Class_ii3^i3 Book_ALiLa-.Li Copight^J" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. COMMERCIAL VIOLET CULTURE, I -i. COMMERCIAL VIOLET CULTURE, A Treatise on the Growing and Marketings of Violets for Profit* BY B. T* GALLOWAY, Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Departnieni* >d Agriculture. 1^ «^ ^* SECOND EDITION, REVISED. c^* j^W ^'* NEW YORK. A. T. DE LA MARE PTG. & PUB. CO. Ltd. J903. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRES'S, Tw« Copies Recsivfld JUL 22 1903 U Copyright £ntry 8S ] ^ XXo. No. lylS I a Copyright. Entered According to Act of Congress in the Years 1899 and 1903 By A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd New York. All Eights Reserved. PREFACE. Violet growing as a business iias not received the attention given to some other crops. This is probably due to the^ fact, that the violet as generally- grown is less profitable than the rose, carnation, or even the chrysanthemum. More people have embarked in this business and failed than is the case with any other crop, and for this reason we believe that it is one of the most promising fields for the young, energetic, and intelligent man to enter. Whoever enters it, however, must recognize at the start that there are many difficulties, and that to be successful means much labor, patience and determination to overcome all obstacles. The knowledge necessary to succeed can come only through experience. Reading will help, but with- out the ability to apply what is learned by reading little progress can be made. We have gone over this ground pretty thoroughly, and in looking back can see that our experience in many cases was dearly bought. To save others from making mis- takes that fell to our lot we have in some instances made statements which might be considered as dogmatic. We have done this for the reason that we were many times led away by general state- ments, which, had they been specific, would have saved us much time and money. We have endeav- ored to give every necessary detail for handling the soil, erection of houses and frames, the manage- ment of the plants, and the marketing of the flowers, and finally we have shown what it costs to grow a violet plant, what such a plant under fair conditions should yield, and what in our experience may be looked upon as a fair profit. From the facts given it will be seen that no big fortunes are to be made in violet growing ; but if a man loves Nature and that quiet and peace which work with her should always bring, there is a chance here to open her doors. Thus a love for all that is good and beautiful may be cultivated and a respectable living made at the same time. I wish to express my thanks to Mr. P. H. Dorsett, who shared with me all the trials and vexations which fall to the lot of beginners in this work. He is now a successful grower, and many of the illustrations given are from his houses. B. T. Galloway. Washington, D. C, July ist, 1899. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION, Since the first edition of this little work was written, four years ago, there have been some changes in the methods of growing violets for market. The writer has seen a number of formerly successful growers go out of the business and others without any previous experience succeed astonish- ingly. This leads us to repeat what was stated in our first preface, namely, that because so many people fail with this crop we believe it is one of the most promising for the intelligent and energetic man to take up. In this edition we have made certain changes which experience has taught us, and offer it with thanks for the kind reception given the first work. Figures 60, 62, 64 and 66 are from Bull. 27, Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and we are indebted to Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the division, for the electrotypes. B. T. Galloway. Washington, D. C, May ist, 1903. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Page Introduction 17 Single Varieties 17 Russian Violet 17 Welsiana 17 Luxonne 18 California, or Madame E. Arene 18 Princess of Wales, or Princesse de Galles 18 La France 18 Dorsett 19 Double Varieties 19 Neapolitan 19 Lady Hume Campbell 2.2 Marie Louise 22 Farquhar and Imperial 22 Origin and Introduction of Varieties 23 Culture, Past and Present 28 CHAPTER II. The Soil 33 CHAPTER III. Construction of Houses and Frames 46 Construction of Houses 46 Construction of Frames 83 CHAPTER IV. Water Supply 92 CHAPTER V. Page Propagating, Selecting, Planting, Cleaning, Water- ing, etc 96 Propagating 96 Selection of Stock for Vigor and Productiveness.. 112 Planting , 120 Cleaning, Watering, Syringing, Mulching, and Feeding 127 CHAPTER VL Temperature Conditions and Ventilation 134 CHAPTER Vn. Handling and Marketing the Crop 144 CHAPTER VHI. Diseases and Insect Enemies 162 Diseases and their Treatment 162 Spot, or Spot Disease 165 Wilt, or Stem Rot 174 Nanism, or Stuntedness 178 Scald, or Edge Burn 182 Oedema, or Wart Disease 186 Crown Rot 188 Root Galls 191 Bud Nematodes 194 Insects and Other Pests 196 Red Spider 196 Green and Brown Aphides 205 Cut Worms 216 Sawfly 218 Gallfly Maggots 219 Phlyctoenia rubigalis 223 CHAPTER IX. Cost of Production and Profits 225 CHAPTER X. Violet Growing for Beginners 234 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Frontispiece. 1. Dorsett Single Violet 20 2. Dorsett Single Violet Bunched 21 3. Princess of Wales Single Violet 24 4. Marie Louise Double Violet 26 5. Characteristic Growth of California and Marie Louise Compared 27 6. Mixing Soil. Spreading Manure in Layers Be- tween the Soil 39 7. Mixing Soil. Breaking and Pulverizing the Sod Preparatory to Putting it Down with Layers of Manure 40 8. Sash House with Sash Off 47 9. House Twelve Feet Wide, Six Feet to Ridge; Side Ventilators of Glass 48 10. Type of Even-Span House, Twelve Feet Wide, Showing Method of Running Heating Pipes and Constructing Beds 49 11. Type of Even-Span House, Twelve Feet Wide, with Two Deep Walks, Showing Heating Pipes and Method of Constructing Beds, Roofs, and Ends 51 12. Shed at North End of Houses, Showing Method of Construction 52 13. Interior of Shed Shown in Fig. 12 53 14. Roofs of Twelve-Foot Houses, Showing Method of Construction and of Attaching Ventilators. . 54 15. A Twelve-Foot House, Showing Method of Con- structing and Attaching Side Ventilators 57 16. Fastening Pipes to Posts by Tin Clips 61 17. Fastening Pipes to Posts by Bent- Wire Nails.... .61 Page i8. Interior of Twelve-Foot House, Showing Method of Constructing South End and Door 62 19. Interior of House, Showing Method of Connecting Flow Pipe with Four Returns 63 20. Ridge and Furrow House Construction. Method of Making Gutter and Attaching Sash Bar. ... 64 21. Interior Construction. Method of Connecting Re- turns at North End of House 65 22. Construction of Single House. Method of Making Gutter, Attaching Sash Bar, and Fitting Side Ventilators 66 23. Method of Splicing Ridge 68 24. House Twenty-four Feet Wide 69 25. Constructing House Twenty-four Feet Wide; Second Step, Making Beds and Walks 70 26. Constructing House Twenty-four Feet Wide; Third Step, Running Gutters and Notching Plate Around Posts 71 27. Construction. Putting Up the Roof 77 28. Temporary House 80 29. Simple Cold Frame 82 30. Violets in Frame, Covered with Lath Screen 84 31. Violets in Heated Frames, Shaded by Rough Boards 86 32. Violets in Heated Frames. Summer Shading by Boards 88 33. Cuttings with Hard, Wiry Roots, from Divided Crowns 97 34. Various Kinds of Cuttings from a Divided Crown. 98 35. Common Form of Cuttings from Divided Crown. 100 36. Lath Box, or Flat, for Rooted Cuttings 102 37. Sand-Rooted Cuttings, Ready to Plant in Flats Filled with Soil 106 38. Sand-Rooted Cuttings, Ideal Type, Ready to Put in Soil 108 Page 39. Pedigree Plant, with Tag Showing Dates of Pick- ing and Yield of Flowers 114 40. Bed of Pedigree Plants 116 41. Violet Culture Under Lath Sheds in California.. 124 42. Field Culture of Violets in Virginia 126 43. Violets Bunched for Philadelphia Market, Some of the Flowers Projecting from the Bunch. . . . 146 44. Violets bunched for Washington Market, Using Princess of Wales Leaves 148 45. Picking Violets 154 46. Leaves of California Violet Wired Together for Bunching Flowers 156 47. Leatherette Shipping Box, Open 158 48. Shipping Box, Showing Wire Screen for Holding Bunches 159 49. Shipping Box, Closed and Strapped 160 50. Spot Disease. Early Effects on Foliage 166 51. Spot Disease on Hardy English Violets 168 52. Spot Disease Artificially Produced 170 53. Rooted Campbell Cuttings, Showing Effects of Thielavia on the Roots 175 54. Plants Stunted by Strong Fertilizer 179 55. Edge Burn, Brought on by Cold Soil 182 56. Leaves and Flowers Injured by Botrytis 184 57. Oedema, or Wart Disease 187 58. Crown Rot 189 59. Root Galls 192 60. Red Spider 198 61. Nozzle Used in Spraying Plants for the Destruc- tion of Red Spider 199 62. Brown Aphis 208 63. Method of Determining Cubic Contents of Houses. 212 64. Sawfly ■ 220 65. Injuries to Violet Leaves by Gallfly Maggots 221 66. Gallfly 222 67. Larvae and Moths of Phlyctaenia rubigalis 223 Commercial Violet Culture. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. The sweet violet, Viola odor at a, from which our cultivated forms have doubtless arisen, is widely distributed over Europe and Asia, but is not found native in America. The violet has been cultivated from remote times, first probably as a medicinal plant, but later to satisfy a love for the beautiful. Following are some of the more important forms now grown : SINGLE VARIETIES. Russian Violet* Very hardy and free flower- ing; flowers medium violet* in color, fairly good size. Welsiana* Plant much branched ; foliage rather soft, light green ; flowers large, on long stalks ; color *In referring to the colors of violets we have used Ridgway's Nomen- clature of Colors, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston. The principal colors are the true violet, as ^i\\ be found in Princess of Wales, and the various shades of mauve. Mauves are a mixture of white with violet. The mauves therefore may be dark or light, de- pending upon the amount of white present. Marie Louise is a true ^mauve; Campbell, a light mauve. l8 INTRODUCTION. true violet ; a valuable variety, but not so amenable to culture as some others. Luxonne* A valuable variety, with large flowers of a dark violet color; foliage stronger in texture and of a richer green than the ordinary Russian violet ; flowers from September to spring. California, or Madame £♦ Arene* We use the name California because it has become so well es- tablished that it is not practicable at this time to change it. This violet is unquestionably one of the most valuable of the single sorts. The plant grows like a weed and flowers pretty regularly throughout the entire winter; foliage soft and lightish green in color ; flowers, large, light violet in color, with stems sometimes eight inches to a foot in length. Princess of Wales, or Princesse de Galles^ All things considered, this is the best single violet that has come to our attention. The plant is very vig- orous, and has the compact habit of growth of the double sorts ; leaves dark rich green, of firm texture, making them very valuable for bunching; flowers large, of a true rich violet color, and borne on long, strong stems. La France* A fine, large, prolific violet'; flow- ers throughout the season, not so abundantly as Prin- cess of Wales, but the flowers are larger and have longer stems ; a valuable variety for growing in VARIETIES. 19 frames or houses ; foliage not so good for bunching as Princess of Wales, but better than California. Dofsett* A very prolific violet, flowerin throughout the entire season, often giving two hun- dred and fifty to three hundred flowers per plant. The plant is exceedingly vigorous, and has the com- pact habit of the double sorts ; leaves, dark, rich green, firm in texture and fine for bunching; flow- ers, middle size, of a rich violet color, but lacking in odor. This violet was secured several years ago from Virginia by Mr. P. H. Dorsett, formerly of Garrett Park, Maryland, under the name of Prin- cess of Wales, which it only slightly resembles. It is a most valuable sort for growing for flowers or foliage, and on account of its ease of propagation and vigor is quite profitable. (See Figs, i and 2.) There are single violets white, yellow, and pink in color, but it is not necessary to give any details in regard to them, for the reason that there is prac- tically no commercial demand for them. DOUBLE VARIETIES. Neopolitan* One of the oldest of the double sorts, and doubtless the parent of a number of our most valuable varieties ; growth compact ; leaves rather small ; flowers pushing up straight through the crown, borne on strong, straight stems; color very light mauve (commonly called light lavender) ; 20 INTRODUCTION. l.—Dorsett single violet. VARIETIES. 21 2. — Dorsett single violet, bunched. 22 INTRODUCTION. hardy, and comparatively free flowering; blooms from September to spring. Lady Hume CampbelL More vigorous than the last, with larger leaves and flowers; the flowers push up through the crown and stand above the leaves on straight, strong stems ; color of the flow- ers, when properly grown, a mauve, several shades lighter than Marie Louise ; flowers freely and con- tinuously from September to May, and is compara- tively free from disease. , Marie Louise* The most widely cultivated vio- let in this country, and the one for which there is the greatest demand. This violet is not so vigor- ous as the last, and is therefore more subject to the attacks of a number of diseases ; the leaves are large, of a rich green color, but inclined to be soft ; the flowers push out from the sides of the crown and are usually found resting on the ground ; flower stalks not so straight as Campbell, making the flow- ers more diflicult to bunch ; color of flowers true mauve ; base of petals white, splotched with red. The red marks are very characteristic of this variety, and never occur, so far as we are aware, in any except closely related strains. Fafquhar and ImperiaL Both of these forms, so far as we have been able to determine, are merely vigorous strains of Marie Louise. ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. 23 Of other double varieties there may be men- tioned Swanley White (pure white) and Madam Millet (pink). Both of these are occasionally grown, but there is no great demand for them any- where. ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. The demand for single violets in this country is steadily increasing, and much interest is therefore manifested in securing varieties suitable for forc- ing which will bunch well and give abundant odor. Owing to the increased demand for singles, and, furthermore, for the reason that the leaves of certain varieties are exceedingly useful in bunch- ing, it would be well for every grower to devote a part of his space to some vigorous kind like Prin- cess of Wales, La France, or the Dorsett violet. About eight hundred plants of any of these varieties will, with good cultivation, give enough leaves for bunching the flowers from eight thousand Campbell or Louise. In this way the foliage of the Campbell or Louise is left to support the flowers — a great ad- vantage, especially where it is difficult to get a vig- orous leaf growth on the double varieties named. The Princess of Wales, La France and Dorsett will, with even ordinary care, yield a sufficient number of flowers to well pay for the space devoted to them, so that altogether it is an advantage to have tKem. There has been much discussion as to the origin 24 INTRODUCTION. Princess of Wales single violet, one- third. Reduced ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. 25 of the Marie Louise and Campbell violets. The Marie Louise has been known under various names in France and Germany for sixty or seventy years. It was introduced into this country in 1871 by Mr. John Cook, of Baltimore. Mr. Cook obtained the stock through Schuer, of Heidelberg, Germany, who advertised it as the best violet belonging to the Parma class. After growing it for two years Mr. Cook sold large quantities of his stock to Peter Henderson and John Henderson, of New York, and to Mr. Dreer, of Philadelphia. The flowers created a sensation, and the plants, in consequence, were in great demand. We find a record of the Lady Hume Campbell violet as far back as 1884 in the Gardeners' Chroni- cle, of London, England. It is said here that the variety had been seen growing in the gardens of Harefield Court, Rickmansworth, and that it was exceedingly vigorous. It was regarded as a vigorous strain of Neapolitan. It is stated further that the variety had been brought from abroad several years before by Lady Hume Campbell and planted in her gardens at Highgrove, Waltford. Soon after it was noticed at Lady Campbell's place by a Mr. Turner, who bought the stock and presumably put it on the market. It was imported in 1892 by Mr. H. Heub- ner, of Groton, Massachusetts, who obtained his stock from Beachy, in Devonshire, England. Mr. Heubner informs the writer that he imported the 26 INTRODUCTION. 4. — Marie Louise double violet. Reduced one-third. ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. 2/ so-called "De Parme" at the same time, and he con- siders it to be in every way identical with Campbell. Parme de Toulouse and Parme sans Filet, both grown for a number of years in France and cata- 5. — Characteristic growth of California {single) and [ Marie Louise [double) compared. logued by Millet and others, seem to be the same as Campbell. It is probable, therefore, that the Campbell originated on the continent of Europe, that it was brought to England about 1879 ^^ 1880, and 28 INTRODUCTION. was imported into the United States in 1892, or pos- sibly earlier. Be that as it may, the variety has made a place for itself, and is now, owing to its great vigor and productiveness, gradually taking the place of the Marie Louise. CULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT. Of the early days of violet growing in this country, that is, the work as it was carried on up to fifteen years ago, little need be said. In most cases the methods employed were crude when looked at from the present point of view, just as our meth- ods will, no doubt, be considered crude by those who follow us. The plants, for the most part, were grown in frames or in pots, under the mistaken idea that it was necessary to have them near the glass. Even now, despite the rapid advances made in greenhouse construction, it is rare to find a mod- ern violet establishment in the true sense of the word. Sash houses are still largely in vogue, and little resemble the compact, business-like structures used for carnations and roses. We are at a loss to account for this except on the ground that the plant is really one which at times will do fairly well under seemingly very poor treatment ; while again all the coaxing and luxurious surround- ings imaginable cannot make it thrive. It is a truth well established that more people go into violet grow- ing and fail than is the case with the growing of METHODS OF CULTURE. 29 any other crop under glass. Time and time again we have seen men start into the business with no experience and nothing but the poorest kind of equipment, and succeed for the first two or three years in a truly remarkable way. Then trouble comes in one form or another, and in two or three years more the grower has passed out of the field. It requires about five years to definitely determine what a man with ordinary facilities can do in this matter. Of course he will have his ups and downs, and the temptation will be strong at times to give up the task and take up some other crop. Such mo- ments are his worst, for if he sticks to his one problem, and endeavors to profit by his experience, he will in the end succeed. Coming back to the question of how violets are grown to-day, we find that those engaged in the work may be divided into two groups, ( i ) extensive, or what may be called violet farmers, and (2) inten- sive, or violet growers proper. Of course, one will find numerous gradations, but for practical purposes they may be classed under the foregoing heads. Vio- let farming is often practiced in more or less remote country districts, where land and labor are cheap. Houses are seldom used for such work, but frames are resorted to, and the care of the plants is left to boys — sometimes colored, sometimes white — over- looked by the owner of the place, or perhaps by a foreman or two. In a number of cases this method 30 INTRODUCTION. is practiced by women, and not without success. Of course, there are numerous places where work of this kind could be caried on with a fair prospect of success. There are many farms seventy-five, one hundred, and even two hundred or three hundred miles from our large cities which with ordinary farm crops barely yield a living. In such cases a young or middle-aged person might take up this work and make it more profitable than the mere growing of farm crops. In all such cases, however, it must be borne in mind that to succeed there must be work night and day, perhaps, for a time ; and while it may never be the heavy, killing labor which farm work is often made to be, it is ceaseless, tiresome toil just the same. The intensive grower, on the other hand, should endeavor to locate within easy driving distance or shipping distance of his principal market ; that is, he should, if possible, be located so that he can pick his flowers and have them in his dealer's hands within an hour, or earlier if possible. It is the sweet, delicious fragrance that sells this flower, and the moment it is picked it begins to lose this all-import- ant thing. Therefore endeavor to locate so that you are in quick reach of your principal dealer, keeping constantly in mind the fact that your success depends largely on his success. Proximity to market should be set down as the first requisite to success, but not the only one by any means. Character of the soil, METHODS OF CULTURE. 3 1 and facilities for obtaining manure, water, and other necessities, must be considered. These factors will all be described in detail under their proper heads. Last, and most important of all, the man himself must be considered, or, if possible, must consider himself. No man can learn to grow violets from reading books, nor can he expect to get this knowl- edge from watching others. He can get help and suggestions, of course, but the problems themselves he must work out alone. There is no such thing as luck in growing this crop, although it often looks that way. A man succeeds because he has the neces- sary knowledge to take advantage of the little things and make the most of them. Another fails because he does not see, or fails to realize, .the importance of the little hourly, and we might almost say mi- nutely, occurring things which are necessary to make the plants grow and thrive. It is not sufficient to be able to put on water, mix soil, to fire, or to feed and propagate the plants properly. The man may do all these according to the very best practices and yet his plants will never grow and bloom like those of the man who has the intuitive knowledge to realize the little needs and to make the cumulative effects of this knowledge felt in just the right way and at the right time. All this is hard to put into words, and will not be understood at all by some readers ; but it is seen everywhere, from the lady who grows only a few house plants, but always succeeds with 32 INTRODUCTION. them, to the grower with his acres of glass in which every plant seems to spring into vigorous growth so long as his watchful eye is upon them and his hand is present to guide and direct the various op- erations. The successful grower, then, is horn, not made; for it is not a question of mechanics, but one of brains ; and therefore, if there is not an inherent love for plants — that feeling of sympathy between them and you — some other work would better be un- dertaken. With love for the work, and apprecia- tion of every need of the plants, success will in the end result, even though many difficulties in the way of surroundings must be overcome, To conclude, the whole gist of this argument is that surroundings, of course, count for considerable in such work, but more than all the rest success de- pends on the man himself, or rather on what he has in him. The man who truly succeeds in this work will succeed in almost any business, for all success really traces back to one thing, namely, ability to see, to grasp, and to utilize little things to the best advan- tage. Look after these, and the big ones will look out for themselves. PHYSICAL PRpPERTIES OF SOIL. 33 CHAPTER 11. THE SOIL. The soil forms the basis for all work in plant growth, and it is proper, therefore, that it should be discussed first. Violets will grow on almost any soil, but to obtain the best results it is necessary to pay attention to certain important characters of the soil, particularly those relating to its physical properties. The importance of the relation of the physical prop- erties of the soil, that is, texture, temperature and moisture, to plant growth is not fully appreciated. By texture is meant the character of the particles which make up the soil, while structure has to do with the arrangement of these particles and their relation to each other. The particles, or grains, of which soils are composed vary greatly in size, and to distinguish them they have received certain con- ventional names, such as clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, sand, etc. The clay particles are extremely minute, silt grains are larger, and so on until we have coarse sand or gravel, with grains 1-25 to 1-12 of an inch in diameter. Upon the amounts of the various con- stituents, i. e., clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, etc., depends the porosity of the soil, the readiness with 34 SOIL. which the air penetrates it and water moves through it, its. water-holding capacity, and finally its tem- perature.'^' By varying the texture of the soil its water content is varied, its capacity for heat is modified, and so on until every important factor, including food in the ordinary acceptance of the word, is in- volved. To these variations the plant adapts itself, and the result may be extensive leaf development with few or no flowers, or vice versa, a weakened condition of the tissues (making the plant subject to the attacks of enemies, especially fungi), and so on through a list of other possibilities. To illustrate more fully, we may say that in our experience the Lady Hume Campbell violet seems to thrive best on relatively light soil, that is, a soil which contains a comparatively small amount of clay. The Marie Louise, on the other hand, does best with more clay, or, in other words, a heavier soil. The violet soils of the Poughkeepsie region contain from eight to fifteen per cent of clay, and it is here that the highest success is attained with this particular variety. In parts of Maryland and Virginia where the Camp- bell violet is grown extensively, the soils frequently contain six to eight per cent of clay, so that it will be seen that there is considerable difiference as re- gards the structure of the two classes of soils. It ♦Galloway, B. T., Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1895, p. 250. TEXTURE. 35 follows, of course, that where soils showing so much difference in structure are used, the plants in each case have different sets of factors to which they must adapt themselves, and in doing this they may be so modified as to materially affect the development of the flowers. Soils of both the heavy and moderately heavy types are found ni many places, and if they do not occur naturally the desired effects may be approxi- mated by combinations of light and heavy soils. We have never found it satisfactory to lighten heavy soil by mixing in sand alone. This takes away the hfe of the soil, and plants never succeed so well in it as when the desired conditions are produced by mixing a heavy and a light soil. For example, we may have in one part of a field a soil containing fifteen to twenty per cent, of clay, and in another one containing four or five per cent. By mixing these two soils in equal proportion a combination is ef- fected which, other conditions being equal, will prove better for violets than either soil used alone. Of course, it must be remembered that the con- ditions for plants under glass are different from those out-of-doors. Outside, the plant has to take what it can get in the way of water, air, and other important conditions for growth, while inside these are, in a measure, made to order by the grower him- self. It follows, therefore, that even where the soil is not what it should be, the grower has it within 36 SOIL. his power, to a large extent, to overcome the diffi- culties by a proper manipulation of the surround- ings. This question of the structure of the soil and its relation to plant growth is a rather difficult one to explain in words. The practical grower learns by experience how to judge a soil largely by its appearance and its "feel" when taken in the hand. The facts given in regard to the effects of structure of soil on plant growth, therefore, help a novice by acquainting him with matters he ought to know, but they will not show him what he can do, for expe- rience alone can teach him this. Any soil that will grow a good crop of potatoes will, with proper manuring, grow good violets. This means that the soil should be moderately heavy loam, that it should not pack or puddle readily, and that it should con- tain plenty of fibrous material, which can be ob- tained by using good turf or sod. We prefer in all cases to use good sod or turf, cutting this not more than three or four inches thick. Where land is plentiful, that is, where the grower has several acres at his disposal, it will be best to keep part of'it constantly in grass. Blue grass, white clover and redtop make a good mixture. For every bushel of blue grass seed use one quart of white clover and one-third bushel of redtop. Coarse grasses, like orchard grass and timothy, should be avoided, as the stems and heavy roots are sources HANDLING. 37 of annoyance in handling the soil. Where one has land that can be spared he should allow for every thousand plants not less than one-twentieth of an acre in grass upon which he can depend for soil. The soil, after being used, can be hauled out, and after being spread on the ground be reseeded, and in six or eight years will probably be as good as new. In the majority of cases it is necessary to purchase the soil, and this is usually done through contract- ors, and sometimes from farmers who have the sod to spare. It is customary to pay from seventy-five cents to one dollar per cubic yard for good sod cut three or four inches thick and delivered on the place. A cubic yard contains twenty-seven cubic feet; that is, a pile one foot high, three feet wide and nine feet long. More often, the soil is bought merely by the "load," a load being usually about a yard — some- times a little more, sometimes less. Seventy-five cents to one dollar per load is the price usually paid fcr soil. Some prefer to stack the soil, that is, to cut it and pile it in a heap in the early fall ; but this is not always practicable ; hence very often the work is left till spring. On the whole we can see no advantage ni the early fall stacking, unless it can be done dur- ing a time when work is not pressing. Where prac- ticable, our preference is to cut the sod in the fall and allow it to stand in the field unpiled until it has been frozen hard three or four times. In this 38 SOIL. way grubs, nematodes, and the larvae of many insects are killed, and at the same time benefit is derived from the effects of the frost on the mechanical and chemical condition of the soil. Before hard winter weather sets in the soil should be either hauled close to the greenhouse and piled, or else made into a heap where it stands. In sections where the soil is not from limestone formation, fresh slacked lime should be added to it when it is being put into the heap, or directly after cutting. Lime should be added at the rate of about two-thirds of a bushel for each one thousand square feet cut. In stacking the soil we prefer to make a heap about four feet high, twenty to twenty-five feet wide, and of any length desired. At this time the manure, which should have been previously procured and put into good condition, is to be added to the soil. As a rule, one part of ma- nure to four parts of soil will make a combination sufficiently rich for any purpose. This is assuming, of course, that the manure is well rotted and free from light chaff and straw. Well-rotted cow ma- nure is preferable, if it can be obtained ; but if not, well-rotted and carefully handled horse manure will answer equally as well. Avoid all experimenting with chemical fertilisers. They are well enough in their place, and in the hands of one who has had experience no harm will result from the use of a little pure, ground, undissolved bone, but it must be pure, and applied at the rate of not more than one- MIXING. 39 half bushel for each one thousand plants. The bone should be mixed with the soil when the heap is being made. When a cart and horse are at hand we pre- 6. — Mixing- soil. Spreading- manure in layers between the soil. fer to use them in making the heap. Four loads of soil, each a cubic yard, are hauled and spread, and then a load of manure is added and spread over the 40 SOIL. soil. This is continued until the first layer of the heap is of the desired width and length, when a second layer is formed in the same way. After fin- 7. — Mixing soil Breaking and pulverizing the sod pre- paratory to putting it doMrn with layers of manure. ishing each layer the bone meal may be sown thinly over the surface. Put it on about as thick as is done in sanding or sawdusting a floor. Working in this MIXING. 41 way, two active men can put into a heap forty to tifty yards of soil a day, or a sufficient quantity for four thousand to five thousand plants, figuring that the beds contain six inches of fresh made soil, and that the manure and turf are one hundred to two hundred feet apart. It is seen, therefore, that each cubic yard of the mixture is sufficient for one hun- dred plants, allowing a depth of six inches for the beds. When soil is purchased, or even when it is ob- tamed from one's own place, it is never exactly alike a^iy two years. For this reason it is a good plan to experiment a little before the general mixing is com- menced. It takes very little time to make up sev- eral lots of soil in different proportions, using a water pail to make the measurements. For instance, we have soil from two localities, one of which is moderately heavy and the other light, and also well- rotted manure, which we make up in the following combinations : (i) Light soil, one part. Heavy soil, three parts. Manure, one part. (2) Light soil, two parts. Heavy soil, two parts. Manure, one part. (3) Light soil, two parts. Heavy soil, three parts. Manure, one part. (4) Heavy soil, four parts. Manure, one part. 42 SOIL. By using a pail, only small quantities of soil and manure are needed, but there will be sufficient ma- terial in each case after a thorough mixing to tell what the combinations look and feel like. It is al- ways best to allow the heaps to stand a week or two, for they often change their texture on standing, especially when lime is used. With a Httle practice one can soon determine in his own mind what com- binations suit him best, and then he will at least have a rational basis to work upon. Right here we may utter a word of warning against the growing practice of allowing the ex- perimenting mania to get the better of judgment. Some individuals are over-inquiring, and for this reason the temptation is to experiment continually, with the result that nothing succeeds, for the sim- ple reason that one thing is not tried long enough to find out its real value. We find a grower trying first this, then that fertilizer or method, with the result that by and by he gives up in disgust, and says that his soil or his section is not suited to the crop he is attempting to grow. If he could only be brought to a realization of the fact that the trouble is not wholly in the soil or surroundings, but is partly in himself, he would soon be on the road to success. We have known men to spend years of work in experimenting one way or another, and at the end o'f that time they would be little wiser than when they commence"d. All this time the plants MIXING. 43 have been doctored with insecticides and fungicides, fed on many kinds of food, and in short made to run the whole gamut of crank and quack notions adver- tised from time to time. What is needed here is a mind cure for the individual and less doctoring for the plants. Experiment, of course, but do not be led away by it, and do not allow every new idea or suggestion to take you from the main purpose or to bias your judgment. To return from our digression, the soil, when heaped, should be protected by rough boards or by some other means from rains. Much benefit will result if the soil is turned two or three times before it is taken into the houses. Many omit this, but we are convinced that it pays to turn it, as this im- proves its condition in many ways. The cost will not exceed fifty cents per thousand plants for each turning. Reference has been made to the quantity ot soil used, but it is desirable to enter somewhat into detail upon this point. We aim to put in six inches of fresh soil every year. Plants may do well on less or even on the soil that has been used once, but the grower who is in the business for all there is to be made out of it cannot afford to run any risks ; hence he should calculate on not less than six inches of new soil each year. To determine then how much soil is necessary, merely multiply the length of each bed in feet and inches by the width, and multiply this by one-half. This will give the number of cubic 44 SOIL. feet, and as there are twenty-seven cubic feet in a cubic yard, the number of cubic feet, divided by twenty-seven, will give the number of cubic yards. For example, it has been our practice to have our beds numbered (these numbers are held constant from year to year) as follows : Bed No. I. 75x6 feet=45o square feet x Yt. foot=225 cubic feet, or practically 8 cubic yards. Bed No. 2. 125x5 feet=625 square feet x 3^ foot=3i2 cubic feet-^27=ii.4 yards. All the beds being numbered in this way it is an easy matter to tell just how much soil will be needed. Of course in considering the bulk as a whole the manure must be counted in, that is, if a total of one hundred yards of prepared soil is needed the manure will form one-fourth of this, or twenty-five yards. It will be necessary therefore to purchase seventy- five yards of soil proper, and twenty-five yards of manure for the mixture. The cost of manure will, of course, depend on many circumstances, but in the vicinity of cities it can seldom be bought for less than seventy five cents a cubic yard, or about two dollars and a half for a two-horse wagon load. The foregoing statements in regard to soil, mixing, etc., are based upon the supposition that the grower is near a city, where land is high, and that his work is on an intensive plan, and further, that the plants are grown where they stand and not planted in the field and then moved in. No man PROPER SOIL CONDITIONS 45 zvho is in the business to compete zvith the best growers can afford to run the risk of growing his plants in the field and moving them into houses. From the time the cutting is made until the old plant is thrown away the work is or should be entirely under glass. Where violet farming is practiced, i. e., where land is plentiful and the crop is grown in frames, it is customary in some sections to merely plow up a fresh piece of sod each year or every two or three years and move the frames. We do not recommend this practice and believe that it pays to bring the soil into heaps and mix it as described even if it is to be used in frames. The more the soil is handled the better, providing of course the work is not done when there is too much moisture present. Never allow a shovel to touch the soil when the latter is wet, for irreparable injury can be done at such a time. Wait until the soil is mealy and never handle it when it is pasty and putty-like to the touch. It must be remembered that the soil is not a dead, inert mass, but is an exceedingly complicated material — an active working laboratory, teeming with life and performing functions which we as yet but little understand. Fortunate is the man who knows enough to appreciate this fact and to let the soil alone when by so doing its wonderful mechanism is brought into play for the best use of the plants it sustains. 46 HOUSES. CHAPTER III. CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES AND FRAMES. CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES. Probably more makeshifts in the way of houses for growing violets have been used in this country than for any other crop. The evolution of this part of the work has been exceptionally slow, so that it is difficult to find at this time a thoroughly modern establishment in every way. Ordinary cold frames were first used; then in order to get at the plants in bad weather a pit was made so as to obtain head room and still utilize the sash and keep the plants near the glass. Gradually growers began to get their plants above ground and to increase the amount of head room and air space by raising the sash above the beds. Many houses are still made on this plan, while a comparatively few are built with stationary sash bars and permanent glass roof. There are no special advantages in making a house of sash, ex- cept in certain ca^es, which will be mentioned later. Such houses cannot be made wind or water-tight, and as a rule are so full of wood as to be unnecessar- ily dark. When it was considered necessary to take the glass off in summer, sashes, of course, were an CONSTRUCTION. 47 48 HOUSES. important item, for they could easily be removed and stored until wanted in the fall. If one intends to make a permaiient'.hou'se wejiy all means recom- mend the fixed roof, with ventilators and other nec- 9. — House twelve feet wide, six feet to ridge; side venti- lators of glass. This is one of a block of£ve houses, each seventy- hve feet long. essary adjuncts arranged as we shall now proceed to describe. CONSTRUCTION 50 HOUSES. All things considered, our preference is for even-span houses running north and south. The violet does not thrive well under glaring sunlight. It needs light, but this should be softened and dif- fused in order to insure the best results in the growth and the size and color of the flowers. The three- quarter span house facing south is apt to be too bright, and if heavy shading is resorted to it is ef- fective in bright weather, but makes it too dark when cloudy. Economy in space and economy in building, furthermore, can be attained by adopting the even- span north and south style of house. In our work we have made it a point to keep a careful record not only of the flowers from each kind of house, but from each bed in a house. These records, kept from year to year, furnish interesting informa- tion and enable one who is looking to every detail to make changes that will result to his advantage. The three-quarter span house facing south in our case never gave as many flowers per square foot of bed space by twenty to twenty-five per cent, as the even-span houses running north and south. When capital and space are limited we know of no better style of house than a narrow, plain, even span, built on the ridge and furrow plan, and running north and south. The length may be from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet. Our preference is for houses one hundred feet long, twelve feet wide, seven feet to the ridge from CONSTRUCTION. 51 52 HOUSES. the bottom of the walk, and two feet eight inches high on the sides above ground level (see figure 9). Where the amount of ground is limited these houses may be built together — two, three, five, or seven, as 12. — Shed at north end of houses, showing- method ot construction. Shed has g-lass root. the case may be — without intervening walls. At the north end of the houses and running the entire length across the ends there should be a lean-to shed CONSTRUCTION. 53 eight feet wide and provided with a glass roof slop- ing to the north. Against the north wall may be placed a propagating bed three and one-half feet wide, leaving four and one-half feet clear space for 13. — Interior of shed shown in hgure 12. Propagating bench on the right, supply pipes {two-inch) on the left, shed eight feet wide. a walk and entrance to each house. If more than six houses are in the block, the boiler should be placed near the center in a pit dug beneath the shed. If necessary, of course, the entire space 54 HOUSES. beneath the shed may be devoted to coal, a work- shop, and perhaps a place for tools. If the number of houses is three or less, the boiler may be placed at one end of the shed in a pit, as already described. 14. — Roofs of twelve- foot houses, showing method of con- struction and of attaching ventilators; one row of glass between the ventilators. The end selected should depend upon the general slope of the land, the object being to get the boiler CONSTRUCTION. 55 at the lowest point. Following is a detailed state- ment in regard to the points to consider in this type of house: Length, one hundred feet, with one foot fall to carry off water. Inside width, twelve feet. Height to ridge from bottom of walk, seven feet. Height of side from top of plate to bottom of gutter, twenty inches (see figure 26). Walls below plates to be boarded up with rough lum- ber first, then covered with rustic siding (see figure 26). Number of walks, one in each house, placed in the center. Width of walk, fourteen inches. Depth of walk, twelve inches. Number of beds, two. Width of each bed, five feet five inches. Depth of beds, twelve inches. Posts in outside walls, four by four inches sawed cedar, chestnut, or locust, set four feet apart cen- ter to center, and two and one-half feet in the ground. Posts in inside walls, four by four inches, set eight feet apart center to center, and two and one-half feet in the ground. Gutters, three piece, six inches in the clear, made of two-inch clear cypress (see figure 20). Wall plates, two by eight inch clear cypress, to be notched around posts. Gable plates for end of each house, two by eight inch clear cypress. Gable rafters, one and three-quarters by two and one- quarter inch clear cypress. 56 HOUSES. Sash bars, clear cypress, one and one-quarter by two and one-half inches, with drip groove, all bars to extend from gutter to ridge. Rafters, two by four inch, clear cypress, to be set every sixteen feet. Rafters to take place of sash bar. Ridge (with ridge cap), two by six inches. Top ventilators, two by four feet, or made to cover three rows of glass set fifteen inches, including sash bars. One row of glass to be left between the ventilators. Headers to be placed under ventilator. Ventilators on side, two by four feet, continuous, and to lap on post one-half. Glass ten by fifteen inches, double thick, second quality, lapped and bedded in putty. Glass set fifteen inch way. South ends of houses glass, with exception of door, which should be four feet wide so as to admit a wheelbarrow readily. North ends of houses opening into shed to be made of tongue and groove pine, with doors the same size as those on south end. Walls of shed to be made of rustic siding nailed to two by four studs set eighteen inches apart. Inside of shed to be lined with tongue and groove yellow pine. Wall plate of shed, two by six yellow pine. Top plate of shed, same as wall plate. Doors in north wall of shed, four feet wide, opening opposite doors in north end of houses. Posts for sides of beds, two by four hemlock, set four feet apart, and wired to opposite posts or to stakes to prevent spreading. Set wires ten inches below top of bed. CONSTRUCTION. 57 Sides of bed, one by twelve inch hemlock boards nailed to outside of the two by four posts. Heating pipes, black wrought iron screw joints, two i?^:?^^^^;s^^ '^- ~^^f• ,o 3ff^:;E-?fc;:;5iiH LIBRARY OF CONGRESS QDDm2413Sfi li mi^mmm iiilliliillililij ■^ljii?«'?!;!B|l|lfj;fS;i;:Spi::;^: