended the throne; \nand in the year of his accession, a large army of Danes, landing \nin East Anglia, procured horses, and marched into Northumbria, \n\n\n\nENGLAND, 555 \n\ndefeating the natives, and seizing on York and Nottingham. In 870 \nthey spread into Lincolnshire, burning and plundering wherever \nthey came. The king vainly endeavoured to oppose them, and in \n871 was twice defeated in Wessex, and soon after died, leaving the \ncrown to his brother Alfred, a youth of high promise, and already \ndistinguished in the war. \n\nComing to the throne at the age of twenty-two, he continued the \nconflict, and fought nine battles during the first year of his reign. \nA treaty was made, which, however, the Danes disregarded, and \nagain overran the country in 873. Further contests ensued, and \nfurther treaties were made, all of which were faithlessly broken by \nthe Danes, when opportunity served. In 878 they gained such \nadvantages, that almost the whole nation submitted to them, and \nthe king was forced to wander about the country in the disguise of \na peasant. \n\nBy degrees he collected a small force of faithful adherents, with \nwhom he lived in the midst of a marsh in Somerset. The men of \nDevon having successfully resisted an attack of the foreigners, \nAlfred resolved to make another attempt to expel the invaders. \nHe entered their camp disguised as a minstrel, and having learned \nall that he wished, summoned his subjects to renew the war. March- \ning to Ethandune, he defeated the enemy in a fierce engagement, \nbesieged them in their camp, and dictated terms of peace. Guth- \nrum, their leader, was baptized, and acknowledged himself a vassal \nof the English king. He was permitted to retain a portion of ter- \nritory, and ever after remained faithful to his new sovereign. His \npeople also laid aside their rude and predatory habits, devoting \nthemselves to agriculture. \n\nDuring fifteen years, in which the nation was at peace, Alfred \nemployed himself in fortifying the cities of his realm, organizing a \nmilitia, and improving his navy. In the year 893 a fresh body of \ninvaders, with two hundred and fifty vessels, arriving in Kent, for- \ntified a camp. Others sailed up the Thames. The Danes, who had \nsettled in Northumbria and East Anglia, revolting, invaded Devon. \nThe king gained several victories, and after the war had been pro- \ntracted for four years, the enemy sought the shore, and sailed for \nFrance. Their piratical excursions on the coast were also repressed \nby the superior naval force of the king, who, in terrorem, hanged the \ncrews of two of their vessels, driven ashore on the coast of Sussex. \n\nThis great and admirable monarch died in 901, in the thirtieth \n\n\n\n556 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nyear of his reign, at the age of fifty- three. His name has since been \nproverbial as the model of a good sovereign. During his long and \ntroubled reign, he devoted much time and attention to the encour- \nagement of literature and general education; he promoted com- \nmerce, and enforced the impartial administration of justice. His \nmemory has always been cherished with the greatest fondness by \nthe English nation. \n\nHis son Edward I. (surnamed the Elder), was chosen to succeed \nhim, by the Witan or parliament. His reign was at first disturbed \nby the pretensions of Ethelwald, a son of Ethelbald, who, with the \nassistance of the Danes of Northumbria, maintained his claim to \nthe throne for several years. He was finally slain in battle, and the \nDanes, continuing their hostilities, were defeated with immense \nslaughter. The supremacy of Edward gradually extended over the \nwhole islands, even the princes of Wales and Scotland acknowledg- \ning allegiance to him. He died in 925, after a successful reign of \ntwenty-four years. \n\nAthelstane, his eldest son, by his father\'s will and the election of \nthe Witan, succeeded. Shortly after his accession, the Britons of \nCambria and Damnonia attempted to recover their independence, \nbut were defeated and subdued. A formidable alliance between the \nnorthern Danes and Scots was no more successful. The Danish \nchiefs were compelled to fly beyond seas, and the Scottish king to \nrenew his allegiance, and give his son as a hostage. Anlaf, one of \nthe former, becoming master of Dublin, renewed the war, assisted \nby the Scots and several of the British tribes. \n\nAnlaf, in the guise of a minstrel, examined the king\'s camp, and \na night attack was commenced by the confederates. A battle ensued, \nlasting all the following day, which resulted in their entire defeat, \nwith the loss of many of their chiefs and vast numbers of their fol- \nlowers. After this decisive victory, the reign of Athelstane was \nundisturbed. He was in friendly alliance with the first princes on \nthe continent, many of whom were connected with him by marriage \nor other private ties. He died in 941, and was succeeded by his \nbrother Edmund, a youth of eighteen. After some years of contest \nwith Anlaf, with whom he was compelled to share his sovereignty, \nthe death of the latter enabled him to regain and extend his \nauthority. He met his death in a manner curiously characteristic \nof the rudeness of the times. Seeing at his table one Leof, an out- \nlaw, the king sprang up, and attempted to eject him from the room. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 557 \n\nIn tlie struggle, he received a mortal wound from the knife of the \nintruder, and died in 946, after a reign of five years. \n\nHis brother Edred succeeded to the throne, and being acknowl- \nedged king, subdued a rebellion in ISTorthumbria, and converted it \ninto an earldom for one of his adherents. \n\nOn his death, in 955, Edwy, son of Edmund, was chosen king. \nHis reign was brief and unhappy. Dunstan, the Abbot of Glasten- \nbury, a man of great talents, and enthusiastic in the cause of the \nchurch, had for some time possessed almost absolute authority with \nthe court and nation. Perceiving his influence on the wane after \nthe accession of Edwy, a youth of seventeen, and fond of pleasure, \nhe sought the means of regaining his ascendancy, and in conjunc- \ntion with Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, compelled the king to \nseparate from his wife Elgiva. Her face was scarred with a hot \niron, and shortly afterwards she was brutally murdered by the sol- \ndiers of Odo. Her unfortunate husband did not long survive her; \nand at his death, in 959, his brother Edgar, at the age of thirteen, \nwas chosen king. Dunstan became his chief adviser, and was eleva- \nted to the highest offices in the English church. \n\nEdgar, surnamed the peaceful, an unprincipled and sensual mon- \narch, entered into strict league with the clergy, and reigned till 975, \nwhen he died, and was succeeded by his son Edward II. (the Mar- \ntyr). After a brief reign, this prince was assassinated in 978, by \ncommand of Elfrida, his step-mother, who thus procured the eleva- \ntion of her own son, Ethelred, to the throne. \n\nEarly in his reign, the Danes renewed their ravages. The whole \nsouthern coast was devastated, and London itself was taken and \nplundered. The Witan, in 991, had recourse to the miserable \nexpedient of buying them off, for which purpose a tax, called Dane- \ngeld (Dane-money), was levied throughout the kingdom. \n\nTen thousand pounds of silver, which they received, only served \nto incite them to further incursions ; and, in the following year, they \nrenewed the war. In 993, Sweyn, king of Denmark, and Olave, \nking of Norway, entered the Humber with a large fleet, ravaged the \nadjoining countries, and laid siege to London itself. Failing to take \nit, they laid waste the south, and only desisted on payment of a new \nbribe of sixteen thousand pounds. Year after year the incursions \nof the Northmen were renewed, and were but feebly opposed by \nthe English. In the year 1002, twenty-four thousand pounds were \npaid them as the price of quiet. \n\n\n\n558 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nSoon afterwards the king and Ms assembly determined on a bold \nand treacherous project. On a given day, the Danes, scattered \nthroughout the island, were every where attacked and slain without \nmercy by the native inhabitants. Among them was Gunhilda, the \nsister of Sweyn. In revenge, the Danish monarch recommenced \nhostilities, and for four years laid waste the southern and eastern \nparts of the kingdom. In 1006, a respite from plunder was pur- \nchased, as before, by payment of thirty thousand pounds. \n\nDuring two years of peace, which succeeded, great preparations \nfor defence were made, and a large fleet was assembled at Sandwich ; \nbut a quarrel among the leaders rendered these exertions of no \neffect. Soon afterwards a formidable Danish force, commanded by \nThurldll, landed at Sandwich; ravaged the country far and near; \nand was only induced to depart, at the end of two years, by pay- \nment of forty-eight thousand pounds. Their leader was also made \nEarl of East-Anglia, and, with a great number of his men, taken \ninto the king\'s pay. \n\nAll was unavailing. The next year, 1013, Sweyn appeared with \na large armament, and sailed up the Humber. Joined by the Danes \nalready in England, he overran the country. The greater part soon \nsubmitted, and Ethelred, after taking refuge in the isle of Wight, \nwas compelled to seek an asylum, with his family, at the court of \nNormandy. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER I?. \n\nTHE DANISH KINGS AND THE LAST OE THE SAXONS. \n\nThe Danish monarch, having become master of all England, died \nin the following year, 1014, and the Danes chose his son Canute to \nfill the throne. The English resolved to recall Ethelred, who, with \nhis son, Edmund Ironside, recommenced the war. After various \nindecisive movements, and the treacherous assassination of some of \nthe Danish chiefs, Ethelred died in 1016 at London. \n\nEdmund was chosen as his successor by the Witan at London ; \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 559 \n\nbut that of "Wessex decided in favour of Canute. Hostilities were \nimmediately commenced. The Dane took London, and after several \nobstinate conflicts, the kingdom, by mutual agreement, was divided \nbetween them, Edmund retaining a titular superiority. He died \nthe same year, and the Witan, assembling at London, declared \nCanute king of all England. \n\nTo strengthen his power, the new sovereign married Emma, the \nwidow of Ethelred, and gave large possessions to his most dis- \ntinguished supporters. He was now the most powerful monarch of \nhis age, being king of Denmark, Norway, and England, and having \nthe homage of Sweden and Scotland. His time was principally \nspent in England, but he often visited his northern dominions, and \nsuccessfally put down all attempts at revolt. As he grew old, his \nreign became mild and equitable, and he gained the affections of his \nnew subjects. \n\nIt is related that, to rebuke the flattery of his courtiers, he ordered \nhis chair to be set upon the strand at Southampton, and commanded \nthe advancing tide to respect the majesty of his person. As the waves \nreached and foamed around him, he reproved the senseless adula- \ntion of his flatterers, and from that time laid aside the crown, \ndeposited it in the cathedral, and never resumed it. He died at \nShaftesbury, 1G35, after a reign of eighteen years. \n\nOf his three sons, Sweyn inherited by will the kingdom of Nor- \nway, Harold that of England, and Hardacnute Denmark. Harold, \nsecuring the royal treasure, and supported by the Danish faction, \nwas enabled to exclude Hardacnute, the son of Emma, on whom, \nby the original settlement of Canute, the crown devolved. He died \nin 1040, and Hardacnute was unanimously invited to ascend the \nthrone. He reigned but two years, and died from excess at a drink- \ning match in 1042. \n\nEdward (the Confessor), a son of Ethelred, was at this time in \nEngland, and Grodwin, the powerful earl of Wessex, and son-in-law \nof Canute, offered to secure him the crown on condition of his \nespousing Editha, the earl\'s daughter. A great council was held at \nLondon, and by the influence of Godwin, the prince was elected to \nthe throne, and crowned at "Winchester in 1043. The odious tax \nof Dane-geld was abolished by him, and the valuable possessions \ngranted to Danish favourites were resumed. The influence of God- \nwin was paramount : his authority, and that of his sons, Sweyn and \nHarold, extended over all the south of Englaad and the greater part \n\n\n\n560 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof the kingdom. Edward, thougli compelled to acquiesce, disliked \nthe family, and selected all his favourites from Normandy, the coun- \ntry of his education. Numbers of these foreigners flocked over, \nand were advanced to high offices. Their language, the Norman \nFrench, was also adopted at court, and the people began to be jeal- \nous of the ascendancy which this more polished race was acquiring. \n\nOpen hostilities commenced with an affray in Dover, caused by \nthe insolence of the foreigners ; and Godwin, with his sons, espoused \nthe cause of the English. They were, however, obliged to flee \ninto exile, and sentence of outlawry was passed against them. \nTheir possessions were allotted to others, and the king\'s authority \nwas completely established. At this time his cousin William, duke \nof Normandy, paid a visit to the English court, and perhaps first \nentertained his ambitious designs upon the kingdom. \n\nIn 1052, the exiled family of Godwin made a vigorous movement \nto recover their power. Harold raised forces in Ireland, and his \nfather, with a large fleet from Flanders, appeared on the south \ncoast. The people declared in their favour, and, uniting their forces, \nthey marched to London. The king was compelled to yield. The \nWitan-gemot was assembled ; all their honours and possessions were \nrestored, and the foreigners were mostly compelled to quit the king- \ndom. The death of Godwin, which occurred not long after, increased \nthe power and influence of his successor Harold. \n\nAt this time, the interference of England was solicited by Mal- \ncolm, the rightful heir to the Scottish throne. His father, Duncan, \nhad been treacherously murdered by Macbeth, one of his officers, \nwho usurped the crown. The prince claimed the protection of \nEdward, as his liege lord, and an army was despatched to his assist- \nance, under Earl Siward, who defeated and slew the usurper, and \nin 1054 placed Malcolm on the throne. \n\nThe king, who had intended to appoint his nephew Edward to \nthe succession, was disappointed by his sudden death ; and it is said \nthat he made a will, appointing William of Normandy heir to the \nkingdom. Harold having fallen into the hands of a lawless baron \non the coast of Ponthieu, was, by order of William, released, and \nsent to the court of Normandy. On this occasion, the latter informed \nhim of his aspirations to the crown, and Harold, seeing himself in \nthe duke\'s power, took an oath to support his pretensions. \n\nEdward having rebuilt and consecrated Westminster Abbey, died, \nand was buried there in 1065, having reigned twenty-three years. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n561 \n\n\n\nHis character was weak and feeble, better suited for a cloister than \na throne. The comparative peacefulness and tranquillity of his \nreign, however, and the equitable laws which then prevailed, caused \nthe people often to recall his memory with regret, in later and more \ntyrannical times. \n\nOn the day of his funeral, Harold was crowned without opposi- \ntion, having, it is said, obtained from the king, on his death-bed, a \nnomination as successor. The news reached William while hunting \nat Eouen, and the bow dropped from his hand. By advice of his \nbarons he summoned Harold to resign the crown. This being \npromptly refused, the duke convened a general parliament of his \nnobles and dependants at Lillebonne. Though not obliged by their \ntenures to accompany him beyond seas, they agreed to attempt the \nconquest of England, and many warlike leaders from the adjoining \ncountries flocked to his standard. The Pope also espoused his cause, \nand sent him a consecrated banner and a hair of St. Peter. \n\nMeanwhile, Harold was engaged in conflict with his ferocious and \ngigantic namesake, Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, who had \nlanded in England, and defeated the forces sent to oppose him. \nThe English monarch, before joining battle, offered his brother \nTosti, who was with the enemy, an earldom and other honours. It \nbeing demanded what he would give to the king of Norway, Har- \nold replied, "Seven feet of English earth, or, as he is a giant, per- \nhaps a little more." Tosti and Hardrada were slain, and their army \nwas completely defeated. \n\nImmediately afterwards, came tidings of the invasion of William, \nwho landed with a force of sixty thousand men at Pevensey, on the \n28th of September, 1066. The king hastened to London, in six \ndays assembled a large force, and marched against the invaders. On \nthe 15th of October the two armies engaged at a place called Senlac \n(now Battle), about eight miles inland of Hastings. The English \nstood on the defensive, the king fighting on foot beneath the royal \nbanner, and all his nobles following his example. \n\nThe Normans advanced to the attack, preceded by the papal flag, \nand led by William, who bore around his neck a number of the \nghastly relics upon which Harold lately had sworn to support his \nclaim. A Norman knight, named Taillefer, rode in front of the \narmy, tossing his sword in the air, and singing the song of the hero \nRoland. He slew two of the English, but fell by the hand of \na third. The Normans discharged their arrows, and then closed in \n86 \n\n\n\n562 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\naction. Their cavalry was twice driven back, and they were unable \nto break the compact masses of the English. By enticing a portion \nof the defenders into a pursuit, William was enabled to cut them \noif. The archery still continued to pour a flight of arrows upon \ntheir crowded ranks ; and one of these entering the eye of Harold, \ndecided the day. The king was slain, and his army utterly routed. \nThe victors in this obstinate contest lost a fourth of their number ; \nthe loss of the English, as well as their original number, is unknown. \n\nAt the time of this important event, the Anglo-Saxons, politically \nspeaking, were possessed of a tolerable share of freedom and liberal \ninstitutions, though strongly tinctured with the barbarism of the \nage. They were divided into several distinct classes. First, the \nnobility, called Eorls (earls), composed of the lords and gentry; \nsecond, the Ceorles (carles), who owned or cultivated the ground, \nand held it by payment of certain dues, or the performance of cer- \ntain services to the lords ; and thirdly, the Theowes, or slaves, who \nwere the absolute property of their masters. Slavery and the slave- \ntrade appear to have prevailed in England from an early period. \n\nThe country was divided into Townships, Hundreds, and Shires, \nmuch as it is at present; and regular jurisdiction belonged to each \nof these divisions. The clergy constituted a portion of all the \nhigher courts. The Witana-gemot was the great council or parlia- \nment of the kingdom, and sat thrice a year. The king in person \npresided, and next to him sat the bishops, abbots, and other clergy ; \nbeneath these the Welch and Scottish princes, and lower still the \nealdorTuen, or chief men of the shires, and the landholders. In this \ngrand council all laws were made, taxes imposed, and state offend- \ners tried. It also had power to choose a successor to the crown \nfrom any of the royal line. \n\nIn the several lower courts, were tried various crimes and misde- \nmeanours. Treason, robbery, murder, and some other offences were \npunished with death. Homicide might be paid for at a given rate, \naccording to the rank of the individual slain \xe2\x80\x94 that of a ceorl being \ntwo hundred shillings, and of a lord twelve hundred. The oath of \nthe latter was also held equal to six of the former. The trial by \nordeal of fire or water was common ; the defendant\'s innocence being \npresumed if he escaped unhurt, and vice versa. Something slightly \nresembling the trial by jury also prevailed. \n\nThe feudal principle existed to a certain extent ; and the greater \npart of the royal revenues was derived from the dues and tributes \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 553 \n\nof those holding lands and titles under the king. All real estate \nwas also held liable for the repair of roads and bridges, the main- \ntenance of fortresses, and the furnishing men for the defence of the \nkingdom. \n\nThe clergy enjoyed high consideration; having a place ex officio \nin the various courts and councils. A bishop ranked with an earl ; \nand the oath of a priest was held equal to that of an hundred and \ntwenty ceorles. In her doctrines and ceremonies, the Anglo-Saxon \nchurch closely followed that of Eome. \n\n\n\nGHAPTEE 7. \n\nWILLIAM I., WILLIAM II., AND HENRY I. \n\nAfter ravaging the coast and burning Dover, the Duke of \nNormandy directed his march toward London. Kesistance seemed \nhopeless ; disunion prevailed in the various parties of the English ; \nand the chief persons among the clergy and laity entered his camp, \nand made their submission. He was crowned on the 25th of \nDecember, at Westminster Abbey, in the midst of a contest between \nhis followers and the English, which left the church almost empty. \n\nWilliam, hereafter called the Conqueror, displayed at first a strong \ndesire to conciliate his new subjects; and commenced his reign with \nmany liberal and judicious measures. He confiscated, however, the \nestates of those who had fought against him at Hastings, and his \nfollowers, who received them, erected castles, and secured them with \nNorman garrisons. Having settled affairs for a time, he returned to \nNormandy, astonishing his subjects by the splendour of his spoils, \nand richly endowing his favourite monasteries. The Pope, also, was \nliberally remembered. \n\nMeanwhile, his officers and followers in England, by their oppres- \nsion, were driving the people to a desperate resistance. In some \nparts the Normans were expelled fi.^om their possessions, and a \ngeneral revolt was meditated. William returned in haste, concili- \nated the principal persons of the realm, and reduced the revolted \n\n\n\n564: THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nprovinces hj arms. The conquered country was divided among \nhis followers. \n\nA second and formidable scheme of insurrection was also sup- \npressed; and the Conqueror burned, plundered, and massacred \nthroughout many of the fairest portions of England. An attempt \nheaded by the sons of Harold was in like manner defeated. \n\nA more troublesome enemy was found in Sweyn, king of Denmark, \nwho sent his brother and two sons, with two hundred and forty ves- \nsels, to the assistance of the English. William, however, by bribery \nfinally induced them to depart, and then took the most savage \nrevenge upon the revolted provinces, leaving them a perfect desert. \nFamine ensued, and more than a hundred thousand persons perished. \nA few desperate men still continued their resistance for a while \nlonger, but were finally defeated, and mostly slain. \n\nHaving reduced the kingdom to entire subjection, William \nentered Scotland, and received the homage of King Malcolm; \nthence passing over to the continent, he plundered and subdued the \nprovince of Maine. While thus absent, in 1075, a new insurrec- \ntion, headed by Norman nobles, broke out in England. It was, how- \never, suppressed without much difficulty, and the king took occasion \nto behead the last earl of English blood who still retained the title. \n\nHis own family now began to give the monarch great uneasiness. \nEobert, his eldest son, discontented because Normandy was not \ngranted him, set the king\'s authority at defiance, and intrenched \nhimself in a castle of that province. The king besieged him, and \none day, in a sally, was unhorsed and wounded by his own son, \nwho, however, soon went into voluntary exile. \n\nThe bishop of Durham, a foreigner, had oppressed the people \nintolerably ; and, refusing redress, was set upon by his flock, and \nslain, with many of his people. The insurrection extended; but \nOdo, bishop of Bayeux, the king\'s brother, marched with an army \ninto the disaffected region, pillaging and slaughtering the malcon- \ntents. His own fall, however, was at hand. While endeavouring \nto secure the papacy, he was seized and imprisoned by William, who \ndreaded his ambitious projects. \n\nIn 1085, the kings of Norway and Denmark prepared a great fleet \nand army to effect the liberation of England from the foreign yoke. \nThe Conqueror also enlisted a vast force, principally foreign merce- \nnaries; but from various causes (among them, liberal bribery by \nWilliam) the northern armament never sailed for England. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 555 \n\nIn 1087 tlie king quitted England, amid the curses of liis people. \n"While at Eouen, lie was greatly enraged at a joke made by the king \nof France upon his corpulency, and immediately commenced hostili- \nties against that monarch, burning and destroying the country before \nhim. While galloping through the embers of the town of Mantes, \nwhich he had burned, his horse started, and injured him danger- \nously. Being conveyed to a neighbouring monastery, he languished \nsix weeks, and then died ; his last acts showing deep remorse for \nthe cruelty and violence which he had exercised. He left, by will, \nNormandy to his son Eobert, England to William, and five thousand \npounds to his third son, Henry. At his death, all persons present \nhurried off to secure their own interests ; the house was plundered ; \nand the corpse lay for some time almost naked on the floor. When it \nwas about to be interred in the church at Caen, which he had built, \nthe owner of the land, whom he had despoiled of it, forbade the \nburial until he received the price of the grave. \n\nThis monarch, who effected such an entire change in the affairs \nof England, was a man of consummate ability, but cruel, avaricious, \nand selfish in the extreme. His personal strength and courage were \ngreat ; and he especially delighted in hunting, for which amusement \n(in addition to sixty-eight royal parks) he laid waste a tract of \nthirty square miles in Hampshire, called the New Forest, burning \nall habitations, and expelling the people. With good policy, he \nconciliated the clergy, and secured their support by frequent and \nliberal grants and constant patronage. \n\nIn the latter part of his reign, the celebrated survey was made, \nand recorded in the "Domesday Book," of all the landed property \nand its holders in the realm. The internal regulations for the pre- \nservation of peace and property (except where the king himself was \nconcerned) were severe, and tolerably efficient. \n\nWilliam 11. (Rufus, the Red), on arriving at England, hastened \nto secure the treasures and the strongholds. He was crowned at \nWestminster on the 26th of September. Odo, indeed, and others \nof the Anglo-Norman nobles, declared in favour of Robert, as the \nrightful heir ; but William, to conciliate the English in his favour, \nmade many fair promises of reform, and thus raising an army, was \nenabled to put down the discontented faction. No amelioration of \nthe people\'s condition, however, was granted. \n\nIn 1091 he attempted the conquest of Normandy, then held by \nRobert; but having come to an agreement, the two brothers turned \n\n\n\n566 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, \n\ntheir arms against Henry, whom they compelled to surrender his \nfortress, and betake himself into exile. \n\nMeanwhile, Malcolm had made an incursion into England; but \non the return of William was compelled to renew his homage, and \nin 1093, making a new irruption, was slain in a skirmish. A fresh \nattempt on Normandy, an invasion of the Welsh, and a revolt of \nsome of his own barons, furnished further employment to the king \nfor his arms and policy. \n\nAt this time, Peter the Hermit had infected all Europe with the \nfanatical and enthusiastic design of recovering the Holy Sepulchre \nat Jerusalem from the Turks. Eobert, a brave soldier, and eager to \ndistinguish himself in this new contest, assumed the cross ; and, to \nraise money for the expedition, agreed to yield his duchy to Wil- \nliam, for five years, for the sum of ten thousand marks. William \nalmost stripped the kingdom to raise it, and in 1096 took posses- \nsion of the province. \n\nIn the latter part of his reign, the king was engaged in disputes \nwith the clergy, similar to those which proved so troublesome to \nhis successors. In the year 1099, on the 2d of August, he went \nhunting in the New Forest, and in the evening was found lying \ndead, with an arrow through his breast. This deed has been attrib- \nuted to Walter Tyrrel, a French knight, but without sufficient \nproof. The perpetrator and the motive are alike unknown. The \nking died in the twelfth year of his reign, leaving a character for \nability and unscrupulousness much resembling that of his father. \n\nHis brother, Henry I., having hastened to secure the treasure, was \ncrowned on the 5th, three days afterwards. He made conciliatory \npromises to the clergy, barons, and people ; and, to secure the English \ninterest, married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and of \nMargaret, a kinswoman of King Edward\'s. \n\nEobert, returning from the Holy Land, took possession of his \nduchy of Normandy, and with a large force landed at Portsmouth, \nto contest the possession of England. By mediation of some of the \nprincipal men, however, he resigned his claim for a pension of three \nthousand marks which, however, in 1103, he was obliged to relin- \nquish, having imprudently trusted his person into the hands of his \nbrother. \n\nHenry, pursuing his ambitious and unnatural career, landed in \nNormandy, in 1105, with a great force, and, after an indecisive \ncampaign, totally defeated Eobert and his army with great slaugh- \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n567 \n\n\n\nter. All Kormandy became his, and his unfortunate brother was \nkept close prisoner till his death \xe2\x80\x94 a period of thirty years. \n\nIn 1120 the king sustained a severe shock in the loss of his eldest \nson "William, who was drowned in crossing the straits. After hear- \ning the news, he is said never to have smiled again. \n\nFor some time he had been disturbed by the hostile pretensions \nof William, son of Eobert, assisted by the king of France and other \nprinces; but his death in a battle at last removed this cause of \nuneasiness. Having no male heir, the succession was settled upon \nhis daughter Matilda, the widow of the Emperor Henry V., and now \nmarried to Geoffrey of Anjou. The latter part of his reign was \nspent in Normandy, where he died on the 1st of December, 1135, \nin the sixty-seventh year of his age. This prince (called Beauclerc, \nfrom his love of letters) possessed the abilities and faults of his two \npredecessors. Justice, however, was rigidly executed. The forest \nlaws were even more severe than under the Williams \xe2\x80\x94 the killing \nof a stag being made equal to that of a man. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER ?I. \n\nSTEPHEN, AND HENRY II. \n\nStephen, a grandson of the Conqueror by his daughter Adela \nand the count of Blois, resolved, on the death of Henry, to make a \nbold attempt upon the crown. Passing into England, where he was \nvery popular, he seized the treasure (as usual), and, by procuring a \nperson to swear that he had been named heir to the throne by the \nking on his death-bed, gained over the primate to crown him at \nWestminster on the 22d of December. \n\nThe barons, taking advantage of the weakness of the new gov- \nernment, began to act the part of petty tyrants throughout the \ncountry. Fortified castles arose on every side, and the unhappy \npeasants and citizens were most cruelly plundered and oppressed. \nFew atrocities can exceed the tortures, murders, and outrages of \nevery kind, which for many years rendered England one of the \nmost miserable countries on earth. \n\n\n\n568 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe king found his throne by no means an easy one. Eevolts \nand Scottish incursions followed each other in rapid succession. \nHardly had he surmounted these difficulties, when in 1141 Matilda, \nwith her natural brother, Kobert, landed in Sussex, and was joined \nby many barons and knights. After various battles and skirmishes, \nthe king was defeated and made prisoner near Lincoln, and Matilda \nwas proclaimed queen of England. \n\nSuch was her haughty and ungracious temper, that the Londoners \nand others speedily revolted ; Eobert was seized ; and Stephen, by \nexchange for him, regained his liberty. After the war had been \nprotracted for some years longer, the death of Eobert so discouraged \nthe empress, that in 1147 she withdrew into Normandy. Hostili- \nties ceased for two years, but in 1150 her son Henry, passing through \nthe kingdom to Scotland, reanimated the hopes of her faction. \nHaving come into possession of Normandy, he passed over into \nEngland, in 1152, to support his adherents. After some hostile \nmanoeuvres, it was agreed that Stephen should hold the crown dur- \ning his life, and that Henry should succeed him. The king died in \nthe following year, on the 25th of October, after an unquiet reign of \nnineteen years. Though a usurper, he possessed many admirable \nqualities, and would probably, under more fortunate circumstances, \nhave made a good king. \n\nIt may be remarked that the Norman conquest had made but \nlittle difference in the laws of England, or in the constitution of \ncourts. The principal changes were the transfer of nearly all the \nlanded estate to the new comers; the enlargement of the feudal \nsystem ; the change in the church government ; and the separation of \nthe spiritual from the civil jurisdiction. \n\nThe feudal system, the origin of which has been variously deduced \nfrom the Eoman and Celtic customs, was of a complicated and \nextended nature; but, in general, the effect was to render all land- \nholders dependent upon the higher classes, and make them liable to \nservice in war, and various duties in time of peace. The great \nbaron holding lands of the king, received the feudal homage of his \nknights, and they, in their turn, of the yeomen and others who \nheld under them. \n\nThe church of Eome had gradually been acquiring an ascendancy \nover all others, and in her various contests with the continental \npowers, had usually kept the advantage. In England, as well as \nelsewhere, she had gained a paramount influence, and interfered \n\n\n\n\n\nScotch Costume, \n\nOF iHE SEVENU\'EF.NTU CENTURY \n\n\n\nli\'iaii Costume, \n\nIN THE REIRN OF JAMES 1 \n\n\n\n\n\nJiigQiand Ba.gpipei \n\n\n\nbL:on;ii Costuuje, \nOF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY \n\n\n\n\n\nL\'os"cunie of Ancient Britons, \n\nTIME OF WILLIAM THE CONQtTERO\'R. \n\n\n\ningiisJi Costume, \n\nOF THE FOHRTEEISTH CENTU\'-iY \n\n\n\n\n\niijngiisn Costume, \n\nIN THE TIME OF HKNRT Till \n\n\n\nIrisii Costume, \n\nOF THE TWELFTH CENTtlRY \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 569 \n\nactively witli the royal authority. This power was greatly aug- \nmented by the privilege accorded to the clergy by William I., of \nbeing invariably tried before their brethren ; an arrangement which \nrendered them almost irresponsible for crime. \n\nThe courts remained almost unchanged. The highest of these, \ncalled the King\'s Court, attended his person, and was composed of \nthe chancellor, treasurer, justiciary, and other high officers. Ordeals \nstill remained in use, and tlie equally absurd wager of battel, or a \ntrial by arms, was introduced. \n\nThe royal revenues were derived from every variety of sources. \nTolls, permission to trade, fines, forfeitures, right of trial, plunder of \nJews, &c., &c., were a few of the regular sources of the royal income. \n\nHenry II, (Plantagenet), at the age of twenty-one, ascended the \nthrone without opposition. Besides England, he had inherited from \nhis parents and gained by marriage nearly a third of France. He \nimmediately commenced a reformation of the existing abuses; \nexpelled the mercenaries from the kingdom; purified the coin; \nresumed the possession of the royal castles; and caused the demo- \nlition of those which had been erected by the nobles. In 1156 he \ncompelled his brother Geoffrey to resign his pretensions to Anjou \nand Maine, which he had invaded. He afterwards gained further \naccessions to his territory in France, got possession of Brittany, \nand attempted to hold Toulouse. \n\nThe king next turned his attention to repressing the excesses of \nthe clergy, among whom murders and other crimes, being unpun- \nished, had become horribly frequent. To effect this, it was neces- \nsary to appoint some one to the primacy on whose support he could \ndepend. Thomas a Becket, the offspring (it is said) of a romantic \nunion between a Londoner and the daughter of a Saracen emir, was \none of the most able and ambitious men of his time. Though edu- \ncated for the church, he had filled many important civil offices. \nAppointed high-chancellor, he greatly distinguished himself by his \npolicy, his valour and generalship, and by the magnificence of his \nhousehold. \n\nHenry supposed that he could confidently rely on his support, \nand in 1162 appointed him archbishop of Canterbury, the head of \nthe English church. But no sooner was he installed in his new \noffice, than his conduct entirely changed. He relinquished all his \nsplendour; lived as an ascetic; and became the most strenuous sup- \nporter of the claims of the church. The king found himself opposed \n\n\n\n570 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. \n\nand baffled at every turn by the able and enthusiastic prelate. At \na great council, however, held at Clarendon, in 1164, many amend- \nments were made in the existing system, and provision was made for \nthe trial of ecclesiastics in the civil courts. Conflicts between the \ncrown and mitre still continued, and Becket, finding the king too \npowerful for him, left the kingdom in disguise, and passed over into \nFlanders. \n\nProtected by the Pope and Loiiis of France, he continued his \nhaughty tone, and excommunicated all who had been concerned in \nthe council of Clarendon. In 1170, by the mediation of Louis, an \napparent reconciliation took place; and Becket returned to resume \nhis former position. His obstinate and factious disposition, however, \nproduced fresh troubles. The king, highly excited at his attacks, \none day exclaimed: "Of the cowards who eat my bread, is there \nnot one who will free me from this turbulent priest?" Four of his \nbarons, hearing these words, secretly left the court, and hastened to \nCanterbury, where the primate was performing religious ceremonies \nand denouncing his enemies. They entered his room, attended by \ntwelve knights, and required him to revoke the excommunication \nwhich he had lately pronounced on the king\'s partisans. This he \nobstinately refused to do; and soon after, following him into the \nchurch, the assassins despatched him wdth repeated blows before the \naltar. He died in his fifty-third year, a martj^r to the cause of fanati- \ncism, pride, and usurpation. He was canonized by the church, and \nhis shrine at Canterbury was, for many centuries afterwards, the \nfavourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of the island. \n\nMeanwhile, some of Henry\'s adventurous subjects were laying the \nfoundation of a new sovereignty in Ireland. The Irish, a Christian- \nized but barbarous people, were, in the twelfth century, not much \nadvanced beyond the Britons of the time of Caesar. The North- \nmen, superior to these rude tribes, had founded some towns on the \ncoast, and commenced a foreign intercourse. In the beginning of \nHenry\'s reign, the Pope, an Englishman, had authorized him, by a \nbull, to invade and take possession of the island. It was at this time \ndivided into five kingdoms \xe2\x80\x94 Desmond, Thomond, Connaught, Ulster, \nand Leinster. Dermot MacMorrough, king of Leinster, having \ncarried off the wife of a chieftain, was compelled by the others to \nfly from the island. He took refiige with Henry at Guienne, in 1167, \nand offered to hold his kingdom in vassalage, if the king would \nrestore him. The English sovereign authorized him to enlist his \n\n\n\n\nTHE HUKDKK (;F THOl/IAS A EECSET, \n\nA\xc2\xabfH Jil.-ji:10i\' OF OA-NTrtiBD :tY \n\n"Thk four assassins proceeded iu great haste to tiae archiejiiscopai pala.cs \nThey found tue primate, who trusted entirely to the sacrcdness of his char- \nacter, very slenderly attended; and though they threw^ out many menaces and \nreproaches against him, he was so incapable of fear, that, "without using any \nprecautions against their violence, he inamcdiately went to St. Benedict\'s Church \nto hear vespers. They followed him thither, attacked him Leiore the altar, and \nhaving cloven his head with naany blows, retired without naeetin.g any opposition \nThis was the tragical end of Thomas a Becket, a prela.te of the most lofty, \nintrepid, and inflexible spirit, who was able to cover to the world, and probably \n\xe2\x96\xa0CO himself, the enterprises oi\' pride and ambition, under the disguise of sanctity, \nand of zeal for the interests of i^eligion. "\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x94 Hdmf.\'s History of Ent-lasd \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n571 \n\n\n\nsubjects in the cause, and in 1169, witli a small force of desperate \nadventurers, he landed in Ireland. Unable to resist the superior \narms and skill of their Norman invaders, the Irish were defeated; \nand Dermot, unsatisfied with the recovery of his own kingdom, \ninvited over the earl of Pembroke, called Strongbow, who married \nhis daughter, and made further conquests. Dermot dying. Strong- \nbow succeeded to his throne, and aimed at the conquest of all Ireland. \nHe defeated Eoderic, king of Connaught, the lord paramount of the \nisland, with great slaughter ; and Henry, fearing the formation of an \nindependent kingdom, resolved to pass over into Ireland in person. \n\nWith a fleet of four hundred sail, he landed near Waterford in 1172, \nand received the submission of almost the entire nation. In a great \ncouncil at Dublin, attended by the Irish princes, he settled the state, \nand the following year returned, leaving Hugh de Lucy chief justice, \nand permitting Strongbow to retain a great part of his possessions. \nThough the conquerors were spread throughout the island, the \ntwo races never coalesced, and for several centuries Ireland presented \na miserable spectacle of oppression, anarchy, and civil war. \n\nAfter these successes, the king received absolution for the death \nof Becket from the Pope, who for some time had been holding an \nexcommunication over his head. From this time, family dissensions \nrendered his life an unhappy one. His sons, Henry, Eichard, and \nGeoffrey, on whom England and the French provinces had been \nsettled, demanded that they should be put in possession of their \nterritories ; and, on his refusal, fled to the court of Louis, and organ- \nized an extensive confederacy against him. The kings of France \nand Scotland, and the earls of Flanders, Blois, and Boulogne, \nmoved by ambition and jealousy, all supported the impudent \ndemands of these undutiful princes. \n\nThe king prepared for resistance ; he induced the Pope to excom- \nmunicate his enemies, and hired twenty thousand mercenaries to \naugment his forces. Normandy was the scene of conflict, and after \nsome indecisive actions, the unfortunate king offered to surrender \nto his sons half the revenues of the kingdoms they demanded. \nThis negotiation being broken off, he returned to England, where \nEichard de Lucy, guardian of the kingdom, was defending it bravely \nagainst revolt and Scottish invasion. The king, proceeding to the \nshrine of Becket, declared his innocence of the saint\'s death, and \nsubmitted to a flagellation by the monks. News immediately came \nthat the king of Scots, who, with eighty thousand men, had again \n\n\n\n572 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ninvaded England, was defeated and taken prisoner on that very- \nday\' \xe2\x80\x94 a proof, as it was supposed, of th.e king\'s reconciliation witli \nthe heavenly powers. \n\nEeturning to Normandy, he recommenced the contest, and finally \nthe princes were compelled to accept terms far less advantageous \nthan those which he had offered at first. The king of Scotland \nalso was obliged to acknowledge Henry as his feudal lord, and to \nyield up the strong fortresses of Berwick and Eoxburgh (1175). \n\nIn 1183, the princes renewed their contests with the king and \nwith each other; but the death of Henry and Geofirey ended \nthese dif&culties. \n\nIn 1188, Richard, assisted by the king of France, again revolted, \nand the unhappy old monarch, defeated and disappointed every \nwhere, was compelled to yield to his unreasonable demands. His \nyoungest and favourite son, John, for whom he had destined the \nkingdom of Ireland, had also joined the conspiracy against him. \nThe king did not long survive these misfortunes, but died of a \nlingering fever on the 6th of July, 1189, refusing to revoke the \nmalediction which he had pronounced against his undutiful children. \n\nWith Henry, who possessed no ordinary legislative talents, origin- \nated the present English system of common law and of circuit courts. \nTrial by jury was also partially developed, though the absurd ordeals \nand wagers of battel still continued to be used. \n\n\n\nCHAPTER 7IL \n\nEICHAED I., JOHN, AND HENRY III. \n\nRichard I. (Coeur de Lion), the eldest surviving son of the late \nmonarch, was crowned at Westminster Abbey, on the 3d of Sep- \ntember, 1189, in the midst of an outrageous riot directed against \nthe Jews, who were every where plundered and murdered through- \nout the city. \n\nA new crusade had been for some time in progress ; and Richard, \nburning for martial glory, assumed the cross. He raised money for \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n573 \n\n\n\nthe expedition by every possible expedient, even surrendering Ber- \n, wick and Koxburgb to the Scottish king ; and answered to those \nwho remonstrated, that he would sell the city of London, if he \ncould find a purchaser. \n\nHaving appointed governors for the kingdom, and loaded his \nbrother John with titles and possessions, he departed for Palestine. \nJust before this, however, the fierce Crusaders made a fresh attack \nupon the unfortunate Jews, great numbers of whom were massacred \nthroughout the kingdom. \n\nDuring the sixteen months which he spent in the East, Richard \nacquired the highest renown by his valour and exploits against the \nSaracens. Unable, however, from the defection of his allies, to gain \npossession of Jerusalem, he made a treaty with Saladin, the chiv- \nalrous sultan of Egypt and Syria, and in 1192 embarked from Acre. \n\nMeanwhile, great disorders prevailed in England. The bishops \nof Durham and Ely, who had been left in charge of the kingdom, \ndisagreed, and the former was imprisoned by the latter, who assumed \nthe most regal state and authority. Philip of France invaded Nor- \nmandy, and subdued a portion of it; and John, giving out that his \nbrother was dead, attempted to seize the throne for himself. \n\nThe king, while travelling through Germany, had been treacher- \nously seized and imprisoned by the archduke of Austria; and his \nplace of confinement was for a long time unknown. At length his \ncaptors agreed to release him for a ransom of an hundred thousand \nmarks ; and after more than a year\'s captivity, he regained his king- \ndom. On learning of his liberation, Philip wrote to John in these \nwords: "Take heed to yourself, for the devil is unchained." \n\nAfter being recrowned, (to efface the stain of captivity,) Richard \nset out for the continent, to defend his dominions from the king of \nFrance. His brother John, with characteristic treachery, massacred \nthe French officers and garrison of Evreux, where he was staying; and \nthen seeking his brother, obtained pardon for his former treasons. \nThe war was continued, with brief intermissions, until the death of \nRichard, which occurred in 1199. While besieging the castle of \nChaluz, whose owner had refused to surrender an accidentally-dis- \ncovered treasure, he was wounded by a bolt from a cross-bow. The \ninjury proved mortal, and Richard, having expressed much peni- \ntence, and at his own desire undergone a severe flagellation from \nthe clergy, expired in the forty-second year of his age ; leaving a \nlasting reputation for courage, rashness, and violence. \n\n\n\n574 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\nThougli Arthur, duke of Brittany, and son of Geoffrey, was tlie \nnext lieir to tlie throne, Eichard bequeathed it to his brother John; \nwho secured the treasure, as usual, and, after some hesitation, Avas \ncrowned at Westminster. Arthur, supported by Phihp, at first \nmaintained his own pretensions; but being abandoned by him, was \nobliged to relinquish them, and do homage for Brittany to his uncle. \n\nIn 1202, Arthur, supported by Philip, whose daughter he had \nmarried, again laid claim to the French provinces ; but was defeated, \nimprisoned, and finally assassinated in secret, probably by the hand of \nJohn himself Philip continued hostilities, and, aided by the uni- \nversal horror occasioned by this crime, succeeded in wresting from \nJohn all his continental domains, except Guienne. \n\nThe weak and cruel monarch was next involved in a quarrel with \nPope Innocent III., arising out of a private ecclesiastical dispute \nbetween certain monks. Refusing to submit, his kingdom was laid \nunder an interdict, which he revenged by despoiling the clergy and \nimprisoning their concubines until large sums were paid for their \nransom. He sought aid from the emperor of Morocco, and even \noffered to turn Mahometan, if he would assist him against the PojDe. \nThe latter, in 1209, next tried an excommunication, and finally \nissued a sentence of deposition against him, the execution of which \nhe intrusted to Philip, promising the crown of England and the \nforgiveness of his sins as the reward. \n\nGreat preparations were made by both princes; but just as the \nwar was about to commence, John, infinitely to the disappointment \nof Philip, made a mean submission to the Pope, surrendering all \nhis possessions to him and to his successors, and agreeing to hold \nthem by annual payment of a thousand marks. The clerg}^, more- \nover, brought in an immense bill for damages, which he was \ncompelled to satisfy. \n\nFresh troubles awaited him. The barons, headed by the primate \nLangton, after vainly demanding pledges for the future reform of \nabuses, assembled a force, and made war upon the king. \n\nJohn, finding the whole kingdom arrayed against him, was com- \npelled to accede to their demands; and on the 19th of June, 1215, \nat Runnymead, signed what is called "The Great Charter," the most \nimportant instrument in English histor}^ By this celebrated writing, \nthe rights of the church and nobility were defined and secured; \nthe cities were assured their ancient privileges, and exemption from \narbitrary taxation; foreign merchants were protected; and it was \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 575 \n\nprovided that no man should be imprisoned or outlawed, except "by \nthe legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land." Other \nimportant matters were also settled. The benefits which have been \nderived from Magna Charta, the foundation of the British constitu- \ntion, are almost incalculable. It was the first and most prominent \nof a long series of patriotic measures, defining and securing the \nliberty of the subject against arbitrary power. \n\nJohn, whose rage at this compulsion had been indescribable, \nprepared for revenge. He enlisted great numbers of foreign merce- \nnaries; the Pope absolved him from his oath, and excommunicated \nhis enemies, declaring them to be worse than Saracens. He marched \nthrough the northern counties and part of Scotland, ravaging, burn- \ning, and murdering all before him, while the earl of Salisbury did \nthe same in the east. The barons applied for aid to France, and \nPrince Louis, with six hundred and eighty vessels, landed at Sand- \nwich. The afflicted nation was, however, spared further hostilities \nby the death of John, which occurred shortly after, in 1216, in the \nforty-ninth year of his age. He died of a surfeit, leaving a charac- \nter unsurpassed for meanness, cruelty, and treachery. \n\nHenry HI., his\' son, was but ten years of age when crowned, and \nthe earl of Pembroke, a man of great worth, talent, and energy, \nwas appointed "governor of the king and kingdom." The Great \nCharter was confirmed, and Louis, who still attempted to gain the \nthrone, was defeated, and compelled to leave the kingdom. Pem- \nbroke dying in 1219, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, contrived to \nengross all power into his own hands for several years ; but was \nfinally deposed and imprisoned. Peter des Eoches, a Poitevin, \nbishop of Winchester, succeeded him in the royal favour; but, \nfilling all offices with his own countrymen, was overthrown and \nbanished by the archbishop of Canterbury. The king made two \nattempts, in 1230 and in 1242, to regain his French domains, but \nunsuccessfully, and at last formally renounced them. \n\nHenry, a feeble-minded prince, relied almost entirely on the Pope, \nwho, in his turn, contrived, under various pretexts, to drain the \nkingdom yearly of immense sums of money. The barons, indignant \nat the large amounts sent out of the country, on one occasion, in \n1243, made a demand for fresh security against misapplication of sup- \nplies; and, in 1248, absolutely refused to grant him any whatever. \n\nAt length, Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and other great \nbarons of the realm, formed a fresh confederacy to limit the royal \n\n\n\n576 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nauthority. The king was compelled to submit, and a grand council \nwas held at Oxford on the 11th of June, 1258. This assembly took \nall power into its own hands, and enacted many resolutions limiting \nthe royal prerogative. The barons, however, became so unpopular, \nthat in 1261 the king resumed his full authority, and reappointed \nthe principal officers of the kingdom, who had been displaced by \nthe council. \n\nIn 1263 Leicester, who had gone to France, returned, and reorgan- \nized the confederacy. They took up arms, and once more compelled \nthe king to resign his resumed authority. He, however, took the field \nagain, and after farther engagements, the questions in dispute were \nsubmitted to the arbitration of the king of France (1264). This \nbeing in favour of the king, the barons refused to abide by it, and \nresumed their arms. The king, supported by many of the great \nfamilies in Scotland and the north of England, assembled an army, \nand a bloody engagement took place at Lewes, in which. the king\'s \nparty were entirely defeated. Five thousand are said to have fallen \non either side. \n\nLeicester was now the actual ruler of the kingdom, and used his \npower with great tyranny and rapacity. He carried the king about \nwith him, treating him with a semblance of respect, and using his \nname and authority to fortify his own acts. \n\nThe year 1265 is memorable for the foundation of the British \nParliament. The Grand Council had hitherto consisted only of \nthe barons, prelates, and tenants of the crown; but Leicester, on \nthis occasion, (probably to secure a majority of supporters,) directed \nthe election of "two knights for each county, two citizens for each \ncity, and two burgesses for each borough," thus for the first time \nestablishing the principle of representation from the people. \n\nThe king and Prince Edward were still kept in custody ; but the \nlatter, while riding out with his attendants, escaped on a fleet horse, \nand, assisted by the earl of Gloucester and other barons, commenced \nhostilities against Leicester. In a great battle which ensued at \nEvesham, the old king, cased in armour, was placed by Leicester in \nthe front rank; and being unhorsed and wounded, cried out, "I am \nHenry of Winchester." The prince, hearing his voice, ran to his \nassistance, and conveyed him to a place of safety. Leicester and his \nson were slain ; and their army was utterly defeated. The memory \nof Leicester was long cherished by the people, who showed their \nestimate of his character by the title of "Sir Simon the Eighteous." \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 577 \n\nThe power of the confederate barons was completely broken ; and \nthe royalists, following up their advantage, under Prince Edward, \nreduced all disaffected parts of the kingdom to submission. The \nprince then sailed for Palestine to join the Crusaders; and during \nhis absence the king died, November 20th, 1272, in the sixty-fourth \nyear of his age and the fifty-sixth of his reign. His character \nwas not marked by any distinguishing traits; and his long reign \noffers few incidents of personal interest. During his time, the trial \nby ordeal was abolished, and a stand was commenced against the \nencroachments of the Church. \n\n\n\nuitiiiiirxiiiiri viiio \n\nEDWARD I., EDWARD II., AND EDWARD III. \n\nPrince Edward, with a small force, had sustained the fame of \nCoeur de Lion in the East ; but, overpowered by numbers, was com- \npelled to make a treaty of peace. On his way home, he learned of \nthe death of his father, and after remaining a year in Gruienne, set- \ntling disturbances, he reached his kingdom, and was crowned, at the \nage of thirty-six. \n\nHis first enterprise was against Llewellyn, prince of Wales, who \nhad joined the barons in the late rebellion, and who now refused to \nappear and do homage to the crown. In 1277, the king entered his \ncountry with an army, while his fleet commanded the coast, and \nLlewellyn, imprisoned in the barren regions of Snowden, was com- \npelled to submit, upon severe terms. These, however, the king \nremitted, and thinking the subjugation of Wales complete, retired. \n\nSoon after, the Welsh, impatient of the English laws, and encour- \naged by a prophecy of the enchanter Merlin, again revolted \nthroughout the country, and Edward hastened to the scene of \naction. After meeting some reverses, he again defeated them; \nLlewellyn was slain; and the other chiefs made their submission. \nThe king remained more than a year in Wales, erecting fortresses, \nand establishing the English system of government. The queen, \n37 \n\n\n\n578 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nat this time, gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Edward, to \nconciliate his new subjects, declared to be "Prince of "Wales," a \ntitle which has ever since been borne by the heir-apparent to the \nBritish throne. \n\nAfter some years, spent in domestic legislation and on the conti- \nnent, the affairs of Scotland attracted his attention, and employed \nthe remainder of his reign. \n\nIn 1286, Alexander III. had died; and the "Maid of Norway," \nhis grand-daughter, was the next in succession. She was betrothed \nto the son of Edward, but dying in 1290, no less than thirteen pre- \ntenders to the throne started up. To avoid an appeal to arms, it \nwas determined by the barons, in 1291, to refer the decision to the \nking of England. \n\nHe readily accepted the office of arbitrator, and advanced with a \nlarge army to the frontier. Before making his award, however, he \nfirst required that they should acknowledge his right as feudal lord \nof Scotland. After some hesitation, the various parties interested \nsigned an instrument to that effect, and all the royal castles and for- \ntresses were put into the hands of Edward. After examining the \nvarious claims, he pronounced judgment in favour of John Baliol, \na descendant of the royal line, and, restoring the fortresses into his \nhands, gave him complete possession of the kingdom. \n\nThe king of England soon found himself engaged in hostilities \nwith France ; but ere he quitted the kingdom, difficulties in Wales \nand Scotland induced him to remain. The first he effectually sub- \ndued, and, Baliol refusing to acknowledge his sovereignty, he marched \nwith a large army to the frontiers of the latter in 1296. The Scots, \nto draw him away, made an inroad into Cumberland; but, disre- \ngarding this, he attacked Berwick, carried it by assault, and put its \ngarrison of seven thousand men to the sword. Warrenne, earl of \nSurrey, also gained a great victory at Dunbar, leaving ten thousand \nof the Scots dead upon the field. The whole kingdom now submit- \nted, and Baliol in person made a formal surrender of his kingdom. \n\nEdward marched through the country, held a parliament, received \nthe homage of the nation, and returned to England; leaving War- \nrenne guardian of the kingdom, and filling the principal offices with \nEnglishmen. Baliol was taken in honourable captivity to London. \n\nThe king then crossed the sea with a large army, and, without \nmuch hostility, a treaty was concluded, by which Guienne was \nrestored, and he married a sister of the French monarch. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 579 \n\nMeanwliile, a fresli insvirrection broke out in Scotland, lieaded by \nWilliam Wallace, a man of gigantic stature, and of great courage \nand patriotism. His successes increased his ranks ; and some of the \nmost eminent persons in Scotland joined his standard. Bj Edward\'s \norders, Warrenne, who had left the country, raised a large army, and \nadvanced to Stirling. Nearly all the chiefs hastened to make sub- \nmission ; but Wallace and Moray, with a large force, engaged the \nEnglish earl at Cambuskenneth, defeated him with great slaughter, \nand compelled him to withdraw into England. They followed up \ntheir advantage by ravaging the northern counties of the enemy. \n\nThe brave Wallace was made guardian of the kingdom, and \nsummoned a parliament. But his success, though brilliant, was \ntransitory. Edward returned, and in 1298 invaded Scotland with a \nforce of eighty seven thousand men. In a great battle at Falkirk, the \nScots were entirely routed, with a loss, at the lowest computation, \nof fifteen thousand men. Wallace escaped, but found himself des- \ntitute of means to make an effectual resistance. \n\nThe country was again partially conquered, and in 1301, the \nPope having interfered in behalf of Scotland, a truce was made for \na time, while the questions in issue were debated. In 1303, Edward \ndetermined on the final reduction of the kingdom, and despatched \nan army of twenty thousand men, which, however, was defeated. \nThe king then marched with a force too great to be resisted, and \noverran the country. Comyn, the guardian of the kingdom, and \nthe nobles submitted, Wallace alone -still resisted, but being \ntreacherously betrayed, was carried to London, tried, and executed, \non a fictitious charge of treason. The memory of this champion \nhas always been exceedingly dear to the Scottish nation, and many \nremarkable stories are related of his strength and courage. \n\nIn the next year, 1305, the various places of trust were divided \nbetween the natives and the English ; the Scottish laws were allowed, \nand Edward supposed his conquest finally secured. But in four \nmonths, the Scots again rose in insurrection, having for their leader \nEobert Bruce, a descendant of the royal line of Scotland. He was \ncrowned at Scone, but was soon defeated, and compelled to take \nrefage in the Isle of Eathlin, near Ireland. \n\nIn 1307, he reappeared, and gained some advantages. Edward \nassembled a large army, but before he had proceeded far, died, worn \nout with age and infirmities, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and \nthe thirty-fifth of his reign. He had previously engaged his son \n\n\n\n580 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nand tlie Englisli nobles, by a solemn oatb, to prosecute tbe war to \nextremity. This monarcli possessed greater talents than any prince \nwho bad yet worn the crown of England ; be bad a strong regard \nfor justice; and mucb of bis oppressive conduct in Wales and Scot- \nland was, in tbat day, beld to be justified by tbe feudal law. \n\nIn bis reign, by tbe influence of tbe barons, tbe charters were \nconfirmed, and a clause added, securing tbe nation against taxation, \nexcept by consent of parliament. Tbe present constitution of tbe \nlatter was also fiilly established. Many improvements, moreover, \nwere made in the laws, and in tbe jurisdiction of courts. \n\nEdward II. succeeded bis father at the age of twenty-two. \nFor some years he did but little in fulfilling bis father\'s wishes in \nregard to Scotland. The early part of bis reign was troubled by \nthe jealousy and anger manifested by the great barons against his \nfavourite. Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, to whom be was strongly \nattached, and whom be had loaded with of&ces and honours. After \nseveral times compelling tbe king to dismiss him, and as often seeing \nhim recalled, in 1312 they seized tbe unfortunate favourite, and \nbeheaded him near Warwick. \n\nMeanwhile, Bruce had gradually made himself master of all the \nEnglish strongholds in Scotland. In 1314 Edward, with a large \narmy, marched against him, and engaged the Scottish forces at Ban- \nnockburn, near Stirling Castle. Bruce, with forty thousand men, \nbad occupied an advantageous position, which he further strengthened \nby deep pits in front of his line, filled with sharp stakes, and covered \nwith turf. Calthrojos, or sharp-pointed frames of iron, were also \nscattered over the ground on which the enemy\'s cavalry must charge. \n\nOn tbe 24th of June, the English, with a much superior force, \nadvanced to the attack, and seeing tbe Scottish ranks upon their \nknees, supposed at first that they were demanding mercy. They \nwere speedily undeceived; the resistance was most obstinate, and \nthe English suffered a ruinous defeat, to which the appearance of a \ngreat number of the Scottish camp-followers, mistaken by them for \nanother army, somewhat contributed. \n\nA dreadful famine and pestilence in England succeeded this \ndisaster, and Bruce continuing the warfare, recovered Berwick, and \nrendered his kingdom independent. Edward\'s attachment to a new \nfavourite, Hugh le Despencer, again excited the jealousy of tbe \nbarons, who rose in arms, but after a protracted contest, were defeated, \nand many of them executed. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 5g;l^ \n\nIn 1325, Queen Isabella, sister to tlie king of France, went to \ntliat court, with the prince, her son, for the purpose of arranging \ncertain difficulties respecting the French provinces. While there, \nshe formed a criraiual connection with Eoger Mortimer, one of the \nrevolted barons, who had escaped. She delayed her return under \nvarious pretexts, and finally, instigated by her paramour, with a \nforce of some thousand men, sailed for England, with the intention \nof forcibly suppressing the power of the Despencers. On landing, \nshe was joined by many of the barons, with numerous forces, and \nEdward was compelled to fly from London. The Despencers, father \nand son, were captured, and ignominiously executed, on the most \nfrivolous charges. \n\nThe unhappy king, closely pursued, surrendered himself, and the \nbarons declared the young prince guardian of the kingdom. Soon \nafter, his father was formally deposed, and nearly all the peers took \nan oath of allegiance to the youthful heir. The dethroned mon- \narch, after being carried from castle to castle, and treated with great \nindignity, was barbarously murdered at Berkley, on the 21st of \nSeptember, 1327. \n\nMortimer was made earl of March, and the kingdom was entirely \ngoverned by him and the queen. Bruce, though a truce had been \nagreed upon, invaded the north of England with twenty-four thou- \nsand men, and committed grievous ravages. An army of forty \nthousand, which was sent against him, under the young king, was \nunable to come to an engagement ; and, in the following year, 1328, \na peace was concluded, in which the independence of Scotland was \nfully acknowledged. \n\nMortimer, having all power in his own hands, ruled with great \ninsolence, and the young king, now eighteen, was impatient of his \ncontrol. In 1330, assisted by Lord Montacute and others, he seized \nthe traitor, assumed the throne, and summoned a parliament. By \nthis body, Mortimer was found guilty of the late king\'s death, and \nof other offences, was condemned, and executed. The queen was \nconfined to her private residence. \n\nIn 1332, Bruce being dead, the English claimants of Scottish lands \nput Edward Baliol (the son of John) at their head, and made an \ninroad into Scotland. They completely defeated the Scottish army, \nunder the earl of Mar, with immense slaughter. Baliol, however, \nwas soon expelled from the kingdom by the earl of Moray, and in \n1333 Edward marched to his assistance. In the battle of Halidon \n\n\n\n582 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHill, the Scots lost thirty tliousaiid men; Berwick surrendered; \nand David, tlie young king, was compelled to fly into France. \n\nBaliol was acknowledged sovereign, and the English supremacy \nwas once more extended over Scotland. The Scots, however, rose \nagain, and after a contest of some years, David returned^ and \nin 1341 resumed his throne. \n\nEdward\'s attention, however, was now engrossed by the crown of \nFrance, to which, in right of his mother, he had advanced an utterly \nunfounded claim. Having formed an alliance with several of the \ncontinental states, he invaded the French territory in 1339 with \nfifty thousand men, burning and plundering as he went. Philip, \nking of that country, also raised a large army, but no decisive engage- \nment ensued, and Edward, disbanding his allies, returned to England, \ndeeply in debt, having accomplished nothing. \n\nIn 1340, he renewed the war; and a large fleet which Philip had \nstationed at Sluys to oppose him, was destroyed or taken by that of \nthe English, and thirty thousand of the French perished. His allies \nnow crowded to his standard; and with a force of two hundred \nthousand men, he recommenced hostilities. A great body of these, \nhowever, taking a sudden alarm, fled. Tournay, strongly garrisoned, \nresisted his arms, and Philip appeared with a large army, but, as \nbefore, avoided a decisive engagement. By the mediation of Jane \nof Hainault, a relative of both monarchs, hostilities w^ere suspended \nfor nine months, and this period, by the intervention of the Pope, \nwas afterwards extended. \n\nThe king\'s debts, and his disputes with the nobility and clergy \nof his realm, occupied him till 1342, when he made a fresh and \nineffectual attempt. \n\nIn 1345, he induced the parliament to support him in another \nexpedition, and despatched the earl of Derby with an army to \nGuienne. This general was exceedingly successful, and in 1346 \nEdward, with thirty thousand troops, went over in person. Forty \nthousand Flemings were to invade France at the same time. Land- \ning in Normandy, he ravaged the country far and near. Thence \nmarching up the left bank of the Seine, he burned many towns, and \ncarried his incursions to the neighbourhood of Paris itself. Philip, \nwith an army on the opposite shore, still protracted the war, avoiding \na general engagement. \n\nAt length, on the 26th of August, the two armies met at Creci, \nor Cressy, a small village near the coast, the French force being \n\n\n\nENGLAND, 533 \n\nvariously estimated at from sixty thousand to one hundred and \ntwenty thousand men. In the midst of a violent storm the battle \ncommenced. The result was for a long time doubtful, and the prince, \na youth of fifteen, distinguished himself by his skill and valour. \nThe English archery finally decided the day; thirty-six thousand \nof their enemies were left upon the field, including eleven princes, \nand a host of nobles and gentlemen. It has been said that cannon \nwere, in this battle, for the first time employed in warfare, and that \ntheir use contributed greatly to the victory. \n\nA few days afterwards Edward laid siege to Calais, which was \nbravely defended by the governor, John de Yienne. At length, \novercome by famine, the town surrendered in July, 1347, Edward \nhaving stipulated for the death of six of the principal burgesses. \nEustache de St. Pierre, and five others of the leading citizens, gener- \nously offered their lives as a ransom for their countrymen, and, \naccording to usage, presented themselves before the victor, half- \nnaked, with halters in their hands. He sternly commanded them to \nbe led to execution, but at the entreaty of his queen, Philippa, was \nfinally induced to spare their lives. The inhabitants were mostly \nexpelled from Calais, and it was repeopled with English by the king, \nas a mart for his commerce. \n\nMeanwhile, David of Scotland, taking advantage of the king\'s \nabsence, had ravaged the north of England ; but was defeated at \nNeville\'s Cross, in Durham, with a loss of fifteen thousand men ; and, \nbeing taken prisoner, was carried in triumph to London, with several \nof his nobility. \n\nCalais being captured, an armistice took place, which, by the \ninfluence of the Pope, was protracted for six years. In 1348 Eng- \nland, as well as the rest of Europe suffered from a dreadful plague, \nwhich carried off vast numbers of the inhabitants. \n\nNegotiations being fruitless, the war with France was resumed in \n1355, John having succeeded his father Philip on the throne, \nEdward the Black Prince, (so called from his armour,) who had \nalready distinguished himself at Cressy and elsewhere, marched \neastward from Bourdeaux, with sixty thousand men, wasting and \nravaging the country, as usual. He returned from this expedition \nin seven weeks, having in that time destroyed more than five hun- \ndred cities, towns, and villages. \n\nThe king, who had also commenced an expedition from Calais, \nwas recalled by hostilities which had broken out in Scotland, and \n\n\n\n584 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhaving purchased Baliol\'s claim to the throne, marched through the \ncountry, burning and devastating it in all directions. \n\nIn the autumn, the prince, with twelve thousand troops, set forth \nupon another marauding expedition, and near the town of Poictiers \nfell in with a large army, commanded by King John in person. \nThe English archery, as usual, proved triumphant ; the French were \ndefeated, and King John himself, with his son Philip, after a dis- \nastrous battle was taken prisoner. The captive monarch was treated \nwith the highest distinction, the prince waiting upon him in person, \nand, on their arrival in England, the castle of "Windsor was assigned \nhim for a residence. \n\nThe king of Scotland had now been eleven years a prisoner ; but \nwas set at liberty on payment of a hundred thousand marks, and \nthe surrender of important hostages. \n\nThe French nobility rejecting the terms which had been offered \nfor the liberation of their king, Edward, in 1359, with an hundred \nthousand men, again invaded France. After ravaging Picardy, and \nadvancing to the gates of Paris, he was compelled to retire by the \nwant of provisions; and a treaty was finally signed, by which it \nwas agreed that he should resign all his pretensions, retaining \nonly Poitou, Guienne, and Ponthieu, and the towns of Calais and \nGuisnes, and that three millions crowns of gold should be paid as a \nransom for John. \n\nEdward the Black Prince was next engaged in an expedition for \nthe purpose of restoring Peter lY., king of Castile, to his throne. \nHe was afterwards involved in war with Charles, who had succeeded \nhis father John upon the throne, and being compelled by ill-health \nto return to England, the few possessions of that nation in France \nwere mostly lost to her. He died in 1376, in the forty-sixth year of \nhis age, leaving the highest reputation for magnanimity and chival- \nrous courage, though tinctured with the ferocity of the times. His \nson Pichard was declared heir to the throne. \n\nThe king soon followed his son. He died the following year, \nlike the Conqueror, plundered and deserted by his attendants in his \nlast moments. His death occurred on the 21st of June, 1377, in \nthe sixty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of fifty years. \n\nThe military renown and general success of this long and brilliant \nreign, have rendered the names of Edward III. and his son among \nthe most prominent in English history. The constitution and the \npower of parliament profited by the very ambition of the king; for his \n\n\n\n\nGARTER E:IN&-AT-ARMS, CHIEF HERALD OF ENGLAND, \n\nIN THE COSTUME OF Till? TIME OF HENRY Till \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n585 \n\n\n\nanxiety to gain supplies induced him to reform grievances, and more \ndistinctly to acknowledge tlie rights of those on whom he depended. \n\nIt was thus fully established that money could not be raised with- \nout the votes of parliament; that the laws should not be altered, \nexcept by authority of both houses; and that the commons might \nimpeach the high oflS.cers for misconduct. The laws of treason, which \nhad heretofore been a potent instrument of royal oppression, were \ndefined and limited nearly to their present form. The theory and \npractice of law were also wonderfully improved and polished. \n\nManufactures were encouraged, and foreign artisans invited to \nsettle in England. The avaricious demands of the Pope were some- \nwhat checked, and the project was even entertained of resisting his \nauthority altogether. The castle of Windsor was built by Edward, \nand the renowned "Order of the Garter" was instituted by him. \n\n\n\nkj iLJj JjOi <L vj (Xj dub Jj l6uj o \n\nRICHAED II., AND HENRY IV. \n\nRiCHAED, at the age of eleven, received the crown of his grand- \nfather. A council of regency was appointed, and the war with \nFrance was slowly continued. A new poll-tax, levied for the purpose \nof carrying it on, gave rise in 1381 to a most dangerous insurrec- \ntion. For a long time, great oppression of the poorer classes had \nprevailed; and the cultivators of the soil were mostly in a state of \nserfdom, similar to that of the Russians at the present day. By \ndegrees, however, a spirit of freedom and resistance to tyranny had \nbecome generally diffused; and was first called into action by the \noutrageous insolence of the collectors of this tax. \n\nIn Kent and Essex, the people rose in great numbers, and under \nthree leaders, Wat the Tyler, John Ball, a priest, and another who \nassumed the name of Jack Straw, took up their march for London, \npillaging the country as they went, and cutting off the heads of all \nlawyers, justices, and jurors. They arrived at the capital, one hun- \ndred thousand strong, broke open the prisons, and plundered the \n\n\n\n586 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\npalaces of several of the nobility. The city was completely in their \npower, and if any one refused to join in crying out their watch- \nword, his head was immediately struck off. The young king met \nthem at Mile End, and listened to their demands. \n\nThese were, the abolition of slavery, and the services of villanage, \nfreedom from market-tolls, and a general pardon. These terms were \nat once acceded to ; and the multitude dispersed, and returned to \ntheir homes. During this conference, however, Wat Tyler had \nbroken into the town, and murdered the treasurer, the archbishop, \nand other obnoxious persons. \n\nAs Richard, the next day, rode through the city with a small \ntrain, he encountered Tyler in Smithfield, at the head of twenty \nthousand men. The popular leader, riding up to the king, com- \nmenced a conference ; but, as he seized the royal bridle, was stabbed \nby "Walworth the Lord Mayor. The youthful king, with great \npresence of mind, galloped to the head of his tumultuary forces, \npacified them, and dismissed them to their homes. \n\nThe nobles and gentry now rallied around the king with a force \nof forty thousand men; and in compliance with their advice, he \nrevoked the charters which he had lately granted, and executed \nfifteen hundred of the insurgents. \n\nIn the year 1384, the Scots, with a body of French auxiliaries, \nhaving made an incursion into England, the king, at the head of \neighty thousand -men, marched into Scotland, and laid it waste. \n\nIn 1386, the parliament and nobles, excited by the duke of Glou- \ncester, the king\'s uncle, insisted on the removal of his ministers, \nand after fruitless opposition, he was compelled to yield. A com- \nmission of fourteen lords and prelates, with Gloucester at its head, \nwas also appointed to regulate the affairs of the kingdom for a year. \n\nThe king, enraged at this compulsion, took private measures for \nrevenge; but Gloucester and his party, with forty thousand men, \noverawed all movements in his favour. In 1388, a parliament being \nsummoned, several of the accused ministers and their adherents \nwere ignominiously executed. Gloucester and his party held their \npower about a year longer; but becoming unpopular, the king was \nenabled to dismiss them, and take the government into his own hands. \n\nFor eight years he ruled without opposition ; and seemed recon- \nciled to the duke and his adherents. In 1394, he visited Ireland \nwith a large force, and received the homage of the English and the \nnative chiefe. Three years afterwards, however, Richard, who had \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n587 \n\n\n\nnever forgiven the dictatorsliip of his nncle Gloucester, had him \narrested and conveyed to Calais; and other distinguished nobles \nwho had belonged to his faction were tried; and exiled or beheaded. \nThe death of the duke himself, in prison, was also shortly given \nout, and there can be little doubt that he was murdered by command \nof the king. \n\nHaving strengthened his position by distributing titles and hon- \nours among his relations and supporters, the king began to exhibit \na stronger and more arbitrary will. He maintained ten thousand \narchers; and the nobles, viewing his treachery and revengeful \ndisposition, began to feel unsafe, and to meditate a change. \n\nHe removed, as he supposed, in 1398, the last of his powerful \nenemies, by banishing from England the dukes of Norfolk and \nHereford, the latter being the son of his uncle, the duke of Lancaster, \nand both formerly adherents of Gloucester, \n\nHis position was now that of an absolute monarch. As a per- \npetual subsidy had been granted him, he was under no necessity for \ncalling or conciliating parliaments; but by his forced loans, and \nother acts of oppression, he completely alienated the affections of \nhis people. \n\nThey now began to turn their thoughts to his exiled cousin, Henry \nduke of Hereford. This feeling was enhanced by the injustice of \nRichard, who, on the death of Lancaster, instead of allowing his \nestates to descend to Hereford, seized them for himself \n\nWhile the king was absent on an expedition to Ireland, in 1399, \nthe banished duke landed in Yorkshire, and averring that he only \nsought to recover his rights, was joined by the powerful earls of \nWestmoreland and ISTorthumberland. The duke of York, Eichard\'s \nuncle, who had been left as regent, at first assembled a force to oppose \nhim; but after an interview with Hereford, (also his nephew,) joined \nforces with him. Their army, numbering an hundred thousand, \nappeared before Bristol ; the castle surrendered, and some of Rich- \nard\'s favourites were executed without even the formality of a trial. \n\nThe king, on learning the disastrous intelligence, sent over the \nearl of Salisbury, and ere long followed to Wales in person ; but \nhis army deserted in all directions, and he was compelled to despatch \nmessengers to Henry to learn his intentions. The latter artfully \nfeigned submission, on certain conditions, and thus induced the king \nto trust himself in his hands ; Richard, however, privately assuring \nhis friends of the terrible revenge which he would take at some \n\n\n\n588 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nfuture time. On beholding the immense force of his enemy, and \nfinding himself a prisoner, he broke into weeping and lamentation. \n\nHenry received him with a mixture of respect and severity, com- \npelled him to issue a summons for a parliament, and took him close \nprisoner to London, where he was lodged in the tower. Here threats \nand promises were successfully used to induce him to resign the \ncrown ; and he assented to an act of abdication, appointing the duke \nof Hereford his successor. \n\nOn the 29th of September, both houses met in Westminster Hall. \nThe act of resignation was read, thirty-three articles of impeach- \nment were preferred, and the deposition of Eichard was unanimously \nvoted. Henry then publicly claimed the throne, and his demand \nwas at once admitted as valid. \n\nThere can be no doubt that the dethronement of Richard, and \nthe elevation of Henry of Bolingbroke, was the result of universal \npopular feeling throughout England ; and the latter may therefore \nbe regarded as the rightful occupant of the throne, and the house \nof Lancaster as his rightful successors. \n\nThe dethroned monarch was only thirty -four years of age ; and it \nwas resolved by the lords that he should be kept in close custody. \nThe zeal of certain of his adherents hastened the fate which usually \nawaits captive princes. An insurrection in his favour was set on \nfoot in 1400, but was speedily suppressed, and the leaders were mostly \nexecuted. The death of Richard himself was announced soon after- \nwards, and it was generally supposed that he had been starved to \ndeath by order of the king. Other accounts say that he was mur- \ndered by Sir Piers of Exton, who came to his prison with seven \nfollowers, and slew him after a desperate defence, in which he killed \nseveral of his assailants. However this may be, there can hardly \nbe a doubt that he was taken off, in some manner, by the authority \nof Henry. \n\nWith John Wickliffe, who died in the reign of Richard, com- \nmenced the first movement for a reformation in the church. He \npreached fiercely against the doctrine of transubstantiation, against \nindulgences, pardons, excommunications, and other abuses of the \npapal authority. A number of bulls were issued against him from \nRome, and he was compelled to answer for his heresies before an \necclesiastical tribunal; but, by a dexterous evasion, and supported \nby some of the leading nobles, he escaped with tolerable impunity, \nand died in retirement in 1384. Thirty years afterwards, his remains. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 539 \n\nby an order of tile council of Constance, were dug up, burned, and \nthrown into the river Swift. His doctrines, however, spread widely, \nand his followers, who were remarkable for the austerity of their \nmorals, received the name of Lollards, derived, it is said, from the \nDutch Lolhn^ "to sing," \n\nParliament, immediately after the elevation of Henry, proceeded \nto confer on his eldest son the title of Prince of Wales, and in other \nways to strengthen the authority of the new dynasty. He claimed \nthe homage of Scotland, and not receiving it, advanced with an army \nas far as Edinburgh ; but was compelled to retire by the want of \nsupplies. A border-war was, however, kept up, and in 1402, the \nearl of Douglas, with ten thousand men, having marched into Eng- \nland, was encountered at Homildon by the earl of Northumberland, \nwith his son Henry Percy, called Hotspur, and was defeated and \nmade prisoner. \n\nIn the next year, 1403, a Welsh gentleman, named Owen Glen- \ndour, being aggrieved, took the law into his own hands, and was \noutlawed. He immediately declared himself sovereign of Wales ; \nhis countrymen flocked to his standard ; his reputation as a magi- \ncian confirming \xe2\x80\xa2 his authority among the credulous inhabitants. \nThe king. Prince Henry, and other leaders, repeatedly attempted \nthe conquest of the rebellious province, but were in every instance \ncompelled to retire by the weather,- the natural difficulties of the \ncountry, and the skill and valour of their foe. To add to the king\'s \nembarrassment, Northumberland, with his son and brother, irritated \nby ill-treatment, formed a hostile confederacy with Glendour, Doug- \nlas, and other renowned nobles. With a large force they marched \ntoward Wales, and encountered Henry at Shrewsbury. On the \n21st of July, the two armies, each about fourteen thousand in num- \nber, engaged. Hotspur and Douglas, with sixty followers, plunged \ninto the centre of the royal forces, seeking the king\'s person, and \nkilled four of his friends, who had assumed his arms to baffle the \nassailants. Percy fell by a chance arrow ; Douglas was made pris- \noner, and after a contest of three hours, victory was decided in favour \nof the king. Both armies suffered great loss. Several of the captive \nnobles were executed, but Northumberland received a pardon, and \nDouglas was honourably treated. \n\nFresh insurrections succeeded. In 1405, Archbishop Scrope, \nNorthumberland, and others raised a force of eight thousand men, \nand announced their intention of dethroning the king. By the arti- \n\n\n\n590 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nfice of Prince Jolin, they were induced to lay down tlieir arms, and \ntlie leaders were then seized and beheaded, Wales was gradually \nreduced to submission ; but Owen Glendour still held out in the \nmountainous and inaccessible regions, and retained his independence \nduring his life. \n\nAt this time, accident threw a fresh advantage into the hands of \nHenry, by which he meanly profited. James, the heir to the Scot- \ntish throne, sailing to France, when only nine years old, was captured \nby an English cruiser. The king detained him as prisoner, and was \nthus enabled to control the dishonest regent of Scotland, by threat- \nening to release the rightful claimant to the throne. The prince, \nhowever, was carefully and liberally educated, \n\nNo events of much importance occurred during the remainder of \nthis reign. The king was frequently rendered uneasy by the, wild- \nness and dissipation of his son Prince Henry, who, though brave \nand talented, chose to associate with low and riotous companions. \nOne of these having been arrested, and brought before Gascoigne, \nthe chief justice, the prince interceded for his release; and the \nrequest being refused, drew his sword, or, as others say, dealt the \njudge a box upon the ear. The latter instantly ordered him to be \ncommitted to jail, to which the prince, probably struck with shame, \npromptly submitted. The king, on being informed of the circum- \nstance, exclaimed, "Happy the monarch who has a judge so resolute \nin discharge of his duty, and a son so willing to submit to the laws!" \n\nHenry died on the 20th of March, 1413, in the forty-sixth year \nof his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. His abilities were great, \nthough his character is deeply stained by the murder of his royal \nkinsman. The horrible writ, "c/e liCBretico coviburendo^^\'\' for Ifurning \nheretics, was introduced in his reign, and several of the Lollards fell \nvictims to the persecution of the priests. The commons took \nadvantage of his wish to conciliate them, to gain additional privi- \nleges, and, among others, that of freedom from arrest. They also \nestablished their right to appropriate, as well as to vote supplies. \nAs a proof of the less absolute authority of the clergy with the \npeople, we may observe that the commons once recommended \nHenry to seize great part of the church possessions for the public \nrevenue; but the king, well aware of the value of the clerical \nsupport, peremptorily refused compliance. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 591 \n\n\n\nHENET v., AND HENRY VI. \n\nThe national joy at tlie accession of the young and popular prince \nwas enhanced by the reformation of his manners, and the judicious \ncommencement of his reign. The increasing persecution of the \nLollards alone rendered the aspect of affairs unpromising. The \nmost notable and able convert to the new doctrines was Sir John \nOldcastle, Baron of Cobham, whom the king in person undertook \nto convince of his error. Remaining firm, he was consigned to the \nauthority of the bishops, and was found guilty of heresy. Before \nthe execution of his sentence, however, he escaped from the tower, \nand, with others of his party, formed, it is alleged, a conspiracy \nagainst the crown. This was frustrated, and thirty-nine of the pris- \noners taken on this occasion, were executed as traitors and heretics, \nAvith the most atrocious cruelty. Four years afterwards, Cobham, \nwho had fled into Wales, was captured, and shared the same fate. \n\nFrance was at this period in a most distracted condition. The \nking, Charles VI., being subject to fits of insanity, the control of \naffairs was disputed between his brother the duke of Orleans, and \nhis cousin the duke of Burgundy. The former was assaasinated by \nthe latter, and Henry, taking advantage of the defenceless state of \nthe country, advanced his claim to the crown. This being rejected, \nhe demanded Normandy, Maine, and Anjou, also making other \nextravagant claims ; and though splendid offers were made him, he \nprepared for war. \n\nA treasonable scheme among some of the high nobles of his realm \ninterrupted the king\'s preparations; but the conspirators were \nspeedily apprehended, condemned, and executed. \n\nOn the 14th of August, 1415, he landed with fifteen hundred \nvessels at the mouth of the Seine, and disembarked thirty thousand \nmen, four-fifths of whom were archers. After a siege of five weeks, \nhe took Harfleur, but his army was meantime reduced by sickness \nand fighting to one-half of its original number. However, the king \nresolved to march to Calais, and on the 25th of October, encoun- \ntered a French army of fifty thousand horse, near Azincourt. The \n\n\n\n592 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nEnglish, arcliery, as usual, created great confusion among tlie ranks of \ntheir enemies ; and taking advantage of this, the undaunted bowmen, \nwitk their swords and battle-axes, rushed into the first division of \nthe French, and entirely routed it, killing the principal officers. \nAfter a long contest, victory remained with the English. Their \nadversaries had lost their bravest leaders, and an immense number \nof knights and soldiers. After remaining a short time in Calais, \nthe king returned to England, amid the enthusiastic rejoicings of \nhis subjects. \n\nHis brother, the duke of Bedford, carried on the war, and in 1417 \ntbe king, with an army of sixteen thousand men-at-arms, and as \nmany archers, landed in Lower Normandy; which, during the \nwinter and following spring, he entirely reduced. Meanwhile, the \nBurgundian faction, with whom he had negotia,ted, seized upon \nParis, and massacred all who opposed them. The successes of \nHenry, however, alarmed both parties, and they reunited to save \nthe I \'try. An interview with the invader was proposed ; and on \nthe 30th of May, 1419, the duke of Burgundy, with the queen and \nPrincess Catharine, met him near Meulant. \n\nHenry, captivated by the grace and beauty of the princess, became \nmore accessible to proposals for peace, demanding, however, JSTor- \nmandy, and certain other provinces. The negotiations were artfully \nprotracted by the French for a whole month ; and in the mean time \nthe dauphin (heir to the crown) and the duke of Burgundy came \nto an agreement, and resolved to turn their arms against the \ncommon enemy. \n\nHenry\'s prospects, now apparently gloomy, were revived by the \nmurder of the duke, who was treacherously despatched by the \nattendants of the dauphin at an interview with the latter. His heir \nhastened to conclude a treaty with King Henry, who was thus ena- \nbled to dictate his own terms. These were, the hand of the Princess \nCatharine, the regency of France during the king\'s life-time, and \nthe crown at his death. These severe conditions were acceded to \nby the helpless monarch, and the marriage shortly after took place. \n\nThe states general approved the treaty, and in 1421 Henry, with \nhis bride, returned to England, His brother, the duke of Clarence, \nwhom he had left in command of Normandy, attempting an expedi- \ntion into Anjou, which remained faithftil to the dauphin, was defeated \nby the Marshal La Fayette, assisted by seven thousand Scots. On \nlearning of this disaster the king, with twenty-eight thousand troops, \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n593 \n\n\n\ninstantly returned to France, defeated the daupliin, drove him to \nBourges, and gained possession of all France north of the Loire, \nexcept Anjou and Maine. \n\nHis victories ended here ; for in the same year, he was seized with \na distemper incurable by the ignorance of the day, and died in the \ntenth year of his reign, and the thirty-fourth of his age, leaving an \ninfant of nine months heir to the crown. The brilliant successes \nof this prince have rendered his name very dear to the English. \nHis abilities were undoubted, but the stain of cruelty will always cling \nto his memory. \n\nHis queen, Catharine, after his death, married a Welsh gentleman, \nSir Owen Tudor. Their descendants afterwards sat upon the throne \nof England. \n\nDuring the minority of the new king, Henry YI., parliament \nappointed a council of regency, with John, duke of Bedford, the \nlate king\'s brother, at its head, under the title of Protector; and \nBurgundy having declined the regency of France, that also was \nconferred upon him. Within two months, the French king died. \nHis son, the dauphin, instantly assumed the title of Charles YII., \nand was crowned and anointed. The duke of Bedford, in alliance \nwith Burgundy and Brittany, continued the war, and gained import- \nant successes. \n\nAt this time Earl Douglas, with five thousand men, having gone \nto the assistance of Charles, it was thought advisable to dismiss King \nJames of Scotland, on payment of the sum of forty thousand pounds, \nand a promise to forbid his subjects from entering the service of \nFrance. To these conditions he acceded, and, after nineteen years \nof captivity, returned to his country ; where he proved the ablest \nmonarch who had ever sat upon the Scottish throne. \n\nIn 1424 Bedford, with seven thousand men, defeated an army of \nmore than double the number, under the constable of France, at \nVerneuil. Sixteen hundred of the English fell, and three thousand \nof their opponents \xe2\x80\x94 among them, the constable and Earl Douglas. \nFor some years after this, the war languished for want of means on \nboth sides; but in 1429, the city of Orleans was besieged by the \nEnglish, and its fall seemed inevitable. At this gloomy period of \nFrench history, when Charles even thought of retiring into exile, a \nnew and extraordinary person appeared upon the stage, and raised \nhis fallen fortunes. \n\nIn a small village of Champagne dwelt a peasant named Jacques \n38 \n\n\n\n594 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. \n\nD\'Arc, wliose daughter, Joan, was remarkable for her piety and \nabstraction of mind. From long dwelling on the misfortunes of her \ncountry, she began to see visions, and finally imagined that the saints \nappeared to her, and urged her to undertake the defence of France. \nObtaining an interview with Charles, she so far impressed him with \nbelief in her divine mission, that a council of clergy and divines \nwas appointed to examine the case at Poictiers. They pronounced \nher to be inspired, and, mounted on a splendid gray charger, she \nrepaired to the camp at Blois. A secret religious terror seized the \nminds of the English, which was increased when she led the French \narmy to Orleans, and, fighting valiantly at their head, compelled the \ninvaders to retire. \n\nAfter losing a number of posts, they retreated towards Paris, \nunder Lord Talbot; but were overtaken and defeated, with a loss of \ntwelve hundred men. In compliance with the vision of the heroic \nMaid of Orleans, (as she was now called,) Charles set out for Kheims, \nand was there solemnly crowned in the manner of his ancestors. \nShe now declared that her mission was performed, and entreated \npermission to return to her native village. The king, however, \ninduced her to remain ; ennobled the family ; and conferred a large \npension upon her. \n\nThe dukes of Bedford and Burgund}^, though disheartened, \ncontinued hostilities, and the Maid still opposed them with great \nskill and courage; but in 1430 was captured in a skirmish by some \nof the troops of the latter, and sold for a large price to the duke of \nBedford. Being examined before an ecclesiastical tribunal, com- \nposed of the creatures of the English, she was condemned as a \nheretic, and, to the eternal disgrace of the English name, was \nburned at Rouen, on the 30th of May, 1431. \n\nThis piece of cruelty was of no service to its authors. The pro- \ntracted war which succeeded, was mostly to the disadvantage of the \nEnglish. After various attempts at negotiation, the duke of Bur- \ngundy made peace with France ; and finally, in 1435, Bedford, the \nable leader of the English, died. Paris opened its gates to the \nFrench, and the duke of Burgundy took up arms in their behalf. \nLord Talbot and other of the English leaders still stubbornly main- \ntained the contest; but in 1444, an armistice for two years was \nagreed on. \n\nMeanwhile, the youthful king of England had been advancing to \nman\'s estate, and displaying little capacity. His temper was mild \n\n\n\nENGLAND. / 595 \n\nand thouglitful, but he was evidently ill-adapted to govern a great \nand spirited nation. Cardinal Beaufort and the duke of Gloucester, \nhis nephew and the king\'s uncle, divided the power, and were \nbitterly at variance. It was probably at the instance of the former \nthat the duchess, in 1441, was accused of treason and sorcery. She \nwas said to have made, with her accomplices, a waxen image of the \nking, and exposed it to a gentle heat, that his majesty might pine \naway and die, and the duke (his next heir) succeed to the throne. \nHer confederates were executed, and she was compelled to do public \npenance, and was then consigned to custody for life. \n\nThrough the cardinal\'s influence, Henry, in his twenty-fourth year, \nwas married to Margaret, daughter of Ren6, a nominal king, to \nwhom Anjou and Maine, which he held in title, were resigned. \nBeautiful, spirited, and accomplished, she entirely ruled the king, and \nBeaufort, Somerset, and Norfolk, her favourites, ruled the kingdom. \n\nIn 1447, Gloucester was arrested on a charge of treason, and \nshortly afterwards was found dead in his bed. It is asserted that he \nwas murdered by his enemies. Much of his estate went to the duke \nof Suffolk ; and other circumstances seemed to prove the connivance \nof the court. He was generally lamented, the title of "Good Duke \nHumphrey," showing his popularity. The cardinal in a few weeks \nfollowed him, at the age of eighty, grieving that he must quit life \nin the midst of his successful intrigues. \n\nMaine and Anjou being surrendered, the French soon got pos- \nsession of all Normandy and Guienne ; and in 1451, all that remained \nof the English conquests and possessions was the port of Calais. \nThe popular indignation fell chiefly on Suffolk, who had arranged \nthe match with Margaret, and delivered up Anjou and Maine, the \nkeys of Normandy. He was committed to the tower, and articles of \nimpeachment were brought against him. These failing, the king \nbanished him from the kingdom, and, landing at Calais, he was exe- \ncuted by the crew of a king\'s ship, probably by the instruction of \nhis powerful enemies at co^urt. \n\nImmediately afterwards, a body of twenty thousand men gathered \nin Kent, under the command of an adventurer named John Cade. \nThey demanded of the court the banishment of certain obnoxious \nnobles; the punishment of those who had caused the death of \nGloucester, Warwick, and Exeter, with the loss of the French \nprovinces; and the abolition and punishment of extortion. \n\nThe royal forces sent against them were defeated ; the insurgents \n\n\n\n596 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. \n\nmarched to London, and executed the royal chamberlain, Lord Say, \nand the sheriff of Kent. The citizens at last took up arms, defended \nthe bridge, and the insurgents gradually dispersed. Their leader, \nbeing pursued by the sheriff, was slain, after an obstinate resistance. \n\nThe disputes between Somerset and the duke of York had for \nsome time embroiled the kingdom; and the latter had more than \nonce raised forces to overawe the government. He was arrested, \nbut dismissed without injury by the feeble monarch. \n\nIn 1453 the English, who had sent forces into France to regain \nGascony, were defeated under Talbot, the earl of Shrewsbury, and \nlost their last footing in Gruienne. This increased the odium of the \ncourt and queen ; and the king soon fell into a state of such imbe- \ncility, that he could no longer even play the part of royalty. Somerset \nwas committed to the tower, and York was appointed by the peers \nProtector during the king\'s incapacity. The king partially recov- \nering, Somerset regained his liberty and influence, and York lost \nthe protectorate. He retired to his estates, where, being joined by \nthe duke of Norfolk, and the earls of Salisbury and "Warwick, he \nraised three thousand men. They marched toward London, and, \nthough professing loyalty, demanded the delivery to them of Somer- \nset and others. This being refused, a skirmish with the royal forces \nensued, in which Somerset and others of distinction were slain, and \nthe king, wounded, fell into the hands of the insurgents. \n\nParliament was summoned, and he was compelled to justify the \nrebels, whose chief, the duke of York, was again declared Protector. \nBut in 1456, the king so far recovered his reason, that the queen and \nher party were enabled to dismiss the duke, and hold the government \nin their own hands. \n\nPor two years the mutual jealousy of the factions continued; and \nthe nation was gradually divided into the parties of York and Lan- \ncaster. In 1458, indeed, by the mediation of the primate and \nothers, an agreement and a public reconciliation were effected. It \nwas, however, only superficial, and their concealed hatred was kin- \ndled into a flame by a trifling occurrence. Warwick\'s servants and \nthe queen\'s having engaged in a quarrel, the latter attacked the earl \nhimself, who with difficulty escaped from their hands. He retired \nin anger to his qastle, and thence to Calais, of which he was governor. \n\nBoth parties now prepared for open hostilities, and the duke of \nYork advanced a claim to the crown. This he founded on his de- \nscent from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and third son of Edward III., \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n597 \n\n\n\nalleging his title superior to tliat of tlie king, wlio was descended \nfrom John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth. But by act of \nparliament, and the almost unanimous consent of the realm, the \nhouse of Lancaster had occupied the throne for three generations; \nand the dynasty under which the duke claimed, had itself, by force \nor policy, taken the place of former lineal successors to the throne, so \nthat his claim was no more valid than that of the descendants of the \nancient Saxon line, or of the Britons before them. The weakness \nof the king, and the power of his own faction, however, gave the \nduke a fair prospect of success. His main supporters were the earls \nof Salisbury, Warwick, and Norfolk; but the greater part of the \nnobles remained faithful to the king. As the red rose was the cogni- \nzance of the house of Lancaster, and the white that of York, their \npartisans assumed these for their respective badges ; and the contest \nwhich ensued was, in consequence, called the "War of the Eoses." \n\nBoth sides made preparation for the ensuing struggle; but no \nevent of importance took place until the autumn of 1459, when \nSalisbury defeated the royal forces under Lord Audley, in Stafford- \nshire, with a loss of two thousand men. An army of sixty thousand, \nhowever, was soon levied by the king; and York, overawed, fled \ninto Ireland, while his confederates betook themselves to Calais. \nThey were all shortly after attainted by act of parliament. \n\nUndismayed, however, Warwick, the following June, landed with \na small force of fifteen hundred men, which, by the time he reached \nLondon, was increased to twenty-five thousand. He thence marched \nto Northampton, and engaged the royal army, which by the treach- \nery of one of the leaders, was defeated ; several nobles of eminence \nwere slain; and the king himself was taken prisoner. The queen \nand Prince Edward escaped into Scotland. The duke of York has- \ntened to return from Ireland, and put in his claim to the crown. \nAfter the question had been debated before the peers, they proposed, \nas a compromise, that Henry should retain the crown during his \nlife, and that afterwards it should pass to the duke or his heirs. To \nthis, both parties solemnly agreed. \n\nThe queen, however, who was in the North, determined not to \nsurrender the rights of her son ; and, supported by Northumberland, \nClifford, and other lords, recommenced the war. York immediately \nmarched against them; but was defeated with much loss at Wake- \nfield Green, and taken prisoner. His captors, after seating him on \nan ant-hill, and crowning him in derision with twisted grass, struck \n\n\n\n598 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OY HISTOEY. \n\noff his head, and presented it on a pole to the queen, who was \ndelighted with the sight. Salisbury and twelve others shared his fate. \nHis son, a youth of seventeen, was stabbed by the ruthless Clifford. \n\nEdward, earl of March, his eldest son, had at this time a body of \ntwenty-three thousand men, with which he defeated the earls of \nPembroke and Ormond, beheading the captives, in revenge for the \nexecution of his friends at "Wakefield, The earl of Warwick and \nthe duke of Norfolk, taking the king with them, were defeated at \nSt. Albans by the queen, who thus regained possession of her \nhusband. Further execu.tions followed. \n\nEdward, however, uniting his forces with those of Warwick, soon \ngained such advantages, that she was compelled to return to the \nNorth; and he entered London, where he was very popular, in \ntriumph. The people were shortly after harangued by his orators, \nwho, in a large assembly, asked what king they would have, and, \nwith great enthusiasm, decided in favour of Edward. The next \nday, March 4th, 1461, in a great council, it was decided that Henry, \nby joining the queen\'s party, had violated the award, and forfeited \nthe throne. Edward was immediately proclaimed king. \n\nDuring the latter reigns, the power of the House of Commons \nhad been continually increasing; and in the last the elective fran- \nchise was limited to freeholders, of the annual income of forty \nshillings. \n\n\n\nEDWARD IV., EDWARD V,, AND RICHARD III. \n\nThe Lancastrian faction, with sixty thousand men, still main- \ntained a hostile position at York. . The king and Warwick left \nLondon to engage them ; and, with a force of forty-nine thousand, \nreached Pontefract. After various skirmishes, a general engage- \nment came on, in the midst of a heavy snow driving against the \nLancastrians. They fought with obstinacy till evening, when, in \nretreating, they were routed; and as Edward had issued orders to \ngive no quarter, nearly half their number perished. The next day. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 599 \n\nlie entered York, took down the heads of his father and friends, \nand replaced them with those of his enemies. \n\nOn the 29th of June, he was crowned at London with great \nmagnificence, and created his brothers, George a,nd Eichard, dukes \nof Clarence and Grloucester. Parliament declared the Henries usurp- \ners ; and an attainder was passed against the late royal family and a \ngreat number of their chief adherents. \n\nMargaret, with some assistance from France and Scotland, made \none more attempt, and was at first tolerably successful; but the \napproach of Edward and Warwick, with a large force, overawed her \npartisans, and she returned to France. \n\nIn 1464, Henry, who had retreated into Scotland, was induced \nonce again to take the field, but was defeated, and his chief remain- \ning adherents were executed. He remained concealed for more than \na year, but was discovered by treachery, carried to London in an \nignominious manner, and lodged in the tower. Fresh attainders \nruined the Lancastrians and rewarded the victors. \n\nThe king now publicl}\'\' acknowledged as his queen the lady \nElizabeth Grey, whom he had privately married the year before. \nAH her relations were ennobled, enriched, or elevated to high \nofS.ces; and the promotion of this new family strongly excited the \njealousy of the Nevilles and other powerful supporters of the king. \n\nIn 1469, Clarence married the daughter of Warwick, in spite of \nthe king\'s opposition; and the result was a union of these powerful \nnobles against the crown. A great insurrection immediately broke \nout in Yorkshire, and was finally headed by the nephew and cousin \nof Warwick. The insurgents, sixty thousand strong, demanded the \nremoval of the Woodvilles (the queen\'s relations) and the abolition \nof oppressive taxes. Lord Hubert, who went against them, was \ndefeated with a loss of five thousand men, and Lord Eivers (the \nqueen\'s father) and his son John being taken, were executed. \n\nClarence and Warwick, arriving from Calais, took the king into \ncustody ; but (the Lancastrians rising) released him, and a general \namnesty was granted ; concessions were made to the hostile nobles, \nand an apparent reconciliation was effected. Warwick and his son-in- \nlaw, however, soon excited a new rebellion, which being suppressed, \nand the leaders executed, they fled to Calais, and thence to the court \nof Louis XL, king of France. Margaret, King Henry\'s wife, was \nresiding there with her son, and by the mediation of Louis, an alli- \nance was formed among the exiles, and cemented by the marriage \n\n\n\nQQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof Prince Edward to Warwick\'s second daughter, Anne. It was \nagreed to restore King Henry to the throne, and, in case that Edward \nshould die without issue, Clarence and his heirs should inherit. \n\nOn the 13th of September, 1470, they landed at Plymouth, where \nWarwick proclaimed King Henry, and summoned all to join his \nstandard. Edward, out-manoeuvred, and deserted by his troops, \nfled to Holland. The allies hastened to London; and on the 13th \nof October, Henry, wearing the crown, walked in procession to St. \nPaul\'s. A parliament being summoned, reversed the acts of the \npreceding reign, and restored the houses of Lancaster and Neville \nto their former honours and possessions. Only one execution fol- \nlowed this complete revolution. \n\nIn 1471, assisted by Burgundy, Edward returned, and landed at \nEavenspur on the 14th of March. He solemnly avowed, however, \nthat he had no further design than to recover the estates of York, \nand his followers shouted "Long live King Henry!" Finding him- \nself at the head of a respectable force, he threw off the mask, and \nwas joined by Clarence, already discontented with the new arrange- \nment. Pushing on to London, he seized Henry, and taking him \nwith the army, advanced to meet Warwick. On the 14th of April, \nthey encountered at Barnet, and after a contest of six hours, the \nLancastrians were defeated. Warwick, fighting valiantly, fell with \nhis brother, leaving behind him the popular name of "the King- \nmaker," from the changes he had wrought in the government. \n\nThe queen and Prince Edward, who had also arrived, were \noutnumbered, defeated, and captured by Edward, at Tewksbury ; and \nthe gallant prince was brutally murdered in the tent of his rival \nby the hands of Clarence, Gloucester, and others. Three thousand \nof the Lancastrians were slain, and their leaders were executed \nafter a promise of pardon. Edward reentered London; and that \nsame night Henry died in his prison, probably murdered by the \nking\'s command. \n\nFreed from domestic enemies, Edward resolved to attempt the \nconquest of France; but the aid of parliament, always liberal on \nthese occasions, was not sufficient, and the king, under pretext of \nsoliciting charity, extorted large sums, called benevolences^ from the \nwealthy citizens. In 1475, he passed over to Calais with sixteen \nthousand troops; but, on account of the disinclination of his allies \nand nobles, the war was not carried on ; a treaty was concluded, by \nwhich Margaret was to be returned to France, the dauphin to marry \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n601 \n\n\n\nills eldest daughter, and certain sums were to be paid by Louis. The \ntwo kings held an interview on a bridge, with a strong grating \nbetween them, to prevent any treacherous attack. \n\nEichard of Gloucester, the king\'s second brother, was anxious to \nmarry Anne, the widow of Prince Edward, and thus get possession \nof the immense estates of "Warwick ; and in spite of Clarence, who, \nwishing to keep them all in his own family, concealed her, he dis- \ncovered her, disguised as a cook-maid, and espoused her. Clarence, \noffended at this and other matters, withdrew from court; and some \nof his discontented expressions having reached the king in an exag- \ngerated form, he was declared guilty of treason, and privately \nexecuted in the tower \xe2\x80\x94 according to the common report, by drown- \ning in a butt of Malmsey wine (1478). \n\nEdward, while meditating a fresh war with France, died on the \n6th of April, 1483, in the forty-second year of his age, and the \ntwenty -third of his reign. This king, though cruel, treacherous, and \nsensual, was exceedingly popular with his subjects, on account of \nhis valour, his beauty, and his agreeable manners. \n\nHis son, Edward V., was only in his thirteenth year, and was then \nin the charge of the queen and his uncle. Earl Rivers. On his way \nto London, however, his uncle Gloucester, who had professed the \ngreatest loyalty, intercepted him, seized his person, and arrested his \nhalf-brother, Earl Grey, and Rivers, who were with him. He was \nthen taken to London, homage was rendered him, and he was \nlodged in the tower. Gloucester was named protector, and hastened \nto fill the great of&ces with his adherents. His projects were now \nobvious. Hastings, Stanley, and others, remaining firmly attached \nto the young king, Richard trumped up an accusation of sorcery \nagainst them, and publicly showing his arm, which was naturally \nwithered, pretended that this had occurred through the witchcraft \nof the queen, Jane Shore, and Hastings. He ordered the immediate \nexecution of the latter, swearing by St. Paul that he would not \ndine until he saw his head. Others of the young king\'s friends were \nimprisoned. On the same day, Rivers, Grey, and others were \nbeheaded at Pontefract. \n\nRichard next seized the young duke of York (the king\'s brother), \nwho was in sanctuary with his mother at Westminster, and conveyed \nhim to his brother at the tower. These innocent children were \noverjoyed at meeting, little imagining the cruel object of their uncle. \n\nThe protector now stood forth hypocritically as a rigid censor of \n\n\n\n602 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY \n\nmorals, and compelled Jane Shore, the late king\'s mistress, to do \npenance in a white sheet. He followed up this step bj questioning \nthe legitimacy of Edward\'s children, alleging, through his creatures, \nthat the king\'s marriage had been an illegal one ; and his priest, after \npreaching in front of St. Paul\'s on the text "Bastard slips shall not \nstrike deep roots," and dwelling on the application to Edward\'s heirs, \nand even insinuating the illegitimacy of Edward himself, pointed \nout the lord protector, who had just entered, and declared him the \nimage of his father, the duke of York. The people remained utterly \nsilent, and this device having failed, the duke of Buckingham har- \nangued them at Guildhall, and maintained that Eichard was the \nrightful heir to the crown. A few paid voices cried out "King \nRichard!" and the next day Buckingham, with the lord mayor and \nseveral others, repaired to the protector, and besought him to accept \nthe throne. After a hypocritical pretence of reluctance, he assented, \nand next day publicly assumed the crown. \n\nShortly afterwards, while making a progress through the kingdom, \nhe sent orders to Sir Eichard Brackenbury, lieutenant of the tower, \nto put the two princes to death. This the latter refused, but Sir James \nTyrrel, with two others, named Dighton and Forest being put in \npossession of the tower for one night, executed the murderous com- \nmand by smothering the sleeping children in their bed-clothes. All \nwere amply rewarded by the king. \n\nMeanwhile, the duke of Buckingham, heretofore Eichard\'s staunch- \nest supporter, had formed an extensive conspiracy to dethrone him, \nand place the rightful heir upon the throne. This was somewhat \ndisconcerted by information of his death ; but it was then concluded \nto offer the crown to Henry, earl of Eichmond, the head of the Lan- \ncastrian party, on condition of his espousing Elizabeth, daughter of \nthe late King Edward lY. \n\nOn the 18th of October, 1483, Eichmond was proclaimed by different \nnobles throughout the country ; and Eichard issued a counter-procla- \nmation, calling his enemies "traitors, adulterers," &c., and accusing \nthem of "the letting of virtue, and the damnable maintenance of \nvice." By various misadventures, however, the insurgents were \nscattered and disheartened. Buckingham was taken, and beheaded \nwith others of the conspirators. \n\nEichard now summoned a parliament, which obsequiously recog- \nnised his title, and settled the succession on his son, the prince of \nWales. The heads of the late insurrection were also attainted. He \n\n\n\n\nTHE DEATH OE RICHARD III , A D 1485, \n\n\n\nAT THE BATTLE OF BOSWOHTH. \n\n\n\n"The intrepid tyrant, sensible of his desperate situation, cast his eye around \nthe field, and descrying his rival at no great distance, he drove against him with \nfury, in hopes that either Henry\'s death or his own "would decide the victory \nDetween them He killed with his own. hands Sir William Brandon, standard- \nbearer to the earl; he dismounted Sir John Cheyney ; he was now within reach \nof Richmond himself, who declined not the conabat, when Sir William Stanley, \ncreaking in with his troops, surrounded Richard, who, fighting bravely to the \nlast n\'joment. was overwhelmed by numbers." \xe2\x80\x94 Hume\'s History oe England. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 603 \n\nnext determined to marry his son Edward to the Princess Elizabeth, \nwho was looked upon by the Yorkists as the true heiress to the \ncrown. This scheme was rendered void, however, by the death of \nthe prince ; and, his queen falling ill, Eichard offered his own hand \nto the princess, assuring her that the gueen would die in February. \nHer death occurred on the 16th of March. The dowager of Edward^ \nwas anxious that her daughter should marry the murderer of her \nbrother and her sons, and the princess shared in her impatience for \nthe match; but Eichard was finally deterred from marrying his niece \nby the opposition of his adherents, who represented to him the horror \nof the nation at such an unnatural and incestuous union. \n\nThe king was now haunted, it is said, by fearful dreams, caused \nby the remembrance of his crimes. He was, moreover, out of \nmoney, and had alienated the citizens by his exactions. Henry took \nadvantage of the popular feeling to land with his adherents. With \nsix thousand men, he engaged Eichard with double the number at \nBosworth, near Leicester. The king made a desperate charge against \nhis rival, hoping to end the war by killing him ; but after a furious \nencounter, was slain, and with him three thousand of his men. The \ncrown, which had fallen from his head in the battle, was placed on \nthat of Henry, who was immediately and universally acknowledged \nas king. \n\nEichard was only thirty-two when he thus ended his bloody \nand ambitious career. He was small in person, and slightly deformed \nin one shoulder, but not a hump-back, according to the popular \nreport. His bravery and ability were undoubted; and his crimes \nhave secured him an unenviable remembrance with mankind. \n\n"With him ended the dynasty of the Plantagenets, after having ruled \nEngland nearly three hundred and fifty years ; and at the same time \nterminated the War of the Eoses, which, with some intermissions, had \nlasted thirty years, and had cost the lives of a vast number of the \nnobility. \n\nDuring the period of the Plantagenets, nearly all the important \nfeatures of the British constitution were established; parliament \ntaking advantage of calls for money, and other circumstances, to \ncorrect grievances, and limit the royal prerogative. Their efforts \nwere especially directed against feudal rights of an oppressive nature ; \nthe severe forest laws; the improper jurisdiction of the king\'s high \nofiicers ; and the outrageous system of Purveyance^ or the seizure of \ngoods, provisions, &c., for the use of the king\'s household, and those \n\n\n\n504 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nof otlier powerful lords. The abuses of taxation, and the protection \nand pardon of criminals through, the influence of their patrons, the \nnobles, were also in some degree abrogated. \n\nCrime, when not permitted to escape with impunity, was usually \npunished in the most severe and barbarous manner. When a pris- \noner refused to plead, he was subjected to the peine forte et dure, \n("strong and hard pain,") which consisted in laying him naked in a \ndungeon, and piling great weights of iron upon him till he answered \nor died. Traitors were often disembowelled alive, and other cruelties \nwere in common use. \n\nThe English church still followed that of Eome in the most \nsubservient manner. Transubstantiation, purgatory, prayer to saints, \nand especially to the virgin, and the ef&cacy of pardons and indul- \ngencies, were fully received by all except the persecuted Lollards. \nThe morals of the clergy were generally depraved, and they held \nmore than a fifth of all the lands in the kingdom. \n\nThe common people and most of the nobles were exceedingly \nignorant, and what little of learning and science existed, was mostly \nin the hands of a few of the clergy. The Bible had been translated \nby "Wickliffe, but its dissemination among the people was watchfully \nprevented. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2J Jjjj liiij iL JL JJ iLci tioo Ji i \n\n\n\nHENRY VII. \n\nThe successful adventurer, proceeding to London, was welcomed \nby the authorities, and renewed his promise to espouse the Princess \nElizabeth, The coronation was delayed by a pestilence, called the \n"Sweating Sickness," which carried off numbers of the people. On \nthe 30th of October, 1485, the king was crowned, and, for the \ngreater security of his person, enrolled a force of Yeomen, a corps \nwhich still forms the body-guard of the English sovereigns. Par- \nliament soon meeting, settled the crown explicitly on Henry and his \nheirs. Except by right of conquest, and the popular wish, his title \nwas excessively weak, resting solely on his descent from an illegiti- \n\n\n\nENGLAND. (JOo \n\nmate child of Jolin of Gaunt. He secured, however, the consent of the \nYorkists, bj espousing Ehzabeth, the representative of that faction. \n\nBefore long, the favour which he naturally showed toward the \nLancastrians, displeased their former opponents; and an extraordi- \nnary impostor, named Lambert Symnell, was instructed by a designing \npriest to personate the young earl of Warwick, cousin to the queen. \nLanding in Ireland, where the cause of York was popular, he was \nalmost universally acknowledged and proclaimed by the nobility and \npeople. Henry, to disconcert this movement, published a full par- \ndon to his late opponents, and publicly exhibited the real Warwick, \nto refute the imposture. \n\nAssisted by the earl of Lincoln and the duchess of Burgundy, \nthe pretender was crowned at Meath, and on the 4th of June, 1487, \nlanded in England, With eight thousand men, the insurgents \nengaged the royal forces, but were completely defeated, with the loss \nof their most distinguished leaders and half their number. Simons \nthe priest and his pupil, the pretended king, confessed their impos- \nture; the former died in prison, and the latter was made a turnspit \nin the royal kitchen. The defeated conspirators were, for the most \npart, punished with heavy fines or forfeitures, the king being rather \nof a rapacious than a revengeful nature. \n\nA truce for seven years was made with Scotland. In the year \n1488, the people in the North resisted the collection of a tax, and \nslew the earl of Northumberland, who attempted to enforce it; but \nwere routed by Surrey, who was despatched against them. In \n1492, the king, under pretence of making war with France, which \nhad gained possession of Brittany, induced the parliament to grant \nhim a heavy subsidy, and with twenty-six thousand men landed at \nCalais, and commenced hostilities. These, however, were a mere \npretext; for negotiations were meanwhile carried on, and a treaty of \npeace was concluded on the payment of a large sum to the king, \nwho thus filled his coffers at the expense of both nations. \n\nNearly at this time, a young man of about twenty arrived at \nCork in Ireland from Portugal, and a rumour soon spread that he \nwas the duke of York, and had escaped the tragedy of the tower. \nThe credulous people at once acknowledged him, and he was invited \nto France, and treated by King Charles as the true heir to the Eng- \nlish crown. At the peace, he was compelled to take refuge with the \nduchess of Burgundy, who strenuously supported his pretensions. \n\nBoth the king and the Yorkists anxiously sent over to inquire \n\n\n\n606 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ninto ttie facts ; and thej ascertained that liis real name was Perlcin \nWarbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, and that he had been origin- \nally sent to Ireland by the duchess herself, to personate the character \nof the murdered prince. In 1494, the king, discovering the names \nof those noblemen who had supported the pretender, took the oppor- \ntunity to execute several of them. Sir William Stanley, the lord \nchamberlain, who had saved the king\'s life at Bosworth, was also \nbeheaded on an almost totally unfounded charge of treason ; the \ndesire to obtain his large possessions being, it was supposed, the \nchief motive of his avaricious and ungrateful master. \n\nIn 1496, Warbeck landed with a few adherents, who were easily \ndispersed and taken. An hundred and fifty of them were hanged. \nEetreating to Scotland, he was received honourably by King James, \nwho, in 1497, invaded England with an army in his behalf. The \npeople, however, refused to regard the proclamation of Warbeck. \nThe raising of taxes to meet the expenses of resistance occasioned \na rebellion, which was, however, suppressed by the king\'s generals, \nand great numbers of the insurgents were slain. \n\nAfter another Scottish invasion, followed by a truce, the pretender \nraised his standard at Cornwall, and assembled six thousand men. \nBeing deserted by their leader, they surrendered, and were mostly \npardoned. Warbeck, who had taken sanctuary, was carried to Lon- \ndon, and on examination, confessed his impostures. After six \nmonths, attempting to escape, he was set in the stocks, compelled to \nread his confession in public, and then committed to the tower \n(1498). Here he formed an intimacy with the unfortunate young \nearl of Warwick, who was kept close prisoner simply on account of \nhis royal descent, and who, from long confinement, was exceedingly \nsimple and ignorant. The latter consented to a plan for escape, which \nbeing detected, Perkin was executed. Warwick was then arraigned \nbefore the peers on a charge of sharing in the seditious plans of \nWarbeck, and was beheaded on the 28th of November. \n\nThus perished the last of the Plantagenets ; and there is little \nreason to doubt that the cold-blooded and remorseless monarch con- \ntrived the whole plot as a means of getting rid of one whose rank \nmight make him a formidable rival. The immediate motive \nprobably was to bring about a marriage between his son Arthur \nand the infanta Catharine of Spain ; whose father. Ferdinand, had \ndeclared his distrust of Henry\'s children inheriting securely "as \nlong as the earl of Warwick lived." \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n607 \n\n\n\nHostilities with. Scotland, whicli, witli brief intermissions, liad \ncontinued so many years, were, in 1503, ended for the present by a \nmarriage between the king of that country and the Princess Mar- \ngaret. Their descendants afterwards sat upon the united throne of \nboth kingdoms. The marriage of Arthur with the infanta was cele- \nbrated in his fifteenth year, but his speedy death disappointing the \nking\'s hopes, it was arranged that Henry, his second son, should \nmarry her, and a dispensation for that purpose was obtained from \nthe Pope. \n\nAs he grew older, the king\'s avarice increased, and by means of \nEmpson and Dudley, his able and unscrupulous lawyers, he gained \nlarge sums in a most oppressive manner. The earl of Oxford, one \nof his most active supporters, was fined ten thousand pounds for \nhaving summoned his retainers to do honour to the king, thus \ninfringing a certain statute. Henry had for some time been troubled \nwith the gout ; and was finally carried off by an attack of that com- \nplaint on the 22d of April, 1509, in the fifty-third year of his age \nand the twenty-fourth of his reign. \n\nHe was a man of great political talents, and rather of a cold- \nblooded than of a cruel disposition. He was not vindictive toward \nhis enemies, thougb he would shed blood without remorse to gratify \nhis ambition or avarice. He left the world laden with the curses of \nhis people, whom he had oppressed and despoiled. \n\nSome important statutes were passed during his reign, enabling \nlands to be more easily alienated, and forbidding the punishment of \ntreason to be applied to those who served a king actually on the \nthrone. The oppressive court, afterwards called the Star Chamber, \nwas also constituted. \n\nDuring this reign, the New World was discovered by Columbus, \nand Henry, desirous to share in these tempting acquisitions, sent \nout Sebastian Cabot, a Yenetian, who, in 1497, discovered the coast \nof North America, from Labrador to Florida. \n\n\n\n608 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\n\n\nkJ (JbcL i/>iJu Jj iL clj JiO t^ Ji Ji Ji I \n\n\n\nHENET VIII. \n\nThe young king, at the age of eighteen, ascended the throne with \nevery advantage. Universally acknowledged as the rightful heir, \nand inheriting large treasures accumulated by the avarice of his \npredecessor, his reign commenced most auspiciously. He married \nCatharine, retained his father\'s ministers, and for two years amused \nthe court and people by scenes of martial splendour and gallantry. \nThe execution of Empson and Dudley, which he ordered in com- \npliance with the importunities of the people, was the only event of \npublic importance until 1512, when England began to take a part \nin the affairs of the Continent. \n\nBy an alliance with Ferdinand of Spain, a fleet and army were \ndespatched to recover Guienne for England and Navarre for Spain. \nThe latter object was accomplished, but the design of Henry failed, \nowing to the mutinous disposition of the troops. Various naval \nengagements with the French fleet followed, but resulted in nothing \nof importance. In 1513, the king, with twenty-five thousand men, \nsailed for France, having first ordered the execution of the earl of \nSuffolk, who lay in the tower, and who, being accused of conspir- \nacy, had surrendered himself to the late king, on a,n assurance that \nhis life should be spared. Assisted by the Emperor Maximilian, \nthe English took Tournay and Terouenne, and made prisoners the \nChevalier Bayard and other persons of eminence. Henry then \nreturned to the island, where the Scots were assuming a hostile \nattitude. \n\nJames, his brother-in-law, having been dishonourably used by \nHenry in some matters of no great importance, was prevailed on by \nthe French court to take up arms. He despatched a fleet to the aid \nof Louis, and with a numerous army marched into the north of \nEngland, taking many strongholds. The earl of Surrey, with \ntwenty-five thousand men, proceeded against him, and the two \narmies encountered on Flodden, one of the Cheviot hills. The \nbattle, which only lasted for an hour, was fought most fiercely, and \nresulted in the utter discomfiture of the Scots, with a loss of ten \n\n\n\n\nHENKY VIII \n\n\n\nENGLAND. gQ9 \n\nthousand men. King James and his most valiant nobles died fight- \nins: hand to hand in the front of the battle. \n\nThe hostilities with France were ended by the defection of \nHenry\'s allies, and a peace was agreed on, ratified by the marriage \nof Louis to Mary, the king\'s sister, sixteen years of age. Louis, \nwho was more than thrice her age, died on the 1st of June, 1515, \nand she became a widow after three months of marriage. The cele- \nbrated Francis L succeeded to the throne. \n\nThe most powerful and influential subject in the kingdom was \nCardinal Wolsey, who, for fifteen years, controlled the king, and \nthrough him the nation, in an almost absolute manner. He was \nthe son of a butcher, and had been the chaplain of Henry VIL, by \nwhom he was made a dean. On the accession of the young king, \nhe became the royal almoner, and by his gayety and companionship \nin the royal amusements, as well as by his talents for business, com- \npletely won his affection and confidence. He became, in rapid \nsuccession, bishop, archbishop, cardinal, chancellor, and papal legate. \nHe also aspired, not without reason, to the pontificate itself \n\nHis revenue, arising from his many offices and preferments, was \nenormous ; he lived in the most princely magnificence, and bestowed \na liberal and enlightened patronage on literature and men of learn- \nmg. Both in the administration and improvement of justice, he \nshowed himself eminently upright and capable. \n\nOn the death of the Emperor Maximilian, in 1519, the kings of \nFrance and Spain contended for the vacant dignity; and Charles \nhaving received the vote of the electors, Francis, desirous of gain- \ning the powerful support of the English monarch, sought a personal \ninterview with him. They met near Calais, on the English terri- \ntory, and, in the midst of tournaments and splendid displaj^s, entered \ninto a treaty of mutual alliance. Such was the wealth and magnifi- \ncence displayed by the two courts on this occasion, that the place \nof their meeting was styled "The Field of the Cloth of Gold." \nTheir attendants, vying with each other in display, incurred ruinous \ndebts and expenses. The two kings lived upon the most intimate \nterms, even acting to each other as valets at the toilet. \n\nThis memorable meeting, however, did not advance the interests \nof Francis; for Charles of Spain, his rival, was nephew to Queen \nKatharine, and had gained the influence of Wolsey by important \ngifts and an assurance of support in his designs on the papacy. \n\nIn the following year, 1521, the duke of Buckingham, one of the \n39 \n\n\n\nQIQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nfirst nobles in the kingdom, was arrested and executed upon a very \ndoubtful charge of treason. The king\'s jealousy and Wolsey\'s \nambition were probably the cause of this vindictive act. \n\nThe war between Charles and Francis had been renewed ; but \nboth parties accepted the mediation of England. Wolsey, to whom \nthe affair was intrusted, effected (probably by previous arrangement \nwith Henry) an alliance between the emperor, the Pope, and the \nking of England; and it was agreed to invade France simultane- \nously. The earl of Surrey, with sixteen thousand troops, passed \nover in 1522, but effected nothing of importance. Albany, the \nScottish regent, at the instigation of Francis, assembled a large \narmy for the invasion of England; but after some hostilities, left \nthe kingdom. The earl of Angus took the regency, under Henry\'s \nprotection, and peace prevailed between the nations for eighteen years. \n\nBy the intrigues of the emperor, Wolsey had now been twice dis- \nappointed of his election to the papacy ; and he concluded a fresh \ntreaty of alliance with France. By this time, the various kingdoms \nof Europe, after passing through many transitions, had assumed \nsomething of their present limits and forms of government. Great \nevents were in their commencement. The wonderful revolution in \nthe church had begun on the Continent. The press, for more than \nhalf a century, had been gradually disseminating light and knowl- \nedge, and its first important effects were seen in the great contest \nwhich took place between the new and the ancient theolog3^ \n\nThe building of St. Peter\'s had, in a great measure, drained the \npapal treasury ; and to repair the loss in some degree, the practice \nof selling indulgences was carried on by the agents of the church, \nin a very extensive manner. In Germany, the principal itinerant \nwas Tetzel, a Dominican friar, who, with his assistants, disposed of \ngreat numbers, promising the purchasers that "the gates of hell \nshould be closed, and those of Paradise open to them." At last he \ncame in the neighbourhood of Wittemburg, where Dr. Martin \nLuther, the professor of theology, an Augustinian monk, had been \nfor several years engaged in extricating himself from the trammels \nof the Eomish superstitions. \n\nHis penitents exhibited Tetzel\'s indulgences, desiring absolution, \nwhich he refused, denouncing their authority. Tetzel, who was an \ninquisitor, then proclaimed him a heretic. Luther in return began to \npreach openly against the indulgences; and his celebrated warfare \nwith the papal church commenced. In England, where Wickliffe\'s \n\n\n\nENGLAND. QH \n\nopinions were still secretly cherished by many, his books were \nwidely circulated. The church, by great severity and persecution, \nendeavoured to check the new doctrines; and Henry himself, with \nsome assistance, produced in 1521 a respectable "Defence of the \nSeven Sacraments." The Pope, in gratitude, bestowed on him the \ntitle of "Defender of the Faith," a title which the British sovereigns \narrogate to themselves to this day. Luther, who had been greatly \nvituperated in this performance, answered by another, applying \nterms equally coarse to Henry, whom he styled, among other choice \nepithets, "a hog of hell." The royal partisans responded with \nothers, in which the lowest depths of scurrility and obscenity \nwere reached. \n\nThis situation of religious affairs was, however, entirely changed \nby the personal feelings and interests of the king. The queen had \nborne him five children, of whom only one, the Princess Mary, sur- \nvived. Her melancholy and peevishness alienated his affections, \nand he was anxiously desirous of a male heir. A sudden and very \nopportune scruple of conscience came to his aid. Katharine had \nbeen married to his brother, who died when a youth, and though a \ndispensation had been obtained from the Pope, he professed a con \nscientious doubt of its authority. Wolsey encouraged the new idea, \nand a divorce was resolved on. A French connection was planned; \nbut the king had become smitten with the charms of Anne Boleyn, \none of the queen\'s attendants \xe2\x80\x94 beautiful, witty, and amiable. She \nrefused to surrender her virtue to the king, but consented to accept \nhis hand, in the event of a divorce being obtained. \n\nThe bishops all signed an instrument questioning the validity of \nthe king\'s marriage, and he made application to the Pope for a \ndivorce. After much delay, a commission was issued to Wolsey \nand Cardinal Campeggio, to try the case in England. The queen\'s \nresolute and noble demeanour before this tribunal affected every \none; she finally refused to attend the court, and Henry expected a \ndecision in accordance with his wishes. But the Pope, influenced \nby the Emperor Charles Y. (the queen\'s nephew), contrived, under \nvarious frivolous pretexts, to protract the matter for more than two \nyears. Henry was wearied out, and Wolsey, to whom he attributed \nthese delays, lost his favour altogether. \n\nIn this strait, the king happened to hear (very likely by previous \narrangement) that Dr. Thomas Cranmer, a theological lecturer at Cam- \nbridge, had expressed an opinion that the matter should be decided \n\n\n\nQ12 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nbjtLe universities and learned canonists. He eagerly swore "this \nman liath the sow by the right ear," and remarked upon the money \nand quiet which he had lost from not knowing the device sooner. \nCranrner was instantly sent for, and the case put into his hands. \n\nThe fall of Wolsey, who had been unable or unwilling to effect \nhis master\'s purpose, ensued. The great seal was taken from him, \nand he was compelled to yield his immense personal property to the \nking. Parliament was summoned ; and on a long list of very vague \ncharges, he was outlawed. Having thus humbled his former favour- \nite, the king pardoned him, and allowed him to retain a portion of \nhis property. Soon after, in November, 1530, while travelling, he \nwas taken very ill, and came to the convent at Leicester, where the \nabbot received him with great respect. "Father Abbot," said the \nfallen man, "I am come to leave my bones among you." He soon \ndied, saying, in his last moments, " Had 1 but served God as diligently \nas I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my \ngray hairs." \n\nThe Pope still proving impracticable, application was made to the \nuniversities of Oxford and Cambridge, and, with great difficulty, \nHenry obtained an opinion that the marriage was illegal. Many \nagents were also employed to obtain the decisions of foreign univer- \nsities, and, in spite of the opposition of the Pope and emperor, these \nwere generally favourable to the king. They were then transmitted \nto Eome, with a hint that the matter might yet be decided in Eng- \nland; but his Holiness, urged by Henry on one side, and Charles on \nthe other, would not compromise himself by a decision. \n\nCromwell, a talented and ambitious man, who had been in the \nservice of Wolsey, and afterwards of the king, now advised Henry \nto take a bold step, and assume to himself the supremacy over the \nchurch and clergy of England. The king assented. Under pretext \nthat the clergy had incurred outlawry by obeying ."Wolsey, they were \ncompelled to present the king with a large sum of money, (one hun- \ndred thousand pounds,) and to acknowledge him their supreme head \n"as far as the laws of Christ would allow." This blow was followed \nin 1532 by an act of parliament, reducing the revenues of Eome, \nand providing for the consecration of bishops by the king, in case \nof refusal by the Pope. Meanwhile, persecution continued to rage, \nand several unfortunate persons were burned for having denied "the \nreal presence " of the body of Christ in the consecrated wafer. \n\nHenry now lost all patience, and banished Katharine, who still \n\n\n\nENGLAND. Ql^ \n\nmaintained her pretensions, from Windsor. He tlien appointed \nCranmer archbishop of Canterbury, and in 1533 privately married \nAnne Boleyn. She soon appeared in public as queen, and Cranmer \nand others, after trying the case over again, pronounced the king\'s \nfirst marriage null and void. Anne was shortly after crowned by \nthe primate, and gave birth to the Princess Elizabeth, who was \ndeclared heiress to the throne. \n\nThe parliament of 1534 completely fulfilled the wishes of Henry, \nchecking the power of Eome, settling the succession on the children \nof Anne, and making it high treason to do any act in derogation of \nthe marriage or succession. The bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas \nMore, the late chancellor, declining to swear to the nullity of the \nformer marriage, were committed to the tower. \n\nThe king\'s supremacy was now generally acknowledged, and \nthough the clergy were deeply dissatisfied, any resistance was over- \nawed by the fate of eleven monks, some of them priors, who were \nexecuted at Tyburn for denying it. Fourteen Dutch Anabaptists, \nwho had taken refuge in England, also suffered at the stake. The \nexecution of the bishop of Rochester and Sir Thomas More, both \nmen of the highest character, soon followed ; both died with great \nmagnanimity, and the latter uttered several modest pleasantries on \nthe scaffold. These judicial murders raised a general outcry; and \nthe tyrant\'s name was execrated throughout the Catholic world. \n\nHe next resolved on the suppression of the convents, and the \nsequestration of their revenues ; a measure arbitrary and despotical, \nindeed, but productive of some good effects in releasing many vic- \ntims, who, by the avarice or superstition of their parents, had been \nimmured in these secluded and unnatural abodes. The property \nconfiscated at this time was very considerable. \n\nIn 1536, Katharine died, and Anne, who had thought this event \nfavourable to her security, soon discovered her mistake. Henry \nhad become fascinated by the charms of Jane Seymour, one of her \nattendants, and being disappointed in his hopes of a son, sought \nan opportunity to get rid of his queen. Some slight tokens of \nlevity being reported to him, he ordered her arrest, and preferred \nagainst her a charge of adultery. Four gentlemen, one of them her \nbrother, were arrested as the participants of her crime. She wrote \na most dignified and eloquent epistle to the king, avowing her inno- \ncence; the charges were excessively improbable, and the proof \namounted to almost nothing : yet the accused parties were all con- \n\n\n\nQ14, THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nvicted of treason, and siiifered accordingly, no one daring to dispute \nthe tyrant\'s will. The queen was beheaded, evincing great courage \nand magnanimity to the last. Being informed that the pain would \nbe trifling, she replied, "I have but a little neck," and put her hand \nabout it, smiling. \n\nThe day after this atrocious miirder, Henry married the object of \nhis passion, as if willing to exhibit his motives without shame or \ncompunction. The people of Lincolnshire, discontented at the sup- \npression of the monasteries, assembled in arms, to the number of \ntwenty thousand; but finally dispersed upon proclamation. A \nmore formidable insurrection broke out in the North, where the \nmalcontents marched through the country in great force, performing \na sort of martial pilgrimage, and took the cities of York and Hull. \nForty thousand in number, they advanced to Doncaster; but a \nheavy rain and an act of amnesty dispersed them. \n\nIn 1537, they again took up arms; eight thousand, headed by \ntwo gentlemen of Cumberland, attempted to seize Carlisle, but were \ndefeated with great slaughter, and several of their leaders, with \nseventy others, were hanged on the walls. Other similar under- \ntakings were also su,ppressed, and a number of nobles, gentry, and \nclergy, implicated in them, were executed. An amnesty was after- \nwards issued. \n\nOn the 12th of October, the queen gave birth to a son (Prince \nEdward), and died soon afterwards, thus probably escaping the fate \nwhich might, at no distant day, have been her\'s, by the king\'s caprice. \nAn English translation of the Bible was this year introduced into \nthe kingdom, by the royal sanction. The remaining monasteries \nwere next suppressed, with little opposition, the loss of the monks \nbeing partially compensated; and a revenue of an hundred and \nthirty thousand pounds was thus added to the royal treasury. A \nvast number of pretended relics and juggling impostures were at \nthe same time exposed to the popular examination ; and St. Thomas \nof Canterbury (Becket) was condemned as a traitor, and his bones \nwere taken up and burned. Most of the lands sequestered were \ndivided among the favourite nobles and gentry ; whose rapacity and \ngreediness, w^ith the shameless prodigality of the king, absorbed the \nspoils of the clergy so far, that in 1510, the next year, he was obliged \nto require a large subsidy from parliament to meet the expenses of \nthis most lucrative reformation. \n\nIn spite of the errors and superstitions which clung around these \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 615 \n\nstrongliolds of the ancient religion, every one must lament the \ndestruction of the noble edifices and the valuable libraries which fell \ninto the hands of the unprincipled favourites. History and litera- \nture in general sustained irreparable losses. The most unbounded \nindignation was excited at Konie, and a terrible bull was issued, \nlaying the kingdom under an interdict, excommunicating Henry, \ndeclaring his later offspring illegitimate, and ordering the nobility \nto take up arms against the king. But the time had passed when \na government could be overthrown by such means. Men\'s minds, \nif not more enlightened, had become more independent, and the \nonly effect of this fulmination from the Yatican, was to exasperate \nthe king to further violence. \n\nReginald de la Pole, a second cousin of the king, had been one \nof the most active of the papal agents; and had endeavoured, in \nvain, to excite the neighbouring nations to avenge, by a warlike \ncrusade, the injuries suffered by the church. Unable to get this \nformidable foe into his power, the king seized his brother. Lord \nMontague, and several other persons of distinction, who were exe- \ncuted on a charge of abetting his designs. \n\nHenry, though setting the church of Rome at defiance, suppported \nits most absurd doctrines by persecution. He argued with one \nLambert in support of the "real presence;" and being unable to \nconvince the unhappy man, burned him at Smithfield, in company \nwith two Anabaptists. It was the good or evil fortune of the king \nto find the most slavish and subservient of parliaments always at \nhis command. An act attainting Pole\'s relations, and other distin- \nguished persons without trial, was passed; and another, creating \nan absolute despotism, followed, giving to the king\'s proclamation \nall the authority of a statute of parliament. \n\nAfter a vehement debate upon matters of religion, each party \nprepared a bill of faith ; and that of the ancient belief, in six \narticles, called " the bloody statute, " received the king\'s approbation. \nBy this, the doctrines of transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, \nconfession, and other matters, were made authoritative; to oppose \nthe first was punishable by death, and to violate the others was \nmade felony. Numbers of the reforming clergy were immediately \ncast into prison. Cranmer, supported by the king\'s personal friend- \nship, was untouched; but found it necessary to send his wife and \nchildren to Grermany. Henry had all this time been busily engaged in \ntreaties for a fresh marriage; and being somewhat corpulent in person, \n\n\n\nQIQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwas anxious that his wife should be of correspondingly large dimen- \nsions. Among other propositions, one was rejected which he made \nto Francis I., that they should meet at Calais, and the Frenchman \nshould bring the finest ladies of his court. He next saw a picture \nof Anne, daughter of the duke of Cleves, made proposals, and was \nreadily accepted. On beholding the bride, however, he was griev- \nously disappointed, and swore that "they had brought him a great \nFlanders mare." Unwilling to offend the continental prince, how- \never, he married her, but determined to repudiate her as soon as \npossible, and to ruin Cromwell, the high chamberlain, who had \nbrought about the match. \n\nAt a dinner he beheld Catharine Howard, niece of the duke of \nNorfolk, and was immediately captivated by her charms. Cromwell \nwas forthwith attainted by the parliament, according to his own \ndevice, upon a frivolous charge of treason and heresy. The parlia- \nment and clergy, subservient as usual, pronounced the king\'s \nmarriage void, on the ground that Anne had been previously afS.- \nanced to another; and it was made high treason to question this \ndecision. The execution of Cromwell followed immediately, and \nfresh victims were soon offered to the shrines of bigotry\' \xe2\x80\x94 three for \ndenying the supremacy, and three for preaching "justification by \nfaith." In April, 1541, an insurrection had broken out in the north, \nbut it was suppressed, and the leaders were executed. The revenge- \nful monarch seized this occasion to execute the countess of Salisbury, \nPole\'s mother, a lady of seventy -two, who had for some time been \nimprisoned. \n\nA few days after the death of Cromwell, the new queen had been \npublicly introduced at court, and, according to the lords of the coun- \ncil, had completely won the king\'s heart by "a notable appearance \nof honour, cleanness, and maidenly behaviour." The king, the \nfollowing season, gave public thanks to Heaven, for the happiness \nof his married life ; and on the next day received a written state- \nment of the queen\'s incontinence, both before and after marriage. \nHenry at first could not believe it, but upon receiving undeniable \nproof, burst into tears. The parliament met, and bills of attainder \nwere passed against the queen and other persons implicated. She \nwas beheaded on the 13th of February, 1542. On the 12th of July, \nm the following year, he married Catharine Parr, the widow of Lord \nLatimer, a lady secretly inclined to the reformed doctrines. \n\nThe year before, some acts of hostility with Scotland had occurred, \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 6^7 \n\nand tlie king of France having opposed tlie English interests, Henry \nwas induced by the emperor to unite in a league against him. In \nJuly, 1544, he crossed the sea with his principal nobility and an \narmy of\'thirty thousand men. At an early period, however, his ally \nmade peace with the enemy, and the king returned to England, hav- \ning taken and garrisoned the town of Boulogne. The war with France \nand Scotland was still feebly protracted until it was terminated by a \npeace in 1546. \n\nCranmer had succeeded in obtaining a mitigation of the provisions \nfor the enforcement of the six articles, and in 1543, his enemies \nmade a strong attempt to crush him, representing to the king that \nthe primate and his adherents were filling the realm with heresy, \nand praying for his committal to the tower. Henry consented that \nhe should be at the disposal of the council, but privately gave him \na ring, assuring him of protection. The archbishop, finding himself \nseverely and unjustly dealt with, produced the token, and, with his \naccusers, went before the king. The latter declared his confidence \nin Cranmer, and a hollow reconciliation was effected by his authority. \n\nThe parliament of 1545 granted large subsidies to the king, and \neven empowered him to seize the revenues of the hospitals, univer- \nsities, and public institutions, on condition that "all shall be done to \nthe glory of God and the common profit of the realm." In the \nfollowing year, Anne Askew, a lady who had adopted the reformed \nopinions, was cruelly tortured, and, with three others, was burned for \ndenying the "real presence." \n\nGardiner, the persecuting bishop of Winchester, even attempted \nto make a victim of the queen. By Henry\'s consent, articles of \naccusation were drawn up against her, and received his approbation ; \nbut Catharine, accidentally learning the scheme, so artfully flattered \nthe tyrant\'s vanity and love of argument, that he became completely \nreconciled to her. The next day, when the chancellor, with forty \nmen, appeared in the royal garden to arrest her, Henry called him \na "knave, fool, and beast," and ordered him away. Gardiner was \nalso disgraced. \n\nThe king, afflicted with corpulence and disease, was near his end; \nbut contrived to load his memory with one more weight by the \nexecution of the accomplished earl of Surrey, on a most frivolous \nand unfounded charge of treason. On the 27th of January, 1547, \nhe died very tranquilly, expressing his reliance on the Saviour, \nand affording another proof that a comfortable death-bed is not the \n\n\n\nQIQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nunfailing evidence either of a virtuous life, or of correct religious \nopinions. In despite of his u.tter selfishness, caprice, and tyranny, \nhe was one of the most personally popular monarchs\'who ever sat \nupon the English throne. His physical strength and martial appear- \nance, with a certain bluff good-humour, captivated the hearts of the \npeople. His abilities, though grievously misused, were unquestion- \nable. He excelled in literature, and had the faculty of discerning \nmerit and ability in those whom he employed. \n\n\n\nuiiiAirJliliXiAivo \n\nEDWARD VI., AND MARY. \n\nThe young king being only in his tenth year, a council, appointed \nby the will of Henry, assumed the government. Their first act was \nto create one of their number, the duke of Somerset, protector of \nthe realm, and to bestow fresh titles and estates upon themselves. The \nduke first exerted his authority to crush the chancellor by a charge \nof malfeasance in his ofiice, and to gain from his successor a con- \nfirmation to himself of full regal power. He appointed a council, \nthough its authority was merely nominal. \n\nThe Protestants now looked forward to more favourable times. \nBoth the young king and the primate were in favoiir of their prin- \nciples, and the council was under the reformed influence. Various \nsuperstitious usages were suppressed by law, and the New Testament \nwas generally introduced. Gardiner, who resisted these innovations, \nwas committed to prison. \n\nEarly in the autumn, Somerset, with twenty thousand men, \ninvaded Scotland; the principal object being to compel a union \n(proposed by Henry) between Edward and Mary, the youthful occu- \npants of the respective thrones. Arran, the regent, assembling an \narmy of double the English force, opposed him; and after vainly \nnegotiating concerning the disputed matter, battle was joined at \nPinkey, on the coast. The Scots, exposed to the English archery, \nand to a fire from the fleet which accompanied the army, were \n\n\n\nENGLAND. gX9 \n\ndefeated with a loss of ten thousand men ; but no advantage resuhed \nto the English from tlieir victory. The protector was recalled to \nLondon by domestic intrigues, and the young queen was sent to \nFrance, and betrothed to the dauphin. \n\nThe parliament of 1548 repealed the odious statute making the \nroyal proclamation the law of the land. The severe laws and arbi- \ntrary definitions of treason were abolished, and the statutes against \nLollardy and for the enforcement of the "Six Articles" were dis- \ncontinued. These improvements, however, do not indicate an \nadvanced liberality in matters of opinion, but only that some of the \nmore influential classes had begun to lean to the new doctrines. \nHeresy, it was still held, should be punishable by law, and the \nodious statute "cfe hceretico comhurendoj" for burning of heretics, \nwas still retained. \n\nDuring the year, a new liturgy, the basis of that now used by the \nchurch of England, was compiled by Cranmer and others, and was \nordered to be used in all the churches. An act, permitting marriage to \nthe clergy, was also passed. The protector\'s brother. Lord Seymour, \nthe_ high-admiral, an ambitious man, had married Henry\'s widow; \nand on her death, paid much attention to the yoimg Princess Eliza- \nbeth. He, moreover, engaged the affections of the young king, by sup- \nplying him with money ; other suspicious manoeuvres were observed ; \nand the government, in alarm, had him condemned by attainder, \nwithout any opportunity for defence. He was executed three days \nafter, Somerset and Cranmer signing the warrant with the others. \n\nPersecutions, under the reformed system, still continued. Cran- \nmer and others, by commission, tried a woman named Joan Boucher, \nand condemned her to the flames for maintaining that Christ was \nnot incarnate of the virgin. The youthful king evinced the greatest \nreluctance to signing the horrible warrant; and all the authority of \nCranmer was necessary to induce him. The next year, a man \nnamed Parr, suffered the same fate for being an Arian. \n\nThe first effect of the suppression of the monasteries was, except \nto the receivers of the spoil, unsatisfactory. The people, oppressed \nby their new and absent landlords, thought with regret of the leni- \nency and personal kindness of their old masters the friars. They \nwere further distressed by the high prices caused by the influx of \nthe precious metals from the New World; wages not having risen \ncorrespondingly. Viewing all these evils as originating with the \nReformed doctrines, they rose in several of the counties, where they \n\n\n\nQ20 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nwere at first quieted bj tlie efibrts of the resident gentry; but by \ndegrees the insurrections became more formidable. In Devon, the \ninsurgents, numbering ten thousand men, demanded the restoration \nin full of the ancient forms which had been suppressed ; that many \ndisused customs should be enforced, and that heretics should be \nstrictly punished. While laying siege to Exeter, they were routed \nand dispersed by Lord Eussell ; several of their leaders were exe- \ncuted; and the vicar of St. Thomas was hanged in his robes from \nhis own steeple. In Norfolk, one Kett, a tanner, with twenty thou- \nsand peasants under his command, sat beneath an oak, called the \nOak of Eeformation, summoned the gentry to appear before him, \nand made what decrees he pleased. After routing the marquis of \nNorthampton, who had been sent against them, the rebels were \ndefeated by Warwick, with a loss of two thousand of their num- \nber. Kett was hanged at Norwich, and nine others were suspended \nfrom the boughs of their favourite tree. \n\nThe protector had now become exceedingly unpopular; and he \nadded to the public hatred by pulling down certain churches and \nbishops\' houses in the city, to build himself a palace in their room. \nHis principal enemy was Dudley, earl of Warwick, a son of the \nbeheaded agent of Henry YII. In 1549, this nobleman, with eight \nothers of the council, assumed the entire power, and appealed to all \nclasses for assistance. Somerset, being generally deserted, was. com- \npelled to yield to the storm, and was committed to the tower. He \nwas accused of being the author of all the misfortunes which had \nhappened to the realm, and confessed his guilt. Certain penalties \nwere adjudged, but his opponents, not wishing to ruin him entirely, \nliberated and pardoned him. A marriage of his daughter to War- \nwick\'s eldest son united the rivals, and he was allowed a seat in the \ncouncil. The successful faction, as usual, rewarded themselves with \ntitles and estates. \n\nOn the 24th of March, 1550, a peace was made with France and \nScotland; Boulogne being restored to the former on payment of \nfour hundred thousand crowns. \n\nThe Eeformation was still pushed on. Bishop Bonner, a staunch \nsupporter of Eome, was deprived of his see, and imprisoned. Gar- \ndiner, who had been two years in the tower, was also degraded \nfrom his office. The Princess Mary, who still heard mass, was men- \naced in her turn ; but declared herself ready to die in support of \nher faith, and assured the council that she never would read any of \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 621 \n\ntheir books, as slie thanked God she never had. Through fear of \nthe emperor, her cousin, who threatened war, she was no farther \nmolested. The Book of Common Prayer was next revised ; and \nforty-two articles of religion were drawn up. \n\nWarwick pursued his career of ambition, and on the death of the \nearl of Northumberland, got possession of his title and a great part \nof his estates. Somerset, whom he still dreaded, was again arrested \non the charge of having conspired his death, and that of other \nleading persons. He was tried before the peers, acquitted of trea- \nson, but found guilty, on tolerable evidence, of felony. He was \nexecuted on the 22d of January, 1552, amid the lamentations of the \npeople, with whom he had formerly been popular, and his care for \nwhose interests, on various occasions, formed the redeeming portion \nof his character. Several of his friends were executed, and others \nwere fined and imprisoned. Bishop Tunstall, an ardent Eomanist, \nwas also deprived of his see. \n\nThe king\'s health, always delicate, had become more precarious \nof late, and Northumberland dreaded the succession of Mary, a \nzealous adherent of Eomanism. She and Elizabeth had been made \ndlegitimate by act of parliament during the late reign; the next \nin order, overlooking the heirs excluded by the king\'s will, was the \nduchess of Suffolk, who was desirous to transfer her claim to her \ndaughter, the Lady Jane Grey, a confirmed Protestant. Northum- \nberland represented these matters to the young king, himself a \nstrong Protestant, and pointed out the dangers which the reformed \nfaith must encounter, if Mary succeeded him according to the will \nof her father. Edward readily entered into his views, and ordered \nthe chief judges to draw up an instrument bequeathing the crown \naccordingly. With much reluctance, they complied, and the new \ndevise, after great debate, was signed by all the judges and privy \ncounseUors except one. The earl had no small stake in the artful \nand ambitious game which he was playing; for at this time, the \nLady Jane Grey was married to his fourth son. Lord Guildford Dudley ; \nand the throne, as he supposed, was thus secured in his own family. \n\nThe king survived this transaction only a short time. He died \non the 6th of July, 1553, praying for the promotion of true religion, \nand that papistry might be averted from the realm. During his \nbrief and youthful reign, he exhibited many amiable and estimable \nqualities, though his character was somewhat tinged with intolerance. \n\nNorthumberland had designed to get possession of Mary\'s person; \n\n\n\n522 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nbut was disappointed by ber precipitate flight. The Lady Jane, \nwhom her ambitious relatives were attempting to place in this high \nand perilous position, was only sixteen years of age, but was \nendowed with high talents, virtuous feelings, and an amiable dispo- \nsition. \' She was also unusually learned and accomplished. When \n(four days after the king\'s death) the news was communicated to \nher, and the principal persons of the council requested her to assume \nthe crown, she fell senseless to the ground, and on recovering, wept \nbitterly. She was told that she was the rightful heir, and accepted \nthe crown \xe2\x80\x94 without question most reluctantly \xe2\x80\x94 and from a sense \nof duty. \n\nThe partisans of Northumberland, and the reformed clergy in \ngeneral, exerted themselves strongly to secure the throne to its new \noccupant; but the disinterested subjects listened with apathy to the \nproclamation, and to the sermons preached in favour of the change. \nIn JSTorfolk, the people, hating Northumberland for his severities, \nespoused the cause of Mary, and proclaimed her as queen. Several \nof the nobility joined her, and four thousand men, under Sir Edward \nHastings, deserted the cause of Northumberland, and came to her \nassistance. A fleet sent to intercept her, if she should attempt an \nescape, took a similar course, Northumberland, with ten thousand \nmen, advanced against her, but finding himself vastly outnumbered, \nretreated to Cambridge. \n\nMeanwhile, in London, the civil authorities and several of the high \nofficers of government, perceiving how matters were tending, pro- \nclaimed Mary, amid the acclamations of the populace. The Lady \nJane, after a reign of ten days, made a formal resignation of her \nbrief authority, declaring how much pleasanter it was than the \nacceptance. Northumberland was speedily arrested and committed \nto the tower ; and the accession of Mary to the throne was univer- \nsally acknowledged. Entering London in triumph, she released \nBonner and Tunstall, and made Gardiner high-chancellor. North- \numberland and a number of his associates were convicted of high \ntreason, but the only executions at this time were those of himself \nand two others. Jane and her husband were kept in confinement, \nand the other prisoners were set at liberty. \n\nThe queen had averred that she would not interfere with the \nreligion of the people ; but the hope of toleration soon proved vain \nand futile. Bishops Ridley and Hooper were committed to prison, \nand the Princess Elizabeth found it necessary for her safety to attend \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 623 \n\nmass. The primate, Cranmer, on the first indication of his disap- \nproval, was committed to the tower on a charge of treason, Latimer, \non a similar charge, was already there. Most of the leading Protest- \nants were soon in prison; the people of Suffolk, reminding the \nqueen of her promises, met with insult, and one of their messengers, \nnamed Dobbe, was set in the pillory. Pole was at once appointed \nby the Pope as papal legate to England; and the queen despatched \na private letter to the pontiff, promising to bring the kingdom again \ninto obedience to the See of Eome. \n\nThe parliament, which speedily met, was composed of a large \nmajority of Romanists; a Latin mass, in open defiance of the exist- \ning law, was performed, and Bishop Taylor, refusing to kneel, was \nforcibly put out of the house. Acts, fortifying the queen\'s legiti- \nmacy, and annulling all statutes of the late reign concerning religion, \nwere passed. Jane, her husband, his brother, and Cranmer, were \nattainted of treason, and all pleaded guilty, as the best way of appeas- \ning the hatred of their prosecutors. The commons also prayed her \nmajesty to select a husband from among the nobility of the realm, \nhoping to prevent her contemplated marriage with Philip of Spain, \nthe emperor\'s son.; but she told them it was for her, not them, to \nchoose in this matter. Her resolution being fixed, Gardiner, the \nchancellor, in settling the articles of marriage with the imperial \ncommissioners, took every precaution for the honour and security \nof his country ; and Philip, as the queen\'s husband, was to be allowed \nonly the shadow of authority. The match was, nevertheless, exceed- \ningly odious to the people in general; and conspiracies were soon \nrenewed against the government. The most serious was in Kent, \nwhere Sir Thomas Wyatt, a man of great ability and courage, \nheaded a revolt, and increased his forces to fifteen thousand men. \n\nLondon, however, proved loyal, and the insurgent leader, attempt- \ning, with a greatly diminished force, to surprise it, was defeated and \ntaken prisoner. The next day the queen issued a warrant for the \nexecution of her youthful and innocent prisoner, the Lady Jane, and \nfor that of her husband. He was beheaded on tower-hill, in the \npresence of a vast multitude ; and Jane, after witnessing the return \nof his lifeless body, was led forth to execution, within the tower. \nShe died with great courage and tranquillity, admitting that she \nhad committed an unlawful act, but declaring her innocence of hav- \ning desired the crown. Thus perished, at the mandate of an alarmed \nand jealous woman, one of the most admirable and amiable persons \n\n\n\ng24 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nto be met in English history. Her father and uncle, who had been \nengaged in a conspiracy, were shortly after executed. One of the \naccused being acquitted, the jury were fined large sums, and the \nconviction of others was thus insured. "Wyatt was beheaded, and \na large number of his followers (by some accounts four hundred and \nfifty) were hanged. \n\nElizabeth, who was naturally an object of jealous suspicion to her \nCatholic sister, was committed to the tower, being landed at \nTraitors\' Stairs, where she exhibited some resolution, and a good \ndeal of feminine petulance and weakness. Mary, urged by the \nemperor, would willingly have executed her ; but not daring openly \nto violate the law, kept her close prisoner in various fortresses. \nGreat numbers of the gentry, foreseeing the impending persecutions, \nsold their property, and went over into France. \n\nIn spite of all endeavours of the royal party, and an immense \nsum sent over by the emperor for purposes of bribery, parliament \nrefused to sanction any measure giving Spain a foothold in the king- \ndom. They would not even make it treason to conspire against \nthe life of the queen\'s husband; and refused to revive the statute \nof the six articles, and other strong Eomanist laws concerning \nheresy. The marriage took place, (July 25th, 1554,) but all the \npomp and pageantry displayed on the occasion, could not reconcile \nthe people to an alliance which reminded them of Spanish tyranny \nand of the Inquisition. \n\nThe queen\'s most cherished project was to bring the kingdom \nagain under obedience to the Pope ; and for this purpose, a pliable \nHouse of Commons was required. Orders were issued to the sheriffs \naccordingly, and so fully did they carry out her instructions, that \nnot a single Protestant, it would appear, was elected to the new \nhouse. On meeting, the chancellor, in presence of the royal pair, \nannounced to the house their intention of reuniting the realm to \nthe Catholic church. The old attainder of Cardinal Pole was \nreversed, and he was received with the highest distinction as papal \nlegate. A unanimous petition from the lords and commons prayed \nfor readmission into the bosom of the church. In a great meeting \nthe legate absolved the realm, and the ancient faith was restored \nwith stately ceremonies. The various bills rejected by the former \nparliament were passed. Elizabeth, however, with some other pris- \noners of distinction, was released by the intervention of Philip, who \ndesired to inoratiate himself with the nation. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g25 \n\nThe queen, determined to overawe or extirpate tlie opponents of \nRome, had already intimated her intentions to the lords of the council ; \ndesiring, however, that none might be burned without a good ser- \nmon as an accompaniment, for the benefit of the people. The car- \ndinal, a man of mild and amiable temper, sought, by gentle means, \nto win back the recusants to his church; and in furtherance of \nthis plan, procured a solemn procession, thanksgiving, and rejoicing, \ncelebrated by the ominous blaze of bonfires throughout the night. \nThis ceremony, called the "Feast of the Reconciliation," was to be \nannually observed. On the third day after, the chancellor, Bonner, \nand other high lords, both lay and clerical, opened a court under \nauthority of the legate, for the trial of heretics. \n\nTheir first victim was the Rev. John Rogers, who denied the real \npresence, and was burned at Smithfield, on the 4:th of February. \nHe died with great constancy, amid the sympathy and encourage \nment of an immense crowd of spectators. Four days afterwards. \nBishop Hooper sufiered the same fate in his own diocese, at Glouces- \nter. More of these horrible executions followed, under the direction \nof Bonner, to whom the chancellor had relinquished this odious \nof&ce, and who, from his fanaticism and delight in scenes of cruelty, \nwas the fittest instrument that persecution could have found. "The \nmarried clergy," says Mr. Southey, "were observed to suffer with the \nmost alacrity. They were bearing testimony to the validity and \nsanctity of their marriage; the honour of their wives and children \nwas at stake ; the desire of leaving them an unsullied name, and a \nvirtuous example, combined with a sense of religious duty ; and the \nheart derived strength from the very ties which, in other circum- \nstances, would have weakened it." It is worthy of remark that \nPhilip\'s confessor, a Franciscan, named De Castro, more humane or \nenlightened than his contemporaries, at this very time preached a \nsermon more strongly condemning these barbarities, as utterly \nopposed to Christianity. \n\nA splendid embassy carried the submission of the realm before \nthe Pope, which he was pleased to receive, but also demanded the \nrestitution of the confiscated church property. Cranmer, Ridley, \nand Latimer, after being kept in prison for some time, were carried \nto Oxford, where for three days they maintained a dispute upon the \nEucharist and mass with the dominant party, receiving much abuse \nfrom their opponents. The unfortunate Cranmer was cited to \nappear before the Pope in eighty days, and was then closely impris- \n40 \n\n\n\n526 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvT. \n\nonecl. Bishop Eidley, and Latimer, still maintaining tlieir opinions \nwitli constancy, were condemned, and suffered at Oxford, on the \n16th of October. "Be of good comfort. Master Ridley," said Lati- \nmer at the stake, "and play the man. We shall this day, by God\'s \ngrace, kindle in England such a flame as I trust shall never be \nput out." \n\nGardiner, who had heretofore managed the parliament with great \nability and address, having died, the queen met with no little diffi- \nculty in carrying out her projects. A bill for restoring tithes, first- \nfruits, &c., to the Pope, was rejected, and she obtained little for the \npurpose. In other ways the houses exhibited discontent with the \nsanguinary measures of the government. Philip, also, perceiving \nhis unpopularity, and despairing of offspring by the queen, returned \nto Flanders, and shortly after inherited, by the resignation of his \nfather, the immense possessions which he had acquired. The queen \nsolaced herself, in his absence, by reestablishing monasteries, and \npersecuting heretics, sixty-seven of whom were this year condemned \nto the flames for opposing transubstantiation. \n\nThe eighty days appointed for Cranmer\'s appearance having \nexpired, the Pope degraded him, and appointed Pole as primate in \nhis place. In February, 1556, Bishops Bonner and Thirlby sat at \nOxford, as a commission for his trial. In vain he protested against \nthe palpable evasion of justice which had been put upon him; he \nwas clothed in mock insignia, and publicly scoffed at. After this, \nby the fear of death, and the temptations of his enemies, the \nunhappy man was induced to abjure his opinions, and to sign no less \nthan six different recantations. The object of his persecutors was \nnow attained, and, owing to the queen\'s personal hatred and that of \nothers, it was determined, contrary to the usual custom, to sacrifice \nhim with the rest. Suddenly, and without preparation, he was sum- \nmoned forth to die, and, in presence of a large congregation, was \ndesired to repeat his recantation. He arose, knelt and prayed, and \nthen addressed the people, exhorting them to loyalty, virtue, and \npiety. Then, to the confusion of his enemies, he made the most \nopen confession and repentance of his weakness and duplicity in \nfalsely denying his true opinions ; and declared that the hand which \nhad signed his recantation should be first burned in the flames. He \nwas hurried to the stake, where he further lamented his yielding to \ntemptation, and held his right hand in the flames until it was con- \nsumed. He then died with great fortitude, and thus, in the opinion \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g27 \n\nof most, redeemed tlie errors of liis life ; for lie had been a persecutor \nhimself, and had condemned others to the flames for doctrines similar \nto those which he sealed with his own blood. \n\nIn March, 1557, Philip came over to obtain the aid of England in \na war with France. He would not probably have succeeded, unless \nthe rival nation had been discovered to have aided an insignificant \nmovement against government; which was defeated, and its con- \ntriver, Thomas Stafford, beheaded. The queen, by forced loans, \nand the seizure of corn, enlisted and provisioned a force of ten \nthousand men, which she sent, under the earl of Pembroke, to the \nassistance of Philip, in Holland. The fleet, meanwhile, harassed \nthe coast of France. A severe reverse, however, awaited the Eng- \nlish. On the 1st of January, 1558, Calais, the only remnant of the \nconquests of Edward III. which, for two hundred years, had been \nin their possession, was taken by the duke of Cruise. This loss \ndeeply mortified the people, and so affected the queen, that she \ndeclared that after her death, "Calais would be found lying in her \nheart." An attempt to retrieve this disaster, by seizing upon the \nport of Brest, failed; but, by assistance of the English, the Count \nEgmont was enabled to give a complete defeat to the French, who \nhad invaded Flanders. \n\nThis gloomy and inauspicious reign now drew to a close. Mary \nhad been for some time labouring under disease, aggravated by the \nunpopularity which her cruelties had drawn upon her. She beheld \nvfith mortification that all her severities had been unable to check \nthe secret spread of heretical opinions; and knew that Elizabeth, \nher successor, privately held the reformed doctrines, and would \nprobably reestablish them. Being attacked by an epidemic fever, \nshe expired on the 17th of November, 1558, in the forty-third \nyear of her age. The cardinal died of the same disease, on the \nfollowing day. \n\nThis queen, though not devoid of good qualities, has left, by her \nfanaticism and cruelty, the most unenviable reputation ; and the \npopular epithet of "Bloody Mary " evinces how deeply the horrors \nof persecution had sunk into the minds of the people. \n\nWith the death of Mary and Cardinal Pole, the papal supremacy \nended by common consent. Persecution, as usual, had increased \nthe zeal of the reformed believers; and many, surveying the con- \nstancy and cheerfulness of the martyrs, and detesting the cruelty of \ntheir persecutors, embraced the Protestant faith as soon as they could \n\n\n\n628 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndo SO with, safety. During those four years of obstinate attempts at \nforcible conversion, nearly three hundred victims had perished in \nthe flames, including bishops, clergy, women, and children. \n\n\n\nELIZABETH. \n\nThe new queen was immediately proclaimed amid the general \nrejoicings of the people. By the counsel of Sir "William Cecil, her \nchief adviser, she declared her intention of retaining most of the \ncounsellors in office. An announcement of her accession was sent \nto foreign princes, and Philip immediately offered her his hand ; \nwhich, however, was civilly declined. The Pope, on receiving the \nintelligence, passionately declared that she was illegitimate, and \ncould not inherit the crown ; but said that if she would renounce \nher claim, and submit entirely to the Holy See, she should be leni \nently treated. This ridiculous assumption was, of course, entirely \ndisregarded. \n\nThose in prison for opinion\'s sake were now released, and the \nqueen commenced slowly and cautiously to change the established \nforms of worship. She was crowned on the 15th of January, 1559, \nthe occasion being celebrated by the most quaint and gorgeous \npageantry. Elizabeth was at this time twenty-five years of age, \ntolerably good-looking, and, considering the age, remarkably learned \nand accomplished. The new parliament, in which, from obvious \nreasons, there was a strong Protestant ascendancy, immediately con- \nfirmed her title to the crown, and commenced the work of religious \nreformation. Tenths, first-fruits, and the supremacy, were restored \nto the crown; and to deny the latter obstinately, was made treason. \nEight clerical champions, four from each party, were appointed to \nhold a disputation upon the mass, the English liturgy, and the power \nof the church to establish rites and ceremonies. It was curiously \nargued by the supporters of the Latin service, that "ignorance is the \nmother of devotion;" a piece of sophistry which was ably refuted \n\n\n\n\nELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLANi:. \n\nTHE nAUGHTEH OF HEMKT triTl. ANT3 ANUE BOI.ETN, \n\nBORN, 1533 \xe2\x80\x94 BEOAME QUEEN, 15 5 8 \xe2\x80\x94 DIED, IGOt. \n\nShe TTaa a -woman of masculine energy, self-will, and talent for government \nBy the sagacity oi\' her counsellors, and her own prudence, her reign was emi- \nnently tranquil and successful. The lustre which is attached to her name has. \nhowever, teen dee]:\'ly obscured by her vanity, je.alousy, and revengeful spirit \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g29 \n\nby the Protestant debaters. On the second meeting, the Romanists \nrefusing to argue, because their opponents were to have the last \nword, thev were, after the arbitrary, fashion of the time, fined heavily \nfor a contempt, and some of them were committed to the tower. \nThe "Act of Uniformity" was then passed, enjoining a stated service, \nunder grievous penalties, throughout the kingdom, and imposing a \nfine of a shilling on all who absented themselves from church. Of \nthe fifiieen bishops, one only consented to take the oath of supremacy, \nand the others, though suffered at first to remain at liberty, were \nafterwards imprisoned or kept under surveillance for opposing the \nnew regulations. Their places were filled with Protestants. The \ngreat body of the clergy, however, accepted the changes without \nhesitation, and the reformation was thus finally and effectually \nestablished. \n\nPeace with France and Scotland was made upon reasonable terms, \nalthough Elizabeth viewed with great jealousy the young queen of \nScotland and her husband the dauphin, who had assumed the royal \narms of England, to which Mary, according to the papal edicts, was \nnext heir. The Romanists of England, it was feared, considering \nElizabeth illegitimate, would look upon Mary as the lawful claimant \nof the throne; it was well known that France secretly cherished \nthe scheme of placing her upon it ; and these considerations led the \nqueen to seek a secret alliance with the Protestant faction of Scotland. \n\nPersecution had there produced its usual efiect in exciting the \nzeal and adding to the number of the innovators. The queen-regent, \nwho held, according to her own statement, that the promises of princes \nshould not be performed, "unless it suits their convenience," had \nby her treachery and severity driven the people into open rebellion. \nExcited by the famous John Knox, a rude and daring reformer, \nthey pillaged monasteries, expelled their inmates, and destroyed the \npapistical instruments and ornaments of the churches. The "Con- \ngregation of the Lord," an association headed by influential nobles, \ngained great advantages, and compelled her to come to terms ; which, \nhowever, she violated at once on receiving forces from France. \n\nThe king of that country dying in 1559, his son, Francis II., and \nMary, openly assumed the titles of king and queen of France, Scot- \nland, and England. Further aid was prepared for Scotland, and the \nCongregation, seeing themselves overpowered, applied for aid to \nElizabeth. A fleet and army were despatched to their assistance; \nbut hostilities were, for a time, averted by the negotiation of a \n\n\n\n530 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntreaty, in wliicli it was proposed (the queen-regent having died) that \nthe French should evacuate the kingdom, and that it should be gov- \nerned bj twelve persons, appointed by the queen and parliament, \nand that the claim to the throne of England should be renounced. \n\nThe young king of France, however, died soon afterwards, and \nMary, his widow, finding her situation unpleasant, and urged by \nher Scottish subjects, concluded to return to her own kingdom. \nApplication was made to Elizabeth for an unmolested passage to \nScotland, which was peremptorily refused, unless the Scottish queen \nwould ratify the treaty. This she refused to do, and there is little \ndoubt that her rival, though pretending friendship, privately sent a \nfleet to intercept her passage. In 1561, Mary, weeping, quitted the \nland of her adoption. She watched the shores as long as they were \nin sight, exclaiming, tearfully, "Farewell, France! I shall never see \nthee more." The rough appearance and want of polish of her new \nsubjects, did not tend to reconcile her to the change; and with her \nFrench suite, she was especially annoyed at a loud and discordant \nserenade which her loving subjects, in their joy at her return, kept \nup all night beneath the palace windows. She was at this time \nnineteen, tall, beautiful, talented, and accomplished; and though \neducated in a sphere so entirely different, reigned for some years \nhappily and prosperously. Murray, her half-brother, a man of \ngreat ability, and the head of the Protestant party, aided her with \nhis advice; and she listened with prudent patience to the rough \nadmonitions of Knox. \n\nNevertheless, instigated by her French advisers, she inwardly \nresolved to restore the ancient faith to its former supremacy ; and \nhad already promised, if she succeeded to the throne of England, \nto bring that kingdom again under subjection, to the Holy See. \nThe Eomanists were naturally pleased with this ; and those Protest- \nants who, including Elizabeth herself, secretly regarded Mary as \nher rightful successor, were proportionately alarmed. Elizabeth \nstill insisted on the ratification of the treaty, but refused to acknowl- \nedge Mary as her successor. \n\nBoth sovereigns being young and personally accomplished, were \nsought in marriage by a number of ambitious suitors; but Eliza- \nbeth, while by negotiation amusing the parliament, which was \nanxious to see the succession settled on her issue, secretly deter- \nmined never to subject herself to the power of a husband. Among \nforeigners, Philip, Charles of Austria, Eric of Sweden, the duke of \n\n\n\nENGLAND. Q^l \n\nHolstein, and otlier princes souglit lier hand. At home, Arundel, \nPickering, and Leicester, aspired to tlie elevated rank of consort. \nThe latter was a son of the late Northumberland, and the intimacy \nand partiality of the queen are supposed to have tempted him \nto the commission of a horrible crime. His beautiful wife died at \nan obscure residence called Cumnor Hall, from an accident, it was \nsaid ; but a strong suspicion of murder was attached to the favourite. \n\nCharles sought also the hand of Mary; Philip offered her his \nson ; the king of Navarre and others of a high rank were desirous \nof a union with her. Her choice, however, was not free; and the \ninterference of Elizabeth and that of the reformed faction was such, \nthat she could not securely marry without their approbation. Lei- \ncester and others were proposed; but Elizabeth, although she had \nthrust her advice upon her cousin, continued, perhaps from female \njealousy, to throw obstacles before every project, even such as she \nherself had suggested. Darnley, a youth of twenty, a subject of \nElizabeth, and descended from the royal line of both kingdoms, at \nlast won the favour of the Scottish queen, and in spite of the oppo- \nsition of England and many of her own nobility, she married him, \nand bestowed on , him the title of king. Murray, and other lords \nhaving taken up arms, she marched against them, riding armed at \nthe head of her troops, and drove them from the kingdom. They \ntook refuge in England, where Elizabeth, while openly denouncing \nthem as traitors, secretly countenanced and assisted them. \n\nMary soon discovered her husband to be brutal, intemperate, and \nfoolish. He lost her favour, which was bestowed entirely upon \nDavid Eizzio, an Italian musician. Though it does not appear that \nany criminal connection existed, the jealousy of Darnley and other \nnobles was so great, that they resolved to assassinate the favourite. \nThey further agreed to procure for Darnley the title of "crown- \nmatrimonial," which the queen had hitherto withheld, an amnesty \nfor the exiled lords, and the establishment of the Protestant reli- \ngion. The unhappy Eizzio, while supping with the queen, was \ndragged out by the conspirators, and despatched with fifty-six \nwounds. Mary, finding herself overpowered, fled with her hus- \nband, whom she had prevailed on to accompany her. Collecting a \nforce of eight thousand men, she reentered Edinburgh, and com- \npelled the confederates to take refuge in England. Soon after, she \ngave birth to a son, destined to sit upon the throne of both kingdoms. \n\nDarnley had never been forgiven for the murder of her favourite; \n\n\n\n532 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nand Bothwell, a daring, ambitious man, witTi whom she was fascin- \nated, engrossed all her favour. He received the most distinguished \nhonours, and aspired to greater. Chance favoured his design. The \nking, who had been ill with the small-pox, was lodged in a lonely \nhouse without the walls, where the queen often visited him. With \nthe connivance of some other men of rank, and probably with that \nof Mary herself, he resolved to destroy him ; and in the dead of \nnight, blew up the house with a mine of gunpowder. Every one \nsuspected him; but the queen continued to lavish favours upon him, \nand thus increased the public conviction of her own guilt. Attended \nby a great host of armed retainers, he underwent the mockery of a \ntrial, and was acquitted. His great ascendancy over the queen\'s \nmind was next exhibited by her approval of a laAV, protecting the \nreformed opinions \xe2\x80\x94 a measure by which Both well hoped to ensure \nto himself the support of the Protestant party. \n\nProceeding in his ambitious career, he invited all the nobles \nassembled in parliament to sup with him at a certain tavern ; where, \nthe house being filled with his soldiers, they all signed an instrument \nrecommending his marriage with the queen, and pledging themselves \nto maintain it. After a faint pretence of reluctance, she married \nhim, and thus lent an additional weapon to those who accused her \nof the murder of Darnley. No question in history has been more ably \nor frequently debated, than that of Mary\'s criminality or innocence ; \nbut the most reliable judgments have decided that her implication \nin the death of her husband is placed almost beyond a doubt. She \nhad vowed to revenge the death of Rizzio, and perhaps persuaded \nherself that she was only permitting justice to be executed upon his \nprincipal assassin. \n\nBothwell now exercised the complete authority ; but his rule was \nshort. Several of the principal nobles entered into an association \nagainst him, and in less than a month he was compelled to part from \nthe queen, and to fly the kingdom. Mary hei\'self, being taken and \nconducted to Edinburgh, was overwhelmed with insult by the popu- \nlace, and was finally committed to the castle of Lochlevin, situated \nin the midst of a lake. She was also compelled, under a threat of \ninstant death if she refused, to sign a resignation of the crown in \nfavour of her infant son. Murray was appointed regent, and the \nprince was crowned on July 29th, 1567, by the title of James YI. \nThese proceedings were ratified by parliament, and Mary was declared \naccessary to the death of her husband. Elizabeth, dreading this \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 633 \n\nexample of revolt, strongly expressed her disapprobation, and \nattempted to negotiate in favour of the captive princess. \n\n\'in 1568, Mary escaped from her confinement, and was joined by \nsome of her attached adherents, with a force of eight thousand men. \nThe regent gave them battle at Langside Hill, and utterly defeated \nthem. The queen was compelled to fly precipitately into England. \nHaving arrived, she addressed a letter to Elizabeth, requesting an \ninterview, and desiring assistance in regaining her crown. Both \nthese requests were refused, and, to the deep disgrace of the English \nsovereign and council, it was meanly determined to take advantage \nof her helpless situation, and detain her as a prisoner. A commis- \nsion was appointed to investigate the charges against her, her \nunnatural brother, Murray, being the chief prosecutor. No final \ndecision was made, as Mary refused to proceed with her defence, \nexcept in presence of the queen and nobility of England. Murray, \nthough not acknowledged as regent, was dismissed with a handsome \ngratuity. Liberty was offered to the captive, if she would resign her \ncrown, or associate the prince with her, and yield the regency to \nMurray during the minority. This she refused, alleging that such \nan act would be a confession of guilt. Her demand to go into France \nwas refused, and she was still detained prisoner. \n\nMeanwhile, a secret treaty, in which the first nobles of England \nwere implicated, had been made for her marriage to the powerful \nduke of Norfolk, and her reestablishment upon the Scottish throne. \nAlliance with England, and an immunity for the reformed religion, \nwere among the stipulated terms. Elizabeth, on hearing the particu- \nlars from Leicester, who betrayed his allies, committed the duke \nand other lords to prison ; a step which was soon followed by the \ncelebrated "Rising in the North." The earls of Northumberland \nand Westmoreland, who were deeply implicated in a plot for the \ndeliverance of Mary, raised the standard of revolt, and mustered \nabout seven thousand men. Though professing loyalty to the queen, \nthey proclaimed an intention to restore the ancient religion, and to \nrelease the lords from prison. Finding, after some unimportant \nmovements, that they were not supported by the Catholics in gen- \neral, their forces dispersed, and the leaders fled into Scotland. \nNorthumberland was afterwards taken and executed, and Westmore- \nland died in exile on the Continent. Dacres, who, with three \nthousand men, revolted in 1570, was defeated, after a severe contest, \nand took refuge in Flanders. \n\n\n\n634 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. \n\nThe Englisli queen and council now began to reap tte fruits of \ntheir injustice in detaining Mary, and would have delivered her to \nMurray, but for his assassination shortly after these events. There \nseems little doubt that at this time there existed an extensive con- \nfederation between the Pope, the king of Spain, and others, aided \nby the Catholic nobility in England, to restore the ancient religion, \nand probably to dethrone Elizabeth, and place Mary in her stead. \nThe captive queen was informed of the projects, and, almost as a \nmatter of course, approved them ; and these circumstances filled the \nminds of Elizabeth and her ministers with that constant jealousy \nand. alarm, which finally resulted in the disgraceful execution of \ntheir prisoner. One Felton, about this time, was executed as a \ntraitor for posting a bull of the Pope (excommunicating the queen, \nand denying her title). A farther proposal was now made to Mary, \nto release and restore her to her throne, on con ditions which would \nhave made Scotland a mere dependancy on the neighbouring king- \ndom. The agreement, however, was not concluded. \n\nThe reign of Elizabeth, for the first ten years, had been eminently \nsuccessful and prosperous. She was aided by the advice of the \nablest counsellors, of whom Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Yv^as the most \ndistinguished. The Catholics had almost universally conformed to \nthe changes in worship instituted by government, and the queen \nwas generally popular. From the imprisonment of Mary, dates a \nnew period; a period of domestic plots, foreign hostility, and that \nembarrassment which usually accompanies a persistance in injustice. \nThose who believed in Mary\'s guilt, pitied her unjust and unlawful \nconfinement ; and those who were devoted to her person and religion, \noften resorted to the most desperate expedients. \n\nReligion, as in the two preceding reigns, was the principal element \nin politics; and the state was divided into three parties, each pro- \nfessing a different belief These were \xe2\x80\x94 the Churchmen, who held their \nfaith as established by government \xe2\x80\x94 the Catholics, who remained \nfaithful to the ancient Romish belief \xe2\x80\x94 and the Puritans, who, emu- \nlating the continental zeal, would have pushed the Reformation \nfarther, and abolished nearly all the prescribed forms and ceremo- \nnies. A great historian has considered the reformation of the \nEnglish Church as the most moderate and sensible of the various \nreligious changes which occurred in Europe. "The fabric of the \nsecular hierarchy was maintained entire ; the ancient liturgy was \npreserved, so far as was thought consistent with the new principles; \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 535 \n\nmany ceremonies, become venerable from age and preceding nse, \nwere retained; the splendour of the Komish worship, though \nremoved, had at least given place to order and decency ; the distinct- \nive habits of the clergy, according to their different ranks, were \ncontinued ; no innovation was admitted merely from opposition to \nformer usage. " \n\nThe tranquillizing effect of these moderate and prudent measures \nwas disturbed bj^ the zeal of the Puritans, who insisted on further \nchanges and further severities toward the adherents of Eome. The \ndiscontent was greatly aggravated by Rome herself, who lost no \nopportunity, by open bulls and private emissaries, to arouse the \nCatholic subjects. The faction opposed to the latter was numerous \nand powerful, numbering in its ranks some of the first men in the \nstate. The church party, though nominally in possession of power, \nwas the weakest of the three ; and Elizabeth, though holding the \nsupremacy as one of her most cherished attributes, was yet secretly \ninclined to transubstantiation, image-worship, and celibacy of the \nclergy. This last, however, may have arisen from a certain femi- \nnine jealousy, which led her to discountenance and break off, if \npossible, the marriages of all over whom she had any control. \nShe had occasionally assisted the French Huguenots with money \nand men. \n\nIn 1571, after an interval of five years, parliament met; and as \nthe Puritan interest was predominant, further penalties were enacted \nagainst the Catholics. It was also made a high offence to name any \nperson as Elizabeth\'s successor, except her natural issue. The fol- \nlowing year, Norfolk, who had been released, was again arrested \nfor having conspired to release and marry the Scottish queen, and \nto abrogate the lavfs against Catholicism. He was found guilty by \na commission of the lords, and finally executed. On the 23d of \nAugust, 1572, on the Eve of St. Bartholomew, a terrible massacre \nof the Protestants took place in France. At least thirty thousand \nperished; and the Catholics on the Continent were filled with \nunbounded exultation. England, however, was moved with strong \nindignation, and the French ambassador, on his presentation, was \nreceived by the court in deep mourning, and with profound silence. \nThe queen nevertheless continued a negotiation for marriage with \nthe French king\'s brother, and soon after stood godmother to his child. \n\nThe court of London, alarmed at the aspect of foreign affairs, and \ndreading domestic plots, now began to entertain thoughts of executing \n\n\n\ng36 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ntheir prisoner, tlie Queen of Scots, for whose release the Catholic \nworld was so dangerously anxious. Burleigh, Walsingham, and \nothers, thought it advisable; and the bishop of London, writing to \nthe former, suggested as the first step "furthwith to cutte off the \nScottish queue\'s heade." It was first proposed to deliver her to the \nScots, on condition that they would execute her ; but this scheme \ntook no effect. The continental Protestants now received aid from \nEngland, and their cause began to prosper. \n\nA period of some tranquillity ensued. Mary, who had been \nacquainted with most of the plans for her release, seeing the hope- \nlessness of her condition, became resigned to her fate; and the \nCatholics, not being actively molested, remained quiet. Scotland, \nunder the vile regent Morton, was entirely governed by English \ninfluence. The national genius for naval and commercial enterprise \nnow broke forth in great splendour. Commerce with Eussia and \nthe Levant was established. The slave-trade in its worst form was \ncommenced by the celebrated Hawkins. Sir Martin Frobisher \nexplored the northern shores of America as far as Hudson\'s Bay. \nThe most celebrated navigator of the day was Francis Drake, who, \nafter various adventures in commerce and piracy, took, with a pri- \nvate force, a Spanish town on the isthmus of Panama, and ascending \nthe mountains, beheld the Pacific Ocean. Five years afterwards, in \n1577, he set sail, with a very small equipment, for the Pacific, and \nhaving lost all his vessels except one, cruised along the western \ncoast of South America, plundering all Spanish vessels which he \nencountered; then stretching boldly to the west, he weathered the \nCape of Good Hope, and reached England, after a voyage of three \nyears, during which he had circumnavigated the globe, and taken \nplunder to the amount of near four millions of dollars. The queen \nknighted him, and partook of a banquet in his vessel. \n\nShe was now deeply engaged in a project for marrying the duke \nof Anjou, brother to the . French king, and a man very much \nyounger than herself. The plan was generally unpopular; and a \nzealous Puritan, named Stubbs, wrote a book, entitled, "The Gulf \nin which England will be swallowed by the French Marriage." \nBoth he and his printer suffered the penalty of losing their right \nhands. In 1682, while Anjou was at the English court, the queen \npublicly gave him a ring as a pledge of her acceptance of his suit. \nThe matter was regarded as settled; but Elizabeth, overcome by \nthe arguments and entreaties of her ministers, again dismissed him, \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 637 \n\nand lie withdrew, flinging away tlie ring, and exclaiming against \nthe fickleness of women, especially islanders. \n\nIn 1581, new laws were enacted against the Catholics, and tlie \nformer ones were more rigidly enforced; attendance on the pre- \nscribed services was compelled, under very heavy penalties; and \npersecution was glutted by the execution of those priests who \nprivately exercised their function. The Jesuits and others were \ntortured and cruelly put to death as traitors, ten of them being \nexecuted on one accusation. In Scotland, the regent Morton, hav- \ning been lately beheaded for his former implication in the murder \nof Darnley, the Catholic faction matured a plan for the joint gov- \nernment of Mary and James, which they and other high personages \napproved ; but this scheme fell through, in consequence of the seizure \nof the young king by the Protestant leaders. The English influence \nstill retained its ascendancy. \n\nConspiracies were becoming rife again, and the council resorted \nto every method, even the most dishonourable, to gain information. \nLetters were written by them to leading Catholics in the name of \nMary, and those who replied were arrested. Eminent lords were \ncited before the council, and the rack was freely used on those of \nlesser rank, to discover their secrets. There appears, however, to \nhave been little ground for apprehension of a revolt, for the queen \nwas exceedingly popular, and whenever she appeared in public, \ncrowds fell upon their knees, invoking blessings on her head. It \nwas resolved, however, to get some hold upon the life of Mary, and \nparliament accordingly enacted that if "any invasion or rebellion \nshould be made by or for any person pretending to the crown after \nher majesty\'s decease, or any conspiracy against her person," a \ncommission of peers should be appointed, with power to give judg- \nment as they might see fit. Further and severer laws, if possible, \nwere also passed against the Catholics. At this time, one Dr. Parry \nwas executed for having designed to assassinate the queen, and, as \nhe averred, by the approval of the Pope himself \n\nIn 1585, the Dutch being almost overpowered by their enemies, \nwere assisted by England with a force of six thousand men, com- \nmanded by the earl of Leicester. His first campaign was not very \nfortunate, and that gallant knight Sir Philip Sidney, the model of a \nsoldier and gentleman, lost his life during the siege of Zutphen. \nWounded and dying, he gave the water, which had been brought \nhim, to a wounded soldier, who was eying it wistfully, saying, "Thy \n\n\n\n638 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOET. \n\nnecessity is yet greater than mine." Meanwhile, Drake, who had \nbeen despatched to the West Indies, met with great success, took \nseveral towns, and returned with much spoil. In 1586, a Protestant \nalliance was concluded between Elizabeth and James of Scotland. \n\nIn the same year, a dangerous conspiracy, comprising an insurrec- \ntion and the assassination of the queen, was detected by Walsingham. \nThe authors of it were betrayed by one of their associates, and, the \nminister allowed them to entangle themselves fully, while he perused \nall their correspondence. Mary was apprised of the plan, and, it was \nsaid, consented, though this has never been proved to the satisfac- \ntion of impartial judges. When Ballard, Babington, and the other \nconspirators had fully committed themselves, they were arrested, \ntried, and condemned as traitors. Seven of them were executed \naccording to the ancient barbarity of disembowelling alive; the \nothers were previously hanged till they were dead. \n\nIt was now considered by the court a favourable time to proceed \nagainst Mary, and thus rid themselves of one whose imprisonment \nmenaced them with perpetual danger and alarm. Leicester, who \nhad returned, proposed to poison her privately ; but the clergj^man \nwhom he sent to Walsingham, was unable to persuade him of the \npropriety of this course. A commission of forty noblemen and oth- \ners was then appointed under the late act. Mary denied the truth \nof the charges, as well as the authority of the commission ; but being \ntold that she would do injustice to her reputation by refusing an \ninvestigation, finally agreed to plead, provided that her protest \nagainst the lawfulness of the proceedings should be received. This \nwas assented to, and the protest was recorded. The testimony \nagainst her was of a very questionable character, and she af&rmed \nthat a letter produced as her\'s, and proving her implication in the \nscheme, was a forgery. During several days, in which the trial pro- \nceeded, she defended herself with the greatest firmness and ability. \nJSTevertheless, she was found guilty, an event which was almost \nequally certain before as after the trial. \n\nThe sovereigns of France and Scotland interfered openly to save \nher, but it is said that their messengers secretly advised her execu- \ntion. Indeed, the whole affair indicates such a spirit of cruelty, \ntreachery, and meanness among royal and noble characters, as plainly \nshows the depraving influence of power and jealousy. More strenu- \nous exertions would probably have failed. Elizabeth had now in \nher power the rival, whose claims to the throne, whose personal \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 639 \n\naccomplisTiinents, and tlie zeal of whose partisans had. so long \nrendered her suspicious, jealous, and insecure. On the Scottish \nambassadors desiring a respite of her life for eight days, "Not for \nan hour!" she answered, and abruptly left them. \n\nShe now most hypocritically pretended an aversion to blood, yet \nprivately sent for the death-warrant, and signed it. Still she felt \nreluctant to incur the responsibility, and frequently attempted to \nengage Davison, the secretary, to undertake the private assassina- \ntion of Mary. Her keepers, however, men of character, and well \naware that they would also be made the victims, if they complied, \nrefused bluntly, "to shed blood without law or warrant." At length, \nfinding that private assassins were not as freely at her command as \nat that of her predecessors, she gave legal orders for the execution \nof her victim, "swearing with a great oath," says Davison, "that it \nwas a shame to us all that it was not already done," &c. \n\nMary was executed on the 8th of February, 1787, in the forty- \nsixth year of her age. Although her last moments were disturbed \nby the fanatical interference of those who conducted the tragedy, \nshe died with the greatest dignity and cheerfulness, asserting to the \nlast her innocence of any intentions against the life of Elizabeth. \n\nWhatever may have been her former faults or crimes, it is gener- \nally conceded that her execution at the instance of Elizabeth was a \ncrime of the basest character, founded on personal jealousy, and on \nthe alarm continually inspired by the attempts of the Catholics. \nHer end being attained, however, the queen exhibited the vilest \nhypocrisy, reproaching her counsellors, and putting her court into \nmourning. Davison was committed to the tower, and ruinously \nfined, on the pretext that he had executed the warrant ; but in reality \nto punish him for refasing the ofiice of an assassin, and to impose \nupon the public mind by a display of indignation. \n\nJames, on hearing of the execution of his mother, at first pretended \ngreat resentment, but speedily allowed himself to be pacified, well \nknowing that any serious dispute with Elizabeth might, at some \nfuture day, cost him the throne of England. \n\nPhilip of Spain now preparing for an invasion of the island, \nDrake was sent against him. This renowned commander destroyed \na hundred of his vessels in the port of Cadiz, and gained other sig- \nnal successes. The English seamen were thus emboldened, and the \nattempt was deferred for a year. Leicester, who had returned to \nHolland, met with ill-success, and was recalled. In 1558, Philip \n\n\n\n640 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nagain made immense preparations, and the prince of Parma, his \nall J, raised a great force, ready for transportation to the shores of \nEngland. Vigorous preparations for defence were made by the \nEnglish government, and all men between sixteen and sixty were \nrequired to exercise in arms. A large army was raised, and a fleet \nof an hundred and eighty-one vessels, manned by seventeen thou- \nsand seamen, was provided \xe2\x80\x94 chiefly by the zeal of the citizens of \nLondon and the nobility. It was commanded by Howard, the lord- \nhigh-admiral, and under him, by Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. \nThe Catholics joined heartily in defence of their country. \n\nOn the 29th of May, 1588, "The Invincible Armada," as the \nSpaniards haughtily styled it, set sail from the Tagus, imder com- \nmand of the duke of Medina Sidonia. It consisted of an hundred \nand thirty ships, two thousand six hundred and thirty cannon, \ntwenty-nine thousand men, and an hundred and eighty priests for \nthe conversion of the English heretics. On its passage up the chan- \nnel to Calais, (where it did not arrive till the 27th of July,) it was \nharassed by the lighter and swifter fleet of the English, and several \nvessels were taken. Here the duke ascertained that the prince of \nParma, beset by enemies, was unable to perform his share of the \nundertaking. The English also sent eight fire-ships into the midst \nof the Spanish fleet. They weighed anchor, but were much shat- \ntered by a tempest, and finally concluded, rather than encounter the \nperils of the channel, to sail round Scotland and Ireland. The \nEnglish pursued them until ammunition failed. Numbers of their \nships were wrecked on the coast, and the crews butchered by the \ninhabitants. This invincible expedition finally arrived at Spain \nwith a loss of thirty large ships and about ten thousand men. The \nqueen, throughout the impending danger, had evinced great spirit, \nreviewing her troops in person, and encouraging them by her elo- \nquence. Her ofl&cers and seamen were generously rewarded. \n\nAt this time died the earl of Leicester, \'who, for thirty years, had \nbeen one of the prime favourites of Elizabeth; leaving the degree \nand nature of their intimacy a matter of much question for after- \ntimes. His character presents a curious compound of crimes and \nvices mixed with ability, generosity, and magnanimity. \n\nIn 1589, by way of revenge, Drake and others fitted out a private \nexpedition against Spain, which, after some successes, was compelled \nto return by the ravages of sickness. Half the troops had perished, \nand of eleven hundred gentlemen, not one-third returned. Henry \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g41 \n\nIV. of France, who was at this time engaged in war with the Catho- \nlic League, was assisted with money and forces; and the English, \ncommanded by Sir John Norris, the valiant earl of Essex, and \nothers, gained many laurels. A naval warfare against Spain was \nstill continued, and Frobisher and other commanders did much \ninjury to her commerce. Maritime enterprise flourished. The East \nIndies were reached by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. Span- \nish towns were captured, and many vessels taken on the coast of \nSouth America. In 1595, the gallant Sir Walter Ealeigh made an \nenterprising voyage and tour of discovery in the same region, seek- \ning the famous and fabulous city of El Dorado. \n\nPhilip making fresh preparations in 1596, it was resolved to \nattack him. An hundred and fifty vessels, with fourteen thousand \nmen, commanded by Howard, Essex, Ealeigh, and other celebrated \ncommanders, sailed for Cadiz. The Spanish fleet, at anchor there, \nwas defeated; the town was taken, and an hundred and twenty \nthousand crowns were forcibly levied. The town, with a large \nnumber of merchant vessels, was burned, and the entire damage to \nthe king of Spain on this occasion, was estimated at twenty millions \nof ducats. A fresh expedition of great force, commanded by \nEssex, and under him by Ealeigh and Sir Thomas Howard, set sail \nin 1597, but owing to a tempest, and to the want of nautical skill \nin Essex, effected but little. On their return, Essex fell into disgrace \nfrom a ludicrous circumstance. In a warm debate, he petulantly \nturned his back upon the queen, who instantly dealt him a sound \nbox on the ear. He clapped his hand to his sword, swearing that \nhe would not suffer such treatment from Henry YIII. himself, and \nleft the presence abruptly. He was afterwards restored, apparently, \nto favour. At this time died Lord Burleigh, for forty years the \nmost sagacious and confidential of the queen\'s advisers. \n\nIreland, throughout the reign of Elizabeth, had been in a state of \nalmost constant turmoil and warfare. The attempt to force the \nreformed doctrines upon the people had been met by determined \nresistance \xe2\x80\x94 a resistance which, in various forms, has been actively \nmaintained to the present day. Hugh O\'Neal, earl of Tyrone, \nassisted by Spain, revolted, and defeated the English forces which \nopposed him. Essex, at his own earnest desire, was sent against \nhim, with eighteen thousand men. Through mismanagement and \ndesertion, he found himself unable to accomplish any thing, and, \ndreading the influence of his enemies at court, hastened home with- \n41 \n\n\n\n542 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nout orders, and suddenly entered the queen\'s cTiamber, Taken by \nsurprise, she received him graciously ; but the next day, vexed at \nhis disobedience, committed him to a mild custody. She also refused \nto renew a monopoly which he had held, alleging that " an unruly \nbeast must be stinted of its provender." Irritated at these dis- \ngraces, he began to meditate a conspiracy, and, more imprudently \nstill, publicly abused the qiieen\'s person, saying that she was now \ngrown an old woman, and as crooked in body as in mind. Plans \nwere entered into by his partisans to seize the palace, and compel \nthe queen to dismiss his enemies. On the 8th of February, 1601, \nthe earl, who had been ordered to keep his own house, marched \nthrough the streets with nearly three hundred knights, gentlemen, \nand others of his faction; but finding that the people did not join \nhim, surrendered to the queen\'s troops. Being tried for treason \nbefore a jury of peers, he was found guilty, and in a few days \nbeheaded ; the queen exhibiting a great conflict between her pride \nand the real affection which she felt for him. He died in his thirty- \nfourth year, leaving a reputation for high courage and magnanim- \nity, as well as for rashness and ambition. Others implicated in the \nthe affair shared his fate. \n\nIn 1602, the Deputy Mountjoy reduced Tyrone and the other \nrevolted chiefs to submission ; and six thousand men, sent to their \naid by the king of Spain, were forced to capitulate. \n\nElizabeth was now nearly seventy, and the good health and \nspirits which she had always hitherto enjoyed, began to fail. The \nmemory of Essex continually haunted her, and she sat for long \nintervals silent and in tears. Having recovered from an alarming \nstupor, for ten days she refused food and medicine. As she was \nevidently dying, the chief officers of state inquired whom she wished \nto be her successor. She selected James of Scotland, and soon \nafterwards expired, on the 24th of March, 1603, after a long and \n(as the term is commonly used) prosperous reign of forty -five years. \nThe vigour of mind, the prudence and success of this sovereign, \nhave secured for her the admiration both of her subjects and for- \neigners. Her talent in perceiving merit was equal to her judgment \nin employing it ; and no sovereign was ever surrounded b}^ more \nbrilliant and able favourites. Her defects were not greater than \nthose of most of her predecessors, though appearing more glaring \nin a woman. She was excessively fond of dress and display; a \ntrait which, however, increased her popularity. She was passionate, \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g43 \n\nand wlien incensed, would swear and strike freely. Her reputation \nfor modesty has been often attacked and defended. She has, how- \never, always been an especial favourite with the English nation. \n\nDuring her reign, four persons were burned for heresy, and about \nthirty Catholic priests, and some of those who harboured them, suf- \nfered the horrible death of traitors. Owing to the increase of men- \ndicancy, and the suppression of the monasteries, which had formerly \nrelieved it. Poor Laws became necessary, and Avere, for the first time, \nenacted. Commerce made great advances, though fettered by gross \nand oppressive monopolies. Literature attained the highest excel- \nlence. Shakspeare, Spenser, and a host of other brilliant names, have \nmade the " Elizabethan age " the brightest in the annals of letters. \nNewspapers, also, at this time first made their appearance in England. \n\nWith Elizabeth ended the reign of the house of Tudor. During \ntheir dynasty, though to all appearance almost absolute, a new and \nmost important power had been gradually growing up \xe2\x80\x94 that of the \ncommons. They were cautious, especiallj\'- latterly, of provoking it \ntoo far; and sought to counterpoise the opposing influence by the \ncreation of new and useless boroughs, to be filled with their own \ncreatures. The iniquitous court of the Star Chamber (so called \nfrom the council sitting in a room adorned with stars) was an arbi- \ntrary tribunal, irresponsible except to the sovereign. The High \nCommission was a kind of Inquisition, composed of prelates and \nothers, having almost despotic power over religious opinions. The \nexercise of these authorities, opposed by the commons, was destined, \nat no distant day, to* overthrow the government. \n\n\n\nuitiAiidiiii AVii, \n\n\n\nJAMES I. \n\nAlthough, by the will of Henry Ylll. and the accompanying \nact of parliament, the succession had been otherwise settled, James, \nwho was the hereditary heir, succeeded without the least opposition. \nThis was chiefly due to the efforts of Cecil, the son of Burleigh, \nwho had been in treaty with him for some time before the queen\'s \n\n\n\n644 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\ndeath. The king left a barren and impoverished country, to enter \nthe splendid and luxurious possession which he "facetiously called \n"The Land of Promise." The popularity which hailed his first \nappearance was nearly gone before he reached the capital. His per- \nsonal appearance was ungainly, his demeanour ungracious; and he \nhanged a pickpocket on the way, without law or trial. A number \nof Scots were added to the former council, and titles were bestowed \nwith a prodigality that greatly diminished their value. \n\nJames was at this time thirty-six years of age, and was, as Sully \nthe French ambassador remarked, "the wisest fool in Christendom." \nThe "British Solomon" (as he loved to be styled) was learned, wrote \nwith facility, and possessed a good deJgree of shrewdness and saga- \ncity; but was remarkably destitute of enlarged and practical good \nsense. Hardly had he assumed the crown, when it was menaced by \ntwo conspiracies. One, to surprise the king, imprison him, and \nsecure toleration for the Catholics, was planned by certain priests \nand Romanists ; the other, to place Arabella Stuart, a lady of the \nroyal line, upon the throne, was the scheme of Lord Cobham and \nothers. Both were detected, and the parties arrested. The most \ninteresting trial was that of Sir Walter Ealeigh, who had been com- \nmitted on accusation of participating in both. The proof against \nhim was of the most unreliable nature ; he defended himself with \ngreat ability and force; yet the jury, to please Cecil and the king, \nwhose succession he had opposed, found him guilty. He was com- \nmitted indefinitely to the tower. Some of the prisoners were \nexecuted, but Cobham, who turned state\'s-evidence,. was spared. \n\nThe king\'s attention was next engaged by a fierce movement for \nfurther religious reform, opposed as vehemently by the two univer- \nsities. A conference of the two parties was appointed. The \nprimate, the bishop of London, and many other ecclesiastics of high \nrank, appeared to defend their ceremonies; but when the case of \nthe petitioners was stated, the king flew into a passion, told them \nthat their purposes agreed with monarchy "as well as God and the \ndevil," and said he would never hearken to them until he was pursy \nand fat, and needed exercise, which such doings would be sure to \ngive him. With other similar abuse he disposed of the case ; and \nthe prelates assured him that he had spoken by the spirit of God, \nand that there had never been such a king since. the time of Christ, \nOrders for strict conformity were immediately issued, and a griev- \nous though bloodless persecution commenced. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 545 \n\nPresently danger sprung up from tlie opposite quarter \xe2\x80\x94 the \nequall}^ injured Catholic party. In the year 1604, a number of \nardent and unscrupulous Eomanists conspired to strike a terrible \nblow at their enemies. Their object was nothing less than the \nentire destruction of the royal family and both houses of parlia- \nment. For a time they endeavoured to mine through the basement \nof the parliament-house, and afterwards hired a cellar under it, \nwhich had been used for storing fuel. After long and arduous exer- \ntions, they succeeded in conveying thirty-six barrels of powder to \nthis receptacle, and covered them with large stones and logs of wood. \nParliament was to meet on the 5th of November, 1605, and it was \narranged that on that day the magazine should be fired, and the Catho- \nlics should assemble, and proclaim as queen the Princess Elizabeth. \nA few days beforehand, a letter was received by Lord Monteagle, \nwarning him, in ambiguous terms, not to attend the opening of par- \nliament, and hinting at some unforeseen and awful calamity. This \nexcited suspicion ; diligent search was made ; and on the day before \nthe 5th, the mine was discovered, and Guy Fawkes, the principal \nagent in this horrible scheme, was arrested on the spot. When \nbrought before the council, like a thorough fanatic, he avowed his \nintention, and gloried in it. The names of his associates were forced \nfrom him by the rack, and they were mostly apprehended. A small \nnumber, who had openly risen, were forced to surrender. The \nprincipal conspirators, eight in number, were executed after the bar- \nbarous manner of the times, vindicating and defending their scheme \nto the last. Though attempts have been made by the more zealous \nand prejudiced of their opponents to throw the odium of this \n"Gunpowder-plot" upon the mass of English Catholics, it seems \ncertain that, great as their provocation to revenge might be, it met \nwith their hearty abhorrence. \n\nThe king was anxiously desirous to bring about a legal union of \nthe two kingdoms; but succeeded only to a comparatively small \nextent. For a number of years he carried on a continued contest \nwith the commons, struggling to gain subsidies without conditions ; \nand they, on the other hand, endeavouring to obtain the reform of \npurveyance, and other ancient abuses. Salisbury, (Cecil, the son of \nBurleigh) his chief adviser, died in 1612. In the same year died \nPrince Henry, the heir-apparent, a youth of the highest promise, \nand greatly beloved by the people. The circumstances of his death, \nand the subsequent conduct of James (who regarded him with jeal- \n\n\n\n646 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nousy) have given rise to suspicions of an unnatural crime; but \nthere is little foundation for such a supposition. \n\nThe king\'s prime favourite for a long time had been the earl of \nSomerset, a man of high personal accomplishments, but destitute \nof principle and integrity. He flourished for many years in the \nroyal favour, but was finally supplanted by George Yilliers, a younger \nand more pleasing rival. Somerset\'s implication in the horrible \nmurder of Sir Thomas Overbury, in the tower, furnished a sufficient \npretext for his disgrace; and the new favourite soon enjoyed almost \nunlimited power, controlling the king and all around him. \n\nThrough his influence. Sir Walter Ealeigh, after an imprisonment \nof thirteen years, was released, and permitted to command an \nexploring expedition to Guiana. Various misfortunes and the hos- \ntility of the Spaniards compelled him to return unsuccessful; and \nGondomar, the Spanish ambassador, whose near kinsman had been \nslain in one of the encounters, sought his revenge. To the eternal \ndisgrace of James, who was anxious to marry his son to the Span- \nish infanta, he consented to the sacrifice of this great man, and, \nreviving the ancient sentence, gave orders for his execution. He \ndied with the greatest courage and cheerfulness, leaving a splendid \nreputation as a soldier, a statesman, and an author. \n\nSir Edward Coke, the chief justice, who had boldly defended the \nlaws against the encroachment of the royal prerogative, was dis- \nmissed from his office. Sir Francis Bacon, a man of the highest \nabilities, but of a mean and time-serving disposition, was appointed \nto the office of chancellor. In 1621, a parliament being summoned, \nproceeded to inquire strictly into the existing abuses. The most \ncelebrated culprit impeached by them was Bacon, now Viscount \nSt. Albans, who was arraigned for bribery and corruption in his \noffice. He was found guilty, made a full confession, and was sen- \ntenced to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, and to be imprisoned \nduring the king\'s pleasure. These penalties were remitted by the \nking, and five years afterwards this celebrated man died in solitude \nand disgrace \xe2\x80\x94 a memorable instance of high talents and splendid \nopportunities, debased by the want of principle and honesty. His \nphilosophical works have always been held among the most valuable \nand original in the English language. \n\nThe session terminated in a fierce quarrel with the king, who \nresented the advice of the parliament on state affaii\'s, dissolved them, \nand committed some of the most prominent members to prison. In \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g^.^ \n\nhopes to conciliate Spain, the Catholic penalties were, by his authority, \ngreatly relaxed ; and negotiations for the marriage of Prince Charles \nto the infanta were diligently carried on. Yilliers, who was now mar- \nquis of Buckingham, had gained a complete ascendancy over the \nmind of the prince, as well as that of his father. He persuaded Charles \nto set off with him for Spain, in person, and, by browbeating the king, \ngained his consent. These young knights errant, under the names \nof Jack and Tom Smith, passed rapidly through France, and were \nreceived with great distinction at Madrid. Articles of marriage \nwere agreed upon, and a day for the espousal was fixed; but the \nwhole matter Avas finally broken off by the caprice of Buckingham, \nwho had taken some offence, and whose influence with the king was \nirresistible. \n\nBy his intrigues and misrepresentations, the commons were \ninduced to believe that the fault lay with Spain; the people, ever \nhostile to that nation, exhibited the greatest delight at the prospect \nof a war : and parliament voted three hundred thousand pounds for \ncarrying on the contest. In 1624, the prince was contracted to \nHenrietta, sister of the French king ; but James was not destined to \nwitness the completion of his favourite project. He died on the \n27th of March, in the following year, after a reign of twenty-two \nyears. The mixture of learning and folly which characterized this \nmonarch, has left his memory associated with somewhat of the ludi- \ncrous; while the grossness of his personal habits, and the mean \nselfishness which marked his political career, have oppressed his \nname with deserved odium. \n\nDuring his reign, the experiment of colonizing Ireland with \nEnglish inhabitants was attempted on a large scale; and though \nmany circumstances retarded its progress, the general effect has been \nfavourable to the civilization of that country. \n\nEeligious jealousy and bigotry continued in full force throughout \nhis reign ; the chief contest being between the Churchmen and Puri- \ntans. To the latter, though gloomy and censorious, the liberties of \nEngland are highly indebted. They always stood foremost in par- \nliament to defend the laws and the rights of the subject against the \nusurpations of the royal prerogative; yet, with a strange inconsist- \nency, would have altogether denied to the Catholics that liberty of \nconscience which they so manfully upheld for themselves. Their \ngood deeds have, however, survived them, while the evil that \nalloyed them has, in a great measure, disappeared. \n\n\n\n548 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. \n\n\n\nCHAPTEB X?H \n\n\n\nCHARLES I. \n\nChakles, wlio became king at tlie age of twenty -five; was of a \ngrave and hanglaty character. His morals and manners contrasted \nmost favourably with those of his predecessor ; but he was a bigoted \nbeliever in the absolute authority of kings, and Buckingham, the \nodious favourite, still maintained his entire preeminence. The king \nmarried Henrietta, and soon afterwards met his first parliament. \nOpposition to the court was excessively strong \xe2\x80\x94 the Puritans and the \ndefenders of civil liberty greatly outnumbering their opponents. \nSubsidies were scantily and reluctantly voted, accompanied by \nrequests for the redress of grievances. An impeachment of Buck- \ningham was in agitation, when the king, to save his favourite, \ndissolved the assembly. He, however, by arbitrary measures, raised \nmoney for the war with Spain, and despatched Lord Wimbledon, \nwith a large fleet, to attempt the conquest and plunder of Cadiz. \nThis expedition failing, through the incapacity of the commander, \nCharles found himself obliged to summon another parliament. This \nbody at once proceeded to agitate grievances, deferred voting subsi- \ndies, and impeached the duke of Buckingham, charging him with \nvenality, embezzlement, and other misdemeanours. He made a \nplausible defence, but before determination of the case, Charles \nagain dissolved the parliament, declaring that he would give an \naccount of his actions to God only, "whose immediate vicegerent" \nhe claimed to be. \n\nHe then commenced a course of arbitrary despotism; levying \ntaxes without authority, and severely punishing those who refused \ncompliance. Several persons of note having been thus committed \nto prison by the council without any cause assigned, the judges, on \na writ of habeas corpus, decided that the king\'s authority was supe- \nrior to the law, thus totally abrogating the liberty of the subject. \n\nBuckingham, to gratify a private quarrel, now involved the \nnation in a war with France ; and with a hundred sail, set out in \nperson for Eochelle, a strong Huguenot city. He showed much per- \n\n\n\n\nU \xc2\xb11 A K L E S I K 1 i: G O T E N G L A N Jj . \n\n\n\n.VKr Ii K THF OTUIUNAT. rORTRArr r.T Vi"NDyKE, NOW PHESE:-1\';ED in the MUbKIJil Or \n\nTHE LOUYRE \n\n\n\nENGLAND. Q.^Q \n\nsonal gallantry, but, owing to his want of generalsliip, was forced to \nretreat, with a loss of two thousand men. In this strait, parliament \nin 1628 was again summoned, and, as a conciliatory movement, the \npolitical prisoners, seventy-eight in number, were set at liberty. \nThe}^ were all elected to the parliament, an assembly which was \nprincipally composed of men ardent for popular reform. The king \ntold them plainly and haughtily, that he had only called them to \nvote supplies. They immediately complied, but annexed to the \nvote of subsidy four conditions, securing freedom from arbitrary \narrest and royal taxation. For two months the matter lay pending, \nand then the celebrated "Petition of Eights," embracing nearly the \nsame particulars, was passed, and received the royal assent. Having \nthus obtained the money which he sought, Charles prorogued the \nparliament, privately resolving, however, not to fulfil the conditions \nof his agreement. \n\nAt this time the duke of Buckingham, who was at Portsmouth, \npreparing to take charge of a fresh expedition, perished by the hand \nof John Felton, a fanatical assassin, stimulated by private revenge and \nmisguided zeal for his faction. The victim was only thirty-six, but had \nfor a long time ruled England as completely as he had unworthily. \n\nSir Thomas Wentworth, one of the most distinguished of the \nliberal members, was now gained over by the king. He received \ntitle and oflS.ce, and became the principal adviser of Charles, and the \nstaunchest supporter of despotic measures. In 1629, parliament \nreassembled, and, after some preliminary disputes with the king. \nSir John Eliot introduced a set of resolutions strongly denouncing \nPopery, and declaring any one who should levy or pay the obnox- \nious claim of "tonnage and poundage" an enemy to the state. Great \nconfusion ensued, and some violence, but the motion was received \nand passed with acclamation, and the house then adjourned, disap- \npointing the king, who had given orders to break up their meeting \nb}\'- force. Parliament was immediately dissolved, and Eliot, Avith \nother leaders of the opposition, was committed to the tower. All \nwere heavily fined, and Eliot ended his days in prison. Charles now \nresolved to dispense altogether with parliaments, and a course of \nabsolute despotism, destined to last* for twelve years, immediately \ncommenced. \n\nLaud, the primate, a man of narrow views and a persecuting \nspirit, persuaded the king to enforce a great variety of religious \nusages and ceremonies which he prescribed. These so strongly \n\n\n\ng50 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nresembled those of tlie cliurcli of Eome, that the Pope even sent \nover an envoy, trusting that England was about to renew her submis- \nsion to the See. Severe punishments were inflicted on all who opposed \nthese innovations. Cropping, branding, the pillory, imprisonment, \nand enormous fines were freely inflicted. The violence and tyranny \nof the Star Chamber, in these times, fully equalled that of the worst \ndespots by whom England had ever been oppressed. \n\nThe king, meanwhile, raised a large revenue by every species of \nexaction. Among other oppressions, he revived the odious monopo- \nlies and the forest laws, by which many persons were ruined. The \nlarge sums thus obtained, were applied to the support of government \nand the maintaining a brilliant and extravagant court. In spite, \nhowever, of many cases of individual hardship, and the tyranny \nexercised over conscience, the country in general flourished and \nprospered during this period \xe2\x80\x94 a result imputable, not to the sj^stem \nof government, but to the natural energy of the English people, \nstimulated by increasing civilization and new fields for enterprise. \nThe tax of ship-money, levied upon the maritime parts of the coun- \ntry, for supplying the expenses of a fleet, had been submitted to, \nthough with reluctance ; but the king determined to collect it from \nall parts of the kingdom, and thus assure himself of a permanent \nrevenue. This was resisted, and the memorable trial of John Hamp- \nden, in which the legality of this imposition was full}^ argued, occurred \nin 1637. It was adjudged lawful by a majority of one; but the \nassumption of absolute authority put forth by the king\'s council, \nand its confirmation by the judges, justly alarmed the people. The \nmoney, amounting to two hundred thousand pounds a-year, was paid \nwith great dissatisfaction. \n\nPersecution for freedom of speech and action on religious matters \nhad now become so outrageous, that the Puritans and patriots began \nto turn their eyes for refuge to the New World. In 1629 a charter \nhad been obtained for a colony in Massachusetts. More than three \nhundred persons had already sailed, and numbers, seeking freedom \nof conscience, now followed them. In 1638, many persons of emi- \nnence resolved to quit their country; and it is said that Hampden \nand his relation, Oliver Cromwell, were actually on board a vessel, \nwhen, by the royal proclamation, they were prevented from sailing. \nIn Scotland, great commotions had been excited by the determina- \ntion of the king and his advisers to insist on conformity to the \nEnglish church. By the direction of Laud, many of his innovations \n\n\n\nENGLAND. Q^l \n\nwere ordered to be enforced ; but the people every Vv^bere received \ntbe English liturgy with resistance, and in some cases with violent \ndisturbances. Their meetings to petition against the distastefal \nmeasures were declared treasonable, and both sides prepared for a \nresort to force. The "Solemn League and Covenant," denouncing \nthe innovations, and pledging all its subscribers to resist them, was \nsigned bj nearly the whole Scottish nation. A free parliament and \nchurch assembly was also demanded. The assembly met ; the king, \ndissembling, suddenly assented to all their demands ; and they pro- \nceeded to overthrow the entire fabric of Scottish Episcopacy. \n\nMeanwhile, Charles had raised supplies by every means in his \npower, and advanced into Scotland, with a force of twenty-three \nthousand men. His resisting subjects, under Lesley, lay at Dunse- \nlaw; where their camp resounded from morning to night with \nsermons, prayer, and psalmody. Finding their force superior, and \nhis own disheartened, the king again consented to negotiate ; a par- \nliament and an assembly were again summoned ; and the royal assent \nto the decision of the latter was again given. Nevertheless, by the \nadvice of Laud and of Wentworth (now earl of Strafford,) the king \nresolved to make another attempt to subdue Scotland by force. \nStrafford, the lord-deputy, returned to Ireland, where he was abso- \nlute ruler, summoned his parliament, and obtained ample supplies \nof money and arms. Large sums were also voluntarily subscribed \nby the royalists of England. \n\nAn English parliament was now finally summoned, in 1640, though \nthe liberal and Puritan party were in the majority; and the king, \ntelling them he wanted no advice or interference, demanded a sup- \nply of money. They, however, headed by Pym, immediately \ncommenced a debate upon the various grievances, and after a fruit- \nless attempt at adjustment, were dissolved by the king in three \nweeks. Hostilities with the Scotch were at once commenced ; and \nthese, receiving forged letters of invitation, entered and took pos- \nsession of the northern English counties \xe2\x80\x94 Charles being unable, \nfrom the want of funds and the disaffection of his troops, to oppose \nsufficient resistance. His power, which for twelve years had been \nexercised in such an absolute and tyrannical manner, was draw- \ning to its close ; and in the same year, he found himself under the \nnecessity of summoning another parliament. \n\nOn the 3d of November, 1640, met the celebrated "Long Parlia- \nment" \xe2\x80\x94 a body composed mostly of men of high character and \n\n\n\ng52 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ninfluence, and having a strong majority of liberal members. Their \nfirst act of importance was to impeach the powerful earl of Strafford \nof high treason. The judgment of Hampden was reversed; and \none of the judges was arrested on the bench, and taken to prison as \nan example of terror to the rest. Laud also was impeached and \ncommitted to the tower; while many of the imprisoned Puritans \nwere released and compensated. The king\'s methods of raising \nmoney were declared illegal ; and a bill, to which he was obliged to \nassent, was passed, providing for a triennial meeting of parliament. \nPetitions against Episcopacy poured in from all sides. \n\nIn hopes to save Strafford, the king admitted a number of liberal \nlords into the privy council, and even entertained a scheme for form- \ning a cabinet of the chief members of the opposition \xe2\x80\x94 which project \nfalling through, increased their bitterness. The trial of the earl \ntook place at "Westminster Hall, on the 22d of March, 1641. The \nfavourite had every thing to apprehend, both from his own arbitrary \npractices and the temper of those opposed to him. Both as Presi- \ndent of the North, and Governor of Ireland, his rule, though vigorous \nand effective, had been arbitrary and tyrannical in the extreme. All \nhis advice and all his political influence had been directed to the \npurpose of making Charles an absolute and independent monarch. \nFor thirteen days, charges were exhibited against him, from which \nhe defended himself with great manliness and eloquence. His acts \ncertainly did not legally amount to treason, and the house resorted \nto the odious measure of passing a bill of attainder \xe2\x80\x94 a proceeding \nfully as arbitrary and tyrannical as any of which their prisoner had \nbeen guilty. The popular clamour for his execution was great ; and \nafter some feeble and ineffectual attempts to save him, the king, to \nhis eternal disgrace, signed a warrant for the execution of the man \nwho had been his chief adviser, and whose crimes, if such they \nwere, had been committed with his own sanction, and for his own \nadvantage. "Put not your trust in princes," said the unfortunate \nman, on hearing of his betrayal. He died with the greatest courage \nand magnanimity, in the forty -ninth year of his age. \n\nThe king next assented to a bill providing that parliament \nshould not be dissolved or adjourned until the grievances in ques- \ntion were redressed. Feeling themselves more secure, they next \nvoted a large sum to the Scots, and suppressed the court of Star \nChamber and that of High Commission. Some supplies were \ngranted ; but the king incurred renewed distrust by an attempt to \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n653 \n\n\n\ninduce the armj to declare for him. Parliament, however, from \nvarious causes, had lost much of its popularity. Church reform was \nagain vehemently agitated without; and several measures were car- \nried, attacking the prelates and enforcing Puritanism. The armies \nwere disbanded, and Charles hastened to Scotland, where he \n-increased the popular distrust by attempting to seize the persons of \nseveral noblemen, against whom he had a charge of treason. \n\nMeanwhile, a terrible rebellion broke out in Ireland, where the \nnative Catholics had long been jealous of the English heretical \nintruders. This discontent had been aggravated by a great usurp- \ning seizure on the part of the crown, and by the severities of \nStrafford. On the 24th of October, 1641, the original inhabitants, \nby previous agreement, rose simiiltaneously in Ulster and other \nplaces, expelled the English settlers, and seized their goods. They \nsoon proceeded further, and an indiscriminate massacre commenced, \naccompanied with circumstances of atrocious cruelty. The priests \nand friars, it is said, were the principal inciters of this outrage, in \nwhich many thousands perished, and vast numbers were driven \nfrom their homes. Charles, having done much to conciliate the \nleading Scottish nobles, returned to his capital, where, by a reaction \nof popular feeling, his reception was marked with much warmth \nand loyalty. The opposition in parliament, displeased at this, \npassed a "Pemonstrance," recapitulating all the illegal acts of the \nking, and laying the blame on the "malignant" party of royalists \xe2\x80\x94 \nCromwell declaring that if it had not been carried, he and many \nothers would have left England for ever. The bills which were pro- \nposed for the suppression of the Irish revolt, failed from the dispute \nbetween the king and parliament, as to the royal right of impress- \nment ; the commons feared to intrust him with an army ; and the \nunfortunate Irish Protestants were sacrificed to the jealousy of these \nconflicting interests. \n\nA bill, depriving the bishops of their votes in the House of Lords, \nwas next proposed, and was accompanied with such popular vio- \nlence, stimulated by the opposition party, that they were unable to \nattend parliament, and sent in a protest against all acts done in \ntheir absence. For this they were impeached and committed to the \ntower. Quarrels between the citizens and the king\'s guard increased, \nand blood was shed in some of these encounters. \n\nIn January, 1642, the king committed a piece of violence and \nim.prudence that rendered the breach irreparable. Having accused \n\n\n\n654 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nfive members of the House of Commons, including Pym and Hamp- \nden, of treason, he went down to the house in person, attended by \na numerous guard, for the purpose of seizing them. It is said \nthat he was stimulated to this rash step by the haughty queen, who \ntold him to go and "pull these rogues out by the ears/\' or never to \nsee her more. Being warned beforehand, they escaped; the com- \nmons were furious at this invasion of their privileges; and the \nwhole city took up arms, under the greatest excitement. Parlia- \nment dissolved for the present, averring themselves unsafe; and a \ncommittee was appointed to inquire into all the particulars. The \nking, beset with tumultuary petitioners, retired to Hampton court, at \nsome distance from London. The house shortly met, and the five \nmembers, conducted by an immense procession, and receiving the \nhighest honours, resumed their seats. Four thousand men on horse- \nback, from Hampden\'s shire, came to complain of his accusation, and \nto proffer their services for the popular cause. The tower, garrisoned \nby the king\'s men, was blockaded by order of the parliament, and \nother hostile measures were taken \xe2\x80\x94 instigated, doubtless, by a knowl- \nedge of the king\'s designs, betrayed by a member of his household. \nParliament, which had long been anxious to get the entire control \nof the military force, now passed an act for putting all forts, castles, \nand other strong places, into the hands of such officers as they could \nconfide in. This, with other measures, was sent to the lords, backed \nby the petitions of immense numbers of poor people, porters, Avomen, \nand others, threatening, if refused, to take the law into their own \nhands. The queen was now despatched to Holland, with the crown \njewels, to provide arms and ammunition for the coming contest. \nAn irreconcilable dispute ensued, as to whether the power of com- \nmand should be first vested in the king, without which he abso- \nlutely refused to sign the bill. In the civil war which was now \napproaching, the parliament were by no means free from blame. \nThey had, in many instances, violated the constitution and the royal \nprerogative ; they had imprisoned (in one case for life) those who \nspoke violently against their proceedings ; and had intimidated the \nminority of their own body, by committing them to the tower, on \nthe least license of debate. They had, moreover, encouraged riotous \nmobs and petitions on their own side, while promptly suppressing \nthose of the royalists. Their only excuse for these acts may be \nfound in the fact, that they were dealing with a man utterly faith- \nless, and determined to crush them on the first opportunity ; that it \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n655 \n\n\n\nwas a struggle for life or death; and that, in their situation, thej \ndared not stand upon abstract justice, or even allow fair play to \ntheir opponent. The point of open rupture was their demand and \nhis refusal to surrender an undoubted legal authority over the troops. \n\nThe nobility and gentry of the north flocked around him, and he \nassumed a more elevated tone. With a few hundred attendants he \nwent to Hull, for the purpose of securing the magazine ; but Hotham, \nthe governor, by order of parliament, refused to admit him. By \nthe same authority, the stores were soon after removed to London. \nBoth sides Avere now busy in enlisting and disciplining troops. \nBefore actual hostilities, parliament sent the king an ultimatum of \nnineteen articles, putting all power into their own hands, and com- \npletely changing the constitution. He indignantly refused consent, \nand nine of the lords who had joined him Avere impeached. With \nfour thousand men he made an unsuccessful demonstration against \nHull, but was compelled to retire. Parliament voted to levy a large \narmy; and by loans and voluntary contributions, they raised abund- \nant supplies. The country was now every where divided against \nitself, parliament holding nearly all the strong places and magazines, \nand being supported by the inhabitants of most of the towns; while \nthe great body of nobility and gentry, much of the rural population, \nand all the Catholics, espoused the cause of the king. But every \ncounty, town, and village was divided; and different members of \nthe same family might often be found adhering to opposite sides. \n\nThe earl of Essex was appointed to the command of the parlia- \nmentary army \xe2\x80\x94 a large and motley array, many of them, as Crom- \nwell said, "decayed servingmen and tapsters, and such kind of fel- \nlows." His own regiment, composed of substantial countrymen, \nformed a notable exception. Goring, the governor of Portsmouth, \nhaving declared for the king, a force was sent against him by par- \nliament. Charles hereupon proclaimed Essex and his followers \ntraitors, and summoned all loyal subjects to meet him in arms at \nNottingham on the 25th of August, (1642). From this place he \nmoved on that day with a small force, which, by the time he arrived \nat Shrewsbury, amounted to eighteen thousand men. He was also \njoined by his nephews, the Princes Rupert and Maurice, who each \nreceived important commands. Goring at Portsmouth, and the \nmarquis of Hertford, in the West, had been overcome by the par- \nliamentary forces; and on the 23d of October, the two armies, \ncommanded by the king and Essex, engaged at Edgehill, a bleak \n\n\n\n656 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\neminence overlooking the Yale of ttie Red Horse. For the first \ntime since the days of Richard III., Englishmen now engaged in \nbattle among themselves. Rupert making a fiery charge, scattered \nthe force opposed to him; but pursuing them too far, was unable to \nreturn in time to render effectual assistance to the king. Night ter- \nminated the conflict, two thousand having been slain, of whom \nnearly an equal number belonged to either side. Both, claimed the \nvictory, but the real advantage lay with the king, who, after some \nnegotiation, marched to Oxford, and passed the winter there. In \nJanuary, a committee from London waited on him with fourteen \nunreasonable propositions, to which he replied by others quite as \nimpracticable. The next month the queen retvirned, having nar- \nrowly escaped the violence of the enemy with her life, and was \nimpeached of high treason by the parliament. \n\nThe advantage in various local contests had been chiefly on the \nside of the royalists ; but parliament disavowed all treaties or truces \nwhich the different factions had concluded, and Essex, with fifteen \nthousand men, sat down before Reading, which surrendered on \nhonourable conditions. Here he remained, detained by disease and \ndesertion among his troops. \n\nA plot in London for the king\'s benefit, and another in Bristol, \nwere detected by the commons, and several persons of eminence \nwere hanged\xe2\x80\x94 the poet Waller, who was engaged in the former, \nbasely betraying his associates. Stringent measures followed ; but \nthe parliamentary army, under their general. Waller, after some \nindecisive engagements, sustained a severe defeat near Devizes, \n(13 th July, 1643). The queen, with a large reinforcement of troops \nand military stores, joined her husband, and the royal cause, encour- \naged by several victories, began to flourish. Rupert, assisted by \nColonel Hurry, a deserter from the parliamentary army, sallying fi\'om \nOxford, had fallen upon the quarters of Essex, near that town, and \nhad defeated or captured several regiments. In the action which \nensued during their return, the gallant and patriotic Hampden was \nmortally wounded, and died in a few days. His death was an irrep- \narable loss to England; for he was respected by both sides, and \nmight probably by his mediation have averted the calamitous scenes \nwhich followed. On the 27th of July, Rupert took the town of \nBristol, and Prince Maurice about the same time reduced the most \nof Devonshire. Essex had retired in discomfiture to Kingston. \n\nThe affairs of parliament now began to look desperate, and they \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 657 \n\nsent a commission to Scotland, to entreat assistance. London was \nalso intrenched; but it seems probable tbat the king might have \nmarched thither, and perhaps ended the war at once. He stopped \nto lay siege to Gloucester, which soon after was relieved by Essex, \nwith a force of fifteen thousand men. The latter wished to avoid \nan engagement, but was furiously attacked by Rupert with five \nthousand horse; and the next day a general action took place near \nNewbury. The contest lasted until night, with great loss to the \nroyalists, the gallant and patriotic earl of Falkland being among the \nslain. Essex returned to London, and the king again wintered at \nOxford. During the siege, several nobles had repaired from London \nto the king; but with his usual ill-judgment, he received them \ncoldly, and they were soon again found in the ranks of the opposi- \ntion. He also did great injury to his cause by making a private \npeace with the rebellious Irish, receiving a large sum from them, \nand ordering the regiments stationed there to return to England. \n\nA solemn league and covenant had now been entered into with \nthe Scots, by which the latter were to furnish twenty-one thousand \nmen, and a committee from both nations was to sit at London, and \ncarry on the war.. A new "Great Seal" was put in commission, \nbearing the impress of the parliament in session. Soon after these \nevents, died the celebrated John Pym, chief leader and prompter \nof the opposition \xe2\x80\x94 a man of great talent and republican principles, \nbut somewhat implicated in the more questionable transactions of \nhis party. To satisfy the popular affection for parliaments, Charles \nsummoned one on his own account, which met at Oxford in January, \n1644. The rival body at Westminster, however, refused to listen to \nany terms of accommodation. Both parties raised money by every \nmeans in their power ; by forced and voluntary loans, taxes, excises, \nand the sequestration or plunder of such property of their opponents \nas could be reached. The Irish troops, which arrived and joined a \ndetachment of the king\'s forces, at first gained some advantages, \nbut were finally defeated, with great loss, by Fairfax and Brereton. \nThe royal forces, under the earl of Brentford and Hopton, were \nalso defeated by Waller. The Scots, under the earl of Leven, \nadvanced into England, and effecting a union with their allies, under \nFairfax, Lord Kimbolton, and Cromwell, laid siege to York, which \nwas defended by the earl of Newcastle. Charles, on the approach \nof Essex and Waller, quitted Oxford, but afterwards routed the \nlatter near Bunbury, and forced him to retreat. Rupert, with twenty \n42 \n\n\n\ng58 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthousand men, marched to the relief of York, which was hard \npressed; and, passing the enemy, entered the city. Having received \npositive orders from tlie king to engage the besiegers, he marched \nout the next day, (July 2cl,) and the two armies, each about twenty- \nfive thousand in number, encountered on Marston Moor. Eupert, \nwith his usual impetuous valour, charged the right wing of the \nenemy, and drove them from the field. The attack on the centre \nwas also successful, and the Scots fled in confusion; but Cromwell, \nwho commanded the other wing, defeated his opponents. Sir \nThomas Fairfax, rallying his troops, joined him; tViey took the \nroyalists in the flank; and the battle ended by a complete victory \nof the parliamentary army. Four thousand were slain, the greater \npart royalists; fifteen hundred of them were made prisoners, and \nall their artillery and baggage was taken. Rupert retired to the \nWest, and Newcastle, with other lords, betook himself to the conti- \nnent. York, surrendered, and the Scots, moving homewards, took \nNewcastle by storm. In the west of England, however, the royal \ncause was more fortunate; and Essex, surrounded in Cornwall by \nthe forces of Prince Maurice, left his army, which soon was obliged \nto surrender. An indecisive action with the parliamentary forces, \nunder Waller and the earl of Manchester, during which Charles \nfled from the field, terminated the campaign. \n\nThe revolutionary party was now much divided, especially by \nreligious schisms. Cromwell, an independent in religion and a \nrepublican in politics, was embroiled with some of the leaders of \nrank on the parliamentary side. An ordinance was passed, requir- \ning members of either house to lay down their commands and \noffices. The army was at the same time remodelled; Sir Thomas \nFairfax being made commander-in-chief (1645). \n\nThe trial of Archbishop Laud, accused of attempting to intro- \nduce popery and arbitrary power, had been for a long time on hand ; \nPrynne, whose ears had twice been cut off" during the late tyranny, \nbeing one of the principal conductors of the proceedings against \nhim. The accused primate made an excellent defence, and a con- \nviction of treason being found impossible, an attainder was passed. \nHe was beheaded on Tower Hill, in the seventy-second year of his \nage, dying with all that constancy and courage which has usually \ndistinguished the execution of religious or political martyrs. \n\nThrough the Scottish influence, a form of worship similar to the \nPresbyterian was introduced, with penalties provided for those who \n\n\n\n\nOLIVER CROMWELL,, \n\n\n\nLORD PROTECTOR OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF EM \n\n\n\nThis singular man, perhaps the most original character in British history, wns \nhorn in moderate circumstances, at Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599 \nBoth in parliament and at the head of the revolutionary forces, he played a \nmost conspicuous part against Charles I. and the loyalist party. Afber the exe- \ncution of the king, he attained, under the title of "Protector," the actiia] \nsovereignty of the three kingdoms, and, during the remainder of his life, held \nthe government -with a firm and prudent hand. His character appears to have \nheen composed of an extraordinary mix ture of piety, courage, amhition, hypo- \ncrisy, remorselessness, and love of country. He expired Septemher 3d, 1658, \nworn out -with the cares of war and of empire. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n659 \n\n\n\nadhered to tlie Episcopal rites. Nearly two thousand clergymen \nand collegiate officers were, at the same time, ejected from their liv- \nings. On the 20th of January, by mutual agreement, commissioners \non both sides of the civil contest met at Uxbridge, for the purpose \nof discussing the subjects in dispute; but after more than a month\'s \ndebate, were unable to agree upon terms. The king, always san- \nguine, was rendered more confident of the final restoration of his \nfull power by the late successes of the earl of Montrose. That \ndevoted partisan, with a force of Irish and Highlanders, had gained \na brilliant series of victories in Scotland, but finally, overpowered \nby numbers, was compelled to retreat into the mountains. On the \n9th of May, Charles, with ten thousand men, took the field, the \nenemy retiring before him. He stormed and plundered Leicester ; \nbut on the 13th, Fairfax, with the parliamentary army, engaged \nhim near the village of Naseby. Rupert, as usual, charged success- \nfully, but, through mismanagement, threw away the advantage; \nwhereas Cromwell, who commanded the right wing, having broken \nthe opposing ranks, fell upon the rear of the king\'s centre, and decided \nthe day. After an obstinate and bravely-contested action, during \nwhich the leaders on both sides distinguished themselves, Charles \nwas compelled to withdraw from the field. \n\nThe parliament gained an important prize in his private letters, \nwhich they shortly afterwards published. These fully showed his \ninsincerity in the late negotiations, and his application for assistance \nto foreign powers and to Ireland. \n\nHe now began to expect nothing but final ruin; and every day \nbrought tidings of the surrender of some royal stronghold; yet he \nwould not consent to any other terms than those which he had \noffered at Uxbridge. After ravaging the eastern counties, he again \ntook refuge in Oxford, where he was greatly encouraged by news \nof the fresh and brilliant successes of Montrose. The earl, breaking \nfrom the mountains with a force of six thousand men, had defeated \nthe Scottish army with terrible slaughter ; great part of the country \nsubmitted to him ; and Lesley, with his forces in England, was com- \npelled to return in haste to his own country. With five thousand \nmen, the king again sallied forth from Oxford, but after some suc- \ncesses, was defeated with loss by General Poynts, and finally \nreturned with only five hundred of his followers. Montrose, too, \nafter a gallant defence, had been also overcome by numbers, and \nwas again forced to retire into the Highlands. The king, meanwhile, \n\n\n\nQQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nhad been in treaty witli the Irish Catholics, who, in consideration \nof religious toleration, engaged to supply him liberally with men \nand money ; but the misfortunes of the royal cause in England pre- \nvented any effectual aid. The whole south and west of England \nhad been reduced to submission ; and many strongholds, some of \nwhich had held out for years, were reduced, one after the other. \nThe parliamentary army, new-modelled by Cromwell and other \nable commanders, had become, for its numbers, the most irresistible \nwhich the world has ever seen. The remarkable men who com- \nposed it, were mostly zealous Puritans, men of sober life, but filled \nwith political and religious enthusiasm, fighting alike with the \nzeal of patriots and fanatics. Nevertheless, Charles kept up separate \nnegotiations with the Scots, the Independents, and the Presbyte- \nrians \xe2\x80\x94 thinking, and justly, that his name and party, joined to either \nof these, would secure it a preponderance. As the parliamentary \nforces closed around Oxford, he left that city in disguise, and trav- \nelled into Norfolk, sending an emissary to negotiate terms with the \nScots. They agreed to receive the king, and, it would appear, held \nout hopes of assistance never intended to be realized. He repaired \nto their camp at Newcastle, on the 5th of May, 1646, and soon \nfound himself held in a kind of honourable imprisonment. He \nthere rejected further propositions from his revolted subjects, the \nsame in effect which had been debated before. On the 1st of Feb- \nruary, 1647, the Scots surrendered him to the parliamentary com- \nmissioners, four hundred thousand pounds having been voted them \nfor their services. This has given rise to the accusation, which seems \nnot entirely unfounded, that they delivered him up to secure the \npayment of their arrears. The civil war, which had endured nearly \nfour years, was now at an end. The king was in the hands of his \nenemies, and the last strongholds of his party soon surrendered. \nMontrose, by the command of his master, laid down his arms, and \nretired to the Continent. Dublin, and other Irish towns, with their \ngarrisons, were surrendered by Ormond, the lord lieutenant. The \ncontest, carried on so long, and with such bravery on both sides, \nwas disgraced by few of those excesses (either during its continu- \nance or after the final triumph) which commonly distinguish a \nsocial war. \n\nThe Presbyterian influence was predominant in parliament, but \nthe Independents controlled the army; and, moved by Cromwell, \nnow their leading adviser, they stubbornly refiised agreement to the \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n661 \n\n\n\nschemes in agitation for their disbandment, or employment in Ire- \nland, Their arrearages of pay, and certain other satisfactions, were \nperemptoril}\'- demanded. At length, parliament, alarmed at the atti- \ntude of their powerful and dangerous servants, issued positive \norders to disband them.. To this they replied by seizing the king\'s \nperson, and conducting him to Newmarket \xe2\x80\x94 a step not disagreeable \nto Charles, who was encouraged (perhaps by Cromwell, who had \nsecretly planned this movement) with the hope of receiving the sup- \nport of the soldiers. Parliament recalled their order, but in vain. \nThe army marched near London, and the legislative body, overawed, \nsought to appease it; eleven of the most obnoxious members being \ncompelled to seek a sort of voluntary exile. Their prisoner was \ntreated with great respect and indulgence. \n\nFairfax, the parliamentary general, was entirely under the control \nof Cromwell and his son-in-law, Ireton, who both really entertained \ndesigns of restoring the royal authority ; but Charles, elated by a \nbelief that the people were moving in his favour, refused "Pro- \nposals" from the army, far more reasonable than any which had yet \nbeen offered him. Parliament, urged by the citizens, at last pre- \npared for resistance, and endeavoured to levy a force more devoted \nto their interests. They were, nevertheless, compelled, in effect, to \nput the city into the hands of the discontented troops. \n\nMeanwhile, the king enjoyed great liberty, on his parole, and had \nfrequent interviews with Cromwell. The latter, with Ireton, earn- \nestly sought to effect an accommodation, on the basis of the late \n"Proposals" of the army, but met with such opposition, both in \nthe house and army, especially from the "levellers," that they could \nnot carry out their views. It is said that, in event of success, \nCromwell was to have been made an earl, and, with Ireton, held \ncertain important oflEices. Charles, however, meanwhile, was in \nsecret treaty with the Scots, and it is said that Cromwell intercepted \na letter to the queen, declaring his intention of hanging his present \nallies, whenever he should recover his power. The anti-royal party, \nmoreover, was too strong, and a plot was formed, it is said, by the \nlevellers, to get possession of the king\'s person. Charles, on learn- \ning this, (probably from Cromwell, who desired to save him,) pri- \nvately escaped, and repaired to Sussex. Thence, intending to escape \nto the Continent, he betook himself to the Isle of Wight, where \nHammond, the parliamentary governor, received him honourably, \nand permitted him to go at large. \n\n\n\n652 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. \n\nCromwell, meanwhile, had suppressed a dangerous mutiny \namong the troops, and had executed one of the ringleaders. Per- \nceiving, however, the fixed determination of the army to destroy \nthe king, he determined to preserve his popularity by joining their \nparty ; at the same time, warning Charles to escape as soon as pos- \nsible. The latter, however, was in treaty with the Scots; and, \nrejecting terms again offered by the parliament, entered into a pri- \nvate agreement with the Scottish commissioners. On learning this, \nHammond immediately put him in greater security, and thus frus- \ntrated all the measures which were attempted for his escape. Par- \nliament immediately (January, 1648.) passed resolutions to use no \nfurther negotiation with him ; and made it high treason for any one \nto communicate with him without their permission. The great \nbody of the people, though in favour of royalty and the existing \nconstitution, were held in check by the army, which was mostly \nopposed to monarchy as a matter of religion. \n\nThe Scottish royalists, in pursuance of their agreement, attempted \nto raise forces, but found much difficulty, from the opposition of the \nclergy, who were dissatisfied that the Presbytery was not made \nabsolutely compulsive on the English. The English partisans of \nthe royal cause, tired of waiting, took up arms prematurely, and \nafter a few successes, were defeated by Fairfax and Cromwell. The \nScots, with fourteen thousand men, finally entered the kingdom. \nSir Marmaduke Langdale, with four thousand men, engaged the \nparliamentary army at Preston, and fought with such intrepidity, \nthat had he been supported by his Scottish allies, he would vindoubt- \nedly have defeated them. But the latter concluded a series of \nfeeble movements by a retreat on this occasion ; their infantry was \nforced to surrender ; and the English royalists dispersed. Colches- \nter, after a gallant defence of three months, was taken by Fairfax, \nand several eminent royalists were executed by sentence of a court \nmartial. The prince of Wales, with nineteen ships, sailed from \nHolland to the Downs, and for some time negotiated with parlia- \nment ; but was unable to bring the enemy \'s fleet to an engagement, \nand was finally compelled to return by the want of provisions. \nParliament, alarmed at the feeling in the army, opened fresh com- \nmunication with the king; but nothing was agreed on \xe2\x80\x94 Charles \nfirmly refusing to abolish the Episcopal church, or to surrender his \nfriends to their vengeance. Petitions for a republic in its fullest \nforms were presented to parliament; and in some, especially from \n\n\n\nENGLAND 663 \n\nthe Independents, tlie king\'s punishment was strongly suggested. \nFinally, a large "Remonstrance" came from the army, demanding \nthe same things in explicit terms. It was rejected, but the king, in \nsome alarm, yielded to the demands of parliament, though only \nostensibly. He was then again conveyed to Carisbrooke castle, in \nthe Isle of Wight. Here he might have escaped, but refused to \nbreak his parole. He was soon after seized by a detachment of the \nsoldiers, and confined in Hurst castle, on a rock in the sea. The \narmy immediately marched to London, and there took up their \nquarters. Parliament assumed a firm position, and voted, by a large \nmajority, that the king\'s concessions were sufficient. But on the \nfollowing day, December 6th, 1648, two regiments came to the \nhouse, and Colonel Pride, the commander of them, forcibly detained \nall members opposed to the will of the army. Some were imprisoned, \nand others excluded from the house, which was thus reduced to \nabout fifty members, and was afterwards commonly styled the Rump \nParliament. Cromwell had been absent, but on his return approved \nof the proceeding. \n\nEvery thing was now done according to the will of the soldiery, \nthe real arbiters of the fate of the kingdom. The miserable rem- \nnant of a parliament tried in vain to throw the responsibility of the \nking\'s arraignment upon their masters, the army ; but were com- \npelled to continue their work. On the 1st of January, 1649, they \nvoted it treason in a king of England to levy war against "the par- \nliament and people; and sent an ordinance for the king\'s trial to the \nlords. The latter, only sixteen in number, unanimously rejected \nit, and the commons, voting their own house the supreme authority \nof the nation, passed the ordinance themselves. An hundred and \nthirty-five persons, members, lawyers, oflicers of the army, and citi- \nzens, were appointed as a court; and on the 20th, about seventy of \nthem attended at Westminster Hall, where the proceedings were \nopened with considerable state and formality. An accusation was \npublicly read, charging the king with attempting to "rule according \nto his will," with traitorously levying war against the people and \nparliament, enumerating the various battles in which he had been \npresent, and finally impeaching him as "a tyrant, traitor, murderer, \nand a public and implacable enemy to the Commonwealth of Eng- \nland." He smiled on hearing these abusive epithets, and answered \nby demanding their authority for these proceedings, and refusing to \nacknowledge the legality of his arraignment. The trial lasted several \n\n\n\n654 THE TEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\ndays, Charles still denying botli tlie authority of the court and the \ncrimes alleged against him ; and reasonably asserting that their pro- \nceeding was a tyrannical exertion of "power without law," On the \n27th, the king waived all further defence, seeing that it was useless. \nHe was found guilty, and sentence of death was passed against him by \na unanimous vote of all present, sixty-seven in number. He \nwas refused liberty of speech, and various insults were offered \nhim on his way back, which he bore with much patience and kingly \nmagnanimity. \n\nOn the next day, a proposal was made to him by some of the \nprincipal persons in the army and parliament, that his life and crown \nshould be secured to him on certain conditions, which would place \nalmost entire power in their hands and those of the army. This, \nto his honour, he indignantly rejected. Ambassadors sent from \nHolland interceded for him to no effect, and a warrant for his execu- \ntion was signed by fifty -nine of the commissioners. It is said that \nCromwell, with that strange buffoonery which he would sometimes \nmix with the most serious business, marked one of his fellow-judges \nin the face with the pen which signed his name, and received the \nsame compliment in return. \n\nOn the 30th of January, the king, who had throughout evinced \nthe highest calmness and self-possession, was conducted through a \nwindow of the palace at Whitehall, upon a scaffold built in front of \nit. He made an address, in vindication of his career, but admitted \nthat he suffered justly for having consented to the execution of \nStrafford. He also declared that he died a martyr to the rights of \nthe people. Having performed his devotions, he said to the attend- \ning clergyman, "Remember," knelt down, and was beheaded at one \nblow by a masked executioner. A dismal groan broke forth from \nthe multitude assembled before the scaffold, and many pressed for- \nward to dip their handkerchiefs in his blood. Charles Stuart died \nin the forty-ninth 3\'ear of his age, and in the twenty-fourth of a \nreign which, for several years, had been merely nominal. His pri- \nvate morality and domestic virtues have, in the eyes of many, \nthrown a mantle over the crimes and errors of his political career. \nHe was bigoted, despotic, and insincere; and had doubtless forfeited \nhis throne by many acts of injustice and oppression. Still, his exe- \ncution was a violent and unlawful procedure, wholly discountenanced \nby most of the English people. It was the work of men equally \nunprincipled with himself, and especially of a body of military \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g(55 \n\nofficers, who felt insecure so long as any one was alive who could \ncall them to account for their share in the revolution. Its value, \nhowever, as an example to arbitrary rulers, has been great; being \nthe first instance in which a king had been tried and executed by \nhis own subjects for offences against them. The Lords Hamilton, \nHolland, and Capel were beheaded a few days afterwards. \n\n\n\nTHE COMMONWEALTH. \n\nImmediately after the execution of Charles, the office of king \nand the House of Peers were abolished by the commons, and a new \nCouncil of State, consisting of forty-five members, was chosen for \nthe executive. Bradshaw, who had presided at the trial, was made \npresident of it, and the illustrious Milton was Latin secretary. By \nnew elections, and the readmission of certain members, parliament \nwas increased to about an hundred and fifty in number. The great \nmajority of the people, especially the Royalists and Presbyterians, \nwere opposed to the new government; but it was supported by the \nzealous Independents, and especially by an army ably officered, and \nforty thousand strong. The levellers, however, both in the army \nand elsewhere, poured in petitions for yet further changes; formi- \ndable mutinies broke out, but were suppressed by the energy of \nCromwell, who defeated the malcontents, and exec^ited a number \nof them. \n\nWhen the news of the king\'s execution reached Scotland, the \nparliament of that nation forthwith proclaimed the prince of Wales, \nunder the title of Charles II., on condition of his adhering to the \ncovenant. The prince, who was at the Hague, gave unsatisfactory \nansAvers, hoping much from Montrose, who, with a few hundred \nadventurers, had landed in the North. He was, however, defeated, \nand captured by his enemies, the Presbyterian party, and was hanged \nwith much ignominy at Edinburgh. He perished in the thirty-ninth \nyear of his age, having won a wide renown for valour and loyalty, \n\n\n\nQQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nthougli occasionally stained witli cruelty. Other royalists of distinc- \ntion shared a similar fate. Charles, on learning the event, publicly \ndeclared his approval of the fate of his devoted follower, and at \nonce closed with the conditions of the Scots. He landed in their \ncountry, where his insincerity was sufficiently punished in the miser- \nable treatment he received. Though allowed the title and forms of \nroj^alty, he was constantly watched; and was harassed almost to \ndeath by the interminable prayers and sermons of the clergy, \nreflecting on the guilt of his father, the idolatry of his mother, (a \nCatholic,) and especially on any levity of his own. \n\nIn Ireland, the royalists, assisted by the Scottish army, had gained \nconsiderable successes; and Cromwell and Ireton, with other able \nofficers, were sent over. Their enemies had sustained a severe \nreverse already; and, two weeks after his arrival, Cromwell stormed \nthe town of Drogheda, put the garrison, upwards of two thousand, \nto the sword, and massacred a great number of the defenceless \ninhabitants. "Their friars and priests," he remarks in his despatch, \n" were knocked on the head promiscuously with the others." In \nthe church alone, one thousand of the unfortunate people were \nmassacred. At Wexford, which he took shortly afterwards, similar \natrocities were perpetrated; three hundred women, who had gath- \nered around the great cross, as some protection, being all murdered \ntogether. The unhappy prisoners were shipped as slaves to the \ncolonies. By these and similar exhibitions of courage and ferocity, \nhe took many strongholds, and departed in May, 1650, leaving the \ncommand to Ireton. \n\nFairfax resigned his command, and Cromwell was appointed by \nparliament captain-general of all forces in the commonwealth. On \nthe 22d of July, he marched into Scotland with sixteen thousand \nveteran soldiers. His opponents, occupying favourable positions, \nmight have repulsed him; but were embarrassed by the fanatical \nzeal of the clergy, who insisted that all " malignants " should be \ndismissed from the army, that it might be composed entirely of \n" saints." The army, thus purified, under Lesley, engaged the invader \nat Dunbar, and was entirely defeated, with a loss of three thousand \nslain, ten thousand prisoners, and all their artillery and baggage. \nThe whole country south of the Forth submitted to the conqueror. \nThe defeated nation now gladly allowed the proscribed malignants \nto enlist in their behalf; Charles was crowned at Scone on the 1st of \nJanuary, 1651, and by great exertions an army of twenty thousand \n\n\n\nENGLAND. QQ\'J \n\nmen was got together under arms at Stirling. Cromwell, however, \nhad pushed his conquests so rapidly, that their communication with \nthe North was entirely cut off, and Charles determined on the des- \nperate step of a march into England. With fourteen thousand men, \nhe entered Carlisle; and marching rapidly to Worcester, was there \nsolemnly proclaimed. Few, however, joined his standard; and the \nparliament, recovering from the alarm into which they had been \nthrown, proclaimed all his abettors guilty of high treason, and \nordered the militia to Worcester. Cromwell himself arriving, found \nhimself at the head of thirty thousand men, and speedily engaged \nthe Scottish army, consisting of less than half that number. They \nfought for five hours with great gallantry, but were overpowered by \nnumbers, and driven into the city. Cromwell stormed the fort, put \nits garrison of fifteen hundred to the sword, and turned its guns upon \nthe city. This victory (which Cromwell called his "crowning mercy") \nwas overwhelming\' \xe2\x80\x94 three thousand of the Scots being slain, and \nnearly all the others made prisoners. Several distinguished leaders \nwere executed, and the prisoners were barbarously sent to the plant- \nations as slaves \xe2\x80\x94 a piece of cruelty first commenced by the parlia- \nment, and afterwards continued by the kings. Large estates and \nhonours were bestowed on the victorious general and his officers. \n\nThe defeated prince, flying in disguise, met with many narrow \nescapes and strange adventures. At one time, surrounded by ene- \nmies, he was compelled to secrete himself among the boughs of a \ntree, afterwards called, from this circumstance, the "Royal Oak," and \ngreatly venerated by all loyal subjects. He finally escaped to Nor- \nmandy, after having been assisted or recognised by more than forty \npersons, not one of whom betrayed him. \n\nScotland now entirely submitted, and a commission was appointed \nby the English parliament to regulate its affairs. A union was pro- \njected; but before the terms were settled, parliament itself had fallen, \nand Scotland remained a conquered country, secured by a chain of \nnew fortresses. Ireton, after subduing nearly all Ireland, died of \nthe plague, and Ludlow completed its subjugation. A commission \nwas appointed to settle its affairs, and all who had been opposed to \nparliament were punished in the severest manner. Two hundred, \nmany of them people of rank, were executed, and ruinous forfeit- \nures transferred a great part of the landed property to the soldiers \nof Cromwell, and to other adventurers. The natives, driven from \ntheir possessions, became formidable by private robbery and violence. \n\n\n\n668 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nThe Dutch, aggrieved by several acts of hostility, had fitted out \na large fleet, and their admiral, Van Tromp, had fought an indeci- \nsive action with the English commander, Blake. War was soon \nafter declared by the parliament, and the Dutch commander\'s fleet, \nbeing dispersed by a storm, lost five of its ships to the English. \nDe Witt and De Euyter, who succeeded him, fought other naval \nbattles without any decisive result. Van Tromp, being restored to \nhis command, sailed with seventy ships to the Downs, and engaged \nAdmiral Blake, who had only half that number. They fought an \nentire day, when the English admiral, who had lost five ships, ran \nnp the river, and Van Tromp, with a broom at his mast-head, for \nsome time insultingly swept the English channel. This disgrace \nwas, however, speedily avenged. With seventy sail, and large \nreinforcements of marines, Blake again encountered him on the \n18th of Februar}?-, 1653, while convoying a fleet of merchantmen; \nand, in an action of three days, the Dutch lost thirty-five vessels, \nnine of them ships of war. \n\nThe Long Parliament, which had sat for twelve years, and which \nhad degenerated into a mere faction of selfish men, seeking their \nown interests, was near its end. Aware of the ambition of Crom- \nwell, they commenced disbanding the army, but were checked by a \nforcible petition, aiming at their own authority. During the win- \nter of 1652-3, the general had carefully fomented the discontent \namong his ofiicers, representing the greediness of the parliament, \nand its neglect of their interests. Finally, on the 20th of October, \nas the house was about to pass a bill thwarting his wishes, he went \ndown to them with a party of soldiers, whom he left in the lobby. \nAs the speaker was putting the question, he arose and commenced \na speech, warming as he proceeded. Accusing them of injustice, \nself-interest, and other faults, he cried, "The Lord has done with you, \nand chosen other instruments for carrying on his work that are \nmore worthy." A short altercation ensued; he stamped his foot, \nand the soldiers entered. After abusing several of the members \npersonally, and accusing them of drunkenness, debauchery, &c., he \ncleared the house of them, ordering "that fool\'s bawble," the mace, \nto be carried ofP. No effective resistance was made by any one, \nand this celebrated body was dispersed without the least sympathy \nfrom the nation which it had latterly tyrannized over and plundered. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. QQQ \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0U Jb (JU bu uj iL Lu iXJ uu 6 t6u> Of l6w \n\n\n\nTHE PROTECTORATE, ETC. \n\nBy agreement of Cromwell and the leading officers, a new council \nof state was appointed, consisting of thirteen members, in imitation \nof Christ and tlie apostles \xe2\x80\x94 nine of them, Cromwell included, being \nofficers. He perceived, however, that something in the form of a \nparliament must be convoked to satisfy the people, and accordingly \nthere met at Whitehall an hundred and twenty persons, selected by \nthe council from a number chosen by the congregational churches. \nIn a "grave, seasonable, and Christian speech," he informed them \nthat the reign of Christ would, he supposed, commence from that \ndate, and gave them a written authority to act for fifteen months. \nThis assembly, called Barebone\'s Parliament, (from Praise God \nBarebone, a member,) was an honest but wrong-headed set of men, \nwho commenced the necessary work of reform with injudicious \nalacrity. Besides useful enactments for the abolishment of sinecures, \nfor economy, for education, &c., they at once fell upon the system \nof law, which they proposed to abolish entirely, and to substitute a \nkind of pocket code, accessible to all \xe2\x80\x94 a scheme, from the diversity \nand magnitude of the subject, utterly impracticable. They also \nattacked the right of presentation to livings, and thus brought the \nwhole bar, the clergy, and the aristocracy in opposition to them. \nCromwell, seeing their want of judgment, and their feeble position, \ninduced a considerable portion to retire ; and the remainder were \nunceremoniously turned out, like the Long Parliament, by a file of \nsoldiers. Nearly all gave in their resignations, and the council \nforthwith adopted a new constitution, conferring upon Cromwell an \nauthority altogether regal. \n\nOn the 16th of December, 1653, he was installed with great state \nat Westminster in the office of "Protector of the Commonwealth," \nwhich he accepted with feigned reluctance. By the new instrument \nhe Avas to hold the supreme authority, assisted by a council, and to \nexercise all the functions of royalty. A parliament was to be sum- \nmoned once in three years, and, for five months, was not to be dis- \nsolved, except by its own consent. Provision was made against \n\n\n\n670 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nroyalists, Catholics, and other enemies of the commonwealth. This \npiece of usurpation was probably a fortunate thing for the nation, \nwhich might otherwise have fallen from one state of anarchy into \nanother. The protector took advantage of the authority placed in \nhis hands until the meeting of parliament, to decree an ordinance \nof union with Scotland, and other important matters. A conspiracy \nof the royalists for his assassination was detected, and several of the \ncontrivers were executed. \n\nSuccess had meanwhile attended the British arms. On the 2d of \nJune, the Dutch fleet of an hundred sail, commanded by Tromp, \nDe Ruyter, and others, fell in with that of the English, of equal \nforce, under Greneral Monk, Dean, Penn, and Lawson. After an \naction of an entire day, the English fleet, reinforced by Blake, \ngained the victory with the loss of a single ship, while their oppo- \nnents, whose vessels were mostly smaller, lost twenty-one. In an \nanother action, with the same force, under Monk and Tromp, the \nlatter, after a long and doubtful contest, was again defeated, and fell \nin the fight. Peace was declared in 1654; and commercial treaties \nwere also made with other powers. \n\nThe elections for parliament had been perfectly free ; and it was \nsoon evident that the party of the protector was in a minority. \nThe members immediately commenced a vigorous debate upon his \nauthority and their own ; and for the third time he employed mili- \ntary force, and excluded all who would not sign a " Eecognition " \nof four points. These were : Supreme power in one man \xe2\x80\x94 successive \nparliaments \xe2\x80\x94 liberty of conscience \xe2\x80\x94 and a united command over \nthe army by both parliament and protector. About this time, \nCromwell, in one of his usual frolics, attempting to drive six fiery \nhorses, presented to him by a German prince, was upset, and nearly \nlost his life, much to the delight of the Cavaliers. As soon as the \nfive months were at an end, he dissolved the parliament in the \nmidst of their business \xe2\x80\x94 reproaching them with their inertness and \nencouragement to the enemy. \n\nA singular coalition between the royalists and idtra-republicans \nwas now planned, and an ineffectual rising was made. A number \nof the leaders being apprehended, were executed, and the other pris- \noners were shipped for slaves to Barbadoes. Severe measures were \nnow taken against the royalists, especially noblemen, cavaliers, and \nclergy, and excessive taxes were imposed on the disaffected party. \nTo levy these, and to carry out his other arbitrary measures, he \n\n\n\nENGLAND. g7J_ \n\ndivided England into eleven districts, eacli under a major-general. \nThese officers had almost unlimited power, and the nation soon \nfound that the despotism of the Stuarts had been feeble, compared \nwith the iron rule of its new master. \n\nForeign affairs were conducted with vigour and manly spirit. The \nprotector demanded of Spain free trade in the Atlantic, and non- \nmolestation of English subjects by the Inquisition, The Spanish \nminister answered that the two points in question were the two ejes \nof his master, neither of which he would allow to be put out. Crom- \nwell had, meanwhile, prepared two fleets, one of which; of thirty \nsail, under Blake, had gone to the Mediterranean, enforcing satisfac- \ntion for English losses, and chastising the piratical states of Africa. \nThe other, of the same force, had sailed to the AVest Indies, and, \nafter an attempt on Hispaniola, rendered fruitless by mutiny and \ndisease, made a descent on Jamaica. A terrible persecution of the \nProtestants in Piedmont called forth his interference, and the duke \nof Savoy was compelled to allow them the free exercise of their \nreligion. This occasion also formed the subject of those sublime \nverses of Milton, commencing, \n\n"Avenge, Oh Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose bones \nLie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold." \n\nA treaty of alliance Mdth France was concluded, and the Jews, \nthrough, the protector\'s liberality, were permitted to reside in Eng- \nland, whence they had been banished since the reign of Edward I. \nAn extraordinary and somewhat formidable alliance was secretly \nmade between Charles, the levellers, and the court of Spain. Mean- \nwhile, Cromwell summoned a parliament for September, 1656. In \nspite of the exertions of government, many bostile members were \nreturned; but, as the council was empowered to examine their \ncjualifications, about one hundred were excluded, under various pre- \ntexts, such as immorality, &c. Large supplies were voted for the \nwar with Spain; and Cromwell entertained strong hopes of receiv- \ning the title of king, to which he had for some time aspired. To \nconciliate the popular favour, he refused to protect the major-generals \nfrom suits for their previous oppressions. Another scheme for his \nassassination was disconcerted, but the chief conspirator died mys- \nteriously before execution. \n\nWhen the first movement in favour of his elevation was made in \nthe house, great excitement and disorder ensued; but after long \n\n\n\n672 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ndebate, and strong opposition from tlie army, it was voted, in a \n"Humble Petition and Advice," that tie should be requested to \naccept the title of king. He affected great surprise and consterna- \ntion, deferring his answer. The opposition of the army, his main \ndependance, was, however, so implacable, that he perceived the \ndanger of assenting; and in a long, embarrassed speech before par- \nliament, to the surprise of almost every one, declined accepting the \nnew honour. The word "protector," was substituted in the "Peti- \ntion," which empowered him to appoint his successor, and to \nnominate members for the "Other House," as it was phrased. He \nwas inaugurated with great solemnity, and with somewhat of regal \nceremony, at Westminster, on the 12th of May, 1657. The house \nthen adjourned for six months. At this time appeared the cele- \nbrated pamphlet of Colonel Titus, entitled "Killing no Murder," and \nstrongly advocating his assassination. \n\nAdmiral Blake, after several brilliant exploits against the Spanish \nfleets, and the capture of much treasure, died while reentering the \nharbour of Portsmouth, He was interred, with a magnificent funeral, \nin Westminster Abbey, \n\nParliament again met in January, 1658, the protector having \nsummoned sixty persons, mostly nobles and gentlemen, to form the \n"Other House." But the excluded members of the commons had \nbeen allowed to resume their seats; the rights and title of the other \nbody were immediately discussed; and Cromwell, perceiving that \nhis authority was not preponderant, went down to them, and, after \nvarious reproaches, dissolved them \xe2\x80\x94 thus for the fourth time taking \nthe entire government forcibly into his own hands. \n\nHe now seemed at the height of his j)ower. Conspiracies and \npreparations for invasion were disconcerted by his address ; his arms \nand policy prospered abroad; but he was oppressed with deep mel- \nancholy, and constantly dreaded assassination. The death of his \nfavourite daughter Elizabeth, added to his grief; and it is said that, \nin her last moments, she remonstrated with him on his course of \nviolence and usurpation. His own illness soon followed, and he \nseems to have manifested some anxiety concerning an hereafter, \nthough comforting himself with the reflection that he had once been \nin a state of grace, from which, his chaplain assured him, it was \nimpossible to fall. On the 3d of September, the anniversary of the \nvictories of Dunbar and Worcester, and which he had ever regarded \nas his fortunate day, death \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n673 \n\n\n\n"Deposed him gently from his throne of force, \nAnd laid him with the earth\'s preceding clay." \n\n\n\nA terrible storm, wliicli accompanied this event, was variously \ninterpreted by his adherents and the royalists, according their own \nsentiments. The career of this remarkable man, originally an \nobscure country gentleman, forms the best comment upon his char- \nacter and principles. Commencing with patriotism and religious \nenthusiasm, (which never quite forsook him,) he ended with engross- \ning ambition. \n\nThe funeral of the late protector was conducted in a stjde of \nmagnificence which England had never before witnessed ; and his son \nRichard was proclaimed in his stead, without any opposition. He \nwas a man of amiable temper, but unfit for the stormy and perilous \ntimes in which he assumed this weighty office. He was speedily \nobliged to make concessions to the army, and in January, 1659, \nsummoned a parliament. The Protectorists constituted about one- \nhalf of the house ; Republicans and Moderates, among whom were \nsome royalists, the remainder. His recognition was carried with \ngreat difficulty, after a fierce debate. The Republicans united with \nthe army; and the majority, in alarm, voted that the officers should \nno longer meet in council. The troops, however, disobeyed the \nprotector, and adhered to their own commanders. He was conse- \nquently obliged to dissolve parliament, and put himself into their \nhands. By a general council of the officers, the remains of the \n"Long Parliament" (dissolved by Oliver in, 1653) were again \nsummoned, and sat in their house, to the number of forty-two. \nWhile the various factions in the house and army were debating \nover their respective plans, the royalists were secretly active. The \nleading Presbyterians were all won over to the cause of Charles, \nand it is even said that Richard, now the mere shadow of a ruler, \ntempted by the offer of a title and a large pension, entertained the \nsame views. A premature rising, however, in Cheshire, was easily \nsuppressed by Lambert, who then hastened to London, where he \nwas in hopes to gain the supreme power. After much altercation \namong the ambitious officers, and some show of military force, par- \nliament was again dissolved, and the power left with the council of \nthe army until another could be summoned. \n\nGeneral Monk, who commanded in Scotland, was a man of mod- \nerate views and supposed to be a supporter of the present form of \n43 \n\n\n\n674 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ngovernment, Lambert was sent against him by the army; but he \namused him with negotiation, meanwhile strengthening his own \nauthority in every possible way. In England, the officers continu- \nally lost ground ; the fleet and various strongholds declared against \nthem; and finally, in November, 1659 the soldiers in London, desert- \ning their officers, declared for parliament, and reinstated the remains \nof the Rump. These immediately remodelled the army, dismissed \nfifteen hundred officers, and proceeded to punish their late dis- \nturbers. Fairfax and Monk had seized upon York, but the latter, \nprofoundly dissembling his real sentiments, refused to proclaim the \nking, and even caned an officer who charged him with the design. \nBeing invited to London, he marched thither with five thousand \nmen, still keeping his intentions wrapt in impenetrable secresy. \nMeanwhile, the royalists were every where busy, and the loj^alty of \nthe city daily increased.\' Tlie common council was at open variance \nwith the parliament; and Monk, seeing that he could act with safety, \ninsisted upon a dissolution, that a free parliament might at once be \nsummoned. This resolution caused great joy and excitement among \nthe citizens \xe2\x80\x94 the excluded members, some of whom had been \nexpelled for more than eleven years, resumed their seats ; and all \nacts against the king and royalists were annulled. Monk was made \ncommander-in-chief, and this memorable body adjourned, for the \nlast time, on the 16th of March, 1660. \n\nMonk, though still pretending to support the new commonwealth, \nentered into communication with Charles, advising him what meas- \nures to pursue. Partially following his suggestions, the prince \nforwarded a declaration, with letters to the two houses, the city, the \narmy, and the navy. The parliament, which met on the 25th of \nApril, had been elected in the freest manner, there being no inter- \nference on the part of the government. The royalists were in a \ndecided majority. The Republicans, with Lambert at their head, \nhad attempted to get control over the army, but he and his coad- \njutors were taken, and committed to the tower on the 24th. The \nHouse of Peers also gradually reassembled, no one opposing them. \nOn the 1st of May, the letter to the House of Commons was \ndelivered, and the bearer received the thanks of parliament, with a \nhandsome reward. Those to the city, army, and navy, were also read \nto them, and addresses to the king were unanimously voted. The \ndeclaration contained promises of amnesty, liberty of conscience, \nand the settlement of titles and military arrears \xe2\x80\x94 all, however, \n\n\n\n\nCliaKLES il. \n\n\n\nfR \'J\'HE ORIGINAL, HY SIH FETER LK3.T. \n\n\n\n"Fhoi-i swfii M souool, it miguc have been expected that a young man who \nvriuted ueithei" iibiUties nor amiable qualities, would have come forth a great \nHud good king. Charges came I\'orth from that school, with social habits, with \nTioiite and engaging manners, and with some talent for lively conversation, \n\xe2\x96\xa0nddieted beyond measure to sensual indulgence, fond of sauntering and of \nfrivolous amusements, incapable of self-denial and of exertion, without faith \nm human virtue or in human attachment, Avithout desire of renown, ar\'^ with- \nout sensibility to reproa.ch \' \xe2\x80\x94 IvlAC,\\ni,AT s History of England \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n675 \n\n\n\nreferable to the decision of future parliaments. These promises \nwere plainly of little value, since every one might see that the next \nparliament would probably consist of devoted royalists; and Sir \nMatthew Hale and others urged a final settlement of all points in \ndispute between the crown and parliament. Through the influence \nof Monk, however, this was overruled; the house rung with accla- \nmation, and Charles was restored to the throne without the slightest \nlimitation. He was proclaimed on the 8th of May, with great \nsolemnity, and landed on the 2oth at Dover, where he was received \nby Monk, with many of the nobility and gentry. He made a tri- \numphant progress to the capital, attended by a great concourse of \npeople. The city received him with the greatest exultation, and he \nremarked that it must have been his own fault that he did not come \nsooner, since all protested that they had longed for his restoration. \nThe Commonwealth and Protectorate, after an existence of eleven \nyears, thus ended. They had never been popular with the greater \nportion of people, attached to the ancient forms, incapable of appre- \nciating true liberty, and associating the late government, naturally \nenough, with military rule and heavy taxation. They had, however, \nbeen of great service in destroying slavish reverence for ancient \nusages, and opening the way for a gradual and more enlightened \nreform in the constitution. \n\n\n\nvj ujcL) UiOi ii X iLt iLii Ui^ i\xc2\xa3^ \n\n\n\nCHARLES II. \n\n\n\nThe nation, after its relief from the rigid rule of the Puritans, \nran wildly into the opposite extreme of gayety and licentiousness. \nThe king rewarded with titles and offices such as had been chiefly \ninstrumental in his restoration. Parliament settled on him an \nincome of one million two hundred thousand pounds, various feudal \nrevenues of an oppressive nature being relinquished in return. The \nexcise on liquors was devoted to defray this new expense. The \narmy, consisting of sixty thousand men, was gradually and peace- \nably disbanded \xe2\x80\x94 only about five thousand being retained. Twenty- \n\n\n\nQJQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nnine of tliose who had officiated at the trial of Charles I. were \narraigned before commissioners, all were found guilty of treason, \nten of them were executed, and the remainder were imprisoned for \nlife. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were taken \nfrom their tombs in Westminster Abbey, ignominiously dragged to \nTyburn, and hung oil the gallows. Their heads were afterwards \nfixed on Westminster Hall, \n\nThe king was crowned with great solemnity on the 23d of April, \n1661, and the new parliament met on the 8th of May. Titles gained \nby action of the late government had been already annulled, and \nthe new assembly, which was strongly royalist, proceeded at once \nto restore the Episcopal Church and its ceremonies, by the most \nstringent measures \xe2\x80\x94 enacting, among other things, that all officers \nof corporations must take the sacrament according to the rites of the \nestablished church. Sir Henry Yane, who had received from \nCharles an assurance of his life, was, at their instance, tried and \nexecuted, justifying to the last the late king\'s sentence and his own \npolitical career. \n\nIn Scotland, the royal commissioner summoned a parliament, \ncomposed of unprincipled wretches, and called, from the continual \ninebriety of its members, "The Drunken Parliament." A law was \npassed annulling all previous acts, since 1633, and the country was \nat once laid open to the mercy of a greedy and revengeful faction. \nThe duke of Argyle and other distinguished covenanters were exe- \ncuted, and it was resolved forcibly to replant Episcopacy. \n\nCharles had been for some time in treaty for marriage with Catha- \nrine, the infanta of Portugal. On the 20th of May, 1662, she arrived \nin England, and was shortly afterwards espoused to him ; but fell \ndown in a fit on being compelled to receive as one of her chief \nattendants Lady Castlemain, the favourite mistress of the king. \nShe was, nevertheless, obliged to submit; and the king, for many \nyears, was ruled by a succession of favourites, who, by their num- \nber and beauty, seemed rather the appendages of an oriental seraglio \nthan of an English and Christian court. \n\nThe " Act of Uniformity " was strictly enforced, and about two \nthousand of the clergy forfeited their livings rather than give assent \nin full to the Book of Common Prayer. A severe statute against \nall who should attend any religious meetings except those of the \nchurch, soon filled the prisons with persecuted dissenters, especially \nwith the Quakers, who had now increased into a considerable sect. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. Q\'J\'J \n\nIn 1664, tlie Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, in North. \nAmerica, was claimed as belonging to England by right of discovery, \nwas taken possession of without resistance, and named New York, \nin honour of the king\'s brother, James, duke of York. By this, \nand similar acts of hostility, war was brought on, and parliament \nvoted two millions five hundred thousand pounds to defray the \nexpenses of the contest. In April, 1665, the duke of York, who \nhad effected great improvements in the navy, put to sea, with more \nthan a hundred ships, and for a month rode triumphantly along the \ncoast of Holland. On the 8d of June, Admiral Opdam, with an \nhundred and thirteen ships, came out, and engaged him ofi" the coast \nof Suffolk. The action, which was violently contested, resulted in \nthe entire defeat of the Dutch, with the loss of their admiral, \neighteen ships, and seven thousand men. \n\nAt this time the plague broke out in London, and committed \ndreadful ravages. During the summer of 1665, the city was half- \ndepopulated by the death and flight of its inhabitants. Immense \npits were dug, in which the dead were thrown almost indiscrimi- \nnately. More than a hundred thousand died of this terrible disease, \nand the mortality in other places was in proportion to the density \nof their population. Other misfortunes speedily followed. On the \n1st of June, 1666, the duke of Albemarle, with fifty ships, was \ndefeated with great loss, by a superior force of the Dutch, under \nDe Witt and De Euyter. This disaster was in some measure coun- \nterbalanced by a more successful action, and the destruction of a \nvast number of Dutch merchantmen. \n\nOn the 2d of September, a fire broke out in the capital, which, \nincreased by a violent wind, spread rapidly over the city. The king \nshowed unusual energy and humanity; but the people were panic- \nstruck by the suddenness and fury of the conflagration. It raged \nfor several days, and was at last subdued only by blowing up various \nhouses with gunpowder. Two thirds of the citj^ comprising thirteen \nthousand houses and eighty-nine churches, had been destroyed ; and \nvast numbers of the people were reduced to extreme distress by the \nwant of shelter. The city, however, was soon rebuilt in a greatly \nimproved manner, and a lofty monument, ascribing this disaster to \nthe Papists, v^as erected on the spot where the fire commenced. \n\nThese misfortunes, and the utter mismanagement of the treasury, \nso crippled the resources of the country, that, in June, 1667, the \nDutch fleet entered the Thames with impunity, sailed up to Upnor, \n\n\n\n678 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nand burned several ships of war. Their cannon were heard even in \nLondon, and men now turned their thoughts to the memory of one \nwhose body had been dragged to Tyburn, and whose head was yet \nbleaching on the great Hall of their city. Whatever had been his \nfaults of violence or usurpation, Oliver Cromwell had, at least, never \nsuffered a foreign foe to alarm the shores of England. After the \ncoasts had been insulted by De Kuyter for six weeks, peace was \nconcluded. \n\nLord Clarendon, the high chancellor, and father-in-law of the duke \nof York, had heretofore been the king\'s principal adviser. He was \nbigoted and intolerant, but superior in principle to most of the \nstatesmen of his time. Both qualities had made him many ene- \nmies; the king was weary of his lecturing; and, more than all, he \nwould not permit his wife to visit Lady Castlemain. The nation \nwas incensed at the recent misfortunes, and his dismissal from ofl&ce \nand banishment from the kingdom were generally satisfactory. In \nhis foreign retirement he completed the able and elegant historical \nworks which, more than his political career, have preserved his \nreputation, \n\nA new ministry was now formed, consisting of some of the most \nprofligate men in England, and called, from the initials of its mem- \nbers, the "Cabal," The duke of Buckingham, son of the favourite \nof Charles I., and a man of great ambition, talent, and levity, was \nthe prime favourite of the king, and, though without any ostensible \noffice, was the most influential member of government. Most of \nthese venal officials were soon in the pay of Louis, the French king. \nCharles and his brother were both secretly Catholics, and in 1669 \nresolved to remove the obstacles which prevented them from making \nan open profession of their faith. The aid of Louis was sought, and \npromised, in event of the change producing an insurrection. Mean- \nwhile, persecutions against the dissenting ministers continued with \nmuch rigour, and the odious trade of informers was openly encour- \naged by parliament. The court viewed these proceedings with \nsatisfaction, hoping assistance from the dissenters in obtaining uni- \nversal toleration. A secret treaty was concluded with Louis, by \nwhich the two nations were to conquer and divide Holland, and to \nseize on other important possessions \xe2\x80\x94 the French king bearing the \nchief expense ; and Charles was to declare himself a Catholic as soon \nas the measure should appear safe. The Cabal commenced raising \nsupplies for the contest by the most odious means. One million \n\n\n\nENGLAND, \n\n\n\n679 \n\n\n\nthree hundred thousand pounds were procured, and a vast number \nof persons ruined by the seizure of such revenues as were pledged \nfor the payment of previous debts. A piratical expedition was also \ndespatched to seize the Smyrna fleet belonging to Holland, with \nwhich power the nation, as yet, was in friendly alliance. It was, \nhowever, disconcerted by the address of the Dutch government. \nWar was then formally declared (1672) \xe2\x80\x94 various petty and frivolous \nreasons being alleged by the French and English sovereigns, whose \ntrue motives, however, were the desire of conquest and the hope of \ndealing a fatal blow to the Protestant interests in Europe. Other \npowers entered into this iniquitous confederacy. \n\nHostilities commenced at sea, the Dutch, under De Euyter, losing \nthree ships to the duke of York. Louis, with an hundred thousand \nmen, poured into Holland, reduced a great part of it, and advanced \nwithin three leagues of Amsterdam. The people, in an ignorant \nphrensy, murdered the De Witts, their ablest and most patriotic \nleaders, and put at their head William, the young prince of Orange, \n(a son of Mary, daughter of Charles I.,) whose genius and courage \nsaved them from the impending ruin. He took the most energetic \nmeasures of resistance. The dykes were opened, and half the coun- \ntry was laid under water. It was also resolved by the patriotic \nHollanders, if all resistance should be vain, to leave their country \nfor ever, and found a new nation in the East. But fortune assisted \ntheir endeavours, and Louis, returning to the pleasures of his capital, \nleft the war to be slowly protracted by his generals. \n\nParliament met in February, 1673, and voted a large sum to carry \non the war. They, however, vehemently attacked a "Declaration \nof Indulgence" which the king had passed, and resolved, by a \nlarge majority, that no one except themselves had power to dispense \nwith the penalties in matters of religion. Charles was indignant, \nbut was compelled to yield, and withdrew the declaration. A "Test \nAct" was also passed, requiring all persons holding ofl&ces of trust \nto receive the sacrament of the English Church, &;c. The duke of \nYork, against whom, with other Catholics, this measure was levelled, \nlaid down all his offices, and others were compelled to follow his \nexample. \n\nA fleet, under Prince Eupert, was despatched against the Dutch ; \nand three actions with De Ruyter, all indecisive, followed. Hostili- \nties at sea continued, and Count Schomberg, attempting to land an \narmy on their coast, was disappointed. The prince of Orange, \n\n\n\n680 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOET. \n\nassisted bj Austria, defended his country witli great courage and \nsuccess. Peace with England was concluded in February, 1674, the \nquestions in dispute being settled by arbitration, and a subsidy \nbeing paid by the Dutch. At the same meeting of parliament \nwhich settled this question, several of the ministry had beei^i \nattacked ; and Buckingham, deserted by the king, joined Shaftes \nbury and the opposition, Louis, anxious to keep down the Protest- \nant influence, procured the king to prorogue parliament for fifteen \nmonths, paying him five hundred thousand crowns as a considera- \ntion. He further privately engaged to pay him a yearly pension of \none hundred thousand pounds, on condition that the two nations \nshould be in strict secret alliance \xe2\x80\x94 a dishonourable bribe, which \nmade the English monarch almost the vassal of his French ally, \n\nLouis had again entered Flanders at the head of a large army, \nand the parliament, which met in 1667, strongly urged the king to \ndeclare war in favour of his Protestant allies. He tried to obtain a \nlarge sum from them, perfidiously pledging his word that it should \nbe applied to the purposes for which it was granted; but they dis- \ntrusted him, and the French king, by further bribery, prevailed on \nhim to adjourn the parliament. Soon afterwards, the prince of \nOrange was married to Mary, daughter of the duke of York; and \nCharles entertained serious desires of permanently settling the long- \ndisputed contest. Louis, although winter was at hand, refused the \nterms offered to him, and again took the field with his forces, stop- \nping the payment of the pension, but still offering large bribes, in \ncase the king would continue to sustain his interests. Charles, \nhowever, informed the parliament, which met in January, 1678, \nthat he had concluded a treaty with the Dutch for their protection, \nand thus gained large supplies from them ; but after some forces \nhad been despatched, distrusting him, they refused to vote further \nsubsidies until satisfied in respect to religious matters. Enraged at \nthis, he immediately prorogued them, and concluded a secret treaty \nwith Louis, engaging, in consideration of four hundred thousand \npounds, to withdraw his troops, if Holland would not consent to \nthe treaty of Nimeguen, which was greatly to the advantage of the \nFrench monarch. The treaty, with some modifications, was, how- \never, signed, and peace was concluded. \n\nIn this year, a most atrocious persecution, under sanction of the \nlaw, was perpetrated against the Catholics, Titus Gates, a man of \ninfamous character, pretended to have discovered a great conspiracj \n\n\n\nENGLAND. QQ^ \n\nof the Jesuits and otliers, for the purpose of killing the king, burn- \ning the city, and reestablishing the Komish supremacy. This, with \na vast mas? of improbable circumstances, often entirely contradic- \ntory, he detailed before the council. In the excited feeling against \nthe Catholics, however, all these absurd stories were greedily swal- \nlowed by the multitude; and, unluckily for the accused party, \npapers w ere taken from Coleman, a dependant of the duke of York, \nproving the existence of a plot for introducing Romanism, though \ncertainly not that which Gates pretended to reveal ; but one much \nmore respectable and formidable, comprising Louis, the king, the \nduke of York, and other influential names. The public excitement \nwas increased by the mysterious disappearance of Godfrey, the \nmagistrate who had first taken the deposition of Gates. His body \nwas found in a ditch, thrust through with his own sword, leaving it \ndifficult to determine whether he was murdered or had committed \nsuicide. Many persons were taken into arrest upon the perjured \nevidence of Gates, and parliament, in alarm, voted that "a dam- \nnable and hellish plot" existed, and that all papists should be \nremoved from London and, its vicinity. A bill was also passed, \nwhich, for an hundred and fifty years, excluded Catholics from the \nHouse of Lords. The trials of the accused were conducted with \ngreat tyranny and injustice, and many persons were executed. \nGates, assisted by Bedloe and other perjured informers, Avas voted \nlarge sums as reward for his villany. The queen herself was accused, \nbut Charles refused to abandon her to this merciless Protestant per- \nsecution. The city was kept under arms, and in the excited state \nof the public mind, no one ventured to question the existence of \nthis pretended plot. In January, 1679, parliament was dissolved, \nafter having held their places for eighteen years. Popular agitation \nstill continued so violent, that the duke of York was compelled to \ndepart for the continent. \n\nThe new parliament met in March, 1679, and immediately \nimpeached the earl of Danby, the king\'s principal adviser, who was \ncommitted to the tower. He was sa\\ed by Charles, however, who \nhad resolved not to consent to his destruction. The king, vainly \nhoping to conciliate the popular party, admitted, by advice of Sir \nWilliam Temple, a number of popular members into the council, \nand even appointed as president Lord Shaftesbury, the leader of \nthe opposition. Nevertheless, a bill was speedily passed by a large \nmajority of the commons, excluding the duke of York, although \n\n\n\n(382 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nthe hereditary heir, from the throne. To prevent farther action, \nCharles immediately prorogued parliament for ten weeks. \n\nPersecution still continued; and a considerable number of Jesuits \nand other priests were executed \xe2\x80\x94 some as accessaries to the pre- \ntended plot, and others for exercising their ministerial functions. \nThrough the influence of the king, it was at last abated, and several \ninnocent prisoners were acquitted. \n\nIn Scotland, the greatest oppression had prevailed. The people, \nattached to their own form of worship, and seeing their clergy \nexpelled from their livings, held meetings, called "Conventicles," in \nthe open air. These were forcibly suppressed, and the people, driven \nto desperation by many acts of cruelty, took to arms. After several \nactions, they were defeated with great loss at Bothwell Bridge, by \nthe duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the king. Many had already \nbeen executed, and though the duke, a. man of humane disposition, \nadvocated the cause of the unfortunate covenanters, they were for a \nlong time harassed with the most cruel persecutions. \n\nThe king dissolved the parliament, and a new one was elected. \nFinding this assembly constituted much like the former, he pro- \nrogued it on the day it met, and prevented any action for more than \na year. In January, 1680, the duke of York was recalled to court, \nand was soon afterwards presented, for recusancy, to the grand jury, \nby Shaftesbury and other leaders of the opposition. The attempt \nwas defeated by the chief justice, but the duke was compelled to \nreturn to Scotland, where he had lately been residing. Parliament \nmet on the day after his departure, and immediately resumed the \nsubject of his exclusion. A perjured witness swore to his plotting \nagainst the king\'s life; other questionable evidence was taken, and \nthe bill of exclusion was passed by a strong majority, and sent up to \nthe House of Lords, where, however, it was rejected by a large vote. \nThe House of Commons had now become so dictatorial and insolent, \nthat another arbitrary parliament was feared ; but a private gentle- \nman having resisted their sergeant-at-arms, they discovered that \nthey had exceeded their lawful power, and receded from their pre- \ntensions. Enraged at their disappointment in the matter of exclusion, \nthey attacked the king\'s ministry, and maliciously impeached the \nvenerable Lord Stafford, a Catholic nobleman. He was tried in \nWestminster Hall, and convicted of being accessary to the plot, on \nthe villanous testimony of Gates and other perjured informers; and \nshortly after was executed. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n683 \n\n\n\nIn January, 1681, the king, alarmed at the attitude of the house, \ndissolved it, and summoned another to meet at Oxford in two \nmonths \xe2\x80\x94 the object being to transfer the government from a turbu- \nlent and republican city to a more loyal vicinity. To ensure his \nindependence, he entered into treaty with Louis for a new pension, \nto last three years. The parliament was mostly composed of its \nformer members; but the king, not being compelled to sue for \nmoney, addressed them in a tone of authority, and perceiving them \nstill busy with the exclusion, dissolved them, to the great satisfac- \ntion of the country, which was beginning to be weary of their factious \nand impracticable course. The power of the court now suddenly \ndisplayed itself, and Shaftesbury was committed to the tower; but \nthe grand jury, who were of his party, refused to find a bill of \nindictment against him. \n\nIn Scotland, persecution still continued, and numbers, both of \nmen and women, were executed. The duke of York, having held \na parliament there, returned to court; and Monmouth, whose ambi- \ntious designs on the succession had occasioned his banishment to \nHolland, also returned. He was received with great joy by the \npeople, among whom he was exceedingly popular ; but was arrested \nduring a sort of triumphal procession, which he was making through \nthe kingdom. The court, by intrigue, now obtained the appointment \nof the sheriffs, and thus ensured juries ready to obey its wishes. \nIn 1683. a frivolous accusation was made against the city of London, \nand its charter was declared forfeited by the judges, who w\'ere the \nmere tools of court. The whole power of this and many other \ncorporations was thus thrown into the king\'s hands. A more deadly \nblow still was to be struck at the opposition. Since the dissolution \nof parliament, the popular Protestant leaders had been in the habit \nof holding consultations, and the project of a rising against govern- \nment was no doubt entertained. Betrayed by one of their associates, \nseveral of the leading members of this secret council had been \narrested. Lord Essex, despairing of a fair trial, took his own life, \nand Lord Russell, being tried before a jury, w^as found guilty of high \ntreason. This amiable and patriotic nobleman had certainly brought \nhimself within the compass of the law; but his execution, which \nthe king obstinately refused to avert, was an impolitic and unneces- \nsary act of cruelty. Algernon Sidney, an ardent republican of the \nsame party, was next tried before the brutal Jeffreys, chief justice \nof the king\'s bench, and convicted in a manner utterly opposed to \n\n\n\n634 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nlaw and evidence. Like Russell, lie died with great constancy and \nheroism. The duke of Monmouth, who was also fully implicated, \nwas, nevertheless, partially reconciled to the king, his father. The \nopposition now seemed annihilated; for a scheme to murder the \nking (the celebrated "Rye-house Plot") had been . discovered, and \nthe people, confounding this with the charge alleged against the \ncondemned, every where supported the court. \n\nThe Princess Anne, daughter of the duke of York, was married \nto Prince George, brother of the king of Denmark; and from this , \ntime the influence of the duke, owing to the indolence of Charles, \nwas predominant, and he had the principal direction of affairs. On \nthe 2d of February, 1685, the king was seized with a fit of apoplexy, \nand on the 6th expired, having previously received absolution in \xe2\x80\xa2 \nprivate from a priest of the Catholic faith, to which he had always \nsecretly inclined. \n\nThis king presented a striking picture of amiable manners and \nstrong private affections, joined to almost all the qualities which can \ndisgrace a monarch. He was deceitful, mean, rapacious, ungrateful, \nand utterly careless of the national welfare arid honour. The license \nand immorality of his court exceeded all that had ever been witnessed \nin England. Nevertheless, the people, charmed by his gayety and \naffability, were always fond of him, and lamented his death much \nmore than they would probably have done that of a better king. \n\n\n\nlu iLJj ui\\) lL tL Jj Jill u\\> uXi Ji I \n\n\n\nJAMES II. \n\nJames, immediately on his accession, conciliated the people and \nthe church, by a most express and public declaration that the \nEstablishment should not be disturbed. The ministers of the late \nking were continued in office. He made, however, no secret either \nof his own religion or that of his brother, and was at some pains \nto publish the secret views and conversion of the latter. He also \ngave much uneasiness to zealous Protestants by attending the \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 535 \n\nCatliolic worship in the most public and conspicuous manner ; and \nfurther still, by ordering the discharge of all recusants. He had \nalso a secret Catholic council, and at his coronation took the oaths \nwith a mental reservation. Parliament, which, on account of the \nsurrender of charters to his brother, was composed almost entirely \nof loyal subjects, voted him, unanimously, a revenue equal to that \nof the late king; yet, while declaring their implicit confidence in \nhis declaration, manifestly felt uneasy on the subject of religion \n\nMeanwhile, however, a formidable plot had been concerted among \nthe Protestant exiles, headed by Monmouth and Argyle. The latter \nlanded in Scotland on the 2d of May, 1685, but was only able to \nraise two thousand five hundred men. This small force soon dis- \npersed, and the duke, attempting to escape in disguise, was taken, \nand on the 30th executed at Edinburgh. Monmouth, detained by \nvarious circumstances, did not ar.-i^^\'\'?. until the 11th of June, when \nhe landed at Lyme, in Dorse t^nuic, and put forth a proclamation, \nstyling James " a usurper " and accusing him of the burning of Lon- \ndon, and of other crime5r Large numbers flocked to his standard, \nand he marched with four thousand men to Taunton, proclaiming \nhimself king. He received some farther marks of popular favour, \nbut learning of the defeat of Argyle, and finding himself joined by \nnone of the gentry, began to despair of success. He finally, on the \n1st of July, encountered the royal forces under the earl of Feversham, \nat a place called Sedgemoor. The ill-armed peasants, of which his \narmy was composed, fought bravely, but were defeated with a loss \nof five hundred killed and fifteen hundred prisoners. The duke \nhimself, with other leaders, attempting to escape, was taken. \' \n\nThe hatred of his uncle, exasperated by the late attempt, was \nimplacable; and on the 14th of July, this gallant and popular noble- \nman was beheaded on Tower-hill, amid the lamentations of the \npeople, by whom he had always been beloved, despite his weakness \nand ambition. He perished in the thirty-sixth year of his age. \n\nThe most barbarous vengeance was taken upon the deluded and \nignorant insurgents. The infamous Jeffreys made a circuit through \nthe country, trying the accused, and several hundred were executed \nby his orders, after a species of mock trial. One aged matron was \nbeheaded, and another burned alive, for affording succour to the fugi- \ntives. The air was infected from the number of victims whose \nmangled remains were exposed by the road-side. Great numbers \nwere sold into slavery, and others were given to the Maids of Honour, \n\n\n\n(J^g THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nwho sold their liberty at exhorbitant rates. The king instigated and \napproved all these murderous proceedings, and Jeffreys is said to \nhave declared, on his death-bed, that his blood-thirsty master waf \n"unsatisfied even with these extraordinary and sweeping executions \nThe chief instigators of the insurrection, except Monmouth, saved \ntheir lives by bribery and other means. \n\nJames now felt secure and highly elated. He addressed the \nparliament in a tone of authority, and finding them not completely \nsubmissive, prorogued them, to act no more during his reign. He \nkept up the army from his own revenue, and resolved to fill the \nprincipal commands with Catholics. To annul the act requiring \ntheir compliance with the rites of the church, he appointed judges \npliant to his wishes, and gained from these a decision that his dis \npensation (an ancient, but disputed branch of the royal prerogative) \nwas sufficient to render the required conformance unnecessary. He \ngave similar dispensations to certain Catholic officers in the Univer- \nsity of Oxford. These measures alarmed the Protestants, who saw \nhis intention of reestablishing Romanism, and prepared the way for \nhis overthrow. \n\nFather Petre, the king\'s confessor, a zealotis and fanatical priest, \napproved and stimulated the almost insane projects of the king. By \nespecial request of James, a papal nuncio was appointed to the court \nof England. The pontiff, however, and his emissary, more prudent \nand moderate than their royal partisan, endeavoured vainly to \nrestrain his rash proceedings. Convents were openly established \nin London ; the Jesuits opened a school ; and the earnest Protestants \nwere scandalized at seeing friars ranging through the city in the \nlong-proscribed habit of their order. To overawe opposition, the \narmy, fifteen thousand in number, lay encamped on Hounslow Heath, \nmass being publicly performed, and great efforts made to convert \nthe soldiery. These were mostly unsuccessful, and it is remarkable \nthat in an age of such shameless venality and dishonest ambition, \nso few could be found to barter their conscience or their prejudices \nfor court favour. Even Kirke, a brutal officer, refused the king\'s \nsolicitations, alleging that he had promised the emperor of Morocco \nto turn Mahometan, if he changed at all. The few men of influ- \nence who complied, were promoted to high stations, and both the \ncabinet and privy council were partly composed of Catholics. Great \nnumbers of Protestants holding offices under government and in tae \narmy, were dismissed, or resigned their commissions, the vacancies \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n687 \n\n\n\nbeing filled with Romanists. A declaration was issued, suspending \nthe penal laws and the requirements of tests; and was, at first, \nreceived with much joj and loyalty by the dissenters. Their antipa- \nthy to the Catholics, however, proved in the end so much stronger \nthati dieir desire for toleration, that they vehemently opposed the \nking\'s measures, and supported the bishops in their resistance. Ser- \nmons vv\'ere even preached against the very act by which alone the \nspeakers were permitted to occupy their pulpits. \n\nGreat excitement was caused by the king\'s persistance in attempt- \ning to convert the universities into Catholic institutions, and by \nhis oppressively forcing his own creatures upon them for officers. \nThe people had now become generally alarmed upon the subject \nof religion, and turned their thoughts for assistance to the prince \nof Orange, the acknowledged champion of the Protestant cause. \nSeveral noblemen opened a secret correspondence with him, and an \narmed resistance was contemplated. In this state of popular feeling, \nthe opposition of the Episcopal clergy determined the fate of James. \nIn May, 1688, he required that his declaration of general toleration \nshould be read from all the pulpits. The bishops and others of the \nclergy remonstrated; but the king was firm. He accused them of \nrebellious practices, and persisted in his demand. Out of a body of \nten thousand clergymen, not more than two hundred complied. \n\nJames, in spite of the advice of even his Catholic counsellors, \nresolved to prosecute the bishops for the remonstrance which they \nhad signed ; and, amid the lamentations of the people, seven of them \nwere committed to the tower. At the trial, in spite of every exer- \ntion on the part of the crown, they were acquitted, and the popular \ncause gained a vast accession, of strength and confidence. The king, \nwho had been grievously annoyed by the confirmed Protestantism \nof his daughters, was somewhat consoled by the birth of a son and \nheir to the throne ; but such was the prej udice against his cause, and \nall that seemed to strengthen it, that hardly any of the Protestants \nwould admit the reality of the birth, though attested by the strong- \nest evidence. It was maintained, and generally believed, that a \nsupposititious child had been palmed upon the people for the sake \nof securing a Catholic heir to the throne. \n\nThe occurrence of this event decided the leaders of opposition; \nand an invitation, signed by a number of the nobility and clergy, \nwas sent to the prince, entreating him to come to their assistance. \nA great part of Europe was already in alliance, under the direction \n\n\n\n688 \'^^^^ PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTCP.Y. \n\nof tliis politic and able sovereign, to check the ambition of France.\' \nand he was enabled to make large preparations for the invasion of \nEngland, under pretence of preparing to defend Holland. Louis, \nwho saw the impending danger, hastened to offer his aid and alli- \nance to James, which that infatuated prince refused. He soon, \nhowever, perceived his error, for the designs of William became \nunmistakeable ; and immediately commenced the work of conces- \nsion, neglecting no means to conciliate his offended clergy and people. \nA large fleet was also kept on the coast, and an army of forty thou- \nsand men was enlisted. But these acts of prudence and vigilance \ncame too late. \n\nThe prince, supported by the States of Holland, had in readiness \na fleet of sixty men-of-war, and seven hundred transports. A force \nof fifteen thousand men was also ready to embark, commanded by \nSchomberg (William\'s former opponent and present ally) and by \nother able continental officers; and a number of noble English exiles \nand others were engaged in the undertaking. The sailing of this \narmament was, however, delayed for more than a month by furious \ngales from the west, and it did not leave the shores of Holland \nuntil the 1st of November (1688). The king, meanwhile, had done \nevery thing to prop his sinking cause. He had proved, by a most \nformal investigation, the reality of the birth of his son ; had dismissed \nSunderland, his unscrupulous adviser, from ofl&ce, and removed \nFather Petre from the council. \n\nOn the 5th of November, William, with his forces, arrived safely \nat Torbay, in Devon, and landing, marched to Exeter. He was at \nfirst joined hj very few, the people being overawed by the late \nexecutions; and had serious thoughts of returning. At length. Sir \nEdward Seymour setting the example, numbers of the nobility and \ngentry came to his standard. His partisans also began to raise men in \nthe different counties. James beheld himself deserted by one adher- \nent after another, and his daughter Anne herself fled from him. \n"God help me!" he exclaimed, in tears; " my very children have \nforsaken me." Disaffection spread rapidly through the kingdom, \nand the most important places were soon occupied by the adherents \nof the prince. The queen and the infant prince of Wales had been \nsecretly despatched to France, and James, after an ineffectual attempt \nat negotiation, resolved to follow them. He privately posted to \nFeversham, flinging the great seal into the river on his way; but, \nafter having embarked, was detained, with his companions, on suspi* \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n689 \n\n\n\ncion that they were Jesuits. His rank being ascertained, a guard \nwas appointed for his protection, and he returned to London, where \nhe was received with great demonstrations of loyalty, and resumed \nthe functions of the royal authority. William, however, whose \nambitious designs had been grievously disappointed by his return, \ncompelled him, under pretext of securing his safety, to leave the \ncapital, and take up his residence at Rochester. The aspirant to his \nthrone, while omitting no means of alarming him, disposed the \nguards around his house in such a way that he could easily escape. \nHis friends remonstrated ; yet this deluded prince (perhaps terrified \nby the fate of his father) actually fell into the snare, and precipi- \ntately retreated to France. This circumstance terminated his brief \nand odious reign, which, in the short space of three years, had \nproved him bigoted, faithless, cruel, and totally unfit to govern. \n\nThe prince, proceeding to London, met with a most cordial recep- \ntion, and summoned the peers to consult upon the state of the nation. \nHe received from them the entire charge of the administration until \nJanuary 22d, 1689, when a convention was elected to meet at the \ncapital. This body, on its meeting, immediately resolved that \nJames, by his abuse of the law, his connection with popery, and his \nwithdrawal from the kingdom, had abdicated the throne, and that \nthe same was vacant. The convention then settled upon the prince \nand his wife a joint-title to the crown, under the names of William \nIIL and Mary IL, the real authority, however, being vested in the \nformer. In default of heirs, the succession was settled on Anne, \nand in default of her heirs, on those of the prince of Orange. \n\nThis event terminated the long struggle, in which, from the time \nof John, the crown and people had been almost continually engaged. \nWhen the unfortunate and ill-advised house of Stuart acceded to \nthe throne, the power of the sovereign was almost without restraint. \nIncreasing civilization, and their want of tact and ability, had kf-pt \nup an almost continued contest for popular rights, ending in the \nfinal expulsion of the direct heirs, and the firm establishment of \nnearly all the present principles of the English constitution. \n\n\n\ngg0 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nWILLIAM III., AND MARY II. \n\nThe new reign commenced on the third of February, 1689. All \nProtestants were confirmed in their appointments, and the officers \nof state were chosen from the ranks of both the Whigs and Tories \xe2\x80\x94 \nnames which though with very different significations, have been \never since adopted by the leading parties of Great Britain. By act \nof parliament, any Catholic, or any person marrying a Catholic, was \nexcluded from the throne. An "Act of Toleration," through the \nking\'s influence, exempted dissenters from certain penalties, and the \nCatholics, though not mentioned, shared the benefit. Louis openly \nespoused the cause of James, and on the 7th of May, war was \ndeclared against France. \n\nIn Scotland, a convention had been summoned immediately after \nthe flight of James, and the "Whigs being in a majority, it was \ndeclared that he had forfeited the throne. William and Mary were \nproclaimed in his stead. His adherents, foiled in the convention, \nappealed to force, and Viscount Dundee (infamous, under the name \nof Claverhouse, for his cruelty to the Covenanters,) hastened to the \nHighlands, and raised a considerable force. General Mackay, who \nwith a superior force was sent against him, was defeated, with a loss \nof fifteen hundred men. Dundee, however, received a wound, of \nwhich he died the next day, and the clans, deprived of a leader, laid \ndown their arms. This decided the cause in Scotland; and Episco- \npacy was soon supplanted by Presbytery. \n\nIn Ireland, all the power was in the hands of the Catholics, and \nLord Tyrconnel, the governor, declared for James. The dethroned \nmonarch himself, furnished with supplies by Louis, landed with \ntwelve hundred of his own subjects, at Kinsale, on the 12th of March. \nHe entered Dublin, amid the acclamations of the Catholics, and took \ncommand of the army. Enniskillen and Londonderry alone offered \nany resistance, the latter being defended by the Protestants with \ndesperate courage. After a close siege of some months, it was \nrelieved from the sea, and the besiegers retired, after losing eight or \nnine thousand men. They were equally unsuccessful at Enniskillen. \nAn Irish parliament was summoned, the "Act of Settlement" was \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n691 \n\n\n\nrepealed, and every measure taken to transfer the property into the \nhands of the CathoHcs. The Protestant worship was suppressed, \nand tithes were made payable to the priests. \n\nIn August, the duke of Schomberg landed with ten thousand \nmen, and was at first successful ; but after losing one-half his men \nby disease, was compelled to go into winter-quarters. An English \nsquadron, sent to intercept the French supplies, was defeated, and \nforced to retreat. In 1690, Schomberg, with a reinforcement of \nseven thousand men, commenced the campaign successfully. In \nJune, William landed in person, and found himself at the head of \nthirty-six thousand men. James, with a somewhat inferior force, \nencountered him at the river Boyne on the 1st of July. Crossing \nthe river in three divisions, the English engaged their oppone\xc2\xbb.ts. \nThe latter were compelled to retreat, with a loss of fifteen hundred \nmen, and James himself, perceiving the probable event, fl&.-. in haste \nCO Dublin, embarked in a small vessel, and landed in \xc2\xabf ranee. \nWilliam, after reaching Dublin, and proclaiming an \xc2\xa3,mnesty to the \n3ommon people, attempted to storm Limerick, but was repulsed with \ngreat loss, and embarked for England, leaving the war in the hands \nof his generals. The combined English and Dutch fleets, under \nLord Torrington, were, on the 20th of June, defeated by the French. \n\nDispleased with the conduct of parliament, he had dissolved it, \nand summoned a new one to meet in 1690. The Tories were in the \nmajority, and with great difiiculty a bill had been passed, declaring \nthe king and queen "rightful and lawful" sovereigns of Great Brit- \nain, and ratifying the acts of the convention, as originally valid. \nThrough the influence of the crown, it passed, and the Tories ceased \nto question the rights of the new incumbents. A bill of indemnity, \nand other important measures were carried through. On his return \nfrom Ireland, William obtained a grant of four millions, and, with \nhis continental allies, undertook to prosecute vigorously the w ai \nagainst France. \n\nIt seems certain that some of the leading politicians in Englar " \nwere, at this time, in correspondence with James ; and. the earl c\xc2\xab \nM^-rlborough, who had recently commanded successfully against him \nic Ireland, entered into a plot for his restoration. During the i\'lm- \nmer ol 1691, William, accompanied, among others, by the earl^ \ncarried on the continental war, and, on his return in October, learned \nthat Ireland was completely reduced to submission. Keasonable \nterms were granted to the defeated painty. \n\n\n\n692 THE PEOPLE\'S l.\\.iOK OF HISTORY. \n\nIn February, 1692, a most barbarous massacre was committed in \nthe dead of night upon the tribe of Macdonalds at Glencoe, who \nhad been adherents of the expelled dynasty. Misrepresentations \nhad been made to the king; but his readiness to sign an order for \nthe indiscriminate slaughter of a defenceless people, will always \nattach to his reputation the stain of cold-blooded cruelty. \n\nHe returned to Holland in the spring, and great preparations for \nan invasion of England, were made both by James and his English \nadherents. Louis had furnished him with troops, which, with the \nexiles from his former dominions, amounted to fifteen or twenty \nthousand men. But the fleet which was to have transported this \nforce to the shores of England, was defeated with great loss by that \nof the English and Dutch, and the attempt was, for the present, \nabandoned. \n\nDuring the continental campaigns of 1692 and 1693, the French \nwere almost uniformly successful ; they took a number of strong- \nholds, and, intercepting the great Smyrna fleet, captured and \ndestroyed property to the amount of a million sterling. In the \nfollowing year, however, the advantage was upon the side of the \nallies. The machinations of the Stuart party still continued \xe2\x80\x94 Marl- \nborough, Godolphin, and other influential politicians, still holding \nforth hopes of a restoration. Owing to the treachery of these men, \nan expedition against Brest was defeated with much loss. \n\nOn the 21st of December, 1694, the queen died in the thirty-third \nyear of her age. Her duties as a wife and daughter had for a num- \nber of years been in constant collision; and it is not too miich to \nsay, that she sacrificed the latter to the former more than justice \ndemanded. Almost the only point on which sympathy can be felt \nfor James, is that of the undutiful conduct of his children \xe2\x80\x94 whose \ndemeanour toward their discrowned and exiled father has been com- \npared to that of the daughters of King Lear. \n\nIn the campaign of 1695, William, to the great joy of the allies, \ntook the strong city of Namur, after a siege of seven weeks. In the \nnew parliament, which met this year, an act was passed, regulating \ntrials for treason upon more humane and liberal principles. The \ncoinage, which was in a miserably debased state, was also restored \nto its purity, under the superintendance of Sir Isaac Newton. \n\nPlots for the assassination of "William had already been detected, \nand in February, 1696, a most nefarious scheme for this purpose \nwas discovered, originated by the Jacobites, and probably sanctioned \n\n\n\nENGLAND (393 \n\nby James himself. Upon trial, seven persons were found guilty, \nand executed. Sir John Fenwick, who had contrived to suppress \nthe evidence against him, was also beheaded, on th 3 odious authority \nof an attainder. An expedition of invasion, ,vhich was to have \naccompanied this plot, failed, on its detection. This was the last \nattempt of the partisans of James, and in September, 1697, the \ntreaty of Ryswick restored peace to the nations so lon|_^ . ngaged in \nhostilities, Louis resigned the most of his conquests, and acknowl- \nedged William king, in spite of the protests and manifestoes of \nJames \xe2\x80\x94 the latter, on account of his faith, or bigotry, rejecting a \nproposal that the succession should be settled on his son, if he might \nreceive a Protestant education. \n\nThe parliament of 1699, jealous of the king and the foreign troops, \nreduced the army to seven thousand men, and expelled the Dutch \nguards and French Huguenots, who had fought so bravely for their \nliberties. William was so deeply affronted at this measure that he \ncontemplated resigning the government, and returning to Holland. \nThe next year, a most cruel measure, punishing priests and disin- \nheriting Catholics, was passed; but owing to the better feeling of \nthe nation at large, remained inoperative. \n\nThe Princess Anne being now without children, the parliament \nof 1701 passed an act regulating the succession. By this "Act of \nSettlement," the crown, after her death, was secured to the Princess \nSophia of Hanover, and her heirs. This lady was a Protestant, and \nniece to Charles I. Other important and liberal provisions were \nmade concerning the rights of the crown, the judiciary, and other \nimportant matters. Great indignation was excited by the conduct \nof Louis, who, in pursuance of a pledge made to James, on his \ndeath-bed, had publicly recognised his son as king of England. \nStringent measures were passed against all supporters of this claim, \nand ninety thousand men were voted for the two services. \n\nThe king did not long enjoy the freshly-awakened confidence and \nsupport of the nation. His health had been gradually failing, and \nin February, 1702, he met with an accident which eventually proved \nfatal. His horse stumbled, and broke his collar-bone. No fears of \nthe result were at first entertained ; but a fever set in, and on the \n7th of March he expired, in the fifty-second year of his age, and \nthe fourteenth of his reign. \n\nThis prince was undoubtedly the most able monarch of his time. \nHe was skilful in war, politic, and tolerant though, as in the cas^ \n\n\n\n^J04 THIS PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n\xc2\xabtf Glencoe, he had little compunction at shedding blood. The cold- \nness and formality of his manners prevented him from ever becoming \nuersonallj popular. \n\n\n\nij JjJi Jjo^ di di iXJi iLh c&Oa uni^ iX JL J> \n\n\n\nANNE. \n\nThe queen at her accession was in her thirty-eighth year. She \nwas a firm Protestant, and strongly inclined to the Tory party, \nwhich she preferred in forming her ministry. The abilities of \nMarlborough, despite his well-known treachery, procured him the \ncommand of the forces, and the chief charge of the foreign interests \nof the nation. On the 15th of May, according to the previous \nagreement, war was declared against France by England, Holland, \nand Germany. Marlborough, who commanded the allied army, \neffected little during this campaign, being hampered by the vexa- \ntious conduct of the Dutch deputies accompanying the army. \nAn expedition of great force, planned by William, was now sent \nagainst Cadiz, which was regarded as a portion of the French \ndominions. It retired, however, without effecting any thing except \nthe taking of plunder ; but falling in, on the passage home, with the \ngreat treasure-fleet of the Spaniards, captured and destroyed property \nto the amount of eight millions of dollars. The contest entitled the \n" War of Succession," in which England was now engaged for eight \nyears, was founded on an alliance made by William and other con- \ntinental powers to repress the ambition of Louis, who, by intrigue, \nhad succeeded in placing his grandson Philip on the throne of Spain. \n\nThe allies, impeded by various causes, effected little in 1703 and \nthe early part of 1704, the genius of Marlborough being still \nrestrained by the pertinacious deputies. In August, however, \nassisted by Prince Eugene, he engaged the French and Bavarian \narmy of fifty-six thousand men, under Marshal Tallard and others, \nat Blenheim, with a slightly inferior force. After a desperate con- \ntest, the enemy was entirely defeated, with a loss of forty thousand \nmen. Other successes followed this remarkable victory, and the \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n695 \n\n\n\nduke received splendfCT testimonials of gratitude from the queen anc \nparliameiU. In the same year, the strong fortress of Gibraltar was \ntaken by an English force under Sir George Rooke. \n\nIn 1705, little was effected in Flanders, the principal seat of war, \nbut an expedition to Spain, headed by Lord Peterborough and the \nArchduke Charles, (the rival claimant to the Spanish crown,) was \nvery successful, and several provinces espoused the cause of the lat- \nter. In 1706, Marlborough, with an army of about sixty thousand \nmen, encountered that of the French, of equal force, under Marshal \nVilleroy, near Ramillies. The latter again sustained a terrible \ndefeat, with a loss of thirteen thousand men. A large part of the \ndisputed territory surrendered. Negotiations for peace being ineffect- \nual, Marlborough again took the field in 1707, but with little result \nof importance. In Spain, the allies were entirely routed by Philip, \nand the revolted provinces were again subdued. In 1708, a fleet \nfitted out by Louis, and commanded by the son of James II., (called \nin England the Pretender,) sailed for Scotland ; but owing to storms \nand the presence of an English squadron, returned unsuccessful. \nIn the same summer, Marlborough besieged and took the towns of \nLisle and Ghent. Louis was now desirous of peace; but the allies \ninsisted on such unreasonable terms, that he renewed the war. On \nthe 11th of September, 1709, occurred the hardest-fought battle of \nthe whole war. Marlborough and Eugene, with ninety thousand \nmen, had invested the town of Mons, and Marshal Villars, with an \nequal force, hastened to its relief. The two armies encountered near \nMalplaquet. The French lost fourteen thousand men, and the allies \ntwenty thousand ; but the advantage remained with the latter. Afi;er \nanother ineffectual attempt at negotiation, in 1710, further hostilities \nensued; and in Spain, Charles, with twenty-three thousand men, \ndefeated his rival, Philip, and compelled him to quit the capital. \nThe successes of the duke of Vendome, however, restored the failing \nfortunes of Philip. The English and German allies Avere captured \nor discomfited, and the conquest of Spain became evidently hopeless. \n\nMeanwhile, a most important political event had occurred at home. \nThe necessity of a closer union between the kingdoms of England \nand Scotland had been deeply felt ever since the accession of James \nL, with whom it had been a favourite object. This feeling was \nstrongly increased by an independent and rather dictatorial resolu- \ntion of the Scottish parliament, called the "Act of Security" \xe2\x80\x94 a \nmeasure which called forth a still more violent response from the \n\n\n\nQQQ THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. \n\nEnglish, assembly. By adroit management, however, the measure \nwas entertained by both, and the queen was empowered to appoint \ncommissioners from both kingdoms, for the purpose of a settlement. \nThese met at Westminster, in 1706, and, after some dispute, agreed \nupon the particulars. Of these, the most important were, the \nsuccession of the house of Hanover and the distribution of repre- \nsentation and taxation \xe2\x80\x94 a share in each, very feebly proportioned \nto her population, being, in consideration of her poverty, allotted to \nScotland. When these terms were made known in that country, a \nstorm of public indignation arose. Some just, and many ridiculous \nobjections were urged, and two-thirds of the nation were vehemently \nopposed to the scheme. Nevertheless, when their parliament met \non the 13th of October, 1706, the court party was sufficiently power- \nful to carry the measure \xe2\x80\x94 a result due, partly to the necessity of the \ncase, and partly to the "Equivalent," a sum of three hundred and \nninety-eight thousand pounds, paid under pretext of recompense for \nthe loss of customs and excise, but in reality as a fund for bribery. \nOn the 1st of May, 1707, the two nations were incorporated under \none government, by the name of Great Britain. On signing the deed \nwhich destroyed the separate existence of his kingdom, the Scottish \ncommissioner coolly remarked, laying down his pen, "And there is \ntne end of an auld sang." \n\nDaring all the time of the war, a fierce struggle had been main- \ntained between the Whig and Tory parties, involving, however, \nfew principles of national importance. In this selfish warfare for \npolitical power, the queen\'s private feelings and attachments deter- \nmined the result. She had, for many years, been warmly attached \nto the duchess of Marlborough, whose husband had thus been \nloaded with wealth and honours. This ambitious and imperious \nwoman was supplanted in the queen\'s affections by Mrs, Masham, one \nof her waiting-women, of whose influence the Tories, directed by \nHarley, took advantage. The government, however, was principally \nWhig in 1710, but was overthrown by a ridiculous incident. Doc- \ntor Sacheverell, a fanatical high Tory preacher, had in a sermon \nreasserted all the exploded doctrines of passive obedience, &c., and \nhad vehemently attacked th:e administration. Godolphin, the treas- \nurer, had the folly to bring him to trial ; the whole Tory party \nespoused his cause; and the nation generally, considering him a \nmartyr, were enthusiastic in his favour. A lenient sentence was \nregarded as a victory by the Tories, and Harley, sure of the temper \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n697 \n\n\n\nof tlie nation, and aided by liis confederate, Mrs. Masham, prevailed \non the queen to dismiss her ministry. Godolphin, who had brought \nabout the union, was suddenly deprived of his office, and Marlbo- \nrough, whose genius had so long sustained the honour of the English \narms, was treated with great indignity. At the entreaty of the allies \nand of the Whig party, however, he still consented to retain his \ncommand; and in 1711 made another successful campaign, distin- \nguished, by extraordinary military science. But peace had be* \nresolved on by the new administration, and secret negotiations hau \nbeen commenced, with France. The proposed terms, being madi? \npublic, excited strong popular indignation; and .Harley (now Juorr^ \nOxford, high-treasurer,) determined on the destruction of Marlbo- \nrough, regarding his success and popularity as the chief obstacle. \nThe queen dismissed him from all his employments, and charges of \npeculation and dishonesty were preferred against him before the \nhouses of parliament. He was, indeed, of a grasping and avarici\'^^"^? \ndisposition, and had received large sums for his own benefit frc; \nthe allies and others, but only in accordance with prescriptive custon \nHis defence was so forcible, that the ministry thought it unwise i. \nproceed to extremities. \n\nThe army of the English and their allies in the Netherlands, \nunder Prince Eugene, amounted to an hundred and twenty thousand \nmen. The French, with a smaller force, weakened and dispirited, \ncould hardly have made any effectual resistance ; and it seems prob- \nable that they might have marched into the enemies\' country, and \ndictated terms of peace under the walls of Paris. Nevertheless, \nOxford, who is supposed to have been secretly in the interest of the \nStuarts, determined on peace; and, on the 14th of April, 1713, the \npeace of Utrecht was concluded, to the rage and despair of the con- \ntinental powers. Nothing of any importance had been attained by \nthis long and disastrous contest. Philip retained the throne of Spain, \nand certain minor advantages were granted to England. The cause \nof the allies on the continent was, for the most part, deserted and \nbetrayed. During this treaty, which overthrew all the efforts of his \nformer administration, died Lord Godolphin \xe2\x80\x94 a minister of the high- \nest talents, and so disinterested, in that corrupt age, that even Swift, \nthe inveterate abuser of his government, admitted his freedom \nfrom venality. Marlborough, his intimate political friend, went to \nreside abroad. \n\nAn attempt, supported by the Whigs, was made at this time to \n\n\n\nG9S 1-E PEOPLE\'S B( )K OF HISTOEY. \n\ndissolve tlie union, and failed only by a majority of four. St. John, \nViscount Bolingbroke, a man of splendid talents and dissolute habits, \nin 1714 contrived, through the influence of Mrs. Mashara, to expel \nfrom officf. Lis colleague, Oxford. His expectation of being prime \nminister ^^s, however, disappointed by the sudden illness of the \nqueen, who, for some time, had been failing. She was induced by \nthose around her to fill the vacant post with the duke of Shrews- \nbury, and in a short time expired, in the fiftieth year of her age, \nand the thirteenth of her reign. The intrigues of the Stuarts and \ntheir adherents had been persevering, and seemed likely to be \nirowned with success ; but they were disconcerted by the superior \naddress of their opponents; and the elector of Hanover, son of the \nPrincess Sophia, was proclaimed king under the title of George I. \n\nAnne was the last of the Stuart family who sat upon the throne \nof Great Britain. Her capacities were small, and she was almost \nentirely governed by her personal favourites. She was always popu- \nlar, however, and received from her people the universal title of \n"good Queen Anne." \n\nDuring this and the preceding reign, the constitution had received \nmany improvements. The limits of the prerogative were settled, \nand the judiciary, empowered to retain their of&ces during good \nconduct, became really independent. A national bank was estab \nlished, and paper money was introduced. The more questionable \nadvantages of a standing army and a national debt were also attained \nScience and literature flourished eminently, and were patronized \nby intelligent ministers. Sir Isaac Newton was master of the Mint, \nLocke a commissioner, ai\\d Addison secretary of state. Swift and \nother men of literary eminence were influential, and well rewarded. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n699 \n\n\n\nCHAPTEH XII?, \n\n\n\nGEORGE I. AND GEORGE II. \n\n\n\nThe new monarcTi, fifty-four years of age, was a foreigner, entirely \nignorant of tlie language, laws, and manners of his adopted kingdom. \nHe was a man of prudence and courage, but rather low in his tastes, \nand unintellectual. He landed in England on the 18th of Septem- \nber, 1714, and selected a new ministry, almost entirely Whig. \nMarlborough, who had been a strenuous supporter of his accession, \nwas again made commander-in-chief A new parliament, strongly \nWhig, met in March, 1715, and immediately impeached Oxford, \nBolingbroke, and other members of the late government. The first \nAvas committed to the tower, and others fled to the continent, and \nentered the service of the Pretender, James III. At the end of two \nyears, Oxford was released. Bolingbroke in 1723 procured a reversal \nof his attainder, returned to England, and again took an active \npart in political affairs. \n\nThe pretender and his partisans had been making secret prepara- \ntions; and on the 6th of September, 1715, the earl of Mar raised \nhis standard in the Highlands, and assembled a force of ten thousand \nmen. A similar movement was made in the north of England, but \nwas easily suppressed by the forces of government. On the 13th of \nNovember, the duke of Argyle, with four thousand men, engaged \nMar, who had more than twice that number, at Sheriff Muir. Five \nhundred were slain on each side, and both claimed the victory. On \nthe 22d of December, James landed in person, but perceiving the \nhopelessness of his cause, returned to France, whither he was fol- \nlowed by most of the insurgent chiefs. The forces were disbanded. \nOnly twenty-nine persons were executed in consequence of this \nattempt. \n\nIn 1716, a bill was passed, changing the term of the duration of \nparliament, from three to seven years. Government at this time, as \nwell as long afterwards, was exceedingly corrupt. The king\'s Ger- \nman mistresses and favourites were continually impatient for estates \nand titles, and possessed sufficient influence to determine the fate of \nmeasures and of ministries. A bill, however, which George (to \n\n\n\n700 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK C/ HISTOEY. \n\ngratify his hatred to the prince of Wales, by injuring the prerogative) \nwould willingly have signed, for limiting the number of peers, \nwas defeated. \n\nIn 1720, a most extraordinary delusion seized upon the people. \nThe South Sea Company, an unsuccessful establishment of 1711, \nmade a large financial contract with government, and, being in the \n(lands of unprincipled men, used every effort to inspire the public \nwith a belief in its unbounded resources. To such an extent did the \ninfatuation reach, (founded on improbable stories of gold mines and \nenormous profits in trade,) that the stock went up to a thousand per \ncent., and all classes hastened to invest their property in the treach- \nerous concern. Many, by speculating in the stock, made fortunes; \nbut the bubble soon burst, and thousands were ruined. The king\'s \nmistresses and several members of government were deeply con- \ncerned in this iniquitous transaction. \n\nLord Townshend and Eobert Walpole, two men of high ability, \nwho had lost their places in the government for a time, were enabled, \nby the odium which this transaction cast on the ministry, to regain \n1 high position \xe2\x80\x94 the first becoming secretary, and the latter first lord \nof the treasury. In 1722, died the duke of Marlborough, the most \nable commander, and one of the most sagacious statesmen of his age. \nHe possessed many excellent and amiable traits of character, though \nhis public life was stained by treachery, and his private life by covet- \nousness. The remainder of the reign of George I. was chequered \nby few incidents worth recording. An unsuccessful plot of the \nStuart faction was detected; one conspirator was executed, and \nBishop Atterbury, with other persons of high rank, was commit- \nted to prison. In Ireland, a great excitement, fomented by Dean \nSwift, was occasioned by the attempted issue of a debased copper \ncoin, entitled, from the name of the patentee, "Wood\'s half-pence." \nSo great was the clamour, that government was compelled to retract \nfrom the measure. \n\nDuring this reign, the foreign relations of the kingdom were \nentirely changed, a close alliance existing with France and other \npowers, and a state of jealousy or hostility toward Spain and the \nempire. Sir George Bying, in 1718, destroyed a Spanish fleet of \ntwenty-seven sail of the line, off Sicily. In 1725, Admiral Hosier \nmade an unsuccessful expedition to Spanish America, and perished, \nwith great numbers of his men, from disorders incident to the cli- \nmate. The king died in his yearly journey to Hanover, on the 11th \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n701 \n\n\n\nof June, 1727. He was in tlie sixty-eiglitli year of his age, and in the \nthirteenth of a reign distinguished by few events of national interest. \n\nHis son George II. ascended the throne at the age of forty-four. \nThough more familiar with English customs, his tastes were as Ger- \nman as those of his father; and both seem to have been more \nsolicitous for the welfare of their petty electorate of Hanover, than \nfor that of the splendid empire over which they were called to reign. \nWalpole (now Sir Eobert) continued for nearly fifteen years to \nhold the chief control of government, his colleague, Townsend, \nresigning in 1730. During all this time there continued a fierce \nopposition, composed of Tories and disaffected Whigs. Among his \nmost formidable adversaries were Pulteney and Bolingbroke, who \nnow began to make a new figure in the political world. The chief \nobject of the opposition, as is too generally the case, was to get \nthe government, with its enormous and profitable patronage, into \ntheir own hands; but "Walpole, who had reduced the art of bribery \nto a perfect system, Avas always enabled to command majorities in \nthe house. His administration was, however, able and tolerably \nenlightened; but his favourite scheme of excise and customs, very \nsimilar to that now adopted, (the warehousing and bonding system,) \nwas finally defeated in 1733, by the clamour of the ignorant and \ninterested. The "Septennial Act" was also warmly attacked. \n\nIn 1737 the queen, a firm friend of Walpole, and a woman of \nexcellent character, died. She possessed far greater talents for gov- \nernment than the king himself, who trusted almost implicitly to her \nadvice, and during his frequent visits to Hanover, always lefi; the \ncontrol of affairs in her hands. \n\nFor many years England, guided by her skilful and pacific minis- \nter, had been at peace; but in 1739 the nation, irritated by the \ninsulting demeanour of Spain in regard to her colonies, compelled \nhim to declare war. Admiral Vernon, with only six ships, took and \ndestroyed the town of Porto Bello; but failed in a more important \nexpedition against Carthagena. In 1740, Anson sailed upon his \ncelebrated voyage. After losing all his vessels but one, and doing \nmuch injury to the Spanish on the western coast of South America, \nhe stretched into the Pacific, and, having captured a galleon of \nimmense value, returned by the Cape of Good Hope, after an absence \nof four years, during which, like Drake, he had circumnavigated the \nglobe. The general ill-success of this war, though he had strongly \nopposed ii, was thrown upon Walpole ; and strenuous efforts were \n\n\n\n702 I^E PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nmade to remove him from office. A parliament newly elected con \ntained a majority of his opponents; and in February, 1742, lie \nresigned his office, and was created Lord Orford. He survived the \nloss ^f his power but three years. The peaceful and able adminis- \ntration of this firm and consistent Whig minister presents less lustre \nthan that of others, from the corrupt means by which he acquired \nand perpetuated his power. \n\nOf the leading men who opposed or succeeded him in the adminis- \ntration, the most distinguished was William Pitt, already conspicuous \nfor his talents. Henry Fox, the rival of Pitt, was also a man of \ngreat ability and eloquence. Murray (Lord Mansfield), Conway, \nTownsend, and others had already began to play a conspicuous \npart. The ministry, however, was now chiefly directed by the duke \nof Newcastle, Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), and some others. \n\nBy virtue of a treaty with the empress of Austria, (now at war \nwith Frederick the Great,) a subsidy was granted, and a force of \nsixteen thousand men was despatched to her assistance. The king \nof England, eager to acquire martial renown, joined it in person in \n1743, and, at the age of sixty, distinguished himself at the battle of \nDettingen. France next entered the contest, and the English, with \ntheir allies, commanded by the duke of Cumberland he king\'s son, \nwere defeated by Marshal Saxe, at Fontenoy, with i loss of ten \nthousand men. \n\nIt was now resolved by the court of France to embarrass the \nBritish, by assisting the long-neglected house of Stuart; and in \nAugust, 1745, Charles Edward, son of the pretender, landing with \na few adherents, was joined by many of the Highland clans. He \nmoved rapidly southward, entered Edinburgh, and took up his \nabode in Holyrood House, the ancient palace of his ancestors. At \nPreston Pans he completely defeated General Cope, who had been \nsent against him, and then, with a force of only five thousand men, \nmarched in the most daring manner into England. Taking Carlisle \nand Manchester, he advanced as far as Derby ; but finding himself \njoined by few, was compelled to retreat. He gained one more vic- \ntory in January, 1746, but on the 16th of April, with four thousand \nmen, was defeated at Culloden, by the duke of Cumberland, with c- \nyreatly superior force. The brutal victor ordered that no quartet \nihould be given; and the most atrocious acts of cruelty and military \nlicentiousness followed. The unfortunate chevalier, after undergo- \ning great hardships, and expei\'encing many romantic adventures^ \n\n\n\n\nCHARLES EDWARD (CALLED THE PREI\'ENDER). \n\nHe -TO-as the grandson of James II., the exiled king of England, and m >iis \nyoujiger days a prince of great enterprise and chivalrous courage. In 174;"), \nTwith only .seven attendants, he landed on the coast of Scotland, resolved on \nthe perilous attempt to recover the throne of his ancestors After a brief career \nof surprising success and invasion, he -was compelled to retreat, and his little \narm.y, at the hattle of Culloden, was cut to pieces by the English, under the \nduke of Cumberland. He escaped, amid the greatest perils and sufferings, to \nFrance, and passed the remainder of his life in obscurity and lamentable sen- \nsual indulgences. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n703 \n\n\n\nescaped into France. Nearly two hundred prisoners, some of them \nof high rank, were executed for their share in this attempt. \n\n\'iranville, who had principally controlled affairs since the fall of \nWalpoit., was, in 1744, supplanted by Pelham and his brother the \nduke of Newcastle, a weak, but intriguing man. Pitt also received \nan important office. In 1748, after an immense effusion of blood \nand treasure, a general peace was signed, leaving all parties much \nthe same as they were at the commeirC^ment of the contest. Anson, \nWarren, and Hawke had fully sustained the reputation of the \nEnglish navy. \n\nIn 1751 Frederick, prince of Wales, who had always been at \nbitter enmity with his father, died, and his son George became heir- \napparent to the three kingdoms. But a few years of peace had \nelapsed, when a fresh war with France was brought on by the con- \nflicting claims of the two nations to extensive tracts in North \nAmerica. \n\nIn 1754 arms were taken up, and young Major Washington was \ncompelled to surrender to a superior force of French and Indians. \nThe events which followed belong properly to American history, \nand may be very briefly detailed. G /leral Braddock, with a con- \nsiderable force, was surprised, defeateJ, and slain; and in 1756 war \nwas formally declared. In this year also commenced the famous \n"Seven Years\' War," in which all the powers of Central Europe \nwere engaged \xe2\x80\x94 Frederick the Great, supported by England, having \nforcibly seized the Austrian province of Silesia. \n\nGreat fears of the invasion of England were entertained, and a \nbody of Hessian and other foreign troops were imported for the \ndefence of the country. The first event of importance to England \nwas the failure of Admiral Byng, from a too strict adherence to \nnaval tactics, to capture the French fleet. The king and ministry \nbasely yielded to the popular clamour against him, and this brave \nand patriotic man was judicially murdered by a court martial. At \nhis execution, he displayed the highest calmness and courage, effect- \nually refuting the charge of cowardice which his enemies had \nendeavoured to fasten on him. \n\nAfter a curious vacillation of power, during which Pitt, Newcastle, \nFox, and others in turn controlled the ministry for a brief period, \nthe former became the actual minister, (Newcastle retaining the title,) \nand, by his boldness and genius, rescued the nation from the depth \nof despondency. Misfortune, however, continued for a time. An \n\n\n\n704 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. \n\nexpedition against Eoclifort utterly failed, and the duke of Cum- \nberland, witli an army of forty thousand Hessians and Hanoverians, \nwas forced to capitulate, and abandon the electorate to the French. \nIn America, Montcalm had greatly extended the strength and \nterritory of the latter. \n\nIn 1758 the arms of England were more successful; and in the \nfollowing year, great successes awaited them. Boscawen, in the \nMediterranean, and Hawke, in the Channel, gained decided naval \nvictories. In America several forts had been seized, and the city of \nQuebec was taken by storm by the gallant General Wolfe, who, with \nhis rival, Montcalm, expired on the field of battle. The battle of \nMinden, on the continent, in which the English gained much distinc- \ntion, occurred about the same time. On the 25th of October, 1760, \nthe king expired of apoplexy, in the seventy-seventh year of his \nage, and the thirty-first of his reign. His grandson, George III., \nsucceeded him. \n\nDuring these two reigns, the monarch being a foreigner, and \ncompelled to govern according to the will of majorities, the Whigs \nhad retained almost the entire control of government. The most \nshameless venality had prevailed, and all branches of munici- \npal government were indifferently administered. The police were \ninefficient, and crime, consequently, was of frequent occurrence. \nCompared with the present day, morals and manners were in a very \nuncultivated state. \n\n\n\nGEORGE III. \n\nThe young kmg, at the age of twenty-two, came to the throne \nunder most favourable circumstances. The country was prosperous \nand united, and his parliament was generous and loyal. The war \nwas still continued, though the king, whose predilections were for \nthe Tory party, was anxious for peace, that he might dismiss Pitt, \nthe principal leader of the Whigs. France had suffered greatly, \nespecially in her commerce and colonies, and was anxious for the \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n705 \n\n\n\ncessation of hostilities. Negotiation, however, was fruitless. Pitt, \nfinding that he could not obtain the consent of his colleagues to a \nwar with Spain, resigned his ofiice, and retired on a pension of three \nthousand pounds. \n\nIn 1761 the king was married to Charlotte, a German princess, \nand shortly afterwards war was declared against Spain, which had \nevinced hostile intentions. The duke of Newcastle, who had man- \naged to keep in office for more than thirty years, now resigned, and \nLord Bute, a Scottish nobleman, became prime minister. In March, \n1762, a powerful expedition was despatched against Cuba, and, after \na protracted and difficult contest, took the wealthy city of Havana, \nwith shipping and treasure to the amount of three millions of pounds. \nBy the taking of Manilla and two rich galleons, an equal amount \nof plunder was obtained. France lost a number of her possessions \nin the West Indies. \n\nThe expense of carrying on these wars had, however, been enor- \nmous. France was desirous of peace, and, in spite of the opposition \nof Pitt and his faction, a treaty (the Peace of Fontainbleau) was \nsigned at Paris in February, 1763. By this agreement, England \nretained Canada and many of her conquests in the West Indies \nand elsewhere. Others she restored. Her national debt had been \nincreased seventy-five millions of pounds. \n\nLord Bute, who was unpopular, and personally disliked by the \nking, retired from office, and Grenville, with his colleagues, came \ninto power. Great annoyance was occasioned to the king and minis- \ntry by the factious conduct of a demagogue, called Wilkes, who \nassailed them with great talent and personality in a paper called the \nNorth Briton. He was generally supported by the people, who, in \nspite of (or perhaps on account of) the prosecution of government, \nadhered to him faithfully. He was, however, outlawed, and com- \npelled to leave the kingdom. Eeturning in 1768, his sentence was \nreversed, and he was repeatedly elected to parliament, and as often \nexpelled by the majority. He finally became lord mayor of London. \nTo Grenville succeeded the marquis of Eockingham, in 1765, and \nto him Mr. Pitt, who, after organizing a ministry which he could not \ncontrol, resigned office for ever, and retired in 1768, with the title \nof Lord Chatham. The duke of Grafton, whom he left in office, \nand who had been bitterly assailed by the celebrated Junius, gave \nplace in 1770 to Lord North, whose administration proved one of \nthe most eventful in English history. \n45 \n\n\n\n706 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nFor several years previous, a storm had been brewing upon the \nwestern shores of the Atlantic. The prudent Walpole had refused \nto lay a tax upon the North American colonies; but in 1764 the \nking himself compelled Grenville to introduce a bill asserting the \nexpediency of stamp duties on the colonies. Strong remonstrances \nwere made by the colonists; but in 1765 the bill passed, and Avas \nmet by the most determined resistance. It was repealed the follow- \ning year, but in 1767 duties were imposed on various articles. These, \nexcept the tax on tea, were taken off in 1770. In 1773 the ships \nof the East India Company, carrying a supply of the obnoxious \narticle, were not permitted to land it ; and a portion was forcibly \nthrown into the sea in Boston harbour, by a party of citizens dis- \nguised as Indians. Eetaliatory proceedings were immediately insti- \ntuted, and the provinces made zealous and patriotic preparations \nfor an armed resistance. \n\nThe long and desperate struggle which followed, belongs properly \nto American history, and may be briefly stated. A general alliance \nfor mutual defence was made among the numerous colonies on the \nAtlantic. By the result of a new election for parliament, it was \nobviously the determination of the English people to reduce their \nrevolted provinces by force, the celebrated Burke vainly attempting \na reconciliation. The first blood was shed at the little town of \nLexington, in April, 1775; and Boston, where the English troops \nwere stationed under General Gage, was soon surrounded by twenty \nthousand of the American militia, eager to avenge the death of their \ncountrymen. The battle of Bunker\'s Hill, where the English, in \nattempting to drive a small body of troops from their intrenchments, \nlost a thousand men, was the first action of importance. George \nWashington, already distinguished in the French war, was intrusted \nwith the command of the provincial forces \xe2\x80\x94 a task which he fulfilled \nwith wonderful courage, skill and perseverance. He blockaded \nBoston till the spring of 1776, (a daring, but unsuccessful attempt on \nCanada being made meanwhile,) and finally compelled the English \ngarrison to evacuate it. \n\nThe provincial forces were defeated with great loss on Long \nIsland, by General Howe, and the city of New York, surrendering, \nwas held by the British during the remainder of the war. On the \n4th of July, 1776, a general congress declared the independence of \nthe colonies, and all prospect of an adjustment became hopeless. \nIn 1777 the Americans were defeated at Brandy wine, but retrieved \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n707 \n\n\n\nthis disaster by the capture of General Burgojne, and his entire \narmy, of nearly six thousand men, at Saratoga. \n\nThis success decided the court of France, which acknowledged \nthe independence of the states, and supplied them with a fleet and \nother assistance, thus recommencing hostilities with England; and \nin 1779, Spain also joined the hostile alliance. In America, the war \nwas conducted with alternate fortune. The brave provincials, though \nsuffering extremely from the want of food, clothing, and shelter, \nstill fought desperately, and, on the whole, maintained their ground. \n\nIn 1780, Sir George Eodney defeated a Spanish fleet; a French \none, which he also engaged, escaping through the incapacity of his \nofficers. He also relieved Gibraltar, which was besieged. Clinton \nand Cornwallis were highly successful in the southern states. In \nthe North, at this time, occurred the celebrated treason of Arnold, \nand the execution of the unfortunate Major Andr^, as a spy. \n\nThe Whig party had been generally in favour of conciliatory \nmeasures; but the nation was mostly desirous of carrying on the \nwar. The idea of a dismemberment of the empire was indeed \ngenerally regarded with great aversion; and in 1778, Lord Chatham, \nwho had been a vehement advocate for conciliation, came to the \nhouse, though suffering severely from disease, and spoke in the most \nimpassioned manner against a motion for acknowledging the inde- \npendence of the states. Having finished his speech, this great \nstatesman fell backwards in convulsions, and four days afterwards \nexpired, in the seventieth year of his age. \n\nAbout the same time, a terrible riot, caused by excitement against \nthe Catholics, and instigated by Lord George Gordon, prevailed for \nsome time in London. A mob, composed of fifty thousand fanatical \nProtestants, destroyed the Catholic chapels and dwelling houses, \nburned or threw open the prisons, and plundered the residences of \nLord Mansfield and other obnoxious persons. It was finally sup- \npressed by the military, many of the rioters being killed. \n\nThe blockade of Gibraltar still continued, and it was repeatedly \nattacked and defended with the most desperate courage ; but neither \nbombardment nor famine could subdue the resolution of the garri- \nson. The Dutch had joined in the hostile alliance against England, \nbut were defeated at sea, and lost the island of St. Eustathius, with \nmuch valuable property. The war in the southern states was still \nprotracted; but on the 19th of October, 1781, Lord Cornwallis, with \nhis whole army, was compelled to surrender at Yorktown, to a com- \n\n\n\n708 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. \n\nbined force of Americans and French. This event effectually \nterminated the war. \n\nThe administration of North, unpopular on account of this and \nother misfortunes, grew weaker and weaker; it was compelled to \nsustain the united attacks of Pitt, (son of the earl of Chatham,) of \nFox, and Sheridan, the most brilliant orators of the day, and finally, \nin March, 1782, the cabinet was dissolved, and the offices filled with \nthe most distinguished members of the opposition. \n\nIn the West Indies, Eodney had completely defeated the French \nadmiral, De Grasse, capturing or destroying most of his fleet. Gib- \nraltar was besieged and bombarded by more than an hundred \nthousand men ; but by its impregnable position and the gallantr}\'^ \nof its defenders, maintained a successful resistance. Negotiations \nhad, however, been for some time carried on, and, in 1783, a general \npeace was concluded, by which the independence of the United \nStates was acknowledged, and the conquests of England, France, and \nSpain, were mutually restored. Another hundred millions of pounds \nhad been added to the national debt. \n\nBy the most singular coalition of North and Fox, the ministry, \nheaded by Lord Shelburne, was overthrown, and the former oppo- \nnents entered office together. This union was, however, too unnatural \nto last long, and the scheme of Mr. Fox, to effect a change in the \naffairs of India, having failed to command a majority, they retired \nin their turn. Pitt, at the age of twenty -four, now formed a new \nministry, of which he was the head; and, with a single interval, \ncontinued to hold the post of prime minister during the remainder \nof his life. The opposition, henceforth, was led by Fox. \n\nThe new minister was, however, in a decided minority himself; \nbut, with wonderful tact and perseverance, allowed the opposition \nto become unpopular by defeating his measures. Then, dissolving \nparliament, he secured an immense majority at the next election, \ngreat numbers of the Whigs having lost their seats in the House \nof Commons. His power, however, was nearly overthrown in 1778, \nby the king\'s mental derangement. George, prince of Wales, and a \nfriend of the opposition leaders, was about to be appointed prince- \nregent, though with very limited powers; but his father\'s sudden \nrecovery, just before the passage of the bill, confirmed the ministry \nin their position, and disappointed the Whigs, who were daily expect- \ning to step into office. \n\nDuring the incidents which have been narrated, remarkable events \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n709 \n\n\n\nhad transpired in India, already a most important member of the \nBritish empire. Elizabeth, in 1600, had first granted a charter to a \ncompany of merchants trading in the East. During that and the \nsucceeding reigns, they established factories at Surat, Madras, Cal- \ncutta, and Bombay, In 1698, a rival company had obtained a \ncharter, but in 1702, the two were consolidated into one, under the \ntitle of " The United East India Company." \n\nThe hostilities with France had extended to this distant region, \nand Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, had made him- \nself formidable by an alliance with a native prince. The English, \nthreatened with expulsion from the country, took the part of a rival \nto the latter, and a French and Anglo-Indian war was commenced. \nIn 1751, the affairs of the English were retrieved by the courage \nand genius of Robert Clive, who repeatedly defeated the allied \nFrench and natives, and finally destroyed the power of the former. \nIn 1756 Calcutta was taken by Surajah Dowlah, a powerful native \nprince, jealous of the English power. A horrible scene followed \nthis success. An hundred and forty-six of his unfortunate captives \nwere shut up in a small dungeon, called the " Black Hole, " where \nall, except twenty-three, perished before morning, from the want of \nair and water. Clive, who was then at Madras, marched against the \nsavage nabob, and compelled him to make peace and restitution. Soon \nafter, finding him allied with the French, this enterprising general, \nwith only three thousand men, attacked him at Plassey, where he \nwas stationed with fifty thousand native troops, defeated and \ndethroned him. His successor, Meer Jaffier, bestowed great treas- \nures on Clive and the company. In 1760, this successful adventurer \nreturned to England, at the age of thirty -five, with an income of \nforty thousand pounds. Such abuses and rapacity, however, pre- \nvailed in his absence, that four years afterwards he was obliged to \nreturn, with the office of governor-general, to attempt a reform. In \neffecting this, he made so many enemies among the dishonest servants \nof the company, that an effort, though unsuccessful, was made to \ncensure him in parliament. After having raised the company to \ngreat wealth and power, he died at the age of forty-nine, by his \nown hand. \n\nIn 1773, the notorious Warren Hastings was appointed governor, \nand by his career of rapacity and tyranny, earned himself an unen- \nviable memory. With great ability, he joined treachery and avarice; \nand so used his influence and his forces among the native powers, \n\n\n\n710 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\nas to extort great sums of money, at the expense of every principle \nof honour and humanity. After a tyrannical reign of twelve years, \nhe returned from India, laden with riches, and was soon after \nimpeached for his various enormities by the House of Commons. \nOn his trial before the Peers, in February, 1788, the eloquence of \nBurke, Fox, and Sheridan, displayed his crimes in the most glowing \ncolours; his guilt was palpable; yet, by the artifices of his counsel \nand the influence of powerful friends, the case was protracted for \nseven years, and a judgment was finally given in his favour. \n\nThe French Revolution, fraught with events of such importance \nto mankind, both for good and evil, broke out in 1789; and Eng- \nland, with other European nations, was soon involved in the alarming \nprogress of affairs. To the Whig party, as to liberal men all over \nthe world, it seemed at first the harbinger of a better era. The \nTories regarded it with horror and alarm ; and Burke, heretofore \none of the greatest ornaments and supports of the opposition, openly \nquarrelled with Fox, Sheridan, and other friends, and joined the \nministerial party. An agitation of Parliamentary Reform, perhaps \nurged forward by the example of France, was opposed and sup- \npressed by Pitt, himself formerly the author of a similar movement. \nHis policy toward France had been one of neutrality ; but a dispute \nwas brought about by the interference of England in behalf of the \nDutch. On the 21st of January, 1793, Louis, the king of France, \nwas executed ; and, twelve days afterwards, the Convention declared \nwar against England. The Whigs now separated, a part joining the \nministry upon the war question ; and the remainder, headed by Fox, \nsubsiding into a powerless opposition and minority. \n\nTreaties of alliance against France were made with most of the \ncontinental powers, but owing to mismanagement, and to the cour- \nage and patriotism of the French, were of little avail. Pitt, though \nof great talents as an orator, had no genius for war, and wasted \nvast sums in fruitless expeditions and in subsidizing greedy allies. \nHis forces, after suffering great hardships, were driven from Holland \nby the French ; and Toulon, which had been occupied by Lord Hood, \nwas captured by the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young \nofficer of artillery. The navy was more successful, and Lords Howe \nand Bridport each defeated a squadron of the enemy. \n\nAn attempt at negotiation, in 1796, was unsuccessful ; and the \nfinancial pressure became so great, that the Bank of England was \ncompelled to suspend payments. Great quantities of paper money \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n711 \n\n\n\nwere issued, prices rose, and a period of great apparent prosperity \nensued. Much alarm was excited in the same year by a general \nmutiny in the navy. The sailors, whose health and comforts were \nshamefully neglected, rose in the Channel fleet and that of the ISTore ; \nimprisoned or sent ashore their officers, and kept possession of the \nvessels till parliament complied with their demands. Parker and \nother ringleaders at the Nore were, however, executed. The year \nwas, nevertheless, distinguished by the naval victory of Jarvis, off \nCape St. Vincent, over the Spanish fleet, and that of Duncan, off \nCamperdown, over the Dutch. \n\nMeanwhile, great disturbances had been gradually increasing in \nIreland. That unfortunate country was oppressed in every possible \nway. It had but a shadow of political power ; the greatest abuses \nprevailed; and the miserable peasantry were the mere serfs of the \nlandholders. It is remarkable that, although the Catholics had by \nfar the greatest cause of complaint, the Protestants made the first \nmovement towards reform, and secured an independent parliament. \nA spirit of republicanism, stimulated by the example of America \nand France, had grown up, and a formidable association of Protest- \nant dissenters, called the " United Irishmen," with which the Catholic \nparty soon formed an alliance, was organized in 1791. \n\nIn Ulster, however, a mutual hatred subsisted between the oppo- \nsite sects; and the Protestants, who had the superiority, formed \nthemselves into a society called "Orangemen," (from William III.,) \nand barbarously expelled their rivals from the country. The new \nassociation, like any other which appeals to selfishness and bigotry, \nmet with success, and spread rapidly over the kingdom. In 1796, a \nformidable armament, which, under command of General Hoche, \nsailed from France to assist the Irish republicans, was dispersed by \nstorms, and retired, unable to effect a landing. \n\nA general rising against the English government had been \nmeditated for some time. The ministry, thovigh aware of this inten- \ntion, were unable to get sufficient evidence against the leaders, and \nin 1797 commenced a system of the most frightful atrocity. Under \npretence of searching for arms, (fee, they let loose upon the people \na licentious and brutal soldiery, with instructions to u.se such tyr- \nanny as should rouse the people into a premature and less formidable \nrebellion. These horrible orders were fully carried out, and the \nmiserable peasantry were, in all directions, murdered, tortured, and \ndriven from their homes. The chiefs of the conspiracy, Lord \n\n\n\n712 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nEdward Fitzgerald and a number of others, were detected and \narrested. The persecutions which followed were of such an outrage- \nous nature, that the object of government was at last attained, and \nthe people, by a continuance of savage oppression, were forced into \ninsurrection. The peasants were at first defeated, but in May, 1798, \nwith fifteen thousand men, took the town of Wexford. A despe- \nrate attack, which they made upon New Eoss, was repulsed with the \nloss of a thousand of their number; during which, two hundred \nProtestant prisoners were brutally massacred by certain ruffians. A \ndivision of the English army was defeated near Gorey, but the insur- \ngents, twenty -seven thousand in number, were repulsed in Wicklow \nby a small force under General Needham, and their leader, Father \nMurphy, was killed by a cannon-ball. The English forces being \nfinally concentrated, the insurgent army was defeated and dispersed \nat Vinegar-hill, their chief station, and war, in effect, thus ended. \nDuring this contest the Irish Catholics had murdered several \nhundred of their Protestant prisoners. But a far greater amount of \nbutchery \xe2\x80\x94 accompanied, too, by studied and deliberate tortures \xe2\x80\x94 lies \nat the door of their foreign and Protestant conquerors. \n\nGeneral Humbert, with about a thousand French, landed at Con- \nnaught in August, 1798, and was joined by a portion of the peasantry. \nBeing surrounded by Lord Cornwallis, with a large army, he was \ncompelled to surrender, and the insurrection was thus finally crushed, \nafter the loss of fifty thousand lives, and an immense destruction \nof property. \n\nThe government now began to feel the necessity of union or \nextermination ; and Lord Castlereagh, to whom the affair was com- \nmitted, succeeded, by the most open and shameless bribery, in \npassing a bill for the former through the Irish parliament, and in \nMarch, 1800, the national existence of Ireland was effectually \nterminated. \n\nThe British arms had, in the interval, gained some brilliant \nsuccesses at sea. Nelson, in 1798, attacked the French squadron \nwhich had lately conveyed Napoleon and his forces to Egypt, and \ngained a complete victory in the Bay of Aboukir. An expedition \nto Holland, however, in the following year, commanded by the duke \nof York, met with a most disgraceful failure. In 1801, Mr. Pitt, \nunable to redeem his pledges to the Catholics, went out of office, and \nhis place was taken by Mr. Addington, who was, however, supposed \nto be only a puppet, moved by the retired minister. In the same \n\n\n\n\nTHt: DUXE Oh\' WELLINGTON. \n\n\n\nAHrniifi Wjsllesley, Duke of Wellington, -was "born in the county of Meatb, \nin Ireland, on the first of May, 1769. His professional education was commenced \nat a very early period, and he entered the army as an ensign at the age of \neighteen. The high military reputation \\vhich he acquired in Indian "warfare, \nwas sustained and widely extended by his Tenn.ark,ah]e achievements in the \nPenin.sular war, and, less deservedly, hy the victory of Waterloo, \xe2\x96\xa0which British \npanegyrists are accustomed to attribute entirely to his talents \n\nSince the general peace, he has always taken an active part in political affairs, \nand has generally been found at the head, or in the ranks, of the ultra tcries \nVery recently, at the advanced age of eighty-one, the settlement of the British \nCabinet was again placed in his hands; and his advice to the Queen, of recalling \nher moderate whig minister, Lord John Russell, was adopted \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n713 \n\n\n\nyear, Nelson, after a terrible battle at Copenbagen, defeated the \nDanes, who bad resisted tbe long-disputed "right of search" claimed \nby England. In March, 1802, General Abercrombie, in Egypt, \ndefeated a portion of the French arm}\', and compelled the remainder \nto surrender on honourable terms. Napoleon, having utterly routed \nthe Austrians, made great preparations the same year for the inva- \nsion of England. Equal enthusiasm was manifested for its defence ; \nbut in March, a treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, by which \nEngland restored a portion of her conquests. Her national debt \nhad again been terribly augmented. \n\nThe treacherous and perfidious conduct of the English ministry, \nin refusing to comply with the terms of the treaty, reawakened hos- \ntilities. By an equal act of perfidy, anticipating war, they issued \nsecret orders \xe2\x80\x94 to seize all colonies of the French, and laid an \nembargo on their vessels. Napoleon retaliated by imprisoning all \nBritish subjects within his territories, and war was recommenced. \nTo meet the crisis, Pitt again assumed the premiership, in May, 1804, \njust as Napoleon was proclaimed emperor at Paris. A brilliant \nvictory soon strengthened the new administration. Admiral Nel- \nson, who had long been in search of the enemy, finally, on the 12th \nof October, 1805, encountered the combined French and Spanish \nfleets, under Yilleneuve, off Cape Trafalgar. With twenty-seven \nsail of the line, he completely defeated thirty-three. Nineteen of \nthem were taken, but the British admiral, having won the most sig- \nnal naval victory on record, died from the effect of a wound which \nhe received in the action. \n\nIn January of the following year, expired Pitt himself, worn out \nwith care, anxiety, and excess. This celebrated statesman died in \nhis forty-seventh year, after a life chiefly spent in office, and labori- \nously devoted to the service of his country. His genius and integrity \nno one can question ; but from an error common to the entire party \nwhich he represented, Great Britain was plunged into ruinous wars, \nand a terribly increased burden was laid upon posterity. \n\nThe king, in spite of his antipathy to Mr. Fox, was compelled to \nappoint a new ministry, of which that gentleman was the chief. \nDuring his brief period of power, this great man exerted himself \nstrenuously to procure a peace, and to secure the abolition of the \nAfrican slave-trade. Death, however, closed his brilliant and patriotic \ncareer, and in a few months after his elevation, he reposed by the side \nof his great rival and predecessor in "Westminster Abbey. \n\n\n\n714 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHis favourite and philanthropic measure (against the slave-trade) \nwas carried out by his party; but, having in 1807 introduced \na bill for the relief of the Catholics, the ministry were dismissed \nfrom office, and their places supplied from the opposite party. Cas- \ntlereagh, Canning, Percival, and Eldon were the most prominent \nmembers of the new administration, which, owing to the prejudice \nagainst Catholicism, commanded a great majority. \n\nNapoleon, whose influence, after the conquest of Prussia, extended \nover all continental Europe, had declared the British islands to be \nin a state of blockade, and succeeded partially in preventing inter- \ncourse. The ministry, fearing lest he should seize upon the naval \nresources of Denmark, sent a piratical expedition against that power, \nwhich was unsuspicious of hostilities, took possession of her fleet, \nand captured a great number of her merchant vessels. This atrocious \nact excited the indignation of every civilized nation. \n\nIn 1808 an expedition of considerable force was despatched to \nPortugal, to operate against the French. Sir Arthur Wellesley \n(afterwards Lord Wellington), with sixteen thousand troops, defeated \nJunot, the French commander, at Yimiero, and, by agreement, the \nFrench evacuated Portugal. On the 16th of January, 1809, Sir John \nMoore, with fourteen thousand men, repelled a furious attack of \nMarshal Soult, with a superior force, at Corunna, but lost his life in \nthe engagement. Operations were much hampered by the folly of \nthe ministry, which undertook to plan campaigns, and thus discon- \ncerted the schemes of their ablest commanders. On the 27th of \nJuly, 1810, a terrible battle was fought at Talavera, between "Wel- \nlington and Victor, the French army being fifty thousand in number, \nand the British and Spaniards about the same. Seven thousand \nmen were slain on each side without any very decisive result. \n\nOn the same day, an expedition of forty thousand men sailed for \nHolland, but met with no success, the greater number perishing on \nthe pestilential island of Walcheren. \n\nIn the same year, the king experienced another attack of insanity, \nfrom which he never recovered. His son George was made regent, \nand, deserting his old friends the Whigs, retained the Tory ministry. \n\nHostile operations were still carried on with great vigour in Spain \nand Portugal, and at Busaco, Albuera, and other fields of battle, \nboth parties wasted their forces in indecisive engagements. At \nlength, in 1812, the attention of Napoleon being engrossed by \napproaching hostilities with Eussia, Wellington commenced an active \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 7]^5 \n\ncampaign. He took by storm the strong cities of Ciudad Kodrigo \nand Badajoz, defeated Marmont, who lost twelve thousand men, and \nentered Madrid itself He was, however, soon compelled to retire \ninto Portugal. Being largely reinforced and supplied, he was at last \nplaced in the supreme command over the allied forces, and in 1818, \ndefeating Joseph Buonaparte at Vittoria, expelled the French from \nthe Peninsula. The fall of Napoleon, overpowered by the northern \nallies, and his first abdication in 1814, soon followed, the British \narmy at the same time entering France from the south. \n\nIn 1812 the American government, unable to obtain redress for \nthe impressment of its seamen, and for other grievances, had \ndeclared war. In that year, an American army, under General Hull, \nattempting the invasion of Canada, was compelled, through the \nincapacity of their leader, to surrender to an inferior force. At sea \nand on the lakes the Americans gained brilliant successes, and proved \nthe naval character of Britain to be less invincible than had been \ngenerally supposed. In 1813 the advantage in naval conflicts still \ncontinued with America, the British meeting more success on land. \nIn the following year a large force, under Greneral Ross, sailed up \nthe Chesapeake, defeated the militia called out to oppose them, \nand destroyed all the public buildings in the city of Washington. \nToward the close of the year, the British arms experienced a signal \nreverse. General Pakenham, with a large force, making an attack \non the city of New Orleans, was utterly defeated by General Jack- \nson, the American commander. Exposed to a terrible fire from the \nAmerican intrenchments, the invading force was compelled to \nretreat, leaving on the field their leader, and more than two thou- \nsand of the Peninsular veterans, who had lately been transferred to \nthis service. Peace was concluded the same year. \n\nIn 1815 occurred the return of Napoleon, his brief and brilliant \nsecond career, and the final extinguishment of his power on the \nfield of Waterloo. After his fall, he sought the hospitalit}^ of Eng- \nland, and found it in the island-prison of St, Helena, where he \nsurvived for a few miserable years. \n\nA general peace, in which the allied powers partitioned Europe at \ntheir will, succeeded. The condition of England, exhausted by the \nlong contest, was miserable, and frequent riots and local insurrections \nwere caused by the sufferings of the poorer classes. \n\nThe king, whom blindness, insanity, and age, had long deprived \nof all that renders life desirable, expired on the 29th of January, \n\n\n\n716 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\n1820, in the eiglity-second. year of his age, after a reign of nearly \nsixty years, the longest in the annals of the nation. The temperate \nand domestic private character of this monarch secured him the \nrespect and affection of his subjects, although his incapacity, obsti- \nnacy, and bigotry caused them incalculable injuries. \n\nDuring this long and troubled reign, which seemed to connect two \ndifferent ages of the world, the most important changes had occurred \nin almost every political relation of England. Her territorial pos- \nsessions had greatly increased, and in particular, almost the whole \nof India had been brought under subjection to her government. \n\n\n\nGEORGE lY., WILLIAM IT., AND VICTORIA. \n\nOn the death of his father, the prince-regent, under the title of \nGeorge IV., ascended the throne. His queen, Caroline of Bruns- \nwick, from whom he had long been separated, now returned from \nItaly, and claimed her title and conjugal rights. To gratify the \nking\'s aversion and evade her claims, it was resolved to bring her \nto trial on a charge of conjugal infidelity; and evidence of the \nbasest character was accordingly sought out. So great, however, \nwas her popularity, and so questionable the proof alleged against her, \nthat the ministry were compelled, in the midst of the trial, to with- \ndraw their charges ; a measure which was regarded by the people as \na triumphal acquittal. She died soon afterwards, overcome with \ngrief and mortification. \n\nLord Liverpool, who had for some time been premier, was suc- \nceeded in 1827 by George Canning, the brilliant and accomplished \norator, who, however, expired, after holding ofl&ce only four months. \nIn 1828, the duke of Wellington filled the same responsible office. \nThe odious test act was repealed ; and in 1829 a bill for the emanci- \npation of the Catholics was introduced by the ministry, who saw no \nother means of preserving order in Ireland. Supported by "Welling- \nton and Sir Eobert Peel, it was passed by a majority of an hundred \nand five, in spite of the strenuous opposition of the more bigoted or \ninterested adherents of the church. \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2QUEEN VICTORIA \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 717 \n\nGeorge IV. expired on the 2-ith of June, 1830, in the sixty-eighth \nyear of his age and the tenth of his reign. This prince, though \nhighly popular in his youth, and always distinguished by the \nurbanity of his manners, has left an unenviable reputation for selfish- \nness, sensuality, and meanness in his private life, and for want of \nfaithfulness and magnanimity in his public career. \n\nHis brother, the duke of Clarence, succeeded him under the title \nof William lY. He had been long in the navy, and was rather \ndistinguished by a sailor-like frankness and openness of disposition, \nthan by any decided talent for government. The second French \nRevolution, which broke out just as he ascended the throne, pro- \nduced a strong desire in England for the extension of popular rights. \nThe Whigs, supported by the general feeling, came into office, and \nEarl Grrey was placed at the head of the new ministry. The bill \nwhich he introduced for the reform of parliament, met with the \nmost furious opposition from the Tory party. It provided for the \nrepresentation of many large towns and other places which had \nheretofore been exckided, and abolished a great number of "rotten \nboroughs," which had been exclusively under the control of the \naristocracy. By this measure, which was passed in 1832, the voice \nof the people, though still only partially heard, gained a great \naccession of strength and authority. \n\nDuring the brief reign of William IV. other most important \nm.easures were carried: the emancipation of slaves in the colonies, \nthe amendment of the poor laws, and similar acts of a liberal nature. \nHe died on the 20th of June, 1837, and was succeeded by his niece, \nVictoria, daughter of the duke of Kent, (third son of George III.,) \nand the present sovereign of Great Britain. \n\nWith the principal events of her reign hitherto, most persons are \nsufficiently familiar. Great Britain, though generally preserving a \npacific attitude towards the continental nations of Europe, has car- \nried on an extensive and protracted warfare in the East. The \nhostilities witk the warlike nations west of India, in which at times \nher forces suffered materially, and those with China, in which that \nancient empire was compelled to submit to the most onerous and \nhumiliating conditions of peace, have been the chief events of great \nimportance in her foreign relations. Though anxious, as ever, to \npreserve the so-called "balance of power" among the European \nstates, her government has, in a great measure, relinquished the \nspirit of dictation and intermeddling which so often has involved her \n\n\n\n718 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nin hostilities, and thrown such heavy burdens on posterity. Her \npresent policy appears to be one of conciliation and non-interference, \na result due partly to the more enlightened spirit of the present age, \nand partly to the obstacles which embarrassed finance, and the fear \nof popular outbreak, would present to the success of any important or \nprotracted contest. The domestic policy of England has also under- \ngone the most material modifications. The duties upon grain and \nother articles of general consumption have been repealed or essen- \ntially lightened, under the untiring and patriotic exertions of the \nLeague. Other relaxations in the more obnoxious features of her \nsystem have also taken place, the leaders of the Conservative party \nseeing the absolute necessity of a concession to popular feeling. A \nvery material extension of the right of suffrage is proposed, and will \ndoubtless, at no distant day, be carried into effect. \n\nThe few last months have witnessed with amazement a strange \nrevival of the Anti-Catholic excitement. An apostolical letter of \nthe Pope of Eome, constituting a cardinal and other ecclesiastical \ndignitaries within the queen\'s dominions, has awakened a perfect \nstorm of indignation among the zealous Protestants and church party. \nThe most exciting meetings have been held, and addresses to the \nqueen, couched in the strongest language, have been voted. In \ncompliance with this strange spirit of alarm and displeasure, a bill \nhas been introduced into parliament, which, though materially cur- \ntailed of its most oppressive features, nevertheless provides a con- \nsiderable penalty for the assumption of ecclesiastical titles conferred \nby the Pope and derived from English localities. \n\nGreat Britain presents, at the present moment, the singular \nspectacle of a nation controlling the most extensive dominions, dis- \nplaying the highest magnificence and the most lavish expenditure, \nyet deeply involved in debt, and perhaps liable to suffer great \nconvulsions from any trifling cause which might increase the pres- \nsure upon her suffering operatives. That gradual amelioration, in \npreference to sudden, disastrous, and perhaps fruitless revolution, \nmay be her fate, is the hope and belief of the most wise and benevo- \nlent politicians. No American, who regards at its due value, the \nglorious heritage of heroism, genius, and national spirit which this \ncountry has inherited from England, can wish otherwise than that \nthis splendid nationality, purified from its corruptions, and expanded \nby perfect freedom, may yet emerge into more real greatness and \nmore universal prosperity than it has ever yet experienced. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. 719 \n\n\n\nTHE RULERS OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nThe Romans, b. c. 55toa.d.420 \n\nThe Britons and their Saxon invaders, .... a. d.420 " 584 \nThe Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, 584 " 827 \n\nANGLO-SAXON KINGS. \n\nEgbert, 827 " 836 \n\nEthelwulf, son of Egbert, 836 " 858 \n\nEthelbald, son of Ethelwulf, 858 " 860 \n\nEthelbert, son of Ethelwulf, 860 \xc2\xab 866 \n\nEthered, son of Ethelwulf, . . . . . . . 866 " 871 \n\nAlfred the Great, son of Ethelwulf, 871 " 901 \n\nEdward I, son of Alfred, 901 " 925 \n\nAthelstan, son of Edward I., 925 " 940 \n\nEdmund I, son of Edward L, 940 " 946 \n\nEdred, son of Edward I., 946 " 955 \n\nEdwy (the Fair), son of Edmund I., 955 " 959 \n\nEdgiir, son of Edmund I., . , . . . . . . 959 \xc2\xab 975 \n\nEdward II. (the Martyr), son of Edgar, . . . . . 975 " 978 \n\nEthelred, son of Edgar, 978 \xc2\xab 1016 \n\nEdward II. (Ironside), son of Ethelred, 1016 " 1017 \n\nDANISH KINGS. \n\nCanute, an Invader, 1017 " 1035 \n\nHarold (Harefoot), son of Canute, . . . . . . 1035 " 1040 \n\nHardacnute, son of Canute, ; . . 1040 " 1042 \n\nANGLO-SAXON KINGS. \n\nEdward III. (the Confessor), son of Ethelred, . \n\nHarold II., son of Godwin, earl of Wessex, . . . . \n\nANGLO-NORMAN KINGS. \n\nWilliam I. (the Conqueror), son of Robert duke of Normandy, \n\nWilliam II. (Rufus) son of William I., \n\nHenry I. (Beauclerc), son of William I., . \n\nStephen, grandson of William I. by his daughter Adela, \n\nTHE PLANTAGENETS. \n\nHenry II., grandson of Henry I., by his daughter Matilda, . \n\nRichard I. (Coeur de Lion), son of Henry II., \n\nJohn (Lackland), son of Henry II., . . . . \n\n\n\n1042 \n\n\n<( \n\n\n1066 \n\n\n\n\n1066 \n\n\n1066 \n\n\n(( \n\n\n1087 \n\n\n1087 \n\n\n(1 \n\n\n1100 \n\n\n1100 \n\n\nu \n\n\n1135 \n\n\n1135 \n\n\nu \n\n\n1154 \n\n\n1154 \n\n\nu \n\n\n1189 \n\n\n1189 \n\n\n" \n\n\n1199 \n\n\n1199 \n\n\n(( \n\n\n1216 \n\n\n\n720 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHenry ni., son of John, . from 1216 to 1272 \n\nEdward I. (Longshanks), son of Henry HI., . . . . 1272 \xc2\xab 1307 \n\nEdward II., son of Edward I., 1307 " 1327 \n\nEdward HI., son of Edward II., 1327 " 1377 \n\nRichard II., grandson of Edward III., by Edward the Black Prince, 1377 " 1399 \n\nHOUSE OF LANCASTER. \n\nHenry IV., grandson of Edward III., by John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, his fourth son, 1399 " 1413 \n\nHenry V., son of Henry IV., 1413 \xc2\xab 1422 \n\nHenry VI., son of Henry V., 1422 \xc2\xab 1461 \n\nHOUSE OF TORK. \n\nEdward IV., the fifth in descent from Lionel duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., . 1461 " 1483 \n\nEdward V., son of Edward IV., 1483 \n\nRichard III., brother of Edward IV., 1483 " 1485 \n\nHOUSE OF TUDOR. \n\nHenry Vn., a descendant ofJohnofGaunt, fourth son of Edward in., . . . 1485 " 1509 \n\nHenry Vffl., son of Henry VII., . . . . . . 1509 \xc2\xab 1547 \n\nEdward VI., son of Henry VIII., 1547 \xc2\xab 1553 \n\nMary, daughter of Henry VIII., 1553 \xc2\xab 1558 \n\nElizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., 1558 " 1603 \n\nHOUSE OF STUART. \n\nJames I. (VI. of Scotland), great-grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry vn., . . 1603 " 1625 \n\nCharles I., son of James I., 1625 \xc2\xab 1649 \n\nThe Commonwealth, 1649 " 1653 \n\nThe Protectorate, Oliver Cromwell, 1653 " 1658 \n\nThe Protectorate, Richard Cromwell, 1658 " 1659 \n\nInterregnum, 1659 " 1660 \n\nCharles II., son of Charles I., 1660 \xc2\xab 1685 \n\nJames II., son of Charles I., 1685 " 1688 \n\nhouse of orange and STUART. \n\n( William III., son of Mary, daughter of Charles I., ) ^\xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\x9eo \xc2\xab \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0 f>r> . \n\nJOINT REIGN OF <,. tt j i .. i- t tt >1688 " 1694 \n\n^ Mary II., daughter 01 James 11., ) \n\nWilliam m 1694 \xc2\xab 1702 \n\nAnne, daughter of James H., 1702 \xc2\xab 1714 \n\nhouse of HANOVER. \n\nGeorge I., son of Sophia of Hanover, niece of Charles I., . .1714 " 1727 \n\nGeorge II., son of George I., 1727 \xc2\xab 1760 \n\nGeorge III., grandson of George II., 1760 \xc2\xab 1820 \n\nGeorge IV., son of George IE., 1820 " 1830 \n\nWilliam IV., son of George III., 1830 \xc2\xab 1837 \n\nVictoria, grand-daughter of George III., 1837 " \n\n\n\n\n\nDanish Costaraea. \n\n\n\n\n\nCostume of the Swedes \n\n\n\nSWEDEN AID IOE\xc2\xa5AI. \n\n\n\nThese countries, forming tne great Scandinavian Peninsula, are \nnow, though, with separate constitutions and legislatures, united \nunder a single sovereign. Originally peopled by the same race as \nthe ancestors of the Finns and Laplanders, they were, at an early \nperiod, occupied by the Gothic and other Germanic tribes. The \nfamous Odin, (rather a mythological than an historical character,) \nremoving from Denmark to Sweden, became the founder of the first \nroyal dynasty of that country, (the Ynglingar,) which was succeeded \nby the Ifwarian^ reigning until the middle of the tenth century. \n\nIn Norway, the famous Harold Harfagar (the "Fair-haired"), in \n875, reduced the various principalities of that country under his \nsole sway. Other dynasties succeeded in Sweden, but in 1897, both \nkingdoms were united under Margaret of Denmark, who had mar- \nried a Norwegian prince. The Danish rule continued, for the most \npart, until 1521, when Gustavus Vasa ascended the independent \nthrone of Sweden. His grandson, the celebrated Gustavus Adol- \nphus, who came to the throne in 1611, acquired great renown by \nthe wars which he waged in Germany for the support of the \nProtestant religion. Under his generalship, the Swedish nation \nacquired the first military reputation in Europe, and its power and \nterritory were greatly extended. His daughter Christina, who in 1633, \nat the age of only seven, succeeded to the throne, proved a woman of \nthe most masculine energy, both of body and mind ; and, on attain- \ning the sovereignty, governed the nation with considerable success \nand intelligence. "Weary of the cares of royalty, in 1654 she \nresigned the crown, and for several years led a life of strange caprice \nand eccentricity in various European capitals. The private execu- \ntion, or rather the murder of her chamberlain, Monaldeschi, has \nstamped her character as deeply sanguinary and unprincipled. \n\nAfter the reigns of Charles X. and Charles XI,, (nephew and \n46 \n\n\n\n722 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\ngrand-nepliew of Adolphus) succeeded Charles XII., the most famous \nname in Swedish history (1697). He came to the throne at the age \nof eighteen, and was speedily involved in war with the neighbour- \ning powers. His military genius enabled him to achieve the most \nastonishing successes, and for a time, fully to support the renown of \nGustavus Adolphus. Poland, Denmark, and other hostile nations \nwere speedily overcome, and the victor dictated terms in their very \ncapitals. Eussia, whose ambitious sovereign (Peter the Great) was \neagerly desirous of obtaining a footing on the shores of the Baltic, \nwas at first disgracefully repulsed and defeated ; but by continued \nperseverance and improvement in the art of war, the czar finally \nattained his object. By gradual movements, he continued to extend \nhis territories, and the city of St, Petersburg, his new and splendid \ncapital, soon arose amid the swampy and inhospitable regions which \nhe had acquired. \n\nIn 1707, Charles, with an army of forty-five thousand men, which \nhe commanded in person, and with a lesser force, under his general, \nLewenhaupt, invaded the- Russian empire, declaring his intention of \ntreating for peace only in the city of Moscow. Peter retreated \nbefore him, laying waste the country as he went; and the Swedish \narmy, after a brilliant commencement of the campaign, was reduced \nto extremities from the want of supplies. An injudicious march \ninto the Ukraine, where Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cos- \nsacks had promised to join them, produced further misfortunes. \nThe Cossacks refused to transfer their allegiance, and the invader, \nafter marching through the desolate wastes of the Ukraine; exposed \nto all the horrors of a Russian winter, finally, with his army dimin- \nished to eighteen thousand men, sat down before the Russian fortress \nof Pultowa. \n\nThe czar, with a force nearly three times as great, hastened to \nattack him (June 15th, 1709). The Swedes fought with all their \naccustomed bravery ; but, exhausted and outnumbered, were defeated \nand almost annihilated on the field of battle. The unfortunate \nCharles fled into Turkey, where for five years he remained a miser- \nable exile, dependant on the protection of the Sultan. He finally \nreturned to his kingdom, and, with the aid of his faithful subjects, \nmade fresh efforts to withstand the encroachments of his rivals. \nHe also undertook the conquest of Norway, and in 1718, was \nkilled by a cannon-shot, while besieging the little fortification of \nFrederickstadt. \n\n\n\n\nJENNY LIND, \n\n\n\nTHE GREATEST SINGEH. OF MOnERN TIMES, \n\n\n\nWas "born in the city of Stockhoina, in comparatively humble circumstancee \nHer admirable command of voice, at the age of five or six, attracted the \nattention of a Swedish actress, and she "was placed under the care of Berg, a \nmost skilful musician, at the Musical School attached to the P^oyal Theatre \nHer first distinguished success was at Berlin, in the year 1842 or 1843 Her \nreputation at once became Continental, and from that time she has achieved \na succession of brj\'liant triumphs in Europe, Great Britain, and America. She \nis uncLuestionably the most popular public performer who has appeared within \nthe memory of man \xe2\x80\x94 and deservedly, her wonderful talent in music being \nfully equalled by her generosity and kindness of heart \n\n\n\n\nBERNADOTTE \n\n\n\nJean-Bap iisrE-JoLES-BERNADOi\'TT? was born at Pau, January 2Gth, 176-1. His \nfather was an attorney. By distinguished "bravei\'y, he rose to he a Marshal of \nFrance under the empire; and on the dethronement oi\' Gustavus IV. of Sweden, \nwas elected C\'l\'own Prince of Sweden, of which, under the title of Charles SIV., \nin 1818, he heoame king. OflFended hy the arbitrary conduct of Napoleon, he \nJoined the hostile alliance of Prussia and Austria, and used his influence and \nmilitary skill against his former master After the fall of the latter, he ruled \npeaceably under the Russian protection, and at his death leit hi.\'^ crown to his \nson Osc?ir \n\n\n\nSWEDEN AND NOEWAY. 723 \n\n"His foil was destined to a barren strand, \nA petty fortress and a dubious hand; \nHe left the name at which the world grew pale \nTo point a moral, or adorn a tale." \n\nThe career of Eussian aggrandizement continued, and fresh, provin- \nces, wrung from Sweden, were added to the empire. During several \nreigns, the influence of the stronger nation grew so predominant, \nthat the pohcy of Sweden has latterly become almost entirely sub- \nservient to that of Eussia, and the country itself, little more than a \nprovince of its imperial rival. \n\nThe most remarkable event in Swedish history, of late years, is \nthe accession of a French soldier of fortune to the throne of that \ndistant and northern kingdom. In 1810, the nation, through the \nsudden death of the heir presumptive to the throne, found itself \nobliged to seek out some person of sufficient talent and reputation \nto sustain the weight of government. Marshal Bernadotte, distin- \nguished in the service of Napoleon, had acquired the good- will of a \nportion of the Swedish army by his generous conduct in the late \nhostilities; and was accordingly, by the reluctant consent of Napo- \nleon, appointed crown-prince, with the real sovereignty of the nation. \n\nThe resolute maintenance of the independence of his kingdom \nwas, no doubt, honourable to his feelings, but his concurrence with \nthe allied powers in plotting the overthrow of France, and the per- \nsonal part which he took in hostilities against the country of his \nbirth, must always attach to his name a degree of opprobrium. In \n1814, the sovereignty of Norway was formally annexed to that of \nSweden, and in 1818, by the death of the king, (Charles XIII.,) \nBernadotte assumed the crown, (which had already in reality been \nhis,) under the title of Charles XIY. He died in 1844, and was \nsucceeded by his son Oscar, the present sovereign, a prince, it is \nsaid, of amiable and enlightened character. \n\n\n\nITALY \n\n\n\nAfter the dethronement o\xc2\xb1 Augustulus and the destruction of the \n"Western Eoman empire, (A. T>. 476,) the victorious Odoacer, chief \nof the Heruli, assumed the title of King of Italy, and for fourteen \nyears held possession of the country. In 490, Theodoric, the famous* \nking of the Ostrogoths, by agreement with Zeno, emperor of the \nEastern Koman empire, invaded Italy, defeated Odoacer in three \nbattles, and was proclaimed as sovereign in his stead. At the death of \nthe Gothic prince, in 526, the Emperor Justinian, anxious to recover \nthe ancient seat of empire, despatched into Italy his generals Narses \nand the famous Belisarius, who, after a struggle of eighteen years, \nsucceeded in wresting it from the invaders, and for a brief period \nreuniting it to the empire. In the year 568, the Lombards, a power- \nful German tribe from the Elbe, invaded northern Italy, and gained \npossession of that fertile region, since called, from the name of its \nnew masters, Lombardy. \n\nOther conquests followed, and Eome itself was only saved by the \ninterference of the warlike Pepin (the Short), king of France, who, at \nthe intercession of the Pope, repelled the German invaders, and \ncompelled them to cede to his Holiness those territories which have \nformed the foundation of the States of the Church and the origin of \nthe temporal power of the Papal See. Lombardy, soon after, was \nconquered by Charlemagne, whose devotion to the church increased \nthe power of the pontificate yet farther. Sicily and Lower Italy \nremained provinces of the Eastern empire until 842, when that island \nand Calabria fell for a time into the hands of the Saracens. The \nnumber and frequent political changes of the various principalities \ninto which the Italian peninsula has, for many centuries, been \ndivided, forbid any thing more than a brief survey of the fortunes \nof the most distinguished. \n\nThe wonderful political and ecclesiastical career of the long sue- \n\n\n\n\n\nItalian Costumes \n\n\n\n\n\nItalian Costume \n\n\n\nITALY. 725 \n\ncession of pontiffs wlio have filled the chair of St. Peter, presents a \nsingular instance of the success of bold spiritual assumption over \nignorant and superstitious force. Their fierce and protracted con- \ntests with the imperial power of Germany, (briefly described in \nthe account of that country,) in despite of temporary defeat and \nhumiliation, usually resulted in an increase of the papal haughtiness \nand dictatorial power. The power of disposing of crowns and sov- \nereignties was arrogated in the most impudent, and, owing to the \nslavish mental subjection of Europe, often in the most successful \nmanner. The spirited resistance of Philip IV. of France, early in \nthe fourteenth century gave the first check to this insolent and \ndomineering spirit; the self-will, greediness, and impatience of Henry \nVIII. of England, struck a yet heavier blow at the papal supremacy ; \nand the Great Reformation, commenced by Luther, which immedi- \nately followed, for ever prostrated the European dictation so long \nendured from the Roman pontificate. \n\nWhile the spiritual and civil liberties of mankind were strictly \nproscribed by the Popes, they still, by their munificent patronage \nof art and letters, greatly assisted in the advancement of taste and \nrefinement. Genius and successful innovation (in every department \nexcept politics and theology) were most liberally encouraged and \nrewarded. The names of Petrarch, of Raphael, of Michael Angelo, \nand a host of other luminaries, will always attest the merits of the \nPapal See, in promoting the revival of art, of science, and of litera- \nture. The noted exception in the case of Galileo only illustrates \nthe rule \xe2\x80\x94 an ecclesiastical dogma being found sufficient to outweigh \nthe most noble and enfranchising discoveries which the genius of \nphilosophy could effect. \n\nThe magnificent church of St. Peter\'s, " the most glorious structure \nthat has ever been applied to the use of religion," yet remains the \nproudest monument of the power and resources of the Holy See. The \nerection of this wonderful edifice occupied the reigns and absorbed \nthe spare revenues of seventeen successive Popes. The first stone \nwas laid in 1506, by Julius II., and the front completed by Paul V. \nan hundred and fifteen years afterwards ; yet even then it was not \nperfected, and immense sums have subsequently been lavished \nupon its accessaries and adornments. Two hundred and sixty-five \nyears were requisite for its entire completion, and during that time \nnearly an hundred millions of dollars have been expended upon the \nwork. The zealous Protestant, while viewing the magnificence of \n\n\n\n726 \'^^^ PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \n\na structure witla wliicli none erected by his own cliurcli can compete, \nfeels a certain satisfaction in the reflection that, to supply the requi- \nsite treasures, indulgences were vended, Luther was aroused, and \nthe Great Reformation rolled in, and swept away the power and pre- \ndominance of which this splendid striicture is now but a memorial. \n\nThe beautiful kingdom of Naples, occupying the southern extrem- \nity of Italy, was, at a very early period, settled by Grecian colonists, \nwho founded, among others, the famous cities of Crotona, Sybaris, and \nNaples \xe2\x80\x94 the latter of which is still the capital of Southern Italy. It \nwas an important and favourite portion of the Roman empire ; after \nthe fall of which, it came successively under the sway of the Goths, \nthe Greek emperors, and the invading Saracens. In the year 1016, \nand for some time afterwards, the roving warriors of Normandy \nflocked to this delightful region, expelled the Saracens, and extended \ntheir conquests over the greater part of Sicily and Lower Italy. \nRoger II. of Hauteville (their principal house) was crowned by the \nPope as "King of the two Sicilies." \n\nWith the extinction of the male line of this family, it came by \nmarriage under the imperial house of Hohenstaufen, with which it \nremained until the middle of the thirteenth century, when by arms \nand the papal influence, Charles of Anjou (brother of Louis IX. \nof France) gained possession of Lower Italy. \n\nAt the death of Joanna II., the last of this line, in 1442, it fell \nunder the sway of Alphonso Y., King of Sicily and Arragon ; his \nnatural son Ferdinand succeeded to the acquisition; and in 1503 \nNaples and Sicily were reunited under a single sovereign. They \ncontinued to form a part of the Spanish dominions nntil 1714, when \nby treaty they were surrendered to Austria. Twenty years after- \nwards they were regained by Spain, and in 1759, were erected into \nan independent sovereignty under Ferdinand, a younger son of the \nroyal family of that country. The kingdom of Naples, soon after the \nGreat Revolution, was included by the French in their Italian con- \nquests, and Napoleon in 1806 bestowed the crown upon his brother \nJoseph. In 1808, the celebrated Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, \nwas placed upon the throne, and by his enlightened and liberal \nadministration became justly popular with his subjects. The bril- \nliant and successful military career of this extraordinary man, aud \nhis melancholy fate, have been elsewhere described. In attempting, \nin emulation of Napoleon, with a few attendants, to regain his king- \ndom, (which he had lost on the success of the allies,) he was captured, \n\n\n\n\nMURAT. \n\n.IdACHiM Mdrat, Marshal of France and King of Naples;, w:\\,s torn in huml\'io \n"iiie in 1767 at the little village of Bastide. In attempting to regain his thron--. \nniter che fall of Napoleon, he was taken on the coast of Calabria, and shot, Octo- \nber 13th, 1815, by order of the Neapolitan governnient \n\n"And thou, too, of the sno\'w-\'white plume, \n"Whose realm denied thee even a tomb ! \nBetter thou hadst fallen "while leading \nFrance o\'er hosts of liirelings bleeding, \nThau Fold thyself to death and -shame \nFor a meanly royal nanae. \n\n\n\nThere, where death\'s brief piang was quickest. \nWhere the battle\'s wreck lay thickest. \nWhere the broken line enlarging, \n\nFell, or fled across the plain \xe2\x80\x94 \nThere, be sun\'e, was Murat charging! \n\nThere he ne\'er shall charge again " \n\nFROM THB FRENCH \n\n\n\nITALY. 727 \n\nand suffered military execution by order of tlie contemptible Ferdi- \nnand, who bad been restored by foreign arms to tbe throne. \n\nThe ancient and wonderful maritime republic of Yenice, after au \nexistence of twelve hundred years, succumbed before the victorious \narms of Napoleon; and since his fall has been, with other Italian \nstates, under the hated and tyrannical sway of Austria. Her origin \nand duration were alike remarkable. \n\n" * * * * A few in fear, \nFlying away from him whose boast it was* \nThat the grass grew not where his horse had trod, \nGave birth to Venice. Like the water-fowl, \nThey built their nests amid the ocean waves ; \nAnd where the sands were shifting, as the wind \nBlew from the north, the south; where they that came \nHad to make sure the ground they stood upon. \nRose, like an exhalation from the deep, \nA vast metropolis, with glittering spires, \nWith theatres, basilicas adorned; \nA scene of light and glory, a dominion \nWhich has endured the longest among men. \n\nThrough many an age in the mid sea she dwelt, \nFrom her retreat calmly contemplating \nThe changes of the earth, herself unchanged. \nBefore her passed, as in an awful dream. \nThe mightiest of the mighty. What are these \nClothed in their purple 1 o\'er the globe they fling \nTheir monstrous shadows; and while yet we speak. \nPhantom-like, vanish with a dreadful scream! \nWhat \xe2\x80\x94 but the last that styled themselves the Caesars \n\n* * * * followed fast by shapes \n\nAs new and strange, Emperor, and King, and Czar, \nAnd Soldan, each with a gigantic stride \nTrampling on all the flourishing works of peace, \nTo make his greatness greater, and inscribe \nHis name in blood, * * among the rest, \nLo, one by one, passing continually, \nThose who assume a sway beyond them all. \nMen gray with age, each in a triple crown. \nAnd in his tremulous hands grasping the keys \nThat can alone, as he would signify. \nUnlock Heaven\'s gate." \xe2\x80\x94 ^Rogers\'s Italy. \n\n* Attila. \n\n\n\n728 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nItaly has had even more than its share of the pohtical and revo- \nlutionary contests by which Europe, during the past few years, has \nbeen convulsed; and here, unfortunately, as elsewhere, the efforts \nof the people for the cause of freedom have been suppressed by for- \neign policy and foreign bayonets. YenicC; after a resistance against \nher Austrian tyrants, which merited a better fate, has been reduced \nrather by famine than by arms ; her depopulated streets, and hastily- \nemigrating citizens, at the present moment, furnishing the best \ncomment on the nature of that "paternal despotism" which has been \nso often lauded by the admirers of Austrian usurpation, \n\nNaples and Sicily, by an ill-concerted and premature movement, \nhave gained only a fresh accession of tyranny. The defeat of Sar- \ndinia, the forced abdication of her patriotic sovereign, and the \nreviving ascendancy of Austria over the North of Italy, seem utterly \nto preclude the hope of a renewed or successful attempt for freedom \nin any of its ancient strongholds. \n\nThe fate of Eome has been more melancholy still. The accession \nof Pius IX. to the pontificate was hailed as the commencement of \nan era of reform and liberality. To a certain extent, this prospect \nwas realized; but the time-honoured abuses of the papacy, sanctioned \nby neighbouring despotism, could not suddenly be swept away : the \npeople, impatient, took redress into their own hands ; and the head \nof the Catholic Church, but lately almost worshipped as a divinity, \nsought safety in flight, and assistance from foreign arms. \n\nThe utterly selfish and unprincipled action of France, in this \nemergency, has procured her no sympathy, except such as is awarded \nto successful violence. The government of a republic, which but \nyesterday owed its existence to a sudden revolution, lent its influ- \nence and its arms to suppress the most noble and hopeful struggle \nfor freedom which Italy has ever made. The advocates of this armed \ninterference have, indeed, attempted to justify it by pleading the \nnecessity of anticipating Austria, and of maintaining the influence \nof France on the Italian peninsula. Whether the motive were sym- \npathy for despotism or a mere scramble for national power the result \nhas been the same. \xe2\x80\x94 Eome, after a defence worthy of the ancient \nrepublic, has been obliged to succumb to the artillery and bayonets \nof a republican army ; her brave defenders are slain, in prison, or in \nexile; and the puerilities of the hierarchal sway, protected by the \narms of foreigners, have once more ventured back into their ancient \nhaunts and brood over the Eternal City. \n\n\n\nTHE NETHERLANDS. \n\n\n\nThese countries, now politically called Holland and Belgium, \nhave long borne the foregoing title on account of their low and \nswampy situation, being in some points even depressed below the \nlevel of the adjacent ocean. The industry of man has rescued from \nthe sea this extensive tract, originally composed of a few sand-hills \nand marshes, half-covered by the waves, and has converted it into \nthe most fertile, productive, and thickly-populated region of Europe, \nAbout the year B. 0. 54, Julius Ctesar subdued or conciliated its \noriginal inhabitants \xe2\x80\x94 ^the Belgians, Batavians, and Frieslanders \xe2\x80\x94 \nand it became a province of the Roman empire. It was next a \nportion of the Frankish, and afterwards of the Germanic empire, \nand the provincial nobles and governors appointed by the emperors \ngradually acquired their independence. Thus were founded the \nearldoms of Holland and Flanders, with other principalities. \n\nPhilip of Burgundy, in 1369, by marriage with Margaret, heiress \nof Flanders, secured a footing in the Netherlands; and during the \nfollowing century, by inheritance and otherwise, nearly the whole \ncountry came under the sway of Burgundy. Mary, daughter of \nCharles the Bold, who died in 1477, was married to the Archduke \nMaximilian of Austria; and the Netherlands, with other immense \npossessions, both in the old and new world, were inherited by their \ngrandson, the celebrated Emperor Charles V. \n\nDuring the reign of his son, Philip II. of Spain, the northern \nprovinces of the Netherlands proclaimed their independence, under \nthe title of the \'\'Republic of the United Provinces." After a fierce \nand protracted struggle for their liberties and their religion, (the \nProtestant,) and after many sufferings inflicted by their Spanish \noppressors, they finally succeeded in gaining their independences \nwhich, in 1648, was fully acknowledged by Spain. \n\nThey were soon called upon to resist an oppressor still nearer \nand more formidable. Louis XIY. of France, a monarch of vast \n\n\n\n730 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OJF HISTOEY. \n\nresources, devoted to ambition, and a determined enemy of liberty \nand the reformed religion, undertook tbe subjection of these com- \nparatively feeble provinces. Their prospect appeared desperate, but \nthe genius and valour of the prince of Orange (afterwards William \nIII. of England) saved the republic from destruction. The dykes \nwere laid open ; the sea, flowing over a vast extent of fertile and cul- \ntivated country, retarded the march of the invaders. It was even \nresolved by this patriotic and spirited people, in the event of their \nfinal defeat, rather than be subjected to the tyranny of French \nCatholicism, to take shipping, and transfer their entire nationality to \nthe Indian Archipelago. "There the Dutch commonwealth . might \ncommence a new and more glorious existence, and might rear under \nthe Southern Cross, amidst the sugar-canes and nutmeg-trees, the \nExchange of a wealthier Amsterdam, and the schools of a more \nlearned Leyden." Happily, this bold and romantic enterprise was \nrendered unnecessary ; the invader was repelled ; and during an old \nage of misfortune, their grand enemy experienced the defeat and \nhumiliation which he had so often inflicted on others. \n\nThe southern provinces of the Netherlands had remained under \nthe sway of Spain until, by the treaty of Eastadt, in 1714, they \nwere ceded to Austria. This power, in 1797, overawed by the suc- \ncesses of Napoleon, surrendered them to France. The influence of \nthe French emperor was such, that in 1806, the provinces of Holland, \nwhose independence, surrounded by powerful states, was little more \nthan nominal, accepted his brother Louis as their hereditary sove- \nreign, with the title of "King of Holland." The reign of the new \nmonarch was of such a mild and benevolent nature, as effectually to \nconciliate the attachment of his subjects; the emperor, however, \nbeing dissatisfied at his unwillingness to enforce the ruinous severity \nof the continental system. \n\nAfter the fall of Napoleon, the Low Countries, in 1814, came again \nunder the authority of Austria, which, however, relinquished \nher claims in favour of an arrangement by which the whole were \nconstitutttd into the "Kingdom of the Netherlands." By the revolu- \ntion of 1830, a fresh separation occurred ; and while the northern \nprovinces still retain the title of the kingdom of Holland or the \nNetherlands, the southern are united under the , new name of the \n"Kingdom of Belgium." \n\n\n\nD E Nl AE I. \n\n\n\nLittle authentic is known of Danish history during the few \nfirst centuries of the Christian era. Denmark was settled at an \nearly day by the German Goths, a prince of which people, named \nOdin, quitting the country to found a new realm in Sweden, left \nbehind him his son Skjold, the first of that Danish dynasty which \nfor many centuries afterwards bore his name. The country was \ndivided into small principalities until 883, when it was united under \na sovereign named Gorm. In the following century, Christianity \nwas introduced, and diffused through the country. \n\nThe Danish rovers, or sea-kings, had for centuries been the terror \nof the neighbouring countries; and the shores of England had \nespecially suffered from their ravages. Their final conquest of that \ncountry, under Sweyn and Canute, in the early part of the eleventh \ncentury, has already been narrated. The sway of their sovereigns \nover the English, however, was brief, expiring with Hardacnute, in \n1041. Their maritime superiority still continued, and for many \ncenturies, commanding the great highway to ,the Baltic, they levied \ntoll upon the numerous vessels which passed the straits. \n\nOn the death of Valdemar III., in 1376, his daughter Margaret \nsucceeded him. She was married to Haco, prince of Norway; and \nat his death became possessed of that kingdom. She also laid claim \nto Sweden, the crown of which her husband, had he lived, would \nhave inherited. Her ambitious scheme, by arms and policy, was suc- \ncessful; and by the famous "Union of Calmar," the sovereignty of \nthe three kingdoms was solemnly assured to her and her successors. \n\nThe cruelties of Christian II., in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- \ntury, caused great discontent among his Swedish subjects; and a \nrevolt, headed by a distinguished noble named Gustavus Vasa, result- \ned, in 1523, in the detachment of Sweden from the crown of Denmark, \nand the elevation of the successful chief to the Swedish throne. \n\nThe Eeformation, at an early period, spread widely in Denmark, \n\n\n\n732 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nand in the "Thirty Years\' War," waged by the Protestant league \nagainst the German emperors, the Danish sovereign, for a time, \nthough with fortune unequal to his bravery, conducted the contest \nin behalf of the confederacy. \n\nDenmark, for many years, was involved in perpetual wars with \nSweden, and finally sustained the most humiliating defeat and loss at \nthe hands of the celebrated Charles XII. Since that time her policy \nhas been of a pacific and conciliatory nature, and for many years \nshe enjoyed much peace and prosperity. It is honourable to this \nnation, that her government, before any other, took an active part \nin the abolition of the odious slave-trade. \n\nThe neutrality and pacific attitude of Denmark could not secure \nher from becoming involved in the great vortex of European war- \nfare which succeeded the French Eevolution. The jealousy of Eng- \nland, alarmed by an unfriendly coalition of the northern powers, \nprompted her to commence hostilities, and the expedition of Nelson, \nin 1801, followed by the naval battle of Copenhagen, inflicted great \nloss and suffering upon the feebler nation. In 1807, a most outrage- \nous infraction of the law of nations was committed by England. \nAlthough at peace with Denmark, she despatched a naval force too \npowerful to be resisted, demanding a complete surrender of the \nfleet and marine stores of her weaker neighbour, on the pretext \nthat otherwise they might fall into the hands of France. This \nimpudent demand was of course resisted by the Danish sovereign, \nand a second contest ensued, resulting in the partial destruction of \nCopenhagen, an immense loss of life, and the complete success of \nthe piratical attempt. In 1813, on the triumph of the allies, Denmark \nwas compelled to relinquish her sovereignty over Norway, receiving \nin return an inconsiderable accession of other territory. \n\nCivil hostilities, of a sanguinary nature, have recently occurred \nin Denmark. The inhabitants of the duchies of Schleswig and \nHolstein, stimulated by the revolutionary spirit of Germany, have \nmade a vigorous effort to establish their independent nationality. \nAt the obstinately-fought battle of Idstedt, on the 25th of July, \n1850, an army of forty-five thousand Danes, under Yon Krogh, \nattacked the revolutionary forces of twenty-eight thousand, under \nWillisen, and after a contest of two hours, in which seven thousand \nof the combatants were killed or wounded, compelled them to \nretreat. The success of the insurrectionary movement, at present, \nfrom the attitude of the neighbouring powers, appears hopeless. \n\n\n\nPOETUGAL. \n\n\n\nThis country, tlie Lusitania of the ancients, was invaded by the \nEomans, B. C. 148. The struggle for its conquest, with some inter- \nvals, was protracted for more than a hundred years; but, in common \nwith the whole Spanish peninsula, a little before the Christian era, \nit was forcibly subjected to the sway of the empire. The Visigoths \nincluded it in their conquests, and after them the Moors, who, in the \neighth century, gained possession of nearly all the great south-western \npeninsula. As the power of the Christians revived, the Mahometans \nwere gradually expelled from their- possessions ; and, about the mid- \ndle of the eleventh century, Ferdinand of Castile wrested from them \na considerable part of Portugal. \n\nAt the close of the same century, Henry of Burgundy, who mar- \nried the daughter of the Spanish King Alphonso, received with her \na portion of the country, erected into the earldom of Portucalia,* \nwhence the present appellation of the country. Further victories \nover the Moors, under his son Alphonso, increased the limits of the \nprincipality, and elevated it into the dignity of a kingdom. Private \nwars, feuds, and deadly revenges, both with Christian and Saracen \nneighbours, present little of interest until the commencement of the \nfifteenth century, the famous epoch of Portuguese discovery. \n\nThe names of John I, and his enterprising son Prince Henry, will \nalways be celebrated as the earliest and most enlightened promoters \nof maritime enterprise. Under their auspices, from the year 1416 \nto 1432, a great part of Western Africa and the adjacent islands \nwas discovered. Under John II. and Emmanuel, enterprises of \nstill greater importance were undertaken. In 1486, the famous \nBartholomew Diaz doubled the southern extremity of Africa, which, \nfrom the terrors of the passage, he termed the Cape of Storms, but \nwhich his patron, more sanguine, denominated "the Cape of Good \n\n* Derived from Partus Cale, the ancient name of Oporto \n\n\n\n734 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nHope." The famous expedition of Vasco de Gama, in 1497, by \ntliis route, to the western shores of India, and the momentous results \nwhich followed, have been narrated io the history of that country. \nBy a similar expedition, in 1500, Brazil, destined to become the most \nimportant of the Portuguese acquisitions, was likewise discovered. \n\nAfter the disastrous fate of King Sebastian, (who, inspired by \nfanaticism, in 1578, made a crusade against the Moors of Morocco, \nand perished or disappeared at the fatal battle of Alcassar,) various \npretenders to the throne of Portugal started up. Philip II. of Spain, \nthe grandson of Emmanuel, was enabled, in 1580, by his superior \nmilitary force, to gain possession of the crown. The kingdom \nremained an appanage to the Spanish crown until 1640, when the \nPortuguese, taking advantage of the weakness and inefficiency of \nPhilip IV., threw off the yoke of Spain, and placed upon the throne \nthe duke of Braganza, (descended from a natural son of John I.) under \nthe title of John IV. of Portugal. His descendants, except for a \nbrief interval, have ever since continued to occupy the throne. \n\nOn the invasion of Portugal by the French, under Junot, in 1807, \nthe royal family took shipping, and fled precipitately to Brazil. The \nking (John VI,) returned to his country in 1821; but his eldest \nson, Don Pedro, who remained in Brazil, in the following year con- \nverted that province into an independent empire, such as it has \nsince remained. \n\nAt the death of John VI., in 1826, his second son, Don Miguel, \nadvanced pretensions to the throne, and in 1828 was proclaimed \nsovereign by the Cortes. His bigotry, cruelty, and illiberality, \nhowever, soon provoked powerful enemies; and Pedro, who in \n1831 had been compelled to abdicate his Brazilian crown, resolved \non an effort to gain the sovereignty. By English assistance, he fitted \nout an expedition, and, after a short struggle, succeeded in expelling \nMiguel from the kingdom. He survived his success but a brief \nperiod, dving in 1834; but his daughter Donna Maria II., the pres- \nent sovereign of Portugal, was peaceably elevated to the throne. \n\n\n\nSWITZERLAND. \n\n\n\nSwitzerland, the ancient Helvetia, lias for many ages been \nknown as the residence of a bold, ingenious, and liberty -loving peo- \nple. The rugged and precipitous mountains, of which it is almost \nentirely composed, have not only served to harden the frames and \nelevate the souls of their inhabitants, but have always proved the \nmost efficient barrier against foreign invasion and tyranny. It was \noriginally thinly inhabited by a race of savage and hardy mount- \naineers, who were, however, at an early period obliged to yield to \nthe superior forces of the Eoman empire. After remaining a Roman \nprovince until A. D. 406, the country fell under the power of the \nroving nations of the Alemanni and Burgundians, then on their \ngrand migration of conquest and plunder. \n\nAbout the year 500, it came under the sway of the Franks, with \nwhom it remained until the death of Charlemagne, in 814. This \nevent was the signal for its dismemberment from the Avestern empire, \nand many of the chiefs and nobles of Switzerland, secured by the \ninaccessible nature of their domains, succeeded in maintaining their \nindependence. A nominal allegiance to the German emperors was, \nhowever, mostly acknowledged until the year 1308, when the \nmemorable revolution commenced, which finally resulted in the \noverthrow of a foreign usurpation, and the union of several states \ninto the confederacy of Switzerland (so called from Schweitz, the \nmost powerful of the enfranchised cantons). \n\nIn the annals of this contest, perhaps the earliest for European \nfreedom, the name of Tell still shines with all the lustre of heroism \nand romance. The popular version of his struggles and adventures, \nif not absolutely authenticated in all particulars, displays sufficiently \nthe hardihood and personal enterprise of the early assertors of the \nfreedom of Switzerland. More glorious still, perhaps, is the name \nof Arnold Winkelried, who, when the Swiss, outnumbered, but \n\n\n\n736 THE PEOPLE\'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \n\nundaunted, were endeavouring vainly to break tlie ranks of tlie Aus- \ntrian army, rushed forward, and clasping in his arms a number .of the \nopposing spears, made a breach, at the expense of his life, through \nwhich his countrymen pressed forward, and gained the victory. \n\nThe patriotic resistance of the Swiss against their Burgundian \noppressors, offers another of the brightest pages in the annals of \nfreedom. At the battle of Morat, in 1476, a body of these brave \nmountaineers, with rude and primitive weapons, defeated Charles \nthe Bold, who, with a fierce and disciplined soldiery, was endeav- \nouring to reduce them to subjection. The bones of his fallen army, \npiled in a great pyramid, remained for centuries to attest the com- \nplete and sanguinary nature of their victory. \n\nSwitzerland, from its central position among jealous and conflicting \npowerful states, has, during several centuries, been occasionally \nexposed to the march of hostile armies ; and the magnificent scenes \nwhich it every where presents have received fresh interest from the \nencounters of German, Russian, and French battalions, amid passes \nwhere the difiiculties of nature and the terrors of climate added \nimmeasurably to the horrors of warfare. From the time of Hanni- \nbal, it has always been considered one of the most dangerous and \ndifficult feats of military enterprise to conduct an army safely through \nthe Alps \xe2\x80\x94 and the losses of Suwarrow, Macdonald, and other \nrenowned generals, sufficiently attest the formidable nature of the \nundertaking. \n\nThe Helvetic Republic (as the union of the Swiss cantons is polit- \nically designated) has long been an object of jealousy to the arbitrary \ngovernments by which it is surrounded \xe2\x80\x94 a jealousy so aggravated \nby the late convulsions of Europe, and so menacing in its nature, \nthat Switzerland looks eagerly for assistance to the friends of liberty \nthroughout the world in an anticipated struggle for her freedom. \nThe late treaty of alliance with our country (though simply com- \nmercial) has been received with general sympathy and enthusiasm. \nWith a population of less than two millions and a half, it would \nseem that Switzerland must speedily succumb to any effort of the \ngreater powers for her political destruction; but the battle is not \nalways to the strong, and any attempt upon her nationality may yet \nbe answered by a second Sempach or Morat. \n\nTHE END. \n\n\n\n.%\'09 \n\n\n\nDeacidified using the Bookkeeper process. \nNeutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide \nTreatment Date: fif^y ^m \n\nPreservationTechnologies \n\nA WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION \n\n1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive \nCranberry Township, PA 16066 \n(724) 779-2111 \n\n\n\n'