OUTLINES THEORY AND ART TEACHING u LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Shelf. .L3lQ A b' UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, "^"^'l V OUTLINES Study and Instruction THEORY AND ART TEACHING U ix DANIEL PUTNAM Of the Michigan State Normal School YPSILANTI : COMMERCIAL rUHLISHlNG HOUSE. 1883. PREFACE. These outlines are products of some reading and study, and of some observation and experience while teaching in various grades .of schools, and especially while aiding in the instruction of teachers in tlie Normal School and in other places. The course is designed to meet the wants of students such as usually seek the advantages of normal teaching and training. No attempt has been made to formulate a system of educational philoso- phy, or to produce anything original, or new to advanced students. Ideas, truths, and principles have been sought and freely appropriated from any fruitful source. The printing is not for the purpose of publication, but for personal con- venience and the convenience of classes. It is in contemplation to publish, at an early day, a tolerably full manual upon the same subject. Michiyan State Normal School, Jan., 1883. COPYKIGHT, 18S3, BY DANIEL PUTNAM. OUTLINES OF Study and Instruction ()i I. Introduction. 1. Art has usually preceded Science in the order of human development, and in the progress of civilization. This is the order of history and of original investigation. 2. When a Science and an Art are correlated, the order of study for mature minds is (a). The Science. — Theory. {/>). The Art. —Practice. 3. Practice only, without a study of principles, produces copyists, workers by rules, artisans. 4. Science, the study of Theory alone, leaves us without practical skill, without training. 5. The best results, in all departments of human activity, come from the proper combination of Science and Art. 4 OUTLINES OF 6. The Art of Teaching (Education in one sense) has been long practiced. The Science is only in a formative condition. 7. The Science may be investigated and studied by (a). Induction. — By experiment and observation. (^). Deduction. — By reasoning from the known laws of mind and from the nature of knowledge. II. What Education is as a Work, Etc. 1. Preparation for any work is determined, as to extent and character, by one's conception of the nature of the work. 2. The Child. — Condition in respect to (a) body, {If) mind, (<:) knowledge, {d) language, etc. 3. The Man. — Condition in same respects. 4. The child, transformed into the man, has been {a). Developed. {d). Trained. (c). Instructed. A jaork has been wrought upon him and he has passed through a process. 5. The work and process have embraced {a). Physical Education. {l>). Intellectual Education. {c). Moral and Religious Education. {(i). Industrial Education. The work, great and complex ; the field wide. G. The Agents and Agencies in performing the work have been many. {a). The home, parents, friends. (/'). The church, religious teachers. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 5 (c). Society, books, papers, etc. (^), Institutions, government, etc. (). A soul. — A mental, moral and spiritual nature. These are intimately related. Neither can be thoroughly understood without some knowledge of the other. They are mutually dependent and mutually helpful. o. Some general knowledge of Physiology is pre-supposed. The nervous system is so intimately connected with mental action that it demands special attention. {A). The general, cerebro-spinal, system con- sists of {a). The Brain, (/y). The Spinal Cord. {(•). The Nerves, — smaller cords of nerve substance, (i). Composition and structure of nerve substance. {a). White, minute fibers. (^). Grey, cells or corpuscles. (2). Origin and termination of the nerves. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. < [B). The Sympathetic System of nerves. . Its rela- tion to the vital organs and processes.' Less intimately associated with mental processes. [C). Relation of the Cerebro-spinal Nerves to Sensation in general. {a). Impressions upon the nerves. {b). Transmission. — Comparison of the telegraph - and telephone. {c). The result. — Sensations, so-called. The impression upon the bsdily or^an is to be earefullj' distinguished from the knowledge gained by the mind. [D). Nerves of Special Sensation, and their general functions. The senses. {a). Taste. — Organs and location, — office. {b). Smell. — Organs and location, — office. (r). Touch. — Organs widely distributed, — offices, — higher in rank than Taste and Smell. [d). Hearing. — Organs and location, — office, impor- tance and value. {e). Sight. — Organs and location, — office, — highest in rank and value of the senses. The special knowledge derived through each sense will be further considered in connection with suggestions in relation to its cultivation and training. V. 1. The Soul or Mind in man is that which knows, feels, and wills. Its existence is as evident as the existence of matter. [a). Matter is known by its (pialities through the senses. 8 OUTLINES Of (^). The Soul is known by its activities through con- sciousness. For our purpose it is unnecessary to make any distinction between the terms Soul and Mind. 2. The Activities of the Soul are manifested in different forms or directions ; — activities which result in {a). Knowledge. These are named Intellect or the Intellectual Faculties. {d). Feelings, so called. These are named Sensi- bilities. (r). Willing, determining, etc. These are named the Will. {d}. Moral Ideas, etc. These are named the Moral Nature. 3, Some terms defined. {a). A Faculty is an original or native energy or ability of the Soul to do. {l>). Power denotes both original and acquired ability of mind. It is used also to denote the energies of the body. (r). Capacity denotes the susceptibility of the,. Soul to be affected and influenced ; also to receive and con- tain. Faculty, power and capacity are often used with essentially the same meaning. (d). Phenomenon (plu. Phenomena) denotes any- thing which really appears either to the senses or to consciousness. {) distinct, and (c) vivid concepts. 4. Ideal Representation. The mind has ability to form pictures, notions, etc , of an ideal character, usually complex, not representing any single, real, known object. The ability of the mind to form ideal representations is called the faculty of Imagination. 5. Illustrations of the products of the imagination are found in {a). Historical and other paintings. (/^) Some works of fiction. (f). Some forms of poetry. {d). Hypotheses, both scientific and other. {e). Many v/orks of art. G. The imagination creates forms, combinations, group- ings, etc. Material is supplied by other faculties. The term Fancy is often used as synonymous with Imagination. It is better to make a distinction. (a). Imagination, proper, creates, etc., within the limits of possi- bility, — is subject to law. (b), Fancy creates, etc., without regard to possibility or law. 7. Education, etc. The development and training of the imagination begin early in connection with conception. It is important in some studies of childhood, but its full development comes later. 8. Memory,— Reproductive Faculty. {a). The Retention of knowledge is accompanied by no conscious mental activity. Theories upon this subject belong to the province of purely speculative philosophy. Retention is usually considered one of the functions of Memory. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 15 {d). Memory is the faculty which reproduces or recalls into consciousness what has been previously known or expe- rienced. Every perfect act of memory involves also an act of representation. The two acts can hardly be separated. (r). Two forms of the process of reproduction are observ- able, (i). Absolute or instantaneous reproduction. The desired object is recalled by a single mental effort, with no con- scious intervening steps. (2). Reproduction by association and suggestion. This reproduction is accompanied by conscious intervening stf ps, and is accomplished by more than one mental effort. {d). Association and Suggestion are governed by laws or conditions, called laws of association. As expressed, these laws are statements of observed facts in respect to mental action, or deductions from such facts. They are usually divided into (i). Primary or objective. (2). Secondary or subjective. {e.) Primary or Objective Laws. (i). Law of Resemblance or Similarity. " Similar thoughts and things are mutually sug- gestive." (2). Law of Contrast. "Contrasted thoughts and things are mutually suggestive." (3). Law of Contiguity. " Thoughts and things associated in time or place are mutually suggestive." 16 OUTLINES OF (4). Law of Special Relationships. " Thoughts and things related to each other as {a). Cause and Effect, id). Whole and Parts, {c). Substance and Attribute, (i^). Sign and Thing Signified, etc., are mutually suggestive." (/). Secondary or Subjective Laws. These laws, so called, are rather statements of subjective states or exter- nal conditions which influence and modify the action and power of the pri- mary laws. (i). Law of Attention. Attention is mental activity turned and held 'by an act of the will, in a particular direction or upon a particular object. The attention of young children is, to a certain extent, involuntary. Power to retain and reproduce knowledge de- pends greatly upon the degree of attention bestowed in acquiring. (2). Law of Repetition. The power to retain and reproduce some kinds of knowledge is largely increased by repetition or reiteration. Reiteration is simply a frequent reproduction of the same or a similar act, state, etc., and falLs under the head of similarity. (3). Law of Lapse of Time. The power to reproduce knowledge is usually weakened by lapse of time. (4). Law of Associated Feeling. Power to retain and reproduce knowledge is greatly increased by associating some strong feeling with its acquisition. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 17 (5). Law of Natural Mental Peculiarities. For reasons not known, most minds reproduce some kinds of knowledge much more readily than other kinds. In order to deal justly with children, this fact needs to be constantly kept in mind. (6). Law of State of Mind, and State of Body. The state of mind, and also the state of body, at the time of acquisition, affect greatly the power to retain and re])roduce knowledge. (7). Law of Habit. Habits created by occupations, or professions, or other circumstances, influence the powers of retention and reproduction. (S). Law of Deiiniteness and Clearness. That knowledge which is most definitely and clearly comprehended is best retained and most readily reproduced. 9. Relation of the Memory to the other facul- ties; characteristics, etc. (a). The memory is the servant of the other faculties. (/-'). It should be cultivated for efficient service, and not for its own sake. (c). The most important characteristics of a service- able memory are (1). Susceptibility. This is strictly a characteristic of the mind in general rather than of any special faculty. (2). Tenacity. The power to hold firmly that which is committed to its keeping. 18 OUTLINES OF {3). Readiness. The ability to respond imme- diately to any demand. 10. Fourth Step in Education. The proper development and training of the Memory. The activity of memory begins in the child very early, but its systematic training can commence only when the perceptive and conceptive faculties have acquired considerable power. 11. Summary. fl. Conception. — Faculty of real rep- Representative I resentation. tTve of Concep-^-- Imagination. - Faculty of ideal tive Faculties. I representation. L3. Memory. Faculty of reproduction. STUDY AND INSTRUCI'ION. 19 IX. The Elaborative Faculties, Called also Reasoning and Reflective. 1. Convenient comparison between certain physical and mental activities, processes, and results. {a). Knowledge taken into the mind, as food into the stomach, in a crude form ; material of real knowledge, as food of real nutriment, etc. (<^). Various forms of mental activity exercised upon this material of knowledge, as various bodily organs exercise their functions upon food, etc. (c). Results in both cases, changes of form, digestion, re-arrangement, assimilation, etc., etc., and finally, pro- ducts of practical value to life. 2. Real Knowing (true knowledge) consists essentially in discovering resemi^/anit'S, differences and relations. To secure such knowledge, there must be {a). Examination. — Analysis. {b^. Comparison. — Process of determining resem- blan-ces and differences. 20 OUTLINES OF [f). Proper Arrangement.— Synthesis,— classifica- tion, — recognition of relations, etc. These processes are all complex, and any names employed to des- ignate the mental powers by which they are performed are open to objections, and must be understood in an obviously limited sense. 3. Abstraction. In the processes of analysis, compar- ison, etc., it is often necessary to consider one quality or characteristic of an object apart from all others. This act of separating is called abstraction, and the men- tal power by which the act is done, is called the faculty of abstraction. 4. Generalization. A common name is given to a num- ber of individuals or objects, on account of certain resem- blances, disregarding all points of difference. This act is called generalization, and sometimes the men- tal activity which performs it receives the same name. 5. General names, terms, and concepts. By the processes of abstraction, generalization, and conception, the ideas indicated by general and abstract terms, such as man, animal, tree, virtue, etc., are formed. The power of the mind to form such ideas, notions, etc., is sometimes named Conception. 6. Judgment. A Judgment, etc. Elaboration involves the comparison of percepts with percepts ; per- cepts with concepts ; concept;: with concepts ; partial concepts with total concepts ; attributes with objects ; etc., etc. The faculty which compares i)ercepts, concepts, etc., and affirms or denies an agreement between them, is, for con- venience, called Judgment. The mental product of the final act is called A Judg- ment. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 21 The product expressed in words is called a Proposition, and consists of a subject, predicate and copula. Ex. Snow is white. This kind of mental activity, in its simplest form, begins in the child at a very early period ; as early indeed as the material out of which judg- ments can be formed, is supplied. 7. Reasoning, Reason, etc. Elaboration also includes processes by which, from certain arrange- ments and comparisons of knowledge already acquired, new knowledge is attained, or present knowledge is extended and enlarged. In these pro- cesses, which are called Reasoning, propositions are compared. The faculty which compares propositions, etc., and thus attains new or enlarged knowledge, is sometimes called Reason. It must be kept in mind that the term Reason is here employed in a sp'cial and limited sense, for convenience. {a). Inductive Reasoning. This is reasoning from particulars to generals ; from individuals to the class ; inferring a general rule or law from a number of particular cases, etc. The basis of this form of reasoning is a belief in the " uniformity of causation." {l>). Deductive Reasoning. This is reasoning from generals to particulars ; from the class to individ- uals ; from a general law to particular cases, etc. The basis of this form of reasoning is the belief that " whatever is true of a whole is true of all its parts " ; or " whatever is true of a class is true of whatever comes under the class " ; or " what is part of a part is part of the whole." {c). The Syllogism. Examples, etc. . (i). General form and nature. (2). Premises. Major, Minor. (3). Conclusion. (4). Some examples of fallacies. 22 OUTLINES OF {d). Demonstrative Reasoning is employed principally in pure mathematics, and deals chieflly with concepts and relations. The premises being ad- mitted its conclusions are inevitable. (). Judgment. The ability to compare concepts, and to affirm or deny their agreement. (r). Reason. The ability to arrange and compare propositions, and to reach conclusions by a process called reasoning. Ij.ed iu a Special or Limited Sense. 24 OUTLINES OF 10. General Summary of the Intellectual Faculties. fl. Consciousness. {a). Presentative ^ , ^^^ g^^^^^^ Faculties, i j . ■^■ [o. Intuition. fl. Conception. {/>). Representative and^^ Imagination. Reproductive Faculties. i g Memory. fl. Abstraction. (0. Elaborative _j , judgment. Faculties. (^3 Reason. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 25 X. The Sensibilities. 1. Most, possibly all, acts of knowing are accompanied or closely followed by states or conditions of mind called feel- ings. These feelings are indefinable, but their existence is known (a). In one's self, by consciousness. {d). In others, by bodily appearances. The Conditions, Circumstances, causes which produce them may also be learned. 2. The capacity or susceptibility of the soul to feel is called Sensibility, The various feelings are usually spokeu of as Sensibilities. 3. The sensibilities are to be carefully distinguished from the sensitiveness of the body and from sensations. 4. The study of the sensibilities is rendered difficult by (a). The great number of them. {l>). Their complex character in many cases, (r). The impossibility of making a satisfactory class- ification. 5. A knowledge of the feelings, and of the means and methods of producing, controlling, and allaying them, is of the very highest importance to teachers and parents from the fact that they are [a). The active or propelling forces in the soul. 26 OUTLINES OF [b). The avenues through which the Will must be reached. {c). The indexes of the true state of the mind and of the real character of purposes and acts. 6. In respect to origin, the mental feelings are {a). Instinctive. Spring from a natural impulse without reflection, and are, to a considerable extent, com- mon to man and some animals. (/'). Rational. Appear in consequence of thought and reflection, and are i)eculiar to man. {i). Mixed. Partly instinctive and partly rational. XI. Some DiYisions of the Sensibilities. 1. Simple, Instinctive Emotions. These are feelings manifested by young children, and they differ very little in character from the feelings manifested by the young of some animals. {a). JoyOUSness. Manifested in sportiveness, frol- icsomeness, etc. {l>). JoylessneSS. Manifested by a dejected ap- pearance, disinclination to activity, etc. {c). Irritability. Manifested by ill-natured words and conduct, etc. These are only a few of many feelings spriiigiug mostly from bodily cou- ditions, and Intimately associated with the earliest sensations of childhood. In young; children, they are no indication of moral chai-acter. They are felt to some extent, at every period of life. 2. Appetites. These are not properly sensibilities, but are placed here on account of their intimate connection with desires. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. li They are usually divided into {a). Natural or Native. These are regularly recurring " cravings of the animal nature " occasioned by some need. Among these are (i) Hunger, and (2) Thirst. {/'). Acquired or Artificial. These are cravings produced by habits, and differ from natural appetites in several important particulars. (i). They are not regularly recurring. (2). Their strength usually increases with grati- fication. (3). Their vigor is not usually diminished by age. {4). They are not necessary to the life or hap- piness of mankind. (5). Their creation and gratification involve con- siderations of moral right and wrong. Among these are ajjpetites for (i) Intoxicating Liquors, (2) Tobacco, (3) Opium and other Nar- cotics. {c). Relation of Teachers to the subject of appetites. (i). To teach by example and precept the proper control of natural appetites. (2). To abstain personally from the creation and gratification of injurious artificial appetites. (3). To teach, at proper times and by proper methods, the efTfects of the gratification of injurious artificial appetites upon both body and mind. Natural appetites are necessary to individual well-being, and to the per- petuity of the race. Their proper gratification involves no question of morals. But they are blind forces, and can never with safetj-, be allowed to govern a rational being. Artificial appetites are seldom beneficial, and often dangerous. 28 OUTLINES OF 3. Desires. Desires are cravings of the mind for real or supposed good. Aversion is the opposite of desire. Aversions are as various aiul numerous as desires, bat as they are readily understood from the relation of opposition, it is unnecessary to give them separate consideration. The term good, as here emploj'ed, has no moral signification; but de- notes anything which will contribute, or which is expected to contribute, to happiness or enjoyment. Some of the most obvious are the desire for {a). Food, drink, etc. This comes in consequence of appetite and is closely related to it. (/-'). Continued Existence. This is partly instinctive, partly rational ; closely related to love of life, but does not always spring from it. [c). Knowledge. Both intuitive and rational. (^/). Society. At first, intuitive ; later,largely rational. {(•). Happiness. It is doubtful whether this should 43e regarded as a qMcific desire. It may be a general desire of which all others are only particular forms. (/) Esteem, Approbation, etc. Both intuitive and rational. Uses and abuses considered. [g). Superiority. This is to be carefully distinguished from the desire of power. Its relation to enmlation considered. Uses and dangers. (//). Power, Authority. Early manifestations ; proper and improper direction. (/). Acquisition of property. Legitimate direction ; abuses ; relation to the progress of society, etc. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 29 (y). Complex feelings, into which either desire or aversion enters largely. (i). Hope. Composed of desire and expectation Condi- tions of a strong, or a weak hope Value of this feeling. (2). Despair. Desire with an absence of expectation. Condi- tions which increase or diminish the depth of this feeling. (3). Discouragement. Nature ; sources ; consequences. (4). Apprehension, alarm, fear, dread, terror, etc. Nature; distinction between ; influence, etc. (/'). Knowledge of Desires specially impor- tant to teachers. The relation of desii-e to the Will, which will be indicated further on, makes it of special importance that all persons who are concerned in the control and direction of children, should under- stand the nature of the various desires, something of their power, and the means by which the}' are excited and allayed. 4. Affections. The affections are feelings of the mind directed toward other persons, or objects. There are strong objections to the use of the term qfcc!io>is to denote feelings of ill-will, but no other word has yet been generally accepted to take its place. Note-— I<"niotioi)s seem to exist in the soul without direction : desires to lie directed mainly toward one's self; affections, toward others. Desires and .affections are often very closely intermingle 1. 30 OUTLINES OF Some classes of the affections : (A) "The Beneficent." Those having in view the good of their objects. Of the Beneficent Affections (i). The Domestic have reference to Home and Kindred. Among these are ((?) Parental, {/>) Filial, {c) Fraternal. These are partly natural and instinctive, partlj' rational and and moral. (2). The Social have reference to friends, country, etc. Among these are (a) Friendship, {d) Gratitude, (r) Patriotism. These are mostly, but not cntlrelj', rational and moral. (3) The Philanthropic have reference to man- kind without regard to kindred or country. Among these are {(?) Good-will to man as man, {/>) Pity, Compassion, Sympathy, etc. Some of these are natui-al and intuitive ; others, chiefly rational and moral. {B). " The Defensive." Those having in view self-defense, and the protection of others. Among these are [a) Resentment, and {/?) Indignation. The first prompts to self-defense, the second to the protection of others. These are usually, but improperly, classed among the "malev- olent" atfections. Care, however, must be taken in defining and properly limiting these feelings. They are natural and intuitive in their origin, but beyond a cer- tain limit are rational and moral. (C). The Malevolent. Those having in view ends Vvhich work evil, directly or indirectly, to their objects. 32 OUTLINES OF (5). Among the elements of the beautiful in . objects are (a) form, (6) color, (r) symmetry, (j/) grouping, and {c) variety. (6). Some sounds and combinations of sounds are properly regarded as beautitul. (7). To cultivated minds, certain ideas and com- binations of ideas are beautiful. (8) Poetry derives its beauty from the ideas expressed and from the rhythmic flow of words. (/>-). Emotions caused by the Sublime, Grand, etc. (i). Experiences of these feelings by one on the summit of a lofty mountain; at Niagara; gazing upon dark, heavy thunder-clouds, etc. (2). Obvious elements in the sublime, etc., are {a) power, (^) greatness of some kind. (3). Actions, ideas, etc., may be sublime as well as objects. (4). Fear, terror, etc , may be mingled with the emotions produced by the sublime. (r). Emotions occasioned by Wit, Humor, etc. (i). A great variety of these emotions, etc. (2). Surprise and incongruity among the impor- tant elements in the humorous, ludicrous, etc. (3). A tendency in wit, humor, etc., to descend. ^4) Sarcasm, wit, etc., to be employed very spar- ingly in the school. STUDY AND INSTRUCI ION. 33 (^/). Relation of the Higher Emotions to Education, etc. (i). Good Taste in deportment, language, dress, etc., not only indicates character, but exerts a reflex influence as well as an influence over others. (2). The feelings produced by the Sublime, Grand, etc., are closely related to Reverence, Respect, etc., and are especially to be desired in the young. (3). The influence of the School and the Teacher should exert positive power in the culture of Taste, Reverence, etc. 6. Summary of the Sensibihties. . . . ( (')• Joyousness, [a). Smiple, Intuitive Emotions. -] (2). Joyiessness, ( (:{.) Irritability, etc. {/'). Api )etites. i r(l). Natural. ( {n). Iluujjer, '( {/>). Tliirst, etc. (2^ Aennired i ^"^- ^''toxicatiug L \^). ri.C(lUirea ) ^^^^_ Tobacco, L for ((•). Opium, etc. (r). Desires for (1). Food, etc., (2). Existence, (3). Kuowledf^e, (4). Society, (5). Happiness, (6). Esteem, etc., (7). Superiority, (8). Power, (9)" Acquisition of Property, 1 (tf). Hope, Complex feelings.-^ (b). Despair, etc., I ((■). Apprehension, etc. (10) 34 OUTLINES OF {d). Affections. Beneficent. Defensive. (3). Malevolent, ((«)• Domestic, {b). Social, (c). Philauthropic. Resentment, lodignatiou. f (a). Anger, I (b). Envy, J ('■). Jealousy, I (d). Revenge, (e). Malice, [ (/). Hatred, etc., etc. (I). Beautiful, ie) Hieher Emotions, produced by thei C-^)- Sublime, etc., ^ ' (3). Wit, Humor, etc. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. XII. The Will. Before putting forth any voluntary activity, either of body or mind, we arc conscious of choosing and detcrmi7t.'my to act. The ability or power of the mind {a) to choose and {h) determine is called the Will. Theories and discussions concerninir Its nature, freedom, etc., are aside from the present purpose. {a). Choice. Choice involves several considerations. (i). An Alternative. — More objects than one. (2). Freedom of mental action. (3). Deliberation. — Time for the action of Jtidg- ment. (4). Conflicting or op[)Osing motives and influ- ences. — Reasons for and against, etc. (5). Finally a desiie, springing up in conse- quence of examination, deliberation, etc. An ultimate analysis^ I believe, reveals a deaire, of some sort, preceding every act of choosing. It may be a desire to avoid one alternative rather than to enjoy the other. According to this view, desire is the universal ultimate motive. 36 OUTLINES OF (/O. Motives. The word is used to denote (i). The external objects, considerations, influ- ences, etc., which produce in the mind the feelings which induce choice and determination. (2). The feelings of mind which precede and cause choice and determination. Much confusion of thought is occasioned by the careless use of the term motive, even by writers upon Psychology. (3). Classification of Motives. Various classifications are given by different authors, but none of them are of special importance to our work. A clear conception of the relation between the Will and the other facul- ties is of the highest importance, especially to teachers. {i). Determination or Volition. The final mental act which follows choice is usually called Executive Volition. Having chosen an object or course, one dctcrmhies or decides to act in order to secure it. Obstacles, known or unknown, may prevent the consumation of an outward act, but they cannot interfere with the laws of mental activity. XIII. Relation of Intellect, Sensibilities and Will. {a). General Statement. In a regular and complete series of mental acts, the order is (i). Knowing.— Activity of the Intellect. (2). Feeling. — Activity of the Sensibility. ftlUDV AND INSTRUCTION. 37 (3). Choosing and Determining.— Activity of the Will. The intuitive emotions of early childhood, infancj-, probably are not preceded by any conscious knowledge. {/>). Reflex Influence. (i) The Sensibilities, when excited, re-act ujjon the Intellect, and, in most cases, quicken and help its activity. (2) The Will, moved by desire, gives direction and persistency to the action of the Intellect. This is illustrated by the eagerness and perseverance with which one pursues any object or purpose which is said to wteresi him ; that is, which excites in his mind some strong feeling. (c). Practical Inferences. (i). Neither the Will nor the Sensibilities can be approached and moved directly. They must be reached through the Intellect. (2). If the ultimate object in view is to produce some change of conduct, or to secure ends involving what is known, or supposed, to be disagreeable, the approach must be skilful as well as indirect. Otherwise the feel- ings excited will be the opposite of those desired. (3). No mode of management and government in a school can be good which does not take into account the relation of the faculties, and the right way of reaching the Will. XIV. The Moral Nature. {a). Difficulties in the discussion of this part of man's nature, real and imaginary, arising from (i). Its connection with the Spiritual and Religious elements in his nature. 38 OUTLINES OF {2). Its relation to practical questions of conduct, obligation, responsibility, etc. (3). Differences of opinion and belief as to the bases of morals, of obligations, of moral laws, etc. (/-). General Ideas, Beliefs, etc. (1). Men universally have the idea of a moral right and wrong in human character and conduct. The universality of this idea indicates its intuitive origin. (2). Men universally have a " moral consciousness; " that is, feelings of api^roval and disapproval of their own and others' character and conduct. (3). The idea of a right and wrong, and a feeling of ai)proval and disapproval, necessarily compel or imply the belief in a self-directing power in man. An automaton can do no wrong, and can melit neither approval or disapproval. (4), Both consciousness and observation testify to the power of the human will to give preference and prepon- derance to one motive over another, or to choose with a large degree of freedom. The phrase, " strongest motive," as it is usually em- ployed, is unfortunate and misleading. The J2;reat influence of " heredity and environment " is freely admitted by all candid minds. The very fact that these do have so much power, renders the demand for moral education more impera- tive. (5). Punishment can rightfully be inflicted by parents, teachers, and civil officers, only upon beings who have power of self-determination. Machines are not punished. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 39 (<:). Absolute necessity for the Moral Development, Training, and Instruction of children, obvious from several considerations. (i). Human society would be intolerable, if it could exist, without the restraints and influences of positive morality, — of authoritative moral laws and ol)ligations. (2). It is impossible to conceive of society without such restraint under any form of government. (3). Such restraints and influences are especially necessary where there is the least possible restraint from civil law, and the greatest possible degree of individual freedom. (4). They are still more necessary where the civil laws themselves derive their character and efficiency from the body of the people. (5). History, observation, and experience unite in teaching the value and importance of instruction and training in the " every-day " virtues of truthfulness, honesty, integrity, purity, etc., etc. (6). Intellectual culture and intelligence, while they / free from many low and vulgar vices, elevate and refine 1/ the taste, and bring incalculable benefits to society, do not, alone, insure practical morality. XV. Analysis of the Moral Nature. The moral nature cannot be separated from the other faculties and pow- n-s of the mind. Some of its activities are the same as those of the intellect, simply urned in another direction and exercised upon different objects. 40 OUTLINES OF The Moral Nature is composed of (0. Faculties.— Abilities to do, etc. {2). Sensibilities. — Susceptibilities to feelings, that is, to emotions, affections, etc. (A). The Moral Faculties. (i). Moral Intuition. The Faculty which gives th'e primary and simple idea of right and wrong. This idea is merely of the existence of such a distinction, and not that particular states, acts etc., are ri<;ht or wrong. (2). Moral Sense or Perception. — The Faculty which discerns the moral cjualities of simple states, acts, etc. (3). Moral Judgment.— The Faculty which exam- ines, compares, and decides in respect to all questions of moral right and wrong. This Judgment is the intellectual judgment exercised upon moral Questions. In both cases, it performs the same offices, and is sul)ject to the same laws and limitations. It decides according to its Jcnowledffc, after examination and com- parison, and according to the stmnlard wliicli has been received and adopted. Sources of Knowledge. The Judgment derives its knowledge from, {a). The Moral Sense. — Perception. {/>). Education, in the home, church, school, etc. {i). Customs, Habits, etc., observed in traveling al)road. (^/). Civil Law, in matters relating to the duties and obligations of citizens, etc. (r). Revelation. This will api^ly only to those who believe in a Revelation. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 41 Standards of Judgment. In a final analysis they are reduced to two. {a). Rules of conduct, or general Principles of living, made known by a Moral Governor. (b) Considerations ot Utility. Rules of con- duct, or Principles of living based upon the nature of man and upon the teachings of experience. The two standards would undoubtedly be found to agree if human wisdom could fully master and comprehend them. (4). Conscience. The Faculty which insists that the decisions of the Moral Judgment shall in all cases be obeyed. In other words, that Power or Principle in the Soul which insists that we shall be and do what we believe, after the most careful and honest examination, to be right, and shall abstain from being- or doing what we believe to be wrong. It need hardly be said, even to avoid misconstruction, that belief is not a standard of right. {a). Conscience, as defined, is always to be obeyed. It makes no mistakes. (d). Moral Judgment may, and often does, err. (B). The Moral Feelings. (t). Simple Emotions of Satisfaction and Dissatisfac- tion. These are almost intuitive, and appear at an early period of life. They are closely connected with the simplest intellectual emotions, and have no definite relation to character. (2). Feelings of Obligation. These are at first weak, but gradually become stronger as the Moral Judgment matures. 42 OUTLINES OF (3). Feelings of Approbation and Disappro- bation. These arc directed toward one's self and also toward others. They are the ripened form of the simple emotions, and have a definite rela- tion to character and conduct. Intensified, they become the feelings which follow obedience or disobedience to the authority of Con- science (4). Moral Desires and Affections. These are the general Desires and Affections taking directions which involve moral considerations. (5). Higher Moral Emotions, arising from objects, ideas, etc , possessing moral Beauty, Grandeur, etc. These differ from the intellectual emotions chiefly in respect to the objects which produce them. (C). Practical Suggestions. (i). The conduct of life can be satisfactorily directed, either for one's self or for others, only by general Principles of living, not by definite Rules. Childhood, either of individuals or of the race, requires rules ; Maturity, principles. (2). Every well-ordered life has a definite moral pur- pose or end in view. Things which may or may not be done, in living such a life, divide into the {a) Morally Right, {b) Morally Wrong, and (r) Morally Indifferent. A decision as to the first two is easy ; as to the third the determi- nation should be predicated upon the general influence which doing or not doing, etc., will have upon (1) one's own power to accomplish the main purpose of life, and (2) the general influence upon others. (3). Power to benefit others morally depends, chiefly, upon personal character, and good character is the natural outgrowth of good Principles. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. -13 {£>). Summary of the Moral Nature. I (a). Moral Intuition, (l). Faculties. f\- Moral Sense. ^ ' (c). Moral Judgment. [ (d). Conscience. f (a). Simple Emotions of Satisfaction and Dis- I satisfaction. I (h). Feelings of Obligation. (2). Feelings. -; (e). Feelings of Approbation and Disappro- I bation. I {d). Desires and Affections. t (e). Higher Emotions, etc. 44 OUTLINES OF XVI. PART SECOND. Laws or Conditions of Development, etc. The consideration of these laws, and of some inferences and dednctions from them, constitutes the second part of the study of the Theory of Edu- cation. The term law, as here employed, includes facts, condi- tions, circumstances, etc., under and according to which the human being is best developed, trained, and instructed. 1. First Law.— Order of Development, etc. The Human Powers and Faculties are devel- oped, etc., in a natural and regular order. This law is obvious, but not equally so, in all divisions of the complex nature of man. (A). Order in the Body. (i). The Digestive and closely related sys- tems. Necessary to mere animal existence. (2). The Nervous, Muscular and related sys- tems. Necessary to self-adjustment to surroundings, to self-support, etc. (3). The Reproductive system. Necessary to the perpetuity of the race. {B). Order in the Mind. (i). In the Intellectual Faculties. {a). The Perceptive Faculties. I'he Sen- ses, Powers of Observation by which Knowledge is immediately acquired. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 45 {/?). The Representative and Reproduc- tive Faculties. Retention, Reproduction, Rep- resentation are mental activities possible only after some acquisition through the senses. (r). The Elaborative Faculties. The pro- cesses of Elaboration are possible only after ac([ui- sition and representation. The fact is, of course, recognized that the second and third classes of faculties have the bqjinninfjs of their activities at a very early period of a child's life. {3). In the Sensibilities. Since feeling necessarily follows or attends knowing, the de- velopment of the Sensibilities must be co-ordinate with the development of the Intellect. The steps of progress, however, are not so distinct and ob- vious in the Sensibilities. They can be indicated only in a gen- eral way. (a). The simple, instinctive Emotions and the natural Appetites. (//). The Affections and Desires. (r). The Higher Emotions. (3). In the Will. The development of the power and energy of the Will is clearly progressive, but the progress does not admit of separation into sharply defined steps. As the activity of the Will is conditional upon the activity of both the Intellect and the Sensibilities, its development must be co-ordi- nate with their development in a mind rightly cultivated. (4). In the Moral Nature. Some elements of the Moral Nature can Ije distinguished and sepa- rated from similar elements of the Intellect and Sensibilities only in thought. The order of development of this nature must, therefore, be essentially that of the Intellect. 46 OUTLINES OF [a). Moral Sense, Perception and simple feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. [Simple Emo- tions.] {i>). Moral Judgment and the feeling of Obli- gation. (Moral Affections, Desires, etc.) (c). Conscience and the Higher Emotions. All the moral powers have the heginnings of their activities at an early period of life, but somewhat later thau the Intellec- tual powers. 2. Inferences and Deductions from the first Law, and Applications of its teachings. {A). School Life is naturally divided into three Periods. {a). Primary or Elementary Period, Child- hood, of which the prominent characteristics are, (i). Body. Constant, varied and apparently aimless activity. Not capable of sustained effort. Vigorous natural appetites. (2.) Intellect. Special activity of the senses, the observing faculties. (3). Sensibilities. Great susceptibility to sim- ple emotions, and to sudden changes of feelings. Curiosity specially active but easily satisfied. (4). Will. Little steady or controlling powar of Will. (5). Moral Nature. Moral faculties and feel- ings show but little activity or strength. Notions of right very indefinite, and feelings of obligation scarcely discoverable. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 47 {/>). Secondary or Transition Period, Youth, of which the most obvious characteristics are, , (i). Body. Vigorous, but intermittent and less aimless activity. Rapid increase of strength. Capa- ble of effort considerably reg-ilar and sustained. Natural Appetites vigorous and a tendency to the formation of artificial ones. (2). Intellect. Senses still active. Representa- tive and Reproductive faculties becoming specially active. Ready mastery of facts, processes, and sim- ple relations, etc. (3). Sensibilities. Desires and x\ffections rap- idly developing, and easily kindled into passions. Tendency to excessive activity of some of the de- fensive and malevolent feelings. (4). Will. Rapidly increasing in power, but still intermittent and unreliable except under the impulse of strong and present motives. (5). Moral Nature. Moral Judgment slowly developing but unreliable. Feelings of Obligation gaining strength under right instruction. Conscience beginning to exert considerable power. (r). Period of Maturity, Manhood, of which the marked characteristics are, (i). Body. General maturity of all its powers. Little aimless activity. Capability of vigorous and sustained effort. (2). Intellect. Approaching harmonious and full development of all the Faculties. The Elab- orative Faculties especially active. 48 OUTLINES OF (3). Sensibilities. The Rational feelings and especially the Higher Emotions cxiiibit marked ac- tivity. (4). "Will. Ilecoming strong and reliable under the impulse of ordinary motives. (5). Moral Nature. Moral Judgment, Con- science, and the higher moral feelings act with more efficiency and regularity. {B). Schools are naturally divided into three kinds. {a). Primary or Elementary Schools. (Primary Departments of Graded Schools.) These should be adapted to the characteristics and needs of childhood in respect to (i) Buildings and Ap- pliances, (2) Organization, {3) Management, (4) Subjects and Hours of study, and (5) Methods of Instruction. {/>). Secondary Schools. (Ch-ammar and first years of High School Departments of Graded Schools.) These should be adapted, in the particulars before named, to the characteristics and needs of the period of Youth. (r). Advanced Schools. (Last years of High Schools and all Higher Institutions of learning.) These should be adapted to the characteristics and needs of the period of Manhood or Maturity. (C). Methods, Means and Appliances of Instruc- tion are naturally grouped for treatment into three divisions. ((/). Primary or Elementary Methods, etc. (/'). Secondary Methods, etc. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 49 (r). Advanced Methods, etc. Methods, Means etc. should be adapted to tlie general characteristics of both body and mind at each period; to any special cmiditions and circumstances; and to 2^a>'ticular j^urposcs or ends so far as these are al- lowed to modify the arrangements and workings of a school. s. Second Law .--Conditions of Development etc. The human powers and faculties are developed etc. only on condition of proper Exercise, — of Self-Activity. Deductions, Inferences, etc. {a). Adequate Provision should be made, (i) in School Buildings, (2) in Courses of Studies, (3) in Organization and Management, and (4) in Methods of Teaching, for activity, both of body and mind, adapted to each period of school life. {/>). Physical Activity should be especially pro- vided for in the Primary School. A well developed body is one of the conditions of a well developed soul. (i). The Sensibilities and Moral Faculties require appropriate exercise for their i)roper develop- ment as much as the Intellectual and the Physical natures. (c/). A teacher's success may be estimated, with toler- able accuracy by the character and degree of activity excited in pupils. Note.— The purpose in view does not require, at this point, fur- ther direct consideration of the physical nature. The laws which follow refer only to the mind. 4. Tliird Law.— Means of Development, etc. Materials or Objects of Knowledge and Thought properly presented to the mind, produce this self- activity. 50 OUTLINES OF Deductions, Inferences, etc. {a). The Relation of Knowledge to Education as a work and process (page 5. — 9. Def.) is two fold. (i). Frimanly, means to a higher end, — the per- fection of the human being. (2). Secondarily, a subordinate e/n:^ in itself, — to be acquired for the use and adornment of life. (/^). Proper presentation involves several con- siderations, indicated here, but discussed in another con- nection. Objects of Knowledge etc. must be (i). Of the proper kind. — Adapted in kind to the [a) Period of life, (d) Special conditions and circumstances, and (r) Subordinate end of use etc. (2). Of proper form or condition. (3). Of proper quantity or amount. (4). Presented in a proper manner, and (5). At the proper time. Adapted under each head as specified under (i). The analogy betweeu the conditions of bodily and mental activity affords convenient means of illustrating the particulars here indicated. The mere presence of proper food, in proper condition, quantity, etc., in the stomach, produces all necessary activity. Digestion, assimilation etc. follow by a necessity of nature if the organs are in health. The mind, in presence of proper material, acts as naturally and freely. The power of the Will and the influence of sur- roundings are, of course, to be taken into account. 5. Fourth Law.— Teacliing.— Position of the Teacher. Teaching is the proper presentation of materials or objects of knowledge and thought to the mind of the learner. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 51 Or, Placing the mind of the learner ami the thing to be learned iu I)ropcr relation to each other. Training is the practice, or repetition of processes etc. by which the learner becomes ready and skilful in the uses and applications of that which has been learned. Teaching and training rightly combined make up the teacher's work. The fourth law, so-called, is not, strictly speaking, a law of develop- ment. It is stated here in order to indicate clearly the teacher's relation to the work and process of education. The explication and application of this law belong under the next general division. 52 OUTLINES OF XVII. PART THIRD. Purposes, Means, and Methods of Teaching. The discussious iu this part necessarily embrace, to a j^reater extent than in previous pages, theory and art combined. The summaries of Laws, Maxims etc. followiuaj, are grouped here chiefly for convenience of reference. {A). Laws of Acquisition. (i). In its earliest learning, the child proceeds from (i) real objects, acts, etc., to (2) ideas, notions, etc., then to (3) words, as names, signs, symbols of objects etc. In the later periods, after the words have become loaded with meaning, and are suggestive by the laws of association, the order may be, and often must be, (i) words as signs etc. (2) objects, ideas etc., things signified. (2). The child learns (1) particulars, (2) generals ; (i) individuals, (2) classes. The mature mind usually reverses the order, and learns (i) generals, (2) particulars; (i) classes, (2) indi- viduals. (3). The child learns (i) facts, processes, etc., (2) causes, reasons, definitions, rules, etc. This order may be reversed in later periods, but not with advantage unless the language employed suggests clearly and vividly the processes, facts, etc. (4). In learning properties of bodies, colors, and many other things, the child must proceed from (i) the concrete to (2) the abstract. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 53 When words have become suggestive symbols, this order may be disregarded. (5) In all periods, the mind acquires knowledge (i) of wholes, (2) of parts, qualities, etc. The "wholes" of the child are very unlike the " wholes'' of the man. The wholes of either may be parts of still greater wholes. It is only necessary that the whole be a unit, complete in itself. (6). The child acquires (i) language early and easily; (2) the laius of language later and with more difficulty. This is only a specific case under general law No. 3. (7). The mind, especially of the child, can receive only a single object, and only a limited amount of the material of knowledge, at one time. (8). The acquisitive power of the mind, in order to most productive activity, requires variety of matter of knowledge, and periods of relaxation. {D). Laws of Retention and Reproduction. {Sec Pages 15—17.) (C). Laws of Elaboration. The knowledge which the mind first obtains of "the whole " is an in- definite, general outline ; material of knowledge rather than trixe knowledge. (i). In Elaboration, the mind first proceeds from the whole to parts, qualities, etc., by analysis. The extent and character of this analysis will be determined by the age of the learner and by the immediate purpose in view. (2). In Elaboration, the mind compares the new "un- known" with some old "known," noting differences, re- semblances, relations, etc. The extent of this comparisou will be determined by the end in view. (3). In Elaboration, the mind finally reconstructs by synthesis the whole trom the parts into which it has been resolved by analysis, The first whole of perception or conception is confused and shad- owy ; the final whole of elaboration is clear and definite. 54 OUTLINES OF (Z>). Some Laws of Presentation or Teaching. These laws arc simply correlatives of the laws of Acquisition, Elabora- tion, etc. (i). The teaching of Childhood should be largely concrete and objective ; and should be adapted to excite and gratify [a] the desire for bodily exercise, (6) the feel- ing of curiosity, and (r) the activity of the senses, (the observing faculties). The "object lesson j" is only one, and not the most important, variety or form of objective teaching. (2). In early Childhood, present {a) the Individual and Particular before {l>) the Class and General. In later periods, the order should generally be reversed. The child begins to make easy classifications and generalizations at a very early age ; and should be encouraged and taught to do so, provided these are not simply repetitions of unmeaning terms. (3). In early teaching, {a) Facts, Processes, Ideas Truths, etc., should be presented before {^) Causes, Rea- sons, Principles, Rules, Definitions In more advanced teaching, this order will often be departed from. (4). In all periods, present the material of knowledge in the form of wholes which can be resolved into parts by the learner. The nature of the wholes, parts, etc., is indicated under one of the laws of acquisition. (5). All subjects should be so presented and treated, especially during Childhood and Youth, as to cultivate the power and habit of correct expression. Language is to be learned, primarily, not as an end but as a memis. Its acquisition is a necessary condition of all progress in other branches of knowledge. Things and words must be learned together. The study of the formal laws of language is quite another matter. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 00 (6). In teaching, eacli lesson should have a single, definite purpose, and should present but a limited amount of matter. " One thing at a time," and not too mucli of that one, is a maxim of prime importance in dealing witli children. (7). Subjects should be so presented to children as to afford all the variety consistent with the one definite pur- pose of the lesson. Unity is a necessity in school work, but this unity should be con- sistent with variety. (8). In the presentation of most topics, in the periods of Youth and Manhood, both the inductive and deduct- ive methods will be employed. The true teacher will employ any method and all methods which help to secure the best practical results, with very little regard for theories concerning " Analysis or Synthesis;" or questions about the "genesis of Knowledge in the race," "the methods of nature," or any other method. No one system, method or creed of education contains all truth. (9). In the presentation of all subjects, special regard should be had to the proper '' laws of association," in order to facilitate retention and reproduction. Artificial aids to memory have very little permanent value ; the aid rendered by right order and arrangement in presentation can hardly be over estimated. XVIII. Purposes, Means and Methods, of the Period of Childhood.— Elementary Methods. Gcvrral methods of teaching are indicated with sufficient clearness by the laws of Presentation. The statements and discussions which follow are, to some extent, Hpeclil applications of these to the purposes most promi- nent and important in the different periods. 56 OUTLINES OF Purposes, and how attained. 1. To give proper development and training to the body, and to create good bodily habits.— Physi- cal Culture. To secure this, attention must be given to the (i) School-room in respect to {(j) funiititrc, {!>) teinpcni- tun\ (r) ventilatiou, {d) light, etc. (2). To The Child in respect to {a) posiiioiis in standing, sitting, {J)) movements in walking etc., (r) alternation of action and rest etc , (^/) eyes as to dis- tance of book, direction of light etc., {e) hands and fin- gers in the use of articles in writing, drawing, etc. Exercises io writiuc,- and drawiii"- serve other important ends, but they should be made especially valuable in training the eye and the hand. 2. To develop and train the senses, and create habits of attention and observation. — Culture of the Observing Powers. The sense most cultivated in school is xijlU; next to this liearutg; touch, somewhat; the others, very little. This will be accomplished by [a). Furnishing means for using the senses, as as far as possible, in connection with all lessons and studies of early childhood. {l>). Teaching how to use them, and by con- stant training in their use. (r). Appealing skilfully to curiosity, the mo- tive power of childhood, and allowing freedom for the activity of the hands and body as well as the eyes and ears. The arrangements, employments, and methods of the Primary schools should, in many respects, be radically changed. The introduction of the spirit, some of the '• gifts." and modified forms of the employments of the Kindcrgarteu will produce the needed changes. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. '-> I o. To commence the acquisition, on the part of the child, of useful Knowledge. Early education is ti period of preparSiUou for acquisition, rather tlian of acquisition itself. The instruments of acquisition are being sharpened and fitted for use. Nevertheless, this puri)osc will be the primai-y one in the minds of both teachers and pupils. By a most happy provision of nature, the higher end is sure to be reached if right processes and means are employed to secure the subordinate end. Food is taken for the growth and repair of the body, but it is eaten simply to gratify appetite. This pur])ose will be secured by properly presenting right materials and objects of Knowledge. Studies of the Primary school. {a). Language, including (i) Conversation, (2) Reading, (3) Spelling, (4) Copying and Composing. (A). Number and Form. (,jects. XIX. Purposes, Means and Methods, of the period of Youth.— Secondary Methods. 1. To cultivate the power of Expression, and create the habit of using language readily and correctly. This is accomplished by {a). Securing first clear and distinct ideas, thoughts, etc. 5B OUTLINES OF {/>). Teaching right words and fonns of expression. {c). Afibrding abundant opportunities for practice, both orally and in writing. These points shouUl be reo^arded in all lessons and exercises, as well as in special lessons in language. 2. To develop and train the Memory. This will be secured by {a). Teaching in harmony with the laws of asso- ciation and suggestion. {/'). Compelling pupils to rely upon memory ; giving the faculty appropriate exercise. {c). Requiring only a reasonable amount of service; not over-taxing. The faculty of Conception will necessarily be cultivated in con- nection with Memory, and also in connection with all lessons learned from books. The Imagination will be called into special service in the study of Geography and History. 3. To Teach especially those studies and parts of studies which involve the learning of facts, processes, descrip- tions, etc. Among these studies are {a). Language continued, particularly (r) Reading, and (2) Composing, etc. {/>). Arithmetic and Mathematical Forms. {c). Geography and History. {d). Elementary Natural and Physical Sciences. {('). Writing, Drawing, Vocal Music, etc. The first and second purposes will be accomplished if the work of the third is correctly done. The laws of Acquisition, Presentation, etc., will suggest the necessary discussion of special methods of teaching the branches named. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 59 XX. Purposes, Means and Methods, of the period of Maturity.- -Advanced Methods. 1. To develop and train the Faculties of Elab- oration, and to create the habit of judging and reasoning correctly and rapidly. Accomplished by (a). Presenting proper subjects of study, subjects which naturally compel the exercise of these faculties. {b). Teaching by such methods that these faculties must be employed rather than mere verbal memory. (r). Giving opportunities for the exercise of these faculties, to a reasonable extent, upon the practical affairs and problems of daily life. 2. To aid in the formation of right character ; to prepare pupils for citizenship and for the duties belonging to the various relations of life ; and to create habits of self-govern- ment and right action. Accomplished by {a). Influence of right character and conduct in the teacher. {b). Right methods of school management and gov- ernment. (r). Wise use of the lessons of history, biography, and of current events. {d). Proper appeals to the best and highest motives in the human soul. 3. To teach branches of knowledge appropriate to the period of life, and to the character and design of the school. The range of studies appropriate to advanced schools is so wide that no enumeration of them is necessary. Selections should be made according to circumstances, conditions, etc. GO OUTLINES OF •4. To teach how to study ; to develop a taste for study, and to create right habits of study. 5. To give some knowledge of good books in the various departments of history, literature, science, art, etc., and to create a taste for good reading. Schools, even the best, can do little more, during the brief time of school life, than to prepare pupils for ac(iuiriug knowledge, and to indicate where the materials of knowledge can be found, That teacher is guilty of a great wrong who sends pupils out into the world with exaggerated notions of the extent and value of their attainments. Methods of teaching in this period are readily deduced from the laws previously given. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION 61 XXI. Some Special Topics. A. Securing Attention. 1. Attention defined (Page 16, (/) (i). While only that mental activity which is directed and held by the Will, is strictly speaking, attention, yet usage allows us to give that name to such activity directed and held by any means. Consequently we speak of involuntary attention. 2. One most important purpose of education is to give the Will complete control over all the other powers and faculties. All attention is then volitional. The training of the school should tend to this result. 3. Voluntary attention can be given in obedience to a request or command. Involuntary attention must be caught and held by other means. 4. Securing the attention of Young Children. (./). So far as the attention is voluntary it may be requested and commanded, and secured by the motives of (i) rewards, and (2) penalties. The true teacher will not rely much upon this method in dealing with young children. Other methods are more effective. {b). Make only reasonable demands upon the attention of children. All exercises and lessons should be short. {r). Provide for physical exercise and frequent change of position in connection with all lessons. b'J, OUTLINES OF ((^/). Excite and gratify curiosity in the matter and manner of teaching. Present a subject in such a way that expectation is kept constantly alive. (^). Provide for all possible variety by means of illus- trations, etc. (/). So enter into the subject as to excite the feeling of sympathy and to create something of enthusiasm. A genuine feeling of interest is contagious. If attention and interest are expected in pupils they must first exist in the teacher. [g). Sometimes, but not often, an appeal may be made to the feelings of surprise, wonder, etc. 5. Securing the attention of older pupils. Some of the suggestions as to seating, position of teacher, etc., here made, will apply also to young children. (a). Determine, in your own mind, to have attention, and expect to have it. It is neither necessary nor desirable to repeat frequently that j^ou must have attention. It is not secured in that way. (/')• The seating of a class and the position of a teacher aid or hinder in securing attention. The arrangements should be such that the eije of the teacher can readily command a view of every individual iu the class. {c). A teacher must show, by all his work, that he has a thorough knowledge of the subject and also of methods of presenting it. {d). Topics should be presented clearly and consec- utively, but with very little repetition. (f). Questions should be put, as far as practicable, to the class, and then individuals called to answer them. (/). Pupils should frequently be required, at any period in the recitation, to reproduce statements and instructions previously given. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 63 {(/). When time allows, summaries and recapitulations should be required at the close of a recitation, and also at the succeeding recitation. (//). Speak distinctly, but in an ordinary tone of voice ; and do not allow pupils to expect a repetition of explanations, ijuestions, etc. (/'). In order to reach exceptional cases, it must be understood that continued inattention will incur appro- priate "pains and penalties." It should be kept in mind that attention on the part of pupils, under ordinary circumstances, is not so much a condition of good teaching as a result of good teaching. If the teaching is good, the attention will usually be good also. 13. Art of Questioning. The relation between Questioning and Attention is such that some repetition is unavoidable. 1. Prerequisites on the part of the questioner. {a). Thorough knowledge of the subject and its relations. [b). Knowledge of the laws of mind, especially of the laws of association and suggestion. {c). Knowledge of the acquirements, condition, etc., of the learner. (d). A definite and present purpose and preparation. [e). Skill acquired by practice. 2. General purposes of questioning. '^'{(i)' To make the learner conscious of his ignorance as a preparation and an incentive to study. (Socratic questioning. 64 OUTLINES OF (^). To give the teacher necessary knowledge of the acquirements and condition of the learner. {c). To test ability and skill in applying rules, prin- ciples, etc., to new cases, conditions, and circumstances. These four purposes may all be mfluded under the more geueral purpose of exaniiuation. ((f). To aid in learning immediately and directly. (/). To suggest the direction and objects of future investigation and study. {g). To cultivate the power of clear and accurate expression. 3. Form and character of questions. {a). Simple and clear in language. {b). Definite and direct in meaning. {c). Should not contain the answer, nor be leading. {d). Should admit of but one correct answer. {e). Questions of examination should not go beyond what the pupil ought to know. (/). Elliptical questions may be employed, to a limited extent, in teaching young children. ig). Questions for teaching should be consecutive and very carefully prepared. 4. Manner in questioning. [a). Animated, with young children. [b). Pronunciation distinct, in ordinary speaking tones, without repetition. [c). Questions so put to the class that every one may expect to be called to answer; individuals then called. {(i). Examination questions upon topics just studied may be put rapidly; teaching questions usually slowly. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 65 (d-). Questions should not be read from a book, unless the nature of the subject makes this absolutely necessary. Answers. {a). Guessing and trying several times should not be allowed. All necessary time should be granted for thinking', after the ques- tion is put, before the answer is demanded. (<^). Complete answers should be required, in good language and form, and, as far as practicable, in com- plete sentences, (r). Simultaneous answering should be only sparingly employed. {i/). Proper credit should be given, especially to young children, for answers, even though defective and incomplete. (e). Answers should be required in the pupil's own language, with only obvious and necessary exceptions. Pupils should he trained in questioning each other upon topics previously assigned, but no question should be allowed which the questioner is not prepared to answer. O. Order of Moral Development, etc. 1. Obedience to authority should be taught and enforced very early in a child's life, before obligations and duties can be understood. 2. A habit of Obedience, of right doing, is thus formed, while the intuitive perception of right is very indistinct. 3. An impulse to right conduct begins now to be felt in the soul in consequence of the feeling of satisfac- 66 ^ OUTLINES OF tion or dissatisfaction produced by the power of habit and by the moral sense, according as commands and require- ments are obeyed or disobeyed. 4. The Moral Judgment now begins to act in accordance with the teachings of the moral sense, and the instructions of parents and others. 5. Conscience begins to insist on obedience to the decisions of the Judgment, and to cause strong feelings of approbation or disapprobation, according as obedience is or is not rendered. 6. The parent and teacher, while this process of development is going on, should give practical instruction, in all proper ways, in respect to relations, obligations, and duties to (a). Parents, and other relatives. {/f). Associates, neighbors, and friends. {f). School, teachers, and society. {(/). State, country, and civil authorities. () color, {c) qualities, (r/) uses, etc. Such lessons should be {a) carefully prepared, ((^) should each have a definite purpose, {c) should be consecutive, and {d) should not be " random talks " about things which children already know. 2. Objective Teaching. This variety of oral -teaching employs objects, to a considerable extent, in all the early lessons of childhood, not for the sake of the objects, but as the natural means of giving instruction in Reading, Numbers, etc. 3. Geography, Natural Sciences, etc. The first instruction in Geography, in the simplest facts of Botany, Zoology, Physics, etc., will be oral, and, as far as practicable, objective also. As soon as children are able to read readily, properly prepared books will be useful, provided they are not used merely as text-books. 4. Biography, History, Current Events. Familiar oral instruction should be given upon these and other topics in connection with lessons in Geography, in Reading, and in most text-book studies. 5. Introductory and Supplementary. Additional introductory and supplementary instruction should be given orally in connection with all geographical, historical, literary, and scientific studies in which text-books are used. The "lecture raethocl" can not profitably be employed in ordinary schools. 0(S OUTLINES OF E. Examinations. 1. Uses of Examinations. {a). To make the teacher acquainted with the pupil s ability and acquirements, for purposes of classification and instruction. (^). To incite pupils to study and to retain knowledge. (r). To give parents an opportunity and the means of judging of the work and progress of their children. {d). To test the methods and efficiency of teachers, and of the school. (e). In some studies, an examination should chiefly test the memory; in others, the acquired power to think, judge, reason, and apply principles. 2. Abuses of Examinations. {a). To make them productive of undue anxiety and nervous excitement on the part of industrious and faith- ful pupils. (l?). To make them too protracted, and too exacting either upon pupils or teachers. {c). To make them the means of converting teachers into machines for examining and marking papers. The extra and vinprofitable labor thus imposed upon teachers subtracts largely from the reserve power needed for the proper work of teaching. {d). To make them means of encouraging "cram- ming" and dishonesty. (). General and most important rules made by the Board. {c). Minor rules made, from time to time, by the Superintendent. (d). Rules should allow proper room for the individ- uality of teachers in their special classes and work. 2. School GoYernment. The government of a school is the control and direction of its pupils, and all of its internal affairs, by some legitimate authority. {A). General Principles. (a). The ends of school government are (i). To maintain order, and secure obedience on the part of pupils. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 77 {2). To teach respect for law and authority. (3). To create in pupils the habit of self-gov- ernment. {/'). School government, to secure these ends, must have (i). Right principles and rules of administration. (2). An efficient executive head. ((■). Young children must be governed, for the most part, by specific rules ; older pupils should be governed, and should govern themselves, by general principles. {J). The administration of all human governments is based upon one of two princii)les : (i). The principle of restraining and coercing the desire of activity in the governed, or (2). The principle of guiding and directing this, and allowing large freedom of action. {e). The practical problem in school government, as in all government, is (i). To secure order, and the necessary unity of purpose and action, and (2). To allow all possible liberty to each individual. Tlie school must be au organic whole. This is ao absolute uecessity. At the same time, the restraint upon individuals should be as little as possible. (/). Specific rules should be few, and should be such as to commend themselves to all right-minded pupils. ig). Prohibitions should not be such as to suggest and provoke offences. It may be assumed that the ordinary rules of propriety and good behavior are understood by pupils, and that only such requirements and prohibitions are to be made as relate to new and special relations and duties. 78 OUTLINES OF {B). Administration of school government. lu small schools the maintenance of authority and older depends almost entirely upon the jxmoiial power and force of the teacher ; iu large schools the organic forces, — the machinery and movements of the organization, — are important factors in the government. (a). General Suggestions. " It is wiser to prevent offences than to punish them;" to avoid collisions than to conquer adversaries; renuest rather than command. {b). Elements of Personal power in the teacher needed in governing. (i). Character, — manhood, — womanhood. (2). Self-knowledge, self-control, and self-respect. (3). Knowledge of human nature, — of the mo- tives which influence the will, — respect for pupils. (4). Consciousness of power to govern. (5). Determination to succeed; force of will. (6). Manner, eye, voice, etc. ( Huntington's Unconscious Tuition.) (7). Tact, — "common sense," — sound judgment. (<:). Means of securing obedience without penalties. (i)' Proper and sufficient employment ; provision for physical activity in Primary schools. (2). Good teaching; teaching which commands interest and attention. (3). Right public sentiment in the school. (4). Right public sentiment among the patrons of the school. (5). An understanding of the the true nature of law and obedience. (6). Personal regard fo'r the teacher. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION t^ (7). Proper appeals to the best emotions, affec- tions, and desires (question of rewards, prizes, etc., belongs here.) (8). Co-operation of school officers, parents, and other friends of the school. (ii^). Penalties, Punishments. (i). The primary purpose of school penalties and punishments is not retribution and vengeance. They are (c?) for the protection and safety of the school, [b) for the restraint and, as far as possible, refor- mation of the offender. (2). They should bear a natural relation, in character and extent, to the offence, as far as this is possible. (3). They should not be unnecessarily irritating, and never degrading. (4). To a large extent, they should consist in forfeitures and deprivations. ( Suspension or expul- sion is an extreme form of this.) (5). In exceptional and rare cases, corporal punishment. The right to inflict such punishment rests only on usage. Circumstances, conditions, and limitations are to be very care- fully considered. (1?). In the administration of a public school the teacher is the agent of the school Board, and an officer of public law, not acting ''/// loco parentis.'" Note.— In connection with this topic, study School Law upon the following i)oiuts : 1. A legally qualified teacher. 2. Examinations and certificates. 3. Contracts. 4. General duties. 5. Authority, (a) in the school, (&) outside the school. - 80 OUTLINES OF XXIII. Suggestions on Teaching Some Studies. Teaching Reading. 1. Reading is {a) the art of acquiring information from written or printed composition (reading for one's self ), and {/>) of conveying that information to others by the voice (read- ing for others). 2. The work of teaching reading may be divided into {a) Elementary or Primary teaching, {/>) Secondary, and (r) Advanced teaching. 3. Primary Teaching. (a). Purpose. — To help children in acquiring a written and printed vocabulary corresponding to their already acquired spoken vocabulary. Childreu have, before entering; school, associated objects, acts, ciualities, etc., with the spoken signs; they have now simply to add a sign addressed to the eye. [d). Methods of teaching in common use. (i) Alphabetic, (2) Word and Sentence, (3) Phonic. {c). Laws which should determine the methods to be employed: i and 5 of Acquisition; i, 4 and 6 of Teaching. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 81 (c/). Order of work. (r). By the use of objects, acts, pictures, etc., teach words as wholes, and have pupils copy theni on slates or paper. Books may be used from the beginning, but all new words should be printed or written upon the blackboard. The names of letters may be taught, and oral spelling also from the first. Words may be combined into short sentences immediately. (2). Teach gradually and very carefully the sounds of the letters by analyzing simple words (Phonic work). Begin with the short sounds of the vowels and teach, one by one, the diacritical marks. (3). Teach, also gradually, how to learn and to form new words by the Phonic method. In this way all the advantages of both the word and phonic methods are secured. (4). Have pupils copy on slates all words and sentences learned, and also reproduce them from memory. Spelling is thus learned by the most natural and most effectual method. Oral spelling should also be constantly practiced. Teaching in the second stage. {a). Purposes : — (1). To aid pupils in enlarging their written and printed vocabulary. (2). To begin the classification of letters and sounds. (3). To teach pupils how to acquire information from books:— the art of reading for one's self. (4). To tcMch practically the art of reading for others;— vocal expression proper for children. (5). To give constant practice in writing correct sentences; short stories from dictation or memory, etc. (/'). Laws for special reference ;— 2, 3 and 6 of Acqui- sition ; 2, 3 and 5 of Teaching. 82 OUTLINES OF (c). Order of work, etc. (i). Teach carefully the pronunciation and meaning of all new words. (2). Continue teaching the sounds of letters and diacritical marks. (3). Exercise great care in selecting and assign- ing lessons. The use of capital letters, of marks of punctuation, and of all other marks used in the reading books, should be taught as they occur in the lessons. (4). Give much practice in right articulation, emphasis, inflection, etc. ; teach very few 7-ules. 5. Advanced Teaching. {a). Purposes: — (i). To teach how to analyze and study critically a reading exercise. (2). To teach the art of expression, and the most obvious rules for good reading. (3). To complete the classification of letters and sounds. {b). The general laws of teaching will suggest meth- ods of working adapted to this period. The proper teaching of -Reading necessarily involves, during the first two years of school life, the teaching of spelling, writing, and "language lessons." 13. • Spelling. 1. Spelling is naming or writing the letters and other marks used in forming printed words, in riglit order. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 06 2. Purposes in teaching. {a). To enable pupils to write words correctly, and (d) To determine by the eye whether the words of a written or printed composition are correctly spelled. 3. Two things to be considered. (a) The lessons; {/>) methods of teaching. 4. The lessons should be composed of words in most common use. These will be found in the {a). Pupil's spoken vocabulary. {l>). Reading and other text-books. (<:). Spellers and Dictionary. {d). Newspapers and Periodicals, (r). Selected dictation exercises. 5. Methods of teaching. {a) Oral, and (^) written. Youug children, of necessity, must spell orally, to a considerable extent, in order to get sufficient practice. Spelliuo; should be, more and more, by writing as pupils become able to write rapidly and legibly. Spelling by writing should be so conducted as not to impose unnecessary labor upon teachers. 6. Suggestions, etc. {a). The spelling of the first years should be mostly in connection with lessons in reading, words and sen- tences being first copied, and afterwards reproduced from memory. (/'). All written school exercises should be lessons in spelling. (r). The laws of association should be observed in teaching spelling. , {d). The meaning of words is best taught in connec- 8-4 OUTLINES OF {e). A lew rules should be taught inductively to advanced pupils. (/). A habit of observing new or unusual words, when reading, aids much in learning to spell. Geography, 1. Divisions of work, — {a) Primary, {/?) Secondary or Grammar grade, [c) Advanced. 2. Primary work. {a). Purposes: — (i). Cultivation of the observing faculties, and of the power of expression. (2). Teaching of position, direction, distance, etc., and the terms used to designate these. (3). Instruction in drawing simple outline maps. (4). Teaching of natural divisions of land and water, and their names. (5). Outlines of the world appropriate to the age, and details of immediate surroundings. {!)). Order and method of work. (i). Begin with the school room, house and sur- roundings. Make teaching objective and concrete. (2). Draw outlines of tables, desks, school-room, yard, streets, etc. (3). Teacli outlines by means of globe and out- line maps. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION 85 {4). In detail work, associate persons, events, anecdotes, productions, industries, etc., with places. The work of the first year should be mostly oral. The Primary text-book should afford matter for conversation rather than for the exercise of mere verbal memory. Secondary or Grammar grade work. {a). Purposes: — (i). To teach a general outline of the subject. (2). To teach details, beginning at home; less and less of minute detail as the work goes farther away from home. (3). To teach something of explorations, travels, commerce, history, biography, etc., in connection with places. (/'). Order and method of work. (i). Teach globe and outline maps thoroughly. (2). In teaching details, group and associate by the laws of association and suggestion; that is, by natural physical conditions, by lines of travel, by commercial and other relations, etc., etc. (3). Make large use of books of exploration, travel, history, biography, etc. (4). As far as possible, in all countries, select a fev\^ geographical, historical and commercial centers, and around these group all other points and objects of study. (5). Require frequent reproduction by pupils, orally and in writing, of associated instruction. Advanced work. {a). Purposes : — (i). To review the general subject. 86 OUTLINES OF (2). To teach the higher generalizations of Physical geography. (3). To teach historical geography, both Physi- cal and Civil. {l>). Order and method are sufficiently indicated by the laws of Teaching. 5. Guiding Lazvs. Taws of Teaching, i to 5, page 54; Laws of Retention and Reproduction, Prima-ry, i to 3, page 15. 13. History. BY MISS J. A. KING. 1. Divisions of work. (rt) Primary, (//) Secondary or Grammar grade, {c) Advanced. 2. Purposes of work. • {a). Primary. (i). To awaken an interest in historical studies. (2). To add to the vocabulary, and cultivate expression. (3). To secure familiarity with suitable historical facts. {b). Grammar or Secondary. (i). Same as primary work, (2). To form clear conceptions of related events in any epoch. (3). To develop details in their external or chronological sequence. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. H7 (<:). Advanced. (i). To secure familiarity with historical liter- ature. (2). To cultivate the power to select and dis- criminate. (3). To discover the development of principles as shown in the causes and relations of events. 3. General order of work. {a) Teach, {/) Reproduce, (r) Combine, (d) Compare, (^) Use. 4. Special directions for work. (a). Primary. (i). Teach by picture, story, conversation and reading from primary history. (2). Reproduce by written exercise with occa- sional oral recitation. (3). Combine the parts of continuous events, and events of brief periods. (d). Grammar. (i). Give a whole period by synoptic tables. (2). Read the period, or epoch, from suitable text-book. (3). Develop lines of events, as Civil and military. National industries. Historical geography. (c). Advanced. (i). Pursue topical reading. (2). Develop course of events, as Constitution, government, and laws. 88 OUTLINES OF Religion, society, and customs. Science and fine arts. Literature, etc. (3). Require results of research in written themes. 5. Guiding Laws, i, 2, 3 and 6 of Teaching; Pages 54-55- E. Language and Grammar. BY PROF. AUSTIN GEOKGE. Language Lessons. ((?). Purpose. — To teach and train children to speak and write correctly. This requires attention to (i). Enlargement of the vocabulary, — acquisition of words, including meaning, spelling, pronunciation. (2). Use of words combined in sentences to express ideas. (3). Practice in manuscript work, — paragraphing, capitalization, punctuation, etc. {b). Methods and Means of work. (i). Real objects, — questions by teacher on names, parts, properties, etc. ; answers by pupils in correct sentences, both orally and in writing. (2). Pictures, — 'treatment same as with objects. (3). Stories read or told by teacher; oral and written reproduction by pupils. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 89 (4). Memorizing choice selections, and conver- sation about tiiese. (5). Correction of local inaccuracies. An intelligent plan is necessary under each head; questions should be pre-arranged. 2. Word Studies. (a). As to form, — abbreviations, contractions, etc. (6). As to meaning, — compound words, prefixes, suf- fixes, derivations, etc. ic). Diacritical marks, — preparing for the under- standing and use of the dictionary. It should be kept constantly in mind that children learn to speak by imitation; that ability to speak comes by speaking; ability to write by writing; and that use (good or bad) crystalizes into fixed habits. 3. Guiding Laws. Laws of Acquisition, i and 6, Pages 52 and 53. Lav/s of Teaching, i, 5 and 6, Pages 54 and 55. Purposes of Childhood, No. 2, Page 56. Purposes of Youth, Nos. i and 2, Pages 5" and 58. 4. Technical Grammar. (a). Purposes: — (i). To secure a knowledge of the mechanism of the language, and a comprehension of the principles which govern forms and agreements. (2). To secure readiness and accuracy in the interpretation of language. (3). To acquire facility in the correct use of language, both in speech and in writing. 90 OUTLINES OF ip). Methods of work. — Begin with the sentence as a whole; then consider its parts and their offices: f i). Idea of subject and predicate; complement, — object and attribute; parts of speech, and the classification of words into nouns, verbs, etc.; adjuncts, — of single words, of several words. (2). Consideration of sentences accordmg to nature and use; as declarative, interrogative, exclamative, imperative. (3). Consideration according to structure; as simple, compound, complex. (r). Phrases and Clauses. (i). Structure and office. (2). Equivalency, — interchange of words, phrases and clauses. (^/). Etymology. (i). Sub-classification of parts of speech. (2). Inflection of nouns, verbs, etc. (3). Connectives; — [a) introducing phrases; (Ji) introducing clauses; (/•) joining like constructions. 5. Grammatical Analysis is the classification of a sentence, and the naming of the offices and relations of its members and their adjuncts. 6. Parsing is the complete classification of a word (or inseparable phrase), and an orderly naming of all that is grammatically of interest to it. In analysis, diagrams are a condensed and useful method of represent- ing the work to the eye. Parsing may be concisely written in tabular form. 7. Guiding Laws. — The general laws of advanced Teach- ing and the laws of elaboration. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 91 F. Arithmetic. BY PROF. C. F. R. BELLOWS. 1 . Divisions of the work. (a) Primar)', (b) Practical or Secondary, (c) Higher. These divisions correspond more or less closely to the periods, respectively, of Childhood, Youth and Maturity. They distinguish, as it were, the aspects presented by the study and teaching of Arithmetic as viewed from the standpoint of the separate periods of development. 2. Primary Arithmetic. (a). Scope of the work. ((). Notation and reading of numbers to 100. (2). The Tables of Addition, Subtraction, Multi- plication and Division. Exercises applying knowl- edge of the Tables. (t,). Tlie signification and notation of fractions to tenths, and exercises upon the same. (4). The Table of U. S. Money and some of the most common Tables of Weight and Measure. (d). Form of work. The work is characterized chiefly by the large use which is made of objects as a concrete form of present- ing numbers. Thus, (i). Collections of things (counters) are em- ployed as a form of expressing numbers. (2). The Tables of Addition etc. are formed by the children with use of counters. 92 OUTLINES OF (3). The idea of the fraction is developed by the use of objects and numbers which the children are led to divide. (4). The relations of the common units of meas- ure and weight are found in the experience of the children in measuring and weighing. (c). Guiding Principles. (i). The interest of the child in bodily activities. (Laws of Teaching, No. i, Page 54.) (2). The relation of concrete and abstract ideas. (Laws of Acquisition, No. 4, Page 52.) (3). The relation of ideas and symbols. ( Laws of Memory, No. 4, Page 16.) (^/). Faculties addressed. (i). The Senses and Presentative powers. (2). The Representative powers in their incipient activity (See Pages 44-46 and 56-7.) Remark. — While it is true that primary work in Arithmetic is addressed chiefly to the Presentative faculties, still the comicp; activity of the Representative faculties should be properly anticipated. 3. Practical Arithmetic. {a). Scope of the work. (i). The Fundamental Rules. (2). Factoring, Cancellation, etc. (3). Fractions, — (i) Common, (2) Decimal. (4). Weights and Measures. (5). Ratio and Proportion. (6). Involution and Evolution. (7). Percentage. STUDY AND INSTRUCTION. 98 (/'). Form of the work. If use of objects characterizes the work of Primary Arithmetic, the use of figures is no less the prominent feature of Practical Arithmetic. (c). Guiding Principles. (r). The interest of the pupil in the acquisition of practical knowledge. (2). 'J1ie activity of the Representative powers, as appealed to in the symbolism of number, operation and relation. ( See Pages 47 and 57-8.) {-®*' # Q02Q OF co»^' G^es' ,s ^ '^m