b'yti^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\nr<"<t&\' \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\n\'^KX^: \n\n\n\n\'=M \n\n\n\n\nS \n\n\n\n\nm \n\n\n^^Mi^ \n\n\nl| \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n-K-^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n^.\'.t!\'\' \n\n\n\n\n\n\n.^^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n> </>, \n\n\n\n\n\n\nHISTORY \n\n\n\nPublic School System \n\n\n\nCALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\n-y^\' ^\' JOHN SWETT. \n\n\n\nSAN FRANCISCO: \n\nA. L. BANCROFT AND COMPANY. \n\n1876. \n\n\n\nEntsred according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, \n\nBy JOHN SWETT, \n\nIn the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. \n\n\n\nA. L. BANCROFT A CO., \nPKINTEKS. \n\n\n\nPREFACE. \n\n\n\nThis history contains an outline of school legislation, school \nreports, and educational conventions, from 1850 to 187G, and a \nstatement of the leading facts connected Avith the organization \nof the school system of California. \n\nThis Centennial year seems a fitting time to gather up the \nscattered and fragmentary records of the beginnings of our \nschools, and to trace the development of our system of public \ninstruction during the first quarter of a century of our history \nas a State. \n\nI have undertaken the work, because I felt that it ought to be \ndone, and no one else seemed ready to do it. I have endeav- \nored to make it accurate and impartial. It is published on my \nown responsibility solely, and at my own expense. \n\nOnly a limited number of copies has been printed ; it is not \n\nstereotyped, and the type is distributed. It is submitted to \n\nthe pioneer teachers and school officers of California, with the \n\nhope that this record of the history they helped to make may \n\nnot be wholly devoid of interest. \n\nJ. S. \n\nSan Feancisco, \n\nAugust, 187(3. \n\n\n\nTABLE OF CONTENTS. \n\n\n\nPART I. \n\nPAGE. \n\n1. Foiindatiou 9 \n\n2. School Legislation, 1849-50 12 \n\n3. First Free School 13 \n\n4. Pioneer Schools 13 \n\n5. School Legislation, 1851 14 \n\nDivision of School Moneys 15 \n\n6. Schools in San Francisco, 1852 16 \n\n7. First State Report\xe2\x80\x94 Marvin 16 \n\n8. Legislation, 1852 19 \n\n9 . Second lieport \xe2\x80\x94 Marvin 20 \n\n10. Legislation, 1853 21 \n\nDivision of School Moneys 22 \n\n11. Third Eeport\xe2\x80\x94 Hubbs 22 \n\n12. Legislation, 1854 22 \n\n13. Fourth Eeport, 1854\xe2\x80\x94 Hubbs 23 \n\n14. Legislation, 1855 23 \n\nSecular Schools 23 \n\n15. Fifth Report, 1855\xe2\x80\x94 Hubbs 24 \n\n16. Sixth Report, 185B\xe2\x80\x94 Hubbs 24 \n\n17. Seventh Report, 1857\xe2\x80\x94 Moulder 24 \n\nState University 26 \n\n18. Legislation, 1858 27 \n\n19. Eighth Report, 1858-Moulder. 28 \n\n20. Ninth Report, 1859\xe2\x80\x94 Moulder 29 \n\n21. Legislation, 1860 29 \n\n22. Tenth Report, 18G0\xe2\x80\x94 Moulder 30 \n\n23. Legislation, 1861 31 \n\nDivision of School Moneys 31 \n\nSpeech of John Conness 32 \n\n24. Eleventh Report, 1861\xe2\x80\x94 Moulder 3o \n\n25. Legislation, 1862 ^ 35 \n\nState Normal School .\' 36 \n\n26. Twelfth Report, 1862\xe2\x80\x94 Moulder 36 \n\n27. Legislation, 1863 36 \n\nTeachers\' Certificates 37 \n\nSchool Fund 37 \n\n28. Thirteenth Report, 1863\xe2\x80\x94 Swett 38 \n\nState Tax 39 \n\n29. Legislation, 1864 43 \n\nState Tax 44 \n\n30. First Biennial Report\xe2\x80\x94 Swett \xe2\x80\xa2 44 \n\nTopics treated of 45 \n\n31. Second Report\xe2\x80\x94 Swett 47 \n\nRevised School Law 48 \n\nSalaries 50 \n\nLibraries 51 \n\nReligions Exercises 51 \n\nExamination of Teachers 53 \n\nProgress 56 \n\n\n\n6 CONTENTS. \n\nPAGE. \n\n32. Legislation, 1869 58 \n\nState University 58 \n\n33. Third Report\xe2\x80\x94 Fitzgerald 58 \n\n34. Legislation, 1870 59 \n\nCalifornia School Law 59 \n\n35. Fourth Keport\xe2\x80\x94 Fitzgerald 60 \n\nIncrease of State Tax 60 \n\nLeading Topics 62 \n\nConclusion 63 \n\n36. Legislation, 1872 63 \n\n37. Filth Report\xe2\x80\x94 Bolander 63 \n\nCompulsory Education 64 \n\n38. Legislation, 1874 65 \n\n1. Increase of State Tax 65 \n\n2. Compulsory Education 65 \n\n39. Sixth Report, 1875\xe2\x80\x94 Bolander 246 \n\nText Books 67 \n\nTrained Teachers 67 \n\nNormal Institutes 68 \n\n40. Legislation, 1876 69 \n\nState Series of Text Books 69 \n\n41. List of State Superintendents 70 \n\nSFECIAL HISTORY OF SAN FRANCISCO. \n\n1. First School Reports 71, 76 \n\n2. Miscellaneous Historical Items 77 \n\n1. Buildings 77 \n\n2. Grading 77 \n\n3. Salaries 77 \n\n4. Certificates 77 \n\n5. Annual Elections 78 \n\n6. Examinations 78 \n\n7. Secular Schools 78 \n\n8. Politics and Schools , 78 \n\n9. Music and Drawing 78 \n\n10. Changes of Text Books 78 \n\n11. Co-education 78 \n\n12. Normal Schools 78 \n\n13. Hobbies 78 \n\n14. Merits and Defects 78 \n\n15. Address of President Davis 78 \n\n16. Veteran Teacliers 78 \n\n17. Ten Years\' Teaching 78 \n\n3. List of City Superinttiidents 90 \n\n4. List of Presidents of Boards 90 \n\n5. List of Principals of Schools 91 \n\n6. Statistical Table, Historical 94 \n\n7. Special Statistics 95 \n\n\n\nPART II. \nL CONVENTIONS AND INSTITUTES. \n\n1. First Convention, 1854 96 \n\n2. Second Convention, 1856 97 \n\n3. First Institute, 1861 97 \n\n4. Second Institute, 1862 98 \n\n5. Third Institute, 1863 99 \n\nCircular 100 \n\nState Tax 102 \n\nText Books 103 \n\n" California Teacher " 103 \n\nState Examinations 103 \n\nResults 104 \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. 7 \n\nPAGE. \n\n6. Fourth Institute, 1865 104 \n\n7. Fifth and Sixth, 1867-G8 105 \n\n8. Seventh and Eighth, 1870-71 106 \n\n9. State Association, 1875 106 \n\n\n\nII. INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\n1. Industrial Education \xe2\x80\x94 Carr 107 \n\n2. Duties of the State to Public Schools\xe2\x80\x94 Swett 109 \n\n3. Methods of Teaching\xe2\x80\x94 Minns 122 \n\n4. Common Sense in Teaching--Swett 143 \n\n5. Dedication Address \xe2\x80\x94 Starr King 148 \n\n6. Moral Instruction\xe2\x80\x94 Minns \xe2\x96\xa0 153 \n\n7. Physical Training\xe2\x80\x94 Swett 158 \n\n\n\nIII. STATE UNIVERSITY. \n\n1. Foundation 165 \n\n2. First Regents 165 \n\n3. First Faculty 166 \n\n4. Regents, 1870 167 \n\n5. Faculty, 1876 167 \n\n7. Endowment 168 \n\n\n\nIV. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. \n\n1. Foundation 169 \n\n2. Teachers 169 \n\n3. Numbers 170 \n\n\n\nV. STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION. \n\n1. First Board 170 \n\n2. Other Boards 171 \n\n\n\nVI. TEACHERS\' CERTIFICATES AND BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\n1. District Trustees 171 \n\n2. First State Board 171 \n\n3. Superintendent Swett\'s Report 172 \n\n4. Revised Law 172 \n\n5. Swett\'s Address 175 \n\n6. Set of Questions, 1876 183 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 7. List of Holders of Life Diplomas 191 \n\n8. List of Holders of State Educational Diplomas 195 \n\n9. Prominent Teachers 197 \n\n10. State Educational Society 200 \n\n11. State Series of Text-Books 203 \n\n12. Education of Colored Children 205 \n\n13. Course of Study 206 \n\n14. The California Teacher 210 \n\n15. Historical Statistical Tables 2l5 \n\n1. Expenditures 215 \n\n2. School Taxation 216 \n\n3. School Statistics 217 \n\n16. Historical List of County Superintendents 218 \n\n\n\nCONTENTS. \n\n\n\nPART III. \nPRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nPAGE. \n\nI. School Supervision 223 \n\nI. State Superintendent 223 \n\nII. State Board of Education 223 \n\nIII. State Board of Examination 223 \n\nIV. County Superintendents 224 \n\nV. City Superintendents 224 \n\nVI. City Boards . 224 \n\nVII. School Trustees. 224 \n\nVIII. County Boards of Examination 224 \n\nIX. University Kegents 225 \n\nX. Normal School Trustees. \'. 225 \n\nII. School Revenue 227 \n\nI. State School Fund 227 \n\nn. State Tax 227 \n\nIII. County Tax 227 \n\nIT. City Tax 227 \n\nV. District Tax \xe2\x96\xa0 227 \n\nIII. General Provisions 228 \n\n1. Schools 228 \n\n2. Pupils 229 \n\n3. Teachers 229 \n\n4. District Libraries 231 \n\nIV. Classification of Schools 231 \n\nI. State University 231 \n\nII. State Normal School 232 \n\nIII. High Schools 232 \n\nV. Summary of Statistics, 1875 233 \n\n1 . Census Children 233 \n\n2 Classification 233 \n\n3. Schools and Teachers 233 \n\n4. Holders of Certificates 233 \n\n5. Salaries 233 \n\n6. Financial 234 \n\n7. Valuation 234 \n\nVI. School Statistics by Counties, 1875 235 \n\nVII. Resume of the Condition of the Schools 236 \n\n1. Buildings 236 \n\n2. Length of School 236 \n\n3. Teachers 236 \n\n4. Instruction 236 \n\n5. Libraries 236 \n\n6. Secular Instruction 236 \n\n7. Defects 237 \n\n8. Expenses 237 \n\n9. What we Need 237 \n\n\n\nTHE \n\n\n\nPublic School System of California. \n\n\n\nPART I. \n\n\n\nI. FOUNDATION. \n\nThe foundation of the public school system of California was \nlaid in the Constitutional Convention held in Monterey, Sep- \ntember, 1849. \n\nThe Select Committee on the State Constitution reported, \nin Committee of the Whole, in favor of appropriating the five \nhundred thousand acres of land granted by Congress to new \nStates for the purpose of internal improvements, to constitute \na perpetual School Fund, with a proviso, however, that the \nLegislature might appropriate the revenue so derived to other \npurposes if the exigencies of the State required it. An ani- \nmated debate occurred on this proviso, in which Mr. Sherwood \nof Sacramento, and Mr. Jones of San Joaquin, were the prin- \ncipal speakers in favor of it; and Mr. Semple of Sonoma, and \nMr. McCarver, opposed to it. The ijroviso was stricken out by \nthe close vote of eighteen ayes to seventeen noes, thus secur- \ning an inviolable fund for school purposes. In the progress of \nthe debate Mr. Semple spoke as follows : \n\n"This is a subject upon which I have thought probably more \nthan upon any other subject that has ever engrossed my attention. \nI regard it as a subject of peculiar importance here in California, \nfrom our location and the circumstances uu Jer which we are placed, \nthe immense value of our lands, and the extent and wealth of the \ncountry. I think that here, above all places in the Union, we \n1 \n\n\n\n10 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nshould have, and we possess the resources to have, a well-regulated \nsystem of education. \n\n\'\xe2\x80\xa2 It is the duty of members of this House to unite together and \nsecure that reputation, character and ability in our public teachers \nwhich can only be obtained by a liberal and permanent fund. It is \nthe basis of a well-regulated school system that it shall be uniform \nthroughout the State; that any surplus funds collected in one dis- \ntrict shall not be ajipropriated in that district, but that the aggre- \ngate fund from all the districts shall be appropriated strictly to \nschool purposes, and distributed equally throughout the State. \n\n" We should therefore carefully provide that this fund shall be \nused for no other jDurpose." \n\nA section providing that a school should be kept in each dis- \ntrict at least tliree months in each year, in order to secure any \nshare of the State Fund, was adopted; an amendment by Mr. \nHastings, to insert "six "months instead of "three," having \nbeen rejected, \n\nSIXTEENTH AND THIRTY- SIXTH SECTIONS. \n\nMr. Semple, of Sonoma, whose opinions on school matters \nseem to have been remarkably clear and correct, moved, as a \nsubstitute for a rejected section relating to collecting and dis- \nbursing the proceeds of fines for breach of penal laws, that all \nfunds collected from any source, including, of course, the pro- \nceeds from the sales of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections \nof township school lands, be ixiid into a common fund, to he \na2\'>port\'iOiied according to the nuruher of cluldren. \n\nWilliam M. Gwin and Henry W.Halleck, both of San Fran- \ncisco, spoke against the measure; and Mr. Semple defended it \nin an able speech. It Avas rejected, however, and the way was \nleft open for a great deal of cumbersome legislation in vain \nattempts to form township school funds. Finally, after fifty \nthousand acres had been sold by various townships, the pro- \nceeds of which have never been heard of since, in 1861 a law \nwas passed consolidating the proceeds into one common State \nSchool Fund, as proposed by Mr. Semple in IS\'lO. \n\nTHE TEST VOTE. \n\nWhen Article IX, on education, came up for final adoption \nin the Convention, there was a lengthy debate on the policy of \nconcurring with the action in Committee of the Whole in strik- \ning out the proviso in section second before mentioned. The \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL KEPORTS. 11 \n\nopinion preyailed in the Convention that this grant would be of \nimmense value; that the lands would be located in mineral \nregions, and sold for fabulous sums; that the fund derived would \nbe the most munificent in the Avorld; and the argument Avas \nused in favor of the proviso, that the fund would be more than \nsufficient to educate the children, and would prove a source of \ncorruption and speculation. Hence the question was made an \nimportant one, which brought out the full strength of the friends \nof free schools. \n\nW. J^I. Stewart and Messrs. Sherwood and Vermeule, spoke \nin favor ^ of retaining the proviso, and Messrs. Gwin, Halleck, \nBotts, Hoppe, Semple, and McDougal, in favor of striking it out. \n\nAfter various amendments offered and rejected, the proviso \nwas stricken out by the following vote: \n\nAyes.- \xe2\x80\x94 Messrs. Aram, Botts, Brown, Covarrubias, Gwin, \nHanks, Hill, Hoppe, Halleck, Hastings, Hollingsworth, Larkin, \nLippitt, Lippincott, McCarver, McDougal, Ord, Price, Ileid, \nSutter, Stearns, Sansevaine, Tefft, Yermeule, Walker, and Pres- \nident Semple \xe2\x80\x94 26. \n\nNoes. \xe2\x80\x94 Messrs. Dimmick, Dominguez, Foster, Gilbert, Hob- \nson, Norton, Pico, Sherwood and AN\'^ozencraft \xe2\x80\x94 10. \n\nAnd so ivas laid the foundation of our School Fund and School \nSystem. \n\nCONSTITOTIONAL PKO VISIONS. \n\nArticle IX of the Constitution, as adopted, was as follows: \n\n" Article IX. \xe2\x80\x94 Education. \n\n" Section 1. The Legislature shall provide for the election by \nthe people of a Superiutendent of Public lustruction, who shall \nhold his office for three years, and whose duties shall be prescribed \nby law, and who shall receive such compensation as the Legisla- \nture may direct.* \n\n" Sec. 2. The Legislature shall encourage by all suitable means \nthe promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral and agricultural im- \nprovement. The proceeds of all land that may be granted by the \nUnited States to this State for the support of schools which may be \nsold or disposed of, and the five hundred thousand acres of land \ngranted to the new States, under an act of Congress distributing \nthe proceeds of the public lands among the several States of the \nUnion, approved a. d. 1841, such per cent, as may be granted by \nCongress on the sale of lauds in this State shall be and remain a \n\n* Amended in 1862 so as to provide for the election of State Superintendent at \nthe Special Judicial Election, for a term of four years. \n\n\n\n12 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nperpetual fund, the interest of wliicli, together with all the rents of \nthe unsold lands, and such other means as the Legislature may \nprovide, shall be inviolahly appropriated to the support of common \nschools throughout the State. \n\n" Sec. 3. Tlie Legislature shall provide for a system of common \nschools, by which a school shall be kept up and supported in each \ndistrict at least three months in every year; and any district neg- \nlecting to keep and support such a school, may be de2:)rived of its \nproportion of the interest of the public fund during such neglect. \n\n" Sec. 4. The Legislature shall take measures for the protection, \nimprovement, or other disposition of such lands as have been or may \nhereafter be reserved or granted by the United States, or any person \nor persons, to the State, for the use of a university; and the funds \naccruing from the rents or sale of such lands, or from #any other \nsource, for the purpose aforesaid, shall be and remain a permanent \nfund, the interest of which shall be applied to the support of said \nuniversity, with such branches as the ])ub]ic convenience may de- \nmand, for the promotion of literature, the arts and sciences, as may \nbe authorized by the terms of such grant. And it shall be the duty \nof the Legislature, as soon as may be, to provide efl\'ectual means for \nthe imjDrovement and permanent security of the funds of said uni- \nversity." \n\n2. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1849-50. \n\nNear the close of the first session of the Legislature, 1849-50, \nheld in the city of San Jose, Mr. Corej-, from the Committee ou \nEducation, reported that the taxes laid on the people for State, \ncounty, and municipal purposes, were so heavy the committee did \nnot consider it advisable to report a bill to tax the people still \nfurther for the support of public. schools, and, accordingly, the \nschool bill, of which no record remains, was indefinitely post- \nponed. But while the school bill, thus defeated, has been for- \ngotten, the reason advanced by Mr. Corey has been the stand- \ning argument urged against every school bill which has con- \ntained any provision for maintaining by taxation a system of \npublic schools. \n\n3. THE FIRST FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL. \n\nA solid foundation for a school system was laid by the framers \nof the State Constitution, but San Francisco was the first place \nin the State to organize, independent of State law, b}\' her Com- \nmon Council, a/ree public school. \n\nThe Ayuntamiento, or City Council, adopted, April 8, 1850, \nthe following ordinance, drawn by H. C. Murraj^, which was the \nfirst i)nl)lic school orcUucaice of any icind 2^f(SS\xe2\x82\xacd in Cali/onna, and \nconsequently made the school taught by Mr. Pelton the first \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 13 \n\nfree public scliodl in the State. The ordinance was crude, it is \ntrue, but it was the germ of all succeeding city ordinances. \nThe following is a copy of the ordinance: \n\n" 1st. Be it ordained by the Common Council of San Francisco, That \nfrom and after the passage of this act, it shall be the duty of J. C. \nPelton, who has been employed by the Council as a public teacher, \nto open a school in the Baptist Chapel. \n\n" 2d. Said school shall be opened from half-past eipfht o\'clock \nA. M. to twelve o\'clock m., and from two o\'clock p. m. until five o\'clock \np. M. , and shall continue open from Monday until Friday at five \no\'clock p. M. \n\n" 3d. The number of scholars shall not exceed the number of one \nhundred; and no scholar shall be admitted under the age of four or \nover the age of sixteen. \n\n"4th. All persons desirous of having their children instructed in \nsaid school shall first obtain an order from the Chairman of the Com- \nmittee on Education, and all children obtaining said order shall be \ninstructed in said school free of charge. \n\n" 5th. It shall be the duty of said Pelton to report to the Council \non the first of each and every month the number of scholars and the \nprogress of said school. \n\n"H. C. Murray. \n\n"F. TiLFORD." \n\n4. THE PIONEER SCHOOLS. \n\nOn October 11, 1847, a committee of the Town Council \ncontracted for the erection of a small schoolhouse of one room, \non the southwest corner of the Plaza, at the corner of Clay \nStreet and Brenliam Place. \n\nOn February 23, 1848, a small number of voters assembled \nand elected a Board of School Trustees, consisting of Dr. Town- \nsend, Dr. Fourgeaud, C. L. Eoss, Wm. H. Davis and J. Serine. \nThis board elected Thomas DougUiss as teacher, at a salary of \none thousand dollars a year, and the school opened on the 3d \nof April, 1848, with 6 pupils. This was in fact a tuition school \nnnder public auspices, it being free only to indigent pupils. \nThe Town Council agreed to make up any deficiency in the \nsalary of the teacher, to the extent of four hundred dollars. The \nestimated population of the town, April 1, 1848, was one \nthousand, with 60 children of school age. In May the school \n" numbered 37 pupils. \n\nOn May 13, 1848, a new election of Trustees was ordered, \nand after a spirited contest the old board was re-elected. Soon \nafter gold was discoveied, the school dwindled to 8 pupils, and \nSchoolmaster Douglass closed his doors and started for the \nmines. \n\n\n\n14 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nPrior to tlie opening of tins 9\'?/(7.s/\' public school, Mr. Marston, \na Mormon, opened a private school, April, 1847, and sqon had \n20 pupils in attendance. Schoolmaster Marston also became a \nminer when the stampede for the "diggings" took place. \n\nIn April, 1849, Rev. Albert Williams opened a private school \nof about 25 pupils, and continued it until the September fol- \nlowing. \n\nOn the 11th of October, 1849, John C. Pelton and wife arrived \nfrom Boston, Avith school furniture, boohs, etc., for the purpose \nof establishing a school on the New England plan. He opened \nschool December, 1849, Avith three pupils. This school was to \nbe supported by voluntary contributions, but was free to indi- \ngent children. This school was made a free jyuhlic school soon \nafter. \n\nThe school so established soon numbered 150 pupils, and in \naddition to Mr. Pelton and his wife, two assistants had to be \nemployed. At one time the school numbered 300 pupils. The \nsalary of Mr. and Mrs. Pelton was $500 a month. \n\nThis school was continued until September 25, 1851, when it \nwas suspended by the adoption of a new school ordinance, \nunder which T. J. Nevins became Superintendent, new teachers \nwere elected, and Mr. Pelton temporarily retired from school. \n\n5. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1850-1851. \n\nThe Chairman of the Senate Committee on Education, Mr \nHeydenfelt, early in the second session of the Legislature, at \nSan Jose, 1850-51, reported a bill "Concerning common \nschools," which dragged slowly along, was indefinitely post- \nponed in the Assembly, submitted to a Committee of Conference, \nand finally passed on the very last day of the session. May 1, \n1851. \n\nThe original bill was mainly drawn by Hon. George B. \nTingley, a member of the Legislature. John G. Marvin, Super- \nintendent of Public Listruction, and John C. Pelton, teacher of \nthe public school in San Francisco, under a local school ordi- \nnance, assisted in preparing and perfecting the bill, and in \nsecuring its passage. David C. Broderick, then a member of \nthe Legislature, was an active supporter of the bill. \n\nTHE FIRST SCHOOL LAW. \n\nThe school law of 1851 was cumbereome and imperfect in many \nof its provisions. It provided for the survey and sale of school \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 15 \n\nlands in so impracticable a manner that no lands were ever sold \nuudeij its operation. The Governor was to order a survey; the \nsurveyor was to lay off the land in lots not exceeding eighty \nacres, nor less than forty, and to furnish the State Superintend- \nent with a schedule of the same; the lands were to be sold at \nauction, on an order from the Court of Sessions \xe2\x80\x94 the purchaser \nto pay one third down, and ten per cent, per annum interest on \nthe remainder; the County Treasurer to give a certificate of \npayment, and report to the State Superintendent; the State \nSuperintendent to direct the District Attorney to make out a \ndeed; the County Recorder to report annually to the State \nSuperintendent. \n\nIt provided for the apportionment of the interest of the State \nSchool Fund to the counties, on the basis of the number of \nchildren between seven and eighteen years of age; but the \nCounty Treasurers were to apportion to districts according to \nthe number actually attending school; no district was to receive \nits share of State money unless school was maintained three \nmonths, and nnless it raised a sum equal to at least one half its \nshare of the State Fund. It defined the duties of the Superin- \ntendent of Public Instruction; provided for a "Superintending \nSchool Committee " of three, elected annually, with power to \nexamine and appoint teachers, disburse the School Fund, build \nschoolhouses, and report annually to the State Superintendent. \nIt divided schools into primary, intermediate and grammar, \nspecifying the studies in each, and provided for the establish- \nment of high schools. \n\nDI\\^SION OF THE SCHOOL MONEYS. \n\nIt also provided for the distribution of the School Fund \namong religious and sectarian schools, in the following sections : \n\n" Sec. 10. If a school be formed by the enterprise of a rehgious \nsociety, in which all the educational branches of the district schools \nshall be taught, and which, from its private and public examination, \nthe committee will it to be well conducted, such school shall be \nallowed a compensation from the Public School Fund in proportion \nto the nvimber of* its pupils, in the same manner as provided for \ndistrict schools by this act. \n\n" Sec 11. Schools established under charitable anspioes, orphan \nasylums, schools for blind, almshouse schools, etc., such as shall be \nsubject to the general supervision of laws on education, but under \nthe immediate management of their respective trustees, managers, \nor directors; and said schools shall participate in the apportionment \nof the school moneys in the same manner as other common schools." \n\n\n\n16 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n6. SCHOOLS IN SAN FRANCISCO, 1851-52. \n\nThe first school ordinance passed under the State school laAV \nof 1851 was that of San Francisco, adopted in September, 1851, \n\xe2\x96\xa0which made provision for a City Board of Education, composed \nof seven members, and for a City Superintendent, and appro- \njDriated $35,000 for the support of schools. Thomas J. Nevins, \nwho mainly prepared the ordinance, was elected Superintendent \nof Schools, and proceeded to organize the department. The \nfirst schools organized under this ordinance were the Happy \nYalley School, of which Mr. James Denman was elected the first \nteacher, and the Powell Street School, of which Mr. Joel Tracy \nwas appointed teacher. \n\nBoth schools opened on the 17th of December, 1851. \n\nThe Washington Grammar School opened December 22, Mr. \nr. E. Jones, Principal. \n\nDuring 1852 the following new schools were organized: Piin- \ncon School, January 28, Silas Weston, Principal; Spring Valley \nGrammar, February 9, Asa "W. Cole, Principal; Union Gram- \nmar, June, Ahira Holmes, Principal; Mission Grammar, May, \nAlfred Eix, Principal. \n\nThe average daily attendance in all the schools for 1852 was \n445; in 1853, 703 pupils. \n\nAmong the teachers elected in 1853 were Ellis H. Holmes, \nPrincipal of the AVashington School, March 1; John Swett, \nPrincipal Rincon School, December 4; Joseph C. Morrill, \nPrincipal Spring Yalley School, October 1. \n\nThe salary of Principals of Grammar Schools in 1853 was \n$1500 a year. \n\n7. FIRST STATE SCHOOL REPORT, 1851. \n\nJohn G. Marvin, the first Superintendent of Public Instruc- \ntion, made his first annual report to the third Legislature on the \n5th of January, 1852. He recommended that a carefully pre- \npared school law should be passed, as that of the previous year \nwas meagi-e in its provisions; that an appropriation of $50,000 \nshould be immediately made, and that next year a State school \ntax of five cents on a hundred dollars should be levied until \nsome revenue could be derived from the State School Fund; that \nthe office of County Superintendent be created; that provision \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL KEPORTS. 17 \n\nbe made for school libraries; and that the proceeds of the sales \nof tule lands be applied to the School Fnnd. He estimated the \ntotal amount of State school land, inchuling the 16th and 36th \nsections, and the 500,000 acre grant, to be 6,380,320 acres, which \nwould yield a prospective School Fund of $7,975,400, and says \nof this estimate: " This would be trul}^ a magnilicent bequest, \nand one worthy of the El Dorado State." \n\nIn an appendix to his report, Mr. Marvin gave extracts from \nletters of inquiry addressed by him to various county officers \nand to postmasters. A few extracts from these Avill show the \neducational condition of the State at that time: Butte County \nhad 50 children, but no school; Calaveras County, 100 children, \nand no school; Colusa, 75 children, with some prospect of a \nschool next 3\'ear; El Dorado County, 100 children, but no \nschool; Contra Costa County had some 400 children. Postmas- \nter Coffin, of Martinez, wrote: "There are nearly 150 here. \nThere is but just the breath of life existing in the apolog}\' for a \nschool in the town. I presume it will be defunct ere one month \npasses away." Marin County had 60 children, and a mission \nschool at San Kafael; Mariposa County, 100 children, "no \nschool organized;" Mendocino County, 70 children, and a school \nof 20 pupils on Russian Eiver; Monterey County, 500 children \n\xe2\x80\x94 tvvo schools of 40 pupils each in the city \xe2\x80\x94 179 at San Juan, \nand no school; " morality and society in a desperate condition ;" \nNapa County had 100 children, and three schools in the county, \none of which was at Napa City, and numbered 25 scholars; Ne- \nvada County had 250, and four schools, two of which were at \nNevada City, one at Grass Valley, and one at Eough and Eeady ; \nPlacer County had 100 children, and one small school at Auburn; \nSan Joaquin County had 250 children, and two schools, both \nat Stockton. Mr. Pogers, the teacher of a private school at \nSacramento, reported that there were 400 children in that county, \nand no schools except two primary and one academy, a high \nschool in the city of Sacramento, all private. He says: "This \ncity has never spent a cent for elementary instruction. My \nsympathies are with the public free schools, but in their ab- \nsence, I started a private school." \n\nSanta Cruz County had 200 children, and two schools, both \nin the town, numbering 65 scholars. \n\nSanta Clara County had 300 children. The Young Ladies\' \nSeminary, at San Jose, in charge of the Sisters of Charity, had \n\n\n\n18 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n90 pupils; and the Sau Jose Academy, Eevereiid E. Bannister, \nPrincipal, had 60 j^upils. Through the exertions of Hon. \nGeorge B. Tingley, a subscription of $5000 was raised for the \nbenefit of this academy. There were two primary schools at \nSanta Clara, with 64 scholars, and two other schools in the town- \nship, numbering 35 scholars. \n\nSanta Barbara County had 400 children, and one public school \nin the town, under supervision of the Common Council, who \npaid the two teachers together seventy dollars per month. There \nwas also a small school at Santa Inez. \n\nSAN FRANCISCO SCHOOLS. \n\nConcerning San Francisco, it is reported: "In May last, the \nCommon Council, under authority of the charter, authorized \nthe raising of $35,000 as a School Fund for the present year. \nIn September, 1851, the same body passed the present excel- \nlent school ordinance, and appointed Aldermen Ross, Atwell, \nJohn Wilson and Henry E. Lincoln, to form the Board of Edu- \ncation. These gentlemen chose T. J. Nevins Superintendent." \n\nThree public schools were organized at that time \xe2\x80\x94 Happy \nYalley School, No. 1, 163 scholars, James Denman, Principal; \nDistrict No. 2, Dupont Street School, 150 pupils, Mr. Jones, \nPrincipal; Powell Street School, No. 3, 60 pupils, Joel Trdcy, \nPrincipal. \n\nAmong the private schools, the principal Avere as follows: \nSan Francisco Academy, Bev. F. E. Prevaux, 31 pupils; Epis- \ncopal Parish School of Grace Church, 40 scholars. Dr. Ver \nMehr; Wesley an Chapel Select School, 33 scholars, Mr. \nOsborne, Instructor; St. Patrick\'s School, 150 children. Father \nMcGinnis, Principal; Church of St. Francis School, 150 pupils, \nFather Langlois, Principal. \n\nSonoma County had 5 small schools, and 250 children; Solano \nCounty 200 children and one school, at Benicia, half public and \nhalf private; Trinity County 125 childi-en, and one school of \n50 pupils, at Uniontown; Tuolumne County 150 children, and \nno school; Yolo County 75 children, and no school; Yuba \nCounty had 150 children, and one school in Marysville, of 30 \nscholars, taught by Tyler Thatcher and his wife. \n\nFrom these rough materials Mr. Marvin estimated the num- \nber of children in the State between 4 and 18 years of age to \nbe about 6000. There was then no organized State school sys- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 19 \n\ntem, and most of the schools mentioned in the preceding items \nwere private schools supported bj tuition. \n\n8. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1852. \n\nAt the third session of the Legislature, held in Yallejo and \nSacramento, 1852, Hon. Frank Soule, Chairman of the Senate \nCommittee on Education, made an able report in favor of com- \nmon schools, and introduced a revised school law much more \ncomplete than the law of 1851. \n\nHon. Paul K. Hubbs, of the Senate, afterwards Superintend- \nent of Public Instruction, State Superintendent Marvin and \nMr. Pelton, assisted Mr. Soule in framing the bill. \n\nA select committee of the Assembly on the Senate bill (Mr. \nBoggs, Chairman) reported strongly against many features of \nthe bill; thought that parents could take care of their own \nchildren; that the State and the counties were in debt; that taxa- \ntion ought not to be increased \xe2\x80\x94 the standing argument of Mr. \nCorey \xe2\x80\x94 and therefore recommended that the bill be postponed \none year, and yet had the unblushing impudence to wind up \ntheir report by "declaring themselves faithful friends of com- \nmon schools and loyal lovers of children!" Finally a commit- \ntee of conference was appointed, on which appear the names of \nJ. M. Estell, Henry A. Crabb and A. C. Peachy, who reported \nin favor of the bill with the sections relating to the sale of \nschool lands stricken out, to be amended and passed as a sepa- \nrate bill. It was proposed by Mr. Soule and others who as- \nsisted in framing the bill, that the 500,000 acres of school lands \nshould be located by the State Board of Education, and held \nuntil the land should sell for a reasonable price. \n\nBut there was a big land speculation in the e^-es of some \nmembers of the Legislature; and so the policy prevailed of dis- \nposing of these lands at $2.25 per acre, payable in depreciated \nState script. The total amount finally realized from this mag- \nnificent land grant was only about $600,000. It might have \nbeen made two or three millions. \n\nFIRST STATE SCHOOL TAX. \n\nThe bill was passed, and a provision was inserted in the rev- \nenue law levying a State school tax of five cents on each one hun- \ndred dollars of the taxable property of the State. This school law \nmade provision for a State Board of Education, consisting of \n\n\n\n20 ^ SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nthe Governor, Surveyor-General and Superintendent of Public \nInstruction; made County Assessors ex-officio County Superin- \ntendents; three School Commissioners in each district, elected \nfor one year; constables to be School Census Marshals; the \nschool year to end October 31; State School Fund to be ap- \nportioned to districts according to the number of census chil- \ndren between five and eighteen 3\'ears of age; State School Fund \nto be used exclusively for teachers\' salaries, and fifty per cent. \nof County Fund for the same purpose; that no books of a de- \nnominational or sectarian character should be used in any com- \nmon schools; defined the duties of County Superintendents, \nand of the State Superintendent and School Commissioners; \nauthorized the Common Council in incorporated towns to raise \na school tax not to exceed three cents on a hioidred dollars; to \nprovide for examination of teachers; to make rules and regula- \ntions for government of schools; authorized counties to levy a \nschool tax not exceeding three cents on a liundred dollars; pro- \nvided that no school should receive any apportionment of piiblic \nmoney, iinless free from all denominatioiial and sectarian bias, con- \ntrol or infl.nence ivhatever; and closed by giving permission to \nteachei\'s to assemble at Sacramento, once a year, on the call \nof the Superintendent of Public Instruction, to discuss and \nrecommend improvements in teaching. Approved May 3, 1862. \n\n9. SECOND STATE SCHOOL REPORT, 1852. \n\nIn his second annual report, Mr. Marvin stated that the num- \nber of children between four and eighteen years of age was \n17,821; that by a blunder of the Enrolling Clerk, the section \ncreating the ofiice of County Superintendent was omitted, iand \nthe duties were specified without creating the ofiice, and in \nconsequence thereof the State Board of Education had not \nbeen able to apportion the State Fund, which at that time \namounted to $18,289, of which $14,874 was received from the. \nfive cent revenue tax; that the sales of school lands had \namounted to 150,000 acres, yielding $300,000, on interest at the \nrate of seven per cent, per annum. He recommended that the \nCounty Assessors be made ex-officio County Superintendents; \nthat Trustees be required to report to the State Superintendent \nas well as to County Superintendents; thai the Catholic schools \nbe cdlowed their vro rata of the public /and; that no necessity ex- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 21 \n\nisted for a normal school, as the supply of teachers was greater \nthan the demand; that the number of organized public schools \nwas 20, the number of children attending public school 3314, \nand the total expenditure as reported, $28,000. \n\nThe report embraced twelve mission and church schools in \nvarious parts of the State, including 579 children in attendance. \n\n\n\n10. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1853. \nSALE OF SCHOOL LANDS. \n\n\' The law regulating the sale of 500,000 acres of school lands, \npassed May 3, 1852, authorized the Governor to issue land \nwarrants of not less than IGO acres, nor more than 320 acres; \nthe State Treasurer was authorized to sell said lands at two dollars \nper acre, and to receive in payment Controller\'s warrants drawn \nupon the General Fund, or the bonds of the civil debt of the \nState; and to couvei\'t all moneys and all State three per cent, \nbonds or Controller\'s warrants so received by him into bonds \nof the civil funded debt of the State, bearing interest at seven \nper cent, per annum, and to keep such bonds as a special \ndeposit, marked " School Fund," to the credit of said School \nFund. \n\nUnder this provision the sales of land in 1852 amounted to \n150,000 acres, yielding $300,000. \n\nAMENDMENTS. \n\nAt the fourth session of the Legislature, 1853, the school law \nwas amended by the following provisions: That Controller\'s \nwarrants, received for school lands, should draw interest at \nseven per cent., the same rate as civil bonds; that the State \nTreasurer should keep a separate and distinct account of the \nCommon School Fund, and of the interest and income thereof, \nand that no portion should be devoted to any other purpose; \nthat County Assessors should be made ex-qfficio County Super- \nintendents; that all county school officers should be paid such \ncompensation as allowed by County Supervisors; that cities \nshould have power to raise by tax whatever amount of money \nwas necessary for school purposes; that counties should have \npower to lev}^ a school tax not exceeding five cents on a hundred \ndollars; that religious and sectarian schools should receive a \npro rata share of the School Fund. \n\n\n\n22 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nThe provision allowing the Catholic schools a share of the \nSchool Fund was as follows: \n\n"Sec. 7. Article yire of said act (1852) is hereby amended by \nadding after section iivo the following additional sections: \n\n"\' Section Tliree. The Count}^ Superintendent may and is hereby \nempowered, in incorporated cities, to appoint three School Commis- \nsioners for any common school or district, upon petition of the \ninhabitants thereof requesting the same. \n\n" \' SecUon Four. Such schools shall be and are hereby entitled \nto all the rights and i^rivileges of any other city or common school, \nin the j^i\'o rata, division of school money raised by taxation, and shall \nreceive its proportion of money from the State School Fund in the \nannual distribution; provided, they are conducted in accordance with \nthe requirements of this act.\'" \n\nThis provision gave rise to the formation of the so-called \n" ward schools " of San Francisco. \n\nII. THIRD ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1853. \n\nPaul K. Hubbs, who had been a member of the last previous \nLegislature, was elected as successor to John G. Marvin, and \ntook office on the first of January, 1S54. In his very brief \nannual report, January 24, 1854, he stated that the School Fund, \nfrom the sale of school lauds, amounted to $463,000, on which \nthe annual interest Avas $32,000; that the sale of school lands \nhad entirely ceased, and that there remained iinsold 208,000 \nacres of the 500,000 acre grant. He dwelt on the necessity of \nreserving all sales of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections for \ntownship funds exclusively. Mr. Hubbs further recommended \nthat the School Fund be apportioned according to the average \nattendance on school, instead of the number of census children, \nand urged the establishment of a State university. \n\nNo tabular statistics whatever were published with this report. \n\n12. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1854. \n\nIn the fifth session of the Legislature, 1854, it was provided \nin the Eevenue Act that fifteen per cent, of the State poll taxes \nshould be paid into the School Fund. A well-prepared school \nlaw was introduced by Hon. D. R. Ashley, which, among other \nthings, repealed the sections alloio\'mg secLarian schools a i^ro raia \nshare of the School Fund. It met with strong opposition, \nfinally passed to engrossment, but was buried in the rubbish of \nunfinished business at the end of the session. \n\n\\ \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 23 \n\n13. FOURTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1854. \n\nSuperintendent Hubbs opened- his second report witli the \nstatement, "that, though the average attendance on school had \nincreased from 2000 in 1853 to 5751 in 1854, the report never- \ntheless exhibited the lamentable fact that the children of our \nState are growing up devoid of learning to read and write." He \nrecommended the establishment of a State Industrial School; \nthat School Commissioners be elected for three years, one \nannually; that the office of County Superintendent be abolished, \nas tending to unnecessary expense; that Township Treasurers \nbe elected, to report to the State Superintendent; argued in \nfavor of Township School Funds; stated that no income had \never been derived from "escheated estates," though it had been \nestimated that millioushe\\oug,ed of right to that fund; and urged \na State university. A crude and confused tabular statement \nwas attached to this report. \n\n14. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1855. \n\nDuring the sixth session of the Legislature, 1855, Hon. D. R. \nAshley introduced a school bill which was in substance the \nsame as that defeated at the last previous session. After some \nopposition, with a few amendments it became a law, approved \nMay 3, 1855. \n\nThis revised law enlarged the powers of School Trustees; pro- \nvided for the election of County Superintendents, and defined \ntheir duties; and empowered the Common Councils of incor- \nporated cities to raise a school tax not exceeding twenty-five \ncents on a hundred dollars; to collect and disburse school \nmoneys; to establish school districts; to provide by election or \nby appointment for City Boards of Education, and City Super- \nintendents; to establish schools on petition of fifty heads of \nfamilies, provided that no sectarian doctrines should be taught \ntherein, and that such schools be under the same supervision as \nother schools. \n\nSECULAR SCHOOLS. \n\nIt provided that no school should be entitled to any share of \nthe public fund that had not been taught by teachers duly ex- \namined and approved by legal authority, and that no sectarian \nbooks should be used, and no sectarian doctrines should be \n\n\n\n24 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\ntauglit in any pnblic scliool under penalty of forfeiting tlie pub- \nlic funds. The striugeut provision settled then, and probably \nforever, the question of an American sj^stem of public schools \nin this State, free from the bitterness of sectarian strife and the \nintolerance of religious bigotry. The public schools are free to \nthe children of the people, and free from the influence of church \nor sect. \n\nThis law of 1855 also provided that Controller\'s warrants paid \ninto the Treasury for school lands should draw the same rate of \ninterest as civil bonds, and that the State Treasurer should in- \ndorse on such warrants, "Common School Fund," and that no \nportion of such securities should be sold or exchanged, except \nby special act of the Legislature; it authorized counties to raise \na school tax not exceeding ten cents on a hundred dollars, to \napportion the same on the same basis as the State Fund, and to \nappropriate the moneys so derived for building houses, pur- \nchasing libraries, or for salaries. This law contained many ex- \ncellent provisions, and was a very great advance on all previous \nschool bills. Its main features are retained in the school law of \nthe present day. \n\n15. FIFTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1856. \n\nSuperintendent Hubbs renewed his recommendations for the \nsale of school lands, and put in a special plea for Township \nFunds; recommended that all school lands and School Funds \nbe placed under the control of the State Board of Education; \nasked a direct appropriation of $100,000; considered the new \nscJioolIaw behi)id the age; recommended that the office of County \nSuperintendent be abolished, and that the district township \nsystem be adopted; that the School Fund be apportioned ac- \ncording to the average daily attendance. \n\nThis report was accompanied by inaccurate statistical tables. \n\n16. SIXTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1856. \n\nThe last report of Superintendent Hubbs was a brief one, \nwithout any statistical table whatever \xe2\x80\x94 not even the number of \ncensus children in the State. \n\nHe urged all his previous recommendations concerning school \nlands, and township lands in particular, the establishment \nof a grand university, Avith an agricultural department, and \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 25 \n\na military scliool; a legislative requirement that a \xe2\x96\xa0uniform series \nof elementary hooks be used in all the public scJiools; entered liis \nprotest against certain " partisan and sectional " text-books sent \nhim from the East; and closed by a eulogy on the English lan- \nguage and the Anglo-Saxon race. \n\n\n\n17. SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1857. \n\nPaul K. Hubbs was succeeded in office, iu 1857, by Andrew \nJ. Moulder. \n\nMr. Moulder\'s first report opened as follows : \n\nThe number of schools has increased, in four years, from 53 to \n367 \xe2\x80\x94 nearly sevenfold; the number of teachers, from 50 to 486 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 \nnearl}^ ninefold; the number of children reported by census, from \n11,242 to 85,722 \xe2\x80\x94 more than threefold; whilst the semi-annual con- \ntribution by the State has dwindled from $53,511.11 to $28,342.16, \nor nearly one half; and the average paid each teacher, from $955 to \n$58.32 \xe2\x80\x94 that is to say, to less than one sixteenth of the average \nunder the first apportionment. \n\nI will not waste words on such an exhibit. If it be not con- \nvincing that the support derived from the State is altogether in- \nsufficient, and ought to be augmented, no aj^peal of mine could en- \nforce it. \n\nBut this I may be permitted to say, that we have no such thing \nas public schools, in the full acceptation of the term \xe2\x80\x94 that is to saj\', \nschools at which all the children of the State may be educated, //-ee \nof expense. That $9.72 per mouth, to each teacher, contributed by \nthe State, never can maintain a public school; that the contribu- \ntions by parents and guardians to keep up the schools are onerous, \noftentimes unequal, and must, in time, damp their ardor in the cause \nof education; that our 367 schools are comparatively in their infancy, \nand now, above all other times, should be cherished and encouraged \nby the State. Lacking such fostering care and encouragement, it is to \nbe feared they will languish, and gradually lose their hold upon the \npopular favor. Is it not worth more than an ordinary effort to avert \nsuch a calamity ? \n\nHe recommended that the maximum rate of county school \ntax be increased from ten cents to twenty cents on a hundred \ndollars; that no warrants should be issued by Trustees on the \nDistrict Funds, unless there was cash in the Treasury to pay \nthem; and that all funds coming into the Treasury during one \nschool year should be used exclusively for the payment of ex- \npenses of that year; asked an appropriation of $3000 for Teach- \ners\' Institutes; favored the establishment of a State Industrial \nSchool; recommended that all school lauds be placed under the \n2 \n\n\n\n26 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nimmediate charge of the State Board of Education, with power \nto locate and sell at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre; \nthat the proceeds of the sales of the 16th and 36th sections of \ntownship lands be consolidated into one general school fund, \nand that a State Military Institute be established. \n\nThe following extract will illustrate his views on a State \nUniversity : \n\nOurs is eminently a practical age. "We want no pale and sickly \nscholars, profound in their knowledge of the dead or other lan- \nguages and customs. We need energetic citizens, skilled in the \narts of the living, and capable of instructing their less favored fel- \nlows in the pursuits that contribute to the material prosperity of \nour State. For\' what useful occupation are the graduates of most \nof our old colleges lit? and not of ours alone, but of the time- \nhonored universities of England. Many of them are bright schol- \nars, ornaments to their alma maler \xe2\x80\x94 they are perhaps all that the \nsystem under which they have been instructed could make them ; \nthey are learned in the antiquities of natious long since gone ; they \nare eloquent in Latin ; they may write a dissertation on the Greek \nIDarticle ; be masters of the rules of logic and the dogmas of ethics \n\xe2\x80\x94 all valuable acquirements, it is true; but when, after years of \ntoil, they have received their diploma, their education for practical \nlife has just commenced. They have still to study for a profession \n\xe2\x80\x94 are still dejDendent upon their parents. \n\nThis may do for old settled communities, but it will never \nanswer for California. A young man at seventeen, eighteen, or \ntwenty years of age, in this State, must expect to start in life for \nhimself. He must have some occupation that will maintain him. \nLonger dependence is not to be tolerated or expected. \n\nTo fit our youth for such occupations, to end this dependence, \nmust be the object of our university. \n\nI would, tberefore, urge that such professorships only shall be \nestablished at first as will turn out practical and scientific civil \nengineers; mining engineers; surveyors; metallurgists; smelters; \nassayers; geologists, or scientific prospectors; chemists, both manu- \nfacturing and agricultural; architects; builders; and last, but not \nleast, school teachers. \n\nLet me call your attention, however, to the necessity of edu- \ncating a class of our young men in mining engineering. \n\nThe character of mining has undergone great changes since \neighteen hundred and forty-nine and eighteen hundred and fifty- \nEnterprises are now conducted on an extensive scale. Tunnels of \ngreat magnitude, with labyrinthine galleries, are run into the \nmountains; deep shafts, with far-stretching drifts, are sunk; quartz \nworks and mills are multiplying. In all these enterprises a skillful \nengineer would be a valuable acquisition; and, as they progress in \nmagnitude, his services would become indispensable. It is from \nthe want of such directing intelligence that we so often hear of \naccidents in the mines. Our State has scarcely started hi the work \nof internal improvements. None ofiers more inducements \xe2\x80\x94 in \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPOETS. 27 \n\nnone will more be needed. For these we sliall require c.ivil engi- \nneers and surveyors, and all such will, in a few years, find employ- \nment. \n\nThe statistical tables accompanying the report were very \nbrief, embracing only the number of census children and the \naverage daily attendance. \n\n\n\ni8. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1858. \n\nThe Legislatures of 1856 and 1857 did not trouble them- \nselves about the school law, and no amendments worth men- \ntioning were made. \n\nThe Legislature of 1858 made an advance in school legisla- \ntion by providing that school districts, by a vote of the people, \ncould levy a district tax for the support of schools or for build- \ning schoolhouses, under the restrictions that the district must \nhave maintained a school four months; that the public money \nmust be insufficient to defray one half the expense of another \nterm; that a tax for supporting a school and for building a \nschoolhouse could not both be levied the same year, and that \nthe trustees considered the tax advisable. This law was not \nwell drawn, and great difficulty was experienced in collecting \nthe taxes voted under it, the heavy taxpayers who chose to \nresist it generally escaping without payment. As a necessary \nresult, comparatively few taxes were voted under it, and not \ntill 1863 was a liberal and efitective law passed whose provisions \nwere as binding as those regulating the collection of State or \ncounty taxes. \n\nThe Legislature of 1856 passed a concurrent resolution in- \nstructing their representatives in Congress to use their influence \nto secure the surveys of the 16th and 36th sections of township \nschool lands, and also to secure a law authorizing townships \nin the mineral districts to locate two sections in lieu thereof on \nthe agricultural lands of the State. \n\nThe Legislature of 1858 passed a similar concurrent resolu- \ntion. \n\nA law was passed providing for the sale of the remainder of \nthe 500,000 acre grant, and the 72 sections for a State univer- \nsity, which provided that the Governor should appoint a land \nlocating agent in each land district of the State, who should \nlocate in tracts not exceeding 320 acres; that purchasers should \n\n\n\n28 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\npay $1.25 per acre, or, if tbey preferred, twenty per cent, down, \nand interest on the remainder at ten per cent, per annum, in \nadvance; that said agents should also locate lauds in lieu of \noccupied 16th and 36th sections, at the request of the County \nSupervisors; that the State Board of Examiners, whenever it \nshould appear that more than $10,000 had been received by the \nState Treasurer as purchase-money for such lands, should pur- \nchase bonds of the civil funded debt of the State, after adver- \ntising, at their lowest values; that sacli bonds should be marked \n"School Fund," and held in custody of the State Treasurer; \nthat at the expiration of one year the State Board of Examiners \nshould take and use $57,600 of any money belonging to the \nSchool Fund and purchase bonds, which should be marked \n" Seminary Fund," and that all interest on said fund should also \nbe invested in bonds. \n\nAn act was also passed repealing that of 1855, and providing \nfor the sale of the 16th and 36th sections of township lands by \nthe Boards of Supervisors. \n\nig. EIGHTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1858. \n\nThis was one of the longest and ablest of Mr. Moulder\'s re- \nports. He opened with the statement that the schools of Cali- \nfornia were not creditable to the State, and showed the neces- \nsity of an immediate appropriation by the State of $100,000. \nConcerning this, he goes on to say: \n\nA classification and analysis of the reports of full 2000 school \nofficers to this department show that there are 40,530 children in \nthe State between 4 and 18 years of age; that the whole number \nattending school during the year 1858 was 19,822, and that the daily \naverage attendance was but 11,183. It follows that 20,708 children \nhave not been inside of a public schoolhouse, and that 29,347 have, \nin effect, received no instruction during the year. \n\nIf this state of things is "very good for California," and we do \nnot take instant and effective means to remedy it, these 29,347 \nneglected children will grow up into 29,347 benighted men and \nwomen; a number nearly sufficient, at ordinary times, to control \nthe vote of the State, and, in consequence, to shape its legislation \nand its destiny ! \n\nDamning as the record is, it is yet lamentably true, that during \nthe last five j^ears the State of California has paid $754,193.80 for \nthe support of criminals, and but $284,183.69 for the education of \nthe young! \n\nIn other words, she has paid nearly three times as mvich for the \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 29 \n\nsupport of an average of four hundred criminals as for the training \nand culture of thirty thousand children. \n\nTo make the point more forcible, the figures show that she has \nexpended $1,885 on every criminal, and $9 on every child! \n\nHe recommended that districts should be required to main- \ntain a school six months, instead of three, to entitle them to \napportionment; that the authority of examining teachers should \nbe transferred from Trustees to a County Board; that the maxi- \nmum county tax should be raised to twenty cents on a hundred \ndollars; that County Treasurers should not be allowed a per- \ncentage for disbursing State school moneys; that County Super- \nintendents, Marshals, and Trustees, should be paid out of the \nCounty General Fund ; and that Negroes, Mongolians, and In- \ndians, should not be allowed to attend the schools for white \nchildren, under penalty of the forfeiture of the public school \nmoney by districts admitting such children into school. \n\nHe reported that he had prepared a volume of "Commenta- \nries on the School Law," containing suggestions on school archi- \ntecture and extracts from the best authors on education. He \nargued at length the policy of consolidating the proceeds of the \nsales of the 16tli and 36th sections into a State Fund. \n\nThis report closed by urging a Military Institute, and attached \nto the tabular statements, which were better arranged than those \nof any preceding report, were the reports of County Superin- \ntendents. \n\n20. NINTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1859. \n\nIn this report Mr. Moulder renewed several of the recom- \nmendations of his previous report; recommended the establish- \nment of a State Normal School ; the organization of State and \nCounty Boards for examining teachers; the increase of the maxi- \nmum county school tax to twenty-five cents on a hundred dol- \nlars; an appropriation for paying the expenses of State Insti- \ntutes ; an appropriation for traveling expenses to enable the \nState Superintendent to deliver lectures and visit schools \nthroughout the State; that the Township School Funds should \nbe consolidated into one common fund, which question he ar- \ngued conclusively, supporting his position by letters from Land \nCommissioners at Washington, and from various State Super- \nintendents, and concluded by an elaborate argument in favor of \na Military Institute to be established at Monterey. \n\n\n\n30 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n\n\n21. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, i860. \n\nSeveral important amendments were made to the school law \nby the Legislature of 1860. The maximum rate of county school \ntax was raised from ten cents to twenty -five cents on a hundred \ndollars; the State Superintendent Avas authorized to hold a State \nTeachers\' Institute aunuallj^, and an appropriation of $3000 was \nmade for payment of expenses; the State Superintendent was \nauthorized to appoint a State Board of Examination, with power \nto grant State teachers\' certificates, valid for two years, and the \nSchool Funds of any one year were required to be used exclu- \nsively for that year ; County Superintendents were authorized \nto appoint County Boards of Examination, consisting exclu- \nsively of teachers, with power to grant teachers\' certificates, \nvalid for one year ; the State Board of Education was author- \nized to adopt a State series of text-books, and to compel their \nadoption, under penalty of forfeiting the public school moneys, \nto go into efi\'ect in November, 1861; and an appropriation of \n),000 made for building a State Beform School at Marysville. \n\n\n\n22. TENTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, i860. \n\nThis report opened as follows : \n\nIt is apparent, from an inspection of these statistics, that the \namount contributed by the State to the cause of education is wretch- \nedly insufficient. It is a pittance almost beneath contempt. It \namounts to about one dollar and forty cents per annum for the \neducation of each schoolable child in the State. \n\nWith all the aid derived from local taxes, rate bills, and private \nsubscription, it pays only an average of sixty-six dollars and seventy- \ntwo cents per month to each teacher in the State. \n\nA first-class bootblack obtains almost as much. \n\nI am almost disposed to believe that no teacher at all is better \nthan an ignorant or unlettered one; but how can we expect to \nsecure the services of highly educated and accomplished teachers \nfor the pittance of sixty-six dollars and seventy-two cents per \nmonth ? \n\nHe further urged a State Normal School, and a direct State \nappropriation for common schools; again argued in favor of \nconsolidating Township Funds, and closed by stating that he \nhad already exhausted argument in favor of a Military Institute. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 31 \n\n23. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1861. \n\nEarly in the session of 1861, Hon. John Conness introduced \na bill in tlie House, which was passed, providing for the sale \nof the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections of school lands, and \nthat the proceeds should be paid into the State School Fund. \nThus, after many years of impracticable legislation, in which \neach successive Legislature tinkered on a township land bill, a \nplain and practicable law was passed, under the provisions of \nwhich, in less than a year, nearl}^ 200,000 acres were sold, and \nthe proceeds applied to the State School Fund. \n\nDIVISION OF THE SCHOOL MONEYS. \n\nDuring this session Mr. Montgomery introduced a bill pro- \nviding \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nThat every school numbering- thirty pupils, established by the \nparents or g-uardians of such pupils, should have the right on ap- \nplication to be enrolled as a public school; that the common school \nbranches should be taught five hours a day, with religious instruc- \ntions and catechism as an extra, at the will of the parents; that the \nparents or guardians should elect the trustees of such school, with \nfull powers to control; and that the State Fund should be appor- \ntioned according to the number of children attending school. \n\nThis bill was accompanied by a petition extensively signed; \nand, at one time, there was some danger of its passage. Hon. \nJohn Conness defended secular public schools, and the follow- \ning extracts from his speech are worthy of a place in school \nhistory : \n\nA quarter of a century ago I landed from the deck of an emigrant \nship, upon the shores of America. I was deposited there as a single \ngrain of sand upon the sea shore by a wave of the ocean. Soon \nafter my arrival I found my way to a free school, where I soon \nlearned that my anticipations and fears were not realized. I found \nthere, in lieu of intercourse with strangers, the greatest friendship \nthat I have ever yet experienced at the hands of mankind. I was \nreceived into an institution established by the intelligence, the \nwisdom, the patriotism, and at the expense of a great and free \npeople. I soon learned to appreciate the advantages that were \nplaced before me. During the short period of seven months, being \nthe interim between my arrival and my being placed, from the \nnecessities that surrounded me, as an apprentice to a mechanic\'s \ntrade, I enjoyed the opportunities for the acquirement of information \nand knowledge that was furnished by that common free school. \nDay by day, for I never missed a single day, nor fractional part of \na day in my attendance, I experienced at the hands of the teachers \n\n\n\n32 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\napi^ointed over me by tlie people, the most marked consideration \nand kindness. The very fact tbat I was a stranger seemed but to \ninvite the attention and even the caresses of the noble man who \nstood at the head of that school. More than once \xe2\x80\x94 and I shall \nremember it to the last hour of my existence \xe2\x80\x94 I was desired to \nremain after the other children were dismissed from the school, to \nbe spoken to, to be encouraged, to be led onward in the paths of \neducation by my teacher. More than once he has j)laced his hand \nkindly iipon my head, and familiarly, because not in the presence \nof other children, addressed me, saying, \' John, you must make \neffort in this and in that particular direction \xe2\x80\x94 you are wanting in \nthese particular parts \xe2\x80\x94 if you will only bring yourself up in these, \nyou will occupy a foremost position in this school.\' He marked my \nattempts at progress, and to me as well as to others he always \nreached out the encouraging hand of kindness, and s^Doke the word \nthat led to emulation and ambition in the acquirement of knowledge. \nFor me to have found an institution like that was a great acquisition \nand a great wonder. I could scarcely understand it then, although \nI believe I fully apj^reciated it, as I do to-day. Up to the period of \nmy advent into that school I had not been favored with great or \nany considerable advantages in the way of education. I had never \nattended other than the village schoolhouse, where the commonest \nbranches of education were taught, perhaps in the commonest way; \nand for the two years preceding my arrival I had been de^Drived of \neven these poor advantages by circumstances that I will not under- \ntake to detail here. And to have found not only the means so \nabundant placed before me, but agents so kind and at the same time \nso able in administering the benefits and advantages of that institu- \ntion, sustained and supported at the public expense, commanded \nthen, as I repeat will always command, ray profoundest admiration \nand regard. To that school, and to the beneficent people who \nestablished it, am I indebted, in great part, to say the least, for all \nthat I am, be it little or much, to-day. Hence, sir, when the ques- \ntion of public schools \xe2\x80\x94 of free schools \xe2\x80\x94 in which the children of all \nmay be educated without price, without distinction of class, of \nwealth, or of politics or religious opinions, is involved, it is no \nwonder that I should feel a deep interest in that question. Next to \nthe unity and the continued and hapj^y prosperity of this glorioias \ncountry that we live in and are all common citizens of \xe2\x80\x94 next to its \ncontinued and prosperous existence, I owe all allegiance, all love, \nall admiration, and all effort, to the public schools of our country. \n****** \n\nI am aware that those who advocate this measure profess that \nthey have no purpose in view but the perfection, completeness and \nextension of educational conditions and advantages; but I would \nrecommend those j)ersons to begin in another way. I object to the \nmanner in which they propose to begin to carry out such an end. \nSome of them say that the schools of California, or those of a por- \ntion of the State, are dens of infamy, are pestiferous in their \ncharacter, are but sowing the seeds of immorality and death where \nthey exist. But, as a remedy for these great abuses, for this great \ncurse in our land, if it exists, do they propose to renew their efiibrts \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPORTS. 33 \n\nto obtain the passage of such*la\\vs or enforce sucli restrictions as \nwill bring about a better condition of things ? I think not. What, \nthen, do they projDOse? If I understand them, and I think I do, \nthey propose to withdraw a portion of the children of the State from \nwhat are now known as the common schools of the State. The \njjroposition or purpose in view is better stated to me outside of this \nhall b}\' citizens of distinction, who are interested in passing this act \nwhich we are now discussing, than by the gentlemen who have \ndiscussed it here. Their proposition to me is plainly stated \xe2\x80\x94 so \nplainly that he who runs may read and understand it. They say, \nfirst, that the schools are now unfit for the reception of their children, \nor the children of their peo^^le. The}^ sa}^ they are common contrib- \nutors to the funds that are consumed in the support of the schools, \nand that as the schools are unfit for their children, therefore they \nhave a right to withdraw their children from those schools. That \npart of the projjosition I admit, but I deny that it follows as a \nnecessity, in common honesty and fairness, that they should also be \nentitled to receive a pro rata proportion of the common school \nmoneys of the State, to be used under their direction for the support \nof such schools as they may establish. They say that this right \nexists in nature. Who, they ask, is so well entitled to the care, \ncustody and training of a child as its natural parent ? They invoke \nthe social faculties of mankind to aid them in this argument, because \nthey draw a contrast between the system they propose and the one \nthat now exists, by showing you that on the one hand the govern- \nment of the State claims the control and jurisdiction of the children \nof the State, for the purj)ose of public education, while on the other \nhand they assert that no such relation should be permitted or \nauthorized while the parent lives who gave existence to his ofi"spring, \nand whose greatest care is for his advancement and happiness. \n\n\n\nWe are here with common objects, and the only question that \nis presented in connection with this bill now before us is plainly \nthis: Shall we continue, b}" and through the agency of the State \nto support and carry out a system of public education in the State, \nor shall we not? For one, I am in favor of the afiirmative of this \nproposition; I am in favor of renewing effort; of bringing up the \nstandard of education, and the moral condition of our schools, \nuntil they shall not only be fit for the reception of the children of \nour people, but shall also b}^ their superior excellence attract to our \nState parents and children from other lands. Adopt the projDOsi- \ntion that is made in this bill; let every private school that may be \nestablished by the parents of children or by their religious teachers, \nor for profit by teachers, have a pro rata share of the school money, \nand what will be the result? In a very short time the State of Cal- \nifornia will be engaged in the interesting business of collecting- \nmoneys from various sources for the purpose of education, and dis- \nbursing and distributing those moneys amongst private parties, to \nbe by them applied in such a way as they see fit for the purposes \nof education. Inaugurate this system, drive home this wedge that \nis now pointed at your common school system, and you will have \n\n\n\n34 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nschools exclusively under the control and direction of sects and \nparties, as well as by persons engaged as educators for profit. \n\n^ ;(: ;ic * >(; :); \n\nI have heard nothing to convince me that this bill should pass, \nand that our system of education should be changed. I have heard \nno argument within this chamber, because I do not recognize as \nargument on that point all that is said about the condition of the \nschools as they now exist. Our public school system in the United \nStates of America is one of the proudest evidences of the greatness \nof our people, as it furnishes the basis and substratum of our insti- \ntutions. Let religionists, of whatever class or kind, teach their \ndoctrines and dogmas. They have their organizations for that \nespecial purpose, and they contribute their means, and judiciously \nand carefully apply them to these ends. It is our business, by law \nand constitutional sanction, to preserve each in its own particular \ncareer, without interference from its neighboring organization. It \nis that preservation and defense against assault upon any, by either, \nthat has marked our land and made it what it proudly is \xe2\x80\x94 the \nasylum of freedom in the world. No greater means of its continu- \nance, no surer or more certain mode for its preservation can be \nfound, I assert, than in the preservation of our common school \nsystem. While we denominate our schools jxiblic and common \nschools, let that not, as is the case now in the interior of our State, \nbe a misnomer any longer. Let them be free, and furnish the \nmeans of education to the j^oor of the land. Your future members \nof the legislature, congressmen, governors, and presidents, are to \nbe found among these classes, for nature has baptized the child of \npoverty with the blessing of energy. All the history of our country \nand of every free country conclusively jjroves this proposition, for \nthe great men of every free land have sprung from the common \npeople. Education is particularly for them; it is due to them from \nour hands and the hands of the great body of the people. I would \ngladly vote for a law that would comjDel the attendance of all \nchildren of a certain age at some school, for a certain length of \ntime each year; but let us first furnish the means before we under- \ntake to apply such a restriction. * * * * \n\nI have heard it intimated more than once that this question \nwas to be made a political question; that the position that men \nwould take here would be carefully written down and noted, and \nthat their political status hereafter would be determined by the \nposition they took. I have regretted this exceedingly; but if there \nwere any reason why I should speak at all upon this subject, so as \nto be incapable of being misunderstood, the latter would furnish \nthe strongest one. Whenever any portion of the people of this \nState, or my fellow-citizens, see fit to object to me, because of the \nopinions I entertain, or the efforts I make in the line and direction \nof duty, let them object, and let them act. I ask no favors. \nWhenever any portion of the people cannot find in my acts some- \nthing to approve, let them condemn; it may be that I can do as \nwell without them as they can without me. I have no high ad- \nmiration for that class popularly denominated politicians \xe2\x80\x94 those \nwhose opinions hang loosely about them; those changelings, who \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 35 \n\nsimply seek office that they may get bread. Our country has been \ncursed; its lamentable throes to-day are the legitimate and logical \nsequence of the action of these detestable creatures. My doctrine \nand instincts alike demand that upon any and all occasions I \nshould speak out, and let what I say be tried upon its merits. I \nhave no fear though, that this question will be made a political one. \nI do not think that there are within the limits of this State a suffi- \ncient number of men vain and foolish enough to undertake to erect \nas a standard of political action any form of supposed religious \nopinions. I do not believe there are any considerable number of \nmen who will make it a condition of their suffrages hereafter, that \nthe vote to be cast here shall be cast in a particular direction. I \ntrust in God, sir, that we will be spared such a condition of things. \nBut if it should come, and there must be a war of opinions, all I \nhave to say is, that I am prepared to bear my part in it. I would \nnot, to-day, for the concentration of all the offices in the country \ninto one, and mj enjoyment of that one, sacrifice the opinions that \nI have, or the action that my conscience demands of me in connec- \ntion with this subject. \n\n\n\n24. ELEVENTH ANNUAt. REPORT, 1861, \n\nIn this report Mr. Moulder argued the necessity of more \nmoney to make the schools effective; asked for an appropriation \nof $5000 for a State Normal School, and published the report \nof the Committee on Normal Schools, appointed by the State \nInstitute, of May, 1861; reported that the State Institute had \nbeen largely attended; that the transfer of the power of exam- \nining teachers from Trustees to State and County Boards of Ex- \namination was driving the quacks out of the occupation; touched \nupon the subject of schoolhouses; stated that the law author- \nizing the adoption of a State series of text-books had been sud- \ndenly repealed near the close of the session of the Legislature \nof 1861, and asked for the passage of another; asked the Legis- \nlature to make some provision for school libraries; stated that \nwithin eight mouths after the passage of the act of April 22, \n1861, 165,463 acres of township lands had been, or were about \nto be sold ; and closed by referring to his previous reports re- \nlating to a State Military Institute. \n\n25. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1862. \n\nThe Legislature of this session passed an act establishing a \nState Normal School in the city of San Francisco, and made an \nappropriation for that purpose of $3000. The State Normal \n\n\n\n36 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nScliool was subsequently opened during the same year, and \nMr. Aliira Holmes was appointed principal. \n\n\n\n26. TWELFTH ANNUAL REPORT, 1862. \n\nIn his last report, Mr. Moulder recommended a plan for \nfunding the indebtedness of the State to the School Fund ; \nthat Trustees be required to report the amount of interest, \nif any, which they received from Township School Funds; \nthat power be conferred on Trustees to collect rate bills by law; \nthat the State Board of Education be empowered to adopt a \nuniform series of text-books; stated that the State Normal \nSchool had been successfully organized, and asked an appro- \npriation of $6000; alluded to a State Agricultural School under \nthe act of Congress granting lands to the same; and closed by \npublishing his correspondence with State Controller Warren, \nwho had declined to pay the semi-annual interest on the State \nindebtedness to the School Fund. \n\n\n\n27. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1863. \n\nDuring this session of the Legislature, the Senate Committee \non Education referred the subject of revising and codifying the \nschool laws to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, John \nSwett. \n\nPublic opinion was not yet sufficiently awakened to secure any \nvery liberal taxation for support of schools, but some good pro- \nvisions were incorporated into the law. \n\nThe following are some of the leading provisions: \n\n1. A provision requiring the Superintendent, at the expense \nof the State, to furnish a State school register to each school. \n\n2. Requiring the State Superintendent to visit schools, to \nattend County Institutes, and to address public assemblies on \nsubjects relating to public schools, and providing for the pay- \nment of actual traveling expenses, not to exceed $1000. \n\n3. Provision for the annual appropriation of $150 out of the \nCounty General Fund for the County Teachers\' Institute. \n\n4. Making the term of office of School Trustees three years, \ninstead of one, and providing for the election of one Trustee \nannually. \n\n5. Providing a stringent law for the assessment and collec- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPOKTS. 37 \n\ntion of district taxes for building purposes, or for the support \nof free schools. \n\n6. Providing for the assessment and collection of rate bills. \n\n7. Authorizing the State Board of Examination to issue State \neducational diplomas, valid for six years; State certificates of \nthe first grade, valid for four years ; and second and third grade \ncertificates, valid for two years. \n\nAn act, framed and introduced by Hon. E. F. Dunne, was \npassed requiring all teachers, under penalty of being illegally \nemployed, and of forfeiting their salaries, to take an oath of \nallegiance. \n\nSCHOOL FUND. \n\nAn act, prepared by Governor Low and Hon. D. R. Ashley, \nwas passed providing for the gradual funding of the indebted- \nness of the State to the School Fund, which amounted at that \ntime to $475,520. \n\nUnder authority\' of an act, approved May 3, 1852, providing \nfor the disposal of the 500,000 acres granted to this State by \nact of Congress for the purpose of internal improvements, and \nreserved by the State Constitution for school purposes, it was \nmade the duty of the State Treasurer to convert the proceeds \n"into bonds of the civil funded debt of the State, bearing seven \nper cent, interest per annum, and to keep such bonds as a special \ndeposit in his custody, marked \'School Fund,\' to the credit of \nsaid School Fund." \n\nThis provision was never complied with, for payments were \nmade in depreciated scrip, or Controller\'s warrants ; the scrip \npaid in was canceled, and to this extent the School Fund was \nused by the State to defray the ordinary expenses of govern- \nment. The State, therefore, owed to the School Fund the sum \nof $475,520, derived from the sale of 237,760 acres of land, sold \nprior to April 23, 1858. \n\nThe State had always recognized this debt by appropriating \nannually for school purposes a sum equal to the interest at seven \nper cent, per annum upon the amount of this indebtedness. \nBut the school department was placed completely at the mercy \nof the annual general appropriation bill, and if no appropriation \nwas made, as was the case in 1861 and 1862, there was no redress. \n\nThis act, approved April 14, 1863, provided for the gradual \nfunding of this unfunded debt to the School Fund, by requiring \nthat whenever State bonds were redeemed, such bonds to such \n\n\n\n38 \n\n\n\nSCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n\n\namount as slioiild thus be redeemed with tlie sum of $475,520 \nshould not be canceled, but should be kept as a special deposit \nin the custody of the Treasurer, marked "School Fund," in the \nsame manner and for the same purposes as are the bonds di- \nrectly purchased for said School Fund. \n\nThis was an important measure. Under its provisions the \nentire indebtedness of the State to the School Fund has been \nconverted into State bonds at seven per cent. \n\n\n\n28. \n\n\n\nTHIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT, 1863. \n\nThe constitutional amendments adopted in 1862, provided \nfor the election of the Superintendent of Public Instruction \nat the Special Judicial Election, instead of at the general elec- \ntion, and for a term of four years. Superintendent Swett\'s \nfirst term of office \xe2\x80\x94 three years \xe2\x80\x94 was thus cut short to a term \nof eleven months. He was renominated and re-elected in Octo- \nber, 1863. \n\nThe following are some of the main topics treated of in Mr. \nSwett\'s first report. \n\n\n\nEeceipts and Expenditures; \n\nSchools; \n\nSchool Children; \n\nAttendance; \n\nTeachers\' Wages; \n\nChange of Teachers; \n\nCounty Institutes; \n\nErrors in Reports of County Superin- \ntendents; \n\nReports of Teachers and Trustees; \n\nDistrict School Trustees; \n\nProceedings of State Teachers\' Insti- \ntute; \n\nConvention of County Superintendents ; \n\nState Board of Examination; \n\nState Certificates and Diplomas; \n\nState Educational Society; \n\n\n\nCounty Teachers\' Certiiicates; \n\nReports and Blanks; \n\nSchool Registers; \n\nOrder Books; \n\nState Normal School; \n\nThe California Teacher; \n\nDistrict School Libraries; \n\nSchooUiouses and School Architecture; \n\nState Agricultural School; \n\nUniversity Fund ; \n\nCondition of the School Fund; \n\nDepartment of Public Instruction; \n\nState School Tax; \n\nThe Schools and the State; \n\nPublic Schools and Patriotism; \n\nMilitary Drill in School. \n\n\n\nThe following is an extract from the argument in favor of a \nState School Tax : \n\nThe most important measure which demands the attention of \nlegislators, is that of a State school tax for the better maiuteuance \nof public schools. I believe the time has arrived in the history of \nour State when the absolute necessity of such action can be fully \ndemonstrated, and when the efficiency of the schools cannot be \ngreatly increased without it. Whenever the question of increased \ntaxation is agitated, it is due to taxpayers and i.roperty-bolders \nthat good and sufficient reasons should be explicitly set forth, and \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPORTS. 39 \n\nthat it should be clearlj^ shown that the public good requires it. \nThe condition of the public schools, as exhibited by the statistical \nreturns, will be to many minds conclusive evidence of the necessity \nof a State school tax ; but the importance of the question demands \nthat argument should be added to the weight of facts and figures. \n\nOur American system of free schools is based upon two funda- \nmental principles or axioms: \n\nFirst. That it is the duty of a republican or representative gov- \nernment, as an act of self-iDreservation, to provide for the education \nof every child. \n\nSecond. That the property of the State should be taxed to pay \nfor that education. \n\nSimple j)i\'opositions thej seem; yet they have been recognized \nand acted upon in no other country but our own. Other nations, \nit is true, have their national systems of instruction partially sup- \nported b}^ Government, and under Government control; but no na- \ntion in the history of the world has ever organized a system of \nschools like ours, controlled directly by the people, supported by \ntaxation; free to all, without distinction of rank, wealth, or class; \nand training all children alike, whether foreign or native-born, to \nan intelligent comprehension of the duties, rights, privileges, and \nhonors of American citizens. \n\nIn the minds of the hard-fisted, iron-willed settlers of Massa- \nchusetts Bay, where, under the wintry sky of suffering, want, and \nwar, the germs of our American school S3\'stem struggled into exist- \nence, common schools and taxation were as inseparably connected \nas were taxation and representation. \n\nA few extracts from the old colonial laws will show how early \nour free school sj^stem sprang into existence. A section of the \nMassachusetts Colony laws of 1642 reads as follows: \n\n"Forasmuch as the good education of children is of singular \nbehoof and benefit to any commonwealth ; and whereas, many pa- \nrents and masters are too indulgent and negligent of their duty in \nthat kind; it is ordered that the Selectmen of every town shall have \na vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see, first: that \nnone of them shall suffer so much bm-bcwism in any of their families \nas not to teach, by themselves, or others, their children and apprentices \nso much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English \ntongue, upon penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect therein." \n\nIn 1647 this law was followed by another, to the end, in the \nwords of the statute, " that learning may not be buried in the graves of \nour fatliers in the Church and the Commoniveallh," which required \neverj\' town of fift}\' families to provide a teacher to instruct all the \nchildren of the town in reading and writing, and every town of a \nhundred families to set up a grammar school, with a teacher com- \npetent to fit young men for the university ; the expense of these \nschools to be borne by the town, or by the parents, as the town \nshould determine. \n\nIn 1692 the law provided that these schools should be suj^ported \nexclusively by tax levied on all the properly of the town. \n\nIn 1785, an ordinance respecting the disposition of the public \nlands was introduced into the old Congress, referred to a committee. \n\n\n\n40 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nand passed on the 20th of May, which provided that the sixteenth \nsection of every township should be reserved "for the maintenance \nof public schools." \n\nThe celebrated ordinance of 1787, which confirmed the provisions \nof the land ordinance of 1785, further declared, that " getieral moral- \nity and knowledge being necessary lo good government and the happiness \nof mankind, schools, and the ineans of education, shall be forever \nencouraged." \n\nAs the results of this noble policy, more than fifty millions of \nacres of the public lands have been set apart for the purposes of \neducation. \n\nIt is said \xe2\x80\x94 leave the question of taxation to the citizens of each \ndistrict? The fact that only eighteen districts voted a tax last year \nis good evidence that the districts will fail to do their duty. If it is \nargued that the Boards of Supervisors of the different counties will \nassess a county tax sufficient to maintain good schools, the statistical \nexhibit of the condition of the schools proves the contrary. Only \nfour counties in the State assess the maximum rate allowed by law. \n\nShall we rely on the interest of the School Fund for the support \nof our public schools? Our School Fund amounts to less than a \nmillion of dollars, and it will not be largely increased for many \nyears to come. The annual apj^ortionment from that source amounts \nto only one dollar per child; is that sufficient to properly educate \nthe children? \n\nCan it be said, in view of facts, that California is doing her full \nduty in maintaining public schools ? She raises by taxation only \n$4.42 per child, and the total amount raised from all sources, rate \nbills included, is only $7. Massachusetts raised by tax, last year, \n$G.44 per child; and as the cost of educating in California is at least \nfour times as great as in that State, to make as liberal a provision we \nought to raise $25 per child. The cost of educating a child in the \npublic schools for ten months in the year, in San Francisco, where \nit is made economical in consequence of classification and the con- \ncentration of large numbers, is $21 per year. Is an average of $7 per \nchild sufficient for the State at large? San Francisco derives from \nall sources an average of $13.70 per child; and yet, with this liberal \nprovision, the public schools are crowded to their utmost capacity, \nand one thousand children more would attend were room provided. \n\nIs it wise for legislators to fold their arms in apathetic indiffer- \nence, when twenty thousand children of school age, or twenty-five \nand one half per cent., are reported as "not attending an}^ school ?" \nIs this recognizing the principle \' \' that it is the bounden duty of \nGovernment to provide for the instruction of all youth?" When \nthe average length of time school is continued is only six months in \nthe year, is it probable that the children will be more than half \neducated ? When the percentage of daily attendance on the public \nschools is only twenty-five per cent, of the whole number of children \nin the State of school age, and the percentage of attendance on the \nwhole number enrolled is only fifty- five per cent , can the State be \nsaid to educate her children ? \n\nWhen California has only 219 free schools out of 754 public \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPOKTS. 41 \n\nschools, can she boast of her liberality in the presence of the other \nloyal States, whose schools are all free schools ? \n\nIf one State in the Union needs a system of free schools more \nthan any other, that State is California. Her population is drawn \nfrom all nations. The next generation will be a composite one, \nmade up of the heterogeneous atoms of all nationalities. Nothing- \ncan Americanize these chaotic elements and breathe into them the \nspirit of our institutions but the public schools. \n\nSTATE TAX. . \n\nAs the first step towards the organization of a system of free \nschools, and the better maintenance of the public schools, a special \nState school tax of half a mill on the dollar ought to be levied on \nthe assessable property of the State. This would yield a revenue of \nat least $75,000, or about one dollar per child \xe2\x80\x94 and two dollars per \nchild on the number enrolled in the public schools. True, this \nwould not make the schools free, neither would it continue them ten \nmonths in the year; but it would give a fresh stimulus to county \nand district taxation, and, in four years, would, I believe, give the \nState a system of schools virtually free. \n\nThe public opinion of the State is in advance of legislation. \nAfter traveling extensively through the State, addressing public \nassemblies, with every facility for careful observation, it is m}\' opinion \nthat the people would indorse this measure, were it submitted to a \njpopular vote, by an overwhelming majority. \n\nThe following petition, prepared by the State Superintendent, \nhas been extensively circulated in the various school districts \nthroughout the State : \n\n" PETITION FOR STATE SCHOOL TAX. \n\n" To the Honorable the Ilemhers of the \n\nLegislature of the State of California : \n\n" Whereas, We believe that it is the duty of a representative gov- \nernment to maintain public schools as an act of self-preservation, \nand that the property of the State should be taxed to educate the \nchildren of the State; and whereas, the present School Fund is \nwholly inadequate to sustain a system of Free Schools; we, the un- \ndersigned, qualified electors of the State of California, respectfully \nask your honorable body to levy a Special State Tax of half a mill on \nthe dollar, during the fiscal years eighteen hundred and sixty-four \nand eighteen hundred and sixty-five, the proceeds of the same to be \ndisbursed in the same manner as the present State School Fund." \n\nAll these petitions have not yet been returned to the Depart- \nment of Public Instruction, and it is impossible to estimate the \nnumber of signatures obtained. \n\nIn the districts where they have been circulated, teachers and \nschool ofiicers report that it was a rare exception to find a man de- \nclining to sign them, and that the only objection raised was that the \npetition did not ask for a higher tax. \n\nThe names attached to this petition will be entitled to the seri- \n3 \n\n\n\n42 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nous consideration of legislators. Tbey will represent the substan- \ntial citizens of the State; men of families, men of property, men \nwho, in attaching- their names, consider it equivalent to voting the \ntax and paying it. \n\nA State tax of half a mill on the dollar was levied last year and \nis to be levied annually for carrying on the work of building the \nState Capitol; shall the work of building schoolhouses cease ? By \nthe time the Capitol is finished, it will have cost as much as all the \nschoolhouses in the State built up to that time. Is it not quite as \nessential that houses should be erected for educating a hundred \nthousand electors as that a costly pile should be built for the accom- \nmodation of a hundred and fifty legislators ? \n\nAre we taxed more heavily than the States which have borne the \nburden of the war ? Are we so tax-ridden and so poor that we can- \nnot raise one-fourth as much for educating our children as Illinois \nor Michigan or Massachusetts ? California stands to-day the most \npeaceful and the most prosperous State in the Union. When the \npeople of other States, staggering under taxation, their sources of \nprosperity dried up, their able-bodied laborers more than decimated \nby the calls of the army \xe2\x80\x94 when they declare that not a dollar less \nshall be raised for schools, that not a schoolhouse shall be closed \xe2\x80\x94 \nshall California, of all the States, alone shrink back from the duty \nof educating her children? Shall all our inexhaustible resources of \nmineral wealth be expended on " feet," and the brains of the chil- \ndren be left undeveloped? Shall millions be exj^ended in con- \nstructing a Pacific Railroad, and the State fail to lay the solid founda- \ntions of character and intelligence on which rest the permanent \nprosperity of the generation which will reap the benefits of that \ngreat highway of the world? Shall we make every sacrifice of men \nand money to maintain the Union, for a generation unfitted, through \nwant of education, to appreciate either our sacrifices or the value of \nthe inheritance we leave them? \n\nThe real wealth of the State lies not in mines of silver, or gold, \nor copper; not in productive fields and fertile valleys, but in her edu- \ncatecl men and intelligent free laborers. Educated mind has made \nthe world rich by its creative power. The intelligent minds which \nhave invented the hundreds of labor-saving machines in every de- \npartment of industry, have created a wealth greater than the total \npi\'oduct of the mines ot Mexico, California and Australia combined. \nAll these inventions were once dim ideas in the busy brains of edu- \ncated men; ignorance found out none of them. \n\nHow many dollars is the electric telegraph worth ? How many \ncattle and horses and copper mines the invention of sewing ma- \nchines ? What influence is so mighty in developing this creative \npower of society as the intelligence imparted in the public schools ? \nGro to the Patent Office, aiid find out how many inventions come \nfrom the land of common schools, and how many from the States \nthat have failed to establish them. \n\nThe machinery brought into use since eighteen hundred and \nsixteen is estimated to be equal to the labor of five hundred millions \nof men. \n\nIgnorance never invented a machine to save the labor of a single \nman. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 43 \n\nThe life of the nation lies not in a few great men, not in a few \nbrilliant minds, but is made up of the men who drive the plow, \nwho build the ships, who run the mills, and fill the machine-shops, \nwho build the locomotives and steam engines, who construct the \nrailroads, who delve in the mines, who cast the cannon, who man \nthe ironclads and gunboats, who shoulder the musket, and who do \nthe fighting; these constitute the life and strength of the nation; \nand it is with all these men that the public schools have done and \nare now doing their beneficent work. The nation will not be saved \nby any one " great man;" the bone and muscle of intelligent labor- \ning men must work out its salvation. Blundering statesmen may \nmar the fortunes of the war; general after general may show up \nhis own incompetence; the concentrated and consolidated intelli- \ngence of the workingmen and fighting men will, in the end, prove \nvictorious. "When the bayonet has done its work, the ballot-box \nmust protect the freedom won on the battle-field. When every \nballot represents an idea, and falls electrified with intelligence to \n" execute a freeman\'s will," the States will revolve harmoniously \naround the central sun of a consolidated Union; no star will shoot \noff in eccentric orbit into the chaos of disunion, or the cometary \ndarkness and desolation of secession. \n\n29. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1864. \n\nThe supplementary an,d amendatory bill prepared by the \nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, and introduced by the \nCommittee on Education in the Assembly, Mr. J. J. Owen, \nChairman, contained the following provisions : \n\n1. Levying an annual State school tax of five cents on each \n$100 of taxable property in the State, to be apportioned in the \nsame manner as the interest of the State School Fund. \n\n2. Requiring each county to levy a minimum county school \ntax equal to two dollars for each child between 4 and 18 years \nof age. \n\n3. Raising the maximum rate of county tax allowed by law \nfrom twenty-five cents to thirty cents on each $100. \n\n4. Making it the imperative duty of Public School Trustees \nto levy a direct property tax sufficient to maintain a public \nschool five months in each year, whenever the State and county \nschool money shall be insufficient for that jjurpose. \n\n5. Authorizing County Superintendents to subscribe for a \nsufficient number of copies of some State educational journal \nto furnish each Board of School Trustees in the State with one \ncopy, at an expense not exceeding one dollar a year. \n\n6. Allowing County Superintendents a sum for postage and \nexpressage equal to two dollars for each school district. \n\n\n\n44 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n7. Requiring bistorj of the United States, and physiology \nand hygiene, to be studied in all the schools above the grade \nof primary. \n\nThis bill passed the Assembly without opposition, but in the \nSenate a determined fight was made to defeat it. The follow- \ning is the Senate vote on this bill, which was one of the great- \nest advances ever made in school legislation in the State : \n\nAyes \xe2\x80\x94 Benton, Burnell, Crane, Cunningham, Foulke, Hall, \nHaswell, Kutz, Maddox, McMurtry, Moyle, Porter, Roberts, \nShepard, Tuttle, and Wright\xe2\x80\x94 18. \n\nNoes \xe2\x80\x94 Buckley, Dodge, Evans, Freeman, Gaskill, Hamilton, \nHawes, Montgomery, Pearce, Redingtou, Rush, and Shafter \n\xe2\x80\x94 12. \n\n30. FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT, 1864-65. \n\nThe change of the sessions of the Legislature from annual to \nbiennial required biennial school reports instead of annual. \n\nThe First Biennial Report was the most elaborate of Mr. \nSwett\'s reports. It opened as follows : \n\nAt the opening of this report, I take pleasure in stating that the \ncriticisms of 1863 no longer apply to our school system, and that the \nhope expressed in 1864 has been more than realized. \n\nNotwithstanding the school year closed before the bountiful \nharvests of the avitumn were gathered, and while the State was still \nsuffering from its previous financial prostration, the statistical re- \nturns exhibit an educational progress of which all Californiaus may \nwell be proud. \n\nWhile the increase of taxable property in the State from 1863 \nto 1864 was only three and seven-tenths per cent. , the increase of \nschool money raised by taxation alone, of 1865 over 1864, on the \nassessment-roll of 1864, was ninetj\'-one and seven-tenths per cent. \n\nThe average length of schools has been increased, since 1863, \nnearly one month. While the number of teachers has increased \nonly fifteen per cent, during the last year, the amount paid for \nteachers\' salaries has increased sixty per cent. \n\nThe amount of school revenue from all sources has been in- \ncreased, since 1863, $2.58 per census child. \n\nThe amount expended for schoolhouses shows an increase over \n1863 of $164,000. \n\nWhile the number of children between 4 and 18 years of age \nhas increased 26 per cent, since 1863, the average number belong- \ning to public schools has increased in the same time 46 per cent. \nDuring the last year the increase of census children was 9^ per \ncent. , and of pubHc school attendance 16 per cent. \n\nTlie number of free schools has been increased seventy-eight in \ntwo years, and more than half the public school children are now \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. \n\n\n\n45 \n\n\n\nrelieved from rate bills, while the remainder pay an average tuition \nfee of twenty-five cents a month. \n\nA careful examination of the full statistical tables submitted in \nthis report, will show a great advance in all that relates to the ma- \nterial progress of the schools. \n\nBut there is a vital and intangible aspect which no statistics can \nexhibit. \n\nThe stronger hold which the schools have taken on public opin- \nion; the greater skill, earnestness, and ability of teachers; the im- \nprovement in methods of instruction and classification; the greater \ninterest and enthusiasm of pupils, consequent ui^on the introduction \nof better books; the greater interest of parents; the civilizing agency \nof well-conducted schools in all the little communities of the State \xe2\x80\x94 \nthese cannot be exj)ressed in figures nor conveyed in words. \n\nCalifornia has taken her place in the front rank with those States \nwhose material prosperity has been the result of public schools ; and \nit is the duty of every legislator and every statesman to strengthen \nand perfect a system of schools which shall educate a race of men \nand women for the next generation that shall inherit, with the \nboundless resources of the Golden State, something of the energy, \nenterjDrise, talent, character and intelligence which have settled and \ncivilized it. \n\nThe following are some of the main topics treated of iu this \nreport : \n\n\n\n"What our Public Schools have Cost. \n\nKchool Property. \n\nComparative Cost of Public and Private \n\nSchools. \nComparison with other States. \nCities and Riual Districts. \nSchool Children. \nLength of Schools. \nTeachers\' Wages. \nAmendments to the School Law. \nCourse of Study. \nBoards of Examination. \nSchool Libraries. \nTeachers and Trustees. \nNational Bureau of Education. \n\n\n\nState Agricultural College. \n\nCounty School Tax. \n\nCounty Institutes. \n\nSchool Visits. \n\nState Institutes. \n\nMethods of Teaching. \n\nCourse of Study for Ungraded Schools. \n\nCommon Sense in Teaching. \n\nPhysical Training. \n\nMoral Training. \n\nThe Bible in the Schools. \n\nSchool Discipline. \n\nCorporal Punishment. \n\nState Normal School. \n\nPublic Schools and Taxation . \n\n\n\nThis report closed as follows : \n\nI am reluctant to close this long and complicated report of details \nand statistics, necessary to be made, and yet from their character, \ntiresome to most except school officers and teachers, without a final \nappeal to the legislators who will be called upon to act on its sug- \ngestions and recommendations. \n\nPrevious to the lessons taught us by the great war just closed \xe2\x80\x94 \nin suffering, and doubt, and blood, and tears \xe2\x80\x94 the great fundamental \ntruths of our school system had grown to be glittering generalities \nfor gracing political speeches or governors\' messages. These truths \nare now felt as a solid reality by the States on the other side of the \ncontinent; and under all the burdens of their debts, incurred iu \n\n\n\n46 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nsaving the nation, they are striving to make their public schools \nmore effective by more liberal provisions for their support. I am \npainfully conscious that our schools, while accomplishing something, \nfall far short of the great work which is pressing upon them. They \nneed both judicious legislation for their government and liberal tax- \nation for their support. It is a matter of deej) regret to all thinking \nmen, that some of our citizens who represent the greatest wealth of \nthe community are engaged in a crusade against taxation for the \nsupport of schools, and are waging their warfare under the hue and \ncry of extravagance, for the purpose of exciting the prejudices of \nthe people. \n\nLIBERALITY IS ECONOMY. \n\nLiberality in educating the people is the true economy of States. \nWhat would be extravagance in one individual, whose life is limited \nto a few years, is economy in the life of a State or nation; what \nwould be economy in a single man, is meanness in a State. This \ngeneration is not living for itself alone, but for future generations \nand for the future greatness of the nation. We have those among \nus who, to save from each dollar they call their own, a tax of one \none-hundredth of one per cent., would make serfs of the next gen- \neration by leaving the children to grow up in ignorance; who think \nintelligence, cultivation, refinement, honor, integrity, morality, \nreligion and patriotism among common people \xe2\x80\x94 the working classes \n\xe2\x80\x94 are myths; that the only thing tangible is real estate, and the \ngreat object of life is to escape taxation. Pviblic schools are \nsynonymous with taxation; they represent taxation, and the sooner \nthe "common people" understand this democratic-republican doc- \ntrine the better for the State, the better for property, the better for \nmankind, the better for the nation. There is altogether too much \nof this whining about taxation for the support of schools. Where \nwould the nation have been to-day but for public schools ? Who \nfought our battles in the last war, but the men who were drilled \ninto patriots in public schools supported by taxation ? Last year \nthe nation paid $22,000,000 for the support of schools; what true \nstatesman wishes it had been less ? The public schools are the \neducators of the working men and women of the nation, and they \nare the producers of all the wealth which is protected by law. The \nschools mold the characters of the men whose will, expressed \nthrough the ballot-box, makes and unmakes constitutions, and \nbreathes life into all laws. \n\nI appeal to legislators, when the school bill comes before them, \nto bear in mind that in providing for schools, a liberal expenditure \nis, in the end, the truest econom}\'; and when the cry of taxation is \nurged against any reasonable and necessary appropriations, to \nremember this great truth, so well expressed by Horace Mann: " In \nour country and in our times no man is worthy the honored name \nof statesman who does not include the highest practicable education \nof the people in all his plans of administration. He may have \neloquence, he may have a knowledge of all history, diplomacy, \njurisprudence \xe2\x80\x94 and by these he might claim in other countries the \nelevated rank of statesman; but, unless he speaks, plans and labors, \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 47 \n\nat all times and in all places, for the culture and edification of the \nwhole people, he is not, he cannot be, an American statesman. \n\n\n\n31. SECOND BIENNIAL REPORT, 1866-67. \nThis report opens with the following statement of progress : \n\nThe school year ending June 30, 18G7, marks the transition \nperiod of California from rate-bill common schools to an American \nfree school system. \n\nFor the first time in the history of the State, every public school \nwas made entirely free for every child to enter. \n\nIn the smaller districts, having less than 100 children and less \nthan $200,000 taxable property, free schools were maintained three \nmonths; in the larger districts, having more than 100 children and \n$200,000 taxable property, free schools were kept open jive monUis. \n\nMore than 21,000 pupils attended /ree schools during the entire \nschool year of ten months. \n\nFREE SCHOOLS AT LAST. \n\nI am glad that in this, my last official report, I can say that \na system oi free schools, supported by taxation, is an accomplished \nfact. \n\nWhen I assumed the duties of this office, five years ago, I saw \nclearly that it was useless to expect to improve the character of the \npublic schools to any considerable extent without a largely in- \ncreased school revenue, derived from direct taxation on propert}\'. \n\nAt the session of the Legislature in 1863, I secured a revision of \nthe School Law, and a State school tax of five cents on the hundred \ndollars, which gave an additional revenue to the State Fund of \n$75,000 a year. A bill was also passed providing for the gradual \nfunding of the indebtedness of the State to the School Depart- \nment, then amounting to $000,000. At the next session, in 1864, \nan additional school revenue was secured by providing that the \nminimum county school tax should be equal to $2 per census child. \nThis little clause gave an additional county school revenue of \n$75,000. \n\nIn 1866, by the passage of the " Kevised School Law," the State \nschool tax was raised to eight cents on the hundred dollars, and \nthe minimum county tax was raised equal to $3 per census child, \nboth provisions together increasing the school revenue by at least \n$125,000 a year. I need not say that to secure an additional school \nrevenue of $300,000 per annum, in the face of the high county, \nState, and National taxation, during a period of civil war, was no \nholiday task. \n\nDuring each successive session of the Legislature I became a \nj)ersistent member of the "Third House," arguing, soliciting, meet- \ning committees, and patiently waiting, with a determination to \nsecure for every child in California a right guaranteed by law to an \neducation in a system of free schools based upon the proposition \nthat the property of the State ought to be taxed to educate the \nchildren of the State. \n\n\n\n48 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nI saw clearly at the outset that even after the revenue was pro- \nvided, the schools would be to some extent a failure, unless pro- \ntected from incompetent teachers by a thorough system of State \nexaminations and certificates, for the schools cannot rise higher \nthan the teachers, \n\nPKOFESSIONAL TEACHERS. \n\nThe second leading object of my administration has been to se- \ncure a corps of professional teachers, and to elevate the occujDation \nof teaching. How far this has been accomplished, the list of pro- \nfessional teachers, and the graduates of the Normal School, found \nin this report, Avill show. \n\nOne third of the teachers in the State hold State dijjlomas and \ncertificates, and one twelfth of the teachers are graduates of the \nCalifornia State Normal School. \n\nA State Board of Education, of Examination, of Normal School \nTrustees; a uniform series of text-books, a course of study, rules \nand regulations, an educational journal \xe2\x80\x94 all constitute a system of \neducation, in place of the irregular and unsystematized half public \nand half rate-bill schools of five years ago. \n\nTHE REVISED SCHOOL LAW. \n\nEarly in the session of 18G5-66, the State Superintendent sub- \nmitted a series of amendments to the Senate Committee on Edu- \ncation. \n\nThe amendments were so extensive that the committee referred \nthe entire law to the Superintendent for revision. The law, as \ndrafted by me, was submitted to the committee and adopted, with \na few slight changes. \n\nThe more important improvements effected in the School Law by \nthe first revision in 1863, and the second revision in 18G5, may be \nbriefly summed up as follows: \n\n1. Organizing a State Board of Education of nine members. \n\n2. Organizing a Board of State Normal School Trustees of eight \nmembers. \n\n3. Authorizing the State Board of Education to adopt rules and \nregulations and a course of study for pi;blic schools. \n\n4. Authorizing the State Board to adopt a uniform State series of \ntext-books. \n\n5. Providing each school with a State School Register. \n\n6. Providing for the binding and preservation of school docu- \nments in the State and county departments of instruction. \n\n7. Providing that the Legislature shall furnish the State Superin- \ntendent with at least two thousand copies of each biennial report \nfor distribution among school ofiicers and libraries. \n\n8. Requiring the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to \nvisit schools and lecture at least three months each year, and pro- \nviding for the payment of actual traveling expenses. \n\n9. Establishing County Teachers\' Institutes, and providing for the \npayment of necessary expenses out of the County School Fund. \n\n10. Funding the debt of the State to the School Fund. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 49 \n\n11. Enlarging the powers and duties of County Superintendents, \nin details too numerous to mention. \n\n12. Payment of County Boards of Examination. \n\n13. Postage and Expressage Fund for County Superintendents. \n\n14. Increasing the salaries of County Superintendents. \n\n15. Authorizing County Superintendents to equalize district \nboundaries. \n\n16. The election of Trustees for a term of three years instead of \none. \n\n17. Requiring the District Clerk to furnish the schools with \npens, ink, stationery, and school incidentals, at the expense of the \ndistrict. \n\n18. The establishment of graded schools. \n\n19. Providing for the legal establishment of separate schools for \nchildren other than white children. \n\n20. Limiting the school time of children under eight years of age \nto four hours a day, exclusive of intermissions. \n\n21. Establishing a system of school libraries by the reservation \nof ten per cent, of the State School Apportionment. \n\n22. Authorizing a State subscription for an educational journal \xe2\x80\x94 \ntwo copies for each school district, one for the District Clerk, and \none for the school library. \n\n23. Life diplomas for teachers. \n\n24. State educational diplomas, valid for six years; and first, \nsecond and third grade State certificates. \n\n25. Establishing City Boards of Examination. \n\n26. Authorizing the State Board to issue State certificates on \ncounty examinations with the State series of questions. \n\n27. Authorizing the State Board to recognize the Normal School \ndij^lomas of other States. \n\n28. Requiring all Boards of Examination, whether State, city or \ncounty, to be composed exclusivel}^ of professional teachers who \nare holders of State diplomas, or first grade city or county cer- \ntificates. \n\n29. A State tax of eight cents on each $100 of taxable projoerty. \n\n30. Requiring a minimum county school tax of $3 per census child, \nand increasing the maximum tax to 35 cents on each ^100. \n\n31. Authorizing and requiring School Trustees to levy a district \nschool tax sufficient to keep a free school five months in a year. \n\n32. Changing the school year to correspond with the State fiscal \nyear, July 1 to June 30. \n\nAVERAGE LENGTH OF SCHOOLS. \n\nThe average length of time during which j)ublic schools are main- \ntained during the year is 7.2 months. Last year, for the first time \nin the history of the State, all the schools were kept free to all \npupils for a period of from 3 to 5 months, according to the num- \nber of children and the taxable propert}^ in the district. \n\nIt marks an epoch in the school history of the State. Had rate \nbills been levied as before, during the entire year, the average \nlength of the term of tuition in the schools would doubtless have \nbeen increased. \n\n\n\n50 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nThe death-blow to rate bills has been given, and they will soon \nbe among the things of the past. \n\nLast year 21,200 pupils attended schools which were kept open \nand entirely free for 9 and 10 months in the year. \n\n10,000 more attended schools which were entirely free, but were \nkejDt open less than 9 months. \n\nThe number of schools maintained from 3 to 6 months was 387; \nfrom 6 to 9 months, 281; and from 9 to 10 months, including San \nFrancisco as 208 schools of 60 children each, 422. \n\nSALARIES OF TEACHERS. \n\nThe average monthly salaries of males teachers is $77; of female \nteachers, $64. \n\nAs the average length of schools is 7.2 months, the average an- \nnual salar}^ of male teachers is $554; of female teachers, $460. \n\nEven if teachers were employed for the whole school year of 10 \nmonths, which is the case only in the city schools, the average an- \nnual salary of a male teacher would be only $770 a year, from which \ndeduct $300 for twelve months\' board at $25 per month, and there \nwould remain only $470 as the net proceeds of a year\'s work. De- \nduct from this $100 for clothing, and the salary stands at $370. \n\nTrustees in some parts of the State who complain that the salaries \nof teachers are too high, and that school expenditures are extrava- \ngant, will do well to consider these figures. \n\nThe admission of teachers into the occupation is virtually in the \nhands of the teachers in this State now engaged in teaching. Ele- \nvate the standard of admission, and the occupation will soon become \na respectable business. It will soon be better paid than brute \nlabor. No occupation is more laborious; none wears out muscle and \nbrain faster. It is only in the vigor of early manhood that a man \ncan follow his profession. Shall he, then, be paid no more than \nthe mechanic, or the day-laborer who shovels sand on the streets? \nThe brain labor of the skillful teacher ought to be as well paid as \nthe brain labor of the lawyer, the phj\'sician, the clergyman, the \neditor. He ought to dress as well and live as well. His profession \nought to cost him, and often does, as much time and money as \nother professions. He ought to be paid a salary sufficient to enable \nhim to supply himself with a library, and the periodical literature \nof the day. He should have a salary sufficient to enable him to live \nrespectably, dress neatly, and move in the intelligent circles of so- \nciety like other educated men. He should be paid enough to sup- \nport a family. Teachers well j)aid can devote all their time and \nenergies to the schools. The}\' are not greater philanthropists than \ntheir neighbors whose children they educate. None of them teach \nfrom pure love of teaching. They do their duty, and expect their \npay for it; it is the way in which they earn their living. They \nought not to be expected to break mental bread to the children of \nothers and feed their own with stones. Good teachers are not \nto be estimated by their daily salary of five dollars. Persons \nenough could be fovind in the State at half the present rates, but \nthe people would be the losers. It is the teachers who give char- \nacter and efficiency to the schools. The State may legislate, the \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPORTS. 51 \n\npeople may vote taxes, and build scboolhouses, but the teachers \nbuild schools, and mold character, and act on mind. High sala- \nries will attract talent and skill, and hold them both in the schools. \nLow wages Avill fill the schools with bunglers, and waste the public \nmoney. If the people of California desire to lay well the founda- \ntions of the State for all future time, they must employ skilled \nmaster-masons to hew the corner-stones. \n\nSCHOOL LIBRARIES. \n\nThe school library system provided b}^ the School Law of 1866 \nis in successful operation. \n\nIt was established in accordance with my recommendation in the \nbiennial rej^ort for 1865, as follows: \n\nAfter studying the plans of other States, and considering the i \nsubject in every possible relation, I have come to the conclusion \nthat the following plan is the most practicable one which can at \npresent be carried into effect in this State: \n\nIt should be made the duty of the County Superintendent in \neach count}\' to annually set apart ten per cent, of the State appor- \ntionment of school moneys to each district, provided ten per cent, \ndoes not exceed fifty dollars, and to cause it to be held b}\' the \nCounty Treasurer, as a District School Library Fund; and it should \nbe the dut}\' of Trustees to expend this fund for library books, pro- \nvided that when the amount is less than ten dollars the sum maj \nremain in the treasury until, together with subsequent apportion- \nments, it shall amount to that sum. \n\nIt should be made the duty of the State Board of Education to \nprepare an extended list of books suitable for school libraries, and \nfrom the published list Trustees should make all their selections \nfor purchase. Such a provision would protect the libraries from \ntrash literature and useless books. The Trustees should be made \nlibrarians, with power to make the teacher a deputy. \n\nRELIGIOUS EXERCISES IN SCHOOL. \n\nThe report treats at length on the vexed question of religious \nexercises, and Bible-reading in school. A few items read as \nfollows : \n\nThe Constitution of California (Art. 1, Sec. 4) provides that " the \nfree exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, \nwithout discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed in \nthis State." \n\nSection 60 of the Eevised School Law, reads as follows: \n" No books, tracts, papers, catechisms, or other publications of a \nsectarian or denominational character, shall be used or distributed \nin any school, or shall be made a part of any school library; neither \nshall any sectarian or denominational doctrine be taught therein; \nand any school district, town or city, the officers of which shall \nknowingly allow any schools to be taught in violation of these pro- \nvisions, shall forfeit all right to any State or county apportionment \nof school moneys; and upon satisfactory evidence of such violation, \n\n\n\n52 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nthe State Superintendent and County Superintendent shall "with- \nhold both State and county apportionment." \n\nSection 70 reads as follows: \n\n"It shall be the duty of teachers to endeavor to impress on the \nminds of their pupils the principles of morality, truth, justice, and \npatriotism; to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity, and false- \nhood; to instruct them in the principles of a free government, and \nto train them up to a true comprehension of the rights, duties, and \ndignity of American citizenship." \n\nThe School Law, then, is silent as to whether or not a public \nschool shall be opened by the reading of the Bible or by prayer. It \ndoes not exclude the Bible; it does not make the use of it compul- \nsory; it does not forbid the teacher from opening school with prayer; \nit does 2iot compel him to do it. It leaves the whole question to be \ndecided by Boards of Education, Trustees, teachers, and the people, \nas their judgment may dictate. \n\nThe present is an age of the largest and broadest personal liberty \nof religious opinion; the children of all classes are found in the com- \nmon schools; and school officers and teachers should manifest a ten- \nder regard for the religious scruples of both Jew and Gentile, Prot- \nestant and Catholic, and hold the schools free from any violation of \nthe great principles guaranteed by the National and State Constitu- \ntions, that every man be left free to worship God as he pleases, and \nto teach his children his own religious faith. \n\nThe great purpose of the common school is intellectual culture, \nas a foundation of moral and religious education; for without intel- \nligence, religion degenerates into bigotry. It is left for the home, \nthe Sunday-school, and the church, to teach forms of religious faith \nand worship. If each does its work without interference with the \nother, the result will be harmonious. If the church attempts to \nmake the public school both a church school and a Sunday school, \nthe result will be disastrous. \n\nCO-EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. \n\nI believe that the presence of boys and girls in the same school, \nfar from being injurious to either sex, exerts a mutually beneficial \ninfluence. My belief is based on many years\' experience in public \nschool teaching, on an extended observation of schools, and on the \nopinion of the most enlightened and progressive educators. \n\nCONCLUSION. \n\nSince 1863, our public schools have been quietly and peacefully \nrevolutionized. In the grand events of national history, in the \nbuilding of cities, the construction of roads, the settlement of land \ntitles, and the excitement of life incident to a new State, the prog- \nress of schools is hardly noticed except by those who are most di- \nrectly interested in them. Then, we had little to be proud of in \nour educational record; 71010, California will not suffer by compari- \nson with the most progressive educa.tional States in the Union. \n\nThen, the annual amount of money raised for public schools was \n$480,000; now, it is $1,287,000, or nearly three times as much. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPOETS. 53 \n\nTJien, there was no direct State tax for the support of schools; \nnow, the State tax is 8 cents on the $100, giving an annual revenue \nfrom this source alone of $120,000. \n\nThen, the State apportionment was $130,000; noio, it is $260,000. \n\nThen, the amount raised by county and city school taxes was \n$294,000; noio, it is nearly $600,000. \n\nThen, the amount raised by district taxes, voted by the people, \nwas $7000 ; last year the amount was \xc2\xa773,000, or more than ten \ntimes the amount raised in 1802. \n\nTlien, the maximum county school tax allowed by law was 25 \ncents, and the minimum required to be levied, nothing at all; noio, \nthe maximum tax is 35 cents, and the minimum tax must be equal \nto $3 per census child, which in many counties requires the maxi- \nmum rate of 35 cents. \n\nThen, the amount raised by rate bills of tuition was $130,000 ; \nnow, it is only $79,000, showing a rapid approximation to a free \nschool system. Three-fourths of the pupils now attend free schools \nduring the year, and all are secured by law the right of a free school, \neither for three months or five months, in proportion to the size of \ndistrict. \n\nThen, the total expenditure for schools amounted to a percentage \non the assessment-roll of the State, of 30 cents on each $100; now, \nit amounts to 58 j^^ cents on the $100. \n\nIn 1862 the amount expended per census child was $6.15; last \nyear it was $12.01. \n\nIn 1862 the amount expended for schoolhouses was $49,000; in \n1865 it was $257,000. \n\nThen, the average length of the schools was less than six months \nin the year; noio, it is seven and four-tenths months \xe2\x80\x94 an average \nlength of schools which is exceeded only by Massachusetts and \nNevada, of all the States in the Union. \n\nSince then, while the number of census children has increased \ntwenty-six per cent., the average number attending the public \nschools has increased more than fifty per cent. \n\nThe stronger hold which the schools have taken on public opinion, \nthe greater skill, earnestness and enthusiasm of teachers, the con- \nsequent improvement in methods of instruction and classification, \nthe use of better text-books, the deeper personal interest of parents, \nthe neater and more commodious houses \xe2\x80\x94 all these together con- \nstitute an advancement which cannot be expressed by a contrast of \nstatistics. \n\nThen, we had no system of professional examinations, no educa- \ntional society, no organization, and little professional pride; in fact, \na man generally apologized tor being forced to resort to teaching \nuntil he could find something else to do. \n\nEXAMINATION OF TEACHERS. \n\nThen, the "old schoolmasters" of San Francisco were examined \nevery year by doctors, lawyers, dentists, contractors and business \nmen, to " see if they were fit to teach the common school" they had \nbeen teaching years in succession. There was no standard of \nqualification, except the caprice of " accidental boards." Through- \n\n\n\n54 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nout the State, examinations were oral, and in most cases resulted in \nissuing to everybody who applied a certificate " to teach school one \nyear; " noio, a new order of things prevails. Every Board of Exam- \nination, whether State, city or county, must be composed of \nprofessional teachers exclusively; all examinations must be in \nwriting, and in certain specified studies; and certificates are issued \nfor life, or for a length of time proportioned to the grade of certifi- \ncate issued. \n\nCalifornia is the only State in the Union in which teachers have \ngained the legal right to be examined exclusively by the members \nof their own jDrofession, and we have just cause to be proud of the \nfact. It has already done much to make the occupation of teach- \ning respectable. It has relieved good teachers from useless annoy- \nance and humiliation; it has increased their self-respect, stimulated \ntheir ambition, and guarded the schools against quacks and pre- \ntenders. \n\nOur School Law is the only one in the United States which has \ntaken broad, professional ground, by pi\'oviding that the diplomas \nof State Normal Schools in other States shall entitle the holders to \nlegal recognition as teachers in this State. \n\nStrange to say, this new sj\'stem of professional examinations was \nviolently opposed four j^ears ago, and by none so vehemently as by \nsome common school teachers. \n\nThe world moves. Is there a single teacher here who would \ndesire to have the old order of things re-established? But I never \ndoubted that, once established, it would remain a part of our \nschool S3^stem as long as schools were maintained. \n\nIt was my sanguine hope, for many years, that in this new State \nteaching might aspire to the dignity of a profession; that teachers \nmight learn to combine their strength, respect themselves, com- \nmand the respect of others, and honor their occuiDatiou. I have \nlived already to see the promise of the future. It has been and is \nmy highest ambition to elevate the profession of teaching; for I \nwell know that in no other way can the public schools be made the \ngreat educators of the State and the nation. If the citizens of this \nState desire to have good schools, they must pay professionally \ntrained teachers high salaries. \n\nIt is only by raising the standard of attainments that the occupa- \ntion can become Avell paid and well respected. Set the standard \nhigh, and high wages will follow; set the standard high, and good \nschools will be the result; set the standard high, and teachers will \nbe content to remain in the schools. \n\nLet all teachers who act on County, City or State Boards of Ex- \namination, discharge their duty faithfully, without reference to the \npressure of friends, or the complaints of unsuccessful apj^licants, \never bearing in mind the duty they owe to the schools, the j)eople, \nand the profession of teaching. \n\nProfessionally trained teachers, well paid for their work, will \nbring the schools up to their fullest measure of usefulness, and will \nsecure from the people the most liberal support. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 55 \n\nSTATISTICS AXD REPORTS. \n\nFour years ago there was not a teachers\' library in the State, \nexcept a few odd volumes in San Francisco. \n\nNow all the large counties have begun a central library, and \nsome of them have quite extensive ones. \n\nWe have a course of study, established by law, by means of which \nteachers are enabled to pursue an intelligent system of instruction, \nin sjDite of the prejudices of those parents who are too ignorant to \ncomprehend the purpose of a school. \n\nWe have judicious rules and regulations, established by law, to \naid teachers in enforcing discipline and order. In no other State is \nthe authority of the teacher so well established and defined by law. \nEvery district school in the State is placed under a judicious system \nof general rules and regulations. \n\nFour years ago school statistics were notoriously unreliable; the \nrecords were kept without system, in old blank books or on scraps \nof paper, and often were not kept at all; now, every school is \nsupplied with a State School Register, so simple in its style of book- \nkeeping that the most careless teacher can hardly fail to keep a re- \nliable record. \n\nTlien, Trustees wrote their orders to County Superintendents on \nscraps of paper, without much regard to business forms, and often \nwithout keejDing any accounts; now, the neat order-books, in the \nstyle of bank check books, furnished by the Department of In- \nstruction, allow of no excuse for failing to keep a financial record \nof money paid out. \n\nIn 1862, 150 copies of the report of the Superintendent were \nallowed to the ofiice of the State Superintendent for distribution; \nnow, 4,000 copies are published, and the law requires that a copy \nshall be sent to each Board of Trustees, each school library, each \nCounty Superintendent, and that 250 copies shall be bound for dis- \ntribution to the School Departments of other States. \n\nSCHOOL LIBRARIES. \n\nThen, there were no school libraries; now, a library is begun in \nevery school district, and a liberal provision is made for their en- \nlargement by a reservation of ten per cent, of the State School \nFund annually. \n\nThe influence of a library in school is second only to that of the \nteacher; and, in many instances, the information self-gleaned by \nthe pupils from books, is the most valuable part of their common \nschool education. Books will give them a taste for reading, make \nthem alive to knowledge, and start them on a jolan of self-culture \nthrough life. A teacher may fail in the discharge of his duty, but \nthe influence of good books is sure and lasting. \n\nThen, most of the county schools were destitute of inaps, charts, \nand globes; now, most of them are supplied. \n\nThen, all school incidentals, such as pens, pencils, ink, and sta- \ntionery, were furnished by the pupils themselves, and as a conse- \nquence, half of the children were generally without these indis- \npensable articles; now, they are furnished by the district to the \npupils, free of expense. \n\n\n\n56 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n\n\nPROGRESS. \n\n\n\nWhen "we consider the generally depressed condition of business \nin the State during the past four years; the heav}\' losses during \nthe mining stock mania; the losses by flood and drought; the \ngradual working out of placer mines, and the consequent deprecia- \ntion of property in many i^laces; the falling off in the trade of many \nmining towns; the unsettled condition of land titles in many of the \nagricultural sections, and consequently the unsettled condition of \nthe people; the slow increase of jDopulation from immigration, and \nat times its actual decrease in consequence of attractive mines in \nneighboring territories, and the slow increase of taxable property \xe2\x80\x94 \nwe have reason to be proud of the unexampled progress of our \ncommon schools. \n\nIn the great work of settling and civilizing a new State \xe2\x80\x94 in the \nbuilding of cities, the construction of railroads, the cultivation of \nfarms, the development of quartz mines, the beginning of manu- \nfactures, and all the varied branches bf industry \xe2\x80\x94 the influence of \nschools is lost sight of in the figures of material statistics; and it is \nonly when we consider that the 50,000 children now in the schools, \nduring the next twenty jears will take their place in society as the \nworkers and producers, that we begin to realize the latent power of \nthe schools. They are silently weaving the network of mental and \nmoral influences which underlie civilization; and when the children \nshall become the masters of the material wealth of the State, the \ninfluence of the schools will begin to be evident. \n\nWe are apt to consider immediate results rather than their re- \nmote causes; and hence the power of the public schools is seldom \nfully realized. \n\nLight, heat, and electricity build up the material life of the \nglobe out of inorganic matter, 3\'et so slowly and silently that we \nhardly observe the workings of their subtle agencies. So the \nschools act upon societ}\', and organize its life out of the atoms of \nundeveloped humanity attracted to the schoolrooms. \n\nA few weeks since I visited one of the great quartz mills in the \ninterior of the State. I descended the deep shaft, where stalwart \nmen were blasting and delving in solid rock. Above, the magnifi- \ncent mill, with fifty stamps, like some gigantic monster, was crush- \ning and tearing the white quartz with its iron teeth; and I saw the \nimmediate result of all this work in the heavy bars of pure gold, \nall ready to be stamped with their commercial value, and to enter \ninto the great channels of trade. Then I entered a public school \na few rods distant, where a hundred children were sitting, silently \nlearning their lessons. I realized the relation of the mill and mine \nto the material prosperity of the State; but the school, what did it \nyield ? \n\nI rode over the line of the Central Pacific Railroad from the \nspringtime of Sacramento into the snowy winter of the Sierra, and \nI saw the beginning of the great commercial aorta of a continent. \nOn its cuts, and embankments, and rails, and locomotives, more \nmoney had already been expended than has been paid for schools \nsince the history of our State began. I could see the tangible re- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 57 \n\nsuits of tlie labor expended upon the road; but where should I \nlook for the value received to balance the cost of the schools? \nAfter thundering down on its iron rails from the mountain sum- \nmits, I stepped into the Sacramento High School, and I thought to \nmyself: What are these boys and girls doing, comjiared with the \nmen who are paving the great highway of a nation ? \n\nI go out into the streets of this great city; I hear everywhere the \nhum of industry; I see great blocks of buildings going up under \nthe hands of busy mechanics; I see the smoke of the machine-shops \nand foundries, where skillful artisans are constructing the marvelous \nproductions of inventive genius; I see the clipper ships discharging \ntheir cargoes; drays are thundering over the pavement; the banks \nare open, and keen-sighted capitalists are on \'Change; and when I \ngo to visit some little schoolroom, where a quiet woman is teaching \nreading and spelling to the little children, the school seems to be \nsomething distinct from the busy life outside. \n\nA short time ago I saw that ocean leviathan, the "Colorado," \nswing majestically out into the stream, amid the shouts of thou- \nsands of assembled spectators, and glide off through the Golden \nGate, to weave a network of commercial interests between the Occi- \ndent and the Orient; and when, a few days after, I stood in the \nLincoln Schoolhouse, where a thousand boys were reciting their \nlessons, I asked: What are they doing for the city in return for \n$125,000 invested in the house, and $20,000 a year paid to the \nteachers? The steamship comes back with its j^asseugers and \nfreight, and makes its monthly returns of net profits; but when \nwill the school show its balance-sheet ? \n\nBut when I pause to remember that the steam engine was once \nbut a dim idea in the brain of a boy; that intelligence is the motive \npower of trade and commerce; that the great cit}\', with banks and \nwai\'ehouses, and princely residences, has been built up by intelli- \ngent labor; that in the construction and navigation of the ocean \nsteamer so many of the princijDles of art and science must be \napplied \xe2\x80\x94 I see in the public school, with its busy brains, an engine \nmightier than one of steam; and the narrow aisles of the schooi- \nroom broaden into the wide and thronged streets of the great city. \nI know that the school-boys will soon become workers; that one \nwill command the steamship, and one will become the engineer; \none will be a director of the Central Pacific Railroad, and one will \nride over it to take his seat in the Senate of the United States; one \nwill own the quartz mill; another will build the machinery, and \nanother still will invent some improved method of working its ores; \none will be the merchant who shall direct the channels of trade; \none will be the president of the bank, and another shall frame laws \nfor the protection of all those varied interests \xe2\x80\x94 and the teacher, \nwhose occupation seemed so disconnected from the progress of \nhuman affairs, becomes a worker on mind which shall hold the \nmastery over material things. \n\nCONCLUSION. \n\nI sought the office for the purpose of raising the standard of pro- \nfessional teaching and for organizing a State system of free schools. \nI am willing to leave the verdict to the future. \n4 \n\n\n\n58 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nIf, when my present term of office expires, I fall back into the \nranks as a private, I shall feel proud of pij profession, for I hold \nnone more honorable, and to it I expect to devote my life. \n\nI love the State of my adoption; I am proud of her educational \nrecord. I hope to see California as distinguished for her common \nschools, her colleges, her institutions of learning, as she has been \nfor the enterprise of her peojDle and the mineral wealth of her \nmountains. \n\nI feel that her future prosperity is closely related to the education \nof her people, for the solid wealth of any State consists in educated \nand industrious men and women; and if the common schools are kept \nup to the full measure of their usefulness, her future glory will be \nnot so much in her mines, her scenery, or her climate, as in the \nintelligence, integrity, moralit}\', and patriotism of a people that \nshall make wealth a servant of science, art, literature, and religion. \n\n\n\n32. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1868-69. \n\nThe only change made in the School Law at this session was \na slight increase in the maximum rate of district tax voted by \nthe people. The law requiring teachers to take the oath of \nallegiance was repealed. A local bill was passed, providing \nthat the City Superintendent of Common Schools in San Fran- \ncisco should be appointed by the Supervisors and Board of \nEducation, instead of being elected by the people, to take \neffect in two years. A bill was passed to provide for organizing \na State University. \n\n33. THIRD BIENNIAL REPORT, 1868-69. \n\nSuperintendent Fitzgerald\'s first report opened as follows : \n\nAVhen I entered upon the duties of State Superintendent two \nyears ago, the situation was peculiar. It was just after an exciting \npolitical canvass. The wildest surmises and most absurd apprehen- \nsions were indulged in on the one hand, and the most extravagant \nexpectations entertained on the other. \n\nMy first official utterance reaching the general public was in my \naddress before the State Teachers\' Institute, held in San Francisco, \nJune, 18G8. In that address I declared that I had no partisan, sec- \ntional or sectarian ends to accomplish; that our public schools \nwere not to be considered as either Democratic or Republican, \nNorthern or Southern, Protestant or Catholic; that all parties were \ntaxed alike for their sujDport, and therefore had equal rights and \nshould be treated with equal respect. \n\nThis report touched upon the topics of "Objects of Educa- \ntion," "School Trustees," "Examinations," "State Normal \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 59 \n\nScliool," "State and County Institutes," "Attendance," "Fe- \nmale Teachers," "Evening Schools," "Politics in the Public \nSchools," "San Francisco Industrial School," "Uniformity of \nText-Books," \'\'The California Teacher;\' "The Institution of \nthe Deaf and Dumb and Blind," "The State University," and \n"Cosmopolitan Schools." \xc2\xbb \n\nIt closes as follows : \n\nThis exhibit cannot fail to inspire every good citizen with pride, \ngratification, and hope. It gives assurance that, while our State is \nevidently about to enter upon a fresh career of material development \nand prosperity, we have abundant reason to hope that it is destined \nto a progress equally rapid in the development of the higher inter- \nests of education. For what has been done, I take no credit to my- \nself. I only claim that I have earnestly tried to do my duty. \n\n\n\n34. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1870. \n\nThe first legislation of this session was the repeal of the law \npassed in 1868-9, in relation to the appointment of the City \nSuperintendent of Public Schools in San Francisco. The bill \ncontinued the former Superintendent, James Denman, in office \nfor one year, and then made the Superintendent elective at the \nnext general election. The original purpose of this law thus re- \npealed was to take the office "out of politics." \n\nThe "Kevised School Law" was re-enacted under the title of \nthe "California School Law," but was not changed in any of its \nmain features. \n\nThe sections relating to rate-bills were stricken out, being no \nlonger needed ; the State Normal School was taken from the \nhands of the State Board of Education and placed under the \ncontrol of a Board of Normal School Trustees, appointed by \nthe Governor; and a provision was made authorizing the County \nSuperintendents to fix the rate of county school tax, which was \ncarried into effect in only three or four counties, and was after- \nwards pronounced unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 TEXT-BOOKS. \n\nThe original provision for uniformity exteuded only to country \ndistricts, all incor])orated cities and towns having special Boards \nof Education being independent. The law was amended so as to \ncompel San Francisco and other cities to adopt the State series \nof text-books. \n\n\n\n60 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nIn 1869 the State Board of Education had made a sweeping \nchange of all the school-books in previous use. \n\nThe State tax was increased to 10 cents on each hundred \ndollars. \n\n35. FOURTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1871-72. \n\nThe last report of Superintendent Fitzgerald opened as fol- \nlows: \n\nDuring- no period in the history of California has more steady \nand substantial progress been made in popular education than the \ntwo years since the last biennial exhibit was made by the Depart- \nment of Public Instruction. This progress has been realized in \nspite of an unusual and general depression in business, resulting \nfrom various exceptional causes, and a consequent temporary check \nupon immigration and material prosperity. \n\nGreat educational enterprises have been successfully inaugurated, \nabuses have been corrected, important and necessary reforms have \nbeen made, antagonisms have been reconciled, and a course of \npolicy initiated that, with the united and earnest efforts of the true \nfriends of popular education, will at a very early day culminate in \nthe attainment of what every good citizen of California must desire \n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x94 a public school system that will furnish the fullest advantages \nof an English education to every child in the State. \n\nThe State is growing, and its educational development keeps pace \nwith its growth in wealth and population. The increase in the \nnumber of public school children is more than 20 per cent; in two \nyears. The increase in the value of school property is about \n20 per cent, for the same period. \n\nThis large increase in the number of children attending the \npublic schools is evidence of their growing popularity. A just and \nliberal administration of j^ublic school affairs has won the confidence \nand elicited the support of all classes to a gratifjdng extent. This \ncan be claimed by me in behalf of my co-officials in the Department \nof Public Instruction throughout the State, without any reservation. \nThe friends of education have worked together in perfect harmony, \nand rapid progress has been the result. \n\nThe enormous amount added to the value of school propertj^ let \nit be noted, is the result of voluntary taxation, voted directly by the \npeople themselves. This fact furnishes the most conclusive proof \nof the deep interest felt by the citizens of California in the educa- \ntion of their children, and affords a guarantee that they will cor- \ndially sustain an}\' judicious measures that may be presented for the \nfurther improvement of our school system. * \n\nAN INCREASE OF STATE SCHOOL TAX. \n\nWhile in our centres of wealth and jDopulation the children have \nthe advantage of a full school year\'s instruction, with the best \nfacilities for learning, truth compels the confession that for the \nmore remote and sparsely settled districts of the State our present \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 61 \n\nsystem is shamefully inadequate, and is but a pretense for popular \neducation. Under the present system, many districts can maintain \nschools only from three to six months of the year. No one need be \ntold that such fragmentary bits of instruction are only a little better \nthan none at all. During these short school terms, the pupils of \nsuch schools only get fairly started in their studies to be turned out \nfor the greater part of the year, forgetting what little they had \nlearned, and then coming back after this long and ruinous in- \nterval to commence again at the former starting-place, at the foot \nof the hill of knowledge, under a new teacher\xe2\x80\x94 the old one having \nsought a new place rather than attempt to live on the hope of \nanother three or six months\' school next jeav. This is but a sham, \na waste of the public money, and a flagrant injustice toward a por- \ntion of the children of the State. There are very many of these \nschools thus revolving year after year on the axis of a defective sys- \ntem, making some motion, but scarcely any real progress. In a \nState sj^stem of public instruction should not all the children of \nthe State be treated alike.? As a good mother, she should dispense \nthe blessings of education with an equal hand. The remedy for \nthis great evil and injustice is obvious: Let all tlie property of the \nState be taxed to educate all the children of the State. This is the \nchief point that should now engage the attention of those intrusted \nwith the management of our public schools. The public mind is \nprepared to welcome legislation for this purpose. The people are \nready to sustain any practical measure that will give them a thor- \nough instead of a partial public school system. The principle in- \nvolved is already recognized in our present school law. The ten \nper cent, ad valorem State school tax is an unequivocal recognition \nof the principle that the property of the whole State may be taxed \nfor the benefit of all parts of the State. All that is needed, there- \nfore, is the extension of the practical application of the principle. \nIf it be (/bjected that the taxation of all the property of the State \nfor all the children of the State would be attended with inequality, \nsome localities paying more than their proportion of taxes into the \ngeneral school fund, the answer is, that according to the theory \nalready adopted, the State is the educational unit, therefore it must \nact as a whole, and not partially, in disregard of the avowed theory \non which our system is based. As a complete organism, the good \nof each iya.rt is the good of the whole State. There is a fallacy in \nthe assumjition that the benefits of education are confined to the \njDarticular individuals or localities directly alfected by the expendi- \nture of the proceeds of local taxation. The benefits resultiug from \nthe difi\'usion of intelligence by means of education in the public \nschools affect the entire body politic. The dollar contributed by \nSan Francisco judiciously expended in Plumas for education is no \nless a benefit to the former than to the latter. It is equally evident \nthat the evils resulting from the prevalence of ignorance and vice \nin any neglected locality cannot be merely local evils. The virus \nwill spread through the whole organism, and the results will be \nseen in the criminal courts, jails, hosi^itals, and insane asylums \neverywhere. If the State has the right to tax all her citizens equally \nto maintain State prisons, institutions for the insane, the deaf. \n\n\n\n62 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\ndumb, and blind, and orphans, where is the wrong in imposing a \ntax for education for the whole State, that will lessen all those bur- \ndens resulting so largely and so directly from crime consequent \nujion ignorance ? \n\nThere is another asj^ect of this question that deserves considera- \ntion. The disabilities of the present system fall upon the frontier \nand thinly settled districts of the State. The result is that our \nhardy pioneers, who lead the march of American civilization, extend \nthe area of freedom, subdue the wilderness, and incur the hard- \nships and dangers of frontier life, are, as the reward of their enter- \nprise, energy, and courage, compelled to pay the penalty of seeing \ntheir children grow up in ignorance. Snch disability may in some \ncases he inevitable and invincible, but there are in California but \nfew of these children of the border who are beyond the reach of \nthe beneficent hand of the State. Justice and sound policy require \nthat the poorest barefoot boy of the humblest citizen in the poorest \ndistrict of the most impoverished county should have as abundant \nfacilities for a common school education as the son of the richest \ncitizen of the most opulent city in the State. The fundamental \npurpose of a public school system is to insure the education of all \nthe children of the State. The chief recommendation of svich a \nsystem is that it secures the advantages of education to those who \ncan be reached in no other way. If it fail in this it fails essentially \nto accomplish its highest end. Our system, then, is at present a \npartial failure. It is not the part of wisdom to ignore such a fact, \nlooking only on the bright side of the j^icture. It is not honest. \nWhile singing the usual pseans of pi\'aise to our public school sys- \ntem, and rejoicing, as we legitimately may, in its benefits, such \nfacts as these remind us that we still fall far short of a perfect \nsystem, and that much work, wisely planned and earnestly exe- \ncuted, remains to be done. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nThe following are some of the leading topics of this report: \n\n\n\nState Text-Book System. \n\nDrawing. \n\nState and County Boards of Examiua- \n\ntiou. \nCounty Teachers\' Institutes. \n\n\n\nState Normal School. \nSchool District Libraries. \nUniversity of California. \nAgainst Compulsory Education. \nSchool Discipline \xe2\x80\x94 a New Departure. \n\n\n\nThe following is the closing section of this report; \n\nDuring my term of office this department has been happily free \nfrom sectional animosities. I have uniformly deprecated the intro- \nduction of sectional prejudices into our public school literature and \nexercises, and I think I can safely appeal to my late official asso- \nciates to j)rove that ni}\' action has been consistent with my pro- \nfession. A Southern man by birth and education, I would not be \nwilling to put into our schools any book that would tend tip excite \nor perpetuate hatred or contempt towards the Sovithern people. \nAn American in feeling and principle, I would not be willing to put \ninto our schools any book that did not inculcate love for our Avhole \ncountry. I would as zealously protect from insult or disparage- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. G3 \n\nment any other portion of our land as tliat in which I happened to \nbe born and reared. My official relation to the teachers of Cali- \nfornia gave me a better acquaintance with the men and women from \ndifferent parts of our Republic, and the consequence has been a \nbroadening of my ideas and an enlargement of the circle of my \nsympathies and attachments. I will never forget these lessons nor \nlose these sj^npathies. \n\nKnowing the teachers and school officers of California as 1 do, I \nlay aside the responsibilities and arduous labors of State Superin- \ntendent with a firm belief that the educational interests of the \nState are safe in their hands. Leaving all the various departments, \nof our educational work in vigorous operation and healthful devel- \nopment, I trust the next four years will bring uninterrupted prog- \nress and increased prosperity. \n\n\n\n36. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1872. \n\nAt this session there was no school legislation worth men- \ntioning. \n\nThe Code Commissioners reported the Codified Statutes, in- \ncluding, of course, the School Law. The main features of the \nRevised School Law of 1866 remained intact, subject only to \nrearrangement and changes of phraseology. \n\nAmong the minor changes was a provision excepting incorpo- \nrated cities from the action of "State uniformit}^" of text-books. \n\nAn appropriation of $300,000 was made for erecting build- \nings for the State University. \n\n\n\n37. FIFTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1872-73. \n\nSuperintendent Bolander\'s Report opens with an argument \nin favor of compulsory education, from which the following \npoints are taken: \n\nTo the question,\' " What is this remedy?" only one answer can \nbe given, or at least only one answer has thus far been found. Ad- \nmitted that education forms the only secure foundation and bulwark \nof a republican form of government, if not of every form of govern- \nment; admitted that the universality of education becomes thus of \nvital importance to the State ; and admitted that the exigencies of \nthe case not only empower but compel the State to provide all the \nfacilities necessary to enable every child to acquire at least a com- \nmon, school education, and we are forced to the conclusion that it is \nnot only the privilege, but the duty of the State, to compel every \nparent to bestow \\ipon his children at least the education which the \nState places within his reach. \n\nEducation is one of the primary conditions necessary to the very \n\n\n\n64 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nexistence of a civilized government. This i3ro]30sition is so well \nestablished and universally acknowledged as to have become trite, \nand any further consideration of it, beyond its mere enunciation, is \nunnecessary. The extension and intensity of education in a nation \nwill determine the degree of the nation\'s civilization, and the degree \nin which a nation\'s government is a governujent " for the people \nand by the peoj^le." This latter office of education has received the \nfullest recognition in the United States, and every State has de- \nclared its conviction that "knowledge and learning generally dif- \nfused through a community are essential to the preservation of a \nfree government." \n\nThe fundamental idea of government is -"the protection of society \nand its members, the security of proiDCi-ty and person, the adminis- \ntration of justice therefor, and the united efforts of society to fur- \nnish the means to authority to carry out these objects." The first \nmeans thus furnished to authority are the powers of prescribing and \nenforcing "rules of action" or laws, and to punish any infraction \nof these laws ; that is, to punish crime. But a still higher power \nthan the mere defining and i^unishing of crime has been delegated \nby society to authority, namely, the power to prevent crime by di- \nminishing, and, if possible, removing altogether the causes of crime. \nFear of jjunishment helps to repress crime, but only as far as detec- \ntion is quick and sure, and punishment swift and certain. The re- \npressing or removing of the motives or temptations to commit crime \nnot only rej^resses crime, but prevents crime by making its commis- \nsion impossible from its unreasonableness. \n\n"Illiteracy is incipient crime," or, as Dr. Lyman Beecher ex- \npresses it, " Uneducated mind is educated vice," Experience has \ngiven this proposition the force of an axiom in sociology. But \nthere is not only a necessary direct relation between illiteracy and \ncrime ; there is also a necessary direct relation between illiteracy \nand pauperism ; and as there is no less a necessary direct relation \nbetween pauperism and crime, we have crime once more as a result- \nant \xe2\x80\x94 crime as a direct result of illiteracy; crime as an indirect result \nthrough the medium of pauperism, but no other ultimate result than \ncrime. \n\nHence, in every scheme of civilized government education has \nbeen recognized as the only force sufficient to diminish and remove \nthe causes of crime. But education has another office. From the \nloss of supremacy in manufactures to the terrible downfall of a war- \nrior nation before a student nation, history teaches the lesson: Edu- \ncation is the first condition necessary to the prosperity of a nation. \n\nHistory teaches still another lesson : Education will be generally \ndiffused only under a system of public schools; that is, under a sys- \ntem in which either the State by direct taxation raises the funds \nnecessary to support for a definite length of time the schools needed \nto give every child a common school education, or the State compels \nthe different municiiDalities to establish and maintain such schools. \nThe American States have generally chosen the former alternative; \nthus testifjdng, in the most emphatic manner, that as the prosperity, \nnay, the very existence of the State, depends upon education, so \neducation shall be the first and paramount care of the State. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPOKTS. 65 \n\nThe only time the people have had an opportunity to express \ntheir will, they have declared themselves overwhelmingly in favor \nof compulsory education. Since then the fearful increase of "hood- \nlumism " has made the question one of vital importance. And to \nsave themselves from the rapidly increasing herd of non-producers, \nwho must be supported by the community at large, to save them- \nselves from the wretches who prey upon society like wild beasts, \nsome demand already that a law for compulsory education be \nsupplemented by a law requiring the State to establish and maintain \nlabor schools, school ships, industrial and technical schools. The \ntimes demand not only that children be educated in the common \nEnglish branches, but, also\', that children be educated how to work. \n\nSuperintendent Bolauder treats at length on the necessity of \nincreasing the State School Tax, and proposes a oninlmiim \napportionment of $500 for each district, without regard to num- \n\'bers; of the need of teachers trained in Normal Schools; and \ncloses with the remark that \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nThese two \xe2\x80\x94 long terms and qualified teachers \xe2\x80\x94 are the real \neducational forces of the State; and with them at our command, the \nprosperity, efficiency and usefulness of our common schools will be \ninsured beyond peradventure. \n\n\n\n38. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1874. \n\nThe only act of school legislation of any importance at this \nsession, was the levying of a State school tax of $7 per school \ncensus child, and the apportionment of $500 as a minimum to \neach school or school district; the balance to Joe apportioned \npro rata on the census children. \n\nTEXT-BOOKS. \n\nAll the incorporated cities except San Francisco were placed \nunder the law of State uniformity of test-books. \n\n\n\n39. SIXTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1874-75. \n\nSuperintendent Bolander\'s last report opens with the follow- \ning summary of progress : \n\nSince my last report, 29,953 children have been added to our \nschool population; 117 new school districts, supporting 322 schools, \nhave been organized; 274 new schoolhouses have been built and \nfurnished, and old schoolhouses refurnished, at a cost of $G13,- \n746.41; the school expenditures have been increased $544,885.09; \nthe school property has increased in worth $1,011,262.85; the aver- \n\n\n\n66 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \nage school terms have been lengthened 1.33 months, being now 7.47 \nmouths as against 6.14 months in 1873; 34 districts, as against 4G4 \nin 1873, maintained school less than six months; 765 districts, as \nagainst 361 in 1873, maintained school more than six months; and- \n787 districts, as against 637 in 1873, maintained school eight months \nand over. \n\nIn relief to this showing of our educational statistics, I must note \na great advance in the number of first grade schools, i. e., high \nschools, grammar schools, and schools in which high school and \n^grammar grade studies are taught in addition to the lower grade \nstudies; the greater number of teachers holding high grade certifi- \ncates; in the better salaries paid to lady teachers; in the greater \namount of funds si^entfor school apj^aratus, one-half of our districts \nbeing now supplied, at least partly, with apparatus. Much remains \nyet to be done, however, in the ecpiipment of schoolhouses; for one- \nfifth of our districts have not yet even the outhouses demanded by \ndecency; three-fourths of the districts have not siiitably improved \nschool grounds; one-half of the districts do not furnish their schools \nwith the necessary apjoaratus; and nearly one-half of the districts \nhave not furnished their schoolrooms with improved furnitui\'e. \n\nFrom July 1, 1866, to June 30, 1867, for the first time in the his- \ntory of the State, every public school was made entirel}\' free for \nevery child; and an important transition was thereby\' marked iu \npopular education. But, though every public school was made free, \nthe ways and means provided for the public schools, and the man- \nner of apj^ortioning these means to the different districts, were for \nyears such that only iu the centres of wealth and population the \nchildren had sufficient facilities for obtaining a good common school \neducation, whilst in all other sections of the State the school system \nwas but a pretense for popular education. The system went further, \nfor in some cases it even thrust districts from without its pale. Hun- \ndreds of districts did not receive sufficient funds to maintain in \nevery year the three months\' school guaranteed by the Constitution \nto every district of the State. Up to June 30, 1874, districts whose \nnumber of census children fell below a certain figure \xe2\x80\x94 twenty for \nsome counties, up to as high as thirty for others \xe2\x80\x94 did not receive for \nany one school year sufficient funds to maintain a three mouths\' \nschool for that year. \n\nThanks to the last Legislature, however, for the school year \nending June 30, 1875, and for the first time in the history of this \nState, every district received sufficient funds for not onl}^ a three \nmonths\' school, but for at least a six months\' school. The progress \nthereby made in popular education can hardly be overestimated. \nShort school terms \xe2\x80\x94 which, until last year have been the rule and \nnot the exception in a majority of the districts of the State \xe2\x80\x94 place \nwithin the reach of our children only such fragmentary bites of \ninstruction which are only a little better than none at all. Every \nsystem of popular education which does not insure to every district \nof the State at least an eight months\' school every year, is but a \nsham. Long school terms are the ^ine qua non without which it is \nimpossible to give our children the full measure of the amount and \nquality of education needed by them. Happily, the wise action of \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 67 \n\nthe last Legislature lias secured to our schools this first factor in \nevery successful system of pojjular education. The results of this \naction are patent. In 1873, only 43.3 per cent, of all the districts \nmaintained an eight months\' school; in 1875, this percentage is \nraised to 49.53; in 1872, over 464 districts, or 31.74 per cent., did \nnot keep a six months\' school; in 1875, the number has diminished \nto 34, or 2.15 per cent, of all the districts in the State. In other \nwords, all but 34 districts maintained at least a six months\' school. \n\nSuperintendent Bolander condemned \' \' text-books " in unmeas- \nured terms, spelling-books in particular. He says: \n\nIn short, the board, and through it the State, must furnish \neach teacher with a Manual of Instruction. By this means we can \ndispense with several text-books, and reduce the bulk of the remain- \ning text-books by rigidly excluding therefrom everything which \nappertains exclusively to the teacher\'s office. A text-book should \nbe, what its name implies, a " book of texts." " The sermons are to \nbe preached by the teacher \xe2\x80\x94 the book is to furnish the texts which \nare to be analyzed, developed, unfolded, explained, enlarged upon \nby the teacher \xe2\x80\x94 texts which need an exegesis to make them under- \nstood." \n\nThe Manual of Instruction will furthermore point out to teachers \nthe covirse of culture and technical training needed by them to \nqualify themselves for their work; in other words, it will prepare \nteachers for their work. Being no longer able to rely upon the \ntext-book, teachers will be compelled to assimilate some method of \nteaching, and, in time, will then become real teachers, instead of \nmere school keeioers. \n\nTRAINED TEACHERS. \n\nFor the purpose of securing professional teachers lie recom- \nmended the following plan : \n\n1. That in our State University be established a school or faculty \nof education with a four years course of stud}^; all students com- \npleting and passing a satisfactory examination in the first year\'s \ncourse, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any pri- \nmary or third grade school in the State; all students completing \nand passing a satisfactory examination in the second year\'s course, \nto obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any school in the \nState not above the intermediate or second grade; all students com- \npleting and passing a satisfactory examination in the third year\'s \ncourse, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any school \nnot above the grammar or first grade, and to be eligible to the \noffice of City or County School Superintendent; all students com- \npleting and passing a satisfactory examination in the four years \ncourse, to obtain a life diploma entitling them to teach in any school \nof the State, including high schools, normal and training schools, \nand the Educational College of the University, and making them \nfurthermore eligible to the office of State Superintendent and in- \nstructors of normal institutes. \n\n\n\n68 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n2. That the course of study of the State Normal School be con- \nformed to the one just sketched. \n\n3. That any high school or college, i:)rivate or public, be author- \nized to establish a normal school department, with a partial or full \ncourse of study as prescribed for the Educational College of the \nUniversity, provided that such department be taught only by \ngraduates of the four years\' course; that the course be the same as \nprovided for the State Normal School, and that the students be ex- \namined and certificated only by the faculties of the State Normal \nSchool and University. If such department be connected with a \npublic institution, tuition to be free. \n\n4. That any City Board of Education, or County Board of Super- \nvisors, be authorized to establish city or county normal schools, \nteaching partially, or in full, the course above mentioned, but their \nstudents to be examined and certificated only by the faculties of the \nState Normal School and University. \n\nHis plan for the establishment of Normal Institutes was as \nfollows : \n\n1. The present Teachers\' Institutes and Boards of ]Uxamination \nare replaced by Normal Institutes! \n\n2. Normal institutes are to be held annually in such places as \nmay be determined upon, either by statute or by authority con- \nferred upon the State Superintendent or other officer or board. \n\n3. Every normal institute must be continued in session for not \nless than four weeks. It must be under the direction of a teacher \nwho is known or proved to be a thorough normal school instructor; \nsuch teacher to be aj^pointed by the State Superintendent, or other \nofficer or board, as ma}^ be deemed best. Each of the teachers en- \ngaged in the State Normal School or the Educational College of the \nUniversity, must conduct annually at least one normal institute. \n\n4. Every applicant for a teacher\'s certificate must be present at \nthe beginning of a normal institute; his admission as a member of \nthe institute must be upon an examination like that required of \napplicants for admission into the State Normal School; he must \nattend the institute at least one full term; and must pass, at the \nend of the term, a satisfactory examination in thfe instruction given \nduring the institute. \n\n5. The expenses of the institute are to be paid direct by the \nState, or from the unapportioned County School Funds of the \ncounties comprising the district in which the institute is held. \n\nI have thus given the merest sketch of a system of normal insti- \ntutes which can easily and profitably be introduced into this State. \nFrom this sketch an appropriate system can readily be elaborated; \nbut as so much depends upon the temper and view of the Legisla- \nture, and its Committees on Education, it is preferable to leave \nsuch elaboration till the time when such committees can act upon \nthe matter. \n\nHe quoted extensively from various Avriters on "School \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 69 \n\nHygiene," ou " Teclmical Education" and " Kindergartens," \nand concluded as follows : \n\nI now retire from an office which I entered with a great deal of \nhesitancy and many forebodings. I brought to it many firm con- \nvictions, the growth of a decade spent in the schoolroom; and \naccording to these convictions have I labored to perfect our system \nof education; and I feel that I need not fear the verdict of the \nfuture. I have at least succeeded in equalizing somewhat the edu- \ncational facilities enjoyed by the districts of the State, and in \nrationalizing, in some measure, the system of instruction, and \nbringing it somewhat more in harmony with the "new education." \n\nThe appendix contained a manual of suggestions for teaching \nthe State course of study, including an exposition of the \n"Grube system " of teaching arithmetic to beginners, and a full \ncourse of elementary lessons in local geography, and botany. \nIt contained also an explanation of the "Kindergarten," an \nessay on "The Nervous System as affected by School Life," by \nDr. D. r. Lincoln, of Boston; a report of the State Board of \nExamination, of the State Normal School, of the Listitution for \nthe Deaf and Dumb and Blind, and the rex^ort of the Eegents \nof the University. \n\n40. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1876. \n\nThe first school legislation during the first week of the session, \nwas a bill taking from the State Board of Education the power \nof changing text-books, it being evident that a majority of the \nboard were in favor of throwing out McGuffey\'s series of Eead- \ners, and Monteitli\'s series of Geographies. \n\nMr. Carpenter, Speaker of the Assembly, introduced a bill \nproviding for a State Board of Education, consisting of the \nGovernor, State Superintendent and eight elective members, two \nfrom each congressional district; the board so elected to assume \nthe powers of the State Board of Education, the Board of \nEegents of the University, and the Trustees of the State Normal \nSchool. The bill also provided for abolishing State uniformity \nof text-books, and for giving boards of education and school \ntrustees the power of local adoption. This bill passed the \nAssembly, but Avas defeated in the Senate. \n\nMr. Hopkins introduced a bill providing for "county uniform- \nity " in text-books, which passed both Houses but was pocketed \nby the Governor. \n\n\n\n70 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nThe section relating to county certificates was amended so as \nto authorize county boards to issue second and third grade cer- \ntificates, on an examination in only the following studies: Arith- \nmetic, Grammar, Geography, History, Reading, Writing, \nSi)elling and Methods of Teaching. \n\n\n\n41. LIST OF STATE SUPERINTENDENTS. \n\nJohn G. Marvin 1851-1854. \n\nPaul K. Hubbs .1854-1857. \n\nAndrew J. Moulder 1857-1863. \n\nJohn Swett 1863-1868. \n\nEev. O. P. Fitzgerald 1868-1872. \n\nHenry N. Bolander 1872-1876. \n\nEzra S. Carr 1876-1880. \n\nDEPUTY SUPERINTENDENTS. ^ \n\nJ. H. Eickhoff. 1872-1876. \n\nMrs. E. S. Carr 1876-1880. \n\nSUPERINTENDENTS AND POLITICS. \n\nJohn G. Marvin and Paul K. Hubbs were elected by the \nDemocrats. \n\nSuperintendent Moulder was twice elected on the Democratic \nticket. He declined a nomination by the " Breckenridge " wing \nof the Democracy in 1862. * \n\nIn the election of 1862 there were three tickets in the field, \nand the State Superintendent happened to be the only State \nofficer to be elected. The opposing nominees were Col. Jona- \nthan D. Stevenson, by the "Douglas Democrats;" Rev.O. P. Fitz- \ngerald, by the "Breckenridge Democrats;" John Swett, on the \n"Union Ticket." The vote stood as follows: Swett, 51,238; \nStevenson, 21,514; Fitzgerald, 15,514. \n\nSuperintendent Swett was re-elected on the Republican \nticket in 1863 by about 20,000 majority over Dr. O. M. Wozen- \ncraft, the Democratic nominee, and was renominated in 1867. \nThe canvass was a bitter one on both sides. Rev. O. P. Fitz- \ngerald, the Democratic nominee, was elected by a majority of \n1401. \n\nSuperintendent Fitzgerald was renominated in 1871, his op- \nponent being Henry N. Bolander, nominated by the Repub- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 71 \n\nlicans. The canvass was quite an exciting one, and resulted in \nthe election of Bolander by 10,000 majority. \n\nIn 1875 the opposing candidates were Eev. O. P. Fitzgerald, \nDemocratic nominee, and Dr. Ezra S. Carr, Republican candi- \ndate. This was also an abusive canvass. Dr. Carr wtis elected \nby a majority of 7000. \n\nIt was expected that the office of State Superintendent would \nbe "taken out of politics" by providing for the election at the \nspecial judicial election, but this measure only intensified the \nevil. \n\n\n\nSPECIAL HISTORY OF SAN FRANCISCO. \n\n\n\nI. SCHOOL REPORTS. \n\nThe first school reports published in pamphlet form by the \nBoard were those of Superintendent O\'Grady, 1854 and 1855. \nThe Superintendent reported the\' average number of pupils to \na teacher to be 87; that a uniform series of text-books had been \nadopted ; and that a Teachers\' Association had been formed. \n\nSuperintendent Theller in 1856 reported the following statis- \ntics : \n\nTeachers, 39; Pupils, 3347. \n\nDistrict No. 1, Mr. Swett, Principal C83 \n\nDistrict No. 2, Mr. Denmau, Principal 580 \n\nDistrict No. 3, Mr. ElHs Holmes, Principal G35 . \n\nDistrict No. 4, Mr. Ahira Holmes, Principal .... 733 \n\nDistrict No. 5, Mr. Carlton, Principal 374 \n\nDistrict No. 6, Mr. Morrill, Principal 200 \n\nDistrict No. 7, Mr. Macy, Principal 142 \n\n3347 \n\nIn the Ward Schools there were educated 1421 pupils. The \nMale Dej^artments of the "Ward Schools were taught by male and \nfemale instructors, and the Female Department by the ladies of the \ndifferent religious orders of the city, known as Sisters of Charity, \nSisters of Mercy, and Sisters of the Presentation \xe2\x80\x94 all of whom had \ncertificates of . capability, and were licensed to teach by the late \n\n\n\n72 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nCounty Commissioners of Education, and drew their salaries from \nthe city, county and State educational fund. \n\nThe school law of 1855 abolished the separation of the school \nfund, and all these schools have been mingled into one uniform \nsystem. Since the 5th of May last there has been no religious, sec- \ntarian or denominational doctrine taught in them. \n\nHe reported the discipline good, and the instruction satis- \nfactory. \n\nIn fusing the "Ward Schools" with the public schools, the \nfollowing additional teachers were elected : \n\nPrincipal of District No. 4, Wm. Hammill, vice Aliira Holmes; \nPrincipal of District No, 5, Mr. T. S. Dunne, vice Mr. Carlton; \nDistrict No. 7, Mr. T. C. Leonard, vice Mr. Macy; New School, \nThomas S. Myrick; District No. 8, Mr. H. P. Carlton. \n\nBy the Consolidation Act, Mr. Pelton, who had been previ- \nously elected as County Superintendent, was made, ex officio, \nCity and County Superintendent for one year. \n\nHis rejjort contained the first full statistical tables of the \nschools. He recommended the establishment of evening schools; \nof a Teachers\' Institute ; the study of History of the United \nStates; and published the "Course of Study." \n\nThe reports of Superintendent Janes for 1857 and 1858 M^ere \nstill more complete. \n\nHe reported the weekly Normal School a success, teachers \nbeing compelled to attend ; recommended the establishment of \nmore evening classes, and treated at length of discipline and \nmethods; gave a short historical sketch of the early schools; \ntreated of methods of teaching; complimented his predecessors \nin office; opposed May festivals; and reported favorably on the \nCity Normal School, Mr. George W. Minns, Principal; Messrs. \nMyrick and Swett, assistants. \n\nSuperintendent Denman\'s report, 1861, was longer than any \npreceding report. \xe2\x99\xa6 \n\nHe summed up the improvements in 1860 as follows: \n\n1. Better Classification. \n\n2. The grading into Grammar and Primary Schools. \n\n3. Better accommodations and new buildings. \n\n4. New furniture. \n\n5. School Eegisters furnished by the Board. \n\n6. Monthly Eeports of pupils. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPOKTS. 73 \n\nThe questions used in the examination for admission to the \nHigh School were given in this report. \n\nSUPERINTENDENT TAIt\'s REPORTS. \n\nThe four reports of Superintendent Tait, 1862, \'63, \'64, and \n\'65, were all creditable documents. In his first report, 1862, \nMr, Tait reported a list of graduates of the Minus Evening \nNormal School \xe2\x80\x94 16 for 1861, and 38 for 1862. He recom- \nmended that promotions in the primary grades be made semi- \nannually; that Principals be required to make monthly reports \nto the board of attendance, etc.; and that no person under 18 \nyears of age should be eligible to teach. \n\nIn his last report, 1865, he advocated the reading of the \nBible in school. \n\nSuperintendent Pelton\'s report for 1867, recommended an \nincrease of salaries; a simplification of the course of study, \nand the appointment of a Deputy Superintendent. \n\ncosmopolitan schools. \n\nConcerning the school, Mr. Pelton said: \n\nThese schools of recent establishment are designed to afford the \nfacihties for acquiring the modern languages \xe2\x80\x94 German, French, \nand Spanish \xe2\x80\x94 in connection with the ordinary English course. As \nelsewhere stated, it has been conceived that the object of our Pub- \nlic School s,Ystem, its true policy and leading idea, is to meet all \nreasonable educational demands. A few j\'ears since a great num- \nber of our citizens, native as well as foreign, were compelled to \npatronize private institutions, with their less perfect classification, \nand less thorough instruction, for the sake of the modern lan- \nguages, which by the more observing and thoughtful of our people \nare considered of greater importance in the ordinary vocations and \npositions of society than much, very much else included in the \nEnglish course, especially in our advanced High School course. \nAnd there were many of our best citizens who were unable to meet \nthe expense of private tuition for their children; and yet they were \nunwilliug to permit their sons and daughters to grow up to ma- \nturity, and remain forever ignorant of their mother tongue. \n\nSome t^|o years since, to meet this public demand, I recom- \nmended the establishment of a single class, now grown to be the \nCosmopolitan Schools of this city. This system, though by no means \nunique, and confined to this cit}\', is here perhaps better organized, \nand on a more liberal and comprehensive basis, than elsewhere. \nThe plan is European; Germany has multitudes of schools where \nthe French and English are recognized as we recognize the Ger- \nman, French, and Spanish. There are many such schools in the \nEastern States. \n\nThis system, though at first opposed here, as it had been else- \nwhere when first proposed and adoj^ted, and before its merits and \n6 \n\n\n\n74 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\npracticability had been tested, is now exceedingly popular in the \ncommnnity, and enjoys a very intelligent and excellent patronage. \nMost of its former opponents are now its advocates \xe2\x80\x94 some its \nwarmest sujDporters. These schools now can stand upon their own \nrecognized and admitted merits. I predict that they will more \nthan justify all that has been claimed in their behalf. \n\nSUPERINTENDENT "WIDBER\'s REPORTS. \n\nThe three reports of Mr. Widber, 1871, \'72, \'73, were models \nof brevity, containing little except finance and statistics. Deputy \nSuperintendent Swett in his reports made an exhibit of the re- \nsults of the cramming system as shown by the written examin- \nations; argued against state uniformity of textbooks; advocated \na higher rate of salaries for principals of Grammar Schools; \nand recommended the adoption of the Gruhe system of teaching \nArithmetic to beginners. \n\nMR. DENMAN\'s REPORTS. \n\nThe last reports of Superintendent Denman, 1874 and 1875, \nwere the longest of the city reports. The report of 1874 treated \nat length of the new course of study. \n\nThe last report of Superintendent Denman, 1875, recom- \nmended the establishment of a city !Normal School, and treated \nat length of the course of study. It also contained a valuable \nhistorical sketch of schools and teachers. \n\nThe report of Deputy Superintendent Leggett recommended \nthe abolishing of annual Avritten examinations for promo- \ntion; favored the appointment of a Board of Inspectors and \na city Normal School; criticized the methods of teaching modern \nlanguages in the Cosmopolitan Schools, and recommended a \ncutting down of the course of study in the higher grades. The \nexamination questions, in language prepared by Mr. Leggett, \nwere particularly good. \n\nThe report of Deputy Superintendent Leggett, on exam- \ninations and methods of teaching, was a valuable one J* The fol- \nlowing extracts illustrate its style : \n\nTHE ANNUAL WRITTEN EXAMINATION. \n\nIt is curious to observe how hard it is to break the chain in which \nlong habit binds human societj^, or to get out of the groove of cus- \ntom. During certain stages of a people\'s progress no doubt this \nprinciple of aversion to change is useful and necessary; but there is \nalso a time (whether we have yet reached it or not) when every \npractice or custom must make good its claim to future existence or \ncease to be. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 75 \n\nWhy should we have annual examinations at all ? The question \nstartles most eai\'s, and why? Because we have always had them at \nthe close of the school year. The habit of holding them has become \nvenerable from antiquity, and I know I shall 15e accused of sacri- \nlegious interference with a time-honored custom in proposing to do \naway with them. If we ask, why should the annual examinations be \nkejDt up, we have forreplj^: Because we have always had them. \n\nIf we ask, why should they be abolished, we have for replies: \n\nFirst. Because they are not needed. \n\nSecond. Because they are expensive, costing the department at \nleast $20,000 a year. \n\nThird. Because they render useless the school work of the last \nschool month of every year, and foster cramming and overwork \nduring that time. \n\nFourth. Because they tend to produce excitement and lead to \nover-exertion on the part of pupils at a time when they are wearied \nby the work of the whole year. \n\nFifth. Because if they were abolished, many teachers who, under \nthe present sj\'stem cannot be induced to abandon the practice of \ncramming for the examination, because they are, as they believe, to \nbe judged by the results of it, could be induced to do some teach- \ning in their classes. \n\nIf I am asked how pupils could be promoted without these exam- \ninations, I answer. Promote them at any time of the year when their \nproficiency and the classification of the school would permit. How ? \nI believe it would be best to do it on examination duly made by \nthoroughl}^ qualified inspectors, such as I recommended the ap- \npointment of in my last annual report. But if we are not ready for \nthat, then on the examination of the teacher, the principal and the \nsuperintendent or his deputy. There is no one season of the year, \nso far as my observation goes, at which the minds of children ripen \nor mature \xe2\x80\x94 no particular month out of the twelve in which they \nbecome fully ripe and fit for the harvest. I believe the monstrous \nattempt to put children of widely varying physical and mental \npowers through the same mill in the same time, has worked infinite \nand irreparable mischief to many minds. \n\nTHE TEACHERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. \n\nThe School Department employs more than five hundred teachers \nat the present time. Most of them are ladies and gentlemen well \nqualified for the positions which they hold. They are zealous and \nenthusiastic in their work. They are willing and anxious to do all \nin their power to further the best interests of the children committed \nto their care. If they fail to do all that we could wish them to do, \nit is not because of any lack of desire to do so. It is disheartening \nto any such body of men and women to be treated with distrust by \nthose who employ them, and I trust that the new Board of Educa- \ntion will extend to the teachers of our schools all the kind consider- \nation, sympathy and aid that it is in their power to do. Young- \nteachers in this city have very meagre opportunities for improvement \nin the art of teaching. We have no Normal School. We have no \nteachers\' institute, or associations. During the period of my con- \n\n\n\n76 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nnection with the clei:)artinent there has not been a single lecture on \nthe science of education, or the art of teaching, delivered to the \nteachers of this city and county. If, therefore, some of our teachers \nare behind the times, if the ardor of others has slackened, if the \nprofessional pride of all has declined a little, is it much to be \nwondered at? I believe a revival of educational interest is needed in \nour city, and if the Board of Education can do something to bring- \nabout so desirable a result, they will by so doing- reflect credit on \nthemselves, and confer a benefit upon the schools under their \ncharge. \n\nA CITY NORMAL SCHOOL. \n\nIn my last annual report I tried to call the attention of the Board of \nEducation to the necessity of having a Normal School established for \nthe training of teachers. Up to the present time, however, members of \nthe board have been unable to see the matter in the same light that \nI do, I think it is a disgrace to our city that we have no school \nwithin her limits for preparing j\'oung men and women, who wish to \ndevote themselves to the profession of teaching, for their work. I \nventure to say that there is not on the American continent to-day, a \ncity of 250,000 inhabitants where some sort of a Normal School has \nnot been established. I know that as we are now situated every \ndollar expended for the support of a really good Normal School \nwould repay the city tenfold in the greater efficiency of the teachers \nwho would be trained in it. Every person who has a particle of \neducational sense, must see that for lack of Normal School instruc- \ntion the dejDartment is losing every year ten times as much as it \nwould cost to sustain a good Normal School in our city. \n\nThe State Normal School at San Jose is, under its present able \nmanagement, doing a noble work for the cause of education in Cal- \nifornia. But we need a school of our own in this city for the special \ntraining of teachers for our graded schools. I do not think that the \nNormal School ought to be conducted in the High School, nor \ntaught in connection therewith. I think it Avould be better to have \nit in some school in which all the grades are taught. In that case \nthe teacher of the Normal Class could take the teachers in training \ninto the classes of the different grades and there show them how to \nteach practically, by taking charge of the class himself and showing \nhis pupils how to apply the best methods of instruction. If candi- \ndates for the jjositions of teachers in the public schools were well \ntrained in such a school, we should have much more teaching and \nmuch less experimenting done in a large number of our classes. \n\nTOO MANY PUPILS ASSIGNED TO A TEACHER. \n\nI have no reason to change or modify my views on this subject \nduring the past year. I would reiterate my oiiinion, as expressed \nin my last report, that not more than forty grammar j^upils, nor \nmore than fifty primary pupils, ought to be assigned to any one \nteacher. \n\n\n\n111 i: -J \n\n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 77 \n\n\n\n2. MISCELLANEOUS HISTORICAL ITEMS. \n\n1. Buildings. \xe2\x80\x94 The schools were held iu rented rooms up to \n1854, when a building on the corner of Bush and Stockton streets \nwas erected for the Deuman School; a large brick building for \nthe Union Street School; and a spacious house at North Beach \nfor the Powell Street Scbool. This last building was soon after- \nward turned into a Cit}^ Hospital, because it could not be filled \nwith pupils. \n\nThe first schoolhouses were arranged on the New York City \ni:)lan of large session-rooms and small recitation-rooms. Since \n1857, the buildings have been arranged on the Boston plan \xe2\x80\x94 a \nsejjarate room for each class of 50 pupils. \n\n2. Grading. \xe2\x80\x94 The schools were originally classified into Pri- \nmary, Intermediate, and Grammar Departments, but were not \nregularly graded on the present plan until late in 1857. \n\nThe first printed "course of stndy"was adopted June 10, \n1857, Mr. Pelton, Superintendent, and William Sherman, Pres- \nident of the Board. The High School was organized in 1856, \nmainly through the efforts of William Sherman, the President \nof the Board. \n\n3. Salaries. \xe2\x80\x94 The salary paid Principals in 1852 and 1853 was \n$150 a month, exclusive of vacations; that is, $1500 a year. In \n1854, the salary was increased to $2000 a year; but this was \npaid in city scrip, worth from 60 to 70 cents on the dollar. \nTrom 1854 to 1872, the salaries varied from 11900 to $2100, but \nin 1873 were raised to $2400. \n\nThe salaries of the High School Principals varied from $2300 \nto $2500 and $3000, until 1874, when the salary of the Principal \nof the Bo3\'s\' High School was made $4000. \n\n4. Certificates. \xe2\x80\x94 Until 1863, teachers were annually examined, \nto test their "fitness to teach a common school one year,\'\'\'\' and the \npioneer teachers, such as Denman, the Holmeses, Swett, Pelton, \nand others, were passed through the "examination-mill" a dozen \ntimes. The system afforded a fine opportunity for petty officials \nto browbeat schoolmasters and schoolma\'ams. \n\n5. Annual Elections. \xe2\x80\x94 From 1850 to 1870, at the end of each \nyear, all positions were declared vacant, and there was a general \nscramble for a "new deal." Occasionally there was the war- \ncry: " To the victors belong the spoils." \n\n\n\n78 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nIf a "Director" had a spite against some mifoitimate peda- \ngogue, vengeance descended when the Board went into star- \nchamber sessions for the "Annual Election of Teachers." \n\nThe doors of the star-chamber were besieged until midnight \nby anxious teachers, waiting to know their fate. \n\nThis senseless annual insult to a whole body of teachers \noriginated in the New England District Schools, when they were \nkept but a part of the year, and when, of course, a new teacher \nhad to be elected annually. Strange as it may seem, it has \nbeen handed down from father to son as a precious heirloom, \nand is still the law of nearly every city, town, and district in the \nUnited States, \xe2\x80\x94 San Francisco excepted, \n\nA NEW DEPARTURE. \n\nIn 1870, the Board, H. A, Cobb, President, decided to abol- \nish annual elections, and elect teachers "during good behavior." \nThis measure was vigorously supported by most of the city \npress, but was as vigorously opposed by the Superintendent \nand a minority of the Board, who tenaciously "held on to the \ngood old way." \n\n6. Examinations of Schools. \xe2\x80\x94 Up to 1862, the pupils in Gram- \nmar and Primary Schools were promoted by the principals and \nteachers on the records of the scholars\' work during the year. \nPublic examinations were conducted orally at the end of the \nyear. \n\nIn 1863, the promotion by means of written examinations and \npercentages was introduced as a system. The result was, that \nin a few years, the main efforts of teachers were directed to \ncramming for examination. Pupils were made writing-machines. \nIn 1874 and 1875, even the lowest grade primary classes were \nexamined in writing. The evil culminated in a reaction, and in \n1876 a committee of principals, with Superintendent Bolauder, \nrequested the Committee of Classification, Mr. Tait, Chairman, \nto abolish the cast-iron system, and allow principals to classify \ntheir schools. The permission asked for was granted, and it is \nto be hoped the cramming system will never be restored. \n\n7. Secular Schools. \xe2\x80\x94 From 1851 to 1854, it was customary in \nmany schools to open the exercises with praj^er and the reading \nof a passage from the Bible by the teacher. This was authorized \nby one of the earliest school regulations. The question formed \na bone of contention for several years, but by common consent \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPORTS. 79 \n\nmost of the teachers, after 1856, discontinued the reading of the \nBible and prayer. The tendency of public opinion was toward \npurely secular schools. In his State Eeports, Superintendent \nSwett advocated purely secular schools. \n\nIn 1874, for the first time, an official resolution in favor of \npurely secular education appears on record. The President of \nthe Board, Andrew McF. Davis, ruled that the repeating of the \nLord\'s Prayer was sectarian, and in violation of the school law. \nThis decision was sustained by the Board. Public opinion, in \nmost parts of the State, is in accordance with this decision. \n\n-8. Politics and Schools. \xe2\x80\x94 Though nominated and elected by \npolitical parties, the Boards of Education have not been, in \ngeneral, marked by partisan action. From 1856 to 1867, a ma- \njority of the members of each Board was elected on the "Peo- \nple\'s Party Ticket." From 1868 to 1876, there has been a \npreponderance of members elected on the Democratic Ticket. \nSuperintendent Theller was elected on the Democratic Ticket; \nMr. Peltou was twice, and Superintendent Denman three times \nelected by the Democratic party. All the other Superintendents \nwere elected on the "People\'s Party" or the Kepublican \nTicket. Under the "Know-Nothing" regime, in 1855, a few \nteachers were removed on account of "accent." During the \nwar, two or three "secession" teachers were dropped; but, in \ngeneral, while both political and religious influences have, to \nsome extent, influenced the election of teachers, very few have \nbeen proscribed on account of either politics or religion. Prot- \nestants, Catholics, Israelites, Democrats and Republicans, work \nharmoniously together in teaching children of all shades of \nreligious belief and political opinion. \n\n9. Music and Draiving. \xe2\x80\x94 From the beginning, music and \ndrawing, to the extent of a smattering, were taught in the \nschools. In 1859, Hubert Burgess was appointed special \nteacher of drawing, and Mr. F. K. Mitchell, teacher of music. \nIn 1868, Washington Elliott succeeded Mr. Mitchell as music \nteacher. In 1871, Masons Music Headers and Charts were \nadopted, with a specific course in the Manual. Heal instruc- \ntion in vocal music dates from this period. In 1874, Smith\'s \nSystem of Drawing was introduced, making the beginning of \nsystematic instruction in this branch. \n\n10. Changes in Text-Books. \xe2\x80\x94 The changes in text-books, from \n\n\n\n80 \n\n\n\nSCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n\n\n1851 to 1876, twenty-five years, may be briefly summed up as \nfollows: \n\nHeaders: Swan\'s, Towne\'s, Sargent\'s, Willson\'s, McGuffey\'s. \nAverage time of use, five years. \n\nArithmetics: Thompson\'s, Colburn\'s, Kobinson\'s; the last from \n1865 to 1876. Average time of use, eight years. \n\nGrammars: Tower\'s, Weld\'s, Greene\'s, Kerl\'s, Brown\'s. Av- \nerage time, five years. \n\nGeographies: Mitchell\'s, Cornell\'s, Guyot\'s, Clarke\'s, Mon- \nteith\'s. Average time, five years. \n\nSpellers: Towne\'s, Sargent\'s, Willson\'s. \n\nUnited States History: Parley\'s, Goodrich\'s, Lossing\'s, Ander- \nson\'s, Swinton\'s. Average time, five years. \n\n11. Co-Education. \xe2\x80\x94 Up to 1864, the boj\'s and girls were edu- \ncated together. When the Denman Grammar School buildiiig \nwas completed, only girls Avere admitted; the Lincoln was made \na boys\' school, and the Rincon a girls\' school. In 1868 the \nUnion and the Washington were made boys\' schools, and the \nBroadway a girls\' school. The Boys\' High and the Girls\' High \nwere formed from the Boys\' and Girls\' High School in 1864. \nWith these exceptions all the other schools have always been \nattended by both sexes. \n\n12. Teachers\' Associcdions and Evening Normal Schools. \xe2\x80\x94 In \n1853 the Principals formed a monthly association for the discus- \nsion of school questions. This continued until 1857, when a \nweekly Normal School was established by the Board of Educa- \ntion. Attendance was made compulsory. The school was held \nat first on Saturdays; afterwards, on Monday eveniugs, George \nW. Minns, John Swett, Ellis H. Holmes, and Thomas S. My- \nrick, were elected teachers. This school continued until 1862. \nThe following is a list of the graduates of what is known as \nthe "Minns Evening Normal School:" \n\n\n\nMiss Ellen Casey, \n" M. A. Casebolt, \n" Alice Baker, \n" L. E. Fifld, \n" Eliza Hawkhiirst, \n" Kate Keunedy, \n\n\n\nGeacuates of 1861. \n\nMiss Lizzie Kennedy, \n" A. B. Kimball, \n" M. A. Wills, \n" C. L. Hunt, \n" D. S. Piescott, \n" M, L. Tracy, \n\n\n\nMiss M. D. Lynde, \n" Hannah Marks, \n" Beatrice Weed, \n\nMrs. A. E. Du Bois. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. \n\n\n\n81 \n\n\n\nMiss A. S. Barnard, \n\n" C. V. Benjamin, \n\n" Anna Child, \n\n" C. A. Coffin, \n\n" L. H. Crool^er, \n\n" H. B. Cnshing, \n\n" E. P. Fern aid, \n\n" E. S. Griffin, \n\n" H. A. Haneke, \n\n" H. H. Heagan, \n\n" Anna Hill, \n\n" M. A. Humphreys, \n\n" L. A. Humphreys, \n\n\n\nGeaduatks of 1862. \n\nMiss Lizzie Macy, \n\n" W. L. Morgan, \n\n" A. S. Moses, \n\n" H. E. Porter, \n\n" Geraldine Price, \n\n" M. E. Scotchler, \n\n" A. A. Eowe, \n\n" E. P. Shaw, \n\n" M. E.Stowell, \n\n" P. M. Stowell, \n\n" Helen Thomjison, \n\n" E. M. Tiebout, \n\n" M. E. Warren, \n\n\n\nMiss \n\n\n\nMrs. \n\n\n\nM. C. White, \n\nS. J. White, \n\nL. A . Humphrey\'s, \n\nS. M. Hunt, \n\nAnnie Lawrence, \n\nE. C. Burt, \n\nE. S. Forrester, \n\nL. A. Morgan, \n\nM. S. P. Nichols, \n\nH. E. Packer, \n\nC. H. Stout, \n\nS. A. D. Lansingh. \n\n\n\nThe "Minns Normal Scbool " was succeeded for several years \nbj monthly meetings of teachers under the direction of the \nBoard of Education, but these died out in 1869. \n\nIn 1872 the Board established another Evening Normal \nSchool, which was continued two years, Avith the following \ncorps of teachers: Principal, John Swett; Assistants, Joseph \nLeggett, Mrs. Mary W. Kincaid, and Theodore Bradley, \nSince 1873 there have been no teachers\' meetings, associations, \nor normal schools. \n\n13. Educational Hobbies. \xe2\x80\x94 In early times Colhurns Blental \nArithiietic was a favorite hobby, and for many jears afterward \narithmetic was the leading branch of study to which more than \nhalf the school-time of pupils was devoted. In some cases, four \nhours out of the five were devoted to the favorite hobby of the old- \ntime schoolmaster. Of late years, about one-fourth of the time \nis given to this study. \n\nThe epidemic of self-reporting j)revailed from 1859 to 1862. \n" Map drawing " was fashionable from 1860 to 1871. \n\nIn 1868-70 education consisted mainl}^ of " oral instruction." \n\nIn early times "exhibitions," "May festivals," and "danc- \ning parties" were in fashion. " Calisthenics and gymnastics " \nprevailed from 1856 to 1860. \n\n" Written Examinations " and "Percentages" were the rage \nfrom 1863 to 1875; they went out of style during the Centennial \nyear. \n\n"Phonography," in the higher grammar grades, was the \nhobby of 1872 and 1873, but was ridden to death in 1874. \n\n" Mark\'s Geometry," for the 3d and 4th grammar grades, was \nthe experiment in 1869 and 1870; it failed in 1871. \n\n" Cosmopolitan Schools" became the rage in 1872 and 1873; \n\n\n\n82 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nthere was a reaction in 1874, v/hen French and German were \nabolished during a revolutionary period of four months. The \n"restoration" soon followed by act of the Legislature. \n\nThe twin hobbies, with Boards of Education from 1854 to \n1864, were the annual examination of teachers and the an- \nnual elections. Indeed, " annual elections," like bull fights, \nwere in vogue until 1870. " Investigations " raged in 1872 and \n1873, while the favorite hobby of the Board of 1874 and 1875 \nwas "rules and regulations." \n\n14. lleriis and Defects. \xe2\x80\x94 The marked merits of the city schools \nare: \n\n1. Convenient buildings. \n\n2. Good discipline. \n\n3. In general, hard-working teachers. \n\n4. Good instruction in Music and Drawing. \n\n5. The purely secular character of the schools. \nThe marked defects are : \n\n1. Too many pupils per teacher. \n\n2. Too rigid classification. \n\n3. Too much cramming of text-books. \n\n4. Too many lessons for home study. \n\n5. A complicated system of daily recitation records and \n\nmonthly reports. \n\n6. A lack of professionally trained teachers. \n\n7. The lack of a City Normal School. \n\n8. A lack of thorough inspection. \n\n9. Short terms of office of Superintendent and School \n\nDirectors. \n\n15. Address of President Davis. \xe2\x80\x94 The address of the President \nof the Board, Andrew McF. Davis, Nov. 14, 1875, sets forth in \ndetail some of the marked features of the city system. The \nfollowing are extracts : \n\nIt is fitting and proper that I should avail myself of this oppor- \ntunity to say to this audience a few words concennug what this \nBoard, whose term of ofiice is so nearly closed, has done, and also \nrelative to the graded system upon which the schools of the Depart- \nment are organized. \n\nUnder the customs which at present prevail, no report is made \nby the Board to the peojDle. The only published report concerning \nthe affairs of the Department which reaches the public is the report \nof the Superintendent. That ofiicer being elected directly by the \npeoi^le, and being only in a measure responsible to the Board, and \nno report being submitted in published form by the Board, or its \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 83 \n\nCommittees, I shall offer no apology for taking advantage of this \noccasion to say a few words which, under a different organization of \naffairs, I should have preferred to present elsewhere. * * \n\nThe objects and purposes of this school, as originally organized, \nwere substantially what they are to-day. The means at hand to \nreach these objects and effect these purposes have largely increased, \nand the school to-day has before it an enlarged field of usefulness, \nthe circle of which not only expands with the increase of the popu- \nlation of the State and City, but the cultivation of which is vastly \naided by the generous sympathies of the public. \n\nThe necessity of the school is to supplement the graded system \nof teaching which jorevails in the lower divisions of the Department. \nTo accomplish this, the course of study in the school itself must be \nelastic enough to aid and encourage in their labors: \n\nI. Those who have successfully passed through the Grammar \ngrades and wish to pursue a higher course of study, whether scien- \ntific, literar3% or classical. \n\nII. Those who have passed through the Grammar grades success- \nfully, and wish to round oft\' their education in a shorter period ; to \ngather in and appropriate what they can, but who are especially de- \nsirous of pursuing with diligence for a short space of time certain \nscientific or mathemati(!al studies. \n\nIII. Those whose education has been acquired outside of our city \nschools, and whose percentages may show a decided falling off in \nsome of the studies, and an unusual prominence in others. \n\nAnd finally, those who, from some constitutional incapacity, are \nunable to pursue with success certain studies beyond fixed points, \nbut who are able to reach a certain grade, yet cannot get beyond it, \nif the inexorable law of percentages is rigidly applied. \n\nFor all of these, and perhaps for others, must a place be found \nin this school. \n\nBecause a young man, with a copious diction and a delicate \nliterary taste, can only achieve the jjons asiaorum by memorizing \nthe demonstration, shall we keep him lagging behind the army in \nits advance, or shall we tr}\' him now in this place, now in that, \nuntil we find the place where he can do the best work and where we \ncan work him to the best advantage ? \n\nBecause the graded system demands a certain percentage for pro- \nmotion, shall we keep a puj^il, year after 3\'ear, in the first grade of \nthe Grammar dej^artment, who from some mental deficiency is held \nback from promotion by absolute failure in some especial study? \nIs it not better to recognize this as one of the defects of a system, \nexcellent in some respects, which is to be supplemented as far as \nmay be by this school ? \n\nIn order to realize what the defects are that need to be supple- \nmented, it is essential to look at the organization of our schools and \nobserve of what different materials they are composed. "We see, \nside by side, the children of professional men, merchants and la- \nborers ; children whose every step is carefully watched, and those \nwhose normal condition is absolute freedom from restraint ; we see \nthe rude and the polished; black and white; rich and poor; all pat- \nronizing our schools. \n\n\n\n84 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nFor these children, reared under such different conditions, enjoy- \ning such varied advantages, disciplined to such different degrees of \nobedience, is provided a curriculum, rigid, inelastic, and uncon- \nscious of any difi\'erence in the characters, the surroundiugs, or the \nopportunities of the pujjils. \n\nAt the age of six years, says the law, you may send your child to \nthe public school, and, continues our course of stud}^ whatever his \ncondition of discipline may then be, he shall pursue the following \nstudies, such and such quantities to be given in stated periods and \nin definite ways. At the age of six, then, the pupils are launched \nupon the course of study. But how different are their opportuni- \nties! While at home, whether at meals or at play, the one child is \nunder the care of educated and refined parents, who maintain a con- \nstant supervising influence over their offspring; who do not neglect \ndiscipline in mistaken kindness, and who accomplish far more in \nthe process of leading forward the child than can be possible for \nany teacher in the lower grades. \n\nSide by side with his little playmate another has to struggle along \nthe path alone. His parents earn their bread by the sweat of their \nbrows. There is no time to waste on refinement or cultivation. \nHere the case is reversed. The teacher is all in all, and much more \nis accomplished at school than at home in the process of unfolding \nthe mental faculties and develojnng the intellectual growth. \n\nSuppose that these two children are of equal mental calibre, will \ntheir growth be the same under the graded system? If not, what \nprovision is there for such vast, such inevitable discrepancies? For, \nin this comparison, I have not drawn the strongest possible, nor \neven the strongest probable contrast. The law of " hereditaiy ten- \ndency" would assert, as i:)robable, that the child of professional or \nliterary parents would have stronger natural tastes for literary pur- \nsuits than the child of the laborer. So that the natural tendency \nwould be to make the contrast even more striking. \n\nHow in the Avorld can such grave obstacles to the adjustment of \nthe graded system be overcome ? How can any rigid system be \nmade to fit such a variety of minds, from the most brilliant to the \ni:)Ositively stupid? How can the same noiirishment, in quality and \nquantity, sustain the giant and the pigmy ? These questions seemed \nto me, when I entered up)on my duties as a School Director, inca- \npable of answer. \n\nI have found a partial explanation of the matter in this, that in \nmany schools the promotions are so made that the bright and for- \nward scholars do two years\' work in one \xe2\x80\x94 actually accomplishing \nthis work with ease. In other words, the course of study, as at \npresent arranged, being adapted as near as may be to the best in- \nterests of the average intellect under average conditions favorable \nfor its development, must necessarily fall below the capacit}^ of a \nlarge number of the scholars. To keep these busy, they must either \ndo two years\' work in one, which is accomplished by promotions at \nthe end of the first six months (making advance work of what is re- \nview to a portion of the grade), or some other means must be devised \nto keep their minds active during school hours. * * * \n\nThis forcing pupils over two years\' work in one, is the only source \nof relief from the rigid demands of the Manual which I have discov- \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPOETS. 85 \n\nered. It is not, of course, capable of extensive application, and the \ngenerally inelastic nature of the work in the lower departments re- \nmains to be supplemented, and as far as possible compensated for \nhere. We have sought to provide for this by furnishing various \nparallel branches of study in this school, and it is my hope that the \nchevaux de /rise of percentages which bristle upon every avenue of \napproach to this stronghold of learning may be to some extent re- \nmoved, and a more liberal view taken of what the school is for. It \nis true that not every horse can be trained to be a race horse; but \nit is none the less true that we like to see our coach horses well \ngroomed. \n\nThe question has been discussed in public, "What shall we do \nwith our boys?" Orators, lawyers and editors have addressed audi- \nences uj^on this topic. It interests all classes, and we, who are \nconnected with educational matters, are brought closely in contact \nwith it. \n\nLet those gentlemen who have propounded that question cast \ntheir eyes over this audience, and we will show them what we are \ndoing with our boys at this end of the line. But alas ! the fruit \nthat we see ripening here to-day is but a small percentage of that \nwhich was set in the j^rimary school, and they might still say this \ndoes not answCT our question. \n\nMay I be pardoned at this time, and in this connection, if I throw \nout a hint of what I believe will help to solve this question in the \nfuture. The subject is closely connected with what has gone be- \nfore, and perhaps these words may fall upon willing ears. \n\nI have alluded to the different planes upon which pupils of the \nsame age stand in the graded system, and the different results that \nmust follow from precisely the same instruction. Apart from all \nquestions of intellectual culture, the habits of discipline and obedi- \nence acquired by a child reared in a well-ordered family are probably \nof more value than any other development. The recej^tivity of a \nchild who has been taught to move, or to stop when spoken to, must \nbe far greater than that of one whose life has been spent in throwing \nstones at Chinamen, and building bonfires in the streets. \n\nThe generous ntiture of the climate here is such that the child of \na famil}\'^ too poor to maintain constant sujDervision over it, is turned \nadrift ujoon the streets to charge about, committing those minor \noffenses \xe2\x80\x94 promises, and almost certain forerunners of serious diffi- \nculty one of these days. \n\nExperience has established, and the law has defined, the proper \nminimum age for beginning our regular studies in the public schools \nto be six years, and we all know that practically this is young \nenough according to our present methods. \n\nBut modern German thought has develojoed a system of amusing \nchildren which at the same time prepares their minds for future \ntraining, and enables parents to avail themselves of the system while \ntheir children are still ver}^ young. \n\nIf it were possible to erect a few buildings around the city, in \nthose jDortions where the very young abound so thickly, and gather \nin the little children between the ages of three and six years, for five \nor six hours daily, during which time they should be amused and \ninterested; thus removing them from the dangers and temptations \n\n\n\n86 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\nof the streets; comforting their mothers with the knowledge of their \nsafety; teaching- them little or nothing except methods of thought; \nI say, if one, two or three such schools could be tried, something \ncould be done for the boy of twelve or fifteen years hence. From \nthe Kindergarten these boys would enter the Primary School upon \na par with the boys with whom I have heretofore placed them in \ncontrast; with habits of obedience and methods of thought already \nacquired. Truancy, that terror of principals, would be reduced, for \nschool by this sj^stem is a synonym for pleasure. The little fellows \nlook forward with delight to the hours to be spent there, and leave \nfor home with regret. The wild charms of a nomadic life, the com- \nforts of a night in a dry-goods box or a sugar hogshead \xe2\x80\x94 all these \ncan and would be dispelled by continuous kiudl}\' effort. The hold \nthat this wild, irresponsible sort of life has upon the unkempt \nnatures of these little fellows is almost incomprehensible, and the \nnecessity for capturing them while young \xe2\x80\x94 very young \xe2\x80\x94 and mold- \ning them to conform more nearly to some recognized social type, is \nevident to the reflective mind. Further, our knowledge of our pupils \nand their ways of life would begin earlier, and we should know \nbetter what it was essential to do to aid them in the rugged pathways \nof life. \n\nThese, then, are the lessons which my two years\' service in the \ndepartment have taught me: \n\nI. The great evil of our system is its inelasticity. \n\nII. The remedies which can be applied are: The Kindergarten at \none end of the course; judicious promotions of exceptionality bright \npupils during the course; and a liberal ojiening up of the opp)ortu- \nnities of the High School at the other end. \n\nI entertain the hope that the experiment of the Kindergarten or \nsome kindred school may be tried at an early date. Properly man- \naged it cannot fail. I urge it not so much for its direct educational \nresult (though the experiment elsewhere has proved a success) as \nfor the hold it will give upon the good-will and affections of these \nnomad children, whose lives are otherwise destined to be lost in the \nstreets. By this means they can be gathered in. They can be kept \nout of mischief and they can be taught, without knowing it, what \nobedience is. They can be jorej^ared for the primary work, and the \ntares of truancy can be weeded out of their desires. This work fairly \ninaugurated, the effects upon the inelastic graded system could not \nfail to be realized. \n\nAs to the work in the High Schools, I feel sure that all here will \ngive the present Board of Education credit for having labored with \ngreat unanimity to improve it, and will join with me in congratu- \nlating the teachers and the boys upon the mutual good-will which \nseems to pervade this school. \n\nI have before stated the purposes of the school. AVe have shaped \nour course of study to meet these purposes. In this form we shall \nhand it over to our successors, our term of office having nearly \nexpired. Its future rests in their hands. \n\nAmong the problems which they will have to solve will be the \nvarious questions as to what shall entitle a person to admission, and \nwhat shall be required of students after admission. In our action we \nhave recognized certain general principles. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL EEPOKTS. 87 \n\nIt is impossible for us to ignore the fact that after passing beyond \nthe Grammar grades, any course of study which treads beyond cer- \ntain limits must overtake and lie parallel with that of the University. \nA due regard for economy will not permit us to retain here, at a \ngreat expense, a school simply to traverse ground, which can be \ngained by crossing the Bay, with little inconvenience to the student \nand with no expense to the city. Apart from questions of economy \nwe have earnestly labored to maintain harmonious relations with \nthe officers of the University, and have sought to shape our school \nso that it should prove a feeder and not a rival. \n\nAt the same time we have endeavored to enlarge the sphere of \nusefulness of the school to its greatest jiossible dimensions. It be- \nlongs to the public. It has been carefully provided for, and its \ndispensations should be made in a liberal spirit and with a liberal \nhand. \n\nMany questions relating to young men, peculiarly situated, who, \nunder the rules cannot derive any benefit from the school, but who \nare worthy of our aid and sympathy, will constantly arise. No rule \ncan be laid down that will govern all such cases. The only thing to \ndo is to determine each case on its merits. \n\nWhat I have said of this school will generally apply to the Girls\' \nHigh School. We have endeavored to make the course of study \nthere more elastic than it was. The elements with which we have \nto deal there, differ largely from those composing this school. A \nmajority of the pupils desire to become teachers, and are anxious to \npursue a special course of study which shall fit them for that pur- \npose. It is not improbable that the pressure in that direction will \nat an early day lead to the foundation of a City Normal School. In \nthat case, what will become of the remnant of the school which will \nbe left ? \n\nAVhen the school was founded the sexes were together, and I see \nno objection to an opportunity being afforded them to pursue their \nstudies together now. * * * \n\nI believe this to be the only true polic}\' to pursue with reference \nto the higher schools. As far as is practicable, give your principals \nswing and hold them accountable for results. If they fail, depose \nthem, but do not meddle with them any more than can be helped \nwhile they are on trial. \n\nIn the matter of text-books for the High Schools, fear of popular \nclamor against new books should not prevent their introduction \nwhenever needed. The world does not stand still, and advanced \nideas cannot be obtained from obsolete books. It is nonsense to \nthink of acquiring a higher education without taking advantage of \nevery aid in the way of new books. \n\n15. Veteran Teachers. \xe2\x80\x94 Ellis H. Holmes ranks as the teacher \ncoutiuuously engaged iu teaching in the city schools for the \nlongest period of time \xe2\x80\x94 23 years, from February, 1853, to June, \n1876. During that time he was never absent a day from school. \nMrs. A. E. Dubois, nee Miss Anna E. Saudford, ranks next \nto Mr. Holmes, having begun teaching as an assistant in Mr. \nDenman\'s school, April, 1853. She has been continuously in \n\n\n\n88 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\ntlie schools, with the exception of six months\' leave of absence. \nMrs. L. A. K. Clappe has taught continuously since November \n4, 1854, and Mrs. L. A. Morgan since 1855. Mrs. Margaret \nDeane has taught since 1854, but not continuously. \n\nJames Denman began teaching November 17, 1851, but re- \nsigned in 1857, and was elected City Superintendent in 1858. \nHe has taught altogether 13 years, and held the office of Super- \nintendent 7 years. \n\nJohn C. Pelton taught in San Francisco in 1850; from 1857 \nto 1860; 1863 to 1870; altogether 11 years. He was City Su- \nperintendent 3 years, and County Superintendent 1 ye^v; was \nPrincipal of the State Reform School at Marysville, 1860 to \n1863, and Superintendent of the San Francisco Industrial \nSchool from 1870 to 1872. \n\nCaptain Joseph C. Morrill was the popular Principal of the \nSpring Valley School from 1852 to 1860, when he resigned and \nsoon after entered the volunteer service of the United States, \nand remained during the war of secession. In 1870, he was \nappointed Principal of the Industrial School, and soon after- \nwards Superintendent. During an "investigation" the hue and \ncry of cruelty was raised against him, and he resigned. He \nwas one of the kindest and most generous of men, and was the \nmost useful teacher ever employed in that institution. \n\nGeorge W. Minns was elected teacher of Natural Sciences in \nthe High School, August, 1856, and Principal of the Boys\' High \nSchool in 1864, and Principal of the State Normal School, 1866. \nIn 1867, he resigned and went East. Professor Minns was one \nof the leading educational lecturers in the State. \n\nH. P. Carlton was Principal of a Grammar School from 1854 \nto 1861; Vice-principal and Principal of the State Normal \nSchool from 1863 to 1873; and has been a teacher in San Fran- \ncisco and Oakland since 1873. \n\nTheodore Bradley was made Principal of the Denman School, \n1861, and of the Boys\' High School in 1866; in which he re- \nmained until 1874. \n\nThomas S. Myrick was the popular Principal of the Market \nStreet School and the Union Grammar School from 1856 to \n1869. He is now teaching at Dutch Flat. \n\nMrs. E. S. Forrester has been continuously engaged as a pri- \nmary teacher since May 10, 1856, \xe2\x80\x94 20 years. \n\nMiss Kate Kennedy, the first female Principal of a Grammar \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. \n\n\n\n89 \n\n\n\nScliool, lias been in tlie Department, without leave of absence, \nfor 19 years. \n\nMiss Dorcas D. S. Prescott, and Mrs. C. V. Gummer, nee \nBenjamin, have taught since 1857, \xe2\x80\x94 18 years. \n\nMrs. E. H. B. Yarney has tauglit school 30 years; one half \nof that period in this city. \n\nMiss A. E. Slavan, Miss C. L. Hunt, and Mrs. S. N. Joseph, \nhave been teaching since 1859. \n\nMiss P. M. Stowell, Mrs. M. J. Sankey, nee Kitchie, Mrs. A. \nH. Hammill, nee Austin, and Miss M. A. Humphreys, have \ntaught for 15 years; Mrs. Mary W. Kincaid, Miss J. M. A. \nHurley, Miss Anna A. Hill, 14 years; Miss Helen Thompson, \nMrs. E. P. Bradley, Mrs. A. S. Trask, nee Duane, Miss Anna \nGibbons, 13 years; Mrs. Aurelia Griffith, Miss G. E. Thurton, \nMiss S. A. Barr, Mrs. C. L. Atwood, and Miss Laura S. Fow- \nler, 12 years. \n\nHubert Burgess has taugbt drawing for 16 years, and Wasli- \niugtou Elliott has been teaching music for 14 years. \n\nHenry N. Bolander was a teacher in this city for 11 years; \nhe became State Superintendent in 1872, and City Superintend- \nent in 1876. \n\nEbenezer Knowlton, well known as an Institute elocutionist, \nwas first an assistant in the State Normal School, 1865, after- \nwards Principal of the Eincon School, and is now an assistant \nin the Boys\' High School. \n\n16. Ten Years Teaching.\xe2\x80\x94 The following is a list of teachers \ncontinuously engaged in teaching in the city schools for a period \nof ten years : \n\n\n\nBeaks, Mrs. C. E. \nBragg, Miss Mar}\' J. \n\n\n\nFlint, Miss A. T. \nGrant, Miss Helen A. \n\n\n\nBaumgardner, Mrs. E. M. Gorman, Mr. W. J. \n\n\n\nBaldwin, Nellie. \nBurke, Mrs. L. K. \nCleveland, Miss E. A. \nCiprico, Miss Anita C. \nCampbell, Miss Amy T. \nCook, Miss Hannah. \nCarusi, Mrs. M. J. \nCfiilds, Miss Katie B. \nCampbell, Miss C. E. \nCoulon, Miss V. \nCastelhun, Miss M. A. \nCarter, Mrs. Louisa. \nDore, Miss A. M. \nDeetken, Mrs. E. G. \nFoster, Mrs. Emily. \nFink, Miss A. P. \nForbes, Miss Jennie. \n\n6 \n\n\n\nHumphrey, Mr. E. D. \nHucks, Miss Annie E. \nHoft\'man, Mrs. M. L. \nHarswell, Miss M. A. \nHyman, Miss Deborah. \nJourdan, Miss A. M. \nJordan, Miss M. L. \nJewett, Miss A. S. \nJewett, Miss Lizzie B. \nJones, Mrs. E. B. \nLittletield, Miss Nellie A. \nManning, Miss Agnes M. \nMayborn, Miss M. J. \nMarcus, Mrs. E. C. \nMalloy, Miss Bessie. \nMiller, Miss S. E. \nParker, Miss Jean. \n\n\n\nPlunkett, Mrs. C. P. \nPteyuolds, Mrs. F. E. \nRussell, Mrs. L. A. \nEowe, Miss A. A, \nSullivan, Miss KateM. \nSalisbury, Miss M. A. \nShaw, Miss E. A. \nSullivan, Mrs.Therese M, \nStincen, Miss M. A. \nSmith, Miss Jessie. \nSmith, Miss Jennie. \nSmith, Miss M . F. \nStowell, Miss Fannie. \nSoule, Miss Fanny L. \nWhite, Miss Elizabeth. \nWood, Mrs.E. A. \nWade, Miss Margaret, \n"Washburn, Mrs. Georgia. \nWinn, Mr. A, T. \nWhite, Silas A. \n\n\n\n90 SCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n3. SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO. \n\nAPPOINTED BY THE BOAKD OE EDUCATION. \n\nThomas J. Nevins \'52, \'53 \n\nWm. H. O\'Grady \'54, \'55 \n\nELECTED BY DIRECT VOTE OF THE PEOPLE. \n\nE. A. Tbeller \'56 \n\nJohn C. Peltou \'57, \'66, \'67 \n\nHenry B. Janes \'58, \'59 \n\nJames Denman \'60, \'61, \'68, \'69, \'70, \'74, \'75 \n\nGeorge Tait \'62, \'63, \'64, \'65 \n\nJ. H. Widber \'71, \'72, \'73 \n\nH. N. Bolander \'76-\'78 \n\nDeputy Superintendents. \n[Appointed by the City Superiuteudent.] \n\nJohn Swett \'71, \'72, \'73 \n\nJoseph Leggett \'74, \'75 \n\nD. C. Stone \'76-\'78 \n\nSecretaries of the Board. \n[Appointed by the Siiiieriutendent and Confirmed by the Board.] \nGeorge Beanston \'68-76 \n\n4. PRESIDENTS OF BOARDS OF EDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO. \n[Mayors, ex-officio, Presidents of Boards api:)oiuted by the Common Council. \n\nC. J. Brenham \'52 \n\nC. K. Garrison \'54 \n\nS. P. Webb \'55 \n\nJames Van Ness \'56 \n\nCHOSEN BY BOARDS ELECTED BY THE PEOPLE. \n\nWilliam Sherman \'57, \'58, \'59 \n\nWilliam Pierson \'60, \'61 \n\nW. L. Palmer \'62 \n\nDr. C. C. Knowles \'63 \n\nM. Lynch \'64, \'65 \n\nJ. W. Wiuaus \'66, \'67 \n\nThos. H. Holt \'68 \n\nH. A. Cobb \'69 \n\nJ. M. Burnett \'70, 71 \n\nJoseph Clement \'72, \'76 \n\nH. J. Tilden \'73, \'74 \n\nAndrew McF. Davis \'75 \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. \n\n\n\n91 \n\n\n\n5. HISTORICAL LIST OF PRINCIPALS, SAN FRANCISCO.* \n\n* Taken, mainljs from the Auuual Eeport of Saperiuteudent Deuman, \'75. \n\n\n\nBOYS\' HIGH. \n\nE. H. Holmes Aug. \'56. \n\nGeo. W. Minns June, \'64. \n\nTheodore Bradley. . . .June, \'65. \nW. T. Reed March, \'75. \n\nGIRLS\' HIGH. \n\nE. H. Holmes \'64 to \'76. \n\nJohn Swett June, \'76. \n\nDENMAN. \n\nJames Denman Nov. \'51. \n\nGeorge Tait June, \'57. \n\nTheodore Bradley Dec. \'61. \n\nJames Denman July? \'64. \n\nJohn Swett Dec. \'67. \n\nJames Denman Jan. \'71. \n\nJohn Swett Dec. \'73. \n\nJames Denman June, \'76. \n\nEINCON. \n\nSilas Weston Jan. \'52. \n\nWm. H. O\'Grady May, \'52. \n\nStillman Holmes Oct. \'53. \n\nJohn Swett Dec. \'53. \n\nJohn C. Pelton Jan. \'63. \n\nIraG. Hoitt Sept. \'64. \n\nEbenezer Knowlton. ..June, \'65. \nMiss E. A. Cleveland. ..Oct. \'74. \n\nWASHINGTON. \n\nF. E. Jones Dec. \'51. \n\nE. H. Holmes March, \'53. \n\nH. P. Carlton Aug. \'56. \n\nJames Stratton Jari. \'61. \n\nL. D. Allen July, \'68. \n\nJoseph O\'Connor Dec. \'74. \n\nUNION. \n\nAhira Holmes June, \'52. \n\n"Wm. Hammill Nov. \'56. \n\nAhira Holmes Jan. \'58. \n\nThomas S. Myrick Jan. \'60. \n\nPhilij) Prior June, \'69. \n\nChas. F. True Dec. \'74. \n\n\n\nSPRING VALLEY. \n\nAsa W. Cole Feb. \'52. \n\nJ. C.Morrill Oct. \'53. \n\nGeo. W. Peck May, \'60. \n\nGeo. W. Bunnell Jan. \'62. \n\nBernhard Marks Jan. \'74. \n\nNoah F. Flood June, \'68. \n\nW. J. G. Williams. . . .June, \'69. \n\nSilas A. White Feb. \'75. \n\nJ. W. Anderson Jan. \'76. \n\n\n\nIraG. Hoitt July, \'65. \n\nJ. C. Pelton Dec. \'67. \n\nW. T. Luckey Dec. \'67. \n\nBernhard Marks June, \'68. \n\nJ. K. Wilson...., Nov. \'72. \n\nMISSION. \n\nAlfred Ris May, \'52. \n\nClara B. Walbridge. . .Aug. \'53. \n\nThos. C. Leonard Nov. \'55. \n\nAhira Holmes June, \'65. \n\nE. D. Humphrey June, \'67. \n\nMary J. Bragg Feb. \'71. \n\nLaura T. Fowler Nov. \'74. \n\nBROADWAY. \n\nW. J. G. Williams. . .June, \'68. \n\nNoah F. Flood June, \'69. \n\nChas. F. True Nov. \'72. \n\nW. J. G. Williams Feb. \'75. \n\nC. H. Ham March, \'76. \n\nSOUTH COSMOPOLITAN. \n\nMrs. Ulrika Rendsburg . .Oct. \'65. \n\nH. N. Bolander Feb. \'67. \n\nA.Herbst Dec. \'71. \n\nNORTH COSMOPOLITAN. \n\nMiss Kate Kennedy \'67. \n\nEIGHTH STREET. \n\nWm. J. Gorman Jan. \'68. \n\nJ. Phelps Sept. \'69. \n\nJohn A. Moore Sept. \'70. \n\n\n\n92 \n\n\n\nSCHOOL LEGISLATION \n\n\n\nHATES VALLEY. \n\nE. D. Humphrey July, 71. \n\nVALENCIA STEEET. \n\nSilas A. White 71. \n\nJ. W. Anderson Feb. 75. \n\nSilas A. White Jan. 76. \n\nMODEL SCHOOL. \n\nMrs. A. E. Dubois \'G7. \n\nSOUTH SAN FEANCISCO. \n\nW. J. Gorman Sept. \'69. \n\nGEARY STREET, \n\nWm. A. Robertson June, 76. \n\nMARKET STREET PRIMARY. \n\nMiss M. D. Lynde. . .March, \'60. \n\nFred. Elliot Jan. \'62. \n\nBernhard Marks Sept. \'62. \n\nMrs. C. H. Stout Jan. \'64. \n\nMiss Agnes Manning. .July, 72. \n\nLINCOLN PRIMARY. \n\nMiss Kate Sullivan \'G6. \n\nTEHAMA PRIMARY. \n\nMrs. E.G. Burt June, \'65. \n\nMrs. E. A. Wood June, \'67. \n\nFOURTH STREET. \n\nMrs. A. E. McGlynn. .April, \'63. \nMrs. L. A. Morgan June, \'65. \n\nPINE AND LARKIN PRIMARY. \n\nMiss Eliza Hawxhurst. .Jan, \'62. \n\nMiss J. A. Lyon March, \'62. \n\nMrs. C. H. Stout May, \'63. \n\nMrs. Alice Bunnell May, \'64. \n\nMiss Hannah Cooke. . .June, \'65. \n\nGREENWICH PRIMARY. \n\nMrs. R. D. Bird Jan. \'52 \n\nMiss P. M. Stowell Dec. \'61. \n\nMiss Kate Kennedy. . .May, \'62. \nMrs. W. R. Duane June, \'68. \n\n\n\nHAYES VALLEY PRIMARY. \n\nMiss H. B. Gushing. . . .Jan. \'63. \n\nMiss L. J. Mastic Mav, \'64. \n\nMiss P. M. Stowell. .March, \'68. \n\nUNION PRIMARY. \n\nMrs. Amelia Griffith \'67. \n\nEIGHTH STEEET PRIMARY. \n\nMiss Mary Williams. .June, \'64. \nMiss A. E. Slaven Oct. \'64. \n\nSHOTWELL PRIMARY. \n\nMiss Anna A. Hill Feb. \'72. \n\nBUSH STREET PRIMARY. \n\nMrs. C. P. Plunkett. . . .Jan. \'72. \n\nBROADWAY PEIMAEY. \n\nMiss A. M. Murphy. . . .Feb. \'67. \nMrs. L. G. Deetkin . . . .Aug. 70. \n\nSPRING VALLEY PRIMARY. \n\nMiss H. A. Hanecke . .March, \'66. \n\nMiss P. A. Fink Sept. \'66. \n\nMiss J. M. A. Hurley. .Nov. \'67. \n\nPOWELL STREET PRIMARY. \n\nMrs. E. G. Burt June, \'61. \n\nMiss Caroline Price. . .June, \'63. \nMiss C. V. Benjamin. .June, \'GQ. \n\nRINCON PRIMARY. \n\nMiss E. G. Smith Jan. \'67. \n\nMiss Jennie Smith. . .March, \'68. \n\nSTOCKTON PRIMARY. \n\nMiss M. D\'Arcy \'68. \n\nMiss A. M. Stincen \'74. \n\nTYLER AND JONES STEEET. \n\nMrs. C. B. Jones \'70. \n\nSAN BRUNO. \n\nMiss G. Washburn. . ..Sept. \'64. \n\nGeorge Pershine Jwly, \'65. \n\nMiss Jennie Slieldon . . Sept. \'65. \n\nMiss Marion Sears Oct. \'69. \n\nMrs. M. Dean Aue-. 72. \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. \n\n\n\n93 \n\n\n\nTTLEE STREET. \n\nMiss A. S. Jewett Aug. \'G6. \n\nMiss S. H. Whitney. . .Aug-. \'67. \nMiss Mary J. Bragg. . .June, \'68. \nMiss E. Gushing Feb. \'71. \n\nPOINT L0B03. \n\nWellington Gordon \'71. \n\nWEST END PRIMAEY. \n\nMiss A. M. Dore Oct. \'64. \n\nMrs. Louisa Carter. . .June, \'65. \n\nMr. S. A. White Oct. \'66. \n\nMr. A. L. Mann June, \'67. \n\nMr. EobertDesty July, \'67. \n\nMr. W. W. Holder . . .July, \'68. \n\nMr. J. W. Lannon Aug. \'69. \n\nMr. Chas. F. True. .March, \'70. \n\nMr. C. H. Ham Aug. \'70. \n\nMr. W. W. Stone Feb. \'73. \n\nMr. Selden Sturgess. . . Sept. \'75. \n\nFAIRMOUNT PRIMARY. \n\nMiss M. A. Salisbury. .Sept. \'64. \nMiss A. M. Manning. .Jan. \'65. \nMiss A. C. Bowen. . . .June, \'65. \nMr. E. D. Humphrey. June, \'G6. \n\n\n\nFAIRMOUNT FBIMXRY\xe2\x80\x94 Continued. \n\nMr. Philip Prior June, \'67. \n\nMrs. T. J. Nevins Aug. \'67. \n\nMiss Susie Carey July, \'68. \n\nMr. Albert Lyser Oct. \'68. \n\nMr. Geo. B. Robertson . Aug. \'70. \n\nMr. J. W. Lannon Oct. \'70. \n\nMr. J. C. Robertson. . .Nov. \'71. \nMr. J. W. Anderson. . .Oct. \'73. \n\nMr. H. P. Carlton Oct. \'74. \n\nMr. W. W. Stone Aug. \'75. \n\nOCEAN HOUSE. \n\nMrs. M. McGilvery July, \'66. \n\nMr. Albert Lyser June, \'68. \n\nMr. W. A. Robertson. .Nov. \'68. \n\nMr. John Fox April, \'69. \n\nMr. John A. Moore. . .June, \'69. \n\nMr. W. Gordon Dec. \'69. \n\nMiss A. M. Murphy. . .Sept. \'70. \nMr. Jas. Dwyer Feb. \'73. \n\nKOE AND TEMPLE. \n\nMrs. E. Foster \'75. \n\nJACKSON STREET. \n\nMrs. B. F. Moore \'75. \n\n\n\nEvening ScJiools. \xe2\x80\x94 An evening scliool was opened, Aug. 1856, \nAhira Holmes, principal. James Denman, John Swett, and John \nHammill volunteered their services as assistants until the \nschool was established. This school continued with from 100 \nto 200 pupils until 1869, when John Swett was elected Principal. \n\nThe school was then regularly graded, was opened in the \nLincoln building, was made free to adults, and in three months \nthe attendance swelled to 900. A commercial class and an \nindustrial drawing class were soon organized. In 1871, Mr. \nSwett resigned and was succeeded by W^illiam A. Eobertson, \nthe present Principal. \n\n\n\n94 \n\n\n\nSCHOOL LEGISLATION. \n\n\n\n6. HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE SAN FRAN- \nCISCO SCHOOLS, 1852-76. \n\n\n\nYEAKS. \n\n\nTOTAL EXPENSE. \n\n\nAVERAGE \n\nDAILY \n\nATTENDANCE. \n\n\nNUMBEK \n\nOP \n\nTEACHERS. \n\n\n1352 \n\n\n$23,125 00 \n35,040 00 \n159,249 00 \n136,580 00 \n125,064 00 \n92,955 00 \n104,808 00 \n134,731 00 \n156,407 00 \n158,855 00 \n134,567 00 \n178,929 00 \n228,411 00 \n346,862 00 \n361,668 00 \n507,822 00 \n415,839 00 \n400,842 00 \n526,625 90 \n705,116 00 \n668,262 00 \n611,818 00 \n689,022 00 \n707,445 36 \n\n$7,610,043 86 \n\n\n445 \n\n1,182 \n\n1,272 \n\n1,638 \n\n2,516 \n\n2,155 \n\n2,521 \n\n2,829 \n\n2,837 \n\n3,377 \n\n3,786 \n\n4,389 \n\n5,229 \n\n6,718 \n\n8,131 \n\n10,177 \n\n11,871 \n\n13,113 \n\n15,394 \n\n16,978 \n\n18,272 \n\n18,530 \n\n19,434 \n\n21,014 \n\n\n15 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n16 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n19 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n29 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n61 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n60 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n67 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n75 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n68 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n73 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n82 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n94 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n108 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n138 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n206 \n\n\n1867 \n\n1868 \n\n1869 \n\n1870 \n\n\n253 \n285 \n326 \n371 \n\n\n1871 \n\n1872 \n\n\n416 \n\n480 \n\n\n1873 \n\n1874 \n\n\n506 \n510 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n552 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nTotal \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n7. SPECIAL SCHOOL STATISTICS, SAN FRANCISCO. \n\nEstimated population, 1875 234,000 \n\nNumber of census children, 5 to 17 37,583 \n\nNumber of pupils enrolled in public schools 31,128 \n\nAverao-e daily attendance 21,014 \n\nNumber attendin^f private and church schools 6,094 \n\nEnrolled in High Schools 702 \n\n\n\nAND SCHOOL REPORTS. 95 \n\nEnrolled Jin Grammar Schools 6,055 \n\n\'" Primary Schools 22,158 \n\n" Evening Schools 2,213 \n\nTeachers (men, 63; women, 447) \xe2\x80\x94 total 510 \n\nWhole number of classes 449 \n\nExpenditures , $700,147 \n\nTax roll of the city $264,000,000 \n\nEstimated value of school property $3,367,000 \n\nCLASSES AND TEACHEES. \n\nNumber of classes in the High Schools 17 \n\nNumber of Grammar Classes (average, 50 each) 108 \n\nNumber of Primary Classes (average, 55 each) 304 \n\nNumber of Evening Classes (average, 40 each) 20 \n\nTotal number of classes 449 \n\nTotal number of Principals of different schools 47 \n\nHigh Schools, 2; Grammar Schools, 12; Mixed Schools, \n9; Primary Schools, 24. \nNumber of Principals of schools not required to teach a class . . 25 \n\nMales, 12; Females, 13. \nNumber of Vice-Principals 16 \n\nMales, 8; Females, 8. \nNumber of teachers in High Schools 22 \n\nMales, 10; Females, 12. \nNumber of teachers in Grammar Schools 129 \n\nMales, 27; Females, 102. \nNumber of teachers in Primary Schools 325 \n\nMale, 1; Females, 324. \nNumber of teachers in Evening Schools 23 \n\nMales, 20; Females, 3. \nNumber of teachers of German and French 22 \n\nGerman, 13; French, 9. \n\nTeacher of Latin and Greek 1 \n\nNumber of special teachers 11 \n\nMusic, 6; Drawing, 5. \n\nTotal number of teachers 510 \n\n\n\n96 TEACHEES\' CONVENTIONS \n\n\n\nPART II. \n\n\n\nI. TEACHERS\' CONVENTIONS AND INSTITUTES. \n\n\n\nI. FIRST STATE TEACHERS\' CONVENTION. \n\nThe first State Teachers\' Convention, called by State Super- \nintendent Hubbs, was held in the city of San Francisco, Dec. \n2G-28, 1854, Snpt. Hubbs presiding. No roll of members ap- \npears on the manuscript minutes, but about 100 teachers, and \nother persons interested in school matters, from various parts \nof the State, were in attendance. \n\nCol. E. D. Baker was introduced to the convention, and \nmade an eloquent address on the subject of general education, \nand painted in glowing language the future of California. Ke- \nmarlvs were made by Piev. M. C. Briggs, Rev. John E. Benton, \nand Dr. Gibbons. Dr. Winslow read an address on the "Use \nof the Bible in Pviblic Schools," and the Eev. S. Y. Blakesly \none on "Phonography in School." \n\nOn the second day J. M. Buffiugton, of Stockton, made a \nreport, which was adopted, recommending the appointment of \na committee of seven, to make immediate arrangements for \norganizing a State Institute. John S. Hittell introduced a \nresolution, which was adopted, providing for the appointment \nof a committee to memorialize the Legislature on the subject \nof libraries. Mr. Freeman Gates moved the appointment of a \ncommittee to report a State series of text-books. Essays on \nthe management of primar}\' schools were read by Mrs. Hazle- \nton, Mrs. Clapp, Mrs. Williams, Miss Allj^n, and Miss Austin. \nMr. Wells, of Sacramento, read an essay on the "General \nManagement of Schools," and Mr. Phillips, of Stockton, on \nthe "Free School System." Mr. Buffiugton, of Stockton, de- \nlivered an address on "Education," and Sherman Day spoke \n\n\n\nAND INSTITUTES. 97 \n\nou tlie same subject. John Swett read an address on the sub- \nject of "Elocution in the Common Schools," and J. 0. Morrill \nan able address on "Unclassified Schools." \n\nThe proceedings of this Convention were characterized by \na good degree of interest; the essays and addresses were gen- \nerally able; but no improvements in school law worth mention- \ning were recommended, and the convention left no mark on the \neducational history of the State. \n\n2. SECOND STATE TEACHERS\' CONVENTION. \n\nThe second State Teachers\' Convention met at Benicia, Aug. \n12, 1856, Supt. Hubbs presiding. \n\nWilliam Sherman, from the Committee on Text-Books, re- \nported a series recommended for general use. \n\nGen. Wool being introduced to the meeting, made a brief \nspeech, in which he coipplimented the ladies, and said that all \nthe greatest men owed their education and the formation of \ntheir characters principally to women. \n\nMr. Morrill offered a resolution in favor of reading the Bible \nin the public schools, which, after an exciting debate, was \ntabled by 21 to 16. \n\nEssays were read by Mr. J. C. Morrill, on "Corporal Pun- \nishment;" by Mr. Monroe, on "Thorough Training;" by Mr. \nWells, on "Course of Studies;" and by Mrs. Hill, on the \n"Mission of Females as Teachers." \n\nThe convention was not largely attended, only 60 members \nbeing present. No important measures were acted on, and the \nconvention gave no renewed impulse to the interests of educa- \ntion. \n\n3. FIRST STATE INSTITUTE. \n\nThe first State Institute, called by State Superintendent \nMoulder, met in the city of San Francisco, May 27, 1861, and \ncontinued in session five days, with a total attendance of 250 \nmembers. The Legislature of the previous year had made \nan appropriation of $3000 for the purpose of aiding State In- \nstitutes. \n\nIn his address, Mr. Moulder stated the plan of proceedings \nwhich devoted the morning sessions to regular Institute lec- \ntures, and the afternoon sessions to a convention; that the adop- \n\n\n\n98 teachers\' conventions \n\ntion of a State series of text-books was one important measure \nto be acted upon; recommended the appointment of committees \non school laws and State Normal School; and summed up the \nimprovements made in the school laws during a period of four \nyears. \n\nGeorge W. Minns delivered an address on "Methods of \nTeaching." \n\nMr. Swett, who was appointed to present the subject of \n"Object Teaching" and "Gymnastics," introduced first an \nobject lesson, and then a gymnastic class from the Rincon \nSchool, which went through with double and single dumb-bell \nexercises, free gymnastics, calisthenics, wands, and Indian club \nexercises. \n\nJames Denman delivered an address on "School Discipline." \n\nMr. Sparrow Smith moved that a committee of three teachers \nbe appointed to report on establishing a State Teachers\' Jour- \nnal, and Messrs. Smith, Gates and Minus were appointed. \n\nGeorge W. Minns was made Chairman of a Standing Com- \nmittee on Text-Books, to report at the next Institute. Mr. \nSmith, of Sacramento, from the Committee on State school \njournal, reported in favor of appointing a standing committee \nto devise ways and means for publishing such a journal, and \nafter the appointment of this committee, the Institute adjourned \nsine die. The proceedings were published in pamphlet form. \n\n4. SECOND STATE INSTITUTE. \n\nThe Second State Institute Avas convened in Sacramento by \nSuperintendent Moulder, September 23, 1862, and continued in \nsession three days, Avith an attendance of 100 members. \n\nSuperintendent Moulder made a brief introductory address. \nMr. George W. Bonnell delivered an address on the "Art of \nMemory," illustrated by a pupil from his school. \n\nMr. Minus, Chairman of Standing Committee on Text-Books, \nmade a lengthy report on that subject. Union resolutions were \nunanimously and enthusiastically adopted. \n\nMr. Pierce, of Yolo, introduced a resolution in favor of a \nlaAV requiring a uniform State series of text-books, which after \na long debate was passed by a vote of 26 to 24. \n\nMr. Sparrow Smith introduced a resolution, which was \nadopted, to appoint a standing committee of twelve on State \nTeachers\' Journal. \n\n\n\nAND INSTITUTES. 99 \n\nMr, Minns delivered a very eloquent and able lecture on \n"Moral Instruction." \n\n8upt. Moulder then closed the Institute with the following \nremarks : \n\nBefore putting the question to adjourn sine die, I desire to \nexpress my earnest thanks for the kindness and consideration you \nhave exhibited toward your presiding officer, and more especially \nfor the warm and flattering terms in which you have seen fit to \nsj)eak of my official action during the past six years. \n\nIt is deeply gratifying to find that I have met the approval of \nthose who ought best to know hoAV I have i:)erformed the duties of \nmy office, and whose good opinion is therefore most to be desired. \n\n^ H= :^. ifi -iip. ^y. ^. \n\nMy connection with you, fellow- workers in the cause, has always \nbeen harmonious and agreeable. In retiring to private life, I shall \nretain a pleasing recollection of our long association. From the \nbottom of my heart I wish you all a prosperous and happy career. \nThanking j-ou again for your unvarying courtesy and your kind \nexpressions of ajDproval, I bid you farewell, and declai\'e this con- \nvention adjourned sine die. \n\nThe proceedings were published in pamphlet form. \n\nSTATE CERTIFICATES. \n\nAt this Institute, the State Board of Examination, consisting \nof the State Superintendent and six County Superintendents, \nheld an oral examination and issued 5 State grammar school \ncertificates and 12 "Mixed School" certificates, valid for two \nyears. \n\n5. THIRD STATE INSTITUTE. \n\nThe third State Institute, called by State Superintendent \nSwett, assembled in San Francisco, May 4, 1863, in the New \nMusic Hall, the largest and finest hall in the city. Four hun- \ndred and sixty-three registered members were in attendance. \nThe daily sessions were also attended by hundreds of other per- \nsons, and at the evening lectures the hall was filled to its utmost \ncapacity. In the circular announcing this Institute is found the \nfollowing on the benefits of Institutes : \n\nNo argument is needed to j^rove the great advantages resulting \nfrom Teachers\' Institutes. They are not intended as substitutes \nfor Normal Schools, nor can they educate teachers to the business \nof their profession ; yet they serve the most admirable purpose of \nimproving those who are only temporarily engaged in the profes- \nsion, of furnishing those who are not systematically trained, with \nthe best methods of instruction, and of increasing the efficiency of \nprofessional teachers. \n\n\n\n100 TEACHEKS\' CONVENTIONS \n\nThe exercises of au Institute involve an outline view of subjects \nrelating to the proper mode of imparting instruction, jDresent the \nlatest information regarding the progress of education in our own \nand in other countries, and aiibrd an occasion for experienced teach- \ners to present practical views, which cannot be obtained from books. \nThe best thoughts and best acquirements of the most original teach- \ners are elicited and thrown into the common stock of professional \nknowledge. They influence public opinion, by bringing the teach- \ner\'s labors more prominently before the community, and by promot- \ning a higher estimate of the Common School in its vital relation to \nsociety and the State. The routine of a teacher\'s daily life limits \nhis influence to the narrow sphere of the school-room; but the pro- \nceedings of an Institute are carried by the press to thousands of \nfamilies in the State, and his views become an active element in \npublic opinion. No obstacle to the progress of Free Schools is so \nformidable as the apathy and indifference of the people. Eloquence \nthe most winning, and logic the most convincing, alike fall dead \nupon the ears of those who see nothing in the establishment of \nComirion Schools but an increase of the rates of taxation. But let \nthe true relation of schools to propertj^ be once clearly seen, let it \nbe generally known that the value of i:)roperty increases with the \nexcellence of the schools, and real estate cheerfully consents to be \ntaxed, from motives of self-interest. The axiom in our American \nsystem of Free Schools, that it is the boundeii duty of the property \nof the State to provide for the education of all the children of the \nState, rich and poor alike, is in accordance with the spirit of our \nGovernment, and should be insisted on by the jieople to the very \nfullest extent. If the people of our State are indifferent to Public \nSchools, it is only because more absorbing topics engage their atten- \ntion, while the educational interests are not urgently and persist- \nentl}^ presented to their view. \n\nAssociation in some form is one of the most powerful agencies of \nthe times. In conventions of industry and arts, mind is dignifying \nthe labor of the artisan. Farmers have their agricultural societies, \nand hold their annual fairs, in which are exhibited the best stock, \nthe choicest varieties of grain and vegetables, the most approved \nagricultural implements, and the best labor-saving machines. The \ninventions, improvements, and discoveries of one, thus become the \ncommon property of all. \n\nAnd while Institutes have accomplished so much in introdiacing \nbetter methods of instruction, they are no less beneficial in their \neffects on the mental habits of the teachers. Constantly imparting \nto minds inferior to his own, his faculties exercised in one direction \nonly, his full strength seldom called forth, he needs the stimulus of \ncontact with his equals, or superiors. A vigorous contest in a new \narena lessens his self-conceit, and brightens his faculties. \n\nIt is a common notion that the occupation of teaching makes a \nman narrow-minded, or leads him into eccentricities, which stick to \nhim like burs ; but it is not true of a teacher who has in him the \nelements of living scholarship. He may, it is true, run in the \ngrooves of daily habit, until he becomes a machine for dragging the \ndead weight of a school; but, on the other hand, he may, while im- \n\n\n\nAND INSTITUTES. 101 \n\nparting to others, himself drink from the perennial fountain of true \nscholarship. \n\nBut no occupation is more exhausting to nervous force and men- \ntal energy than teaching ; and the teacher needs, above all others, \nthe cheering influences of j)leasant social intercourse with those \nwhose tastes and habits are similar to his own. \n\nNo w^onder, then, that the schoolmaster, buried in some obscure \ndistrict, surrounded only by the raw material of mind, which he is \ntrying to weave into a finer texture, without access to books, his \nmotives either misunderstood or aspersed, his labors often seemingly \nbarren of results, his services half paid, with no amusement but the \ncollection of delinquent rate bills, and no study but "how to make \nboth ends meet;" no wonder that he sometimes becomes moody \nand disheartened, loses his enthusiasm, and feels that the very sky \nabove him is one vast blackboard, on which he is condemned to \nwork out the sum total of his existence. \n\nHe only needs the social intercourse of institutes, and the cordial \nsympathy of fellow -teachers, there evoked, to make the heavens \nglow with hope. There he finds his difficulties are shared by \nothers, his labors are aj^preciated, and his vocation respected. \n\nThe duties of the teacher are not limited to the school-room ; his \ninfluence should extend to society around him. If teachers fold \ntheir arms in listless apathy, it is not strange that public opinion is \n" dead as a door nail" to their demands. There was a time when \na man taught school because he w^as fit for nothing else ; but all \nsuch fossils lie buried in the strata of past educational epochs. \nNow, a living man is asked for, not an abridgment of mathematics. \n\n"While a State Institute is designed more especially for the teach- \ners of public schools, jn\'ofessors and instructors in colleges and pri- \nvate institutions of learning are hardly less interested in the success \nand influence of this educational meeting. The interests of colleges \nand collegiate institutions are intimately connected with those of \nthe public schools. All those who acquire an elementary education \nin the common schools, necessarily seek in private institutions of \nlearning to complete a full course of instruction. The better the \npublic schools, the larger will be the number of those whose minds \nshall be awakened to pursue a course of study beyond the range of \nthe common school. Before our higher institutions can produce \ndisciplined thinkers, and thoroughly trained professional men, the \nelementary schools must be carriecl to a corresponding degree of \nexcellence. \n\nAs teachers, we are debtors to our profession; and our patriotism \nought to incite us to an earnest devotion to the advancement of our \nsystem of Free Schools; a system essential to the existence of a \nfree people, and the permanence of a free government. \n\nIt is our duty to cultivate in our schools a higher regard for free- \ndom, a sounder faith in the fundamental principles upon which a \nrepresentative government is based, and a higher estimate of the \nincalculable blessings conferred by the Constitution \xe2\x80\x94 firm in the \nconviction that our country is working out for the future, amid the \npresent storm, a higher order of civilization and a nobler conception \nof liberty. \n\n\n\n102 teachers\' conventions \n\nThe course of lectures was as follows: \n\nGeorge W. Minns : Physical Geography of the United States. \nProf. J. D. Whitney: Character of Humboldt. Eev. Thomas \nStarr King: James Russell Lowell, or the " Bigelow Papers.\' \nJohn Swett: Duties of the State to Public Schools. Prof. S. I. \nC. Swezey : State Normal Schools, and how to teach English \nComposition. Rev. S. H. Wiley : The Place and Relations of \nthe College in our System of Education. H. P. Carlton: Object \nTeaching. D. C. Stone: Grammar. Bernhard Marks: Waste \nin School. Supt. Swett: Common Sense applied to Teaching. \nJohn E. Benton : Elocution. John S. Hittell : Defects in Teach- \ning. Dr. F. W. Hatch : Need of Good Teachers. Hubert Bur- \ngess: Linear Drawing. Ahira Holmes: Report of State Normal \nSchool. \n\nThe proceedings were published in a neat pamphlet form of \n166 pages, and an edition of 2400 copies was distributed among \nteachers and school officers. \n\nOne of the most important results of the Institute was the \naction taken in favor of a State tax for the support of schools. \n\nThe State Superintendent urged this measure in a lengthy \naddress. \n\nThe recommendation for a State tax met the approval of the \nInstitute; and the State Superintendent was instructed to pre- \npare a form of petition to the Legislature on the subject, and to \ncirculate it in every school district in the State. \n\nThe following form was accordingly prepared, circulated and \nsigned by more than six thousand voters : \n\nPETITION FOR STATE SCHOOL TAX. \n\nTo the Honorable th6 Member^s of the Legislaim-e of the State of Cali- \nfornia: \nWhereas, We believe that it is the duty of a representative gov- \nernment to maintain public schools as an act of self-preservation, \nand that the pro^Derty of the State should be taxed to educate the \nchildren of the State; and whereas, the i^reseut School Fund is \nwholly inadequate to sustain a system of free schools; we, the un- \ndersigned, qualified electors of the State of California, respectfully \nask your honorable body to levy a special State tax of half a mill on \nthe dollar during- the fiscal years eighteen hundred and sixty-four \nand eighteen hundred and sixty-five, the proceeds of the same to be \ndisbursed in the same manner as the present State School Fund. \n\nThe next important measure was the action relating to a State \neducational journal. \n\n\n\nAND INSTITUTES. \n\n\n\n103 \n\n\n\nB.C. Stone, of Marysville, from the standing committee of \nthe previous year, reported against the practicability of starting \nsucli a journal. \n\nSparrow Smith, also of the committee, in a minority report, \ndissented, and urged an attempt to establish one. \n\nProfessor Swezey, J. L. Wilbur, J. C. Pelton, George Tait, \nJames Stratton and Superintendent Swett, spoke in favor of a \njournal, and Dr. Gibbons and Mr. Eodgers rose in opposition. \n\nA committee, consisting of Messrs. Smith, Tait and Seymour, \nwas appointed, who reported in favor of establishing a State \neducational journal, called the California Teacher, to be pub- \nlished at one dollar per annum, and to be edited by a board of \nresident editors, consisting of John Swett, George Tait and \nGeorge W. Minns. Mr. Minns declined to serve, and nomi- \nnated Mr. Swezey to fill his place. The first number of this \njournal was issued in July following. \n\nThe subject of a State professional society being brought \nbefore the Institute, the plan was advocated by Kev. John E. \nBenton, Theodore Bradley and others. \n\nA committee was appointed, with Mr. Bradley chairman, who \nmade a report, and requested all interested in forming such a \nsociety to meet after the final adjournment of the Institute. \n\nA State Educational Society was soon afterwards formed on \nthe plan recommended. \n\nSTATE SEEIES OF TEXT-BOOKS. \n\nThe revised school law having made provision for the adop- \ntion and compulsory use of some uniform State series of text- \nbooks, no small share of the time of the Institute was taken up \nin discussing the merits of school-books. The Institute voted \nto recommend to the State Board of Education the following \nseries, which was afterwards adopted by the State Board with \nhardly any variation: Willson\'s Eeaders and Spellers; Eaton\'s \nand Kobinson\'s Arithmetics; Cornell\'s and Warren\'s Geogra- \nphies; Quackenbos\' Grammar and History of the United States. \n\nSTATE EXAMINATIONS. \n\nOne hundred teachers entered the examination for State \ndiplomas and certificates. The examination was conducted in \nwriting, by means of printed questions, and nearly three thou- \nsand pages of manuscript were carefully examined and credited \nby the Board. \n\n\n\n104 teachers\' conventions \n\nstate educational diplomas, valid for six j^ears, were granted \nto the following teachers : T. C. Barker, Stephen G. Nye, \nBernhard Marks, T. W. J. Holbrook, Joseph W. Josselyn, \nThomas Ewing, William K. Kowell, Cyrus C. Cummiugs, \nEdward P. Batchelor. \n\nState certificates were issued as follows : \n\nFirst grade certificates, valid for four years 7 \n\nSecond grade certificates, valid for two years 10 \n\nTliird grade certificates, valid for two 3\'ears 20 \n\nWhole number, including diplomas 4G \n\nRESULTS. \n\nAside from the incidental labors and benefits of the Insti- \ntute, its practical and solid results may be slimmed up as follows: \n\nFirst. A State educational journal; \n\nSecond. Action recommending a State school tax; \n\nThird. A State educational and professional society; \n\nFourth. Adoption of a State series of text-books; \n\nFifth. The granting of a large number of State diplomas and \ncertificates; \n\nSixth. The publication of a valuable volume of proceedings \nand lectures. \n\n6. FOURTH STATE INSTITUTE. \n\nA State Teachers\' Institute was held in the city of San Fran- \ncisco from September 19-24, 1865. No appropriation in aid of \nsuch Institutes was granted by the State Legislature in 1863; \nbut owing to the liberality of the Board of Education of San \nFrancisco, which tendered the use of the Lincoln Schoolhouse, \nand paid the bills for gas, the State Superintendent was enabled \nto hold one without any expense whatever to the State. \n\nThe Institute -was convened in September, during the vacation \nof the city schools, that being the only time in the year Avhen \nthe Lincoln Hall could be used for such a purpose. Notwith- \nstanding the fact that many of the schools in the interior had \njust opened their new terms for the year, in consequence of \nwhich the teachers were unable to attend, three hundred teach- \ners from various parts of the State were present. \n\nThe most important purpose for which it was convened was \nthe holding of an examination of applicants for State diplomas \n\n\n\nAND INSTITUTES. 105 \n\nand certificates. How well that purpose was accomplislied is \nset forth in another part of this report. \n\nThe following lectures were delivered before the Institute: \n"The State and the School," John E. Benton; "School Law," \nJohn Swett; " Geography of California," Charles Russell Clarke; \n"A Practical Education," Prof. Kellogg; "Phj^sical Training," \nEbenezer Knowlton ; " Ph5\'^siology and Hygiene," H. P. Carlton; \n"Force," Dr. Washington Ayer; "Comparison between the \nEuropean and American Systems of Education," Beruhard \nMarks; " Moral Training," Eev. S. H. Willey; "Modern Lan- \nguages in Public Schools," Ralph Keeler; "Education," Dr. \nLuckey. \n\nSeveral of these addresses were published in the CaUfornia \nTeacher. The subjects of "School Libraries," "Course of \nStudy for Ungraded Schools," and "Teachers\' Life Diplomas," \nwere discussed at length. \n\nA committee of all the Count}\' Superintendents present at the \nInstitute acted in detail on the sections of a bill of amendments \nto the school law, and, with a few immaterial changes, approved \nthe provisions submitted to the committee by the Superintend- \nent of Public Instruction. \n\nAn evening ticket lecture was delivered by J. Ross Browne, \nabout " Queer People and Queer Places," which netted the sum \nof $54 for the benefit of the California Teacher. Also an evening \nlecture on "Natural Philosophy," by Professor Minns, of the \nState Normal School. \n\nThe California Steam Navigation Company gave all members \nof the Institute /ree passes to and from Sail Francisco, over their \nseveral routes of travel, and the railroad lines gave free return \npasses to Institute members. \n\n7. FIFTH AND SIXTH INSTITUTES. \n\nThe Fifth Institute was held in San Francisco May 7-11, 1867, \nand attended by 500 teachers. Addresses as follows: \n\nSupt. John Swett: "Educational Progress." D.C.Stone: \n"Self-Improvement." Rev. C. G. Ames: "The Teacher\'s Mo- \ntives." Ralph Keeler: "The Oldest Scholar." Rev. John E. \nBenton: "Readiness." William White: "Teachers and Pa- \nrents." \n\n7 \n\n\n\n106 teachers\' conventions and institutes. \n\nThe Sixth Institute convened at Lincoln Hall, May 4r-7, 1869. \nAddresses were delivered as follows : \n\nState Supt. Fitzgerald: "Educational Condition." Prof. \nJohn Le Conte: "Nebula Hypothesis," Geo. W. Simonton: \n"True Education." John Swett: "Arithmetic." \n\nThe subject of "Text-Books" was discussed and reported \nupon. \n\n8. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH INSTITUTES. \n\nThe Seventh State Institute met in San Francisco, Sept. \n13-16, 1870. Addresses and lectures were given by Supt. \nFitzgerald; Prof. E. S. Carr, on "Air," and "Industrial Ed- \nucation;" Mr. Marks, on "Mathematics." J. P. Garlick: \n"Ungraded Schools." Miss Dolliver: A Poem. Dr. Schell- \nliouse: "Grammar." Miss Fowler: "Defects in Education." \nDr. Luckey: "State Normal School." Prof. Joseph Le Conte: \n"Universal Law of Cyclical Movement." \n\nThe Eighth and last Institute met in San Francisco, Nov. \n7-10, 1871. Supt. Fitzgerald delivered an annual address. \nLectures were given as follows : \n\nDr. Schellhouse: "The Art of Teaching." Dr. Logan: \n" School Ventilation and Hygiene." Dr. Gibbons: "Hygiene \nof Dress." Miss Dolliver: "Cobwebs and Brooms." Dr. E. \nS. Carr: " The Educational Work of Sarmiento." \n\nThe discussions were, in general, on unimportant topics. \nThis was the last of the State Institutes, the Legislature of \n1872 having cut off the annual appropriation of $250 for \nexpenses. \n\ng. STATE ASSOCIATION. \n\nThe State Board of Education called, by resolution, a con- \nvention of teachers at San Jose, June, 1875, but the attend- \nance was small. \n\nA State Teachers\' Association was organized, but the pro- \nceedings were of no special consequence. \n\n\n\ninstitut;e addbesses. 107 \n\n\n\n11. INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\n\n\nI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION/ \n\n3\xc2\xa3r. President and Teachers: During tlie past few weeks the world \nhas been watching the sudden, and to the unobservant eye, almost \nmiraculous transfer of power and prestige from one of the great \nleading European States to another. A quiet, home-loving practical \npeople have suddenly developed a vast amount of latent force, which \nit- puzzles us to name. Is it brains versus bullets, science versus \nsentiment, that awaits the arbitrament of war, or a territorial ques- \ntion only ? Somehow or other, ideas and education have gone up \nin the scale as they never did before in any ten weeks of human \nhistory. \n\nWe\'^are all foolish enough to fix our eyes upon the two central \nfigures of the strife; but neither Teuton fox nor Gallic wolf have \nhad very much to do with the results which so astonish and appal \nthe world. \n\nIf Prussia, so far victorious, has been busy rearing a nation of \nsoldiers, she has done it openly, in the face of the world. She has \nmade every soldier a fortification by the completeness of an educa- \ntional system which makes the most of whatever a man is born with. \nThat system is on exhibition, not only of its value for defense, but \nits moral power, its temperance and self-control. Whatever the \nfinal political result may be, it is certain that not one Prussian who \nhas fallen has felt himself a tool or a dupe, played upon by superior \ncunning and selfishness. \n\nThere is not a soldier of that grand army who has had less than \nten years\' schooling (most of them have had from fifteen to eighteen \nyears); their bodies have been as carefully trained as their minds, \nand b}^ teachers who make this their life business. \n\nWhat would you expect from a country that has an army of three \nmillion children at school, whether they wish to go or not and \nwhether their parents wish them to go or not, and for a Government \nthat provides for this largely by devoting to it the heaviest outlay of \nits resources ? \n\nW^ould you expect Prussia to be beaten, when you know that \nuntil the year 1831, France had made no provision for the instruc- \ntion of her millions, had no public elementary schools when Guizot \nsent Victor Cousin to study the school system of Prussia, with a \nview to its adoption ? \n\nPower is cumulative, and although Napoleon III has nobly fostered \neducation and science, he started at a disadvantage. Poor, be- \nleagured Paris trembles to-day in greater terror of the ignorant and \n\n* Abstract of a lecture before the State Teachers\' Institute, Septeraber, 1870, \nby Ezra S. Ciirr, M.D. \n\n\n\n108 INSTITUTE AUDEESSES. \n\ntherefore brutalized rabble, shut in to watch and wait with her \nher deliverance or her doom, than the foe outside her gates. \n\nI confess I am anxious that our own Government should keep on \nthe best of terms with those Germans. I should dread a tyranny \nlike that of Wurtemburg, which permits no child to learn a trade, \nenter any occujoation, or receive any j^ay for any service whatsoever, \nuntil he has answered the demands of the school laAV. Imagine the \nconsternation which the sudden enforcement of such a regulation \nwould cause in America, in low and in high places! As an offset to \nthis terror, imagine what it would be for you, teachers, to be \nenrolled among the " high mightinesses," to be ranked and consid- \nered as the most valuable civil servitors of the State, with honorable \ncompensation and jvist promotions for your terms of service, and a \ncomfortable pension when you are old. \n\nDo not think I am praising overmuch, and covertly keeping back \na part of the truth. Germany has outdone the world in education, \nand we have outdone Germany in just one respect! We have dis- \ncovered and put in jjractice a great natural law of education, viz., \nthat women are better teachers than men. And they only need the \nhigher education from which tliey have been so long excluded to \nmake their superiority manifest. \n\nThe educational creed of Prussia does not take long in the reading. \n\nArticle one declares the sacred right of every individual to the \nbest means of development. \n\nArticle two, the value to the State, to her wealth, power and civ- \nilization, of universal education. \n\nArticle three declares the realization of this impossible without \nthe agency of a great profession, acting concertedly, wisely and \nzealously together, and that the members of this profession must be \nmade to feel their position honorable, secure and independent. \n\nUnless you are dissenters, I ask you to listen patiently to some- \nthing I have to say about industrial education, for your help is very \nmuch needed in creating a desire for it. \n\nOn this new field of California, where we have only begun our \nwork, and where there is only a glimmering ajiprehension on the \npart of the public of what this business of education is, and what it \nis worth, the informing and jDropelling influence must go out from \nthe body of teachers themselves. Let us get a clear idea of the \nscope and value of our work, and of the wants of the people; let us, \nwith firm and strong convictions of what is essential to the growth \nand prosperity of the State, be prepared to meet the most unin- \nformed with some practical, tangible knowledge of the things with \nwhich they have to deal, and we shall create a public opinion, a \ndemand for education, that will advance quite as fast as we can keep \nup with it. Our political system is of such a kind as to require this \nkind of effort. And our public school system, from the university \nto the primary school, must be a unit in motive and in method, in \nthis respect. \n\nThe question has become one of vital importance to the nation, \n" How shall we educate our youth so that there shall be more farm- \ners and mechanics in the land, and how shall we raise these pursuits \nto the rank they deserve in the hierarchy of industries ? " It is in \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 109 \n\nvain to eulogize a calling whose votaries forsake it with every oppor- \ntunity, and whose children turn from it with disgust. Congress \nmight give ever}\' acre of the public domain to found Agricultural \nColleges, making them not only free, but giving a bonus of land as \na reward for attendance, and still their halls will remain empty, \nuntil the relations of agriculture to human welfare and .to human \nnature are understood and carried into practice \xe2\x80\x94 until the farmer, \nout of his sense of privation, loss, failure and onesidedness, shall \nresolve that his children be as carefully cultured as his fields; that \nthey shall grow up in pleasant homes, and lay up, if not dollars and \ncents, capital for after-pleasures of thought and memory. \n\nLet us consider for a little wherein this business of agriculture \nfails to meet the higher demands of human nature; and why, in \nCalifornia, we are looking to the lower classes\' of foreigners for the \npermanent tillers of the soil. \n\nThe educational world has been aroused within the last few years \nto find a remedy for the growing aversion of American youth for \njDursuits most vital to the public welfare. What are the influences \ntending to the demoralization of young men by leading them to look \nto speculative enterprises, instead of steady industry, as a means of \nsup23ort? Is it the monotony of country life, or a want of the right \nkind of education? \n\nHow shall we create in this country, as there is in Europe, a \nhigher attachment to the land than springs from a sordid self-inter- \nest, and make our paternal acres represent here, as they do in older \nlands, social standing, intelligence, leisure and culture? \n\nBy educating our 3\'outh, boys and girls, into a respect for these \npursuits, and by multiplying in every possible way the social enjoy- \nments and embellishments of country life. \n\nThe disadvantages of agricultural pursuits were clearly stated, \nand the remedies by which they can be overcome; social and isolated \nindustries and their results were contrasted, and the methods of \nuniting the abstract and practical sides of industrial education fully \npresented. In a rapid survey of European progress, we were shown \nto what the immense recent development of Prussian power is \nmainly due. \n\nA concise report of what has been done in America by Michigan \nand other States, what has been done by Congress, and what Cali- \nfornia will be able to accomplish for industrial education, if her \npeople appreciate in any just degree the value of that system of free \ninstruction which, from the common school to the university, guaran- \ntees to every child the general culture and special training necessary \nto energize and economize, to lighten and enlighten all labor, until \nthe measure of usefulness shall come to be the measure of greatness. \n\n\n\n2. DUTIES OF THE STATE TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS.* \n\nAt a time like the present, when the nation is one vast camp of \ninstruction for armed men; when argument has ended in the right \nof appeal to trial b^^ battle; when the one absorbing topic of each \nsuccessive day is the brief telegram, telling of victories won, or of \n\n* Bead before the State Teachers\' Institute, 18G3 , \n\n\n\n110 INSTITUTE ADDRESSED. \n\nhope deferred; wlien our eyes turn with longing guzo across the \nSierras to catch the first Lreakiiig of the war clouds which fringe \ntheir sunimits^it might seem, at first thought, that a convention \nlike this, which waives all military and j^olitical considerations, and \nrelates only to the peaceful and almost unseen workings of the pub- \nlic schools, would he inopportune, and out of harmony with the \nspirit of the times. \n\nBut when we stop to ponder, and consider the vital relations \nwhich ])ublic schools hold to our national life; when we consider \nthe agency which they have had in supplying the intelligence and \nthe pattiotism of the army; when we begin to feel, amid the terri- \nble realities of war, that the schools have been the nurseries of \nloyalty, and the lack of them, the right arm of treason; when we \nbegin to fully realize that the trite truism, " Tlie only safety of a Re- \npublican Government is in the virtue and intelligence of the peoi^le," \nis no abstraction \xe2\x80\x94 there is a deep significance in this meeting, and \nin all such conventions, as concerning the future stability of the \nGovernment, and the integrity, power, glory and unity of the nation. \nConstitutions and laws may be becpieathed by one generation to its \nsuccessors; but patriotism, intelligence and morality die with each \ngeneration, and involve the necessity of continual culture and edu- \ncation. Public opinion, the sum of the intelligence of the citizens of \nthe nation, constructs and modi lies all constitutions, and breathes \nvitality into all laws by which the people are governed. \n\nLet the public opinion of one generation become demoralized by \nignorance, or by passion resulting from ignorance, and any consti- \ntution is like gossamer to restrain and bind it. \n\nIt is an axiom in education that the great majority of the people \ncan be well educivted only by a system of Free Public Schools, sup- \n]K)rt(Hl by law, in which i\\\\e properly of the State is taxed to educate \nthe children of the State. \n\n" The first object of a free people," says Daniel Webster, " is the \npreservation of their liberty." In a government Avhei-e the people \nare not only in theory the source of all jiowers, but in actual prac- \ntice are called upon to administer the laws, it is evident that some \ndegree of education is indisjjensably necessary to enable them to \ndischarge their duties, maintain and administer the laws, and to re- \ntain their constitutional rights. All nations recognize the neces- \nsity of educating the governing classes. In a Government like ours, \neither we must have officers un<pialified for their duties, or we must \nbo ruled by an educated and })rivileged aristocracy, or we must pro- \nvide a system of i)ublic instruction which shall furnish a su])ply of \nintelligent citizens ca]>al)le of discharging their various official trusts \nwith honesty and elficien(\\v. \n\nIf left to their own unaided efforts, a great majority of the peoj^le \nwill fail through want of means to properly educate their children; \nanother class, with means at command, will fail through want of in- \nterest. The people, then, can be educated only by a system of Free \nSchools, supported by taxation, and controlled directly by the \npeople. \n\nThe earlj\'- settlers of our country recognized this vital principle \nby providing by law for Free Schools, and by making schools and \ntaxation as inseparably connected as taxation and representation. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. Ill \n\nThe Puritans of Massachusetts Bay had just escaped from a gov- \nernment which provided only for the education of the higher cLasses; \nwhich dechared, in the words of Charles the First, that " the peo- \nple\'s right was onl}\'- to have their life and their goods their own, a \nshare in the government being nothing pertaining to them;" and in \nnothing does far-seeing sagacity of those self-reliant men appear \nmore conspicuous than in the wise forecast which led them to pro- \nvide for the general diffusion of the elements of knowledge as the \nbasis of a principle which is expressed in the Constitution of Massa- \nchusetts, as opposed to the declaration of Charles the First, in the \nfollowing words: " The people of this Commonwealth have the sole \nand exclusive right of governing themselves as a free, sovereign and \nindependent State." \n\nA section of the Massachusetts Colony Laws of 1G42 reads as \nfollows : \n\n" Forasmuch as the good education of children is of singular be- \nhoof and benefit to any Commonwealth; and whereas, many j)arents \nand masters are too indulgent and negligent of their duty in that \nkind; it is ordered that the Selectmen of every town shall have a \nvigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see, first: that \nnone of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of Ihe.ir families \nas not io teach, by themselves, or others, their children and apprentices so \nviuch learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue, \nupon i^enalty of twenty shillings for each neglect therein." \n\nIn 1G47, this law was followed by another, to the end, in the \nwords of the statute, " that learning may not be buried in the grave of \nour fathers in the Church and the GommomveaWi,," which required ever}\' \ntown of fifty families to provide a teacher to instruct all the chil- \ndren of the town in reading and writing, and every town of a hun- \ndred families to set up a grammar school, with a teacher compe- \ntent to fit young men for the university; the expense of these schools \nto be borne by the town, or by the parents, as the town should \ndetermine. \n\nIn 1G92, the law provided that these schools should be supported \nexclusively by tax levied on all the pr-operly of the town. \n\nThe Colony Laws of New Haven, 1665, provided that the "Depu- \nties of the Court " should have " a vigilant eye " overall parents and \nmasters, " that all their children and apprentices, as they grow capa- \nble, may, through God\'s blessing, obtain at least so much learning \nas to be able duly to read the Scriptures, and other good and prof- \nitable printed books in the English tongue, being their native \nlanguage.""^ \n\nIf this law was not complied with, the delinquent was fined ten \nshillings; and if after three months the offender failed to comply, \nthe fine was doubled; and then the magistrates were empowered to \ntake such children and apprentices, and place them till* they became \nof age, "with such others who shall better educate and govern \nthem, both for the public conveniency, and for the particular good of \nsaid children and apprentices." \n\nIn 1669, the Colony of Plymouth passed the following law: \n\n\' \' Forasmuch as the maintenance of good literature doth much tend to \n\n* Probably the first Aiuericau compulsory school law. \n\n\n\n112 INSTITUTE ADDEESSES. \n\nthe advancement of the iveal and flourishing state of societies and re- \npublics, this Court doth therefore order, that in whatever township \nin this government, consisting of fifty families or upwards, an}\' meet \nman shall be obtained to teach a Grammar School, such township \nshall allow at least twelve pounds, to be raised by rate on all the in- \nhabitants." \n\nThe following is the old Colonial Connecticut Law for " appoint- \ning, encouraging and supporting schools:" \n\n" Be it enacted by the Governor, Council and Eepresentatives, in \nGeneral Court assembled, and by the Authority of the same: That \nEvery Town within this Colony, wherein there is but one Ecclesias- \ntical Society, and wherein there are Seventy House Holders or \nFamilies, or upwards, shall be at least Eleven Months in each Year \nProvided with and shall Keep and Maintain One good and sufficient \nSchool for the Teaching and Instructing of Youth and Children to \nRead and Write, which School shall be steadily Supplied with, and \nKept, by a Master, sufficiently and suitably Qualified for that \nService. \n\n"And, also, there shall be a Grammar School Set up. Kept and \nconstantly maintained in ever}\' Head or County town of the several \nCounties, that are, or shall be Made in the Colony, Which shall be \nsteadily Kept by some Discreet Person of good Conversation, and \nwell Skilled in and Acquainted with the Learned Languages, es- \npecially Greek and Latin." \n\nFor the sujDport of these schools, a tax of " Forty Shillings" \nupon every "Thousand Pounds in the Lists of the Respective \nTowns," was levied and collected. \n\nMany of the wealthy counties of California levy, this year, a \nsmaller school tax than was paid by the hard-fisted colonists of Con- \nnecticut. \n\nThe following preamble to an act shows the germ of our na- \ntional policy of reserving certain sections of public lands for school \npvarposes : \n\n"And Whereas, the several Towns and Societies in this Colony, \nby Virtue of an Act of this Court, made in May, in the Year of our \nLord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Thirty-Three, Received \nby their Committees Respectively, for that purpose appointed, con- \nsiderable Monies, or Bills of Public Credit, Raised by the sale of \ncertain ToAvnships, Laid out in the Western lands, then so Called, \nto be Let out, and the Interest thereof. Improved for the Support \nof the Respective Schools aforesaid, for Ever, and to no other Use: \nBe it enacted," etc. \n\nIn 1785 an ordinance respecting the disposition of the public \nlands was introduced into the old Congress, referred to a commit- \ntee, and passed May 20, which provided that the sixteenth section \nof every township should be reserved "for the maintenance of pub- \nlic Schools." \n\nThe celebrated ordinance of 1787, which confirmed the provisions \nof the land ordinance of 1785, further declared that "Morality and \nKnowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of \nmankind, Schools, and the 9?im?is q/" Education, shall be forever encour- \naged." \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 113 \n\nAs the results of tliis noble jDolicy, more than fifty millions of \nacres of the public lands have been set apart for the purposes of \neducation. \n\nThese few references to Colonial laws show how early in the his- \ntory of our country these two fundamental principles were enun- \nciated and adopted : That it is the duty of a Republican Government, \nas an act of self-preservation, to educate all classes of the pieople, and \nthat the property of the State should be taxed to p)ay for that education. \n\nLet us consider the first axiom: That it is the duty of a Republican \nGovernment, as an act of self-preservation, to educate all classes of the \npeople. \n\nIn a representative government all forms of constitutional law \nspring from the peojDle, and are changed at Avill by public opinion. \nIf that is demoralized, public officers will be bad, and the Govern- \nment will be bad. If public opinion is ignorant, demagogues will \nwarp it to suit partisan purposes. The fountain cannot rise higher \nthan its source ; and the administration of the laws will not rise \nabove the level of the morality of the masses. \n\nConsider for a moment the various civil duties a citizen of the \nState may be called upon to perform. First and highest is the duty \nwhich is attached to the right of elective franchise. Intelligence \nmust preside at the ballot-box, or it becomes a partisan machine. \nThe elector is virtually a tool and slave just so far as he is ignorant \nof the questions on which he votes. If ignorant voters elect knaves \nto office, the State pays the just penalty of neglecting to educate \nher citizens. Every citizen is liable to be called to the jury-box. \nAre those light questions which twelve men are called upon to de- \ncide ? Questions of life or death, of character or reputation, of for- \ntune, of real estate? Can ignorance and prejudice decide those \nquestions legally and equitably ? Would the real estate owner, with \na hundred thousand dollars at stake, on which, perhaps, he has un- \nwillingly paid a school tax, choose to trust the verdict to an illiter- \nate jury in preference to one educated in the schools which his \nproperty has in part maintained ? \n\nConsider, again, all the minor official trusts which an ordinary \ncitizen is called upon to fill \xe2\x80\x94 district, township, and county offices. \nTaken together, they make up no small share of the administra- \ntion of government. \n\nIn the legislative department, is it safe to elect men poorly edu- \ncated to frame the laws ? Any citizen may aspire to and reach the \nplace, and the only safeguard is the general education of all citi- \nzens. And it must be borne in mind that while laws may remain \nunchanged, the intellectual and moral qualifications necessary for \nthe discharge of the duties of a citizen of the State cannot be trans- \nmitted, like property, from father to son. They are personal, not \nhereditary, and must be taught anew to each generation. The \nwork of the schools is never done, and property can never escape \ncontinual taxation. This general education of the citizens of the \nState can only be secured by Public Schools. The rich will be \neducated under any circumstances; education -gives power \xe2\x80\x94 power, \nan aristocracy. \n\nBut the Public Schools must be of a character which will attract \n\n\n\n114 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nthe children of the rich as well as afford an opportunity to the poor. \nSuch schools prevent the formation of castes and classes in society. \nThe only aristocracy which they recognize is that of talent\xe2\x80\x94 an aris- \ntocracy which always commands respect and wields power. Said a \nBoston teacher once, to a visitor: "That boy who has just received \nthe iirst prize for scholarship, is the son of a wood-sawyer; and the \nboy who has won the second prize is the son of the Governor of \nMassachusetts." \n\nIt is often objected that Public Schools cannot educate high \nenough. Dr. Bushnell says : \n\n"The chartered privileges of education furnished by our colleges \ncan be more highly valued by no one than myself. But still it \nshould be understood that an educated man is a man alive. Many \na boy who does not know Latin from Dutch, and has never seen \nany university but his mother\'s and the District School, having at- \ntained to the distinction of a living soul, is, in the highest sense, \neducated. Coixld this, which is the only just view of the case, be \nonce established in the public mind, it would do much to encourage \nattempts at self-education, and would greatly endear the system of \nCommon Schools. \n\n"Many years ago, in an obscure country school in Massachusetts, \nan humble, conscientious, but industrious boy was to be seen, and \nit was evident to all that his soul was beginning to act and thirst for \nsome intellectual good. He was alive to knowledge. Next we see \nhim an apprentice on the shoemaker\'s bench, with a book spread \noj^en before him. Next we see him put forth, on foot, to settle in a \nremote town in this State, and pursue his fortunes there as a shoe- \nmaker, his tools being carefully sent on their way before him. In \na short time he is busied in the post of County Surveyor for Litch- \nfield County, being the most accomplished mathematician in that \nsection of the State. Before he is twenty-five years old we find him \nsupplying the astronomical matter. of an almanac published in New \nYork. Next he is admitted to the bar, a self-qualified lawyer. Now \nhe is found on the bench of the Superior Court. Next he becomes \na member of the Continental Congress. There he is made a mem- \nber of the Committee of Six to prepare the Declaration of Inde- \npendence. He continues a member of Congress for nearly twenty \nyears, and is acknowledged to be one of the most useful men and \nwisest counsellors of the land. At length, having discharged every \nofiice with a perfect ability, and honored, in every sphere, the name \nof a Christian, he dies regretted and loved by his State and Nation. \nNow this Roger Sherman, I maintain, was an educated man. Do \nyou ask for other examples? I name, then, Washington, who had \nonly a common domestic education, I name Franklin; I name Eit- \ntenhouse ; I name West ; I name Fulton ; I name Bowditch ; all \nCommon School men, and some of them scarcely that, but yet all \neducated men, because they were made alive. Besides these, I know \nnot any other seven names of our countrymen that can weigh against \nthem. These are truly American names, and there are the best of \nreasons to believe that a generous system of public education would \nproduce many such. Let them appear, and if they shall embody so \nmuch force, so much real freshness and sinew of character as to de- \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 115 \n\ncide for tliemselves what sliall be called an education, or shall even \nbe able to laugh at the dwarfed significance of college learning, I \nknow not that we shall have any reasons for repining-." \n\nTo this roll of honor we might add a long array of public men and \nof scholars whose first imj^ulse to self-education was received in the \nPublic Schools: Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson, Stephen A. Douglas, \nLewis Cass-, Abraham Lincoln, N. P. Banks, Elihu Burritt, Horace \nMann, and many others. \n\nThe second proposition is, that the property of the State should be \ntaxed to educate the children of the State. The only just ground for \ntaking any man\'s money for a public purpose is that the public good \nrequires it. But, says some stiff-necked taxpayer, "I have edu- \ncated my children at my own expense;" or, "I have no children to \neducate; why should I be taxed to pay for educating the children of \nothers ?" \n\nBut children arrived at the age of maturity belong, not to the \nparents, but to the State, to society, to the country. Grovernment \ncalls on them for the defense of the Constitution and the laws. \nTake the half a million of men now in the army; what are they \ndoing but defending the property which has been taxed to educate \nthem ? AVithout them, what would property be worth ? \n\nAgain: Every able-bodied laborer adds to the wealth of the com- \nmunity; for the real wealth of a State lies in its amount of produc- \ntive labor. Educated labor is more productive than ignorant labor. \nThe testimony of all the mills, factories and workshops of the world \nis, that intelligent artisans are far more 25i\'ofitable than ignorant \nones. Kaise the standard of education among workingmen, and \nthe productive value of property is increased. Ignorance and idle- \nness are companions; vice and ignorance are companions. Experi- \nence shows that the education of the masses affords better protec- \ntion to good morals, and more security to the rights of property, \nthan all the criminal enactments that can be made or the prisons \nthat can be built. Intelligence makes labor respectable and honor- \nable. Brute labor \xe2\x80\x94 the labor of the menial \xe2\x80\x94 is no more honorable \nto-day than when the unwilling millions toiled on the Pyramids of \nEgypt. The intelligent brain gives dignity to the toil-hardened \nhand. But we may base the necessity for general education on still \nbroader grounds. Every man born into the world to enrich it by \nhis labor, claims an education as an inalienable right, as much as \nliberty, food, air or light. Civilization is the result of the labors \nof all generations which have existed uj)on the earth. Our laws, \nour institutions, books, arts, sciences and inventions, are mostly \nthe product of generations which have preceded us. What a child- \nlike generation ours would be were the printing-press and steam \npower swept out of existence ! The generation now living strikes \nits roots deep into the mental strata of the globe, and draws its \nnutriment from all past generations. As the miners gather the \nmineral wealth of our State, upheaved by the convulsions of \ngreat geological epochs which thrust up the broken ribs of the \nearth through granite crusts, so do we enrich ourselves with the \nwealth of past time uplifted by the convulsions of nations. Haviug \nbeen educated by the labors of preceding generations, we cannot \n\n\n\n116 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nescape the resj)onsibility of educating those who are to succeed us. \nEvery mau that is indebted to societ}\' for an education, is in duty \nbound to discharge that debt by educating the child who is to suc- \nceed him. \n\nEDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. \n\nBefore considering in detail the condition of education in the dif- \nferent States of the Union, let us glance at the national systems of \ninstruction in the countries of the Old World. \n\nGermany may justly claim the credit of first thoroughly organiz- \ning a sj\'stem of public education, under the administration of the \ncivil power. The characteristic features of the German schools \nare, the power of the Government to compel attendance; provision \nto make the schools, not free to all, but accessible to all; and excellent \nmethods of instruction, resulting from Normal Schools; and the \nmaking of teaching a life profession. \n\nMusic is a prominent part of education in Germany, and the \nstrong national pride, love of country, and love of libert.y, of the \nGermans, is born in schools, where the patriotic songs of the nation \nbecome as familiar as the alphabet of their mother tongue. \n\nEngland, with all her time-honored Universities and endowed \nPublic Schools, is far behind Germany in her elementary schools \nfor the common people. Lord Brougham, in 1836, advocated a na- \ntional system of Public Schools, but the bill failed on account of the \nbitter controversies of the religious sects, and the children were allowed \nto grow up in ignorance rather than run the risk of an education \nwithout the catechisms. In advocating this bill. Lord Brougham \nsaid: \n\n" Let the people be taught, say I. The school is closed, but the \npenitentiary yawns day and night to ingulf its victims; the utterly \nexecrable, the altogether abominable hulk lies moored in the face of \nday, which it darkens, riding on the face of the waters, which it \nstains with every unnatural excess of infernal pollution, triumphant \nover mortals." \n\nMacaulay said, in 1847, in the House of Commons: \n\n" Educate tJie jicople, was the first admonition addressed by Penn \nto the commonwealth he founded; educate the people, was the last \nlegacy of Washington; educate the people, was the unceasing exhor- \ntation of Jefferson. Yes, of Jefferson himself, and I quote his \nauthority with peculiar favor, for of all public men that the world \never saw, he was the one whose greatest delight it was to pare down \nthe functions of Governments to the lowest possible- point, and to \nleave the freest possible scope for the exercise of individual rights." \n\nCHARLES DICKENS, \n\nCharles Dickens deserves to be classed among English educa- \ntional reformers, for his caricatures of English schoolmasters, in the \ncharacter of Squeers, and of boarding schools conducted on the \nstarvation system of that motherly matron, Mrs. Squeers, effected a \nsalutary reform. The merciless wit of Dickens has never spared \npompous pretensions to learning, nor pedantic methods of in- \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 117 \n\nstruction. How capitally lie hits off what is termed "practical \nteaching:" \n\n" \' Now, what I want is Factg. Teach these boys and girls \nnothing but facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant noth- \ning else, and root out everything else. Stick to facts.\' The \nemphasis of the speaker was helped by the speaker\'s square \nwall of a forehead, which had his eyebrows for its base, and \nhis eyes found commodious cellarage in two dark caves over- \nhadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the speak- \ner\'s mouth, .which was wide, thin and hard set. The emphasis was \nhelped by the sj)eaker\'s voice, which was inflexible, dry and dicta- \ntorial. The speaker\'s obstinate carriage, square coat, square legs, \nsquare shoulders, \xe2\x80\x94 nay, his very neckcloth trained to take him by \nthe throat with an unaccommodating grasp, like a stubborn fact, as \nit was, \xe2\x80\x94 all helped the emphasis. \' In this life we want nothing but \nFacts, Sir, nothing but Facts.\'" \n\nGradgriud was a teacher with " a rule and a pair of scales, and \nthe multiplication table always in his pocket. Sir, ready to weigh \nand measure any parcel of human nature, and tell you exactly what \nit comes to." \n\nSaid the visitor, eloquently discoursing " to the little vessels ranged \nin rows ready to have gallons of facts poured into them until they \nwere full to the brim:" \n\n"We hope to have before long a Board of Fact, composed \nof commissioners of fact, who will force the peoj^le to be a \npeople of fact, and nothing but fact. You are not to have \nin any object of use or ornament what would be a contra- \ndiction in fact. You don\'t walk upon flowers in fact ; you \ncannot be allowed to walk upon flowers in carpets. You never \nmeet with quadrupeds going up and down walls ; you must \nnot have quadruj^eds represented on walls. You must use, for all \nthese purposes, combinations and modifications of mathematical \nfigures, which are susceptible of proof and demonstration. This is \nfact. This is taste." \n\nIn the school of facts, Mr. McChoakumchild does the practical \nwork : \n\n"He, and some one hundred and forty other schoolmasters, had \nbeen lately turned in the same factory, at the same time, on the same \nprinciples, like so many piano forte legs. He had been put through \nan immense variety of paces, and had answered volumes of head- \nbreaking questions. Orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody, \nbiography, astronomy, geography and general cosmography, the \nsciences of compound proportion, algebra, land surveying and \nlevelling, vocal music and drawing from models, were all at the ends \nof his ten chilled fingers. \n\n" He had taken the bloom off the higher branches of mathematics \nand physical sciences, French, German, Latin and Greek. He knew \nall about all the watersheds of all the world, and all the histories \nof all the peoples, and all the names of all the rivers and mountains, \nand the productions, manners and customs of all the countries, and \nall their boundaries and bearings on the two and thirty points of the \ncompass. \n\n\n\n118 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\n" If he had onlj\' learnt a little less, how infinitely better he might \nhave taught much more ! \n\n"There were five j\'oimg Gradgrinds, and they were models, every \none. No little Gradgrind had ever seen a face in the moon; it was \nup in the moon before it could speak distinctly. No little Grad- \ng-riud had ever learnt the silly jingle, \' Twinkle, twinkle, little f-tar; \nhow I wonder what you are !\' It had never known wonder on the \nsubject, having at five years dissected the Great Bear like a Pro- \nfessor Owen, and driven Charles\' Wain like a locomotive engine \ndriver. No little Gradgrind had ever associated a cow in a field \nwith that famous cow with the crumpled horn who tossed the dog \nwho worried the cat who killed the rat who ate the malt, or with \nthat yet more famous cow who swallowed Tom Thumb. It had \nnever heard of these celebrities, and had only been introduced to \na cow as a graminivorous, ruminating quadrujDed with several \nstomachs. \n\n" \'Bring to me,\' says Mr. McChoakumchild, \'yonder baby, just \nable to walk, and I will engage that he shall never v/onder.\' \n\n"And Gradgrind, as he surveyed the children, seemed a kind of \ncannon, loaded to the muzzle with facts, and prepared to blow them \nclean out of the regions of childhood at one discharge." \n\nDISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF OUR SCHOOLS. \n\nOne distinctive feature of our schools is the general education of \nthe sexes together. I believe that the true deference paid to woman, \nand the chivalric politeness with which she is treated, and the high \nstandard of morality generally prevailing in the United States, are \nthe results, in no small degree, of educating boys and girls together \nin the same schools. \n\nAnother distinctive feature of our schools is their freedom from \nsectarian instruction. In inost European schools direct religious \nlessons are given by the clergy of both the Catholic and the Prot- \nestant churches ; in other words, the schools are made the medium \nof denominational and sectarian teaching of creeds and catechisms. \n\nHappily for their prosperity, and for the best interests of vital re- \nligion, our schools are removed from all denominational influences, \nand the reading of the Bible, without note or comment, afibrds lit- \ntle occasion for sectarian feeling. All are left free to form their own \nbelief, drawn from the primal source of Christianity. \n\nSTATE SCHOOL TAX. \n\nA State tax of half a mill on the dollar has been levied this year \nfor carrying on the work of building up the State Ca^jitol ; is it not \nquite as necessary that the work of building schoolhouses should \nnot be delayed? Of what use will a magnificent State Capitol be, \nunless educated legislators are sent there to fill it ? The State is to \nbe placed on a military footing. It is equallj^ necessary that it should \nbe placed on an educational footing, for educated and intelligent \nmen are a stronger defense than Monitors, Columbiads, or field bat- \nteries. During the darkest hour of our national adversity the work \nupon the dome of the Capitol, at Washington, was carried on with- \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 119 \n\nout cessation, even tinder the roar of the enemy\'s cannon \xe2\x80\x94 a fitting \ntype of the faith of the people in the permanence of our Govern- \nment and the stability of our institutions. Our public schools are \nnot the dome of the Kepublic, but the solid and everlasting founda- \ntions on which is based the permanence and integrity of the nation. \n\nWe, of this generation, fall back upon the sword and the bayonet \nto sustain the laws ; but if we expect our children to be capaljle of \nself-government, if we have not utterly lost our faith in representa- \ntive institutions, let us not stultify ourselves by failing to educate \nour children. \n\nWe sprang at once into a high degree of civilization ; our mines \nyield immediate and rich returns for labor, and we are unworthy \nthe fairest inheritance the sun shines upon if we do not provide a \nsystem of free schools which shall furnish the means of education \nto every child as liberally as nature has bestowed her mineral wealth \nupon our land. Shall California, just entering on a renewed career \nof prosperity from the recent discoveries of fabuloiis mineral wealth, \ncontribute less for schools than the States where ice and granite \ntake the place of silver and gold? Is the table of ten mills one \ncent \xe2\x80\x94 ten cents one dime \xe2\x80\x94 ten dimes one dollar \xe2\x80\x94 ten dollars one \neagle \xe2\x80\x94 the only ten commandments our children shall be taught? \nIs the national ensign of the Republic, like the calf of molten gold \nthe children of Israel worshiped in the wilderness, to be made a \ngreat golden buzzard? Is metal to be valued more than mind, and \n"feet" more than the little brain engines that fill the schoolhouses? \n\nShall we pay thousands of dollars annually for blooded stock, and \nlet the children run wild, like Spanish cattle? Shall we sink costly \nartesian wells through all our valleys, and keep the living well- \nsprings of knowledge sealed to the thirsty children ? Shall we send \nto Europe for choice foreign wines, and leave the children to grow \nup like the wild mustard which covers our fertile lands with its rank \ngrowth ? Shall millions be expended in constructing a Pacific Rail- \nroad, and the State fail to lay the solid foundations of character and \nintelligence on which rest the permanent prosperity of the genera- \ntion which will reap the benefits of that great highway of the world ? \nShall we make every sacrifice of men and money to maintain the \nUnion for a generation unfitted, through want of education, to ap- \npreciate either our sacrifices, or the value of the inheritance we \nleave them ? \n\nThe effect of our abundant wealth, unless its possessors shall be \neducated and trained to use it in intellectual pleasures and refined \nenjoyments, will be to sweep us into the rankest and grossest forms \nof materialism. \n\nThe real wealth of the State- must ever be her educated men and \nintelligent laborers. Educated mind has made the world rich by \nits creative power. The intelligent minds which invented the steam- \nship, the cotton-gin, and the spinning-jenny, created for the world \na wealth greater than the products of the gold mines of Australia \nand California together. How many millions of dollars is Erics- \nson\'s invention of the Monitor worth to the nation? How much \nthe invention of the electric telegraph ? How much the hundreds \nof labor-saving machines in every department of industry ? Igno- \n\n\n\n120 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES. \n\nranee invents none of these. What influence, tell me, is so mighty \nin developing the intellect of society as the common school ? One \nsingle great mind, inspired in the public school with a love for \nlearning \xe2\x80\x94 without which it might have slumbered forever \xe2\x80\x94 may \nprove of more value to the State than the entire cost of schools for \nhalf a century. \n\nWhat influence is so mighty in developing this creative power of \nsociety, as the intelligence imparted in the public schools ? Go to \nthe Patent Ofiice and find out how many inventions come from the \nland of common schools, and how many from the States that have \nfailed to establish them. \n\nNot many years ago, a member of the British Parliament urged, \nas a reason against a system of national instruction, "that if they \ndejn\'ived the farmers of the labor of the children, agriculture could \nnot be carried on, because there was no machinery to get the weeds \nout of the land." \n\nThe policy of New England always has been to send the children \nto school, and let Yankee ingenuity invent machines " to get the \nweeds out of the land." \n\nShe has "saved" enough by the invention of "machines," con- \ntrived by laboring men educated in her schools, to pay for the \nwhole cost of her schools twice told. \n\nAn agricultural report says: \n\n"The saving to the country from the improvements in plows \nalone, within the last twenty-five years, has been estimated at no \nless than ten millions of dollars a jear in the work of teams, and \none million in the price of plows, while the aggregate of the crops \nis suj^posed to have been increased by many millions of bushels." \n\nThe machinery brought into use, since 181G, is estimated to be \nequal to the labor of five hundred millions of men. \n\nIgnorance never invented a machine to save the labor of a single \nman. \n\nThe life of the nation lies not in a few great men, not in a few \nbrilliant minds, but is made up of the men who drive the plow, \nwho build the ships, who run the mills, and fill the machine shojDS, \nwho build the locomotives and steam-engines, who construct the \nrailroads, who delve in the mines, who cast the cannon, who man \nthe ironclads and gunboats, who shoulder the musket, and who do \nthe fighting ; these constitute the life and strength of the nation, \nand it is with all these men that the public schools have done and \nare now doing their beneficent work. The nation will not be saved \nby any one "great man; " the bone and muscle of intelligent labor- \ning men must work out its salvation. Blundering statesmen may \nmar the fortunes of the war; general after general may show ujd his \nown incompetence ; the concentrated and consolidated intelligence \nof the working men and fighting men will, in the end, prove victo- \nrious. When the bayonet has done its work, the ballot-box must \nprotect the freedom won on the battle-field. When every ballot \nrepresents an idea, and falls electrified with intelligence to "exe- \ncute a freeman\'s will," the States will revolve harmoniously around \nthe central sun of a consolidated Union ; no star will shoot off in \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 121 \n\neccentric orbit into the chaos of disunion, or the cometary darkness \nand desolation of secession. \n\nIntelligent free laborers are working out the great problem of \ncivilizing this continent; intelligent fightiug men are consolidating \nits Government; and, underlying all, the public schools are silently \nforming a sound national character. Free as air, vital as electricity \nand vivifying as the sunlight, they act on the organic forces of the \nnation, as these three physical agents build up the life of the globe \nout of inorganic matter. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nThe insurrection will be put down by the sword and the bayonet; \nbut even then the only strength of the Union will be in a public \nopinion based on an intelligent comprehension of national affairs by \nthe people of the whole nation. \n\nThe number of legal voters in the United States who cannot read \nand write is greater than the ordinary majority by which a President \nis elected. \n\nIt is seldom the Governor of any State is elected by a majority \nlarger than the number of " illiterate voters of the State." What \navails the Constitution at the mercy of men who cannot read it ? \nUnless the laws of the several States are administered by rulers \nchosen by electors whose ballots fall vitalized by intelligence, no \nstanding armies, no Constitutions, can hold them in harmonious \nspheres around the central sun of a Representative Government. \nThey will shoot off in eccentric orbits into the unfathomable dark- \nness of dissolution and chaos, never to return. \n\nIt is a Prussian maxim. "Whatever you would have appear in the \nlife of the nation you must put into the schools." \n\nIf the schools inculcate with intellectual training love of country, \ncordial submission to lawful authority, moral rectitude, some knowl- \nedge of the theory and organic structure of our Government, and a \ntrue spii\'it of patriotism, then shall our citizens be truly men, and our \nelectors princes indeed. \n\nWhen I consider the power of the public schools, how they have \ndisseminated intelligence in every village, and hamlet, and log- \nhouse in the nation, how they are molding the plastic elements of \nthe next generation into the symmetry of modern civilization, I can- \nnot think that our country is to be included in the long list \n\n" Of uatious scattered like the chaff \nBlown from the threshiug-floor of God." \n\nI hold nothing in common with those fainthearted patriots who \nare beginning to despair of the future of our country. The latent \npowers of the nation are just coming into healthful and energetic \naction, and in spite of treason, are moving the Republic onward and \nupward to a higher standpoint of liberty. \n\nThe Anglo-Saxon race, even in its ruder jeavs, always possessed \nan inherent power of self-government. Tell me not that now, when \nthis stubborn vitality and surplus energy, exj^ended so long in over- \nrunning the world, are guided by intelligence and refined by Chris- \ntianity, this same race is to be stricken with the palsy, because of a \ntwo years\' war. \n\nLong before the completion of the Pacific Railroad, these new re- \n8 \n\n\n\n122 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\ncruits, drilled in the public schools, will push their way across the \ncontinent, as the Saxons set out from their northern hives, a vast \narmy of occupation, cultivating the "National Homestead," and for- \ntifying the whole line of communication by a cordon of schoolhouses \nthat shall hold it forever as the heritage of free labor, free men and \na free nation. \n\n" So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way, \nTo wed Penobscot\'s waters to San Francisco\'s Bay ! \nTo make the nigged places smooth, to sow the vales with grain, \nAnd bear, with Liberty and Law, the Bible in his train; \nThe mighty West shall bless the East, and sea shall answer sea, \nt And mountain unto mountain call, Pkaise God, foe we aee Free !" \n\n\n\n3. METHODS OF TEACHING.* \n\nThe common schools are established by law, for the purpose of \naffording to all the children in the State the means of obtaining a \ngood education, at the public expense. Their design is to have \nknowledge as common among the jDeojole, as are water, air, and the \nsunlight. They are planted deep in the affections of the people. \nTheir importance cannot be overstated. Any attempt to improve \nthem, or to render them more useful, deserves the encouragement \nof every good citizen. I understand that the object of this Insti- \ntute, composed of teachers from various parts of the State, is to \ninterchange views in relation to the great cause of education, in \norder to assist one another in the practice of their profession. \n\nSo much has been written upon the subject of education, that it \nwould seem to have been exhausted long ago. Yet it is, in fact, as \ninexhaustible as human nature. It comprehends and applies to all \nmen, from the cradle to the grave, under all circumstances, and \nwith all their varieties and peculiarities of character. It endeavors \nto ascertain the true and philosophical system of human culture, to \npoint out the best methods of teaching, of maintaining good order, \nof preserving the health, and of developing all the faculties in the \nnatural order, so as to produce the best results for the individual \nand the communit}\'. \n\nThe object of the present meeting is more specifically to improve, \nin every possible manner, the condition of the common schools of \nthis State. We wish to render these fountains, at which the great \nmass of the people drink, as pure and invigorating as possible. \n\nMy purpose is then to take some of the ordinary branches taught \nin the common schools, and to state what I think the best methods \nof giving instruction in them. Before doing so, however, let me \npresent a few general considerations. \n\nAlthough the practice of teaching must have begun in Para- \ndise (indeed, according to the pious legends of the Kabbins, Adam \nwas not only the first man, but also the first schoolmaster, aided by \nEnoch, I suppose, as his first assistant), yet it is nearly certain that \nno great imjjrovements were generally effected in the art of teach- \ning, and that there never was known such a thing as the philosophy \nof teaching, until the institution of common schools, and, in point \n\n- Eead before the Htate Teachers\' Institute, 1861, by George W. Minns. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 123 \n\nof fact, Bot even till long after they were known. We owe our \nfathers a debt of gratitude for the establishment of the first free \nschools, supported at the public expense, for the education of the \nwhole people. Yet they were very imperfect in many particulars, \nand the change for the better was very slow and not made without \nmuch opposition. There was for a long time great imperfection in \nthe construction of schoolhouses. The Hon. Horace Mann, while \nhe was Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, described \nschoolhouses in central districts of rich and populous towns, where \neach seat was a stump, without side-arms or back-board ; some of \nthem so high that the feet of the children in vain sought after the \nfloor, and on the hard top of which they were obliged to balance \nthemselves as well as they could, for some six hours in a day. \n\nMr. Mann says: " I have reason to remember one of another class \nof schoolhouses, of the wicker-work order of architecture \xe2\x80\x94 summer- \nhouses for winter residences \xe2\x80\x94 where there was never a severely cold \nday without the ink\'s freezing in the pens of the scholars while they \nwere writing, and the teacher was obliged to compromise between \nthe sufferings of those who were exposed to the cold of the win- \ndows, and those exjjosed to the heat of the fire, by not raising the \nthermometer near the latter above ninety degrees, until that near \nthe window fell below thirty. It was an excellent place for the \nteacher to illustrate one of the facts in geography, for five steps \nwould have carried him through the five zones. Just before my \npresent circuit," he writes, "I passed a schoolhouse, the roof of \nwhich, on one side, was trough-like, and down towards the eaves \nthere was a large hole, so that the whole operated like a tunnel, to \ncatch the rain, and pour it into the school-room. At first, I did \nnot know but it might be some apparatus to illustrate the deluge. \nI called, and inquired of the mistress if she and her little ones were \nnot sometimes drowned out. She said she should be, only that the \nfloor leaked as badly as the roof, and drained off the water." \n\nI myself have seen a schoolhouse in which an old hat was shown \nto be a pronoun, by being used instead of the noun, glass. \n\nIt is of great importance to provide healthful and comfortable \nschoolhouses for the young. Let them be placed in the most \npleasant locations ; let the seats be convenient for children of all \nages, and let an abundance be furnished of that prime necessary of \nlife, fresh air. \n\nMore improvements have been made in the last twenty-five years, \nin relation to the structure and management of schoolhouses, and \nin reference to the modes of teaching the various branches pursued \ntherein, than had been accomplished during the preceding two cen- \nturies. I well remember the first grammar-school which I attended. \nIt was a very long room, with a smoke-pipe extending the whole \nlength of it, into which, so the master said, all bad boys would go. \nI was puzzled for some time to find where it led, as it passed through \na partition separating us from the next room. The stove was large \nand grim-looking, with the head of some nondescript monster upon \nthe door, with the snarling mouth wide oj)en ; and when the full \npower of the draught was on, it roared loud enough to devour sev- \neral bad boys at once. I kept at a safe distance from it. The walls \n\n\n\n124 \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\n\n\nof this aijartment were as bare as i^rison walls. There was not a \nmap, nor an engraving, nor a picture upon them, and no globe be- \nlonged to the school. This was certainly wrong. The walls of our \nschool-rooms should be covered and adorned Avith maps and pict- \nures suited to the progress of the scholars. There are published in \nthe pictorial papers, and in other ways, farm scenes, pictures of do- \nmestic animals, birds, and beasts, of flowers, of different kinds of \ntrees, and views of some of the largest cities of the globe, all of \nwhich would be useful in this respect. Nov, by any means, would \nI have omitted some scenes addressed to that sense of the beautiful \nwhich exists in children as strongly as it does in us. All this might \nbe done at a trifling expense, and what a contrast would be presented \nbetween such a school-room and the cold, lifeless, and dingy walls \nwithin which too many children are confined. If I had a school in \nthe country, particularly if it was one for small children, I would, \nin the proper season, have many of the exercises conducted in the \nopen air, in a grove, or any shady place near by. Every lesson \nrelating to nature should be studied, or read, in the face of nature, \n-with flowers scattered all around, and under the living trees, instead \nof hanging over the "desk\'s dead wood." Why should a class read \nBryant\'s glorious poem, " The groves were God\'s first temples," in \na wooden box lined with Lowell sheeting, when at a short distance \nmay be nature\'s temple itself, with its lofty pillars, its green arches,, \nits majestic roof, and its sweet songsters. \n\nThen, still carrying out this principle of object-teaching, I would \nAvail myself of it wherever I could. For instance, by the use of the \nnumeral frame, or, if that cannot be had, with buttons, or beans, all \nthe fundamental rules and jDrinciples of arithmetic can be taught \nand made palpable to the eye. I would have the length of a 3\'ard, \nfoot, and inch, jDermanently marked upon the ujDper part of the \nblackboard. 1 would have every grammar school provided with \nthe following articles, for use in the various departments, namely : \nPeck, gallon, quart, pint, and gill, measures; grains, pennyweights, \nounces, and pounds, of the different measures; blocks to represent \nsquare and solid measures, and, in addition, a pair of scales. The \nclock can be used to illustrate the divisions of time. I would have \never}\'\' scholar studying arithmetic show himself, by experiment, \nwhether the tables he commits to memory are correct. In this \nmanner, the learning of the tables, which is so often considered a \ndrudgery, would become a pleasant pastime. After this, do you \nthink the pupil would forget them ? \n\nSo in commencing grammar. Provide a number of different col- \nored wafers, bits of cloth, silk, or cotton. Show them to the schol- \nars, asking them to state the color of each. Let the pupils tell and \nwrite upon their slates the object, the color, and the number shown. \nWill not they very soon learn which is the noun, and which words \nmerely describe the noun \xe2\x80\x94 that is, are adjectives? \n\nA similar course may be pursued with the verb, and it may be \nmodified so as to bring the child to understand the office of pro- \nnouns, and to apply some of the tenses of the verbs. \n\nExample \xe2\x80\x94 I lift a book (doing it). He lifts a book. The book \ncan be lifted. You may rise. They will sit. She is touching the \ntable, etc. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 125 \n\nThis exercise may be varied indefinitely. Children should go \nthrough these exercises together, pronouncing the sentences, and \nillustrating them by doing the thing mentioned. \n\nIn this connection, I will remark that, in my opinion, children \npursue the study of grammar at altogether too early an age. Be- \ncause they can easily be taught what a noun, an adjective, or a verb \nis, it by no means follows that their minds are in a tit state to under- \nstand the principles of grammar, or analysis. There are other stud- \nies more suitable for their tender years. A year or two later, they \ncan enter more readily into the spirit and foundation of the rules of \ngrammar, and their minds will be better prepared to grapple with \nthe difficulties of the study. Time is lost by putting children into \nstudies for which their minds are not ripe. "Grammar is not the \nstepping-stone, but the finishing instrument." As grammar was \nmade after language, so oiaght it to be taught after language. \n\nWhen scholars come to study the natural sciences, these are \nmade, as much as possible, matters of experiment and observation. \nNo one supposes a pupil will make any proficiency in the study of \nchemistry, or of any branch of natural philosophy, without witness- \ning experiments, or making them for themselves. Is there not good \nreason, then, for pursuing the same course, as far as possible, with \nless advanced children? It is true, as has been remarked, that pri- \nmary and intermediate schools need apparatus as much as a high \nschool, but, of course, of a different character. \n\nThe several faculties of the human mind are not simultaneously \ndeveloped, and in educating an individual we ought to follow the \norder of nature, and adapt" the instruction to the age and mental \nstature of the pupil. If we reverse this order, and attempt to culti- \nvate faculties which are not suf&ciently matured, while we neglect \nto cultivate those which are, we do the child an irreparable injury. \nMemory, imitation, imagination, powers of observation, and the fac- \nulty of forming mental habits, exist in early life, while the judgment \nand the reasoning powers are of slower growth. It is well known \nthat the memory may be stored at an early age with valuable rules \nand precepts which in future life may become the materials of reflec- \ntion, and the guiding principles of action ; that it may be furnished \nwith heroic sentiments and poetic illustrations, with " thoughts which \nbreathe and words that burn," and which, long after, will spring up \nspontaneously from the depths of the mind, at the proper moment, \nto embellish and to enforce the truths of the future man. \n\nThis period of life, when acquisitions of this kind are most readily \nmade, is not that in which the judgment and reasoning powers can \nbe most properly cultivated. They require a more advanced age, \nwhen the mind has become more matured by natural growth, and \nbetter furnished with the material of thought. \n\nAn important part of elementary mental instruction is that of im- \nparting expertness in the performance of certain processes, such as \nspelling, reading, penmanship, drawing, composition, expertness in \nthe first rules of arithmetic. I shall by and by consider some of \nthese branches under another aspect. At present I refer only to \nthat promptness and dexterity in going through certain processes, \nwhich can be imparted only by laborious drilling on the part of the \n\n\n\n126 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nteacher, and acquired onlj\' b}\' attention and frequent practice on \nthe part of the pupil. As merely one- illustration of what I mean, \nI will mention skill in adding long columns of figures with rapidity \nand correctness. It is only in early life, while the mind is in a j^li- \nable condition, that these mental facilities can most readily and most \nperfectly be acquired. The practice in each case must be so long \ncontinued, and the process so often repeated, that it becomes a \nmental habit, and is at length performed with accuracy and rapid- \nity, almost without thought. I think this drilling is the most irk- \nsome part of a Teacher\'s duty; it is apt to be distasteful to the pupil, \nbut it must be faithfully and resolutely performed. It is an import- \nant principle which should be kept in view by the Teacher, that \nalthough the practice of an art is at first diflficult, and requires at \neach step an effort of mind, yet, every repetition renders it easier, \nand at length we come to exercise it not only without eflbrt, but as \na pleasurable gratification of a habitual act. Perseverance, there- \nfore, in this cause, will ultimately receive a grateful reward. \n\nWe should carefully avoid having too many studies in our schools. \nNon viuUa, sed muUum is a maxim of sound sense. Do a few things \nwell, not many things poorly. It should never be forgotten that \ncorrect spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, granimar, \nand facility in expressing one\'s self in good plain English, are indis- \npensable. They are the foundation of all future acquisitions; in \nfact, without them, there can be no superstructure. They are worth \nany quantity of heads full of mere smatterings of ologies and osophies. \n\n"I want to conjecture a map to study antimony, and to learn \nbigotry," said a girl to her master. "My dear little girl," was the \nreply, " you may project a map, after having studied geography some \ntime" longer; astronomy you may attend to when you can understand \nit; and I would advise you never to learn bigotry in all your life. \nPerhaps you mean botany." \n\nIt is a great evil, I have said, to introduce many studies into a \nschool. It works evil in another way, and that is, children are put \ninto studies for which their minds are not mature enough. It is an \nimportant fact that the mind, at a certain time, may be totally un- \nable to comprehend a subject, because it is not sufficiently developed \nto understand it. The evident course to be followed is, to wait, \nwait until the mind has grown, and then what was formerly so diffi- \ncult becomes perhaps quite easy. \n\nAn incident is related in the Autobiography of Dr. Benjamin \nFranklin, which illustrates this point. \n\nDr. Franklin states that he was sent by his father to a school for \nwriting and arithmetic, " kept by a then famous man, a Mr. George \nBrownwell. Under him," says\' the Doctor, " I learned to write a \ngood hand pretty soon; but I failed entirely in arithmetic." \n\nIt is almost incredible that a . mind like Franklin\'s should be in- \ncapable, even at the age of nine years, of understanding the rudi- \nments of arithmetic, which he tells us, he mastered a few years after \nby himself, Avith ease. His mind, perhaps, was not sufficiently \ngroAvn for him to take hold of the subject. Another explanation of \nthis fact is to be found also in the character of the text-books used \nin Franklin\'s day, and in the method, or, rather, want of any method, \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 127 \n\nof instruction. Every one, at all interested in the cause of Educa- \ntion, knows the vast improvement that has been made within a \nbrief period, both in the books used in schools and in the methods \nof teaching from them. This improvement has extended to every \nbranch of a school education. It is difficult for us to form an idea \nhow different was the state of things in Franklin\'s time. I imagine \nI see the boy \xe2\x80\x94 endowed by his Creator with faculties which were to \nastonish the world by their strength, acuteness, and grasj) \xe2\x80\x94 that \nboy, who afterw^ards made his name immortal by his discoveries in \nscience, and who did more than any man, except "Washington, to \ncarry his countrymen successfully through the war of the Eevolu- \ntion \xe2\x80\x94 I imagine I see him in a small and, probably, ill-ventilated \nschool-roofn in School Street, in the town of Boston, resting his \ndistracted head upon his hand, and endeavoring in vain to catch a \nglimpse of the meaning of the mysterious rules in Cocker\'s Arith- \nmetic. The various studies that now make school life pleasant Avere \nentirely out of his reach. At ten years of age he was taken from \nschool to help his father in the business of tallow-chandler and \nsoap-boiler, having learned from that "famous man," Master \nBrownwell, nothing except a good hand \xe2\x80\x94 a statement which every \none will admit to be true who looks at his name, signed in clear, \nround characters, to the Declaration of IndejDendence. One cannot \nhelp thinking with what delight Franklin would, even at that early \nage, have pored over the most elementary treatise on Natural Phi- \nlosophy; but it was to be his fate, by his brilliant discoveries, to \nmake some of the most important additions to such a work, instead \nof merely reading accounts of the achievements of others. \n\nIt should be carefully kept in mind that the object is not to pour \ninformation into the mind, but to train and discipline it. Hence, \nwe see the absurdity of learning a lesson merely by rote, and of \nasking, in hearing a recitation, simply the questions which may be \nin the book. Montaigne says: "To know b}\' heart, is not to \nJinow." Self-development should be encouraged to the fullest ex- \ntent. The pupil should be told as little as possible, and induced to \ndiscover as much as possible. Encourage him to conquer difficul- \nties himself. Every victory so achieved adds to the strength of his \nmind, and what he acquires in this way he makes permanently his \nown. The rule that the teacher should follow, is not to do anything \nfor the scholar which the scholar can do for himself; to remove \nfrom the road only those obstacles which are insurmountable, and \nto put the pupil on the right track when he has got on the wrong \none. The true object in teaching is, to enable the scholar to do \n\xe2\x96\xa0without a teacher, as in assisting a child to walk; it is that he may \nwalk alone. It is true that certain information must be imparted \nby the teacher, and the best informed man, other things being \nequal, will be the best teacher. But in imparting information, the \nsame caution should be used as in feeding a child. Give him intel- \nlectual food only when he craves it, then only can he digest it. \nDon\'t load his stomach when he is not hungry. There is intellec- \ntual dyspepsia in schools. \n\nIt is implied in what I have said, that the real object of education \nis to teach how to think. If this is not done, the memory may be \n\n\n\n128 INSTIIUTE ADDKESSES. \n\ncrammed with knowledge, so called (even this is like the rude and \nundigested mass with which Virgil\'s harpies gorged themselves); \nbut what wisdom is there, what development of mind ? Emerson \nsays: " When a great thinker is let loose upon the world, look \nout." How true it is that very few people do think. Many follow \nin the beaten track, without asking whether there is not a better \nroad. How many are carried away by mere Avords, names, devices,, \nwithout once inquiring \xe2\x80\x94 What does all this really mean ? Let us \nnot be surprised, then, that the power of thinking is not more \nfrequently found among the young. Few grown persons possess \nit. But it is a source of great gratification to the teacher when he \nfinds in his class any who do think, who turn the matj:er over in \ntheir minds, who inquire why this is, or is not, so; in short, who^ \nbring mind to bear ujoon the subject of their lessons. He wishes- \nthat that leaven would leaven the whole lump of juvenility before \nhim. Too many learn their lessons by going over them as a mere \nmatter of memory, not as an e.xercise of the mind. This will be the \nease as long as teachers insist upon, and are satisfied with, merely \nthe answers in the book, hearing the lesson almost as a mechanical \nexercise. The remedy for the evil is to cross-examine the scholars \nclosely, and in a variety of ways, in order to ascertain whether they \nhave clear and definite ideas on the subject which they have been \nstudying. In this manner you probe their knowledge. Take all \nthe pains in the world to see that they understand what they recite, \nperhai^s, very glibly. \n\nAs the foundation of all memory, of all thinking, of progress in \nlearning, of success in any pursuit, attention is indispensable. It is \nthe possession, or the want of this faculty, that makes the great \ndifference among men. It is the power of directing and holding \nthe mind closely and fixedly upon an}^ subject until it is contem- \nplated in all its asi^ects and relations, and thereby fully understood. \nYou remember Newton said if there was a difi\'erence between him- \nself and other men, it resulted from his attention to the subject of \nhis thoughts. This ability to fasten and hold the attention cannot \nbe estimated too highly. It must not be disregarded even in the \nyoungest pupil. Whether one or many are to be instructed, un- \ndivided attention must be given. Care and judgment ai"e, of course, \nhighly necessary in presenting just such thoughts and lessons as \nare adapted to their capacity. One thing at a time should claim \nattention until it is full}^ mastered- Let that one thing be within \nthe reach of the child\'s mind, and then impressed upon it until the \nidea is fully grasped. \n\nA pleasant method of giving a child a lesson in attention may be \nfound in Ogden\'s " Science of Education," He says: " A little ex- \npedient to which I have resorted, on some occasions, may be sug- \ngestive of means that may be adopted for correcting these evils, \nand of fixing the attention. Holding up my watch to the school, I \nhave said: \' How many of these little boys and girls can look at it \nfor one minute at a time?\' The idea, perhaps, is a novel one, and \ntheir little voices and hands will respond, anxious for the experi- \nment. Some will say, boastingl}^, \' I can look at it an hour!\' \' Two \nhours !\' responds another little captain, who is anxious to make a \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 129 \n\ndisplay of his prowess. At this juncture, I ask, how many would \nbe willing to make the experiment of one minute continuous look- \ning ? There is a shower of hands and a shout of voices raised to \nthe highest i^itch. \' Well, let us try; all ready; now!\' And their \nforms straighten up, and all eyes are bent with intense earnestness \nupon the watch. It grows very quiet, and every one listens and \nlooks. Presently it occurs to half a dozen, or more, of them, that \nthey are doing it about right. \' I wonder if John, or Charles, or \nMary, or Ellen , is looking too ? Wonder if they all are doing as well \nas lam?\' And their thoughts leave the watch and the promise, and \nwander after Charles or Ellen, and the temptation to look away be- \ncomes so great that in about half a minute, or less, you will see an \noccasional pair of eyes glance hurriedly to some convenient quarter \nof the room, and back quick to the watch again; others, still less \ncautious, will turn the head, and look carelessly away; others, \nagain, will drop off entirely, and cease to look; while some more \nresolute and determined and careful than the rest, will not remove \ntheir eyes for a moment, and, at the expiration of the time, will an- \nnounce their triumph with evident satisfaction. At the close, some \nwill insist upon a new trial; it may be granted, and then others \nwill succeed: and here it might be well to vary the experiment. \nThe question might be asked: \' If you are capable of holding your \neyes fixed upon that watch, can you, with equal success, confine \nthem to a picture or mark, upon the board ?\' \n\n" \' Now, if you can look at a watch, a i:)icture, or a mere chalk \nmark upon the board, for a given time, can you look at your books \nas long without change?\' The intention here, perhaps, will be dis- \ncovered by some, and they will begin to see the force of it. Let \nthe experiment be made with the book, without attempting to study \nduring the first few trials. If they succeed well, suggest that if \nthey can look upon one page of the book, they might study that \nlong without looldng away; and if they can thus confine the atten- \ntion for one, two, or three minutes, they can also, by practicing, \ncontinue to five and six; but it will be found that young scholars \nare not able to endure more than three or four minutes, even after \nmonths of practice." \n\nAnother method is to read sentences selected for the beauty of \nthe thought, or for the admirable manner in which they express \nsome noble sentiment, or convey some moral truth. They are to \nbe suited to the mind of the scholar, and are to be read to the \nwhole class, beginning, of course, with short sentences, and after- \nwards proceeding to longer and more complicated. Every one in \nthe class must be told to give close attention. The sentence is \nthen read only once, slowly and distinctl3^ All those who can re- \nmember it are requested to raise their hands, and some one is called \non to repeat it. It is wonderful to what an extent the attention and \nthe memory can be cultivated by such a course as this. Do you \nsuppose that children, who have had the advantage of this practice, \nwill, when they hear a lecture or sermon in after-life, complain that \ntheir memories are so wretched that they cannot recollect a word? \n\nWarren Colburn\'s "Intellectual Arithmetic" (and all mental \narithmetics are based upon his plan), besides addressing the reason- \n\n\n\n130 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\ning faculty, and leading" pupils to understand the principles of \narithmetic, is remarkably instrumental in increasing the power of \nthought, and in enabling the mind to hold and to follow a line of \nconsecutive reasoning. \n\nThe object of the Common School is to give the pupil a good \nknowledge of the fundamental branches of an English education. \nI shall now remark upon the methods of teaching some of these \nbranches somewhat more in detail. \n\nEdward Everett says, " I hold that to read the English language \nwell \xe2\x80\x94 that is, with intelligence, feeling, spirit, and effect; to write, \nwith dispatch, a neat, handsome, legible hand (for it is, after all, a \ngreat object in writing to have others able to read what we write), \nand to be master of the four rules of arithmetic, so as to dispose, \nat once, with accuracy, every question of figures which comes up in \npractical life \xe2\x80\x94 I say, I call this a good education. And, if you add \nthe ability to write j)ure, grammatical English, I regard it as an ex- \ncellent education. These are the tools. You can do much with \nthem, but 3\'ou are helpless without them." \n\nFirst, let me speak of reading. To read understandingly, natur- \nally, expressively, and feelingly, is a delightful accomplishment; \nand yet how few possess it ? Vocal exercises are excellent for cul- \ntivating and developing the powers of the voice; the proper pro- \nnunciation and distinct enunciation of words, the different intona- \ntions of the voice should be carefully regarded; but the significance \nof the words, the meaning of the author, is indispensable. A lesson \nin reading sliould he studied as thoroughly as any other lesson set in the \nschool. The teacher should inquire the meaning of every word and \nevery allusion with which he may suppose the pupils to be unac- \nquainted. As their minds become more mature, he should call \ntheir attention to tlie beauties or defects of any comparison em- \nployed. He should endeavor to impress them with a proper con- \nception of the beauty, wisdom, or truth of what they read. If a \nlesson of only a few lines can be learnt in this manner, set that les- \nson, and no more. Do not be discouraged if the progress be slow \nat first, it will be rapid by and by. At any rate, it is progress, \nwhereas the other course is no progress at\xc2\xbball. -For surely the ut- \ntering of pages of words, day after day, and month after month, \nwithout comprehending their meaning, is not at all elevated above \nthe occupation of the parrot. Nor is it sufficient that the pupil \nunderstands the meaning of most of the words; he must know them \nall. If he is ignorant of the meaning of one word, he may lose all \nthe soul of whatever he reads. Let the teacher, in hearing a class \nread, have perpetually in mind the question addressed by Philip, \n" Understandest thou what thou readest ?" \n\nThere can be no good reading if the lesson is not understood. \nIf, upon examining a school, I found the pupils well acquainted \nwith the meaning of what they read, I should feel the best assur- \nance that they had pursued their other studies understandingly. \n\nI wish to caution all against a theatrical tone. Most Professors \nof Elocution commit this error, and many who attend their instruc- \ntions imitate them in this respect. Hence, there is so little good \njeading among us. On the one hand, some who have never re- \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 131 \n\nceived any instruction from a competent teaclier, read in a careless, \nslovenly, and wretched manner, mumbling their words in the same \nmonotone, whatever the subject may be; while, on the other hand, \nmany, taking their cue from some Professor of Elocution, or some \ndistinguished public reader, assume an unnatural tone, and, with an \nair and manner, all affectation and conceit, begin what -they consider \nremarkably stunning reading. Heaven preserve me from it. "I \nhad rather be a kitten, and cry mew," than be obliged to listen to \nit. I pray you avoid it. Of one of these theatrical readers it was \nsaid that, at dinner, she stabbed the potatoes instead of taking \nthem, and that she asked for a knife in the same tone in which she \nwould say, " Give me the dagger." \n\nI proceed next to the subject of Geography. This study is often \ncommenced with a series of definitions, which are got by heart, re- \npeated, laid aside, and forgotten; forgotten, for one reason, be- \ncause not explained or understood, the language being made to \nprecede the ideas; and for another, because the words which the \ndefinitions are to exj^lain are new to the pupils. A better way of \ncommencing geography, with all children, is to call their attention \nto the spot on which they live; to point out surrounding objects, \nand mark their relative situations on the floor or black board; and \nthus, to show how a town, its streets or roads, and its prominent \nfeatures, natural or artificial, may be represented. As their ideas \nexpand, the scale may be reduced, and distant towns, counties, \nrivers, and mountains, with which the children are acquainted, or \nof which they may have heard, may be introduced, correct ideas of \nspace and number being gradually acquired. Pupils should be \ntaught, by reference to objects around, them, what is the length of \na mile; and b}^ questions put to them in relation to places to which \nthey have traveled, they should be enabled to form a correct idea of \nwhat the distance fifty, one hundred, or one thousand miles ac- \ntually is. Point out in which direction North, South, East and \nT/est are, and state why a certain direction is fixed upon for the \nNorth. Call attention to the pictorial representations of lakes, \nrivers, &c. (like those introduced into the San Francisco schools); \nand having alraad}\' become acqv;ainted with the thing, notice how \nquickly they will learn and how easily they will remember the name. \nGeography ought not to be studied without continual reference to \na globe. It should be looked at during every lesson, and it would \ngradually stamp upon the minds of the scholars such a livel}^ image \nof the sphericit}^ of the earth and of the relative positions and sizes \nof continents, islands, oceans, &c., as would never be effaced. \n\nI find in most geographies, lists of questions directing pupils to \nlearn the situations of small towns, or villages, or insignificant \nrivers or lakes, as: Where is Toudou, Tzentziu, Sewah, &c., &c. ? \nSuch places are of no consequence; the scholar has no assistance \nfrom the association of ideas in mastering what may be truly called \nhis task ; and in ascertaining the position of places, which might as \nwell be called by the letters of the alphabet as by the names used \nin the book. I should request the scholar to find out the localities \nonly of the more important places, and which these are can be \neasily known from the book. Why should he be called upon to \n\n\n\n132 INSTITUTE ADDEESSES. \n\nburden Lis memory with, a mass of useless details forgotten as soon- \nas acquired? You do not wish to make of him a Geographical \nGazeteer. You cannot expect him to know the locality of every \nplace upon the earth from Borioboloo Gha to London. You must \ndraw the line somewhere; draw it then between those places which \nare of importance and those which are not. After leaving school, \nthe scholar can easily ascertain the position of any place in which \nhe may haj^pen to be interested. \n\nI make these remarks because pupils, at exhibitions, have been \ncalled iTpon to run through long catalogues of names of rivers, lakes, \nseas, oceans, capes, islands, mountains, states, cities, towns, &c. It \nis Avell that children should know these, to a certain extent, but this \nis by no means the important part of geograph3\\ They should also \nbecome familiar Avith the grand facts and the leading principles; the \nreal and comparative sizes of countries, using their own State as a \nunit; the comimrative population of difierent countries and large \ncities, taking the population of Californiti and San Francisco as the \nunits of measure; the grand features of countries, such as the moun- \ntain and river systems; the climate of different parts of the world, \nand the causes affecting it; the various productions of the globe; the \nextraordinary natural curiosities found upon the earth; the great \nocean surrounding tlie land, and inviting the nations to commerce; \nthe kind of people that live in any land, their religion, their pecu- \nliarities, their social and political condition, and many other subjects \nwhich will suggest themselves to the comj^etent instructor. \n\nIf geography were taught in this manner, should you think it \npossible for children to consider the top of a map to be up, and the \nbottom down, and that, consequentl}\', all rivers which flow into the \nArctic Ocean must run up hill? Or to state that Cuba and Massa- \nchusetts are of about the same size ? Answers which have actually \nbeen given in schools of considerable reputation. \n\nThe elements of composition are almost invariably a stumbling- \nblock to the young \xe2\x80\x94 and, strange as the statement may appear, I \nthink the principal reasons for this fact are that it is not commenced \nearly enough, but is put off until the pupil is considerably advanced \nin his other studies, and that he is then usually told to write a com- \nposition upon some subject \xe2\x80\x94 perhaps an abstract one \xe2\x80\x94 about which \nhe know^s nothing, and in which he cannot, of course, feel the \nslightest interest. AVho does not remember the vacuity of mind and \nvexation of spirit with which, in his youthful days, he addressed \nhimself to the set task of writing an essay upon such a theme as \xe2\x80\x94 \nVirtue, its own Reward ; The Study of Hisfori/, &c. ? Of what fright- \nful dimensions, and how supernaturally white, looked the blank \nsheet (blank as our own minds) of foolscap, which we were to fill \nwith our own thouglits (so the master directed) without receiving \nany assistance from our friends. How frequently we thrust the pen \ninto the inkstand in the vain hope to hook up some idea which \nmight be concealed in that Stygian abyss! How desi^airingly we \nscratched our heads, how closely we scrutinized the walls and the \nceiling, as if we expected to catch by the tail some stray idea which \nmight be lurking in some corner or crevice of the room ! How \nfirmly did we for the time believe in the non-existence of mind, and \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 133 \n\nihe existence of nothing but matter throughout the universe! And \nthen, if, after all this cudgeling of our brains, something did come \ninto our heads, whispered, doubtless, by the pitying spirit of some \nrepentant pedagogue, did we not make the most of it ? Did we not \ndilute it, and dilate it, and amplify it, and spread it out, in the \nlargest hand, upon lines ruled at least two inches apart, being very \ncareful to prevent any quarreling between the words, by placing \nthem at such a distance as to make it impossible for them to cross \nswords with one another! \n\nNow, the remedy for this unfortunate state of things consists in \n\xe2\x96\xa0 asking children to write upon those subjects only which thej\' under- \nstand, or which relate directly to, or spring out of, their studies, or \nin which they would naturally, as boys and girls, take an interest. \nA multitude of such questions, drawn from the everyday pursuits, \n\xe2\x80\xa2amusements, and occupations of the j\'oung, will suggest themselves \nto the qualified teacher. It is highly important that the exercise of \nwriting out their own thoughts should commence early. Very soon \nafter children begin to think, and are capable of using and writing \nsmall words, a slate and pencil should be put into their hands, and \nthey should be brought to express their thoughts in their own lan- \nguage, no matter how short the sentences or the words. In most of \nthe schools for the deaf and dumb, the pu^Dils begin to write ex- \nercises of this character after two years\' instruction \xe2\x80\x94 in some sooner. \nAnd, certainly, if this can be done by those unfortunately dej)rived \nof speech and hearing, it can be accomplished by those possessing \nall their faculties. I have known scholars, in other respects excel- \nlent, who found great difficulty in expressing themselves either \norally or in writing. They were deficient in language. They \nought to have been from an early period frequently practised in \nthe use of their mother tongue. The exercises should be made \nmore difficult, as the pupil becomes older; for beginners, they \nshould, of course, be of the simplest character. As soon as a child \ncan write legibly, he should be put to writing short phrases \xe2\x80\x94 \noriginal or from dictation; and, as a part of this exercise, he \nshould be taught spelling, the dividing of words into syllables, \npunctuation, the rules for the use of the capital letters, &c. Teachers \ncomplain that it is difficult for scholars to learn to sjoell correctly; \nand so it is, especially from the use of spelling-books alone. To \nbecome a very correct sjoeller, is the labor of years on the part of \nthe pupil. It is continual practice in the writing of sentences, not \nisolated words, that makes the good speller; and pupils cannot learn \nto spell correctly without being more in the habit of writing than \nthey now are. A man who writes onl}^ a letter or two a year is \nlikely to be a jDoor speller; but one who, from his occupation, writes \nevery day, is rarely faulty in this respect. Consider, too, in piractis- \niug such simple lessons in composition as I recommend, how many \nvaluable things the}\' are at the same time acquiring. Besides punc- \ntuation, spelling, the use of capital letters, &c., they are, or should \nbe, improving their handwriting; they are exercising their minds \npleasantly by the invention of sentences, short or long; they are \nlearning the meanings and the right use of words; they are gradu- \nall}\' becoming acquainted with their own language, and accustomed \n\n\n\n134 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nto express their thoughts appropriately. Think how desirable an \nacquisition this last will be to every boy and girl upon entering into \nlife, and how many have regretted the want of it. \n\nI agree to the opinion, that it is a wicked waste of time to confine \nchildren, year after year, to copj\'-books in penmanship. After a \ncertain stage has passed \xe2\x80\x94 and that not a very late one \xe2\x80\x94 handwrit- \ning should be made the common and every-day means of acquiring \nand reducing to practice a knowledge of orthography, punctuation^ \nthe construction of sentences, &c. Children who have been kept \nin their copy-books until they could write a beautiful hand have, if \nrequired to write down sentences of their own composition, produced \nillegible and disgraceful scrawls, abounding in errors of punctua- \ntion and spelling. This statement proves the importance of early \ncombining handwriting, punctuation, and spelling, in one exercise of \nthe pupil\'s own composition; of departing from the beaten track, \nand of making, as soon as possible, scholars do the whole work for \nthemselves without pattern or assistance. \n\nSimilar remarks to those which I have made are applicable to the \nsubject of Declamations. Let the boys speak only pieces which they \nfully understand and appreciate, suitable to their age, and expres- \nsive of such thoughts, feelings, and interests, as are natural to boys, \nnot men. I take no interest in seeing a stripling ascend the ros- \ntrum, and, in tones intended to be very impressive, exclaim: " There \nstands Bunker Hill Monument," with a gesture directed at the \nstove-pipe. I object to hearing a youthful prodigy shriek, in the \nshrillest treble, " My voice is still for war." I refuse to lend my \nears, although urgently requested to do so, in the well known line, \nbeginning \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n"Friends, Eomans, countrymen." \n\nI am not at all withered by the tone of contempt with which the \nembryo orator " hurls back the base insinuation, with scorn and \ndefiance, into the teeth of the contemptible and inefficient member \nof the opposite party." I have seen, in a California paper, a notice \nof an exhibition, in which it was stated that the Great Debate be- \ntween "Webster and Hayne was conducted with decorum by the \nyouthful Senators. Well, I am glad it was; I am thankful that no \nviolation of parliamentary propriety occurred, calling for the inter- \nference of the Sergeant-at-Arms. But why should boj\'s personate \nDemosthenes, Cicero, Burke, Webster, Clay, or James Buchanan? \nWhy not simply and naturally be iJiemHelves ? \n\nWho would shorten this blissful period by introducing into it the \npassions, strifes, and ambition of men ? Let boys be hoys in every \nsense of the word, while they are such in years, and neither on nor \noff the stage ape the bearing, passions, or language of men. I do \nnot wish to be understood as saying that appeals to the highest and \nbest feelings of our nature, that the noble and patriotic sentiments \nof our great orators cannot be appreciated by bo^\'s. Far from it. \nBut I wish particular pains to be t^ken by the teacher to avoid \npieces which do not lie within the comprehension or the experience \nof the pupil; and let those selected be as thorouglil}- studied and \nunderstood as the lessons in reading, to which I have alluded, or \nany otlier lessons, in the school. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 135 \n\nI cannot condemn too strongly all dramatic exhibitions, conducted \nby schools, in which scenes from plays are repi\'esented with scenery, \ndresses, music, &c. I do not object to a good dialogue or polylogue, \nsuch as is adapted to interest the youthful mind and touch to finer \nissues the youthful heart, spoken in the usual manner. But I am \nopposed to dramatic representations, accompanied, to use the tech- \nnical word, with all the properties. I do not know that any exhi- \nbition of this kind has ever occurred in connection with the Free \nSchools of America, and I hope none such ever will. There is no \ntalent in sjjouting. Do not boys have too much inclination for the \nstage already without its being stimulated ? And what a waste of \ntime there is in getting up such representations; precious time \nwhich might be, and ought to be, spent in familiarizing the pupil \nwith all the fundamental branches of a good, sound, English edu- \ncation, without which they cannot expect to be useful to themselves \nor to society. \n\nYou must perceive of what primary importance I consider it is, \nthat children should know the meaning of every thing they attempt \nto learn. It is astonishing with what facility they will use words, \nor give an answer, to which they attach an erroneous meaning, or \nperhaps, no meaning whatever. This was much more the case for- \nmerly than at present, since our fathers did not, in many respects, \npursue the natural course in the education of children. \n\nHow pleasantly and successfully nature teaches the infant! No \nsooner has it begvm to exercise its senses, first, probably, the touch, \nin perceiving warmth, to open its eyes, to take food, to j^erceive \nodors, to hear sounds, than it begins to acquire knowledge. In the \nexercise of these powers the infant takes great delight. That dur- \ning the first months of a child\'s life, its progress is highly satisfac- \ntory, is evident to a very ordinary observer; its first lispings show \nhow much interest it finds in the aj)pearances of surrounding ob- \njects; its first observations are listened to and receive that degree \nof attention which they demand; and it is not till the pressure of \nother domestic duties, or other inclinations, divide the mother\'s \ncare, that the inquiries of the infant are neglected, and it is left, \noften discouraged and disheartened. A child obtains its notions as \nas we do, by seeing, sounding, feeling, smelling, and tasting ob- \njects. " Do not meddle" puts a stop to these processes. In cases \nof doubt and uncertainty, it asks for information, and is, perhaps. \ntold, "Little children should be seen, and not heard." After a few \nyears, the child is placed at school, where, instead of that natural \ncourse being pursued which should turn to account the observa- \ntions and knowledge he has already stored up, he is often forced \nupon studies for which he shows no inclination; he is taught icoj-ds, \ninstead of things ; and his memory is loaded with j^hrases and rules, \nwhich he does not understand. \n\nThus, his education commences, and thus a path, which might be \nstrewn with flowers to allure, is choked with brambles to impede, \nhis progress. The thorny track is traveled over, and for a long \ntime the pvipil has only confused notions floating in his mind, to \nthe exclusion of that precise and distinct knowledge which lies \nwithin the grasp of those^^faculties which nature courts him to ex- \n\n\n\n136 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nercise. We all know that in many schools children have been \ntaught, nay, are even now taught, as if they had to use only one \nor two of the senses. A child who possesses in perfection all the \nsenses, should have them all exercised. We are, none of us, per- \nhaps, more than half educated in this respect. The five senses \nare the means of communication between the outer world and the \nspirit within. It is through these media that the child for some \ntime receives all its knowledge. A late writer says of the infant \nof two years old: " He has acquired more knowledge during this \nshort period than he generally does on the present plan of in- \nstruction through the eight or ten succeeding years of his life, \nand it is a striking instance of the benevolence of the Creator, and \na jDrelude of the vast extent of knowledge the child is afterwards \ncapable of acquiring, that all these acquisitions are made, not only \nwithout pain, but, in the greater number of instances, are accom- \npanied with the highest enjoyment." \n\nIn the school-room, we should imitate as much as possible the \nmethod of nature. Young children are not reflecting or reasoning \nbeings; they have no appreciation of abstractions; they are for the \ntangible, the real, the concrete. It is through their senses that \nnature is acquainting them with the material world, and how fresh, \nactive, and vigilant their senses are, and what untiring pleasure \nthey take in their exercise. \n\nChildren should be taught by things as much as possible, by words \nas little as 2iossible. The latter may kill any idea, but the reality \nrnaketh alive. On this account, I consider object-teaching as a de- \ncided improvement in our schools. It is an excellent plan, when- \never practicable, to show the scholars whatever may be the subject \nof the lesson, or, if that cannot be done, then a drawing or picture \nof it. Their interest is thus awakened; every eye is sure to be wide \nopen; the information imparted is correct; there can be no mistake \nabout it. How quickly, also, it is gathered; how much time it \ntakes to convey, by description, through the ear, a full and accur- \nate idea of what may, perhaps, be understood at a glance of the \neye, and so impressed upon the mind as never to be forgotten. \nThere are some teachers who should be informed that they do not \nhave under their charge Institutions for the Blind; but that their \npupils have eyes, and would rejoice in an ojiportunity to use \nthem. \n\nThe importance of real objects, natural and artificial models, pic- \ntorial representations, experimental and other practical elucida- \ntions, cannot be too strongly urged on those who have the direction \nof the young mind. In most of the subjects which form the school \nbusiness, such illustrations may be introduced. The school-room \nshould be furnished with receptacles for works of art and nature; \nthe pupils themselves would be the most valuable and active con- \ntributors to such collections; and those sj^ecimens which are ap- \nparently the most humble will often be found to be the most use- \nful. Visits to mines, manufactories, to the sea-shore, to fields and \nwoods, would furnish great additions to such a store. Minerals, \nvegetables, woods, metals, animal substances, insects, shells, &c., \nare easily obtained. The arrangement and classification of these \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 137 \n\nobjects would call into exercise faculties wliicli are now scarcely \never developed. One writer says that he has known boys of twelve \nyears of age who could recognize and refer to their proper class al- \nmost evei-y object around them in nature, and gives it as his opinion \nthat a wide range of descriptive natural history may be imparted at \nthat age. \n\nThe world around us is fair and beautiful, and full of wonders; \nit is always speaking to the heart of man, though the cares of life \nmay prevent him from hearing its voice. But it is in the morning of \nlife, when the heart is free from anxiety, when the spirits are light \nand buoyant, when the senses are the most acute, the curiosity in- \nsatiable, and creation fresh and new, that its language finds a will- \ning and a charmed ear. \n\nHow do the young enjoy the glories of sunrise, a lovely prospect, \na ramble through the woods, or along the sea-shore, and how much \nquicker than their elders do they notice any little circumstance that \nmay occur! ^ And what a pity it is to close upon them this broad \nface of nature which God himself has spread before them for their \ncontemi^lation and delight, and shut them up within four walls, \nwhere they are told to keep their eyes on their lessons, which are \nsome pages of a jDrinted book ? Cage the lark, tie up the forest \ndeer \xe2\x80\x94 and you do not act more against nature than has been done \nin sentencing children to imprisonment six hours a day within the \nblank walls of some penitentiary of a school-house. \n\nNow, I know very well that geography, grammar, and arithmetic \nare indispensable. They must be learnt, and well learnt. The \nfundamental branches of a good English education must not be \nneglected. But while I would not have these in the least interfered \nwith, I would urge it ujDon all connected with schools not to disre- \ngard the natural sciences. The study will, I am sure, contribute to \nthe pleasure and improvement of both teachers and scholars, and \npromote, instead of retarding, the progress of the latter in ttieir \nother studies. These first books can be understood by any teacher \nwhose " heart is in her vocation;" in fact, such a teacher will be \ndelighted with them; and if she catches the true spirit of observa- \ntion, she will be continually led to add facts of her own gathering \nto those which the author has preserved. \n\nIt is certainly possible, during the seven or eight years spent in \nthe Grammar Schools, to pay some attention to the natural sciences. \nDo not shut the children out from them during this the golden \nperiod of their lives for studying them . Consider a few of the ad- \nvantages to the discipline of the jDupil\'s mind in pursuing these \nsciences. How much are his powers of observation improved by \nthe study of nature ! And this is no small thing. How few people \nsee things just as they are! How often do witnesses under oath \ndisagree with regard to material circumstances in relation to events \noccurring before their eyes, and where all had equal opportunities \nof seeing! Men are unwilling to trust their own senses in reference \nto matters a little out of the line of their own business. They will \ntell yovi they are no judges in such cases. Have not persons been \nmade believers in spiritualism and animal magnetism, because their \n9 \n\n\n\n138 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nobserving faculties were not sufficiently awake to see througli the \ndeception ? \n\nBut after things are seen (and it is a very important thing to see \nthem accurately and fully), then comes the exercise of the faculty \nof comparison. Now this faculty implies a great deal. We com- \npare things, not merely to see their resemblances, but their differ- \nences. He who can do this well, is no ordinary person; he who \ncan do it remarkably well, is one out of ten thousand. Men differ \ngreatly in their ability to perceive resemblances and differences. \nAn unfortunate lawyer is compelled to take his seat in mortification, \nby the Judge\'s showing him that the cases he had cited are not an- \nalogous to that before the Court, and consequently not at all applic- \nable. The great business of buying and selling depends, as one \nmay say, upon comparison. It sometimes happens that the best of \nfriends will get angry in a discussion, when the difference between \nthem is a trifle, a fact of which they may afterwards become aware, \nmuch to their astonishment. We consider it a compliment to any \none, when we say that he has a discriminating mind; he can make \ndistinctions. Now, the natural "sciences teach how to observe, and how \nto distinguish tilings correctly \xe2\x80\x94 which is, in fact, the greater part of \neducation, and that in which people otherwise well educated are \nsometimes surprisingly deficient. \n\nIt must not be forgotten that the course of study in the Grammar \nSchools should be comprehensive enough to meet the wants and \ntastes of every mind. Now, the list is by no means small of those \nwho have been pronounced dunces at school, who have afterwards \nbeen widely distinguished for their attainments in science. Hugh \nMiller, who has been mentioned, is an instance in point. Dr. \nFranklin was probably considered by his teacher as arithmetic \nproof, and, perhaps, as stupid in other respects; the reason being \nthat there was no study pursued in the school which interested the \nyouthful philosopher, who was born to be an observer of nature. \nMany other instances to the same effect might be mentioned. In- \ntroduce, then, into the Common Schools the study of Nature, and \nmake provision for those whose tastes, perhaps whose geniiis, lies in \nthat direction. \n\nI know that the general impression is, that the study of any \nbranch of natural science is a study of hard words, particularly in \nthe case of natural history. It is surprising to notice how many \nschool-books will commence with pages of hard words and defini- \ntions, the purpose of which at that stage is unintelligible. This is \nnot the case, however, with the books I have mentioned. They are \nsimple, and suited to the j\'oung. The great and interesting facts \nare noticed; hard names are explained, and the definitions given \nonly when it becomes necessary in the course of the works, and \nthus the pupil is not disheartened or disgusted at the very begin- \nning. We must wait until the mind has become more mature be- \nfore the scholar can attend to classification or to generalization. \n\nIt must not be overlooked that, in consequence of the great ad- \nvances made in the physical sciences, they are much more the \nobjects of attention now than formerly. The great discoveries of \nmodern times, more or less intimately connected with the welfare \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 139 \n\nand the progress of society, are made in these sciences, and the \nphysical arts themselves have received a new impulse. We must \nieep pace with them in our schools. \n\nThe public are little aware how much interest is taken by natural- \nists the world over in the natural history of California. The State \nhas been visited and explored, in some parts, for that purpose by \nagents from most of the prominent universities and societies in the \nworld. The distinguished naturalist, Agassiz, states that he has a \nfriend in San Francisco who has sent him an amount of specimens \ngreater than all those collected by all the United States Exploring \nExpeditions put together. \n\nIs it not high time for the "citizens of California to take an interest \nin this subject, and to introduce it into the Public Schools, so as to \ngive every young man desirous of entering upon these pursuits an \nopportunity to make some, at least, of the necessary preparations; \nand is there any country where such studies are more needed, or \nwill be more useful to the public and to the individual ? \n\nThere is a very strong desire at the East to introduce more ex- \ntensively into their schools the study of the natural sciences, includ- \ning natural history. They acknowledge their remissness in this \nrespect, and all concur in the imjDortance and necessity of this \nchange being made. \n\nIn a lecture, delivered by Agassiz, are the following remarks: \n\n" Our school system has been developed in a manner which has \nproduced the most admirable results, and is imitated everywhere as \nthe most complete and the most successful; but, while we have at- \ntained the highest point in that respect, we are also best prepared \nby that very jDosition to make any further improvement which may \nlead to a better future. And I believe that the introduction of the \nstudy of natural history, as a branch of the most elementary\' educa- \ntion, is what can be added to what is already so admirable a system. \nThe difficult art of thinking can be acquired more rapidly by this \nmethod than by any other. When we study moral or mental phil- \nosoi:)hy in text-books, which we commit to memory, it is not the \nmind we cultivate \xe2\x80\x94 it is the memory alone. The mind may come \nin; but if it does in that method, it is only in an accessory way. \n3\\it if we learn to think, by unfolding thoughts ourselves, from the \nexamination of objects around us, then we acquire them ourselves, \nand we acquire the abilitj\' of applying our thoughts in life. The \nteacher who is competent to teach the elements of this science, \nmust, of course, feel a deep interest in it; he must know how to \nselect those topics which are particularly instructive and best \nadapted to awaken an interest to sustain it, and to lead forward to \nthe understanding of more difficult questions. He should be \n-capable of rendering the subject attractive, interesting, and so \npleasant, indeed, that the hour for the school should be welcomed \nby the scholar instead of beiug dreaded as bringing something im- \njjosed by duty, and not desirable in itself." \n\nIt may be added to what has been said by Agassiz, in illustration \nof the benefits to be derived from the study of natural history, that \nit is a fact, which every one acquainted with the subject will admit, \nthat our crops are every year injured to the extent of many thou- \n\n\n\n14:0 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nsands of dollars by the depredatioBS of insects whose habits are not \nproperly understood. In this way, the Hessian fly, the canker \nworm, the apple worm, the apple and joeach borers, the curculio, \nthe cotton worm, the tobacco worm, the corn borer, the rice weevil, \nthe wheat midge, and other insects not yet known, make way with, \ncapital and labor to an enormous extent. There are many insects \ninjurious to the grape-vine, to one of which a volume has been de- \nvoted. Investigations into the habits of such insects have been at- \ntended with the best results, one of the most useful of which has \nbeen to stop the farmer from destroying his friends with his enemies \namon^ insects, as he had been in the habit of doing. The best way \nof finding an effectual remedy for these injuries is to diffuse and cul- \ntivate in our schools a taste for natural history. \n\nIn a moral jDoint of view, this study, as well as that of all the \nnatural sciences, is of the highest importance. I never heard of a \nreal lover of nature who was a bad man. They exhibit to man the \nthoughts of the Creator, for all the arrangements which he sees \naround him are manifestations of the Divine Mind. In the book of \nnature we can read a portion of the laws and the designs of the \nAlmighty. The more diligently any one pursues these studies the \nmore deeply he is impressed with the abundant evidences of the \npower, the wisdom, and the benevolence of the Creator. He sees \nthat a drop of water is full of wonders, as well as the starry heavens; \nthat the tiniest insect that sjDorts in the sun-beam is not so insignif- \nicant as to be beneath the care of its Maker, nor the Island Uni- \nverses, scattered through the realms of space, too vast for His \npower to control. Every creature made by the Divine Hand he \nsees to be perfect, with an organization exactly suited to its wants, \nand its place in the scale of being, and adapted to contribute to its \nhappiness. God j^rovided for all His creatures. Now, the youth- \nful heart readily understands and feels the lesson which Nature \nteaches; it will not rest satisfied merely with Nature and Nature\'s \nlaws, but willingly and instinctively is led through them up to \nNature\'s God. It is touched by His goodness; it reverences His \npower and majesty; as the mind expands, it feels that He is the \nsource lof all we j)ossess; it begins to feel the need of His aid and \nprotection, and then earnestly to invoke them. In this manner it \nat length realizes the great truth, that in Him we live and move, \nand have our being; it does not read these as unmeaning words, \nbut is pervaded with their deep signification. It is imjDressed with \nthe heartfelt conviction, that there can be no more utter and dread- \nful ruin than to disobey the commands of this Good and Just Being, \nand that there is no greater happiness than to do His will and re- \nceive His approbation. \n\nI consider it an evil to stimulate the intellect, almost, perhaps, \nto its utmost exertions, and to neglect the moral training of the \nscholar, or to treat the latter as if it were of minor consequence, as \nif the object were to make smart linguists, or mathematicians, or \nchemists, instead of complete men. We have, undoubtedly, too \nmany smart men in the world already; that is, smart in the bad \nsense of the word, and yet, perhaps, in a sense by which they feel \ncomplimented. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 141 \n\n"What is wanted more than anything else is true men, men of \nprinciple, men fearing God, loving their neighbor, loving their \nwhole country, and cherishing its free institutions; men who stand \nfor the right as immovable as the eternal pj^ramids; whose word, \nwhose look is truth itself; whose honor can no more be tarnished \nthan a sun-beam can be soiled; in whose breasts the ruling maxim \n-is not "Cotton is king," nor " Gold is king," but everywhere, both \nin their most secret retirement, as well as inpviblic position, reigns, \nenthroned in their hearts and obeyed in their lives, the divine prin- \nciple \xe2\x80\x94 DUTY IS King forever ! \n\nNow, the child is not all intellect, any more than it is all con- \nscience; it has a sense of right and wrong, and this sense is silently \naddressed in a hundred different ways, as the questions arise \nwhether the pupil shall do this thing or not, whether he shall con- \nfess or conceal a certain fault, &c. I know that the importance of \nthis subject is adequately felt by the public school teachers of San \nFrancisco, and that much attention is paid by them to moral in- \nstruction, and pains taken to impress upon the minds of their pupils \nthe great religious truths in Vv^hich all are agreed. At the same \ntime, while this is done, all sectarianism is carefully avoided. \n\nI would have this moral sense carefully cherished as the voice of \nGod; I would have it kept sensitive and acute, and properly trained \nand educated. I would have every part of the nature of the pupil \nwell and proportionately exercised and developed \xe2\x80\x94 the physical, the \nintellectual, and the moral, the body, the mind, and the heart; the \nlast the most carefully of all, since out of it are the issues of life. \nI would tell the pupil that the acquisition of knowledge is valuable, \n"but that, though his attainments in science and art, and in all learn- \ning, were transcendent, though he might "speak with the tongues \nof men and of angels," and " understand all mysteries and all \nknowledge," yet, if he had not a good character, sound moral prin- \n\xe2\x80\xa2ciples, he would be nothing but a miserable failure. With all the \nenergy I possessed, and all the difterent methods of appeal I could \ninvent, I would enjoin it upon him to strive to become a good, true, \nand noble man. \n\nAnd such words, addressed in the spirit of affection to the young, \ngo directly to their hearts. Their impulses can easily be turned \ninto the right channel. They have a desire after excellence in the \nacquisition of knowledge; but if their sense of right and wrong is \nproperly appealed to, I believe it can be made the ruling power of \ntheir lives. When this result is accomplished, how blessed is the \nwork! It is beautiful to look upon the young, with their clear and \nhonest eyes, their frank and beaming countenances, their warm and \npure hearts beating high with aspirations after goodness and truth, \nand desiring that every evening mhj find them more worthy of the \napprobation of their teachers, their parents, and of Heaven. \n\nFellow Teachers! from our connection with the Public Schools, \nwe must take a deep interest in their prosperity and success, and \nearnestly wish that each revolving year may render them more effi- \ncient. The Common School System is the child of the people, in \nwhich they take great pride. The Public Schools are emphatically \nthe People\'s College. From them graduate the bone and sinew of \n\n\n\n142 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES. \n\nthe community \xe2\x80\x94 men of sound common sense, of good principles^, \nand with stout hearts, who will stand by the Common Schools a\xc2\xbb \nthe bulwark of their rights and liberties, and who will defend them \nagainst bold and open attack, or vile and secret slander. Their" \ncrowning glory is, that their doors are open freelj\'^ to all; that in \nthem the poorest child is the equal of the richest, and may lay the \nfoundation of an education which may lead him to employment, to \ncomj)etence, to resiDectability, naj, even to high station and to a \nglorious fame. Many a poor man has denied himself in order that \nhis little ones might attend school decently attired, and has had his \nlast moments cheered by the thoughts that he had faithfully given \nhis children every advantage afibrded by the Public Schools \xe2\x80\x94 feel- \ning in that fact a strong assurance of their future good conduct and \nwelfare. \n\nThe Common Schools can show ujoon their rolls the names of dis- \ntinguished men who laid in them the foundation of a world-wide \nrenown. Franklin, of whom I have spoken; Clay, in the log cabin \nschool-house of Peter Deacon, with no floor but the earth, and no \nwindow but the door; Webster, in the log school-house kej^t by \nMaster Tappan in the wilds of New Hampshire; George Stephen- \nson, the founder, and, to a great extent, the inventor, of the present \nsystem of locomotion on railroads, commencing at eighteen years \nof age in a village school to learn his A, B, C, like a little child; \nFulton, Bowditch, and hosts of others. They commenced life in \npoverty. Had not the Common School afforded them an oppor- \ntunity to begin their education free of expense, how few of them \nmight ever have been known to the world ? How man}\' of those \nyet unborn, and destined to immortal renown in their various \ncapacities, would, but for the Free Common School, be lost in eter- \nnal night! We have a right, then, to feel an honest jDride in this \ngreat system with which we are connected. \n\nOur profession is humble, laborious, and exhausting. The ser- \nvices of the teacher are not adequately appreciated in any com- \nmunity. Neither fame nor wealth belongs to him. He is not al- \nlowed even the designation \xe2\x80\x94 Honorable. He is overworked and \nunderpaid. And yet his life has its compensations. I know noth- \ning more touching and more grateful to the teacher than, at the \nclose of the year, when he is bidding farewell to those who afe \npassing forever from his care, for him to see every countenance \nturned towards him with affection and gratitude \xe2\x80\x94 to know that \nthese minds have received from him wholesome knowledge \xe2\x80\x94 that, \nby his influence and example, good principles have been implanted \nin their hearts \xe2\x80\x94 and that he has troops of friends growing up and \nbecoming every year more numerous, who will voluntarily pay him \nthat honor, love, and obedience, which they feel to be due to the \nbenefactor of their youth. \n\nThe faithful teacher has another reward, of which nothing can \ndeprive him. It is the approbation of his own conscience; it is the \nconsciousness that he is humbly imitating the Creator and Preserver \nof all, in doing good. " Think not," said Sydney Smith to an aged, \npoverty-stricken master teaching the art of reading or writing to \nsome tattered scholars, \' \' you are teaching that alone ; yoa are pro- \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 143 \n\ntecting life, insuring property, fencing the altar, guarding the gov- \nernment, giving space and liberty to all the fine powers of man, \nand lifting him up to his own place in the order of creation." This \nwell describes the nature of the teacher\'s office. \n\nIt was the boast of the Emperor Augustus, that he found Rome \nbrick, and left it marble. Let it be the higher praise of the Public \nSchool teachers, that California was found a wilderness, but that \nthey have contributed by their exertions to till its valleys and cities \nwith a virtuous and intelligent population \xe2\x80\x94 a richer treasure than \nall her nodding harvests, than all her mines of gold. \n\n\n\n4. CONCERNING COMMON SENSE IN TEACHING.* \n\nIt is one of the highest compliments we can pay a man to say that \nhe possesses good common sense. The article in question is cer- \ntainly one of the most important qualifications of a successful \nteacher. Call it "tact," or "knack," or "faculty," or "gift," or \nwhatever you please, it implies always a clear conception of things \nas they exist, and an adaptation of means to the end sought. \n\nIn broaching this subject, I feel that I may place myself in the \nsituation of the learned divine, whose third and principal division \nof his discourse was "concerning that of which Ave know nothing." \nI do not propose to treat of a course of instruction for graded \nschools, where children are presumed to be in regular attendance \nfor a series of years, and where provision is made for a specific \ncourse of learning for all the faculties of the mind; but to consider \nbriefly those schools remote from cities, and continued only a part \nof the year. "What are they expected to accomplish, and what view \nshould the common sense teacher take of his field of labor? Many \nof our public schools, in the sparsely settled districts of the State, \nare kept less than six months in the year, and even then the attend- \nance is irregular and inconstant. Pupils may be expected to attend \nschool from the age of six to fourteen ; and allowing six months at- \ntendance in each 3\'ear \xe2\x80\x94 a high average when one-fourth attend only \nthree months of the year \xe2\x80\x94 the actual time at school will be reduced \nto four years. The question 2^1\'opounded by common sense is : \n"What course of instruction will impart the greatest amount of use- \nful information, and best fit the children for the duties of common \nlife ? \n\nNow, hardly any course of study or mental exercise can be sought \nout which shall be utterly useless. The driest and dullest style of \nmemorizing musty text books, and the most parrot-like verbatim \nrecitations, involve some thought, and are not without some advan- \ntages. The thoughtful man of wealth, who, in order that his son \nshould not grow up in idleness, compelled him to wheel a huge pile of \nstones from one part of his garden to another, and then wheel them \nback again, and so kept him wheeling them back and forth each \nday of the year, was wiser than the parent who allows his son to do \nnothing. But it would have been more sensible in the man of \n\n*Eead before California State Teachers\' Institute, 1863. \n\n\n\n144 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES. \n\nwealth had he set his boy at work upon some useful labor, which \nwould have interested his attention, instead of keeping him engaged \nin unprofitable drudgery. \n\nI cannot helj) thinking that sometimes in our schools\' we set the \nboys to wheeling stones, instead of building walls, or clearing fields \nfor future harvests. For instance, keeping a boy for years drilling \non the stereotyped forms of solving Mental Arithmetic, committing \na great mass of routine verbiage, when he ought to learn the simple \nforms of Written Arithmetic used in business life, is undoubtedly \n" wheeling stones." The boy may repeat the " solution," and the \n" forms," and the " conclusion," and the " therefores," and " where- \nfores," with a marvelous skill, and yet it is not common-sense \nteaching. A man was brought before an Eastern king, and extolled \nby the courtiers for his wonderful powers of endurance, because he \ncould stand on one leg for twenty-four hours. "A goose can stand \nlonger than that," said the king. \n\nWhen, in school, we teach boys and girls the abstract rules and \nscientific mysteries and technicalities of grammar, training them \nskillfully to analyze complex, compound,\' and\' involved sentences, \nbut omitting to teach them by daily practice how to express com- \nmon thoughts in correct English, or how to talk correctly in ordi- \nnary\' conversation, without using provincialisms or cant phrases \xe2\x80\x94 \nwhat are we doing but keeping them " wheeling stones," and feed- \ning on husks ? \n\nWhen children study for years the columns of uncommon and \nobsolescent words, piled up in perpendicular obelisks, staring them \nin the face like huge exclamation marks of Avonder and surprise, and \nthen leave school unable to write a list of articles wanted from the \ncorner grocery without exciting the risibilities of the grocery man, \nor are unable to write a friendly letter without offending the eye by \nmisspelling the commonest words \xe2\x80\x94 what have they been doing but \n" wheeling stones ? " \n\nSo when scholars are kept forever drilling on elementary princi- \nples and minute particulars, it is not in accordance with common \nsense. "Be thorough," is a good maxim ; but there is such a thing \nas being too thorough \xe2\x80\x94 of dwelling on particulars, to the neglect of \nessentials. A teacher may be yainfally particular, like a good aunt \nof mine, years ago, who was so distressingly neat that nobody ever \ntook any comfort in her house. \n\nIn Arithmetic, for instance, it is keeping a boy wheeling stones \n" to discipline his mind " a month in learning to explain in due \nform the reason of "inverting the divisor in dividing one fraction \nby another," if thereby he should fail to learn how to write a prom- \nmissory note, compute simple interest, or make out a bill. A \nteacher from a graded city school would fail in an unclassified \nschool, should he attempt to apply the same test of thoroughness, \nor to pursue the same exact course of study. Certain results must \nbe obtained, to the sacrifice of many particulars which are all good \nin themselves. One great reason whj-- self-educated men are practi- \ncal workers, is that they learn nothing they do not ivant to use, and so \nlearn it well. Concentration gives them strength. Napoleon dis- \npensed with tents and luggage in his great armies, taking- only \nwhat he wanted to use \xe2\x80\x94 the sword and the bayonet. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 145 \n\nIt seems to me \xe2\x80\x94 aud the conclusion lias been growing stronger \neach year, during twelve years\' experience in public school teaching \n\xe2\x80\x94 that no small joart of what children are required to learn might \nappropriately^ be headed : " Things ivortJi forgetting." Nature is \nwiser than we are, and casts off the useless surplus of facts and \nfigures into utter oblivion. Run through an ordinary school \ngeography, and see how many bushels of chaff to a single grain of \nwheat. Look at the compendious arithmetics, strike out nine- \ntenths of which, and the remainder would be more than sufficient. \nLook at the bulky grammar, grown fat by feeding on all other \ngrammars printed since Lindley Murray\'s, of which, not even the \nauthors could carry in their heads a moiety. Look at the school \nhistories of our country, full to repletion of dates and chronological \ntables, containing more of details than any grown man in the \nUnited States could learn in a lifetime. I allude to these only to \nshow how much a teacher must oinit in the school text books, and \nhow essential that he should have common sense to guide him in \nselecting. \n\nA four years\' course of studj"- in an unclassified school can neither \nbe xery complicated nor very extensive. A matter-of-fact teacher \nwould look at his work in something of this manner : These boys \nare, most of them, to become farmers, miners, mechanics, and \nlaborers. All the scholastic education they receive will be gained \nhere. These girls will, most of them, become the wives of farmers, \nminers, mechanics, and laborers. "What instruction is absolutely \nessential to these boys and girls to fit them to grow up respectable \nmen and women? Letting alone the geniuses and the prodigies, \nthey are of average mental capacity. "What shall be done with them ? \n\nFirst, they must learn to read, write, and spell the English lan- \nguage. Reading is usually taught well enough for all practical \npurposes, whether according to elocutionary rules or not ; but pen- \nmanship and spelling are too often sadly neglected. Almost every \nman, in whatever occupation engaged, is called upon to write, more \nor less, every day of his life. Writing involves spelling, and both \nare unmistakable evidences of cultm-e, or want of it. Teach these \nthree things thoroughly, so that every child fifteen years of age \nshall be able to read readily, to write legibly, and to spell correctly, \nthe words in the English language most used in common life. \nSacrifice everything to this \xe2\x80\x94 even let algebra remain a minus quan- \ntity, and the higher branches take a back seat. They are of vastly \nmore practical value than arithmetic \xe2\x80\x94 the trite and venerable \nmaxim, that the study of arithmetic is the best discipline of the \nmind, so often quoted by arithmetic-run-mad teachers, to the con- \ntrary notwithstanding. A knowledge of arithmetic sufficient to \nenable men and women to keep accounts correctly, will suffice, \nletting alone the mental discipline of the reasoning faculties, so \noften harped about. Ben. Franklin was a dullard in arithmetic ; he \ngrew up with pretty tolerable reasoning faculties, because he kept \nhis perceptives wide awake. Don\'t let arithmetic, then, be the \ngreat nightmare of the school to squeeze out all the vitality from \nthe scholars. Most Americans take naturally to reckoning dollars \nand cents, without the aid of text books. \n\n\n\n146 INSTITUTE ADDEESSES. \n\nSome knowledge of the geography of the world is necessary, and \nparticularly that of our own country. But common sense declines \nto expect that little boys and girls should learn the names and loca- \ntions of the two thousand little round dots on the map of the \nUnited States, called towns and cities, with figures attached repre- \nsenting the population; or the names and length of the five \nhundred little black lines, drawn like spiders\' webs over the map, \nrepresenting rivers. Neither is it necessary that they should com- \nmit to memory the entire returns of the last census. Strike out \none half of the questions and answers in any school geography, and \nthe remaining twentieth will be more than most children of average \nability can learn and retain. How I wish some of these bookmakers \nhad to learn their own books I Any teacher who would expect or \ncompel his scholars to answer all the "questions in the book" on \nexamination day, ought to be indicted for a lack of common sense; \nand any committeeman who should find fault because the scholars \ncouldn\'t answer them, ought to be strapj^ed within an inch of his \n\xe2\x80\x94 collar. How many teachers, after years of study and daily use of \nthe geography, can remember one fifth of the tenth-rate rivers and \ntowns, or one twentieth of the hackneyed descriptions. I would \nflog a child of mine if he wouldn\'t forget such rubbish. \n\nA general knowledge of the leading events in the history of our \nown country, they should be expected to acquire; but if, on examin- \nation day, they fail to tell the exact day and hour on which every \nbattle of King Philip\'s war, the French and Indian war, or the \nRevolution, or the war of eighteen hundred and twelve, and exactly \nhow many were killed, wounded, and missing; ur should they \nforget that wonderful account given by one school history, of two \nearly settlers of New England, who were frightened up a tree by a \nlion, and remained there in perfect terror, and came safely down, \nthe next day ! \xe2\x80\x94 common sense would not be shocked. \n\nNext in importance, comes a knowledge of language, and of the- \nmeaning and use of words. This must be communicated by the- \nteacher, in questions on reading lessons, and in oral lessons. Dic- \ntionaries alone cannot impart it. Printed words are valuable only \nas the medium of ideas; if the medium is opaque, the ideas will be- \nmuddy. After a knowledge of language, comes the framework of \ngrammar. And here, I think, common sense steps in and dictates, \nthat in order that scholars may learn to speak and write the English \nlanguage correctly, they should be exercised in writing sentences,, \nand talking sentences, instead of continually tearing to pieces the \nsentences of others. Exercises on grammar, sufficient to enable \nthem to write a letter, and speak plain English correctly, should be \nembraced in the course. \n\nSome little knowledge of physiology and hygiene should be im- \nparted, inasmuch as each boy has to take care of his own body, and \nwhen he ruins that by ignorance of the laws of health, he will find \nit very inconvenient to transfer his knowledge of arithmetic and ac- \ncompanying mental discipline to another corijus. And as most of \nthe j\'oung" girls will become mothers, and consequently the custo- \ndians of the constitutions of the next succeeding generation, common \nsense opens its eyes in astonishment that committeemen and school \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 147" \n\nteachers should ignore all allusion to physiology, anatomy, and \nthe laws of health, and exalt arithmetic, algebra, and the fashion- \nable branches. \n\nA little drawing, a little vocal music, a little calisthenic and gym- \nnastic training, may be introduced as incidental amusements and \nrecreations. Some provision should be made during the whole \ncourse for daily exercise of the perceptive and the expressive facul- \nties, as well as for the reasoning powers. Children should be trained \nto habits of observation. They should be trained to distinguish \ncolors; to tell the properties of the common objects by which \nthey are surrounded; should be taught something of natural his- \ntory, at least enough to distinguish a dog from a coyote, or a \ngrizzly bear from a calf, or potatoes from yams, or cauliflowers from \ncabbages. A boy instinctively turns to stories of birds, beasts, and \nfishes. \n\nHerein lies the most grievous deficiency of our schools : that they \ndeal with the abstract instead of the real. I have repeatedly asked \nclasses which could run off pages of questions in geography with \nmarvelous rapidity, to point north, and the direction generally has \nbeen perpendicularly up to the zenith; they had no notion whatever \nof directions, except as the top and bottom of the majD. A city \nwas to them a dot, nothing more; a river \xe2\x80\x94 a crooked line; and a \nmountain \xe2\x80\x94 a definition. How many classes have I seen versed in \n"the tables," who would estimate the dimensions of a room sixteen feet \nby twenty, in numbers ranging from five and forty to ten and eighty; \nhow many who could not estimate the weight of an object weighing \nfive pounds, within four pounds of its weight; how many that had no \nnotion of a mile, except as three hundred and twenty rods; how \nmany who could " parse like a book," and yet could not write five \nconsecutive sentences in tolerable English! \n\nIf common sense were a school-master, he would look with favor \non the system of object training as supplying a basis of actual \nknowledge, on which the reasoning faculties should afterwards be \nexercised. He would also endeavor to collect a small school library, \nwell knowing that many a boy who grows dull, listless, and lazy over \nhis set tasks, will absorb general knowledge from readable books, as \na thirsty plant drinks in the rain-drops of a summer shower. In \ngoverning his school, he would treat scholars like hviman beings, \nbearing in mind that children are born to be happy, not miserable; \nand that school ought to be made a pleasant place. \' \n\nThe teacher must expect to leave much untaught. If he attempts. \nto teach everything, he will fail; for nobody ever svicceeded. He \nmust expect to find some dull scholars, some obstinate ones, some \nvicious ones, some troublesome ones, some negative ones, some good \nones; if he is a philosopher, gifted with a sublime common sense, \nhe will go calmly and quietly at work, do his duty faithfully, and \nnot worry about results \xe2\x80\x94 bearing in mind that all the stupid boys \nand dull scholars, somehow or other, generally grow up into respect- \nable average men and women. \n\n\n\n1 48 INSTITUTE , ADDEESSES. \n\n\n\n5. ADDRESS BY THOMAS STARR KING.* \n\nThis audience, reiDresenting the mothers and fathers, the official \nforces and the rising life of this young, strange city, are to be con- \ngratulated on the event and occasion that calls us together. We \nwelcome you to the service here with pride and joy. \n\nThe corner-stone of any important representative edifice is laid \nwith elaborate ceremonial. It is well to foster public interest in \nsuch forms. And it seems to me that it would be as fitting to recog- \nnize, with public rejoicing, the completion of a noble building, the \nmoment when the workmen lay the last stone of the turret, the apex \nof the spire, the final tile on the dome. It was when the corner- \nstone of the earth was laid, that " the morning stars sang together, \nand all the sons of God shouted for joy." Can we believe \xe2\x80\x94 though \nwe have no record or hint of the hallelujahs \xe2\x80\x94 that there was less \njubilance amongst the holy hosts when "the heavens and the earth \nwere finished, and all the host of them," and " God saw everything \nthat he had made, and behold it was very good?" \n\nWe are here to rejoice in this completed work. There is very \nlittle in the building itself, though it is commodious and cheerful, \nto awaken any enthusiasm. But as a school-room \xe2\x80\x94 a new structure \nto befriend civilization, in a State where the forces of good and evil \nmeet in a more open and demonstrative wrestle, probably, than \nupon any other equal area on the globe \xe2\x80\x94 it does invite us to be \nglad, and to express our joy that it is added to the landscape of the \ncity, and has sprung out of a deepening popular faith in the worth \nof education. \n\nAnd yet it is not simply a new schoolhouse that we are to conse- \ncrate to its noble offices. It is the symmetry of an educational \nsystem in the city that we complete and establish. It is truly the \ntop-stone, the crown, of an ideal edifice, whose co-ordinate j^arts \nare the excellent common schools of the city, that we now lift to its \nplace with rejoicing. If there were any influence to be exerted by \nthe establishment of this High School, in drawing away the public \ninterest from the Grammar Schools, the jjublic pride in them, the \npublic readiness to be taxed to sustain them, there would be no \noccasion for gratitude in the completion of this building. This \nwould be an unfortunate service and hour. The Grammar Schools \nare the true fountains of health and power in a community. What- \never tends to slight them, or reduce their efficiency, or throw the \nshadow of public indifference upon them, is to be deplored, and to \nbe strenuously resisted. The city and state are far more deeply \ninterested in the general diffusion of the elements of knowledge than \nin the concentration of learning in a small percentage of the youth \nof our community. We want to equip tens of thousands for the \ntoils and struggles of life, not to polish a few hundreds for a better \nchance to seize its prizes and wear its honors. We must never \nforget this. And if the erection of this High School into perma- \n\n* Delivered September 19, 1860, at the dedication of the Higli School building, \nPowell street. From The Bookseller, the first educational journal published in \nthe State. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 149^ \n\nnence threatened to abate the importance, or lower the dignity, or \ndrain the energy of the Grammar Schools, this building, though it \n\xe2\x96\xa0were a hundred times more elegant, though it Tvere seemly in pro- \nportions as the Parthenon of Athens, would be a mistake and a \ndisaster. \n\nI cannot but think, however, that we strengthen the ordinary \nschools of the city by confirming this one, and leading the com- \nmunity to regard it with more favor and pride. Not only is the \nstandard of a free education raised, but the earlier removal from \nthe Grammar Schools of the scholars who wish to pursue a higher \ngrade of studies, concentrates the interest and energies of the teach- \ners there upon the progress of the average of students. The ordinary \nschools can hardly fail to give more thorough training in the elements \nof English education, by relieving the teachers from the responsi- \nbility of carrying small upper classes through a range of studies far \nabove the average lessons; and the ambition that is excited to enter \nthe High School must be felt, after awhile, as a very serviceable \nstimulant throughout the ranks of the scholars below. Wherever \nthe plan has been tried of projecting schools on the system of \nPrimary, Grammar, and High, it has been found that each grade \nhelps the one beneath. No New England cities now, I am sure, \ncould think of parting with their High Schools. They would \naccount it deliberate mutilation of the symmetry of the educational \nsystem, and treason against the mental rights of the scholars who \ncan spare two or three extra years for instruction and discipline. \n\nAnd we must not fail to take into account the needs and rights of \nthe hundred and fifty youths, of both sexes, in our city, who are \nready and willing to postpone their entrance into practical life, for \nthe sake of a moi\'e generous culture. The free-school system has- \nduties to them as manifest and binding as to the lowest class in a \nGrammar School. Let us rejoice that we can fulfill them in entire \nharmony with our duties to the mass of the children whose education \nis intrusted to us. Let us rejoice that we can see that all jealousies \nare unwise. Let us be glad and grateful, to-day, that we strengthen \nthe whole structure of our teaching organization by this crowning \nschool to which we here devote an excellent building. The masons \nlay, strong and compact, the stones which make the floor of the \nporch to an edifice after the Grecian style. They rear column after \ncolumn along its front. But when the beautiful entablature is lifted \naloft, to rest on the pillars, there is not only completed proportion, \nbut more strength. Each column is firmer; the base itself is forti- \nfied; and the edifice stands in harmony with the force of gravitation. \nSo, we believe, it is here. We send strength into the important \nschools below, the pillars and pavement of our public welfare, by \nthe imjDort of this service of dedication. And I believe the whole \nsystem of education would attain final symmetry, and be still \nstronger in all its parts, if we had not only High Schools in our \ncities and large towns, but a free and largely planned University \nbesides, in every State, in which the sons and daughters of the poor- \nest could obtain the best training which the resources of the State \nmight afford, free of cost. When we get this, we shall have the \nmajestic dome overarching and strengthening our intellectual temple. \nBut very likely in all this I am speaking needless words. Perhaps \n\n\n\n150 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nI have done wrong to assume or hint that there can be any question, \nin any quarter, of the value of the school whose home we consecrate \nhere, or of its advantageous relation to the other schools of which \nwe are justly proud. Let us turn to other considerations that should \nawaken grateful joy here. \n\nIt is now, throughout this State, the time of rejoicing in the har- \nvest. We have been reading in the papers glowing accounts of \nmany district agricultural fairs. This very day the yearly State fair \nis to be inaugurated in the Capital. What interest is felt, through- \nout the State, in the improvements of stock, in the new varieties of \nfruit, in the jjroduction of more efficient and economical machinery \nfor planting, reaping, threshing, stacking! The man who refines a \nbreed of sheep; the man who brings from his ranch a calf or colt, \nj)erfect according to its type; the man who displays the noblest yoke \nof steers; the cultivator who offers to view the soundest and sweetest \nplums, the most lovely and savory peach, the weightiest cluster of \ngrapes, or who can say the wisest word about preventing the curled \nleaf in peach trees, the rust in wheat, the "foul brood" among \nbees; yes, the man who produces a mammoth pumpkin, a monstrous \nsweet potato, a beet that will half fill a barrel, a watermelon as am- \n2^16 as Daniel Lambert in girth, is heard of throughout a county, \nperhaps throughout the limits of the State, \n\nWhat interest in education can we bring yet into competition with \nthis scientific enthusiasm for vegetable and animal jDroducts? What \nwould the honest answer be, taking the State through, if we should \nask which the people of the State were more concerned about, a \nbetter type of calves or a higher grade of children; more efficient \ngrazing-grounds or more thorough school training; vineyards that \nshould double their profits, or methods of education that should \ne\'quip pupils twice as efficiently for noble success in life; the reclaim- \ning of tule lands, or the gathering of twice as many youth, who \nnow receive no instruction, into the intellectual folds where they \nmay have a teacher\'s care? Alas! we know what it would be. If \none tithe, or one hundredth part, of the watchful, patient, cultured \nand strenuous exertion that has been expended by the general com- \nmunity on peach-raising, short-horned cattle, the perfecting of \nhorses and bee-culture, during the last five years, had been devoted \nto the training of children, and fitting them to be competent masters \nof their fathers\' colts, and meadows, and carrot fields, the State, \nto-day, would be immeasurably advanced, beyond its present attain- \nment, in civilization. We should not read such sad statistics as are \nforced upon us now, showing that hardly more than a third of the \nchildren of the State attend regularly any school. \n\nThere is really some danger that we shall be pulled down, \nmaterialized, half -barbarized, by the very advance and splendor of \nour scientific control of the elements of agricultural opulence. One \nof our poets tells us that now \n\n" Tliiugs are in the saddle, \nAud ride mankind." \n\nIt behooves us to be a little careful lest we cultivate beeves and \nracers to such superiority over ourselves that they shall get the \nrapper hands, and we find ourselves, after a generation or so, in \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 151 \n\nwhich animals rise aud children sink, j\'oked and harnessed, owned \nhy our Durhams, and Alderneys, and Morgans, and perhaps fatted \nfor their advanced and dominant appetites. \n\nThe spiritual forces must be started soon in States like this, and \ntrained to ten times their present vigor, or we shall be unable to \nwield the majestic armor and implements of our science and ma- \nterialistic culture. And this building, which lifts the torch of \neducation higher, as a beacon to the State, which will turn out nobler \nspecimens of young manhood and womanhood, invites us, by peculiar \nfitness, in this harvest-time, to rejoice in its comj)letion, and to \nexpress our gratitude by elaborate ceremonial and reverent j)rayer. \n\nAnd we should rejoice also to be here, to-day, in order to pay a \nconscious and deliberate tribute to the service of teachers in our \ncivilization. Every time I enter a school-building I travel back to \nthe time, twenty years ago (when I was a young man), when my \nname was enrolled in the army of instructors. During the three \nyears of service appointed to me in that department, I learned so \nmuch of the difficulties and resiDonsibilities of the ofiice, that the \nstepping into a pulpit seemed like passing into an easier sphere of \nduty. It is not on abstract grounds and observation, but on trials \nwhich gave me my first knowledge of what serious responsibility is, \nand of how closely moral forces must be allied with intellectual \nones in ever}\' successful school, that my own reverence for the \nteacher\'s call and duty is based. And from that day to this it has \nbeen widening and deepening. \n\nWe do not pay our social reverence wisely as yet, even in our \nmost advanced and thoughtful communities. The men who do the \nmost for the world are those who work scientifically upon the land, \nincreasing its productiveness without exhausting its fertility \xe2\x80\x94 and \nthe men who increase the mental and moral forces of the State. \nThese classes are the fountains of lasting power, and the true con- \nservators of public health and vigor. In a trulj\' ordered society, \nthese classes would receive the heartiest and most stable honor. \n\nBut as yet, alas, even in the most Christian districts of society, \nthe question is scarcely raised, as a condition and gauge of respect, \nwhat the relation is between his employment and the permanent \nbenefit of the community \xe2\x80\x94 what the moral aroma is of a man\'s gold \nand position. And so the best men work with very little recognition. \nThe most useful ministers are those who work through years of \nquiet fidelity, encouraging good puri^oses in the village circle, warn- \ning with sincere and uneloquent unction, the humble and steady \nfriend of humble people, threading the life of a small community, \nthrough more than the j^ears of a generation, with a golden influence \nof charity, and fortunate in not having to see their names in half \nthe issues of the newspaper press. Some of the purest pages of \nheroism might be copied from the long careers of country physicians, \nwho spend themselves without the patronage and solace of cultured \nsociety, and cross the line of old age without a comjDetence. \n\nIn the case of teachers, however, the fact is peculiarly striking. \nThink what an influence, during the past ten years, has been exerted \nupon the intellect and character of the best portions of our country, \nby the ambition of teachers to be more efficient in their work, by \nthe establishment of journals of education, by county, district and \n\n\n\n152 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nState conventions of instructors, not sunned by public applause, \nnot paid for by the public either, in which the wisest unfold the \nbest results of their experience, and the youngeet are stimulated by \nthe contagious enthusiasm of the leading masters of the j)rofessionl \n\n"Profession," did I say? No. Here is the injustice; here is the \nproof of the marvelous infidelity of our public as yet to the service \nwhich can hardly be surpassed by any other type. American liberty \nand hopes are based on comprehensive education \xe2\x80\x94 mental and \nmoral \xe2\x80\x94 and we do not yet recognize the teacher\'s calling as one of \nthe "learned professions." There is the degree of M.D., a title of \nrespect for every one who enters the ranks of the healers by the \nregular door. Every clergyman has his prefix of "Rev.," which \nfloats him sometimes like a cork upon waters where he could not \nswim. "D.D." is conferred, every year, upon many a man who is \nno scholar in Christian history or dogmatics. I have known cases \nwhere LL.D. has been aflaxed, by prominent colleges, to the names \nof men who could not have told what the two L\'s, with a period \nafter them, were the abbreviation of. But there is no title for teach- \ners. And I am ignorant of the fact if any University or College has \nyet sought out an eminent, consecrated, thoroughly efficient teacher, \nto confer upon him or her an}\' title of honor as an acknowledgment \nof personal service to society, or the rank of the calling to which he \nor she is pledged. \n\nWe must do what we can to repair this injustice \xe2\x80\x94 we who know \nthe value of the office, the grand proportion of the gifts that are so \noften brought to it, and the nobleness of the sjjirit in which those \ngifts are frequentl}\'^ dedicated. \n\nLet us make this festival time, in the consecration of this building, \na season in which we pledge ourselves to greater interest in the school \ncause in this city and State. It is not in the structure we are inter- \nested, so much as in the edifice of education itself, which has been \nerected here by faithful, far-seeing men, against the opposition of \nlazy wealth and skeptical hearts. It is not the porch and hall and \nseats and roof that we are grateful for, so much as the wise manage- \nment and skilled instruction, which, so successful in the past, are to \nhave a better inclosure for their operation in years to come. \n\nWould that the services of this da}\' might be more joyous and \nwelcome by the appearance here of the philosophical apparatus that \nis needed by the teachers, and would be in various ways a benefit to \nthe community! The $3000 which it would cost ought to be con- \ntributed by the wealth of San Francisco the next week, and would \nbe, if we were not still in our public life so blind to the immense \nmeaning and value of public education. And let us cherish a deeper \nrespect for the office and influence of every good teacher, as we \nrecognize here anew the solid truth of a noble American poet\'s \nwords : \n\n"The riches of the commonwealth \nAre free, strong minds, and hearts of health; \nAnd more to her than gold or grain, \nThe cunning hand and cultured brain. \n\nShe heeds no skeptic\'s puny hands, \n\nWhile near her school the church-spire stands; \n\nNor fears the blinded bigot\'s rule. \n\nWhile near her church-spire stands the school." \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 153 \n\n\n\n6. MORAL INSTRUCTION.* \n\n\n\nThe fervent prayer Tvhicli every parent offers is, that whatever pov- \nerty, destitution, pain or misery, his children may be called upon to \nbear, God will mercifully grant that they may preserve their purity, \nand all be found at last worthy to be reunited in that kingxlom pre- \npared for the just, beyond the grave. \n\nThe faithful teacher, occupying as he does, for a time, the parent\'s \nplace, must feel a similar anxiety, as he looks round upon those \nplaced under his charge. His situation is inferior in responsibility \nonly to that of the parent. Indeed, since so many parents neglect \ntheir duty in this respect, his influence upon those who continue for \nany length of time under his charge, is probably not surpassed by \nthat of any other class of men in the community. He must often \nseriously ask what will be the lot of those committed to his trust. \nCould the veil with which Heaven conceals the future be removed, \nwould he behold this noble and ingenuous boy, with heart full of \naspirations after all excellence, still rising higher and higher, or \nwould he behold him descend from the lofty heights of honorable \nrenown, and become dishonored, degraded, and corrujDt? This \nfair girl, with the light of Heaven in her eye, and its purity sur- \nrounding her as with an atmosphere of holiness, would she be seen \nstill the same in her spotlessness and innocence, or would the light \nbe extinguished, the glory have departed, and nothing remain but \nthe wreck of what was once so lovely and so promising ? \n\nIt is related that an Eastern prince once offered a prize to be given \nto the most beautiful boy in all his dominions. Many were pre- \nsented for the premium, but it was bestowed, by acclamation, upon \none for his transcendent and angelic loveliness. So beautiful a boy \nhad never been seen upon the earth before. Some years after, the \nsame prince again offered a prize \xe2\x80\x94 but this time it was for the \nugliest man to be found in all his possessions. Diligent search was \nmade; many exhibited themselves to view, of all kinds and degrees \nof ugliness, but among them it was difficult to make a choice, until \none day there was brought into the royal presence a being, if he \ncould be called a man, so hideous, so loathsome, so bestial, that the \npeople shuddered while they gazed upon him. Sin had stamped its \npolluting mark upon every feature; from every wrinkle in that hor- \nrible face stared out a vice. Upon inquiry, it was ascertained that \nthis frightful and disgusting wretch had been the attractive and \nlovely boy. A life of intemperance, sensuality, and iniquity, had \nmade the awful change. God save our pupils from any and all the \ncauses tending to produce so terrible an alteration. \n\nIn view of the great responsibility pressing upon every teacher \nto do all in his power to train up his pupils to a life of virtue and \nexcellence, I invite your attention to some remarks upon the import- \nance of Moral Instruction. I have a fear that some few teachers (I \nknow they must be very few) may think their duty done if they pre- \nserve good order in the school, and give instruction to their scholars \nin the course of study prescribed. But no teacher, who has an \n\n*Ilead before the State Teachers\' Institute, Sept., 1862. \n\n10 \n\n\n\n154 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nadequate sense of the responsibilities devolving upon him, can \nentertain this opinion. His duty is not performed by merely culti- \nvating the intellect. He must also educate the heart. No j^arent \nwould consider any teacher fit for his post, who not only did not \ncheck even the slightest infringement of morality, but who did not \nendeavor to elevate his whole school to a high standard of moral \nexcellence. To think otherwise is a great mistake \xe2\x80\x94 and the popular \nnotion of education falls in with and confirms this mistake. Talk \nabout giving a young man the advantages of education, and the \nthoughts immediately run on what is taught in schools and colleges. \nSpeak of giving a young lady a finished education, and almost every \none wishes to have the seminary pointed out where she can accom- \nplish, in the shortest sj^ace of time, botany, French and Italian, \nmusic, and drawing, besides a few of the ordinary branches. As \nif what is taught in schools and seminaries were able, of itself, to \nmake one either great, or good, or happy. \n\nThe truth is, my friends, that hitherto, all over the world, the cul- \ntivation of the head has been regarded as the princijoal thing, while \nthe cultivation of the heart comes in only incidentally. Speak of \nany school, and most probably the conversation will be upon wlio is \nthe best scholar in the school. Talk about college, and a cer- \ntain young man is pointed out to you as the first scholar in his class. \nTen prizes are offered for intellectual, to one for moral excellence. \nThe student who can make the best Greek verses, or run through a \ncomplicated mathematical demonstration, or write the most flowery \noration, or deliver it in the most eloquent manner, is the recipient \nof the honors, while one, perhaps infinitely his superior in moral \ncharacter, but not possessing his precocity or assurance, is passed \nb}\' unnoticed. Now this is surel}^ wrong. The heart is of more im- \nportance than the head. The essence of greatness, always and \neverywhere, is a great spirit. Acquisitions and attainments are not \nthe man; they are mere additions to him. Intellectual talents are \nnot the man; they are merely the instriLments he uses. The man \nhimself is behind them all, and he may use them either for good or \nfor evil. The spirit with which a man works, the motives which \nprompt his conduct \xe2\x80\x94 these show us and constitute the man, and \nthese are moral qualities, springing from and dwelling in the heart. \nThe character is the man; the life, in its every particular, which one \nlives, is the man; and what is it that makes life what it is but the \nman\'s motives, his moral qualities, his heart. Therefore we are told \nthat God judgeth the heart; that with the heart man believeth unto \nrighteousness; that out of that, and out of that alone, "are the \nissues of life." And, therefore, I repeat, the heart is more than the \nhead. \n\nSir Walter Scott says: "We shall never learn, and feel, and re- \nspect our real calling and destiny, unless we have taught ourselves \nto consider everything as moonshine, compared with the education \nof the heart." When, after his fruitless journey for health, he had \nreturned to Scotland and to Abbotsford, as he was near his end, he \nsaid to his son-in-law, " Lockhart, I may have but a minute to speak \nwith you. My dear, be a good man; be virtuous, be religious; be a \ngood man. Nothing else will give you any comfort when you come \nto lie here." \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 155 \n\n" Here was a man," remarks a writer, "who Lad won the highest \nprizes of life; had gained the most splendid literary reputation; had \nbeen honored, flattered and caressed as few men have ever been; \nand 3^et, at the last moment, falls back for support on moral and re- \nligious faith \xe2\x80\x94 that possession which all may earn." \n\nHorace Mann, as the shades of death were gathering around him, \nwas heard to utter the words, "Grod \xe2\x80\x94 man \xe2\x80\x94 duty" \xe2\x80\x94 and shortly \nafter, bidding all near him "Grood night," sank quietly into that \nlast, deep sleep, which knows no waking in this world. But who \nthat witnessed his j)eaceful and joyful end would not say, with the \npoet, \n\n\' \' That deeper shade shall fade away, \n\nThat deeper sleep shall leave his eyes; \nThy light shall give eternal day, \nThy love the rapture of the skies." \n\nThe formation of an honorable, upright, Christian character, is \nthe great business, the great success of life. This must be done, or \nnothing is accomplished. Do this first; do this at any rate; do this \neven if everything else is left undone; though that sacrifice is not \nrequired of us. What parent would not prefer his child should \nleave school with good j)rinciples, well settled, his heart in the right \nplace, even though he might be deficient in knowledge, to seeing him \nadorned with all the accomplishments taught in the schools, if, at \nthe same time, he fears that he is compelled to distrust the sound- \nness of his moral character ? What man or woman does not demand \nof his friend that he shall ^7\'s^ be true, sincere, heart ij, whether pos- \nsessed or not of any remarkable intellectual penetration or sagacity? \n\nNow, I am not decrying intellectual attainments \xe2\x80\x94 I value them \nhighly \xe2\x80\x94 but I am only placing them on their true level, namely, be- \nlow moral attainments. It is a matter of great importance that the \npupils in our schools should be well instructed in the branches taught \nin them; and any teacher who succeeds in so doing has accomplished \na great good. But it is of the highest consequence, it is absolutely \nnecessary, that we should all become good men and good women. \nFor that purpose, infinitely above all others, we were sent into the \nworld. For that purpose, the world and all that belongs to it were \ncreated. For that purpose, the sun shines upon man, the winds in- \ninvigorate his blood, the rains descend upon his fields, society sui*- \nrounds him with its blessings, and wife and children warm his heart \nand strengthen his arm to action. For this purpose, above all \nothers, the school-house, as well as the house of God, was reared. \n\nI see no proper use of language in those who speak of the godlike \nintellect of such a man, or of another as having a gigantic under- \nstanding. We have all heard the observation, "Sir, he is the most \nremarkable man in America." You may be certain that man is not \nremarkable for moral qualities. A godlike, a gigantic intellect as- \ncribed to a mere creature of an hour! When the more we know \nonly shows us the immensit;,\' of our ignorance. How true it is, also, \nthat purely great intellectual achievements cannot be understood by \nthe great majority of mankind! I suppose there are not one thou- \nsand persons in the world that can go through the steps of the \nreasoning by whi<;h Leverrier proved the existence of the new planet, \n\n\n\n156 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nand determined its position. But the triumphs of goodness are at- \nonce felt and acknowledged by all. We are through them made \npersonally acquainted with the individuals by whom they are accom- \nplished. Howard and Florence Nightingale are household words. \nEvery deed of true heroism, of self-sacrifice, of devoted patriotism,, \nof love to brother man, thrills the heart of the world. The heart is- \nquicker, and keener, and truer in insight than the head. \n\n" One touch of goodness makes the whole world kin." \n\nThe best eulogy ever pronounced upon George Washington -was \nthat which declared him to be first in the hearts of his countrymen. \n\nI do not intend to go into detail upon the best methods of impart- \ning moral instruction to the young. Here again the heart is of more \nworth than the head. Every teacher who really and earnestly feeli* \nthe importance of this work, Avill instinctively^ select and adopt the \nbest methods. One thing, however, may be said \xe2\x80\x94 that moral instruc- \ntion cannot commence too early. Its essence lies in training chil- \ndren to do right; and they understand the difference between right \nand wrong even before they can talk. An essayist \xe2\x80\x94 commenting on \nthe fact that sometimes a man, characterized by genuine piety during \nearly and late manhood and into old age, has, when he fell into sec- \nond childhood, broken out into profanity, and manifested evil habits \nthat surprised, if not shocked his friends \xe2\x80\x94 says that second child- \nhood is but a repetition of first childhood, and that the follies, bad \nhabits, and vices, which were allowed to pass unchecked in child- \nhood, will be likely to reappear in dotage. If this is so, it shows us \nof what great importance is careful and judicious moral instruction \nin early life. The lessons then received are never entirely obliter- \nated. It is in the morning of life that the seeds of good principles \nmust be planted. Do not be disappointed if you do not meet with \nimmediate or speedy good results. Think how slowly the world is \nimproving. A higher morality, even more than a higher intelli- \ngence, is frequently a plant of slow growth. I suppose there is \nnothing which makes a greater demand upon the parent\'s or teach- \ner\'s patience than the slowness with which a wayward and obstinate \nchild improves. \n\nSometimes, perhaps for years, the course appears to be all down \nhill. But persevere; still exercise love, patience, and hope. Years \nafter, when the child has long since left your care, when the good \nseed which you sowed seems to have been lost forever, and the \nground choked up with rank and noxious weeds, a tempest of afflic- \ntion may rush over the place and sweep off the brambles and thistles, \nand then may appear, "first the blade, then the ear, then the full \ncorn in the ear," until the fields are white with an abundant harvest, \nfit to be gathered into the granary of the Lord. \n\nMoral instruction is not to be conveyed to the young by preach- \ning or lecturing. It is a work to be performed. "Train up a child \nin the way he should go," says the Good Book. The teacher must \nbe diligent in seeing that the child acquires good habits \xe2\x80\x94 habits of \nobedience, order, punctuality, method, neatness, studiousuess, gen- \ntleness, courtesy, respect for elders, reverence for the law, and a \nlove and devotion for his country, which knows not and never can \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 157 \n\nlinow "a shadow of turning." Teach him to check the first symp- \ntoms of en\\j, jealonsj\', cruelty, arrogance; to be honest in word \nand deed; to think the truth, to sjieak the truth, to act the truth, \nand to shrink from using a profane word as he would from touching \nhis tongue to red-hot iron. Show him that the brave man never \nbrags; that true courage is in daring to do right; that the man of \nhigh and noble spirit will forgive an injury rather than avenge it, \nbecause he infinitely jDrefers to suffer rather than to do wrong. And \nfinally, impress him with the conviction that the greatest victory is \nnot over one\'s enemies, but over one\'s self; that the sight upon \nwhich Heaven smiles is that of the good man relieving and comfort- \ning his fellow-man in distress; and that "the fear of God is the \nbeginning of wisdom." ******* \n\nI have said that the influence of the faithful teacher is not sur- \npassed by that of any other class in the community. Listen to \nMartin Luther\'s \\yords: \n\n" The diligent and pious teacher, who properly instructeth and \ntraiueth the young, can never be fully rewarded with mone3\\ If I \nwere to leave my office as preacher, I would next choose that of \nschoolmaster, or teacher, for I know that, next to preaching, this is \nthe greatest, best, and most useful vocation; and I am not quite sure \nwhich of the two is the better; for it is hard to reform old sinners, \nwith whom the preacher has to do, while the young tree can be \nmade to bend without breaking." \n\nA distinguished educator remarks: \n\n"Next in rank and efficacy to that pure and holy source of moral \ninfluence, the mother, is that of the schoolmaster. It is powerful \nalready. What would it be if, in every one of those school districts \nwhich we now count by annually-increasing thousands, there was to \nbe found a teacher well-informed, without pedantry; religious, \nwithout bigotry; proud and fond of his profession, and honored in \nthe discharge of its duties? How wide would be the intellectual, \nthe moral influence of such a bod}\'^ of men?" \n\nThis is the opinion of every enlightened man upon the nature of \nthe teacher\'s office. Let us endeavor to justify it in every particu- \nlai-, and then we shall elevate our vocation to the true position which \nit ought to occupy. \n\nIn the remarks I have made upon the propriety and necessity of \nmoral instruction, based upon our duty to God, I do not mean that \nthere should be any formality, any affected sanctity, or any j^reten- \nsious to superior holiness on the part of the teacher. God forbid. I \nwould have him as pleasant, and cheerful, and honest, as a summer\'s \nday. I would not have the moral lessons occupy too much time, or \ncrowd out the other indisjDensable studies of the school. But I \nwould have them receive all the share of attention which their im- \nportance demands. The judicious teacher will avail himself of the \nfavorable moment for making the right impression upon the minds \nof his scholars. \n\nI am conscious that I have very imperfectly presented this subject to \nyour consideration. But I do not exaggerate its importance. If I \nhave said anything which is true, anything which really bears upon \nthe most important question which can be submitted to any human \n\n\n\n158 INSTITUTE ADDEESSES. \n\nbeing, I urge and entreat you to give it careful thought, to allow it \nall the weight to which it is fairly entitled. So shall your influence \nnever be lost, but go on, extending and widening. No sincere effort \nto promote the good of others can be wholly ineffectual. I remem- \nber the kindly tones, the pleasant face, the aff"ectionate warning, and \nthe cheering words of encouragement of a teacher under whose care \nI was placed when a small boy. The influence which he exerted \nupon me will, I think, be felt forever; and it is an influence alwaj\'s \nleading to right. I shall never forget him. How often do I see \nhim in imagination ! He is living at the present time, and if he knew \nthat I have been thinking and speaking of him to-day to an audience \nof teachers uj^on the distant Pacific coast, his first emotion would be \nthat of surprise that I still think of him after the lapse of so many \nyears; the second would be a thrill of joyful gratitude to God that \nhis counsels had made so deep an impression upon the minds of hi\xc2\xbb \nscholars, that he had been remembered with esteem and affection. \n\nMay our eff"orts be such in relation to all who may be entrusted to \nour care that hereafter, wherever the lot of our pupils may be cast \nupon the broad earth, they may look back upon the school-house \nwhich they attended, as the place where they received, besides all \nuseful learning, a love for all that is good, pure, and honorable, \nwhich has never left them, but exerts an abiding influence on their \ncharacters. So shall your memory be ever kept green in their \nhearts; so shall your faithful efforts be blessed in their lives. \n\n\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING.* \n\nIntellectual training being the main object of the public schools^, \nit is not surprising that the body has too often been remorselessly \nsacrificed to the brain. \n\nThe neglect of physical culture having produced a long train of \nevils, too serious to be longer evaded by the most stubborn conserva- \ntives, the result is, that systematic physical training is beginning to \nbe recognized as a duty in the jDublic schools of the United States.- \n\nIn some schools, gymnastic and calisthenic exercises form a pari \nof the daily drill of j)upils, quite as regularly as the mental exer- \ncises in arithmetic and grammar. In some colleges, muscular train- \ning in the gymnasium is insisted on quite as strenuously as a \nknowledge of the classics. They are using their gymnasiums to \nbuild up stout bodies, as well as strong minds. A four years\' war \ntaught the nation to place a higher value on physical manhood. In \nmany public schools, the elements of military drill have been intro- \nduced, and, under the stimulus of the war spirit, successfully car- \nried into eff\'ect. But the first great requisites for good soldiers, \nbefore which all others sink into insignificance, are sound health, \nactivity, and power of endurance. The rawest recruits can be \ntaught to handle a musket in a few weeks, but muscles of iron and \nsinews of steel cannot be fastened upon men like knapsacks. The \nGreek and Eoman veterans were trained from boyhood, by gymnastic \n\n*Fiist Bieunial Eeport, 18(55. \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 159 \n\nexercises, and athletic games and sports. To lay a solid foundation \nfor onr own military strength as a nation, we must begin with the \nthree millions of boys in our public schools; and, while we breathe \ninto their hearts the spirit of patriotism, we must train them to a \nmuscular power which will give us fit soldiers to fight and win the \nbattles of the republic. Ten years of boj\'-life in schools where \nregular gymnastic drill is followed, up, and where a fondness for all \nathletic games and sports is cultivated, will make a good foundation \nfor military drill. \n\nPhysical training is important as an efficient aid to mental culture. \nIt comes into school as an amusement, a relaxation from the hard \nwork of mental application. School amusements are a necessity of \nchildhood. One of the greatest defects of our schools, is their \nfailure to recognize the laws of animal life. \n\nIn Germany and Prussia, the children are trained in the schools \nto gymnastic and athletic exercises; and the result is a national trait \nof fondness for out-of-door life. English schools are noted for \nrough-and-tumble games, foot-ball, cricket, leaping, running, wrest- \nling, rowing, boxing, and fencing. Pluck is a national trait of \nEnglish school-boys, and of English men. \n\nAmusement, in all nations and among all people, in some form, \ncomes in to lighten the burden of toil. Labor is a means, not an \nend; and the true end of life, usefulness and happiness, lies in the \ngolden mean, the alternation of labor, rest, and amusement. \n\nWhen the only standing recreation of the American people is busi- \nness, and their lighter amusements billiards and the ball-room, we \nhave little reason to expect great fondness for sports in schools. \nThis distaste for fun and frolic comes down to us as a natural inherit- \nance. The grave old Puritans, who settled New England, and laid \nin granite the foundation of the nation, had too much hard work to \ndo in clearing farms and hunting Indians, to think much of amuse- \nments. They brought with them, too, something of the old Round- \nhead antipathy to May-poles, dancing, and theatres. \n\nWhatever may be the reason, it is certain that the Americans, as \na people, have little fondness for athletic games and out-of-door \nsports, without which it is hard to keep the muscular system in good \ncondition. \n\nThe ancient Greeks carried to the highest perfection the cultiva- \ntion of the intellect and the training of the body. Their Olympic \ngames, their athletic exercises, their school discipline, their military \ndrill, secured the highest possible degree of physical perfection. \nTheir poets, orators,. philosophers, painters, sculptors, and histo- \nrians, were good fighters. Alcibiades, the sybarite, the fop, the \nreveler, could live on black broth, and rough it in the camp with the \nhardiest of the common soldiers. \n\nSocrates was a soldier as well as a philosopher, and would \nhave been less respected had he wanted the attributes common to \nall citizen soldiers \xe2\x80\x94 strength, courage, and endurance. \n\nWhen, in Greece, a luxurious civilization corrupted the tastes of \nthe citizens, and reduced them to effeminacy, the rude barbarian \nclaimed the land, and won it. \n\nTheir severe gymnastic training, it is true, had for its primary ob- \n\n\n\n160 \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE \'ADDEESSES. \n\n\n\nject the perfection of military discipline; but it also produced clear \nheads, strong minds, and the perfect forms which still live in marble. \n\nIts influence was felt in literature, to which it gave a healthy cast. \nIt gave to the nation its immortal sculptors and painters. \n\nIt is in the power of the public schools to educate the nation to a \nmore healthful taste for simple amusements, and to raise the stand- \nard of manly strength and womanly beauty. \n\nBut apart from this, the highest degree of mental culture cannot \nbe attained in violation of the laws of physical life. Childhood is \nthe season or growth, of animal development. It is a mistaken no- \ntion that children are born into the world for the purpose of going \nto school to learn to read and write. Playfulness is, with them, as \nmuch an instinct as with kittens. Even in the long, dark winters of \nthe arctic zone, where nature in her savage forms almost freezes out \nthe life of man, Dr. Kane found the stunted little Esquimaux boys \nplaying their games of ball on the snow-banks. Let the children in \nschool have amusements in the form of healthful, muscular exer- \ncises. It is absolutely joainful to think how most of our primary \nschools sin against the laws of nature; how they cramp the little \nbodies, and repress childish emotions and impulses. \n\nEducation is the harmonious development of all the faculties of \nthe human mind, and the training of the human body to its great- \nest strength and highest beauty. Why, then, in our public schools, \nshould not physical training be considered, as well as mental \ndevelopment? \n\nIt is evident to all who are in the least familiar with the daily \nroutine of our schools, that the muscular natures of the children \nare as little regarded as if they were made of gutta percha. Now, \nI do not suppose that many children are killed outright by the high \npressure of mental training. Occasionally some nervous boy, bril- \nliant and ambitious, his vitality all running to brain instead of body, \ndrops out of school into his grave, and his death is attributed to \nProvidence instead of mathematics. But thousands of boys leave \nschool, thin, pale, and weak, or bungling, clumsy, and awkward, \nwhen they might as well have left it strong, active, and graceful. \n\nIt is not so much the positive harm which the schools inflict of \nwhich we complain, but their neglect to accomplish positive good. \nIt might be hard to prove, in court, that delicate girls, of fine nerv- \nous organizations, have been killed outright by long lessons, over- \nstimulated ambition, late study hours, and mathematical puzzles; \nyet all teachers very well know that brain fevers have taken off many \npromising young girls, and that many more leave school with diplo- \nmas and ruined constitutions. All the girls in public schools have \nneither crooked spines, round shoulders, sunken chests, nor pale \nfaces; but how much more perfect might be their physical develop- \nment, did their health receive half the attention devoted to music, \ndrawing, and mathematics. Can any mental culture be of greater \nimportance than the health of those who are to become the mothers \nof the next generation of men? Few girls who are educated in the \npublic schools escape the universal law of labor. Most of them, \nwhen they enter homes of their own at an early age, will need \nstrength as well as accomplishments. Many of them must do their \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDEESSES. 161 \n\nown housework, in addition to the care of children; and is the ques- \ntion of physical strength of no consequence to them? Is it of little \nconsequence to the laboring man, with a famil}^ to support, whether \nhis wife be strong or feeble, well or sick? \n\nThe strong boys, in the long run, come out ahead. AVhen an ox \nis let into a pasture full of cattle, there is a trial of horns, and the \nstrongest takes the lead. So with the boys of a public school. The \nstrong, the energetic, the active, are the real kings of school, whether \nthey are at the head or foot of the arithmetic class. Give the boy, \nthen, the exercise his nature craves, and which will make him a live \nboy and a manly man. If he leaves school with a fondness for ath- \nletic amusements, he has one of the surest safeguards against ex- \npensive and ruinous dissipation: \n\nA judicious union of social, mental, and physical culture, will \nmake our public schools practically adapted to the wants of the peo- \nple. If parents, through ignorance, neglect the proper training of \ntheir children, let the public school take charge of them. Amuse- \nments form a part of education, and much excellent gymnastic and \ncalisthenic training maybe connected with games, or made delight- \nful by music. \n\nBut some will say, leave children to follow their own inclination \nin plays and sports; it is not natural for boys to climb the ropes and \nladders of a gymnasium, to swing clubs, lift weights, and revolve on \nbars; nor is it desirable that young ladies use wands, swing dumb \nbells, and romp in the play-ground. Any attempt at systematic and \nrepeated drill will prove irksome, and therefore useless. \n\nThen why not leave the mind to its natural, untrained action ? \nWhy submit the brain to regular training? Children\'s brains are as \nactive as their bodies; why not leave both alike to the ill-regulated \nlaws of impulse and feeling ? In mental culture we recognize the \ngreat law of nature, that no perfection is attained without repeated \nand systematic effort. Mental gymnastics of the severest kind are \nrigidly practised during at least ten years of early life. Strength, \nreadiness, and quickness are the result. Leave the mind to its own \naimless action, and its strength all runs to waste. \n\nThe same law applies to the muscular system; yet we leave the \nboy in school, day after day, year after year, cramped over his desk, \nhis muscles weak and relaxed, and his nervous energy, diverted from \nhis growth, to be poured on an already overworked brain. If he \nhave unusual stamina, he comes out in tolerable health, but clumsy \nand bungling; if of a nervous temperament, he leaves school pre- \ncociously sharp and quick, but thin, pale, and weak. \n\nTake a class of boys and subject them, from the age of six years \nto fifteen, to a careful and judicious daily exercise of an hour in \nsuch gymnastics as are best adapted to the growing body, and will \nnot their physique be vastly superior to that of a class left to run \n-wild in the yard ? And would not such an additional stock of ani- \nmal vigor and strength stand them in quite as good stead in the \nworld as their limited store of school-book learning? The gradu- \nates of West Point can be singled out of a crowd by their straight \nforms, erect walk, general quickness of movement, and superior \nphysical development. On a small scale, why cannot the elementary \n\n\n\n162 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nschools reach the same results? Any business man knows that \nsound health and power of endurance are quite as necessary to suc- \ncess as quickness in mathematics, or skill in the use of language. \nWhat merchant would not rather have his son come to the count- \ning-room with every muscle strung to its highest tension, quick, \nactive, self-reliant, strong, and proud of his strength, even if he \nknows a few pages less of a few books, than to see him drag home a thin \nface and attenuated muscles? Do not mechanics and laborers think \nit of some importance that their sons, who will take their places and \nlive by manual labor, shall have sinewy frames, as well as intelligent \nminds? By far the greater number of boys who attend the public \nschools grow up Avorking men. To all such, power of endurance is \nthe most practical education. The arm to lift a fifty-pound dumb \nbell is better than the analysis of cube root. \n\nA sound body is the only capital they have to start with in life. \nKnowledge may be power, but muscular strength is food and cloth- \ning. Some men must earn their living by muscular labor, as well as \nothers by their wits. Horace Mann said, and he knew the truth of \nit, "All through the life of a jjure-minded but feeble-bodied man, \nhis path is lined with memory\'s grave-stones, which mark the spots \nwhere noble enterprises perished for want of physical vigor to em- \nbody them in deeds." \n\nSound health is a necessary condition of all permanent success, \nand the greatest drawback to our j)ublic school system is the neg- \nlect to provide for this necessity. Better illiterate strength than \nsickly erudition. It is true that sometimes a heroic spirit conquers \nphysical weakness, but such cases are exceptions. Dr. Kane braved \nthe- terrors of the arctic regions, and endured more than many phys- \nical giants, but died in Cuba. Nature had her revenge. \n\nManj^ teachers will say, that is all very fine theoretically, but it is \nutterly impossible to carry it out practically in the school. Yet, it \ncan be done, has been done, and is done in a great many public \nschools. \n\nConnected for a period of ten years with a public school of five \nhundred children, during five years of that time gymnastic and cal- \nisthenic training was made a part of daily education, just as much \nas arithmetic, or geography, or grammar, and with quite as satis- \nfactory results. Having practiced all that I recommend, I am \ntroubled with no doubts in urging the j^racticability of physical\' cul- \nture in the public schools. True, it was rather hard in the begin- \nning, to be blamed for innovations, laughed at by conservatives, and \nfound fault with by parents. But persistence and patience over- \ncame all obstacles. Mothers who at first objected to letting their \nboys exercise in the gymnasium, for fear they would break their \nnecks or tear their clothes, soon grew proud of the strength and \nagility of their sons. \n\nDelicate girls, who horrified their mammas with accounts of wands \nand dumb-bells, grew to like both, as they grew stronger under daily \ndrill. Pale, weakly, good-for-nothing boys, who at first only moped \naround the yard and looked at the other boys, soon became inter- \nested and took hold in earnest, until the narrow chest expanded, \nthe round shoulders straightened, and the soft, flabby arm became \nlike knotted whip-cords. \n\n\n\nI \n\n\n\nINSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 1C3 \n\nThe measurements of many boys\' arms showed an increase o: cir- \ncumference of one inch in three months, and an expansion of the \nchest of two inches in the same time. Some of my most pleasant \nmemories of teaching are connected with my gymnastic classes of ath- \nletic boys, who could kick foot-ball, play base-ball, lift dumb-bells, \nswing clubs, climb ladders, vault the bar, Avalk the joarallel, sv ing \non the rings, foot it twenty miles on Saturday excursions, and box \nand wrestle with their teacher. I would not give those boys, who \nhave since grown up to be rugged men, rejoicing in their health and \nstreugth, for all the arithmetical prodigies in the United States. As \nI feel the hearty grip of their hands, my only twinge of 2:)ain is, that \nwhen I went to school my teachers did not have a higher estimate of \nmuscle, and a lower one of books. \n\nOne of those " big boys" of my class has been several years the \nleading gymnast of the Olympic Club Gymnasium of the young \nmen of this city, and I am quite as proud of him as of another boy \nwho has grown to be a scholar. Another strapping fellow, six feet \ntwo, straight as an arrow, and strong as Hercules, who has been \ntwo years in the army, fighting Indians, is a walking illustration of \nthe benefits of gymnastic drill in a jDublic school. I would not thus \nallude to my own experience, excej^t that any reference to gymnas- \ntics is met by many teachers with one argument, condensed in a \nsingle word \xe2\x80\x94 impracticable. \n\nHow shall such exercises be conducted in a public school? The \nexcellent books on the subject render it unnecessary to go into de- \ntail. All children have arms, and the will to use them. With or \nwithout music, any teacher in any school, graded or ungraded, can \ngive ten minutes a day for free arm movements. A few dollars will \nbuy a set of wands, and some wooden dumb-bells; and the girls can \nmake two dozen " bean bags." With this simple apparatus alone, \nany teacher with an ordinary amount of ingenuity, tact, or skill, \ncan, with the aid of a book, have a good light gymnastic class. \n\nHalf an hour a day can be taken out of the school hours, and the \nchildren be all the better for losing so much study time. A vast \namount of training can be given, even in the short period of a year. \nThe time for study and recitation ought to be reduced. In years to \ncome, little children will not be confined in school more than three \nhours a day. Years ago, the good old-time clergymen preached ser- \nmons two hours long, and those who could not stand them patiently \nwere held to be weak in the faith. Better sermons are now deliv- \nered in thirty minutes, with quite as good results. So it will be \nwith schools. Better teachers than we, when the j)resent six-hour \nsystem shall have become obsolete, will teach more in half the time. \nNot length of time in study, but the quality of thought, and the \nforce of action, is the measure of mental progress. \n\nThe light gymnastics are good for the smaller boys and girls; but \nthe "big boys" will generally prefer some out-of-door exercises. \nThe movable horizontal bar is a great favorite with boys, and the \nexercises on it are among the best of the gymnasium. One can be \nset in any school-yard for twenty dollars. A few iron dumb bells \nwill be useful. The Indian clubs are excellent for the arms and \nchest, but boys do not generally " take, to them," The swinging \n\n\n\n164 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. \n\nrings cost but little, and are liked very much. Leaping is a pleas- \nant yard amusement, and requires only two sticks and a string. \nFootball is a rough and tumble game; but it has the charm of in- \ntense excitement, and the more the boys get of it the better. \nBru\'sed ankles and sore legs are forgotten in the exultation of win- \nning. Rugb}\' ought not to monopolize it. Base ball is a fine old \ngam*;, which ought always to be kept before the boys. An occa- \nsional Saturday pedestrian excursion of twenty miles is a fine thing \nif the teacher can stand it. I was reminded of one the other day \nby a strapping fellow, w4io exclaimed: " It made my legs ache, but \nhow nice the beefsteaks were that we broiled on sticks over the \nfire." A set of boxing gloves will make fine fun for the older boys, \nand yet give them the most vigorous kind of exercise. " Do you \nbox any nowadays," was one of the first salutations of one of my \n" boys," who has just returned from the army. He was thinking \nof the half hours after school with the boxing gloves, in the old \nschoolhouse, and how, wdth the aid of what he had learned there, \nhe whipped the eyes out of a big " bully" at the West Point Mili- \ntary Academy. Wrestling used to be a favorite amusement, and \nwhat New England boy does not remember many a hard tussle on \nthe green sward round the " old schoolhouse." \n\nTeachers who wish to succeed in physical training must study \nvariety in their exercises. Boys are fond of novelty and change, \nand the same routine day after day will soon tire. Marbles, tops, \nkites, and ball follow after one another, changing quite as often as \nthe moon. It requires more skill, tact, judgment, and knowledge \nof boy nature to succeed Avith a gymnastic class than to teach arith- \nmetic or grammar; one requires a soul and symjDathy with boy \nnature, the other does not. An owl should not mingle with sing- \ning birds; and a cold, formal, dignified, melancholy teacher has no \nbusiness in the boys\' plaj\'ground. If he cannot kick a foot-ball \nwell, the boys will laugh at him. \n\nEvery teacher needs gymnastic exercises and amusements. No \noccupations so drains the nervous power; he must find the "foun- \ntain of youth" in the sports of boyhood. What matters it if exam- \ninations are a little less " brilliant," children less precocious, and \n" school phenomenons" less common? The object of school is to \ntrain up children to be sensible men and women, and to form tastes \nand habits which shall follow them through life. \n\nThe indirect lessons of the play-ground are often more valuable \nthan the formal teachings of the class-room, and the kind words \nthere spoken will soften the necessary severity of discipline in a \npublic school. In the hours of play, when " off duty," the teacher \nwith a great heart can win the souls of children while training their \n"bodies. What teacher would not be remembered by his pupils as \na sharer of their sports, a sympathizer with their boyish amuse- \nments, as a living man who had a heart, and moulded their charac- \nter, and formed their tastes, rather than as a mere schoolmaster \nwho only expounded text-books ! \n\n\n\nUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 165 \n\n\n\nIII. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\nIn 1866, Hon. Wm. Holdeu iutroduced a bill to organize a \nState Agricultural Scliool, in order to secure the 150,000 acres \nof land granted by Congress for that purpose. The bill became \na law, but no action was taken nnder it; and in 1868, Hon. John \nW. ^Dwinelle drafted and introduced a bill, which was passed, \nproviding for a State University Avith an Agricultural College. \n\nThe University of California was opened in Oakland, in the \nCollege of California buildings, Sept. 23, 1869, with an attend- \nance of about 50 students. \n\nThe University was made free, and opened for the admission \nof 3\'oung men and women. \n\nThe first Board of Eegents was composed as follows : \n\nEX-OFFICIO BEGENTS. \n\nH. H. Haight Governor. \n\nWm. Holden Lieutenant-Governor. \n\nO. P. Fitzgerald State Supt. Public Insiruction. \n\nC. T. Ryland Speaker of the Assembly. \n\nChas. F. Reed President State Agricultural Society. \n\nA. S. Hallidie \xe2\x96\xa0 - President Mechanics\' Institute. \n\n\n\nSamuel Merritt 2 years \n\nR. P. Hammond 6 years \n\nHoratio Stebbins 10 years \n\nWm. Watt 14 years \n\n\n\nAPPOINTED BY THE GOYEENOE. \n\nJohn T. Doyle 4 years. \n\nJohn W. Dwinelle 8 years. \n\nLawrence Archer 12 years. \n\nS. B. McKee 16 years. \n\n\n\nIsaac Friedlander. ... 2 years. \n\nJ. Mora Moss 6 years. \n\nA. J. Moulder 10 years. \n\nF. F. Low 14 years. \n\n\n\nELECTED BY THE BOAED. \n\nEdward Tompkins 4 years. \n\nS. F. Butterworth 8 years. \n\nA. J. Bowie 12 years. \n\nJohn B. Felton 16 years. \n\n\n\nAndrew J. Moulder, having been elected Secretary, resigned \nhis position as Regent. \n\nThe College of California, incorporated in 1855, disincorpo- \nrated, and conveyed its grounds at Berkeley, 5 miles from Oak- \nland, as a site for the State University. \n\nThe men chiefly instrumental in this consolidation, were \nHenry Durant, Gov. F. F. Low, and Horatio Stebbins. \n\n\n\n166 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. \n\nThe Collego of California had its germ in a private school, \nestablished in Oakland in 1853, by Henry Durant. \n\nFACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY. \n\nOu the lOtli of November, 1868, the Eegents elected General \nGeo. B. McClellan, President, with a salary of $6000. He de- \nclined, and Prof. John LeConte was made "Acting President." \n\nIn 1869, the following Professors were appointed : \nJoseph LeConte. ...Prof, of Geology, Natural History, and Botany. \n\nJohn LeConte Prof, of Physics and Industrial Mechanics. \n\nMartin Kellogg Prof, of Ancient Languages. \n\nR. C. Fisher Prof, of Chemistry, Mining, and Metallurgy. \n\nW. T. Welcker Prof, of Mathematics. \n\nFrank Soule, Jr Ass\'t Prof, of Mathematics. \n\nPaul Pioda Prof, of Modern Languages. \n\nEzra S. Carr Prof, of Agriculture, Agricultural Chemistry, and \n\nHorticulture. \n\n\\Vm. Swinton Prof, of English Language and Literature, \n\nHistory, Rhetoric, and Logic. \n\nHenry Durant was elected President in 1870. In 1872, he \nresigned, and D. 0. Gilman was elected, Sept. 1st. President \nGilman resigned in March, 1875, and was succeeded by Prof. \nJohn LeConte, as "Acting President." In June, 1876, Prof. \nJohn LeConte was elected President. \n\nThe Legislature of 1870 appropriated $300,000 for building \npurposes, and in the Autumn of 1873, the buildings being com- \npleted, the University was removed from Oakland to the perma- \nnent site at Berkeley. \n\nThe resignation of Prof. Fisher was requested by the Regents \nin \'71, and the chair of Chemistr}\' was filled by Prof. Rising. \nIn 1874, the resignation of Prof. Carr was requested by the \nRegents. He demanded an investigation, whicli was refused, and \nhis chair was declared vacant. He was nominated and elected \nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, in 1876. \n\nIn 1874, Prof. Swinton resigned his professorship to go East, \nand E. R. Sill was elected to his place. \n\nDuring the same "^year, Fred. G. Hesse was elected to the \nChair of Industrial Mechanics; John D. Hoffman, Prof, of In- \ndustrial Drawing; Wm. Ashburner, Prof, of Mining Engineer- \ning; E. W. Hilgard, Prof, of Agriculture; George F. Becker, \nInstructor in Metallurgy. \n\nA. J. Moulder resigned, and R. E. C. Stearns was elected \n: Secretary. \n\n\n\nUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\n167 \n\n\n\nThe Eegents and the Faculty, 1876, are as follows: \n\nEX-OFFICIO REGENTS. \n\n"William Irwin Governor, ex-officio President of the Board. \n\n-J. A. Johnson Lieutenant-Governor. \n\nHon. G. J. Carpenter Speaker of the Assembly. \n\nHon. Ezra S. Carr State Superintendent Public Instruction, \n\nR. S. Carey, Esq President State Agricultural Society. \n\nA. S. Hallidie, Esq. . . .Pres. Mechanics\' Institute of San Francisco. \nJohn LeConte President of the Universit}-. \n\nAPPOINTED EEGENTS. \n\n\n\nEev. H. Stebbins, San Francisco. \n\nHon. L. Archer San Jose. \n\nJ. West Martin Oakland. \n\nHon. Samuel B. McKee, Oakland. \nHon. J. F. Swift, San Francisco. \nJoseph Winans . . . San Francisco. \n\nJ. Mora Moss Oakland. \n\nJ. M. Hamilton >. Guenoc. \n\n\n\nD.O.Mills Millbrae. \n\nWilliam Meek. . . .San Leandro. \nHon. F. M. Pixley, San Francisco. \nHon.W. T. Wallace, San Fran\'co. \nHon. E. Casserl}^ . . San Francisco. \nHon. J. S. Hager, San Francisco. \n\nA. J. Bowie San Francisco. \n\nHon. John B. Felton. . .Oakland. \n\n\n\nACADEMIC SENATE. \n\nJohn LeConte, M.D. . . .Pres. and Prof, of Physics and Mechanics. \n\nWilliam Ashburner Prof, of Mining. \n\nGeo. W. Bunnell, A.M. . . .Prof, of Greek Language and Literature. \nGeo. Davidson, A.M. .Non-ResidentProf. Geodesy and Astronomy. \n\nStephen J. Field, LL.D . ..Non-Resident Prof, of Law. \n\nFrederick G. Hesse Prof, of Industrial Mechanics. \n\nE. W. Hilgard, Ph.D . . Prof. Agriculture and Agricultural Chemistry. \n\nMartin Kellogg, A.M Dean, and Prof, of Ancient Languages. \n\nJoseph LeConte, M.D Prof, of Geology and Natural History. \n\nBernard Moses, Ph.D Prof, of History. \n\nPaul Pioda Prof, of Modern Languages. \n\nWillardB. Rising, Ph.D Prof, of Chemistry and Metallurgy. \n\nEdward R. Sill, A.M. . . .Prof, of English Language and Literature. \n\nFrank Soule, Jr Prof, of Civil Engineering and Astronomy. \n\nWilliam T. AVelcker Prof, of Mathematics. \n\nW. A. Barbour, A.B Instructor in Chemistry. \n\nGeo. F. Becker, A.B., Ph.D Lecturer ou\xc2\xab Metallurgy. \n\nSamuel R. Christy, Ph.D. , Instructor in Chemistry. \n\nG. C.Edwards, Ph.B. .Inst\'r in\' Mathematics, and Com. of Cadets. \n\nCarlos F. Gompertz Instructor in Spanish. \n\nL. L. Hawkins, Ph.B.. . .Instructor in Mathematics and Surveying. \n\nJohn D. Hoffman Instructor in Mechanical Drawing. \n\nHenry B. Jones Assistant Instructor in German. \n\nG. de Kersaint-Gily Instructor in French. \n\nRobert E. Ogilby Instructor in Free-hand Drawing. \n\nEdward A. Parker, Ph.B Instructor in Physics and Mechanics. \n\nJas. M. Phillips, A.B. ..Instructor in Hebrew and Ancient History. \n\nAlbin Putzker Instructor in Germuu. \n\nAmbrose C. Richardson, A.B Instructor in Latin and Greek. \n\nJoseph C. Rowell, A.B Librarian. \n\nE. H. Sears, A.B Instructor in Latin and Greek. \n\nF. Slate, Jr., S.B Instructor in Chemistry. \n\n\n\n168 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA. \n\nGEADUATE ASSISTANTS. \n\nJohn W. Bice, Ph.B College of Engineering-. \n\nIsaac T. Hinton, Ph.B Matliematics. \n\nWm. Carey Jones, A.B Kecorder of Faculty. \n\nFranklin P. McLean, Ph.G Chemistry. \n\nFrank S, Sutton, Ph.B College of Agriculture. \n\nSTUDENT ASSISTANTS. \n\nFred. L. Button Mathematics. \n\nJ. B. Clarke Mathematics . \n\nX. Y. Clark Natural History and Greology. \n\nNUMBER OF STUDENTS. \n\nThe number of students from 1870 to 1876 is as follows: 40, \n78, 153, 185, 191, 234. \n\nENDOWMENT. \n\nThe 150,000 acres of land granted by Congress for the sup- \nport of, an Agricultural College have been sold, or applied for, \nat an average price of $5 per acre. If paid up, there Avould \nbe a fund of $750,000, which, at six per cent., w^ould yield an \nannual revenue of $45,000. But in selling these lands, only 20 \nper cent., or $1 an acre, is required in cash, the remainder \ndraws interest at the rate of ten per cent. ; so that the income \nought to exceed 150,000, or even $60,000. \n\nIn addition to this endowment, the State has given from the \nsale of tide lands an endowment fund sufficient to yield an \nannual income of $50,000\xe2\x80\x94 about $800,000, invested in State \nbonds. The endowment fund of the University may be set \ndown, in round numbers, at $1,500,000, and its annual income \nat $128,000. \n\n\n\n\n^\\ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\%\\ \n\n\n\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 169 \n\n\n\nIV. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. \n\n\n\nUuder the appropriation of $3,000, by the Legislature of \n1861-2, Ahira Holmes was appointed as Principal by a Board \nof Trustees, consisting of Superintendent Moulder, George \nTait, Superintendent of San Francisco, and Dr. Taylor, Super- \nintendent of Sacramento. \n\nThe school was opened in one of the vacant rooms of the \nSan Francisco High School, July 21st, 1862, with 34 pupils, \nduring the first term. The school was soon removed to rented \nrooms on Post Street. Henry P. Carlton was elected Vice- \nPrincipal, and Miss Helen M. Clark and Miss Kate Sullivan \nteachers in the Training School. \n\nThe first graduating class, December, 1863, consisted of \nBertha Comstock, Augusta P. Fink, Nellie Hart, and Louisa \nMails. \n\nIn July, 1861, Miss E. W. Houghton was elected as an Assist- \nant, and in July, 1865, George W. Minns succeeded Ahira \nHolmes as Principal. The school was removed to the rear of \nthe Lincoln Grammar School, and Mrs. C. H. Stout was ap- \npointed Principal of the Training School. \n\nThe number of pupils, October, 1865, was 86. The School \nLaw of 1865-5 made the State Board of Education ex officio a \nBoard of Normal School Trustees. \n\nAt the first meeting, April 13, 1866, Professor Minns was \ngranted a year\'s leave of absence, and H. P. Carlton elected \nActing Principal. In 1867, Mr. Minns, concluding not to re- \nturn from the East, resigned. Mr. Carlton continued Principal \nuntil July, 1867, when George Tait was elected Principal. Mr. \nTait resigned in 1868, and was succeeded by W. T. Luckey. \n\nUnder the Act of April 4, 1870, Gov. Haight appointed a \nBoard of Trustees, consisting of James Deuman, J. H. Braly, \nC. T. Eyland, H. O. Weller, and A. J. Moulder, the Governor \nand State Superintendent being ex officio members. \n\n11 \n\n\n\n170 \n\n\n\nSTATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION. \n\n\n\nThis Board proceeded to erect a building at San Jose, com- \npleted in 1872, at a cost of 1250,000. \n\nIn June, 1873, Charles H. Allen was elected Principal, vice \nW. T. Luckey, and J. H. Braly, Vice-Principal, vice H, P. \nCarlton. \n\nAt present, the school is filled to its utmost capacity \xe2\x80\x94 350 \nstudents \xe2\x80\x94 and is, in fact as well as in name, a Normal School. \n\nThe Pioard of Instruction, June, 1876, is as follows: \n\nCharles H. Alien Principal \n\nJ. H. Braly Vice-Principal. \n\nHenry B. Norton Natural Science. \n\nIra Moore Language. \n\nMiss Eliza W. Houghton Preceptress. \n\nMrs. Lucy M. Washburn Assistant in Junior Class. \n\nMiss Cornelia "Walker Assistant in Junior Class. \n\nMiss Annie E. Chamberlain Assistant in Junior Class. \n\nm\xc2\xa3 SS c. ?^\'^fghf : :} p-p-to\'-^ i>^p-\'"\xe2\x84\xa2*- \n\nMiss Mary J. Titus Principal of Training School. \n\nMiss Florence Grigsby Assistant in Training School. \n\n\n\nNUMBER OF GRADUATES OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. \n\n\n\nTear. \n\n\'63. \n\'64. \n\'65. \n\'66. \n\'67. \n\'68. \n\'69. \n\n\n\nNo. \n\n. 4 \n\n.28 \n.25 \n.22 \n.41 \n.38 \n.29 \n\n\n\nYear. \n\n70., \n\'71. \n\n\'72., \n\n73. \n\n74. \n\n75. \n\n\'76. \n\n\n\nNo. \n\n.45 \n.21 \n.17 \n.20 \n.33 \n.46 \n.36 \n\n\n\nWhole number 414. \n\n\n\nV. STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION. \n\n\n\nBy the School Law of 1852, the State Board of Education \nwas made to consist of the Governor, State Superintendent, and \nthe Surveyor-General. The Surveyor-General was included \nbecause the law originally proposed to entrust the Board with \nthe sales of school lands. This, however, was not done; and \nthe State Board remained, up to 1864, without powers or duties, \n\n\n\nBOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 171 \n\nexcept \'to apportion, annually, the State school moneys. In \n1S64, the State Board was made to consist of the Governor, the \nState Superintendent, and the County Superintendents of San \nFrancisco, Sacramento, and San Joaquin. The Board was em- \npowered to adopt a uniform series of text-books, for all schools \nexcept in incorporated cities; to require a uniform course of \nstudy, and to make rules and regulations for the schools. In \n1865, the Board was enlarged by the addition of the Principal\' \nof the State Normal School, and of two members appointed by \nthe State Superintendent. In 1872, the two appointive mem- \nbers were cut off. In 1864, the State Board was made, ex officio, \nthe Board of Normal School Trustees; repealed, 1870. \n\n\n\nVI. TEACHERS\' CERTIFICATES AND BOARDS OF \nEXAMINATION. \n\n\n\nFrom 1850 to 1860, the power of examining teachers for cer- \ntificates was vested in District School Trustees and City Boards \nof Education. These Boards were authorized to grant certifi- \ncates " of good moral character and fitness to teach a common \nschool one yeary \n\nIn 1860, Superintendent Moulder secured the passage of a \nlaw providing for a State Board of Examination, appointed by \nthe State Superintendent, with power to grant certificates, valid \nfor two years, and for County Boards, appointed by County \nSuperintendents, with power to issue county certificates, valid \nfor one year. \n\nThe power of examining teachers was still vested in City \nBoards of Education, which were not required to recognize \nState certificates. \n\nAt the State Institute, Sacramento, 1862, the first State ex- \namination was held by Superintendent Moulder and a Board \nmade up of County Superintendents. The examination was \nsomewhat informal, and mostly oral. The Board granted five \nGrammar School certificates and twelve "Mixed School" certifi- \ncates. \n\n\n\n172 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\nFrom 1851 to 1863, teachers in San Francisco were examined \nevery year. At first, these examinations were oral; but, in \n1856, the Board introduced written examinations. \n\nConcerning this annual re-examination of experienced teachers^ \n\nSuperintendent Swett, in his first Report, said : \n\nNo one cause has done so much to render the occupation of a \npubHc school teacher distasteful as the old system of annual ex- \naminations. Teachers were condemned to be tried, not by a jury \nof their peers, but too often by men who knew little or nothing of \npractical teacbing", and who not unfrequently made the annual ex- \namination a guillotine for decapitating any unlucky pedagogue who \nhad fallen under ban of their petty displeasure. A teacher in. \nthe public schools, though he might have, added to the finest \nnatural abilities for teaching, a complete professional training in \nthe best normal schools in the United States; though he might be \ncrowned with honors, won by many years of successful experience; \nthough he might be esteemed by the community, and revered b}\' \nthousands of grateful pupils \xe2\x80\x94 at the end of each year, forsooth, he \nmust be " examined" by a committee of lawyers, doctors, dentists, \nbook-binders, contractors, and non-professional men, to ascertain if \nhe were "fit to teach a Common School!" After having passed \nthrough the examination mill annually, nine years in succession, \ntvirned out each time with a " bran new" certificate of " fitness to \nteach a Common School one year," I can speak feelingly on this \nsubject. These annual examinations of experienced teachers offered \nan annual insvilt to intelligence, by lumping character, aptness to \nteach, moral and social culture, in tabular statements of " percent- \nage" on arithmetic and spelling, in which infinitesimal details \ncounted everything, character and success nothing at all. Actual \ntrial in the school-room is the best test of fitness to teach; and \nwhen a teacher has once passed examination, and proved success- \nful in school, subsequent examinations are uncalled for and un- \nnecessary\'. \n\nI remember more than one successful teacher, arraigned before \nthe Examination Star Chamber, who was decapitated by the official \nguillotine of "percentage," because he happened to fail "on the \nbest route from Novogorod to Kiliraandijaro," or from " Red Dog- \nto You Bet;" or forgot the population of Brandy Gulch, Humbugs \nCanon, or Pompeii; or could not remember the names of all the \nrivers of the world, from the Amazon down to the brook where he \ncaught " minnows" with pin hooks when a boy; or blundered on \nsome arithmetical shell, hard enough to pierce the hide of a moni- \ntor; or chanced to spell traveler with two I\'s; or happened, finally,, \nto fall one tenth of one credit below nine hundred and ninety-nine, \nthe standard which exactly\' gauged the moral character and intel- \nlectual ability of a man " fit to teach a Common School one year." \nThe new State law, by granting diplomas for six 3\'ears, relieves \nteachers from the annoyance of such examinations, and is the first \nstep towards recognizing teaching as a profession. It was m}^ firm \n\n\n\nBOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 173 \n\n<5onviction from the first, that the end sought would be best attained \nhj vesting the authority to examine candidates in a board of prac- \ntical teachers, selected for that specific purpose. The future suc- \ncess of this important movement will depend upon retaining this \nprinciple as a foundation. Teachers have a right to demand an ex- \namination by their peers. \n\nIn the State Institute circuhir, 1863, the subject of teachers\' \ncertificates was noticed as follows : \n\nThe State Board of Examiners will hold an examination of all ap- \nplicants who desire to obtain State certificates during the Institute \nSession. By an amendment to the school law, these certificates re- \nmain in force during the term of four years \xe2\x80\x94 relieving the holders \nfrom all further examination by County Boards. It would be diffi- \ncult to adduce an}^ reason whatever for the annual examination of \nteachers, except the natural desire which some seem to entertain for \ntormenting unlucky applicants for district schools. There are many \nable teachers in the State whose pride revolts at the humiliation. \nUnder the old law, a teacher in the public schools, though he might \nhave added to the finest natural abilities for teaching, a complete \nprofessional training in the best Normal schools in the United States \n\xe2\x80\x94 though he might have grown gray in the service, might be crowned \nwith the well-earned honors of many successful schools, be revered \nby thousands of grateful pupils \xe2\x80\x94 though he had graduated from a \nuniversit}^\xe2\x80\x94 yet he could not apply for the smallest district school in \nthe remotest corner of the State, without "passing an examination;" \nand, if he wished to teach another year, he had to travel twenty or \nthirty miles to pass examination, to satisfy the State that he was "Jit \nto keep a common school!" And further, if he wished to remove to \nanother county, he must be examined by another Board, to ascertain \nhis fitness to teach a common school! If examination imparts fitness \nto teach, some of the teachers in tiiis State ought to be well fitted \nfor their occupation. \n\nIn 1862-3, Superintendent Swett secured important amend- \nments to the law relating to certificates and examining boards; \nand in 1865-6, the Eevised School Law made elaborate provisions \nfor the whole subject. \n\nThis law authorized the State Board of Education to issue \nState Life Diplomas to teachers of at least 10 years\' experience, \nholders of State Educational Diplomas; provided for City \nBoards of Examination, consisting exclusively of professional \nteachers; required City Boards of Education to recognize the \nvalidity of State certificates ; required the percentages obtained \nin the different studies to be indorsed on the back of the cer- \ntificate; required the State Board to issue certificates to the \nholders of State Normal School diplomas, and of State life cer- \n\n\n\n174: \': /\' BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\ntificates of all other States in tlie United States; provided for \ngranting State certiticates on tlie results of county examinations- \nwith the State series of questions \xe2\x80\x94 in other words, made teach- \ning a legal profession. \n\nThese provisions, with slight amendments, are retained in the \npresent school law. \n\nOn this subject, Mr. Swett spohe as follows, before the \nNational Educational Association, at Boston, August 6-8, 1872 : \n\nBy way of introducing my subject, and for the purjoose of showing \nwhy I entertain radical views on the common methods of examiniug \nteachers, and of granting them certificates, I am constrained to offer \nmy own experience as an illustration. \n\nTwent}^ years ago this very month, moved by the migrator}\' instinct \nthat seems to be hereditary in so many Yankee boys, impelling them \nto take flight in search of warmer climes and richer feeding-grounds, \nI sailed out of Boston harbor bound for California, "round the \nHorn." \n\nMy pocket-book was not plethoric with money, but carefully \nstowed away in its ample folds there were three certificates, every one \nof which bore the most positive evidence as to my good moral char- \nacter, and certified to my " ability and fitness to teach a common \nschool for the term of one year." One of these, like its holder, had \nits birth in the Old Granite State. \n\nIt bore the signature of a " Deestrict School Trustee," dear old \nDeacon Brown, who examined me in the vowel sounds, and the conso- \nnant sounds; asked me to pronounce correctly g-e-iv-g-a-w , and, by \nway of a clincher, required me to define the four parts of English \nGrammar according to Lindley Murray, to wit: Orthography, Ety- \nmology, Syntax, and Prosody. \n\nThe other two certificates were dated in the town of Timbxictoo, in \nthe old Bay State, almost in the shadow of Bunker Hill. I was ex- \namined in the dingy office of a cobwebbed old lawyer, who was quite \nas scientific in his style of doing things, as was dear old Deacon \nBrown. \n\nIt is enough to say that every one of these examinations was as \ngreat a farce as it would "be for Vincent Collier to examine an Apache \nIndian in mental and moral j)hilosoj)hy and theology, or rather, as \nabsurd as it would be for a green-grocer to examine John Stuart Mill \nin political economy. \n\nI would not rake up old events that happened so near the cradle of \nthe common-school system, excejDt that on returning, nearly a \nquarter of a century later, I find that good old way of examining \nteachers still going on in my native State, and in some other States \nthat I do not now care to mention. \n\nWhen I reached California, I mined, until I found myself dead- \nbroke; worked as a day-laborer on a ranch; sought in vain for per- \nmanent employment, save only the profession of blacking boots; \n\n\n\nBOAEDS OF EXAMINATION. 175 \n\nand, at the end of the year, looked sadly at my certificates, and, as \na last desperate resort, " looked round" for a school. \n\nI heard of a school, but my old certificates were not current in \nCalifornia; and the flattering letters of Prof. Eussell, who taught \nme how to teach, availed me nothing. I had to be "examined" \nbefore I could be patented to be " fit to teach a common school in \nthe State of California, for one year," and a miserable little school \nof half-Spanish children at that. \n\nThe school trustee, a Yankee minister, a man of huge body and \nenormous pomposity, did his duty with an awful dignity, which \nnobody but a little-minded man , in a petty little ofiice, can ever aspire \nto. It was the same old rigmarole of " readin\', \'ritiu\' and \'rithentic," \nwith never a question to test education, culture, or power to teach. \n\nAfter a half-daji\'s examination, he gave me a certificate, and the \nschool to somebody else. \n\nThen I went to San Francisco. There was a vacancy in the school \ndepartment. The old examination-mill was still kept running under \nYankee management. Fifteen of us, all in a row, like good little \nboys in school, were questioned " once round" in arithmetic, " once \nround " in grammar, " once round " in geography, " once round " \nin spelling, by the Superintendent and the Mayor \xe2\x80\x94 the former a Ver- \nmont Yankee, and the latter like unto him, except he hailed from a \ncity nigh unto Boston, where they gibbeted witches instead of \nteachers. \n\nI was told I ranked first of the batch; and of coiirse somebody \nelse, who had "influence with the board," got the place. The suc- \ncessful somebody this time was a young doctor without patients. \nHe soon resigned, and I was allowed the privilege, at $125 a month, \nof conquering a peace by subduing the j\'oung hoodlums, or of meet- \ning the fate of my predecessor. \n\nThis was how 1 became a schoolmaster, and how I won my way \ninto the noblest profession \xe2\x80\x94 I think that is what they call it some- \ntimes in educational conventions. \n\nFor eight successive years I taught the same school, and \xe2\x80\x94 I am \nam ashamed to own it, and would not tell it were it not necessary to \nillustrate what I intend to pi-esent \xe2\x80\x94 I had the cowardice, like other \nteachers with me, to submit to eight annual examinations, in order \nto determine my fitness, at each annual revolution of the sun, to \nteach the same school each succeeding school year. \n\nNor was this the end of humiliation and insult. After getting a \n" bran new " certificate at the end of each year, before I could go \non again, I had to be elected by the votes of twelve members of the \nBoard of Ediication, because my term of ofiice lasted oi^j;-^ one year. \nThis annual election system was handed down to us from the primi- \ntive New England " town meetings." I believe that here in Boston, \nand in all New England cities and villages, and, in fact, in most \nparts of the United States, it is still kept up. A teacher holds the \nofiice only one year, and then he is at the mere}\' of any school di- \nrector, or local member of the board, who may have some spite to \nwreak, or some relative to put in. Much as I honor the occupation \nof teaching, I am not in love with a system that tends to take all \nthe manliness out of a man, and all the independence from a woman. \n\n\n\n176 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\nUnder such a barbarous system of office-holding, rather than have \na son of mine become a common-school teacher, I would apprentice \nhim to the trade of a tanner, a tailor, or a shoemaker. He might \nthen stand some possible chance of rising in the political world. \nFor myself, rather than teach under it, I would contest with Nasby \nthe postmastership of the Confederate Cross-Roads. \n\nAt length, dragged out of my bed, after a typhoid fever that \nbrought me to the verge of the grave \xe2\x80\x94 a sickness brought on by \nover-work, worry and anxiety \xe2\x80\x94 in order to be run through the examin- \nation-mill di, ninth time, the hereditary blood of my grandfather, who \n"fit" in the Revolution, rose up in rebellion. I vowed to breakup \nand root out the annual-examination farce, and the New-England- \ntown-meeting-annual-election humbug, both of which had followed \nme across the continent, like the ghost of some grim old Puritan, \nsticking closer than the accent of "Yankee-land in our mother tongue. \n\nSo I left the school-room, went into political conventions, secured \na nomination for the only office ever open to a schoolmaster, that of \nState f5uperintendent of Public Instruction, stumped the State, won \ntwo successive elections, and the third time, with my whole party, \nwon a defeat; framed a school-law; established free schools; lobbied \nlegislatures; secured a legal recognition of professional teachers; \nabolished the New England annual-examination farce; and, in San \nFrancisco, broke up the annual }otation-in-office election system; \nplaced the examination of teachers throughout the State exclusively \nin the hands of experienced teachers, thereby ruining the occupa- \ntion and the glory of many a learned committee-man; secured life \ndiplomas for experienced and capable teachers; gained a legal recog- \nnition of the normal school diplomas of all State normal schools in \nthe United States; and, by law, made valid in California the life \ndiplomas and State certificates granted to teachers by other States. \n\nAll these reforms cost me _years of hard work and determined \neflfort, and you will understand why I entertain strong convictions \non the subject of teachers\' certificates. \n\nFor nearly twenty j\'ears, on the western verge of the continent, I \nhave been engaged in a kind of border warfare in education. My \neducational notions have changed since, I taught school near \nBoston. Living in a State whose people have been gleaned from \nevery other State in the Union, from France, Germany, Italy, Eng- \nland, Ireland, Australia, and China, new conditions have made new \nquestions to be decided, and new issues to be met. \n\nWhile I fully recognize all that is good in New England schools, \nschool laws, school customs and usages, I take satisfaction for past \nsuffering, in hurling a few brick-bats into the windows of the old \nschool-house where I was flogged. \n\nBefore touching on the subject of professional certificates, the \ntwo weak jDoints of our public school system must be taken into \naccount. \n\n1. Of the three hundred thousand persons that " keep school " \nin our country, not more than one tenth can be regarded as profes- \nsional teachers, that is, teachers trained to their business, and intend- \n\n\n\nB0ARD8 OF EXAMINATION. 177 \n\ning to pursue it for a term of years. From the various normal \nschools altogether, there are graduated, annually, not more than two \nthousand at a very liberal estimate, and of these at least one half \ndrop out of the occupation in five years. \n\nMost of our schools onf.mle of our. large cities, and many of the \nlower classes ivi/ldn our cities, are " kept," not taught, by unskilled \nand untrained labor, at the wages of unskilled labor. The pay of \nthese unskilled "school-keepers" is less than that of any class of \nartisans or mechanics in any occupation that requires a trained \napprenticeship. \n\nThese " school-keepers" are quite as good a/i the people deserve, \nand in most cases better than they ought to get for the wages paid. \nUntil the people recognize the necessity of schools all the year \nround, until they recognize that teaching is an art, until they,are will- \ning to pay for skilled training, instead of mere \'\xe2\x80\xa2\' school-keeping," \nthe broken summer and winter schools, kept by young girls waiting \nto get married, and by boys working their way througli college, or \ninto other occupations and professions, or by migratory Icliabod \nCranes, must serve the purpose of keeping the children out of utter \nbarbarism, by giving them a chance to learn to read and write, and \nreckon dollars and cents. \n\nThe abstract theory of our school system is fine enough, but the \ncensus statistics loom up in fearful significance as a dark back- \nground. We shall learn before long that mere reading and writing \ndo not constitute education, and that scljoolmasters and school- \nma\'ams are not necessarily teachers. \n\nIt is a quarter of a century since I went to school in my native vil- \nlage. I return and find the school there is no better than when I \nwas a school-boy. That village scliool is a fair type of many schools \nall over our country. It will not do to pick out a few cities, and \nshut our eyes to the rural districts. \n\nWhen I went to school, we boys had neither training nor culture. \nWe learned to read and write and cipher, and memorized text-books, \nbut we were not educated; and hundreds of thousands of boys and \ngirls, all over our country, are doing the same thing at the present \ntime. \n\nIt matters but little how the temporary keepers of schools of this \ntype are examined. Still, there ought to be a plan devised by which \nthe untutored, untrained and unskilled " school-keeper" shall not \nbe placed on the same footing and paid the same wages as the accom- \nplished graduate of a normal school, or the self-made teacher, \ntrained in actual work in the school-room. \n\nSchools of this class were well enough in the ruder years of the \nrepublic, when men and women were subduing the wilderness, \ndriving out the savages, and laying the rough foundations of a great \nnation. But the time is now rapidly coming when, in consequenco \nof a denser population, the struggle for existence will become fiercer, \nwhen there will no longer be millions of acres of fertile land to be \ntaken up at nominal prices, and made productive by unskilled labor. \nThe time is coming when our artisans and mechanics must be trained \n\n\n\n178 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\nto compete with those from the technical and industrial schools of \nEuropean countries. \n\nOur schools in the small villages and farming districts must be \nreorganized to meet this new order of things, and the people must \nemploy skilled teachers, and pay them the wages of skilled labor. \n\n2. The other radical defect in the practical working of our school \nsyfistem is the short terms of school officers and superintendents, and \ntheir election by direct vote of the people in general elections. \n\nAnnual elections suited the genius of New England towns when \nthe government was the purest type of a democracy, and when the \nmachinery of great political parties was unknown ; but, applied to \ngreat cities, to States, and to the broader expanse of the "West, the \nshort term of office and the annual election have been ruinous in \ntheir results, not only in educational offices, but in all others. \n\nThere can be no steady progress in public schools without long- \ncontinued, systematic efforts; and there can be no systejn when one \nset of school officials succeeds another as often as the seasons \nchange. By the time one set of school officers has learned some- \nthing about the condition and wants of the schools, by some change \nin the politics of the city or town, a new set succeeds, bent on reform- \ning the work of their predecessors. \n\nIn many parts of our country, already, school boards elected by \none political party feel under no obligation to retain in j^lace the \nteachers appointed by the opposite part}\', and the outrageous annual- \nelection farce, which cowardly teachers have so long submitted to \nwithout a struggle, affords a hue opportunity to drop out the old \nones and run in the new. \n\nGradually, but surely, the schools are coming to be considered as \nlegitimate party spoils of the victors, and the struggle for position \non boards of education in all our great cities is mainly to control \nthe patronage of appointments. There has been a great deal of \ntalk about reform in civil-service appointments, but the country \nstands in greater need of reform in the manner of making educa- \ntional apj^ointments. There is more favoritism, more of politics \nand church, mixed up in the annual appointments of the 300,000 \nteachers in the country than in all the custom-houses; and there is \nmore ignorance and unfitness for position than in all the post-offices \nand civil-service places taken together. \n\nI make no random assertions. I speak from a thorough personal \nknowledge of our State; and teachers and educators from other \nStates affirm the same condition of things with them. It is un- \ndoubtedly worse in the newer States than in the older, and worse in \nthe States evenly balanced, and subject to frequent political changes, \nthan in the one-sided States always controlled by the same political \nparty. Right here in Boston, the centre of conservatism, there is \nlittle change, because for twenty-five years there has been no change \nin the political character of the Board of Education. But, each suc- \nceeding year, every one of the thousand teachers here feels that it is \npossible for one single enemy on the Board to secure, by persistent \nmisrepresentation, and by trading votes, the removal of any teacher. \nOccasionally, even in Utopia, it happens that a teacher is "left out," \n\n\n\nBOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 179 \n\nand consequently no teaelier can act or can think independently; \nand it is even whispered that it makes a mrierial difference with a \nman\'s chances whether he be a believer in Cotton Mather or in \nDarwin. \n\nIf the Boston Brahmins like this condition of petty servitude to \nschool directors, I am perfectly willing they shall fold their arms \nwith all due meekness and gratitude, leaving the work of reforma- \ntion to outside barbarians. They get better salaries than we do out \nWest, and consequently are conservative. \n\nUntil there is a reform in these defective points of our school \nsystem, it seems to me there can be no marked and permanent im- \nprovement in our public schools as a whole. There will be indi- \nvidual schools that, under superior teachers, will attain a high \ndegree of excellence; but the general average of the schools cannot \nbe raised much higher than it is, because the system neither en- \ncourages independent thought nor tolerates progress. \n\nPuttering in conventions over the little details of teaching arith- \nmetic, grammar, and geography, will avail nothing. Men are wanted \nto shape legislation, to dig out the cZe^ris, and with strong and rough \nhands to lay the superstructure of a better system of American school \nsupervision and school teaching. \n\nThere are some men and women engaged in public school service \nwho make teaching a life-work, who understand their business, and \nwho are earnestly devoted to their work, and the rights and privi- \nleges of this class demand a careful consideration. There are only \na few States that have any system of professional examinations by \nwhich a public school teacher can secure a professional life diploma, \nand thereafter be exempted from the humiliation of periodic exam- \ninations by petty school officials, just emerging from babyhood of \nofficial ignorance of the whole subject of education. \n\nAnd even if a life certificate can be secured in a few States, such \nas Illinois, Ohio, Iowa, or California, it is of no legal value outside \nof the particular State in which it is granted. California is the only \nState that recognizes by law the State diplomas and certificates of \nother States, by placing them on an equal footing with her own. \nWere I, after twenty years of continous service as a teacher, as State \nSuperintendent, and as Dejouty City Superintendent of San Fran- \ncisco, holding in my jjossession dozens of defunct certificates, and a \nlife diploma of the State of California, were I to go back to my \nnative town, and seek employment in my native State by teaching- \nthe little " Deestrict School" that I went to when a barefoot boy, \nI should have to "pass examination" to determine my fitness to \nteach a little squad of boys and girls to read and write. The school \nlaw of New Hampshire not only fails to recognize the educational \ndiplomas of mushroom States like California; but, with true Puritan \nstubbornness, neglects to provide her own sons, who pick up educa- \ntion enough to become teachers, Avith any kind of a State document \nwhich they can carry with them to the State where they go to earn a \nliving. \n\nIt would be the same were I to go "looking out for a school " in \nMaine, or Vermont, or Massachusetts, or Khode Island, or Connec- \nticut, or any State in the Union except my own adopted State. \n\n\n\n180 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\nWere my esteemed personal friend Mr. Philbrick, the Superin- \ntendent of the Public Schools of Boston, crowned with the well- \nearned honors of twenty-five j^ears of educational labor, to lose his \nposition at the next annual election, and in consequence, were to \nemigrate to California, to teach school to earn a living, he would \nhave to pass a rigid Avritten examination, before he could draw a \ndollar of the school fund for teaching the smallest school, in the \nroughest mining camp in the State. Massachusetts has provided no \nmeans of giving her educational veterans a certificate of public- \nschool service. \n\nNo State in the Union, except California, recognizes b}^ law the \nnormal school diplomas of other States. In fact, many of the States \nfail to recognize b_y law the diplomas given to the graduates of their \nown normal schools. \n\nThere ought to be, in every State, a State Board of Examination, \nmade up exclusivel.y of professional teachers, including the State \nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, having power to issue life \n-di^^lomas to experienced teachers of the highest rank, and certificates \nof lower grades to younger teachers, of lower rank; these diplomas \nand certificates to be issued only ujiou actual examination in writing, \nand the record of examination to be indorsed upon the certificates. \nThere ought, also, to be a system of broad and liberal legislation in \nall the States, by means of which a professional teacher holding a \ndiploma or certificate in one State, should be guaranteed a legal \nrecognition in all the other States. \n\nIt is true that this need is more felt in the newer Western and \nPacific States than in the older ones. For instance, in California, \nour teachers are drawn from every other State in the Union. These \nteachers must pass a written examination in our State, before they \n\xe2\x80\xa2can engage in teaching. This requisition often keeps them waiting \nfor several months after their arrival. Occasionally a teacher comes \n"bringing a State certificate or normal school diploma, which is at \nonce recognized under our liberal school law. \n\nBut most oft the States have failed to provide for any system of \nState certificates, by means of which their teachers can carry with \nthem, when they emigrate, any written evidence of professional \nfitness. \n\nIf the older States do not feel the local need of some provision of \nthis kind, the}\' owe a dut}\' to their educated sons and daughters, \nwho seek a wider field of action in the newer States. They owe a \nduty to the cause of National American Education. \n\nIn addition to a State system of examination as a means of pro- \ntecting the public schools against charlatans, ignoramuses, and \nhumbugs generally, it is indisiDensabie that ever^^ State have an \nefiicient system of citj^, county, and township boards of examination. \n\nThese boards ought to be made up of each city, county, or town \nsuperintendent, together with from three to five professional teach- \ners, themselves holders of high-grade certificates. They should \nhave power to issue, on actual written examinations, certificates of \ndiff\'erent grades, valid for periods of time ranging from two to ten. \nyears, according to grade. \n\n\n\nBOARDS OF EXAMINATipN. 181 \n\nThese boards ought to be paid a reasonable sum for their work, \notherwise it will not be well done. They ought to be made up ex- \nclusively of practical teachers, for the same reason that only lawyers \ncan legally examine law students api^lying for admission to the bar, \nthat only physicians examine medical students, and that only clergy- \nmen pass on the titness of theological students to enter the ministry. \nBy combining- a system of State, city, county, and town examinations, \ntogether with inter-state legislation, something might be done to \nraise the standard of public school teaching. \n\nIt is a matter of surprise that so little has already been done in this \ndirection. It can only be accounted for by the fact that nine tenths \nof the men and women engaged in keeping school are intending and \nexpecting to get out of the business as soon as they can. Otherwise, \nthey would never submit to the humiliation of successive examina- \ntions by petty officials, who often know little or nothing about edu- \ncation, but who delight in a brief official importance. \n\nIt is urged against this plan of competitive, professional examina- \ntions in writing, that "percentages" represent mere scholarship, \nand fail to gauge the power to discipline, the tact to manage, and \nthe skill to teach. \n\nThis may be true to some extent, but it is also certain that, while \nsome good scholars inajfail when submitted to the final test of the \nschool-room, no ignorant teacher can possibly make a good teacher \nunder any circumstances. There is a grade of scholarship below \nwhich no man or woman is fitted to make a trial of teaching. Above \nthis standard, some will svicceed and some will fail. So it is with \ngraduates of the law schools, the divinity schools, and the medical \nschools. \n\nIt may be urged that boards of examination will show favorit- \nism in issuing certificates to friends. So they will, unless the people- \nelecfincorruptible school officers, and appoint incorruptible teachers. \nThe best laws ever framed, and the best systems ever devised, are \nnever binding on corrupt or incapable executive officers. \n\nIt may be urged that the diploma of a college ought to be taken \nas a valid certificate of fitness to teach. Now a college-bred youngs \nman may or may not be qualified to teach. I have known many \nyoung men coming to California, with flying colors and fresh diplo- \nmas, who ignominiously failed to secure a certificate to teach even \nthe lowest grade country school, on an examination in arithmetic, \ngrammar, geography, history, reading, and spelling, so elementary \nin its character, that to a pupil of average attainment in the second \ngrade of an ordinary grammar school, it would have been mere play. \nThey not only showed no "fitness to teach," but they exhibited a \nmost lamentable ignorance of the very elements required to be taught \nin every common school. They might have been brilliant in the dead \nlanguages, but they misspelled their mother tongue, they murdered \nEnglish, and they couldn\'t cipher. There can be no safe and feure \ntest, except actual examination. \n\nI do not deny that the hobby of written examinations may be \nridden to death. It has been wickedly said by somebody \xe2\x80\x94 doubtless \nsome luckless examinee \xe2\x80\x94 that the leading object of many examina- \n\n\n\n182 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. \n\ntions is to give the examiners a chance to show off their own attain- \nments. I have seen many sets of questions that seemed to be fossil \ncuriosities, picked up during a life-long search after abnormal things \n\xe2\x80\x94 "tough sums" in arithmetic and algebra, the product of some \nmathematician run to seed; gleanings of the tag ends of the \ncountless rules, and notes and exceptions, and annotations and ex- \nplanations, and illustrations and idioms, of Lindley Murray, that \ngreat grammarian who wrote bad English, and made sad the hearts \nof unnumbered generations of school boys and school girls; twisted \nelliptical sentences to be parsed according to Smith, or Brown, or \nGreene, or Wells, or Weld, or Sanborn, or Kerl, or Hart, or Clark, \nor Quackenbos, or Bullion, or Piuneo, or Nokes, or Stokes, or Niles, or \nStiles, or Thompson, or Pickwick; unheard-of words of crooked or- \nthography, the gnarled growth of centuries of changes of the English \ntongue, strung together like onions, in away that would have brought \ntears to the eyes of old Webster himself, that dear old philological \nbush-ranger, who fought orthography on his own hook, in defiance of \nall usage, and of all laws of linguistic warfare; questions in geog- \nraphy on zig-zag boundaries, on the length of all the rivers of all the \nworld, from the Amazon down to the trout-brooks that we fished in \nwhen boys; on the distance of the classic towns of " You Bet" and \n*\' Ked Dog," in California, from Nijni Novogorod and the sources of \nthe Nile; on the direction of Brandy Gulch and Whisky Canon \nfrom XJjiji and Petropaulovski; questions in historj^ requiring the \nyear and the day of the month of the settlement of every State in \nthe Union, supplemented by senseless interrogatories on historical \nm^\'ths known only in our school text-books; impracticable questions \non theory and practice of teaching, about what ought to be done \nunder impossible conditions; questions about elements of penman- \nship that even such accomplished penmen as Greeley, or Choate, or \nNaj^oleon Bonaparte, couldn\'t answer; questions on Sanscrit roots \nno Brahmin ever heard of; questions on the constitution that would \nhave floored the " Great Expounder;" questions on physiology that \nwould puzzle Darwin; questions on natural i^hilosophj\' at which \nHuxley or Tyndall would be dumb; questions which showed the ex- \naminer to be " stick, stark, staring mad," and which no sane man \ncould answer. But a practical system of examinations presupposes \na common-sense style of conducting them. \n\nIn conclusion, I submit the following propositions for the consid- \neration of teachers, and educators, and legislators: \n\n1. A comprehensive system of State, city, county, and town \nBoards of Examination. \n\n2. Boards of Examination to be made up of State, city, county, \nor town superintendents, together with a limited number of profes- \nsional teachers, appointed in the manner best suited to the school \nsystems of the different States. \n\n3. A graded series of teachers\' certificates, from life diplomas \ndown to temporary certificates, valid for one year, granted on actual \n\xe2\x96\xa0examination only. \n\n4. Examinations to be conducted in writing, and the percentages \nobtained in each study to be indorsed on the certificates. \n\n\n\nSPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. \n\n\n\n183 \n\n\n\n5. A legal recognition by each State of the professional certifi- \ncates issued in other States. \n\n6. A provision for the legal recognition, by Boards of Examina- \ntion in each State, of the normal school diplomas issued by the \nnormal schools of other States and other countries. _ \n\n7. A determined and combined effort to shape legislation so as to \nsecure longer terms of office to State, city, county, and town super- \nintendents, to members of Boards of Education, and to school \ntrustees, thereby securing some degree of uniform progress in edu- \ncational management. \n\n8. A war of independence, to be waged against the outrageous \nsystem of the annual election of teachers, a plan which reduces them \nbelow the level of the holder of the smallest post-office in the gift \nof a victorious political party. \n\n\n\nSPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. \n\nQUAKTEKLY EXAMINATION, JtTNE, 1876. \n\nOEDEE OF EXAMINATION. \n\n\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n4. \n\n5. \n6. \n\n7. \n8. \n\ny. \n\n10. \n\n11. \n\n12. \n\n\n\nGeneral Questions. \n\nOrthography 100 \n\nGrammar 100 \n\nWritten Arithmetic 100 \n\nGeography 50 \n\n^Reading (with oral exercises) 50 \n\nTheory and Practice 50 \n\nDefining (word analysis) 50 \n\nMental Arithmetic 50 \n\n*Oral Grammar 25 \n\nHistory of the United States. . 50 \nComposition 50 \n\n\n\n13. Penmanship 25 \n\n14. Algebra 50 \n\n15. Natural Philosophy 50 \n\n16. Physiology 50 \n\n17. Natural History 50 \n\n18. Constitution of United States \n\nand California 25 \n\n19. School Laws of California 25 \n\n20. Industrial Drawing 25 \n\n21. Vocal Music 25 \n\nTotal 1000 \n\n\n\n* The Oral Examination may be conducted at any time, by taking each appli- \ncant separately. \n\nI. GENERAL QUESTIONS. \n\n1. Name, age, birthplace. \n\n2. Where educated. \n\n3. Experience in teaching. \n\n4. What certificate, if any. \n\n5. Are you an applicant for a State certificate ? \n\n\n\n2. SPELLING. \nI. DICTATION PAEAGRAPH. \n\n[50 Credits. Three Credits off for each misspelled word, or misi^laced capital.] \n\nHad the Plantagenets, as at one time seemed likely, succeeded in \nuniting all France under their government, it is probable that \nEngland would never have had an independent existence. The \nnoble language of Milton and Burke would have remained a \n\n\n\n184 \n\n\n\nSPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. \n\n\n\nrustic dialect, "without a literature, a fixed grammar, or a fixed \nortbog-raphj^ and would have been contemptuously abandoned \nto the use of boors. No man of English extraction would have \nrisen to eminence, except by becoming, in speech and habits, a \nFrenchman. \n\nII. WORDS. \n\n\n\n[50 Credits. One Credit off for ench luisspelled word.] \n\n\n\nharangue \n\nfricasee \n\nmaintenance \n\nblamable \n\nfeasible \n\ninexorable \n\nindependence \n\ncontrivance \n\nfarinaceous \n\nIsaialr \n\nhieroglyphics \n\ndei\'ciidant \n\nBuddhism \n\n\n\nvignette \n\nguarantee \n\nrendezvous \n\ncurable \n\nresponsible \n\nnoticeable \n\nsuppliance \n\nperseverance \n\nsacrilegious \n\nMatthew \n\ndomicile \n\npharmacy \n\n\n\ndiphtheria \n\nprofessor * \n\nPestalozzi \n\nni etempsychosis \n\nvaccination \n\nanonymous \n\nwasn\'t \n\nimmaculate \n\nbissextile \n\nsphericity \n\ntyrannical \n\ninflammable \n\n\n\ncorridor \n\nkindergarten \n\nconvertible \n\nvacillation \n\nindestructible \n\nmnsn\'t \n\ncurriculum \n\navoirdupois \n\ntechnology \n\nphilologist \n\nammunition \n\nmetapln\'sician \n\nMohammedanism \n\n\n\n3. GRAMMAR. \n\n\n\n[100 Credits. Time, 1% hours.] \n\n1. "Write a synoj^sis of the verb to speak, in the indicative mood^ \nthird person, singular number, passive voice. \n\n2. State three cases where the relative tJiat must be used in pref- \nerence to ^vho or which, and illustrate each case by a sentence. \n\n3. State all the noiin-si(ffixes and verb-suffixes of inflection, in \nEnglish. \n\n4. Write the plurals of \xe2\x80\x94 1, focus; 2, index; 3, his; 4, memoran- \ndum; 5, animalcule. \n\n6. Correct such of the following as are not, in your opinion, good \nEnglish : \n\nI. You had better go. \nII. I had rather not do it. \nIII. The ship was soon lost sight of. \nlY. It is the strongest case I ever heard of. \nV. " The deadest piece of ironmongery in the trade." \n\n6. " The squirrel eyes askance the chestnuts browning." Parse^ \n\xe2\x96\xa0with brief forms: 1, squirrel; 2, eyes; 3, askance; 4, browning; 5, \nchestnuts. \n\n7. " Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, \n\nTheir homely joys and destiny obscure; \nNor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile, \nThe short and simple annals of the poor." \n\nI. What kind of a sentence ? \n\nII. How many statements, or propositions? \nIII. Why a comma after toil ? \nlY. Why a semicolon after obscure F \n\nY. Derivation of simple ? \n\n\n\nSPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. 185 \n\n8. Parse, with brief models: 1, ambition; 2, grandeur; 3, hear;\'^- \n4, obscure; 6, why are ambition and grandeur caj^italized ? \n\n9. State five ways in which you can make use of a reading lesson \nin connection with grammar ? \n\n10. Correct the following sentences, and give a general rule or \ndirection to pupils, covering each case: \n\nI. The lecture was brief, short, and concise. \nII. She is a teacher whom all are pleased with. \n\nIII. A pin was accidentally swallowed by a little girl with- \n\nout a head. \n\nIV. We reached home, at length, after great difficulty, in a \n\nblinding snow-storm, through deep snow drifts. \nV. It can be no worse for us, if we fail. \n\n4. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC, \n\n[100 Credits. Time, 23^ hours.] \n\n[Note. \xe2\x80\x94 Leave all your work on the paper; make no analysis or explanation \nunless called for, and then give in full.] \n\n1. Perform the following operations: Multiply 3.05 by 2\\, sub- \ntract 0.21, divide the result by ^, and add to it the quotient of 9 \ndivided by l-900th. \n\n2. A man owned a square field, containing ten acres. He gave \nenough from it for a street 4 rods wide, all around it. How much \nland had he left? \n\n3. How many feet of siding, six inches wide, will cover the sides \nof a house which is 24 feet by 30 feet, and 15 feet high, allowing ^ \nfor the lap. (No gable ends.) \n\n4. A water tank is 3i wide and 5^ feet long. How deep must it \nbe to hold 8 hogsheads ? \n\n5. A man sold two horses for $240 each; on the one he gained 20 \nper cent., and on the other he lost 20 per cent. Did he gain or lose \non the two transactions, taken together, and how miach ? \n\n6. A vertical jDole 99 feet high is standing in a j)ublic park, \nequally distant from the four corners of the park. The park is rect- \nangular, and 16 rods b}-- 36 rods. How far is it from the top of the \npole to a corner of the park ? \n\n7. A merchant sold goods at 30 per cent, profit, and paid |^ per \ncent, of his gross receipt for expenses, what is his net gain on sales \namounting to $8,000 ? \n\n8. Deduce the multiplier used in compound interest for finding \nthe compound interest on any sum of money, at 5 per cent., for 5 \nyears. \n\n9. An eccentric old lady papered the walls of her room with 3 \ncent postage stamjDS. Her room was 16 by 10 feet, and 12 feet \nhigh; it had 2 windows, each 5h by 4 feet, and 2 doors, each 6 by \n3 feet. A postage stamj) is 1 inch long by 15-16 wide. What was \nthe cost of papering her room ? \n\n10. On a promissory note from John Doe to Richard Roe, San \nFrancisco, January 4, 1874, for $1,200, payable on demand, 10 per \ncent, a year, there were paid: March 19, 1874, $300; Aug. 15, \n\n12 \n\n\n\n186 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. \n\n1874, $200; Dec. 21, 1874, $150. Write the note in due form, and \ncompute the interest hy the Business Eule up to the time of pay- \nment, Jan. 4, 1875. \n\n5. GEOGRAPHY. \n\n[50 Credits. Time, 1 hour.] \n\n1. On a steamer trip from New Orleans to Pittsburgh, name the \nfive largest cities you would pass, and the State in which each is \nsituated. \n\n2. State the following facts about Europe: 1, area; 2, popula- \ntion; 3, five chief cities; 4, height of Mt. Blanc; 5, five chief rivers. \n\n3. What is the estimated population, 1876, of : 1, San Francisco; \n2, California; 3, the United States; 4, Philadelphia; 5, St. Louis. \n\n4. Name the five most populous islands in the world, in the order \nof population. \n\n5. At what places on the earth is the sun vertical at noon, at least \nonce a year ? \n\nC. How is it proved that the earth is an oblate-spheroid ? \n\n7. State the chief cause of ocean currents, and also two minor \ncauses that influence them. \n\n8. State the causes of the dense fogs that prevail off the coast of \nChili and P^ru, Oregon and California. \n\n9. Name the three chief cities of: 1, New England; 2, the Mid- \ndle States; 3, the Southern States; 4, the Western States; 5, the \nPacific States. \n\n10. Name the three leading countries in the production of each of \nthe following: 1, cotton; 2, sugar; 3, gold; 4, iron; 5, wool. \n\n6. READING. \n\n[25 Credits. Time, 30 minutes.] \n\n1. Illustrate the use of each of the following marks: 1, macron; \n2, breve; 3; diaeresis; 4, cedilla; 5, caret. \n\n2. Write ten words having the sound of a in hcdf. \n\n3. By means of accent, and the notation of vowels used in Web- \nster\'s Dictionary, indicate the correct jn-ouunciation of the follow- \ning words: 1, interesting; 2, museum; 3, irreparable; 4, tirade; 5, \nirrevocable. \n\n4 and 5. Make the marks used in Webster\'s Dictionary to indi- \ncate the sound of each vowel in each of the following words: [Ex- \naminers will write the words upon the blackboards, omitting the no- \ntation. One credit off for each error in notation. \n\n\n\nale \narm \n\n\nend \nverge \n\n\nold \nodd \n\n\nup \nrude \n\n\nall \n\nadd \n\n\norey \nleir \n\n\nmove \ndone \n\n\npull \nurge \n\n\nask \nwhat \n\n\npine \npin \n\n\nwplf \nnor \n\n\nmoon \nfoot \n\n\nair \neve \n\n\npique \nthirst \n\n\niise \n\n\nfly \n\n\n\nSPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. 187 \n\n7. METHODS OF TEACHING. \n\n[50 Credits. Time, 1 hour.] \n\n1. Explain the distinctive features of the methods of instruction \nintroduced by Pestalozzi. \n\n2. Name three important educational toj)ics that are attracting the \nattention of educators, teachers, and school officers. \n\n3. Name five books on Teaching that you would recommend to \npersons ignorant of both the science and the art of teaching. \n\n4. What is the so-called Grube System of teaching arithmetic to \nbeginners ? \n\n5. In addition to teaching the table, how would you teach square \nmeasure to a class \'? \n\n6. Write ten questions on the local geography of the place where \nyou are passing examination, such as you would put to a class of \nbeginners. \n\n7. Can you name two leading defects in the text-books on gram- \nmar now in use in this State ? \n\n8. What criticisms do you make on the arithmetics in use ? \n\n9. Explain the chemical changes that take place in the burning of \na candle. \n\n10. Explain to a class the cause of the strong sea breezes that pre- \nxail in Summer along the coast of California. \n\n8. DEFINING AND WORD ANALYSIS. \n\n[50 Credits.] \n\n1. Derivation and root meaning of: 1, orthography; 2, syntax; \n\n3, geography; 4, botany; 5, calculate. \n\n2. Define impediment, and give two synonymous words. \n\n3. Explain the difference between diuryial and daily, rotation and \nrevolution. \n\n4. Make a list of the Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes. \n\n5. What classes of words in our language are mainly of Teutonic \nor Anglo-Saxon origin; of Komanic origin? \n\n6. Derivation and meaning of: 1, scrupulous; 2, supercilious. \n\n7. Write a single sentence containing both shall and loill correct- \nly used. \n\n8. Origin of : 1, volcano; 2, bonanza; 3, demijohn; 4, arcadian; \n5, sybarite, \n\n9. Define the expression, "resumption of specie payments." \n\n10. Derivation of: 1, centennial; 2, exposition; 3, Philadelphia; \n\n4, the title " Dom ; " 5, international. \n\n9. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. \n\n[50 Credits. Time, % hour.] \n\n[Note. \xe2\x80\x94 Questions to be read by the Examiner; only the answers \nrequired.] \n\n1. What is 500 per cent, of 2/5 ? \n\n2. What is the interest on $60 for 2^ months, at 6 per cent, a \nyear? \n\n\n\n188 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. \n\n3. One-half and one-fiftli of a number, plus 6, equals the num- \nber; find the number. \n\n4. Add 2/5 and 3/8. \n\n5. How many feet in 40 rods? \n\n6. At 12| cents each, how many oranges can be bought for $40 ? \n\n7. Divide the decimal .4 by the decimal .05. \n\n8. How many ounces in 4| pounds of gold ? \n\n9. In 9 rods, how many feet ? \n\n10. How many inches in 5/9 of a square foot ? \n\n11. Find the product of 5x4x6x0xifr. \n\n12. 150-20-8-5-9-10-9-6-8-6-7-6-8-7-9-8-7 = ? \n\n13. 1000-300 -200 -100- 200- 70 -20- 2 --9 x 6-9-7=? \n\n14. How many inches in 5/12 of a cubic foot ? \n\n15. How many times is i a dollar contained in ^ of a dollar? \n\n16. Cost of 6^ yards of calico, at 15 cents. \n\n17. One thousand is five-sixths of what ? \n\n18. Four-fifths is what part of twenty? \n\n19. Prime factors of 1728. \n\n20. Interest of $1, at 6 per cent., for 2 years, 9 months, 21 days. \n\n21. Interest of $300, for 2 years, 11 months, at 4 jyer cent. \n\n22. $20 is what per cent, of $30 ? \n\n23. Find 66| per cent, of $1200. \n\n24. 24 is 120 per cent, of what? \n\n25. What number, increased by 80 per cent.= 36? \n\n\n\nII. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. \n\n[50 Credits ; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.] \n\n1. For what events in the history of the Eevolution is Philadel- \nphia distinguished ? Boston ? \n\n2. Name four leading colonial wars, and one leading event in \neach, \n\n3. Of the distinguished Americans during the Kevolutionary war, \nname two leading statesmen, four leading generals, two leading \norators, one foreign minister, and one leading financier. \n\n4. During the war of secession, name four Union victories, and \nfour Confederate victories, giving the year and the name of the vic- \ntorious commander. \n\n5. Name ten signers of the Declaration of Independence. \n\n[One Question, Ten Credits.] \n\n6. State in what way in our history the following persons distin- \nguished themselves: 1, Alexander Hamilton; 2, Robert Morris; 3, \nBenjamin Franklin; 4, Charles Sumner; 5, John C. Calhoun. \n\n12. COMPOSITION. \n\n[50 Credits. Time, 1 hour.] \n\n1. Write five brief directions about composition-writing, such as \nyou would give to the highest grade in a Grammar School. \n\n2. Write two directions about paragraphing. \n\n\n\nSPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. l89 \n\n3. What kind of composition-exercises would you give to children \nin a Primary School, during their third school year ? \n\n4. Give the " heads" of a composition about Government. \n\n5. Write the most important rules of punctuation that you would \ngive a class in composition, as follows: 1, two rules for the com- \nma; 2, two rules for the semicolon; 3, one rule for the dash; 4, two \nrules for the exclamation mark; 5, two rules for quotation marks. \n\n14. ALGEBRA. \n\n[50 Credits; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.] \n\n1. Find the square root of 4a\'\xe2\x80\x94 12a\'+ 25ft\'\xe2\x80\x94 24a + 16. \n\n2. Divide the number 5 into two such parts that twice their pro- \nduct increased by the sum of their squares may be equal to 25. \n\n3. Find the value of x and y : \n\ny^ + Sxy=^4:5 \n\n4. Difference between a pure and an affected quadratic equation ? \n\n5. Extract the cube root of a"\xe2\x80\x94 6ft\'+ 15a*\xe2\x80\x94 20a3+ 15a\'\xe2\x80\x94 6a + 1. \n\n[One Question, Ten Credits.] \n\n6. What are logarithms, who invented them, and what are their \nuses? \n\n15. PHYSICS. \n\n[50 Credits; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.] \n\n1. How far will a cannon ball, dropped from a height, fall in 4 \nseconds ? \n\n2. Give four illustrations of the correlation of heat and motion. \n\n3. How is light supposed to be diffused. \n\n4. A body would weigh 4 tons, 8,000 miles above the earth\'s \nsurface, find its weight at the surface. \n\n5. On what law of light does the action of the microscope de- \npend ? \n\n[One Question Ten Credits.] \n\n6. What are . the laws discovered by Eepler that govern the \nmotions and distances of the planets ? \n\n\n\n16. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. \n\n[50 Credits; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.] \n\n1. State two differences between the veins and the arteries. \n\n2. State the difference between the functions of the cerebrum \nand the cerebellum. \n\n3. Direct a class how to treat headaches ; common colds. \n\n4. In case the artery of the wrist or the ankle were cut, direct a \npupil how to stop the bleeding until the arrival of a physician. \n\n5. Give a class five rules for taking care of their eyes. \n\n\n\n190 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. \n\n[One Question, Ten Credits.] \n\n6. State the locality of: 1, the patella ; 2, the ulna ; 3, scapula; \n4, tibia ; 5, hyoid bone. \n\n\n\n17. NATURAL HISTORY. \n\n[50 Credits.] \n\n1. What changes take place in the organs of a flower when it is \nmade " double" by culture? \n\n2. Name and classify five of the most beautiful flowers, indige- \nnous to California, \n\n3. Give the transformations of the frog. \n\n4. How does the natural system of classification differ from the \nartificial system ? \n\n5. Mention the princij^al forest trees of this State. \n\n6. What are the chief wild animals of this State, and where \nfound ? \n\n\n\n18. CONSTITUTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND \nCALIFORNIA. \n\n[25 Credits; 5 Questions, 4 Credits each.] \n\n1. When was the Constitution of the United States framed; who \nwas President of the Convention, and when was it adopted by a \nmajority of the States. \n\n2. Name five rights of the people guaranteed by the Constitution \nof the United States. \n\n3. State the substance of two important amendments to the \nConstitution of the United States. \n\n4. How is the United States Constitution amended ? \n\n5. What educational provisions does the Constitution of Califor- \nnia contain ? \n\n[One Question, Five Credits.] \n\n6. In framing the Constitution, why was each State, large or \nBmall, allowed two Senators ? \n\n\n\n19. SCHOOL LAW. \n\n[25 Credits.] \n\n1. What are the conditions for obtaining a life diploma? \n\n2. In what three different ways are school moneys raised by tax- \nation ? \n\n3. Name five provisions of the school law that are, in your opin- \nion, good ones. \n\n4. What are the provisions of the State law about educating \nnegro children ? \n\n5. How is the State University supported ? \n\n\n\nPROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF CALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\n191 \n\n\n\n20. DRAWING. \n\n[25 Credits.] \n\n1. Name any benefits derived from the study of drawing in the \npublic schools. \n\n2. What system of drawing has been adopted in this State ? \n\n3. What are the distinctive features of this system ? \n\n4. In a graded school, how much time would you give for draw- \ning ? In an ungraded school ? \n\n5. Define: 1, a right-angled triangle; 2, a circle; 3, a surface; \n4, a vertical line; 5, a perpendicular line. \n\n\n\n21. MUSIC. \n\n[25 Credits.] \n\n1. How can a teacher that cannot sing have singing in school? \n\n2. Name two benefits arising from school singing. \n\n3. How much time ought to be given to singing, and when should \nthe time be taken ? \n\n4. What text-books on music have been adopted by the State \nBoard of Education ? \n\n5. Write the scale. \n\n\n\nVII. THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF \nCALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\nLIST OF THE HOLDERS OF LIFE DIPLOMAS \n\nWHICH HAVE BEEN ISSUED ONLY TO HOLDEES OF EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS THAT HAVE \nHAD TEN YEAES\' EXPEEIENCE IN TEACHING. \n\n[The names of holders of diplomas who have permaueutly engaged in other \npursuits are marked t ; the names of holders deceased are marked *.] \n\n\n\nAbbott, W^arren \'71 \n\nAldrich, Abbie F \'76 \n\nAllen, L. D \'71 \n\nAllsopp, J. P. C \'69 \n\nfAmes, Charles C \'69 \n\nAmes, Martha \'75 \n\nAnderson, J. W \'68 \n\nAnderson, Mrs. C. A \'73 \n\nAshton, Mrs. N. J \'76 \n\nAtwood, Mrs. C. L \'67 \n\nAustin, Miss Minnie F \'QQ \n\n\n\nBabcock, W. S ^....76 \n\nBagnall, John \'67 \n\nfBailey, C. P \'68 \n\nfBaker, George F \'73 \n\nBaldwin, Miss Nellie \'75 \n\nBarnard, Miss A. S \'75 \n\nBarr, Miss Sara A \'73 \n\nBatchelder, H. T \'73 \n\nBaumgardner, Mrs. E. M. . . .\'76 \n\nBeals, Mrs. C. R \'72 \n\nBenjamin, C. V \'72 \n\n\n\n192 \n\n\n\nPROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF CALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\nBennette, Fanny E \'69 \n\nBennett, Miss Mary H \'74 \n\nBlack, Samuel T \'72 \n\nBlack, Charles M \'74 \n\nBloomer, A. C \'76 \n\n*Bodwell, Miss Mary L \'66 \n\nBolander, H. N \'68 \n\nBradley, Theodore \'66 \n\nBragg, Mary J \'75 \n\nBraly, John H 69 \n\nBrodt, A. W \'71 \n\nBrown, George \'66 \n\nfBrown, F. E \'67 \n\nBrown, Miss S. L \'74 \n\nBryerly, John R \'76 \n\nBuckman, F. S. S \'75 \n\nBugbey, Mrs. B.N \'76 \n\nBunnell, George W \'66 \n\nBurke, Lizzie K \'73 \n\nCampbell, Miss C. C \'72 \n\nCampbell, F. M \'73 \n\nCarlton, H. P \'66 \n\nfCasebolt, Miss M. A \'72 \n\nCastelhun, Miss Maria A \'74 \n\nChapman, M. V \'72 \n\nChalmers, Miss Annie B \'75 \n\nChestnutwood, Mrs. J. A. . . .\'75 \n\nChestnutwood, Jno. A \'73 \n\nChilds, C. W \'68 \n\nClappe, Mrs. L. A. K \'68 \n\nClark, Dorcas \'67 \n\nClark, Mary E \'67 \n\nfClark, Miss H. M \'6o \n\n*Clark, L. R \'70 \n\nClark, M. C \'75 \n\nCleveland, Miss E. A \'73 \n\nCoe,EliG \'71 \n\nConklin, E. B \'71 \n\nfCook, Mrs. P \'70 \n\nCook, Miss Hannah \'73 \n\nfCottle, Melville \'69 \n\nCrane,. Amanda \'76 \n\nCraven, Andrew F \'74 \n\nCrawford, Mrs. J. F \'74 \n\nCrawford T. O \'75 \n\nCrosette, F. M \'76 \n\nCross, C. W \'75 \n\nCrowhurst, Wm \'75 \n\nCrowell, C. H \'73 \n\nCummings, C. C \'66 \n\nD\'Arcy, Miss M. E \'72 \n\nDavies, J. S \'76 \n\n\n\nDavis, Mrs. Imogene W \'75 \n\nDeane, Mrs. Margaret \'71 \n\nDeetkin, Mrs. Lizzie G \'74 \n\nDenman, James \'66 \n\nDodge, W. C \'74 \n\nDooner, John \'75 \n\nDrake, A. J \'71 \n\nDrake Chas. M \'76 \n\nDuane, Mrs. A. S \'72 \n\nDuBois, Mrs. A. E \'68 \n\nDul3ois, J. B \'76 \n\nDueukel, Wm \'75 \n\nDwyer, James \'75 \n\ntEickhoff, J. Henry \'73 \n\nFarley, A.J \'72 \n\nField, Miss Carrie P \'75 \n\nFinch, J. B \'71 \n\nFink, Augusta P \'75 \n\nFisk, Julia A \'76 \n\nFitzgerald, A. L \'71 \n\nFoster, Mrs. J. A \'73 \n\nFoster, Mrs. Emily \'74 \n\nFowler, Miss Laura T \'68 \n\nFreeman, G. N \'75 \n\nFry,W.H \'72 \n\nfFullerA. L \'69 \n\nFurlong, George \'76 \n\nGabriel, Mrs. C. E \'74 \n\nGarrison, Gazena A \'76 \n\n* Gates, Freeman \'72 \n\nGorman, W. J \'73 \n\nGoodrich, A. H \'68 \n\nfGraf , Miss Minnie \'72 \n\nGrant, Miss Ella G \'75 \n\nGrant, Miss Helen A \'75 \n\nGray, John C \'69 \n\nGreer, Miss Jane E \'75 \n\nGriffith, Mrs. Aurelia \'71 \n\nGunn, MissS.M \'75 \n\nGwinn, James M \'71 \n\nt Hamilton, Miss Addie \'73 \n\nf Hammond, Josiah Shaw. . . .\'73 \n\nHarlow, James \'67 \n\nfHart, W. C \'73 \n\nHall, Frances M \'76 \n\nHatch, J. L \'75 \n\nHayes, John \'76 \n\nHenning, Irving P \'75 \n\nHerbst A \'73 \n\nHigby, H. C \'75 \n\nHill, Miss A. H \'73 \n\nHill, Whitman H \'71 \n\n\n\nPROFESSIONAL TEACHEES OF CALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\n193 \n\n\n\nHodgdon, Miss S.J \'72 \n\nHoffman, Mrs. Mary L \'73 \n\nfHoitt, IraG \'6G \n\nt Holbrook, T. W. J \'66 \n\nHolder, W. W \'71 \n\nf Holmes, Ahira \'QG \n\nfHolmes, Ellis H \'66 \n\nHoughton, Miss E. W \'66 \n\nHowe, H. H \'68 \n\ntHowe, J. M \'67 \n\nHowe, Converse \'75 \n\nHucks, Annie E \'75 \n\nHudson, J. A \'73 \n\nHumphrey, E. D \'68 \n\nHumphreys, Miss L. A \'74 \n\nHumphreys, Miss M. A \'74 \n\nHunt, Miss Carrie L \'70 \n\nHurley, Miss J. M. A \'73 \n\nHutton, Chas. E \'73 \n\nHoughton, George E \'76 \n\nItsell, A. J \'74 \n\nJackman, Samuel H \'70 \n\nJessup, Miss S. A \'72 \n\nJewett, Annie S \'76 \n\nJewett, Miss Susan N \'72 \n\nJohnson, J. AV \'76 \n\nJohns, Charles T \'71 \n\nJohnson, J. G \'70 \n\nJones, George W \'71 \n\nJones, Thornton J \'75 \n\nKeegon, Mary A \'75 \n\nKelso, John E \'76 \n\nKennedy, Kate \'67 \n\nKennedy, J. G \'71 \n\nKennedy, W. W \'71 \n\nKercheval, Miss Jennie G. . . .\'69 \n\nKincaid, Mrs. Mary W \'76 \n\nKingman, Mrs. M. F \'75 \n\nKinne, H. C \'72 \n\nKirkpatrick, J. M \'69 \n\nKnowlton, Ebenezer \'66 \n\nLamb, Miss Irene \'73 \n\nfLeadbetter, W. E \'70 \n\nt Leggett, Joseph \'72 \n\nt Leonard, T. C \'66 \n\nLevinson, Miss Eosa \'72 \n\nLevy, Daniel \'73 \n\nLighthall, G. E \'71 \n\nLillie, John B \'75 \n\nLipowitz, Max \'75 \n\nfLittlefield, J. D \'66 \n\nLoomis, Miss Amanda \'68 \n\n\n\nLoudon, Jacques \'76 \n\nLovett, C. M \'75 \n\nLubeck, Mrs. Julia M \'75 \n\nLuckey, W. T \'67 \n\nLynch, Miss Frances \'Q6 \n\nMack, George C \'66 \n\nMackall, J. N \'72 \n\nt Makinney, H. E \'68 \n\nMann, Azro L \'67 \n\nManning, Miss Agnes M \'73 \n\nf Marks, Bernhard \'66 \n\n* Marriner, E. K \'66 \n\nMarsh, Mrs. S. W \'71 \n\nfMcBride, H. E \'75 \n\nMcCarty, A. F \'75 \n\nMcChesney, J. B \'67 \n\nMcDonald, A. H \'68 \n\nMcDonald, Mrs. A. H \'75 \n\nMcDonald, W. P \'75 \n\nMcFadden, Miss Agnes \'75 \n\nMcFadden, W. M \'71 \n\nMenefee, C. A \'71 \n\nMetzger, C. L \'75 \n\nMiddleton, Mrs. Eliza F \'75 \n\nMiller, Miss Ora E \'73 \n\nMillette, Percival C \'71 \n\nMilliken, Mrs. Ellen A \'73 \n\nMcGlashan, C. F \'76 \n\nMumford, Mrs. M. E \'76 \n\nMinns, George W \'66 \n\nMoore, John A \'71 \n\nMorgan, Mrs. L. A \'72 \n\n-; Morrill, Joseph C \'67 \n\nMorris, George F \'67 \n\nMorris, N.Z \'73 \n\n*Morse, Augustus, Jr \'67 \n\nMurphy, Miss Mary M \'75 \n\nMyrick, Thomas S \'G6 \n\nMoore, Mrs. Mary B \'75 \n\nMayborn, Mrs. M. J \'76 \n\nMcKenzie, Margaret \'76 \n\nMcCormick, Harriet \'76 \n\nNelson, Henry A \'71 \n\nNicholson, Thomas \'74 \n\nfNutting, H. N \'66 \n\nO\'Connor, Joseph \'71 \n\nOlingerA.F \'72 \n\nOtis, James \'73 \n\nfOverend, Miss Lizzie \'73 \n\nOliner, A. W \'76 \n\nO\'Conner, Maria E \'76 \n\n\n\n194 \n\n\n\nPKOFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF CALIFORNIA. \n\n\n\nfParker, Miss Jean \'71 \n\nPascoe, Miss Mary I \'72 \n\nfPearson, Daua C \'75 \n\nPeck, George H \'75 \n\nfPelton, John C \'66 \n\nfPeuwell, S. A \'68 \n\nPhelps, Mrs. M. W \'74 \n\nPotter, M.B \'71 \n\nPowell, Miss Elizabeth \'75 \n\nPower, Frank \'71 \n\nPrescott, MissD. S \'71 \n\nPreston, E. M \'69 \n\nfPrice, Caroline \'67 \n\nPrior, PhiliiD \'71 \n\nPutman, J. E \'75 \n\nEandall, A. H \'68 \n\nRattan, Volney \'74 \n\nRedway, J. W \'76 \n\nEeed, L. W \'70 \n\nReynolds, Mrs. F. E. \'72 \n\nRogers, James \'76 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Rose, T. H \'68 \n\nRousseau, E \'69 \n\nRowe, Miss A. A \'73 \n\nfRowell, W. K \'6G \n\nRyder, Miss L. E \'76 \n\nSalisbury, Mary A \'76 \n\nSanders, W. A \'69 \n\nSankey, M. J \'75 \n\nSchellhous, E. J \'69 \n\nSeawell, J. H \'76 \n\nShaw, Miss E. A \'72 \n\nShearer, S. M \'72 \n\nShearer, Mrs. CO \'73 \n\nSherman, E.B \'76 \n\nSherman, Fannie M \'75 \n\nShipley, J. C \'73 \n\nShort, Miss Julia B \'75 \n\nSibley, J. M \'66 \n\nfSimon, Miss Frances \'72 \n\nSimonton, George W \'GG \n\nSlavan, Miss A. E \'72 \n\nSollinger, J. A \'76 \n\nSmith, Miss Annie \'68 \n\nSmith, Miss Carrie L \'72 \n\nSmith, Chas. S \'76 \n\nSmith, Miss Jessie \'72 \n\nSmith, W. A. C \'68 \n\nSmith, Miss Jennie \'74 \n\nSouthworth, Mrs. E. A \'68 \n\nStandeford, Mrs. N. D \'75 \n\nSteel, Thomas H \'75 \n\nStincen, Miss Alice M \'73 \n\n\n\nfStone, H.P \'71 \n\nStone, D.:C \'66 \n\nfStone, Mrs. B. H \'73 \n\nStowell, Fannie A \'74 \n\nStowell, MissM. E \'72 \n\nStowell, Miss P. M \'72 \n\nStratton, James \'GG \n\nSullivan, Miss Kate \'72 \n\nSumner, J. H \'73 \n\nSwett, John \'67 \n\nfSwett, Mrs. Mary L \'66 \n\nfSwezey, S. I. C \'67 \n\nfTait, George \'66 \n\nt Taylor, Robert \'66 \n\nTemple, Miss Emma \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nTempleton, Miss L. S \'72 \n\nTempleton, M. L \'67 \n\nThompson, Helen \'72 \n\nThurber, A \'71 \n\nThurston, E. T \'69 \n\nfTrafton, Dr. A \'71 \n\nThurton, Sarah L \'75 \n\nTodd, H. J \'76 \n\nTowle, C. B \'76 \n\nf UiDham, Isaac \'69 \n\nWalsh, Miss Nellie E \'75 \n\nWarren, C.G \'69 \n\nWarren, R.B \'70 \n\nWaterman, S. D \'71 \n\nWatson, Mrs. C. R \'72 \n\nWatson, Miss Mary J \'72 \n\nWatkins, Emory \'75 \n\nWatson, B. J \'75 \n\nWatson, Miss Lizzie J \'74 \n\nWeir, Miss Sarah J \'68 \n\nWells, Mrs. Laura H \'71 \n\nWermuth, Hamilton \'71 \n\nWheelock, Mrs. D. B \'73 \n\nWhite, Silas A \'71 \n\nWhite, T. B \'72 \n\nAVhite, William \'68 \n\nWhite, Miss Louisa E \'75 \n\nWilliams, W. J. G \'69 \n\nWilson, H. R \'71 \n\nWilson, Jas.K \'75 \n\nWood, Mrs. E. A \'72 \n\nWoodrufif, Miss Frances A ... \'70 \nWoodworth, Miss Janette E . . \'75 \nWoodworth, Mrs. A. W. . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \'75 \n\nWright, Mrs. A. E \'76 \n\nWestby, MissS. M \'76 \n\nWade, Margaret \'76 \n\nYates, W. A.. .. \'74 \n\n\n\nHOLDERS OF STATE EDUCxVTIONAL DIPLOMAS. \n\n\n\n195 \n\n\n\nVIII. HOLDERS OF STATE EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS \n\n\n\nNote. \xe2\x80\x94 State diplomas are issued only to persons that bate been holders of First \nGrade Certificates for at least one year, and that have taught at least five years. \n* Deceased. t Not teaching. \n\n\n\nAbies, Thomas J. \nAdams, Clara A. \nAdams, W. J. \nAldrich, Abbie F. \nAlderson, M. J. \nAlexander, Mary J. \nAmes, Martha. \nAnderson, C. A. \nAshbrook. M. V. \nAshbrook, T. P. \nAshley, Ella E. \nAshley, Julia V. \nAshtou, Mrs. N. Jennie. \nAugustine, S. M. \nAyers, Mary J. \nBabcock, William S. \nBaker, Samiiel D. \nBaldwin, F. D. \nBanks, Jerome. \nBarbour, Aaron C. \nBarthelow, Mrs. A. W. \nBeck, Mrs. N. B. \nBetancue, Lizzie. \nBiggs, Thomas. \nBightmire, S. A. \nBissell, Joseph. \nBloomer, A. C \nBoardman, C. F. \nBolton, H. \nBonnard, Eureka A. \nBoyle, Sarah J. \nBoynton, Kate. \nBoynton, S. S. \nBradshaw, W. E. \nBragg, Mary J. \nBreschen, Seraphine. \nBrier, K. W. \nBrigham, Fannie E. \nBrigham, Julia P. \nBroadbent, E. \nBrooks, E. E, \nBrophy M. \nBrown, A. G. \nBrown, Chas. W. \nBrown, George J. \nBrown, J. B. \nBrown, Sarah E. \nBrumsley, M. I. \nBryant, Annie. \nBuckman, F. S. S. \nBunnell, Mrs. Alice. \nBush, Mrs. E. A. \nButterfield, S. H. \nCarr, Ezra S. \nCampbell, Amy T. \n\n\n\nCase, E. L. \nCastelhun, Mary A. \n*Chase, Carrie M. \nChesnutwood, Mrs. J. A. \nCiprico, Anita C. \nClark, W. J. \nClay, William T. \nColby, Julia E. \nCougdon, Jas. S. \nConnolly, J. J. \nConrad, C. C. \nCooper, Mrs. F. A. \nCory, A. A. \nCoulter, Leonard. \nCrane, Amanda. \nCrane, George. \nCrawford, T. 0. \nCrichton, Mrs. A. M. \nCrocker, L. H. \nCross, C. W. \nCrothers, Margaret I, \nCulbertson, Mary K. \nCurragh, J. M. \nDaniels, Mrs. S. B. \nDavidson, Mrs. Nannie S. \nDavis, Mrs. Imogene. \nDavis, J. T. \nt Davis, Sadie. \nDeNure, D. D. \nDixon, Bessie. \nDoUiver, Clara G. \nDoouer, John. \nDoyle, L-ene. \nDoyle, Mrs. James A. \nDozier, A. W. \nDozier, Melville. \nDrake, Charles M. \nDrake, Elmer. \nDuBois, John B. \nDunbar, Annie S. \nDunbar, S. G. S. \nDwyer, James W. \nEdwards, W. H. \nElliott, Ella J. \nElliott, Mary E. \nElUs, Mary C. \nEstabrook, Mary A. H. \nEvans, Ellen A. \nEvans, Ellen G. \nFairchild, Hattie M. \nFallon, Joseph K. \nFeller, Lorenzo. \nFenton, H. W. \nFisk, Juliet A. \nFlint, Almira T. \n\n\n\nFloyd, Enos F. \nFolger, H. C. \nFonda, Charles E. \nFoss, B. R. \nFoss, Wm. F. F. \nFoster, Mrs. Julia. \nFowler, B. F. \nFox, John. \nFrissell, Sarah E. \nFurlong, Robert. \nGabriel, Mrs. C. E. \nGarlick, J, P. \nGarrison, Gazena A. \nGeer, Emily F. \nGeis, S. W. \nGermain, Clara. \nGoepp, G. \nGodfrey, G. K. \nGordon, Wellington. \nGould, M. J. \nGranger, F. C. \nGrant, E. \nGray, Annie L. \nGreer, C. E. \nGiiun, E. L. \nGunn, Sarah W. \nGuthrie, N. L. \nGoodcell, Henry, Jr. \nGarin, Paul A. \nGreer, Mary D. \nHaislip, Benjamin F. \nHall, Annie J, \nHall, F. M. \nHall, Maggie J. \nHam, Charles H. \nHayburn, Annie T. \nHamilton, Hiram M. \nHamilton, llev. Hiram. \nHamilton, Mrs. W. H. H. \nHamilton, James T. \nHamill, Amelia. \nHarkness, Margaret. \nHartmeyer, Mrs. S. L. \nHarvey, Oliver T. \nHavens, Carrie. \nHawks, Carrie M. \nHawkins, J. O. \nHazen,\' J. P. \nHeckman, H. H. \nHenning, Irving P. \nHewett, Roscoe. \nHiatt, Pleasant. \nHigby, H. C. \nHinton, J. M. \nHofi\'man, Mrs. Mary L. \n\n\n\n196 \n\n\n\nHOLDEES OP STATE EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS. \n\n\n\nHorton, Geo. Wallace. \nHolbrook, Edw. \nHolmes, M. D, \nHoward, Emma. \nHowe, Converse, \nHowe, E. P. \nHowell, S. S. \nHubbell, S. C. \nHughes, A. B. \nHumphreys, L. A. \nHumphreys, M. A. \nHunt, B. E. \n\nHuntsinger, Mrs. Jennie. \n*Irigraham, Mrs. E. F. \nJacks, Fannie. \nJamison, J. H. S. \nJanes, Emma. \nJaycoax, Mrs. A. S. \nJenks, David W. \nJewett, Annie S. \nJewett, Fidelia. \nJohnson, G. N. \nJohnson, G. W. \nJohnson, Joseph W. \nJones, Addison. \nJordon, John F. \nJordan, Maggie L. \nKane, Richard. \nKeegau, Mary A. \nKellogg, M. i). \nKelso, John E. \nKelton, Mrs. Mary A. \nKendall, Sylvia A. \nKennedy, J. F. \nKenuiston, Chas. M. \nKerr, Theodore T. \nKimball, C. A. \nKing, Charles E. \nKing, E. M. \nKingman, Mrs. M. V. \nKinkade, Letitia. \nKlink, John F. \nKnighton, William A. \nKnowlton, E. L. \nKottinger, H. M. \nKratzer, Leila. \nLafferty, I. N. \nLambert, Daniel. \nLander, F. L. \nLangan, George. \nLaurie, B. M. \nLaw, John K . \nLeach, Miss Mira. \nLibby, Mrs. Joseph S. \nLighte, Pauline S. \nLillie, Sarah P. \nLippowitz, Max. \nLittle, Mary. \nLoag, Emily T. \nLloyd, Mary A. \nLoofbourrow, Elias. \nLovett, Charles E. \nLynch, Miss Tillie S. \nLynch, W. F. B. \nLyser, Albert. \n\n\n\nMagoon, Wm. H. \nMartin, A. \nMartin, E. J. \nMartin, James M. \nMarvin, A. \nMathews, Mrs. M. E. \nMcArthur, Annie. \nMcCarty, Thomas. \nMcColgan, Kate F. \nMcCormack, Harriet T. \nMcDonald, Mrs. N. R. \nMcDonald, W. P. \nMcDonald, Kate. \nMcDonald, J. J. \nMcDonall, Mrs. J. \nMcEweu, John. \nMcFadden, John. \nMcGowan, Patrick H. \nMcHugh, Peter. \nMcKean, Lottie. \nMcKusick, H. P. \nMcManus, A. C. \nMcPhee, V. J. \nMcReynolds, Jos. \nMea, John P. \nt Meagher, John F. \nMerrill, Ida M. \nMerritt, Julia E. \nMetzger, C. L. \nMichener, Mrs. M. E. \nMiddleton, A. W. \nMiddleton, Mrs. Eliza F. \nMiles, Mrs. R. S. \nMiller, John. \nMiller, Lafayette. \nMiller, N. J. \nMiller, John H. \nMilliken, Mrs. E. A. \nMinta, Wesley. \nMitchell, Fannie. \nMondram, F. V. C. \nMontgomery, A. S. \nMoore, Mrs. B. F. \nMorford, N. A. \nMorgan, Richard. \nMorgan, Eose E. \nMullens, H. \nMi^mford, Mrs.M. E. \nMuruan, John T. \nMurphy, Mary. \nNorman, L. F. \nNorvell, Jos. A. \nNeill, M. A. O. \nO\'Connor, Maria. \nO\'Laughlen, Mrs. Nellie. \nOliver, A. W. \nOliver, Mrs. C. F. \nOliver, J. C. \nOrmstrong, Flora S. \nOtis, C. W. \nOverend, E. \nOwen, Georgie. \nOwens, Nellie M. \nPage, Lizzie. \nPalmer, E. M. \n\n\n\nParker, Flora A. \nParker, James L. \nPeachy, Thomas G. \nPeadry, Frank A. \nPearce, Carrie. \nPeck, A. W. \nPedler, F. A. \nPendegast, H. B. \n*Penwell, Mrs. L. M. \nPitcher, Charlotte M. \nPowell, David. \nPowell, Elizabeth. \nPowers, Talbot P. \nPrag, Mary \nPratt, Mary E. \nPrice, Harrison. \nPutnam, J. E. \nEav, J. H. \nRayl, Mrs. Martha. \nReavis, Walter Scott. \nEedway, Jacques W. \nEenfro, Lewis C. \nRice, L. \nRighter, F. M. \nRoberts, Lizzie. \nRobertson, William A. \nRobertson, George B. \nRobinson, Mrs. M. S. P. \nRogers, Arthur. \nRogers, James. \nRoper, J. W. \nRoy all, J. P. \nRo\'yce, Ella J. \nRyan, Amanda. \nRyder, L. E. \nSankey, Mrs. Mary J. \nSaunders, Samiiel. \nSaxon, T. A. \nSears, Marion. \nSeawell, J. H. \nShaw, Annie J. \nShearer, Mrs. C. C. \nSherman, E. B. \nSherman, Ella Imogene. \nSherman, M. F. \nSexton, Mrs. Ella M. \nSickal, M. T. \nSill, Prof. E. E. \nSinex, Eev. J. H. \nSlack, Clay H. \nSmith, James D. \nSmith, Ausell. \nSmith, Grace. \nSmith, James D. \nSoUinger, J. A. \nSoule, Maria L. \nSoutheimer, Jno. J. \nSpring, Mrs. Fannie. \nSquires, W. E. \nStandish, H. M. \nStandeford, N. D. \nStegman, Mattie A. \nStevenson, Helen E. \nStincen, Emma E. C. \nStoddard, C. W. \n\n\n\nNOTES OF PROMINENT TEACHERS. \n\n\n\n197 \n\n\n\nstone, W. W. \n\nStowell, F. A. \n\nSturges S. \n\nSwaiu, Orlando E. \n\nSwan, Amanda. \n\nTaylor, Mrs. H. P \n\nThomas, J. E. \n\nThompson, Louisa \n\nThomi^son, J. N. \n\nTillotson, Henry Ira \n\nTodd, H. J. \n\nTowle, Mrs. Lizzie B. \n\nTowle, S. G. \n\nTrout, Daniel H. \n\nTrue, Charles F. \n\nTurner, H. F. \n\nUnderwood, J. G. \n\nVan Lorn, V. J. \n\nVan Schaick, Mrs. Mary A \n\n\n\nVestal, F. A. \nWalbridge, Jennie M. \nWaldron, S. A. \nWalker, Alice \nWalker, Charles H. \nWallace, Alma \nWallace, W. B. \nWalter, Emelyn. \ntWanzer, Mrs. L. M. F. \nWard, Mary A. \nWebb, SaUie B. \nWeeks, M. D. \nWells, Addie H. \nWells, Jos. H. \nWenk, Kobert E. \nWestbay, L. M. \nWeston, Ada. \nWheelock, Mrs. D. K. \nWhite, Emmons. \n\n\n\nWhite, Mrs. Sara. \nWhite, A. F. \nWhitmore, Ella L. \nWicks, John T. \nWideman, James \nWilson, H. C. \nWood, Jessie. \nWood, Mrs. N. A. \nWoodward,Mrs. N. Zoraida. \nWooll, Hattie. \nWozencraft, W. R. \nWright, Mrs. E, \nWright, J. M. \nWythe, Sarah J. \nYates, Lizzie. \nYoung, Nestor A. \nYule, John. \nZimmerman, William. \nTyrus, Mary A. \n\n\n\nIX. NOTES OF PROMINENT TEACHERS. \n\n\n\nD. C. Stone taught in Marysville, from 1854 to \'68, and organ- \nized there one of the best schools in the State. In 1868, he \nremoved to Oakland, and established a "Family School." In \n1873, he was appointed teacher of natural sciences in the San \nFrancisco Girls\' High School, and, in 1876, was made Deputy \nCity Superintendent. \n\nJ. B. McChesney began teaching at Forbestown, 1857, but \nsoon removed to Nevada City, where he organized first a \nGrammar School and then a High School. In 1865, he was \nmade Principal of the Oakland High School, where he is still \nteaching. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0^Freeman Gates was a pioneer in the schools of San Jose, \nand afterwards County Superintendent. He subsequently \nfounded the San Jose Institute. \n\nJoseph Leggett founded the Grass Valley High School, with \nbrilliant success; studied law; removed to San Francisco; was \nmade Examining Teacher, in 1872 ; Deputy City Superintendent, \n1874 and 1875; and a lawyer in 1876. \n\nMelville Cottle was a pioneer teacher in Stockton, and was \nfour years County Superintendent of San Joaquin County. \n\nIsaac Upham taught in Butte County for several years ; \norganized a fine school at Oroville, and was subsequently an \n\n\n\n198 NOTES OF PROMINENT TEACHERS. \n\nable Couuty Superintendent of Butte County and of Yuba \nCounty. \n\nGeorge H. Peck taught the first Public School in Sacra- \nmento, 1854; taught in San Francisco, from 1860 to 1865; and \nwas County Superintendent of Los Angeles, in 1874-75. \n\n^Augustus Morse, Jr., was a teacher at Martinez; afterwards \nPrincipal of the Grass Valley High School, and then County \nSuperintendent of Nevada County. \n\nA. H. Kandall organized the Stockton High School, which \nhe has made one of the most thorough in the State. \n\nA. H. Goodrich was a pioneer teacher in Placer County, \nwhere he held the office of County Superintendent for four \nyears, and where he is still teaching. \n\nGeorge W. Simonton taught for many years at Vallejo, and \nwas for four years County Sui^erintendent of Solano County. \n\nDr. E. J. Schellhouse has taught for twenty years in various \ncounties in the State, and is well known as an enthusiastic \nlecturer. \n\nDr. T. H. Rose taught several years at Benicia, made a fine \nGrammar School at Los Angeles, and organized a High \nSchool. \n\nJ. M. Sibley, in 1854, founded the Folsom Grammar School, \nin which he taught for ten years. He subsequently taught at \nOakland and Sonoma, and for the last ten years has been teach- \ning in the San Francisco Boys\' High School. \n\nA. H. McDonald, Principal of the Sacramento Grammar \nSchool, has taught for many years in various parts of the \nState. \n\nF. M. Campbell began teaching near Vallejo; was for several \nyears a popular teacher in the Brayton College School, and for \nsix years has been the efficient City Superintendent of the \nOakland Schools. \n\nGeorge W. Bonnell was Principal of the Spring Valley \nSchool, San Francisco; was afterwards Principal of San Fran- \ncisco Latin School; and is now Professor of Latin and Greek \nin the State University. \n\nProfessor Martin Kellogg was for several years Professor of \nAncient Languages in the College of California, and has been \nfrom the beginning a Professor in the State University; he \ncontributed some valuable articles to the Gali/ornia Teacher, \nand has frequently lectured at State institutes. \n\n\n\nNOTES OP PEOMINENT TEACHERS. 199 \n\nW. C. Dodge, who began teaching in the State in 1854, has \ntaught for many years in Alameda County. \n\nM. L. Templeton was Principal of the Sacramento High \nSchool, and afterwards of the Woodland Grammar School, in \nboth of which he was eminently successful. \n\nB. J. Watson was for many years a prominent teacher in \nNevada County, where he became County Superintendent. \n\nAlfred Thurber founded the Pacheco School, and has been \nfor six years County Superintendent of Contra Costa. \n\nSparrow Smith was for many years a teacher in Sacramento \nCounty, and also County Superintendent. \n\nGeorge K. Godfrey was a pioneer in the northern counties \nof the State. He has served twelve years as Gounty Superin- \ntendent in Shasta and Siskiyou Counties. \n\nC. W. Childs was for several 3\'ears a teacher in El Dorado \nCounty; he is now Principal of the Suisun School, and County \nSuperintendent of Solano County. \n\nH. T. Batchelder has been a leading teacher in Butte County \nfor many years, and also a County Superintendent. \n\nJohn Bagnall was for many years a teacher in various of the \ncentral counties, and was one term County Superintendent of \nAlpine County. He has been for several years in San Fran- \ncisco, noted for his success as a teacher in the evening school. \nUnder disabilities, which would have discouraged most men, \nhe has done vastly more in education than hundreds of other \nteachers who walk without crutches. \n\nAzro L. Mann taught for several years at Marysville, but \nhas gained his reputation chiefly by his success as head of \nthe classical department of the San Francisco Boys\' High \nSchool. \n\nMrs. Maria McGilvray, twenty-two years a teacher in \nvarious parts of the State, is still a vigorous and capable \nworker. \n\nMrs. J. H. Nevins has been twenty-three years a teacher in \nthe State, thirteen of which have been in San Francisco. \n\nJames Stratton began teaching in the State in 1853; was \nseveral years Principal of the Washington School, San \nFrancisco, and is now Principal of a Grammar School, in \nOakland. \n\nMiss Mary A. Hoyt taught the first Grammar School in \n\n\n\n200 STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. \n\nLos Angeles, where she was for many years a successful \neducator. \n\nPercival C. Millette, a pioneer, was County Superintendent \nof Placer County in 1857, and has taught ever since in number- \nless county schools. \n\n\n\nX. STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\nIn his circular calling the State Teachers\' Institute of 1863, \nSuperintendent Swett thus alluded to the importance of a State \nSociety : \n\nEducational conventions, in every part of our country, express a \ngeneral desire for a distinct and definite recognition of the occupa- \ntion of teaching by forms equivalent to those now existing in law, \nmedicine, and theology. It is true, there are many who make teach- \ning a temporary occupation, a stepping-stone to other pursuits, and \nthere is no objection to this when they are duly qualified for the \nnoblest of human duties; but there is a large class, becoming larger \nevery year, who desire to make it the occupation of a life \xe2\x80\x94 an occu- \npation which calls for a range of acquirements and a height of quali- \nfications fully equal to that of the liberal professions. \n\nWhy should not the pioneer teachers of this State, in the next In- \nstitute, take similar measures of self -organization, self -recognition, \nand self-examination, and raise themselves above the humiliating \nnecessity of submitting to an examination by members of other pro- \nfessions, or of no professions at all? A State Educational Society \ncould be organized by those who shall pass the next examination by \nthe State Board, those who hold dijilomas of graduation from \nnormal schools, and the Professors in the various colleges and col- \nlegiate schools of the State. This society could become legally \nincorporated at the next session of the Legislature, and other mem- \nbers could be admitted from time to time, by passing a regular \nexamination, and receiving diplomas. Such certificates would soon \nbe gladly recognized by unprofessional examiners \xe2\x80\x94 many of whom, \nthough men of education, feel that they are not duly qualified to sit \nin judgment on the competency of teachers for their peculiar work \n\xe2\x80\x94 as the best possible assurance of fitness to teach. And teachers \nmay rest assured that legislative enactments would soon follow, \nmaking such diplomas ^jri??ia /acre evidence of ability to teach in any \npart of the State, without further examination. \n\nSome such steps we are called upon to take by the large number \nof accomplished men and women who are entering on our vocation. \nWe are called upon to act, not only in justice to scholarship and \ntalent, but in self-defense against impostors and pretenders; and we \n\n\n\nSTATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. 201 \n\nmay honestly avow a desire to exclude all who unworthily or unfitly \nintrude themselves into the noble office of teaching. \n\nA State Society would unite the teachers of our State in the bonds \nof fraternal sympathy ; a certificate of membership would entitle the \nholder to the aid of members in all parts of the State; it would be a \npassport of employment when he should change his residence; it \nwould entitle him to the substantial benefits of an honorable recep- \ntion among all teachers; and a small annual membership fee would \nsoon constitute a fund for the establishment of a teacher\'s journal, \nas the organ of the society. \n\nThe subject of a State professional society being brought \nbefore the Institute, the plan was advocated by John E. Ben- \nton, Theodore Bradley, and others. \n\nA committee was appointed with Mr. Bradley, Chairman, who \nmade a report, and requested all interested in forming such a \nsociety to meet after the final adjournment of the Institute. \n\nA State Educational Society was soon afterwards formed on the \nplan recommended, Avith the following constitution : \n\nPKEAMBLE. \n\n"We, as teachers of California, in order to further the educational \ninterests of the State, to give efficiency to our school system, to \nfurnish a practical basis for united action among those de- \nvoted to the cause in which we are engaged, and for those pur- \nposes to elevate the office of teacher to its true rank among the \nprofessions, do hereby adopt the following \n\nCONSTITUTION. \n\nNAME. \n\nSection 1. This organization shall be known as the "California \nEducational Society." \n\nSec. 2. All holders of State Life Diplomas, or State Educational \nDiplomas, shall be eligible to membership on the recommendation \nof the Executive Committee, and the payment, in advance, of an \nadmission fee of five dollars. \n\nSec. 3. Any member may be expelled for unprofessional conduct \nby a two-thirds vote of members present at any regular meeting; \nprovided, that a coj^y of the charges be deposited with the Kecord- \ning Secretary at least four weeks before the meeting at which the \ncharges are acted upon, and immediate notice thereof be given to \nthe accused. \n\nThe society assumed the publication of the California TeacJier, \nand elected annually a Board of Editors, until 1873, when the \ncontrol of the journal passed into the hands of the State Super- \nintendent. \n\n13 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0^>iv^ \n\n\n\n4\'ftSI -^-\xe2\x96\xa0\'^:^||P^KS OF THE STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\nLIST OF MEMBERS OF THE STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n[Note. \xe2\x80\x94 The names of deceased members are marked \nthe profession t.] \n\n\n\nof those retired from \n\n\n\nAnderson, J. W. \nAnderson, Mrs. A. B. \nAtwood, Mrs. C. L. \nAustin, Miss M. F. \nAllen, L. D. \nAdams, J. G. \nBradl^\xe2\x96\xa0}^ Theodore. \nBagnidl, John. \nBoiander, Henry N. \nBrown, George, \nt Brown, F. R. \nBralv, J- H. \nBrodt, A. W. \ntBaker, G. F. \nBeanston, George. \nBennette, Fannie E. \nBarre, Miss S. A. \nBragg, Mary J. \nBaldwin, Nellie. \n\ntBrown, Louisa. \n\n+ Cottle, Melville. \nCleveland, Miss E. A. \n\nCook, Hannah. \n\nDenniau, James. \n\n*Deal, M. S. \n\nDubois, Mrs. A. E. \n\nDeane, Mrs. Margaret. \n\nDolliver, Clara J. \n\nDoud, Nettie. \n\nDeetken, Mrs. L. G. \n\ntFitzgerald, O. P. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2t Flood, Noah F. \n\nFuller, A.L. \n\nFinch, J. B. \n\nFarley, A. J. \n\nFenton, H. W. \n\nFitzgerald, A. L. \n\nFink, Miss A. P. \n\nField, Miss C. P. \n\n\n\nFowler, Laura S. \nGoodrich, S. H. \nt Holmes, Ahira. \ntHolmes, Ellis H. \nHumphrey, E. D. \nHigbie, Alfred. \ntHuntlev, O. H. \ntHoitt, iraG. \nHowe, Converse. \nHunt, Carrie L. \nHucks, Annie. \nJohns, Chas. T. \nKellogg, Martin. \nKnowlton, Ebenezer. \nKennedy, W. W. \nKennedy, J. G. \nKennedy, Kate. \nKincaid, Mary W. \nt Leonard, T. C. \ntLouttit, J. A. \nLyst^r, Albert. \nLevison, llosa. \nMyrick, Thos. S. \nt Marks, Bernhard. \nMcGlvnn, A. E. \nMakiuney, H. E. \n*Morris, Geo. F. \nMcOhesney, J. B. \ntMcBride, H. E. \nMoore, John A. \nNutting, H. N. \nNicholson, Thomas. \nO\'Connor, Joseph. \nPeck. Geo. H. \ntPelton, John C. \nPreston, E. M. \ntPenwell, S. A. \nPrior, Philip. \nPascoe, Mary. \n\n\n\n+ Parker, Jean. \nPrescott, Miss D. S. \ntRowell, W. K. \nKandall, Ambrose H. \nEousseau, E. \nRattan, Volney. \ntSwezey, S. I. C. \nStratton, James. \nSwett, John. \nSmith, Sparrow A. \nStone, D. C. \nSibley, J. M. \nSchellhouse, E. J. \nScott, M. M. \nSmith, Jessie. \nSmith, Jennie. \nStowell, Miss M. E. \nStowell, Miss P. M. \nSlaven, Miss A. E. \nSullivan, Kate. \nSumner, J. H. \nStone, W. W. \nSmith, J.D. \nShaw, Miss E. A. \n+ Tait, George. \n*Townsend, Dennis. \nTempleton, M. L. \nThurston, E, T. \nThompson, Helen. \nTrue, Chas. F. \nUpham, Isaac. \n"White, Silas A. \nWhite, William. \nWinn, A. T. \nWilliams, W. J. G. \nWarren, R. B. \nWermouth, Hamilton. \nWade, Margaret. \nZimmerman, Wm, \n\n\n\nPRESIDENTS OF THE STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n1. John Swett. \n\n2. George W. Minns. \n\n3. Theodore Bradley. \n\n\n\n4. James Denman. \n\n5. D. C. Stone. \n\n6. Bernhard Marks. \n\n\n\n7. John Swett. \n\n8. E. H. Holmes. \n\n9. J. W. Anderson. \n\n\n\nSECRETAEIES. \n\n\n\n1. Bernhard Marks. \n\n2. Silas A. White. \n\n\n\nMrs. C. L. Atwood. \nMrs. Aurelia Giiffith. \n\n\n\nSTATE SERIES 0-F TEXT-BOOKS. 203 \n\n\n\nXL STATE SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS. \n\n\n\nIn 1864, tlie State Board of Education, consisting of Gov- \nernor Stanford, Surveyor-General Houghton, and State Super- \nintendent Swett, met and adopted a State series of text-books, \ntaking the series recommended by vote of the State Teachers\' \nInstitute that met in San Francisco, May 7-10, 1863. \n\nBOOKS ADOPTED. \n\nEaton\'s Series of Arithmetics; Quackeubos\'s English Grammar; \n\nCornell\'s Primary Geography; Willson\'s Series of Readers; \n\n"Warren\'s Intermediate Geography; Willson\'s Speller; \n\nGreene\'s Introductory Grammar; Quackeubos\'s History of the U. S. \n\nIn 1866, the Board, reorganized under the Kevised School \nLaw, Governor Low, Chairman, met and readopted, for a \nterm of four years, the list of 1864, with the exception of the \ngeographies and Quackeubos\'s Grammars, which were indefi- \nnitely continued, but not readopted for four years. Clarke\'s \nGeography was also added to the list of geographies, and the \nSpencerian and Payson, Dunton & Scribner\'s Penmanship were \ncontinued in use. \n\nIn 1869, the Board, Governor Haight, Chairman, Superin- \ntendent Fitzgerald, Secretary, adopted Monteith\'s Series of \nGeographies, in place of Cornell\'s, Warren\'s and Clarke\'s, and \nBrown\'s Grammars, in place of Greene\'s and Quackeubos\'s \xe2\x80\x94 the \nchange to take effect July, 1870. \n\nIn 1870, July 12-13, the State Board met, and, under the re- \nenacted California School I^aw, adopted the following \n\nSTATE SERIES. \n\nMcGuffey\'s Series of Readers; Willson\'s Spellers; \n\nHobinson\'s Series of Arithmetics; Cutter\'s Physiologies; \n\nMonteith\'s Series of Geographies; Payson and Duuton\'s Penmanship. \nBrown\'s Series of Grammars; \n\nA year later, the Board added to this list Swinton\'s Con- \ndensed History of the United States, and Swinton\'s Word \nAnalysis. \n\nIn 1874, June 22d, in compliance with a new section of the \nSchool Law, the Board passed a resolution inviting publishers \n\n\n\n204 STATE SEKIES OF TEXT-BOOKS. \n\nto lay before them, on or before January 5tb, 1875, proposals \nfor supplying text-books for use in the public schools of the \nState. \n\nJanuary 5th, 1875, the Board met \xe2\x80\x94 Governor Booth in the \nchair, and Superintendent Bolander, Secretary \xe2\x80\x94 considered the \nproposals received, and adopted the Pacific Coast Beaders, in \nplace of McGuffey\'s; Cornell\'s Geographies, in place of Mon- \nteith\'s; Spencerian Penmanship, in place of Payson, Dunton & \nScribner\'s; and readopted Robinson\'s Arithmetics and Cutter\'s \nFirst Book in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. The Board \nalso recommended Swinton\'s Language Series for teachers and \nschool libraries. \n\nOn February 3d, 1876, a writ of certiorari was issued by the \nSixth District Court, Sacramento, Judge Ramage, against the \nintroduction of the new Readers. The case was carried to the \nSupreme Court, which, on April 19th, 1875, declared the action \nof the Board, in adopting the Pacific Coast Readers, null and \nvoid, on the ground that the record did not show that six \nmonths\' notice of a proposed change in Readers had been given, \nas required by law. \n\nOn June 1st, the Board again met, and advertised for pro- \nposals for all the books, it being considered that the ruling of \nthe Supreme Court, on Readers, applied to all the books \nadopted at their former meeting. \n\nDec. 5th, 1875, the Board again met, pursuant to advertise- \nment, to adopt text-books, but were enjoined by Judge Bray- \nnard, County Judge of Tehama County, and Judge Reardon, \nDistrict Judge of the Fourteenth District, "from receiving, \nopening, or acting in any manner upon proposals for supplying \nReaders and Geographies, or taking any action whereby any \nReaders other than McGuffey\'s, or any Geographies other than \nMonteith\'s, may be used in the public schools of this State." \nThe Board being still free to act upon all other books, adopted \nRobinson\'s Arithmetic, Swinton\'s Word Analysis, Spencerian. \nPenmanship, Smith\'s Drawing, Mason\'s Music Reader\'s, and \nCutter\'s First Book in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. \n\nIn the case of Readers and Geographies, the Board post- \nponed action to Dec. 28th, the hearing of the injunctions being \nset respectively for Dec. 15th and Dec. 22d. Meanwhile, a bill \nwas introduced into the Legislature, Dec. 9th, that the text- \n\n\n\nEDUCATION OF COLOEED CHILDREN. 205 \n\nl)Ooks iu use in 1873-4-5, be continued in use in all tlie public \n\xe2\x96\xa0schools of tlie State, until otherwise provided by statute. \nThis bill became a law on Dec. 13th, when the injunction suits \nwere at once dismissed. \n\nAs the case now stands, the old list of hohks throughout \nremains in the schools, and all power of changing is vested in \nthe State Legislature. \n\n\n\nXII. EDUCATION OF COLORED CHILDREN. \n\n\n\nThe Legislature of 1860 passed a law prohibiting colored \n(Negro aud Mongolian) children from being admitted to \nschools for white children, under penalty of forfeiting all \npublic moneys. \n\nPrevious to this, colored children were prohibited from \nattending schools for w^hite children, but there was no penalty. \nThe law had alloived trustees to establish separate schools for \ncolored children, but had not required it. \n\nThe first legal recognition of the rights of colored children is \nfound in the Kevised School Law, 1866 : \n\nSec. 57. Children of African or Mongolian descent, and Indian \n.children, not living under the care of white persons, shall not be \nadmitted into the public schools, except as provided in this act; \nprovided, that, upon the written application of the parents or guar- \ndians of at least ten such children, to any Board of Trustees, or \nBoard of Education, a separate school shall be established for their \neducation, and the education of a less number may be provided for \nby the trustees in any other manner. \n\nSec. 58. When there shall be in any district any number of chil- \ndren, other than white children, whose education can be provided \nfor in no other way, the trustees, by a majority vote, may permit \nsuch children to attend schools for white children; provided, that a \nmajority of the parents of the children attending such school make \nno objection in writing, to be filed with the Board of Trustees. \n\nSec 59. The same laws, rules, and regulations which apply to \nschools for white children shall apply to schools for colored \nchildren. \n\nUnder this qualified provision, most of the colored children \nin the State were admitted to school privileges, though in a few \noutlying districts \xe2\x80\x94 notably the city of Oakland \xe2\x80\x94 they were ex- \n\n\n\n->*^-.. \n\n\n\n206 COUKSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. \n\neluded from white schools, and were not allowed a separate \nschool. \n\nThe Legislature of 1870 repealed Section 58, and left the \ncolored question as follows : \n\nSec. 56. The education of children of African descent, and Indian \nchildren, shall be provided for in sej^arate schools. Upon the \nwritten application of the parents or guardians of at least ten such \nchildren, to any Board of Trustees or Board of Education, a separate \nschool shall be established for the education of such children; and \nthe education of a less number may be jjrovided for by the trustees, \nin separate schools, in any other manner. \n\nIn 1872, the Code Commissioners modified the law, under \na decision of the Supreme Court, and the Legislature adopted \nit as follows : \n\nSeo. 1669. The education of children of African descent, and \nIndian children, must be provided for in sejDarate schools; provided, \nthat if the directors or ti\'ustees fail to provide such separate schools, \nthen such children must be admitted into the schools for white \nchildren. \n\nIn 1872, the Board of Education of Oakland admitted their \neight colored children into the schools; and, in 1875, the San \nFrancisco Board abolished the separate school of seventy-five \ncolored children, and admitted the pupils to the white schools. \n\n\n\nXIII. COURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. \n\n\n\nThe School Law of 1863-4 specified the studies to be pursued \nin the schools as follows : Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar, \nReading, Writing, Spelling, History of the United States, \nPhysiology, and such other studies as trustees might deem \nadvisable. \n\nThe first "Course of Study for District Schools " was pre- \npared by Superintendent Swett, and adopted by the State \nBoard, June 8, 1866. At the same meeting, rules and regula- \ntions were also adopted. \n\nThis " Course of Study" was revised by the State Board in \n1870, and again revised by Superintendent Bolander, and \nadopted by the Board in 1872. \n\n\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 207 \n\nIn 1872, Drawhig and Music were added to the list of regular \nscliool studies. \n\nRULES AND REGULATIONS, 1866. \n\nSection 1. Teachers are required to be present at their respective \nschoolrooms, and to open them for the admission of pupils at fifteen \nminutes before the time prescribed for commencing school, and to \npunctually observe the hours for opening and closing school. \n\nSec. 2. Unless otherwise provided by special action of trustees, \nor Boards of Education, the daily school sessions shall commence at \nnine o\'clock a. m., and close at four o\'clock p. m., Avith an intermis- \nsion at noon of one hour, from twelve m. to one p. m. There shall \nbe allowed a recess of twenty minutes in the forenoon session, from \nten-forty to eleven o\'clock, and a recess of twenty minutes in the \nafternoon session, from two-forty to three o\'clock. When boys and \ngirls are allowed separate recesses, fifteen minutes shall be allowed \nfor each recess. \n\nSec. 3. In graded primary schools in which the average age of \nthe pupils is under eight years, the daily sessions shall not exceed \nfour hours a day, inclusive of the intermission at noon, and inclu- \nsive of the recesses. If such schools are opened at nine o\'clock \nA.M., they shall be closed at two o\'clock, p.m. In ungraded schools, \nall children under eight years of age shall either be dismissed after \na four hours\' session, or allowed recesses for play of such length \nthat the actual confinement in the schoolroom shall not exceed three \nhours and a half. \n\nSec. 4. No pupil shall be detained in school during the intermis- \nsion at noon, and a pupil detained at any recess shall be permitted \nto go out immediately thereafter. All pupils, except those detained \nfor punishment, shall be required to pass out of the schoolrooms at \nrecess, unless it would occasion an exposure of health. \n\nSec. 5 . Principals shall be held responsible for the general man- \nagement and discipline of schools; and the other teachers shall fol- \nlow their directions and co-oj)erate with them, not only during the \nschool hours, but during the time when the pujDils are on the school \npremises, before and after school, and during recesses. Assistants \nshall be held responsible for the order and discipline of their own \nrooms, under the general direction of the Principals. \n\nSec. 6. Teachers are particularly enjoined to devote their time \nfaithfully to a vigilant and watchful care over the conduct and hab- \nits of the pupils during the time for relaxation and play, before and \nafter school, and during the recesses, both in the school buildings \nand on the playgrounds. \n\nSec, 7, It is expected that teachers will exercise a general inspec- \ntion over the conduct of scholars going to and returning from school. \nThey shall exert their influence to prevent all quarreling and dis- \nagreement, all rude and noisy behavior in the street, all vulgar and \nprofane language, all improper games, and all disrespect to citizens \nand strangers. \n\nSec. 8. Teachers shall prescribe such rules for the use of the \nyards, basements, and outbuildings connected with the schoolhouse, \nas shall insure their being kept in a neat and proper condition, and \n\n\n\n208 COURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. \n\nshall examine them as often as may be necessary for such purpose. \nTeachers shall be held responsible for any want of neatness or clean- \nliness about their school premises. \n\nSec. 9. Teachers shall give vigilant attention to the ventilation and \ntemperature of their schoolrooms. At each recess the windows and \ndoors shall be opened for the purpose of changing the atmosphere of \nthe room. Teachers are cautioned against hot fires and a high \ntemperature. \n\nSec. 10. Teachers shall enter in the school registers, in the order \nof their application, the names of all those applying for admission \nto the school, after the prescribed number of pupils have been \nreceived. Such applicants shall be admitted to seats whenever a \nvacancy occurs in any class for which they have been found duly \nqualified, in the order of their registration. \n\nSec 11. Teachers are authorized to require excuses from the \nparents or guardians of pupils, either in person or by written note, \nin all cases of absence or tardiness, or of dismissal before the close \nof school. \n\nSec. 12. No pupil shall be allowed to retain connection with any \nl^ublic school unless furnished with books, slate, and other utensils \nrequired to be used in the class to which he belongs; provided, that \nno pupil shall be excluded for such cause, unless the parent or \nguardian shall have been furnished by the teacher with a list of \nbooks, or articles needed, and one week shall have elapsed after \nsuch notice without the pupil\'s obtaining said books. Books may \nbe furnished to indigent \'children by the trustees, at the expense of \nthe district, whenever the teacher shall have certified in writing that \nthe pupil applying is unable to purchase such books. \n\nSec. 13. Any puj^il who shall in any way cut or otherwise injure \nany schoolhouse, or injure any fences, trees, or outbuildings, belong- \ning to any of the school estates, or shall write any profane or obscene \nlanguage, or make any obscene characters or pictures on any school \npremises, shall be liable to suspension , expulsion , or other punishment, \naccording to the nature of the oiTense. The teacher may suspend a \npujpil temporarily for such offense, and shall notify the trustees of such \naction. Pupils shall not be allowed to remain in any of the rooms that \nare provided with improved styles of furniture, except in the presence \nof a teacher or a monitor, who is made specially responsible for the care \nof the seats and desks. All damages done to school jDroperty by any \nof the pupils shall be repaired at the expense of the party commit- \nting the trespass. \n\nSec. 14. AH pupils who go to school without proper attention \nhaving been given to personal cleanliness, or neatness of dress, shall \nbe seut home to be properly prepared for school, or shall be required \nto prepare themselves for the schoolroom before entering. Every \nschoolroom shall be provided with a wash-basin, soap, and towels. \n\nSec 15. No pupils affected with any contagious disease shall be \nallowed to remain in any of the 2:)ublic schools. \n\nSec 16. The books used, and the studies j^ursued, shall be such, \nand such only, as may be authorized by the State Board of Educa- \ntion; and no teacher shall require or advise any of the pupils to \n\n\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 209 \n\npurchase, for use in the schools, any book not contained in the list \nof books directed and authorized to be used in the schools. \n\nSec. 17. It shall be the duty of the teachers of the schools to read \nto the pupils, from time to time, so much of the school regulations \nas ajiply to them, that they may have a clear un\'derstanding\' of the \nrules by which they are governed. \n\nSec 18. In all primary schools, exercises in free gymnastics, and \nvocal and breathing exercises, shall be given at least twice a day, \nand for a time not less than five minutes for each exercise. \n\nSec. 19. The following supplies shall be provided by the District \nClerk, under the provisions of section forty-six of the Kevised School \nLaw, on the written requisition of the teacher, viz: clocks, brooms, \ndusting-brushes, wash-basins, water -buckets, tin cups, dust-pans, \nmatches, ink, ink-bottles, pens, penholders, slate pencils, crayon \nchalk, hand-bells, coal-buckets or wood-boxes, shovels, pokers, soap, \ntowels, thermometers, door-mats, scrapers, and stationery. \n\nSec. 20. Trustees are authorized and recommended to employ a \nsuitable person to sweep and take care of the schoolhouse, and to \nmake suitable provision for supplying the school with water. \n\nBULKS FOR PUPILS. \n\n1. Every pupil is expected to attend school punctually and regu- \nlarly; to conform to the regulations of the school, and to obey \npromptly all the directions of the teacher; to observe good order, \nand propriety of deportment; to be diligent in study, respectful to \nteachers, and kind and obliging to schoolmates; to refrain entirely \nfrom the use of profane and vulgar language, and to be clean and \nneat in j^erson and clothing. \n\n2. Pupils are required, in all cases of absence, to bring, on their \nreturn to school, an excuse in writing, from their parents or guard- \nians, assigning good and sufficient reasons for such absence. \n\n3. All pupils who have fallen behind their grade, by absence or \nirregularity of attendance, by indolence or inattention, shall be \nplaced in the grade below, at the discretion of the teacher. \n\n4. No pupil shall be permitted to leave school at recess, or at any \nother time before the regular hour for closing school, except in case \nof sickness; or on written request of parent or guardian. \n\n5. Any scholar who shall be absent one week, without giving \nnotice to the teacher, shall lose all claim to his particular desk for \nthe remainder of the term, and shall not be considered a member of \nthe school. \n\n6. Each scholar shall have a particular desk, and shall keep the \nsame, and the floor beneath, in a neat and orderl}^ condition. \n\nINSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS. \n\n1. Teachers will endeavor to make themselves acquainted with \nparents and guardians, in order to secure their aid and co-operation, \nand to better understand the temperaments, characteristics, and \nwants of the children. \n\n2. Teachers shall dailj\' examine the lessons of their various classes, \nand make such special prej^aration upon them, if necessaiy, as not \nto be constantly confined to the text-book, and instruct all their \n\n\n\n210 THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER. \n\npupils, witliout partiality, in those brauclies of school studies which \ntheir various classes may be pursuing. In all their intercourse witk \ntheir scholars, they are required to strive to impress on their minds, \nboth by precept and example, the great importance of continued \nefforts for improvement in morals, and manners, and deportment, as \nwell as in useful learning. \n\n3. Teachers should explain each new lesson assigned, if necessary^ \nby familiar remarks and illustrations, that every puj^il may know^ \nbefore he is sent to his seat, what he is exjoected to do at the next \nrecitation, and how it is to be done. \n\n4. Teachers should only use the text-book for occasional refer- \nence, and should not permit it to be taken to the recitation, to be \nreferred to by the pupils, except in case of such exercises as abso- \nlutely require it. They should assign many questions of their own \npreparing, involving an application of what the pupils have learned, \nto the business of life. \n\n5. Teachers should endeavor to arouse and fix the attention of the \nwhole class, and to occupy and bring into action as many of the \nfaculties of their pupils as possible. They should never proceed \nwith the recitation without the attention of the whole class, nor go \nround the class with recitation always in the same order, or in regu- \nlar rotation. \n\n6. Teachers should at all times exhibit proper animation them- \nselves, manifesting a lively interest in the subject taught, avoid all \nheavy, plodding movements, all formal routine in teaching, lest the \npupil be dull and drowsy, and imbibe the notion he studies only to \nrecite. \n\n\n\nXIV. THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER. \n\n\n\nAt the State Teachers\' Institute, May, 1863, it was voted to \nbegin the publication of a monthly educational journal. \n\nJohn Swett and Samuel I. C. Swezey were elected managing \neditors, and the first number of the California Teacher was issued \nJuly, 1863. \n\nAt the succeeding session of the Legislature, 1863-4, a law \nwas passed, authorizing county superintendents to subscribe for \na number of copies, at $1 a copy, to supply each Board of \nSchool Trustees with one copy. \n\nIn 1864-5, a provision was made in the Eevised School Law, \nauthorizing the State Board of Education to subscribe for a \nnumber of copies, sufficient to supply the clerk of each board \nof trustees, and each school library, with a copy of some edu- \n\n\n\nTHE CALIFOENIA TEACHER. 211 \n\ncational journal, the subscription payable out of the State \nSchool Fund. \n\nThis provision placed the journal on a paying basis. \n\nAfter the first year, the State Educational Society assumed \nthe control of the Teacher, electing its editors annually. By \nthe Eevised School Law of 1865, the State Superintendent was \nmade, ex-officio, one of the editors. Messrs. Swezey and Swett \ncontinued to edit the journal until July, 1868. \n\nAt the end of this time, Mr. Swezey made the following \nreport : \n\nOffice of "The Califoenia Teacher," \n\n302 MONTGOMEEY StKEET, \n\nSan Feancisco, June 17, 1868. \nTo THE California Educational Society. \n\nGentlemen: The undersigned, as acting publisher of the Califor- \nnia Teacher, desires to present the following f^cts for your in- \nformation : \n\n1. The California Teacher was established at the State Institute, \nheld in May, 1863, at the same time that your society was formally \norganized; since which time you have been recognized as the proper \nrepresentative of the teachers\' jDrofession in this State. The Insti- \ntute elected John Swett, Geo. Tait, Geo. W. Minns, and the \nundersigned, as resident editors; and, owing to the pressure of \nengagements ujDon the gentlemen named, the publishing duties were \ndevolved upon the undersigned, who has continued to perform those \nduties through the entire five years, closing with the number for \nJune, 1868. \n\nAt the close of the first volume, the authority of your society was \neditorially recognized in the following terms: " The Teacher will be \nguided by the wise hand of the California Educational Society, to \nwhich, indeed, we have hitherto looked, as the representative of the \nteachers in the State. What that society says in regard to editors, \nwill be regarded as law; and whenever it desires a change, the res- \nident editors of the first volume will rejoice in their relief from \nresponsibility of no small magnitude, while they give a cheerful \nhand to their successors in ofiice." {California Teacher, vol. 1, \np. 310.) \n\nOn the 18th of June, 1864, your Society unanimously and for- \nmally consented to assume the responsibility of the publication, \nand thereupon unanimously elected as resident editors, John Swett, \nGeorge Tait, and the undersigned. {California Teacher, vol. 2, \np. 23.) \n\nOn the 5th of June, 1865, your Society elected John Swett, John \nC. Pelton, and the undersigned, as resident editors for the ensuing \nyear. {California Teacher, vol. 3, p. 54.) Since that time there \nseems to have been no formal action taken upon this subject, \nthough the principle has been regarded as settled that the State \nSuperintendent and the City Superintendent of San Francisco \nshould always be among the resident editors. \n\n\n\n212 THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER. \n\n^ 2. Under Section 84 of the Eevised School Law, the State Board \nof Education, on the 13th of Aj)ril, 1866, unanimously designated \nthis journal as the official organ of education in this State. (Cali- \nfornia Teacher, vol. 3, p. 298.) And since that time the expenses \nof jDublishing the Teacher have been mainly met by the proceeds of \nthe State siabscription. This was to be expected. The proportion \nof teachers in any State who pay for an educational journal which \nthey can read without paying for, is very small; and since the Teacher \nhas been sent to every district, comparatively\' few private subscrip- \ntions have been received. The amount received at this date for \nsubscriptions to vol. 6, commencing with the number for July, is \n$48,60. \n\n3. As a matter of fact, the entii-e labor of conducting the Teacher \nhas been performed by Mr. Swett and the undersigned [Mr. \nSwezey]. The two have acted in harmony, and have exercised a \nmutual supervision over each other. Any article or paragraph to \nwhich either has objected has been suppressed. The Department \nof Public Instruction in the Teacher, however, was under the exclu- \nsive control of Mr. Swett during his administration; while, as a \ngeneral rule, the book notices were the special department of the \nundersigned, who has also attended to the proof reading, mailing, \naccounts, and business correspondence. The receipts of the first \ntwo years did not equal the cost of printing. The third year, the \nreceipts and expenses were about equal. During the fourth and \nfifth years, the receipts have so far exceeded the exj^enses as to \nenable the undersigned to dejDute to other hands the actual drudg- \nery of mailing; and at the end of the whole term, the two working \nresident editors are able to rejoice in the fact that they are neither \nmaterial losers nor gainers pecuniarily in the conduct of their \neditorial experiments. Last year, the balance sufficed to meet a \nportion of the office rent of the undersigned, and to leave perhaps \n$25 per month to the editors, as compensation for the labor \nbestoAved. During the year now ending, the same result is prob- \nable, though, as the bills are not all settled, it is impracticable to \nspeak jDOsitively on the subject. At the close of each volume, Mr. \nSwett and the undersigned have divided equally the profits or the \nlosses of the year, and commenced the succeeding one with clear \nbooks, to stand or fall on its own merits. \n\n4. A grave practical question comes before your society to-day, \narising from the following state of facts: \n\nUlDon the accession to office of the present State Superintendent, \nhe assumed that, as a matter of course, the Teacher came under his \npersonal and supreme control. \n\nIn the view of the undersigned, however, the Teacher is to be con- \nducted b}\' persons designated by your society; and they are to act \nuntil their successors are appointed \xe2\x80\x94 the statute giving the State \nSuperintendent, as such, absolute control over simply his own de- \npartment in the journal. \n\nThe Superintendent was informed, therefore, of the time by which \nthe printers were expected to receive the matter for each monthly \nissue; that whatever space he required for his department was always \nto be at his service; and that, to avoid any apjparent supervision of \n\n\n\nTHE CALIFORNIA TEACHER. 213 \n\n"what he sliould choose to insert, the printers would be instructed to \nreturn the proof-slips of his department direct to his office, so that \nthe appointed editors Avould not know what he should j^rint, until \nthey saw it in the completed journal. \n\nThis seems to have been unsatisfactory to the Superintendent, and \nhe declines to accept the proposition, or to use the Teacher as pro- \nvided by law. \n\nAt the last meeting of the State Board of Education, the Super- \nintendent announced his intention, if the exclusive control of the \nTeacher should not be placed in his own hands, to commence the \npublication of an educational journal on his own account, which he \nshould desire to have designated by the Board as the organ of the \ndepartment. The Board so far deferred to his wishes as to formally \nrescind the designation of the California Teacher, and the matter \nwas then left until after your present meeting should be held. \n\nShould you abandon the plan hitherto acted ujDon, and elect the \nState Superintendent as controlling editor, there is no doubt that \nhis objections to the designation of the California Teacher will beat \nonce withdrawn; and it seems to be equally certain that, should you \ncontinue the plan hitherto acted upon, it will rest with the State \nBoard of Education, to make choice between the journal respon- \nsible to the profession, as teachers of the State, and a journal undei- \nthe supreme control of the present State Superintendent, as editor \nand publisher. \n\nWith the undersigned, as to the principle involved, there is no \nshadow of doubt. The example of all educational journals at the East, \nfavors the plan heretofore acted upon, that the teachers, in their \nhighest associated capacity, should name the editors, and the State \nSuperintendent should have entire control, simjDly, of one depart- \nment in the teachers\' organ. \n\nAs to the few hundred dollars that may be saved in the publica- \ntion of the California Teacher, each year, the undersigned, for him- \nself (and, as he thinks, for Mr. Swett), is decided in the wish, that \nany other persons who think the amount received will properly pay \nfor the responsibility attached, should be elected by your society to \nthe editorial office. \n\nAll which is respectfully submitted. \n\nSamuel I. C. Swezey. \n\nIn July, 1868, State Superintendent Fitzgerald and A. L. \nFitzgerald were elected editors. \n\nIn 1872, the State Society elected John Swett, associate ed- \nitor, with State Supt. Bolander; and, in the year following, the \njournal was taken out of the hands of the State Society, and its \nentire control was assumed by Supt. Bolander. \n\nAt this time, the State subscription amounted to $4,000 a \nyear. \n\nIn 1876, the Legislature cut oflf the State subscription, which \nended the publication of the California Teacher. \n\n\n\n214 \n\n\n\nTHE CALIFOBNIA TEACHER. \n\n\n\nTHE PIONEER JOURNAL, \n\n\n\nThe first educational journal publislied in tliis State was The \nBookseller, published in 1860, by H. H. Bancroft & Co., and \nedited by John Swett. It maintained a lingering existence of a \nyear, and then died of starvation. \n\nIt contained two fine articles by Starr King, one by Dr. Tut- \nhill, and other able papers. \n\n\n\nCONTRIBUTORS TO THE TEACHER. \n\n\n\nThe following list includes most of the teachers who were \ncontributors to the State educational journal: \n\n\n\nGeorge W. Minns, \nMrs. Jennie C. Carr, \nE. R. iSill, \nBernhard Marks, \nClara J. Dolliver, \nJohn S. Hittell, \nDaniel J. Thomas, \nLaura T. Fowler, \n\n\n\nSparrow Smith, \nMartin Kellogg, \nD. C. Stone, \nEbenezer Knowlton, \nllalph Keeler, \nVolney Rattan, \nDr. E. J. Schellhouse, \nJohn Baguall, \n\n\n\nCharles Russell Clarke, \nDr.F. W. Hatch, \nA. F. Hill, \nDr. T. H. Rose, \nW. W. Holder, \nWilliam Swinton, \nH. C. Kiune, \nJoseph LeConte, \n\n\n\nLEADING TOPICS. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Grammar \xe2\x80\x94 Hittell. \nHeat as a Mode of Motion\xe2\x80\x94 Minns. \nThe Classics in School \xe2\x80\x94 Kellogg. \nA Letter from \'Zekiel Stebbins \xe2\x80\x94 Minns. \nPhysical Culture\xe2\x80\x94 Swett. \nWaste in School \xe2\x80\x94 Marks. \nAfrica and the Nile \xe2\x80\x94 Minns. \nConstituti6n and Government \xe2\x80\x94 Thomas. \nJuvenile Depravity in Schools \xe2\x80\x94 Swett. \nSchool Libraries \xe2\x80\x94 Stone. \nGeography of California \xe2\x80\x94 Mai-ks. \nReverence for Children \xe2\x80\x94 Kellogg. \nTeaching as a Profession \xe2\x80\x94 Marks. \nExamination of Teachers \xe2\x80\x94 Swett \nModern Languages \xe2\x80\x94 Keeler. \nPractical Education\xe2\x80\x94 Kellogg. \n\n\n\nBotany \xe2\x80\x94 Prof. Wood. \n\nCo-education of the Sexes \xe2\x80\x94 Swett \n\nAgainst Medals in Schools\xe2\x80\x94 Marks. \n\nEducation in Great Britain\xe2\x80\x94 Rattan. \n\nThe Eldest Scholar\xe2\x80\x94 Keeler. \n\nThe True Teacher\xe2\x80\x94 Swett. \n\nArithmetic \xe2\x80\x94 Marks. \n\nEtymology \xe2\x80\x94 Hill. \n\nPestalozzi \xe2\x80\x94 Carlton. \n\nMarks\'s "Arithmetic" \xe2\x80\x94 Holder. \n\nComiiosition \xe2\x80\x94 Bagnall. \n\nWord- Analysis \xe2\x80\x94 Swinton. \n\nReading \xe2\x80\x94 Kinue. \n\nFemale Education \xe2\x80\x94 Mrs. Carr. \n\nBotany for Schools \xe2\x80\x94 Bolander. \n\n\n\nHISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES. \n\n\n\n215 \n\n\n\nXV. HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES. \n\n\n\n18Sl-\'76. \n\n\n\nI. EXPENDITURES. \n\n\n\nYeabs. \n\n\nAssessed value of \nproperty. \n\n\nYears. \n\n\nTotal expenditures. \n\n\nRate per \n$100. \n\n\n1850-51 \n\n\n$57,670,689 \n\n\n1851-52 \n\n\n$33,449 \n\n\n.0679 \n\n\n1851-2 \n\n\n49,231,052 \n\n\n1852-3 \n\n\n65,645 \n\n\n.1016 \n\n\n1852-3 \n\n\n64,579,375 \n\n\n1853-4 \n\n\n275,606 \n\n\n.2890 \n\n\n1853-4 \n\n\n95,335,646 \n\n\n1854-5 \n\n\n334,638 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 .3009 \n\n\n1854-5 \n\n\n111,191,630 \n\n\n1855-6 \n\n\n305.221 \n\n\n.2938 \n\n\n1855-6 \n\n\n103,887,193 \n\n\n1856-7 \n\n\n307,832 \n\n\n.3240 \n\n\n1856-7 \n\n\n95,007,440 \n\n\n1857-8 \n\n\n339,914 \n\n\n.2696 \n\n\n1857-8 \n\n\n126,059,461 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n427,003 \n\n\n.3444 \n\n\n1858-9 \n\n\n123,955,877 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n474,263 \n\n\n.3618 \n\n\n1859-60 \n\n\n131,060,279 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n470,113 \n\n\n.3172 \n\n\n1860-61 \n\n\n148,193,540 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n441,228 \n\n\n.2985 \n\n\n1861-2 \n\n\n147.811,617 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n483,407 \n\n\n.3014 \n\n\n1862-3 \n\n\n160,369,071 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n655,198 \n\n\n.3763 \n\n\n1863-4 \n\n\n174,104,955 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n883,116 \n\n\n.4893 \n\n\n1864-5 \n\n\n180,484,949 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n859,229 \n\n\n.4680 \n\n\n1865-6 \n\n\n183,509,161 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1,163,348 \n\n\n.5816 \n\n\n1866-7 \n\n\n200,764,135 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n1,151,407 \n\n\n.5255 \n\n\n1867-8 \n\n\n\'212,205,339 \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n1,290,585 \n\n\n.5418 \n\n\n1868-9 . . .... \n\n\n237,483,175 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n1,529,047 \n\n\n.5868 \n\n\n1869-70 \n\n\n260,563,886 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1,713,431 \n\n\n.6572 \n\n\n1870-71 \n\n\n277,538,131 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n1,881,333 \n\n\n.7001 \n\n\n1871-2 \n\n\n267,868,126 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n2,113,356 \n\n\n.3321 \n\n\n1872-3 \n\n\n637,-?3-2,823 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n2,111,155 \n\n\n.3992 \n\n\n1873-4 \n\n\n528,747,043 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n2,658,241 \n\n\n.4347 \n\n\n1874-5 \n\n\n611,495,197 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFROM OFFICIAL REPORTS. \n\nI. Total amount paid\'for teachers\' salaries $14,463,846 \n\nII. Total amount paid for school-houses and sites. . 3,950,828 \n\nIII. Total amount paid for incidentals 3,553,101 \n\nIV. Total amount paid for all purposes 21,967,775 \n\n\n\n216 \n\n\n\nHISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES. \n\n\n\nADDITIONAL EXPENSES (eSTIKATEd). \n\n1. State University *$850,00O \n\n2.. State Normal School 500,000 \n\n3. Salaries of State Superintendents 75,000 \n\n4. Incidentals, j)rinting-, &c., of the State Superin- \n\ntendent\'s office 250,000 \n\n5. Salaries of County and City Superintendents, and \n\nincidentals paid from the general funds 800,000 \n\nTotal $2,225,000 \n\nGrand total of expenditures for Public School \n\npurposes 24,542,775 \n\n2. SCHOOL TAXATION, i852-\'75. \n\n\n\nYEARS. \n\n\nstate School Fund \naijportioned. \n\n\nRaised by county \naud city taxes. \n\n\ntRaised from other \nsources. \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n$2,117 00 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n10 626 00 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n$52,061 00 \n\n63,0(;2 00 \n\n69,961 00 \n\n78,057 00 \n\n53,405 00 \n\n72,319 00 \n\n81,118 00 \n\n81,461 00 \n\n75,412 00 \n\n145,537 00 \n\n132,217 00 \n\n168,828 00 \n\n132,410 00 \n\n268,910 00 \n\n252,603 00 \n\n290.796 00 \n\n360,447 00 \n\n423,853 00 \n\n424,022 00 \n\n430,220 00 \n\n428,418 12 \n\n1,212,252 03 \n\n\n$157,702 00 \n119,128 00 \n121,639 00 \n148,989 00 \n162,870 00 \n205,196 00 \n230,514 00 \n241,861 00 \n294,828 00 \n328,554 00 \n260,842 00 \n390,306 00 \n470,668 00 \n595,718 00 \n654,738 00 \n847,229 00 \n839,756 00 \n923,809 00 \n1,249,943 00 \n1,541,597 00 \n1,332,208 82 \n1,115,530 06 \n\n\n42,557 00 \n\n\n1855 \n\n1856 \n\n\n39,395 OO \n28,619 OO \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n55,035 00 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n85,167 OO \n\n\n1859 \n\n1860 \n\n\n97,534 OO \n122 858 00 \n\n\n1861 \n\n1862 \n\n1863 \n\n\n114,397 OO \n\n141,806 OO \n\n68,209 00 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n84,084 00 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n91 181 00 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n79,600 OO \n81,966 OO \n73,986 OO \n66,531 00 \n63,411 00 \n46,660 00 \n032 075 00 \n\n\n1867 \n\n1868 \n\n1869 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n310 502 00 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n345,316 95 \n676 259 64 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nTotals \n\n\n$5,298.8(;9 35 \n\n\n$12,243,625 S8 \n\n\n$2,960,162 59 \n\n\n\n*Exclusive of an endowmeut fixud of $1,500,000. \ntListrict Taxes, Kate Bills, etc. \n\n\n\nHISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES. \n\n\n\n217 \n\n\n\n3. SCHOOL STATISTICS, i85i-\'76. \n\n\n\nYeaeb. \n\n\nChildren Listed \nby Census \nMarslials \n\n\nEnrolled on \nSchool Registers \n\n\nAverage daily \nattendance. \n\n\nNumber of \nSchools. \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n*5,906 \n\nn7,821 \n\n^19,442 \n\n*20,075 \n\n*26,077 \n\n*30,039 \n\n"35,722 \n\n*40,530 \n\n*48,676 \n\n*57,917 \n\n*68,395 \n\n*71,821 \n\n*78,055 \n\n^86,031 \n\n*95,067 \n\n184,179 \n\nt94,213 \n\n1 104,118 \n\ntll2,743 \n\ntl21,751 \n\ntl30,116 \n\n1 137,351 \n\ntl41,610 \n\n11159,717 \n\n\xc2\xa7171,563 \n\n\n1,846 \n3,314 \n4,193 \n9,746 \n\n17,232 \n19,822 \n23.519 \n26,993 \n31,786 \n36,5GG \n36,540 \n47,588 \n50,089 \n50,273 \n62,227 \n65,828 \n73,754 \n85,808 \n91,332 \n94,720 \n107,593 \n120,240 \n130,930 \n\n\n2,020 \n\n4,635 \n\n6,442 \n\n8,495 \n\n9,717 \n\n11,183 \n\n13,364 \n\n14,754 \n\n17,804 \n\n19,262 \n\n19,992 \n\n24,794 \n\n29,592 \n\n33,989 \n\n43,271 \n\n43,681 \n\n49,802 \n\n54,271 \n\n64,286 \n\n65,700 \n\n. 69,461 \n\n72,283 \n\n78,027 \n\n\n\n\n1852 \n\n\n35 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n111 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n168 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n227 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n321 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n368 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n432 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n523 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n593 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n684 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n- 715 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n754 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n832 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n947 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n913 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1,083 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n1,228 \n1,354 \n1,492 \n1,550 \n1,654 \n1,868 \n2,005 \n2,190 \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\n\n\n* Between four and fifteen years of age. \n\nt Between five and fifteen years of age. \n\nt Including children over fifteen years of age. \n\nII Between five and seventeen years of age. \n\n\xc2\xa7 Including children over seventeen years of age. \n\n\n\n14 \n\n\n\n218 \n\n\n\nLIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. \n\n\n\nXVI. HISTORICAL LIST OF COUNTY SUPERIN- \nTENDENTS. \n\nFrom I8S5 to 1876, inclusive. \n\nNote.\xe2\x80\x94 From 1852 to 1854, the County Clerks were ex-officio County Superin- \ntendents. Those marked " are known to have been practical teachers. \n\n\n\nALAMEDA. \n\nEev. A. H. Myers \'55, \'56 \n\nRev. W. W. Brier \'57, \'58 \n\nDr. Henry Gibbons \'59, \'60 \n\nRev. J. D. Strong \'61, \'62 \n\nRev. B.N. Seymour. .\'63, \'64, \'65 \nRev. Chas E. Rich . .\'66, \'66, \'68 \n\n* A. L. Fuller \'69, \'70 \n\nRev. W. F. B. Lynch. . . .\'70, \'78 \n\nALPINE. \n\nL. S. Greenlow \'64, \'68 \n\nS. W. Griffith \'68, \'69 \n\nJoseph Uncapher \'70, \'71 \n\n*JohnBagnall \'72, \'73 \n\nR. W. Foster \'74 \n\n*Mrs. C. M. Pitcher . . . .\'76, \'78 \n\nAMADOR. \n\nE. B. Mclntire \'56, \'57 \n\nRev. H. H. Rhees \'58, \'59 \n\nJ. H. Bradley \'60 \n\nSamuel Page \'61, \'63 \n\n*D. Townsend \'64, \'65 \n\nRev. S. G.Briggs \'66, \'74 \n\nW.H. Stowes \'74, \'78 \n\nBUTTE. \n\nJ.J. Cline \'56 \n\nRev. B. N. Seymour \'57 \n\nH.A.Gaston \'58, \'59 \n\nRev. J. B. Thomas \'60, \'61 \n\nS. B. Osbourn \'62, ^63 \n\n* Isaac Upham \'64, \'65 \n\n*C. G.Warren \'66, 70 \n\n* Lewis Burnham \'70, \'71 \n\n* H. T. Batchelder \'72, \'74 \n\n*S. T. Blake \'74, \'76 \n\n* Arthur McDermott \'76, \'78 \n\n\n\nCALAVERAS. \n\nRobert Thompson \'57, \'63 \n\nRev. W. C. Mosher \'64, \'65 \n\n*F. O. Barstow \'66, \'67 \n\n*C. V. Currier \'68, \'69 \n\n*J. H. Wells \'70, \'72 \n\nE. T. Walker \'72, \'76 \n\n*Chas R. Beale \'76, \'78 \n\nCOLUSA. \n\nB. M. Hand \'57, \'60 \n\nFrank Spaulding \'61 \n\nCharles Street \'62 \n\nJohn C. Addiugton \'63, \'67 \n\n*S. W.Britton \'68, \'69 \n\n*G. W. Howard \'70, \'71 \n\nE. J. Edwards \'72, \'73 \n\n*J. E.Putnam \'74, \'75 \n\nSam. Houchins \'76, \'78 \n\nCONTRA COSTA. \n\nThomas Ewing \'56 \n\nE. H. Cox \'57, \'58 \n\nA. F. Dyer \'59, \'60 \n\nD. S. Woodruff \'61, \'63 \n\nRev. H. R. Avery \'64, \'68 \n\n*Alfred Thurber. \'68, \'72, \'76, \'78 \n*H. S. Raven \'72, \'74 \n\nDEL NORTE. \n\nH. W. McMillen \'58 \n\nR. S. McLellan.\'59, \'61, \'64, \'65, \n\'68, \'70 \n\nCharles Hinckley \'62, \'63 \n\nJohn Mavity \'66, \'67 \n\nJohnR. Nickel \'70, \'74 \n\n*Max Lipowitz \'74, \'78 \n\n\n\nLIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. \n\n\n\n219 \n\n\n\nEL DOBADO. \n\nH. S. Herrick . . .\'55, \'56, \'59, \'60 \n\nJ. G. Eustis \'57 \n\nH. L. Pease \'58 \n\n*M. A. Lynde \'60, \'64 \n\n*S. A.Peuwell \'64, \'65 \n\n*C. C. Conkiin \'66, \'67 \n\n*W. H. Hill \'68, \'74 \n\n*John P. Munson \'74, \'78 \n\nFRESNO. \n\nJE. S. Kincaid \'61 \n\nB.. M. Quigley \'62, \'63 \n\n.S. H.Hill \'64, \'68 \n\nDr. S. O. Ellis, Sr \'68, \'76 \n\nB. H. Bramlet \'76, \'78 \n\nHUMBOLDT. \n\nA.J. Heustis \'55, \'56 \n\nIE. H. Howard \'57, \'58 \n\nH. H. Seaverns \'59, \'60 \n\nHev. W. L. Jones "61, \'68 \n\n*J. B. Browu \'68, \'74 \n\nE. C. Cumming-s \'74, \'78 \n\nINYO. \n\nC. M. Joslin \'68, \'69 \n\nJ. W. Symmes \'70, \'78 \n\nKLAMATH. \n\nH. P. Hirst \'60, \'61, \'63 \n\nJ. H. Twombly \'62 \n\nE. Lee \'64, \'65 \n\nJames Gould \'68, \'69 \n\nH. P. Scott \'71, \'72 \n\nKERN. \n\nE. W. Doss \'68, \'69 \n\nJ. H. Cornwall \'70, \'74 \n\n*L. A. Bearsdsley \'74, \'78 \n\nLAKE. \n\nW. K. Mathews \'61, \'66 \n\n*A. P. McCarty \'66, \'67 \n\n*Mack Mathews 68, \'74 \n\nEev. Louis Wallace . , . . .\'74, \'78 \n\nLASSEN. \n\n"William Young \'64, \'65 \n\nA. A. Smith \'66, \'70 \n\nL. M. Grill \'70, \'71 \n\nL. N. Spaulding \'72, \'76 \n\nS. A. Doyle \'76, \'78 \n\n\n\nLOS ANGELES. \n\nCharles Johnson \'57, \'58 \n\nJ. W. Shore \'59, \'63 \n\nL. J. Rose \'64, \'65 \n\nEev. E. Birdsall \'66, \'67 \n\nH. D. Barrows \'68, \'69 \n\n*W. M. McFadden \'70, \'74 \n\n*Geo. H. Peck \'74, \'75 \n\n*Thos. A. Saxen \'76, \'78 \n\nMARIN. \n\nJohn Simms \'57, \'58 \n\nJohn Shore \'59, \'60 \n\nJames Miller \'61, \'63 \n\nJ. W. Zuver \'64, \'65 \n\nA. Barney \'66, \'70 \n\n* Samuel Saunders \'70, \'78 \n\nMARIPOSA. \n\nA. Reynolds \'57, \'60 \n\nJ. R. McCready \'60, \'65 \n\nD. W. Washburn \'66, \'67 \n\nW. C. Hill \'68, \'69 \n\nJ. W. Simmons \'70, \'71 \n\nDavid Egenhoff \'72, \'76 \n\nRichard Kane \'76, \'78 \n\nMENDOCINO. \n\nA. L.Brayton \'59, \'61 \n\nC. R. Budd \'62, \'63 \n\nJ. L. Broaddus \'64, \'65 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2*C. C. Cummings \xe2\x80\xa266, \'70 \n\nT. B. Bond \'70, \'71 \n\n* J. W. Covington \'72, \'73 \n\n*J. H. Seaweli \'74, \'75 \n\n*J. C. Ruddock \'76, \'77 \n\nMERCED. \n\nJ. W. Robertson \'56 \n\nB.F. Howell \'57, \'58 \n\nF. J. Woodward \'58, \'61 \n\nR. B. Huey \'61, \'65 \n\nT. O.Ellis \'66, \'67 \n\nM. C. Munroe \'68, \'72 \n\nJ. K. Law \'72, \'73 \n\nB. F. Fowler \'74, \'78 \n\nMONO. \n\nM. S. Clark \'70 \n\nA. W. Crocker \'71, \'72 \n\nJ. S. Kirkendale \'73, \'74 \n\nE. R. Miner \'75, \'76 \n\n*Miss Alice Walker \'76, \'78 \n\n\n\n220 \n\n\n\nLIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. \n\n\n\nMODOC. \n\nW. F. Estes \'74, \'78 \n\nMONTEREY. \n\nJ. H. Gleason \'57, \'58 \n\nT. S. Koberts \'59, \'60 \n\nG. AV. Bird \'61, \'64 \n\nW. M. R. Parker \'64, \'65 \n\nThomas Bralee \'66, \'67 \n\n*T. W. Clay \'69, \'70 \n\nE. M. Alderman \'70, \'71 \n\n*S. M. Shearer \'72, \'73 \n\nR. 0. McCroskey \'74, \'78 \n\n\n\nJ. E. Herron \'57 \n\nJas. Corwin \'58 \n\nJ. M. Hamilton \'59, \'60 \n\nRev. A. Higbie \'62, \'70 \n\nRev. G.W.Ford \'70, \'76 \n\nL. Fellows \'76, \'78 \n\nNEVADA. \n\nW. B. Ewer \'56, \'57 \n\nC. T. Overton \'58, \'60 \n\nJ. A. Chittenden \'6.0, \'63 \n\nM.S. Deal \'64, \'68 \n\n*E. M. Preston. \'68, \'69; \'76, \'78 \n\n* Augustus Morse \'70, \'71 \n\n*B. J. Watson \'72, \'73 \n\n* Frank Powers \'74, \'75 \n\nPLACER. \n\nT. B. Hotchkiss \'56 \n\nP. C. Millette \'57, \'58 \n\nS. S. Greenwood \'59, \'60 \n\n* A. H. Goodrich \'60, \'GG \n\nS. R. Case \'66, \'70 \n\nJ. T. Kinkade \'70, \'76 \n\nEugene Calvin \'76, \'78 \n\nPLUMAS. \n\nM. D. Sawyer \'59 \n\nJ. C. Church \'58, \'59 \n\nH. S.Titus \'60 \'66 \n\nG. W. Meybert \'66 \'70 \n\n*S. S. Boynton \'70 \'72 \n\nJ. A. Edmon \'72, \'73 \n\n*W. S. Church \'74 \'78 \n\n\n\nSACRAMENTO. \n\nDr. F. W. Hatch, \'55, \'56; \'59-63; \n\'66, \'67. \n\nNelson Slater \'57, \'58 \n\n*Sparrow Smith \'64, \'65 \n\nDr. A. Trafton \'68 \'72 \n\n*S. H. Jackman \'73, \'74 \n\nDr. G. R. Kelley \'75, \'7& \n\n*F. L. Landis \'76 78 \n\n\n\nSAN BENITO. \n\n*H. L. Morris \n\n\n\n\'76 \'78 \n\n\n\nSAN BERNARDINO. \n\nH. A. Skinner \'55 \'57 \n\nR. R. Pearce \'58 \n\nEllis Robbins \'59, \'60 \n\nA. F. McKinney \'60 \'64 \n\nW. S. Clark \'64, \'65; \'68, \'69 \n\nW. L. Ragsdale \'66, \'67 \n\nH. C.Brooks \'70, \'71 \n\nJohn Brown, Jr \'72, \'73 \n\n*Henry Goodcel, Jr \'74, \'75 \n\nC. R. Payne \'76 \'78 \n\nSAN DIEGO. \n\nFrank Ames \'56, \'57 \n\nJ. M. Estudillo. . \'58-\'62; \'64, \'65 \n\nGeo. Pendleton \'62, \'6a \n\nMarcus Schiller \'68, \'69 \n\nH. H. Dougherty \'70, \'72; \n\nB. S. McLafferty \'73, \'74 \n\nJ. H. S. Jamison \'75, \'76 \n\n*F. N. Pauly \'76, \'78 \n\nSAN FRANCISCO. \n\n*John C. Pelton, Co. Sup\'t. . .\'54 \nCity and Co. Sup\'t. . . . \'55 \n\nCITY AND COUNTY SUPEEINTENDENTS. \n\nE. A. Theller \'5(5 \n\nHenry B. Janes \'57, \'58 \n\n*James Denman, \'59, \'60; \'68, \'69, \n\'70; \'74, \'75 \n\n*Geo. Tait \'61, \'62, \'63, \'64 \n\n*John C. Pelton \'66, \'67 \n\nJ. H. Widber \'71, \'72, \'73 \n\n*H. N. Bolander \'76, \'78 \n\n\n\nLIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. \n\n\n\n221 \n\n\n\nSAN JOAQUIN. \n\n*L. C. Van Allen. . . .\'58, \'59, \'60 \n\n*Cyrus Collins \'60, \'64 \n\n*Melville Cottle \'64, \'70 \n\n*W. R. Leadbetter \'70, \'74 \n\n*T. O. Crawford \'74, \'75 \n\n*S. G. S. Dunbar \'76, \'78 \n\nSAN LUIS OBISPO. \n\nP. A. Forrester . . \'58-\' 60; \'66-68; \n\'70, \'74 \n\nAlex. Murray \'60, \'68 \n\nJ. H. Gooch \'68, \'69 \n\nJ. M. Felts \'74, \'78 \n\nSAN MATEO. \n\n*W. C. Crook... \'62, \'66 \n\nEobt. Greer \'66, \'67 \n\n*H.N. Nutting \'68, \'72 \n\nRev. H. E. Jewet \'73, \'74 \n\n*C. G.Warren \'75, \'76 \n\nG. P. Hartley \'76, \'78 \n\nSANTA BABBAKA. \n\nA. B. Thompson \'64 \'70 \n\nRev. J. C. Hamer \'70 \'76 \n\nG. E. Thurmond \'70 \'78 \n\nSANTA CLABA. \n\n*Freeman Gates \'55, \'56 \n\nMathew Mitchell \'56, \'60 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0S. S. Niles \'60, \'64 \n\nWesley Tonner \'64, \'67 \n\n^J. R. Brierly \'68 \n\n*J. H. Braly \'68, \'69 \n\n*N. Furlong \'70, 71 \n\n*Geo. F.Baker \'72,73 \n\n*J. G. Kennedy \'74, \'75 \n\n*E. Rousseau \'76, \'78 \n\nSANTA CKUZ. \n\nD. J. Haslam \'59, \'63 \n\nRev. P. Y. Cool \'64, \'65 \n\n*H. P. Stone \'66, \'67 \n\n*H. E. Makinney \'68, \'74 \n\n*W. H. Hobbs \'74, \'78 \n\nSHASTA. \n\n*Y. N. Chappelle \'55 \n\nH. A. Curtin \'56 \n\n*Grove K. Godfrey \'57, \'64 \n\nJohn Conmy \'64, \'65 \n\nW. L. Carter \'66, \'74 \n\n*G. W. Welch \'75, \'76 \n\n*Mrs. D. M. Coleman. . . .\'76, \'78 \n\n\n\nSIEKRA. \n\nRev. W. C. Pond \'61, \'66 \n\nJ. M. Haven \'67, \'68 \n\n*J. H. Thorpe \'68, \'72 \n\nA. M. Phalin \'72, \'78 \n\nSISKIYOU. \n\nG. F. Price \'57, \'58 \n\nR. S. McEwan \'59, \'60 \n\n*Thos. N. Stone \'62, \'68 \n\n*Grove K. Godfrey \'68, \'74 \n\n*Wm. Duenkel \'74, \'78 \n\nSOLANO. \n\nRev. S. Woodbridge . . . .\'58, \'6l \n\nRev. J.W. Hines \'61, \'6^ \n\n*Geo. W. Simonton \'64, \'68 \n\n*Milton Wasson \'69 \n\nnV. H. Fry \'70, \'74 \n\n*C. W. Childs \'74, \'78 \n\nSONOMA. \n\n*Charles G. Ames \'61, \'70 \n\n*G. W. Jones \'70, \'74 \n\n*A. C. McMeans \'74, \'78 \n\nSTANISLAUS. \n\nA. B. Anderson \'61, \'64 \n\nG. W. Schell \'64, \'65 \n\nT. T. Hamlin \'68, \'72 \n\nJames Burney \'73, \'74 \n\nW. B. Howard \'76, \'78 \n\nSUTTER. \n\nC. Wilcoxon \'56, \'58, \'61 \n\nA. S. Long \'59, \'60 \n\nJ. E. Stevens \'62, \'63 \n\n*N. Furlong \'64, \'65 \n\n*J. H. Clark \'70, \'74 \n\n*M. C.Clark \'74, \'78 \n\nTEHAMA. \n\nW. L.Bradley \'59, \'60 \n\nW. H. Bahney \'61, \'66 \n\n*Geo. F. Morris \'67, \'68 \n\nG. W.Jeffries \'68, \'72 \n\nF. A. Vestal \'73, \'74 \n\nC. D. Woodman \'75, \'76 \n\nE. S. Campbell \'76, \'78 \n\n\n\n222 \n\n\n\nLIST OF COUNTY SUPEEINTENDENTS. \n\n\n\nM. Eueh \'57, \'60 \n\nHenry Martin \'61 \n\nF. Walter \'62, \'63 \n\nDavid Gordon \'64, \'70 \n\nC. W. Smith \'70, \'71 \n\nWm. Lovett \'72, \'73 \n\nH. H. Bragdon \'75, \'76 \n\n* Mary N. Wadleigh \'76, \'78 \n\nTUOLUMNE. \n\nG. S. Evans... \'57, \'58 \n\nB. A. Mardis \'59, \'60 \n\nR. E. Gardiner \'61 \n\nCharles Pease \'62, \'63 \n\n* John Graham \'64, \'65 \n\nJ. Spencer \'QG, \'67 \n\nW. J. Clark \'68, \'69 \n\n*C. L. Metzger \'70, \'71 \n\n*John York, Jr \'72, \'73 \n\nJohn Murman \'75, \'76 \n\n*Rose R. Morgan \'76, \'77 \n\n\n\nO. R. Smith \'59, \'6(P \n\nT. O.Ellis \'61, \'64 \n\nM. S. Merrill \'64, \'6a \n\nJ.W.Williams \'68, \'70 \n\nS. G. Creighton \'70, \'74 \n\nR. P. Merrill \'74, \'78 \n\nVENTUBA. \n\nT. S S. Buckman \'76, \'78 \n\n\n\nYOLO. \n\n\n\nHenry Gaddis \'57, \'65 \n\n*M. A.Woods \'66, \'68 \n\nR. R. Darby \'68, \'72 \n\n* G. N. Freeman \'72, \'76 \n\n\n\nRev. E. B. Walsworth . . . .\'57, \'61 \n\nW. C. Belcher \'62, \'66 \n\n*D. C. Stone \'67, \'68 \n\n* Isaac Upham \'69, \'70 \n\nRev. A. A. McAllister. . . .\'71, \'72 \n*Thos. H. Steel \'72, \'78 \n\n\n\nNotes. \xe2\x80\x94 Among the County Superintendents distinguished \nfor long terms of office, or for educational labors may be \nnamed : \n\nDr. F. W. Hatch, for ten years Superintendent of Sacramenta \nCounty; a careful and popular officer, whose reports rank among; \nthe best. \n\nChas. G. Ames, for ten years Superintendent of Sonoma \nCounty; an accurate and capable school officer. \n\nRev. A. Higbie, of Napa County, seven years; and Rev. G. \nW. Ford, six years. \n\nGrove K. Godfrey, six years in Shasta County and six years \nin Siskiyou. \n\nRev. W. C. Pond, Sierra County, five years. \n\nGeorge W. Simonton, Solano County, four years. \n\nDavid Gordon, Trinity County, six years. \n\nW. C. Belcher, Yuba County, four years; and Rev. E. B\xc2\xbb \nWalsworth, same county, four years. \n\nRev. W. T. B. Lynch, Alameda County, six years. \n\n\n\nPBESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 223 \n\n\n\nPART III. \n\n\n\nPRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\n\n\nI. SCHOOL SUPERVISION. \n\nT. State Snperiutendent of Public Instruction. \nII. State Board of Education. \n\nIII. State Board of Examiuation. \n\nIV. County Superintendents. \nV. City Superintendents. \n\nVI. City Boards of Education. \n\xe2\x80\xa2 VII. Boards of District School Trustees. \nVIII. County Boards of Examiuation. \nIX. Board of Regents of the State University. \nX. Board of Normal School Trustees. \n\nI. State Superintendent. \xe2\x80\x94 Elected every four years, at the \nSpecial Judicial Election, in the October following the General \nElection for Governor and other State officers in September. \nSalary, $3,000 a year; traveling expenses, $1,500 a year. Dep- \nuty Superintendent : salary, $1,800 a year. Clerk : salary, \n$1,500. \n\nII. State Board or Education. \xe2\x80\x94 It consists of the Governor, \nState Superintendent, Principal State Normal School, and the \nCounty Superintendents of San Francisco, Sacramento, Santa \nClara, San Joaquin, Alameda, and Sonoma. Poiuers. \xe2\x80\x94 To issue \nlife diplomas; to prescribe rules and regulations and a course \nof study for all schools, except those in incorporated cities; to \nadopt a State series of text-books. \n\n[The power of adopting text-books repealed by the Legislature \nof 1876.] \n\nBoard required to meet at least four times a year. No salary, \nbut traveling expenses allowed. \n\nIII. State Board of Examination. \xe2\x80\x94 It consists of the State \nSuperintendent, and four professional teachers appointed by \nhim. Salary, $200 a year. Poiuers. \xe2\x80\x94 To prepare questions for \n\n\n\n224 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nthe examination of teachers for county and city examinations; \nto issue State diplomas, valid for six years; first grade cer- \ntificates, valid for four years; second and third grades, valid \nfor two years \xe2\x80\x94 all on county and city examinations. Also to \nissue certificates on State Normal School diplomas of any State \nNormal School in the United States, and on life diplomas of \nother States. \n\nIV. County Superintendents. \xe2\x80\x94 Elected every two years, at \nthe general election. \n\nPowers. \xe2\x80\x94 To apportion school moneys, draw warrants for the \npayments of teachers, conduct examinations of teachers, to visit \nschools, conduct County Institutes, and make a biennial report \nto the State Superintendent. \n\nSalanj.\xe2\x80\x94 From $200 to $1,800 a year; average, \n\n\n\nV. City Superintendents. \xe2\x80\x94 Elected, in general, by direct \nvote of the people, for two years. They have the usual powers \nof superintendents in other cities in the United States. \n\n/Sttknes.\xe2\x80\x94 San Francisco, $4,000; Oakland, $2,400; San Jose, \n\n$1,200. \n\nVI. City Boards of Education. \xe2\x80\x94 Elected by direct vote of \nthe people, either at general or sjDecial elections, and consisting \nof from five to twelve members, elected for two years. \n\nPoivers. \xe2\x80\x94 To build schoolhouses, employ teachers, and manage \nschool afi\'airs generally. \nNo salary. \n\nVII. Boards of District School Trustees. \xe2\x80\x94 Elected at \nspecial school elections, for a term of three years, one trustee \nbeing elected each year. \n\nPoivers. \xe2\x80\x94 To build schoolhouses, employ teachers, and \nmanage local school afi\'airs generally. \nNo salary. \n\nVIII. County Boards of Examination.\xe2\x80\x94 Consist of County \nSuperintendent, and of not less than three professional teachers, \nappointed by him. \n\nSalary. \xe2\x80\x94 Three dollars a day, and traveling expenses. \nPowers.~To hold quarterly examinations, using the questions \nprepared by the State Board of Examination, on the first Wed- \n\n\n\nPRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 225 \n\nnesday in the months of December, March, June, and Sep- \ntember, and to issue 1st, 2d, and 3d grade county certificates. \n\nIX. Eegknts of THE State University. \xe2\x80\x94 Composed, partly, \nof ex-qfficio members, State ofiicers; partly of members ap- \npointed by the Governor, for terms of sixteen years; and partly \n\xe2\x96\xa0of members elective by the appointed members. \n\nFoivers. \xe2\x80\x94 To manage the affairs of the State University. \nNo salary. \n\nX. Board of State Normal School Trustees.\xe2\x80\x94 Consists of \nthe Governor and State Superintendent, and five members ap- \npointed by the Governor, for a term of sixteen years. \n\nNo salary. \n\n\n\nORGANIZATION OF DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, 1876. \nI. OFFICE OF STATE SUPERINTENDENT. \n\nOfiBce located at the State Capital, Sacramento. \n\nState Superintendent Ezra S. Carr. \n\nDeputy Mrs. E. S. Carr. \n\nClerk H. A. Moses. \n\nII. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. \nOffice at Sacramento. \n\nGov. William Irwin President. \n\nSupt. E. S. Carr Secretary. \n\nChas H. Allen Prin. State Normal School. \n\nCOUNTY SDPEEINTENDENTS, EX-OFFICIO MEMBEES. \n\nH. N. Bolander San Francisco. \n\nT. L. Landis Sacramento. \n\nW. F. B. Lynch Alameda. \n\nE. Eousseau Santa Clara. \n\nA. C. McMeans Sonoma. \n\nS. B. S. Dunbar San Joaquin. \n\nni. STATE BOARD OF EXAMINATION. \n\nPlace of Meeting, Sacramento. \n\nSupt. E. S. Carr Chairman. \n\nChas H. Allen San Jose. \n\nJohn Swett San Francisco. \n\nMiss M. J. Watson Sacramento. \n\nMrs. Mary E. Michener Sacramento. \n\n\n\n226 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nIV. COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. \nHolding oflace from the first Monday in March, 1876, to March, 1878. \n\nCounties. Names. Pobt-Oppick. \n\nAlameda Rev. W. F. B. Lynch East Oakland. \n\nAlpine R. H. Ford Silver Mountain^ \n\nAmador W. H. Stowers Plymouth. \n\nButte Arthur McDermott Oroville. \n\nCalaveras Charles R. Beal San Andreas. \n\nColusa Samuel Houchens Princeton. \n\nContra Costa A. Thurber Pacheco. \n\nDel Norte Max Lipowitz Crescent City.. \n\nEl Dorado John P. Muuson Placerville. \n\nFresno R. H. Bramlet Fresno. \n\nHumboldt E . C. Cummings Rohnerville. \n\nInyo JohnW. Symmes Independence, \n\nKern L. A. Beurdsley Bakersfield. \n\nLake Louis Wallace Lakeport. \n\nLassen S. A. Doyle Long Valley. \n\nLos Angeles Thomas A . Saxon Los Angeles. \n\nMarin Samuel Saunders San Rafael. \n\nMariposa Richard Kane Mariposa. \n\nMendocino John C. Ruddock Ukiah. \n\nMerced B. F. Fowler Merced. \n\nModoc W. T. Estes Cedarville. \n\nMono Miss Alice Walker Bridgeport. \n\nMonterey R. C. McCroskey .\'Salinas City. \n\nNapa L. Fellers Napa City. \n\nNevada E. M. Preston Nevada City. \n\nPlacer Eugene Calvin Auburn. \n\nPlumas W. S. Church La Porte. \n\nSacramento F. L. Landes Sacramento. \n\nSan Benito H. Z. Morris HoUister. \n\nSan Bernardino Charles R. Paine San Bernardino. \n\nSan Diego F.N. Pauley San Diego. \n\nSan Francisco H.N. Bolander San Francisco. \n\nSan Joaquin S. G. S. Dunbar Stockton. \n\nSan Liiis Obispo J. M. Felts Cambria. \n\nSan Mateo G. P. Hartley Spanishtown. \n\nSanta Barbara G. E. Thurmond Carpentaria \n\nSanta Clara E. Rousseau Santa Clara. \n\nSanta Cruz W. H. Hobbs Soquel. \n\nShasta Mrs. D. M. Coleman Shasta. \n\nSierra A. M. Phalin Port Wine. \n\nSiskiyou William Duenkel Yreka. \n\nSolano C. W. Childs Suisun City. \n\nSonoma A. C. McMeans Santa Rosa. \n\nStanislaus W. B. Howard Modesto. \n\nSutter M. C. Clark Yuba City. \n\nTehama E. S. Campbell Red Bluff. \n\nTrinity Mary N. Wadleigb Junction City. \n\nTulare R. P. Merrill Visalia. \n\nTuolumne Rose E. Morgan Columbia. \n\nVentura F. S. S. Buckman San Buenaventura. \n\nYolo H. B. Pendergast Woodland. \n\nYuba Th. H. Steele Marysville. \n\n\n\nPRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 227 \n\nII. SCHOOL REVENUE. \nThe school revenue is derived from the following sources : \n\nI. Interest on the State School Fund. \nII. State School Tax. \n\nIII. County School Tax. \n\nIV. City School Tax. \n\nV. District Taxes voted at Special School Elections. \n\nI. The State School Fund is derived from the proceeds of \nthe sales of the 500,000 acres of land, granted by Congress ta \nthe State, for the purposes of internal improvement, and set \napart by the State Constitution as an inviolable school fund, \nand from the sales of the 16th and 36th sections of township \nlands, consolidated into a general State fund. \n\nIt amounts to $1,737,500, invested in six per cent, and seven \nper cent. State bonds. The Endowment Fund of the Sxate Uni- \nversity consists of $1,500,000, yielding an annual revenue of \nabout $128,000. \n\nII. A DIRECT State property tax is required to be levied \nannually, sufficient, with the interest on the State School Fund,, \nto amount to $7 per census child, from 5 to 17 years of age. \nState apportionment, 1875, $1,210,808. \n\nIII. County School Tax. Eate determined by each County \nBoard of Supervisors. Maximum rate, not to exceed 50 cents \non each $100. Minimum rate, not less than $3 per each census \nchild. Amount of County Taxes, 1875, $1,115,530. \n\nIV. City School Tax. The rate is determined, in some \ncases, by the Board of Education, and in others, by the Com- \nmon Councils, or Boards of Supervisors. In San Francisco,, \nthe amount required is $35 per child, on the average daily \nattendance for the preceding school year. Amount raised by \nCity Tax, 1875, $391,364. \n\nV. The District Taxes are voted at special school elections, \ngenerally for building purposes. Maximum rate, $1 on each \n$100. Amount raised in 1875, $315,000. Total School Reve- \nnue, 1875, $3,390,359. Total amount expended for Public \nSchools, from 1850 to 1876 inclusive, $25,000,000. \n\n\n\n228 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nIII. GENERAL PROVISIONS OF THE SCHOOL LAW. \nAETICLE X. \n\nSCHOOLS. \n\nSection 1662. Who may be admitted to. \n\n1663. Schools to be graded. \n\n1664. To be taught in the English language. \n\n1665. Course of instruction. \n\n1666. Other studies. \n\n1667. Instruction in manners, etc. \n\n1668. Physical exercise, etc. \n\n1669. Schools for Negro and Indian children. \n\n1670. How established. \n\n1671. Governed by same rules as schools for whites. \n\n1672. Sectarian books and teachings prohibited. \n\n1673. Duration of daily sessions. * \n\nSec. 1662. Every school, unless otherwise provided by special \nstatute, must be ojien for the admission of all white children be- \ntween five and twentj\'-one years of age, residing in the district; and \nthe Board of Trustees or Board of Education have power to admit \nadults, and children not residing in the district, whenever good \nreasons exist therefor. \n\nSec. 1663, All schools, unless otherwise provided by special stat- \nute, must be divided into first, second, and third grade. Each \nCounty Superintendent must, under instructions from the State Board \nof Education, determine the respective grade or class of schools in \nhis county. \n\nSec. 1664. All schools must be taught in the English language. \n\nSec 1665. Instruction must be given in the following branches \xe2\x80\x94 \nin the several grades in which each may be required \xe2\x80\x94 viz: reading, \nwriting, orthography, arithmetic, geograj^hy, grammar, history of \nthe United States, physiology, natural philosophy, natural history, \nelements of form, vocal music, and industrial drawing. \n\nSec. 1666. Other studies may be authorized by the State Board of \nEducation, or Board of Education of any city, or city and county; \nbut no such studies can be pursued to the neglect or exclusion of \nthe studies in the preceding section specified. \n\nSec 1667. Instruction must be given in all grades of schools, \nand in all classes, during the entire school course, in manners and \nmorals. \n\nSec 1668. Attention must be given to such physical exercises for \nthe pupils, as may be conducive to health and vigor of body, as well \nas mind, and to the ventilation and temperature of school rooms. \n\nSec. 1669. The education of children of African descent, and of \nIndian children, must be provided for in separate schools; provided, \nthat if the directors or trustees fail to provide such separate schools, \nthen such children must be admitted into the schools for white \nchildren. \n\nSec. 1670. Upon the written application of the j)arents or guar- \ndians of such children, to any Board of Trustees or Board of Edu- \ncation, a separate school must be established for the education of \nsuch children. \n\n\n\n^ \n\n\n\n\'jfe^. \n\n\n\nPKESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 229* \n\nSec. 1671. The same laws, rules, and regulations, which apply to \nschools for white children, apply to schools for colored children. \n\nSec. 1672. No publication of a sectarian, partisan, or demonina- \ntional character, must be used or distributed in any school, or h& \nmade a part of any school librai-y ; nor must any sectarian or denomi- \nnational doctrine be taught therein. Any school district, town, or \ncity, the officers of which knowingly allow any schools to be taught \nin violation of these provisions, forfeits all right to any State or \ncounty apjDortionment of school moneys; and, upon satisfactory evi- \ndence of such violation, the Superintendent of Public Instruction \nand School Superintendent must withhold both State and county \napportionments. \n\nSec. 1673. No school must be continued in session more than six: \nhours a day; and no pupil under eight years of age must be kept \nin school more than four hours per day. Any violation of the pro- \nvisions of this section must be treated in the same manner as a vio- \nlation of the provisions of the preceding section. \n\nAETICLE XI, \n\nPUPILS. \n\nSection 1683. Pupils, how admitted. \n\n1684. Must submit to regulations. \n\n1685. Suspension and expulsion of. \n\n1686. Defacing school property, liabilities for. \n\n1687. Experienced teachers for beginners. \n\nSec. 1683. Pupils must be admitted into the schools in the order \nin which they apply to be registered. \n\nSec. 1684. All pupils must comply with the regulations, pursue \nthe required course of study, and submit to the authority of the \nteachers of said schools. \n\nSec. 1685. Continued willful disobedience, or open defiance of \nthe authority of the teacher, constitutes good cause for expulsion \nfrom school; and habitual profanity and vulgarity, good cause for \nsuspension from school. \n\nSec. 1686. Any pupil who cuts, defaces, or otherwise injures any \nschool house, fences, or outbuildings thereof, is liable to suspension \nor expulsion; and on the complaint of the teacher or trustees, the \nparents or guardians of such pupils shall be liable for all damages. \n\nSec. 1687. In cities having graded schools, beginners shall be \ntaught, for the first two years, by teachers who have had at least \nfour years experience; and such teachers shall rank, in point of \nsalary, with those of first grade. V \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0- \\ \nARTICLE XII. \xe2\x96\xa0\':\'} \n\nteachers. v. % V^ \n\nSection 1696. General duties of teachers. \n\n1697. School month, in relation to salary of teachers, defined. \n\n1698. Appeal allowed from order removing teacher for incompetency. \n\n1699. Appeals in other cases. \n\n1700. No warrant to be drawn jn favor of a teacher unless he performs \n\nhis duties. \n\n1701. Nor unless he hold certificate, and was employed. \n\n1702. Teacher\'s duty in regard to teaching morality, etc. \n\n\n\n"230 PRESENT CONDITION OP THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nSec. 1696. Every teacher in the public schools must: \n\nFirst\xe2\x80\x94 Before assuming charge of a school, file his certificate with \nthe County Superintendent; \n\nSecond \xe2\x80\x94 On taking charge of a school, or on closing a term of \nschool, immediately notify the County Superintendent of such \nfact; \n\nThird \xe2\x80\x94 Enforce the course of study, the use of text-books, and \nthe rules and regulations prescribed for schools; \n\nFourth \xe2\x80\x94 Hold pupils to strict account for disorderly conduct on \nthe way to and from school, on the play-ground, or during recess; \nsuspend, for good cause, any pupil in the school, and report such \nsuspension to the Board of Trustees or Education for review. If \nsuch action is not sustained by them, the teacher may appeal to the \nCounty Superintendent, whose decision shall be final; \n\nFiftii \xe2\x80\x94 Keep a State school register; \n\nSixth \xe2\x80\x94 Make an annual report to the County Superintendent at \nthe time, and in the manner, and on the blanks prescribed by the \nSuperintendent of Public Instruction. Any school teacher who \nshall end any school term before the close of the school year, shall \nmake a report to the County Superintendent, immediately after the \nclose of such term; and any teacher who maybe teaching any school \nat the end of the school year, shall, in his or her annual report, \ninclude all statistics for the entire school year, notwithstanding any \nprevious report for a part of the year; \n\nSeventh \xe2\x80\x94 Make such other reports as may be required by the Su- \nperintendent of Public Instruction, County Superintendent, or Board \nof Trustees or Education. \n\nSec. 1697, A school month is construed and taken to be twenty \nschool days, or four weeks of five school days each. \n\nSec. 1698. In case of the dismissal of any teacher before the ex- \npiration of any written contract, entered into between such teacher \nand Board of Trustees, for alleged unfitness, or incompetence, or \nviolation of rules, the teacher may appeal to the School Superin- \ntendent; and if the Superintendent decides that the removal was \nmade without good cause, the teacher so removed must be reinstated. \n\nSec 1699. Any teacher whose salary is withheld may appeal to the \nSuperintendent of Public Instruction. \n\nSec. 1700. No warrant must be drawn in favor of any teacher, \nunless the officer whose duty it is to draw such warrant is satisfied \nthat the teacher has faithfully performed all the duties prescribed in \nsection sixteen hundred and ninety-six. \n\nSec. 1701. No warrant must be drawn in favor of any teacher, \nunless such teacher is the holder of a proj^er certificate, in force for \nthe full time for Avhich the warrant is drawn, nor unless he was em- \nployed by the Board of Trustees or Education; provided, that \nnothing in this section shall interfere Avith any special school laws \nnow in existence for the counties of Trinity, Shasta, or Inyo. \n\nSec. 1702. It shall be the duty of all teachers to endeavor to im- \npress on the minds of the pui^ils the principles of morality, truth, \njustice, and patriotism; to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity, \nand falsehood, and to instruct them in the principles of a free gov- \nernment, and to train them up to a true comjorehensionof the rights, \n\xe2\x96\xa0duties, and dignity of American citizenship. \n\n\n\nPRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 231 \n\nABTICLE XIII. \n\nDISTEICT LIBRAKIES. \n\nSection 1712 . Library Fund, how expended. \n\n1713. Of what Fund consists. \n\n1714. Same. \n\n1715. Control and location of library. \n\n1716. Who may nse. \n\n1717. Accountability of trustees for care of library. \n\nSec. 1712. The Boards of Trustees and Education must expend \nthe Library Fund, together with such moneys as may be added \nthereto by donation, in the purchase of school apparatus, and books \nfor a school library. \n\nSec. 1713. Except in cities not divided into school districts, the \nLibrary Fund consists of ten per cent, of the State School Fund, \nannually apportioned to the district, unless ten per cent, exceed \nfifty dollars, in which event it consists of fifty dollars, annually taken \nfrom the fund so apportioned. \n\nSec. 1714. In cities not divided into school districts, the Library \nFund consists of the sum of fifty dollars for every five hundred \nchildren between the ages of five and fifteen years, annually taken \nfrom the State School Fund apportioned to the city. \n\nSec. 1715. Libraries are under the control of the Board of Trus- \ntees or Education, and must be kept, when practicable, in the school \nhouses. \n\nSec. 1716. The library is free to all jiupils of a suitable age, be- \nlonging to the school; and any resident of the district may become \nentitled to its privileges by the j^ayment of such a sum of money for \nlife membership, or such annual or monthly fee as may be in-e- \nscribed by the trustees. \n\nSec. 1717. The trustees shall be held accountable for the proper \ncare and preservation of the library, and shall have power to assess \nand collect all fines, jDenalties, and fees of membershii), and to make \nall needful rules and regulations, not provided for by the State \nBoard of Education, and not inconsistent therewith; and they shall \nreport annually to the County Superintendent, all library statistics \nwhich may he required by the blanks furnished for the purpose \nby the Superintendent of Public Instruction. \n\nIV. CLASSIFICATION OF SCHOOLS. \n\nI. State University. \nII. State Normal School. \n\nIII. High Schools. \n\nIV. Sammarj\\ \n\nI. The University of California. \xe2\x80\x94 Location, Berkeley, five \nmiles from Oakland. Value of buildings, grounds, etc., $500,- \n000. The University embraces seven courses of study, com- \nmonly called "Colleges," namely: In Science \xe2\x80\x94 Agriculture, \nMechanics, Engineering, Chemistry, Mining, and Medicine. \nJn Letters \xe2\x80\x94 Classical and Literary. \n\n\n\n232 \n\n\n\nPKESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\n\n\nIt is a free iustitiition, open to younj^ men and young women. \nTlie number of students in attendance from the beginning is as \nfollows : \n\n\n\n\nII. State Normal School. \xe2\x80\x94 Value of buildings, grounds, \netc., $350,000. Free to both men and women. Number of \nstudents, 1876, 325. Annual appropriation for support, $23,000. \n\nIII. High Schools. \xe2\x80\x94 The principal High Schools in the State \nare as follows: \n\nPupils. Teachers. \n\n1. San Francisco, Girls\' High 650 21 \n\n2. San Francisco, Boys\' High 250 8 \n\n3. Oakland, Boys\' and Girls\' High 135 4 \n\n4. Sacramento, Boys\' and Girls\' High 101 4 \n\n5. Stockton, " " " 65 2 \n\n6. Los Angeles, " " " 57 2 \n\n7. Marysville, " " " 21 1 \n\n8. Santa Clara, " " " 19 1 \n\n9. Vallejo, " " " 77 2 \n\n10. San Jose, " " " 25 1 \n\n11. Petaluma, " " " 52 2 \n\n12. Grass Valley, " " " 20 1 \n\n13. Nevada, " " " 20 1 \n\n14. Santa Cruz, " " " 25 1 \n\n15. Alameda, " " " 15 1 \n\nTotal 1532 52 \n\nIn addition to the pupils in the schools specially classed as \n"High Schools," there are about 1,800 pupils in "First Grade \nSchools," pursuing an advanced, or partial, high school course. \n\nSUMMAKY OF CLASSIFICATION, 1875. \n\nNumber enrolled in State University 366 \n\nNumber enrolled in State Normal School 350 \n\nNumber enrolled in the High Schools, or the Advanced Grade 3,243 \n\nNumber enrolled in Grammar, or First Grade Schools 10,177 \n\nNumber enrolled in Intermediate, or Second Grade Schools. . .30,820 \nNumber enrolled in Primary, or Third Grade Schools 79,532 \n\nTotal 130,488 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIS \xe2\x96\xa0! \n\nP 3 \n\nQ \n\n-^ 3 \n\nW q \n\n\n\nPEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 233 \n\nV. SUMMARY OF SCHOOL STATISTICS, 1875. \nPopulation of California (estimated) 800,000. \n\nNumber of cliildren between 5 and 17 171,563 \n\nNumber that attended school 116,896 \n\nAverage daily attendance in public schools 78,027 \n\nAttendance at private schools 15,000 \n\nCLASSIFICATION. \n\n1. Attending State University 866 \n\n2. Attending State Normal School 850 \n\n3. Attending high schools, or in " advanced grades" 3,243 \n\n4. Attending grammar schools 16,177 \n\n5. Attending intermediate on second grade school 30,820 \n\n6. Attending primary or third grade schools 79,532 \n\nSCHOOLS AND TEACHEKS. \n\nNumber of school districts \xe2\x80\x9e 1,579 \n\nNumber of schools 2,190 \n\nNumber of male teachers 1,033 \n\nNumber of female teachers 1,660 \n\nAverage length of school in months 7.47 \n\nNumber of teachers, graduates of some normal school .... 275 \n\nTEACHEKS HOLDING STATE CERTIFICATES. \n\n1. Holding life diplomas 292 \n\n2. Holding educational diplomas 421 \n\n3. Holding first grade certificates 615 \n\n4. Holding second grade certificates 210 \n\nTotal 1,538 \n\n5. Number of graduates of the California State Normal \n\nSchool now teaching 240 \n\n8AL.\\KIES. \n\nAverage monthly salary paid men $84 93 \n\nAverage monthly salary paid women 68 00 \n\nAverage annual salary paid men 672 00 \n\nAverage annual salary paid women 543 00 \n\nAnnual cost per scholar in average daily attendance 28 67 \n\nAnnual cost of tuition per scholar in average daily attend- \nance 21 59 \n\n15 \n\n\n\n234 PKESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nFINANCIAL. \nEECEIPT8. \n\nBalance on band at the beginning of the school year $387,761 11 \n\nReceived from State api^ortionments 1,210,808 49 \n\nReceived from county aj)portionments 1,115,530 06 \n\nReceived from city and district taxes 315, G82 66 \n\nReceived from miscellaneous sources (sale of bonds, \n\nrents, etc.) 360,576 98 \n\nTotal receipts from all sources $3,390,359 30 \n\nEXPENDITTTKES FOR SCHOOL PTJEPOSES. \n\nAmount paid for teachers\' salaries 1,810,479 62 \n\nAmount paid for rent, repairs, fuel, and contingent \n\nexpenses 381,806 62 \n\nAmount paid for school libraries 33,962 72 \n\nAmount paid for school apparatus 10,713 02 \n\nTotal current expenses $2,236,961 98 \n\nAmount paid for sites, buildings, and school furni- \nture 421,279 36 \n\nTotal expenditures of all kinds $2,658,241 34 \n\n\n\nVALUATION OF SCHOOL PEOPERTY. \n\nValuation of sites, school houses, and furniture. . . . $4,879,328 39 \n\nValuation of school libraries 138,564 64 \n\nValuation of school apparatus 50,785 27 \n\nTotal valuation of school property $5,068,678 30 \n\nTotal expenditures for school purposes \n\nup to date $24,542,775 00 \n\n\n\nPEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\n\n\n235 \n\n\n\nVI. SCHOOL STATISTICS BY COUNTIES, 1875. \n\n\n\nCounties. \n\n\nCensus of \n\nChildren 5 to 17 \n\nyears old. \n\n\nAverage daily \nattendance. \n\n\nWhole Number \nEnrolled. \n\n\nNo. of \nTeachers, \n\n\nAlameda \n\n\n9,330 \n85 \n2,381 \n3,484 \n2,210 \n2,346 \n3,047 \n\n418 \n2,335 \n1,398 \n2,803 \n\n397 \n\n997 \n1,369 \n\n667 \n7,787 \n1,647 \n\n930 \n2,808 \n1,171 \n\n840 \n\n112 \n3,286 \n2,822 \n4,705 \n2,519 \n\n834 \n6,482 \n1,456 \n1,971 \n1,834 \n41,021 \n5,212 \n2,012 \n2,340 \n2,282 \n8,410 \n3,212 \n1,517 \n1,115 \n1,705 \n4,63o \n7,003 \n1,909 \n1,549 \n1,425 \n\n642 \n2,837 \n1,872 \n1,122 \n2,566 \n2,609 \n\n\n4,458 \n\n42 \n\n1,382 \n\n1,537 \n\n1,054 \n\n963 \n\n1,357 \n\n232 \n\n1,248 \n\n457 \n\n1,248 \n\n159 \n\n328 \n\n637 \n\n390 \n\n2,049 \n\n642 \n\n360 \n\n1,243 \n\n527 \n\n441 \n\n57 \n\n1,356 \n\n1,251 \n\n2,356 \n\n1,338 \n\n431 \n\n2,695 \n\n592 \n\n675 \n\n440 \n\n20,830 \n\n2,897 \n\n679 \n\n815 \n\n608 \n\n3,480 \n\n1,367 \n\n694 \n\n649 \n\n906 \n\n2,229 \n\n3,437 \n\n1,016 \n\n710 \n\n603 \n\n316 \n\n956 \n\n1,058 \n\n388 \n\n1,273 \n\n1,171 \n\n\n6,261 \n69 \n2,069 \n2,642 \n1,702 \n1,787 \n2,439 \n\n387 \n1,995 \n\n939 \n2,320 \n\n283 \n\n543 \n1,210 \n\n544 \n4,237 \n1,073 \n\n707 \n2,399 \n1,119 \n\n604 \n\n102 \n2,415 \n2,111 \n3,774 \n2,262 \n\n738 \n4,785 \n1,037 \n1,375 \n\n8J8 \n32,075 \n5,620 \n1,134 \n1,439 \n1,229 \n5,786 \n2,426 \n1,205 \n\n969 \n1,387 \n3,594 \n5,900 \n1,813 \n1,423 \n1,107 \n\n443 \n1,992 \n1,577 \n\n842 \n2,156 \n2,067 \n\n\n121 \n\n\nAlpine \n\n\n4 \n\n\nAmador \n\nButte \n\n\n39 \n\n62 \n\n\nCalaveras \n\n\n38 \n\n\nColusa \n\n\n43 \n\n\nContra Costa \n\n\n69 \n\n\nDel Norte \n\n\n10 \n\n\nEl Dorado \n\n\n44 \n\n\nFresno \n\n\n30 \n\n\nHumboldt \n\n\n50 \n\n\nInyo \n\n\n9 \n\n\nKern \n\n\n14 \n\n\nLake \n\n\n27 \n\n\nLassen \n\nLos Angeles \n\n\n14 \n\n72 \n\n\nMarin \n\n\n28 \n\n\nMariposa \n\nMendocino \n\nMerced ,. \n\nModoc \n\n\n16 \n52 \n\n26 \n24 \n\n\nMono \n\n\n5 \n\n\nMonterey \n\n\n44 \n\n\nNapa \n\n\n78 \n\n\nNevada \n\n\n63 \n\n\n\n\n52 \n\n\nPlumas \n\n\n23 \n\n\nSacramento \n\n\n106 \n\n\nSan Benito \n\n\n22 \n\n\nSan Bernardino \n\n\n22 \n\n\nSan Diego \n\n\n25 \n\n\nSan Francisco \n\n\n507 \n\n\nSan Joaquin \n\n\n93 \n\n\nSan Luis Obispo \n\n\n26 \n\n\nSan Mateo \n\n\n37 \n\n\nSanta Barbara \n\n\n22 \n\n\nSanta Clara \n\n\n105 \n\n\nSanta Cruz \n\n\n47 \n\n\nShasta \n\n\n33 \n\n\nSierra \n\n\n25 \n\n\nSiskiyou \n\n\n39 \n\n\nSolano \n\n\n78 \n\n\nSonoma \n\nStanislaus \n\n\n132 \n46 \n\n\nSutter \n\n\n38 \n\n\nTehama \n\n\n29 \n\n\nTrinity \n\n\n17 \n\n\nTulare \n\n\n42 \n\n\nTuolumne \n\n\n28 \n\n\nVentura \n\n\n16 \n\n\nYolo \n\n\n53 \n\n\nYuba \n\n\n48 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nTotals \n\n\n171,563 \n\n\n78,027 \n\n\n130,930 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 2,693 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n236 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nVII. RESUME OF THE CONDITION OF THE SCHOOLS, \n\n1. Buildings. \xe2\x80\x94 In general, the school houses are comfortable, \nare furnished with modern styles of desks, and fairly supplied \nwith maps, charts, and simple school apparatus. \n\n2. Length of School. \xe2\x80\x94 The average length of school is 7| \nmonths in the year, an average exceeded by only two or three \nStates in the Union. There were only 34 schools in which the \nlength of term was less than 6 months. In nearly 800 districts \nthe length of term exceeded 8 months. The provision in mak- \ning the county apportionment by which the minimum amount \nfor each school, however small, is $500, has extended the \nmeans of education to the most remote settlements. \n\n3. Teachers. \xe2\x80\x94 Of the 2800 teachers, 240, or nearly one tenth, \nare graduates of the California State Normal School. There \nare 2U2 holders of life diplomas; that is, about one tenth, Avho \nmay be ranked as " professionals." There are about 400 \nholders of educational diplomas who have had at least 5 j^ears\' \nexperience. In all, about one third of the teachers may be \nconsidered skilled in their profession, the remaining two \nthirds being mainly made up of " raw recruits." \n\n4. Instruction. \xe2\x80\x94 There is a good course of study laid out by \nthe State Board of Education; but, of course, this is carried \nout in the country districts to a very limited extent only. In a \nmajority of the schools, the teaching consists of text-book \nrecitations, with little or no instruction by the teacher. \n\n5. Libraries. \xe2\x80\x94 Each school is supplied with a small library, \npurchased by an annual approj^riation of 10 per cent, of the \nState appropriation, not to exceed $50 yearly. The amount \nexpended last year was about $50,000. \n\nThe libraries constitute one of the best features of the \nsystem. \n\n6. Secular Instruction. \xe2\x80\x94 With a few unimportant exceptions, \nthe schools are purely secular. The provisions of the State \nlaw are generally interpreted to exclude the reading of the \nBible and prayer. In the State University, in the schools of \n\n\n\nPEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 237 \n\nSan Francisco, Oakland, and most other cities, and in most of \nthe country districts, there are no religious exercises whatever. \nThe State Normal School is the only notable exception; \nthere, the school is opened with prayer and the reading of \nthe Bible. \n\n7. Defects. \xe2\x80\x94 There are two weak points in the system. 1. \nThe short terms of school officers. 2. The frequent change \nof teachers. \n\nEverywhere, except in San Francisco, the New England \nsystem of electing teachers annually is in full force and efiect. \nHence, a majority of the teachers are " circuit teachers." \n\nThe frequent change of school officers renders uniform and \nsteady progress out of the question. \n\nThe most notable defect in the instruction given in the \nschools is the lack of thorough mental training, the Avork of the \npupils consisting largely in memorizing text-book recitations. \n\nThe reforms of the next century will consist in the employ- \nment of skilled teachers, in common sense methods of teach- \ning, and in the adaptation of courses of study to industrial \npursuits. \n\n8. Expenses. \xe2\x80\x94 The total amount expended for school pur- \nposes, during a quarter of a century, is, in round numbers, \ntwenty-five millions of dollars. This is the best investment the \nState has ever made. Had fifty millions been expended, the \nState to-day would be the richer for it. Men, not money, make \nthe true wealth of a nation. \n\n9. What we Need. \xe2\x80\x94 The following extract from an address by \nHon. Ezra S. Carr, before the State Agricultural Society, Sep- \nteml^er, 1875, outlines a want to be supplied during the next \ncentury : \n\nCHILD CULTURE. \n\nOvir progress during the last six years is due to our increased \nfacilities of travel and transportation. So many are now busy with \nplans for increasing immigration, that it may be useful to have one \nvoice directing the public mind to the solution of a more important \nquestion, viz. : how to grow a crop of sound-bodied, right-minded, \nclean-hearted children, who will " take to work " as naturally and \nkindly as a duck takes to water. I hold that the end of the crop is \nthe eater; the end of labor the betterment of the laborer; and that \nhuman improvement is as legitimate a subject for discussion in agri- \n\n\n\n238 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\ncultural societies as that of colts or cbickens. We have hitherto left \nthis subject pretty much to the doctors \xe2\x80\x94 doctors of the body and of \nthe soul \xe2\x80\x94 whose occupation will be gone when man truly reflects the \nDivine image. And although we need the help of these doctors still \nin the work of human improvement, and although we are immensely \nindebted to them for what has already been accomplished, I think it \nis better to pay them for the ounce of prevention than for the pound \nof cure. Nature herself protests when a lean, dwarfed apology for a \nman calls himself master of the noble brute creatures, which have be- \ncome more than half human in their intelligence and beaut}\', through \ncareful selections, breeding, and nurture. An organization like this, \nhaving for its object the improvement of the farmer, as well as the \nfarm, will not love a horse less because it loves a child more. The \ninterests of agriculture are bound up with those of education, espe- \ncially in that modern form of it which is denominated " technical." \nThe farmer\'s children are " the best working stock on the farm;" \nand the value of skill, intelligence, and good character applied there \nis more and more highly appreciated. This is the lowest, most ma- \nterial view of the subject, but it is one that the political economist \nwill not overlook. Do our schools, do any of them, meet the great \ndemands of agricultural and mechanical industry? Hundreds of the \nbest and most progressive teachers say they do not; thousands and \ntens of thousands of anxious parents say they do not. \n\nIn a recent meeting of a State agricultural society in the East, it \nwas said: " AVhat we want is not mere culture, but culture applied, \nculture realized, culture put at work, and demonstrating, day by day, \nits uses." The masses of our people have little time to pursue \nbranches of study which have not some direct bearing ui^on their \ncallings or avocations. Aside from the elements, which all should \nreceive, the importance of special knowledge, bearing upon special \nwork, is paramount. Our system should be changed, so that from \nthe highest classes in the country schools to the University, by un- \nbroken gradations of the most liberal training in the acquisition of \nknowledge and skill, men and women should be fitted worthily to \nperform their appointed service in the industrial state. \n\nIt is fifteen years since the Massachusetts State Board of Agricult- \nure asked the legislature for the passage of an act authorizing, as \nthe first step in furnishing an agricultural education to the people \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nFirst \xe2\x80\x94 " The engrafting ujjon her common school education the \nstudy of elementary geology, animal and vegetable physiology, and \nbotany; to be taught in the usual form, by manuals, with suitable \nillustrations, simple and inexpensive; so prepared that it will not \naltogether depend upon the knowledge of the instructor to make \nthem of use to the learner. With a slight change in their studies, \nour children would learn something which would every day become \nmore deeply implanted in their minds by what they see going on \naround them." " These studies," they said, " cannot be commenced \ntoo early, for they are the germs of all future development, the \nvitality of which is never lost; they must be planted early if it is \nhoped to reach a full harvest." \n\nSecond \xe2\x80\x94 They asked for an agricultural school with a farm attached \nto it, where the practice of agriculture in its several departments, \n\n\n\nPEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 239 \n\nand the best methods of farm management could be practically \nlearned. The committee, among whom I find the names of Marshal \nP. Wilder and George B. Loring, said: "If a person, who had the \nability to perform whatever he undertook, should offer to the people \nof this commonwealth a secret, by which in twenty years the pro- \nductive value of the lauds throughout the whole State would be \ndoubled, what would that secret be worth? The diffusion of general \nagricultural education would accomplish that object; nay, go far \nbeyond it, in less time than has been named, and at an expense \nthat would be trifling in proportion to the benefits that would flow \nfrom it." \n\nOther States have taken similar action. The farmers of the West \nhave recommended a revision of the school course, with this object \nin view. \n\nIn Illinois, an able defender of industrial education said: "We \ntake the child out of God\'s natural industrial university and send \nbim to school, where, at best, only a fraction of his entire manhood \ncan be properl}\' developed; and, after all, we do not fit pupils for \nactual life, even in those elemental studies after forty weeks\' school \nper annum, as well as they were fitted in ten weeks, half a century \nago. One prime cause of this is, that the bookmakers and publicihers \nhave assumed about as absolute control of our public schools as the \npoliticians have of our post-offices. Rich publishing houses have \noffered as high as $70,000 for the introduction of a single text-book \ninto a State. And yet not one of those books teaches us the things \nwhich it is our chief interest to know, and our protracted school \ndrill leaves little time for anything else. " \n\n"I wish," says Professor Turner, "to make room for some of the \nsubjects which underlie the industrial arts, botany, entomology, and \nzoology, for instance. The State of Illinois spends, say $12,000,000 \na year on her public schools, and loses from $10,000,000 to $20,000,- \n\n000 from obnoxious insects. Now, I would have every one of these \ninsects, about a hundred in all, with pins in their backs, put up in \na show-case in every public school in the State; and I would have \nevery child know them as well as he knows his father\'s cows and \nhorses; instead of having one or two lone men looking after them, \n\n1 would turn millions of intelligent young ej\'es upon them, and \nthus prepare for their extermination. I would have this, whether \nthe child knew there was such a word as * en-tom-ol-o-gy \' or not ! \n\n" The hard-working American people want to know something \nabout our continent \xe2\x80\x94 our life-work, our bodies, and bones, and \nsouls, our duties and destinies in the great republic in which we \nlive. \n\n" I look upon the agricultural classes to lift us out of this monkey- \ndom of precedent, into the true freedom of American citizenship. \nAll that is needed is that every man should quietly set about im- \nproving his own school, in his own district, as fast and as fully as \nhe can." \n\nI shall make no apology for quoting these educational authorities. \nI warn all those classes who do not believe in industrial education, \nthat Broderick\'s words are fast coming to be true, that \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n240 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\n\n\n" WOKKING-MEN WILL RULE THIS NATION. \n\nThe State Superintendent of Public Instruction in Connecticut, \nMr. Northrop (and he has been saying- these things from that office \na good many years), says: "Every child\'s education is deficient who \nhas not learned to work at some useful form of industry. Labor \naids in disciplining the intellect, and energizing the character. \nEsjiecially does farm work task and test the mind, leading a boy to \nplan and contrive to adapt means to ends. With all our improved \ngymnastics, none is better than manual labor, cheerfully and intelli- \ngently performed, especially farm work. The ambition for easier \nlives, and more genteel employments, and the silly but common no- \ntion that labor is menial, that the tools of the trades and the farma \nare badges of servility, have greatly lessened ajiprenticeships, and \nought to be refuted in our common schools. \n\n"Our youth should there be taught the dignity and necessity of \nlabor, and its vital relations to all human excellence and progress, \nthe evils of indolence, the absurdity of the present fashion for city \nlife, and the wide-spread aversion to manual labor. A practical \nknowledge of some industrial pursuit is an imi:)ortant element in \nintellectual culture." \n\nI fully indorse these sentiments. "Whatever you would have ap- \npear in a nation\'s life must be put into its schools," is a Prussian \nmotto, and we put the same idea into section 1702 of our code, \nwhich makes it "the duty of teachers to instruct pupils to avoid \nidleness, and to train them to a comprehension of the rights, duties, \nand dignity of American citizenship." But Prussia enforces her \nprinciples in the most universal system of "real," or technical \nschools, which turn out able young farmers, carpenters, black- \nsmiths, and housekeepers, and nurses, while with us it all ends in an \nadmonition to "avoid idleness." \n\nThe State must go further than this; it must fit its children for \ntheir places in the industrial ranks. The nation has two technical \nschools\xe2\x80\x94 one for training of navy, the other of army, officers. Each \nState has one for the training of teachers, and a few have real train- \ning schools or colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. If \nthese are what they should be, they will do for those pursuits what \nWest Point and Annapolis do for the army and navy, viz. : make \nmen who are proud of their business. I wish some of the kid glove \ngentry who think the base-ball club and the boating club furnishes \na more dignified employment for the muscles of our young men \nthan manual labor, could have been with me at the annual examina- \ntion of one of the nation\'s training schools, where high born and low \nborn, without distinction of nationality or religion, learn \xe2\x80\x94 what? \nTo scrub a deck, to furl a sail, to use every tool in the carjDenter\'s \nshop, in the blacksmith\'s shop, to make and to mend everything \nthat belongs to a ship, to be considerate, gentlemanly, orderly, to \ncommand themselves and others, to obey, to love their countiy\'s \nflag, and to die for it without a murmur, to go down with the ship \nif need be \xe2\x80\x94 all this while they learn everything that is required in \nliterature and science for an education of the tii\'st class. \n\nAnd must one be a soldier, or a sailor, to be thus furnished for \n\n\n\nPKESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 241 \n\nhis country\'s service, for his own service in the industrial state ? \nShall a man be trained in all manliness to walk the quarter deck, \nworthy of all obedience because he understands what he requires, \nand has himself performed, not once, but a thousand times, all that \nhe exacts from subordinates; and may he not have an equal train- \ning for the post of foreman in a mechanic\'s shop, for the manage- \nment of his own broad acres, and the laborers he requires to culti- \nvate them ? Do you suppose they would put a man in charge of \nthe Naval Academy, or tolerate a single professor in West Point, \nwho thought practical education in war and navigation would prove \n" a failure" \xe2\x80\x94 was, at best, a doubtful experiment? No; that isn\'t \nthe way they manage. Those old admirals and army officers are \nseamen and soldiers through and through, from boots to buttons; \nthey believe in their business. The men who lead in industrial \neducation must believe in it also. \n\nThe kind of education w^anted to-day is not that which has passed \ncurrent, and which has proved a dead failure in making a generation \nof nobler youth, stronger in body, clearer in mind, and firmer in \nconscience, than the half-schooled frontier gave us a hundred years \nago. Don\'t take this on my authority, but look through the Gov- \nernors\' messages and State Superintendents\' reports. Why, only \nlast year the Education Committee of the Massachusetts Legislature \nsaid: " The public school system of Massachusetts fails to meet the \ndemands of modern civilization." Why and how? Civilization \nnow demands skilled, intelligent labor; and, as Scott Eussell says, \n"Occupations which require no skill, but only brute force, Avill \nnecessarily be vacated by human hands." The substitution of \nsteam culture for hand labor has thrown thousands of English \nworkmen out of employment. \n\n" Society, in the march of improvement, is as certain to do with- \nout the unskilled, the unintelligent, and uneducated, as it is to do \nwithout wild plants and animals. Nor will the laws be unjust \nwhich forbid those who cannot create their food to subsist on the \nlabor of others." \n\nGovernor Hartranf t, of Pennsylvania, calls attention to the scarcity \nof skilled labor in that State, and says, that although $10,000,000 \nare annually expended for education, none of the children who \ncomplete their terms in the public schools have any special fitness \nfor trade, and few become artisans. He recommends schools where \nboys can be instructed in trades, and urges compulsory education. \nI might amplify this testimony almost indefinitely, but I turn to \nother aspects of the question. \n\nI am not one of those who think a thing must be good because \nit is baldheaded with antiquity. Education is essentially conserva- \ntive. You cannot make a move in the way of improvement with- \nout disturbing somebody, and we shall have to disturb a good \nmany people sitting in comfortable chairs before we get our educa- \ntional stream to turning mills and grinding corn. \n\nWhile I do not think that bodily labor is specially desirable for \nits own sake, I think any scheme which leaves physical education \nout of the account is radically defective. If you can have this with \ntraining in useful arts, so much the better, but have it we must. \n\n\n\n242 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nThere was a training in those primitive New England times when a \nfellow had to lie down to his Lindley Murray before a fire of pine \nknots, after milking the cows, cutting the wood, and doing the \n"chores;" when the girl added the daily skein to the festoons of \nyarn for the family clothing, which is hard to get in these days. \nAs soon as a child was old enough to pick up a basket of chips, \nit became an element in the productive wealth of the home. Surely \nit was none the worse for it to be taught by the statutes of law \nand filial duty that service was due for the care and support of its \nhelpless years. These views may seem sordid, but the looseness \nwith which children grow up to think their parents and the rest of \nthe world owe them a living is filling our streets with hoodlums \nand with animated fashion plates, ready to be blown away by the \nfirst ill wind of temptation. What is a hoodlum? A boy gone to \nwaste, rotten before he is ripe, because society does not know \nenough to preserve and economize him. \n\nThe education required by a people is not a fixed quantity, either \nin kind or degree, and the condition and circumstances of laboring \nmen of every class have greatly changed since the idea of public edu- \ncation first dawned. Why, do you know that the experiment is \nhistorically so recent that a good many countries have not had time \nto make it ? \n\nThe history of education fully explains why it is not more practi- \ncal. Colleges and seminaries grew up out of the monasteries, which, \nfor a long time, treasured all the learning there was in the world. \nLearning was a monopoly; first of the priest, then of priests and the \nnobles, then of these and the judges, and finally, and not without \nhard squeezing, the leech or doctor got into this good comj^any, and \nthen came the printed Bible to carry the art of reading wherever \nreligious zeal could take it. There was nothing but literature for \neducation to use; it covered the whole field, except mathematics. \nColumbus invented geography, and Galileo and Copernicus astron- \nomy, long after the great European universities were founded. In \nEngland, where our college system came from, the aristocratic \nclasses only were benefited by it, and it suited them very well. \nAnd when the common school got started, it simply took a few of \nthe first leaves out of the college book. It is not so very long since \nmen learned to read and sx^ell in the Universities of Oxford and \nCambridge. It took several centuries of human progress to bring \nrulers to consent that common folks should learn the alphabet; and, \nagain, to get permission for women to tamper with the dangerous \nthing. It took a good while to get a spinning-jenny, and a power \nwheel, and a steam plow; and the education of the Oxford time \ndon\'t suit the spinning-jenny age, as England has learned to her \ncost. \n\nUntil about the time of the gold discovery in California, England \nwas domineering over the rest of Europe, through her commercial \nsupremacy, and her command of the supi^lies of raw materials, which \nenabled her to take the lead in manufactures. These advantages she \nwas likely to retain. But France and Germany, by the most mag- \nnificent provisions for technical schools, set themselves to compete \nwith her on her own ground of manufactures, and not only dis- \n\n\n\nPEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 243 \n\ntancecl her completely, but almost drove her from the field. The \nExposition of \'67 proved that Germany could make better steel, and \nFrance better locomotives; " that England was beaten, not only on \nsome points, but, by some nation, on nearly all the points on which \nshe had prided herself." The English government then sent eighty \nskilled workmen over to the Continent, to find out the causes of \ndefeat. The unanimous reply was: " Their industrial education has \ncaiised it." \n\nLord Stanley addressed the most careful inquiries to all the foreign \nConsuls in France, Prussia, Saxony, Switzerland, Belgium, and \ngot the same answer, "industrial education." And lately there \ncomes a plan from England for a national system of industrial in- \nstruction for the whole people, beginning in primary schools, and \nending in a great " central technical university" for training pro- \nfessors and teachers of institutions of lower rank, devoted to raising \nthe standard of industrial well-being. Instead of believing that \nmoney is the root of evil, the Englishman believes it to be the root \nof industry, and so of all good, and this change in the direction of \npopular education is due to the lesson the English nation received \nat Paris and Vienna. \n\nThe great natural advantages which we possess will not give us \nindustrial supremacy, unless we follow these examples. The " 7n- \niernational Magazine " emphasizes our duty and our opportunity in \nstrong language: "With an agricultural wealth to which no limit \ncan be assigned, with mineral riches everywhere bursting through \nthe surface, with water power which no mills can exhaust; not to \nadvance, not to rival the skilled industry of Europe, is not a loss \nmerely, it is a crime." The California wheat-grower and wool- \ngrower must compete in the Liverpool market with the wheat and \nwool of the world. Competition, in every branch of industry, has \nbecome world-wide, and unless the American farmer and manufac- \nturer does his best, he is sure to take the lower place in the world\'s \nmarket. \n\nWith gold and silver mines that supply all nations, with forests \nshading our hillsides, with flocks, and vineyards, and great valleys \nteeming with their abundant harvests, we cannot be rich or great, \nunless we can compete in the enlightened employment of these \nnatural means and forces. The experience of all Europe teaches, \n"Industrial supremacy is the prize of industrial education." \n\nLet us lay the foundation of this supremacy in \n\nOUR PEIMAKT SCHOOLS. \n\nCarry it forward by a well-devised system of secondary technical \nschools, and complete it in a Universitj^ where prominence is given \nto different branches of learning, according to the directness and \nvalue of these as applied to the occupations and pursuits of our \npeople. \n\nPerhaps there was never a time when the relations of the Gov- \nernment to education need to be discussed so thoroughly, and yet so \ntemperately. That universal intelligence is the only guarantee of \nuniversal liberty, is one of the fundamental ideas of the American\'s \npolitical faith; but the right and duty of the State to educate has \nbeen better stated in monarchical Germany than in republican \n\n\n\n244 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. \n\nAmerica. The great Ficlite said: "The end of the State is not only \nto live, but to live nobly." And the clearest of writers upon the phi- \nlosophy of education, Karl Eosencrauz, said: "The idea that the \nGovernment has the right to oversee the school, lies in the very idea \nof the State, which is authorized and under obligations to secure the \neducation of citizens, and cannot leave their fashioning to chance. \nThe sej)aratiou of the school from the State would be the destruc- \ntion of the school." \n\nWith us it would be the destruction of the State; for here the di- \nversity of the materials which forzn the State, requires the uuifying \ninfluence of a broad and comprehensive sj\'stem of public education. \n\nThe work of the State in education may be divided into three sec- \ntions. The first is elementary and general (and should be universal \nand free), making every child familiar with reading, writing, draw- \ning or picture writing, with elementary arithmetic and natural his- \ntory, and with the geography and history of his own State and \ncountry. In the second stage, separation and specialization should \nbegin, which will necessarily grow and perfect its(?lf Avith the growth \nof culture, and the more perfect organization of the forces of civili- \nzation. We now specialize only in regard to classes of unfortunates, \nthe deaf, dumb, blind, etc.; by and by we can sj)ecialize as to uses, \nand make our countr}-- schools more preparatory to agriculture, hor- \nticulture, and the like; while our city schools, by vacation classes, \nhalf-time schools, and other agencies, at first, and afterwards by \nspecial schools, render the same service to the mechanic and manu- \nfacturing arts. The certainties of science are swiftly taking the \nplace of the hap-hazard pursuit of those arts, and a great part of \nsecondary instruction should be in the simpler applications of scien- \ntific jDrinciples. \n\nIn the third, or University stage of education, the one-sidedness \nof a particular or strictly technological training is rounded off by a \nsurvey of the relations and value of each specialty to others, without \nlosing sight of a specific individual purpose. The University is as \nnecessary a j)art of public instruction as the elementary or technical \nschool, and should be the crown and complement of these. Below \nthis point the States say every child sJiaU be furnished with the \nmeans for the rational development of his physical, moral, and in- \ntellectual powers; to this, instruction should be added which will \nenable the child to apply those powers in obtaining a livelihood; \nwhile at the gates of the University the State confers a privilege, \nand says to the youth: You may go up higher, and contend for the \nprizes of thought and activity. The University^ says: Here you shall \nfind the natural sciences carried up"into the science of nature; that \nthe phenomena of society, of industry, of trade, of finance, of poli- \ntics, are subject to fixed laws. The University is an organic ency- \nclopedic representation of all the sciences, with their connections \nand relations. And this is equally true of the arts, architecture, \nmusic, painting, the drama \xe2\x80\x94 are like the sciences, bound together in \na Uiiiversitas Ai\'cium. \n\nWhile this is the true conception of a University, and should not \nbe lost sight of in laying the foundations of an institution for all time, \nit is not immediately practical or adax)ted to the wants of young and \n\n\n\nPKESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 245 \n\ngrowing States. The reason of this is, that the lower stages of public \neducation are yet imperfect and unorganized. To expect to have a \ngreat University without a good proportion of high schools, and be- \nfore we have a single technical school, seems to me preposterous. \nWe may have students crowding into our University to get what \nother colleges give \xe2\x80\x94 liberal literary or scientific education \xe2\x80\x94 without \ngetting a step nearer the ideal University, while numbers of the stu- \ndents of older colleges are found among us seeking for second-rate \nclerkships, in threadbare clothes; but when we get the feeders to our \nUniversity in running order, we shall find its utmost usefulness \nrealized in the production of educated power instead of \n\nEDUCATED HELPLESSNESS. \n\n" We thank you," said the Iroquois Chief (in the year 1774) to \nthe Government of Virginia, which had offered to educate some of \ntheir young men; " we have already had experience of your edu- \ncation, and some whom you have educated in all your sciences \ncome back to us bad runners, ignorant of woodcraft, unable to trap \na deer, snare a fish, to build a wigwam; we cannot accept your \noffer, though we appreciate your good will, but we will take a few \nof your sons and make men of them." \n\nSomething like this the people have been saying to the Universi- \nties founded upon the munificence of the State and nation, not \nbecause they do not apjireciate education, but because they do. \nThey know that it costs more to hang a man, to board and lodge \na man at San Quentin, than it would to teach him the duties and \nresponsibilities of American citizenship, and how to get an honest \nliving; that it costs far more to maintain a system of demagogy than \nof pedagogy! They know that where five agricultural scientists \ncould obtain employment, five thousand skillful, intelligent farmers \nare needed to-day in our own State. The friends of the so-called \nhigher education should be willing to see the University filling the \npresent need of technical training in agriculture and the arts, mak- \ning practical workers, as well as thinkers, of its students, thus sup- \nplying the means of its ideal perfection. \n\nThe technical school in which we are most directly interested, is \nthat which gives us teachers. Without the right kind of teachers, \nno reform is possible. The one business which it should be the \nspecial concern of the State to maintain in honor, which should \nbe kept free from political or sectarian influences, which should be \nentered into with zeal and consecrated ability, and never as a make- \nshift \xe2\x80\x94 is education. The educator, whether of the school or the \npress, stands at the point of power, and holds the highest office in \nthe social economy. \n\nThe work of organizing the national education is now claiming \nthe attention of scholars and patriots. Such an organization, in its \nhigher and low^er stages, will be impartial in its bearings upon in- \ntellect and industry, impartial as to sex, making a boy\'s training \npreparatory to a man\'s work, and girl\'s to a woman\'s, wife\'s, \nmother\'s work, and in both will recognize the intrinsic dignity of \nself-support. \n\nThe graduate of the National School of Pedagogy, or Normal \n\n\n\n246 PBESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SCHOOL. \n\nSchool, will have the same relation to the Government that the \ngraduate of West Point or of the Naval Academy has, and thus step \nby step the hitherto unrewarded and despised profession of teach- \ning shall be exalted and ennobled. Do I believe in this good time \ncoming ? Most assuredly I do. The time has already come when \nwar is no longer a necessity, and that nation is the most civilized \nwhich can most easily dispense with it. The reign of words, too, \nis almost over; dogmas, religious or political, no longer fetter the \nnations; thought is free as air. Literature must take the back seat; \nwhile the arts, leading science, make the circuit of the world. Be- \ntween the standing armies of soldiers, which tell how imperfect still \nis human government, and the sitting armies of sophists, whose \nmission it is to perpetuate existing evils, another great army is \nbeing drilled \xe2\x80\x94 the army of labor \xe2\x80\x94 in which we shall find the most \npractical philosophy, the broadest intelligence, and the most Chris- \ntian patriotism. \n\nLittle more than two hundred years ago. Sir "William Berkeley, \nGovernor of Virginia, said: "Thank God, there are no fi-ee schools \nnor printing presses here, and I hope there will be none for an \nhundred years, for learning has brought heresy and sects into the \nworld, and printing has divulged these and other libels." The \nghost of Sir William flits in a few remote corners of our land, but \nthe spirit of modern inquiry forbids that it shall be materialized. \nWith conscious pride, the farmers and laboring men of America \nare building a commonwealth whose spirit shall be jjeace on earth \nand good will to man; whose weapon, suifrage; whose conservatism, \neducation; whose objects are freedom, order, and economy within \nour own boundaries, and an eternal brotherhood with those who \nare our wider neighbors. \n\n\n\nERRATA. \n\n\n\nPage 20, Sec. 8, read "approved May 3, 1852," instead of "approved May 3, \n1862." \nPage 24, See. 15, read " 1855," instead of "1856." \nPage 25, Sec. 17, read "seventh," instead of "seventeenth." \n\nOMISSION. \nIn the section of legislation, 1874, on page 65, no mention is made of the Com" \npiilsory Education Bill passed during that year; but as the law has proved a dead \nletter, the omission ia of little consequence. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2y"., \n\n\n\nV^^ \n\n\n\n.\xe2\x80\xa2^\' \n\n\n\n,, c \n\n\n\n^\xe2\x96\xa0^J- -S" \n\n\n\n'