.f^'O .1 '\r \k4FQ'ri r ,\ . S ^-ft- A. tlViL3 1 1^ t\ INIJV. COPYRIGHT DEPOSnV OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS THEIR HABITS, INTELLIGENCE AND USEFULNESS Translated from the French of Gos. DeVoogt, by Katharine P. Wormelev EDITED FOR AMERICA CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT IV J TH ILL USTRJ TIONS BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS Cbr atbrnitum prcfis 1907 UBRARYofOONQRESS Two Cooles Retnlved NOV 4 .90r CN Gimntht Entry OUSS/4 XXc, Nb. /qopy B. sr^i Copyright, 1907 By GINN & COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 67.10 GINN & COMPANY . PRO- PRIETORS . BOSTON . U.S.A. PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN liDITION Our many domestic animals liave played an important role in the civilization of man. Without them — especially the dog, the liorse, the cow, and the sheep — man's development onward and u]nvard would have been slow and uncertain. Those countries in which the problem of domestication did not enter remained ever near to barbarism, never progressing beyond a certain limit. The American red man, brave, cunning, persevering, could not overstep the boundaries that limited his civilization, because he had no animal that he might domesticate, and no beast of burden to aid him in doing certain kinds of fatiguing w'ork. This book is concerned with these helpers of civilization. It is to teach some- thing about their value to man, so that they may receive more aj^preciative attention and more kindly consideration from the resident of the city and of the country, that this book appears. For many photographs that are reproduced on the following pages grateful appreciation is expressed to Mr. John F. Cunningham, Cleveland, Ohio; to Mr. Joseph E. Wing, Mechanicsburg, Ohio ; and to the Ohio Farmer, Cleveland, Ohio. C. \V. BL'KKEIT Kansas Statk Ackiculturai, College Manhattan CONTENTS Page List of Illustrations ............ vii Introduction ............. i Chapter I. The Dog ............. 6 II. The Cat .............. 73 III. The Horse ............. 96 IV. The Ass and the Mule . . . . . . . . . . .158 V. The Sheep ............. 164 VI. The Go.at . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 VII. The Pig ............. 201 VIII. Cattle 208 IX. The Gallin.aceous Tribes .......... 220 X. Rabbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 XI. The Birds of the Aviary .......... 263 XII. Pigeons .............. 284 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Cock and Hen Two Dogs , . Dogs . . . . Watcliing a liird . . . Horse On the Way to the Hunt Collection of Animals . Goat Rabbit Swans Dogs The Friend of Man Ready for a Sea Bath A Pleasant Meeting Sicilian Coin Are they speaking to Each Other? Teeth of a Dog a Year Old Teeth at the End of Two Years Teeth Worn and Blunted in an Old Dog Example of the Elastic Skin of the Neck Example of " Feather " on the Tail Wavy Hair Curly Hair (Retriever) Long Hair (Pomeranian) Extra Long Hair (Poodle) Woolly Hair (English Sheep Dog) Silky Hair (Yorkshire Terrier) Under Arrest Rest and Play Frolicking Astonishment They are Hot ! Too Hot in Front ; too Cold Behind Scrutiny Modern Types of Fox Terriers, Smooth Haired and Wiry Haired Bulldog. Pure Blood English Mastiff Champion Bulldog Spotted Bulldog Black-and-Tan Terrier English Setters Good Type of Setter German ShortHaired Hunting Dog Handsome Pair of Gordon Setters Wiry-Haired Hunting Dog German Long-Haired Hunting Dog German Long-Haired Hunting Dog Blenheim Spaniel Children of Charles I (/«« /)iy/-) I'l'S ' Prince Charles taking a Drive King Charles ICnglish Foxhounds before their Kennel English Foxhounds Page Foxhound Pups for Puppy-Dog Contest ^3 White Poodle 24 Black Poodle 24 Newfoundland 25 Dandle Dinmont Terrier 25 Skye Terrier 25 Bull Terrier 26 11 er Favorite was a Scotch Terrier 26 A Few Prize Boxers 27 Skye Terrier with Long Ears 27 Waldmann 28 German Basset 28 French Basset 29 Beagles 29 Cocker Spaniel 50 Handsome Pair of German Hounds 30 Blackfield Spaniel 30 German Hound with her Young and a Dutch Sheep Dog, her Kennel Companion 31 German Watchdog 31 Spotted German Watchdog 32 Black Wolf Dog 32 Black and White Wolf Dogs 32 Prize Dog 33 Belgian Schipperkens 33 A Very Fine Type of Woolly-Haired Retriever • ■ - 33 Superb Collection of Pointers 34 Kennel of Pointers containing the Best Continental Types 34 C; lossy-Haired Retriever 35 Dutch Shepherd Dogs 35 German Shepherd Dog 35 Wagon Load of Puppies 36 English Shepherd Dog (Collie) 36 old English Shepherd Dog (Bobtail) 36 Collie 37 German Terrier (Pincher) 37 English Terrier (Irlandais) 37 Dutch Terrier (Smousje) 37 Airesdale Terrier 37 Scotch Greyhound 37 Russian Greyhound (Barzoi) Lebedka 38 Arabian Greyhound (Slougi) 38 A ShortHaired Greyhound 39 St. Hubert Dogs 39 The Barrel Kennel 41 A Kennel of Past Times 41 The Model Kennel 41 The Same Kennel Wide Open 41 Large Kennels seen from Without 42 Large Kennels seen from Within 42 Rewarded 43 Larder for Kennels 43 Dog with a Korthal's Collar 44 Extra Wide Collar for Bulldogs 44 Vlll OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Page "Pups! Pups!" 45 " Ladies, come in ! " 45 A Walk with a Dog on a Chain is often but Half a Pleasure 4^ Choose between Me and your Machine 46 Agreeable Promenade for the Dog 47 Articles used for the Feeding of Dogs 47 Indispensable Articles for the Kennel and Wardrobe of Dogs 48 A Dog ought to eat with Pleasure 48 He ought never to have too much to eat 49 A Good Combing 49 Comb off the Dead Hair, 50 Toilet Completed 50 Maternal Cares 51 Young Mastiffs S~ Young Basset Hounds — German 52 How to Lift a Young Dog 53 How not to Lift Him 53 Burying the Dog 54 A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society . . 55 German Police Dog 56 Dogs of the River Brigade, Paris 56 Bloodhounds : the Quarry is Found 57 A Brigade of Life-Saving Dogs organized by M. Lepine, Prefect of Police at Paris 57 German War Dog 58 St. Bernard (German Type) 58 St. Bernard 59 A Splendid Lot of St. Bernards 59 Overwrought Draft Dog 60 A Fine Team 60 Dogs of the Customs Service at Roubaix 61 Ready to Start 61 Customhouse Officers and their Dogs 62 An Arrest 62 Ready to obey Orders 63 Careful Bringer of Game 63 Charging, after bringing it Home 64 Playing Chess 64 A Sporting Dog should seize cautiously 65 Retrieving from the River 65 Charging after the Sliot is iired 65 Circus Training 66 A Difficult Feat which requires Long Practice ... 66 Judging Dogs for E.\hibition 67 Conscious of his Victories 67 Dog trying to cross the Frontier with Contraband Goods 68 A Promising Young Dog 68 Decorated with Champion's Cross 69 Traveling Cage 69 Traveling Basket 69 Trained to hunt Rats 70 Driving out after an Illness 71 Blue-White, Long-Haired Male Cat 74 Persian Cat, " Silvery Jessamine" 75 Cat of Bubastis, Ancient Egypt 76 Sunning Herself 77 Half-Wild Burmah Cat 77 Midday - .... 78 Page Ten at Night 79 Si.\ in the Evening 79 Apparently Asleep, but watching a Mouse 80 Dangerous Situation for the Cockatoo So On the Watch 81 Tolerance 81 Little Miscreants 82 Spanish Cat of Three Colors 82 Long-Haired Cat in Four Colors — Black, White, Brown, and Blue 83 Tabbies 83 Young White Cat 84 Blue Persian Cat 84 A Celebrated Tabby. A Prize Winner 85 White Persian of Great Beauty -85 Blue Persian Cat 86 Siamese Cat 86 Male Angora Cat 87 Female Angora Cat 87 Blue Cat with a very Remarkable Head 88 Nursing Mother 88 Brown Angora Cat (Male) 89 Celebrated Persian Cat, " Fulma Zaidee " 89 Young Tricolor Cat go Uses of an Old Hat 91 Booted Cat 91 A Dangerous Plaything 92 Mischief 92 Making Acquaintance with Photography 92 Climbing 93 "They mean to fling me into the Water" 94 A Horse (front view) 96 A Family Party 97 Half-Blood Mare of Holstein 98 Head of Horse born White (Albino) gS Our Faithful Friends 98 On the Road in Ohio 99 Spotted Horses of the Steppes 99 Cossacks of the Guard (Russia) 100 Ready for Transport (Libou, Russia) 100 Horse Market, Utrecht, Holland loi Bitjoug Stallion (Russian) 102 Orloff Mare (Russian Trotter) 102 Oldenburg Coach Horse (Mare) 103 Same Llorse Trotting 103 Blue-White Mare (German Coach Horse) 104 Light Bay Oldenburg Mare 104 Pinzgau Horses (German Half-Blood) 105 Half-Blood Hungarian (Jucker) 106 French Coach Horse 106 Half-Blood Hungarian (Jucker) 106 French Saddle Horse 107 French Draft Horse 107 Percheron 108 Breton Pony 109 The English Thoroughbred Running Horse .... 109 Hunter " Tom Brown " no Hackneys no Stallion Polo Pony, " Mootrub " no Welsh Pony with Foal in Shetland Ponies in LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IX Shire Horse Clydesdales Competition of English Cart Horses held in Regent's Park in 1903 Suffolkl'unch Mare, " Queen of Diamonds " . . . . " Reve d'Or," Stallion of Heavy Belgian Draft Breed Type of a Two-Vear-Old Ardennes Stallion . . . . Frisian Stallion Frisian Stallion, Jet Black Jutland Horse Olander Ponies, Sweden Norwegian Pasture for Horses Prussian Stallions Pure-Blooded Arabian Stallions Kentucky Horse Horses in Corral, Wyoming " Interest " Spanish Step Making him Kneel The Celebrated Trainer, M. Oscar Carre Obstacles to Leap Interior of a Riding School Ready to Start A Noble Breed Returning from a Ride Inspection of a Riding-School Horse A Young Cavalier A Good Type of Saddle Horse Break of a Horse Dealer Harness Horse born White (Albino) English Hansom Cab A Well-Harnessed Horse A Set of Six A Famous Six-Horse Team First Prize, Work-Horse Parade, Boston A Set of Nine Watering A Prize-Winning Team in Chicago Team of Farm Horses, Ohio Winter The Statue of William the Silent at The Hague Types of Cavalry Horses Remounts Raising the Leg of a Restive Horse Exercise in Drawing A Captain of the Republican Guard Uhlans of the Guard Hold Firm ! The Republican C.iuud, Full Dress Trumpeters of the Cuirassiers Horse of a German Artillery Otificer German Bodyguard English Lancers searching for the Enemy Horses of the English Army Training to Hunt Training to Hunt The Meet Type of Hunter The Favorite Ready for the Race Before the Race Quo Vadis " Derby Day " in other Days " Derby Day " in our Day Scene at Newmarket The Race W^on Flying Fox A Superb Jump Cresceus 2.02yi Trinqueur, French Trotter Russian Trotter Hambletonian Stallion . . Dan Patch i-SS'A Directum 2.05X Champion Double Team, " Sometimes " and " Always" Brushing Him Horses Ready for Transport Cleaning Him Coming In Before Critics At the Blacksmith's Shoeing for Mules Shoes with Soft Cushions of Tow, Cork, Felt, and Gutta-percha Stables of a Riding School Interior of a Riding-School Stable A Straw Bath Cow Ironies on a Nebraska Ranch The Wild Ass Sicilian Donkeys "Orphan Boy," Grand-Champion Jack, World's Fair A Trained Zebra On the Beach A Pair of Young Mules ... White Donkeys A Donkey A Zebrule " Romulus," a Celebrated Zebrule A Dutch Sheep Farm Milking a Sheep A Mouflon Ram A Cotswold Ram Persian Fat-Tailed Sheep — Ram, Ewe, and Lamb . Dutch Sheep Cheviot Ewes, First Quality A Wallachian Ram Wyoming Shepherd and his Outfit Sheep Ranching Scene in Alberta, Canada .... Very Fine Cheviot Ram Oxford Down Ram A Morning Walk A Trio of Oxford Down Champions on Exhibition . Hampshire Down Ram Shropshire Rams A Rare Species of tlie .Shropshire Breed The Shower Bath Sheep Baths Ram of Old Leicester Breed Ready to Start for the Paris Exhibition A Leicester Ram A Suffolk Ram A Lincoln Ram OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Family of Exmoor Sheep Grand-Champion Lincohi Ewe A Kent Ram, Champion at Many Exhibitions . . . A Southdown Ram A Very Fine Specimen of a Dorset Ram Welsh Ewes A Celebrated Mountain Ram with Blacl; Head . . . A Welsh Ram A Merino Sheep Shetland Sheep A Madagascar Sheep Sheep on the Swiss Alps Spanish Sheep A Group of Ohio Rams Sheep on the Hillside, Wyoming Ewe and Lamb, Ohio Competition for Shepherds in Germany Sheep Market in Holland En Route for the Slaughter House Sheep Market in Paris Very Long Fleece A Dutch Goat Swiss Milch Goats The Support of the Family Sarnen He-Goat French Milch Goat Goats called " Hertgeite " Belgian Goats with Horns Belgian Goats without Horns Swiss Goats called " de Sarnen " Three Maltese Goats (left), Two Native Belgian Goats (center) A Dangerous Situation Wonderful Tolerance ! Norwegian He-Goat Ready to take out Baby Yearling Angora Buck Exhibition of Goats in Harness Yearling and Aged Angora Bucks, California Playfulness A Drove of Hogs in Ohio Pigs at Home Grand-Champion Tamworth Boar and Sow .... Property of Ohio State University Feeding Pigs Mother Hog and Little Ones Cow with Uneven Horns Two Orphans Norman Milch Cow Maternal Cares French Steer In Alabama Good Draft Oxen Ruminating Bull, French Breed An American Type In Scotland Milking Cows in France . A Fine Dutch Bull A Winner in Three-Year-Old Class at Stark County Fair . . . ' 17S "79 179 I So 180 iSi iSi 181 1S2 1S2 I S3 184 1S4 185 185 1S5 186 1 86 .87 1 88 1S8 190 191 192 192 193 193 194 195 '95 196 196 197 197 199 199 200 204 205 206 206 20S 208 209 209 Team of Four Oxen in the Nivernais 214 In Alabama 214 Good Dutch Pasturage 215 Groningen Bull 215 Cornelia XXVII, Celebrated Dutch Milch Cow . . .215 Friesland Milch Cow 216 Dutch Calves 216 Head of Highland Bull, " Sir Audrey " . . . ■ . .216 Grand-Champion Hereford Bull and Cow 217 Shorthorn Cattle 217 Hornless Cattle 21S In Ohio 21S Long-Horned English Bullocks 219 Mr. Cock 220 The Mrs. Hen 221 The Family Complete 221 White Wyandotte Cock 222 " Ursus " 222 Plymouth Rock Cock 222 "Nero " 223 Black Cochin-China Cock 223 Black Minorca Cock 223 Plymouth Rocks 224 A Brahma Hen 225 " Rita," a Braekel Pullet Prize Winner 225 A Mechlin Coucou Hen 226 White Mechlin Cock 226 A Mechlin Coucou Cock 226 Mother Hen with Little Ducklings 227 Incubating Box 227 Incubators 22S Incubator with Chicks One Hour Old 229 White Mechlin Hen 229 A Celebrated Specimen of the Mechlin Breed . . . 230 Dutch Lien, Goudpel Breed 230 Cock of Fine Stature 230 A Silver Braekel Hen 231 Year-Old Pullets 231 The First Egg 232 A Divided Hen Yard 233 Poultry Yard 234 White Wyandotte Hen 234 Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Hen 235 Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Cock 235 Partridge-Colored Wyandottes 235 Cocks' Combs are a Dainty for Epicures 236 Black Minorca Cock 236 A Typical Light Brahma Hen 237 A Fine Specimen of the Cochin-China Breed . . . 237 Plymouth Rock Hen 237 White Leghorn Hen 23S A Brahma Cock 238 A Pair of Mechlin Coucous 238 A Lover of Fights 239 Small German Cock ' 239 A Paduan Cock 239 A Dutch Cock with White Topknot 240 A Dutch Cock, Goudpel Breed 240 The Dutch Breed " Zilverlaken " 240 A Silver Braekel Hen 240 A Ladder for the Babies 241 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI A Hen with Young Ducklings J41 Inclosure for Ducks 242 Wild Ducks 242 Indian Runner Ducks (Male and Female) 243 Speed 245 Muscovy Ducks (Male and Female) 243 Geese fattening for the Market 244 A Family of Geese 245 The Arrival of the Feeder 245 Toulouse Geese 245 Chinese Geese 246 German Geese 246 Embden Geese 247 A Pair of American Bronze Turkeys 247 Turkeys in a Field 248 Young Turkeys 24S Turkeys in a Park 249 A Swan's Nest 249 The Bosom of the Family 250 Black Swans 250 White Swans 251 A Dark Silver Rabbit 252 A Pair of Russian Rabbits 252 An English LopEared Rabbit (Female) 253 An English Lop-Eared Rabbit (Male) 253 A Leporide Rabbit (Female) 253 A Blue-and-Tan Rabbit 254 A Giant Flanders Rabbit (Female) 254 A Young Giant Flanders Rabbit 255 A Giant Vienna Rabbit (Male) 255 A Leporide Hare-Colored Rabbit 256 A French Lop-Eared Rabbit 256 A White Angora Rabbit 257 A Light Silver Rabbit 257 A Dutch Rabbit 258 A Russian Rabbit 258 A Tricolor Rabbit of Japan 259 A French Papillon (Male) 259 A Blue Beveren Rabbit (Male) 260 A Polish Rabbit 260 A Black-and-Tan Rabbit 260 Bex for Transporting Rabbits 261 A Dutch Rabbit (Ill-Marked) 261 A Female Leporide with her Young 262 Wild Canaries and their Nest 263 The Norwich Canary 264 A Norwich Canary with Hood 265 Cage for Small Birds 265 A Nonvich Canary with Gray Hood 266 Young Thrushes 266 The Red Bengal Finch 267 An English Canary with Hood 267 The Tricolor Canary 268 The (;ray Wagtail 268 The Toilet of a Canary for the Exposition .... 269 Dry with Care 1 269 The Arrest of a Fugitive 270 The Woodpecker 270 Our Friend the Sparrow 271 Nonnettes with Black Head and Blue and Black Helly 271 An Aviary de Luxe 272 Grand Annual Exposition at London 273 A Belgian Canary 274 A Yorkshire Canary 274 A Flat-Headed Canai-y of English Breed 274 The Aviary of the King of England 275 The Thrush 276 The Green Finch 276 The Winter Canary 277 One Type of Canary 277 The German Linnet 277 The Blackbird 277 The Linnet 278 The Dutch Bullfinch 278 The Spring Wagtail 279 The Lark 280 The Goldfinch 280 The Wavy Paroquet 28 1 Gray Paroquet, or Poll Parrot 2S1 The Green Paroquet 281 The Starling 282 A Trained Crow 282 The Crow and the Rook 2S3 The Dragon Pigeon 284 A Collection of Various Pigeons 285 The English Falconet Pigeon 285 Young Pigeons 285 Common Domestic Pigeons 2S6 A Corner of the Garden 2S7 A Wild Pigeon with her Young 288 A Loft of Fancy Pigeons . 2S9 The Carrier Pigeon 289 Scotch Pigeons 289 The Tumbler Pigeon, Old Dutch Breed 290 The Magpie Pigeon 290 A Dovecote at a Proper Elevation 291 The Dwarf Pouter Pigeon of Amsterdam 292 The Almond Pigeon 292 Carrier Pigeons 293 The Barb 293 The English Pouter Pigeon 294 An Old Carrier Pigeon 294 Gernian Pigeons 295 The Engli.sh Falconet Pigeon 295 l^eacock-Tailed Pigeons 296 Baskets, etc., for Transporting Carrier Pigeons , , . 296 LIST OF COLORED PLATES German Dog Frontispiece t Page Kittens 73 " HoKSK 96 Donkeys 158 " Sheep 164 Rabbits -52' Cockatoos 280 _ OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS INTRODUCTION Our subject is inexhaustible. From the boy who bcheves that his dog knows as much as he to the scientist who demonstrates to his satisfaction by laboratory experiments that animals are but creatures of habit and not of rea- son, all the world is interested in the animals of the home. Their presence seems to be necessary in complete the family circle. What touching tales we read of the fidelity of dogs ! Who has never amused himself by plaving with kittens, whose gracious little ways are equal to their graceful- ness .' Who does not remember the anguish of heart when his pet lamb of childhood was laid away in the garden grave, or when the pet of any kind, whose last da\s had come, was returned to the earth for burial and rejjose .' These things indi- cate the affection which man has for domestic animals, and the almost human ties that often bind him to the brute creation. The numerous photographs that illustrate Onr Domestic Animals will cast light on tlie descriptions in the text, and wc haw stri\cn to make the style of the volume agreeable and, above all, anecdotical. It is by stories and pic- tures that we teach children the princijial things of life ; it is equallv b\' stories and iiirlures that we now desire to create a love for the animals who share our lot, and for those whose fatal destiny it is to feed us. Scientific men have concerned them- selves seriously (though relatively only of late) with most of the domestic animals in a manner that promises the speedy solu- tion of many problems. Designers have cleverly, though less .seriously, represented these animals, while painters have tried to reproduce them, as far as brush and palette would allow, — more particularly horses, dogs, and cats, — in all their mani- fold variety of form and color. Sculptors ind poets have immortalized them in many a masterpiece, and they serve as models of design for the various branches of the arts OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and industries. The first toys we give to chil- dren are miniature reproductions of the animal kingdom ; the first scribblings of a baby resem- ble more or less the shapes of domestic animals. Young and old, poor and rich, learned and igno- rant, all take an interest in one another of le animals. that interest ? How can we give a general idea of the lives of the chief domestic animals to those who cannot, or will not, have all the species con- stantly about them, and yet desire to know as much as possible on the subject without being obliged to consult a scientific library ? We believe we shall attain this end, in the first in- stance, by photography, which alone can reproduce with per- fect accuracy the acts and mo- tions of animals. This work has been undertaken on the express condition that the photographs shall be taken from life, and as recently as possible. Numerous photographers from all parts of Europe and America, some of them of great experience, have well fulfilled their extremely difficult task (the reproduction of animals being one of the most troublesome problems of their art), and have sent us an ample and striking collection of portraits of animal life. All that was needed, in addition, was descrip- tion — description that should not weary, but give relaxation — and a succinct treatment of topics which, from a zoological point of view, might have required more attention and also more space. The origin of the various species, the study of propagation, the question of the play of color, the numerous anatomical subdi- visions, are merely indicated in the following pages. The inquiring reader may consult learned books and place them beside the present vol- ume, which treats of the same matters in an absolutely popular way. The choice of domestic animals and their classification was not easy to make. What to us is a domestic animal is generally so elsewhere ; yet the line is sometimes difficult to draw. The dog, the first beast ever tamed, has the most ancient claims, if by " domestic animals ' ' we mean particularly those that have been completely tamed. The cat incontestably holds its place in every household, where it takes precedence of the horse because of its small size. After the horse come the ass and the mule, closely re- lated, and then the goat . Sheep form the extreme limit of the kingdom of domestic animals, and one step more brings us in the midst of — cattle ! And the pig ! Surely we must not omit him. » -/ -KK ft' P •mj: Watching a Bird Then come the gallinaceous tribes, and with them we enter the inclosures and poultry yards ; for, after all, by "domestic animals" we do not mean exclusively those that live within the INTRODUCTION walls cif our houses. All the quatlrupetls and bipeds that for centuries ha\e l)een in contact with man. that are grouped in friendly confidence around his dwelling, that live for his use and pleasure, and are, more or less, inider his direct supervision, being fed and cared for by him, are domestic animals ; and those who know true coun- try life are never surprised to see Brown, the horse, poke his head through the garden gate, or Blanche, the cow, walk up to the kitchen door and eye the meal that the housekeeper has prepared for the mother hen and her brood. That horse, that cow, those chicks, take an active part in the external life of the household. We follow with interest their good and their evil fortune (they have both from time to time), and we soothe their sufferings as much as possible. And the hens ! if they are not domestic animals in the true sense of the term, we invite the city denizen who doubts it to go without eggs. What privation if there is no white of egg for the sick baby, no fresh-boiled egg for the debilitated old man ! Hens in the poultry )ard and eggs on the table, such is the true order of things ; so the poultry yard, as well as the hens and the cocks, is part of the loiiiestead. Besides these there are many lirds living about our dwell- ings which, though not actually domestic under all aspects, are neverthe- less tame. Swans and ducks, turkeys and geese, are rather nearer to us than pigeons and canaries, but they all ome under the head of imestic animals. The canary, especially the one that i>uts a little gayety into the dull home of the workingman, is a domes- tic animal we should regret to be without ; also those handsome, many-colored birds in our aviaries which herald the dawn with their warblings and disperse our waking cares. Thus domestic animals deserve attention. We very often see pretty traits in their charac- ter which, unfortunatelv, we do not remember OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS later. The photographs here presented endeavor to recall them. In the following pages there will also be found much advice that may be useful to the breeder of each particular race. It does not enjoin more or less precise methods, or give special rules, but simply gives counsels of general utility, recognized, collected, and applied for many years by the most noted breed- ers with fortunate results. The breeding of stock for profit or pleasure (but specially for profit in the care of horses, sheep, and poultry of all kinds) has become very extensive of late, and the regions where it is chiefly carried on have derived much benefit from it. The raising of useful and handsome animal stock has become a science, which now actually forms a subdivision in zoology. The zoologist could prf)b- ably derive large profits from the breeding of horses, dogs, and poultry, if closer relations could be established between the two sciences, and if the halls of study opened wider in the direction of stables and kennels. Zoology is the theory of practical breeding ; for without e.xact knowl- edge of the life of animals the breeder will never succeed in perfect- ing certain qualities. But it is not from books that he can learn the prac- tical working of life or the art of giving it: he must, above all, rely on experience. The special literature on these topics is not in all hands. He who owns a dog or a pony does not fill his library with books on dogs, nor does he put in his stable a shelf of books treating of ponies. But there are many things to be told of the dog and the pony which would in- terest that owner and perhaps give him fresh ideas about them. The history of dogs, like that of other domestic ani- mals, is of very ancient date, and is closely related, in fact is even parallel, to that of INTRODUCTION man. Their structure, their characteristics, their peculiarities, give rise to very remarkable comparisons. Numberless are the traditions, the anecdotes, and the facts which show to what extraordinary development the intelligence or instinct of these animals can attain, whether spontaneously, or b_\' exercise or cxijerience. How is it possible not to wonder on seeing a hunting dog stop short in the open country, motionless as a statue, seeing nothing around him for yards till the par- tridges take wing, giving proof of the Jiiiir of the animal ! Horses and some other species of domestic animals have also given almost incred- ible proofs of intelligence, attachment, courage, and cau- tion, which can only increase the regard they inspire in us. All this, no doubt, increases the desire to know more of the life of animals, and this desire we shall try to satisfy in the course of this work. We have given our atten- tion, in certain places, to the manner in which sick nr wounded animals should be cared for. In civilized socieiv, a society of progress, all negligence of the comfort and well-being of ani- mals is a step backward in the ])ath of civilization. In such a society, surely, we ought to find a.sylums for animals, and the art of animal heal- ing should obtain univer.sal sympathy. Nor should we fail to speak of the protection due to animals from the point of view of humanity as well as of usefulness. It is proper here to insist once again ui)on the fact that every one can contribute in a vast degree — if he will — to diminish the unnecessary sufferings endured daily by cats, dogs, and horses; for instance, many children, whose education has been sadly neglected, make martyrs of cats and dogs. If, therefore, this work can attain its object, it will not only afford a few hours' amusement to the reader, but it will benefit more than one of those intelligent creatures who, during our own lives, have lived with us as faithful companions. THE DOG I. Bond of Friendship between Man AND Dog Buffon said and wrote, "The dog is the friend of man." Though the works of that writer, very learned in his time, no longer fill the prominent shelves of our scientific libraries, the vrords just quoted are to this day con- firmed and established by reiterated proofs. How was this junction between the man and the animal brought about, and why have dogs, from the earliest antiquity, so sepa- rated themselves from other animals that they have been in favor with the " most civilized creature of the earth," even when the civilization of that sovereign of creation still left something, or to be more frank, still left much to be desired .? If we knew with certainty whence the domestic dog (canis fmniliaris, the learned call him) is descended, it would be easier to answer the above questions. But we cannot as yet point with ab- solute certainty to the animal species with which man's amicable ties were formed. Perhaps it was a species of wild dog now extinct ; perhaps wolves and jackals had their share in the matter. Men of science in the olden time took very little interest in knowing whence our useful domestic animals had descended. Though most of them were not disposed to consider Noah's ark as the cradle of all the species, they did not delve much deeper into this inter- esting problem. We may even say that the study of the races of the domestic animals The Friend of Man extends back, at the most, half a century. It is true that men like Belon (1554), Kampfer (1712), Guldenstadt (1776), and Pallas (1776), as well as Ehrenberg, Reichenbach, and others, tried to throw some light upon the question, which, however, was not cleared up until 1884. About that year very interesting excavations were made of prehistoric lake cities in Switzer- land, which brought to light remains of animals, chiefly dogs, older than any hitherto known and recognized. Then, and especially after the pub- lication of the masterpieces of Darwin on " domestic ani- mals and plants," scientific men, like Ye it el ess, Ruti- meyer, and Naumann, con- cerned themselves seriously about the unknown ancestors of the domestic dog. Alas ! those ancestors had left no other inheritance than a few bones and broken skulls ; but these remains, such as they were, were minutely exam- ined. The Austrian profes- sor, L. H. Yeiteless, was so enthusiastic in his work along this line that he even dedi- cated one of the skulls, found near Olmiitz, to the memory of his mother, who had died in 1869, — "skull of canis mattis optimae." Nevertheless, in spite of minute researches, no certainty has yet been attained as to the origin of the domestic dog. We can still make only suppositions, and these attribute the pater- nity of the race, in the first instance, to the jackal and a species of Indian wolf. We can- not therefore know with certainty what animal species it was that, in its primitive state, first THE DOG felt itself attracted to man ; but it is cer- tain tliat individual self-interest, both in man and beast, played a chief part in that treaty of friendship. The fires where the\' could warm themselves, the mounds ot slaughtered game, must have brought the wild dogs, or the canine animals, near to man ; while the bones of dogs found in the oldest human caves of the Stone Age pro\ c that man sought and attracted the dog — to feed upon him. Therefore it seems that there was self- interest on both sides. But this selfishness was destined to have fortunate results, tfi interests in common soon bear fruit. In tlu first place, the supreme question for buti was how to procure food ; next, how to lie able to defend themselves in their painful struggle for existence. These two natural necessities made closer contact desirable, and primitive man was intelligent enough to see in the dog a skillful hunter and a brave defender. The- dog, on his side, must have found great advantages in the neighborhood of man. Through the thick veil that covers the primitive epoch of our planet we early see the dog and man forming com- panionship, while the other anima domesticated later, keep them .selves at a distance, fierce and distrustful. II. Appreci.vtion THROUGH THE AgES Dogs have always been held in great esteem, especially in Europe and America. It is true that in civilized countries men no longer shave their heads on the death of a favorite dog, as was the ancient custom in Egyptian families, but adniiialion is never lacking. Xeno])hon called ^ i>,.k.as.a the dog an " invention of the gods." Among the Greeks, his compatriots, hunting was an art practiced with the greatest precision. Kf.adv for a .Ska P.ath and their poets praised to the skies the excel- lent qualities of hunting dogs. Homer, father of Greek poesv, devotes many lines to those mimals. Mythology represents them s iiowcrful and miraculous. The Romans employed them as fighters in the arena, and to a lesser degree in the chase ; but by the great (.|uantity of dog flesh which they offered in sacrifice to the gods, we see in what high sieem they held the nnnal. The Romans, moreover, gave dogs a ood, though severe, edu- cation ; and once a year they .-hipped them all soundly be- cause they did not bark at the attack n the Capitol, when the geese showed greater vigilance. In the Low Coun- tries, later, rigorous severity was shown against heedless or criminal dogs. It was thus that the NT Ml.lCTlNC 8 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Sicilian Coin dog Prove tie, belonging to Jans van der Poel, was con- demned by the aldermen of the city of Leyden to be hanged by the public execu- tioner in the market place, where it was customary to punish criminals. His pos- sessions were confiscated with all the solemnity befitting such punishment. After this e\ent the inhabitants of Leyden were long nicknamed "hangers of dogs." Little did they think that in 1574, during the siege of their city, they would learn by sad experience that it was better to eat dogs than to hang them. The predilection that princes and celebrated per- sons have shown for these animals proves the esteem in which they were held. Henri II now and then wore round his neck a basket in which were young puppies, so Sully relates in his memoirs. Frederick the Great allowed his greyhounds the utmost liberty, both indoors and out, at his chateau of Sans Souci. One of these famous hounds, named Biche, was taken prisoner at the battle of Soor (1745), and was only restored to her master after long and ceremonious negotiation. James II of England cried out to his sailors, when the ship in which he sailed was in sore peril, " Save my dogs and Marlborough ! " In our day Queen Victoria was the greatest lover of pure-blooded dogs, a fondness for which she inherited from her mother, the Duchess of Kent, who throughout her life took the utmost care of her kennels. Teeth of \ I) E.ACH Other? We should know better what Richard Wag- ner thought of these animals if he had lived to finish his book, Histoiy of my Dogs. It is well known that the master of Bayreuth loved dogs and owned several highly bred species, among them Newfoundlands and St. Bernards. A friend of his relates that he one day compelled a street urchin to sell him, for a thaler, an old half-blind dog which the boy was about to drown. The dog bit his rescuer, but Wagner, instead of punishing him, found him an asylum. Dickens, in his account of ]\Iy Father as I Recall Him, describes with much sympathy and affection the dogs in the paternal home. Zola's pets, espe- cially Pin, must often have consoled him in the days of his painful struggle. Pin's full name was The Chevalier Hector Pin-Pin de Coq-Hardi, but Zola called him friend and comrade. THE DOG These are only a few specimens taken at random from the rich collection of evidences of affection given to dogs bj- intelligent men. Let us now examine into the actual li\cs ot our dotrs and see their numerous useful deetls. Teeth at the End ok Two Veaks While so doing we shall give some ad\-ice on the best methods of bringing up, caring for, and utilizing these intelligent animals ; pho- tography will do the rest. III. The Uog Internally and Externally If we sent postpaid to our readers 247 little bones, asking them to construct therefrom a perfect specimen of the domestic dog, we doubt whether many of them would be pleased with the gift. We therefore refrain from sending it, and consequently ha\e no need to add to the 247 bones 42 teeth and a few ear cartilages that go with them. Yet those fortv-two teeth desen-e an attentive examina- tion. As long as they remain in the animal's mouth they serve, as with horses, to determine his age. It is useful to know that a normal dog ought to have twelve incisors, four molars, and twenty-six large teeth. The first, or milk teeth, appear from four to six weeks after birth, and give place to the incisors from four jirccautions, we open the jaws of a dog and behold a number of prett_\- little white lilies at the end of the crown of the inci.sors, we know the dog is still young, that is, under a \ear old. Krom the first to the .second year these teeth become more or less worn, and when the animal is in his third year they are completel}- worn out, especially those in the lower jaw. A dog must be more than four years okl before the eyeteeth and the teeth below them become visibly worn ; and this indication grows more and more distinct with age. After the sexenth \ear the teeth are completely worn down, and drop out here and there. In making an examination we must not forget that food, according as it is hard or soft, has a great influence on the condition of the teeth. Teeth excepted, the other parts of a dog's skeleton, and the nobler parts which it incloses, — such as the lungs, the heart, etc., — do not require us to make a long examination, unless, indeed, we wear the spectacles of a zoologist. The muscles and the sinews that form the flesh and join the articulations are of great impor- tance to the breeder, because theY are in close fi WM ir £ ^^^H "^'i ^ 1^ m mI Teeth Wokn and I?i.uNTEn ix an Oi.n Dot: relation with the exterior forms, and especially with the ability of certain species of dogs to to six months later. The large teeth appear in perform the work for which they are intended. the third or fourth week, and drop out at the W'e shall have to speak later of the position end of five months. If, therefore, taking due of the lungs in a broatl high chest, or in a lO OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS narrow, deep one ; but we pass now to an exterior description of the animal. First in line come the skin, the hair, the color, and the physical conformation. The skin of dogs which have not been over- petted or too delicately reared is rather thick and solid. In many it is supple, especially about the neck and head. All dogs have upon the head, near the jaw and above the eyes, seven little round protuber- ances from which spring several sensitive hairs, which have their nerves and roots in those pro- tuberances. In healthy dogs that are properly cared for the skin is odorless, but at the least negligence or the least illness a very disagreeable effluvium is given forth. The hair of dogs protects them from atmos- pheric influences, and also, in certain cases, from injury to the skin. Though dogs give much less time to their toilet than parrots Example of the Elastic Skin of the Neck Example of " Fr-Axiii- or cats, there is really no ground of complaint against them on this score. Their hair falls naturally into place ; upon the back and along the flanks it lies with regularity from the front towards the hind quarters, and in certain long- haired dogs we can distinguish a dividing line. or "part," along the back and on the legs. Thus Mother Nature herself takes care of their toilet. Yet it is curious to observe how she allows the hair on the chest, the belly, and under the neck to get tangled. The joints form the boundaries between these patches of hair that are so different in direction. The longer the hair the more erect it is on the joints ; hence those curious tufts that we find behind the paws of certain breeds. These tufts are called "feathers " ; we find them on the tails of set- ters, and wherever a variation in the direction of the growth of the hair exists. In dogs with rough or wiry hair it does not lie in the normal direction, but grows erect in every direction, in a confused mass. The different kinds of hair play a great part at bench shows, as we shall see later. Two kinds are specially distinguished from each other, — the long-haired and the short-haired, — in both of which come a legion of varieties, such as glossy, rough, bristling, curly, wavy, woolly, silky, frizzled, etc. These nomenclatures describe themselves. The Pomeranians have long hair, while the German watchdog has it short and glossy, the griffons bristling, retrievers curly, Russian wolfhounds wavy, English sheep dogs woolly, some poodles frizzled, and certain Maltese dogs, also Yorkshire terriers, silky. The color of dogs, or, properly speaking, of their coats, plays a great part in the valuation of breeds, and also, unfortunately, in the estimation of fashion. Which is the finest color ? Put it to public vote and the result would have only a passing value. The idea of beauty changes with each epoch, and the choice between the black, red-brown, uniform brown or striped; yellow, gray, or white of our dogs depends on circumstances and on the purpose 4 ^ f ^\JB?X 1 f^^M Ipff i^vv dM^^HUH P^ - '4^' Wavv Hair Curly Hair (Ri-.TKir;vi;R) Long Hair (Pomeranian) Extra Long Hair (I'oodi.f;) ■ I^H i ■^I^H Woolly Hair (English Siikf.p Dog) Silky Hair (\'orksiiiki: Tkrrikr) 12 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS for which they are chosen. For dogs of mere fancy, — for pets, — the color and especially the markings about the ears, the head, and the back should be as deco- rative as possible, while hunting clogs should be of a color easily distinguish- able at a great dis- tance in the hunting field. Hounds, on the contrary, ought not to show against the bushes or fields when at work. A beagle, which creeps among the fox burrows, would be useless if he were white and could thus show the fox where his enemy lay. We frequently find local disappearances of the color of the hair, very noticeable in spotted German watchdogs and in Dalmatian or tiger dogs. A very remarkable phenomenon is the striking tendency in dogs — as in other animals UN]J1:K ARRlihT Frolicking ' ■ J — to a complete obliteration of color (albino- ism) ; this is accompanied by the appearance of red eyes and a very injurious blunting of certain organs, or else by a delay in their development. The conformation of the dog presents as great a variety as his coat and his color. Here '\l. , "1 \ ^ >• f V/.'--.^b; ;^:v^'--^ '' ■v ■ ■ .It ' ■*..''' .^[^ ■^ . 1 .-'-■ '^^:^- America, where the}' become the founders of new families. For such competitive ani- mals special account must be taken of th' bones, and of the sym- metry of the body, the head, and the paws, though even here there is great difference of taste The prize-winning fox terrier of to-day differs in essential points from the one of hve or six years ago must be .decidcdl)- black, but less importance is now attached to the distribution of white, which is, of course, the dominant color, and to the black, which ma\' now form sjiots amund the eyes, on the ears, the tail, and along the back. A fox terrier must be neither brown imr Bii.i.Dofi, Pure Blood The nose striped, and the ears should be small and bent forward along the cheeks in the form of a V. The mastiff. More persons than one will think that the mastiff is not made for a pleas- ure dog, thanks to his great height, his thick, big head, his enormous muzzle, and more es- pecialh' to the sinister expression iven by wrinkles around and between the eyes. Yet these dogs are usually mild and placid, though \-ery .trong and very brave on occasion, which traits make them well suited to serve as ter- rors. Idstone relates that a mastiff allowed to roam at night around a country house did no harm to tramps r thieves so long as they layed outside the fences ; but he watched them, walking ntinually round them, so that the poor follows ended by standing in the same place till daylight, not daring to stir. The patent of nobility for mastiffs will be found in England, where they were bred, it is saitl, in the fifteenth century b\- the family of Leigh of Lyme Hall. When bear hunting came to an end in England (for want of bears) bear gardens were invented, where sportsmen amused themselves by seeing i6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS English Mastiff combats between mastiffs and bears or bulls. These arena contests were probably fought by a cross breed of mastiffs and Irish wolfhounds ; very cer- tainly they did not resemble the modern mastiff. The latter now stands from twenty-five to twenty- eight inches high from ground to shoulder, and has a weight of one hundred to two hundred pounds. The muzzle and ears are black, and the dog himself is the color of a roe buck or deer. Sometimes, also Champion Bulldog Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead the whole body is of a much darker shade. The bulldog. The bulldog, smaller than the mastiff, is related to him and to his combative ancestors. These dogs seem much more furious than they really are. To what caprices have they not been subjected in view of ex- hibitions ! At one time breeders even went so far that little was wanting to make their bodies and paws so eccen- tric in form that they could hardly drag themselves about. Happily, in the present day, this danger is averted, to the great joy of all true sportsmen, and the bulldog now stands on his own four paws. It is doubtful, however, whether the prize winners of to-da)^ would issue triumphantly from the arena after such bullfights as those in which the seventeenth-century mastiffs took such a prominent part. Henri II, Queen Mary, and Princess Elizabeth of England encouraged those combats, but in 1689 we find them forbidden at Amsterdam, dogs trained for such fights being called " bear biters," a name still to be heard on the banks of the Amstel. The bull- dog should be small, massive, and rather thickset, especially about the head ; the muzzle should be thrust forward and raised impudently, the under jaw ad- vanced beyond the upper, the lips hang- ing heavily on each side of the chops, the nose broad, and the teeth large and often visible, — all of which contribute to his ungra- cious appearance. The color is rather variable. A bulldog may be brindled with black, or may be all white, spotted with white, red-brown, tawny THE DOG 17 yellow, or tawny red, but never all black. Each color should be clear!)- defined and distinct. The black and tan terrier and Iiis ivhitc colleague. This race brings us back to the land (if the terrier. They are small, refined, black and brown animals, which, by their slim bodies, resemble greyhounds and harriers. They have lost their terrier instincts, and their talents are more admired in a drawing-room than out of doors. Careful breeding has transformed this race, which is of ver\' ancient English origin, into a neat and elegant pet dog. They are often called Manchester terriers. The cut of the ears is of great importance in all of these dogs that are exhibited, and they are thus dependent on fashion. The brown or tan color should be visible on the jaws, under the throat, above the eyes, on the cheeks, on the inside of the hind paws, under the tail, and on the front paws up to the first joint. The legs should be black. There is, as we perceive, a whole series of colors, but the dog himself takes his name from his particular colors. The English terrier is all white, and was pro- duced by numberless crossings of the black and tan terriers with small hounds. Si'OTTEU BCLLI)0(; I'licito J. I'. Newman, Berkliampste Pointers and setters. These animals by nature and training are sporting dogs. They form part of a group of dogs which, when the)' percei\e their feathered or their fiu-ry game, stop short, and by their fixed attitude indicate to the sportsman the direction of that game. Probably we must seek the explanation of this act, which astonishes all who behold it, in the innate habit of all dogs which hunt their prey of waiting a brief moment Bl.ACK .W'll T.\N Tl'.RRiri! before leaping forward to seize it. But our present hunting dogs are trained, from father to son, merelv to find and inilicate the game, never to seize it. The three chief races of .set- ters are the Irish, of a beautiful golden brown ; the Gordon setter, black and tan ; anil the English breed, which is white, or white and brown, or white and black. These dogs arc necessarily very agile in their movements, which is shown by their sloping shoulders, their long chests, their very mu.scular and rather long necks, and also by OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Good TvrK oi- Si.i i i.ic their long thighs and vigorous loins. Their undulating silky hair does not render them very suitable for hunting over a bushy country, but in all other respects they are invaluable sport- ing dogs. The Scotch, or Gordon, setter has a rather larger head than other setters, with a larger muzzle and longer ears ; he is black, with tan markings on the jaws, above the eyes, on the paws, and on the articulations. If we can believe tradition, a Duke of Gordon obtained the breed by a crossing of his dogs with a Scotch collie, or sheep dog, which excelled in hunting partridges. They have had their epoch of fame since 1853, when some fine speci- mens of the breed were sent to a bench show. They are, and by good right, much in vogue as pleasure dogs and companions. The Irish setters excel especially in their magnificent golden or red-brown color, which gives additional charm to their elegant shape. Handsomf, Pair of Gordon Setters Gi:rman Sii They are by nature quick and agile in their movements, like the English setter, which, however, has rather shorter legs. Their eyes, which are hazel brown, have an expression of great gentleness. Certain Gertuan sporting dogs. The Ger- man pointing dogs with smooth coats are of quite another kind. They are much valued for sporting in their own country and elsewhere, — in Holland, for instance, — for they are strong constitutionally and are not injured by rain or by mud in the ditches. They are excellent for partridges and hares ; they do not always carry their noses in the air, but often follow the trail of the game along the soil. Their usefulness is considerably increased by their almost perfect intelligence and the ease with which they can be trained. Much time elapsed, however, before their breeding was brought THE DOG 19 to the point now reached. Opinions and tastes have long differed regarding a desirable size of these dogs, their crossing with English pointers and even with spaniels, and also regarding the qualities, more or less good, of the different breeds. Rut the final product, the German smooth- haired sporting dog, is a success and an hon(jr to his breeders. The height of the shoulder ought to be from twenty to twenty-five inches, and the weight may vary from fift_\-five to seventy pounds. The color is brown, or white, spotted or specked with brown, and now and then black and white. The long-haired dog of the same kind differs very little from the short- er smooth-haired animal, except that the chest is slightly narrower and the feet rather longer. The wiry-haired pointing dog may be re- garded as belonging to an international breed, though Germany has spared neither trouble nor expense to make of them a special race. E. K. Korthals, the Dutch breeder, has applied himself in a very meritorious manner to cross- ing all German sporting dogs with the indige- nous, wiry-haired dogs of the Low Countries, Belgium, and France. The results, known in F" ranee under the name of griffons, were not at first accepted by German sportsmen, and a long debate arose on the name that should be given to the animal. To-day, thanks especially to the broad-mindedness of the German "Club Griffon," these dogs have passed through their difficult period and are now animals of recognized usefulness, which is the essential thing. The head, large and long, has rough, wiry hair, and shows a mustache and eyebrows fitted to in- spire respect, in spite of their great eyes which express much intelligence and win all sympathies at first sight. Their iron-gray or gray-brown color, and their hair, which feels to the touch like iron wire, give to these dogs a certain resisting quality which we seldom find to the same degree in other breeds. Some much more ancient races of German dogs, such as the brach 20 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS GERirAx Loxg-Haired Huxtixg Dog hound, raised chiefly in the north and northwest of Germany, ought to be considered more as beaters of game, or coursers. Hunting having been much changed and modified in the lapse of ages, these dogs are to-day in the background of the large race we are now considering. Pet dogs. " Have women no children that they caress those beasts ? " asked a Roman emperor, on observing the excessive care given by women to little dogs ; whence we may conclude that the habit of having pet dogs is as old as civilization, perhaps older. Ladies especially, in all lands, had such dogs, and it is not sur- prising that those who had the time petted and spoiled the little beasts, which slept not only in the laps of their mis- tresses but even in their beds. All this could not fail to injure the favorite races. They became sickl}', capricious, feeble, and melancholy. Some little amelioration of their state came about when King Charles I conceived an affection for small black and Children of Charles I (Van Dvck') Blenheim Spaniel Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead brown spaniels, and the court, as well as all the nobility, followed his princely example. The great artist Van Dyck painted them on his canvas, and other painters took good care to place one beside the great personages who patronized them. The King Charles spaniel still exists, and was soon followed by the Prince Charles and the Blenheim spaniels. These three species differ chiefly in color. The first is black and tan, with no white on him ; the second should be white, with black and brown markings ; the third, named Blenheim, from the residence and famous victory of the Duke of Marlborough, is reddish, with white spots. A fourth species, the ruby spaniel, wholly red, completes the quar- tet of this pretty little tribe whose apple-shaped heads, short snub noses, and whole body structure plainly indicate innu- merable crossings. The spaniels of to-day are cer- tainly agreeable pleasure THE DOG 21 dogs, little pages of the boudoir, and graceful ornaments among the furniture. One thing, hi)\ve\'er, is to be regret- ted : the)' are all mclan choly, especiall)- tlio King Charles spaniel, who is, they say, still grieving for the death of Charles I. We must also place among the pet (or petty ?) dogs the pug, who rivals the four spaniels in his apple-shaped skull. Did the pug originate in France or the L o w Countries.'' Scientists j are not agreed as to this, but the pug has seen his bad days at the begin- ning of the nineteenth century, when the race became almost e.xtinct. He came nut of them, however, to his advantage, and now sticks his tongue out at all who make fun of him. Besides this curious trick of his tongue, his tail, rolled up as tightly as possible, sways to left or right above the hip, and is worthy of attention. The typical ex- pression of his face betrays at once a liking for sociabilit}' and also extreme curiosity. Whether a pug be yellow or apricot color, the black line on his back must be clearly visible, and his black ears and mask must make sharp contrast to his body. Pugs have a general air of high livers, thanks to their chunky bodies and their rolls of flesh ; yet they are not gluttons. It is told of a certain pug that he caused the total con- version of his mistress (who was very niiscrlv, and not charitable in s])ite of great wcallli) by dis- covering a burglar and his kit of tools under her bed, and barking till he brought the house- hold. He had saved his mistress and her monev, and out of gratitude tiie lady was converted and the poor were not long in feeling it. Pets are also made of ttle Maltese dogs with ing silky hair, York- shire terriers, and dwarf terriers ; but a detailed description of all the f. varieties that might be mentioned would require pages upon pages, and there are still many families barking imiialicntly at our gates awaiting their turn for notice. 22 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Coursing dogs. These dogs are employed for venery, that is to say, for hunting with a well-trained pack of large, strong, agile dogs, bred and kept exclusively for this purpose in France and England, and in some parts of the KixG Charles United States and Canada. English foxhounds are known the world over, if only by the nu- merous engravings representing huntsmen in scarlet coats surrounded by their dogs, spotted white and brown and black, or flying over the hillsides through bushes and bracken. Hunt ing of this kind was fre quent, packs are very celebrated, and several belong to more than one person. A master of the hounds, aided by a huntsman and several " whippers-in," or, in other words, servants or trainers, has the supervision of them. The cost of this amusement is enormous, averaging not less than from seventeen to twenty thousand dollars a year. As the chief qualities of the foxhound should be speed and perseverance, his paws must be strong, his back solid, his loins broad and mus- cular, his chest ample for the lungs, and the soles of his feet hard. The legs should be per- fectly straight, the neck slim, and the shoulders held close to the body. The nostrils will nat- urally be large, because these dogs guide them- selves by scent as well as by sight. When the wind is favorable and they have scented the fox they run forward, barking violently, but when they approach the game they increase their speed, bark no longer, rush against and over each other and over all obstacles with such eagerness that their mad course can be followed only by the best horsemen. In France the various cies of hunting ogs are very u m e r- o u s. even m the Middle Ages, but then they hunted with grey- hounds and terriers, prop- erly so called ; little by little, however, the agile foxhound, the pride of more than one master, took their place. Dogs of this class are formed into packs of from ten to sixty couple. Some English Foxhounds before their Kennel Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead Th from ery early times the kings of France paid much attention to the breed- ing of hounds and kept a great number of packs, descendants of these dogs still remain in certain provinces, and among them may be found the products of various crossings. THE DOG 23 English Foxhounds Photo J. T. Newman. Berkliampstead They are named for the regions in which they are found, — dogs of Gascony, Bordeaux, Nor- mandy, and Saintonge ; others might be added, such, for instance, as the dog of Bresse, with long hair, and the breeds called royal, such as the dog of St. Hubert, yellow and gray, once belonging to St. Louis in 1226-1270; and some other species. With his great "white pack " Louis XIV hunted a stag on one occasion for twenty miles ; the dauphin killed a wolf on June 18, 16S5, after a chase of eight hours in excessive heat. A pack of staghounds was 24 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS composed of 260 dogs, and the attendants of the hunt numbered in all 491. At the begin- ning of the next century the pace became slower, for the king was obliged to follow the hunt in a carriage ; dogs were then trained to run slower, which compelled the breeders after a time to resort to crossings with English mongrels. Since then the breed of French hunting dogs has been scattered among all sorts of secondary species, of which at least a dozen now exist. The professor dog. He who has always been a professor in the society of dogs is, undoubt- edly, the poodle ; and if ever dogs attain unto speech, the poodle will be the first to inform us. It remains to be seen whether a new language (and that a dog lan- guage) is desirable ; or whether a certain French judge was not right when he told some friends that he always played an hour with his dogs after a long court session, " because," he said, " I had listened White Black Poodle to so many dull and prolix speakers that I needed to rest myself with intelligent animals who did not speak." The poodle is a very docile animal, much in de- mand therefore by Punch and Judy and acrobats. It was a poodle who posted himself with muddy feet at the corner of a certain street in Paris, and stepped upon the pol- ished boots of the passers, where- upon his master, producing his blacking box asked, " Shall I clean them, sir.?" It was like- wise a poodle who fetched four rolls daily from the baker. One day, however, he returned with only three, although the baker had certainly put four into the basket. The next day and the third day the same thing hap- pened ; the poodle brought back only three rolls. He was then watched, and was seen to turn into a side street and stop before a stable. In that stable was a mother dog with puppies a few Poodle days old. The poodle carefully took out jDne of the rolls and laid it before her; then he galloped home hurriedly with the other three. If the poodle could talk, — that is, zvheji he does talk, — we shall find out how and why the mind of his particular race is so devel- oped ; so far we are ignorant on the subject. Poodles were formerly true water span- iels, and they can still swim very well. They are, probably, distantly related to the long-haired watchdogs of the steppes. Their hair is curled or crimped ; a variety, lately introduced, has long hair hanging in locks about the face. The poodle always walks with measured steps, as if he were returning from his dancing lesson. Black, white, or brown, without any mixture of shades, are the colors demanded by the fanciers of this animal ; the nose, however, must be black, the tail never curled, the lips black, the back strong, short, and slightly sloping. He is in all respects a domestic animal and a faithful guide, and is hardened to a northern climate ; he never yaps and is never turbulent. THE DOG 25 The Neicfoundlands. Rarely has the repro- duction of a picture been so generally and so easily (in the matter of price) brought within the reach of all as in the case of the well-known painting by Sir Edwin Landseer, representing a black and white Newfoundland, under the title of "A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society." It is a pity, however, that Land seer neglected to give the dog his original color — black, without admixture of any kind ; for though the inhabitants of Newfoundland have never taken any pains with their dogs, the black, or occasionally a bn)wn ish black, remains the domi- nant color, and Landseer made his dog black and white solely for pictorial effect. It did, however, set a fashion, and breed- ers consequently put upon the market, as soon as possible, a black and white variet\', which has now as much right to existence as the wholly black species. The Newfoundland is an admirable swimmer, being able to swim for an hour without resting. He literally lives in the water and has often ren- dered great service in saving lives. Examples of this are ahnnsl innimierablc, and dh all linear "" as many as formerly. Their height is at present from twenty-four to twenty-six inches (though on the island of Newfoundland they are nearly always smaller), and that, perhaps, makes them inconvenient and clumsy about the house. In England, however, they breed them to a still reater height. So long as children's nurses ire not superseded by Newfoundlands in duties for which the latter are well fitted, this race is better suited to the coun- tr_\' than to cities. No better watch- logs could be found, and no one is in danger of drowning as long as a Newfoundland is on the place. They are very observant of domestic matters and of the habits of a household, as the following instance shows. A Newfoundland was accustomed to go out at a certain hour with his master, who had taught him to fetch his cane. One day it rained so heavily that there was no question of going out. The dog brought the cane as usual, and seemed puzzled and distressed at being sent away. He left the room, however, and pres- ently returned, bringing an umbrella ! The paws of a Newfoundland serve him as "ais ; i1h'\- ought to be straight and slim tliduuh I.)AM)M'; DlNMONl 'ri.KKli;K Sk\ !■. 'I'lUKII K sides the race is lauded as very intelligent, and strongly muscled. The toes are united i)\- extremely faithful and gentle, especially with skin, or webbing, which must be regarded as a children. Byron wrote a touching poem on his help in swimming. The tail should be carried Newfoundland, and so have many others; yet, straight. The head is large and Hat, and the strange to say, the taste for these dogs is weight required for bench shows is from one diminishing by degrees, and we no longer see hundred to one hundred and thirty pounds. 26 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Bull Terrier The bull terrier and the Scotch terrier. The great family of terriers counts many other breeds besides those we have already named. We now come to the bull terriers, the Scotch Skye, and Dandie Din mont terriers. The bull terrier, as his name indicates, comes from the crossing of bull- dogs with terriers. A strong and agile race was desired, and agile the bull- dog was not. In 1852 a breed of English terriers of unusual height seems to have at- tracted the atten- tion of all breeders on the continent of Europe ; and when combats between bulldogs and other animals were gradually forbid- den, an effort was made to turn the race into a safe domestic dog. Her Favorite was Bench shows Photo J. T. Newmi assisted the purpose, and now this lithe and slim white dog, called a bull terrier, with his strong constitution, is an orna- ment to the tribe. His native strength is still shown by his solid shoulders, his power- ful hind quarters, his supple body, and his muscular paws. No other trace of the bull- dog is in him, unless it may be a species of enlargement around the eyes and jaws, which is only shown in a few individuals about their third year. This race is a proof of the excellence of English breeders, for while it gains from the terrier more intelli- gence than from the bulldog, it has kept all the strength of the latter. Very different is the Scotch terrier. Small in body, clever and shrewd, with his rough or black hair and his long body, is not at all vulgar in air or manner. The late Queen Victoria had a Scotch terrier named Caer- nach , who a c c o m- panied her on all her journeys. Giving orders that the ship of war Lightning should escort the royal yacht, the Queen wrote," The Ligh tiling will carry the eighth battalion and our footman, Ben da, with our terrier Caernach." The Skye terrier is also a Scotch race, and, like all animals living in northern climates, he is provided with a heavy coat. His body is long and his legs short, so that his hair, which A Scotch Terrier hangs straight in, Berkhampstead down On both sidcS, THE DOG 27 often touches the ground. This hair, which is rough and bristhng, is sometimes five and one- half inches long. The hair of the head is shorter and softer than that of the body. There are .Skycs with erect ears and Skyes with pendent old race of bulldogs found in England, and which also existed in Germany in times gone by. They were used as butchers' dogs, to guard and drive cattle, and also as watchdogs. The old engravings of Ridinger give a good A Fi;w Prize Boxkrs ears. Their color varies from a dark blue gray to a tawny gray with black points. The Dandie Dinmont terrier completes the Scotch trio. His name is well known to those who are familiar with the novels of Walter Scott. If an_\- one, by chance, has forgotten him, he ma)- open Gaj Maitncriiif^ and turn to the energetic character of farmer Dinmont. It is said that Scott reproduced in him a cer- tain Davidson of Hindlee, who had some little pepper-and-salt dogs, two of which, named Pep- per and Mustard, were the progenitors of the Dandie Dinmont breed. The present weight of these terriers should be about si.xteen or eighteen pounds. The long hair of the animal ought to have certain characteristics ; there should be a mixture of soft hair and stiff hair, but neither should be wiry nor silky. It is not quite so long as in other Scotch terriers and is rather shiny on the head. They are lithe dogs, solidly built, low on the front legs, the tail rather thick, being wide at the roots and tapering to a point. The boxers. We can study bo.xers in the Old World without having anything to do with the Chinese. By bo.xers is meant a collection of dogs which differ very much in form and color, but yet are very closely related to an idea of them. Here and there in the north of Germany and also in Wurttemberg there still exist traces of this original species, which is far from handsome. Lately much serious attention has been gi\'en to this race of dogs, and the result is the boxer, called also the Boston terrier, although he is not related to our own American breed of the same name. Skve Tkukif.r with I.ono 1:.\i 1 . L( , I A >; S( ■ 1 u ri' I". K K r.N s of the setter and the Newfountlland. The friz- zled retriever shows traces of the blood of the water spaniel. His hair is black, and the head is long, with strong jaws by which to carry heavy game. His business is to recover, or " re- trieve," the game that the sportsman has shot. T/ee Bntsscls griffon. This is a very pretty dog and much in demand. He became known to fanciers about forty years ago, and he made his first appearance on exhibition at Brussels in i88o. The specimens then e.xhibited were sold in England, but their descendants remained in Prize Dog Brussels, and the race is now carcfulh' kept up, thanks to the Club of Brussels Griffons, founded in 1889. They may be regarded as a dw-arf form of the rattler (pinchers). They are intelligent dogs and very lively, and their eyes have an almost human expression. The apple-shaped head is covered with stiff hair, which is longer about the eyes and jaws than elsewhere. The black eyelids bring out the brilliancy of the eyes. The lips ought ahvavs to be black, while the rest of the biid\- is reddish brown; 34 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS SUPKRH CoLLECTRl.N the nose is brown, the eyes Hght, the crest of the head silky, and all white spots are consid- ered blemishes. The tail is carried very high. If the Brussels griffon belongs to the smaller species, he should weigh about five pounds ; if not, the maximum weight is ten pounds. The late Queen Draga of Servia owned one of these dogs, which saved her life, unfortu- nately only for a short time. A plot to poison her had been suspected and her griffon was made to taste all the dishes that were served to her ; the animal died and the cook who had prepared the dinner de- stroyed himself. The shepherd dog. One might write a whole volume on these interesting animals. The type is uniformly spread throughout Europe and America, though here and there it differs a little in size, coat, and form of head, thanks to breeding, chance, or the influence of climate. The original bobtailed woolly dog of the English shepherd has become a race that is now con- stantly bred. He attracts immediate atten- tion by Tiis restless movements and his rich fleece of yellow tinted with steel-blue or gray. The pendent ears, lying close to the head, do KiiXN'KL OF Pointers coxtaixing the Best Continental Tvpes THE DOG 35 not give the idea of the attention we should naturally expect of the guardian of a flock of sheep in the open country. The Scotch collie having become by breeding a very charming pleasure dog, with thick, glossy hair (the colors of which are well marked), pointed head, and ears partly erect and restless in motion, has lost much of the primitive type, though in Germany breeders are never wear)- of laudable efforts to bring him back to the collecting and driving of sheep. Thus the German, Dutch, and Belgian shepherd dogs show by their rougher exterior and eager, intrepid tempera- ment, which is worthy of all confidence, much of the primitive animal. Nevertheless, the collie, now very popular as a pleasure dog, carries the day in popular estimation, and enormous sums are paid in both this and other countries ft)r successful Gi.ossv-HAiRi-.n Photo J. T. NLwman, Retriever Berkhanipstead Take him out for a walk and he will circle continually round and round his master. His natural disposition is frank, and never treach- Dcnii Shei'herd Dogs prize winners. The good shepherd dog, no erous ; but he does not understand a joke, and matter what his breeding has been, seldom is always ready to use his sharp teeth in de- loses his innate characteristic of vigilance, fense of the person or things that have been intrusted to him. The French shepherd dog, which is either black or lirown, namely, the Beauce dog or the smaller race of Brie, has been raised of late with much care. The first species was formerly used for gathering truflfles. The Brie dogs usually have their tails shortened. The Italian, or Bergamo, brood, which is large, with long hair, and lie Russian dog (seen only recently at bench shows) have not as yet attracted general attention : 36 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Wagon Load of Puppies neither has the dog of the Pyrenees, which is better fitted for guarding and protecting great flocks of sheep or herds of cattle than for ac- companying and helping the shepherd. Terriers, — Dutch, German, and English. From a scientific point of view we ought to have ranked with the terriers we have already considered at a bird's-eye view the Dutch dog, the Smousje, the German pincher, and the Airesdale terrier. The curly-haired Smousje, with a roguish head and a comically serious eye that go very well with his rather rotund body, has legs and loins that reveal to a con- noisseur eagerness and perseverance in long runs. In Holland too little is being done to improve and preserve this breed, which is almost unknown to foreigners. It is otherwise with his larger congener, the German pincher, familiar to all stables ; he iz a faithful guide and well fitted for a calm, attentive, domestic dog. Though he has never been used for sport- ing, he never stays at home when there is the slightest chance of pursu- ing, catching, and "pinching a rat ; hence his name. His agility in killing those small rodents has won him in Eng- land the name of "rattler." The hair of the pinchers is a brain puzzle for all breeders. For bench shows it should be as wiry and thick as possible, but not long, and, above all, it should be evenly distributed over the body. A short mustache and thick, bushy color may be yellowish red or yellowish gra)-, but it must be uniform, and white is a positive blemish. The dwarf pincher with wiry hair is the same as the pincher with glossy hair, the latter being only a chance variety obtained by artificial breeding, The monkey pincher Old English Shepherd Dog (Bobtail) English Shepherd Dog (Collie) Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead is a dwarf with a round head which looks as if its development had been stunted in its youth. The pincher Dobermann, of very recent date, and coming from a crossing of the German pincher with certain shepherd dogs belonging to M. Dobermann, is a much vaunted dog, relatively tall (from twenty-five to twenty-six inches) and vigor- ously built. Its color is beautiful, — a brilliant black, reddish brown at the extrem- ities, and perhaps a few white pecks on the chest. The third member of this family I the Airesdale terrier, a large black and brown dog, with a strong constitution, courageous, and well eyebrows are much esteemed. The photoj. T.Newman, Berkhampstead fitted to accompany bicycles and THE DOG carriages. Having a height of twenty-one inches, he cannot we fulfill the usual function English terrier. And now, in taking lca\ c of terriers, we must con- tent ourselves, in conse- quence of limited space, by merely naming the red- brown Irish terrier, who possesses excellent domes tic qualities, and the Welsli \._? terrier, the product of English breeding, — a weakened specimen of the Airesdale and Irish terriers. The Iiound. We shall now end this rapid glance cast over the enormous extent of the dog kingdom by causing the hounds to pass iliose \\ lio desire to know fundamen- tally the history of the canine races, to take, as their first study, the hound, whose type ve tind almost unaltered both tiuring and preceding the Cliristian era. His ithe form, his pointed head, his strong, lean legs, his eyes full; of fire, his ^mall, delicate ears, and his very deep chest show him at a glance to be a dog destined to run fast, whether we judge by epresentations of him made four hun- dred years before Christ, by modern pictures, or by the living animal. The English short-haired hound (the greyhound) and the Ci.ioiAx Terrier (I'lNCHER) KN(;|.IS1I 'rKKIUEK ( Ikl.andais) Dutch Ti-kkiek (Smousji;) at full gallop before us, as is done in military Arabian hound (the slougi) are the most ancient reviews. The cclclnal'-'l r:iri; '^l ."^i, Bernards types we possess of the race. The latter, espe- cially, imported and acclimated in the Low will be treated separate)}-, and tlie blood- hounds will elsewhere show us their talents as detectives. We advise all Scotch Gki.vhoim) 38 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Countries some years ago by the Dutch painter Augusta Le Gras de Blaricum, has a lean, slen- der shape, as if sculptured. In England they train their best greyhounds to course in the great races that take place annually, at which Russian Greyhound (Barzoi) Lebedka is won, among other prizes, the Waterloo Cup. Less important courses are run by whippets, — small greyhounds raised here and there among the people in view of these races. The Scotch hound with wiry hair (the deer- hound), which formerly hunted the deer and is now found chiefly in the mountain- ous parts of Scotland as the pleasure dog in the castles of the great land- lords, is of very ancient origin and closely allied to the Irish wolfhound, a large dog with rough hair, coarsely built, and with mastiff blood in his veins. In Russia, where they still use these long-haired hounds in hunting wolves, which the dogs pursue in packs at full gallop, the animals need and have strong jaws and great endurance. The Russian wolfhound, properly so called, is rather more refined, has wav- ing hair, and is bred in Russia under the name of Barzoi. In France, Eng- land, Germany, Holland, and America he is exclusively, a pleasure dog and in very many ways is the most graceful representative of his race. He has an elegant shape and is extremely cautious towards children and furniture, etc. A Barzoi might be allowed to step upon a table covered with precious china, and not a piece would be broken. Very decided in mind as to what does not please him, strong and courageous when it is a matter of defending or protecting his master, the Barzoi is an excellent watchdog and a safe companion for bicyclists. The Dutch fanciers have imported the best specimens and are raising dogs that are worth their weight in gold. The color of the English hound is black, brown, fawn, blue-gray, white, or spotted. The Scotch hounds with rough hair must always be blue-gray, light red, or buff, without other tint, except possibly a white line on the chest, though even this is not desir- able. The Barzoi should be white, •- flecked with lemon, gray, or some- times brown. The hair, which is soft and silky, should wave along the flanks, and even be curly here and there, especially about the neck. Their long jaws are vigorous, and their intelligent eyes give constant pleasure by their color and expression. The little Ital- ian greyhound, bred solely for pleasure, is far Arabian Greyhound (Slougi) from equaling his congeners in courage and per- severance. He is afraid of water, shivers when it is cold, barks when he is out of humor, and THE UOG 39 is, in short, a parody on the true hound. By the Hght that shines between his sleniler bones we can see the small modicum nf blue blood that makes him the scion, the exhausted scion, of a very ancient race. VI. The Breeding of Dons We have already seen that from the earli- est times mankind has had a liking for dogs, and greatly to the advantage of those ani- mals. It is probable that they are not aware of it themselves, but, thanks to the care given to the various breeds, their exterior has been embellished and their good qualities and usefulness increased. Their fate also has been made easier, and dogs everywhere now take the first place among domestic animals. This is true throughout Europe and our own country, and although in certain countries we must make exception in the case of dogs harnessed for draft purposes, whose fate is far from happy, the lives of these domestic ani- mals in our country are not painful. At first the (ibject of mankind was to get the most use out of dogs, whether for hunting or sporting, but of late fanciers have applied them- selves, with great success, to increasing the beauty of certain species by selcctiDn, St. Hl'bkrt Dogs Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead A SiiiiRT-H.\n;Ki) GRI■.^•Il(lUNIJ guarding as much as possible against hurtful influences. It was to this object that the breed- ing of races owed its rise. Owners of excel- lent dogs took pains to preserve or improve the race by constant and methodical breeding, and thus maintained its reputation. It is notice- able that breeding, which is acquiring more and more of an international interest, should have been, and still remains, in the hands of fanciers who have held firmly to the tiller. Now and then there come to the surface schemes for the "breeding of dogs of all species," which have been, and still are, mere efforts to get a liveli- hood, by which the good public are less and less taken in. These " breeding establish- ments" — in other words, dog shops — were jiromptly shamed when they put their melan- chol)^ products on the market ; and the public, growing wise at its own expense, soon learned the advantage of buying their dogs from reli- able breeders. Among the output of the vari- ous corporations of fanciers some mongrel blood may still, no doubt, be found ; but associations and clubs guarantee the honesty of their trans- actions and proceed against their own mem- bers for any improper act. A good breed of dogs, raised with care and at great cost, — dogs that are really useful and 40 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS often winners at bench shows, — ought to sell for a just price. A breeder does not seek to make great profits, but it is natural that he should wish to cover his costs- fully. If a dog of any kind is wanted, without regard to pedigree, it is well enough to go to the professional dealer or to the market ; but if a high-bred dog is desired, one on whom the eye can rest with pleasure, who has a good chance of winning prizes and of making a posterity worth double his own price, then the purchaser must apply to some well-known kennels. What is meant to-day by a high-bred dog .'' It is a dog which, mated with another that differs from him only in sex and belongs to the same breed as himself, can produce young which are in all respects like their parents. The type of the race is characterized by the shape of the skeleton, particularly of the skull. This is transmitted from generation to gener- ation, so that a pair of dogs of the same breed can produce none but dogs of pure race, and could not themselves be of pure race if their par- ents, and their predecessors, had not belonged to the same race. In dog " sport " (of which we shall speak later) it is essential to have a genea- logical tree of seven couples of ancestors of pure blood. Considered superficially, the breeding of races would not be difficult according to this theory. Provided Adam and Eve were dogs of pure blood, the rest would follow of itself. Practice, however, teaches us very differ- ently. The breeder must intervene continually, for the enigmatic code of the heredity of the animal species has not yet been made clear. There may be countercurrents, and pairs of dogs of pure race may have young that do not show the characteristics of their ancestors. This is usually seen in the hair and in the color. There may also be degeneration when things have been left to chance. In that case new blood must be infused, which is sometimes borrowed from a wholly different breed. At the end of a certain time the products of these crossbreedings are fit to propagate a pure race. Besides the crossbreeding of different spe- cies breeders take pains to propagate a sin- gle family of the same race without admixture. Crossbreeding is necessary not only for the refreshing of the blood but also for obtaining new breeds ; but by the propagation of a single family certain qualities and shapes are obtained from parents, children, and grandchildren in a short time, and more constantly and surely. Nevertheless, this system is very dangerous, for the constitution of these animals becomes impaired, and though a nobler race is doubt- less obtained, it is also weaker and more deli- cate, and ends by disappearing. Pairs of dogs are not multiplication tables ; and while it is true that by the repeated mating of two speci- mens of high-bred dogs we obtain specimens still more magnificent, yet small defects and blemishes are multiplied exceedingly. A " noble " dog, however, may very well not be the product of inbreeding. When the lines of the body are beautiful and the body itself muscular and well-proportioned , the legs strong, the countenance energetic, the expression in- telligent, the stride rapid, and the color and coat pleasing, a dog may justly claim the appel- lation " noble." A dog which has no blood can- not be noble ; we baptize him with the name of "street cur." These latter form the great majority, no matter what care and what cost are expended on the ennobling of the canine races. We must find the reason of this fact in the general ignorance the simplest rules of breeding, and of the best means of bringing up and taking care of dogs and making them either useful or agreeable. Here follow some information and advice on those subjects. VII. The Kennel A wooden box, in which a suitable opening has been made, turned upside down upon the earth, may serve as a kennel. A barrel, well- cleaned and purified as much as possible, raised a little above the earth and supplied with a layer of straw, is also a cheap dwelling for a dog. We still see, here and there, these primi- tive kennels, and dogs seem none the worse forliving in them. On the contrary, the inhab- itant of the box has air in abundance and a rain bath gratis ; while he of the barrel keeps dry, the joints of that construction being impermeable. THE DOG 41 But these houses, even if adorned with a few cH)atings of paint, are not solid in the iong run, and cannot be recommemled for hi_i;ii-brcd iloi;s. A t;-ood kennel, which can be bou,i;ht cheaper (in the sense of being solid) than if made by the ablest carpenter, has its ojiening at the side. It sliould be planned thus : By placing a partition .i, as a wind screen, the dog can lie in space B sheltered from drafts. The space should be large enough to allow^ of his lying at his ease behind the screen. In summer £\ the partition can be removed, and if the ^'-^^ dog is still hot, he will know enough to W^ come out of the kennel to get air. The jrx floor may be of planks, but it must always i'^^ifi- be possible to clean it with water and disinfectants. Some kennels are detached from the ground or tu back on hinges, thereby contributii much to cleanliness, which is so it portant, especially for young dog If it is desired to prevent the di eases of dogs, disinfectants should be used every week in all ken- nels, but never to the extent of leaving the floor damp. Dryness and a layer of clean straw, sand. The Bakuel Kennel A Kennel of P.ast Times T)!!. Model Ki:n\ki. or any peaty substance is the safety of young dogs. A layer of peat, re- newed once a month, and covered with a layer oi good straw fresh every k is a delightful bed for all kinds Sawdust, carpets, and matting are less advisable. It is well for dogs to have a place outside their shelter, covered wholly or in part with sand, and surrounded b\' a hedge w-ithout thorns or sharp edges. It should be near the kennel, and should be large or small according to local cir- cumstances ; it should be paved in ]iart with stones or cement and pro- vided with little trenches or ditches. It might also form a grassv inclosure in the garden near the house, preferably with a southern exposure, but joartly shaded. Some kennels are paved with marble and have water running in trenches along the sides. They form, with a separate building for the gardener, a pretty group, but are apt to be ill in them, er kennels are built by embers of a famil)- in few da)s ; these are simple and practical, the animals who live in them are healthy and of exemplary gooil temper. In kennels of a The Same Kennel Wide Oi'kn certain character OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Large Kexxels seen i-rom Without Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead ^^^^^^^H^^^P' ~ ^^^^1 1 1 i ^^ if ^ ^m Large Kennels seen from Within and size the dogs are almost always provided with interior retreats or lairs ; these must be suitably ventilated, but protected from drafts. It is best to have the kennel face the south, but there should also be a shady side to it, where the animals could stretch themselves out against the railings. The space be- tween the rails should not be too wide, lest the dogs, espe- cially the young ones, should get their legs caught in them. All kennels should be dry, well aired, and provided with fresh water. The gravel of the paths is apt to hurt the toes of certain dogs, and is uncomfortable in winter from frost and snow. The water troughs, which are in or near the kennel, ought to be within easy reach of the dogs, fresh water being an indispensable necessity. It is not well to put many dogs in the same retreat ; and THE DOG 43 it is best to separate the se.xes not liy a railing;- but by a stone wall, throui;h whieh the)- rannot see each other. In large kennels, w here jiacks of sporting or hunting clogs are kept (foxhoiintls, for instance), a dozen are often put together ; but in such kennels the conditions differ in many respects from those elsewhere. It is curious to see and hear, once or twice a da) , the whole pack of these hounds give a sudden bark without apparent cause. A few will begin, and soon the noise (full cry) is deafening; then it ceases as suddenly as it began. Each set of dogs the command "Hounds! hounds!" the male dogs enter their quarters. The training of clogs, es]3ecially pointers, is always admirable kennels of a certain size. VIII. Indispens.able Arti- cles FOR THE Kennel Besides the ordinary im- plements for cleaning there ought to be in every kennel plenty of water and disinfec- tants, also brushes, combs, and leather or india-rubber gloves. These articles should be kept in some fixed, clean place apart, for it often hap- pens that servants will use seems to know not only its own name but the them for all sorts of purposes for which they names of the other sets. In the evening, when were not intended. If the kennel is large, it is the dogs return in charge of their keepers, the easy to make a place for them ; and if there is young dogs will go to their own t|uarters at ]ilcnt)- of room, the UmA ,,t thr dogs — biscuit. L.XKllKR M)K Kl-.NNELS the call of "Pups! pups!" Next follows the meat, eggs, bone dust — and some medicaments summons of " Ladies, come in ! " and all the may also be kept there. The biscuit must, of females press in to their retreat. Lastly, at course, be kept dr\-, the meat jirotccted from 44 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS flies, and the whole larder made safe from attack by the inhabitants of the kennel. The wardrobe of dogs, great and small, has its place in the kennel. First, there is the collar •*■ Dog with a Korthal's Collar that the dog wears when he takes a walk. The simpler it is the better. Nevertheless, on a is a kind called the Korthal's collar, after its inventor, who is known in all countries for his improvements in the breed of wiry-haired sport- ing dogs. This collar tightens as the dog pulls ; but not beyond a certain point, thanks to its metal rings. In training dogs several kinds of collars must be used, as we shall see farther on. Chains, straps, and ropes deserve more attention than is usually given them. A solid but light chain, with two or three movable rings, is indis- pensable, especially for bench shows; but they are necessaiy in other cases also, some dogs having the habit, when fastened by leather straps, of gnawing themselves loose. Nevertheless, it is well in taking the dog to walk that the owner shall not seem chained to his beast, or vice versa. A strong strap, with hooks, neither too long nor too short, is there- fore more useful. Two dogs can be trained to walk side by side by means of a coupling, but black poodle a colored or nickel-plated collar in any case straps, chains, and cords ought not shows to better advantage than a black leather to be used unless circumstances compel it ; for strap ; and a lady's pet with round his neck is not as much admired as if he wore colored cravat. It is record that an Italia greyhound was so over- come with envy at see- ing his brother with a silver collar that he committed suicide. Dogs may wear old collars in their kennels, and it is even desirable that they should, because in washing and brushing them these precious adorn- ments are easily spoiled. We \ recommend, especially, flat or round I dog fastened to you is : a pleasure to the dog often none at all to you. ^hen the animal is very young, or when he is not yet used to the collar and chain, he will not allow himself to be ed, and will often stop I short in the road. Attention must then be paid to the collar, for every such dog will try to slip his head out f what he considers an / instrument of torture and scamper off. Gentle words, much luiiunce, and, above all, persever- leather collars, of which one end goes Extra Wide Collar ance will, after a time, produce the through a buckle which tightens ^^^ Bulldogs desired effect. On the first occasion round the neck when pulled upon. They are of going out with a led dog it is best to choose absolutely necessary at bench shows. There a quiet road. Old dogs, who do not mind the Pii'^; I'li's:^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hb^h^ J^^^F\ f^syffl " LaDIKS, COM!-: IN I " I'lioto J. I'. Newman. lierkhampstcad 46 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS ^pn be ' tfi^K^^ f ^^^■^^r^^M^^^Hi^^^H Bf"^ mk M i flUlIK 1 1 1 w^^ ^■H! ^^H 1 t^ - A Walk with a Dog on a Chain is often but Half a Pleasure collar and chain, often retain the disagreeable trick of pulling forward with such force that the promenade becomes mere dragging, — a fatigue and not a pleasure. Dogs cannot be given too many walks, especially in the country. They learn to understand the will of their master and end by obeying the slightest sign. Choose between Me and your Machine Every infraction ought to be punished, at first by words and then by actions. If the dog lingers behind and does not come promptly at the first call or whistle, he should be fas- tened at once to the chain. When he is too busy with his congeners, or when he runs off too far, the same punishment should follow immediately upon the fault. Another habit of which it is very difficult to break a dog is that of wallowing in the mud. This is probably a relic of the habits of his ancestors or an inheritance from the wild dog, but it is none the less annoying. It is said that if a decoction of cabbage is given to them with their meals they will lose the habit, but people say a great many things, and natural habits are hard to change. In bicycle riding a dog is certainly a good escort on lonely roads, but in other respects, both for dog and cyclist, it is only a half pleasure. Actual torture is sometimes seen. Greyhounds, certain terriers, and a few large dogs can accompany a cyclist without too THE DOG 47 other substances ; these dogs also do well and are healthy. For kennels of a dozen dogs or more it is iiriulent to cook broth at home, and to ,i;ive to the best dogs great quantities of dog biscuit. Biscuit is also very convenient for those who iiuve onl\' one or two df)Lrs, as it much fatigue; but to take a basset hound, a bulldog, a collie, or a St. Bernard on a rapitl trip is injurious to the animal and ilistressing to his owner. A short triji on a summer's afternoon in the park or half an hour into the country will not harm any dog, whereas a long and rapid run injures both his heart and his lungs. " Choose between me and your machine," says the dog, and he is perfectly right It is also injurious to send a dog out twice a day on the chain with a servant, — in the morning when the milkman is at the door, in the evening when the maid goes to market. In the morning Turk or Mimi will want to make acquaintance with his or her con- geners of a doubtful kind ; in the evening it is the maid's acquaint- ance who makes the promenade disagreeable to the dog. Go out yourself with your dogs ; feed them yourself ; con- vince yourself daily that they are cared for as merely requires to be broken up and soaked, or you desire, — these are some of the rules that it can be bought broken uji. Thus dry food in every owner of dogs should inscribe in gilt sufficient quantity is at hand at all times. It letters on his kennels. Abo\-e all, carry the is necessary, however, to be sure of a good food yourself to your dogs ; animals accustom dealer, who will supply fresh biscuit from the themselves and attach themselves most to best manufacturers, who prepare their pnnluct those who feed them. with the utmost care. Many brands of adulter- ated biscuit, made of refuse of all kinds, are now IX. L.\RE AND rooD „,.| j^g market. To certain dogs who cannot It is very difficult to say what is the best bear meat, excellent fish biscuit may be given food to give to dogs. The harness^^^^^^^^^^^^^ now and then. It is best not to give dogs, for instance, who never ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ it dry, though all dogs, espe- A(,ki:i:.\i;li-: I'i;o.\u:n.\1)[: n get anything but bread a potatoes, continue in good health whil doing hard wor Some are fed solely on biscuit made of flour mixed with a certain quan- tity of minced meat, fish, or cially young ones, ought to have hard food often n order to cleanse nd strengthen their teeth. 1 is not bad to .uy the food i\ ith rye bread, own bread, uul occasion- ally vegetables. OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS IXDISPEN'SAKI.E AkTICLKS F(TR THE KeXXEE AND W Young dogs should be given much milk, with or without water, and sometimes a little whey. What is left from the table or from restaurant dinners, like moistened crusts, sour potatoes, the skins and heads of fish, and such things as we hear people say, " Oh ! the dog will eat that," are certainly swallowed by him, but the results are diseases o the skin or of the intestines, ulcers in the throat, and bills from veterinaries If a dog will not eat potatoes without sauce, give him no food until his stomach begins to crave it. Al- r- ' ways give a dog less than ' his stomach demands. To | be kept i good health a dog should never turn from his plate till he has licked it clean with pleasure. When he leaves any food upon it, it is a sign that he has eaten too much. Two meals a day are sufficient, — one cold in the morning, and the other luke- warm in the afternoon. Pups should be fed three or four a day, and they ought have twice as much milk as vegetables Food should never be hot, for a dog- dislikes as much as a man to burn his tongue, but he is not c a u t i o u enough to refra from gulping down boiling mess. Every dog, being born carniv- orous, ought to have meat ; but it is impossible to fix the exact quantity he should receive without considering his form and the conditions under which he lives. Draft dogs and hounds which hunt and course ought to have meat in proportion to Dogs A Dog ought to eat with Pleasure their work. Horse fiesh, beef, and mutton are good for them, provided the meat is fresh and not fat. In the great kennels broth is often made of calves' heads and feet. Rice is an excellent food, and mixed with codfish is a favorite winter food for dogs that are not pampered. From time to time a little cod-liver oil (which can be ob- tained in biscuit form) puri- fies the blood and gives a luster to the coat. Over the food of young dogs and those nearly adult a pinch of phos- phated lime or pure bone dust should be scat- tered. Dogs like to gnaw tender bones, which help to strengthen their own bony structure ; they bury a bone to make it tender, but it sometimes happens that a hard bone is thrown to a puppy, and this is always injurious. What the dog needs to find now and then on his diet list is grass — just common grass. He often goes in search of it himself, and eats like a famished cow. Once a month he must be made to take a vermifuge mixed ^ with his milk and given preferably I when he is fasting / A vermifuge in bis- cuit form, a teaspoon- ful of calomel, or any of ,uj?^' the vermifuges advertised in the papers do good ser\fice when the ailment is merely earth- worms, with which nearly all dogs are troubled, just as they are by threadworms. Visible emaciation and the rub- bing of the hind parts on the ground show the presence of these mischief-makers. But dogs can have other species of worms that may be THE DOG 49 Hi-: ouoht HAVE TOO 11 dangerous to man. They must absolutely be prevented from licking plates and dishes used in the kitchen, or any utensil used for wasliing tlic facc\ especially that of a child. After each vermifuge a dose of castor oil should be given, in a quantity projioi tioned to the size of the animal, beginning \v a teaspoonful and in creasing until the maximum of a table- spoonful is reached. Here is another piece of serious advice to those who have young dogs never fatten them. The Chinese and some tribes of negroes in Guinea consider ilog flesh a delicacy, but as long as it does not appear on the dinner lists of America there is no object in giving dogs excessive nourishment, which undoubtedly shortens their lives. The care given to dogs for bench shows differs considerably, as we shall see later, from that which they receive in private families. Among the latter external care is, unhappily, so neglected that the animals finally acc[uire skin diseases, which make them objects of dis- gust to every one, and they exhale an odor which is veiy hard to remove. All dogs which a family desires to keep in good health (for their own sake as well as the dog's) should be freed at least once a week from dust and all other impurities that have collected on their skin and in their hair. This ought, by rights, to be done daily, and it is not a really difficult matter, with leather gloves and a good brush. A few strokes of the brush in the direction in which the hair lies will suffice to give another aspect to the coat of a short-haired dog. Long- haired dogs must be combed after massage with the gloved hand. The dead hair should be care- fully removed. During the period of shedding the hair it is wise to proceed carefully, as the skin is very sensitive at such times. All combs and brushes used upon the animal should be cleaned at once, and preferably with a disin- fectant. Besides dust and dirt the hair of a dog frequently hides \ermin, but if he is cleaned dail}' he will ha\'e few or none. It is not bad to wash and bathe dogs, igh this is often done to excess. The}' may be allowed to swim from time to time, but there is a great dif- ference between swimming and a bath for cleanli- , ness. A dog should have a bath once a month, and should then be i^et to the skin. After rubbing him well with .Miap and warm water, every particle of soap must be rinsed off and the dog allowed to shake himself vigor- ously. He should then be dried with towels and taken on the chain for a short walk ; if this is not done he almost always takes cold, or else he goes and dries himself against a dirtv NEVER TO UCH TO E.\T S^S^ P"' jgj 5rwf '"^H Ri^ r '' "^SS^^ ^^B^^ ^yr- • . . '-^L^rf^^B ^^^^^^^^VvJ 50 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS wall or in the sand. Baths are quite injurious to the hair of collies and to Russian hounds with long waving hair. Those dogs should be rubbed with equal quantities of magnesia and rice powder mixed, which should previously be n iHE De.^u Hair thoroughly dried. A chamois skin and a little oil in the palm of the hand contribute much to keeping the coat smooth. There are all sorts of domestic remedies for fleas and other vermin, but the best and most lasting results are obtained from the medica- ments put forth by the best manufacturers. To permit a dog to swim as much as he likes is a good and easy way of cleansing the skin ; on the other hand, we disapprove of the mania some persons have of making dogs take cold baths in ponds and rivers against their will, especially since such baths are usually too short to produce any cleansing effect. Proper care of the skin and coat will give a healthy dog a brilliant exterior, which together with a greater vivacity and gayety distinguishes him at a glance from a neglected dog ; while at the same time he will lose the disagreeable trick of scratching and biting himself, and will no longer exhale an odor. The hair of a dog being his natural cloth- ing,- he needs no other fur in winter. Neverthe- less, there is a whole wardrobe of garments for dogs ; and dressmakers in London, Paris, and New York do a good business by making them. Traveling cloaks, evening cloaks, jackets for the carriage, waterproofs, and even india- rubber boots find purchasers of both sexes Shirts for dogs, monograms embroidered on their garments, visiting cards, etc., form part of this branch of industry. There is a shop in the Galerie d'Orleans, in Paris, where Grand Duke Michael of Russia is one of the best customers, and where the Khedive of Egypt once ordered for a little dog an incroyable ; in other words, an over- coat with velvet lapels. The Comtesse de Paris, the queen of Portugal, and Prince Waldemar of Denmark all order their dog's clothing at the same place ; but it goes without saying that, excepting delicate grey- hounds, no dog needs to be clothed, and they had better be left to their natural garments. Formerly the great hounds that were sent against big game were protected by a sort of cuirass. This is seen in a picture by Rubens, in the Belvedere of Vienna, and also in the gallery of the Duke of Coburg. This covering had a useful purpose, protecting the dog from the bites of boars and bears. But the feebler animals of our day never dream of Toilet Completed fighting ; they crouch to earth and tremble in their collars if a grunt is heard. When you see two dogs fighting and biting each other don't break your cane over their backs, but pinch the nose of the top dog or THE DOG 51 grip his throat, sUpping your stick through his collar. He will let go immediately for want of air. But if you are the one the dog has bitten, send at once for the doctor. X. Birth .and E.vrlv Youth If a person owns a well-bred female dog and desires to reproduce the breed, or if he owns a male and desires to have pups which later will have a money value, let him never lose sight of the following maxim : " Marry gold to gold or silver to gold." The male and the female can never be too good. The selection should be left to an experienced breeder, taking care to put in writing the condi- tions of the trans- action. When the time comes for the pups to be born the mother should be kept in perfect repose. For some weeks previous she should not be allowed to take fatiguing walks or to jump and bound. A place should have been already prepared for her, apart from the other dogs. It is best not to put too much straw in it, or the pups cannot be dried fast enough by the mother's licking. The mother will choose for herself the best side of the kennel or barn. It is well that she should be habituated to the place some time in advance, or it might happen that her new residence would not please her, and then, at the last moment, an anxious mother will give birth to her pujis in some unexpected place which may be injurious to them. It is needless to say that nature ought to be left to itself, but the present system of breeding has put many dogs into a state that is unnatural. It is not surprising, therefore, that some mothers crush their progeny, or, in the agitation of the moment, do not know what to do with the wet and whimpering pups ; and thus whole litters are sometimes lost. It is not superfluous to take precautions. Among other precautions a large box or case should be provided, with vertical partitions about six inches high, where the mother can give birth to her young. In it should be laid a second wooden floor, carefully planed, with small holes pierced through it, by which the moisture can drain off. This floor should be covered with peat dust. There should also be four trans- versal laths placed along one interior side of the box, under which the pups can lie without danger of being pressed upon by the mother. These laths must not have sharp edges that might w o u n d the mother's breast. If the weather is cold an empty sack fjr a piece of old carpet might be nailed over the opening, which arrangement is always excellent to close a dog's retreat, because it excludes cold, and yet the animals can easily pass in and out by pushing aside the portiere. Nature has provided that the mother can feed all the offspring that she brings into the world ; but our system of breeding, no doubt unintentional!)', has put a spoke in her wheel, and very large litters are nearly always a fail- ure. The strongest of the newborn quickly choose the best places under the mother's teats, and push aside the weaker ones ; so that when the litter is large some of the pups get little nourishment, while others get none at all, and die. It is quite a risk to leave six with the mother. Breeders usually try to leave four or fi\e. The best and strongest can soon be dis- co\ered ; but in every litter there is usually M.\ti:rn.al Cares 52 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS a laggard, which remains small and feeble even when adult. A mother can suckle ten at a time, but the anatomical construction of her breast gives a smaller relative production of milk than is the case with any of the other domestic animals, w alone is reason enough to limit the number of pups If the mother is a very valuable dog, a substi- tute is found for her after a time ; and advertisements often appear in the news- papers, to the great amusement of those who know nothing of dogs, soliciting the serv- ices of a "wet-nurse bitch." An attempt has been made to. manufacture an artificial nurse, consisting of an apparatus which the pups are kept warm and supplied with nursing bottles of warm milk. Some pups are brought up on the bottle, but the mother's milk is so efficacious from the birth of the little ones that art is found powerless to equal nature. It is, in fact, absolutely necessary that the pups should suck the first drops from the mother's breast, because that milk, watery in appearance, contains sub- stances which warm them internally and carry Young Mastiffs Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead If Youx UNDS — German off matters which they have in their bodies, and which ought to disappear as soon as possible. Mothers who are very young give birth at first to few pups. Their litters become larger till their fourth year, when they begin to diminish. During the period of suckling the mother should given food that is easy to digest, and in which there is much white of egg, grease, and salt, which serve to make milk for the young ones. A broth of flesh, with much warm milk and rice, makes excel- lent nourishment for the nursing mother. At the end of five or si.x weeks meat can be given to her, either cooked or raw, minced J with bread and, if necessary, biscuit. Salt must not be forgotten, nor phosphated chalk, nor bone dust to strengthen the bones, the weather is warm, the pups can be taken out of the bo.x on the fifth day and put in a basket. The box should then be thor- oughly cleansed. At the end of eight days the young dogs begin to open their eyes and try to creep ; by the fifteenth day they can, though very awkwardly, lap milk from a dish or a plate. The milk, however, should be mixed with water or limewater. Weaning must not begin till after the fifth week. The mother will try to fulfill her nursing duties as long as possible ; but if the pups are fed during her absence from them (which ought to take place four or five times a day), the difificulty will soon be overcome. If the little creatures are fed at first on milk, broth, cod-liver oil, or biscuit prepared for young pups, they will soon take these things as their regular food. But they should be fed several times a day in small quantities, and not all at once, in which case they will be likely to stuff themselves to their ears, to the great detriment of their health and well-being. THE DOG 53 The place where the pups live must be often cleansed and disinfected, as they are far from cleanly themselves. The habit of cleanli- ness must be taught to each jiujipv, <>nc by h K^ •7 ■ IS T if i^^^^^^^H t I b^ Wtf\ w ^ t ' '^^V M\ 1^ r-^' 1. ;.ii HdW TO Lift a Ydi'xo Dot; one ; they will not learn it in a body. In lift- ing young dogs they should never be taken by the neck, but always under and round the body by both hands. They will soon become the victims of fleas, which, in spite of all efforts, do infest all ani- mals. The pups must be washed carefully, but no disapproval of the use of tobacco water or turpentine can be too severe. Neither is it well to use kerosene, which will destroy no more fleas than careful washing. Dotzer's Cream of Parasites is now the universal remedy against these pests ; it is also a preventive of eruptions of all kinds. XI. Old Age Dogs are in their prime when three or four years old. Until their sixth )car they are strong and healthy ; after that they decline, and a dog .that is eight years old is regarded by his kind as an old fellow. At ten he is really an old dog, and though he may live a few years longer, the usual life of the domestic clog lasts only ten or eleven years. The great- est age on record is that of a spaniel who lived to be twenty-six years old. It is remarkable how old dogs, especially those who have given proofs of perspicacity through life, retain their intellectual faculties to the last. Leibnitz de- clared that these animals never wholly die ; and according to the Scandinavian mythology the dog is the messenger of death. On the other hand, in our matter-of-fact epoch, a dead dog is dead ; and the first thing to do is to take the body of that friend of man and bur)- it. Dead dogs are sometimes 1 1, iw Mil 1(1 I.ii r lIiM thrown into the water, where ihcy float among the reeds, and swarms of flies and moscjuitoes disseminate germs that are certainly injurious and even poisonous. The proper way of pre- venting this would be to burn all bodies of animals ; but so long as the cremation of man makes slow progress, that of animals will be slower still. W'c must, therefore, Inirv them, THE DOCx 55 and whatever we may think, it is the best way for the present. There are cemeteries for dogs in London, Paris, and Amsterdam. Many a tear has been shed in those cemeteries where lies the old and faithful friend of the family, who has shared its joys and sorrows ; and where the sporting dog, the joy and comfort of the sports- man, sleeps his last sleep. Persons have some- times laughed both at and in those cemeteries ; we leave it to our readers to judge whether or not they have cause to do so. The burial of dogs dates far back. Among the ancient Mexicans they were buried in the tombs of their deceased mas- ters, and the same was done on the death of children, be- cause, according to their ideas, those faithful friends would help the little ones to find their way ; while our advanced civilization, that knows so much better, casts them into the manure pit. There have been e.xceptions to this rule, however. In Celebes, the largest of the Molucca Islands, they are buried to improve the soil, and thus continue their services to man. Frederick the Great caused tombs to be built for his hounds at Sans Souci, and numerous are the monuments that have been raised to the memory of clogs. Alexander the Great built a town in memory of one of these friends, and Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 608 to 639, decreed that the anniversary of the death of his dog Arzibur should be kept annually as a day of mourning. Lately a well-known dog named Syras (by Prince Charles of Denmark, now king of Norway, after an English actor) died in London and was buried at Scarsdale, his head resting on a cushion of flowers in a rosewood coffin. A ]3rocession of forty per- sons in automobiles followed him to the ceme- tery, W'here a fine monument is now in process of erection. All that, undoubtedly, is sheer exaggeration ; but the simple burial of the domestic dog is less shocking, especially for the children, than his consignment to the ma- nure heap. XII. The Usefulness of Dogs If it were asked by which of the dog's gifts or organs mankind has chieHy. profited, the answer undoubtedly would be scent, — Jhiir. Hunting and sporting dogs of all kinds are proof of this, and bloodhounds, which of late have been again much talked, of, will probably render much service in future to the laws and A. DiSTiNouisHF.n Mf.muf.k ok tim-: HrM.ANi". Sociktv the police. Up to this time the employment of bloodhounds {c/iiciisdc Saint HiilJi-rt)\n England has been merely tentative. Thanks to his scent, the bloodhound is well fitted to follow a human trail, and they have been used for this purpose in America with such brilliant results that it is really surprising that the European continent has not, as yet, attempted to get this service from them. Trained to the w^ork, these dogs will indicate where the jierson wanted is to be found, without tloing him the slightest harm. They must not be confounded with ferocious bloodhounds sent in pursuit of negroes, about whom all sorts of exaggerateil tales have been 56 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS German Polick Don told. There is now a club for the de- velopment of these hounds and their congeners. The law could profitably use these animals in certain cases, and they might be given to the police as watchers and companions. In remote quarters, where only two police agents can be employed, a dog would answer well as a reenforcement, and would be cheaper than a man. In fact, in Ham- burg, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Strasburg the police have dogs. In Paris the police have a brigade of life-saving Newfound- lands, who are particularly fitted and used for rescuing persons from the Seine. In Austria the attention of the authorities has been drawn to such use of these animals, while at Zurich, Ghent, and Rotterdam they now form part of the police force. It is difficult to decide which race or breed is best fitted for such purposes. Lovers of the shepherd dog favor that race ; breeders of terriers (which have already done good service with the armies) recommend them highly. In any case the dog must be dark in color, not too small, courageous, hardened, not pampered, and possessed of a keen scent. There are places on certain frontiers where the customhouse officers employ dogs with great success in tracking smugglers. On the other hand, it often happens that the dog helps the smuggler by car- rying prohibited merchandise across the frontier with caution and great rapidity. War dogs, introduced of late into armies, never miss the roll call. The Scotch shepherd dog and the Aires- dale terrier have been found most suitable for both cam- paign and ambulance use. They do incalculable service in seeking for the wounded among bushes and under- growth, where the poor fellows escape the eye of the Dogs of the River Brigade, Paris I A BiUGxnE OF Lii'E-Saving Docs okgani/id hv M. Lepint., Pkei-ect ok roi.u i; at 1'akis 58 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Red Cross but not the nose of the dog. They are trained to bring relief and food to the shghtly wounded, and to carry cartridges along German War Dog the Hnes and dispatches to the generals ; they are also trained to warn the outposts at night (without barking) of an intended surprise. At the hospital on Mount St. Bernard a race of dogs has for centuries been kept to rescue travelers who have lost their way. The manner in which this was done in past years, when there were many more foot passengers than at present, has been too often described to need repetition here ; it is enough to say that along the route at regular intervals there are "refuges," now connected with the hospital by telephone. The dog, accompanied by a monk, carries the traveler to one of these shelters, and no longer needs the traditional little key around his neck. The St. Bernard dogs on the mountain of that name do not present the imposing appearance of their congeners as seen in the bench shows of the present day. The care and study given to the breeding and improvement of the race have been admir- able. While in England and America breed- ers have chiefly paid attention to size, and have wandered from the original type, those of the continent of Europe have striven to pre- serve the pure blood of that type as much as possible. The head should be heavy, the muzzle square, the nose thick, the ears small and car- ried high, the color, preferably dark. The legs, with catlike paws, must be strong, the chest well rounded, the back broad and straight, and the tail pendent. Both varieties, the short haired and the long haired, should measure at least twenty-six inches to the shoulder for the males and twenty-five for the females. The color may be all shades of red to brown, with the collar, chest, feet, and tip of tail white. The catlike shape of the feet enables the animal to walk on the snow without sinking deep, which would lessen his chance of saving life. Obviously these qualities are of use only on a mountain. Every one remembers the legend of Barry, the most famous of all the St. Bernard dogs, who, in the seventeenth century, saved hun- dreds of lives on the Alps. It was said that this faithful animal was killed by a wounded soldier, who thought he was about to attack him, whereas the dog was really trying to pull him from the edge of a precipice. This touch- St. Bernard (German Type) ing tale is false, for Barry was killed in 1817 because of old age, and sent to the museum, where he was stuffed and may still be seen. THE UOG 59 In the ranks of the use- ful dogs we must place the draft dog, though it is more than doubtful whether the structure of this animal is fitted to draw vehicles. It is cer- tain, hinvever, that they render incalculable serv- ices by d r a w i n g the sledges of the inhabitants of northern regions antl those of explorers who travel to the Pole. M. Fridtjof Nansen wrote to us recently as follows : "The dogs of the Eski- mos and those of Siberia can easily do ninety miles a day. In fine weather they will run without stop- ping for four or five hours, and each dog can draw a weight of three hundred and twenty-five pounds. The sledge dog, or 'narta,' is relatively light, but vigorous. The runners of the sledge, over which water is poured from time to time, forming a smooth coat of ice half an inch thick, glide with rapidity over the snow. None but male dogs at least three years old are used for this purpose. St. BERNAun Special photo from the convent For the leading couple the best dogs are chosen ; these are followed by si.x other couple, guided by means of a stick five feet long and by the voice of their driver. The life of travelers, also the conveyance of the post throughout northern Siberia, depend entirely on these dogs. Consequently they are carefully treated '-.U^^?^:^^-.^ J^" 'sm K^iHMH tV . :%^. F 'M H'Jdni 111 tl I ^ ^ " ^s^H^ ^m ^^t^ WK^ m mmmm , ;>;:■ ■• ! A Si'LicNiMi) Lot of St. Hr.uNAKDS 6o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and fed. They cannot be compared with those martyred draft animals that we see, ill harnessed and ill fed, in more than one civilized land." The Belgian draft dog, a model of strength and health, makes an exception to the above charge. Any one who has seen these dogs Overwrought Draft Dog carrying round milk and vegetables in Brus- sels must have been struck with the superiority of their harness over that used in the Low Countries and elsewhere. Holland, however, is beginning to take more interest in the fate of draft dogs ; and a society has recently been formed, estabhshing a tariff of distances and rewarding owners who can show good care, good harness, and good carts. We can only ap- plaud such effort to put an end to the martyrdom of draft dogs. It is admitted that the large herbivorous animals are more fitted to draw and to carry than the carnivorous animals. The shape of a dog's foot is unfavor- able to traction ; nor can a dog's chest stand the effort, and a col- lar is martyrdom to him. Their natural way of progression is somewhat oblique, and the hind feet never step in line with the front ones. The back is strong to leap, but not to pull, and above all not to carry. Their shoulders are more de- tached from the body than those of the horse. And yet, in spite of these objections, the dog has been .made a draft animal in many of the European countries. There is more humanity in the attempts that have been made to utilize the dog in various industries. Sometimes the end of a telephonic cord is put into his mouth, and he climbs the pole with it, thereby saving much labor. At other times he turns the crank of the churn, for which the old-world peasant woman gives him a good lump of liver as a reward. At a printing press in Plymouth a dog named Gipsy turns a wooden wheel that sets the press in motion ; he takes pleasure in his work and is much more regular, and also cheaper, than men employed in the same labor. We must not forget to put in the class of use- ful dogs those who take care of the blind. There was one who for years attended his mendicant master at one of the London railway stations, and collected alms enough to make the poor man comfortable. Later he was promoted to the rank of assistant railway guard, because he always announced to the station master by a short bark the approach of a train. In short, the usefulness of these animals is great and does not cease with their lives, for many are the kid gloves and the true chamois leather portfolios that are cut out of his skin, — ^ *-' >^!Sk - " ^'W-' ■^*- • /^ 1 y:' ^ ^4 i~-^ / 1 !1 r.-^ %■ -^ -i ^ -^^''''*^: <^ im^m W 'Y-^JH m 1^ i llMP- >^ ^\'-' unless, indeed, it has already been used to make beautiful heads of hair for dolls, or a charming set of furs. XIII. The Training of Dogs Nearly all dogs lend themselves readily to training ; there are only a few very backward Dogs of thi". Cistoms Sf,k\icf, at Roubaix 1 ■ ■ ^-'■ kmMFJMt^i 1 1 ir ,AiwnBK««^^ 7L , >-^ frf^--' '<■••■ ^ ■■■"" ■■ :ii;w."-«s MB* '^f k ' .• ^**..- ^. 'sv-.. . ''^im.i*&-ii^''^. .'-, .iiiJB- :t?:r *'": '.<»▼'• HS^ '4^ m f^Kff -7^ ^M"! ^ rid "^"^ !MW^^-' ^-^ 1 - . -M :-^.. ' - 4 1 ' '^';;'^7^^^ ■ • '^ \\ II K I III .Sllc p I 1^1 Rktrikvinc 1-kom Till-; Ki\i:r furniture and carpets, but this annoyance will cease if, from time to time, they are given bones to gnaw. They should be sternly for- bidden to lie on chairs and sofas. This can be pre\ented at night b\' laying the chairs on their sides and putting hard things 'in the sofa. A dog who begs at the table is also very annoying. He ought not to be allowed to enter the room dur- ing dinner, or, if he is, should be tied in Mime corner that belongs to him. The leaps he makes in his joy at going out \\ ith his master are often prejudicial to the coat and trousers of the latter, espe- cially in rainy weather. It will usually 66 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Difficult Feat which REQUIRES Long Practice Circus Training suffice to take him by the two front paws and make him walk backward on his hind paws. That will cure him of his de- sire to leap upon you in future. XIV. Bench Shows and Competitions Bench shows, which are really a subdivision of sport with dogs, are among the most important things for a breeder. That which attracts or ought to at- tract thither the amateur breeder is not so much the chance of car- rying off prizes as the honor and satisfaction of seeing them won by animals he has bred himself. The first canine bench show took place iniSsgat New- castle-upon- Tyne. Although only pointers and setters were shown, it was an exhibition very superior to the dog sales hitherto organized by dealers at the inns, where visitors (mostly coachmen) did business and drank brandy together. In 1 860 the great bench show at Birmingham took place ; this was fol- lowed by many others, not very large ones, it is true, but held under the stern control of the English Kennel Club and the best known ex- perts, who now make a business of it and form the jury of awards. The great English bench shows — those of the said club, for instance — last three days and are attended by thousands of paying visitors, who can thus review from one thousand to fifteen hundred dogs. In France the first bench show took place in May, 1863, at the Jardin des Plantes. The committee was formed of the members of the Jockey Club, and the cost of the show was paid by subsidies from the railways, the city of Paris, and Baron Rothschild. The prizes given amounted to three thousand dollars, which was certainly a good send-off. Later there were several shows every year. Those which are now held in France, usually lasting three days and devoted to different races of doars, are considered among the best. The THE DOG 67 last great Parisian show, which was organized by the Socictc Ccntralc, took in daily recei]its of more than twent)-five hundred dollars. Germany has not remained behind, and several of its cities have had very successful shows, lasting two or three days. Belgium, thanks to its Royal Society of St. Hubert and other clubs, organizes in sum- mer very important shows, to which are sent magnificent specimens which attract much interest in other countries. The United States is not backward, either, in the num- ber or the quality of her bench shows, which are now annual affairs in many of our large cities. But it is generally admitted and agreed that Holland takes precedence of all other countries in the organiza- tion of shows, the arrangement, preparation, and administration of which (striking an outsider with amazement) are taken as models by other countries. Annual shows are organized in Holland by the differ- ent clubs, and a body of excellent Dutch experts, who are often in- vited to other countries to judge of indigenous races (the German watchdogs, the Russian wolf- hounds, and the Ensjlish mastiffs, for instance), prove that these dog not for the mere amusement of d( shows are LT fanciers, 68 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Dog trying to cross the Frontier with Contraband Goods but that serious studies of a scientific nature are also made there. To the uninitiated a dog show has some- thing disconcerting. The deafening racket, the swarming of dogs and men, the enigmatical placarding of prizes, the long inspections, are bewildering and hard to under- stand. In consequence of the division into " open classes " (meaning those in which all dogs may compete), "limited classes " (for those who have already won a number of first prizes), and "young classes," a dog may carry off a first prize in one class and obtain only an H. M. (honorable mention) in another class, which certainly makes the placarding very puzzling. The estimate of a dog is sometimes very difficult, espe- cially when two superb speci- mens are competing for the prize, which is sometimes a medal or money, but oftener some fine work of art. It is difficult also to satisfy the owners (who are very susceptible even about trifles). It is not yet decided whether the system of three experts would give better results, or whether it would be wise to return to the old scale of points and figures. There is much to be said on both sides, but it is certain that the tastes and opinions of experts give rise to dif- ferences that are sometimes far from agreeable to the owners of the dogs. Are bench shows injurious to the animals ? No ; not if they are well organized and under the auspices of a serious club. Dogs are well treated, visited by veterinarians, fed and transported carefully, and re- turned in good health to their homes. On their return it is prudent to wash them with some suitable disinfectant, though at all good bench shows dogs are now disinfected very carefully. Dogs under three months old are too young to be sent to these exhibitions. A Promising Young Dog THE DOG 69 Dfxoratf.I) with Champion's Cross Besides the prizes in medals, mone}', or works (>f art, the title of "champion " can be obtained, though of course such distinc- tion is awarded only to stars of the first magnitude. The late Queen Victoria gave a cross to a dog (not exhibited), and that decoration was no other than the famous Victoria Cross. It was given in 1 879, after the war in Afghanistan. The dog (his name was Bob) made the cam- paign with the second regi- ment, the Royal Berkshire, and was wounded. His portrait appears in the celebrated picture of "The Fight of the Last Eleven at Mai wand." A dog named Jack also received the Victoria Cross for saving several lives at the battle of the Alma. Jerry, another dog of the Crimean War, received a medal and a dinner from the city of Dublin. The transportation of dogs to all bench shows should be made in baskets, securely fastened, or, better still, in light, well-ventilated cases, in which water can be supplied to the animal without the necessity of open- ing the case or basket. A dog can travel two or three days without e.xtra food, but he must have fresh water supplied to him at various stations. Though a dog should never be fastened in his traveling case or bas- ket, lest he should strangle himself with n>|)e or strap, it is best to put on a collar and chain when he reaches his des tination among strangers. In general, railway rules and regu- lations for the transportation of dogs leave much to be desired ; the charges are very high, and are often based on ridiculous reasons. In Germany a particular sort of competition has been established, in which bassets hunt foxes and badgers along subterranean pas- sages. These competitions, much Thavf.i,in(; Raskkt followed, esjjecially in southern German)', correspond some- what to the runs of fox terriers organized in France, — in the Bois de Boulogne, for instance, — which always excite great interest. In Belgium some peo- ple amuse themselves, though more or less in secret, b)' send- ing fox terriers against rats which are shut up in cages and are killed in a moment b_\- one bite of the dog. The trial of shepherd dogs, who are made to chase before them a given number of sheep on a given space or road, is of a more peace- ful character, but not less interesting and amus- ing. Now and then in connection with shows Tn.wELiNG Cage there are races of harnessed dogs, sometimes a procession of the prize winners, and at still other times a parade of packs of hounds, with their huntsmen in scarlet coats making a noisy hullabaloo with their horns ; occasion- ally there are dog races conducted b}- children ; all of which is amusing for the exhibitors and for the public. Of late the continent of Europe no longer takes part in the English bench shows, and vice \ersa, owing to the rigorous quaran- tine enforced against foreign dogs at English ports, which renders importation impossible for sports- men who desire merely to exhibit their animals. 70 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS XV. Diseases and Death of Dogs We have now arrived, in our rapid survey of the dog and his life, to the old age of that faithful companion who, indeed, has a right to be well treated to his last hour. Though old age begins with his ninth or tenth year, dis- eases may appear earlier, and whether it is a question of prize winning or not, his master is bound to study the means of curing them. In all books treating of the canine race a cer- tain number of recipes will be found ; but the best advice that we can offer is to send for a veterinarian and not attempt the treatment yourself. Of course, if it is merely a question Trained to hunt Rats of worms, you can safely administer the pow- der called kamala ; or if the dog is slightly wounded, you can treat him as you would yourself. If comphcations arise, send at once for the veterinarian. Still it is as well to have a knowledge of the most frequent diseases. Every one who buys a dog ought first to know if he has already had distemper {febris catarrhalis epizodticimi camim), for though many dogs escape it, it is a very general and extremely uncomfortable trib- ulation, and is even dangerous for young dogs. This disease, which is not new, for we hear of it in Spain in 1752, appears in about the same form among cats, wolves, foxes, and some other species of animals. It is contagious, and is communicated by nasal mucus and other deposits coming from the body of the infected animal ; it is also in the atmosphere and in- spires a natural dread in all proprietors of large kennels. It is most frequent in young dogs, older ones having had it and therefore being immune, but no one race of dogs is more pre- disposed to it than others. In ordinary cases it lasts from three to four weeks, and it can be fought as well undeveloped as symptomatically ; that is to say, in the germ by carbonate of soda, bismuth, etc., or in the symptoms by febri- fuges, emetics, and remedies against mucous and skin diseases. After distemper the disease most univer- sally known and feared is rabies (hydrophobia), caused by some contagious matter in the brain and spinal cord. It came first from southern Russia and made a circuit through Europe and the United States, sparing neither man nor beast. There are hundreds of cases which ignorant persons call rabies which are not that disease at all. It is enough to hear of one real case to find the number of imagined ones increased with such terrifying rapidity as to justify all precautions, be they needless or premature. This disease attacks no dog or other animal unless it has been bitten by a rabid ani- mal, usually a dog. Such dogs run at large and to great distances, biting, as they go, both men and animals that come in their way ; and the extent of the evil is incalculable if the authori- ties do not promptly interfere. Unfortunately, the order to muzzle dogs, which is nearly all they can do, is absolutely insufficient, because in spite of regulations many dogs are not muz- zled, and also because the muzzles that are officially recommended are worth nothing. It is strange that Philippe le Bel, king of France, who hated dogs and invented muzzles, did not make a better model than a " bag of iron wire "; and stranger still is it that the authorities of our day, who could have the advice of scientists and breeders, have as yet invented nothing better. Some mad dogs, however, never bite. Most of them are mute, or else they emit a low yelp ; THE DOG 71 they eat nothing but abnormal substances, such as splinters, stones, leather, and straw. The presence of such matters without other food in the stomach of a dog, together with other symptoms of rabies, indicates the true disease. That infected animals have a horror of water is a popular delusion, as is also the belief that the dog days in August cause the poor creature's madness. The dog clays are as- tronomically related to the dog star Sirius, which has its full brilliancy on the 23d of August and following da)'s, when it rises and sets with the sun consequently in the hottest part of the summer Romans called those days dies caniculans ; and the summer holidays of the schools were for- merly called fcriiC caniciilarcs, in which the dog is named without any mention of madness. Inflammation of the eyes, most fre quent in summer and caused by dust and heat, is a less serious trouble, which is successfully dealt with by purj ing the animal and bathing the eyes . , . , Driving out after with borax water, keeping them clean , ' ^ ^ .AN Illness and dry. After cleaning them with warm soap and water, a salve made of ten parts vaseline to one part boric acid should be spread on the inflamed parts. The animal must then wear a sort of linen cap (to prevent him from shaking his ears) and be fed on lic]uid focxl. Skin diseases, by which nearly all dogs are tormented, are very annoying and some of them are contagious. An expert often finds difficulty in diagnosing a case by aid of the microscope, on account of the infinite number of different parasites that may have caused the disease and will certainly aggravate it. There- fore, as soon as an eruption appears, and red spots or even little pimples are seen, especially on the abdomen, the breast, or the pit of the fore legs, send immediately for the veterinarian, and while waiting for him apply a wash of creolin diluted with much water, — a five per cent solu- tion. Excellent remedies against the mange are now to be had, salves that have cured very virulent eruptions. Therefore it is best not to give up hope too soon, though a dog thus afflicted is horrible to see. Dogs also suffer from toothache ; therefore, strange as it may seem, it is a good plan to inspect and clean their teeth thoroughly om time to time. The worms with which all dogs are tor- mented are easily driven ut b)- a \ermifuge, especially if they are solitary worms. The case is more serious when it concerns the tcEuia ecliino- : occiis (tapeworm), which can be con- veyed to human beings. F"or this reason, wherever dogs are kept, the fol- owing precept should be rigorously enforced : Never use the plates, dishes, etc., which a dog has licked with- out carefully cleansing them ; never allow him to lick the face of any one, especially a child, and wash your hands at once if they have happened to come in contact with a dog's saliva. It is unnecessary, as in all other helminthic cases, to say, Remem- ber our advice, sold for the veterinarian. If the disease is incurable, or if the dog is too old to move about, put an end to his sufferings. Let whoever lo\es his dog give him a quick and easy death if life becomes a burden to him. Surgical operations can sometimes be per- formed successfully, veterinary science having attained a degree of development which must be to the benefit of the dog as well as to that of other animals. But when all remedies are 72 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS useless let a well-directed shot put an end to Experience proves that death from this mask his sufferings. A mask that we cannot too is instantaneous. An asphyxiating apparatus highly recommend has been invented for this is also warmly recommended by the veteri- purpose. It consists of a very strong muzzle narians, and deserves attention. How can we to which is fastened a pistol of peculiar con- hesitate to use some one of such methods struction, which can be moved about until when they enable us to do a last kind service it reaches the exact point above the eyes, to the friend of man ? II THE CAT I. Its Antiquity The cat, which is to-day, with the clog, the domestic animal par cxcclhiicc, had its epoch of glory in past ages, when the ancient Egyptians declared it sacred, when a city called Bubastis was dedicated to its race, when the goddess Bast (or Pasche) had the head of a cat, when the bodies of cats were made into mummies, and when whoever killed a cat was severely punished. That was the golden age of cats ; and although their city, placed between the two arms of the Nile above the present town of Ben-el-Asi (on the line of the Cairo railway), is now a frightful mass of ruins, thousands of pilgrims — Herodotus speaks of seven hundred thousand — once went there annually to the fes- tivals established in honor of cats. At Cairo a vestige of this veneration still remains, for lately a large sum of money was provided for the feeding of hungry cats ; and the pilgrims to Mecca are still accompanied by a "Mother of Cats" or " Father of Cats," charged with the care of a certain number of these animals during the pilgrimage. Among the Greeks and Romans also the cat enjoyed a very great reputation, especially after the rat (nius rattiis), coming probably from Asia, made its way into the dwellings and granaries of Europe. The Norsemen introduced it into their mythology, for two of these animals draw the chariot of the goddess Fridja. This venera- tion lasted into the Middle Ages, at which period there was exhibited at Aix in Provence the handsomest male cat that could be procured ; it was dressed as a baby, and seated in a mag- nificent armchair, where all believers solemnly worshiped it as the Elected One. But after a while the glory of cats began to tarnish. They came to be regarded as evil doers, and every sorcerer and sorceress was accompanied by a cat — preferably a black one. This change was naturally not to their com- fort. They were still tolerated here and there, and even in the churches. In Saxony, for in- stance, nuns were forbidden to have any other animals ; but elsewhere, in Metz, for example, they were publicly burned by the dozen at the festival of St. John. In the Flemish town of Spres it was long the custom to fling them from the top of a lofty tower on the " Wednes- day of the Cats "; and though it is said that a cat always falls on her feet, there were many sad exceptions to the rule on those day!;. The " Wednesday of the Cats " always fell in the second week of Lent; this custom dated from the year 962, when Baldwin III, Count of Flanders, established it as an annual celebra- tion. In I 23 I the tower of Lakenhal was fin- ished and the cats were thrown from there as well as from the tower of the old castle. In 1674 the custom was abolished, but it was restored in 1714; and it is said that cats were still being hurled from the towers of Spres in 1868. 74 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS It is not known how this animal first came to Europe. It is certain that before the Middle Ages it was already domesticated, but not ex- clusively for hunting rats and mice, because half-tamed weasels fastened to a chain were still used for that purpose. Its small size and gentle and insinuating manners probably helped to open the doors of houses to this always rather rapa- cious animal. At some period in the world's history before our era the cat was tamed, at any rate certainly before it came to Europe. It could not have been a slight matter to tame a race naturally so wild and sly ; the honor prob- ably belongs to that ancient Egyptian peo- ple, so strange and yet so interesting, the building of whose gigantic works is lost in the night of time. Thus we can only feel our way in the darkness when we try to discover the relations of that people with savage or half- savage animals. The domestic cat differs too much from the wild cat, still existing, to enable us to draw conclusions from this domestication. The wild cat exists as the domestic cat does, but the link between them escapes our knowledge com- pletely. There is a species of cat, the Nubian cat, met with in the north of Africa, the shape of whose skull has a strong resemblance to that of the domestic cat ; and possibly it might form a bridge over the abyss made by the question of the descent of cats. In the opinion of several learned men the Nubian cat was re- lated to the ancient Egyptian cat. He is small, and the mummied cats of Egypt, discovered here and there, were a small species. The Nubian cat is easy to domesticate, though it is still rare in Europe. Its color (an important Blue-White, Long- From painting factor in distinguishing cats) is a tawny gray or yellow, becoming lighter on the flanks and white on the stomach. It has transversal black stripes, and on the neck similar stripes run- ning longitudinally. The tail has three black rings, and the tip is also black. In certain parts of Germany another species of wild cat is found that commits great ravages among feathered and furry game when he ven- tures to quit the for- ests. This species, which is larger and more square in shape than the domestic cat, is of a dark color, except on the throat, which is spotted with white. The cat of the steppes, though do- mesticated here and there in Siberia, may be regarded as half wild on account of its savage and combative nature. The cat was, therefore, probably intro- duced into Europe completely tamed from the south and southeast ; but it has never been generally valued like the dog. There are even regions in the north of Germany where its life is not safe ; it is in this country, in France, England, and the south of Europe that it is most valued. A predilection for dogs is sel- dom accompanied with much sympathy for cats, and vice versa. Yet many famous personages, Mohammed, for example, have held them in affection. One day a cat of his was sleeping on the skirt of his sacerdotal garment when the signal for prayer was given from the cupola of the mosque ; the prophet, whose duty it was to rise and go to perform that ceremony, cut off the skirt of his garment that he might not wake the animal. Richelieu was also a great friend of cats. Col- bert never worked without putting one or two on his table ; as soon as they began to purr he Haired Male Cat by E. Landor Persian Cat. " Sii.vkuv Jkssamixi; ' I'rnm planting by K. I.andor 76 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS thought his work went easier. A Shah of Persia, who bred a great many cats in his palace, always ate from the same plate with one of them. Lord Chesterfield, the English poet Elliott, Sardou, Massenet, and Pierre Loti are known for their love of cats. A tale told of a Bernese artist, Gottfried Mind, called the " Raphael of cats," is curious and strictly true. During his whole life he devoted his attention to cats, studying them daily for hours, and portraying all their habits and ways ; he took no interest in any other subject or person. About all else his thoughts were vague and even silly in old age, but about cats he showed true knowledge. When he died, in 1814, his features had acquired^ a sort of feline character. It is by no means rare to meet with persons who resemble cats. It was predicted to a king of Persia th; he would triumph in war if his armies were commanded by a cat-faced man. The man was found and victory perched upon his banners. Popular supersti- tion asserts that the blood of a cat, drunk to cure epilepsy, infuses a feline nature, so that the patient will ever after hunt rats and mice. But those who have eaten cats, sold under the name of rabbit, have not shown this propensity. Mme. Henriette Ron- ner, nee Knip, at Amsterdam, where her father was an artist, is a celebrated lover of cats. Since her marriage she has lived in Brussels. Her superb pictures of animals, in which cats play a chief part, are known the world over. In 1887 she received the Order of Leopold from the king of the Belgians. The cat's relations with man are not as close and intimate as those of the dog ; this may be because of the fact that the animal is less fit- ted to accompany him everywhere, or perhaps because it is less fully tamed. It bristles up far too much, and is still distrustful and sus- picious. The warm friends of the cat may perhaps take its part, but every one must agree that it shows its claws a little too hastily, Cat of Bubastis, Axxient Egypt a custom which is not likely to promote a more extended acquaintance. The stealthy, imperceptible step of the cat, extremely cautious and slow, differs from the noisy joy with which the dog, and even the horse, greets his master. Its eyes are beautiful, but there is something enigmatical in them ; moreover, the attachment of most cats is more to the house than to its inhabitants. But if we weigh these peculiarities, that are more or less agreeable, against the really good qualities of the cat, we shall find the balance in its favor ; which explains why per- sons of superior minds so often feel attracted to it. The more they learn to know it, and the more they treat it kindly and sensibly, the less the savage traits of the crea- ture's ancestors come out. The ap- proach to friendliness ought not to be made by one side only, but the first steps should be taken by the one that has most intelligence. If the cat is the first to present a paw, the sharp claws will be shown at the same time ; but if the man holds out a caressing hand, the velvet paw is advanced, cau- tiously, it is true, but unarmed. Let us observe this paw a lit- tle closer, and also the eyes and the cry of the animal. II. The Paws, Eyes, and Cry of the Cat The cat walks on its toes, like the lion, the tiger, and the other species of animals of the same class. It has five toes on the fore feet and four toes on the hind feet. The claws, nevertheless, remain sharp because whenever the cat runs or walks on hard ground they are drawn up into the articulations and never touch the earth. A certain muscle darts them forth as soon as the cat thinks it has need of defending itself, or when it loses its equilib- rium and is in danger of falling. The claws being thus drawn in and the paws being covered with fur, its movements are imper- ceptible, even upon oilcloth, resulting disas- trously to many a mouse. J THE CAT // On the other hand, if the approach of the cat is not heard, its eyes betray its presence, especially in the dark. Yet they are not lan- terns that shed light ; their brilliancy is only the reflection of luminous rays that strike upon them. The vascular membrane is covered with a reflecting filmy tissue, which pro- duces, especially at night, when the pupil is most dilated, a sparkling brilliancy. In daylight the pupil is seen only through a slit, which widens at nightfall. Certain of the Eastern nations use their cats as chronometers, though they are begin- ning to find out that clocks are surer things. The cat sees very distinctly in the darkness, a quality it has in common with many nocturnal creatures, including birds. By day it distinguishes many things better than the dog ever does. The color of the eyes varies with age. Young cats have gray eyes, while later they usually turn yellow or some other tint. We shall speak presently, apropos of races, of white cats with gray eyes, whose deafness has attracted the attention of scientific men like Darwin and Schinz, and still gives food for discussion. We have just called the cat a nocturnal animal ; it certainly prefers to seek adventures at night, which it makes hideous, especially during the months of F"ebruary and March, with its discordant caterwaulinsrs, callincr for HAi.i-\Vn,n BcRMAii Cat Fruin painting by E. I,and(.r a mate on garden walls and roofs. It is said that the cat owes its predilection for roofs to Noah and his ark. A couple of cats saved therein, having violated the restrictions imposed on appetite (the ark being short of provisions), were condemned to espouse their loves on the roof onl\- during the months of February and March but with free permission to fight and claw and caterwaul as much as they pleased. Not long ago an attempt was made in London to SU-NNIN lessen, by means of automatic tomcats, this noc- turnal racket, which had become very annoying, especially in the northern part of the city. A cat was made of iron wire and cement and covered with a real cat's skin and fur. To increase the effect, glass eyes made luminous by an electric batten' were added, the battery also conveying some motion to the limbs. The resemblance was striking. When the tail was touched the beast began to growl, and at the same instant long pointed needles started out from the skin, two capsules exploded in the mouth, and a formidable noise was heard within. This contrivance produced the happiest result on the very first night it was placed in position. A real tomcat arrived, accom- panied by four friends. The company placed themselves around the automaton, which remained, of course, perfectly calm and un- moved. Soon the real tomcat lost patience. He used his claws to incite his mute adver- sary to anger, and presently attacked him. Then the sham cat got his innings. The capsules exploded, the eyes glared, the needles darted out and stuck their points into the paws of the aggressor, and the garden was purged of cats for over a month. The purring of cats, which resembles the whir of a spinning wheel, is to human ears an 78 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS expression of their contentment. It is supposed that the sound is formed in the larynx near the vocal cords, and it is supposed to be a sign of health and vigor, old cats being less inclined to purr. III. The Fur, the Sensitiveness, and the Presentiments of Cats The race of cats has but two species of fur, long and short. So far breeders have not applied artificial propagation sufficiently (as they have with dogs) to increase the number of colors and shades trans- mitted by means of heredity ; but in countries where there is a commerce in cat skins they take pains to mate cats having heavy fur. The growth of fur can be artificially pro- duced without following the example of a man who put a mother cat into one of his ice houses. The kittens came duly into the world, and the excessive cold to which they had been ex- posed produced a most luxuriant fur, but they finally became such thick round balls of hair that it was impossible for them to move about. If breeders pay a lit- tle attention to the fur of their cats, the cats themselves do all they can to keep it in good condition. They are, in- deed, obliged to do so, since it not only protects them but serves as 2^ feeler. The hairs of the mustache especially are very sensitive, and so are the nerves with which they communicate. Every cat has from twenty-five to thirty hairs in its beard, arranged in four lines, the two mid- dle lines being the longest. At each side of the head there are likewise some sensitive hairs, which have their roots in Httle protuberances. The hairs inside the ear are also sensitive. The whole pelt in fact shows a high degree of sensitiveness when rubbed the wrong way, — a treatment evidently very disagreeable to the animal, though it has to submit to it when its owner desires to show how much electricity it gives forth. It is well, however, not to form too high an estimate of the electricity of cats. In very dry countries, for instance, among high mountains, human hair, when rubbed, will give out plenty of electric sparks visible in the darkness. In fact, in such altitudes we have often seen the gas lighted by a touch of the finger after approaching the fixture from the end of the room, rubbing the feet (in thin shoes) along a thick carpet without lifting them. The fur of a badger and of several other animals, if per- fectly dry, warm, and rubbed energetically, will convey electricity to any conduct- ing medium. The fur of a cat, already more or less dried by the bodily heat of the animal, emits ^^^^^ electricity if ex- ^^^^Sk posed to the sun ^^g j^ and then rubbed ^BSBSSr'."; "rfft^; by the hand in a dark place ; but that same pelt, when taken from the animal and pre- pared and dried, Midday .„ • ,, will give the same result. Therefore it is not the cats but their pelts, and those of all thick furry animals, which emit electricity under certain favorable circum- stances. Tigers show the same phenomenon. Cats feel much discomfort at the coming of a storm, and there is probably some con- nection between the atmosphere, charged with "electricity, and their fur. Perhaps their sensi- tiveness to atmospheric changes may be one of the causes why they show such distress, espe- cially when young, during a rain storm. Some are seen to show extreme terror during an earthquake, but that is a feeling they share with other animals. I THE CAT 79 IV. Sympathies and Antipathies Why does the cat feel such hatred to the whole mouse tribe ? No one knows ; but there must be some extraordinary and terrible cause for such eternal ani- mosit)-. In past ages rats and mice must undoubtedly have done some great injury to the feline race. Perhaps, in earlier times, the rat may have been able to attack his enemy with success ; if not, in the great struggle for existence going on perpetually in the animal kingdom ever since the creation, those rodents, always conquered by the cat, would surely have disappeared. A cat watch- ing a mouse and knowing its hiding place crouches where its victim cannot see it, and never moves a hair till the favorable moment comes ; then with one bound to right or left, or sometimes backward, all is over for the little beast. Even if a cat is asleep, no mouse can with safety pass either before or behind it, which says much for its sense of hearint Lenz, the naturalist, says that a cat will catc Six in tiik Evkninc Ti:\ .\T NiCiHT and swallow twenty mice a day, — seventy- three himdred a year. If puss}' has a mouse in view, no power on earth can turn her from her murderous projects. One evening, as a family was sitting in a small parlor, their cat, a fat and well-fed beast, made one spring from his place before the fire and disappeared beneath a piece of heavy furniture, which (being afterwards exactly measured) was only two and a half inches from the floor. The body of the cat, l)ing flat, measured from seven to eight inches. The family in consternation rushed to deliver its pet from so strange a situation. Even his intimate friend, the greyhound, stretched a paw under the sideboard to reach him, when lo and behold! he re- appeared, calm and conscious of victory, with a mouse in his mouth. Other ani- mals possess this power of shrinking their bodies ; mice themselves can get through the narrowest slit, but it is cer- tainly no slight thing for a body of seven or eight inches in height to rush through 8o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Apparently Asleep, but watching a Mouse a space speed of two and a half inches wide with the an express train. Dangerous Situation for the Cockatoo As for their sympathies, they are chiefly influenced by warmth and sunlight. Some years ago the present king of England, then Prince of Wales, walking one day in the streets of London with his tutor, made a bet with the latter as to who would count the greatest num- ber of cats, each to take one side of the street. Presently the tutor had counted a dozen, while the prince had not seen one, he having chosen the shady side of the street, and all the cats were on the other side basking in the sun. The whole feline race seems to have a predilection for the odor of certain plants, among others catnip, mint, and vale- rian, which certainly exercise some sort of magnetism upon them. In Germany these herbs are often used to attract and capture destructive wild cats. According to Blasius, mint in- toxicates cats, after exciting them to frenzied gayety. When an animal thus overstimulated is put with calmer comrades, the latter will instantly catch THE CAT H a little of the same mad gaj-et}'. They rub against each other until the whole troop works itself into such a state of intoxication that the fete usually ends in a fight. The sympathy, or rather the affection, of these animals is given more to the house than to its owner, which does not, how- ever, preclude instances where cats have been as greatly attached to their masters as sunie dogs have been. Perty tells us of a cat falling into despair at the death of her master, refusing all nourishment and d\'ing three days after him. Who knows if cats would not have given to their masters the affection they now bestow upon localities, if man had constrained them, as he has dogs, to serve him and keep him company ? Perhaps in time this progress may come about. It is impossible to deny that serious misunderstandings exist between cats and birds. Any one who has seen a cat watching and attacking an inno- cent robin feels indignant at such cruelty ; but that fault may be easily corrected by simply taking a bird in your hand and making it peck her room in Buckingham Palace, did not know the simple scheme we have just mentioned, or she would not have so sternly forbidden the pres- ence of cats in any part of her various palaces. Some cats are ven,' fond of horses and pra- ter to sleep in stables, occasi(inall\' nn the bac ks IciLKR.VNCE the cat's nose. In seed and grain shops, where birds are also kept and sold, the latter are never molested by the cats that are kept in the shop to protect the grain from mice. The late queen of England, who liked to have birds flying about 0\ riii. \\'ai( II of their friends. Others live on very good terms with the dogs of the household, though some dogs are trained, especially in Germany, to strangle cats, whose days are infallibly num- bered when their enemy appears. Bassets when trained, even while puppies, will kill cats with remarkable rapidity ; but old cats will take the defensive, growl, hiss, and put up their backs, and, if the occasion is favorable, will fling them- selves upon the dog with all claws out. Then, if the dog is not trained, he loses an eye and part of his skin ; but if he has been taught to strangle, he seizes the cat instantly by the throat or the nape of its neck and issues vic- torious from the combat. A cat's method of attack clearly reveals its savage origin ; all other members of the feline race, tigers among them, always spring on the back of their prey if possible. V. Gene.\logv of Cats As we have already said, the breeding of cats of pure race is not done on the vast scale em- ployed in the case of other domestic animals. OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Nevertheless, there is a species of genealogy kept for cats, quite seriously and in due form, especially in England. The National Cat Club and the Northern Counties Cat Club, among others, are societies composed princi pally of cat lovers and amateurs, several members of which belong to the British aristocracy. These societies, working according to very precise rules, organize exhibi- tions, establish championships, promote the breeding of pure races exclusively, and spend much money in so doing. Whatever may be thought of such a fancy, as soon as com- merce and indus- try draw profits from an innocent mania we cannot but approve it. Besides, it contributes to protect, support, and succor this particular animal in its struggle for ex- istence, thus lending a hand to the progress Little Miscreants of civilization. The late Queen Victoria said a true word on this point : " No civilization is complete which does not include the dumb and defenseless of God's creatures." This English rearing of cats has its nvn reasons ; nevertheless, it will not readily cross the At- lantic with its rules and ;ulations, and take not in the United States. It will be long before a very noble lady in Am- erica will distrib- ute with her own hand prizes for cats at a cat show. Yet that very thing happened lately in England, and the prizes were not mere pounds and shil- lings, but objects of art in precious metals. But to win these prizes the breeder, man or woman, must exhibit cats of the finest and purest races, and this demands a great expenditure of time and money, and also a certain amount of scientific knowleds;e. Spanish Cat of Three Colors THE CAT 83 Mischances of color and blood cause many a vexation to the breeder, while climate and the very incomplete knowledge now possessed in regard to the breeding of these animals, based on the principle of race, play him ni a n \- an e \' i 1 trick. One curi- ous and remark- able fact is that the best colors are obtained by the mating of cats of two w h o 1 1 )• different colors. LoNG-H.MKKn Cat in Foi'R Colors - White, Brown, asd Blue This eat is exceptional They also e.xist in Cairo, Constanti- nople, Rome, and Geneva. In Geneva a society is formed to feed the in- numerable \agranl cats of that city. \T. R.\CKS OF C.\TS It is not more difficult to distin- guish the races of cats than the races of dogs. In each country there is lit- tle difference, but the \'arieties are numerous. It is very difficult to IdUow the cross- ings, and there can be no such thing as the true breeding of cats unless the ani- mals are, like dogs in kennels, watched, fed, and kept confined; otherwise it is not B1..ACK, Hfeb^ ^\t» The cat show does e.xist in America, though possible to keep the races pure. Yet all persons not on the same scale as in England. The who attempt to raise cats for sale and e.xhibi- American exhibitions are often well attended tion must be able to distinguish and define and are supported by subscription. In Ger- the breeds accurately. In the case of cats many and Austria almost no interest is taken coming fi^ 1 i :-' ' Is and from certain isolated in the matter ; in Holland and Belgium exhibitions of cats are very rare. Yet in certain cities of every country we find per- sons who push their passion for cats to excess ; generally, it must be said, they are elderly dames, who establish asylums where neglected, lost, or sick cats may find a refuge. Sometimes these asylums are organized in a practical and sufficient manner, in which case the motive that provided them is laudable ; but often the)- are mere nests of disease and objects of scandal to the neighborhood. The time and money spent upon them would be far better employed in ameliorating the con- dition of human beings, at least in coun- tries where such succor is sorely needed. T.abbies Still, in such large cities as New York, Boston, foreign countries, purity of race is not so ditfi- Chicago, and Philadelphia, where there are so cult to afifirm. Those from the Isle of Man, for many stray cats, such asjlums are beneficent, instance, called the Manx cats, are markedly 84 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS different from all other species in the absence of tail, the smallness of the head, the extraor- dinary length and power of the hind legs, which causes them to lope like a hare or rab- bit rather than run, and, finally, the thickness of the coat, which is true fur, not hair. These Young White Cat cats are extraordinarily intelligent. The Creole cat of Antigua is smaller and the head longer than all other English species, while the Ceylon cat has the peculiarity of pointed ears. On the Cape of Good Hope the cats have singular red stripes along the back, while those of the Malay Archipela:go, Slam, and Burmah have according to Darwin split and sometimes knotted tails. In China their ears are pendent, and around Tobolsk there lives an indigenous cat which is en- tirely maroon in color. The separation of races being so difficult, color is the point on 'which all breeders fasten, although the last word has by no means been said on that subject, and many years must elapse before a race or a fixed color can be obtained by breed- ing with the same certainty and constancy as now obtains with dogs. The colors chiefly distinguished are white, black, blue, blue-gray, smoke color, orange, and tor- toise shell. AH these varieties of color are scat- tered through the two great groups, — the long haired and the short haired. To these groups, however, must be added the exotic species, designated under the name of the region, island, or country from which they come. If we pass the different races in review, the first to present itself is that of the white cats. The color of their eyes is a very important matter ; it ought not to be blue, which is said to be a sign of deafness. Darwin insists on this fact, to which, nevertheless, there are many exceptions. Possibly there is a species of albinism in these cats, and as the albino is always feebler than others of its kind, that may account for the phenomenon. Some white cats have red eyes, and in them albinism is even more marked. Their coats ought to be as sleek as possible. Some Eastern nations honor the white cat as a symbol of the moon. Black cats, of a brilliant and entire black, are much more rare than people think ; most of them have a russet tinge. They owe the favor they enjoy to their large size and the beauty of their eyes, which are generally yel- low, though in the long run somber colors are wearisome. Phantom cats, partisans of the devil, were all black. There was never a wizard or a witch without his or her black cat, Blue Persi.w C.4t which always took an active part in the prep- aration of philters. These phantom cats were especially and exuberantly gay on Wednesdays, the witches' day, and held noisy assemblies at all crossroads or on the roofs of haunted houses. THE CAT 85 The cat called the " Carthusian friar " is blue, with very long tine hair. In Holland there is a breed of very handsome short-haired blue cats which would find a great market if some intelligent person would under- take to breed them. It was our inten- tion to reproduce a group of them here, but photography was powerless to give an idea of the beautiful color of the living animal. Blue-gray cats, whose color is far from being as beautiful as that of the foregoing species, often have white patches on the breast, the paws, and sometimes the head. The soot-colored, or "tabby," cat, sometimes called the ^ Celebr.ateu T.akhv. A Prize Winner gray cat, is the one most frequently '^''°'" p^"'""s '^> e. Landor seen in our houses and gardens. Transversal greatly improve. The striped and very tall black stripes, sometimes black with brown Cyprus cat is universally renowned. Its stripes edges, encircle the legs, tail, and neck, and go are gray or black on a yellow ground, but they down the sides of the animal. Often these lines must be perfectly distinct. Many cats are sold go from the eyes to the forehead, forming sin- under the name of " Cyprus cats," in whose gular figures, in which (by an effort of imag- ination) the owner sometimes deciphers a monogram. Most f)f these cats, of less pure descent, have white patches on their heads, which exclude them from exhibitions. Are gray cats better mousers than all others ? They are said to be ; but if the fact be true, it cannot result from the color, because, as we very well know, " by night all cats are gray." Other gray cats that are almost black have white paws and a white line between the eyes. The blacker the cat and the whiter the line the more the animal is valued. The contrary, namely a wholly white body with black head and tail, characterizes the Moorish cats, a race which breeding would White Persi.xn ok Gke.at ISi-aitv From pciinting by E. Landor veins there is not a drop of Cypriot blood and whose ancestors never saw the island of Cyprus. Among the long-haired cats we meet the imposing Angora, white in color, with a mag- nificent plumed tail. There are cats of this race of several other colors, but breeders are en- deavoring to keep them jnire white ; and as this color propagates itself with some constancy, they are succeeding. The Angora being espe- cially a parlor cat, very sensitive to cold and dampness, and conse- cjuently delicate in con- stitution, their owners should avoid giving them dainties, such as tripe, giblets, or scraps of fish, since their digestion is upset much sooner than that of other cats. The Persian cat has silky hair, very long and 86 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Blue Persian Cat From painting by E. Landor quite as handsome as that of the Angora. It has a mane around its neck, and usually has dark eyes, the sinister glare of which comes vividly out of its dark blue fur. By nature it is less sociable in western lands than in its own, which is not surprising, in view of the great difference there is between Persian households and ours. Angora and Persian cats are highly valued when they come of pure race ; but many young "Angoras" are sold which will not bear minute inspection, and the buyers may say with truth that they have bought a " cat in a poke." Tricolor or tortoise-shell cats are sometimes extremely beautiful, but perfect specimens are rare. They have yellow-brown and red-brown patches on a white ground. What experi- ments might be made in this field of interest- ing varieties of color still so little worked ! Cats would lend themselves to it readily, but much patience is needed and a vast establishment. If breeders would seriously apply themselves to the breeding of tricolor cats, the suc- cess and profit would not be long in coming. It is generally believed that the tricolor male cat is rare. Perhaps we here meet with one of those strange phenomena of color in relation to sex in these animals. We cannot now enter into details, but we advise those who are inter- ested in the breeding of cats to take up the study, relatively neglected and incomplete, of colors in ani- mals, and, better still, to make ex- periments themselves with the cats they own and note down the results. It is needless to enlarge on the indigenous cats of Cochin China and Madagascar, which have ab- normal tails ; or on the Siamese cat, a typical little beast with black head, legs, and tail, thick fur, and a brown body. In China cats are fattened for food, and those who do not disdain jugged hare can try Siamese Cat From painting by F. Landor THE CAT 87 their teeth on this breed. In Switzerland (not in the hotels, be it said) wild cats are eaten, especially in the mountain re- gions. It is easy to distinguish cat from hare by the shape of the skull, which explains why the head never appears on the table when there is an experi- enced chef in the kitchen. VII. Breeding and C.\ke OF Cats As we have already indi- cated, it is almost impossible to regulate the mating of cats on account of their vagabond habits. If kept outdoors in cages, it can be done ; but cats always want to get into the house, or to roam at large. They need move- ment, and must obey their natures or they languish and fall ill. Then, of course, they have to be released, and there 's an end to supervision High walls and fences w not prevent them, as they will a dog, from roaming off. Even when kept in a cage and allowed to con- sort with none but those of pure blood, they are very annoying and quar- relsome. At the slight- est difference of opinion with their masters they will growl and hiss and spit, and, if possible, will strike vigorous blows 01 the face or hands of their owner, leaving five little red specks that mark the sp where each claw has drawn bl In England, however, there are now large "catteries," where pure-blooded animals are lodged, matched, and multiplied. The fact is, the English- man is a born breeder. Cats that are prepared to take part in exhibitions require much more F KM A 1.1 •rcim painting by Male Angora Cat From painting by E. Landor care than dogs intended for the same purpose. Their wooden cages must be perfectly dry, raised some feet above the ground, and very carefully divided into compartments by means of iron railings. Each niche should have straw in winter for bedding, and each compartment must be sup- plied with a box of sawdust. Cages made of masonry are naturally the best, being dryer and easier to clean. Sliding wickets allow of the food being pushed in without disturbing the animal or giving it a chance to escape. A layer of peat dust placed under the cages, and also under the straw, absorbs much dampness, but it needs to be frequently changed or aired. The breeder for pure blood will not obtain satisfactory re- sults for some years, nor until he can convince himself of the qualities of his animals. There are certain iirize-winning cats with gene- Anoora Cat ' ^ ... alogical trees, which would be a joy to the breeder if he could get posses- sion of them. He could then be sure, or nearly sure, of the purity of the blood and of the chances OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS of obtaining trie color and the hair or fur that he wants. In any case, it is essential to mate cats of sound health, and to choose for father or mother some more or less known and admired Blue Cat with a very Remarkable Head From painting by E. Landor cat, a prize winner, if possible, if the speedy sale of kittens is an object. Innumerable, are the surprises in color that occur in spite of all precautions. The chances for obtaining what is desired are most favorable in black cats and white cats. The head should be broad with small ears and a short nose. Blue eyes are much in re- quest. Sometimes, but this is mere chance, in the litters of white cats a kitten will be found of a very clear light blue tint which is really superb, and brings a very high price. In England cats of pure blood often bring as much as twenty pounds ($ioo). Generally cats are not mated until they are over a year old. But all that we have hitherto said con- cerns those persons Ni'RsixG -Mother who desire to breed cats on a large scale for sale and exhibitions. The ordinary domestic cat is never caged. It comes and goes, keeps watch on the mice, gets its meals, and dis- appears for hours, sometimes for days, without notifying any one or asking permission. As a result of these escapades pussy now and again has kittens, to the great amusement of the children. When the critical day arrives (in about eight weeks) the mother cat finds for herself a dark and quiet retreat. It is well to give her an open basket with something soft at the bottom. Give her also all the milk she wants and a slight purga- tive. She produces usually from two to five kittens without any help. Kittens born in the spring are stronger and larger than those born in the autumn. The mother cat takes care of the little ones (which are born blind) herself, washes them, and keeps them and the basket clean for weeks, or until the little things can run about. If she has more than three, it is well to kill all over that number, choosing the weakest. On the tenth day they open their eyes, and then they want to see the world. Curiosity de- velops early in their little minds, and they are soon clam- bering out of their basket with many a fall and funny motion, — grace and clumsiness com- bined. The mother, of course, must be well fed during this time, or she will not have THE CAT 89 milk enough for the little ones. Milk, bread, a little meat (but never the first three days), and by the end of the week her usual food, with an ample supply of milk, is a good diet list. When the time comes to wean the kittens the mother should be taken away, and the kittens taught to lap sugared milk from a saucer ; a little limewater added to the milk is beneficial. At the end of five weeks, when the teeth have come through, a little soft bread should be given. They should be allowed to be in the open air as much as possible, to play with their mother, and to make acquaintance with the mice which she will present to them. It is ver_\- tlroU to see her watch their proceedings with that hereditary enemy. The maternal instinct is so strong in cats that they have been known to suckle puppies, rabbits, and even rats. In a certain stable was a stall in which five young rats were play- ing. A mother cat had five kittens, three of which were taken from her and drowned. Puss\- went to the stall, caught two of the CliLEBU.ATEIJ I'KKSIAN CAT, "FULMA ZaIDEF, ' From painting by E. Landor Brown Ancdka Cai (M.\li;) Cats are much more cleanly in their ways than dogs; and kittens can easily be taught clean habits. Fish, from time to time, is a great treat to healthy cats ; and it is well to give them either raw or cooked meat every day, in reason- able quantities. It is to be remembered that they feed themselves with mice, and in the country with moles, squirrels, birds, and even rabbits. Greediness, the cause of most of their ailments, is much developed in cats. Punishment does not cure it, but they will sometimes pay at- tention to a stern order given in a loud \'oice. VIII. Diseases of Cats Although in cases of actual illness it is necessary, as in the case of dogs, to call in a veteri- narian, if the life of the patient is valuable, \ct there are many little ailments easily curable with very simple remedies. In case of diarrhea, for instance. little rats, suckled them and brought them up, from which cats very frequently suffer, rice which was all the more remarkable as she was with a decoction of sorghum, and as little a noted enemy and hunter of rats and mice. food as possible, will effect a cure. Diarrhea, 90 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS however, is apt to weaken the animal, and a watch should be kept for this. Cutaneous affections are very disagreeable for persons who live in the house with cats thus troubled ; they are contagious to other animals, dogs especially. It is therefore well to examine even healthy cats once a week, and if the slightest suspicious spot appears, to wash the animal with a solution of borax in water. It will be found on examination that the healthiest and finest cats are seldom free from vermin. If red spots, or pustules, appear on the skin, an ointment of lard, sulphur dust, Peruvian balsam, and creosote should be applied ; but it must never be forgotten that all cats are perpetually licking themselves with their tongues. The mite of a cat, a tiny spider which harbors especially in the ear, gives rise to a species of mange, which can be cured by petroleum or any of the mange remedies that are advertised. The insect or flesh worm of the mange is sometimes communi- cated to persons. Cats are also tormented at times with worms, the germs of which they get from the rats and mice they swallow. Any vermifuge will remedy this trouble, but the cat should be kept in the house, so as to observe the effects of it. The madness of cats is even more dangerous than that of dogs, for they bite with greater violence. Yet we never hear of muzzles for cats. IX. Superstitions. Historical Notes We have already spoken of phantom cats, and of the part they play in popular supersti- tions and in mythology. A study of the origin of legends and fairy tales would shed much light into the still obscure lives of the peoples of past ages. Nearly all animals appear in the fabulous events and poetic legends that have come down to us ; but the cat, in its character of domestic animal, plays the chief role. In the old popular beliefs it was part and parcel of the dwelling. A new cat was made to walk three times across the hearth with solemn YouxG Tricolor Cat ceremony. Marriages were celebrated, if possi- ble, on Friday, the day dedicated to Freya, and if the sun shone during the ceremony, it was said that the bride had taken good care of the cat and had fed her well. Young girls in Norway who caress cats are sure of a hand- some husband ; but if one of those animals lies at the church door just as the marriage is about to be celebrated, the union of the two young people will be unhappy. According to an old legend of eastern Prussia, it is very dangerous for a married pair if two cats with their tails tied together run along the road in front of the wedding procession. In all the mythologies cats play a part. The popular tale of Puss in Boots is known everywhere, but what is not so well known is that the skull of a "booted cat'" is preserved in the osteological museum at Amsterdam. Evi- dently this cannot be a joke in so grave an institution ; conse- quently it is worth while to search the works of natural his- tory and find, if we can, a de- scription of the species of cat called "booted." In the great osteographical history of De Blainville (among others) we find mention of a group of " booted cats," which have much in common with our domestic animal, as far as their skeleton is concerned. To this group belong the Nubian cats Fclis manicjilata and Felis caligata (from which probably came the skull preserved in the Amsterdam museum) ; also Felis Bubastis, the cat of ancient Egypt. The name of "booted cat" was first given to it, according to Cuvier, by Bruce, the Egyptian traveler, on account of its legs, which are black or white at the bottom like boots. Temminck, who baptized the species in his Monograpli of Alammifers with the name Fclis caligata, gives identically the same description of it. In the zoological garden at Amsterdam there is now a living specimen of these original wild cats of Egypt ; it has reddish-brown ears with Uttle tufts at the points of them, and answers pre- cisely to the descriptions and drawings given of THE CAT 91 it by Cuvier. In scientific works " booted cat " sometimes bears the name of "booted lynx." In the seventeenth century it was not un- common to see, especially in Amsterdam, fig- ures of cats carved on the fronts of houses. The custom came about in this \\n\- - -• Civet cats, originating in Nort Africa, and greatly priz especially in Spain wherc they brought high prices, were imported into Holland by cer- tain merchants, who formed a society for the propagation and sale of them, and took for its emblem a civet cat. The value of the ani mal came from a gland or bag under its tail, containing a sub stance that was made into a perfume and also into a remedy. Towards the close of the seventeenth century this industry disappeared for the simple reason that the musk plant was discovered ; but the civet cat still lingers on the architecture of Amsterdam. Speaking of architecture reminds us that withered cats are found from time to time under or between the walls of old houses. They are marvelously well preserved ; death has caught and stiffened them in the moment of their utmost agony. Their remarkable pres- ervation comes, no doubt, from the fact that the animal has thrust itself through some very narrow aperture, so narrow that no air comes through it, and the poor crea- ture dies, and withers without decaying. We frequently find cats in heraldic art. The wife of King Clevis bore a cat sable on her blazon ; and the Katzen family of the present day bears an argent cat on an azure field. The celebrated printers Sessa, of Venice, always placed a cat device on the last page of their editions. The Romans painted cats on several of the banners of their legions. The famous cohort (subdivision of the legion) of the Happ)- Old Men — /r/iccs soiiores — bore a banner with a red cat tanding on a gold ground. X. Tr.mning .\nd Mice Hunting The word "training" in its true sense applies, naturally, far less to cats than to dogs. They are not used for ordinary unting, though in yprus they are taught to hunt snakes, and in Russia e domestic cat catches great quantities of those reptiles in sum- AN Old H.at ' . ' mer. This same trait is not un- known in America. In Paraguay cats attack and kill rattlesnakes. They will also catch tortoises, and do good service during plagues of grass- hoppers, locusts, and cockchafers, of which they destroy enormous quantities. But in all this there is no question of training; instinct and natural impulse are the sole guides to their behavior. There are, of course, instances of cats 92 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Dangerous Plaything trained to jump over a stick, to ride horseback upon dogs, and even to dance to the word of command. But tricks of this kind, suitable only for fairs and circuses, can be taught just as easily to pigs and cockatoos ; in fact, the cats which, by dint of patience, have been taught these things must be regarded as great excep- tions. If it is desired to teach anything to a cat, the utmost gentleness must be used, for cats fear and resent blows and harsh words far more than a dog ever does. There is no question of training a cat to catch mice. All of them do not do it with the same agility, and it is claimed that the common, striped, gray domestic cat is foremost in the art. It may be that cats of that color come nearest to the wild cat, but it is more probable that the color is not so easily seen by the little rodents. A baker or a miller ought. therefore, to keep white cats to save his grain, because where all is white a cat of a dark color would be seen more easily. A cat kept exclusively to hunt mice must not be deprived, as is sometimes the case, of other food. To do so is more than imprudent. Making Acquaintance with Photography I THE CAT 93 In the first place, mice do not afford sufficient nourishment, and the hungry hunters will soon learn to go after birds and chickens ; or they will seek other food, often very injurious, and so fall ill and die. The patience of a cat when watching a mouse is really un- speakable, but as soon as the favorable moment arrives it moves forward, its belly to earth, gently shaking its hind quarters, that the elasticity of its hind legs may be in com- munion with the rest of the body ; then the spring is made, and it never misses its stroke. Trainers, bow your heads ! Here Nature has trained, and the pupil has absorbed the science in its blood, in its mar- row, and in every muscle. XI. The Cat's Way of Climbing and Falling Young cats love to climb, a pleasure readil\- granted to them, for however hazardous their performances may appear, there is usually little danger. Thanks to its sharp claws a cat can climb a tree very rapidly, as can tigers and other felines ; the taste, however, among tame animals seems confined to kit- tens and young cats. Old cats apply this faculty only to attain some purpose, — to reach the top of the garden wall or the gutter of the house. When cats fall from a considerable height they come down safe nine times out of ten ; but it is an e.xag- geration to say that they always fall on their feet, that is to say, without any accident, for we could cite many instances in 94 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS which they are killed on the spot. Nevertheless, the fact is generally true, for they know how to turn and twist while falling, so that the center of gravity gets placed in such a way as to oblige the body to make a half turn at the last, bring- ing the feet to the ground. A cat once fell from the fifth story of a house, and though be- wildered for a moment, picked itself up quickly and scampered away. A cat seated is an ideal image of repose. No other animal conveys such an impression of perfect rest and quiet meditation. The dog, which is much nearer to man by reason of his development, cannot equal the cat in that position. The graceful pose, the perpendicular front slope, the hind legs wrapped by the supple tail, the short and vigor- ous neck meeting the back in a pretty little curve, and the beautiful round head with its pointed ears give to the seated cat a singularly peaceful air, to which the contented expression of its neatly cut face contributes much. Is it sur- prising that the artist's eye has been so struck by this attitude that he should love to paint the figure of a seated cat beside the old dame knitting near the cradle in a tranquil home ! XII. For and Against In all that we have so far said there is surely no ground for an injunction against cats ; the fors certainly have it all their own way. But let us now turn our eyes to the againsts. We will take Buffon to witness. He does not spare poor pussy; he thinks her "an animal that deserves no confidence ; which should be kept only from necessity, to guard against another unpleasant animal — the mouse. At night, instead of sleeping near its master," contin- ues the learned naturalist, "it rambles off, through woods and fields, pursuing and de- stroying game. How many nests it ruins ! " They mean to fling me into the water " How Stealthily, treacherously, it creeps along, like the cunning thief it is ! . . . Buffon, as we see, was no friend to cats ; but long before his day they had cruel enemies who fought them more directly. In 1747 Archbishop Clement Augustus of Cologne published an edict that all cats should have their ears cut off. This singular measure was intended to protect hares and young pheasants. The poor maimed creatures would no longer go marauding, or what is still more probable, the subjects of the prelate would feel their affection for the animal cool- ing after such disfigurement. Moreover, every ear not cut off was subject to a fine of a quarter of a florin. Madame de Custine, a great friend of cats, took up their defense. She wrote, among others, to Champfleury, another friend of pussy, saying that they deserved to be placed before dogs, whose attachment and fidelity was too mechanical, whereas we could not too much ad- mire the independence of cats. There are many extravagant judg- ments pronounced by partisans and adversaries of the feline race. The sportsman, especially, cries out, " Death to cats ! " It is true that these animals can and do cause great damage to game and poultry. The wild cats must certainly be regarded as beasts of prey, deserving of antipathy and of all the measures taken for their destruction ; but the domestic cat, provided it is not left to care for itself, does not do the mischief that many persons imagine. In any case, it is easy to take effectual measures against it without resorting to tor- tures, such as setting traps, or to open murder by means of dogs. The usefulness of the cat after death is relatively small, provided we except the intes- tines, which are used for making violin strings, and the pelt, which appears in commerce as a real fur. I THE CAT 95 XIII. The Cat as a Mummv We cannot take leave of the cat without visiting with amazement and profoimd respect its mummied ancestors as they appear in vari- ous museums ; with amazement, because the ancient Egyptians, highly developed in many ways, held the cat in such esteem that they embalmed its body ; and with respect, because of the conscientious manner in which the em- balming was done, so that after thousands of years these mummied bodies can be brought to light exactly as they were when buried. It has not, so far, been decided why the Egyptians regarded the cat as a divinity. According to Plutarch there is an afifinity between this animal and the moon, first, be- cause the cat is a nocturnal animal ; secondly, because it brings into the world first one little one, then two, three, four, five, up to twenty- eight, the number of days in the lunar month. Perhaps this latter reason is the cause of its adoration as a divinity. In the grotto of Arte- mis, near the ancient Bubastis, there are several cats which were buried there with great ceremony in the midst of costly fetes. Herodotus relates that as soon as the cat of an Egyptian died profound sadness took pos- session of the whole family, who put on deep mourning. The noble dead was laid out in state, embalmed with precious spices, and taken to Bubastis, where (as well as at Mem- phis) obsequies were performed which often cost as much as nine thousand aiicres. Mummies of cats which had lived in the temple of the goddess Pasht were treated with extreme veneration, and we find in their tombs great numbers of gold ornaments bear- ing the same letters as those found in the tombs of kings. ALso there are mummies of women which bear the inscription techau, — cat, — signifying that they were protected by the goddess of that animal. Dr. Etienne Geoffroy was the first man to study the skeleton of an Egyptian mummy cat. He discovered that the animal differed in no particular from the domestic cat of Europe and America, — a discovery which was contested by another learned naturalist named Ehrenberg, who insisted that the existing mummies were the remains of the Abyssinian cat in its wild state, an opinion shared by Blainville. The latter very learned professor of anatomy made a searching study of these mummies, in which he distinguished three species, — the Felis Caligata, the Bubastis, and the Chans. The two first are still found in a wild state in cer- tain parts of Egypt. Careful search made by learned Egyptologists shows that the linen wrapped around all the cat mummies that have so far been found is of fine quality, the same as that wrapped around kings. In these days there is no such thing as embalming a cat ; instead of that we sweep them on to the manure heap or fling them into the water. No one ever dreams of bury- ing them, unless in some very exceptional case, when a petted cat is put to rest in a dogs' cemetery. Nevertheless, one cat is recorded as having been embalmed and mummified in the fourteenth century. It was Petrarch's cat, which died in 1374, and was long seen inca.sed above the door of the poet's house at Vaucluse. Ill THE HORSE I. The Land of his Origin and his Ancestors It is from the vast steppes of northern Asia, where the tempests rage and man can scarcely live, that the horse has come. He did not come of himself, nor has he ever given himself wholly to man, like the dog. On the contrary, even now in his civilized state, he turns his back, and sometimes his heels, on those he does not recog- nize, if they come too near him. Feeding on those illimitable plains, the wild horse learned to perceive at a great distance the approach of his enemies, the wild beasts. The quick ears pricked, a short neigh sounded, and the horde dashed away with the speed of the wind. He fled before all strange life, and conse quently before man, who sought to capture him for his flesh and his skin. Here we come upon the great natural motive, the first cause of the drawing to- gether of man and animals, — hunger and its satisfying. This is proved by the enormous quan tity of horses' bones found in the caves of prehistoric man. The skulls and the cleft bones show that marrow, and brains served as food to the dwellers in those caverns. It was probably not until much later that the horse was tamed and subjected to the will of man. The people of the steppes, surrounded by wild animals of all kinds, learned to capture the laggards and stragglers, and from this dates a memorable epoch in the relations of man to the animal kingdom. In all probability a number of the smaller animals had sub- mitted, while the great horse still protested vehemently against enslavement. It is likely that it was not by gentleness (as in our day) that he was first subdued, which says all the flesh more for his good qualities when at last he resigned himself and understood what was wanted of him. His speed made the first great impression upon man ; in fact, there are coun- tries where his name comes to him from that quality. In Hebrew, in Egyptian, and in some other ancient languages the word s/is stands for "horse" and for "swallow." The Greek vford /itppos signifies "rapid." When the horse was seen for the first time at Malacca he was called kuda-barong^ the horse bird. The people of the steppes finally identified themselves wholly with their steeds. The Mongols, horsemen from time immemorial, show it in their shape and their atti- tude ; they have made, so to speak, the horseman type, — curved legs and the upper part of the body bending forward. They sleep on their horses, live with them, boast of them, and love them more than wife or child. The wild horse still exists, how- ever ; he can be found in the southern regions of Siberia, on the plains of Mongolia, among the Ural Mountains, and in America, where he is a descendant of the horse stock brought over by the Spanish explorers. As late as the second half of the twelfth century he was hunted in Spain, in the Belgian Ardennes, in Italy, and in the south and east of what is now Germany. Later still wild horses inhabited the forests of Russia, and in the seventeenth century were hunted in Poland and in Lithu- ania. Those that were captured alive were kept like cattle in inclosures, where they were trained for either riding or draft, chiefly for the former purpose. Mare's milk, which is still greatly esteemed for cheese or whey (koumiss) among the Tartars, was a chief article of food. 96 From a waler color by Otto Eerelman THE HORSE 97 Thus it was that the horse came from a wild to a scmiwild state, till at last he reached the condition of a domesticated animal. It is to be remarked that the farther he came from the steppes of northern Asia the lon^^'r time it seems to have taken to domesticate and utilize him. In all directions the explorer finds that the breeding and training of horses is an art which the peoples of Europe have learned from their neighbors on the east and north- east. It is equally remarkable that in Russia, which serves as an intermediary between As for their distribution in cities and coun- try places, that depends on circumstances. The relation between production and demand naturally exercises great influence in certain countries. In the United States, which sup- plies its needs chiefly by its own production, the relative numbers show that about four fifths of the total number of horses are employed in agriculture or for draft purposes, the remaining fifth being in private use, chiefly in the cities. In 1S99 Paris had 93,052 horses, and in 1900 statistics show a record of 98,284, — an A F.AMILV P.^RTY Europe and Asia, horses are still found in far greater numbers than elsewhere, and so are the races of horsemen. The horse has always retained the principal and best qualities of his ancestors, - — speed and strength. These qualities, which served him once for flight only, are now employed in the service of humanity. Let us therefore caress that lowered head and rightly appreciate this quadruped, larger and stronger than ourselves, as one of the most useful and most indispen- sable of the domestic animals. II. The Breeds of Horses In spite of motor cars, steam, and electricity the number of horses is still increasing enor- mously throughout the world. increase of 5200 horses in a single city in one year. This shows that just as photography has not killed portrait painting, so the bicycle has not killed horseback riding, for riding is an art, and the arts die not. It remains to be seen whether motor cars can kill the driving of horses, which also is an art, and a great one. In the United States the number of horses has increased nearly sixty per cent in twenty- five years, showing how great is the role that the horse plays to-day in all our social and domestic relations. A vast international commerce in horses goes on at all times. The countries that con- tribute most to this commerce are Russia, Hun- gar)-, Roumania, Denmark, and the United States. In 1897 this commerce between the 98 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Half-Blood Mare of Holstein different countries amounted in round numbers to two hundred thousand horses at a total value of $30,000,000. Horses now existing ma}' be divided into two great groups : the heavy, cool-blooded horses of western Europe, called also the horses of Armorica; and the lighter, hot- blooded horses of Eastern origin. This difference relates to character and temperament, the Eastern horses being ardent, quick, susceptible, courageous, sometimes restive ; while those of the West are calm, equable, slow, and docile. Russia, with her vast plains, is the \a.nd far excellence oi)\o\-s&s. In 1886 the number of Kirghiz families in- habiting the steppes of Siberia north of Turkestan was, in round numbers, three hundred thousand, the poorest of whom owned from fifteen to twenty horses. while the rich owned many thousands. The Russian horses may be divided into three groups, — those of the steppes, those of the peasants, and those of the stud. The first two form the transition from the wild horse to the civilized horse. All Russian horses of the first two groups are horses of the steppes, or descended from them, and in their exterior they nearly always present the Oriental type. The horses of the steppes are born there, and live a free life in large herds, or else in small groups of five or six. They feed during most of the year on the grass of the steppes. To these belong the wild horse of the region and the semiwild ones belonging to the Kirghiz Our Faithful Friends Head of Horse born White (Albino) and the Calmucks ; also those of the Don and the Caucasus. The peasant horses of Russia are no longer reckoned among the horses of the steppes, although they are descended from them. All the horses that we have men- tioned so far are of pure blood ; but in the third group, those of the stud and of civil- ized Europe and America, we find new breeds produced under the influence of man, either by crossbreeding with foreign races or by modifications of life and habit. The horses of the Kirghiz, which are those of Asia to the northeast of the THE HORSE 99 Caspian Sea, are frequently exported to Russian Europe, especially for military ser\'ice. Droves of these dirty, half -wild, but extremely hardy animals can be seen at the fairs in the southwest cream, white spotted with red, or sorrel. This horse, like the wild one in the mountains and river bottoms of the western part of the United States, excels in vigor, speed, and extraordinar)- On the Road in Ohio of Europe. Their height is not more than fourteen hands ; their heads are well formed, with eves full of expression, and quick, alert ears : the neck is short and rounded in front, the withers high, and the back straight or slightly curved ; the haunches are broad and high, the rump rather sloping, the legs short but power of endurance under fatigue and hunger. He will go for several consecutive days with- out food, and can easily do from forty to sixty miles a day, covering from five to ten miles an hour, and even more. He can bear all weathers, and may be used either for riding or as a draft horse. Spotted Horses of the Stefpes well developed, and the hoofs small and firm. The hair is short and fine in summer, and coarse and long in winter ; that of the tail and mane is thick. Their color is usually light-bay, The horses of the Calmucks, like those pre- ceding, are horses of the steppes, belonging to these nomad tribes. We meet them between the Ural Mountains and the Volga. They are lOO OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS rather taller than the Kirghiz horses, but have nearly the same characteristics. The Calmucks are excellent horsemen, and long-distance races Cossacks of the Guard (Russia) are much in favor with them, as they are also among the Kirghiz. The riders take with them neither food nor drink, and make no stop for rest. The competitors are drawn up in a straight line, and at a signal rush away with the greatest speed. The first to arrive at the terminus receives a prize, which is often very large, sometimes a hundred horses, from one to two hundred sheep, a number of camels, valuable weapons, etc. The second prize, on the contrary, is very small, often only one sheep. As it is thought shameful not to reach the goal, the horses which are exhausted by the run are sometimes dragged by ropes across the winning line. These Mongol nomads are far from kind to their beasts ; they guide them with a rough hand, and give them no food but what the steppe affords. The manner in which they protect them from cold is both cruel and unique. When the ani- mals come back from a long run, in a temperature of from twenty to thirty degrees below zero, there are no stables to shelter them and blankets are unknown. The Mongols simply pour water over their backs, which freezes instantly and prevents the heat of their bodies from escaping. The horses of the Cossacks of the Don are found on the prairies that border that river and its affluents. They are not handsome, but they are robust and swift. Their muscles are well developed in every part of their body ; the eyes are small, the ears alert, the withers long and high, the back short and straight, the loins robust, the croup broad, the chest not broad, but deep and well formed ; the flanks are round, the belly sometimes rather in- drawn, the legs long and power- ful, the tail thick and long, and the mane short and full. Their color is usually chestnut, dark brown, or white. The whole animal is built to travel long distances without fatigue. His gait is free and firm, but a steady trot is the one that suits him least. It is at a gallop and when he has to clear obstacles in his way that he shows to most advantage. Though quite ignorant of fear, he is touchy and skittish. Ready for Transport (Libou, Russia) In the present day the old breed of the Don horses is being improved and ennobled by cross- ing: them with thoroughbred stallions. In 1882 I02 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS BiTjouG Stallion (Russian) more than four hundred thousand of these horses were counted on the territory of the Cossacks of the Don. They are so well known for their fine qualities as riding horses that they are exported in great numbers not only to other parts of Russia but also to Austria, Hungary, Prussia, and the Balkans. The horses of the Balkans are especially mountain horses, but in their habits of life they bear some relation to those of the steppes. The best of the race show a close re- lationship with Persian and Arabian horses ; like them, their bones are delicate though strong, their muscles well developed, and their coats soft and glossy. Their color is very beau- tiful, often a golden-red, with mane and tail of the darkest brown. Special breeds among them are known by the general name of Circassian horses. The horses of the Russian peas- ants, used for agricultural labor, dif- fer radically from the light, fleet riding horses we have just described. They bear the general name of peas- ant or cool-blooded horses, and pre- dominate in numbers, there being about seventeen million of them, as many of this class in Russia as of all kinds in the United States. The Bitjougs belong to this family. They take their name from an affluent of the Don, and are chiefly found on the plains between the Volga and that river, to the north of the Cossacks of the Don. They are descended in part from males brought from the Low Countries by Peter the Great ; later still the race has had some mingling of Oriental blood. The Bit- jougs are tall and vigorously built. Their broad chest, their stout body and solid back, their neck heavily muscled, their strong sinewy legs, short pasterns, and solid hoofs mark them for draft animals. They are not only strong, but are also ener- getic, wilHng, and obedient. Thanks to their steady, even trot, they are often used for riding as well as for draft. These and other of the Russian peasant horses came originally from the steppes. In times of famine, when thousands of horses perish, great droves of steppe horses are im- ported into European Russia, where they are used for field labor, but their fate is none the better for it. The prairies of Russia in Europe often afford less food than the steppes of Asia ; Orloff Mare (Russian Trotter) THE HORSE 103 and though the animals ma)' not be forced to scratch up the snow in winter to get at the grass, the straw, often rotten, on which the peasants feed them is certainly no better. The poor animals share the pitiful fate of the Rus- sian peasants, — hunger, thirst, and misery. The racers, next in rank after the American trotting horse, are the creation of Count Orloff , Oldenburg Coach Horse (Mare) Two and a lialf years old was the one thing neces- sary has been super- seded by crossbred animals employed for nobler purposes. In general, the Germans of the Middle Ages used heavy horses, whereas small horses or ponies abounded along the coasts of the Baltic and in Prussia. But all these have long since given way to half-blooded ani- mals raised all over the country with various and they are named Orloffs after him. In con- modifications, but coming chiefly from a mixture sequence of continual admixture of Oriental, of pure-blooded Oriental and English horses, English, and Dutch blood the Orloff stock has and also from importations of cool-blooded ani- become what it is to-day, — a beautiful and mals from Belgium and England. It ma)- be noble animal, sometimes a little narrow and said, in general, that in northern German)- we leggy, not deep enough in the chest, the croup dome shaped, sloping down on all sides, but revealing his East- ern origin by the shape of his head, the expression of his eyes, the fine form of the neck and shoulders, the strength of his sinewy legs, and by other cjualities. Though there may be in their exterior something not wholly satisfactory to the eye of a connoisseur, these horses should be judged when at work. The equable cadence of their movements, their incredible swiftness, their carriage, their endurance, have passed into a proverb. The principal colors arc gray and black, in which the Orloffs themselves have remained faithful to their Frisian ancestors. In the Old World, after Russia, Germany has the largest number of horses ; they are particularly numer- ous on the plains in the northern part of the country. Yet that country is not rich in original races. On the contrary, its famous black horse of the days of chivalry, when brute force Same Horse Trotting I04 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS mostly find light horses for saddle and harness, and in the southern part of the country the heavier draft horses. Hanover devotes itself especially to the pro- duction of solid, weighty animals of noble Blue-White Mare (German Coach Horse) Two years old form for the saddle and harness ; they have great endurance and a fiery temperament. From the days of George I of England, the first of the Hanoverian kings, eight of these horses have drawn the royal coach on all state occasions, their last appearance being at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1S97. Oldenburg and Friesland stand quite apart from the rest of Germany in their production of horses. The Oldenburgs are especially known as fine, large, heavy carriage horses ; the head is well formed, the neck and shoulders handsome, the withers high, and the legs strongly muscled but often thick and coarse about the knees. They are not as noble in their conformation as the Hanove- rians, but they excel them in their docility and fine action. In the Rhenish provinces and throughout all southern Germany the heavy cart or work horse takes the first rank. He is usually of Belgian origin, though in some places we find the heavy English animal. The race of the Pinzgau, originally the wild horse of the Noric Alps of Austria, is still found in southern Bavaria, and is much em- ployed in Munich to draw the trucks of the breweries. It takes its name from the valley of Pinzgau near Salzburg. This race is considered as descending, without admi.xture of any kind, from the ancient wild horse of the Alps, which, in the days of the Romans, lived in a savage state among the mountains. In the neighborhood of Munich there is also a light-weight, primitive horse, called the Feldmoching (from the village of that name), the skeleton of which corresponds precisely to that of the fossil horses found in the lake of Sternberg. Austria-Hungary comes next after Germany in the number of its horses, although it has no race types. In the German-speaking Austrian prov- inces the animals are heavier than those found among the peoples of Slavic and Romanic origin. In the eastern districts, Gahcia and Transylvania, the influence of Oriental blood is plainly felt. In these provinces we find Light Bay Oldenburg Mare many ponies, angular in shape and thin, but fiery and showing qualities of endurance all the more remarkable because their lives are cruelly hard. On the plains of Hungary, with THE HORSE 105 their vast fields, the breeding of horses is much developed. The Oriental type predom- inates ; hence it is supposed that the Hunga- rian horse came originally from Asia with his master, the Magyar. These ponies are now disappearing and giving place to better culti- vated breeds. The Jucker horse, which may be regarded as the native Hungarian horse ennobled, is at present the model type. Agile ninth century under the rule of the Normans, who established breeding farms in the neigh- borhood of Rouen, Caen, and Bayeux. During the succeeding centuries these heavy Norman horses were crossed with English blood, producing one of the most remarkable breeds in France, — the French Coach, which as a carriage horse enjoys great popularity both in France and in our own country, the and very enduring, he can cover extraordinary distances at great speed. The Hungarians are passionate horsemen and lovers of their steeds, in which thc\- arc encouraged by the fine tiual- ities (if those animals. France still jiossesses several types of prinii- ti\e horses, ver\' distinct from one another. In the South we fintl the descendants of Ori- ental horses introduced by the Moors in the seventh and eighth centuries, wiiilc in the northern departments we still see the ancient hot-blyoded animals which flourished in the rival of both German and English horses of that class He possesses all the necessary external qualities, — height, massiveness, and nobility of shape. Smaller and lighter than the Oldenburg horse, he is quite as noble, and he excels him in motion with a high-stepping action of the knee. He is generally brown in color. On the northwest plains ot France we still find an ancient heavy horse, which we also encounter everywhere along the shores of the North Sea, not only in France but also in Bel- gium, Holland, and Denmark. All this group io6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS 1 ■-■'»' ■ ^^^0 ■ f i ^^ i' i I mO ■ K 1. ^" -' ft^.^->?^, -~ H^^^^ k.:.- iJS5_:^_:l HHhH Half-Blood Huxgarian (Jucker) of cool-blooded horses take the general name of Armorican, from the peninsula of Armorica in Brittany. The French Draft, as we know him, belongs to this group, and is found throughout the northern districts of France. He has a broad, coarse head, a short and thick neck with a heavy double mane, the withers low, the chest broad, cleft, and pendent, the legs short and strong. He is usually gray. The Flemish horses are the heaviest, and are fit to go at a foot pace only. The Bou- lognese, being rather lighter, can go, if necessary, at a trot. The Percheron horse, belonging to the same group, takes his name from the Perche region between Nor- mandy and the river Maine. He differs little from the foregoing breeds, but is especially suited to draw, at a rather quick pace, moderately heavy loads, such as omnibuses, street cars, and farm tools and implements. The Percheron is the most popular draft horse that we have obtained from across the sea. The Breton horse is another representative of the same group, but smaller and lighter in every way ; in fact, strictly speaking, he is a pony and is much used for breeding on account of his vigor and hardiness. The horses of Brittan}' are robust animals, able to carry to French Coach II. Half-Blood Hungarian (Jucker) market a peasant, his whole family, and all the produce they have to sell. During Napoleon's campaign in Russia they acquired the name of " French Cossacks." England, the land where horses are bred for special purposes, has become indispensable to the civilized world on account of the demand for English blood. Her breeding of the Thoroughbred has been for centuries the source to which the whole world (China excepted) goes when a noble animal of rapid gait is wanted. The Thoroughbred in its present form dates from the second half of THE HORSE 107 the seventeenth century. As early as the days of the Crusades Arabian horses had been brought to England, and b\- the close of the Middle Ages much Spanish and Italian blood had been added to theirs ; but the history of pure blood, properly so called, does not begin until the reign of Charles II. Produced by the crossing of several races, the English Thoroughbred has the blood of several original races, especially the Oriental, but since the establishment of the genealogical record the breed has been kept pure. The best known ancestors of this breed are Byerly Turk, Derby Arabian, and Godolphin Arabian, who lived in the last half of the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth. The Thor- oughbred is especially famous as a racer or running horse. Rapid gait and stay- ing power are the chief qualities of these animals whose form and every action re- veal a noble origin. The small, refined head, the delicate, long neck, the keen, intelligent eyes, the skin and hair so fine that the veins show through them, the broad chest, the long but robust back, the straight croup, can mold his action on the animal kingdom b\- judicious breeding, selection, training, and watchful care. Throughout Europe, whenever French Draft Horse the long, lean, delicate legs with hard tendons and solid hoofs, all prove to what result man French Saddle Horse the improvement of a breed of horses is in ques- tion, it is generally a crossing with pure English blood that is desired ; it is seldom that the old Arabian blood is sought. The Yorkshire carriage horses and the Cleveland Bays form a group apart in England, where the former in times past were much used as carriage horses. The Cleveland Bay is a very t>ld race, derived, probably, from an ancient nii.xture of the English horse with Oriental blood. Animals of this race are well built, lively, and \igorous, with strong, lean legs. They are much in demand for carriage and also for work horses. Of late, their good qualities be- coming more widely known, they have been imported to America, where they receive the name of " general purpose horses." I( OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In England the Norfolk trotter is the light- weight carriage and harness horse par excel- lence. He comes from crossing the original English blood with the Thoroughbred, adding a slight mixture of Dutch blood. His trot is noble and high stepping ; he is well built, though his back is sometimes a little hollow. The Hunter is also a half-breed ; but what the Norfolk horse does in harness he does of the hunt, and power of endurance, while their riders naturally require them to have a pleasant, elastic motion. The half-bred Irish horse is much in demand for military service. The Hackney, which has many of the qualities of the Hunter, is also used as a saddle horse, but on level roads, however, because he is more fitted for quiet riding than for jumping. Consequently the under the saddle, as his name implies. Thor- oughbreds are also used for hunting, but for heavy-weight riders the half-bred hunter is preferable. He is a descendant of heavy sires and light-weight dams, especially Irish mares. It often happens that a mare producing a Hunter is partly Thoroughbred herself. The principal qualities of these animals are strength that enables them to carry heavy weights over obstacles, speed to follow the pace, often rapid, chief qualities required of him are a fine gait, elegance of shape, and docility. The Cob is a small but sturdy horse, em- ployed to draw light phaetons ; he is some- times used as a riding horse for old gentlemen, on account of his quiet and easy gait. He is fiery, however, and a pail of water is often given him, just before his master mounts, to make him quieter. It was said that Sir Robert Peel lost his life by being thrown from a Cob, TME HORSE 109 which a groom had neglected to water. Ponies are found in great numbers in the mountainous parts of Great Britain. The Shetland ponies, coming from the islands of that name, are the most characteristic because they are the smallest. These little animals, sometimes less than three feet high, are much used in circuses and are ridden by children ; but their chief employment across the seas is in coal mines, where they draw the tram carts. Once taken clown into a mine they never again see the light of day ; some have lived fifteen years, stabled and fed underground. There are several other tribes of ponies named for the local- ities where they originate, such as the Exmoor, the New Forest, the Welsh, and the Scotch mountain pony. ■^A^'- Tiiii English TiuiKoicniiRi;!) Kcnninc; Horse Breton Pony Four yeara old The ])(il() ponv is of another race altogether. He is exter- nally a Thoroughbred and descends from one, but by birth he is a half-breed. His sire is usually a Thoroughbred and his mother a Welsh or Irish pony. A genealogical tree has been drawn up for him. On the jilains and in the fer- tile valleys of England and Scotland there are and have been from time immemorial solid, heav\-, cool-blooded ani- mals. The Shire horse is an ancient, indigenous animal whose own cool blood has been mixed in the course of cen- turies with Dutch or Flemish blood. His true cradle is the center of England, — Notting- hamshire, Leicestershire, I lO OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Hunter " Tom Brown " Has taken many prizes Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead Derbyshire, Staffordshire, — hence his name. The race is distinguished by its ponderous conformation, its fine shape, and especially by the thick hair at the back of the leg, descending in long locks about the fetlock. By his extraordinary strength, his gigantic height, and his excellent qualities as a draft animal, the Shire horse has given birth to several celebrated strains of brewery, truck, and cart horses in England and America. They are usually black, gray, or bay in color. The Suffolk horse, commonly known as the Suffolk Punch, is indigenous from ancient times in the county of that name. He is equally heavy and stout, and excels as much by his ex- traordinary strength as by the docility with which he lends himself to toilsome work, espe- cially that of agriculture. The Clydesdale horses are cool-blooded, and take their name from the valley of the Clyde in Scotland. They come from Scotch mares crossed with Flemish sires. This breed produces excellent work horses, and is characterized, like the Shire horse, by the long, thick hair on the leg, which the Suffolk Punch has not. They are usually brown or black in color, with a star, blaze, or other mark on the forehead, and they frequently have white feet. This is a popular breed in America. Belgium is the country of heav}^, cool-blooded horses. It is, above all, on the plains of Flanders, Brabant, and Hainaut that we find stout, strong, heavy draft horses. These horses are renowned for developed muscles, fine shape, and vast strength. The rump is generally sloping and so powerfully muscled that it forms a hollow in the center of the back, but in spite of this heavy conformation these animals trot with ease. The breed is fast find- ing friends on this side of the water, and many fine specimens have been brought to this country. Stallion Polo Pony "Mootrub Took first prize in New York .ACKNEYS The horse of the Ardennes is a lighter animal of the same species, raised on the moun- tains and plateaus of the Ardennes. It is put to the same uses as the Percheron, while the Belgian horses are employed chiefly in drawing heavy loads. The Zealand horse has much in common with the Belgian horse in shape and THE HORSE II I characteristics, especially in its heavy hind ciuarters. The Frisian breed, formed)' much empkijed in the northern parts of Europe, differs greatly from the foregoing type. It is known for its high neck and shoulders, its sloping rump, the lofty action of the fore legs, and its ability to gallop or trot rapidi)-. It was chiefly for this latter quality that foreigners formerly esteemed the Frisian horse, which is now entirely set aside. The color is uniformly black. Denmark, especially in Jutland, may be regarded as the most northern coun- try which has produced heavy cool- blooded horses. The Jutland horses have long been known to foreigners as the Danish horses ; in the days of chivalry they were much sought for their great strength. Denmark is su productive of horses that philologists assert that its name is derived from that animal, Denmark signifying the " land of horsemen." The Jutland horse is of medium height and weight, and is now used chiefly for agriculture and for omnibuses and tramways. It is robust, calm in temperament, easy to feed, with a steady gait and great endurance. It is usually brown or chestnut, seldom black or gray. which afford prizes for well-bred horses sent to exhibitions, and since 1887 assistance is given to societies for the purchase of stallions. The number of Danish or Jutland horses is reckoned at three hundred thousand, of which Welsh Ponv with Fo.^l Photo J. T. Newman, Berkliampstead three fourths are found in Jutland and one fourth in the Danish islands. The annual exportation is about fifteen thousand, chiefly geldings ; in Ger- many these animals are sold at prices varying from 600 to 1200 francs, — from $125 to $250. The ancient breed of Nordland horses, so called, is still met with in Norway ; they are SHr.TI..\Nl) PO-VIES The Danish horses have rather long backs, light withers, the head short and broad, the neck thick, the rump sloping, but the legs strong. Since 1872 the state grants subsidies of medium height, yellow or brownish yellow in color, with the mane, tail, and lower part of the leg jet black. They have also a black stripe running the whole length of the back. 112 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS ^m 1 w 1 i .-• ^. ' -•^SK*^sl^^3 j^MH^HHSS^^ Shire Horse Photo J. T. Xewman, Berkhampstead The Norker horse is a small pony, to be found along the fiords and coasts of Norway. It is gray or brownish gray in color, strong, with great endurance and solid hoofs, and is famous for its ability to climb mountains and to swim. Iceland ponies have much in common with the Norker horse. They have thick coats, enabling them to bear their cold climate, and they get their food by scratching away the snow with their hoofs and feed- ing on the scanty grass and mosses which grow on that rocky soil. Norway possesses another breed of these little fiord ponies, called the West- land ; they are vigorous and hardy, with tufted manes and tails. The Norwegian trotting horse is chiefly found in the southeastern portion of the country, where races are in great favor. This horse resem- bles the Frisian trotter, but is smaller. He is famous for the extreme solidity of his hoofs and his strong, sinewy legs ; he is courageous, quiet, and good- tempered. To improve the type, which is rather wanting in dignity, breeders are now importing stallions from Eng- land. Except for racing, the love of horses is not much developed in Nor- way, because the soil and climate do not lend themselves to breeding, and, besides, the farms are small, so that breeders seldom have more than three or four mares for the purpose. Sweden also produces none but small horses and ponies. It is only by the establishment of stud farms and the importation of foreign stal- lions that she has succeeded in raising carriasre -^W" ■' -^^^F Ba . :"^'^'"*^Hff ^^^^^'■•*^-*^^ ' ."^'v? ; ■" ... "^ja&teHHSKSBSSffilP'. ' ■ ". -j:.. .'■;* --.-iitikKiT^j-;.- „__ . ''.a,-,..*im-sjnm Clydesdales Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead 114 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and saddle horses. The Swedish army horses are loaned during a great part of the time to the peasants, who may use them for saddle and harness, but not for heavy work. The Swedish Suffolk-Punch Mare " Queen of Diamonds ' Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead ponies bear a general resemblance to those of Norway, Iceland, and the Shetland and Orkney islands. They are mostly gray or mouse col- ored, with black points. The smallest are found on the island of Oland, and are called Glanders. Large heads with heavy jaws, thick, harsh coats, and tufted manes and tails characterize nearly all these northern ponies. In the southern countries of Europe we find little animals that correspond to the ponies of the north. In Greece ponies share the kingdom with don- keys and mules ; a particularly small breed, smaller than that of the Shetland Isles, is found in the Cyclades. No sign remains of the equine glory of ancient Greece and of her famous breed of Thessalian horses. The same may be said of Italy, which is now under the necessity of annually importing more than thirty thousand horses. The Sardinian ponies are strong, handsome animals ; they are generally brown. The smallest are called "achetta," and their sure, firm step on the mountains is much praised. Ponies are also bred in Sicily. Formerly Italy was celebrated for her horses. The Neapolitans, especially, enjoyed a world- wide fame at a period when breeding and equitation were at their zenith in that coun- try. Pasquala Caracciolo, a professor in the Italian school for these arts, now abandoned, asserts that for traveling, trotting, galloping, and war, and also for leaping and hunting, the Italian horses were preferable to all others in the world. They were very handsome, robust, enduring, agile, courageous, and in- telligent, with finely shaped head and shoul- ders ; they were agreeable under the hand, and if ridden by a good horseman, they took a gait that was elegant and elastic, and very pleasant to the rider. Spain also was famous for her horses, espe- cially the celebrated Andalusians, which had much in common with the Neapolitan horses. The Moors imported Arabian blood into Spain, from which resulted horses of lighter weight and purer Eastern race. Th.^ jennets, so called, L," Stallion of Heavy Belgian Draft Breed His numerous medals are round his neck THE HORSE 115 small horses indigenous in Spain, must be ranked among saddle horses. They were celebrated for their elegance, their proud bearing, their high crests, their long manes, the fine action of their fore legs, and the elasticity of their hind ones, which gave to their movements a suppleness that all the world admired. From the fifteenth til the eighteenth centuries these horses were held in high esteem among princes and nobles, and e\'en in the beginning of the nineteenth Roumania and the other Balkan States are alike in possessing a breed of mountain ponies which have many of the characteristics of Ori- ental horses, to which, apparently, they are related. Turkey has likewise outlived her fame in the domain of horse raising, her horses of Eastern origin being highly valued in times past. The Sultan's stables cover a vast tract of ground and contain about two thousand horses of various origin, — Tartar, Arabian, Danish, Type of a Two-Year-Old Ardennes Stallion century they were much in demand as circus or riding-school horses. One or more were considered a princely gift. Tu-day thc_\- are never seen, but traces of them are still visible in Austria, Italy, Spain, and in some of the northern countries, such as Friesland and Denmark. Spain formerly produced a heavier horse, which was preferred to the foregoing for war and tillage. They were called vi/ldiios. In our day the breeding of horses in Spain is insignificant and very inferior to that of asses and mules. The few horses that remain are mostly sacrificed in bullfights. English, French, Russian, and German. A few zebras and splendid African quaggas are also kept in the stables of the Sublime Porte. The United States has long been a prominent horse-producing nation, although her horses are developed entirely from the horse stock of other countries. The prominent breeds are Percheron, French Draft, English Shire, Suf- folk Punch, Clvdesdale, and Belgium Draft for farm ])urposcs and for work requiring strong, hea\y animals ; and the French, German, Old- enburg, Hackney, and the Cleveland Bay for carriage purposes. These breeds, even when ii6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS bred in a land new to them, cling with wonderful tenacity to original forms and characteristics. These imported horses are easily adaptable to our soil and climate, and to-day one can scarcely Frisian Stallion Four years old find a county in any state that does not pos- sess pure-blooded animals representing some of these breeds. The American trotter, the most remarkable of all horses, is a descendant of the English Thoroughbred, and has been improved and developed for a special purpose — speed. One hundred years ago there was no authenticated record of any horses going faster than a mile in less time than two and three-quarters minutes ; to-day we have records for one mile in two minutes, or even better, for Dan Patch, the pacing wonder, during the past summer covered the mile in 1.55^. III. Breeding of Horses The breeding of horses has gone through many modifications in the course of time, dating back to long- past ages. We still find traces of half-savage forms in the east of Russia and its adjoining regions. According to the direction given to breeding, some races have been condemned to disappear and give place to others that answered better to the requirements of owners. Thanks to repeated crossings in a certain direction, old characteristic qualities disappear and are re- placed by other forms and qualities. By continually selecting the heaviest animals of a heavy race, and giving them such food as their needs require, our heavy breeds of draft horses have been obtained, — horses that rear themselves like giants of fairy tales to the eyes of those who see them for the first time. In using for propagation the fleet- est animal of a fleet and noble race, and giving to their product an edu- cation that develops the muscles and tendons, and by carefully repressing all obesity, breeders are obtaining more and more animals of incredible speed, which, especially on the American race track, are taking less and less time to cover a certain distance. By always using the smallest specimens of a race of small ponies breeders have succeeded in producing horses no larger than mastiffs. A dwarf horse, two years old, exhibited in New York in 1901, was only twenty-three Frisian Stallion, Jet Black inches in height. Breeders also seize and repro- duce the freaks of nature, such as the albino horses (born white) of Denmark and Hanover. Among the most ancient stud farms we must rank those established by the Norman kings in THE HORSE 117 Normandy. They raised war horses, ponderous but rapid, and the\' e\en established races and formed race courses, an example followed later by monasteries and abbeys. The stud farm of the Abbey of Mont Saint Michel was long celebrated. Private studs were also set up by knights in the Middle Ages to sup- ply their own needs. These were established all along the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic, and are the places whence the cool- blooded horses of the present tlay originally came. In 1843 stud farms were made a part of the government administra- tion of Russia, and twenty-six such farms were established, with sixty stallions in each, which were placed gratuitously at the service of breed- ers. A very celebrated stud farm was estab- lished in 1732 in eastern Russia. At first only the Teutonic breeds were raised, but an im- portation of Neapolitan, Turkish, and English blood produced fine carriage horses, which further importations (jnly bettered. During the Napoleonic wars this establishment suffered severely and came near to being broken up, but in 1 8 14 a fresh importation of English and Oriental blood revived it. Russia now possesses C)1..\NI)1.1< I'ONIKS, SWhUKN Jutland Horse a vast number of such establishments where pure-blooded, half-blooded, and sometimes cool- blooded animals are raised. In the province of Rosen there has long been a small stud farm of Percherons. Such farms belong parti}' to the state and partly to private owners. Breeding establishments in the United States ha\'e been owned and managed by private parties entireh", the government never having assisted in the work. Importing companies and private individuals have imported for the past century many animals of various breeds for breeding purposes, these animals being ^^^^ sold to farmers direct or kept for f f H use by those importing them. There is scarcely an important European breed that is not represented by many superior individuals in our country, either by direct importation or by the descendants of many individuals brought here, the F"rench Draft, Percheron, and Clydesdale being very numerous and scattered over farms throughout the (-ountry. The Belgian, English Shire, and Suffolk Punch have also gained in friends and numbers during recent years. Of the carriage breeds, the French Coach, German Coach, Hackney, and Cleveland Bays are the most popular and are gaining in numbers and favor. ii8 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS IV. The Art of Equitation The custom of riding on horseback is very ancient, but in the days of the Greek and Roman civilizations it became an art in which both man and horse were specially trained by the Olympic games. A magnificent circus was established in Constantinople, where horses paraded and passaded in cadence, and even danced, and where the art of equitation as a Henry VII, king of England, sent to Italy for instructors ; and the Italian method was also taught in Germany by Engelhardt in 1588. The doctrine of the Italian school was, gen- erally speaking, as follows. The body of the rider has two movable parts, — the upper part of the body and the lower part of the legs. The part between the waist and the knees should be motionless. The seat should be Norwegian Pasture for Horses spectacle attained a high degree of develop- ment. The animals employed were the ances- tors of the Neapolitan and Andalusian horses afterwards so renowned, and the performances foreshadowed the Spanish and Italian schools that came later. In the sixteenth century Pignatelli, an Italian nobleman, established the first riding schools in Naples and Pisa, although at the close of the fifteenth century equitation already followed certain fixed rules laid down by the court of France. straight, but inclining backward rather than forward, and the thighs must be firm against the saddle ; this position should be maintained even at full gallop. The rider should have recourse to none but the gentlest measures ; he should never use the spurs unless the horse refuses absolutely to obey the pressure of the knees, neither should he use the whip or the voice. But besides these general rules the Italian school had many little fanciful tricks that were difficult both for horse and rider, among them a passading step called the " Neapolitan." THE HORSE 119 The Spanish school represented in many ways the Moors and the traditions they left behind them ; the simple Arabian bit and stir- ru]is retained their Moorish form. Rut after a principles of his predecessor, although still rec- ommended, were combined with those of the Duke of Newcastle. At the end of the seven- teenth century we find the king's equcrr\-, 1 \\ hi AI.I.ll INS while ultra-refinement and artificiality carried the day, and energy, agility, and suppleness were less valued than stateliness and show. The French school attached itself especially to show. Pluvinel, the first to write on Gaspard Saunier, exercising the veterinary art at Versailles, and combining it with the other arts of riding and horseshoeing. He also put his knowledge to use, with more or less success, in the establishment of stud farms for the Piki;-Ul(m)1m;i) Akaiu.an Stallions equitation, dedicated his book to Louis XIII, who was famous for his admirable seat on horse- back. To Pluvinel succeeded Beaurepaire, who published, in 1665, a book in which the and for private individuals. In his works on equitation and other branches he makes men- tion of the royal hunts in the forest of Fontaine- bleau, at which the exiled King James I of I20 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS England and his suite liad difficulty in following his majesty Louis XIV. He ranked the Arabian and Barbary stallions above the Spanish for breeding purposes, and he aided in abolishing certain absurdities of the Italian school. VM v^n M:t (M §1 E " -^^i ^^V^^^^v^^^^BBR^^^H 1 ^ ^i?" ^.:- Kentucky Horse The above schools (the Latin schools) de- manded elegance in the horse, — the pointed head, the long mane, the fine swan's neck gracefully curved, the long and supple back, the slender but sinewy fore legs flung high and majestically (as in the "Spanish step") with an elastic, dancing motion. The Andalusian and Neapolitan horses fulfilled these require- ments better than all others. The German school, which followed the Latin school only to a certain point, held a medium place between that school and those of the Slav races, — Russian, Hungarian, and Polish. The latter governed their restive horses by violent means, and could never bring themselves to use the gentler methods of the Latin nations. Americans and their English cousins have always preferred the enjoyment of trotting and galloping across country to making any fine display in the riding schools. The rough, harsh way in which the Sla\-s ride is partly caused, no doubt, by their saddles, which project so far from the body of the horse that the rider cannot direct the animal by knee or thigh. His heels are usually under the chest of the horse, and he controls him entirely by bit and spur. He will often, in the middle of a gallop, fling the horse backward or to one side by pulUng violently on the bit, using both whip and voice at the same time. The saddle is high in front and back, and the stirrups very short ; consequently it is almost impossible for a restive horse to throw his rider. The Slavs never ride at a trot, but always at a walk or gallop. The rider often forces the animal to sit down on his haunches, and then he compels Horses in Corral, Wyoming THE HORSE 121 him with whip and spur to advance in that half-sitting posture. This violent treat- ment renders a horse obedient in a few days, and if he breaks a leg or strains a muscle in the process, what matter ? The steppes of the Ukraine, or eastern Russia, will furnish plenty more. Besides the systems of equitation prac- ticed in circuses and riding schools, there are rules for open-air e.vercises in which, added to equitation properly so called, there are obstacles to overcome, barriers to leap, and equestrian games to plaw in which the rider can exhibit his power Si'.ANisii Step ■over his steed, together with his method and agility. Women rode on horseback in very ancient times, as we see by the sculptures of ancient Greece. One by Phidias, preserved in the British Museum in London, shows us a Thessalian woman sitting, man fashion, astride a horse of Thessaly, which breed was then held to be the finest of Grecian horses. This fashion of women riding astride continued in Europe until the twelfth century, when ladies' saddles were introduced, enabling them to sit sideways. Sometimes a woman rode en croupe, that is, behind her husband or another man. It is said that Oueen Elizabeth of England rode thus behind her grand equerry, the Earl of Leicester. The horse is easily trained to assist his rider in the execution of certain tricks of grace and skill. A tale is told of a Gascon horseman who rode a spirited horse hold- ing a piaster under each thigh, between each knee and the horse, and on each spur, without dropping a single one of them. I have myself seen an American cowboy cross at full gallop a field where a piece of money had been thrown upon the grass. Without slackening speed he leaned over and along the flank and belly of his horse, clinging to the animal with his legs, his head hanging low, but every M.AKINf; lUM Knkkl 122 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS time he succeeded in picking up tlie coin as he flashed past. Aeronauts have been known to ascend the skies mounted on a Pegasus, which stood on a plank suspended by ropes from a balloon ; and riders have succeeded in training horses to gallop not forward but backward. The horse rises by jumps, and the moment the fore legs in eleven hours, without stopping for food or drink. As she entered the city the brave beast fell dead, — less fortunate than the more justly famous Roland, who brought the good news from Ghent to Aix. The use of horses in harness was far from being as general in former times as it is now ; in fact, it was much despised in the The Celebrated Trainer M. Oscar Carre touch the ground he lifts the hind legs and flings them backward to the ground behind him. A very famous English horse. Black Bess, a Thoroughbred mare with much Arabian blood in her veins, saved her no less famous, or rather infamous, master, Dick Turpin, the highway- man. When pursued by relays of archers, determined to capture at last so elusive a criminal, the mare carried him over rough roads and turnpike gates from London to York, a distance of one hundred and five miles. brilliant days of equestrian chivalry. When the upper classes began to use carriages and their passion for equitation lessened, the French and German kings and princes endeavored to check the innovation. Up to that time the use of a carriage had always been regarded as an effeminacy unworthy of a cavalier ; but now, by degrees, people began to find the new mode of locomotion more comfortable, and the cava- liers themselves began to take their ease in vehicles. In consequence of this, Duke Julius THE HORSE I 2 of Brunswick felt compelled to issue an edict declaring that " the use of carriages was prej- udicial to the virile virtue, the good sense, the bravery, propriety, and firmness of the German nation, and was suitable only for lazy persons." It was, in fact, injuri- ous to the interests of kings and princes, because in ■ times of war (and those were incessant) vassals were compelled to assist their sovereigns with their persons, their swords, their horses, and their re- tainers ; but now (as the duke's edict goes on to say), "instead of themselves mounting their horses, the knights stayed at home and sent their grooms stewards, and other inexperienced rabble, not on vigorous stallions but obstacles on weak and puny beasts." Finally matters came to such a pass that the warrior princes found themselves forced to emjiloy contractors who, for stipulated sums of moncw undertook to procure both men and horses. The same condition of affairs existed in Spain at nearly the same epoch. The grandees, who formerly mounted their horses to display their prowess with the lance as they had seen it practiced by the Moors, or to fight wild bulls in the arena, now began to imitate the prelates, who were dragged about comfortably in coaches drawn by mules. A Spanish grandee complained of it thus: " Formerly there were brigands who comported themselves like knights and great matadores ; the brigands of the present day are beggars and the matadores bunglers." Philip II, king of Spain, took this matter to heart in 1562. He issued decrees against the breeding of mules and tried to encourage that of horses. In England carriages came into use in the second half of the sixteenth century, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The first coach was imported by the Earl of Arundel, to take the place of the queen's sedan chair, -^ and to spare her the annoyance f riding pillion behind her rand equerry. In France we find mention of the first coaches for hire in 1550. Thus it ap- pears that vehicles began to take the place of equestrian- ism in all countries at about the same period, — a period correspond- g to that of a reform n the intellectual world. Chariots of war were known to antiquity. When Julius Cassar conquered Britain in 55 B.C., J he encountered Briton warriors TO LEAP seated in formidable chariots armed with scythes fixed to the wheels. Even in Rome the use of vehicles was early known, but none but victors, vestal virgins, and certain author- ities were allowed to use them, and they could 124 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Ready to Start move only by daylight. These chariots had two wheels ; the carpentiim had a hood, and the pilentum was uncovered, or, at most, had a canopy. The triumphal car of victors and the racing chariots, harnessed often with three horses, also had two wheels. The carruca, an elegant carriage for luxury, adorned with gold, silver, and ivory, had four wheels. Its name has come down to the present day in many languages : car- riiccio, Italian; karos, kar, karrikel, north of Europe ; carrosse, carrousel, French ; carriage, English. In consequence of the bumps experi- enced on rough and stony roads it was thought advisable, after a time, to suspend the seat between four wheels by leather straps. In the sumptuous seventeenth century they used a sort of artistically decorated swing, slowly drawn by proud and splendid Anda- lusian horses, flanked on each side by two servants, whose business it was to hold up the machine when it threatened to fall, or to right it if it fell. The use of leather straps for the purpose of lessening rough shocks is still continued in Holland, though steel springs have long since taken their place elsewhere. There- fore the few Dutch carriages of this kind that still exist maybe regarded as curiosities. In our day it has become an art, and even a science, to drive a coach or carriage. The art consists in going whereso- ever we desire, in guiding the horses by reins, whip, and \oice in a way to make a good appearance, and in so manag- ing that the horses suffer as little as possible from their work, and that the equipage goes forward so regularly and tranquilly that the people within it do not perceive the pace at \\'hich it A Noble Breed 126 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS goes nor the obstacles on the road which it over- comes or avoids. The Hungarians are known for their skillfulness in this art, and the Eng- lish and Americans have also carried it far. Inspection of a Riding-School Hoi The method of driving horses has often been changed. At one time each horse of a pair had a bridle and rein to himself, so that one horse could be stopped without pulling on the other. To make them turn to the right a strap was fastened to the right of the jaw of the near horse, which crossed to the left shoulder of the off horse. They were turned to the left in the same way. To-day we use cross reins, that is to say, the two reins in the hands of the driver each divide into twi > at the shoulder, the correspond- ing end of each going to the left side of each horse's bit, while the same is done for the right side. This arrangement, far more convenient in the mat- ter of turning, presents certain inconveniences when driving two horses of different tem- peraments. In agricultural work done with quiet horses the driver often has but the two reins going from his hand to the exterior side of each horse's bit, and united by a transversal strap between the animals. The qualities required in a good driver are a gentle hand, skill, presence of mind, love for his horses (whom he ought to know thor- oughly), good sense, patience, courage, strength, and a cer- tain elegance ; he should be absolutely without roughness of any kind. Besides all this he should be sufficiently trained to his business, for no one is born a driver. It is a bad driver, or rather not a driver at all, who does not know his horses through and through, — their charac- ter, humor, and temperament as well as their faults. He needs patience to conquer quietly the capricious humor or resistance of his animals without himself being excited by their fits of temper. Courage and strength will surely enable him to master their obstinacy. t ^^^^W^^^^^^^^^^I^^^H^j^ m^-^ "^^i j^3 -,-■-""!-'■"■' ;;--;5-t;; —i—... .JL ■■■ A Young Cavalier which, of course, it is absolutely essential that he should do. THE HORSE 127 skill and courage which are nothing extraordi- nary, though always dangerous. To skirt at full gallop deep gullies and ravines and the rocky slopes of mountains needs a courage and cool- ness which arc not given to every one. It is a great test of strength and skill to drive a four-in-hand, sometimes a six-in-hand, and A Goon TvPF- or S.addi.k House In Austria and in our western mountain- ous section are the most remarkable exam- ples of intrepidity and skill in the art of driving" horses. To mount and descend flights of steps, to approach a precipice with four horses at full speed and be able to stop occasionallv eight or nine. The more horses, the them short at the crucial moment, are acts of more reins for the driver to hold, and if he is -^S^^ ^^^^v. ■ '.^,'%^-:. - ' ■■■'^^^^' '- '?-^^ -■ >4; • -*■*»- ^'- •■'^r^^^vl ^Hc''- -■»-6 ... v'<»V f-'' ' • -- iiii " ■-" ' •.. .>-^» 4v^*"' ^^^ ^^^\^ r\^ -. ^ ^mii !) ^JBl^M B r ^ iipjs^ .-^k^.- nife;:^ .z^^lB^'^ iKX Whiti: (Ai.iiiMi) 128 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS ^ in 3pW 1 English Hansom C\b not very experienced he is liable to mistake the pairs and thus cause accidents. It is related that an Eng- lish breeder, Mr. Emody, was driving along the road from Westminster to Greenwich with a carriage full of musicians, drawn by twelve pairs of horses, which he drove himself from the box. Two outriders preceded him as heralds, and two others escorted the vehicle, to be ready in case of accident. Emody seemed to have little trouble in driving his twenty -four steeds, holding the mass of reins in one hand as easily as the driver of an omnibus holds those of his poor old horses. In spite of the long distance and the many turns of the road, not the slightest accident happened, and the trip was made in two hours and twenty-five minutes. Any one who takes a bunch of twenty-four reins in his hand will agree that there is no question of really guiding the horses. Hard to hold in any case, how can the driver select the pair he may suddenly need ? There are some men, however, who- have luck in this world. How often we see a sleeping cartman or a A Well-Harnessed Horse A Set of Six drunken cabman arrive safe at his destination to the amazement of on-lookers ! The matter is much simpler with an equipage harnessed a la Daumont, where a postil- ion sits on the left-hand horse of each pair of four, six, or eight horses, as the case may be, and guides his own horse and the one beside him, the coachman being responsible for the wheel horses only ; in fact, it is possible to advance without any coachman at all. The harnessing of two horses tandem was original!}' THE HORSE 129 A Famots .Si\-H()i;sh Tka.m devised to assist a sini,de horse in i^ullini;' a load too heavy for him on a road too narrow to ad- mit of two horses abreast. Later it was adopted as a means of sliowintj" fine horses to advantage, and for giving proofs of skill. To prevent the long reins from flapping, rings are attacheil he- hind the head of the wheel horse, through which the forward reins are passed. On a straight First I'ki/i:, WOkk-Hoksk I'.xh.xdk. ii I30 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS road this system of harnessing works well with docile horses, which are willing to go easily and steadily, but special aptitude and much practice are requirctl to make ewilutions corrcctlx". regularly in the same wheel rut that he made in the sand at starting. However, Plato, the philosopher, thought that a man who bestowed uch ijains upon futile things must naturalh' A Set of Nine It is thought a great test of skill to drive a four-wheeled carriage in such a way that one of the wheels (selected in advance) shall crush an egg ; or to stop the vehicle at the precise moment when the chosen wheel covers a piece of money that has been laid upon the ground. neglect those that are more important and more worthy of admiration, V. War In war the horse formerly had a far more important part than he has in these days, when Watering It is related that in ancient times a Greek named Arniceris carried the noble art of driv- ing to such perfection that he made the cir- cuit of an amphitheater several times, stopping civilization has made such strides that men can perfectly well kill each other without the help of brute beasts. In ancient times warriors rode their horses bareback, as we see in the antique A Prize- \ViNMN(; Ti:am in Ciiir.\( Tkam of Fakm H(irsi;s, Ohio 132 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS statues, that of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, for instance. Neither bit nor bridle was used to hold or guide them ; often the rider had nothing but a species of headband that pressed upon the nose, and to which the reins were attached by a ring. The excavations at Pompeii have brought to light many fine models of these headbands. The Romans had long used sad- dles, while the Germans, regarding them as unmanly and enervating, preferred to ride did not excel either in strength or in speed, and that their riders did not train them, as did the Romans, to gallop round the enemy whom they assailed with their arrows, but made them go straight forward, or, at best, swerve a little to the right. Horace complains of the effeminacy of his times. " The young man of good family," he says, " no longer understands the art of riding a horse and of subduing the restive chargers of the Gauls." wM W^~ \\ i l# fe 1 ^ ^m £ m. 1 i^ rsjKJ^fj^to^-jfe ?» ».«>,'> ,;'. *A a" '7.;?'?.^'-'v S. rry '^y^^^ ^1 ^^y^&^ P«#t! '.-■"J ^ ■'^'■^ffi ^ft'^ *Bk -i ' S ! i iSS?^ 3m^^^'mi'-t,m ^i i^'^. .■'?•■ -■ *-• ^^ , . »»^ 1 S' -^fi^, Ik « S >i " r- : i ?. ^ j!i|P mm^ 's^-^ ^^; *mM 1 ^^*v^ %^- . ;-V4 -bi ^M 1 — *^ m, _ t^ -^ • y| ^ -^w-^ ■ \ _■' V ■ ^ ■ -'^-i^'- l^ ■I'^^AV'J ,JT IW^ ^^.ismurj^ I im ^&&. J2 ^ • i g — — — '*--.. - — v/sS/fK, bareback. Before the latter learned to use saddles they put the skins of animals on the backs of their horses, but used no stirrups. The ancient Greeks had cavalry, and we know that Sesostris, king of Egypt, led many mounted warriors into battle. These same Greeks as well as the Romans wrote books on the equine race. Hippocrates states that the Scythians were afflicted with certain maladies caused by riding without stirrups. Tacitus transmits to us details on the horses and cav- alry of the Germans. He says that these horses During the Crusades the Western knights saw and learned the manner in which the Eastern warriors, the Saracens, saddled and rode their steeds. We refer our readers to tlje graphic pages of Sir Walter Scott for a descrip- tion of a combat between a heavily armed Scottish knight and a Moorish emir. In our day the ponderous animals of the days of chivalry and their heavy trappings have been replaced by the much lighter horses of our cavalry, though the artillery and the transporta- tion trains still require powerful draft horses. THE HORSE 133 According to a record made in 1901, the [ number of horses emiiloyed b_\' the great military powers is as loUows : In • ■iMFs ni. Peace In T.mks ..f \ France . . . 143,000 . . . 400,000 Russia 140,000 . . . 450,000 Germany 125,000 400,000 Italy .... So, 000 . 245,000 Austria . . . 78,000 . . . 250,000 England . . . 1 9,000 . . 70,000 United States . 7,436 ■ . . 1,000,000 On all sides we find a tendenc}' to stop the buying of war horses in foreign countries, each country seeking to supply its own r._-- mounts. One of the great cares of all niilitar) powers should be to have at their disposal, in case of war, as many horses as possible. Yet the different European states do not all remount in the same manner. Prussia, which requires annually nine thousand re- mount horses, buys them, when three or four years old, within its own borders, especially in eastern Prussia, and also a few in Han- over. They are then divided among seven- teen remount stations, each of which covers from about twenty-two hundred to four thou- sand acres of land, so that the animals never suffer from want of movement in fresh air. Saxony needs twelve hundred remounts annually, which she obtains equally from eastern Prussia and Hanover. She has five stations, three of which have existed for nearly three centuries. Wurttemburg demands annually five hundred remounts, which are bought of two ages (four to six, and three to four) and sent to Breithiilen, TVPF.S OF C.W.VLKV HoRSF.S The St.\tve of Wu.liam the Silent AT Tiir: HACiCE a remount station founded in 1S98. The other German states obtain their militar\- horses from Prussia. Italy has an annual need of thirty-six hundred remounts for her one hundred and forty-four squadrons of cavalry and her twenty-six artillery regiments. I-"ormerIy she drew them in great ])art from Hungary, Ger- man) , and Denmark, but since the \ear 1S88 she has obtained them within her own borders. The)' are mostly bought as foals and brought up at the remount stations. In 1 897 urgent need obligetl the government to im- port one thousand remount ani- mals from Hungary. 134 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Remounts The system of remount as applied in Norway is peculiar. The necessary horses are deli\'ered by the owners of certain farms, who are legally bound to supply them. This bond, or obligation, is ver}- ancient, and dates back probably to the time when the nobles were obliged in times of war to furnish their sovereign with a certain num- ber of horse and foot soldiers. In Sweden, where the number of military horses is about six thousand, they have an annual need of five hundred and forty remounts, which are all bought in the interior of the country, at an age varying from three to six years ; part of them are formetl immediately into a corps, the rest being sent to the remount stations. France needs annually fifteen thousand young horses ; those for the cavalry are bought when three years and a half old and sent to the stations, whereas the draft horses are five years old when bought, and are then sent directly to the regiments. These horses are chiefly drawn from Nor- mandy. The French remount stations differ from those of nearly all other nations. Horses are there trained and delivered, properly taught, to the regiments, whereas in nearly all other countries food and proper care is all that the governments give to their remounts. In fact, in some countries there is a practice of allowing con- tractors to feed and care for the young horses. Exercise in Drawing Raising the Leg of a Restive Horse The French government takes the greatest pains to favor the production of good animals, as the country is lacking in good stock. It has even introduced a system of premiums for remounts, which amounted in 1899 to one hundred and twenty-five thousand francs (^25,000). These premiums are in pro- portion to the good qualities of the animals, but they can- not go beyond twenty-five hundred francs (;^SOO) per horse. The price of a remount THE HORSE ):> varies from twelve to eighteen Inindred francs (S240 to $360), so that a single horse may possibly cost the state forty-three hundred francs (S860). Because of these measures, and of the fact that three thousand stallions are placed at the disposal of breeders and divided among all the stations, the French government succeeds in supplying itself with remounts from the home country. These stallions, however, cost the country eight million francs ($1,600,000) annually, while in other ways more than six- teen million (^3,200,000) are expended each year on the breeding and training of military horses. Austria-Hungary requires annually eight thousand remounts, which are easy to find within the borders of that country. In 1890 the government began to establish remount stations, which now number five. One part of the remounts remain there a year ; the other part, bought when five years of age, are sent immediately to the various regiments. Switzerland has an annual need of six hun- dred remounts, which are bought in northern (German)' and Ireland. The young horses spend A C.XPTAIN OF THE REPUBLICAN GUARD five months in getting acclimated at the re- mount station at Berne. They are then- sent to a school for remounts to be trained. Formerly 136 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS every mounted Swiss soldier supplied his own horse. Nothing remains of this custom but the fact that each man in the cav- alry service may become the possessor of his horse on certain conditions and by paying a certain sum ; also he may do what he likes with the animal when he is not in service. In case of a call to active service he must bring his horse (which has, meantime, been annually inspected) until the tenth year, when the animal becomes his exclu- sive property. It would be difficult to cite a better ex- ample of Swiss democracy and individualism. Spain has a cavalry of ten thousand horses, the artillery and the transpor- tation trains being usually served by mules. The remounts are bought in the country itself, except a few heavy draft horses which are imported from Belgium. Hold Fir.m ! The Republican Guard, Full Dress Portugal, with four thou- sand military horses, needs four hundred remounts annually, which are bought at home wherever they can be had without attaching much importance to qual- ity. They are from three to seven years old when bought, and the youngest are sent to the remount station of Villa Vi^osa. Servia, which in times of peace maintains six thou- sand cavalry, draws her remounts chiefly from Rus- sia and Austria. Turkey possesses (on paper) in times of peace a force of three thousand cavalry. The remounts are bought from Russia and Hungary, when there hap- pens to be money enough to do so. The Turks appear to attach more importance to cheapness than to quality. In Russia, according to the system of re- mounting employed until January i, 1901, the officers on remount duty bound them- selves to deliver the horses at a medium price, and in so doing played the part of horse jockeys. At pres- ent Russian remounting is done in the German manner, that is to say, by military commissions for the pur- chase of animals. A certain number of horses are drawn from the stud farms of the state. Some regiments buy their own mounts, the Cossack regiments furnishing theirs and pro- viding for them in every particular. The government encourages the breeding of the Cossack horses by distributing three hundred stallions annually among the Cossack villages. Roumania in times of peace counts twelve thousand cavalry, and fifty THE HORSE 137 thousand in times of war. Her remounts come chiefly from Hungary, only a few being obtained within her own borders. Belgium has more than ten thousand horses, and her annual remount is one thousand ; the draft or transportation horses are easily derived from the Ardennes. The breeding of cavalry horses is encouraged to the utmost by the government. England has an annual need of nearly three thousand remounts, which it is easy to obtain in that country itself. The government takes no interest in breeding, except in the poorest districts of Ireland, where it has stationed a few Hackney stallions. Lu.xemburg, having a cavalry force of eight horses, finds little difficult}- in the matter of remounts. The Netherlands has eight thousand military horses, of which all those for the cavalry and artillery come from Ireland, while about a hun- dred heavier horses are annually bought in the provinces of Groningen and Gelderland. They are bought at three and four years of age and spend one year at Millingen in large stables that communicate with vast fields, where they can run at liberty. Nourishing food, much exercise, and fresh air jTrepare these horses HOKSF. OK .\ GeRM.W .XKTH.I.I.KV OI I K l.K 138 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS wonderfully well for their work. After passing another six months in training at the regimen- tal stations they are drafted into the squadrons or the batteries. VI. Hunting After war came hunting as the next neces- sity in which men learned to use horses, as we see by the statues and engrav- - -t- ings that represent to us St. George hunting the dragon and comin victorious from the fight. / The de- struction of d gerous and Hunting has always been an English passion which, like many other sports and bodily exer- cises, has passed from Great Britain to the Continent and to America. This explains why the English have applied themselves especially to the breeding of hunting horses. The country itself, by the lay of its land, is very favorable to cynegetic exercises, having few cur\'es and many -^:^gj^,^_^__^ plains with only such obstacles and barriers as a horse can jump. The annals of hunting England are very interesting to those who have a taste for that ort of thing. It is mischie- vous ani mals, which at first was a necessity, be- came very quickly a pleasure, and has ended in becoming an art, thanks tr the enjoyment derived from motion in the open air, and from the pleasure of surmounting obstacles and braving dangers. The death of the hunted animal is only an accessory; the seekirtg of the dogs, the joyous sound of the huntsman's horn, the pleasure of proving to others our agility, strength, courage, intrepidity, — herein lies the true joy of hunting. German related that early in the last century a deer, hunted by the hounds of the king of England, ran for four hours and forty-five mmutes. Rider after rider gave up Bodyguard ^^^^ ^^^^j^ ^j^^ ^^ ^^^^ q^^ ^^^.^^ fell dead, another expired before he reached the stable, and seven others died during the follow- ing week (a mortality as great as or even greater than that of a Spanish bullfight). Huntsmen never lose sight of the game, which can, there- fore, never slacken its speed or rest for a single instant. For the best horse a run of four hours 140 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Horses of the English Army and forty minutes at full gallop across all sorts of ground and over many obstacles is sure to result in either permanent injury or death. Here are a few instances in which the Eng- lish passion for hunting wild animals has been carried to extravagant excess. The old Duke of Richmond suffered so much from the gout Training to Hunt that he had to be lifted onto his horse, and being unable to hold the reins, they were passed round his neck. And thus he was seen to ride down the slopes of Bow Hill, near Goodwood, at full gallop after the hounds, with all the fire of youth, his arms crossed on his breast. An old general, who had had his left arm shot off near the shoulder, leaving only a little stump under which he could hold his whip, kept up with the boldest huntsman of the county of Kildare, the hardest hunting ground in Ireland, keeping with the hounds in places where the most experienced riders found it difficult to retain their seats. A third case is that of an old English nobleman who, on becoming blind, was un- able to relinquish his mastering passion. He persisted in following the hounds attended by a valet, who shouted to his master as each obstacle loomed in sight : " Bank ! " — " Brook ! " — " Wall ! " — " Fence ! " — " Jump and jump ! " — meaning two ditches, THE HORSE 141 requiring the horse first to jump down and then to jump up. In this way that old bhnd niaii hunted for several years. Some- times the valet, not being Sd good a rider as his master, "came a cropper" in a ditch, while the old man continued his way, trusting to the instinct of his horse, the horn of the hunts- man, or the cry of the dogs. The taste for hunting is Sd popular both in England and in Ireland that a fox chased by hounds and huntsmen puts a whole countryside in commo- tion. The plowman unhooks a horse from his plow, jumps upon his back, and follows the hunt as far as the beast has strength to go. The Irish peasant does better still, because the first horse he can lay hands on is almost sure tn TRAINIXf Hunt be a Thoroughbred. Others ride donkeys, or race along on foot, or mount some vantage ground whence they can admire the good riders and make fun of the bad ones. 142 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS To make it possible for people of small means to enjoy this sport, many hunting soci- eties have been organized, the members of which contribute stated sums for the main- tenance of wolves, deer, hounds, hunts- -/.tv; men, and horses. A red coat a high hat are obligatory owner of the dogs carries a horn, and all the othe participants only a hunt- ing crop. The animals chiefly hunted are hares, stags, and foxes. The practice of hunting hares is said to be thousands of years old ; that of hunting stags is also very ancient, and i carried on with animals kept and trained for this purpose, all know the Draconian laws of William the Conqueror (eleventh cen- j^p^ Qp tury), who ordered that all dogs in a hunting country should have three of their toes cut off to keep them from following the hounds. As for fox hunting, which is really the prin- cipal sport, the foxes are cared for and pro- tected in every way. In some districts a hunt takes place three times a week ; a good horse The Favorite can be used for two of them, though one is often quite enough for him. Fox hunting is especially hard and fatiguing for horses. VII. R.ACING Races under their present form were first known in Eng- land, where we find them in the Middle Ages ; these were frequently like the steeplechases of our day. Such games were called " clock races," and the prizes were generally little wooden clocks, or clock towers, decorated with flowers ; er these prizes were made in silver. From them comes term " steeplechase." Race courses were legally organized Hunter ^^ ^^^ reign of James I, who is regarded as the creator of this sport. Charles I organized race courses in Hyde Park and at Newmarket, and Cromwell's equerry. Place, is mentioned in the stud book (the register for Thoroughbreds) and in the racing calendar (record book of races) as being the owner of very beautiful Eastern stallions which " shone upon the ground." Races, however, did not acquire their full development until the reign of Charles II, who imported Arabian mares, called royal mares. About the year 1700 Eastern stallions were imported, with which the true history of racing begins. One of the most celebrated race horses was Eclipse, descended in direct male line from the Arabian stallion bought near Aleppo by the merchant Bar- ley ; through his mother Eclipse he also had Oriental blood in his veins. Born in 1764, he was gray in color, tall, and long in body. History tells that he was THE HORSE 143 never distanced, and never needed either whip or spur. Flying Dutchman, born in 1846, had already run fi\'e races when he was two and a half years old, winning two |)rizes (;£iiOO and ;£500) at Newmarket, one (;£i200) at Liverpool, and two (;£825 and ;£500) at Doncaster. When three years old he won the Derby (^^6320), and when four years old he won the cup given by the czar of Russia at Ascot. Besides these prizes he won ;^6o,ooo at other races for his owner. Lord Eglinton. When five years old he won a match for ;f looo against Voltigeur, a worthy rival. At the start Voltigeur got a lead of three lengths, which he kept nearly all the way. Towards the close, however, Flying Dutchman, urged by his jockey, put forth his full strength and easily beat his competitor. The dis- tance done was two English miles, and the time was three minutes and thirty-three seconds. Several sorts of races exist for each of which there are distinct and fi.xed rules and Re.adv i-ok the Race regulations. Of these different races, the prin- cipal are the following. A "match" is a simple race between two horses, in which much money is often staked. 144 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In 1799 Hambletonian and Diamond ran for a sum of three thousand guineas at Newmarket. A "sweepstakes" is a race in which several horses may take part, the winner taking the total of the stakes. The "king's or queen's plate" is a prize given by the sovereign ; formerly it consisted of some object of art, but of late it has taken the form of a purse containing one hundred guineas. chances are that all the horses will be equal. When the weighting is made known on the morning of the race any owner who is dissat- isfied may withdraw his horse without paying a forfeit. Newmarket is a little town where the most numerous and most important races are held. The land is perfectly smooth and even, and verv favorable for what are called flat rari?s mssm IB I I I D Quo Vadis The "Derby" is a race run at Epsom by three-year-old stallions. The " Oaks stake " is also run at Epsom by three-year-old fillies, while the St. Leger is run at Doncaster by three-year-old horses of all kinds. A "handicap" is run by different partici- pants, but the weight they carry varies accord- ing to the way they have run in previous races. If the handicapper, that is the man who dis- tributes the weights, knows his business, the in contradistinction to steeplechases, or races over barriers and obstacles. The Newmarket races often last a week, excluding Sunday. There are twenty different tracks and several trainers' stables. The king of England, who has a large stud of racers and is an ardent sports- marf, has an establishment at Newmarket in charge of the trainer Richard Marsh. One can often see the king himself, mounted on a stout pony, superintending the training of his horses. THE HORSE 145 Ever}^ clay on the plain around Newmarket over one hundred of the most celebrated horses in England can be seen. Training, professionally so called, has for its object to develop and strengthen by exercise, and to brintr a varict\- of humors out of the body by sweating and laxative dosing. Sweat- ing is induced by galloping the animal under woolen blankets ; he is physicked by pills com- posed chiefly of aloes. Thus the body is kept slim, especially the stomach, which sometimes appears drawn in like that of a greyhound, •iJi.KiiV Dav" in our Day 146 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Scene at Newmarket while the formation of fat and of ligaments between the muscles and the tendons is checked as much as possible. For the sarhe reasons the horse receives but a moderate though substan- tial amount of food. This regimen is naturally a test of the animal's strength ; many of them succumb under it. The jockeys train themselves in very much the same way. They present, like their horses, a spare appearance, lean and skinny, but agile and vigorous, — an appearance not seen out- side racing stables. On the other hand, good jockeys can feather their nests so well that they soon bid adieu to saddles and starvation, and pass the rest of their lives in pretty villas, where they at once recover their plumpness. Betting is inseparable from a race course, and is often the cause of swindling. It frequently The Race Won THE HORSE 147 happens that those who have bet on a horse employ all means to render a dangerous rival harmless. Here is an illustration. The Duke of Queensberry, an excellent horseman him- self, received notice from his jockey, who was to ride for him the next day, that he had been offered a considerable sum of money from persons who had backed another horse, if he would restrain the duke's horse and let himself be beaten. "Accept the nioncw" said the duke, "and come upon the course to- morrow with the horse as if nothing had happened." The jockey did so, but just before the start was made the duke said suddenly, " The weather is so fine I think I will ride my own horse." So saying, he threw off his cloak and ap- peared in jockey dress. He won the race and caused the loss of many bets that were dependent upon the bribe, so that the swindlers themselves were the victims of their own cheating. Enormous sums are often ])aid for good race horses, which is not surprising inas- much as enormous sums may be won with them. In March, 1900, at a public sale of the horses of the Duke of West- minster, the celebrated racer Flying Fox, which had won the Derby the preceding year, was bought for ;^200,ooo, by the celebrated French breeder of Thoroughbreds, M. Edmond Blanc. Up to that time this was the highest sum ever given for a horse. At two years of age this stallion had raced three times and carried off two prizes ; at three years he raced six times and was victor in all. Bv eleven races, won by him before he was four years old, he earned for his master $200,441. F"or his half- brother Frontier the French government paid 150,000 francs ($30,000). When Flying F"ox reached F"rance he was put at the service of breeders for two thousand dollars per mare. The Duke of Westmin- ster had sold in 1889, at the reduced and trifling price A SurKKii Ji'.Mi' 148 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS of $24,000, the stallion Ormond, grandsire of Flying Fox, who had a defect in breathing. Bought by the Argentine Republic, this horse was afterward sold in this country for the sum of ;g 105, 000. All this proves that other countries besides the United States value pure blood and are taking interest in races and the breeding of racing horses. VIII. Trotting Races The trot is a method of progression that is more or less artificial and acquired ; it is unknown, one might say, to horses in their natural state, their primitive gait being either a walk or a gallop. Certain horses and certain breeds have shown more disposition than others to acquire the trot, and as a result of breed- ing with that end constantly in view, races of trotters have been formed of which the Dutch, or Frisian, is the most ancient. Others came later, like the Norfolk trotter of Eng- land, the Russian Orloff , the English Hackney, and the American trotter, but in every case the Frisian trotter contributed to produce them. in studying the subject of breeding horses, whose value depends on speed at a certain gait. The order or movement in the trot is left fore foot, right hind foot, right fore foot, M ^ kf* f^r ' If ™ Trinqueur, French Tkuttkr To persons accustomed to horses the differ- ences of the various gaits are familiar, but to fix them thoroughly in mind is a first necessity CRESCEUS 2.02)4 left hind foot. Thus the left fore foot and right hind foot move in unison, striking the ground together ; then in turn the right fore foot and left hind foot complete the revolution, making the trot a diagonal gait. The pace or amble is an entirely different gait, the feet of each side moving in unison, making a lateral order of progression instead of the diagonal as in the trot. Sport with trotting horses is quite ancient in the Low Countries of Europe ; it is one of the oldest amusements there, together with skating, tennis, and partridge shoot- ing. It has certainly con- tributed to form a race of trotters which now enjoys a European reputation. The best horses of the Dutch breed were bought by other countries, and by coupling them with the supple and more fiery Eastern breeds a race of trotters surpassing their Frisian ancestors has been obtained. The French trotter distinguished himself chiefly on a short-distance track, say of three THE HORSE 149 or ftmr hundred yards. It often happened that these races were started by some tavern keeper, who offered one or more prizes to the victor ; " but," says the Ecuycr Necrlaiidais, " the trot- ters must be lodged in the tavern keeper's stable, and whoso obtains the prize is expected to feast his rivals and supply them with a cer- tain number of bottles of wine." In former times the Parisian races were trotted on horseback on short-distance tracks. These have now given way to races in sulkies (light, single-seated vehicles) on tracks rar.^ing that does not include horse racing among its many attractions. Many of the large cities also have race tracks, controlled by driving or racing associations, where annual meets are held, rival horses being sent from long dis- tances to compete for the money prizes and to contest for the favors of the large numbers of people who gather daily to enjoy this royal sport. The gray race horse Messenger has played the most important part in founding the trot- ting breed in the United States. Our many m^^i&i in length from one-half mile to a mile, on which the Russian Orloff and the American trotter particularly distinguish themselves in the north of Europe and in the United States. This old popular amusement has become a science and an art, in which, however, the practical and profitable object is not lost sight of. Every effort is made to keep the trotting horse well balanced, that is to say, to keep him to his trot with the utmost possible rapidity without degen- erating into a gallop. The speed disjilayed in these races is something extraordinary. American people especially have always been enthusiastic supporters of trotting races, and to-day there is scarcely a county or state fair famous families of trotting horses have been built upon Messenger, who was imported to this country during the latter part of the eighteenth century. This famous horse was foaled in 17S0 in England. Me was sired by Mambrino out of a daughter of Turf. Mam- brino was by Engineer, son of Sampson, by Blaze, by Flying Childers, son of the Darley Arabian, a horse imported to England from the Orient in the reign of Queen Anne. Turf, the reputed sire of the dam of Messenger, was by Matchem, son of Cade, by the Godolphin Arabian. The four chief families of the Ameri- can trotting horse are Hambletonian, the Mam- brino Chief, the Clays, and the Black Hawks. I50 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Just when racing at either the trotting, run- ning, or pacing gait began in America it is diffi- cult to determine ; but there is a record of a Hamhi,i:toxiax Stam.ion running race on Hempstead Heath, Long Island, in 1665. There is a recorded trotting performance at Harlem, New York, July 6, 1806, at which time Yankee trotted a mile in 2.50. At Philadelphia, in August, 1810, a Bos- ton horse trotted a mile in 2. 48}^. Perhaps these records fairly represent the speed limit in America a century ago. If we take it for granted that Yankee could trot a mile in 2.50 Average Extreme Speed 1820 to 1830 2.42 1S30 to 1840 2.3S'4: 1840 to 1850 2.28^ 1850 to i860 2.25 i860 to 1870 2.18^4: 1870 to 1880 2.14 1880 to 1890 2.10^ iSgo to igoo ~-°3/i igoi to igo7 i-SS^^" This evolution of speed is due to skill in breeding and training and to improved tracks, appliances, and methods. Just what rate of speed the trotter will ulti- mately attain is a question much discussed, and any attempt to answer is the merest speculation. In view of the fact that the trotting breed is still in its infancy, and that the average of Dan Patch 1.55^ extreme trotting speed is still advancing, it would be absurd to fi.x a hmit and a time when progress will suddenly cease. Of course im- provement in speed becomes more difficult as the rate increases, but we may yet see many old records broken and many new champions come into favor and fame. If in one century of time more than fifty seconds were clipped from the record, surely in another century may we not expect a quarter or even half as much ? IX. The Treatment of Horses The services that the horse renders to man, in 1806 in contrast with the 1.58^ of Lou and the pleasures he procures for him, give Dillon in 1904, we have a difference of .51^ in him a right to conscientious care, good food, a century. and charitable treatment. Yet how often these THE HORSE 151 duties to the animal are unfulfilled ! Chicago is said to be the hell of horses, but ocular wit- nesses say that compared with St. Petersburg it is their paradise. The Russian peasant gives soft names to his horses, but often denies them food — per- haps because he has so little for himself. In the days of serfdom the peasants (with permission of their masters) came in crowds to the capital with their skeletons of horses, to let them for saddle or har- ness, and thus prolong their own miserable lives and those of their beasts. English grooms hold the first rank for the care they give to their animals. The bandaging of the legs, the rubbing of the muscles and tendons with stimulants and tonics, the partic- ular method of cleaning (during which the groom makes a curious hissing noise with his teeth and lips), the sponging of the backs, — all this is of English origin and has been adopted by the other nations of Europe and by treatment of the animal by the Anglo-Saxon races has done much to ameliorate his condi- tion all over the civilized world. America. In England the horse, especially the Thoroughbred, is idolized by young and old, by great and small ; this careful and intelligent Ch.ami'ion Double Team, "Sometimes" .and "Alw.avs"' Our readers have probably heard of Y. S. Rarey, a native of Ohio, who became celebrated about the year i860 by the gentleness with which he conquered restive and vicious horses. He went to England and made his first attempts at Tattersall's, the well-known establishment where the most important sales of horses and carriages were made. In a single day he was able to render tractable the most vicious and uncontrollable animals. He began with one which w-as terrible for its ferocity. In less than one day the animal followed him round the arena like a dog and did everything that he ordered. Lord Derby gave him a little Thoroughbred mare so savage as to be useless, and the same result was obtained. A white horse from the roval stables, which no one had been able to master, became soft as wax in Rare) 's hands. Rarey's fame being spread abroad, he was called on to give representa- tions of his method in the presence of the queen and other dignitaries. Two duchesses took lessons from him, for which instruction he asked ^20 each. Afterwards he went to France, where he displayed his art before the Emperor. 152 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Lord Dorchester brought him a horse named Crusader, unruly from his birth and showing his viciousness every day and every moment. The animal seemed almost insane. He would fall upon his knees in a fit of fury and dig up the earth with his teeth, or he would fling him- self against the sides of the stall, kicking and screaming for a quarter of an hour at a time. Often he would let no one enter his stall ; his strength was so sfreat that once he broke an Derby begged Rarey not to expose his life any longer; but the American persisted and ob- tained the success we have stated. Rarey possessed, moreover, the necessary gifts of patience, calmness, courage, and self- possession, and his method was adapted, above all, to the animal's intelligence. He explained his principles in a little treatise written by him- self and published first in America and then in England, where three hundred thousand copies Horses Ready for Transport iron bar in two. In three hours Rarey calmed the animal so that he allowed him, and also the owner, to ride him, although no one until then had been able to mount him. During the three hours' training the vicious brute, with open mouth and savage cries, had twice flung him- self upon Rarey, who escaped by slipping through a half -opened door. Little by little the horse grew calmer and allowed himself to be fastened to a transversal log. This restraint, hitherto unknown to him, maddened him at first, and his fury was so violent that Lord were sold in three weeks. In it we see (as was evident at his exhibitions) that he employed no trick or artifice, but treated the horses naturally, being very careful never to startle or frighten or hurt them. Another horse breaker and trainer more or less famous was Baucher. He used various secret means ; he put into the horse's nostrils oil, which gave out a strong smell of burnt horfi ; he made the animal inhale the sweat under his arms, and he blew into his nose. Possibly Baucher had faith in these means, but THE HORSE 153 it is also v^ery likely that he employed them to throw dust into the eyes ot the spectators. For the rest, his treat- ment was very violent and aimed at breaking the animal's will and ilc- stroying all power of resistance. To subdue an unrul)- horse (whit h has often been made unruly by ill usage), as well as to train them at all times, inexhaustible patience and an immovable will are absoluteh necessary, anil the\' never fail to make the animal d<:) what is desired. Unfortunately not every man who has the care of horses will see or learn this truth. The horse, it should be re- membered, has certain distinguishing qualities. Co.MixG In Having been under the hand and guidance of man from generation to generation (far more than any other animal), he is by nature docile ; he also has a strong memory and is very sub- missive to the power of habit. X. Shoeing One of the most important point.s in the care of horses is their shoeing. Wild horses, it is true, can go with- out irons on their feet; but it is not so with our domestic animals, be- cause, in the first place, their hoofs are not so hard, and in the second place, because our stony roads are Cli;amn(, IliM evidently not so favorable to them as the grassy ground of the steppes and prairies. Shoeing must therefore be regarded as a necessary evil, for evil it is. By driving nails into the hoof holes are made through which dirt and disease may enter, while the hoof, which has a natural tendenc\' to disintegrate, becomes weaker and less resistant. In order to avoid this injury many methods have been invented to appl)' the iron shoes without having recourse to nails, but no satisfactory result has yet been attained, and we are still constrained to keep to the old -system. To lessen the shock of the hoof on a hard road and to protect the frog, various soft cov- erings have been used, the best known of which are India rubber, felt, tow, and cork. Bf.fokf. Critics 154 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The tow pad is much used in the German cities, that can be screwed on and off, the latter being It consists of an iron shoe with a hollow on the in the shape of the letter H, which prevents inside in which the tow is fixed, coming out them from being too rapidly blunted. At the Blacksmith'.s a little beyond the level of the shoe. It thus forms a soft layer, which lessens the shock and also prevents the horse from slipping on the asphalt pavements. One of the most important problems is the shoeing of horses in winter, when a shoe is Shoes have also been invented for special purposes, more particularly for race horses. To increase their speed more weight is put in various ways into certain parts of the shoe ; and in order to oblige the hind feet to be placed outwardly on the ground and thus be thrown beyond the fore feet, more weight is given to the external edge of the shoe. Special shoes have also been invented for all sorts of diseases of the legs and hoofs. To correct hoofs that grow too narrow at the back (feet with pinched heels), there are many kinds of shoeing ; one, for instance, makes the shoe in the shape of a half- moon, leaving the rear half of the hoof unshod. .Siiui;iN(, iiiK Mules XI. The Usefulness of Horses needed that shall not slip on ice or snow. Before taking leave of this noble quadruped Nails with pointed heads may be employed, or we ought to mention the practical utility of shoes sharpened at the points, or pointed bars his body to man. Mare's milk, in the first Shoes with Soft Cushions of Tow, Cork, Felt, and Gutta-pekcha SlAlil.KS OF A Rll)IN<, 156 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS place, has long been, and drink, and from it several as koumiss, are made, which tonic properties. If we take a map and mark the fron- tiers within which mare's milk, goat's milk, camel's milk, and cow's milk are drunk, we shall find that the territory of the con- sumers of mare's milk is much the largest. To peoples living in a state of nature the horse's skin has always been very useful for the making; of garments, tents, and straps. In southern Russia the shep- herds clothe themselves with the skins of wild ponies. Cer- tain of the Tartar tribes wear nothing but horse skins so put on that the mane floats grace- fully down their backs. But we need not look so far away. Many of our own gloves and shoes of "Russia leather," with their brilliancy and their perfume, were cut out of horses' hides. Horse grease, or rather tal- low, is used in great quantities for lighting purposes in Uru- guay, where thirty thousand is still, a favorite horses are killed yearly to furnish the supply, preparations, such Chinese ladies always keep a box of horse are noted for their grease on their toilet tables, to use for their hair in place of bear's grease. The bones of horses serve, like those of many other animals, to make soap. Thus the horse, so useful during his lifetime, does not cease to be so, in other ways, after death. The noble animal, favorite and companion of our great historic heroes, the helper and support of the laborer, A Straw Bath the link of so many of our Interior of a Riding School Stable Cow Ponies ox a Nluk.vska Ranch THE HORSE 157 social relations, is, it is true, esteemed almost everywhere at his true worth as a domestic animal ; and \et he still comes too often in contact with that instrument of temper and tyranny, the '.chip. It is remarkable that in lands where the horse lives nearest to his master, in close companionship and hourly service, the use of whip and spur, sometimes of bit and saddle, is unknown. The nearer we come to civilized nations the more we find a change. It is in the centers of civilization, in the great cities of Europe and America, that we see drivers of drays and cabs lashing their wear\', worn-out, or overloaded horses. Tliis ilomcstic animal, at least, deserves better treatment. IV THE ASS AND THE MULE The ass is closely related to the horse, as it is easy to see by comparing their skeletons, between which there is no essential difference. Their dental system is also precisely the same. Between the living animals, as they appear to our eyes, the differences are very perceptible, The Wild Ass although they can scarcely be very deep in view of the fact that fruitful mating is possible between horse and ass. The most salient differences are in the size of the body, the length of the ears, the hairs of the tail and mane, the situation of the horny excrescences on the fore and hind legs (probably the rudimentary remains of sabots, with which they may have some relation, the ancestors of the equine race not having always been solipedous), and finally the voice. Asses are generally much smaller than horses. The head is heavy, the lips thick, the ears long, the tail, which is usually not covered with long hair, has a tuft at the end like that of cattle ; the hair of the body has a more or less marked tendency to be striped, and the bray is easily distinguished from the neigh of the horse. I. The Wild Ass The wild ass must be re- garded as the ancestor of the domestic ass of Europe. He inhabits, in great droves, cen- tral Asia, Tartary, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Bokhara, Persia, Arabia, Syria, Phrygia, and the deserts of northern Africa and Barbary. These animals live in herds, each under the lead of a male ass, which migrate north and east of Lake Aral in sum- mer, bvit never beyond 48° north latitude, while in winter they come down by hundreds and thousands into Persia and sometimes Ss far as the East Indies. The ass is recorded as being in those countries in very ancient times, as we learn from the oldest books in the Bible. He is cited by Job for his love of freedom : " Who hath sent out the wild ass free .? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass .■' Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the crying of the driver. The range of the mountains is his pas- ture, and he searcheth after every green thing." That description exactly characterizes the wild ass. He inhabits by preference regions 158 From a water color by 11. J. van der Woele THE ASS AND THE MULE 159 where certain bitter herbs grow, — the moun- tain spinach, the goosefoot, the jjlantain, the dandelion, the thistle, and the witch grass. He drinks salt water as well as fresh, ami will drink that of the Caspian Sea, but he will not drink muddy water. This proud inhabitant of the steppes is taller than his domestic descend- ant ; he is active, solidly built, and fears no fatigue. His color is silvery gray, or yellowish gray, with a coffee-colored line down his back edged with white, often crossed on the croup by one and sometimes two transversal lines. The young asses, which are fed on rice, oats, and bread, become very strong and beautiful animals, and are sold to the Persian merchants at high prices. It is very difficult to get a shot at these asses ; they are gifted with keen eyes and very quick ears. The Mongol ass is another type of the wild ass, differing little from the preceding animal. The Tartars and Mongols call him Long Ears in their language, and on account of his great swiftness the Tibetans dedicate him solemnly as a riding steed to their gods of war and fire. SlCILI.\N DOXKEV^ His mane, several inches long, is dark brown, soft, and woolly, like that of young colts, but his tail has only a tuft. His winter coat is long and fleecy, like that of a camel ; in summer it is soft and silky, being silvery white on the belly. The legs are sometimes marked with transversal brown lines. The Kirghiz, Tartars, and Persians hunt this animal and eat his flesh. Taken young, he is easily and frec|uently tamed. They are taken alive in ditches lined with grass and care- fully covered, into which horsemen drive them. n. The Zf.br.a In shape the zebra resembles the wild ass, except that his rounded hind (.|uartcrs seem to indicate a relationship with the horse. The fundamental color of his coat is white, the head is almost wholly while, also the lining of the ears, but the nose is a fine brown, and the tip of the tail black. Elsewhere the body of this beautiful animal is striped with dark bands. He lives in herds in the mountainous and sandy regions of South Africa and southern Abyssinia. He is never found above 10° north latitude. i6o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Though he cannot deny his asinine nature, thanks to his obstinacy, tenacity, and occasional malignity, kind treatment has succeeded more than once in subduing him, and also in training "Orphan Bo\," Grand Champion J^ck, World's Fair him both for riding and for harness. But this wild and self-willed mountaineer will always show temper if teased, a thing he cannot pos- sibly endure. The quagga is another species of striped ass, which bears still more resemblance to the horse. Its fundamental color is yellowish brown striped with fewer bands than the zebra, and these disappear on the back and on the croup. The stomach and inside of the legs are chiefly white. These animals formerly lived in herds, in com- pany with ostriches, who were quicker than they in finding food and perceiving danger. At the present time the quagga may be said to have disappeared, — to have succumbed in the struggle for existence against the growing population of South Africa and the mania of the Englishman for hunting " big game." The Hottentots gave him the name of quagga on account of his cry (quag-ga, quag-ga), which differs as much from the neighing of a horse as it does from the braying of an ass. III. The Domestic Ass The degenerate descendant of the proud denizens of the steppes, the mountains, and the deserts is the tame donkey of the north and center of Europe, the drudge among domestic animals, at whom every one thinks he has a right to jibe, granting him in return a few thistles and food that all other animals would disdain. One reason why he is so obstinate, provoking, and phlegmatic in this part of the world, and consequently so despised, is that he suffers from our cold, damp climate. He is more at his ease and therefore less aggravating and less despised in warm, dry regions. He is indispensable and is therefore valued through- out the south of Europe, northern Africa, Egypt especially, and Asia Minor. In all the countries clustering round the Mediterranean he shows his good qualities and men make much of him. In China and Persia a fine race of asses is raised exclusively for riding. They are ridden by the rich magnates on saddles embossed with silver ; priests have the dignity and privi- lege of riding white asses. The saddle is put very far back, nearer to the croup than to the withers. Bokhara is so rich in donkeys that the streets are sometimes blocked by them. A Trained Zebra They are of all colors, — white, black, brown, tawny, blue-gray, etc. In northern Africa the tamed ass is in gen- eral use as far down as the frontiers of the Soudan. Egypt, especially, has robust, hand- some, well-made animals, with keen eyes and THE ASS AND THE MULE i6i an easy gait, the latter trait making them much in demand for riding, particularly for ladies. They are also very suitable for pilgrimages through the desert, such as the Mohammedan pilgrims make to Mecca. The handsomest ani- mals are found chiefly in Upper Egypt and in Nubia, where they cost more than horses. Formerly there were such hordes of wild asses in the Cape Verde and Canary Islands that they had to be exterminated by hunting. In South America they are equally numerous, especially in Patagonia. Sardinia has an im- mense number of very small donkeys, employed chiefly in grinding corn and in drawing water. The "asses mill," viola asinana, was in use in for consumptives. It contains a great quan- tity of sugar. Parmesan cheese is made of it. The flesh of very young asses is eaten in Italy and in Spain, where it is thought tender and delicious ; that of the older animals is tough. The skin of an ass is made into parchment, vellum, and shagreen, and is thus very valuable. IV. The Mule The breeding of these animals is carried on to a great extent in the south of Europe, in America, and in Asia. The custom was early known ; it was forbidden among the Israelites b\' the laws of Moses, but in David's time they were ccrtainl)- cnipl(i\iiig mules, probably On the Be.^ch southern Italy in very ancient times. In Sicily asses are very numerous ; they are generally small in size and blue-gray in color, with longi- tudinal and transversal stripes on the back. Asses were first introduced into England in the days of Ethelred, the Saxon king, and again under the reign of Henry III. The English adopted the barbarous custom of cropping their ears, with the idea that it made them more good-natured, more wide-awake, and more obedient, the popular notion being that the animals were stupefied by receiving too much sound. Asses have other uses than for riding or for draft purposes. Ass's milk has always been considered extremely wholesome and beneficial (though formerly more so than to-day), especially imported. The Greeks and Romans raised them, and they were even used in the Olympic games. This mongrel product is a tall, strong animal corresponding to the horse in height and in the shape of the neck, shoulders, and body, while the form of his head, his long ears, his tufted tail, and his thin, wirv legs and narrow hoofs are an inheritante from his father, the ass. His voice also has something of the paternal bray, but his coat resembles that of the horse. In common with the ass he has vigor and little tendcnc\- to disease ; e\en when thirty years old he often shows no signs of age. He is trained when about two and a half or three years old, and at five he can bo used for the heaviest labor. These useful A Pair of Young Mules White Donkeys THE ASS AND THE MULE 163 animals are indispensable in mountainous coun- tries for the transportation of merchandise. Their footing is firm and sure, and they can carry a load of five hundred pounds for weeks over trackless regions. They are also excel- lent riding animals and are still much used for private carriages in many of the southern coun- tries of Europe ; they are also used for artillery wagons. In America the mule is indispensable in the sugar and cotton fields of the South. The production of mules is constant in Spain. The government has endeavored to put a stop to it, in favor of raising horses, but without or zebroiils. Later several mares were mated willi the same zebra stallion and many foals were obtained, the chief among them ix'in"" appreciable results. Ciudad Real was formerly the great market place for mules, ten thousand being often for sale there, bringing high prices. At three years of age they are usually worth from eight hundred to nine hundred francs (!Si6o to ^180). The finest and handsomest bring from twelve hundred to eighteen hundred francs (^240 to $360). Mules are usually sterile, though they have been known to have offspring, but the latter have no vitality and die young. V. The Zebrule, or Zebroid Lately a Scotch naturalist, J. C. Ewarts, who has made himself a name in this domain, mated a zebra stallion, named Matopes, with a mare from one of the Scotch islands. The product was a foal which received the name of Romulus, the new race being called zebrules, Sir John, a colt, and the fillies Bunda and Black Agnes, which were both sold to Ham- burg ; the English government then bought them and sent them to India, where they were trained for service in a mountain battery. In shape the zebroids are a cross between the " RoMUi-US," A Cklebr.vtkd Zkhhi'i.k horse and the zebra. Romulus, born in 1896, derived from his father onl)" very inilistinct stripes, while Sir John has them more clearly defined. These zebroids are strong, manage- able, and easy to train both for saddle and harness ; it is hoped that they have inherited the zebra's immunity from equine diseases. V THE SHEEP I. General Considerations and Qualities Common to the Species One of the most ancient, if not the most ancient, of domestic animals is the sheep. It is the first mentioned in the Bible. Abel was a shepherd, which proves that the earliest known men followed that calling side by side master bade him, and been protected as much as possible against all dangers, he has become stupid and dreamy ; his senses have lost their acuteness. The vigilance and perspicacity shown by certain wild sheep still existing have given place, in the domestic animal, to a meek- ness and docility that are now proverbial. A Dutch Sheep Farm with tillage of the soil. In the beginning this animal certainly could not have been found in a tame state; consequently our present wool and mutton sheep must have come from a wild ancestry. But all that is lost in the night of time. He has now become, in his domestic state, so entirely dependent on man that he could not exist without him. Having always yielded to his master's will, gone where that Sheep are very easily acclimated, so that we find them in the coldest climates, and also in the hottest. They bear the cold of Siberia, Kamchatka, and our western plains as well as the heat of Senegal, the Indies, and Australia, which, however, does not prevent them from preferring a temperate climate and thriving in it. They can bear a dry cold better than much humidity. 164 l-'iom .1 paiiuing liy K. I', ter Meulen THE SHEEP i6: As for food, they prefer the short, fine grasses, nourishing and aromaiic, which grow on dry, calcareous moun- tain slopes and rolling hillsides, not, however, disdaining those that grow in saline places, for they love salt, like the goat, the deer, the ass, and the horse. All sheep, but especially young lambs, like to climb the accliv- ities that they see about them. Their skill in this direction they have doubt- less derived from their ancestors, the wild mountain sheep. They have never had, however, the agilit\' of goats, which are native born to moun- tains and rocks. The sheep is so closely related to the goat that there is very little dif- ference in the skeletons of the two species, and what there is lies chiefly in the hollow profile of the face of the goat and the rounded profile of the sheep. In other respects, the sheep is unlike the goat in temperament, in character, in coat, in the shape of its horns, and in its peculiar odor, which differs in all .\ Moll I.ON Ra.m animals. The docility and stupidity of the sheep are as unlike the savage temper, vivacity, and obstinacy of the goat as its crinkled wool is unlike the latter's waving hair. II. Origin There are different opinions regarding the origin of the sheep, some naturalists gi\'ing them for ancestor the mouflon of Armenia and Persia, others the argali of Siberia and central Asia, while some again discover their forerunners in the Oural sheep of the Himalayas, in the Buhel or blue sheep of the plains of central Asia, or in the bighorns of Kamchatka and Alaska and the Rocky Mountains of America. The argalis are the largest of all wild sheep, attaining sometimes to a height of three and a half feet. They inhabit the rocky slopes of southern Siberia and north- ern Mongolia and have much in common with the bighorn. A smaller species in- habits the plateau of Tibet, descending to the ]ilains in winter. Ver\- large and heavy argalis arc found on the plateau of Pamir, over eighteen hundred feet above sea level. The mouflon lives in the mountains of Persia and Armenia and on the islands of C\]Mus, Sardinia, and Corsica; formerly 1 66 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS he existed in Spain, and, according to Pliny, in the vicinity of Mentone. Mouflons live in herds, each uiider the control of a ram. In the mating season fierce fights take place in which they kill A CoTSwoLD Ram Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead each other. By nature they are timid and flee at the slightest noise, which they hear at a very great distance. They spring among the most inaccessible rocks with extraordinary lightness and agility, and allow no precipice to arrest their flight until they feel themselves absolutely out of danger. The rams have huge almost cir- cular horns ; the ewes have none. Their hair is very smooth, short, and reddish brown in color, but in winter it is mixed with wool. The mating of the European mouflons with ewes presents no difficulty. Breeders have always obtained fruitful descendants, which seems to prove indubitably that the mouflon is the true ancestor of our domestic sheep. III. The Domestic Sheep The difference between the domestic sheep and the wild sheep is not more pronounced than that between the sheep and the goat. Many are the varieties scattered over the globe. For instance, the Somali breed of Africa is a race of white sheep with very large black heads, pendent ears, and a thick fat tail ; they give no wool fit to weave. The fat-tailed sJiccp is a singular freak of nature in the enormous development of its tail. It is found in Egypt and throughout Africa, also in Syria and Arabia. It has hanging ears, a very stupid air, and is sometimes without horns. Its coat is halfway between fur and wool ; on the neck and breast it has long hair like the manes found on wild sheep. The color is a dirty white. Its tail reaches to the ground and is of enormous size, especially in the African breeds. The fat and also the flesh of these animals are con- sidered dainties. The fat-JiaiincIicd sheep resemble the preceding with this difference, that the accumulation of fat is on the haunches and spreads only partially to the tail. This variety is met with •in Persia, Tartary, and in parts of Africa. The Wallachian slieep inhabits the southeast of Europe and the west of Asia. It is found especially in Wallachia, Greece, and the island of Crete. It has a fine shape, and the coat, a mixture of hair and soft down, is thick and very PERSI.4N Fat-Tailed Sheep AND Lamb Ram, Ewe, long. This animal makes a beautiful transition between goats with long hair and sheep with wool. The head and lower legs are very dark, the former being adorned with magnificent OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS spiral horns which lean to one side in the sheep of Wallachia and stand erect in those of Crete. These animals bear weather of all kinds, being kept on the mountains in summer and brought PhotoJ.T. Ne' in, Berkhanipstead down to the plains in winter. Besides milk and meat, each animal can supply from four to six pounds of wool, which is much in demand for the manufacture of stockings and other coarse woolen articles. The silver-liaircd sheep is found in the south of Africa. Blankets are made of its wool. None of these sheep have been brought to our count r except as curiosities ; for agricultural pur poses they could not compete with our present im proved breeds. IV. Moorland Sheep The sheep of the moors of northern Europe have long coats of mixed wool and hair. They are coarser and more cowardly than those of Wallachia. Their wool is used only the heath or moors of northern Germany, Den- mark, Russia, the Low Countries, and parts of England. It is not at all exacting, and lives principally on the gorse and heather produced by those arid regions. The laborers raise these sheep for their coarse wool, and for manure with which to fertilize their barren and stony soil. The flesh is considered very savory and recalls the taste of venison ; it contains little fat and has a peculiar gamy flavor, impossible to define, which is possessed by the flesh of no other sheep. This moorland animal re- calls in his exterior the wild sheep, his ancestors. The ram's horns resemble those of the argali, but the spirals are smaller and oftener repeated, the head is finely formed, the eye alert and intelligent, the legs very slender and well made. The color of the coat, the hair of which is short about the head and legs, is brownish black, brown, reddish brown, tawny, spotted or speckled, or white. All moorland sheep, however, do not correspond to the type above described. Some have no horns, and others have the nose strongly curved ; they are mostly small and active. The tail is usually very long. Though these sheep are by nature wild and shy and prefer a free life on the moors, they soon accustom themselves to domestic surroundings and will return every evening faithfully of their own accord. It is A Wallachian Ram ■ ^ ^- ^ ^ i, ^.-u -u u-i c instructive to watch the habits ot these interestine: animals ; let us choose as a for the commonest stockings and other equally coarse woolen textures. This sheep inhabits type the moorland sheep of the province of Drent in the Low Countries. THK SHEEP 169 In this province sheep are kept in flocks, varying in number from a himdred to a thou- sand. In the peat districts there are flocks of sometimes not more than twenty, which are the shepherd, who, as they reach the open country, points out to his dog the direction he wishes taken. When the pasture is reached the flock disperses among the gorse and heather, WvoMiNt; Shei'hkki) and his Outfit watched by a boy. The great flocks are in charge of a shepherd assisted by his dog, and by a helper if the sheep are very numerous. Usually a large flock belongs to different own- ers living in the same village and having a common right of pasture on the moorland. In the morning, when the time comes to lead the flock to the fields, the shepherd blows his and the shepherd sits down (still watching his sheep) to his daily avocation, which consists in knitting coarse woolen socks. Besides his knit- ting, the shepherd carries a long crook with a tiny scoop at the end, with which he flings little pellets of earth at the sheep that may chance to stray from the main body, in order to recall them. The shepherd has also a fine horn box adorned .SiiKi'.i' R.wciUNc; Scr.Ni: in Albi.kta, Canada horn, the owners open the doors of their sheep- cots, and the different little flocks rush out and form themselves into a great flock, cross- ing the village slowl\- under the guidance of with brass nails and filled with an ointment for the scab, a disease that attacks the moorland sheep sooner than others. This bo.\ hangs at his waist. \\'hen the shepherd knits he sticks 1 7© OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Very Fine Cheviot Ram Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead the ends of his knitting needles into his waist- band, like an old Englishwoman. The shep- herd's costume admits of all imaginable variety, but is never in the latest fashion. Over his or- dinary clothes he invariably wears a cloak in case of rain, though some, more effeminate, carry an umbrella slung obliquely across their backs. Nearly all the sheep have bells or rattles fastened around their necks by a leather strap. The monotonous tinkling of these bells produces, especially at starting and in returning, a very pleasant sound, percepti- ble at great distances over the moor, so that one often hears them when no sheep are in the neighborhood. The dog may belong to all possible breeds except — I was about to say — the shepherd dog, but that may be going too far. It is usually some mongrel of medium size ; sometimes, though rarely, it has more or less the type of the shepherd dog. These animals are usually wide-awake, docile, and inde- fatigable. They understand every sign of their master, and at times they seem to know by intuition when a sheep is wandering from the right way. They can be troublesome, however, by their occasional rough treatment of the ewes. Sometimes they will bite them so sharply on the legs that it causes the poor creatures to bleed, and they rush away on three feet. To avoid this some shepherds muzzle their dogs. In the evening when the flock returns slowly to the vil- lage, its coming is announced not only by the distant tink- ling of the bells, but also by the clouds of dust seen from afar, which it scuffles up. When it reaches the village it is really amazing to see the various por- tions of the large flock detach themselves and make for their own sheepcots without a word or sign from the shepherd. Every sheep knows its own home unless it is newly bought. When all are housed the shepherd's daily work is ended. Oxford Down Ram Photo J. T. Newman, Beikharepstead ^;>- -^^^^ ■ ^^■m^^V^W^i'i, ai>ni«wi»ra5gr^to«>»^:iife%^u'ioN Lincoln Ewe the quarter weighing from nineteen to twenty- two pounds. It is readily adapte,d to good or thin pastures, and its mutton is excellent. For this reason it is found all over the United States and Canada. In appearance it favors the Southdown, its chief ])rogenitor. The wool covers the whole face and scarcely leaves vis- ible the eyes and the black tip of the nose. 1 1 also extends down the legs almost to the hoofs. The Hampshire Down is gaining in num- bers and popularity be- cause of its size and early maturing qualities. Southdown blood has entered into the improvement of this breed, introducing many ver_\- popular qualities, espe- cially compactness and breadth over ribs and loin, the region where the greater part of the A Kent R.\m, Champion at Many Exiuiution Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead marketable meat is found. No horns arc found among individuals of this breed. The body is rather long in shape and not as well-proportioned as that of the Southdown ; i8o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A South DOWN' Ra.m it does not make an agreeable impression be- cause of its stupid, heavy, coarse head. The Oxford Down is a double cross, the blood of the Hampshire and Cotswold hav- ing been used in establishing the breed. The animals of this breed are of a very superior quality, being heavier than the other breeds in the group and possessing excellent quality for the production of meat. They rank well as farm sheep, and are commonly found on the ranges of the West. The head is in great part covered with wool. The Suffolk breed is lighter in form and color than any of the pre- ceding ; its head and feet are dark brown, and while not so compact in form as the Hampshire it somewhat resembles it. So far only a few in- dividuals have found their way across the water to us, and it is unlikely that the breed will ever become popular in this country. Sheep with short wool have, as a rule, less power of resistance and less ability to adapt themselves to differ- ences in climate, soil, nourishment, and general regimen than the various races of long-haired sheep. VI. The Mount.mn Sheep OF Great Brit.aix Besides the foregoing, other races of sheep which have come under the ennobling hand of man are finding their way to the United States from Great Britain. The Dorset breed as we know it, with its heavy horns, its coarse and horny head, its strong legs, and the undeni- able defects of its conforma- tion, still keeps the type of other days. It is distinguished besides by its fine, short wool, and by the extraordinary fe- cundity of the ewes, which may give birth to lambs twice a year if rightly managed. Many breeders are profiting by this phenomenon and are raising winter lambs, which are fed and fattened in houses, — hothouse lambs they are called, — and in the dead of winter make their appear- ance as spring lamb on the tables of persons rich enough to pay a great price for it. For this purpose the Dorset is the sheep par excellence for winter-lamb production. This A Very Fine Specimen of a Dorset Ram breed, which is gaining favor so rapidly in this country, is confined in England to the hill country of Dorsetshire. THE SHEEP I8l Welsh Ewes The Exiiioor s/ircp, found cm the heights of Exmoor, shows more of the mountain type. Like the Dorset, this breed has horns, which appear on even the very young lambs. T/if Welsh mountain siteep resem- bles the latter except that the ewe has no horns. The bhiek-faced sheep oi the moun- tains resembles the moorland sheep in its long, coarse fleece and the color of the Merino they have been the most popular breeds heatl, which is spotted with black; the fleece in America; and now since wool has become is so long that it almost sweeps the ground. secondary, they arc likcl_\- to have a clean field in the future. VII. The Merino Sheep of Sp.mx The Merino race forms an inde- pendent type of mountain sheep of very ancient origin. The most ancient Roman writers — Pliny, Strabo, and others — have written on the ancestors of the Merinos and on the method of treating them. Virgil sings of them in his Gcorgies. '■ Shall I here describe," he says, " the shepherds and the pastures of Libya, whose few hamlets contain scarce any huts ? There the flocks browse day and night for months together, and traverse the vast deserts without shelter, so A Celebrated Mount.ain R.am with Bl.ack He.ao The Scotcli mountain sheep, called the Hard- wick breed, lives on the rocky slopes of the north of Scotland ; its wool resembles that of the preceding species, but the head and legs are white. It has terrific horns, which curl round in front of the head in great circles. This animal is hardened to the most intense cold, to violent winds, and to deep snows, under which it seeks its food. The Shetland sheep is part moorland and part mountain sheep. It has no horns, and its wool is of a peculiar soft, warm te.xturc, and was much in vogue formerly for tin- manufacture of furs, and it is now knitted into shawls and other warm garments by the women of the Shetland Isles. Of these breeds the Southdown, Shropshire, Dorset, Hampshire, and Oxford Down are best known in the United States. Next to the almost boundless are those plains.' .•\ Welsh Ram l82 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Before the reign of Alexander Severus silk and cotton were unknown, and the Romans wore nothing but woolen garments; they liked them fine and were ready to pay high prices for them. In order to i prove the wool of the Taran to sheep they impor animals from Africa, which they crossed with their own, thus obtaining a very fine, soft wool. To these they added sheep from Anda- lusia and Cordova in Spain, and from Polenta in Italy, which were already famous for the fine texture of their black or dark brown fleece Ovid, who devotes to sheep certain verses full of gratitude tells us how they were valued not onlv , , , ■' . . ^ A Merin for their wool but also for their milk and flesh. Nevertheless the Merinos and their ancestors have always been sheep for wool rather than for butchering. Ancient breeders paid little attention to the conformation of their bodies for butcher's meat ; the production of fine wool was the only thing they really cared about. Italy has never been a mutton- eating country ; even to this day the servants of a household obiect to it as food. he origin of the name " Merino " bears a re- lation to the origin of the sheep them- selves. They came by sea {met) to Spain, but nothing definite is known about their coming. , Their ancestors -' probably came, in part at least, from Africa, Spain having always held active inter- course with that continent, as is shown by the settlement of the Moors in the south of Spain, with their industries, their agriculture, and their knowledge of breeding, in which they attained great proficiency. On the other hand, there are some reasons that allow us to think that the SniiTLA.ND Sheep THH SHKKP 183 ancestors of the Merinos came from EnLjlancl, for up to a certain point these sheep ha\e char- acteristics that exactly correspond with the short-haired sheep of England, especially in quantity and qualit}'. There was long a keen rivalry between the wools of Spain antl Eng- land, so that Henry II, king of England, de- creed, in 1 189, that all cloth manufactured from Spanish wool should be publicly burned. In ancient times it was th tom to take the shec flocks to summer pa; on the mountain northern Spain, brin ing them back i w inter t o their southern homes. This practice be- came general in the fifteenth cen- tury as a conse- quence of the great wars of that period, w h i c h obliged the own- ers of vast flocks to sa\-e them from the eye of the enemy. Princes, nobles, and con- vents alone had the right to make these migrations. As many of them owned the land through which the flocks traveled they derived a considerable revenue from this jirivilege. Stone boundaries were set up in all directions, marking the broad way through which the sheep might pass. The width was usually about thirty-six yards, but in some places it was nearly one hundred yards. On these paths the flocks and their shepherds alone had the right of way, and the latter knew well how to defend that right. The great flocks, counting often eighty thou- sand animals, were divided into bands num- berino: from one thousand to fifteen hundred A M.AD.XG.xscAR Sheep each, in order that there might be no famine on the way. Each band, or troop, was led by five or six men with their dogs ; the latter served only to keep off the wolves, always following the flock at some distance. No one had the right to protect his property from the devastation caused by the migrating sheep. If it pleased the shepherds to camp with their flock on some fertile property, the owner had to resign himself to the ruin of his cro])s. Agriculture tely impossible in ily of these sheej) ards the close of e eighteenth cen- ury an edict of the ing of Spain gave to the owners of such property the right to inclose their lands and thus save them from the depreda- tions of the sheep; but it w a s n o t until the nine- teenth century that a royal de- cree gave back to the proprietors, great and small, all rights to the control of their a n d. That was the entl, in Spain, of the raising of Merino sheep in vast num- bers. Pastiu'cs were transformed into wheat fields, vincN'ards, and olive orchards. The great migrations became a thing of the past, and the Merino sheep have now been largely replaced by others that give more meat and remain on the farms. Italy, also, had flocks which migrated to the Apennines and the Abruzzo from the plains of Apulia, and stilf has them, but they never traveled such long distances as in Spain. The south of 1<" ranee also has traveling flocks which journey jjartly to the Pyrenees, but 1 84 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Sheep on the Swiss Alps chiefly to the Alps, where the sheep that spend the winters near the mouths of the Rhone and along the banks of the Crau are congregated in summer. On the plains of the Crau they are never put into sheepcots except at shearing time. At night they are kept in inclosures made with hurdles of willow branches, renewed every second day. The shep- herds stay night and day with their flocks in the open air, the dogs keeping watch out- side the hurdles against wild animals. In the morning each shepherd takes out his troop and leads it to the pasturage appointed for it. The Merino was first brought to the United States in iSoi, be- tween which date and 1812 large numbers, probably as many as twenty thousand, were landed and scattered chiefly through New England, the Atlantic states, and Ohio. Conspicuous in these importa- tions were David Humphreys, Minister to Spain; Chancellor Livingston, Min- ister to France ; and William Jarvis, Consul to Portugal. These gentlemen, mindful of the im- portance of the sheep industry in the United States at the time, which called for wool of fine quality and fine fiber, carefully examined the sheep in these countries, and, being satisfied Spanish Sheep THE SHEEP 185 of their adaptability and usefulness here, not only urged the importance of these animals but even brought many specimens with them when they returned home. For a great many jears the Merino was our most popular sheep, and in the northern sec- tions of the country sheep raising was an im- portant industry even on small farms. The Spanish Merino has been greatly improved by American breeders; the type has been changed, the wool made longer and finer, and the carcass improved. Changes have been suf A Groui Ohio K.ams remains a fact that the American and Spanish Merino are one and the same animal, although ficient to indicate a new breed, some breeders the American type is materially different from Sheep on the Hillside, Wyoming being inclined to call our Merino, though of its old ancestor. The Merino also went into Spanish inheritance, the American Merim While the argument is clear and true, it stil Ewe and L.v.mh, Ohio France, where it is known as the Rambouillet ; and into Germany, where it is known as the Saxony Merino. Like the American Merino, many changes have been effected over the original stock, justifying the claims for new names for an old breed. The French Merinos have, perhaps, a larger carcass than the average American Merino. The French breeders were also the first to pro- duce a Merino combing wool, from which have been developed some of the most interesting and profitable branches of wool manufacturing, though they have subsequently found rivals Competition for Shepherds in' Germany Sheep Market in Holland THE SHEEP 187 among the breeders of fine-wool sheep in America, Germany, and Australia. Merino sheep were first imported into France in 1766. In 1786 a flock of four hun- dred was imported from Old Castile and estab- lished at Rambouillet. With great difficulty these sheep were saved during the Rc\'olution, and to-day the Rambouillet mutton has a to the African sheep, with its long, outwardly cur\ed nose, its flabb)', pendent ears, and its short, fat tail. The lambs of this race supply the well-known fur. While still \cr_\- )'oung they are covered with a short, fine wool, curled Yer\' tightly in small locks all o\'er the body. Long hairs sofin appear among these locks, and for that reason the lambs are killed within En Routk KdK TIU-; Si,.\rf;iiTEK Hoisic European rejiutation, and is faxorabh' known on many American farms. The different varieties of sheep in all parts of Europe are so numerous that we can name here only a few, which serve the world at large with some special lu.xury. Bokhara, a district of southern Russia, that paradise of the ovine race, with its dry climate and its vast grassy steppes, has millions of sheep of all breeds, but especial !)• the astra- k/iaii. This animal bears much resemblance a \ery few da\s of their hiilh. These skins bear the name of "krimmer," and are sold in the Crimea for S2.50 each. The skins called "astrakhan," which come from oider lambs, cost only Si. 25. To assist the curling of the hair the young lambs are sewn up, chuing their brief existence, in another skin or in a j^iece of coarse linen. Among the mountains of the south of France we timl the breed that produces the famous Rociuetort cheese. This cheese is OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Sheep Market in Paris made by mixing clotted milk with moistened bread. Between three layers of the curds are placed two layers of bread crumbs, ground to powder. This bread is made expressly of wheat, rye, barley flour,, and yeast. The mixture is then pressed into porcelain molds with holes at the sides. Next it is dried and salted in a particular manner and placed to ripen, that is, to mature, in grottoes or caves in the, mountains. Thirty or forty days are required to ripen these cheeses, during which time they are covered with a thick mold which has to be frequently removed. The manufacture of this cheese is now in the hands of a corporation. VIII. Wool In addition to meat and milk for the food of man, fat for soap and candles, bones to make buttons, and skin transformed into parchment, leather, kid gloves, shoes, furni- ture covering, and harness, wool is, and has been from time immemorial, the chief pro- duction of these useful animals. The most ancient bibhcal stories make mention of the shearing of sheep and of the custom of making the occasion a festival coincident with that of the harvest. As we have already seen in treating of the differ- ent races, there is a great difference in the quality of the wool. We may disregard the short fleeces covering head and legs. The long fleeces are divided into two qualities, — one of superior solidity and full of marrow, and the other soft, downy, and without marrow. If we exam- ine a thread of wool under the microscope, we find it com- posed of cells which overlap each other like the scales of a fish, and within is a hollow, full of marrow, forming the medullary canal. The coarser the wool the larger the canal ; in very fine wool it is wholly absent. In some races this marrow canal, which their ancestors certainly possessed and which still predominates in the wild sheep now existing, is completely replaced by a species of down without marrow, a wool which is of far greater Very Long P^leece THE SHEEP 189 value to man. The Merino is an examjilc of a race which now produces this improved wool, but many other breeds of short-wool sheep have the same quality. The quality of the wool is judged b\' its curls (as, for instance, the number there are to the square inch) ; by the length when uncurled and stretched out ; b_\- the weight which each thread can bear without breaking; by its elasticity, that is to sa\-, its power to curl up again after being stretched out ; and finally, by its color and brilliancy. The great variety of wools now existing ma\' be classed in two groups, — the fine or short and carding wool, and the long, coarse, and combing wool. For the manufacture of cloth the former — such, for instance, as the Merinos supply — is used. The softer materials, such as thibet, are made with longer, less curly wool, which is carded before it is spun ; these latter fabrics bear the name of ctaniittc, or tamniv cloth. The manufacture of these softer fabrics, such as cashmere, homespun, serge, cheviot, zibeline, and flannel, has rather driven into the background the making of cloth, properly so called ; consequently the Merinos, which fur- nished the finest wool for the latter purpose, have been supplanted, especially in France and Germany, by breeds whose fleece is lighter and more porous. In some countries, ours especialh', it is the custom to wash the sheep before shearing them; in others they are not washed, and the fleece is sokl with all the grease and sweat in it. This is certainly advantageous for the seller. In some parts of the Old World, when the shearing is on a large scale, the sheep, numbering sometimes twenty thousand, are put into huge covered sheds, whence they are drix'en into a sweating compartment, where they are crowded one upon another to induce perspiration. These compartments have neither doors nor windows ; the animals are exhausted intentionally, and their health is partially sacri- ficed solely to obtain a heavier fleece and to make the harsh wool of the rams softer and more supple. After the sale the fleeces are washed by the manufacturers of the cloth. At the height of the wool production in Spain, when great quantities were exported to foreign countries (in 1796 these exports amounted to twelve million pounds), the king of Spain derived vast sums from an export tax. In the year just mentioned it amounted to $1,496,000. Formerly the fleece was pulled from the body of the animal at the molting or shed- ding season. The custom still prevails in Ice- land and in some other European countries ; but the present method, especially with us, is to shear with a machine, operated either by hand or power, that cuts the wool with perfect regularity, docs not wound the sheep, and reduces the time necessar_\' to shear one ani- mal from half an hour to ten minutes and even less. VI THE GOAT I. In Ancient Times The goat even more than the sheep is the inhabitant of mountains. This animal, closely related to the sheep, the antelope, and the deer, likes warmth and dryness, and is most at its ease in central Asia, the Himalayas, A Dutch Goat and other mountains of the torrid zone, where, in fact, we find its cradle, whence it has spread through Europe, and, to some extent, through America. It has prospered in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, — in northern Africa and southern Europe, — and several islands in that sea derive their name from it. In Corsica the number of goats is estimated at ninety thousand. Malta gives its name to a special race. But Greece and her islands can boast of more than the rest of Europe, possessing one hundred and twenty for every hundred of the population, while France, Germany, and Austria have only from four to five, the United States three, and Rus- sia only two for every hundred of their inhab- itants. According to the most trustworthy calculations there are about twenty millions of goats in Europe. There are nearly two millions in the United States. The goat has been a domestic animal from time immemorial. Like the sheep, it is easy to tame. The Greeks and the Romans, as well as the Hebrews, knew the goat as a domestic ani- mal : witness the manner in which Jacob deceived his blind father. The ancients raised these an- imals for their milk, of which they also made cheese, and for their meat, which is tooth- some when the animal is young, but uneatable when old on account of its horrible odor. The skins were used to carry drinking water by the migratory tribes of the East ; they were also used for clothing, a practice still continued by the Kirghiz of central Asia. The skin of goats is used in our day for the manufacture of kid for gloves, morocco, shagreen, and other fine leathers, and also for 190 THE GOAT 191 parchment. The United States especially uses these skins in manufactures, importing annually not less than twenty-five millicjn dol- lars' worth. The hair of goats is also vcr\' useful for the manufacture of brushes of all kinds, as well as for hats; in Eastern countries it is used in the manufacture of shawls, and cows' milk so dangerous to children and to sick or feeble persons. Throughout Europe and America cattle are much infected with tuberculosis, which makes great ravages among men, whereas it may be said never to appear among goats. It is an established fact that while the milk of cows may convey disease mohair is obtained from the fleece of the An- gora goats of Turkey. II. Go.ATS' MlI.K It is well to give a few details concerning the chief product of the goat in Europe, — its milk, which is very nourishing on account of the great quantity of fat and albumen which it con- tains, and also because it is easy to digest, and comes from an animal species little subject to disease, having especially great strength of re- sistance to tuberculosis, a disease whicli makes f -Vuliiiiatii m unless boiled or pasteurized, the milk of goats presents no such danger, and is c\-en a passive preservative against tuberculosis through the absence of the bacillus thereof ; which does not mean, however, that it is an active pre- servative. It is much to be desired that experiments should be made in this direction. A movement has lalclx' been started in the United States for the raising of Angora goats in the foothills of Te.xas, California, Arizona, and Oregon, bv patients in the first stages of tuberculosis, as a promising means of cure. 192 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Support of the Fajiily A belief in the influence of the goat on vari- ous diseases is also very prevalent in the southern states and in Eng- land ; so much so that they are often kept in stables and cow barns to ward off disease from horses and cattle. Many persons, especially in Europe and America, have a repugnance to goats' milk on account of its bitter taste, the cause of which lies in the food and general treatment to which the animals are sub- jected. The goat is not dainty ; it will eat with satis- faction what other animals reject, such as bark of trees, bushes, wild fruits, berries, etc. ; tobacco it considers a dainty. In short, it eats any- thing it can get ; and if all sorts of bad food are given to a goat, and if, moreover, it is shut up in a damp and dirty stable, it is no wonder if the milk both tastes and smells repulsive. But if, on the contrary, the ani- mal has fresh air, good food, and cleanliness, it will give good, sweet milk. In Eastern coun- tries goats' milk is pre- ferred to cows' milk, for which, indeed, the Arabs have a great aversion. About four years ago M. Joseph Crepin, a member of the National Acclimation Society of France, opened at Paris a goats'-milk creameiy especially for children and invalids, which has since passed into the hands of a corporation, M. Crepin having solely in view the acceptance of his idea in the sani- tary interests of the public. Sarnen He-Goat THE GOAT 193 III. Descent Buffon's supposition that the tame goat of Europe comes from a mixture of the camel and the wild goat has been contradicted for many good reasons, and especially because of the fact that the camel and the wild goat, far from consorting in their wild state, avoid each other's society. Buffon's idea had long existed, but it is now generally considered that the Bezoar goat of Asia maile its wa}- into Europe by the south. Several varieties of the wild goat still exist in Europe, Asia, and Africa, but in Europe they have almost disappeared. In the four- teenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries they were found in vast numbers in the Alps, from Mont Blanc to Salzburg in Styria. They were usually seen in large troops on the high- est mountains, seeking their food near the snow limit. The bucks were very tall, with large horns curving slightly backward. The females were much smaller in size, with small horns. They were and are bold leapers, and will spring without hesitation from one pointed rock to another, across giddy preci])ices, flee- ing o\-er glaciers, if pursued. This interesting animal (known now as the chamois) maintained its abode for a long time Go.\TS cALLKi) '• Hr.inr.EiTE ' Prize winners, 1903 Fkin n the mountains of Piedmont, in the vicinity f Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and the Monte Rosa. The Italian govern- ment has done its best to protect the last remnants of this fine species, but the passion for hunting and its dangers exercises such irre- sistible influence on sports- men that the_\- brook nothing that interferes with its indul- gence. When we read travel- ers' tales by personages often high in rank we are amazed to see with what delight those gentlemen (.') will fire upon a poor chamois, or other wild animal, poised on an inaccessible rock, without other object than to see it fall into a deep abyss, where it lies with broken limbs, 194 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS a prey to suffering, death, and putrefaction. We might understand such cruelty in some poor creature trying to earn a living, but it ought never to enter the minds of educated men, or at least those who regard themselves as such. We must, however, add that the chamois living on the highest, wildest, and most inaccessible rocks has often sold his life dear at the cost of that of many a hunter. existing at the period of the lake villages of Switzerland were precisely the same as those of to-day, which proves that until now man has not thought it worth while to improve this animal species. There is little or no difference between the exteriors of the Norwegian, Swiss, Spanish, and Grecian goats. Everywhere we find them with or without horns, and with long or short hair, striped with many discordant ATS WITH HORXS The chamois mates successfully with the domestic goat, and is easily tamed; but its pas- sion for climbing never dies, and its progeny inherit it. IV. The Domestic Goat Up to the present time little pains have been taken to divide the tamed goats into species, but of late persons are beginning more and -more to distinguish and improve the different breeds. It is a fact that the goats colors — yellow, red, white, reddish brown, gray, and black. Goats of a single color are rarely found, unless they have come through the hands of breeders who have bred them with that idea in view. The Swiss goat of tlic Sanicn is the chief species of central Europe. It comes from the valleys of the Sarnen and the Simmen, and is characterized by its color, which is wholly white, by the absence of horns, and especially by its great production of milk. THE (;OAT 195 The hair is usually short and rough, the bcanl long and hcav)-. The bucks are tall — over three feet. The race has delicate heads, slen- der necks, long bodies, straight backs, slim legs, and large, tender, hairless udders in the ewes. With good food the production of milk is about si.\ quarts a day, though some give seven, eight, or even twelve quarts. The annual pro- duction is from twelve to eighteen hundred quarts, though the goat Betty, belonging to the Breeding Society of Pfungstadt, gave three thousand quarts in one year. For this qualit)' the Sarnen goat has been imported in great num- bers since 1887 into France, Germany, Bel- 1 gium, Holland, England, and even South Africa, and not a few have been brought to the United States. The Swartzcnboiirg-Guggisbcrg goat comes also from the valley of the Sarnen, especially from the neighborhood of Stockhorn, Erlen- bach, and Schwenten. It is of various colors. horns, while others are without them; the pro- duction of milk is about three quarts a day. The Appcnzel ox flat-hcadcd goat comcf, from the canton of that name : it is without hcjrns Swiss GO.VTS CALLED " DE SaRSEK" much spotted and variegated, sometimes with a black back and a white stomach, or with white stripes and other variations. Some ha\e .fil.w CoAis wniinrT Horns and is gencrall}' while, though sometimes it is dark or spotted. The production of milk is about five quarts daily. The Toggcnbourg goat is, from the canton of St. Gall. It is brown, with long white stripes on the head; the legs are white, and it has no horns. It is a very handsome, well- made goat, which j^roduces si.x quarts of milk daily. The Freiburg or Grcycrs goat and the black-iicckcd goat of the J 'alais are foimd in the cantons of those names and in the Tyrol ; the latter breed, which is strong and well made, has the front half of the body black, and the rear half white. Both species are good milkers. According to Pro- fessor Anderegg, of Berne, twenty- six different species of goats are found in Switzerland. In the Savoy Alps there are very fine goats, of which the Manricnne is the best breed. The 196 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Three Maltese Goats (left), Two Native Belgian Goats (center) head, neck, and forward part of the body and the legs are a fine saffron yellow, merging sometimes into gray, while over the rest of A Dangerous Situation the body a beautiful black mantle is spread, which results in a splendid contrast of colors. If we turn southward from the Alps we come upon the Pyrenees with its particular breed called the Race of the Pyrenees ; these goats are long-haired, either white or black, and carry magnificent horns. This is the principal breed that goatherds drive in droves through towns to deliver milk for children and invalids. The Maltese goat, on the island of Malta, is narrow behind, without horns, short-haired, and somber in color, — generally brown or snuff-colored, varied with white. The hair is moderately fine, between the soft hair of the Angora and the rough hair of the Norwegian goats. Most of them have small horns, but the island also possesses a long-horned variety. Italian goats live chiefly among the Apen- nines ; in the days of the Romans they formed the chief wealth of the inhabitants of the mountain regions. In Germany there are several much-esteemed breeds, among them being the Black Forest, THE GOAT 197 a fine goat the color of a deer, and the little goat of Langcnsaha (Saxony), which is usually white, although sometimes brown with a stripe along the back. The Norwegian goat resembles the black- necked goat of Switzerland, the hair being long and waving ; the horns of the buck are well developed. The common Englislt goat is often without horns, ill-shaped, and rough-haired. The com- mon Irish goat is the true type of a milch goat. The back is often a little hollow, the horns curve backward, and the hanging ears are rather long. They, like their English sisters, can claim no beauty. The Fleviish goat of Belgium is of two breeds, — the deer goat and the sheep goat. Both are closely related and are sometimes mingled. The first has a delicate head, slim neck, slender legs, short, smooth hair, and a gay and lively temperament. The sheei^ goat, on the contrary, is coarser in every way, with a calmer or, so to speak, more sheepish nature. The color of these Belgium goats is usually a magnificent reddish brown, or else a chamois color, which is the most desired. Among the goats outside of Europe we must here mention the principal species. First comes the Syrian goat, found chiefly in Syria to two thousand. Their cfilor varies, being gray, yellow, brown, and black ; many have beautiful sky-blue eyes. The hair is long, espe- cialh' on the hind quarters, whereas on the neck it is short and \'ery brilliant. The Arabs Norwegian Hf.-Chiat and Palestine, but also in the warm regions of Asia as far as the islands of the Indian Ocean. They live in flocks numbering from five hundred WOXDEUFUI, Toi.KKANCI'. ! use this hair for the manufacture of stuffs and rugs, making the inferior ciualities into portieres for tents, and even ropes. E\"cn when ill-fed these goats can still give from three to si.x quarts of milk a day. This milk has not the bitter taste nor the offensive odor which characterize that of the European goats. Grass being rare in their pasturage, their food con- sists chiefly of acorns and of a fruit called " St. John's bread." The butter and cheese made from the milk of these goats is cele- brated for its excellence. The flocks of Palestine are sometimes decimated by a contagious disease, a species of yellow fever, which often mows down sixty per cent of them. The Arabs consider this a punishment for their own sins, and bless Allah that he does not take the whole flock. The .Ynhian goat lives in Upper Egvpt, Nubia, and the mountains of Abyssinia. In i860 the Negus of Abyssinia sent a young hippopotamus as a present to Napoleon III, and with it a number of these goats to serve as wet nurses. It is related that they each gave from fifteen to eighteen quarts of milk a day. 198 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Cas/itnere goat is found in Cashmere and in Tibet. It is not tall ; it has a rather large head and pendent ears. Its long, spiral horns Ready to take out Baby curve obliquely backward. The outer hair is long, fine, straight, and stiff, but beneath it is the extremely fine, soft, fleecy wool which has made this species of goat so famous. The color of the outer hair is white, silvery, pale yellow, or light brown ; the wool runs from white to gray. This wool enables the animal to bear the severe cold of the mountains of Tibet. It is sheared in May or June ; the long hair is carefully separated from the brilliant and silky wool, of which each goat can supply from one to one and one-half pounds. For the making of the third of a yard of a cash- mere shawl the wool of seven or eight goats is needed. Under the rule of the Great Mogul forty thousand weavers of shawls worked in Cashmere ; but after that country was made subject to the Afghans this fine industry received a blow from which it has never recovered. The Angora goat, which is growing so popu- lar with us, comes from Asia Minor, and takes its name from the ancient commercial city of Ankyra, now known as Angora. This animal is well shaped, and has long, broad, pendent ears. The bucks have long, flat, finely curved horns, while those of the ewes are smaller and simpler. The hair of this species is celebrated, and has long been an article of commerce in much demand. The wool is abundant, thick, long, fine, soft, shining, silky, and slightly curled. The color is mostly a brilliant snow-white, although some- times dark patches occur. In summer it is shed in great locks, but soon grows out again. During the hot weather the animals are washed and combed continually to increase the beauty of the wool. They are sheared in winter. Most of the wool is sold at Angora, whence it is sent chiefly to England, the exportation amounting to millions of pounds. The finest Angora wool (called mohair) comes from goats a year old ; it deteriorates in the following years, until at six years of age it becomes useless. In other climates, especially if damp, it loses its good qualities, which explains why the importation of the animal into America for wool alone has so far not proved very satisfactory. V. Improvement Societies Influential persons are trying in many coun- tries to improve the breeding of goats ; rewards ^^^H ■ ^^^^^1 ^^^^^H ^HpR?^^^ ^P ^j i^^^l m A'' 9 ^ H H Yearling Angora Buck THE GOAT 199 Exiiir.iTioN OF Goats in Harness are offered for improved animals, competitions Sometimes the societies devote their efforts have been organized, and genealogical records to the improvement of the native breeds, established. Germany has a great number of although as a general thing Swiss goats are these societies, especiallv in the grand duchies, imported to improve them. VKAKI-IM, ami .\(,I.Ii .\^ BccKs. Calh-oknia 200 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In England the British Goat Society, founded in 1879, works in this direction. At the head of it are persons of wealth, whose object is to favor the breeding and rational treatment of these animals among the poorer classes. The society provides instruction on the goat, its milk and meat, hoping to remove the English prejudice against them, as well as to improve the con- formation of the animals and their production of milk. In 1902 a Belgian society for the improvement of the goat was formed in Brussels. It has the same object as all the other societies, with this difference, that it not only imports Swiss goats but en- deavors also to improve its own very beautiful indigenous species of the deer goat, on the principle that before attempting to improve a breed as to conforma- tion and temperament, you should first begin by cultivating a pure race. VI. Character of the Goat Every one knows the gayety of young kids, which prompts them to cut the most amusing and burlesque capers. The goat is naturally 1 [ g -i 1 p pu _• — ^- i w" 1 m i M B ^ ^ '■^<^^3^Sk ■ 1 Playfulness capricious and inquisitive, and one might say crazy for every species of adventure. It posi- tively delights in perilous ascensions. At times it will ■ rear and threaten you with its head and horns, apparently with the worst inten- tions, whereas it is usually an invitation to play. The bucks, however, fight violently with each other ; they seem to have no consciousness of the most ter- rible blows. The ewes them- selves are not exempt from this vice. The goat is a sociable ani- mal ; take away her companion and she will bleat for days and refuse to eat or drink. She loves to be caressed by man, and is very jealous if atten- tions are shown to a rival. The bucks when trained will draw their little masters by the hour, if kindly treated ; but if they are teased or ill-used, they will fre- quently refuse positively to do their work. They know very well whether or not they have deserved punishment. Drive them out of the garden, where they are forbidden to go, with a whip and they will flee without uttering a sound ; but strike them without just cause and they will send forth lamentable cries. VII TME PIG All of our important breeds of hot;;s have descended from the wild hog {S/is apcr) that once roamed over Europe, Asia, and Africa. What people first subjugated the wild hog and brought him into a better style of living, history has not tt)ld us, nor has any one attempted to say just when this subjugation took place. The wild hog is a very active and powerful individual ; when he grows old he is e.xtremely fierce and dangerous. Generally speaking, the color is an iron-gray or a dirty brown, spotted here and there with black. Like his descend- ants, only to a very much greater extent, the original hog was covered with coarse, long hair that showed bristles of great prominence all the time, and especially when the animal was irri- tated. The head of the wild hog is large, bony, and coarse ; the large jaw is covered with the tusks that inflict severe wounds ; the neck is long and muscular, and the loins broad and strong. The wild hog makes a foe fearful to combat when attacked by an enemy of any sort. In his wild habitat he selects places that are moist, rather well concealed by forest growth, where he may feed upon plants, fruits, and roots of vari- ous kinds, though when hunger affects him he greedily appeases his appetite on worms, snakes, and flesh of any kind. The twilight, early dawn, and nighttime seem by choice his favorite periods for seeking food, sport, adventure, and exercise. Sense of smell has been developed to such a marked degree in the wild hog that he is able to detect the presence of food though it be covered in the ground. Like other domes- tic animals in their wild and native state the wild hog seeks thick forests and there herds with his kind for safety and protection; when age comes on he strolls much about by himself, never seeking danger, but when it comes he avoids it not. It has been estimated that thirty or forty years is not an infrequent age for some of these wild animals to attain. When young are born they follow their mother for several months, in fact, remain with her as much as a year or more, when each individual becomes bolder and goes farther from the home land, naturally drifting apart by himself. It is surprising with what ferocity and cour- age the wild boar meets an attack, and with what ease he wards it off. Because of courage and fierceness the wild hog has from the earliest ages been the favorite sport with all classes and conditions of society. Particularly is this true with the nobility of England and Germany. When Rome was at her supreme height the wild hog entered largely into the sports and fights of the times. The wild hog of to-day, while his numbers are small and his territory very limited, remains true to his ancestry and habits. He has lost neither his strength nor his endurance, and when chased by hunters and sportsmen the most powerful horses are necessary, else they will be distanced in the chase. The domestic pig may degenerate and be- come wild and grisly, yet he never takes up to the fullest extent the habits of his ancestor, who "walks the glade in savage, solitary grandeur." Despite the fierceness of the wild hog, every people appreciates his racial worth. I. LoN'G A Source of F"ood The hog has been the jirincipal quadruped in the South Sea Islands, and more carefully cultivated there than any other animal. For a long time he was used as a most precious sacrifice to the deities. The hog is recorded as sacred on the island of Crete also. We are told that the Greeks at the beginning of harvest time sacrificed a hog to Ceres, and at the beginning of vintage a hog was sacrificed to Bacchus. As meat, hog flesh has long been esteemed ; this is plainly indicated by the many allusions of great authors. The hog entered largely into the diet of the Romans, 202 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and all sorts of practices were employed to impart delicate flavor to the flesh. Pliny in- forms us that old, dried figs, drenched with honey and wine, were employed as a means of enlarging the liver, so choice a dish was it considered by Roman palates. It has been said also that the Romans often served hogs whole, one side being roasted and the other side boiled. Further still was this carried by stuff- ing the dressed animal with larks and nightin- gales and delicacies of all sorts, and serving with wine and rich gravies. We can imagine how delicious this dish must have been by com- paring it with those barbecues and Brunswick stews so well known by our country people, Germany and France have also, from times immemorial, depended upon the pig for food ; while in Ireland, especially among the poorer classes, the pig is often the chief source of profit and the " gintleman that pays the rint." The early pig stock of our country and of the states to the south of us came first by the importations of the early Spanish explorers. The first ships that landed on our shores brought swine ; from this early stock the pig in America has come, its habitat spreading in a short time to the whole land. Since those days of exportation and adventure improved hogs of many breeds have been imported, especially from England, but from other countries as well. A Drove of Hogs in Ohio and which possess rich and delicate flavors never equaled by other domestic animals. We have, on the authority of Varro, the statement that the Gauls raised the largest and finest swine flesh that was brought into Italy during those early days. This is of interest in connection with the fact that the Italians and ancient Spaniards kept large droves of swine, which formed the principal part of their live stock. In those early days swine were common in Greece and in adjoining islands. While the Jews and the followers of Mohammed have always abstained from swine flesh, nearly all other peoples have found the pig of con- siderable importance in their food supplies. This is true of the ancient Britons. Good meat was supplied chiefly from the hog. II. The Pig in the Old World Throughout the Old World the pig abounds, its highest development being attained by English breeders. At the present time it is almost universally raised, and with some nations is the principal meat supply. In almost all parts of Asia swine may be found, — in Siam, Cochin China, Burma, and other southern countries. Here is found the celebrated Chinese hog that has been imported into many other countries, and which is noted for its small size, fine head and snout, compact, deep carcass, large hams and shoulders, fine bone, hair, and skin, and sweet, delicate meat. Travelers tell us that the Chinese treat their animals very kindly. It is given on the author- ity of one of our prominent men that the pig THE PIG 203 is not clri\c'n but carried from place to place in a kind of cradle, or basket hung on a pole between two men ; and as swine are often ob- stinate when about to enter these cradles, "the heathen Chinee," it is said, sometimes adopts a peculiar mode of loading. This is accomplished bv placing the pig in front of the pen, when the owner vigorously pulls at the pig's tail and in the spirit of opposition the animal darts into the desired place. At the end of the journey he is driven out by spitting in his face. Turkey, Syria, Persia, and Arabia have each different varieties of pigs, iron-gray, black, or brown in color, the bodies small and round in shape and of no great size. They are not raised in any great numbers, however, because of the nature of the soil and of the prevalence of the Mohammedan reli- gion, which forbids the use of swine flesh. Swine are scarce in Africa and of little value except in the northern part, where there is bred a reddish hog of good size and of rather stjuare form. This breed, known as "Guinea," has been imported into Brazil and into other countries. The Malta pig is black and of small stature; the skin is smooth, the hair fine and almost wanting. The quality of the flesh is good and of delicate taste. Spain has but few varieties, and these are somewhat similar to the Chinese, from which stock they have probably sprung. Italy is noted for her pigs. The Maltese and Neapolitan are both of rather small size, but are of good quality and flavor. These breeds are small and nearly destitute of hair ; they are easily fattened, and because of their quality they have been sought in other countries, where they are used in the creation of other breeds. The hog stock of P'rance and Gcrmanv is much inferior to our own or the English breeds, the common stock being long-legged, gaunt, coarse, and uncouth, resembling the wild boar in form, but lacking the flavor and quality of the latter. Improved varieties, however, are found in both countries. England ranks first in the improvement of swine. Our best breeds have come from England, or have been built up from the old English stock. Foreign and native breeds entered into the formation of noted English breeds of hogs, but the improvement has been effected there by careful, painstaking breeders. Of present English breeds the Yorkshire, large and small, has many admirers and is gain- ing constantly in favor. The large breed was improved by an introduction of blood of the white Leicester, an old slab-sided but large native hog ; and further improved by the introduction of blood of the improved white hogs at " Castle Howard." The improved Essex is at present a popular breed both in England and America. It is the product of a cross between the old Essex and the Xeajioli- tan, which was commenced by Lord Western in 1839. III. The Pig in Americ.\ It naturally follows, since the hog is not a native of this continent, that the ancestors of our many families and breeds must have been imported. They found here a land of corn and clover, two foods which the hog likes and which when fed to him produce quick and iirotitable returns. The first pigs that influenced the earlier inferior stock in way of improvement were a pair .sent by the Duke of Bedford to General Washington. This pair was never delivered, however, but kept by the English farmer who brought them over, who leased a farm and be- gan the breeding of these choice animals. De- scendants of this pair were used largely in the 204 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS improvement of the common stock, and were known as the " Woburn" or "Bedford" breed, a splendid one at the time but since absorbed in other breeds. The Berkshire enjoys the distinction of a very ancient lineage. Formerly it was reddish in color with small black spots ; this color gave way to one more becoming the breed — black. The Berkshire in its early days was greatly improved by Chinese and Siamese blood, and later by that of the Neapolitan race, receiving from this latter breed its fine hair and skin, its rich plum color, and its delicate taste. The Poland-China is one of the most popular breeds in the United States, especially through- out the Middle West, where corn and pork production go so well together. The Poland- China is strictly an American breed, per- haps the most famous of the breeds that have been established in America. This hog originated in south- western Ohio, in the counties bordering on the Miami river, the common stock of the county being its basis. Many breeds — the Big China, Russian, By- field, Poland, Bedford, and Berkshire — contrib- uted to the perfection of this great pork-and-lard type of hogs. In color the Poland-China is spotted, black and white ; in size and form the breed is similar to the Berkshire, except that its frame is slightly larger and stronger ; the ear falls over the eye, while in the Berkshire it is short, pointed, and straight. Both the Poland-China and the Berkshire are quick-maturing and profitable pork-making machines. These two breeds are more widely diffused over the United States than any others. The Duroc -Jersey is also an American-pro- duced breed. Its breeding qualities are good, superior to those of either the Berkshire or the Poland-China. Its color is reddish or reddish and white. Duroc -Jerseys are quiet and good feeders, take well to grazing and to corn, and ■j^p msHi H ^^^Ht: '-^^^^^^-^K 1^ 1^^ B ^^^^ J&';,^a*J^S-"*«^fiJB n y^i^f'f^m ii^^^^^^ ^^^. Grand-Champion Tamworth Boar and Sow produce meat of good quality that has a fair proportion of lean meat. The Chester-White is in the same class as the preceding, and is an extensively known breed in the United States. Hardy, large, prolific, and well adapted to our systems of farming, it has become popular, and deservedly so. As a breed it was established in Chester County, Pennsylvania, from which place it gets its name. The hair is white and thin, and because of this fact it is not adapted to the hot climates of the southern states, at least that is the objection made to this and to other white hogs in the South. The Tamworth breed has become more or less known in the United States during recent years. While it is true that the breed gains favor slowly here, it is highly esteemed in Canada and across the water. The importance of these hogs for bacon gives them high rank whenever animals are wanted for this purpose. Among the smaller breeds may be men- tioned the small Yorkshire, a hog imported from England ; the Victoria and the Che- shire, two breeds established by New York farmers and held now in much favor ; and the improved Essex, black in color and high in favor because of the fine quality of its meat. IV. The Breed to Choose It is quite impossible to make a ranking list of breeds. Even in the same community, under the same conditions and environments, many breeds of hogs will be observed, show- ing that men honestly differ in opinion as to the merits and values of our different varieties of swine, as they do in other matters of life. It follows, then, that taste, fancy, and indi- yjdual choice will govern in the selection of a breed of hogs or of other animals. The beginner may make many inquiries only to be thrown back on his own judgment at last ; THE PIG 205 and it is well that this is the case. No one breed is best fitted for all conditions, so long as bacon or lard or pork is sought for itself alone, or even sought in conjunction with other secondary factors. There will be need of many breeds and of many families of the same breed. After one has selected the breed that pleases him, he should take pains t(j secure breeding stock of good type, form, quality, and constitution. The loss by disease is enormous ; hence none but individuals of robust consti- tution should be allowed to come on the place. Once selected, keep the line pure. Much harm has been done by cross breeding and through the use of grade or cross-bred sires. It is V. C.\RiNG FOR Swine The old idea that hogs will shift for them- selves, while true in effect, is a poor one to adopt, since it means small profits and often loss. The pig needs care, especially since he has been removed so far from his old wild life. And he responds to civilization as will- ingly as any animal on the farm. But one cannot e.xpect him to do his best where his only drink is the filth of the mudhole, his oiih' nest the manure pile, and his only food the leavings that all others shun. Give him pure water to drink, a clean bed in which to sleep, and a variety of food, and he will give greater profits than any other animal on the farm or any crop you raise. l'i;iii'iu I \' OF (^iiiii Si All: 1'm\i:ksi 1 N' money to one if he will use only pure-bred stock from the ver_\' start. Hogs are so com- mon and herds of pure breeding so easily available in every community that no dififi- culty will be encountered in starting right and continuing right. In selecting breeding stock one must bear these points in mind : short head, dished in the forehead, and good width between the eyes ; fine muzzles, with a short snout ; strong, bright eyes ; drooping or upright ears, not thick or coarse ; soft, mellow skin, with fine, silky hair, somewhat abundant but without bristles ; short, well-knit, and straight legs, standing well on small, strong feet ; full, long body, square and broad, with a straight back and under line. If one has a mortgage on his home, seek the help of the hog and he will raise it ; if one covets legitimate things, seek first his aid and these things will sfion come ; if one longs for luxuries he will bring them. Debts he will pay, lands he will improve, homes he will enlarge, children he will educate. These things the hog has done ten thousand times, and he will do them again, even better and more quickly, if one will but give him one half of the care and attention he deserves. The hog makes good use of the pasture. Give him the run of the clover field, for he will do no harm there, e\cn when placed among cattle, sheep, and horses. When provided with good grazing no other food is required; he will grow rajiidly and 2o6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS have a good account to give of the food he has eaten. Good, thrifty growth, not fat, is wanted while he is small and young, for if growth has been secured he will fatten very Feeding Pigs quickly and on a small amount of food. The mistake is often made of feeding an exclusive ration of corn. Corn is heating and fattening in effect, and until he has left pighood da3's corn is an improper food to give him, espe- cially as an exclusive diet. In his early days protein, the muscle maker, should enter largely into his diet. When given the freedom of the pasture or clover field this important food element is supplied to his delight and advan- tage. When he has reached the age of seven or eight months he may be brought in from the pasture and inclosed in a small feeding lot where pure water, soft coal, and ashes should be furnished in connection with corn. A few weeks of feeding, small quantities at first, will bring him to the close of his days, when he should be ready for market or to be slaughtered. Hogs of good breeding will readily weigh two hundred and fifty pounds when nine months old, if they have been provided with good pasture and reasonably good care. VI. Feeding Young Pigs As soon as young pigs begin to eat provide a shallow trough and place it where it is not accessible to the mother or older pigs. Give some kind of slop — milk and shorts is best — each day. Quick growth follows this treat- ment and with paying results. The trough must be kept clean, and an occasional thorough disinfecting will be desirable, not only for the trough but for the pigs as well. Clean sleep- ing quarters contribute their share to health, vigor, and rapid gains. If pasture is available, turn the mother and her young into it ; little of any kind of food other than good pasture grass will be needed. The writer has followed a plan for grazing hogs that has proved very successful. Eight one-half acre lots are provided, the lots being three rods in width and correspondingly long. In August one lot is seeded to rye, which makes good winter grazing ; in September the second lot is seeded to rye, which also makes good winter grazing ; in October the remaining lots are seeded to rye for spring grazing. The first rye lot is succeeded by cowpeas, planted as soon as spring will permit, and then through the spring and early summer the other lots follow on in rapid succession with co\\'peas. By this system winter, spring, and summer grazing are available, and provided with little labor, trouble, or expense. The great point in the management of young pigs is to keep them growing from the day of birth to the day they are slaughtered Mother Hog and Little Ones or sold. If thrifty and active they will grow rapidly ; if strong and vigorous they will be more likely to throw off disease if it attacks them, or, what is better, never get it at all. THE PIG 207 Our best hog raisers give their animals the full freedom of the fields as much as is pos- sible, that they may obtain the grasses they like, the exercise they need, and the cieanh- ness that means so much for health and \igor. We must remember that the prevention of disease is safer than remedies, and especially is this true of the hog. Clean pens, exercise, pasture grazing, and variety in food are all- important in successful management. The hog, if we regard the great number of people who receive food from its flesh, occu- pies, it is seen, a most important place in the domestic economy of all civilized countries. Swine flesh is wholesome and nutritive, and from its ready reception of salt it is better fitted iov preservation than that of any other animal. It is fitted, therefore, for sea voyages, for use in country districts where fresh meats are not at all times available, and for all uses where meat is desired but obtainable only many seasons after being slaughtered ; for these, and many other purposes, this kind of meat is eminently adapted. It forms not only a large portion of the animal food consumed by inhabitants of other continents but also enters largely into our own dietaries ; and from the facility with which it may be raised by the humble villager or laborer as well as by the breeder on a larger scale, it has been aptly styled the poor man's stock. Beyond any other animal the hog mul- tiplies with great rapidity ; he is reared with ease, and with little expense he is brought to maturity, so that it seems an error for any farmer to disregard this domestic animal, which is and always will be a source of household economy and comfort. VIII CATTLE I. The Bull, the Ox, and the Cow These horned beasts belong to an important group of domestic animals, if not from all points of view, at any rate from that of their utility to man. In fact no domestic animal contributes so much to man's welfare as the cow and her kind. She gives us milk, our most important food, to drink ; she provides us with butter and cheese, both wholesome and rich in food nutriments ; her iiesh enters largely into our dietaries ; the leather made of her hide covers our feet and provides us with necessities and luxuries in other directions ; and finally her bones, blood, and offal fertilize our gardens and fields. This race, together with the sheep and the goat, forms part of the great family of rumi- nants, the members of which differ very little Two Orphans from one another in the conformation of their teeth and stomachs. The bovines form a sub- division of the class of horned beasts by reason of their horns being hollow. This race {bos taitrus) must have had many ancestors. For instance, the Frisian ox is thought to be a descendant of the urns exist- ing in Csesar's day, and French beeves are supposed to be descended from the bison. The Podolian or Hungarian ox, whitish gray with long" horns, and of immense height, which Cow WITH Uneven Horns draws the heaviest loads over hundreds of miles, is related to the great white oxen of Italy, Spain, and Algeria mentioned by Varro. It is, however, difficult to determine at what period the race appeared in Europe. We find it by the side of man in all peoples and tribes as they issued from barbarism. The Egyptians utilized it thousands of years ago ; in fact they had such respect for certain bulls that they worshiped them as gods. The Chinese and the Japanese, civilized nations while Europe was still in its swaddling clothes, also used ISxen as draft animals thousands of years ago, and do so still, just as we do. After Europe became civilized we find bulls or oxen serv- ing as reproducers of their species or as CATTLE 209 beasts for agricultural labor, while cows were everywhere valued for their milk and meat. As furnishinir amusement bulls are now used Norman Mii.ck Cow only in Spain for bullfights and in the south of France for the famous "bull races." The bull or the draft ox, properly so called, no matter to what species he belongs, bears, as a general thing, the following type : a large head, the nape of the neck very broad, the legs long and sincwv, the hind quarters strongly developed, and the muscles visible tmder a relatively thin skin. His shape is long and angular. The animal intended for the shambles is, on the contrary, square in form, with rounded outlines. Its whole exterior shows massive- ness ; the head is narrow, the neck short and thick, the tail narrow, and the line of the back completely horizontal. Seen in front or behind the draft ox presents a narrow, thick- set body on long legs, w-hile viewed in the same manner the animal for butchering presents a body somewhat square-like in form, with ap- parently short legs. II. The Cow The cow {bos taunts domcsticiis) is stolid by nature and very little intelligence appears in the big, kindly eyes with which she stares, in the stable or in the field, at young and old, donkeys and trains, horses and boats. A single occupation seems to absorb her thoughts, — that of flicking off with her tail the flies that torment her as she browses the grass or chews the cud. Rumination is an essential thing with her, though she does it when half asleep ; essen- tial, that is, for the stomach of all ruminants, which is composed of four parts, — the rumen, the irticuhnii, the omasum, and the abomasitm. After being triturated and partly digested in the first stomach, or rumen, the insufficiently digested food is returned to the oesophagus and thence into the mouth, where it is mixed with the saliva secreted by the salivary glands as the cow chews it, after which she passes the cud downward to its destination. The cow has eight teeth in the lower jaw ; the upper jaw appears to have none, and persons ignorant of cattle would doubtless think so, but a connoisseur would tell them to " feel " the teeth. They then find a cartilaginous edge to the upper jaw which takes the place of front teeth, while at the two sides of the jaw at the I'hoto C. W. Kcid back are six large and very sharp teeth. The car- tilaginous front edge is far more useful for nip- ping off the grass than a row- of teeth would be. To the owner of milch cows the production of milk is naturally of the greatest importance. 2IO OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In all the females of the bovine race the milk is separated by glands. It is composed of a white, opaque substance in which small glob- ules of fat are floating. The two chief glands French Steer form the udder, and for the cattle breeder much depends on the position of the teats, and also on the roundness and volume of the udder, for milch cows that are otherwise equal in conform- ation and in appearance will show great differ- ences in their production of milk. There are some first-class cows that can give as much as twenty-four quarts of milk a day. Others give twenty, ten, and even less, although they are normal in shape, healthy in body, and in proper dairy condition. The first milk drawn, which is for the calf, is clear and yellow. It is useful in clearing from the stomach of the little animal various substances that are in him when he enters the world. The greatest production of milk is made when the cow is from five to ten years old, but it is a mistake to think that the milk of a cow which produces much is the best. Those furnishing a medium quantity daily may give richer milk ; that of some cows, however, is always poor. The quantity of the milk naturally depends much on food and on the condition of the pasturage, while the quality is hereditary like color or form or breed. This explains why the cattle of meadow and grass lands are so celebrated, and why the industries of butter and cheese making flourish in those regions. An examination of the ex- terior of the bovine race shows that it exhibits a vast variety of color. Black, yellow, brown, reddish brown, black-spotted, and white cows give to a land- scape full of cattle a rich and varied character. Color has become a fixed character in many breeds ; as, for instance, the black and white of the Hol- stein, the black of the Angus and the Galloway, the red and white of the Ayrshire and the Hereford, the fawn and brown of the Jersey, and the yellow and brown of the Guernsey. Many cattle raisers prefer to have animals all of one color rather than of many colors and of many breeds. It is only by following fixed lines of breeding that the greatest success will be attained. To do this is neither difficult nor expensive, and is far more satisfactory than a practice of in- discriminate breeding, which is so common throughout the land. Cows, as well as bulls and oxen, usually have two hollow horns on their head, which form In Alabama their weapons of offense. The horns of certain breeds are strongly developed and very long ; others are without horns, and butt with their CATTLE 21 I Good Draft Oxen heads in self-defense. These blows are some- animal will not only strike with his horns but times extremely powerful, and numerous acci- he will also toss his victim in the air, and if he dents have taught us the danger from bulls can get at him will use his horns, as a horse when excited to anger. At such times the does his hoofs, to bruise him. RUMIN.VTING Photo C. W. Keid 212 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS where there was least movement during its life; for instance, the loins, the sides, and the por- tion of the back just above the tail. The parts of least value are about the head, neck, and legs. III. The Dairy Type Bull, Frexch Breed The milch cow should have a very soft, mellow skin and fine, silky hair. The head should be narrow and long, with great width between the eyes. This last-mentioned characteristic is an indication of great nervous force, an important quality for the heavy milker. The neck of a good dair)' cow is long and thin ; the shoulders If we glance at the e.xterior of the cow we shall see that just as the draft ox differs from the ox intended for slaughter so the milch cow differs greatly in appearance from the cow kept for the shambles. Generally the milkers are not fattened until later ; those for butchering have abundant fat upon their sides. The flesh ought to be solid and elastic, mellow and yet firm. If pressed upon, the mark of the pressure ought to disappear quickly. The tender flesh for meat will be found on those parts of the animal In Scotland Ax American Type are thin and lithe, and narrow at the top ; the back is open, thin, and tapering toward the tail; the hips are wide apart, and covered with but little meat. The good cow is also thin in the region of the thigh and flank, but very deep through the stomach girth, made so by long, open ribs. The udder is large, attached well forward on the abdomen and high behind. It should be full but not fleshy. The lacteal or milk veins ought also to be large, and extended considerably toward the front legs. Milch cattle, which were formerly judged only by their external appearance, are now required to fulfill demands of breeding based on careful and precise notes made from generation to generation and recorded in books of genealogy CATTLE 21 or in a herd rct^istry. These arc now kept b\- breeders' associations in all nations. In these books every bull and every cow that is registered has its number. Some associations also hr.ve records of good and bad qualities, of character- istic traits, and of changes occurring from time to time, which form a basis of schedule for the cattle ; all countries in our day follow this plan. These books are guarantees for the bu\er ; they have, moreover, a general interest for the public health and for the milk trade, and they furnish invaluable data for commerce. MlI.KI\(i Cows IX Fli.AXCE IV. BKKEn.S OF C.\TTLE There are a great number of breeds of cattle in different parts of the world, so many that we can mention but a few here, — the important ones that contribute primarily to our own cattle stock and that comprise the millions of herds scattered all over our land, on hillside and river bottom, on mountain and plain, on good lands and poor. Dutch cattle, which form with those of Fries- land and the shores of the North Sea a race apart, have a good reputation everywhere. For that reason we begin our short sur\'ey of races with .A Fine Dutch Bull them. The chief breeds are those of Fries- land, Groningen, and northern and south- ern Holland. The cattle of Fricsland have long bodies, the loins and shoulders well filled out. The udder of the cow is remarkable for size, and the production of milk is very great. The qualities of this breed are highly valued everywhere, and many of the cattle have been brought to our country, where to- day they are found in nearly every state. They are of large size, black and white in color, and popular because of their abun- dant milk supply. The genealogical book of Holstcin-FiiLsicrii cattle demantls the following characteristics : skin soft and la.\ ; head delicate and short ; large e\es, large nostrils, and drooping horns bent slightly forward ; chest broad and dccj) ; .\ WjNNHH IN ThKRF.-Yk.AK-Oi.I) C'l A;- Sr.VKK COCNTV F.MK 214 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS sides long and gently rounded ; back straight, and if possible a broad and level rump ; mouth wide ; tail long, covered with fine hairs ; flanks being the best of the country, although not watered by many rivers. The color of this breed is usually black with some white mingled in it- Team of Four Oxen in the Nivernais deep and full, with a capacious flexible udder and large milk veins. The Groningen cow is usually black, and is good either for milking or for butchering. She is small, with a broad forehead, very large crupper, and long legs. The cattle of northern and soutJiern Holland are like those of Friesland, but rounder in body These cattle and those from Friesland compose the Holstein-Friesian race of our country. Dutch cows on sandy soils are small, angular in shape, and poor milkers. In this they yield to the Enghsh breeds, especially to that of the Jersey, which is well known and exported the world over. After the Jersey comes the Guern- sey, a breed not so widely distributed in the In Alabama and thus more inclined to be meaty. Neverthe- less their production of milk is abundant, the meadows of Holland, both north and south. United States, but still well known and popular, and the Kerry of Ireland. So far but few herds of Kerry cattle exist on this side of the water. CATTLE 21 Our magniticcnt breeds of Jersey an:l Guernsey cattle are the direct descendants of cattle imported from the Channel islands or of those bred in this country. The business of importing- cattle of these and other breeds has been an important one in years past, and is not incon- siderable at the present time. The Guernsey is slightly larger than the Jersey and perhaps a little more robust. Both give very rich milk, but not so much as the Holstein-Friesian or the Ajr- s/iirc, the imported cow from Scotland. This last-named breed is hardy and robust — ideal in this respect. In size she ranks between the Jersey and the Holstein. Being red or white, or a mixture of the two, the Ayrshire is not only at- tractive and popular because of her form and color but also because of her high merits as a pro- ducer of milk and cheese. Another foreign breed that hasattracted the American farmer is the Bnni'tt Swiss of Switzerland. These are mouse- colored, rugged animals ; some are good milk- ers, but many are indifferent when compared Groningex Bull CoKM-.i.i.A .X.WI I, Cr.r.i.iiUATi'.i) Di'Ttii Mii/ii Cow Goon Di'Ti II I'Asi'ruAdc with the heavy-milking Molsteins or abvmdant butter-making Jerseys or Guernseys. We should not be doing justice to the Devon cow were we to omit her from this list. She came early to our land from England and for a century has been a loyal helper in tlie building up of this country. Till recent years this breed took the place of horses on many farms : cleared the land and plowed it; hauled the trees over fields of snow and rough roads that lum- ber might be sawed ; and not content with doing this rough labor the Devon has been also an admirable milch cow. With the coming of the improved special breeds, however, the Devon has been displaced for both milk and beef, and unless her friends direct her into one of these channels, her race will soon be run ; but it will be the ending of a glorious race, worthy of the magnificent ani- mal the Devon has been. TIic DutcJi-bcltcd coivs belong to the Hol- stein-Friesian class, but are inferior to the parent stock. The belt of white around her body gives an attractive appearance, but adds nothing to her ability as a milk producer. As a competitor with our special breeds the Dutch- belted will alwavs be outclassed ; she must 2l6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Frii.slami Milch Cow depend upon the fancy of the breeder for popularity and for perpetuation. The leading beef breeds, as we call them in America, are the Shortliorn, the Hereford, the Angus, and the Galloway. The Shorthorn, also known as the Durham breed, received its first improvement from England, the country that has given the world so many im- proved breeds of farm animals. Among the early improvers of this breed are the Colling Brothers of Ketton, who be- gan their work of improve- ment more than a century ago ; Thomas Bates, a faithful disciple of the Colling Brothers, who founded the famous Princess, Duchess, and Oxford families ; Richard Booth, who to- gether with his sons did so much to lengthen the hind quarter, to fill up the fore flank, and to secure greater depth of flesh, thus increasing the value of the carcass ; and Amos Cruik- shank, the father of Scotch Shorthorns, who has given us a family of Shorthorns compact and blocky in build, easily fattened, and of superior meat when placed on the block. Prior to 1800 few Shorthorns were imported to this country ; since that date many thousands have been brought over from their native land. Nearly a million animals of this breed have already been registered by the American Shorthorn Association. Head of Highland Bull "Sir Audrey" Dutch Calves Shorthorns have been unquestionably the most popular breed of cattle during the past century in our country and in many other lands as well. They are easily at home under most conditions, are of good size, fatten readily, and produce meat that is tender, juicy, and nutritious. The Hereford is a descendant of one of the aboriginal breeds of Great Britain, and as a distinct breed has a long lineage. It is some- times called the "White-faced" breed because of this color characteristic. Its presence to-day is an indication of purity of blood. The most noted of the early improvers of this breed was Benjamin Franklin, who died in 1790. Like Bakewell, Tompkins improved CATTLE 217 his animals throu<;h the most careful selection of his breeding stock. The first authentic importation of llcrcfords into this country was made by Henry Clay in 1 8 17. Since that time animals of this breed have been distributed throughout this and other countries. The Hereford is a good "rustler," and has long been popular on the plains and in the Southwest. His feeding qualities are good, as is also his flesh when butchered. The Aberdeen Angus has only lately been brought from Scotland, but he has already become a rival of other beef herds, finding his greatest popularity throughout the middle western states ; at the present time the South and Southwest are developing many herds of this justly popular breed. In size average individuals follow closely the Shorthorns and Herefords ; they mature rather early also, a (1k.\M)-Cii.\.\ii'ion Hi:i they are poor milkers, but as they are bred only for beef this is as it shoukl be. The Galloioay is also black and hornless and a \ery typical beef animal. He comes from Scotland, where he was always a good rustler and hustler for food. He is our best breed for the open plains and the ranges. When slaughtered his meat ranks first in competition with that of an)' breed, and always commands the highest price on English and American markets. V. The Beef Type The beef cow is sc[uare in shajje, full and broad over the back and loins, and possesses depth and quality, especially in these regions. The hips are evenly fleshed, the legs full and thick, the under line parallel with the straight back. The neck is full and short. The eye C|uality much desired in beef animals ; they are fair grazers, though probably not C|uite so good as the Hereford, and as meat pro- ducers they excel both the Shorthorn and the Hereford. All Anguses are black in color and hornless, block)' in shape, and compact with short legs ; should be bright, the face short, the bones of fine texture, tlie skin soft and pliable, and the flesh mellow, elastic, and rich in c|uality. The fact that it is not ])ossihle for every farmer to possess pure-bred cattle is no reason why he should not imi^rove the stock he has. He can do this by securing pure-bred sires 2l8 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Hornless Cattle that possess the characteristics desired. Scrub stock can be quiclroduce rapid, meat than an)' other animal. But that is not thrifty growth, so that they may be gotten in all ! The skins of cows and o.xen are used for readiness for the market at as early an age as many purposes, and form a very considerable possible. Young dairy animals may be fed any article of commerce, to which they contribute ^-. J^^ ^?ss 1^^^ -m wKKHI^i, _ -Tl— ft!€.=?=^i WHSflgEV ^^Rp^^<^^^^ WV ^'^.■:-'''^:'r-TiSI^ ^KKW^ . — • ■ "S. ^:,/::"^' <'.'■ LONG-HOKNEU Enoi.ish Bullocks I'hoto C. W. Keid food that insures thrifty growth, but foods of a coarse nature are particularly good, espe- cially such kinds as clover, alfalfa, and cowpea hay ; pasture grasses, corn ensilage, and roots, being succulent and juicy, are also excellent. As we ha\-e already remarked, the cow has many claims to be considered a domestic ani- calf-skin bindings. The intestines, blood, and fat, not being eatable, are utilized in tech- nical manufactures, and the horns, after pro- ducing trumjiets for war and cups for con\i\ial friendship, serve to make a variet\' of " art objects." The bunes, ground and ]irepared, are transformed into fertilizers, antl are also mal, though from a point of view different bought by the manufacturers of glue and from those of the dog, the horse, or the hen. gelatine. IX THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES I. In Ancient Times When did poultry become domestic animals ? Probably before they were brought from Asia. At all events it is from Asia, and especially from her vast plains — which still hide so many of Nature's secrets — that our gallinaceous tribes have come. The dog and the cock were, according to Zoro- aster, sacred ani- mals, — one as the guardian of the house and hearth, the other as the herald of the dawn and thus the symbol of light and the sun. Consequently we find Idomeneus and Pasiphae, descend- ants of the Sun, bearing the image of a cock upon their shields. In later times the cock has remained the symbol of vigilance and of ^^^ knowledge. How many interpretations have been given of its crow ! It is said to indicate the place of buried treasure. Black cocks are in communion with the Evil Spirit ; they addle eggs, they predict ill luck, they tell people's fortunes by pecking grain, with which they form letters and words — an art that was called alectryomancy, in honor of one of the three Furies, who presided over the performance. To this day in Bohemia and Silesia the peasants tie a black cock to a tree, round which they dance ; and if a mar- riage is contracted during Lent they solemnly tie a cock in a chair, put a red cap on its head, decapitate it, and eat it to the strains of funereal music. In Germany the cock is actually a weathercock on the steeples of Catholic churches ; whereas that on the Lutheran steeples is a swan. The cock must have appeared in Greece about the middle of the second century B.C., reaching other parts of Europe in the next century, but not be- fore. Saint Peter had good cause to know of it in the first century a.d. ; and in the fourth century the monas- teries began to apply themselves gener- ally to the breeding of poultry. Bishop Martin sent great numbers from Italy into France and Ger- many, where, after a while, the peasantry were allowed to pay their .taxes in poul- :ocK ^^y ^^'^ ^SSS, a fact which greatly favored the propagation of fowls. II. Poultry in Europe and in America It was inevitable that the raising of poultry should excite the interest of farmers through- out Europe. Countries like France, Belgium, and Denmark have from this source within a few years annually increased the national wealth by several millions. Italy, Hungary, and Russia are the countries that supply Eng- land, France, Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands with what they lack. If we read statistics we are amazed at the enormous quan- tity of eggs sent from the East to the West ; THE GALLINACEOUS TRIHES 221 it amounts in \alue to many millions of dollars. Within a generation the raising of poultry in European countries has hail an extraordinary impetus. Not content with the breeds they pos- sessed, energetic breeders set them- selves to improve and perfect them. A wholly new direction has been given to the science of breeding. It is not yet all it should be, but im- provements are being made daily. Each European country possesses its own species — the one most suitable to its climate and wants. Russia has the Pultava fowl ; Italy the Italian ; France the Houdans, the Favanelles, the Creve-Coeurs, etc. ; Belgium the Mechlin Coucous, the Braeckels, etc. ; Germany the Ramels bohen, the fowls of eastern Friesland, etc. ; and the Netherlands their breed with hooded heads and white topknots. America, the enterprising land far excellence, has produced something special in this domain, which excites admiration for those who have advanced so far, thanks to constant perseverance. The W\an- dottesand the Plymouth Rocks are the national fowls of America. They have been sent to Europe, where they do honor to their reputa- tion by occupying an important place among Continental poultry. What Americans have Till-: F.\M11.V CoMl'I.KTK Tin: Mk>. Hhn claimed for these ]M-oducts of their cross breed- ing has been \'enhed. The endeaxor has been to raise fowls which should not only be prolific in laying eggs, but should also be excellent for eating; and we have succeeded. Our iioultry breeders may feel proud that their protluct has been recei\'ed with o]3en arms across the ocean, and we may doubtless regard these breeds as the races of the future. At the French and Belgian poul- try shows the native breeds still form the chief section ; but in all the great competitions Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, Leghorns, Minorcas, Dutch fowls, Orpingtons, and Brahmas are conspicuous for their beauty and their usefulness. Most persons who kee]! poultry do so for the ]irofit to be made thereby. Nevertheless, be- sides that profit, they ought to desire also to have .something hand- some. Unforlunateh, we still see in 222 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS White Wvaxdottf. Cock to succeed. Those who desire to take up this business seriously should learn practically many things that are not found in books, but a knowledge of which is absolutely essential. We shall try to show how, and in what way, this industry may be made profitable ; and if, on certain points, we enter upon theory, the reader should endeavor to verify for him- self the results to be obtained. The first condition for making a poultry yard lucrative is to do the work yourself, and not be afraid of soiling your hands. In doing every- thing yourself you acquire the rou- tine, and if later you take a helper, you will then know how to direct him. For if we have no idea ourselves of the true methods of breeding-, what can come of it .' farmyards and villages a mixture of all breeds and all colors. We must hope that the farmer will end by deciding to raise but one breed The raising of poultry may be profitable, even and one color. III. Breeding of Poultry The manner in which poultry is bred and raised in many regions leaves much to be desired. Sometimes it is undertaken after reading a book on the subject, in which marvels are promised as a result. That is not the way 'Ursus ' Plymouth Rock Cock largely profitable, but only at the cost of our ■personal care and labor. The first thing to be done is to procure a good breed. Persons ignorant of the business look for advertise- ments in poultry journals, which are often THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 22'^ useless or worse than useless. Not onl)' farms can be j;ained from the fact Uiat one merchant but also whole villages have been depopulated of Aix-la-Chapelle receives weekly, during the of poultry by the introduction in this way of summer season, twent)' thousand pullets thus diseased fowls. The damage thus caused in Belgium, Germany, and Holland, for instance, has amounted at times to millions of dollars, with the result that many persons, after being duped in this wa\', ha\e abandoned the trade. The peasantry of Ital)' and Hungary are largely occupied in the raising of poultr\ . On the vast plains of those countries the birds grow t|uickl\' and easih', and find all their stomachs need. Merchants buy the pullets for a trifle (five cents each), a price on which the Italian peasant finds that he makes a profit. These merchants have so-called poult r\- _\ards where the little creatures are piled up pell- mell. Fresh from the heaths and plains where they enjoyed full liberty, what wonder if they contract diseases in these confined quarters, where they are fed on food to which they are unaccustomed ! Here, however, they remain till orders come from other countries, to which they are then dispatched in baskets, each basket con- taining fifty birds. The journey usually lasts from three to four days, and the condition in which the poor things arrive may be imagined. An idea of the enormous trade that Italy carries on with the northern countries of Europe Bl.ack Cochin-China Cock packed. There are even special trains for the transportation of poultry and eggs. A few weeks after the birds arrive at their desti- nation disease shows itself, and if haste is not made to separate the healthy from the unhealthy fowls, a whole poultry yard will be infected in a few days. Those who wish to devote themselves to poultry raising should make deliberate choice as to the external appearance of the breed they prefer. But a choice once made should 224 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS be kept to. Then the breeder must apply himself to improve the species, bearing in mind that all hens will not lay from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and eighty eggs, as the advertisers endeavor to make us think, and also that out of every five hundred eggs half will produce cocks. On large poultry young and old. It is composed of shell, skin, white of egg, and yolk, the latter a fatty, yellow substance. As human food an egg does not contain (as often stated) as much nourishment as half a pound of meat ; it would take six or seven eggs for that. The white contains eighty- five per cent of water, the yolk fifty-one per Plymouth Rocks farms where different breeds are kept it is usual to divide their yard with wire netting, giving to each species a run of its own. Hens are raised for their eggs. The egg that the fowl produces, from which a fowl issues in turn, is, next to milk, man's best food, the- most strengthening, the purest, the most unadulterable, the most healthful for cent of water and thirty-one per cent of fat. A hen's egg, analyzed chemically, contains in addition thirteen per cent of albumen, twelve per cent of fat, and no hydrate of carbon, „which sufficiently proves that it could never serve exclusively for human food. The shell is composed of phosphoric acid, chalk, iron, sulphur, and gluten. It is proper THH GALLINACEOUS TRIBES to take account of these elements in feeilini. hens. If occasionally eggs are found without Exportation from Russia is becoming very active of late, and this country is coming to shells, it is a proof that the food was unsuit- be a formidable rival of Denmark in the Eng- able or insufficient. The skin, which lies lish market. The Russian exportation of eggs beneath and against the shell, is composed of two extremely thin membranes, which are slightly se]>a- rated from each other at the top of the egg- In the space between is air with much acid in it, for the use of the chick, as it forms. It sometimes happens that there are two \olks. The white oi the egg is connected with the yolk by two threads, or con- duits, which conduct nourishment to the chick during the incubation period . A young hen will begin to lay when a year old. It is b\' that time provided by Nature with an ovary which contains the germs of no less than six hundred eggs. The hn ing diminishes after the fourth year, and is almost entirely finished by the sixth year ; the hen has then fulfilled her duty in 1901 amountetl in \-alue to 353,920,000 to Nature. But this is not quick enough for rubles — in round numbers 5223,000,000, and breeders of the present daw Maste and hurry it increases every year. Russia is alread)' so prevail even here, and artificial culture has strong in this particular that it is on the point enormously increased the number of chickens of supplanting Italy and Austria in supplying .\ 15 k All MA Hl.N hatched daily and thus the production of eggs, the trade in which appears to be illimitable. In reading the statistics of different countries we are astounded at the enormous demand for this product, and the supply does not keep pace with the demand. In the Netherlands, for instance, that small country which is by no means unsuited for the production of eggs, the deficit last year was seventy million. Denmark may serve as a model informed as to the best methods of managing to the lesser countries in the raising of chickens, the inhabitants of their poultry yards. In the It exports yearly about four million dollars' first place, they ought to know that hens when worth ; and the husbandmen profit by it. laying and brooding should, as far as possible, 'Rita," a Braf.kf.i. Pri.i.EX Pkizk WlNNKU other countries. IV. L.wixr, ,\ND Broodint, 1 1 goes without saying that many of those who keep fowls have no inten- tion of venturing upon the great markets of the world. So long as they raise eggs and chickens for their own consumption they are satisfied. Yet these small breeders and owners of poultry ought to be well 226 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS be left at liberty ; then, that they must be fed, in addition to grain, with large quantities of vegetable and animal food, such as meat scraps. A Mechlin Coucou Hen insects and worms, etc. Besides these things they need grit and lime, but egg shells should not be given them, a practice which will teach the hen to peck at and so break her eggs. Vege- table food serves to prevent constipation, and lime goes to form and strengthen the bones. Hens, like dogs, should never be allowed to leave half their meal. It should all be eaten White Mechlin Cock with pleasure. They are usually fed two or three tirnes daily ; the last meal should be given just before they go to their perch. It is well to give grain at this meal, because that needs a certain time to pass into the stomach. In winter a good meal can be made of hot water and mashed potatoes, or bran mash served warm ; above all, it is important to see that no ice-cold drinking water can be reached. It must never be forgotten that variety of food keeps poultry in good health, and that experi- ence will best teach what will induce hens to lay well under local circumstances. Usually hens lay eggs for several days together and then rest for a day. If well fed A Mechlin Coucou Cock they begin to lay in February and cease in the autumn, when they begin to molt. Of course this depends somewhat on the hen- house and the condition in which they are kept. Their house should be extremely clean, cleanliness being of great importance to them ; so much so that they will not lay their eggs in a dirty henhouse infested with vermin, but will go elsewhere for a nest. Nearly all hens will make known by a peculiar cry, well under- stood by those who know it, when they have laid an egg. If they stay on the egg and are unwilling to be driven away from it, it is a sign that they want to sit, to the great alarm of some people, who desire eggs to eat, and THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 227 not a "sitting hen." A basket or a pail turned upside down over the egg will teacli the hen that she is not to follow her instinct When it is desired to raise chickens leave the mother hen quietly and without fear upon her eggs, especially in the spring of the year. She will utter peculiar cries, and this is the time to put her in a dark, quiet, isolated place. The eggs left under her should never become chilled ; consequentl) the time given to feed her or to clean the nest should never exceed ten minutes. It is well to give her, now and then, a bath of hot dust, which serves to free her of vermin. After sitting on the eggs for twent\-onc days the hen has fulfilled the first part of her maternal duties, and the chicks make their appearance. They should be kept isolated with their mother for several days. Not till her chicks are well started will she begin to lay again. V. Artifici.\l Inxubation When it is necessar)- to hatch on a large scale as rapidly and as economically as pos- sible, the system is very different. To realize good profits recourse must be had to an incubator. Artificial incubation is not a new thing. It was applied on a large scale by the ancient Egyptians, although, it has been practiced in Europe and America for only thirty years. Though at first these machines were very defective and difficult to work, they have been so perfected as to be considered in these days indispensable. Much has been written for and MoTHKK Ili:N Willi 1.1 1 Incub.xtino Uox against them, but the resvilts obtained from properl}- constructed incubators pro\e that they are instruments of great utility. With these machines we are no longer dependent on climate or weather. Prejudice against them is beginning, little by little, to disappear, and the number manufactured can scarcely be estimated, especially in this country, which in 1902 exported three hun- dred thousand to other countries. Poultry raisers early saw the advan- tages of incubators over hens, and the\- quickly discarded Nature for the new method of artificial hatch- ing ; to them the honor of improving these machines in recent years is due. The apparatus is now regarded as a necessary object which ought to be in all farm and poultry yards 228 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS as much as any other modern instrument of husbandry. The fact that Europe, especially the Netherlands, is importing, for the im- provement of its breeds, American fowls, — the Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, etc., — proves that poultry incubated artificially does not yield in any manner to poultry hatched naturally. Where shall we find, except in the United States, hens able to hatch, on an aver- age, one hundred and eighty eggs a year .? Do eggs the hen will give us fifty chickens, while the machine will give from eighty to ninety. Complaints, however, are often made of in- ferior machines, and justly. Persons are led to buy incubators without any knowledge of their value, and are often deceived. But what infer- ence can be drawn from that .■" Nevertheless those who have thus been victimized remain ever after the adversaries of artificial incu- bation. If they had been better informed Incubators the large, solid Wyandotte and Plymouth Rock hens have a sickly exhausted air ? No, on the contrary they are robust animals, capable of resisting the effects of all climates. We base these remarks on our own experi- ence, which leads us to declare conscientiously that neither natural nor artificial incubation has any distinct or special influence under normal circumstances. With eggs well fertilized a good hen will produce good chickens. A good machine, well managed, will give the same and even better results, for out of one hundred or had consulted experienced breeders, they could have obtained good results and been partisans, not adversaries, of this useful inven- tion, without which the raising of poultry could never have attained its present development. We could never in this country have gone so far in raising poultry if we had not made use of the artificial incubator. A good incubator having been purchased, the next thing is to find a suitable place for it. This should be airy, but sheltered from currents of air, and the temperature should be THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 229 as uniform as possible. Thus a cellar, an un- used room, or a stable are all suitable. Where the raising of poultry is done on a large scale special cellars are built. Good ventilation is necessary ; the place should never be damp, nor should vegetables in a state of putrefac- tion be kept in it. Nevertheless, do not choose a cellar exposed to drafts, for nothing is more injurious when the eggs are turned over. The temperature should never gcj below 100° F., nor above 105°. If the tem- perature falls below 100° the eggs will be chilled when turned, and if removed into another room they will be cxj^osed to a current of air. In no case should the incu- bator be placed either near a stove or near an open window. When the incubator comes from the deal- ers and is unpacked and fixed according to the directions sent with it, the lamp being fixed and the regulator set up, the next thing to be done is to place it in a perfectly hori- zontal position, and then tf) study and com- prehend its arrangement and subdi\isions. If we open the door that closes the hatching chamber, we see that the interior is separated into two divisions by a horizontal jxartition, which can be removed in several pieces. In these drawers, as they are called, the eggs are placed, and beneath them is the drying compartment for the chicks. These drawers are movable, and are easily opened when the eggs have to be turned. They do not come close to the door, and through the space thus left the chicks drop easily into the drying place after leaving the shells. In constructing the in- cubator the aim has been to put the eggs under the same conditions as obtain under the mother's brooding wings. In the latter case the egg takes the temperature of It would ha\e been easy enough, by the help of thick partitions, to keep up a minimum of heat and an even temperature, but in that case the eggs would have been deprived of necessary Incui'.ator with Ciiuks Oni: Mour Old ventilation, which invokes the question of life or death to the chicks. The whole secret of incubation is to maintain around well-fertilized eggs an e\-en tempcratui-c and a regular circu- lation of sufficient fresh air. I""or this purpose we find an opening made beneath the drum which incloses the lamp. Through this opening the outside air passes around the lighted lamp and enters the incubating compart- ments. The ideal temperature for those machines is 100° F. at the beginning of the incubation, rising gradu- ally to 103° V. And now what are the principal points to be ob- served while the incubator is ijerforming its functions.' rirst, the regular renewal of fresh air and the proper quantity of atmos- pheric moisture, and next, the regular turning the hen, and the external air reaches it freely, over of the eggs. Ventilation and moisture 230 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS are supplied in proper quantities if the macliine is well situated. As to this, experience is better than advice. If the hatching takes place A Celebrated Specimen of the Mechlin Breed during great heat, it is well to put a wet sponge or a cupful of water in the drum ; if this is not done, the air in the egg chambers is liable to be too dry, so that the chicks at the moment of being hatched may remain attached to the membrane. Punctuality more than science is required for cooling and turning the eggs. The turn- ing should be done regularly twice a day, Dutch Hex, Goudpel Breed from the second to the eighteenth day. The cooling and ventilation of the eggs require practice. The temperature should never be allowed to fall below 75°, and the thermom- eter must be kept in the drawer. This cooling should be done gradually, beginning, say, on the fourth day. It may last from four to five minutes, increasing daily until at the end of ten days it lasts from ten to twenty minutes. The machine remains closed during all the rest of the time. The lamp should be thoroughly cleaned after each incubation. When the eggs have been hatching five or six days they must be examined. Those that Cock of Fixe Stature are not fertile should be removed and kept to feed the chicks later. The proper way to tell a fertile egg is to take it between the thumb and forefinger and hold it before a strong light. If it is perfectly clear within, it is not fertile ; if, on the contrary, a little black speck with red fines is seen to float inside of it, look- ing more or less like a spider in its web, it is certain to be fertile. The same examination should be made on the fourteenth day. If persons desire to hatch successfully, they must take fresh egsfs never more than seven THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 231 or eight clays old. The artificial incubator has no merit in itself ; it is only of value so far as it exercises on the egg precisely the same in- fluence as the mother hen. The hen is a live machine ; the machine is an artificial hen. The results of the incubation depend entirely on the eggs to be hatched. If they are good, artificial incubation will give excel- lent results. VI. The Artifici.\l R.AisiNG OF Chickens Having now explained machine incubation, a little advice may facilitate the management of the artifi- cial mother. It is not a very difficult matter. During the first few days the machine itself is the mother. It should not be opened during that time, as all the chickens need is warmth. It is necessary only to maintain the tem]3era- ture at 92° with the necessary ventilation. Before the chicks come out of the machine care must be taken to diminish the tempera- ture gradually day by day. After they come out it is well to have rather more warmth by day than by night, because the little creatures need it after running in the outer air. If they are found dispersed about in the incubator, it is a sign that they are comfortable ; if, on the contrary, they huddle together, the heat should be raised a little ; but if they take refuge in the corners, it is a sure sign that they are too warm. During the first six days the chicks should be fed in the in- cubator ; after that, outside of it, for by that time they are able to take care of themselves. If they move with difficulty, they will complain and keej) stationar)-. This A Sn.\'ER Br.akkel Hen immobility on the cold ground of ten gives them rheumatism, and it should be prevented. To those who raise but few chickens these artificial motlurs, which can be kept out of doors, are recommended as very serviceable, because they can not only be moved from ])lac'e to jilace but they also serve to ])rotect the chickens from cats, rats, weasels, etc. The first week the food of the chicks should be bread crumbs mixed with the infertile eggs taken from the incubator ; they should also have oats or barley ground in little mills (made expressly for this purpose) and mixed with a small allowance of milk. The second week it is well to give them wheat or other grain ground in the same \va\-, l(.) vary the food, after which they may be allowed to run at large within the inclosure, where they will find Ve.au-Oi.o I'ri.i.F.TS both grass and insects. As soon as thev are left completely at liberty they will roam in all directions after worms and beetles ; but if their 232 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS food is given them at regular hours, they will run to it punctually from all sides. Whatever their food is, it should be eaten up immediately, so that nothing be left. It should be a fixed rule never to overfeed them. More chickens die from eating too much than from eating too little. They ought to be taught while young not to gorge themselves ; at the same time, however, they should be fed often. Their drinking water should be pure and cool, and their coops ought to be cleaned every day. Sand and gravel must be within easy reac While the coops are being cleaned the chicks should be exam i n e d to see if they have any vermin. If they have, the coops must be washed out with som one of the disinfect ants sold for that purpose. If vermin is found on the chicks a few drops of kerosene should be rubbed in under their wings, for many of them perish from lice, while the cause is attributed to other things. Certainly fifty per cent die in this way. In short, if healthy and vigorous chickens are desired, two special points must be attended to, namely, feeding (but not overfeeding) at regular hours, and the frequent cleansing of their abodes. VII. Inclosuees and Poultry Yards To establish a fine inclosure space is neces- sary. The first thing to be done is to surround with a wire trellis the whole space devoted to this purpose, which again is divided into The First Egg three or more parts by similar trellises. The first division is the place where the chicks are to be raised ; the second is for the hens whose eggs are taken for the incubator ; the third is for the hens who brood upon their own nests. The division for the chicks should be subdivided into spaces about ten feet wide by seventy-five feet long, in each of which one hundred chicks are allowed to run. When they are six weeks old this space should be doubled. The second division, suitable for a cock and ten hens, should be sixteen feet wide and from hundred and fifty to two hundred feet long. Chopped straw should be strewn in this inclo- sure with grain scat- tered through it to com- 1 the birds to seek their own food. They will soon eat up what nearest to their coop or house. It is proper every day or two to spade up a corner of this inclosure so that the birds may grub for worms and other animal food, but it is essen- tial that much of the inclosure be left in grass, which is indispensable in large poultry yards. The third division, reserved for the pro- duction of chicks from the nests, should be a large field with sheds or henhouses, each able to accommodate from fifty to sixty hens. These henhouses should be about twelve feet wide and thirty feet long, made entirely of wood. Persons who have no such space as the above at their command, the inhabitants of towns, for instance, can still enjoy the luxury of raising THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 233 their own chickens, i)ro\ided they ^ive them the same food and turf that they have in the country. It is not necessary that the poultry yards should be so large. The space, however, must have sun, and must be covered first with ashes and then with straw and trrain to force VIII. Princip.m. Hkeeds The Wyandottcs, which to-day are the most in vogue, and which were bred originally in America, have spread rapidly over the whole of Europe. They are of various colors, the most desirable being white ; then come the A DiviDi-.i) Hkn V.M 1^^^^^^^^ m^^ ters, though their weight and are the product of the ^SET -^^I^R ^«r ^^^^"^ destroys the whole crossing of several good \ .; ^^^H "fr brood. When they have laid breeds. The best are the j5«_^ \. --,'-fPL. •■ —< about fourteen or fifteen eggs 6';;^z;ig-/wzj, which lay many large \^^^ ,' *^t^' _^--'' they begin to sit. The flesh of eggs and have excellent flesh. They --"^ these birds is not savory. The only are to England what the Houdans thing that can be said in their favor are to France or what the Wyandottes are to is that when their colors are fine they are America. At first sight persons ignorant of magnificent birds and excite universal admira- poultry cannot tell the Orpingtons from the tion. THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 237 The Bra/tmas are also ponderous, but they have many good qualities. They lay a great number of large eggs, and their flesh is very good to eat. The lighter form of Brahma is undeniably one of the hand- somest breeds in America to-day. Their keep is e.xpensive, owing to their enormous size. The eggs are yellow and much in demand. The brood is smaller than that of the Cochin Chinas. They may be recom- mended to those who wish to have some- thing both useful and beautiful. The Speckled Meclilin, but little known in the United States, is also a heavy weight, but not more so than the Brahmas. The cock weighs usually ten pounds, the hen eight or nine. They are raised in great numbers in Belgium, in the neighborhood A Fine Specimen of the Cochin-Chin. \ Bueeu the legs are feathered and the comb ma\- be either single or double. The Braekels, also a Belgian breed and like- wise but little known in the United States, are noted as fine layers. Though small themselves, they lay large eggs and are verv good brooders. ,KiHT Ukahma Hkn of Mechlin, and it is this breed that produces the celebrated fat Brussels pullets. The trade in these pullets is so large that some fatteners send two thousand weekly to other countries. The soup made from this breed is universally known. The hens are good layers in winter, and good brooders. Breeding for the markets begins in the months of October and Novem- ber, and brings in great profits. Fowls of the speckled variety are most in demand, although some white arc raised. They excite great interest at poultry shows, and in Belgium they have the place of honor. The cock is -Strong and rather coarse in conformation ; Pi.vMOl'TM Rock Hen 238 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS to perfection and acclimated in northern countries. They may be classed among the very best layers. The eggs are large and numerous, but the flesh, dry and bitter, is less good. Dutch breeds have begun of late to make for them- selves a reputation. Those called the Hamburg breed are among the best species. They are good layers ; the eggs are numerous, though small, and the hen will sometimes lay two a day. They can safely be kept in any inclosure without danger to the brood. It is not surprising that a hen with such good qualities should have admirers, and her presence at all poultry shows increases the reputation she has made for herself. She White Leghorn Hen They require but little care, and will seek a maintenance for therfiselves. When three or four weeks old the cock crows with all his heart at break of day. The young cocks are fattened when si.\ or eight weeks old and are sold in the markets as pullets. Italian fowls are notorious because, through the enormous exportation made an- nually, they have spread the well-known fowl diseases in other countries. Those which can become accustomed to the climate are excellent layers. The LegJiorns, popular in the United States, are Italian fowls brought A Brahma Cock A Pair of Mechlin Coucous is not exacting, and can easily be raised in a town or city provided she is given dry quarters. In color she is either silvery or golden or black. Her eggs weigh a little less than two ounces each. The cock weighs five or six pounds, the hen from three to five. They are not suitable for fattening. As their comb has nothing to fear from frost, the hens will lay in winter if they have comfortable quarters. IX. Decorative Poultry As decorath'c poultry we must first name fighting cocks and the small breeds. Two species of fighting cocks should be noted — the larsfe and the small breeds. The large come THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 239 chieriy from France and Bclj^ium, and arc brought thence to poultry shows, where the cocks will fight with one another if they can. Though forbidden b\ law, these cockfights are frequent, and llie authorities pretend not to see them. If by chance the police arrive, a person pre\iously designated allows himself to be arrested. Large sums arc often staketl in these fights. The care bestowed by owners on the belligerents is amazing. A cock of the fighting species is generally- regarded and treated as a member of the family, and if he has won several victories he becomes a source of considerable revenue. The birds are sent by railway from place to place, and arrive on the scene of combat armed with sharp- ened spurs. It often happens that they kill their adversaries at the first blow. This is actual maltreatment of animals, and may be compared with Sjianish bullfights. A Lo\i:u OF FLIGHTS larger than a ])igeon, though very tall upon the legs. They are pleasant to care for, taking little room and being very gentle. They are of different colors and are usually raised by amateurs, appearing often at poultry shows. liesides these smaller combatants we must name the Inmtavis, which are of every color imaginable. They are often iisetl to hatch the eggs of pheasants and ])artridges. They are also remarkable for laying many eggs of proportionate size. One of the finest of the dwarf breeds is the Sore use, or Negro, fowl. In place of feathers it is covered with long white hairs. These are su]ierb ani- mals, used frequentl)' for incubating pheasants. The name " Negro " comes from the fact that their skin is black. One of the handsomest of the decorative birds is the hooded l^adiiaii fowl. It is of ordinary size and its whole value lies in its hood, or topknot. The larger and more tufted that is, the more chance the bird has of win- ning prizes at poultry shows. In poultry, nothing can be more magnificent than a collec- tion of Paduan fowls. They may be of all colors, Sm.\m. ('i1:rm.\n Cock The other qualities of the fighting breeds are not man}-. The)- ])roduce few eggs anil their flesh is not worth much. Other belligerent breeds besides those of France and Belgium exist, such as the Brussels, the German, and the Mechlin. The latter are superb creatures, seen only at poultry shows. — silvery, golden, buff, while, black, etc The small fighting cocks have the same form finest of the race is the White-Hooded but are greatly reduced in size. They are not Coek. Me is all black excejjling the hood. A I'.\i>r.\N C The Dutch which 240 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS is snow white. A few, however, are slate colored raising of these hooded fowls is almost wholly or a steel blue. The egg production, which is in the hands of sporting breeders, who have only passable, does not recommend them for time and means to spend upon it. i^ Jl 1 3H "■/nf^- A Dutch Cock with White Topknot general use. The Paduan fowls require very special care. If they are out in the rain the hood gets wet and it takes a long time to dry, which results frequently in diseases of the eye, etc. To have them always handsome and in good health they should be kept in a covered The Dutch Breed '■ Zil\eklaken '' X. Diseases It is only within a few years that the diseases of poultry have spread so widely. No doubt a bird died now and then, but the matter rested there ; epidemics were unknown. But since henhouse. To insure a beautiful appearance so much is written in the agricultural press, A Dutch Cock, Goudpel Breed the hoods are carefully washed when the birds are sent to shows and fairs. The chicks are hard to raise ; out of fifty only a few are hand- some or fit for exhibition. Consequently the A Silver Braekel Hen A celebrated prize winner magazines, and poultry journals about the breed- ing of the feathered tribes, fowls are more closely observed and studied. Poultry yards THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 241 spring from the soil like mushrooms, only to disappear almost immediately. To what must we attribute this disappearance ? To disease and the imprudence of breeders. The countries that have suffered most from these diseases are Germany, parts of Belgium, and the Neth- erlands. So far, America has felt the scourge less than other lands, for the good reason that in importing fowls from other countries she has taken precaution to secure onl\' the best and most healthy individuals. Disease may be controlled by keeping the poultry yards and houses extremely clean and by watching them incessantly, for vermin will make their appearance. It is easy to get rid of lice, the worst enemy of fowls, by rubbing their wings and hind quarters with petroleum. The birds must also be made to take sand baths. If lice are not attacked and conquered in time, great harm may result. Hens thus affected cease to lay, and will languish and die ; while the chicks, which suffer even more from this pest, will share the same fate if prompt and efficacious measures are not taken. When lice appear breeders sometimes think that they are dealing with another disease, space to discuss here the treatment of other maladies, but much will have been done to prevent or to cure them if the advice we have now given be followed. Many of the diseases A I.. Mini 1; I i)K Till-: TSai'.ii s rhoto J. T. Newman, Berklinnipstead but inspection is sufficient to undeceive them. Cleanliness alone will save the breeders much loss and vexation. We have not sufficient A Hen with Young Ducklings are caused, and all are aggravated, by the presence of lice, and the surest way to keep poultry in good health is to fight the disease in the germ. One has only to take a walk through the markets of any large city to have an idea of the great proportions of the American poultry trade. XI. Ducks Every country has its specialty. Thus there are some in which the raising of ducks in vast numbers is ])racticed, and that in a very lucrative manner, because the supply never et|uals the demand. Breeders of ducks know well how to conform to circumstances, and as ii is easy to dispose of ducklings that are from eight to twelve weeks old, they never let them grow a day older, as they can get no more profit by doing so. This business is especially lucrative when done systematically with a good breed in the neighborhood of large cities or towns, provided sufficient space can be had. 242 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS INCLOSURE FOR DuCKS Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead It is not possible to keep ducks in coops or inclosures like fowls ; they prefer an open field with running water in it, where they are in their element. They do not need much food because they provide in a great measure for themselves. Far from being lazy, they are always waddling about to satisfy their gluttony. They eat anything, and are capital destroyers of snails and grubs. In the neighborhood of Oudenarde (eastern Flanders) more than a hundred thousand ducklings are raised annually. Breeding begins in November and ends in April. The land on which the ducklings are raised con- sists usually of fields belong- ing to the village, or commune, which allows pasturage for the young birds from November to April, after which time the fields are reserved for cattle. All devote themselves to rais- ing ducks, and as it is some- times difficult for the owners to distinguish their birds, a brush of paint is found useful. Hence ducks may be seen in the markets with blue wings, green wings, etc. After quitting the eggs (which are generally hatched by hens, chiefly the speckled Mecklin hen) they are shut up for a few days and fed on soft food — wheat, barley, and oats ground up and mixed with hard-boiled &gg. After this they are let out into the field and supplied Wild Ducks THK CiALLINACEOUS TRIBES 243 Sl'K Indian Klnnkk Dicks (Mali, and Fkmai.k) with animal food, which is essential to their growth. The breeder puts on big wooden shoes and proceeds to kick up the earth in the field in order to force out the worms which form the animal food of the ducklings. It is very comical to those who are present at this performance for the first time to see these men hopping about their fields. Most of the young ducks, as we have already said, ar not kept longer than twelve weeks, because after that time it is diffi- cult to sell them on account of the new feathers which then begin to grow. To ha\e well-fertilized eggs from the old ducks not more than six or eight should be given to one drake. They must also have sufficient water within reach, either flowing naturally through the field or in artificial ponds. In America we have special establishments for the raising of ducks, many of which raise twenty thousand yearly. For this it is neces- sary to have great knowledge and experience, and also a large capital. Most duck-raising establishments are provided with a natural flow of water, and have coops or shelters accom- modating from forty to fifty birds. As these establishments are of great extent many of them are furnished, for convenience, with little railways built four nr fi\e feet abox'c tiic soil, which cause an enormous saving of time and troujjle in the distribution of food. As yet Europe has no such establishments as ours. She will doubtless have them some day when her attention is called to them and she makes a special study of their advantages. It is easier to raise ducks than fowls, pro- \ided the breeder has sufficient space at his command. They give less trouble and are al- most completely free from disease. Those most freciuenth' met with are the Roticit c/iick. a product of French breeders, wiiich nia)-, b_\- good right, be considered one of the very best species. They are often admired in their full beautv at poultry shows, to which thev are sent in large numbers. They are not only beautiful birds but also fine layers, and the same may be said of another French duck, the Toulouse. Good ducks are found in Belgium, where they are taking pains to make their national breeds famous. In England the duck par excellence is the Aylesbury, which has made itself famous for its good qualities. It is very hardy, grows very fast, and lays many eggs. There is no poultry show in any countr)' where it will not be seen, and the impression it makes is most agreeable, with its white plumage, red beak, and yel- low legs. The Pekiu duck, which the uninitiated can seldom distinguish from the Aylesbury duck, has also made itself a reputa- tion for its excellence ; as far as popularity is concerned it undouijtcdh- occupies a turcniost ^-aH b^ ■ ^"^•■■f'^- (^M \1 1. AMI I'l.MAl.l.) 244 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS position. In the United States a larger num- ber of white Peliin ducks are raised for market than of any other breed. If there is a species that has rapidly made itself a world-wide reputation, it is the duck of India. Not long ago this breed was completely unknown to us, and now it is offered for sale in every poultry journal in every land. It is one of the most fertile of ducks, laying from 150 to 160 eggs a year. It is also very good XII. Geese The breeding of geese is far from being general. Like that of ducks, it is done on a large scale only in certain countries. Fanciers raise a few, but only for the purpose of send- ing them to shows. Here and there a few large farms have attempted to raise them, giving it up after a time as unproductive. Breeding on a large scale is practiced only in the south of France, near Toulouse, in the Geese fattening for the Market Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead for the table, its flesh being extremely delicate. It is very active and can fly far. These birds have no absolute need of water ; they prefer to roam the meadows and fields in search of worms and other grubs. Various species of decorative ducks exist ; of these the Madeiras and the Carolinas are the most beautiful. They are usually kept in aviaries and zoological gardens. The wild ducks of the mountains and the fens are very beautiful in plumage, but they cannot be classed as domestic animals. south of Belgium, in the east of Prussia, in Italy, and in Russia, all of which supply the markets of other countries. Russia especially inundates the German markets. The business is very productive because the feeding of geese costs nothing. A goose needs no other food than grass, which it finds in sufficient quantity on the vast steppes of Russia. The goose girl goes to the fields every morning with her flock, returning at night to the village. If geese had to be fed on grain it would not pay to raise them ; the expense would THE GALLINACEOUS TRI15ES 245 be greater than the price re- ceived for them. It is (ini\- during the first three or four weeks that it is advisable to give the gosHngs a little ground grain, carefully mixetl. The eggs must be hatched not by geese but by turke\s or large fowls. To have eggs well fertilized the geese must li\c near a pond or running water. The gander should not be less than two years old nor have more than four geese with him. Though geese are very hardy and cold has little influ- ence upon them, it is well to give them a com fortable home. A shed can be made with a few riii: Fi:i.ni;R A FA.M11.V OF Geese neck, for then they have less chance to defend themselves. Geese have one special merit — the\- are good guardians of the farm. If there is the slightest disturbance during the night the)- know it and gi\'e warning, and if a stranger comes upon the premises tlie\ make a terrible noise. Tramps arc not to be feared if geese are about. There is a Belgian story of a certain goose, fifteen years old at least, which always slept in a dog's kennel and regularly accompanied him when he was harnessed to his cart, and it is said that three times she drove thieves away from it. Hence she was honored as a heroine. stakes and thatch, and the floor covered with oat straw, which should be turned over every second day and renewed wcekh'. In summer geese almost always sleep in the open and do not seek shelter. They are not good layers ; the best breeds will seldom give more than thirty eggs a year. It is difficult to distinguish the male from the female ; only experience can teach one. The gander is built more heavily and the head and neck are coarser. Their strength is amazing and caution is required in catching them, for their wing blows are severe ; they strike with such force as sometimes to break the arm of their captor. It is best to take them by the Toci.ocsic C.K 246 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Chinese Geese The best known species is the giant goose of Toulouse. Its ordinary weight is from six- teen to eighteen pounds, but it has been known to reach twenty-four. This bird is much in demand. The best part of a goose is its liver, which is a feast for epicures. It is exported to all parts of the world, but the largest quan- tity is consumed in Paris. Next in value to the liver are the feathers, which are plucked from the bird every year in a very cruel manner. It would be best to perform this operation during the molting season, when the birds would suffer less, but as a gen- eral thing no one pays the least attention to that consideration, and the feathers are plucked out whenever the breeder sees fit to do so. The Pomeranian goose is also a fine species, but is little known in this coun- try ; it is tall and well made, thanks to the fact that the inhabitants never pluck it. In Germany these geese are driven for days from one town to another before reaching their market, in flocks of four or five hundred in charge of one man. Geese are good travelers, not being easily fatigued. They are proof against all diseases except cholera, which, when once started, makes great ravages among them. We must also mention the Embden goose, likewise a German species and somewhat known here. It is all white with a very long neck, and is more elegant than the Pomeranian. Its medium weight is twenty pounds, though it has been known to reach twenty-eight. The feathers of this breed are much in demand. It lays but few eggs, twenty annually at most. The giant goose of Italy is the only one of the kind that lays well, producing about sixty eggs a year. It is also very heavy, but its flesh is of an inferior quality. Other less-known breeds, such as the Chinese geese, are usually found in zoological gardens and other pub- lic exhibits. Now that so much stress is being laid on the necessity for greater care in the breeding of poultry, it is to be hoped that geese will profit by it, and that breed- ers will learn to raise them in other ways than those practiced to-day. The breeding of geese has as yet received but little attention, but breeders will realize great profits the moment they learn right methods, and so will contribute to the prosperity of their country and to the well-being of trade and farming. GERjtAN Geese THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 247 Emudex Geese XIII. Turkeys been made which have resulted in new varieties. It is ]-;nown that this superb bird is of Ameri- The best known species is the bivuzc turkey of can origin, and that it was introduced by America. It is, without contradiction, a noble sailors and explorers into Europe, where it is bird, which can bring in great profits. It is regarded as a domestic animal, and much care still to be found in its wild state in certain has been taken in breeding it. Crossings have parts of the United States, where it lives in flocks of from twenty to fift)- and even one hundred birds. It was soon seen what profits there would be in raising these turkeys, and great establishments were made for the purpose. Eui'ope followed the ex- ample of America, and now there is scarcely a large farm on which these birds are not kept. It is an acknowl- edged fact that they are the best of hatchers ; from twenty to twenty- four eggs may be intrusted to them, whence their name of "living incuba- tors." They are ahso excellent care- takers and guardians of their flocks. To inexperienced persons the rais- ing of turkeys offers little or no A I'.MR or A.Mi:nic.\N Huon/.i'. Tckkkvs 248 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS profit, because the young are much more diffi- cult to bring up than chickens. For hundreds of years in France (a country well adapted to poultry) the raising of turkeys has been a great industry, and the finest specimens are found of a woman who crosses the village every morn- ing with her flock on her way to the open fields. On her return at night each bird knows where it belongs and goes there, never making a mis- take. All the villagers do not need a male bird. Turkeys in a Field there. The Sologne turkey is unsurpassed. It is a superb animal of a brilliant black color, though some (but these are usually small) are white or steel-blue. A Sologne turkey which attained the enormous weight of forty-five pounds carried off the highest honors at all the shows to which he was sent. At Madrid, in 1902, he even had the honor of attracting the attention of the young king and his mother, the queen regent. During the return journey this a few being sufficient for a flock. It is a real pleasure to see these creatures marching proudly along, with wings deployed and feathers raised. They advance with the gravity of a ruler in the midst of his subjects. The white tur- key is likewise a superb animal. The Dutch zvhiic ';s*M'S??'SMei5«ar:sK>ftR:i!!wM.-^ YouxG Turkeys turkey took cold, and when he had scarcely re- covered he was killed by a scoundrel, who paid for his crime by six months' imprisonment. There are villages in France where turkeys are kept at the public expense, under the care breed is easily distinguished from the Sologne. The latter is larger and attains a weight of from twenty-five to thirty pounds, while the former weighs only from eighteen to twenty. Their flesh is excellent and much in demand. In THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 249 England, as in the United States, the chief dish at the Christmas dinner is a turkey artistically trussed and decorated. Turkeys do not require much food and do well on farms which possess extensive fields over which they can roam. Too much care cannot be given to protect the young birds from the hot sun and from rainstorms, for they are extremely delicate ; but if this care is given they will grow and develop rapidly. The adults are strong and vigor- ous and little subject to dis- ease. It is not necessary to change the male every year. The food of the young birds consists especially of wheat, barley, oats, and Indian corn, coarsely ground and made into a paste that is easy to crumble ; also hard-boiled eggs mixed with chopped alfalfa or clover and stale bread should be added to their bill of fare. The raising of turkeys is one of the finest and most interesting of occupations and ought to be practiced far more than it is at present. XIV. Swans The record of the winged domestic animals of the farm, the house, or the country place is not complete if no mention is made of the szi'iiii, that graceful ornament of lakes and ponds. A .Swan's Ni:st The movement should be started in the United States ; and only when we figure up our pro- ductions and profits at some international poul- try show will turke)s arouse the attention they deserve. Turkeys in a Park Though now and then capricious to strangers and furious to its enemies, it is in reality a very docile bird, and a pair of swans are a model of peace and domestic happiness. But woe to him who risks annoying the mother or steps too near to the progeny if the father is near ! He will surely attack both men and dogs, as well as aquatic animals, with vigorous blows of his powerful wings. Swans make their own nests and require little care ; but when it is a question of raising valuable swans, it is well to construct a little island in the middle of the pond or arti- ficial lake for the mother and to build upon it a shelter filled with straw. The number of eggs laid is usually from six or eight to twelve, which the mother broods upon for thirt\-six days, while the father mounts guai'd faithfully. Soon after the young swans are hatched they bravely take to the water and swim after their parents in search of their natural food, or of the barley, oats, or cooked potatoes that are thrown to them. P'or many persons the swan is a source of revenue. Its down and beautiful, strong wings bring good returns, subject, however, to the 250 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS caprices of fashion and the customs of the country. We no longer use swans' quills for pens ; nor do we believe in the chariot of Lohengrin and the young swan-maidens who was discovered, they say, in 1668 by the sailors of the East India Company, who brought it to Europe, where it was speedily bred and raised. Millions still people the lakes of southern The Bosom of the Family attended the Valkyria and who played so prom- inent a part in ancient legends. Swans are to be found everywhere except in the tropics. About ten species have been discovered, of which the best known are the domestic swans, both white and black. The white swan is the largest species. Its red beak, especially in the males, is furnished with a sort of protuberance, and its legs are black. The young swans are gray when born, and do not have their dazzline; white color until Black Swans they are two years old. There is, however, a species, or sport, which is white with white legs from its birth. Seen alone in our ponds, the black swan has a rather somber aspect, but in company with the white swans it produces a fine effect. It Australia, where they live in a wild state in company with the wild or singing swan, which is known by its beak, half black, half citron- yellow, and which, when tamed, is unwilling to hatch its eggs. It is probably this wild swan which has given rise to many poetical ideas, especially that of the swan's song ; for it does in reality make a sound which might be taken for a species of song. There was one in Bremen in 1856, which had many listeners from far and near ; and certain writers make mention, as of a natural fact, that singing swans inhabit the shores of the North Sea, especially to the east of Holstein. The swan with a black neck holds a middle place between the two preceding species. Comparatively, it has been known only of late, and it was not until 1880 that young" ones were successfully raised at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. A native of South America, it is now acclimated throughout nearly the whole of Europe. The sharp division between the dazzling white body and the black neck makes the bird a much-desired though costly ornament to ponds and lakes. It keeps usually at a cer- tain distance from the other swans unless it makes war upon them. The protuberance on THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES the beak is red, while the beak itself is j^ra)\ The legs are also retl. A species less known by private individuals and less seen on the artificial waters of a city is the tnnnpci sivaii. wliich is very easy to the house. In Belj^nimi a flock of swans are daily guests at the casino of the officers of the " Guards." This casino stands close to the canal of the city, and near it are steps leading down to the water. E\'ery afternoon the swans come propagate in its captive state, but it is not so welcome as it might be, on account of its noisy trumpetings. Generally, in a peaceful neighborhood, swans can be brought to behave as domestic animals ; that is to say, to come out of the water and seek their food in a certain place, often very near to out of the canal, go up the steps, and across the street to the kitchen of the casino, where they knock with their beaks on the floor. Their meal is given to them, and then, at the command of the head cook, they return to the canal in line, paying no attention to dogs, carriages, or an\- thing else encountered on their way. X RABBITS Rabbits are often raised with poultry, but the Continent the rabbits they need for food, it is only recently that this form of industry They import them annually by millions from has aroused any interest among us, though for France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Aus- tralia. The English working- man cannot do without the rabbit stew which forms his Sunday dinner. Since the founding of the Dutch associ- ation in 1897 the breeding of rabbits in Holland has become so extensive that in 1902 breeders were able to send two million dollars' worth to the English market. I. Breeding and Raising The rabbit is not particular about its food and can be kept at small cost. Yet, if persons wish to succeed, care and at- tention are necessary. Rabbits well cared for are not to be despised as food. They require, first of all, good quarters, which are seldom given them. In Europe workingmen and peasants usu- ally keep them in filthy hutches often filled with manure. Instead of cleaning these hutches weekly, the owners merely throw in handful of fresh straw. Good sense should teach them the im- possibility of keep- ing animals healthy under such condi- tions. In these same hutches the females ive birth to their young, and it is not surprising that the little ones die in great numbers A Dark Silver Rabbit centuries it has been carried on in France and Belgium, where the rabbit is commonly used for food. In Germany there was no serious attempt at breeding rabbits until after the War of 1870, when the German soldiers saw the attention given to the industry by French- men, and the profits it afforded, whereupon, on their return home, they began to import French rabbits, which were much larger than the little Ger- man animals found here and there on farms. Associations A P.\iR OF Russi.w Rabbits having for their object the breeding of rabbits were formed by the hundred, simply from lying on filth. Many while conferences and exhibitions were held, ignorant breeders imagine that they die because The chief work in this line is done in England, some one has touched the nest ! There is no though the English still prefer to obtain from danger in touching the young rabbits, provided 252 RABBITS 253 An English Loi'-Earf.d Rahiiit (Fi:male) the owner or the person who feeds them does it. Rabbits are afraid of strangers, and if they approach, the terrified mother will jump upon her young to protect them, and in so doing smother them. To raise rabbits with profit it is necessary, above all, to have suitable hutches, for which purpose large bo.xes or barrels can be used. If bo.xes are chosen they must be so placed that they will be dr)' and sanitary. The hutches for the females, which should always be rather larger than those for the males, must be three feet long, two and a half feet wide, and twenty inches deep. They must be provided with lattice tl<)(jrs. When the mother rabbit is about to bring forth young she should be placed in a " nest hutch." It is not necessary that this should be the size of the above, and the open- ing need be only large enough for the mother to pass through, with a few holes above for ventilation. The young ones will then be well lodged and protected against inclemencies of weather. Above all, it is necessary to make sure that these hutches be placed in dry An English Lof-Eakld Rahhit (Male) A l.i:i'OKii)i-: R\i'.i',ir ( I'km \i,i.) situations, as in a barn or shed, where neither wind nor rain can reach them. If the rabbits must be kept out of doors, a shed made of planks and covered with tar paper should be built over the hutches ; the roof should be tarreil and the inside parti- tions whitewashed. If it is desired to have a good rabbit home, several bo.xes of uniform size may be placed together in groups of three or more. They should never stand directly on the ground, but should be raised 254 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS some four or five inches. Those that are kept in the open air must face the sun. Casks or barrels, especially kerosene barrels, may also be used. These should be laid on low trestles, A Blue-and-Tax Rabbit with the bung on the under side, so that liquids may run off easily ; and an opening, with a door of slats covered with netting, to prevent the incursions of rats and mice, should be made at one end of the barrel. If a kerosene barrel is used the inside must be burned out to remove the smell. The scheme of using barrels, which is con- venient and pretty, is frequent in France. Rabbits used for breeding must be at least seven months old. The male and female should never be left alone together for a day and night, or they will fight. The mother rabbit gives birth to eight or nine young ones at the end of thirty days. A few days before the birth the hutch should be thoroughly cleansed and furnished with soft oat straw and hay. The mother will then be seen to make her nest with extreme care. She begins by carrying into one corner all the hay and straw ; she then makes a hollow in this and lines it with fur pulled from her breast, to make a soft, warm bed for her progeny. When the young rabbits have arrived the mother should be given something juic\', — a carrot or turnip, or perhaps a little warm milk and water, — to prevent her from devouring the little ones, which very often happens if she is fever- ish and thirsty and does not know what she is about. Thirst tortures her, but if she gets something to allay it all goes well. The day after the birth the nest should be examined. If some of the young ones are dead they should, of course, be taken away. Sometimes the mother gives birth to ten or a dozen, which are more than she can comfortably feed. In that case some of them should be killed, leav- ing at most six of the largest with the mother. These will thrive better and bring more profit than if all had been left alive. When the young rabbits are six weeks old it is well to begin to wean them, but not all at A Giant Flanders Rabbit (Female) the same time, as this would injure the mother. The strongest and best developed should be taken away first, and then the others at inter- vals of a day or two. After this the mother RABBITS 255 should be ni\-en two weeks' rest, (lurinL,^ which time she must be suitabl)' fed, so as to reccner strength before she proceeds to ha\e another litter. After the youni;- rabbits are taken from their mother the\' shoukl be phiced all together in one hutch until they are three months old, the age at which the sexes must be separated. If the rabbits are to be raised for cooking this is the time to begin to give them solid footl, for at five months the\- ought to be killed and sold profit- ably. A new male should often be bought, for it is not prudent to raise animals too closely related, as diseases and debility often result. The raising of rabbits has a financial and moral interest for the boy. If he has a real affection for his animals he will take care of them on his return from school or work instead of loafing in the street and wasting his time. All that concerns their breeding will interest him, and he will seek to add to his knowledge by experience and b\' reading books and journals. He will think and reflect, and his intelligence will de\elop. desired ]iersons shouUl make choice among those now existing. II. Thk \'.\Ki<)i's Hrf.f.ds W'e begin with the king of rabbits, the _i^iaiit rabbit of Flaitdcrs. It is by far the best known A Cii.vxT \'ii.NN.\ k.M'.i'.ir (Mali) Much has been written of late on the breed- ing of rabbits with the object of improving the quality of their flesh. For our part we think this useless, nearly all the present species being the result of crossings. If a good breed is A Young Giant Flanders Rabbit breed, and no exhibition is ever held in which it is not represented in great numbers. This rabbit has its cradle in Flanders, chiefly about Ghent and vicinity, where especial attention is paid to its breeding. A few years ago, owing to the \ast exportation of rabbits to foreign countries, the quality of the meat deteriorated and the number of buyers diminished perceptibly. The association of the "Neerhof" happily intervened in time and succeeded in obtaining a subsidy from the government for the purchase of male rabbits which re- mained the [iroperty of the associa- tion. Thus the best specimens were preservetl, good breeding made great progress, and the weight of the ani- mals increased. Only a few are fat- tened for the market, and those are not suitable for breeding. The color is chiefly fawn or iron-gray, although sometimes black, steel-blue, yellow, and white occur. Animals of the two last-named colors are rare and not as large as those of other colors. The raising of these giants is not easy, and much experience is required to obtain those 256 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Leporide Hare-Colored Rabbit that are strong and handsome. At Ghent the business is chiefly in the hands of the working classes, and they are very skillful at it, which indeed is natural, as their ancestors did it be- fore them and transmitted the experience from father to son. We sometimes hear it said that the breeding of these robust and handsome animals is a secret with the Ghent producers, but this is not so. There is no secret, but only a good reason, which is that no males are ever imported from foreign parts. The Flemish giants are not good eating. The males are excel- lent for improving the breed of common rabbits. The blue giant of Vienna is one of the latest novelties. It is a superb crea- ture whose dark blue fur brings a good price from furriers. It is produced by crossing the silver rabbit with the Flan- ders blue giant. Its bones are small and its flesh abundant and excellent. The female is very prolific and at the same time hardy. The double of the Vienna giant is the bbie giant of Beveren (Flanders), found in great numbers in the region from which it takes its name. It is not the product of any crossing and forms a species by itself. Its fur is of great value and is thicker and closer than that of the Vienna giant. It attains a weight of from seven to ten pounds, which it cannot exceed without les- sening the vakve of the fur. Though this breed had formerly only a local reputation, it is now much talked of, and is seen at all Belgian exhibitions. The Belgian /tare, called also the leporide, is a rabbit of Belgian origin, though it is not raised in that king- dom. It descends from the Flemish giant, and every effort has been made to make it look like a hare. Those we see to-day at shows in America bear a striking resemblance to hares. It is sometimes stated that this rab- bit is the product of crossings with the wild field hare, but that is a legend ; the male rabbit cannot be mated with the doe hare. If the Belgian hare resembles the true hare, it is due to the pains taken in breeding it across the Channel. It is really in itself a fine, strong race, interesting and prolific. It is a little wild, to be sure, but gets over its timidity when accustomed to those who care for it. Though it never attains great weight (six or seven pounds at the most), its flesh is very savory. This breed was imported to America in vast numbers a few years ago. A French Lop-Eared Rabbit RABBITS 257 The French lop-carcd rabbit may, by good right, be called a useful animal. It is fouml chiefl\' in France, though it is not unknown in Ger- many, where it has been imported in large numbers ever since the War of 1870, when the German soldiers discovered its merits. Its two flop- ping ears hang down on each side of the head and almost touch the ground. It comes in all colors, chiefly gray, but sometimes steel-blue, black, and yellow. The English lop-carcd rabbit owes its existence to the French breed. In England novelty is de- sired, — new things before useful things. A rabbit's ears ought to be long ! At first breeders of the ani- mals had recourse to overheating the habitations, so that this English product may rightly be called a hothouse breed. The speci- mens seen at shows are smaller than the French rabbit, but their ears are much longer, those measuring from eighteen to twenty inches being by no means uncommon. Once upon a time this animal was all the fashion in England ; lately it has given place to other breeds. In the matter of utility the English lop-eared rabbit is worth absolutely nothing, for it is feeble, without re- sistance to disease, and serves only to please .\ l-if.in .Sii.\i;k Rai'.t.it A WiuTF. AxooRA K.M'.r.iT amateurs who take immense pains and trouble solely to exhibit it at shows. The Angora rabbit is one of the most beauti- ful species that exists, and also one of the most useful. A more superb animal can scarcely be imagined. The fur of some of them is over four inches long. The skins are greatly in de- mand, and all sorts of useful articles are made of the fur, — undergarments, stockings, gloves, shawls, and even stuffs. The undergarments are specially beneficial to gouty persons. This animal is often raised by ladies as a pet and for its beauty, so that now it is commonly called "the ladies' rabbit." It finds more admiring breed- ers in France than elsewhere. If more attention were given to raising it in other coun- tries it would soon become a conunercial article in great demand. At present manufac- turers cannot obtain enough of its fur to work it with wide success. It could certainly be bred most profitably. The female is very prolific and rears her young with ease. 258 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The race exacts but little care, is seldom ill, and its flesh is excellent. These Angora rabbits should be combed weekly ; if neglected, their appearance is woeful. There are other species A Dutch R.aubit besides the white ; the Russian Angoras, white with black noses, ears, legs, and tails, are comical to behold. The silver rabbits are also splendid animals, whose skins are used by furriers and bring great prices. They are small but immensely prolific. At birth the little ones are black, at three months the silver hair appears, and at four months they have their true color. The light colored are handsomer than the dark colored, but the two shades must never be mated, or the young rabbits will be either too light or too dark, which lessens considerably the commercial value of their skins. There is also a silver-brown and a silver- yellow animal, but these are seldom or never met with in this country. The two first named are the most in vogue. The finest specimens have a uniform color ; even the nose, paws, and tail should not be darker than the body. The DiitcJi 7-abbit is much the smallest of all species. It is not difficult to raise, but in order to have good specimens a large num- ber should be raised and the finest chosen ; the others can be sold to the markets. When the markings are very clear these animals are ex- tremely handsome. The engraving shows one which has attained very high distinction. The cultivation of this species is wholly in the hands of sporting breeders, especially Englishmen. A man must be past master in the art of breed- ing, and must have practiced it for years on this species, to obtain satisfactor}' re- sults. There are different colors, — black, yellow, steel-blue, etc. The essential thing is to choose precisely the species which will improve their descendants and yet keep as near as possible to the prototype. Even in Holland this indigenous rabbit has many admirers, who are encouraged by a club founded for the purpose, and by the prom- ise of very high prizes at the shows. As yet it has been found impossible to raise a breed of which the young shall be uniform in their markings. The Dutch rabbit is not particular about its food and costs very little to raise. Belgium has produced a rabbit that shows some- what the same markings, but is half as heavy again. The Brabant rabbit gives excellent meat and is exported in great numbers to England. The Russian rabbit is most curiously marked. It is all white except at its extremities, the nose, ears, paws, and tail being jet-black. The A Russian Rabbit blacker these extremities the greater the value. The fur is very thick and much in demand by merchants. It is one of the smaller species and is also called the Himalaya rabbit because immense numbers are found in the mountains of that name. It is everywhere admired and RABBITS 259 is often raised solely as a decorative animal. It cannot be too highly recommended for its meat ; it is very prolific and the young rabbits make a delicious stew. At birth th(.-\- arc ]iini<, the white conies later, and the black fur does not appear until the\" are four months old. At six months they are in their full beauty ; at the end of a year and a half they lose it, because by that time the black begins to turn a rusty brown. To preserve this fine color the hutches must be kept in dark stables, away from the action of the sunlight. This is one of the most agreeable rabbits to raise. The tricolor Japan rabbit is very like the tricolor (other- wise called "tortoise-shell") cat and is the product of the crossing of various breeds. These rabbits are not much in vogue. Their colors are black, yellow, and a dirty white. Generally one half of the head is yellow, the other half black ; the markings on the back and sides are in lines, or its snow-white fur, which is very valuable to furriers. It is still t|uile rare on the Continent. Children delight in it. Too small to be rai.sed f(ir the market, it is ne\erlheless often eaten A French Paph.i.on (Mai.f.) in rings around the body. The more distinct these markings the more the animal is valued. The Polish rabbit, of English origin, is small ; its red eyes shine out pleasantly from A Tricolor R.\r.r.iT of J.\i'.\n in families, for its flesh is good when young. It has a large progeny, which are easy to raise. The Frc7ich papilloii {or butterfly) rabbit, also a small species, is of recent date ; some years ago it appeared onh' at shows, but, being a pretty animal, it soon found admirers to raise it. It is white with black, yellow, gray, or steel-blue spots placed with some regularity. The nose and ears must always be of the same color as the spots. From behind the ears a stripe extends along the back, and the spots ought to be ranged with regularity on each side about the haunch. This breed is raised in about the same manner as the Dutch rabbit, but the French animals are bred more for food than for ornament. The Norman rabbit is incontestabh' the best of all species for hutciiering. It attains a weight of from nine to ten jiounds and may be killed when five ■months oki. It is raised in 26o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Blue Beveren Rabbit (Male) vast numbers in the villages of France, and it is this breed that in the Paris markets. It is very prolific and is able to bear privations. It is raised almost exclusively as an arti- cle of food. The black-and-tan rabbits are the result of the cross- ing of various species mingled with wild blood, which can be perceived at first sight. It is by far the shyest and least tamable of its tribe ; if any one goes near its hutch it will burrow into the darkest corner. Although its appear- ance is certainly sullen, and even savage, its body is ab- solutely beautiful. Its fur, of the north of is chiefly sold a brilliant black and very thick, is fine for cloaks and pelisses ; it is white on the belly, under the jaw, about the ears, and on the tips of its paws. The same species in steel- blue is also extremely handsome and goes by the name of bhie-and-taii. Both breeds originated in England, whence they were imported into France, and later into other countries. To have the handsomest young rabbits it is well to cross the blue and the black, and vice versa. A litter, usually of from four to six, will contain both colors. The Havana rabbit, so named from its brown, or chocolate, color, is of very recent date. The A Polish Rabbit A BLArK-AND-T.\X R.\r.BlT first time it was exhibited it bore the name of the English flame-eyed rab- bit; next it was called the Beveren, re- ceiving finally from the Netherlands Association the name Havana. Though of recent date, it is already well known. The finest are found in Holland, although France has also a species which has received the same name. Its fur secures to it a great future, and there is no doubt that it will soon spread throughout Europe. It is easy to raise, and the young are all like their parents. Its admirers increase after every show at which it makes its appearance. RABBITS 261 III. Preservation of the Skins At the present time rabbit skins bring a high price, and it is well to take good care of them. The animals should be carefully packed in straw, for all injury, rent, or cut, however small, diminishes the value of the skin. There are several ways of drying the skins, though it is always rather difificult to keep them supple and intact. The following method is the one we recommend. Flay the animal as soon as possible, nail the skin on a board, stretching it well, and brush the flesh side with very hot water and a stiff brush until not a particle of the flesh remains and the skin is perfectly clean. Let it dry, and after a few hours rub it with a weak solution of alum. Repeat this for three days and the skin is ready. It would, however, be better to send it to an experienced tanner. IV. DiSE.\SES .AND Ailments When rabbits are well fed, well lodged, and well cared for, — in short, when they are intelli- gently raised, — they are the healthiest animals in existence. If, on the contrary, they are ill- lodged and carelessly raised, there is perhaps no race more liable to disease. Whoever gives Box FOR TK.ANSPOKTINT, R.MiniTS his rabbits proper care will have, at the end of a few months, enough experience to enable him to make diseases among them extremely exceptional. Still there does exist a certain rate of mor- tality among young rabbits, although no one can say with certainty what is the cause of it. This is evidently a question of great interest to breeders. Without being able to give rules .^ DuK II R.\i'.r.ir ( Ill-M.arked) or precepts for bringing young rabbits safely to a certain age, we shall indicate a few of the probable causes of their mortality. One of the principal ones is convulsions, that is to say, in- sufficient vitality. This is hereditary ; a sickly mother may have a progeny without sufficient vitality to bear the little ailments of early life. It may also be that the mother has to suckle loo many young ; we could give instances of a 'tingle mother suckling twelve or fourteen. It is easy to see that nothing good could come of this. The nurse will be exhausted and the nurslings feeble. When the survivors of such a litter reach the mating age their off- spring cannot possibly be robust. It is therefore unadvisable to raise too many in a litter, or too many litters. Five litters annually should content the breeder. Besides, the food given to the young rabbits is not always judiciously selected, and this is one of the prin- cipal causes of disease ; too much green food is ajjt to be given. The diseases that result are dropsy and diarrhea, which frequently end in 262 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS death. The first is caused by too much hquid in the intestines ; the stomach dilates to such an extent that the animal can hardly stand on his feet ; the appetite is lost and the rabbit dies of starvation. Prevention is proverbially better than cure, and the precautions against this malady are good hutches, little green food, ' opportunity for exercise, and a sufficient quan- tity of dry food given with judgment, the more varied the better. Diarrhea is caused in the same way, and the treatment should be about the same. Hay is an excellent remedy, so are oats, whole or bruised. VI. Colds Colds are often very troublesome to rabbits as well as to all other living beings ; and if the animals are not properly cared for and kept out of drafts (to which rabbits are very sensitive, and which usually cause the trouble), pneumonia may result. The animal attacked should be instantly taken to a warm stable, given a soft bed, and be made to drink a little hot milk. Warm food, such as potato parings boiled with bran, will contribute to a cure if continued for a week or so. If, on the contrary, much mucus A Female Leporide with her Youxg V. Diseases of the Ear This is shown by the formation of a warty excrescence in the ear ; the wart hardens and extends more and more until sometimes the whole ear becomes rigid. To cure this at the very beginning and to prevent its progress a drop of sweet oil should be poured in. Even if the wart is scarcely perceptible, it is well not to postpone this remedy. It is essential to clean the hutch with a disinfectant and to be sure that no pus from the ear remains in it. If the disease is so far advanced that the swelling is perfectly hard, it must be taken out with pinchers ; and if the operation is not at first successful, it must be repeated for several days issues from the nose, the greatest care must be taken or the mucus will harden and stop respira- tion. Bathing the nose with hot water twice a day will relieve the animal and hasten a cure. VII. Disease of the Paws Rabbits, and especially the giant rabbits, suffer much from disease of the paws, and may even die of it if neglected. There are several causes of this malady : the animal may have wounded itself, or it may be poisoned by the filth of the hutch or by the manure which fre- quently clings to its feet. To prevent this evil the hutches must be kept clean, and the rabbit should be given daily a handful of fresh hay or straw for a soft bed. XI THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY After the large quadrupeds and the denizens of the poultry yard come the birds. They do not guard our houses, nor carry our property, nor furnish our principal food ; consequently they yield the palm of usefulness to the other domestic animals. But what do they give us in ex- change .' Sunshine in the house, joyous warbling in our chamber, and an example of tender solicitude and care for their offspring surely furnish compensation enough. They do more ; they repay with usury the affection of the owners who breed them. A judicious education is more successful with them than with other animals and is very lucrative. By beginning with a couple of fine birds any one, no matter how little experience he may have, can safely devote himself to this branch of industry, and will soon obtain from it very pretty profits. Naturally this requires faculty, and, above all, patience. Germany, in the Hartz Mountains, and England, — at Norwich, for example, — have shown us how much can be done. The raising of canaries in Germany has become a flourishing industry, and cer- tain districts in England do a great business in English canaries of a special color. Many persons will be surprised to hear that the latter are fre- quently sold for from thirty to forty dollars each ; and these are nothing but canaries, while the merchants are importing other beautiful aviary birds by thousands from foreign parts. WlLO C.\NARIES .VND THEHi NF-ST Besides the profits they bring in, there are other advantages of having birds in a house. The songs and joyous flutter of these little 263 264 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS guests put sunshine and good humor into a family ; a taste for birds gives useful occupa- tion, their management a healthy habit, and though we must keep them caged, they are the liveliest and often the most welcome members The Norwich Canary of the household. The most popular among them is, of course, the canary. I. The Can.^ry Though we keep canaries especially for their song, they are also raised for their color ; in fact, they may be called the jewels of the aviary. The ancestor of our tamed canary {Serinus canarius), which belongs to the finch family, is not handsome, neither are his de- scendants unless the wit and art of man invent improvements. The wild canary has a greenish- yellow body with gray tail and wings. He is still to be seen in great numbers in the Canary Islands, in Madeira, and at St. Helena, whence they are sent to England to propagate. When the Canary Islands were conquered in 1478, great numbers were carried over into Spain, and from there they spread through Europe. They became the favorite pets of women, and in many of the ancient pictures (Gian Bellini's, for example) we see them perch- ing in some corner, or perhaps on a lady's finger. Tyrol and the country about Innsbruck were especially active in the propagation of these little songsters, sending them into Germany and Austria. The Netherlands, long under the rule of Spain, had its share of this trade ; in fact, towards the end of the sixteenth century it raised a special breed of its own. Before inquiring how these little creatures content themselves with the house and food offered to them by man, let us see how they manage for them- selves in their wild state. Like so many other birds, they build their nests in hidden places, but as these nests are never very high from the ground, it is easy to discover them. They choose young, slender trees. The shape of the nest is round, very wide at the base and very nar- row at the top. Some naturalists say that canaries make these nests of vegetable down and any soft substances found here and there rather than of twigs and spears of grass. The hen bird lays an &gg every day until she has five. These eggs of the wild canary are a pale sea-green with small maroon or black spots, which nearly always collect in a circle at one end. The egg of the tame canary does not differ from that of the wild bird except that it is more nearly round. After thirteen days of incubation and thirteen days more in the nest the young birds are able to fly, but their parents feed them for some time longer on seeds of grasses and the soft flesh of figs. The wild canary delights in baths, which should therefore be amply supplied to his tame descendant. THK BIRDS OF TilK AVIARY 265 II. Cages Leaving aside for tlie time being the aviary proper!)- so called, the advice that here follows on the lodging of birds in our houses applies as much to all small caged birds as t" canaries. The cage, considered as a furnished home, is often un- suitable, and therefore injuri- ous, to its inhabitant. For a single bird it ought to be at least eighteen inches long and eighteen inches high, while the width should be fifteen inches. Round cages, though very pretty and easily suspended, are not so desirable as square or oblong ones. Birds in round cages are subject to vertigo and are not sheltered Cagic for S.mall Birds Very practical in details from currents of air ; neither do the)- ever have a tranquil space before their eyes, as they might were the square cage placed against a wall. Metal cages are very good in the iiiatter of cleanliness, but they have the great fault of getting rusty from the splash- ing of the bird in its bath. Wooden cages, varnished out- side and carefully lacquered with white enamel inside, are the best. The)- should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a week or lice will con- gregate in the corners and holes and thus become a real pest. This misfortune can be ]M-e\-cntcd bv an occasional coat of fresh lacquer. It is wrong to put polished bamboo perches or any round wooden perches in these cages ; they should always be semi-oval, as a mere srlance at 266 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A NoRwic?! Canary with Gray Hood a canary on a perch will show. These perches should be easily removable and should be taken out often and cleaned or seeds, husks, and all sorts of dirt will collect upon them and will therefore become wedged be- tween the toes of the bird, which finally prefers the bot- tom of the cage to the perch which his owner does not clean, and the latter then sup- poses that the bird is ill ! As to the accessories, — seedboxes, water troughs, bath tubs, nests, etc., — they come in great variety. The essential thing is that they be convenient to use with safety and easily kept clean. Cages have a great influence on a fine song bird. The canaries of the Hartz Mountains will trill their highest notes in their little travel- ing cages, while they often lose their charm in a more luxurious home. Some breeders and dealers make use of specially con- structed cages to induce their birds to sing; occasionally the birds are kept entirely in the shade to correct a shrill or piercing note. III. The Song of Birds This song is the subject of serious study to breeders, for the song of a young canary of good origin can be improved and per- fected. It is interesting to see the results obtained by the Hartz breeders. There is much diversity of taste among the purchasers of birds. Some desire a loud song, with long trills and high notes ; others prefer soft warbling, clear crystalline rou- lades, and flutelike tones. There are certain faults, however, that all dislike ; as, for in- stance, when the bird suddenly interrupts a beautiful roulade by uttering a short, brusque cJiap-chap or tsi-tsi. To correct such faults and to improve the song of the canary, adapting it to the taste of the day, is not an easy task for the breeder ; but the breeding and training of singing canaries will always remain a source of great revenue. Thousands are exported annually from Mount Saint-Andre alone (in the Hartz Mountains), bringing in a revenue of from seventy-five to 1 ^" - ' ""^""-^ji/-- ' -y 7 .-"-v ft Young Thrushes THE BIRDS UV THE AVIARY 267 The Rep Bengal Finch eii;"ht3^ thousand dollars. The best singers (that is to say, the best males) arc carefully kept from hearing the notes of the other birds; for it often happens that very good song- sters will borrow the false or less beautiful notes of their congeners. The great breeders aKva)-s keep a certain number of their finest singers as models, and from these thev make cross- ings, which is an art that re- quires a special talent. The results obtained ma\' be re- garded as among the greatest victories in the domain of the education of animals. At the end of eight or ten months the song has acquired its full power, and the forgets, and then the trainer bird is placed near canary knows several airs, which he sometimes him to refresh his memor)'. It is on record that some birds, few perhaps, ha\'e been suc- cessfully taught to utter words. IV. Food .\xn C.\re to be given TO C.AN.ARIES Rape seed and hemp seed, luiixorsallv known, may serve as the principal food of canaries. They ma}-, without injurw be made the sole food, if of good qualit}- ; but unfortunately they are apt to be adulter- ated with all sorts of impurities, among others charlock, or wild mustard, which is very injurious to birds. A little flaxseed is excellent from time to time for all birds of the finch tribe. It fattens them, and they eat it with pleasure ; it ought to be given crushed. Millet, salad seed, and oats may also be given. The birds are not \ery fond of these seeds, but millet will fatten them. Besides this seed food, \()ung canaries should have hens' eggs, boiled hard, finely pulverized, and mi.xed with bread crumbs : this gives excellent results. There are as many recipes for this egg food as there are breeders. It is absurd to disapjirove of An Enclisii C.xn.akv wnii Hood 268 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS one mixture and praise another, because the results depend on the birds and on circum- stances. It is the same with green food, which The Tricolor Canary some breeders think injurious and others up- hold. It is advisable, however, to give the birds, now and then, a salad leaf, provided it is not too wet and has not been in the salad bowl. A single canary in a house does not require a great deal of care. Cleanliness is the great thi.ng; intelligent observation of the bird will teach the rest. The cleanliness of the cage requires a layer of sand, not too fine, because it might fly up under the bird's wings and irritate him. The bath tub should be kept full of clean water, and if the bird suffers from vermin, a bit of quassia wood put into the water will help to free him from them. As to the cleanliness of the bird itself (especially if about to be sent to an exhibition), it is necessary that the owner should wash it, which is by no means an easy thing to do. Here is some advice on the best manner of procedure. First, warm the room and see that it is quiet, with no danger of incursions of children or animals. Take three clean, shallow basins and fill one with warm water. Suspend an empty cage, which has been thoroughly cleansed, near a stove or fire. Lay a piece of soft flannel on the floor of it. The two other basins should be placed beside the first and filled with boiling water. After putting a trifle of soda in the first basin, take the bird quietly but quickly in the left hand. Let him be on the palm of the hand, covering him with the thumb if he attempts to beat his wings (which seldom happens). Then dip him up to the head in the first basin ; with the right hand take a soaped sponge, plunge it into the second basin of hot water, and pro- ceed to wash the bird quickly, tak- ing care to spread the wings and to touch every feather (except those of the head) in the direction in which they naturally lie. When all dirt has been removed wash the head very cautiously but without soap. Too much care cannot be taken to guard the eyes, which the bird will close instinctively. After this the third basin of hot water must be used to rinse him off. The essential thing is to hold him firmly, for if he escapes before he is perfectly The Gray Wagtail dry, the consequences may be fatal. When all the washing is well over, the bird must be prop- erly dried. It is then very difficult to hold him THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 269 First he should be carefull)- rubbed down the is not advisable for the owner of a single canary back, breast, and head with a soft towel. Then to employ the Cayenne remedy, because in our the wings must be dried with e\ en more caution, day it is difficult to obtain it unadulterated, and being carefully rubbed always in their natural he risks poisoning his pet with some deleterious direction, after which the bird must be laid safe and sound, but still rather damp, on the flanne which has been spread on the floor of the cage. Though he will seem to be half dead, he is in reality full of life, and if he is left quietly to himself in some place carefull}- pn tected from drafts, he will recover from his fright in a \ few hours and be as gay as e\ ci A canary well cared for is a ^„ ~„„ „.„ „ „ -' The Toilet of a C.an.akv pleasure to the eye ; yet even those j,.(,^ J^^^ E.xposrnox most carefully treated have to pass through a period, which they cannot evade, when they are far from being charming to be- hold. We mean, of course, the molting period. This phenomenon, which takes place every year, cannot be called a disease, though many birds die of it. As temperature has a great influence on the duration of the molt, the birds should be kept warm in some quiet, tranquil place ; the washings must cease ; and as for food, more egg should be given and more seed and bread, but no hemp. It is well to put a bit of apple or cooked carrot between the bars of the cage, but no green food should be given. For young birds this is a ver\' try- ing period ; in fact, the influence of the molt is so great that some prom- ising young songsters never fully recover their powers. It is the cus- tom among breeders in England and the United States to give the molting birds a mixture of hard-boiled egg, biscuit, and Cayenne pepper. At first the) refuse this stinging delicacy, but after a few substance masquerading as Cayenne pepper. V. Inxubation r the incubation of the eggs of canaries and of other small house birds, a hatch- ing cage should be irovided, — one closed on threei>idea,-^-as large as possible, and so arranged that a nest can be easily sus- pended in it. This nest should not be made with too much art. It should be about two and a half or three inches deep and should consist chiefly of a solid pouch suspended from the roof. If it suits the female she will know, when the proper time comes, how to line it with threads, moss, lint, bits of grass, etc., which must be slipped between the bars of the cage. She 1)K\ w iTii C.\ni: ! days they become extravagantly fond of it. It usually la\s her eggs early in the morning, — one a day for five or perhaps six days, though it often happens that she lays only three or four. >7o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Arrest of a Fugitive The eggs of the canary are soft gray in color, with dark red or black specks at one end. Thirteen days after the last egg is laid the young canaries may be expected. When the mother is well settled on her eggs, the male bird becomes very busy in feeding her. It is necessary to see that all dirt, impurities, and damp sand are promptly re- moved from the cage, or the feet of the mother, who some- times quits the nest for a very short time, may carry it among the fledglings and cause their death. The behavior of the female canary and of other female birds differs very much. Some cannot be driven from the nest ; others will always go off and swing upon their perches if any one goes near the cage. It is imprudent to examine the eggs continually, and patience cannot be too earnestly recommended to young breeders. As soon as the little ones are hatched the same caution need not be observed. Both the quality and quantity of their food must be attended to, for it is not always as good and as regularly pro- vided as one would naturally expect from a well- bred mother. The food of both parents ought The Woodpecker THE BIRDS OF THE AVLARY 271 to be very abundant durint;- this ijcrioil and color, which she endeavors to render as elegant should consist chietly of eggs. If it is evident and peculiar as possible. As the canary readily that the little ones are not receiving enough, allows itself to be mated with other species, they must be fed with tiny crumbs of egg given a great variety of bastard breeds of many colors on a bit of blunt wood. It is very easy to see has been obtained, whether they have a good mother or not. If properly fed, their growth will be \isi- ble from dav to da\-. Their breasts should be full, their bodies round, and the}' should look very lively. If their de- velopment stops, they must be fed with hens' eggs, hard boiled, which is not difficult to do, for young canaries, like all other young birds, open their mouths \-ery wide. At the end of fifteen days the nest ought to be changed for a larger one, because the young birds are then begin- ning to beat and flutter their wingSx and need more room. At the end of six weeks they should be sepa- rated from their parents. Of course much more work is to be done in the grSat establishments where the breeding OUK FK! The canaries of the different countries — French, German, and English — can be dis- tinguished by their shape and song. The French breed is noted for its slender form; the and raising of canaries is made a business. So German species, formed chiefly of the Hartz many things must be thought of and attended birds, is the musical breed par excellence; to that special works and manuals on the subject are issued Our advice is in- tended, as we said in the beginning, for those who wish to tend and rear these little songsters in their ho m e s \T. V.VRiETiES OF Bird In enumerating the principal species of the canary we ought to remark that while Germany and the other continental countries of Europe de\()te themselves to raising good singers, llie under the names of B. United States is also concerned with form r.nil canary, and so forth. NONXETTES WITH BLACK He.-\[) .Axn Blue .\mj Bl.ack Belly found in II( the English races are nearly alwax's \-er\' tall, of tNpi- c a 1 c o 1 o |- s , and adorned with a tuft or tojiknot. Before Ger- many thought of raising the Hart/ canar\- it was gencralh known in Holland, where a fine, strong, healthy race was bred and sent to all parts of the world. At present the Dutch canary, properly so called, is no longer ind, though varieties of it e.xist ian canar\-, trum|)et 272 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Belgian canaries are sometimes called the " nobles " of the canary family. This is a question of taste, but if it depends on their external appearance they have a right to the distinction. A pure Belgian canary is large, with a narrow, rather flat head, a very gentle An Aviary de Luxe expression in the eyes, and the throat and nape of the neck apparently very flexible. This expression of the eyes is attributed by many connoisseurs to the calm temperament to be observed in the breed, showing long domes- ticity. It is not, however, by the eyes only that the bird can be judged, but by the neck also. When perfectly tranquil he carries his head horizontally, and we then see that his shoulders are very broad and strongly developed. They rise towards the back, which is covered with a thick down, to which a long and tapering tail is attached. The back and tail are almost vertical. The breast, all of which is visible, is neither broad nor round, and the legs and feet are straight and long. The Belgian canary, sitting so calmly on his perch, strikes the attentive observer chiefly by his lithe form and the car- riage of his head. In England and the United States we find in the Scotch fancy canary (sometimes called the Glasgow Don) a worthy counterpart of the Belgian bird, to which he is related ; but thanks to artifi- cial breeding, he now forms a distinct species with a much flatter head. He always carries his head raised and rounds his body without any apparent raising of the shoul- ders. Experts pay great attention to the posture of these birds and judge them by it ; and associations, clubs, and breeders have a score of points under which the judg- ment must be formed. Among breeders there are certain celebrated canaries that are known by their owners' sur- names. This Scotch species, which is becoming more and more the fashion, is raised in eight different shades of color, running from yellow to green. Besides this breed we find several others, such as the Yorkshire canary, an English one, much like the Parisian bird, but without its curly down; the London breed, a small bird raised in different shades (from green to yellow, to 274 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Belgian Canary orange, and even to brown) ; the cinnamon-colo7rd canary ; the very handsome lizard, the body of which is partly striped (this species is extremely difficult to rear); and the JSIanchcster, -a, giant canary, which is sometimes eight inches long ; also a considerable number of mongrels. Some of these canaries are hooded, that is to say, they have on their heads a sort of cap of long A Flat-Headed Canary of English Breed A Yorkshire Canary feathers. The English breeder has gone so far as to raise certain orange-colored birds with black or yellow caps, which, of course, fetch a high price. As for the German canaries, and particularly those of the Hartz and of Saxony, they are not, as we have already said, distinguished by their form or color, but by their musical talent. Some, however, are extremely handsome, like the little swallozv canaries, the wings of which are of a different color from the head, the spotted, the striped, and the albinos. The latter, like all THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 275 animals in which we see a failure of eolor, are generally weak and poor singers. We must now take lea\e of these charming domestic birds and study others less musically gifted, but nevertheless very worthy of attention. VII. Other Colored Song-Birds Without tracing the line between the graniv- orous and the carnivorous species, we must name a few of the io\dus songsters who inhabit and solid, with perches and poles ; the food should be flaxseed, soaked bread, and ants' eggs. The sitting lasts sixteen days ; the eggs are greenish blue with little dark brown spots. The 1^'ild tlinish has a way of perching, in the early morning, on the top branch of a tree to warble his matin song : That 's the wise thrush, who sings each song twice over. Lest you .should think he never could recapture Its lirst tine, careless rapture. The .-\vi.\ry of the King of Exgi.and our cages and aviaries. We find among them many beautiful birds of pure stock and many bastards, known in different lands under such different names that it would take whole books to record them. The same bird may have ten or a dozen names ; consequently it is best to put the Latin name after the familiar name of each. First we will take the thrush family {Tiinii) and its singing master {Tiirdiis mitsicus). We find him here and there as a bird of passage, though he makes his home throughout Europe generally. He is easy to raise and to accustom to confinement, but the cage must be large The hen bird builds her nest by preference near water. The black ilniish ( I'urdiis uifniia), a Euro- pean bird, commonly called blackbird there, is a wary, cunning fellow', but not so wary that he does not readily get accustomed to captivity in a cage. His whistle is lively, and he tries to imitate the songs of other birds. The female is very different in appearance from the male, being brown in color, while her mate is black. It is not difficult to teach young thrushes to sing various times, proxided they are sung to them morning and excning in a quiet room. 276 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Thrush Many remarkable anecdotes are told of the maternal love of the hen bird and her clever- ness in systematically driving cats and dogs from the vicinity of her young. Confined in large aviaries, they make life a burden to other birds. Our American wood thrush {Tjirdits timste- limts) is an excellent vocalist, " the tones having a rare quality of rolling vibrance," sweet and placid and full like the notes of a flute sounded ^\ some morning in the open country air. Next to the robin this is the most widely known of the thrush family. If the American robin {Alerula migra- toria) is not a domestic bird, we have but few, for he is a part of our very lives. ^ His matin song is familiar from the moment of remembrance , his acquaintance leads him to our very doors ; he seeks the apple tree nearest to the country house, where he and his mate may build their nest, that they may live close to their curious friend — man. His song is sweet and charged with a variety of expression. The Green Finch We find a far more tranquil conception of life among the finches, who are all gay, alert, and good whistlers. Their principal food consists of seed, berries, worms, etc. ; in destroying the latter they do good service to farmers. The species named Fringillae spitius is much in demand for aviaries on account of its graceful attitudes. The color is not striking, but if coupled with the canary, birds of very pretty plumage may result. The eggs of this bird when living in a wild state are extremely hard to find. The linnet (Fringilla eannabina) is much sought, especially in Germany and Belgium, for the aviary. It is another member of the finch family. The cardinal grosbeak (Cardinalis cardi- nalis), commonly known as redbird, belongs to the finch family and is a songster as well as a bird of beautiful plumage and interest- ing habits. Great numbers of these birds have been shipped to England, where they have been known as Virginia nightingales. Mr. James Lane Allen gives, with rare sym- pathy and delicacy, a most charming descrip- — _^ tion of this bird in his masterpiece. The Kentucky Cardinal. He sa}'S : Lo ' some morning the leaves are on the ground, and the birds have vanished. The species that remain or that come to us then wear the hues of the season and melt into the tone of Nature's background, — blues, grays, browns, with touches of white on tail and bieast and wing for coming flecks of snow. Save only him, — proud, soli- tarv stranger to our friendly land, — the fiery grosbeak. Nature m Kentucky has no winter haimonies for him. He could find these onl} among the tufts of the October sumach, oi m the gum tree when it stands a piUar of ted twilight fire in the dark Novem- ber woods, or in the far depths of the crimson sunset skies, where, indeed, he seems to have been nested, and whence to have come as a messenger of beauty, bearing on his wings the light of his diviner home. . . . What wonder if he is so shy, so rare, so secluded, this 278 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Linnet flame-colored prisoner in dark green chambers, who has only to be seen or heard and Death adjusts an arrow ! . . . He will sit for a long time in the heart of a cedar, as if absorbed in the tragic memories of his race. Then, softl}', wearil)^, he will call out to you and to the whole world ; Peace . . Peace . . . Peace . . . Peace . .' . Peace . . . ! the most melodious sigh that ever issued from the clefts of a dungeon. The brown tin-aslier [Har- porhynchus ntfus), called also brown thruph and brown mocking bird, is one of those perennial joyous singers that bring delight to every one. Who of us does not remem- ber these lines 1 There 's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree ; He is singing to me ! he is sing- ing to me ! And what does he say little girl, little boy ? " Oh, the world 's running over with joy ! " This gladsome singer is at home anywhere, either on a branch where he swings like a pendulum, or on the ground where he is constantly twitching, wag- ging, or thrashing his tail about in the most ludicrous fashion as he feeds on the ground — dieting upon worms, insects, and fruits. The mocking bird, commonly known in this country as a cage bird, is the Minms polyglottits. As a cage, bird he retains his nocturnal habits, often singing and fluttering in the night. He is quite a tease also, for there is scarcely a sound, whether made by bird or beast about him, that he cannot imitate so clearly as to deceive every one but himself. There is no songster in America or in all the world that is so rich and tender in its song. The bird is an ornament to all aviaries, where his whistle and his melodious song may be heard all day. But some of his brightness is too apt to disappear in captivity, which is usually the case with captive birds of all kinds. The birds belonging to the Troglodytidae — the brown thrashers, catbirds, mocking birds — as a general thing are greedy, and scrupulous Tnt: Dutch Bullfinch THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 279 care must be given to the quantity of food that is provided for them when placed in captivity. The linnet called " Little Pope " {Fringilla linaria) is distinguishable from the one called " Little Brother" {F. montium) by a black patch on the chin and a red skull, both birds being of a fine reddish brown. Though they do not sing, they have their place in the aviary, where their colors give infinite pleasure. In Germany it was formerly the fashion, as it still is elsewhere, to have competitions of singing birds, for which breeders were in the habit of putting out the of violet-brown specks. The bird can be taught all sorts of tunes, provided respect is paid to his caprices ; that is to say, the same gestures, the same flatteries, the same little coaxing words, must be used, and even the same coat should be worn when the lessons are given ! Well- taught bullfinches are worth their weight in gold. A great trade in them is carried on by the poorer classes of Thuringia. From the zoological point of view the^rZ/fw- Jiavtmcr or bnntitiff (Einbrrica citrinclla) is a link between the finch and the hirk. In its wild M ' i m The Si-ring W.vgtail eyes of the shyest species with the false and cruel idea that blindness improved their song. The huUfiiiih is a queer fellow in an aviary, and full of self-importance in a cage. Still it is easy to keep him in captivity and to raise his young. He is very nervous, it is true, and he flutters about continually ; but if we once know his peculiar tastes (all finches differ materially in their choice of food), these birds with their beautiful colors are easy to raise and well worth their price. They rival many of the tropical birds in color. The bullfinch of the north of Europe {Pyrrhuhi vulgaris) is much larger than the bullfinch of this country. The eggs are greenish blue, with a little circle state it lives among reeds, and is more or less squat in figure. Thanks to its beautiful yellow color and its very soft, melodious whistle, it is very acceptable in the aviary, though in captiv- it)' it is apt to lose one or both of its gifts. The yellow-hammer {^Colaptcs iniratus) is not often caged, and belongs to the woodpecker family. The species called the 7cngtails (Motaci/la) are the agriculturists among smaller birds, especially across the water. They follow the plowman along the furrows, and will even jump between the legs of the horses. And yet, though very eager, they are shy and alert. They are constantly wagging their heads and tails ; hence their name. Though the yellow 28o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Lark wagtail is an ornament to the aviary, the same cannot be said of the white species, which man is not allowed to catch in most countries. The brown lark {Anthus pennsylvanicus) is found throughout North America, but is accidental in Europe. People say that the lark is well fitted for cage life simply because they want to enjoy its ravishing song. This is not so. Of all the birds of heaven it should be free ; only then can the full beauty of its song be known. Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! Bird thou never wert, That from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. Teach me half the gladness That thy soul must know,. Such harmonious madness From my lips would flow. The world would listen then as I am listening now. The spring without larks is no spring at all, and though they make their nests close to the ground they rise very high in the air to announce triumphantly the day's re- newal. But sweetest of all is it to hear them in the open country when " the pale purple evening melts around their flight." Those who choose may keep them many years in cages if fed on seeds, verdure. of various kinds, and roots, with plenty of sand or turf on the floor of the cage. The songsters and whistlers that we have now mentioned will not begin to fill an aviary. But how can we describe in this limited space the numerous exotic birds that ought to be in it ? We cannot even enumerate them, but must pass to their larger comrades, the parrots and cockatoos. VIII. Parrots and Cockatoos The first recorded informa- tion that we have about par- rots is in a description of a festival given at Alexandria in Egypt two hun- dred and eighty-four years before Christ. In the reign of Alexander the Great they were brought from Egypt to Greece. In Rome they were articles of luxury, exchanged sometimes for a slave. The cooked heads of parrots made a feast for Heliogabalus and his lions, who re- ceived their share, as they hkewise did of T iU .'^ The Goldfinch From a pastel by Juii van Uort Tlir: I'.IRDS OF THE AVIARY 281 peacocks. In the present da)- parrot soup is the choice dish of Cuba. A parrot was seen for the first time in Eng- land in 1504; and in 1704 there appeared in Amsterdam a parrot of a species still very rare, the black parrot of Neio Cuima. Nowadays the parrot is universally known and esteemed as a house bird, because his sociable humor and his gift of speech, together with the inter- est he takes in the members of the household and their doings, make him really very amusing Tin: \\\\\ 1 r.\u< ujuKT and interesting. In aviaries the various exist- ing species, of which many have a truly Oriental magnificence of color, are a joy to the eye, and form a brilliant collection that can hardly be surpassed. The innumerable species now acclimated and bred in many countries are difficult to describe with precision. We know the principal species to be the gray parrot, or jako (Psittaciis eritliacus), with its astonishing facility in speech, the gray Amasou with yellow head and blue forehead, very popular in seaports, the au-k- atoo with the great curved beak, the //;//' cockatoo of un- certain temper, but cheap, the white-tufted species, and that with a yellow tuft. < k ^ \ y Gr.AV r.AROOUKT, OR POLI. PARROT Among the smaller parrots with long tails is the Nezo Holland {Psittacus Xovae Hollaiidiae), a very beautiful aviary bird which is particularly easy to feed. All the smaller parrots are espe- cially suited to aviaries, which they fill with gayety and color. The undulated parrot [Psitta- cus undiilatus), so called, can be bought very cheap ; since Gould imported them into Europe TiiF. Gki.i.n r.\U( 282 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Starling in 1840 they have spread far and near. They are generally green, but other species are raised which are very handsome, among them the whites and the blues. They are made to hatch (as do most of the parrot race) in closet nests, because in the natural state they raise their young in hollows. If persons have but one parrot, it is best not to use the traditional round cage, but a square one with a flat roof. It is not at necessary that the perches should be of metal. It is true that the birds take delight in gnawing wooden ones, but what of that ? When the perches fly into splinters new ones can be inserted, and, in any case, parrots must be sup- plied with bits of wood. They must also have plenty of sand and rust is as bad for them for other birds. Then why use cages ? The larger species should be . _ ^ ^ Si- ^ Trained Crow fed with rice, Indian corn, and hemp ; the smaller ones with canary seed and oats. Parrots surely mark the limit of the various races that may still be reckoned among domes- tic animals. Other species of decorative birds are found in aviaries, where, bred and brought up in captiv- ity, they know no other home than that with man. Among them are pheasants, peacocks, and certain gallinaceous fowls that are never fully tamed. But can these be termed domestic animals ? For the pheasant of our woods, the wild bird we hunt, the answer must certainly be in the negative. Among the decorative pheasants, kept for their beauty, the best known are the golden pheasant ( T/ian- malea picta), very difficult to raise, and the diamond, copper, and silver pheasants, and all of these are brilliant in color, quick in their movements, and very self-conscious in manner. Peacocks were once the great adornment of parks and country houses, and the cool tints of their displayed plumage had an indescrib- able charm and beauty. The common peacock {Pavo cristatns) is either of a metallic green- ish blue or wholly white. The well-known ostentatious parading of the cock before the hen and his coquettish hops and jumps are curious to behold Other birds are disturbed by them and will not have any- thing to do with these proud, ^^ self-conscious denizens of the poultry yard and shrub- beries, but will wander away from them outside of the park, if permitted, thinking their own thoughts on the subject. Neither the croiv nor the mag- pie nor the starling is admitted into the aviary for lack of brilliant color ; yet they are much nearer to being domestic animals than the pheas- ant or the peacock. The crow, especially, allows hirtiself to be taught and trained, while great amusement can be got out of the starling when his true value is appreciated. He can whistle, THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 283 cniak, ami talk for the pleasure of )'oiing and old, and he is one of the chief deiin'hts of man\- a cottage home. The magpie, given to scoffing, and addicted to strange, improper expressions which he picks up here and there, is not a \ery comfortable creature near a house ; he will e\en peck his master with his sharp beak, and, like the crow, steals every sparkling thing he sees, from a pair of scissors to a diamond ring. Much cau- tion must be shown in the feeding of these birds. They need raw meat, but if too much is given their naturalU' bail temper grows worse. From remote times the crow has phiN'ed a great pari among peo].)les and popular beliefs. In Germany, when he flies in a circle it is thought to be a sign of war. Crows live in couples, and it sel- dom hajspens that they flock together, although it is said that they assemble in Iceland in the autumn to decide where each couple is to settle. The magpies were formerly thought to be birds of ill omen. They brought disaster to the houses they flew over, and if nine gathered together one of them was sure to be a witch. Peacock's feathers, but not the bird itself, are still held to bring trouble to the household. These birds are very long-lived, usuall)- living from twenty to twenty-four \ears ; but crows antl rooks, especially rooks, are believed to exist for two centuries. The Crow and thk Rook XII PIGEONS I. In Past and Present Times Though the pigeon comes at the end of this work, and consequently after many other of our domestic animals, both quadrupeds and bipeds, it is not because it is less worthy of esteem. Unlike the gallinaceous tribes, the pigeon, by its docility and its readiness to approach man, is a better domestic animal in the literal sense of the word than most of our other feathered friends. Yet the pigeon has a quality that enables him, whenever he chooses, to break off instantly, and with far more ease than our other domestic birds, the ties of friendship that unite him to house and family. He can fly with a rapidity and to a distance unat- tainable by man — so long as the science of bal- looning is in its infancy. It is difficult to say when the pigeon was first known as a domestic animal. We know certain that he was such in ] toric times, so that his taming must date back to the youth of our planet. All pigeon races descend from a wild pigeon still existing, the rock pigeon, called also the wood pigeon, or ringdove. This species is spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa ; but it is found especially, and in vast numbers, among the islands of the tropical seas. In view of the incredible variety of species, it is almost incom- prehensible how they could all have come from one stock ; yet the fact was proved by Darwin. The earliest mention of tamed pigeons is, according to Professor Lepsius, the famous Egyptologist, during the period of the Third Dynasty ; consequently, three thousand years before Christ. The Dr.vgon Pigeon The wild pigeon is noted for its very bad nests. Legend says that, finding it impossible to make a good one, and seeing the skill with which the magpie made hers, he asked her to be so good as to give him lessons. The mag- pie consented to this on condition that the pigeon should give her a cow. The pigeon agreed ; but after watching the magpie a few moments he said he had learned enough, and refused to keep his promise. A judge was sum- moned, and having decided that the pigeon had no right to receive further instruction, the latter has, ever since, made shock- ingly bad nests. Tame pigeons, so frequent in Greece since the end of the fifth century before Christ, were long before that held sacred in the countries of Asia. They were kept in great flocks around the temples of Aphro- dite, and in Syria no one dared lay hands on them. They first came to Europe through Italy, where great numbers of white and colored doves were kept around the temple of Eryx in Sicily. From Italy they spread through Europe, following the power and civilization of the Romans. Christianity adopted them as its symbol, while popular belief regarded the white dove as the bearer of souls to heaven, and feared his colored brother, the rock pigeon, as a bird of ill omen. In Venice, that semi-Greek city, clouds of pigeons still inhabit the cupola of the church of San Marco and the roof of the Doges' palace, and woe to him who tries to catch or to harm them ! Nevertheless, in spite of these honors and of the affection he inspires, the pigeon has 284 286 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS much esteemed as the fowl or the other denizens of the poultry yard. II. The Domestic Pigeon The domestic pigeon, as it moves about in perfect liberty, presents a slender but not thin body, with no shyness or timidity in its movements. There is, in fact, some- thing massive and assured in its approach, small as it is. Its brilliant colors — blue, gray, white, or brown — charm the eye ; its decided step, its solid legs (though agile and touching the earth lightly), and its sudden flights, with heavy beat of wing, distinguish it from all other birds when in the vicinity of man. Thanks to its piercing sight, it can distinguish at great distances a seed or a pea, which it picks up daintily, never scratching the soil like hens. If we watch the pigeon in his flight we shall learn many things about the manner in which he turns in circles and curves, resting on his outspread wings ; and it is not surprising that those who call them- selves the " pioneers of aeronautics " should have gone to the school of pigeons to learn how to fiy quickly and gracefull)'. The keenness of the pigeon's eye and his rapid motions are really the only means of defense on which he can rely. His beak is not sharp enough to fight with, and his claws are of no use at all. The rapidity of his flight alone enables him to escape the enemy whom his sharp eyes have quickly discov- ered. It is remarkable that the pigeon's eggs are not of a color that protects them, being always a pure white. It is true, how- ever, that the ringdove usually deposits her eggs in such inaccessible places that wild creatures and birds of prey find it difficult to reach them. III. Abode, Food, and Treatment Like all other domestic animals bred for pleasure or utihty, pigeons require cleanli- never attained in Europe or America the com- ness, and the condition of their dovecote must mercial and agricultural importance of the gal- be watched incessantly. Whether large or small, linaceous birds. Yet as food he is at least as simple or artistic, it must, in the first place, not Common Do.mestic Pigeons PIGEONS 287 bo too low; then it must have several openings ti) the south and east ; it should not be made wholly of wood, nor should it be difficult of access to the owner. It is of little consequence whether it be raised in a corner of the garden, or on the roof, or in some angle of the house. A cement floor, partitions also of cement, and an absolutely tight roof cannot be too urgently recommended for a dovecote of any dimensions. The floor should be covered with a layer of sand (not too fine), and if there are maii_\' pigeons in the same compart- ment, partitions must be so arranged as to prevent couples from fighting before the open- ings of these compartments. The older the pigeons grow the less chance there is of such combats. As for nests, they can be made of all sorts of artificial things, and are quite cheap. In a good pigeon h(.)use it should be easv to remove nests, perches, doors, etc., in order to make a thorough cleaning every fortnight and so prevent vermin, which do so much harm. The parti- tions should be whitewashed now and then, and frequent use should be made of some insecticide powder. As for food, ever}' breeder has his own opinion. Beans, peas, corn, a mixed diet of potatoes, oats, barley, and, for a dainty, hemp seed, each and all give \aricty to pigeon food ; but the pigeon himself will peck at many other things when he flies away, and will be the better for it. In any case it is neces- sary to be regular in the distribution of food, and to renew daily the ample supply of drinking water. Nor should baths be forgotten, w-ithout which no healthy pigeon will ever feel at home. The male bird builds the nest himself, and when the female has laid two eggs she begins to brood. The male takes her place now and then, but not ffir long. The first young pigeon issues from the egg from the si.xteenth to the nineteenth du_\-, comi)letel\' blind and helpless. ■?f '■■0^ «•* Vv%i' ^-r^' '^ .W. -; ' Vff; A CORNKR OF TlIK (."..\K1 >1;N Its first food is a sort of broth secreted in the crop of its ])arents ; and it requires great care, as much from the male and female birds as from the owner.-;. I\'. So.ME Species Before naming some of the more beautiful species presented to us by the rich family of PIGKONS 289 and white have their turn. l-Jul wliat \'ariety in each of llicni ! What blues, for instance, from iJLjht to dark, gra\' bhie, purple blue, siKery blue, etc. ! And yellow contributes also lo stripe, spot, and ring, with a variety of shades that ania/.e those who A Loft ok Fancy Pigeons pigeons, it is well to refer to the commoner kinds, — the ringdove, wood pigeon or cushat, the turtledove, and the laughing dove. The first is found wherever fir trees grow. It is bluish gray, with two white rings around its neck. The second, the turtledove, is rather smaller, brownish gray in color, and the rings, four in number, are black with white edges. The third, or laughing dove, is a species of turtledove liv- ing in the sandy deserts of eastern Africa and taking the color of the sand. As for the color of pigeons in general, blue, black, red, gray, }X'Ilow, TUK C.AKKUIK FKJEON undertake to distinguish breeds and species. White also plays an imjiortant part. Some- times the head is all white, or merely the breast, wings, neck, or tail, as in the capuchin pigeon. Let us begin a \er\' limited list with pigeons of a single color and mention, first, the beautiful ScoTcn I'loi'.oNs 290 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS white dragon, for instance, and the vioiidaiu pigeon, of a light bkie powdered with a white tint of marvelous beauty, making the tip of each feather look as though it were touched with hoarfrost. The eyes of this breed are dark brown, the shade of which varies as in all pigeons, according to the darker or lighter tint of the body feathers The cream color of the spectacled pigeon is also very beautiful. This bird usually has a dark brown design on its breast resembling a pair of spectacles. A like design appears on the lark pigeon, called also the Cobnrg pigeon. The Polish pigeon usually black, though some are blue or speckled. The starling-necked pigeons are much in demand in Germany, where they have smooth shining heads, while English breeders prefer them with tufts or hoods. They are dark blue bordering on black, with a metal- lic luster and a white half-moon upon the breast. The capuchin pigeon has a white hood and tail, and as he is also supplied with a species of dark tuft on his forehead (some- times two) he presents a very singular appear- ance. The 7nagt>ie pigeons also have white hoods and wings ; so have the sivallow pigeons, which bear not the slightest resem blance to swallows, and come in all possible colors. The masked pigeon is white with a colored face and tail, likewise the Nuremberg variety. All the species we have now named are subdivided into others too numer- \ ous to mention here. Agreeable va- rieties are the Russian drum pigeon, which does not coo, but gives vent to its humor in sounds resembling the roll of a drum, and the DjitcJi tumbler pigeon of the Netherlands. It is curious to see how the latter perform their aerial gymnastics. They fly to great heights with the rapidity of an arrow ; then they turn at right angles, make a somersault, sometimes two, and soar again, describing curves and circles in the air; then suddenly they drop to earth in almost a straight line, stop short, hover awhile on their outstretched wings, and begin the play again. Nothing is more diverting than to watch a covey of these tumblers in the azure air; I'er do they weary of the game, which the)- often keep up for hours. As for their color, it varies so much that our limited space will not allow us to say any- thing about it. The distinction between tumblers with long beaks and those with short beaks explains itself ; but these divisions are divided again, the first into white-winged, white-bearded, magpie, striped, Hanoverian, and Viennese tumblers ; the second into German, Eng- lish, almond- colored, Little Nun, and Jacobin tumblers, so that a volume would be needed for this race alone. The turbit, or frilled, pigeons, of various colors, are known by many names the world over. They are not large, but are very active and well shaped. Their heads are rather angu- and the feathers of the breast are frizzed shirt frill, hence their name. They re much admired at exhibitions. Another choice species, also in de- mand for exhibitions, is the pea- cock, or fan-tailed, pigeo7t ; its jrincipal colors are white, blue, or black, and the chief breeds are the English, Scotch, Ger- man, and French, all of which carry their tails spread out like fans or the tails of peacocks. The Tumbler Pigeox, Old Dutch Breed The Magpie Pigeon A Dovi-.coTi-; AT A I'Koi'i.u F.r.r.vATioN 292 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS V. Pouter Pigeons All pigeons keep their food for a long time in a sack within their breast. Their organs of digestion are so made as to complete the The Dwarf Pouter Pigeon of Amsterdam work their feeble beaks have left unfinished. They all have, more or less, a frontal protuber- ance formed by two lateral appendices to the esophagus. In addition they have an upper stomach fastened to the esophagus, which receives the food, softens, and liquefies it ; thence it passes into the masticating stomach. These internal arrangements protrude the breast, and those species which swell their chests until their heads are thrown back and nothing is seen in front but these unnatural protuberances are called, in English, pouter pigeons, from the sulky, pouting air this atti- tude conveys. They may be regarded as the product of artificial breeding much practiced in central Europe, although American breed- ers have given to these birds so monstrous a shape that the English pouter is an alien among the foreign birds of his own race. Nevertheless he is sometimes sold ior his weight in gold. The English bird is long and lank in the legs, and is distinguished more by the shape of his feet, his attitude, and the oval of his breast than by the color of his plumage. The original Dutch pouter is not long-legged, and his protuberant breast is spherical like that of certain other German species. The head of the English bird is relatively small, and it is essential with breeders that he shall stand erect and hold his wings pressed tightly against his body. Our breeders insist that a pair of pouters must produce young with legs and feet exactly similar to the fixed type. Singular to say, the male and female obey his behest "so implicitly that their young as they develop have legs, feet, and claws of the exact prescribed length, while all their other points are brought to a preordained perfection that is nothing short of miraculous. The French pouter and the B runner breed have become of late quite serious rivals to the other species of pouter pigeons. Of what use are these strange -looking pouters 1 Solely, it appears, to furnish proof of the power of man to interfere with the nature of animals by steady and reflective application of breeding experiments. We have here a monstrous transformation, which renders the creature unfit for any natural use to which it might be put. Nevertheless, such ^^y^ The Almond Pigeon changes can be so confirmed as to give, in the end, hereditary quahties. Pigeons used for scientific experiments, especially the pouter PIGEONS 293 pigeons, t