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PE 1109 
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1835 
Copy 1 



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PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



IN WHICH THE 



PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY LINDLEY MURRAY 



ARE INCULCATED, AND THE 



THEORY OF THE MODES 



CLEARLY ILLUSTRATED BY DIAGRAMS, REPRESENTING THE NUMBER OF 

TENSES IN EACH MODE — THEIR SIGNS — AND THE MANNER 

IN WHICH THEY ARE FORMED. 



By ROSCOE G. GREENE. 



First Stereotype Edition 



HALLOWELL, ME. 

GLAZIER, MASTERS & SMITH 
BOSTON: GOULD, KENDALL &, LINCOLN.— NEW YORK: EZRA 
COLLIER, — PHILADELPHIA: HOG AN & THOMPSON.— 
HARTEORD : D. BURGESS & CO. 

1-836. 






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UNITED STATES OiTaMERICA. 









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PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



IN WHICH THE 

PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY LINDLEY MURRAY 

ARE INCULCATED, AND THE 

THEORY OF THE MODES 

CLEARLY ILLUSTRATED BY DIAGRAMS, REPRESENTING THE NUMBER 

OF TENSES IN EACH MODE THEIR SIGNS — AND THE 

MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE FORMED. 






BY ROSCOE G: GREENE. 



jHtst <S ter eo tg j> e 3BTr f tf o n. 



Vc 



HALLOWELL, ME. 
GLAZIER, MASTERS, & SMITH. 

BOSTON: GOULD, KENDALL, & LINCOLN.— NEW YORK: EZRA COLLIER. 
PHILADELPHIA: HOGAN & THOMPSON.— HARTFORD : 
D. BURGESS & CO. 

1835. 



2 
v 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, 

By Roscoe G. Green k, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maine. 



y. 



<\i 



G> 



RECOMMENDATIONS. " 



^ 



The Publishers solicit the attention of the public to the following cer- 
tificates of recommendation, given either by gentlem m who have wit- 
nessed the sffects of Mr. Greene's system by a personal and critical 
examination of pupils instructed upon it — or by practical teachers, 
who have tested its utility by using it in their schools. 

"Messrs. Coliwan, Holden, & Co. 

" It has been suggested to me that you intend to publish the former part of 
Mr. Roscoe G. Greene's Grammar, as a Text-Book for the younger class 
of pupils. 

" This Grammar, in all its parts, needs no recommendation from myself. Its 
best praise is, that no other Grammar has to my knowledge been substituted 
for this, where it has been once introduced ; and I am 01 the opinion that no 
other can be substituted without injury. 

" Of all who have bestowed but even a cursory examination of the masterly 
manner in which the subject is presented to the mind of the pupil, I never 
knew an individual to withhold the fullest expression of his approbation. It 
unites in an eminent degree the qualities of comprehensiveness and concise- 
ness, of vigor and simplicity. The cheapness of the former part, printed sep- 
arately, will remove every impediment to the introduction of either the smaller 
or larger Grammar into every school throughout the State, as soon as its merits 
are known. B. CUSHMAN," 

Principal of the Portland Academy. 



" Mr. R. G. Greene has been for several years advantageously known 
for his success in teaching the principles of grammar. In his Grammar, of 
which a new and improved edition is now published, he has exhibited his own 
mode of teaching in so perspicuous and intelligible a manner, that any other 
teacher may easily pursue the same mode with similar success. The excel- 
lence of this method consists in presenting one thing only at a lime, and that 
perfectly ; thus giving to the pupil a clear and distinct comprehension of every 
principle, before he advances to a new one. Under each rule he leaves noth- 
ing unexplained, which is necessary to be known, without embarrassing the 
subject with explanations that are unnecessary. The diagrams illustrating 
the variations of the verbs have the advantage of speaking to the eye as well 
as the understanding ; and aid the learner at once in comprehending and re- 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 6 

membering the distinction of the tenses. His Grammar is far best, for begin- 
ners, of any with which I am acquainted : and I am happy to learn, that the 
public is beginning to be sensible of its merits ; and that it is fast taking the 
place of the Grammars that have been, hitherto, used in our schools. 

ASHUR WARE," 
Judge of the U. S. District Court for Maine District, 
Formerly Professor of Languages in Harvard College. 
« Portland, June 30, 1832." 



" We have had the pleasure of witnessing the success of Mr. Roscoe G. 
Greene's mode of teaching English Grammar, by occasional examinations of 
a class of young pupils, in this town, to whom he was giving instruction or* 
the subject. Although they had received but few lessons, and devoted little 
time to the study, the distinctness and accuracy with which they comprehend- 
ed whatever they had gone over, was strongly contrasted with the indefmite- 
ness and confusion which is usually perceptible in the minds of beginners, and 
demonstrated the excellence of the system of instruction adopted by Mr. 
Greene. 

" In his Grammar he has selected the general principles or definitions, which 
are necessary to be first understood by the learner, arranged them in a natural 
and progressive order, and presented them unencumbered loith superfluous 
mutter, and, at the same" time, illustrated by such a variety of judicious ex- 
amples for parsing, that the pupil may be made to understand clearly each 
principle as he advances. This we consider the distinguishing merit of the' 
work, adapting it, in a superior degree, to the wants of our schools, and rec- 
ommending it to the favorable notice of the public. 

BENJAMIN TAPPAN,) Superintending 
ALLEN PUTNAM, V School Committee 
J. W. BRADBURY, ) of Augusta." 
" Augusta, Dec. 29, 1832." 



" Mr. Hydk, 

11 Sir: In answer to your request to the School Committee of Portland,, 
in relation to Greene's Grammar, I am directed by that Board to reply, that 
it was introduced into our Public Schools more than three years since, and 
that it has superseded all others which were in use in said schools. 
Respectfully yoiirs, 

CHARLES HOLDEN, 

Secretary of the School Committee. 
" Portland, June 1, 1832." 



" Greene's Grammar. — We have examined this book with great satis- 
faction. It is a decided advance upon all the other grammatical works which 
we have seen. It does not aim at new principles, but it introduces a new and 
improved arrangement of the parts of speech, and, by means of some visible 
representations, presents to the learner the powerful aids of association. Defi- 
nitions and rules are expressed in familiar language. Elementary works are 
often rendered unintelligible, and therefore irksome, by the premature use of 
scientific and technical words, of which the learner has never heard, and 
which are themselves to be explained in some subsequent page. To take a 
single instance ; what idea of the Article can a child form, by learning that it 
is a word prefixed to a Noun, while as yet he has never been informed what 
a Noun is ? This evil, which is of frequent occurrence, Mr. Greene has hap- 
pily avoided. Parsing is connected with every exercise in this book, and the 
reasoning powers, rather than the memory, are called into action. 

" The great theorem in the philosophy of the human mind, that only one thing 
can be learned at one time, is the basis of Mr. Greene's arrangement. Ac- 



4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

cordingly the work is divided into lessons, in each of which a distinct piece of 
instruction is presented, care being taken that it contain no allusion to things 
which are yet to be learned. A method by which thought is directed singly 
and unconfusedly to a particular subject, till that subject be understood, is the 
perfection of teaching. 

•■ The foregoing opinion of Mr. Greene's book has been formed, not mereh T 
from examining the work itself, but also from witnessing, to some extent, in 
his grammar class in this town, the ease and pleasure with which the pupils 
appeared to imbibe the principles inculcated in his series of lessons. We are 
gratified that this book is already so much in use. It is now in its third edi 
tion. We commend it to the public, believing that its introduction into our 
schools will be a valuable advancement in the means of diffusing a knowledge 
of the English Grammar. SAMUEL E. SMITH, 

NATHAN WESTON, 
ASA REDINGTON, Jr. 
JOHN POTTER, 
WILLIAMS EMMONS. 
DANIEL WILLIAMS, 
LUTHER SEVERANCE. 
EDMUND T. BRIDGE, 
" Augusta, January, 1833. JAMES BRIDGE, Jr." 



" Having introduced the Grammar of Mr. R. G. Greene into the school un- 
der my charge, and tested its utility in communicating a knowledge of the 
principles of English Grammar to beginners in the study of that science, I gave 
it as my opinion, that his arrangement of the subject matter, and particularly 
his mode of illustrating the modes and tenses of the verbs, were far prefera- 
ble to any other which I had seen, and that I believed that wherever his book 
was used and his plan pursued, much time and labor would be saved both to 
the teacher and the pupil. Since that time, now upwards of three years, I 
have continued to use the work in my school, and the result has been fully to 
confirm me in the opinions I had expressed. 

" This work offers important advantages in another respect, not to be de- 
rived from any other with which I am acquainted, particularly to those engaged 
in our common schools; which, in the present order of things, are committed 
to the charge, for the most part, of persons whose acquaintance with the sci- 
ence of teaching must necessarily be limited. The arrangement of the les- 
sons being natural, regular and progressive, and the directions given over each 
being clear and distinct, the labors of any teacher, well versed in the principles 
of English Grammar, if he follow these directions, cannot fail to be attended 
with complete success. H. JACKSON," 

Teacher of the Monitorial School JYo. 1. 

« Portland, April 28th, 1832." 



" I have examined Mr. Greene's l Practical Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage,' with much pleasure and satisfaction — and am decidedly of opinion 
that it is much better adapted to the wants of youth in acquiring a grammatical 
knowledge of our language, than any system 1 have met with ; and, having 
witnessed the success of his mode of teaching, at a personal examination of a 
class of young pupils under his instruction, I do not hesitate to recommend the 
work for introduction into the public schools of this State. 

" Augusta, January 4, J 833. ALBERT SMITH." 



" Having examined the Grammar recently published by Roscoe G. Greene, 
Esq., and having heard the recitations of a class under his care, we are pre- 
pared to recommend his system of Grammar to the favorable notice of the 
public, and to the attention of the Agents and Teachers of our common schools, 



RECOMMENDATIONS* 5 

in particular, as better calculated to facilitate learners in acquiring this branch 
of knowledge than any other now in use, with which we are acquainted. 

LEMUEL PORTER, Jr. 
" Augusta, Jan. 1, 1833. J. C. MORRILL." 



" Messrs. Shirley & Hyde, 

" Gentlemen : Having used Mr. Greene's Grammar in my School for a num- 
ber of months past, I do not hesitate to say that, for its simplicity and concise- 
ness, (the two most essential requisites in a Text Book for Schools,) I consider 
it entitled to a high degree of merit. 

JOSEPH LIBBEY," 

Teacher Classical School. 



" Having attended an examination of a class of young pupils, who had re- 
ceived twenty lessons in English Grammar from their instructor, Mr. R. Q. 
Greene, I am able to express my entire concurrence in the opinion heretofore 
certified from various quarters in regard to his qualification and success in this 
department of instruction. I have never witnessed any other instance of such 
proficiency in so short a time. Mr. Greene's instruction illustrates, very for- 
cibly, the importance of presenting a complicated subject to young minds in 
distinct and successive portions, and of constantly calling the attention to the 
reasons and general principles which appertain to that subject." • 

Hon. « JOSEPH G. KENDALL, A. M." 

Late a Tutor in Harvard College. 

" Leominster (Ms.), May 24, 1823." 



TJic following is from the Daily Courier (Portland) of Jan. 18th, 1831. 

" Greene's Grammar. — We would call the attention of our readers to 
the notices, in the advertising columns of this paper, of an English Grammar 
by R-oscoe G. Greene. We have been acquainted with Mr. Greene, and his 
mode of instruction in English Grammar, for seven or eight years, and cheer- 
fully record our testimony with the writers .of the notices alluded to, in favor 
of the value of the work, and the worthiness of the author. This Grammar is 
used in the principal Public Schools in this town by direction of the School 
Committee, and has also been introduced into many of the private schools. 
And we understand it has been adopted to considerable extent in the schools in 
other parts of the State. 

£; On this subject at least, we are decidedly in favor of the " American System," 
and are so much in favor of encouraging domestic manufactures, that when 
we find a citizen among us has prepared a book better suited to the instruc- 
tion of our children, than any imported, we are disposed to use it, and to rec- 
ommend it to the use of others. We therefore recommend to all who are 
interested in schools to examine the Grammar in question." 



u Portland English High School, Feb. 25, 1830. 
" To the Publishers, — 

" Gentlemen : I cannot better express my opinion of Mr. R. G. Greene's 
Grammar than by assuring you that I highly approve the School Committee's 
selection of it for this school. J. M. PURINTON, Teacher." 



" Portland, June 5, 1832. 
"Mr. Greene, — Sir: I have examined your English Grammar, and am 
prepared to say, that I consider it the simplest and best arranged introduction 
to a grammatical knowledge of our language, which I have yet had occasion 
to use in my school. JAMES FURBISH," 

Principal of the Female High School. 



b RECOMMENDATIONS. 

" The undersigned, having witnessed the examination of a class in English 
Grammar under the tuition of Mr. R, G. Greene of this town, and feeling de- 
sirous to promote the diffusion of the best principles of education, as well as to 
do an act of justice to Mr. Greene as an instructor, deem it proper to state the 
following facts : — 

lt - The class examined in our presence consisted of seven ladies. They had 
received twenty daily lessons, of one hour each, and stated that they had not 
devoted more than one additional hour to the study, upon an average, each day, 
making the whole not to exceed forty hours. Most of them, when they com- 
menced this course of lessons, were entirely unacquainted with the principles 
of Grammar. They now appeared to be familiar with all the parts of speech 
and their various modifications, could readily parse any simple construction of 
the English language, and answer the most difficult questions with respect to 
the formation of the several modes and tenses. 

" It appeared to us that the progress of this class, for the time they had de- 
voted to the study, had been much greater than is usually made in our schools 
under the ordinary mode of instruction, and we cheerfully recommend to pub- 
lic patronage both the system and the man." 

"ALBION K. PARRIS," Governor of the State of Maine. 
Rev. " ASA RAND," Editor Boston Recorder. 
"SEBA SMI 

" Portland, July 29. 1823." 



u At the request of Mr. R. G. Greene, we visited a school instructed by 
him in English Grammar. He appears to us well qualified for performing this 
duty. From the rapid proficiency made by his pupils, and from the critical 
and thorough examination which we attended, we cheerfully recommend his 
course of instruction, as highly favorable for young men and women, who, in 
the present arrangement of our schools, have but a short season for literary 
improvement.' 

"NATHANIEL THAYER," D. D. 

" NATHANIEL WOOD," A. B., Late Tutor Harvard Coll. Cam. 

" Lancaster (Ms.), Jan. 11, 1823." 



" Dear Sir : So far as I have had opportunity to examine } r our Grammar 
of the English Language, I am satisfied that, while it does not, and should not, 
aim at originality of matter, its arrangements, and very appropriate examples 
for illustration, will be found by the teacher well adapted to lead the learner. 
step by step, through the elementary forms of the language, till he is able to 
understand, if not in some cases to anticipate, the generalizations which arc 
given in that part of the Treatise which follows the elementary instructions. 
Respectfully, your obedient servant, 
S. ADAMS," 
Principal of the High School for Females. 
" Mr. R. G Grkknk. 

" Portland, December 18, 1828." 



" Having attended an examination of young pupils instructed in English 
Grammar upon Mr. Greene's system, we fully concur in the opinion expressed 
in the preceding testimonials in regard to the merits of his work. 
ALLEN H. COBB, ) 

NATHANIEL CLARK, f Members of 

A LFRED 1 ' I E RCE , > Executive Council 

CHARLES PKAVEY. V for 1832. 

SAMUEL P. STRICKLAND," ) 
" Augusta, January, 1832." 



PREFACE. 



A competent knowledge of the Grammar of the English language, is now consider- 
ed so essential a part of a business education, that no apology for attempting to render 
the acquisition of it less difficult to beginners is deemed necessary. 

In selecting materials for the following pages, though the system of Lindley Murray 
was considered the standard, the works of other eminent writers on Grammar were 
consulted, and their opinions in some instances adopted. It was not, however, the 
object of the compiler to make innovations in the science itself, but to present an im- 
proved method of teaching it — to give to long-established principles a form more inter- 
esting and useful to the learner than any yet presented to the public. 

That oral instruction is calculated to make a more permanent impression upon the 
mind than that received solely from books, will, he thinks, be admitted by all who are 
acquainted with the difficulties of teaching this science. He has, therefore, presented 
nothing, in the first lessons, but the Definitions, Rules, and Examples, necessary for 
practice in parsing, &c, leaving - it for the instructor to supply whatever may be found 
necessary, by verbal illustration 

The verb, with beginners in the study, is found the most difficult part of Grammar 5 — • 
not in itself, but on account of the different forms which it takes, and the great variety 
of changes it undergoes in passing through the modes and tenses. In order to obviate 
these perplexities, and give facility and interest to the progress of the student, the 
compiler has formed diagrams of the several modes ; presenting, at one view, the num- 
ber of tenses in each, their signs, and the manner in which they are formed. 

The utility of these diagrams has been fully tested, and it is confidently believed, 
that, if properly used, they will be found as useful in acquiring a critical knowledge of 
the most complicated part of Grammar, as maps are in the study of Geography. 

Experience has abundantly shown to every teacher of Grammar, that learners, 
especially young learners, find much difficulty in committing to memory the variations 
of the verb, in the several modes and tenses, and still more in understanding and 
retaining them. Something more than the mere metaphysical distinction conveyed by 
words, seems to be necessary in order to render the first efforts in- this subject successful 
and pleasant. A striking view of sensible objects, under such modifications as will 
suggest and illustrate the proper distinctions, and afford, at a glance, the means of com- 
parison, must necessarily possess, for untutored minds, great advantages over the subtile, 
distilling process of words. Every person who has at all observed the operations of his 
own mind, must have felt the power of external objects in calling up a train of ideas, 
which for years before may not have recurred to him. 

Reflection will always effectually serve those, who, in disposing of their ideas, employ 
the principle of local association. When they touch upon a link of the well-united 
chain, " whether tenth or ten thousandth," they are able to follow the successive con- 
nection to each extremity. 

It is upon this unfailing principle of local association, that these diagrams are 
formed. 

"All the signs by which our thoughts are expressed," says Dugald Stewart, "are 
addressed either to the eye or to the ear - y and the impressions made on these organs, 
at the time when we first receive an idea, contribute to give us a firmer hold of it. 
Visible objects are remembered more easily than those of any other of our senses ; 
and hence it is, that the bulk of mankind are more aided in their recollection by im- 
pressions made on the eye, than by those made on the ear. Every person must have 
remarked, in studying the elements of geometry, how much his recollection of the 
theorems was aided by the diagrams which are connected with them. This advantage, 
which the objects of sight naturally have over those of hearing, in the distinctness and 
permanence of the impression which they make on the memory, eontinues, and even 
increases, through life, in the case of the bulk of mankind," 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, 



There are many particulars connected with the science of English- 
Grammar, which cannot with advantage be presented to a young learner 
at the commencement of the study of it. Next in importance to a proper 
selection of the subject matter to be presented, in an Elementary School 
Book, is a lucid and natural arrangement of its several parts. Experience 
has shown, that minuteness of detail, and unnecessary attention to mat- 
ters of secondary importance, in elementary works, have an unfavorable 
effect. The attention of the learner is thus divided, his memory over- 
burdened, his mind hurried and perplexed, and his impressions are, con- 
sequently, indistinct and confused. Most of the systems of English 
Grammar now in use are faulty in these particulars. It appears to have 
been the principal object of their authors to render the services of living 
teachers unnecessary. Instead of forming Compends suited to the wants 
of our schools, they have presented Cyclopedias on the subject, displaying 
much learning and research, but valuable only to mature minds as books 
of reference. 

By attempting to do through books what can be done to advantage by 
the living teacher only, and blending primary principles with particulars 
of minor importance, — adding to familiar lectures, notes ; remarks, observa- 
tions, and philosophical strictures, — a " wilderness of words " is presented to 
the learner, the meaning of a great part of which he is not prepared to 
understand, but is expected to learn from succeeding pages. Critical notes 
are urged upon his attention before first principles are understood, and 
exceptions to rules, before he has just views of their practical application. 
Indeed, so far have some carried this notion of "teaching by wholesale," 
that they have offered as the principal recommendation of their works, 
the fact that they "present the whole field of grammar at one view." 
However useful books of this character may be for reference, they are 
not suitable for schools. 

This work is formed on a different plan. The science is here stripped 
of every thing but the essentials. It is indeed what it professes to be — 
a Text Book for Schools. Nothing is anticipated. Each lesson prepares 
the mind of the pupil for that which is to follow, and he advances, step 
by step, from the simple to the abstruse parts of the subject. 

To impress the principles of the science on the mind of the learner 
by exercising his judgment, is the object of the work; — therefore, m the 
first lessons, no explanations are given, nor secondary distinctions made, 
that are not absolutely necessary to elucidate the Rules and Definitions* 
Being formed on the maxim, that the narrow limits of the human mind 
will not allow it to consider more than one idea at the same time,\t is par- 
ticularly adapted to the wants of beginners in the study ; and if used by 
youth of suitable age, under the direction of teachers who, knowing 
their duty, are willing to perform it (to teach their pupils rather than to 
order them to learn), it is believed that many of the difficulties, usually 
experienced in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, wilt be 
obviated. 



TO TEACHERS 



ON THE USE OF THE WORK. 



It is recommended to teachers who may use this work, to commence at 
Lesson 1. (page 16) ; not, however, by requiring their pupils to " prepare for 
recitation," by committing to memory a portion of its contents, but (after giving 
a brief explanation of the nature and object of the study, the parts into which 
it is commonly divided, &c.) by explaining to them, the nature of the Noun, 
and three of its four properties, viz. Person, Number, and Gender ; illustra- 
ting, viva, voce, the definition, by examples containing the names of such ob- 
jects of sight as are familiar to them. When the members of the Class (in 
examples thus given by the teacher) can readily distinguish the noun, they 
should be required to parse, in turn, the examples prepared for that purpose ; 
the teacher going through with the first example — that the phraseology used 
in parsing may be uniform; thus, 

" Men (are seen.)" 

Men is a noun — of the third person — plural number — masculine gender. 
(Each member of the Class will then, in his turn, parse an example in the 
same manner ; the teacher calling upon him at every step for the why and 
wherefore.) When the members of the Class can readily parse the examples 
given under Lesson I., they should be called upon to answer the questions at 
the bottom of the page ; which they will, it is thought, be enabled to do from 
the knowledge gained in the preceding exercise ; if not, they should be direct- 
ed to commit the answers to memory. The business of the Class, previous 
to the time appointed for the succeeding lesson, should not be to commit 
to memory what they cannot understand without proper explanation from 
the teacher, but to render perfectly familiar, by repeating the exercise, the 
mode of parsing the noun, and the answers to the questions relating to it 
and its properties. As the future progress of the pupils will depend, in a great 
degree, on the manner in which they acquire the first principles of the science, 
their attention should be confined to this page : they should not be permitted 
to look beyond it, as no rule nor definition should be committed to memory, 
until they are first made acquainted with its practical application. This lesson 
will require the attention of the teacher from twenty to thirty minutes, accord- 
ing to the number of members of which the Class may consist. 

Lesson II. As it is by repetition only that ideas on any abstruse sub- 
ject can be permanently fixed in the youthful mind, the exercises at Les- 
son II. should be commenced by repeating Lesson 1. — slowly and distinctly 
parsing the examples, and answering the questions as before. This being- 
done, the teacher will explain, in as few words as possible (and make himself 
understood by the Class), the nature of the Adjective, its office, and its con- 
nection with the noun; illustrating his remarks by introducing, as in the pre- 
ceding lesson, the names of familiar objects, the qualities of which are ob- 
vious to the senses. This done, the teacher will parse the first example (on 
page 17), and apply Rule 1 ; thus, 

(i Large ships (are seen.)" 



10 TO TEACHERS. 

Large is an adjective, and helongs to ships. (Repeat Rule 1.) Ships is a 
noun — of the third person — plural number — neuter gender. Each member 
of the Class should then, in his turn, be required to parse an example in the 
same manner. When this exercise is fully understood, the questions thereon, 
at the bottom of the page, should be answered, as in Lesson 1. In introdu- 
cing each succeeding lesson, the teacher should proceed in the same manner, 
showing the practical application of every ncic principle, and rendering those 
before advanced more familiar by repetition. Thus will the Class proceed 
understandingly, and, consequently, with satisfaction, step by step, from the 
simple to the complicated parts of the study. The teacher should on no ac- 
count allow his pupils to proceed to a new lesson, until the cne under con- 
sideration is thoroughly understood. The confusion and perplexity which 
would be the consequence of so doing, would have a tendency to destroy in 
them all relish for the study, and render it a tedious and disagreeable task. As 
soon, therefore, as he discovers that they do not readily understand the applica- 
tion of the principles inculcated in any lesson, he should require them to re- 
view the exercises preceding it. 

Proceeding upon the principle of introducing only such parts of the subject 
as the pupil has been prepared by previous exercises to understand, the con- 
sideration of the JYcu.ter and Passive Verbs is deferred until the Active Verb 
(transitive and intransitive) is well understood. For the same reason the in- 
troduction of the Modes and Tenses is deferred until the pupil is made ac- 
quainted with the nature, government and agreement of all the parts of speech, 
as exhibited in a simple sentence. To illustrate more clearly than could be 
done by words alone, this most complicated and perplexing part of the study 
of grammar, a Diagram, representing each of the medes, is presented, 
showing the number of tenses in each, their signs, and the manner in which 
they are formed. If, instead of requiring his pupils to commit to memcry the 
conjugation of the verbs, as generally laid down in grammars (a most irk- 
some task), the teacher will call their attention to these Diagrams, and from 
these instruct them to form the several tenses of the respective modes, he will 
not only save, both to himself and them, much time and labor, but will 
find that these distinctions will be far better understood and . longer remem- 
bered. 

Explanation of the Diagram representing the Indicative Mode. 

(Page 35.) 

This Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the 
Indicative Mode. The first square represents the present tense, and. the 
second the imperfect. These being simple tenses, formed without the aid of 
auxiliaries, the squares representing them contain nothing but the pronouns 
with which, in conjugating, the verb write and its imperfect tense (wrote) are 
to be united. 

The third square represents the perfect tense; the signs cf which are hare 
and its variations. 

The perfect tense ; is formed by prefixing the sign, have, hast, or has, to the 
perfect participle {written), as is indicated by a line of reference connecting 
the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I have written; Thcu hast 
written; He has written, &c. 

The fourth square represents the pluperfect tense; the signs of which are 
had and its variations. 

The pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, had or hadst, to the 
perfect participle (n-rittm), as is indicated by a line of reference connecting 
the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I had written; Thou hadst 
written ; lie had written, &c. 

The fifth square represents the first future tense ; the signs of which are 
shall, and will, and their variations. 

The first future tense is formed by prefixing the sign, shall or icill, shall 
or wilt, to the present tense of the verb (write), as is indicated by the line of 



TO TEACHERS. 11 

reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrases, 1 shall 
or will write ; Thou shalt or wilt write ; He shall or will write, *fcc. 

The sixth square represents the second future tense ; the signs of which are 
shall have and mill have, and their variations. 

The second future tense is formed by prefixing the sign, shall have or toill 
have, to the perfect participle (written) as is indicated by the line of reference 
connecting the former with the latter— forming the phrases, I shall have writ- 
ten; Thou wilt have written; He will have written, &c. 



Explanation of the Diagram representing the Subjunctive Mode. 

(Page 37.) 

This Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the 
Subjunctive Mode. The names of these tenses are like those of the indicative ; 
viz. the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and 
the second. Each tense has the same sign, or signs, and is formed in the 
same manner as its correspondent tense in the indicative mode. 

The principal differences between the conjugation of a verb in the indicative 
mode, and that of one in the subjunctive, in the present tense, consist in the 
latter's being always preceded by a conjunction expressing a doubt, motive, 
wish, or supposition (as is indicated by the list of conjunctions given on the left of 
the diagram), and, when futurity is denoted, in the verb's not varying its termi- 
nation in the second and third person singular, as it does in the indicative. 



Explanation of the Diagram representing the Potential Mode. 

(Page 39.) 

This Diagram is divided into four squares, to represent the four tenses of 
the Potential Mode. The first represents the present tense ; the second, the 
imperfect; the third, the perfect; and the fourth, the pluperfect. 

The signs of the present tense are may and can, and their variations. 

The present tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, may 
or can, to the verb (strike), as is indicated by the line of reference connecting 
the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I may or can strike; Thou 
mayst or canst strike ; He may or can strike, <&c. 

The signs of the imperfect tense are might, could, would, and should, and 
their variations. 

The imperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, 
might, could, icould, or should, to the verb (strike), as is indicated by the line of 
reference connecting the for mer with the latter—forming the phrases, I might, 
could, would, or should strike ; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
strike ; He might, could, would, or should strike, &c. 

The signs of the perfect tense are may hace or can have, and their variations. 

The perfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, 
may have or can have, to the perfect participle (struck), as is indicated by the 
line of reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrases, 
I may have or can have struck ; Thou mayst have or canst have struck ; He 
may have or can have struck, &c. 

The signs of the pluperfect tense are might have, could have, would have, or 
should, have, and their variations. 

The pluperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, 
might have, cou'd have, would have, or should 1 have, to the perfect participle 
(struck), as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the 
latter — forming the phrases, I might have, could have, would have, or should 
have struck ; Thou mightst have, couldst have, wouldst have, or shouldst have 
struck ; He might have, could have, would have, or should have struck, &c. 



12 TO TEACHERS. 



Explanation of the Diagram representing the Infinitive Mode. 

(Page 41.) 

This Diagram is divided into two squares, to represent the tenses of the 
Infinitive Mode. The first square represents the present tense, which is 
formed by prefixing to (the sign of the infinitive mode) to the verb (go), as is 
indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the latter — 
forming the phrase, To go. 

The second square represents the perfect tense, which is formed by prefix- 
ing to have to the perfect participle (gone), as is indicated by the line of refer- 
ence connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrase, To have 
gone. 

Explanatfon of the Diagram representing the Imperative Mode. 

(Page 43.) 
The Diagrams representing the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, 
and the Infinitive Modes, are subdivided, to indicate the number of tenses in 
each mode; viz. that for the Indicative Mode, into six squares, to show that 
that mode has six tenses; that for the Subjunctive, into the same number; 
that for the Potential, into four ; that for the Infinitive, into two; but the Im- 
perative, having but one tense, the Diagram representing it remains entire. 



* # * As verbs vary for j)erson and number, as well as for mode and tense, it 
has been thought more convenient and useful (on the page opposite each Di- 
agram) to present the verb with reference to its variations for person and 
number, and afterwards to inculcate, by means of the Diagrams, the distinctions 
of mode and tense. 

(O 3 In explaining the Diagrams (see page 35), the teacher will call the 
attention of the pupil, or the class under instruction, to the figures (representing 
the Nominatives to the verb), the relative positions of which are intended to 
indicate the state of the action represented by the several tenses. For exam- 
ple : — The figure (or nominative) in the first square of the Diagram (Prcs. 
Tense) is in the act of tcriting ; as if he should say, " I (now) write ;" — that in 
the second square (Imper. Tense) some time since completed the action of wri- 
ting; as, " I wrote " (yesterday) ; — that in the third square (Perfect Tense) has 
just finished the action of writing; as, ' : I have (just) written," &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the Eng- 
lish language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and power of letters, and the just 
method of spelling words. 

A letter is a character used in writing to represent an articulate sound. 

An articulate sound is a sound of the human voice. 

In the English alphabet there are twenty-six letters ; A, B, C, D, E, F, 
G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. 

The letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly uttered by itself; as, a, e, o. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered without the 
help of a vowel ; as, b, d,f, I. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

Jfand y are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same sylla- 
ble ; as, wine, twine, youth : in other situations, they are vowels. 

The consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without the 
help of a vowel. The mutes are b, d, k,p, q, t, and c and g hard. 

A semi-vowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded with- 
out the help of a vowel. The semi-vowels are f, h,j, I, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, 
and c and g soft. Of these, I, m, n, and r, are called liquids, on account of 
the fluency of their sounds. 

SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound, and is 
either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant 

Questions. 

What is ENGLISH GRAMMAR ?— How is it divided ?— What does orthography 
teach ? — What is a letter ? — What is an articulate sound ? — How many letters are there 
in the English alphabet ? — How are the letters divided ? — What is a vowel ? — What is 
a consonant ?— What letters are vowels ? — When are w and y consonants, and when 
vowels ? — How are the consonants divided ? — What is a mute ?— Repeat them.— What 
is a semi-vowel ? — Repeat them.— What is a syllable ? 

2 



14 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of 
some idea. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds ; 
as, gram-ma-ri-an. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word of two sylla- 
bles, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a tiisyllable ; and a word 
of four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable ; as, ea in beat, ou 
in sound. 

A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which only one of the vow- 
els is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; as, eau in beau, 
iew in view. 

A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sound- 
ed ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which only one or two of 
the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or 
compound. 

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in 
the language ; as, harm, gi'eat, connect. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in 
the language ; as, harmless, greatly, connected. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded; as, watch, man. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple 
words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. 

[Qpp The pupil should noic be required to commit to memory and recite, in srnall por- 
tions, the Rules for Spelling.] 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final coi sonant ; as, staff, mill, pass ; except if, of, as, has, gas, was, 
yes, is, his, this, us, thus. 

RULE II. 

Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, do not double the 
final letter ; except add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, purr, butt, buzz, and some 
proper names. 

RULE III. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end 

Questions. 

Wliat is a WORD ? — Wliat is a word of ode syllable railed ? — What is a word of two 
syllables railed ? — Wliat is a word of three syllables called ? — What is a word of four 
or more syllables called I? — What is a diphthong? — What is a proper diphthong? — 
What is an improper diphthong 7 — What is a triphthong? — What is a proper triph- 
thong? — What is an improper triphthong ? — How are words distinguished? — What is 
1 primitive word? — What is a derivative word? — What is a simple word ? — What is 
a compound word ? — What is spelling ? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final 
consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel; as, rob, 
robber ; permit, permitting. 

X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 

RULE IV. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when 
the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an ad- 
ditional syllable ; as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited ; general, generalize. 

But I and s final are often doubled (though improperly), when the last 
syllable is not accented ; as, travel, traveller ; bias, biassed. 

rule v. 

Primitive words ending in II generally reject one I, before ful, less, ly, 
and ness ; as, skill, skilful, skilless ; full, fully, fulness. 

Words ending in any other double letter preserve it double ; as, bliss- 
ful, oddly, stiffness, carelessness. 

RULE VI. 

The final e of a primitive word is generally omitted before an ad- 
ditional termination beginning with a vowel ; as, rate, ratable ; force, 
forcible ; rave, raving. 

Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before able or ous, to preserve 
the soft sound of c and g ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable ; 
outrage, outrageous. 

RULE VII. 

The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an ad- 
ditional termination beginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness ,* 
hale, hateful ; bale, baleful. 

When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted ; as, true, 
truly ; awe, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is 
changed into i before an additional termination ; as, merry, merrier, mer- 
riest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. 

Before ing, y is retained, to prevent the doubling ofi ; as, piiy, pitying. 
Words ending in ie, dropping the e by rule vi., change i into y, for the 
same reason ; as, die, dying. 

When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed ; as, day, days ; 
valley, valleys. 

rule ijc. 

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words 
which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, recall, uphill, shellfish. 

In permanent compounds, the words fidl and all drop one I ; as, hand- 
ful, careful, always, withal : in others they retain both ; as, full-eyed, 
all-wise, save-all. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The second part of Grammar is Etymology, which treats of 
the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their 
derivation. 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats of the 
agreement and construction of words in a sentence. 



16 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON I. 

OF NOUNS. A Noun is the name of any thing that we caD 
see, taste, hear, smell, feel, or conceive of. 

The noun has four properties, viz. Person, Number, Gender and Case. 

Of Person. Person is that quality of the noun which modifies the verb. 

There are three persons, viz. the first, the second, and the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; the second, the person spoken to ; 
and the third, the person or thing spoken of. 

Of Number. Number, in grammar, is the difference of termination or 
form of a word, to express unity or plurality. 

Nouns have two numbers, viz. the singular and the plural. 

The singular number denotes but one object; the plural, more than one. 

Of Gender. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. 

There are three genders, viz. the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind ; the feminine, 
animals of the female kind; the neuter, objects neither male nor female. 

Parsing a word means pointing out the part of speech to which it belongs, 
and naming its properties, relations, &c. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil to name the part of speech given, and tell its person, number, 
and gender. 

Men ^ 

Women > are seen. 
Trees S 



Wines 
Apples 
Plums 

Music 

Thunder 

Echo 

Odor 

Incense 

Perfume 

Joy 

Fear 

Hope 

Time 

Space 
Vacuity 



are tasted. 



is heard. 



smelled. 




is conceived of. 



Questions. 

What is a NOUN ?— How many properties have nouns ?— What arc they called ? 
—What is meant bv person?— How many persons have nouns ?— What does each 
person denote ? — What is number? — How many numbers have nouns? — What are 
they called ?— What does the singular number denote ?— What does the plural number 
denote?— What is meant by gender ?— How many genders are there ?— What 
does the masculine gender denote I— What does the feminine gender denote ? 
What does the neuter gender denote ?— What is meant by parsing a word 7 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 17 

LESSON II. 

OP ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word added to a noun 
(or pronoun) to express some quality or circumstance of the person 
or thing, for which the noun (or pronoun) stands. 

Adjectives have commonly no modification but that of comparison. 
Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express quality in different de- 
grees ; as, new, neicer, neicest. 

There are three degrees of comparison, viz. the positive, the comparative, 
and the superlative. 

The positive or simple word often becomes the comparative by the addition of 
r, or er, and the superlative by the addition of st, or est, to the end of it ; as, 
wise, wise-r, wisest ; great, great-er, great-est. 

Rule 1. Every adjective belongs to some noun (or pronoun) 
expressed or understood. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

#* vokich it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the noun as in the preceding lesson) t* 
parse the adjective in connection with the noun, and to apply Rule 1. 

Large ships ^ 

Green trees > are seen. 

Black clouds ) 

Sour grapes ^ 

Ripe apples > are tasted. 

Sweet plums ) 

Softer music } 

Distant thunder > is heard. 
Loud laughter } 

Sweet fragrance ^ 
Delightful odor S is smelhd. 
Rich perfume ) 



Deep sorrow 

Ecstatic pleasure J> is felt. 

Greatest fear 



> is 



Future events "\ 

Celestial regions > are conceived of 

Endless joys ) 

Questions. 

What is an ADJECTIVE ?— Have adjectives any modification ?-— What is meant 
by comparison ?— How many degrees of comparison are there ?— How are the com- 
parative and superlative degrees formed ?— What rule do you give when you parse an 
adjective ? 

2* 



18 



EXERCISES IN 

LESSON III. 



OF ARTICLES. An Article is a word prefixed to nouns 
(and pronouns) to limit their signification. 

There are two articles. The is called the definite article ; an, or 
a, the indefinite. 

An and a are one and the same article. An is used when the following 
word begins with a vowel sound ; as, " an urn, an hour; " and a, when the 
following word begins with a consonant sound ; as, " a meadow, a horse," &c. 

Rule 2. The article refers to its noun (or pronoun) to limit its 
signification. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

/* which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the adjective and noun as in the pr»~ 
ceding lesson) to parse the articles, and to give Rule 2. 

The largest vessels } 

The tallest forests > are seen. 

The brilliant stars ) 

The choicest fruits ^ 

The ripest melons > are tasted. 

The finest wines j 

A true report ^ 

A distant sound > is heard. 

A loud voice ) 

A sweet perfume ) 

A refreshing odor > is smelted. 

A delightful incense ) 

An acute pain } 

An eager joy > is felt. 

An ardent wish ) 

The celestial spheres 1 

The highest heavens > are conceived of. 

The acutest pains ) 

Questions. 

What is an ARTICLE ?— How many articles are there ?— Which is called the de 
finite ? — Which is called the indefinite ? — When is a used ? — When is an used ? — What 
rule do you give when you parse an article ? 

The pupil should be required to repeat the Rule applicable to each part of 
speech, as often as it occurs in the exercises, for the purpose of rendering 
its application familiar. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 19 

LESSON IV. 

OF VERBS. A Verb is a word which signifies action (being 
or suffering). 

An Active Verb denotes action, either of matter or mind. 

Of Case. Case is the condition or situation of the noun in relation to 
other words in the sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, viz. the nominative, the possessive, and the ob- 
jective, v 

The nominative case to an active verb denotes the doer of the action. 

Rule 3. A verb must agree with its nominative case in person 
and number. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the article, adjective, and noun, as in 
the preceding lesson) to tell the case of the noun — distinguish the active verb, give its person and 
number, its agreement with its nominative, and apply Rule 3. 

A brave soldier fights — 

The valiant hero conquers — 

The ripest apples fall — 

The lonely captive mourns — 

An industrious pupil studies — 

An imprudent youth suffers — 

The impious wretch trembles — 

A generous foe forgives — 

A wise man deliberates — 

The noble chief advances — 

The furious lion roars — 

The awful thunders roll — 

The smallest birds sing — ' . 

An artful culprit begs — 

The young lady dances — 

An idle student plays — 

A careless reader blunders — 

The angry tempest rages — 

The foaming billows dash — 

Questions. 

What is a VERB ? — What is an active verb ? — What is case ? — How many 
cases have nouns 1 — What does the nominative case to an active verb denote ?— 
What rule do you give when you parse a verb ? 

All words that express action, either physical or mental, are here called 
u Active Verbs." No other distinction should in this. place be made. 



20 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON V. 

OF PARTICIPLES. A Participle is a word derived from a 
verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

The present participle is formed by adding ing, or ning, to the verb ; as, 
speak, speaking ; fly, flying ; go, going ; run, running. 

OF ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word which shows the man- 
ner, the time, or the place, in which an action is done, when added 
to a verb, or to a participle. 

Adverbs are of different kinds ; as, of manner, time, place, &c. 

Rule 4. Adverbs qualify verbs and participles. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the article, adjective, noun, and actwt 
verb) to distinguish the adverb, point out Vie word it qualifies, and apply Rule 4. 



The angry waves dash violently. 

The small bird sings sweetly. 

A prudent person speaks cautiously. 

A good servant labors faithfully, 

A large stream flows rapidly. 

A swift horse trots nimbly. 

An old man walks slowly. 



Manner. 



A brave general embarks to-day. 
The old ship arrived yesterday. 
An able statesman speaks to-night. 
An industrious student improves daily, 

A large army encamped here. 
The stoutest yeomen march hither, 
A wealthy farmer lives there. 
The gallant stranger travels thither. 



Time. 



Place. 



Rule 5. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns (or are gm>* 
erned by prepositions). 

Examples to be Parsed, 

fn which the pupil (in addition to parsing the other words) will distinguish the present partkipU, 
tell what word it refers to, and apply Rule 5. 

Reading slowly, boys read correctly. 
Judging hastily, people judge erroneously. 

Questions* 

What is a PARTICIPLE ?— How is the present participle formed ?— What is an 
ADVERB ?— How are adverbs divided ?— What rule do you give when you parse an 
adverb 1 — What rule do you give when you parse a participle ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 21 

LESSON VI. 

ADVERBS OF DEGREE. The words very, quite, exceedingly, 
excessively, extremely, too, and some other words, are denominated 
Adverbs (ad-words) of Degree, when they are prefixed to adjectives, 
or to other adverbs. 

Rule 6. Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the other words) to point out the adverbs 
of degree, tell what words they qualify, and apply Rule 6. 

Very large ships sail very rapidly. 

Quite small children read exceedingly well. 

OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun, to avoid a too frequent repetition of it. 

A Personal Pronoun is a kind of pronoun that shows by its form of what 
person it is. 

There are five personal pronouns, viz. /, Hum, he, she, and it — with their 
plurals, we, ye, or you, they. 

A TABLE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE THREE CASES. 







SINGULAR NUMBER. 






1st 
Nom. 


person. 
I, 


2d person. 
Thou, 


3d per. mas. 
He, 


3d per. fern. 
She, 


3d per. nevt. 
It, 


Poss. 


Mine, 


Thine, 


His, 


Hers, 


Its, 


Obj. 


Me; 


Thee ; 


Him; 


Her; 


It; 






PLURAL NUMBER. 






Nom. 
Poss. 


We, 

Ours, 


Ye, or 
Yours, 


You, They, 
Theirs, 


They, 
Theirs, 


They, 
Theirs r 


Obj. 


Us. 


You. 


Them. 


Them. 


Them. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

/* Which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to decline and to parse 
the personal pronouns. 

An industrious boy studies — he learns exceedingly fast. 
A beautiful girl dances — she moves quite gracefully. 
The largest book falls — it falls very frequently. 
The young ladies sung — they sing extremely well, 
/write — thou writest — he writes. We read correctly. 
You walk. They play. We run. They work. 

Questions. 

What is a PRONOUN 1 — What is a personal pronoun ? — How many personal pro- 
nouns are there ? Name them. — Decline each person in the singular number and?. 
the plural. 



*B EXERCISES IN 

LESSON VII. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS'. The words who, zohich, and 
that (when that can be changed into who or which), are Relative 
Pronouns. 

These pronouns are called relative pronouns because they represent either 
antecedent words, or phrases. 

CASES OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Who is applied only to persons. 

Sin. Nom. Who, Plu. Norn. Who, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom; Obj. Whom. 

Which is applied to animals and things. 

Sin. Nom. Which, Plu. Nom. Which, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. Which; Obj. Which. 

That is applied to persons , animals, and things. 
Sin. Nom. That, Plu. Nom. That, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. That; Obj. That. 

Remark. — When no nominative comes between the relative pronoun and 
the verb, the relative is the nominative. 

Rule 7. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in 
person, number, and gender. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to ike -preceding exercises) to decline and parse the 
relative pronouns, and apply Rule 7. 

( m en ) 

The men ( who work well ) labor very diligently. 

( horse ) — 

A horse ( which trots hard J travels very rapidly. 

i horse i 

A horse \ that trots hard ) travels very rapidly. 



f boy ) 

\ that reads well J 



The boy ( that reads well ) speaks very slowly. 

( man i 

The man ( who speaks to-day ] spoke here yesterday. 

Questions. 

What words aro called RELATIVE PRONOUNS ?— Why are they so called T— 
Decline the relative pronoun who. — To what is ivlw applied ? — Decline the relative 
which. — To what is which applied ? — Decline the relative that. — To what is that applied ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. &} 

LESSON VIII. 

OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The words who, 
which, and what, when used in asking questions, are Interrogative 
Pronouns. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

Who labors here 1 Which performs best ? What floats hither ? 
Who speaks to-day ? Which came hither yesterday 1 Who 
believes sincerely ? 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective Pronouns are of 
a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pronouns and 
adjectives. 

There are five kinds of adjective pronouns. 

The Possessive are, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their 
" Distributive are, each, every, either. 

" Demonstrative are, this, that, these, those, former, and latter. 
" Indefinite are, some, one, any, other, all, such. 
" Interrogative are, which and lohat (when prefixed to nouns). 

Rule 8. Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or 
pronoun expressed or understood. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition, to the preceding ezcrcises) to parse the adjective 
pronouns, and apply Rule 8. 

My pupils improve daily. Thy son studies hard. His horse 
trots nimbly. Every child walks well. This young lady dances 
gracefully. That man speaks wisely. Some people live care- 
lessly. Every pupil (that studies diligently) parses fluently. 
He (who speaks naturally) speaks eloquently. Those (who 
attend steadily) improve very fast. Good men live happily — 
they die cheerfully. Who sins knowingly? Which sings best? 
That stream flows very rapidly. Our pupils parse exceedingly 
well. Which company meets to-day ? What officer commands 
here? 

Remark. — When the preceding adjective pronouns are not prefixed 
to nouns, they are parsed as pronouns merely, viz. " demonstrative pro- 
nouns," " indefinite pronouns ," &c, having person, number, gender, and case. 

Questions. 

What words are called INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ?— What are adjective 
pronouns ? — How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there ? — What are they called ? 
— Name the possessive — distributive— demonstrative — indefinite — interrogative. — What 
are these words called when they are not prefixed to nouns ? 



24 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON IX. 

OF ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE AND ACTIVE-INTRAN- 
SITIVE VERBS. An Active-transitive Verb expresses an action 
that affects an object. 

An Active-intransitive Verb expresses an action confined to 
the actor. 

*The objective case denotes the object of a verb (participle, or prepo- 
sition). 

Government means the influence which one word has over another in 
directing its case, &c. 

Rule 9. Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions wade in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish the active-transitive, and the active-intransitive verbs, parse the nouns in the ob- 
jective case, and apply Rule 9. 

The base tyrant slew his friend treacherously 
A generous man bestows his favors seasonably. 
That benevolent lady spends her time properly. 
This wealthy farmer cultivates his land thoroughly. 
Every valiant soldier performs his duty promptly. 
A profligate prince burdens the poor needlessly. 
An indulgent master governs his servants easily. 
Our generous commander pardoned him instantly. 
My noble companion relieved them effectually. 
Each worthy member performs his part cheerfully. 
The young girl reads* 
A correct scholar speaks 
That aged veteran hears 
A careless penman writes 
The new vessel sails 
Those little birds fly 
A wide stream flows 
The mail coach arrives 

Questions. 

What docs a TRANSITIVE VERB express !— Wlial do-s an INTRANSITIVE 
VERB express ?— What does the objective case denote?— What is meant by gov- 
ernment ?— What rule do you give on parsing a noun or pronoun, governed by a 
transitive verb ? 



( " 


) 


correctly. 


( " 


) 


slowly. 


( " 


) 


distinctly. 


( " 


) 


badiy. 


( 


) 


rapidly. 


( 


) 


swiftly. 


( 


) 


smoothly. 


( 


) 


daily. 



* All active verbs arc transitive when there is any person or thing, ex- 
pressed or clearly implied, upon which the action terminates. When they 
do not govern such an object, they are intransitive. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. "Zb 

LESSON X. 

Rule 10. Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to parse the words governed by the participles, and apply Rule 10. 

The farmer caught the boy stealing his apples. We saw the 
stranger writing a letter. The officers arrested the man carrying 
off goods. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a word that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences, so as, out of two or more sen- 
tences, to make but one : it sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are of two kinds, — Copulative and Disjunctive. 
Copulative — and, if, both, that, then, since, for, because, therefore. 
Disjunctive — but, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, notwithstanding. 

Note 1. The conjunctions and, or, nor, and as, are used for connecting 
words, as well as sentences. 

The other conjunctions are chiefly used for connecting sentences, or mem- 
bers of compound sentences. 

Note 2. A simple sentence contains but one verb, and a noun or a pronoun 
with which that verb agrees as its nominative ; as, " The heavenly bodies re- 
volve steadily." 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences ; as, " TYwe 
flies swiftly, and death approaches us.'" 

Rule .11. Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions 
mast be in the same case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to parse the conjunction, point out its office in connecting words and sentences, and apply Rule 11. 

He and she saw the transaction. My friend knows him and 
her. He or she wrote this letter. The officer arrested him or 
his neighbor. He rides and walks alternately. They read or 
write continually. The farmer bought and cultivated the land. 

The snow falls very fast, and the storm rages violently. 
My neighbor resides here, or he gave false information. 
Your son improves fast, because he studies diligently. 
Our pupils write badly, but they read correctly. 

Questions. 

What is a CONJUNCTION? — How many kinds of conjunctions are there?— 
What are they called ? — Repeat the copulative — Repeat the disjunctive. — Name 
the conjunctions that are used for connecting single words. — What constitutes a sim- 
ple sentence ? — What constitutes a compound sentence ? — What rule do you give for 
the conjunction ? — What rule do you give on parsing a noun or a pronoun, governed 
by a participle ? 

<J 



26 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON XI, 

OF PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word used to con* 
nect other words, and to show the relation between them. 

A list of the principal prepositions. — Above, against, about, after, amidst, 
aiyross, among, athwart, at ; behind, bcloio, before, beside, beneath, between, be' 
twixt, beyond, by ; concerning; do? on, during ; except; for, from; in, into ; 
near ; of, on or upon, over ; round or around ; since ; through, throughout, till, 
touching, toward; under, underneath, up; within, without; — out of, over 
against ; next to ; according to ; instead of. 

Note. When the preceding words do not govern the objective case of 
nouns or pronouns, they become adverbs, conjunctions, &c. 

Rule 12. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to parse the prepositions, the nouns, Sfc. governed by them, and apply Rule 12. 

They confided in him. He spoke unto them in parables, 
They called upon her in person. The mast fell athwart the ship. 
He walked with me by moonlight. My friends reside beyond 
the mountain. The fleet sailed doion the river. He stands above 
me. The man lives over the store. The general marched on that 
day against the enemy. The stranger passed up the hill, near the 
fort, and he saw a vast plain below him. He walked before me for 
the space of an hour. His friends followed after him during the 
day, and on the next morning they found him behind a cabin in 
the forest. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is a word which 
simply expresses some sudden emotion of the mind. It has no 
connection with the sentence in which it is used, nor any proper- 
ties belonging to it. The principal interjections are, Ah ! O ! 
Alas ! Fie ! Poh ! fee- 
When a nominative comes between the relative pronoun and the verb, the 
relative must be in the possessive case, and governed by the following noun, 
or in the objective, and governed by the following verb, or by some participle, 
or preposition, in its own member of the sentence. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

86 9 7 32145 

Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. 
I lost a book yesterday, which my friend found to-day. 
The farm which you bought, I cultivated many years. 
The gentleman whose house you built, lives very genteelly. 
The person whose name you mention, left town yesterday. 

Questions. 
What is a PREPOSITION ?— What is an INTERJECTION ?— Name the prin* 
cipal interjections. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



27 



LESSON XII. 

OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. The Possessive Case de- 
notes the possession of property. 

* The possessive case of nouns in the singular number is formed by adding 
an apostrophe, followed by an s, thus ('s,) to the nominative ; and in the 
i plural number, when the noun ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only. 

THE THREE CASES OF NOUNS. 

Plural. 
Nom. Men, 
Poss. Men's, 
Obj. Men. 

Nom. Women, 
Poss. Women's, 
Obj. Women. 

Nom. Eagles, 
Poss. Eagles',! 
Obj. Eagles. 

Nom. Deer, 

Poss. Deer's (or s'), 

Obj. Deer. 

Rule 13. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed 
by the noun it possesses. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions madein the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish the nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, point out their government, and apply 
Rule 13. 

| Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. 
The officer's conduct destroyed all hopes of success. He doubts 
the gentleman's integrity. A friend bears a friend's infirmities. 
The deepest sorrow preyed upon that amiable lady's mind. 
She rang for her child, and in its infantine caresses she forgot her 
misery. His opinion coincides with mine " . His performance 
deserves no commendation, but hers " pleases me. 

Questions. 

What does the POSSESSIVE CASE denote ? — How is the possessive case form- 
ed ? — How is it formed in the plural, when the singular and plural are spelled alike in 
the nominative ? — How is the singular of proper nouns ending in 5 formed ? — How is a 
noun in the possessive case governed 1 — Decline the nouns man, woman, eagle, and deer. 

X Proper names, ending in s in the singular number, form the possessive by 
the addition of the apostrophic s ('s) to the nominative ; as } . " Thomas's Al- 
manac," " Niles's Register!" 



Sine 


rular. 


Nom. 


Man, 


Poss. 


*Man's, 


Obj. 


Man; 


Nom. 


Woman, 


Poss. 


Woman's 


Obj. 


Woman ; 


Nom. 


Eagle, 


Poss. 


Eagle's, 


Obj. 


Eagle ; 


Nom. 


Deer, 


Poss. 


Deer's, 


Obj. 


Deer; 



28 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON XIII. 

OF NOUNS, &c. Nouns are divided into two sorts, viz. 
Proper and Common. 

Proper nouns (or names) are the names appropriated to individuals ; as, 
Franklin, Charles, Portland, Maine, Monticello, Boston, Kennebec, Penobscot. 

Common nouns (or names) stand for kinds containing many sorts, or for 
sorts containing many individuals under them; as, animal, man, tree. &c. 

Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : — Nouns of Multitude 
(or Collective nouns) ; as, the people, the public, the army ; — Abstract nouns, or 
the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, good- 
ness : — Participial nouns; as, the beginning, the ending. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish the common, proper, collective, abstract, and participial nouns. 

Doctor Follen's eulogy displayed great beauty and simplicity. 
It gave a brief sketch of Spurzheim's juvenile years, ( " ) his 
birth, ( " ) his education, and ( " ) his connection with Doct. 
Gall, from whom he received his first ideas of the science of phre- 
nology. Bonaparte lost the victory at Waterloo. Washington 
possessed a sound understanding, and ( " " ) great moral 
courage. He made a bad beginning, but ( " " ) a good ending. 
The legislature adjourned at twelve of the clock. The people re- 
joice in their prosperity. The army marches hither. Knowledge 
commands respect. Native goodness of heart secures peace to its 
possessors. 

Remark. — When participles are used to describe nouns, as, " a rippling 
stream " — "flying clouds " — they are catted participial adjectives. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

The opening world appeared in splendor. Nature yields her 
blushing beauties. The father's setting ray dimmed with shower- 
ing tears the sparkling eyes of his loving daughter. My drooping 
friend deplores his lonely lot. The lowing herd wind slowly over 
the lea. He envies not the bustling sons of earth. 

Remark. — Intransitive verbs are frequently used as transitive verbs. Some 
govern a kindred noun or its pronoun, and no other ; as, " The Christian lives 
a holy life." 

Examples to be Parsed. 

The profligate runs a dreadful career. Many idle persons sleep 
themselves into a kind of unnatural stupidity. The sycophant 
bowed and smiled himself into favor at court. She smiles her 
cares away. The horse ran himself to death. I die the death of 
the righteous. The Lord rained fire and brimstone upon Sodom 
and Gomorrah. He sleeps the sleep of death. 

Questions. 

How are NOUNS divided 1 — How are proper nouns appropriated 7 — What do com- 
mon nouns stand for ? — What further division may be made in nouns ? — When par- 
ticiples are used to describe nouns, what are they called? — Are intransitive verbs 
ever used as transitive verbs ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 29 

Reuiark. — Nouns of time, measure, and distance, are generally governed by 
prepositions understood. The prepositions to, of, and for, are often under- 
stood, especially before pronouns. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

We rode ( " ) many miles ( " ) that day. He resided here ( " ) 
many years. The wakeful nightingale sung her amorous descant 
( " ) all the night. He lay ( " ) an hour in great agony. She 
gave ( " ) me a book. He went ( " ) a hunting (excursion.) They 
made ( " ) him a present. They asked ( " ) him a question.. She 
taught ( " ) me grammar. 



LESSON XIV. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

CONTAINING ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Religious intolerance drove our fathers from their native 
country. They sought an asylum in the trackless wilds of Ameri- 
ca. Here, in voluntary exile, they lived free. Here, they 
worshipped their God according to the dictates of their own con- 
sciences. To them Liberty appeared more lovely in her wild 
mountains, than Tyranny ( " ) in his gaudy palaces. From 
such men we originated. They instilled into the minds of 
their children a love of that liberty, ( " " " " " " " " " )a 
hatred of that tyranny. They cherished independence of mind 
in their offspring, and ( " ) entwined it so firmly with their exist- 
ence, that it grew with their growth, and ( " ) " strengthened 
with their strength." 

Two centuries rolled on : the wilderness blossomed like ( " ) 
the rose ; and our free and happy colonists soon increased to 
the number of three millions. About that time Great Britain 
commenced a system of oppressive taxation. This measure 
aroused their indignation. They considered taxation and rep- 
resentation as inseparable ( " ). In parliament they had no 
voice — and, therefore, they resolved on freedom or death. Ah! 
then came the " tug of war ! " But the wisdom, ( " " ) valor, 
and ( " ) example of the illustrious Washington, inspired a 
band of hardy heroes, who (rising in defence of their wives, 
( " ) their children, and ( " ) their homes) led us from bond- 
age to freedom, and secured to the nation a glorious inde- 
pendence. 



30 EXERCISES IN 

We now enjoy the fruits of the labors, ( " " " ) toils, and 
( " " ) cruelties, which our fathers suffered. Cities, ( " ) towns, 
and villages, spring up in the forest. The wilderness becomes a 
garden. Peace and plenty, hand in hand, wander through our 
happy valleys, and ( " ) sport upon our mountains. The wealth 
of distant nations pours into our lap ; and our enterprise explores 
every section of the globe. 



LESSON XV. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

["SONNETS, from the Spanish of Francisco de Medrano,"] in which only the simple forms 
of the ACTIVE'VERB (transitive and intransitive) are used. 

1. ART AND NATURE. 
The works of human artifice soon tire 

The curious eye ; — the fountain's sparkling rill 

And gardens, beautiful with human skill, 
Reproach the feeble hand, the vain desire. 

But O ! the free and wild magnificence 
Of Nature, in her lavish moments, steals, 

In admiration silent and intense, 
The soul of him who sees, and thinks, and feels, 

The river moving on its ceaseless way, 
The verdant reach of meadows fair and green, 
And the blue hills that bound the sylvan scene, 

(Speaking of grandeur which defies decay), 
Proclaim the eternal Architect on high, 
Who stamps on all his works his own eternity. 

2. THE TWO HARVESTS. 
But yesterday these few and heavy sheaves 

Waved in the golden harvest ; — from the plain 

The delicate blade shot upward, and the grain 
Put forth the unripe ear and tender leaves. 

Then the glad upland smiled upon the view, 
And to the air the broad green leaves unrolled, 
An emerald glimmered in each silken fold, 

And on each palm a pearl of morning dew. 
And thus sprung up and ripened in brief space 

All that smiled beauteous in the summer-tide, — 

All that beneath the reaper's sickle died. 
And thus springs up and dies the human race ! 

Thus grows the harvest of our longer year ; 

And, O ! how many fall before the yellow ear ! 

H. W. Longfellow.. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



31 



OF THE MODES AND TENSES. 

Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in 
which the being, action, or passion, is represented. There are 
five Modes, viz. the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the 
Infinitive, and the Imperative. 

The Indicative Mode simply indicates or declares an action or event. 

Of Tense. Tense is a distinction of time. The Indicative Mode has six 
Tenses, viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First 
Future, and the Second. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event as passing at the time in 
which it is mentioned. 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action either as past or finished, or as 
remaining unfinished at a certain time past. 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allu- 
sion to the present time. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents an action or event not only as past, but 
also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence. 

The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or 
without respect to the precise time. 

The Second Future Tense intimates that the action will be fully accom- 
plished at or before the time of another future action or event. 

Of Conjugation. Conjugation literally means, uniting a verb to its nomi- 
native case, of different numbers and persons, in the modes and tenses. 

Verbs are called Regular when their imperfect tense and perfect participle 
are formed by adding to the present tense ed, or d only when the verbs end 
in e. All other verbs are Irregular. 



Present Tense. 
I walk, 
I learn, 



Examples to be Parsed. 

Imperfect Tense. 
I walked, 
I learned, 



Perfect Participle* 
walked, 
learned. 



Examples of Irregular Verbs. 



esent Tense. 
I go, 
I break, 


Imperfect Tense. 
I went, 
I broke, 


Perfect Participle 
gone, 
broken. 


I find, 


I found, 


found. 



Questions. 

What is MODE ?-**How many modes are there ?—*How does the indicative mode 
represent an action or event ?— What is the meaning- of tense ?— How many tenses are 
there ? — Give a definition of each. — What is meant by eonjixgation ? — What verbs are 
called regular 1 — What verbs are called irregular I 



m 



EXERCISES IN 



The following is a list of the irregular verbs, as they are now generally 
used. Those marked with the letter r admit also of the regular form. 



Present. 
abide, 
am, 
bear, 
beat, 
begin, 
bend, 
beseech, 
bid, 
bind, 
bite, 
bleed, 
blow, 
break, 
breed, 
bring, 
build, 
burst, 
buy, 
cast, 
catch, 
chide, 
choose, 
cling, 
come, 
cost, 
creep, 
cut, 
deal, 
dig, 

draw, 

dream, 

drive, 

drink, 

dwell, 

eat, 

fall, 

feed, 

feel, 

fight, 

find. 

flee,' 

fling, 

%, 

forsake, 

freeze, 

get, 

gild, 

gird, 

give, 

grind, 
grow, 
hang, 
have, 
hear, 



Impei- . 
I abode, 
I was, 
I bore j 
I beat, 
I began, 
I bent, r. 
1 besought, 
1 bade, 
I bound;, 
I bit, 
I bled, 
I blew, 
I broke, 
I bred, 
I brought, 
I built, r. 
I burst, 
I bought, 
I cast, 
I caught, r, 
I chid, 
I chose, 
I clung, 
I came, 
I cost, 
I crept, t. 
I cut, 
I dealt, 
I dug, r. 
I did, 
I drew, 
I dreamt, r. 
I drove, 
I drank, 
I dwelt, f\ 
I ate, 
I fell, 
I fed, 
1 felt, 
I fought, 
I found, 
I fled, 
I flung. 
I flew,' 
I forsook, 
I froze, 
I got, 
I gilt, r. 
I girt, r. 
I gave, 
I went, 
I ground, 
I grew, 
1 hung, t. 
I had, 
I heard, 



Per/. Part. 


Present. 


abode. 


I hide, 


been. 


I hit, 


borne. 


I hold, 


beaten. 


I hurt, 


begun. 


I kneel, 


bent, r. 


I knit, 


besought. 


I know, 


bidden. 


I lade, 


bound. 


I lay, 


bitten. 


I lead, 


bled. 


I leave, 


blown. 


I lend, 


broken. 


I let, 


bred. 


Hie, 


brought. 


I lose, 


built, r. 


I make, 


burst. 


I mean, 


bought. 


I meet, 


cast. 


I pay, 


caught, r. 
chidden. 


I put, 


I quit, 


chosen. 


I read, 


clung. 


I reave, 


come. 


I rend, 


cost. 


I rid, 


crept. 


I ride, 


cut. 


I ring, 


dealt. 


I rise, 


dug. 


I run, 


done. 


I say, 


drawn. 


I see, 


dreamt, r. 


I seek, 


driven. 


I sell, 


drunk. 


I send, 


dwelt, t. 


I set, 


eaten. 


I shake, 


fallen. 


I shed, 


fed. 


I shine, 


felt. 


I shoe, 


fought. 


I show, 


found. 


I shoot, 


fled. 


I shut, 


flung. 


I shred, 


flown. 


I shrink 


forsaken. 


I sing, 


frozen. 


I sink, 


got. 


I sit, 


gilt, r. 


I slay, 


girt, r. 


I sleep. 


given. 


I slide, 


gone. 


I sling, 
I slink, 


ground. 


grown, 
hung, r. 


I slit, 


I smite, 


had. 


I speak, 


heard. 


I speed, 



Imper. 


Per/. Part 


I hid, 


hidden. 


I hit, 


hit. 


I held, 


held. 


I hurt, 


hurt. 


I knelt, r. 


knelt, r. 


I knit, r» 


knit, 7\ 


I knew, 


known. 


I laded, 


laden. 


I laid, 


laid. 


lied, 


led. 


I left, 


left. 


I lent, 


lent. 


I let, 


let. 


1 la y, 


lain. 


I lost, 


lost. 


I made, 


made. 


I meant, 


meant. 


I met, 


met. 


I paid, 


paid. 


I put, 


put. 


I quit, 


quit, r> 


I read, 


read. 


I reft, 


reft. 


I rent. 


rent. 


I rid, ' 


rid. 


I rode, 


ridden. 


I rang, 


rung 


I rose, 


risen. 


I ran, 


run. 


I said, 


said. 


I saw, 


seen. 


I sought, 
1 sold, 


sought 

sold. 


I sent, 


sent 


I set, 


set. 


I shook. 


shaken > 


I shed, 


shed. 


I shone, r, 


shone. r> 


I shod, 


shod. 


I showed. 


shown. 


I shot, 


shot. 


I shut, 


shut. 


I shred, 


shred. 


I shrank, 


shrunk. 


I sang, 
I sunk, 


sung, 
sunk. 


1 sat, 


sat. 


I slew, 


slain. 


I slept, 


slept. 


I slid, 


si id den. 


I slung, 
I slunk, 


slung, 
slunk. 


I slit, r. 


slit,r. 


I smote, 


smitten. 


I spoke, 


spoken. 


I sped, 


sped. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



33 



Present. 
J spend, 
I spin, 
I spit, 
I split, 
I spread, 
I spring, 
I stand, 
I steal, 
I stick, 
I sting, 
I stride, 
I strike, 
I string, 
I strive, 
I swear, 
I sweep, 
I swim, 
I swing, 



Imper. 
I spent, 
I spun, 
I spit, 
I split, 
I spread, 
I sprang, 
I stood, 
I stole, 
I stuck, 
I stung, 
I strode, 
I struck, 
I strung, r. 
I strove, r. 
I swore, 
I swept, 
I swam, 
I swunff, 



Per/. Part. 


Present. 


spent. 


I take, 


spun. 


I teach, 


spit. 


I tear, 


split. 


I tell, 


spread. 


I think, 


sprung. 


I throw, 


stood. 


I thrust, 


stolen. 


I tread, 


stuck. 


I wear, 


stung, 
stridden. 


I weave, 


I weep, 


struck. 


I win, 


strung, r. 


I wind, 


striven, r. 


I work, 


sworn. 


I wring, 


swept. 


I write, 


swum. 




swung. 





Imper. 
I took, 
I taught, 
I tore, 
I told, 
I thought, 
I threw, 
I thrust, 
I trod, 
I wore, 
I wove, 
I wept, r. 
I won, 
I wound, r. 
I wrought, r. 
I wrung, 
I wrote, 



Per/. Part. 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden. 

worn. 

woven. 

wept, r. 

won. 

wound. 

wrought, r 

wrung. 

written. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the principal parts, 
auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defective. 



All the 



The following is a list of the defective verbs. 

Present. Imperfect. 
May, might, 

Can, could, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Quoth, quoth, 



Perfect Participles: 
are wanting. 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

flare varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. 
Quoth is also a defective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs 
vary only in the second person singular ; thus, 

Plural. 







Singular. 




We, Ye 01 




I 


Thou 


He 


You, They 


Present, 


May, 


May-sJ, 


May. 


May. 


Imperfect. 


Might, 


Might-si, 


Might, 


Might. 


Pres. 


Can, 


Canst, 


Can, 


Can. 


Imper. 


Could, 


Could-st, 


Could, 


Could. 


Pres. 


Shall, 


Shal-Z, 


Shall. 


Shall. 


Imper. 


Should, 


Should-^, 


Should, 


Should. 


Pres. 


Will, 


Wil-t, 


Will, 


Will. 


Imper. 


Would, 


Wouid-st, 


Would, 


Would. 


Pres. 


Have, 


Has-*, 


Has, 


Have. 


Imper. 


Had, 


Had-irf, 


Had, 


Had. 


Pres. & Imp 


Ought, 


Ought-est, 


Ought, 


Ought, 



34 EXERCISES IN 

Conjugation of the Verb WRITE, in the Indicative Mode- 
present TENSE. 
Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I write, We write, 

Thou write-si,* Ye or you write, 

Hewrite-s;t They write. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I wrote, We wrote, 

Thou wrote-st, \ Ye or you wrote, 

He wrote ; They wrote. 

Perfect Participle — written. 

Questions. 

What is the personal termination of a verb of the second person, present tense ? * 
— What of the third person ? f — What is the personal termination of a verb of the 
second person, imperfect tense 1 % — How many variations has a verb, on account of 
person, in the present tense ?— How many in the imperfect tense ? — Give the con- 
jugation of the verb write, in the indicative mode, present and imperfect tenses, and 
the perfect participle. — Conjugate in the same manner, and give the perfect participles 
of the verbs abide, bear, beat, begin, bend, beseech, bid, &c. &.c. &c, and mark their 
personal terminations. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary have (variations hast 
and has) to the perfect participle, WRITTEN. [See 3d square of the diagram 
on the opposite jjage] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I have written, We have written, 

Thou hast written, . Ye or you have written, 

He has or hath written ; They have written. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

The pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary had (variation. 
hadst) to the perfect participle, WRITTEN. [See 4th square of the diagram.} 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I had written, We had written, • 

Thou had-sf written, Ye or you had written, 

He had written ; They had written. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

The first future tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall or toill 
(variations shalt and wilt) to the present tense of the verb, WRITE. [See 
5th square of the diagram.} 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I shall or will write, We shall or will write, 

Thou shalt or wilt write, Ye or you shall or will write, 

He shall or will write ; They shall or will write. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

The second future tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries shall have or 
will liavc, &c to the perfect participle, WRITTEN. [See Gth square of the 
diagram.} 

Singular Number. Plural. Number. 

I shall have written, We shall have written, 

Thou wilt have written, Ye or you will have written,. 

He will have written ; They will have written.. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



35 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

The Indicative Mode simply indicates or declares an action or 



event. 




See explanation, page 10. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



In which it is required of the pupil, in parsing- the verbs, to tell whether they are regular or 
irregular — whether they are transitive or intransitive — give the mode and tense, person and 
number of each; and its agreement with its nominative, Sfc. 

I write. Thou writest. He writes. We write. Ye write. They 
write. The girl writes. Your son writes elegantly. His pupils write 
daily. I wrote. Thou wrotest. He wrote. We wrote. You wrote. 
They wrote. The boy wrote yesterday. The clerk wrote the letter. 
I have written a letter. Thou hast written before. He has written 
repeatedly. We have written our copies. You have written enough. 
I had written before you saw him. Thou hadst written in the new 
book. He had written many letters. We had written our exercises. 
Ye had written ten pages. I shall write to-morrow. Thou wilt write 
•again. He will write to you. We shall write to them. Ye will write 
to your friends. They will write immediately. I shall have written 
ten letters by to-morrow noon. Thou wilt have finished thy work. 
He will have completed his engagement. 

Questions. 

Mow does the INDICATIVE MODE express an action or event ?— How many 
lenses has it 1 — What, are they called 1 — What are the signs of the perfect tense ? — 
How is it formed ? — What are the signs of the pluperfect '.' — How is it formed ?- — What 
are the signs of the first future ? — How is it formed 1 — What, are the signs of the second 
future 1— -How is it formed '!— How many of these tenses express past time ?— How 
many, future 1 — Conjugate the verb write, through the tenses. 



36 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Have varies both in the second and third persons. 
Quoth is also a defective verb, and has no variation, 
vary only in the second person singular ; thus, 



Must has no variation. 
The other defective verbs 











Plural. 




Singular. 




We, Ye or 




I 


Thou 


He 


You, They 


Present, 


May, 


Ma.y-st, 


May, 


May. 


Imperfect, 


Might, 


Might-si, 


Might, 


Might. 


Pres. 


Can, 


Qzxi-st, 


Can, 


Can. 


Imper. 


Could. 


Could-s*, 


Could, 


Could. 


Pres. 


Shall,' 


Shal-i, 


Shall, 


Shall. 


Imper. 


Should, 


Should-sZ, 


Should, 


Should. 


Pres. 


Will, 


WiH 


Will, 


Will. 


Imper. 


Would, 


Would-tf, 


Would, 


Would. 


Pres. 


Have, 


Has-i, 


Has, 


Have. 


Imper. 


Had, 


Had-s<, 


Had, 


Had. 


Pres. & Imp. 


Ought, 


Ought-csi, 


Ought. 


Ought. 



Conjugation of the Verb STUDY, in the Subjunctive Mode. 

The principal difference between the conjugation of a verb in the indicative 
mode, and one in the suhjunctive,in the present tense, consists in the latter 's being 
always preceded by a conjunction (expressed or understood) expressing a doubt, 
motive, wish, or supposition (as is indicated by the list of conjunctions given 
on the left of the diagram) , and, when futurity is denoted, in the verb's not varying 
its termination in the second and third person singular, as it does in the indicative. 

When the verb has no reference to future time, but simply expresses a doubt, 
motive, wish, &c, though in the subjunctive mode, it varies on account of the 
person of its nominative as it does in the indicative, and is conjugated thus : — 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, INDICATIVE FORM. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular Number. 
If I study, 
If thou studied, 
If he studies; 



Plural Number. 
If we study, 
If ye or you study, 
If they study. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, ELLIPTICAL FORM. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular Number. 
If I study, 
If thou study, 
If he study ; 



Plural Number. 
If we study, 
If ye or you study, 
If they study. 



The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mode are conjugated like the corre- 
spondent tenses of the indicative mode, except that a conjunction expressing a 
doubt, motive, &c, is used before the verb, and that will and wilt are not used 
in forming the second future tense. [See diagram on the opposite page.} 

* Before this form of the subjunctive mode, some auxiliary is understood; 
as in the following examples : — " Ff I study," i. e. " If I (should) study " — " If 
thou study," i. e. " If thou (shouldst) study." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



37 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The Subjunctive Mode represents an action or event under a 
condition, motive, wish, or supposition. 




See explanation, p. 11. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish the 
verbs in the subjunctive mode, conjugate tltem, and explain the difference between the subjunctive 
mode and the indicative. J 

He will study if I require it. Thou wilt study if J give ( " ) thee a 
hook. We shall go if the stage arrive in season. We shall leave town 
to-morrow, unless it storm. I shall go without him, unless he come soon. 
On condition that he come, I will consent to his proposal. He will main- 
tain his argument, though he lose his reputation. He will gain admission 
if he pass the guard. He will punish his enemies, though they despise 
his power. 

(fhe desire it, I will perform the operation. Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust in him. Though he excels her in knowledge, yet she exceeds 
him in virtue. I will support him if he conduct honorably. 

Questions. 

How does the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE represent an action or event ?— How many 
lenses has it ?— -What are they called ?— Does the present tense of the subjunctive mode 

differ from the present tense of the indicative? — In what particular does it differ? 

Does it differ from the indicative in the imperfect tense ? — What are the signs of the 
perfect, pluperfect, first and second future tenses of the subjunctive mode ? — How is 
each tense formed ? — In what particular does the formation of the second future tense 
differ from that of the indicative ? — What conjunctions are used in forming the sub- 
junctive mode ?— Conjugate the verb study, through all the tenses of the subjunctive 
mode. 



38 EXERCISES IN 



OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. 
Quoth is also a defective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs 
vary only in the second person singular. 

Conjugation of the Verb STRIKE, in the Potential Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

The present tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
may or can * (variations mayst or canst) to the present tense of the indicative, 
STRIKE. [See the 1st square of the diagram on the opposite pag£.] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I may or can strike, We may or can strike, 

Thou mayst or canst strike, Ye or you may or can strike, 

He may or can strike ; They may or can strike. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

The imperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxili- 
ary might, could, would, or should (variations mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 
shouldst) to the present tense of the indicative, STRIKE. [See the 2d square 
of the diagram.} 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I might, could, would, &c. strike, We might, could, would, &c. strike. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, &c. Ye or you might, could, would, &c. 

strike, strike, 

He might, could, would, &c. strike ; They might, could, would, &c. strike. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

The perfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries 
may have or can haze (variation mayst have, cr const have) to the perfect 
participle, STRUCK. [See the 3d square of the diagram.] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I may or can have struck, We may or can have struck, 

Thou mayst or canst have struck, Ye or you may or can have struck, 

He may or can have struck ; They may or can have struck. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

The pluperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxili- 
aries might have, could have, would have, or should have (variations mightst, 
couldst, "&.c.) to the perfect participle, STRUCK. [See the 4th square of 
the diagram.] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I might, could, would, &c have We might, could, would, &c. havo 

struck, struck, 

Thou mightst. couldst, wouldst, &c. Ye or you might, could, would, &c. 

have struck, have struck, 

He might, could, would, &,c. have They might, could, would, &c. have 

struck ; struck. 

* Must is also used in forming the present tense of the potential mode. Shall and 
will, when they denote inclination, resolution, or promise, may be considered, as well 
as their variations, should and would, as belonging to the potential mode. But as they 
generally signify futurity, they have been appropriated, as helping verbs, to the formation 
of the future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive modes. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



39 



POTENTIAL. MODE. 

The Potential Mode implies possibility, liberty, power, will, or 
obligation. It has four tenses. 



Imperfect. 

Strmk 



Per. Part. 

Struck 



Might 
Could 
Would 

or 
Should 




Perfect. 



Pluperfect. 



See explanation, p. 11. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



f <i which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, parse, 
and conjugate, the several verbs in the potential mode. 

I may strike thee. Thou canst strike the man. He may strike the 
soldier. We can strike them again. You may strike him. They may 
strike the boys. I might strike them together. Thou couldst strike the 
man's dog. He would strike him. We would strike thee. Ye might 
strike them. They might strike us. I may have struck the wrong per- 
son. Thou mavst have struck. He may have struck his antagonist. 
I might have struck my enemy. Thou mightst have struck the master. 
He might have struck the soldier. My friend writes letters very 
often. He wrote many letters to his friends. I will attend, if he re- 
quire it. Thou wilt hurt thyself, if thou injure him. He acts uprightly, 
unless he deceives me. We shall arrive by noon, unless it rain. I will 
trust in him, though he slay me. 

Questions. 

What does the POTENTIAL MODE imply ?— How many tenses has it ?— What 
are they called ? — What are the signs of the present tense? — How is the present L'nse 
formed ? — What are the signs of the imperfect tense ? — How is it formed ? — What are 
ihe signs of the perfect tense ? — How is it formed ? — What are the signs of the 
pluperfect tense 1 — How is it formed ? — Conjugate the verb strike, through all the tenses 
of the potential mode. 



40 EXERCISES IN 

THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

In all the other modes, the verb has a nominative, expressed or implied, 
with which it "must agree in person and number." [See Rule 3d.] Ir\ 
those modes, the A'erb is called finite, because it is thus limited as to person 
and number. A verb in the infinitive mode, however, has no nominative case, 
and is, consequently, unlimited as to person and number : therefore this mode 
is called the infinitive or unlimited mode. It has two tenses, viz. the 
Present and the Perfect. The present tense of the infinitive mode is formed 
by prefixing to (which is called the sign of the infinitive) to the present tense 
of the verb ; as, to go, to write. The perfect tense of the infinitive is form- 
ed by prefixing to have to the perfect participle ; as, to luivc gone, to have 
■written, &c. 

Conjugation of the Verb GO. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To go. To have gone. 

Remark. When a verb in the infinitive mode follows make, need, see r 
bid, dare, feel, hear, let, say, know, have, observe, behold, perceive, or their 
participles, the sign to is generally omitted ; as, " I make him study; " " I saw 
him fall," &c. 

Exceptions. The sign to is sometimes employed after needs, knoio, have, 
&c., as in the following examples : — " One needs no more than to observe how 
strongly we are touched by mere pictures." The use of to after need is fre- 
quent among the best writers, especially when there are any intervening words. 
Have, denoting possession or obligation, is generally followed by to; as, "I 
have to write daily;" " I had to do this." 

The Auxiliary and Defective Verbs seem not to be included in the common 
definition of the verb. The peculiar force of them will appear from the fol- 
lowing : — 

Ought denotes duty ; as, " He ought to be here." 

Must denotes necessity or compulsion ; as, " He must pay the debt." 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and a past signification, 
appears from the following sentences : " I must own that I am to blame ; " 
" He must have been mistaken ; " " Speaking things which they ought not ; " 
" These things ought ye to have done." 

Have denotes possession; as, " Children, have ye any meat?" — Have also 
denotes time ; as, " We have performed our duty." 

May implies liberty ; as, ; ' He may return if he desires it." — May also im- 
plies doubt; as, " He may not be here, although I expect him." 

Can implies power or ability ; as, " He can pass the guards." 

Might implies liberty ; as, " He might have passed the guards, had he been 
so disposed." — Might also implies power ; as, " He might have returned in spite 
of his keepers." 

Caidd signifies power or ability ; as, " He could have paid the demand." 

Would implies determination ; as, " He xcmdd go in :" — also inclination ; as, 
" I would that all would come to the knowledge of the truth." 

Should denotes duty ; as, " You should treat your superiors with deference." 

Shall, in the first person, only foretells ; as, " I shall go to-morrow." — In 
the second and third persons, shall promises, commands, or threatens ; as, 
" You or they shall be rewarded ; " " Thou shall not steal ; " "He sliall be 
punished." 

Will, in the first person, denotes promise ; as, " I will not let thee go." — In 
the second and third persons, it foretells ; as, " He trill reward the righteous." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



The Infinitive Mode expresses an action or event, in a general 
and unlimited manner, without regard to person or number. It has 
but two tenses, viz. the present and the perfect. 



Present 






Imperfect 


Per/. 


Par. 


1 Go 






Went 


f Go 


ne 


\^ 


To 








To Have. 




Pres. To 

— JMUIB IHU.rt.1TfCTT!».yj»ajng.Hg?« 


uSC. 






Per/. Tense. 





See explanation, p. 12. 

Rule 14. The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, noun, 
adjective, or participle. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

tn which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding' exercises) to distinguish, conju- 
gate, and parse, the several verbs in the infinitioe mode, and to apply Rule 14. 

He promised to go immediately. They intended to destroy their 
enemies. He ought to embrace the first opportunity. The boy ought 
to have studied grammar earlier. She expects to see her friends 
from the country. No person can expect to improve without appli- 
cation. We see many persons conduct themselves very foolishly. 
He will not let the people go. He made each man perform his duty. 
He saw the fleet enter the harbor. He began to figure to himself 
the miseries of confinement. She resolved to do good and to avoid 
evil, without regard to the opinions of men. I dare say he will arrive 
in season. 

Questions. 

How does the INFINITIVE MODE express an action or event? — How many 
tenses has it ? — What are they called 1 — What is called the sign of the infinitive mode ?— 
What ate the signs of the perfect tense of the infinitive mode ?— How is the present 
tense formed ?— -How is the perfect tense formed ? — Is the sign to always prefixed to a 
verb in the infinitive mode ?•— When is it omitted ? 



42 



EXERCISES IN 



OF THE DIAGRAMS. 

The diagrams representing the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, 
and the infinitive modes, are subdivided to indicate the number of tenses in 
each mode ; viz. that for the indicative mode, into six squares, to show that 
that mode has six tenses ; that for the subjunctive, into the same number ; that 
for the potential into four ; that for the infinitive into two ; but the imperative 
having but one tense, the diagram representing it remains entire. [See right 
hand page.] 

THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Conjugation of the Verb MARCH. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular Number. 

March thou, 

or 

Do thou march. 



Plural Number. 

March ye or you, 

or 

Do ye or you march. 



By help of the diagrams and these remarks, it is believed that any intelligent 
pupil will now be enabled to conjugate readily and understandingly the fol- 
lowing verbs; viz. write, in the indicative mode; study, in the subjunctive; 
strike, in the potential ; go, in the infinitive ; and march, in the imperative. 
After which, he will be able to conjugate any other verb in the same manner 
with fluency and correctness. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



43 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

The Imperative Mode is used for commanding, exhorting, 
entreating, or permitting. It has but one tense, and one person, 
viz. the present tense, and the second person 



Present Tense. 



Singular 

March thou 

or 

Do thou march 



Plural 

March ye 

or 

Do ye march 





See e.xplanai'cii, d 12 



Examples to be Parsed, 

.H which it is required of the pupil (in aiiition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, eonjw 
gate, and parse, the several verbs in the imperative mode. 

Study ( " ) thy lesson. Study ( " ) your lessons. Go ( " ) to 
school in season. Depart ( " ) from me immediately. Behave ( " ) 
well, if thou lovest virtue. Imitate ( " ) thy superiors in wislom. 
Love ( " ) thy neighbors as thou lovest thyself. Waste ( " ) not 
thy time. Omit ( " ) no opportunity for improvement. Avoid ( " J 
sin, if you desire to escape temptation. He can write elegantly, or I 
have mistaken his exercises. Let ( " ) no man pretend to superior 
attainments, unless he can fairly support his claims. He can excel 
me, if he chooses. The man might have seen his friend, if he had ask- 
ed permission. Betray ( " ) not thy friends. Render ( " ) good 
things for evil ( " ). Live ( " ) properly, that you may die cheer- 
fully. 

Questions. 

How is the IMPERATIVE MODE used?— How many tenses has it?— Is the 
nominative to a verb in this mode generally expressed ? — How many modes are there ? 
—How does each express an action or event?*— How many tenses has each model- 
Conjugate the verb study, in the indicative, subjunctive, potential, infinitive, and in** 
perative modes j and tell how the tenses are formed in each. 



44 EXERCISES IN 

OF NEUTER VERBS. A Neuter Verb expresses neither action 
nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 

Conjugation of the Neuter Verb BE (or AM). 

INDICATIVE MODE. 





PRESENT 


TENSE. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


lam, 




We are, 


Thou art, 




Ye or you are, 


He, she, or it is \ 




They are. 




Imperfect 


TENSE. 


Singular* 




Plural. 


I was, 




We were, 


Thou wast* 




Ye or you were, 


He was ; 




They were. 




PERFECT 


rENSE. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


I have been, 




We have been, 


Thou hast been, 




Ye or you have been, 


He has been ; 




They have been. 




PLUPERFECl 


TENSE. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


I had been, 




We had been. 


Thou hadst been* 




Ye or you had been, 


He had been ; 




They had been. 


FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 


Singular* 




Plural. 


I shall or will be, 




We shall or will be, 


Thou shalt or wilt be 




Ye or you shall or will be, 


He shall or will be ; 




They shall or will be. 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have been, We shall have been, 

Thou wilt have been, Ye or you will have been, 

He will have been ; They will have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Participle, Being, — Perfect Participle* Been,— Compound Per* 
feet, Having been. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



45 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Indicative Form. Elliptical Form. 



Singular. 
If I am, 
If thou art, 
If he is ; 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Plural. 
If we are, 
If ye are, 
If they are. 



If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be ; 



Plural. 
If we be, 
If ye be, 
If they be. 



The neuter verb Be has two forms in the imperfect tense of this mode, 
i well as in the present. 



Singular. 
If I was, 
If thou wast, 
If he was : 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 
If we were, 
If ye were, 



If they were. 



Singular. 
If I were, 
If thou wert, 



Plural. 
If we were, 
If ye were, 



If he were ; If they were. 



The remaining tenses of this mode are conjugated like the corre- 
spondent tenses of the indicative mode, excepting that will and wilt are 
not used in forming the second future tense. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Singular. 
I may or can be, 
Thou mayst or canst be, 
He may or can be ; 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We may or can be, 
Ye or you may or can be, 
They may or can be. 



Singular. 
I might, could, would, &c. be, 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

&c. be, 
He might, could, would, &c. be 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We might, could, would, &c. be, 
Ye or you might, could, would, &c 

be, 
They might, could, would, &c. be. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I may or can have been, 
Thou mayst or canst have been, 
He may or can have been ; 



Plural. 
We may or can have been, 
Ye or you may or can have been, 
They may or can have been. 



46 EXERCISES IN- 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, &c. have We might, could, would, &c. have 

been, been, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, Ye or you might, could, would, &c. 

&c. have been, have been, 

He might, could, would, &c. have They might, could, would, &c. 

been ; have been. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense, To be ; Perfect Tense, To have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Be thou, or do thou be ; Be ye or you, or do ye be. 



OF PASSIVE VERBS. A Passive Verb expresses an action done 
to its own nominative. 

To form a passive verb, prefix be, am, art, is, are, was, were, toast (wert), 
or been, to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. 

The Passive Form of the Verb LOVE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am loved, We are loved, 

Thou art loved, Ye or you are loved, 

He is loved ; They are loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I was loved, We were loved, 

Thou wast loved, Ye or you were loved, 

He was loved ; They were loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I have been loved, We have been loved, 

Thou hast been loved, Ye or you have been loved, 

He hath or has been loved ; They have been loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had been loved, We had been loved, 

Thou hadst been loved, Ye or you had been loved, 

He had been loved ; They had been loved. 

Questions. 

What is a NEUTER VERB ?— Conjugate the neuter verb be or a m, through (he 
several tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, potential, infinitive, and imperative modes; 
and give its present, perfect, and compound periect participles. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 47 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1 shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved. 

Thou shalt or wilt be loved, Ye or you shall or will be loved, 

He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have been loved, We shall have been loved, 

Thou wilt have been loved, Ye or you will have been loved, 

He will have been loved ; They will have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Indicative Form. Elliptical Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

If I am loved, If we are loved, If I be loved, If we be loved, 

If thou art loved, If ye are loved, If thou be loved, If ye be loved, 

If he is loved; If they are loved. | If he be loved ; If they be loved. 

Passive Verbs have two forms in the imperfect tense of this mode, as 
well as in the present. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

If I was loved, If we were loved, 
If thou wast loved, If ye were loved, 
If he was loved ; If they were loved. 



Singular. Plural. 

If I were loved, If we were loved, 
Ifthouwert loved, If ye were loved, 
If he were loved; If they were loved. 



The pupil should now be required to give the remaining tenses of this mode 
(passive form), and also the several tenses of the potential, infinitive, and 
imperative modes; and, as the passve verb is formed by prefixing the neuter 
verb be (or am), through all its modes and tenses, to the perfect or passive par- 
ticiple of a transitive verb, the pupil will be enabled understandingly to do so, 
by referring to the conjugation of that verb (i. e. neuter verb be), given on the 
44th, 45th, 46th pages. 

The nominative to an active verb, denotes the doer of the action. 
The nominative to a neuter verb, denotes merely the subject of the verb. 
The nominative to a passive verb, denotes the sufferer or receiver of the 
action. 



REMARKS ON CONJUGATION. 

Instead of the form of conjugation already given, which, by way of 
distinction, may be denominated the common, or simple form, we often 
prefix the neuter verb be, or am (as an auxiliary), through all its 
modes and tenses, to the present participle ; thus, / am ivriting — Thou 
art writing — He is writing, &c. This may be called the participial form 
of conjugation. 

Questions. 

What does a PASSIVE VERB express ?— How is a passive verb formed ?— -What 
does the nominative case to an active verb denote ? — What does the nominative case 
to a neuter verb denote? — What does the nominative case to a passive verb denote ?— «■ 
Conjugate the verb iove, in the passive form, through the different tenses of the 
several modes. 



48 



EXERCISES IN 



When we wish to express ourselves with energy and positiveness, we 
prefix the verb do and its variations, as auxiliaries, in forming the present 
and imperfect tenses, to the present tense of the indicative ; thus, / do 
write — Thou dost write — He does write — J did write — Thou didst write, 
&c. This may with propriety be called the emphatic form. 



EXAMPLES OF THE THREE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 



Simple Form. 



I write, 
Thou writest, 
He writes : 



We write, 
Ye write, 
They write. 



Participial Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular Number. 
I am writing, 
Thou art writing, 
He is writing ; 

Plural Number. 
We are writing, 
Ye are writing, 
They are writing. 



Emphatic Form, 



I do write, 
Thou dost write, 
He does write ; 



We do write, 
Ye do write, 
They do write. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



I wrote, 
Thou wrotest, 
He wrote ; 



Singular Number. 
I was writing, 
Thou wast writing, 
He was writing ; 



I did write, 
Thou didst write, 
He did write ; 



We wrote, 
Ye wrote, 
They wrote. 



Plural Number. 
We were writing, 
Ye were writing, 
They were writing. 



We did write, 
Ye did write, 
They did write. 



Rule 15. Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 
mode and tense , and of the same form of conjugation. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exer- 
cises), in parsing the verb, to distinguish the form of conjugation, point out the office of the con- 
junctions, and apply Rule 15. 

He did tell ( " " ) his fault, and entreat me to forgive him. If thou 
sincerely desire, and really seek virtue, thou wilt find her. My friend is 
writing letters, and sending th n abroad. He will succeed and obtain 
his end. He rides or walks c • ily. They are pursuing their enemies, 
and destroying them with the s ord. 

Questions. 

How many forms of conjugation are there ? What are they called 7 How is ea«h 
formed ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 49 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exer- 
cises) to distinguish, and parse, the passive and neuter verbs. 

The lottery is drawn by the manager. The manager draws the 
lottery. The goods were purchased by the merchant. The merchant 
purchased the goods. Health is promoted by exercise. Exercise 
promotes health. The thief was taken by the officer. The officer 
took the thief. The goods were sold by the auctioneer. The auc- 
tioneer sold the goods. The house was furnished. The rogue was 
detected. I am in good health. Thou art in business. He is in Europe. 
We are in good company. You are with your friends. They are in 
constant employment. 

Rule 16. A perfect participle, unconnected with an auxiliary, 
relates to the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required, of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exer- 
cises) to distinguish, and parse, the perfect participles, and to apply Rule 16. 

The captain found the ship considerably injured. He discovered a 
soldier badly wounded. They left the prison strongly guarded. He 
met a gentleman neatly dressed. We saw a man sorely afflicted. My 
neighbor purchased a house well furnished. 

Rule 17. Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same 
case after as before them, when both words signify the same person 
or thing. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish, and parse, the nouns and pronouns in the nominative case after the several verbs, 
and to apply Rule 17. 

Washington was a brave general, and an able statesman. This 
gentleman is my protector and friend. Addison is a teacher of wisdom, 
nid a faithful copier of life and manners. Death is the king of terrors. 
I know him to be my friend. *Who does he think that we are? 
She fell a victim to despair. She walks a goddess, and she moves a 
queen. Her name was called Penelope. Bonaparte was made emperor 
of France. 

Rule 18. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning' 
the same thing, and having the same grammatical relation, are put, 
by apposition, in the same case. 

* The indicative mode simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a ques- 
tion. 

5 



50 EXERCISES IN 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which, it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish the nouns and pronouns in apposition, and to apply Rule 18. 

Artaxerxes, the king, decreed that Ezra, the priest and scribe of the 
law, should be obeyed in all things. Paul, the apostle, was a preacher 
of righteousness. I paid the money to the merchant, him who bought 
your house. 

Rule 19. A verb having two or more nominatives connected by 
the copulative and, must be of the plural form. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish the words connected by and, and, on parsing the verb agreeing with them, to apply 
Rule 19. 



and titles are the gifts of fortune. Peace and contentment are the pecu- 
liar endowments of a well-disposed mind. Time and tide wait for no 
man. Quin, the comedian, was a great wit. 

Rule 20. A verb having" two or more nominatives of the singu- 
lar number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the 
singular form. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding ezerei ies 
to distinguish the words connected by on and nor, and, on parsing the verb agreeing with them, 
to apply Rule 20. 

The master or his servant is greatly in fault. Indolence or intem- 
perance is the cause of his misfortune He or she has done this mis- 
chief. 

Rule 21. When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, 
but is placed before a participle, it is in the nominative case absolute. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish, and parse, the words in the nominative case absolute, and to apply Rule 21. 

The business being finished, the court adjourned. The sun being 
risen, the day became fine. The orator having finished his discourse, 
the people retired. The winter being severe, the inhabitants suffered. 
Barlow, the bookseller, has published the Garland, a valuable work. 

Rule 22. WJien a direct address is made to a person or thing, 
the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent* 

* All nouns in the second person are in the nominative case independent. 



ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, &,C. 51 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish, and parse, the words in the nominative case independent, and to apply Rule 22. 

Plato, thou reasonest well ! It must be so. Hail, wedded love, per- 
petual fountain of domestic sweets- Oh, stretch thy reign, fair Peace, 
from shore to shore ! My sou, go to thy repose. O Grave, where is thy 
victory ? O Death, where is thy sting ? 

Rule 23. The infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, is sometimes 
the subject of a verb, and therefore its nominative. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the disti?ictions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish, and parse, the phrases that form the nominatives to the several verbs, and to 
apply Rule 23. 

To err is human nature — to forgive, divine. To eat is pleasant, 
but to fast is wholesome. To be well acquainted with one's native 
language, is nothing to boast of; but not to be well acquainted with it, is 
a disgrace. 

Remark 1. When the participle of the neuter verb be. preceded by a transitive 
verb, or preposition, is accompanied by a noun, adjective, or adverb, it frequently 
makes part of a substantive phrase 5 and the whole phrase is in the objective case, 
and governed by such preceding transitive verb or preposition. — " An Indian will re- 
sent his being denied the use of his musket." 

Remark 2. Participles are often used as nouns, and have a like effect in govern- 
ing them in the possessive case.—" He had no idea of h\s friend's betraying him." 

Remarko. A participle, with its adjuncts, sometimes forms a participial phrase; 
which phrase may form the subject of a verb ; as, " Administering to the wants of 
the unfortunate constitutes her chief employment ; " or the object of a verb or a 
preposition ; as, i! By exposing himself unnecessarily, he soon lost his health.'*' 

Remark 4. Adjectives sometimes belong to the infinitive mode ; as, " To ride is 
pleasant." They may likewise belong to sentences, phrases, or propositions. 

Remark 5. The infinitive mode absolute stands independent of the rest of the 
sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

Examples to be Parsed. 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to 
palliate nor deny. Who ever heard of a verb's running ? The man's 
being removed from office was a misfortune to his family. He studied 
to avoid expressing himself too severely. Agreeable to this, we read of 
man's being blotted out of God's book. 



OF ELLIPSIS. 



The omission of any words necessary to the grammatical construc- 
tion of a sentence, is called Ellipsis; as, "I beg you will come," for 
" I beg that you will come ; " " I rose at seven," for " I rose at seven of 
the clock." 

The principal design of ellipsis is to avoid repetitions, and to express 
our ideas in few words. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical: it is, 



52 EXERCISES IN 

Examples, 



Wherein the method of supplying the uords that arc implied, and that of analyzing sentences, are 

pointed out. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN. 

" She is a good-natured, diligent, well-behaved girl ; " instead of " She 
is a good-natured (girl, and a) diligent (girl, and a) well-behaved 
girl." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

"Much rain and snow ; " i. e. " Much rain and (much) snow." — " A de- 
lightful garden and orchard ; " i. e. " A delightful garden and (a delight- 
ful) orchard." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE. 

11 A man, woman, 'and child ;" i. e. "A man, (a) woman, and (a) child." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE VERB. 

" I desire to hear and to learn;" i. e. " I desire to hear, and (I desire) to 
learn." — " She was young, and beautiful, and good ; " i. e. " She was young, 
and (she ivas) beautiful, and (she was) good." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADVERB. 

" They sing and play most delightfidly ; " i. e. " They sing (most delight- 
fully) and (they) play most delightfully." — " ,S7ie reads and ivrites well ; " 
i. e. "She reads (loell) and (she) writes well." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

" I love and fear him ; " i. e. " I love (him) and (/) fear him." — " J have 
read the book you lent me ; " i. e. " I have read the book (which) you lent 
me." — " This is the man they love;" i. e. "This is the man (whom) they 
love." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

" / desire you will be good ; " i. e. " I desire (that) you will be good." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PREPOSITION. 

"I gave tliem to your brother and sister;" i. e. "I gave them to your 
brother and (to your) sister." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE INTERJECTION. 

" Oh, pity and shame ! " i. e. " Oh, pity ! Oh, shame ! " 

ELLIPSIS OF A PART OF A SENTENCE. 

Nature has given to animals one time to act, another to rest ;" i. e. 
" Nature has given to animals one time to act (and nature has given to 
animals) .mother (time) to rest." 

"There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their 
own characters." "There is nothing (in which) men arc more deficient, 
than [in) knowing their own characters." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis: — 
"Wo is me;" i. e. "Wo is to me."— "To let blood:" i. e. "To let out 



etymology, syntax, &c. 53 

blood.''—" To let down ; " i. e. " To let it fall or slide down."—" To walk 
a mile ; " i. e. " To walk through the space of a mile." — " To sleep all 
night;" i. e. "To sleep through all the night." — "To go a fishing," "To 
go a hunting ; " i. e. " To go on a fishing voyage or business," " To go on 
a hunting party."— -" I dine at two o'clock," i. e. " at two of the clock." — 
" By sea, by land, on shore ; " i. e. " By the sea, by the land, on the shore." 
The examples that follow are introduced to show the impropriety of 
ellipsis, in some particular cases :■—" The land was always possessed, 
during pleasure, by those intrusted with the command : " it should be, 
" those persons intrusted," or " those who were Intrusted." — " If he had 
read further, he would have found several of his objections might have 
been spared ; " that is, " he would have found that several of his objec- 
tions," &Ci-^-"I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would 
yield more variety and use: " it should be, "which would yield," &c. — 
" In the temper of mind he was in then," i. e. "m which he then was."-— 
" The little satisfaction and consistency, to be found in most of the 
systems of divinity I have met with, made me betake myself to the 
sole reading of the Scriptures : " it ought to be, " which are to be found," 
and " which I have met with."—" He desired they might go to the altar 
together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due;" 
i» e> " to Him to whom," &c» 



OF TRANSPOSITION OR INVERSION. 

There are two kinds of style — the natural, and the inverted, or 
transposed. 

A natural style is that in which the order of the words corresponds 
with the natural order of the ideas that compose the thoughts ; or, to 
speak more clearly, that in which the words succeed each other in their 
natural order. 

An inverted or transposed style is that in which the words are thrown 
out of their natural order, for the sake of some superior beauty : but it is 
seldom of advantage to invert the style, except in poetry. 

Examples. 

" Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess, sing." 
Natural order. " Heavenly goddess, sing the wrath of Achilles, the 
direful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece/' 

" No bounds the Almighty's glory can restrain, 
Nor time's dimensions terminate his reign ; 
At his reproof convulsive nature shakes, 
And shivering earth from its foundation quakes." 
5* 



54 



EXERCISES IN 



Natural order. " No bounds can restrain the glory of the Almighty, 
nor can the dimensions of time terminate his reign : convulsive nature 
shakes at his reproof, and shivering earth quakes from its foundation." 

" Men in adversity most plain appear : 
It shows us really what and who they are : 
Then from their lips truth undissembled flows ; 
The mask falls off, and the just features shows." 

Natural order. " Men appear most plain in adversity : it shows us 
really what (they are) and who they are : then, undissembled truth flows 
from their lips ; the mask falls off, and shows then* just features." 



Although a verb in the infinitive mode is generally connected with a 
finite verb, yet it may follow a noun, adjective, participle, or almost any 
other part of speech. 

Examples. 

" I am about to give you a few examples, by way of illustration." 

"He is old enough to know better than to spend his time in this 
manner." 

" He is anxious to insure the election of that candidate, because he 
knows him to be well qualified to fulfil the duties of the office." 

" Endeavoring to persuade us, he became quite warm in his argu- 
ment." 

The definite article is frequently applied to adverbs of the comparative 
and superlative degrees, to mark the degrees more strongly. 

Examples. 

" The more you study, the faster you will learn." " The sooner you go, 
the sooner you will return." 

The indefinite aiiicle refers to a plural noun, when few, or the words 
great and many, immediately precede the noun; as, "a few trees" — "a 
great many houses.'" 



A FEW INSTANCES OF THE SAME WORD'S CONSTITUTING 
SEVERAL OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Calm. Cairn was the day, and 
the scene delightful. We may 
expect a calm after a storm. To 
prevent passion, is easier than to 
calm it. 

Little. Better is a little with 
content, than a great deal with 
anxiety. A little attention will 
rectify some errors. The gay 



and dissolute think little of the 
miseries which are stealing softly 
after them. 

Still. Though he is out of dan- 
ger, he is still afraid. He labored 
to still the tumult. Still waters are 
commonly deepest. 

Damp. Damp air is unwhole- 
some. Guilt often casts a damp 



PARSING, &,C, 



55 



over our sprightly hours. Soft 
bodies damp the sound much more 
than hard ones. 

Yet. They are yet young, and 
must suspend their judgment for a 
while. Though she is rich and fair, 
yet she is not amiable. 

Few and Many. Many per- 
sons are better than we suppose 
them to be. The few* and the 
many have their prepossessions. 
Few days pass without some 
clouds. 

Much. He has seen much of 
the world, and been much caress- 
ed. Think much, and speak lit- 
tle. Much learning hath made 
thee mad ! 

More. His years are more than 
hers, but he has not more knowl- 
edge. The more we are blessed, 
the more grateful we should be. 
The desire of getting more is rarely 
satisfied. 

Inferior and Equal. He has 
equal knowledge, but inferior judg- 
ment. She is his inferior in sense, 
but his equal in prudence. ■ 

Like. Every being loves its 
like. We must make a like space 
between the lines. Behave like 
men. We are too apt to like per- 
nicious company. He may go or 
stay, as he likes. 

To. They strive to learn. He 
goes to and fro. f To his wisdom 
we owe our privilege. The pro- 
portion is ten to one. 

Utmost. He has served them 
with his utmost ability. When 
we do our utmost, no more is re- 
quired. 

For. I will submit, for I know 
that submission brings peace. It is 
for our health to be temperate. O 
for better times ! I have a regard 
for him. 



Both. He is esteemed both on 
his own account, and on account of 
his parents. Both of them deserve 
praise. 

Yesterday. Yesterday was a 
fine day. I rode out yesterday. 

To-morrow. To-morrow may 
be brighter than to-day.. I shall 
write to-morrow. 

Hail. We hail you as friends. 
Hail virtue ! source of every 
good. The hail was very destruc- 
tive. 

That. An eclipse of the sun 
took place on that day. Why is 
our language less refined than 
that of France ? I hope that we 
shall arrive in season. He is the 
most generous person that ever 
lived. 

Since. I have not seen him 
since that time. I have seen your 
friend since I saw you. Let us 
return, since the affair cannot be 
settled. 

As. As he passed along, his 
ears were delighted with the morn- 
ing song of the birds of Para- 
dise. As many as arrived in sea- 
son embarked free of expense. 
Such | as believe shall be saved. 
We left them as we found them. 
We will take the oath as soon as he 
arrives. 

But. The path of glory leads 
but to the grave. She is hand- 
some, but she is not amiable, 
They asked nothing but their lib-* 
erty* 

Than. Man wants no more 
than may suffice. He is no more 
respected than his predecessor. 

What. What was his conduct 
in his praetorship here at home? 
What man is so hardened as to 
deny these facts ? What wise 
men are our counsellors ! What I 



* An adjective, with the definite article before it, becomes a noun (of the third per- 
son, plural number), and must be parsed as such. 

f Two or more words, used to show the manner, time, or place, in which an ac- 
tion is performed, are called an adverbial phrase. 

% As, when it follows such, and frequently when it follows some and many, be~ 
comes a relative pronoun. 



56 



feXERCtSllS IN 



are you here, already ? He extols 
what* he sees. What though in 
solemn silence all move round this 
dark, terrestrial ball, &c* I will 
try what virtue there is in stones; 
Come, Til tell thee what — — , 
She knows not what colors are in 
fashion. What with hunger, and 
\vhat with fatigue,' he Was over- 
come. 

Whatever. Whatever puri- 
fies, fortifies the heart. Whatev- 



er useful or engaging endowments 
we possess, virtue is requisite, in 
order to their shining with proper 
lustre. Whatever they may say 
of me, I shall heed them not* 

Whosoever; Whosoever shall 
receive this child in my name re- 
ceived! me ; and whosoever re- 
ceived! me receiveth him that sent 
me* Whomsoever I shall kiss, the 
same is he -* 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES TO BE PARSED. 



1 would rather be myselff the 
slave, and wear the chains, than 
fasten them on him. 

Rex and Tyrannus are of very 
different characters. One{ rules 
his people by laws to which they 
consent; the other ± by his absolute 
will and power; that§ is called 
freedom, this, § tyranny. 

He was laughed at by his com- 
panions, and talked of by all Who 
knew him. 

He rose and rebuked the winds* 
and said unto the sea, "Peace, be 
still ! " 

I will give you a solution of the 
comma, ana\ and it. 

Why make ye this ado? The 
damsel is not dead, but sleepeth. 

Who do men say that I am ? 

To live long, ought not to be 
.your favorite wish, so much as to 
live well. 

The weather is much too warm 
for comfort. 



The plank is one inch too thick* 

I Wish to have the servant come 
hither. 

Give us this day our daily bread. 

What do people say it is ? 

They were spoken to respecting 
that subject. 

They cried, " Away with him ! " 

Mine is by yours— — . 

Desire, not reason* will be the 
ruling principle of our conduct. 

He has gone a hunting, and he 
will walk many miles. 

The man being dismissed from 
office, his family suffered. 

The boy's being confined, was a 
grief to his parents. 

Ye are one || another's joy. Be 
ye helpers one of another. 

They love each other.1T 

Whom do you imagine it to have 
been? 

What sculpture is to a block of 
marble, education is to the human 
soul. 



* What is a compound pronoun, including- both the antecedent and (he relative, 
and is equivalent to that and which. " He extols that which he sees." — That is a rfe- 
monstrative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, in the objective case, and 
is governed by extols. Which is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular 
number, in the objective case, and governed by sees (agreeing with that for its an- 
tecedent.) 

t The words myself, himself, ourselves, themselves, &c, are called compound per- 
sonal pronouns. 

X When the words some, one, any, other, all, such, are not prefixed to nouns, ex- 
pressed or understood, they are called indefinite pronouns. 

§ When the words this, that, lltese, those, former, and latter, stand for nouns, they 
are demonstrative pronouns. 



The pronoun one is often used in the possessive case; as, "One is apt to love one's 
'." Thi 
world. 



self." This word is also often used in the plural number ; as, " The great ones of the 



M The pronoun other is likewise used in the plural number ; as, " He pleases some, 
«nd disgusts others." 



PARSING, &C. 



57 



If thine enemy be hungry, give 
him bread to eat ; if he be thirsty, 
give him water to drink. 

One danced, another ran to and 
fro. 

Sitting is the best posture for de- 
liberation ; standing, for persuasion. 
A judge, therefore, should speak 
sitting ; a pleader, standing. 

What is the bigot's torch, the ty- 
rant's chain ! 

Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the 
Arbiters of nations ! to you I fly for 
refuge. 

I do not care a sixpence whether 
he is wet or dry. 

On the same night he dreamed a 
dream. 

The ship is arrived, and her car- 
go will be discharged immediately. 

Properly speaking, there are but 
two genders. 

There being much obscurity in 
the ease, he refuses to decide up- 
on it. 

Junius Brutus, the son of Mar- 
cus Brutus, and Collatinus, the hus- 
band of Lucretia, were chosen first 
consuls in Rome. 

To learn is our duty. 

In order to become a grammari- 
an, I must study with diligence. 

I have some recollection of my 
father's being a judge. 

They rode for two days to- 
gether. 

He called the company, man by 
man. 

He began to speak unto them 
in parables. 

And he said unto them, " Exact no 
more than that which is appointed 
you." 

I will go, while you stay. 

It is not possible to act other- 
wise, considering the weakness of 
our nature. 

Israel burned none, save Hazor 
only. 

There was more than a hun- 
dred and fifty thousand pounds ster- 
ling. 

Bonaparte lost the battle of 
Waterloo. 



He looked, and behold the bush 
burned with fire, and the bush was 
not consumed. 

Two and three make five. 

Celadon and Amelia were a 
matchless pair. 

Charcoal, sulphur, and nitre, 
make gunpowder. 

I told the person who painted 
my house, to put on a good coat of 
white lead. 

He took off his hat, and put on 
his wig. 

Catiline, the leader and contriver 
of the plot, was there. 

He proved himself a Roman cit- 
izen. 

Nero rendered himself a detesta- 
ble tyrant. 

He grew up an excellent schol- 
ar. 

Greece, which had submitted to 
the arms, in her turn subdued the 
understandings of the Romans, and ? 
contrary to that which in these 
cases commonly happens, the con- 
querors adopted the opinions and 
manners of the conquered. 

The distance was seven miles, 
and he ran it in twenty minutes. 
He outran all his competitors. 

The writer writes a writing on 
writing paper ; when he has done 
writing the writing, the writing 
paper is written, or becomes writ- 
ten paper. 

Caroline would be very happy, if 
she could have her wish. 

He confessed himself a thief. 

The duke made himself king. 

And all mine are thine, and 

ine art 
in thee. 

If I could live my life over again, 
I would try to employ it to better 
advantage. 

The lowing herd wind slowly 
o'er the lea. 

O'er hills and dales they wend 
their way. 

They went their ways, one to 
his farm, another to his merchan- 
dise. 

Read, not to contradict or con- 



58 



EXERCISES IN 



fute; nor to believe and take for 
granted ; but to weigh and con- 
sider. 

You, or he, or I, must attend to 
this affair. 

You ought to have the work pre- 
pared in season. 



The two houses will have fin- 
ished their business, when the king 
comes to prorogue them. 

Ask, and it shall be given you ; 
seek, and you shall find ; knock, 
aud it shall be opened unto you. 



AGE. 

The minds of the aged are like the tombs which they are approach- 
ing ; where, though the brass and the marble remain, yet the inscriptions 
are effaced by time, and the imagery has mouldered away. 

HONOR. 

Would you not think it an honor to be employed by God in creating 
a world ? Would you not think it an honor to be employed by him in 
preserving and governing a world ? But greater, far greater, is the honor 
of being employed as a co-worker with God in saving a world. This 
honor have all his saints. This honor we are invited to share. 

Pay son. 
SCRIPTURE. 

From the antiquity of our translation of the Bible, there is often a 
quaintness in its expressions, and their introduction may give a point 
to some satirical remark, or furnish a striking form for some sally of wit. 
But we should beware. Scripture is a pure stream, flowing forth from 
the throne of God ; and it should never be made to reflect the fantastic 
images of human folly. Newman. 

THOUGHT. 

What is thought ? It is an emanation from Deity. It is at once the 
fear and joy of youth — the solace of retirement — the companion of age — 
and the telegraph of worlds. Though its first dawning in the infant 
mind is faint and uncertain, yet, like the rays that gild the early morn, 
or the first flashes of the young borealis, it gives promise of coming 
brightness. Subtile in its essence, mysterious and uncontrollable in 
its flight, — it rises from the minutest object, and encircles empires. 
Again it rises — expands — and wings its silent, rapid way, from star 
to star, from sun to sun: still rising, still expanding, it reaches the 
court of Heaven — the throne of God — and embraces the Universe ! 

J. Dow. 



KNOWLEDGE. 

Pleasure is a shadow, wealth is vanity, and power a pageant; but 
knowledge is ecstatic in enjoyment, perennial in fame, unlimited in 
space, and infinite in duration. In the performance of its sacred offices, 
it fears no danger, spares no expense, omits no exertion. It scales 
the mountain, looks into the volcano, dives into the ocean, perforates 
the earth, wings its flight into the skies, encircles the globe, explores 
gea and land, contemplates the distant, examines the minute, compre- 
hends the great, ascends to the sublime: — no place too remote for its 
grasp, — no heavens too exalted for its reach. 

De Witt Clinton. 



PARSING, &C. 59 

A COMIC ANNUAL. 
Each exquisite essay, fraught with finely jFfo-ished fancyings, forces 
the full fountain of flushed feeling to overflow with fun. Genuine 
Genius has here had her holiday, and the hitherto incomparable im- 
agery of the immortal Cruikshanks is immeasurably outdone by the 
inimitable imaginings of the jolly Johnston. Knaves and knowing 
ones, lads and lasses, march to the magical music of this merry master. 
No novelty ever before offered was so playful, polished, and pungent. 



SUNSET AFTER RAIN. 
All the day long the gently-dropping rain 

Had fallen, and the clouds hung dark and low ; 
But now their shadowy veil was raised again, 

As the soft evening breeze began to blow ; 
And through the dripping leaves, and the blue haze, 
That filled the woodland scene, in one wide blaze 
Of gorgeous splendor, streamed the setting sun, 

And made the forest walks and alleys green 
Bright with his presence. The glad brook, that run 

Down the slant upland, flashed in silver sheen, — 
The wet leaves glistened, — every bending spear 
Of grass shone bright, and the wide atmosphere 
Seemed slow-descending in a golden shower, 

As if the fable of mythology 
Had then become, through some mysterious power, 

A palpable creation, to the eye 
Of the external and corporeal sense 

Made visible and distinct. ... H. W. Longfellow, 



INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS. 
Then hail the golden years ! — on us they roll 
Laden with lore — the harvest of the soul : 
Unhelmed, and beautiful as Houries are, 
In the full richness of her rose-crowned hair, 
Like some new Mentor, ever at our sides, 
And in perpetual song, Minerva glides ! 
No longer guards she in some pictured urn 
Those sacred " thoughts that breathe and words that burn ; " 
But lo ! in graceful smiles, and radiant mirth, 
Unchains them joyous round each ringing hearth ; 
While, like a vision, to our hearts and'homes, 
In sure, but noiseless victory, she comes — 
Robed as the goddess of the shield should be 
In maiden virtue, beautifully free ! 

And now, what plaudit sounds are those that swell, 
With the glad clearness of a silver bell, 
Up from delighted nations ! — Who is he 
To whom this votive anthem of the free, 
And brave, and beautiful, ascends, where'er 
The heart has pulses or the eye a tear ! — 
Whose fame is sealed forever ! — Who is he, 
Whose wand o'er others holds high mastery, 



60 EXERCISES IN 

And Nature in her power has visited, 

As with the strange revealings of the dead ! 

Behold, his name, already on the roll 

Of meteor minds, — the wonderful in soul, — 

Stands forth, revealed in deathless characters 

Upon the fair futurity of stars ! 

His name, O Scotland ! never shall expire, 

But soar, a second Shakspeare's, from his funeral pyre ! 

Grenville Mellejv. 



LANGUAGE. 

And what is language ? Language is the power 
Whereby, as with the arrowy light of Him, 
The broad brave sun that flashes through the sky 
Uninterrupted glory, Thought goes forth, 
From mind to mind, flash after flash, forever : 
At first a little fountain bubbled up 
Within the desert or the wilderness, 
The outlet to a mine of wealth — of power — 
Ten thousand times more precious than the earth, 
Glittering with diamonds or charged with ore, 
That man, short-sighted man, would perish for — 
A treasury of thought and speech : anon, 
It filtered forth, and rolled a brook — 
A streamlet, then — a river — then a sea. 
Behold it now ! It overspreads the earth. 
####### 

Still, what is language ? Language is the power, 
The everlasting, omnipresent power, 
Whereby man holds communion with his God, — 
Wherewith he does imperishable things : 
By it mankind perpetuate then strength, 
Their wisdom and their virtue, yea, and all 
Their mighty fathers ever thought or did, 
Or ever knew ; by pouring forth for aye, 
Into the stream of knowledge, flowing on 
Forever, and forever, all that they 
Have had bequeathed them here, and all that they 
Would leave to others — all that they have known 
By language only, — that mysterious power, 
Which cannot be described but by itself, 
So like it is to Deity. Neal. 



THE MARCH OF MIND. 
Who dares, presumptuous, a bound assign 
To the great soul's dominion ? Who shall dare 
To its sublime ambition say, "Thus far; 
Here shall thy triumph cease!" 

For there are paths 
The soul hath never trod, and trophies proud, 
For the high intellect, it hath not dreamed of. 
It shall go down to Thought's unfathomed depths, 
Till now unfathomable deemed ; and win, 
From caverns unexplored, the rarest gems. 
It shall go up, in its unfaltering strength, 



PARSING, &C. 



61 



And scale the untrodden cliffs, the eyrie heights, 
Of thoughts that look on heaven — and find a path, 
A highway, through vast deserts and broad wastes, 
Its eye hath not yet looked on ; and its power 
Shall make them bloom as gardens. 

It must be so. For is not mind, even now, 
Like the unpinioned eagle, spurning earth, 
Fixing intent its keen, undazzled eye 
Heavenward, and gathering plumage and new strength 
Into its tireless wing ? William Cutter. 



OF THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The same preposition, generally speaking, should follow a noun or 
an adjective, as would properly follow the verb from which the noun or 
adjective is derived. 



Acquit, } 

Accuse, > require of. 

Abhorrence, ) 

Agreeable, } 

Averse, > require to. 

Adapted, ) 



Boast, \™<l™e°f- 

Bestow requires upon. 
Contend requires for or with. 

Confide, ) ire {n 
Conversant, $ n 
Call requires on. 
Consonant, } 
Conformable, > require to. 
Correspondent, ) 
Caution requires against. 
Compliance requires with. 
Divide requires into. 
Diminution,) jre o/ 
Disapprove, S 



Differ, 

Derogation, 

Dissent, 



require from. 



Dependent requires upon. 
Discouragement requires to. 
Disappointment requires in or of 
Enter requires in or into. 
Engaged, } 
Ealer, t ' Require tn. 

Exception requires^om. 
Expert requires in or at. 
Founded requires on. 
Glad requires of or at. 
Insist requires upon. 
Martyr requiresybr. 
Need requires of 
Observance requires of. 
Profit requires by. 
Prejudice requires against. 
Provide requires with. 
Prevail requires over. 
Reduce requires under or to. 
Replete requires ivith. 
Resemblance requires to. 
Swerve requires from. 
Think requires of or on. 
Taste requires of or for. 
True requires to. 
Wait requires on. 



OF THE IMPROPER USE OF WORDS AND PHRASES. 

The phrases more perfect and most perfect are improper, because per- 
fection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or 
nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter 
term of comparison should not include the former. It is, therefore, 
G 






62 EXERCISES IN 

improper To say, " The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings : " 
we should say, " than any other writings." 

When the superlative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term of 
comparison should never exclude the former. Therefore, instead of say- 
ing, " Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable," we 
should say, " of all vices," &c. 

Farther applies to place and distance; and further to quantity or 
addition. 

Later or latter cannot be used indifferently, with propriety : latter refers 
to place ; later respects time only. 

The phrase " seldom or ever" is improper : we should either say " sel- 
dom, if ever" or " seldom or never." 

" I had rather " is often improperly used instead of " I would 
rather." 

To lay (to place something), in the present tense, is properly written 
lay, in the imperfect laid; the perfect participle is also laid. To lie 
(down) is lie in the present tense, lay in the imperfect, and lain in the 
perfect participle. IAe is conjugated regularly when it means to tell a 
falsehood ; as, " He lied," " He has lied." 

Set is an intransitive verb in some senses, which makes it proper to 
say, "To set out on a journey;" "To set up in business;" "The sun 
sets, " and " Fair weather has set in." 

The following are examples of mistakes in the use of the transitive 
verbs lay and set, and of the intransitive verbs lie and sit, with the cor- 
rection after each : — 

" He lays in bed too long " (lies). " I have a work laying by me " 
[lying). "Go and lay down" (lie). "I laid and slept an hour " (lay). 
" I was laying on the grass " (lying). " He has laid there a long time " 
[lain). "He has lain himself down to rest " (laid). " Let me set 
down" (sit). " I afterwards went and set down " (sat). "He sat him- 
self down" (set). "The hen is setting on her eggs" [sitting). "The 
wind sits in the east " (sets). 

The verb to learn is never used transitively, except when it has for 
its subject the person who obtains the knowledge or information, and 
for its only object the knowledge or information obtained. It is proper 
to say, "I am learning grammar;" but improper to say, "The master 
learns me grammar," instead of teaches me ; or " Learn me to do that," 
instead of " Teach me." 

Tautology, which means the repeating of a word or an idea that has 
been fully expressed before, is a frequent error in composition. 

The verb to return signifies to go or come back ; go or come again ; 
yet we sometimes hear and read the phrases, return back — and return 
again — and even return hack again. 

To converse means to talk together : therefore it is wrong to say, " They 
are conversing togetJier" 



PARSING, &C. 



63 



To fall includes the idea of down, as to rise does that of up ; for we 
cannot say, to fall up, or to rise down. It is therefore improper, because 



it is unnecessary, to say, " Fall down, 



Rise up." 



The adjective mutual includes the meaning of the words each other, 
or one another : therefore it is wrong to say, " They bear a mutual like- 
ness to each other." 

To enter means to go (or come) in : therefore we should not say, " En- 
ter in." 

Restore means to give back : therefore it is wrong to say of a thing, 
" I restore it back, or again," &c. 

The phrases first of all, last of all, are improper : one of the things 
mentioned, or attended to, cannot be first, if any of the others are 
before it ; and certainly, if a thing is not last of all, it cannot be the 
last. 

It is wrong to use both, when the two things under consideration have 
been expressly named; as, "I took some wine and some water, and 
mixed them both together;" "I saw two chairs fastened both together ; " 
" My brother called on me, and we both took a walk." 

Throughout expresses the idea of through all, or through every part : 
we should not say, therefore, " I searched all the country throughout" 
or, " We found these sentiments throughout the whole book." 

In the expression "I have just now written," the adverb now is redun- 
dant, and ought to be expunged. 



UNGRAMMATICAL WORDS AND PHRASES CORRECTED. 



UNGRAMMATICAL. 

He only spoke three words. 
He is seldom or ever right. 
He said how that he would go. 
They never will believe but what 

I am to blame. 
Be it never so true. 
Where are you going ? 
Are you travelling there ? 
I have not hearn the story. . 
I catched cold last evening. 
They rode in a horse and chay. 
Who did you speak to ? 
Was I an officer, &c. 
He has got it. 
Who finds him in money ? 
He put money in his pocket. 



CORRECTED. 

He spoke only three words. 
He is seldom if ever right. 
He said that he would go. 
They never will believe but that I 

am to blame. 
Be it ever so true. 
Whither are you going ? 
Are you travelling thither ? 
I have not heard the story. 
I caught cold last evening. 
They rode in a one-horse chaise. 
To whom did you speak? 
Were I an officer, &c. 
He has it. 

Who finds him money ? 
He put money into his pocket. 



64 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, &C. 



The report was founded in truth. 

This house is to let. 

1 shall call upon him. 

Is the gentleman in ? 

He covered it over. 

If I had have known it earlier. 

Frequent opportunity. 

He had'nt ought to do it. 

He killed them dead. 

Give me them books. 

The villain was hung. 

He mentioned it over again. 

I done it myself. 

I have eat heartily. 

It lays on the table. 

He is laying down. 

He is quite the gentleman. 

He seed him afore. 

The fields are overflown 

Overseer over his house. 

Opposite the church. 

This here. 

That there. 

I an't cold. 

We wer'nt there. 

He came in town this morning. 

Whether he will or no. 

We go to church for to worship. 

I cannot by no means allow it. 

All over the country. 

Be that as it will. 

He answered and said. 

He knows nothing on it. 

They both met together. 

I had rather not. 

Says I. 

He is one of my acquaintance. 

I intended to have rewarded him. 



The report was founded on truth 

This house is to be let. 

I shall call on him. 

Is the gentleman within ? 

He covered it. 

If I had known it earlier. 

Frequent opportunities. 

He ought not to do it. 

He killed them. 

Give me those books. 

The villain was hanged. 

He mentioned it again. 

I did it myself. 

I have eaten heartily. 

It lies on the table. 

He is lying down. 

He is a gentleman. 

He saw him before. 

The fields are overflowed. 

Overseer of his house. 

Opposite to the church. 

This. 

That. 

I am not cold. 

We were not there. 

He came into town this morning. 

Whether he will or not. 

We go to church to worship. 

1 can by no means allow it. 

Over all the country. 

Be that as it may. 

He answered. 

He knows nothing of it. 

They met. 

I would rather not. 

Said I. 

He is one of my acquaintances. 

I intended to reward him. 



ETYMOLOGY 



Etymology 1 treats of the different sorts of words, their various modi- 
fications, and their derivations. 

Etymology is compounded of two Greek words, which signify origin and 
word. It means literally the derivation of a word from its original. 

There 2 are in English ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly 
called, parts of speech; namely, the Noun, the Adjective, the Article, the 
Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Pronoun, the Conjunction, the 
Preposition, and the Interjection. 



OF NOUNS. 

A Noun 3 is the name of any thing that we can see, taste, hear, smell, 
feel, or conceive of; as, man, mine, virtue. 

The word noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, which signifies a name. 

Nouns are 4 divided into proper and common. 

Proper 5 Nouns are the names appropriated to individuals ; as, George, 
London, Thames. 

Common 6 Nouns stand for a whole species, class or kind, whether 
the class consists of one individual or more ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 
K The general is the Washington of the age." 

When 7 proper nouns or names have an article prefixed to them, they 
are used as common names ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age ; " " He is 
reading the lives of the twelve Casars." 

Questions. 

(1) What does ETYMOLOGY treat of?— (2) How many sorts of words are there? 
< — (3) What is a noun ?— (4) How are nouns divided ? — (5) What is a proper noun ? — 
{6) What do common nouns stand for? — (7) When proper nouns have an article pre- 
fixed, how are they used ? 

6* 




66 ETYMOLOGY. 

Common l names may also be used to signify individuals, by the addi- 
tion of articles or pronouns ; as, " The boy is studious ; " " That girl is 
discreet." * 

Nouns 2 have four properties ; namely, person, number, gender, and 
case. 

Of Person. 

Person 3 is that quality of the noun (or pronoun) which modifies 
the verb. 

There are 4 three persons ; namely, the first, second, and third. 

The 5 First Person denotes the speaker — the Second, the person spoken 
to — and the Third, the person or the thing spoken of. 

Of Number. 

Number, 6 in grammar, is the difference of termination or form of a 
word, to express unity or plurality. 

Nouns 7 are of two numbers, the singular an:l the plural. 

The 8 Singular Number denotes but one object ; as, a chair, a table. 

The 9 Plural Number signifies more objects than one; as, chairs, 
tables. 

Some 10 nouns, from the nature of the things which they express, 
are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, 
&c. ; — others, only in the plural form ; as, n bellows, scissors, lungs, 
riches, &c. 

Some n words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, 
swine, &c. 

The 13 plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the 
singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, thoughts. But 14 when the 
noun singular ends in .r, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural ; as, 
box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; hiss, kisses ; rebus, rebuses. 
If the singular 15 ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s ; as, 
monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns 16 which end in o have sometimes es added to the plural ; as, 
cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo ; — and sometimes 
only s ; as, folio, mmcio, punctilio, seraglio. 

Questions. 

(1) Can common names be used lo signify individuals? — (2) How many properties 
have nouns ?— (3) What is person ? — (4) How many persons are there ? — (5) What 
does each person denote ?— (6) What is number ? — (7) How many numbers are there ? 
— (8) What does the singular number denote ? — (9) What does the plural number sig- 
nify ? — (10) Give examples of nouns used only in the singular form. — (11) Give exam- 
ples of nouns used only in the plural form. — (12) Give examples of words having the 
same form in both numbers. — (13) How is the plural number of nouns generally 
formed ? — (14) How is the plural number formed of such nouns as end in x, ch soft, ss, 
or s, in the singular? — (15) If the singular ends in ch hard, how is the plural formed? — 
(16) How do nouns ending in o form their plurals ? 

* Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : — Collective 
nouns, or nouns of multitude ; as, the people, the parliament, the army ; — 
Abstract notins, or the names of qualities abstracted from their sub- 
stances ; as, knowledge, goodness, whiteness ; — Verbal or participial nouns ; 
as, beginning, reading, writing. 

The English language contains in all about forty thousand words. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



67 



Nouns 1 ending in /or ft are rendered plural by the change of those 
terminations into ves ; as, loaf loaves ; half halves ; wife, wives ; except 
grief relief reproof and several others, which form the plural by the 
addition of s. Those which end in ff have the regular plural ; as, ruff, 
ruffs ; except staff, the plural of which is staves. 

Nouns 2 which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same 
syllable, change it into ies in the plural; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies, 
But the y is not changed when there is another vowel in the syllable 5 
as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some 3 nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into e ; 
as, man, men ; woman, women ; alderman^ aldermen* The words ox 
and 4 child form oxen and children ; brother makes either brothers or breth- 
ren. Sometimes 5 the diphthong 00 is changed into ee in the plural ; as, 
foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and mice. 
Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the coin is meant ; die, dice (for 
play) ; die, dies (for coining). 

It is agreeable 6 to analogy, and the practice of the generality of correct 
writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; pains, riches, 
<dms ; and also mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, 
with other similar names of sciences. 

The word 7 neivs is now almost universally considered as belonging to 
the singular number. 

The 8 noun means is used both in the singular and the plural number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, 
Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with respect to 
aumber : — 

Singular. 

Cherub, 9 

Seraph, 

Antithesis, 

Automaton, 

Basis, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Diaeresis, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Hypothesis, 

Metamorphosis, 

Phenomenon, 

Appendix, < 

Questions. 

(1) How are nouns ending in/ or fe rendered plural ? — (2) How do nouns ending in 
y in the singular, form their plurals ?— (3) What nouns form their plurals by changing a 
into e ? — (4) How is the plural of the words child, ox, and brother, formed ? — (5) What 
nouns form their plurals by changing the diphthong 00 into ee ? — (6) How are the nouns 
pains, riches, alms, mathematics, &c. construed ? — (7) Of what number is neios ?— 
(8) Of what number is means considered ? — (9) What is the plural of cherub? — Repeat 
the plural of each word in the table of Greek and Latin words. 

* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits ; Geniuses, when signifying persons of 
genius. 

t Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents ; Indices, where 
referring to algebraic quantities. 



Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Cherubim. 


Datum, 


Data. 


Seraphim. 


Effluvium, 


Effluvia. 


Antitheses. 
Automata. 


Encomium, 


5 Encomia, or 
( Encomiums. 


Bases. 


Erratum, 


Errata. 


Crises. 


Genius, 


Genii.* 


Criteria. 


Genus, 


Genera. 


Diaereses. 


Index, 


^ Indices, or 
} Indexes.f 


Ellipses. 


Emphases. 


Lamina, 


Laminae. 


Hypotheses. 


Medium, 


Media. 


M etamorphoses. 


Memoran- 


( Memoranda, of 
( Memorandums, 


Phenomena. 


dum, 


Appendices, or 


Radius, 


Radii. 


Appendixes. 







63 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Arcanum, 

Axis, 

Calx, 



Arcana. 

Axes. 

Calces. 



Stamen, 
Stratum, 
Vortex, 



Stamina. 

Strata. 

Vortices. 



Some words, derived from learned languages, are confined to the 
plural number; as, 1 antipodes, credenda, literati, minutice. 

The following 2 nouns, being in Latin both singular and plural, are 
used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue : — hiatus, appa- 
ratus, series, species. 

Of Gender. 

Gender 3 is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. 4 There are 
three genders — the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The 5 Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind ; as, a man, 
a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender denotes animals of the female kind ; as, a wo- 
man, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor fe- 
males ; as, afield, a house } a garden. 

Some 6 nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted 
into the masculine or feminine gender; as when we say of the sun,'" He 
is setting ; " and of a ship, " She sails well." 

The 7 English language has three methods of distinguishing the 
sex, viz. 

1. Bv different words : as, 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


King, 


Queen. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Man, 


Woman 




2. By a difference 


of termination; as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Femdli . 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Administrator, 


Administratrix. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer, 


Adulteress. 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Bridegroom, 


Bride. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 

Ques 


tions. 





(1) Of what number are antipodes, credenda, literati, and Jiiinuticc, considered? — 
(2) How are hiatus, apparatus, scries, and species, used? — (3) What is render? — 
(4) How many genders arc there? — (5) Give the definition of each? — (6) Are nouns 
naturally neuter made of the masculine or feminine gender ? — (7) How many method* 
are there, in English, to distinguish the sex ? — Give examples of each. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective's being prefixed to the noun ; as, 

A cock-sparrow, A hen-sparrow. 

A man-servant, A maid-servant. 

A he-goat, A she-goat. 

A he-bear, A she-bear. 

A male child, A female child. 

Male descendants, Female descendants. 

Sometimes the same noun may be considered either masculine or 
feminine. l The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and 
several others, are used indifferently for males and females. 

Of Case. 

Case 2 is the condition or situation of the noun, in relation to other 
words in the sentence. 

In English, 3 nouns have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective.* 

The Nominative 4 Case simply expresses the name of a thing, or the 
subject of a verb ; as, " The boy plays ; " " The girls learn." 

The Possessive Case expresses the relation of property or possession, 
and has an apostrophe with the letter 5 coming after it ; as, " The schol- 
ar's duty;" "My father's house." 

When 5 the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostrophe 
is retained ; as, " On eagles' wings ; " " The drapers' company." 

Sometimes, 6 also, when the singular terminates in ss, the apos- 
trophic s is not added ; as, " For goodness' sake ; " " For righteousness' 
sake." 

The 7 Objective Case expresses the object of an action, or of a relation, 
and generally follows a verb transitive, a participle, or a preposition ; as, 
"John assists Charles ;" "They live in London." 

Nouns 8 are declined in the following manner :— 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative case, A mother, Mothers, 

Possessive case, A mother's, Mothers', 

Objective case, A mother ; Mothers. 

Nominative case, The man, The men, 

Possessive case, The man's, The men's, 

Objective case, The man ; The men. 

Questions. 

fl) How are the nouns -parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, and servant, used? 
— (2) What is case ? — (3) How many cases are there 1 — (4) Give a definition of the 
nominative and possessive. — (5) How is the possessive case formed, when the nomina- 
tive ends in s?— (6) How is it formed when the noun ends in ss ? — (7) What does the 
objective case express ? — (8) How are nouns declined ? 

* The possessive case is sometimes called the genitive case ; and the 
objective, the accusative. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective l is a word added to a noun, or a pronoun, to express 
some quality or circumstance of the person or thing for which the noun 
or pronoun stands ; as, " An industrious man ; " " A virtuous woman ; " 
" He is good." 

In English, 2 the adjective is not varied on account of gender, number, 
or case. Thus we say, " A careless boy ; careless girls." 

The only variation 3 which it admits is that of the degrees of com- 
parison. 

There are 4 commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison-^-the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The Positive State 5 expresses the quality of an object, without any in- 
crease or diminution ; as, good, wise, great. 

The Comparative Degree 6 increases or lessens the positive in signifi- 
cation ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree 7 increases or lessens the positive to the highest 
or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least ivise. 

The simple word, 8 or positive, becomes the comparative by adding r 
or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the end of it ; as, wise, 
wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs more and most, 
placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, wise, more wise, 
most wise. 

The termination 9 ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of com- 
parison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive ; as, 
black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, or having a little 
taste of salt. 

The word rather 10 is very properly used to express a small degree or 
excess of a quality ; as, " She is rather profuse in her expenses.". 

Monosyllables, 11 for the most part, are compared by er and est; and 
dissyllables by more and most ; as, mild, milder, mildest ; frugal, more fru- 
gal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y; as, happy, lovely; and in le 
after a mute ; as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, 
polite ; easily admit of er and est ; as, happier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; 
politer, politest. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of 
those terminations. 

In some words, 12 the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, up- 
permost, foremost. 

In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very com- 
mon use (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of anal- 
ogy), that are irregular in this respect; as, 13 good, better, best; bad, 
worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or many, more, most ; near, nearer, 

Questions. 

(1) What is an adjective? — (2) Are adjectives varied on account of person, num- 
ber, &c. ? — (3) What variations have they ?— (4) How many degrees of comparison 
are there ? — (5) What does the positive state express? — (G) Does the comparative de- 
gree increase or lessen the positive in signification ? — (7) What degree of comparison 
increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ? — (8) How does the 
simple word, or positive, become the comparative? — (!J) What effect docs the termina- 
tion ish have? — (10) How is the word ratlier used? — (11) How are monosyllables 
compared ? — (12) What words arc compared by adding the adverb most to the end of 
them ? — (13) Compare the adjectives good, bad, little, much, near, late, and old. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest ; 
and a few others. 

An adjective * put without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and is written as a noun ; as? 
" Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 

Various nouns 2 placed before other nouns assume the nature of adjec- 
tives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives 3 are either cardinal or ordinal ; cardinal, as, one,, hoo, 
three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c. 



OF ARTICLES. 

An Article 4 is a word prefixed to nouns and pronouns, to limit their 
signification. 

Articles are so called from the Latin word articulus, signifying a joint, or 
very small part. 

In English 5 there are but two articles, an and the : an becomes a when 
the following word begins with a consonant sound ; as, a hand, a heart, a 
highway. But when the following word begins with a vowel sound, an 
is used ; as, an acorn, an hour. 

An or a 6 is styled the Indefinite Article : it is used in a vague sense, to 
point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate ; 
as, " Give me a book ; " " Bring me an apple." 

The 7 is called the Definite Article, because it ascertains what particular 
thing or things are meant ; as, " Give me the book ; " " Bring me the ap- 
ples ; " meaning some book, or apples, referred to. 

A noun without any article to limit it, is generally taken in its 
widest sense ; as, " A candid temper is proper for man ; " that is, for all 
mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in the 
following examples : " The son of a king — the son of the king — a son 
of the king." Each of these three phrases has an entirely different mean- 
ing, through the different applications of the articles a and the. 

The article 8 is omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, " Prudence 
is commendable ; " " Falsehood is odious ; " " Anger ought to be avoided," 
&c. It is not prefixed to a proper name, as, Alexander (because that of 
itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing), except for 
the sake of distinguishing a particular family; as, "He is a Howard, 
or of the family of the Howards;" or by way of eminence ; as, "Every 
man is not a Newton ; " " He has the courage of an Achilles ; " or when 
some noun is understood; as, "He sailed down the (river) Thames, in 
the (ship) Britannia." 

The indefinite 9 article can be joined to nouns in the singular num- 
ber only: 10 the definite article may be joined to plurals as well as 
singulars. 

Questions. 

(1) How is an adjective, without a definite article before it, used ?— (2) Do nouns 
become adjectives ?— (3) How are numeral adjectives divided ?— (4) What is an Arti- 
cle ?— (5) How many articles are there ?— (6) Which is styled the indefinite article? 
— (7) Which is called the definite article ? — (8) Before what class of nouns are the 
articles omitted ?— (9) How is the indefinite article used ?— (10) How is the definite 
used? 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

But there l appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in the 
use of the adjectives/ew and many (the latter chiefly with the word great 
before it), which, though joined with plural nouns, yet admit of the sin- 
gular article a ; as, " a few men ; " "a great many men." 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article has in 
these phrases : it means a small or great number collectively taken, and 
therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. Thus, likewise, a 
dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggre- 
gate of many collectively taken, and therefore still retains the article a, 
though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive ; as, " a hundred 
years," &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective many 
and a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases many a gem and many a flower refer to many 
gems and many flowers, separately, not collectively, considered. 

The definite 2 article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the com- 
parative and superlative degrees; and its 3 effect is, to mark the degree 
the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ; as, " The more I 
examine it, the better I like it ; " " I like this the least of any." 



OF VERBS. 

A Verb 4 is a word which signifies action, being, or suffering. 

Verb is derived from the Latin word verbum, which signifies a toord. 

Verbs 5 are divided into three sorts, namely, active, neuter, and 
passive. 

Active Verbs are also divided into transitive and intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb 6 expresses an action ivhich affects an object ; as, 
u The teacher instructs his pupils." 

An Intransitive Verb 7 expresses an action confined to the actor; as, 
"The bird flics swiftly." 

A Neuter Verb 8 expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a 
state of being. 

A Passive Verb 9 expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving of 
an action. (Seepage 46.) 

Questions. 

(1) What exceptions are there? — (2) Is the definite article ever applied to ad- 
verbs?— (3) What is its effect?— (4) What is a Verb ?— (5) Into how many sorts 
are verbs divided? — (6) What docs a transitive verb express? — (7) What does an 
intransitive verb express? — (8) What does a neuter verb express? — (9) What doet 
a passive verb express ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

Many verbs ! are used both in a transitive and in an intransitive signi- 
fication ; the construction determining of which kind they are ; as, to 
flatten, signifying to make even or level, is a transitive verb ; but, when it 
signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is an intransitive verb. 

An intransitive verb, 2 by the addition of a preposition, may become a 
compound transitive verb. To smile is an intransitive verb, but to smile on 
is a compound transitive verb ; therefore we properly say, " He was smiled 
on by fortune ; " " She smiled on him." 

Auxiliary 3 or helping verbs are those by the help of which the principal 
verbs are conjugated. They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with 
their variations ; and must, which has no variation. 

Of Mode. 

Mode 4 is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which 
being, action, or passion, is represented. 

Mode consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signify 
various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances 
of action, &c. 

There 5 are five modes of verbs, namely, the indicative, the subjunctive, 
the potential, the infinitive, and the imperative. 

The Indicative Mode 6 simply indicates or declares an action or event ; 
as, " He loves ; " " He is loved ; " or it asks a question ; as, " Does he love ? " 
" Is he loved ? " 

The Subjunctive Mode 7 represents an action or event under a condi- 
tion, motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is preceded by a conjunction, 
expressed or understood, and attended by another verb ; as, " I will re- 
spect him, though he chide me." 

The Potential Mode 8 implies possibility or liberty, power, will or ob- 
ligation ; as, " It may rain ; " " He may go or stay ; " "I can ride ; " " He 
would walk ; " " They should learn." 

The Infinitive Mode 9 expresses an action or event in a general and 
unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person ; as, " to 
act," " to speak," " to be feared." 

The Imperative Mode 10 is used for commanding, exhorting, en- 
treating, or permitting; as, "Depart thou ;" "Mind ye ;" "Let us stay ;" 
" Go in peace." 

Of the Tenses, or Times. 

Tense, ll being the means or method of dividing time, might seem 
to admit only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it more 

Questions. 

(1) Is the same verb ever used both in a transitive and an intransitive sense? — 
(2) Does an intransitive verb ever become transitive ? — (3) 'What are auxiliary 
verbs ?— ( 4) What is mode? — (5) How many modes are there ?— (6) What does the 
indicative mode indicate ? — (7) What does the subjunctive mode represent ? — (8) 
What does the potential mode imply ? — (9) What does the infinitive mode express?— 
(10) What is the imperative mode used for ? — (11) What is tense ? 

7 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

accurately, it is made to consist l of six variations, viz. the present 
tense, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and 
the second. 

The Present Tense 2 represents an action or event as passing at the time 
in which it is mentioned ; as, " I rule ; " " I am ruled ; " " I think ; " " I fear." 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at 
present existing ; as, " He is an able man ; " " She is an amiable woman." 
It is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional in- 
termissions, to the present time; as, "lie frequently rides;" "He 
walks out every morning ; " " He goes into the country every sum- 
mer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons long since 
dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well ; " " Job speaks feelingly 
of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words token, before, after, as 
soon as, &c, is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a fu- 
ture action; as, " When he arrives, he will hear the news;" "He will 
hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or at far- 
thest, soon after he arrives; " " The more she improves, the more amiable 
she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted 
for the imperfect tense ; as, " lie enters the territory of the peaceable 
inhabitants; he fg'hts and conquers, takes an immense booty, which 
he divides among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty 
triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense 3 represents the action or event either as past 
and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past ; as, 
"I loved her for her modesty and virtue;" "They were travelling post 
when he met them." 

The Perfect Tense } not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an 
allusion to the present time ; as, * I have finished my letter;" "I have 
seen the person that was recommended to me." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote an action or event 
that is past; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is 
actually remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare 
the thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or 
action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of the time in which 
it was done. If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philoso- 
phers have made great discoveries in the present century;" but if wo 
speak of the last century, we say, "Philosophers made great discoveries 
in the last century." 

The Pluperfect Tense 5 represents an action or event not only as past, 
but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; 
as, "I had finished my letter before he arrived." 

The First Future Tense G represents the action as yet to come, 
either with or without respect to the precise time ; as, " The sun will 
" see them ajniin." 



Questions. 

(1) How many variations of tense are there? — (2) What docs the present tense 
represent ? — (3) What does the imperfect tense represent ? — (4) To what point of time 
does the perfect tense refer ? — (5) What does the pluperfect tense represent ? — (6) What 
does the first future tense represent ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

The Second Future l intimates that the action will be fully accom- 
plished at, or before, the time of another future action or event; as, 
" I shall have dined at one o'clock ; " " The two houses will have finished 
their business when they adjourn." 

It is to be observed, that, in the subjunctive mode, the event being 
spoken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form of a wish, 
and therefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb itself in the pres- 
ent, and the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times, 
often carry with them somewhat of a future sense ; as, " If he come 
to-morrow, I may speak to him;" "If he should, or would, come to- 
morrow, I might, could, would, or should, speak to him." Observe, 
also, that the auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, are 
used to express the present and future, as well as the past ; as, "It is my 
desire that he should, or would, come now, or to-morrow ;" as well as, 
" It was my desire, that he should, or would, come yesterday." So that, 
in this mode, the precise time of the verb is very much determined by the 
nature and drift of the sentence. 

The present, past, and future tenses may be used either definitely or 
indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. When they denote 
custom, or habits, and no: individual acts, they are applied indefinitely; 
as, " Virtue promotes happiness ;" "The old Romans governed by benefits 
more than by fear ; " "I shall hereafter employ my time more usefully." 
In these examples, the words promotes, governed, and shall employ, are 
used indefinitely, both in regard to action and time ; for they are not con- 
fined to individual actions, nor to any precise points of present, past, or 
future time. When they are applied to signify particular actions, and to 
ascertain the precise points of time to which they are confined, they are 
used definitely, as in the following instances : — "My brother is loriting." 
"He built the house last summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday." 
" He will write another letter to-morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete or perfect, 
or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, "I am writing," "I 
was writing," "I shall be writing," imperfect, unfinished actions are 
signified. But the following examples, "I wrote," "I have written," 
"I had written," "I shall have written," all denote complete, perfect 
action. 



Of Conjugation. 

The conjugation ~ of a verb is the regular combination and arrange- 
ment of its several persons, numbers, modes, and tenses. 

The Indicative 3 Mode has six tenses, namely, the present, the imperfect, 
the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 

Questions. 

(1) What does the second future tense intimate? — (2) What is corvjugation?— 
(3) How many tenses has the indicative mode \ 



76 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural 

I have, We have, 

Thou hast, Ye or you have, 

He, she, or it, has or hath ; They have. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had, We had, 

Thou hadst, Ye or you had, 

He, &c. had ; They had. 

The Perfect Tense l is formed by prefixing the sign, have, or its varia- 
tions, to the perfect participle of any verb ; thus, 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I have had, We have had, 

Thou hast had, Ye or you have had, 

He has had ; They have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense 2 is formed by prefixing the sign, had, or its 
variation, to the perfect participle of any verb ; thus, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had had, We had had, 

Thou hadst had, Ye or you had had, 

He had had ; They had had. 

The First Future Tense 3 is formed by prefixing the sign, shall or will, 
or its variation, to the present tense of any verb ; thus, 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will have, We shall or will have, 

Thou shalt or wilt have, Ye or you shall or will have, 

He shall or will have ; They shall or will have. 

The Second Future Tense 4 is formed by prefixing the sign, shall 
have, or will have, or its variation, to the perfect participle of any 
verb ; thus, 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have had, We shall have had, 

Thou wilt have had. Ye or you will have had, 

He will have had ; They will have had. 

Questions. 

(1) How is the perfect tease formed t — (2) How is the pluperfect tense formed? — 
(3) How is the first future tense formed? — (4) How is the second future tense form- 
ed ?— Conjugate the verb have, in the indicative mode. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

The present and the imperfect tenses are called simple tenses, because 
they are formed without auxiliaries ; the perfect, the pluperfect, the first 
future, and the second, are called compound tenses, because they are 
formed by the help of signs, or auxiliaries. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

The Subjunctive Mode 1 has six tenses, namely, the present, the imper 
fed, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 

Conjugation of ike Verb HAVE, 
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE, 2 INDICATIVE FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I have, If we have, 

If thou hast, If ye or you have, 

If he, she, or it, has or hath ; If they have. 

PRESENT TENSE, 3 ELLIPTICAL FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ifl( ) have,* lfwe( ) have, 

If thoU ( ) have, If ye or you ( ) have, 

If he ( )have; If they ( ) have. 

The remaining tenses 4 of the subjunctive mode [in all verbs except 
the neuter verb be, ivhich has two forms in the imperfect tense, as welt 
as in the present — see page 45) are in general similar to the corre- 
spondent tenses of the indicative mode, excepting that a conjunction, 
denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c, is prefixed or 
implied. 

[It will be proper for the teacher to require his pupils to repeat all the tenses 
of this mode with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. See pages 36 and 37.] 

Potential Mode. 

The Potential Mode 5 has four tenses, namely, the present, the imper- 
fect, the perfect, and the pluperfect. 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

The Present Tense 6 is formed by prefixing the sign, may or can, or 
its variation, to the present tense of the indicative ; as, 

Questions. 
(1) How many Tenses has the subjunctive mode ? — (2) Give the conjugation of the 
present tense, indicative form. — (3) Give the elliptieal form. — (4) How are the remain- 
ing tenses conjugated ? — (5) How many tenses h;>s the potential mode? — (6) How is 
the present tense formed ? 

* This form of the subjunctive mode has should, or some other auxilia- 
ry, understood. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have. We may or can have, 

Thou mayst or canst have, Ye or you may or can have, 

He may or can have ; They may or can have. 

The Imperfect Tense ! is formed by prefixing the sign, might, could] 
would, or should, or its variation, to the present tense of the indicative ; as, 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would or should 

have, have, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have, should have, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 

have ; should have. 

The Perfect Tense 2 is formed by prefixing the sign, may have, or can 
have, or its variation, to the perfect participle ; as, 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have had, We may or can have had, 

Thou mayst or canst have had, Ye or you may or can have had, 

He may or can have had ; They may or can have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense 3 is formed by prefixing the sign, might have, 
could have, would have, or should have, or its variation, to the perfect 
participle; as, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should 

have had, have had, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have had, should have had, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 

have had ; should have had. 

Infinitive Mode. 

The Infinitive Mode 4 has but two tenses, namely, the present and the 
perfect. The Present Tense 5 is formed by prefixing to, which is called 
the sign of the infinitive mode, to the present tense of the indicative; as, 
"to go," "to run," " to strike," &c. 

The Perfect Tense 6 is formed by prefixing to have to the perfect par- 
ticiple : as, " to have gone," " to have run," "to have beaten." 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To have ; To have had. 

Questions. 

(1) How is lbe imperfect tense formed ? — (2) How is the perfect formed ? — (3) How 
is the pluperfect formed ? — Conjugate the verb have, through all the tenses. — (4) How 
many tenses has the infinitive mode? — (5) How is the present formed? — (6) How is 
the perfect formed ? — Give the conjugation of the verb liave in the infinitive mode. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

A Verb 1 in the infinitive mode has no nominative case, and, there- 
fore, it is unlimited in respect to person and number. Hence it is 
called the infinitive or unlimited mode. In all the other modes, the 
verb is attended by a nominative case, by which it is limited as to person 
and number. 

Imperative Mode. 

The Imperative Mode 2 has but one tense, and one person ; namely, 
the present tense and the second person, 

This form 3 of the verb is generally used for commanding ; as, " De* 
part thou ; " and is, therefore, in the imperative mode ; but it is also 
used for exhoHing, entreating, and permitting ; as, " Mind ye ; " " Let us 
stay ; " " Go in peace." 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 
IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Si?igtilar> Plural. 

Have thou, or do thou have ; Have ye or you, or do ye or you have* 

Of Auxiliary and Defective Verbs. 

Defective Verbs 4 are so called because they can be used only in some 
of the modes and tenses. 

The principal of them are these — 5 may, can, shall, will, must, ought, 
quoth, and their variations. 

[For the variation of these words on account of tense, &c, see page 33.] 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past significa- 
tion, appears from the following sentences :— " I must own that I am to 
blame ; " " He must have been mistaken ; " " Speaking things which they 
ought not ; " " These ought ye to have done." 

The verbs 6 have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected with a 
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal 
verbs ; as, " We have enough ; " " I am grateful : " " He wills it to be so ; " 

Questions. 

(1) Why is this mode called the infinitive mode ? — (2) How many tenses has tiie 
imperative mode ? — (3) What is the imperative mode used for .' — Give the conjuga- 
tion of the imperative mode. — (4) Why are defective verbs so called ? — (5) Repeat the 
principal of them. — (6) Are the verbs have, be, will, and do, always used as auxiliaries? 

It appears to be proper, for the information of learners, to make a few 
observations in this place on some of the tenses, &c. The first is, that, 
in the potential mode, some grammarians confound the present with the 
imperfect tense, and the perfect with the pluperfect. But that they are 
really distinct, and have an appropriate reference to time, correspondent 
to the definitions of those tenses, will appear from a few examples : — " I 
wished him to stay, but he would not." " I could not accomplish the 
business in time." " It was my direction that he should submit." " He 
was ill, but I thought he might live." " I may have misunderstood him." 
" He cannot have deceived me." " He might have finished the work sooner, 
but he could not have done it better." It must, however, be admitted, that, 
on some occasions, the auxiliaries might, could, woxdd, and should, refer 
also to present and to future time. 



80 ETYMOLOGY, 

" They do as they please." In this view, they aiso have their auxiliaries J 
as, fl I shall have enough ; " "I ivill he grateful*" 

The auxiliary and defective verbs seem not to be included in the com- 
mon definition of the verb. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the follow- 
ing explanation of them : — 

Ought l denotes duty ; as, " He ought to be here." 

Have 2 denotes possession ; as, " Children, have ye any meat ? " — Have 
also denotes time ; as, " We have performed our duty." 

May 3 implies liberty ; as, "He may return if he desires it." — May also 
implies doubt \ as, " He may not be here, although I expect him." . 

Can i implies power or ability ; as, " He can pass the guards." 

Must 5 denotes necessity or compulsion ; as, " He must pay the debt." 

Might s implies liberty ; as, " He might have passed the guards, had he 
been so disposed." — Might also implies power ; as, " He might have re^ 
turned in spite of his keepers*" 

Could 7 signifies power or ability; as, "He coidd have paid the 
demand." 

Would 8 implies determination ; as* "He would go in;"-^-also inclina- 
tion ; as, " I ivould that all would come to the knowledge of the truth." 

Should 9 denotes duty ; as, " You should treat your superiors with 
deference." 

Shall, 10 in the first person, only foretells ; as, " I shall go to-morrow." — < 
In the second and third persons, shall promises, commands, or threatens; 
as, " You or they shall be rewarded ; " " Thou shall not steal." 

Will, n in the first person, denotes promise ; as, " I will not let thee 
go:" — in the second and third persons, it foretells; as, "He will reward 
the righteous*" 

Of Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

Verbs I2 which form their imperfect tense and perfect participle by 
adding ed to the verb (or d only, when the verb ends in e), are called 
regular; as, 

PRESENT TENSE. 13 IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

I destroy, I destroyed, Destroyed. 

I love^ I loved, Loved. 

Verbs 14 wliich do not form their imperfect tense and perfect participle 
by adding d or ed to the present tense, are irregular. 

Irregular Verbs are of various Sorts. 

1. Such ,s as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect parti- 
ciple, the same ; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Cost, Cost, Cost. 

Questions. 

(1) What does ought denote ?— (2) What does have denote ?— (3) What does inay 
imply ? — (4) What docs can imply 1 — (5) What doe's must denote ? — (G) What does 
might imply? — (7) What does could signify? — (8) What does would imply? — (9) 
What does should denote ? — (10) What does shall imply ?—( 11) What does will de- 
note ? — (12) What verbs are called regular? — (13) Give an example of the regular 
verb in the present, imperfect, &,c. — (14) What verbs are called irregular? — (15) 
Give an example of the several sorts of irregular verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense and perfect participle the 
same ; as, 

PR.ESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT FART. 

Sell, Sold, Sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense and perfect participle differ- 
ent; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Blow, . Blew, Blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction; as, feed, fed; leave, 
left ; — others by the termination en ; as, fall, fell, fallen ; — others by the 
termination ght ; as, buy, bought ; teach, taught, &c. 

[For a list of the irregular verbs, see page 32.] 

The compiler has not inserted, in the list of irregular verbs referred to, 
such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed; as, learnt, spelt, 
spilt, &c. These should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, 
however, proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into t are unex- 
ceptionable ; and others, the only established forms of expression ; as, 
crept, gilt, &c. ; and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable and necessary 
contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished, by the learner, from 
those that are exceptionable. The words which are obsolete have also 
beeu omitted, that the learner might not be induced to mistake them 
for words in present use. Such are ivreathen, drunken, holpen, mol- 
ten, gotten, bounden, &c. ; and swang, ivrang, slank, strawed, gat, brake, 
ware, &c. 

Of Neuter and Passive Verbs. 

A Neuter Verb l implies being or existence, or a state of existence 
without action ; as, " I am in health ; " " He is weary of his life ; " " They 
rest from their labors." 

Some verbs 2 may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. In 
the sentence, "Here I rest" (repose), the verb rest is used in a neuter 
sense; but in the sentence, "Here I rest my hopes," it is used in an ac- 
tive sense. 

A Passive Verb 3 is a verb that represents its subject or nominative as 
being (or having been) acted upon ; as, " I am persecuted by my ene- 
mies ; " " He has been injured by slanderers." In its original application, 
passion signifies a suffering (enduring). The Crucifixion of our Savior 
is for this reason called his Passion, that is, his suffering on tne cross. 
From passion is derived passive. Hence the name of the class of verbs 
so denominated. The meaning and use of the word have, however, been 
greatly extended. 

Questions. 

" (1) What does a neuter verb imply ? — (2) Is the same verb used both in an active 
and a neuter sense ? — (3) What does a passive verb represent 1 



82 



ETYMOLOGY. 



The passive verb l is formed by prefixing the neuter verb be (or am) or 
one of its variations (is, art, are, ivas, wast, were, wert, or been) to the per- 
fect participle of a transitive verb ; as, " I am loved ; " " He is beaten ; " 
"The coach is drawn.'''' 

In the following sentences, a part of the neuter verb be is prefixed to 
the perfect participle of an intransitive verb: — "The ship is arrived." 
"The bird is flown." Such verbs 2 are intransitive verbs, in the passive 
form. Some writers on grammar reject this form of expression as incor- 
rect, and write in its stead, "The bird lias flown" &c. — (See conjugation 
of the neuter and passive verbs, pages 44, 45, 46, and 47.) 



OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle 3 is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of 
a verb and of an adjective. 

Participles 4 often become adjectives, and are placed before nouns 
to denote quality; as, "a lying tongue;" "a burning fever;" "a lov- 
ing child;" "a moving spectacle;" "a heated imagination;" "a 
learned man." The words mark simply the qualities referred to, 
without any regard to time, and may properly be called participial 
adjectives. 

When 5 preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun in 
the possessive case, participles become nouns; as, "the beginning:" "a 
good understanding ; " " The chancellor's being attached to the king se- 
cured his crown." 

There are 6 three sorts of participles, namely, the present or active, the 
perfect or passive, and the compound perfect ; as, loving, loved,* having 
loved. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time, but they also signify 
actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner 
as verbs do. 

OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb 7 is a word which shows the manner, the time, or the 
place, in which an action is done, when added to a verb or to a parti- 
ciple ; as, "He reads correctly;" "He mentioned it before;" "They la- 
bor here." 

[Adverbs are more frequently added to verbs than to any other part 
of speech, and therefore they are called adverbs.] 

Some 8 adverbs are compared thus — soon, sooner, soonest ; often, of- 
tener, ojlenest. Those ending in ly are compared by more and most; as, 
wisely, more ivisely, most wisely. 

Questions. 

(1) How is a passive verb formed ? — (2) What kind of verbs are is flown, is arriv- 
ed, &e. ? — (3) What is a Participle' — (4) Do participles become adjectives ? — (5) 
Do participles ever become nouns ? — ((i) How many sorts of participles are there ? — 
{7) What is an Adverb ? — (8) How are adverbs compared ? 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect; 
when it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denomi- 
nated passive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

Adverbs seem * originally to have been contrived to express compen- 
diously, in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more ; 
as, " He acted wisely," for " He acted with wisdom ; " " prudently," for 
" with prudence ; " " He did it here," for " He did it in this place." 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to the following 
classes, namely, 

Of Manner — Prudently, honestly, wisely, well, ill, &c. 
Time present — Now, to-day, &c. 
Time past — Before, already, lately, long ago, &c. 
Time future — Presently, immediately, to-morrow, &c. 
Time indefinite— -Sometimes, seldom, always, &c. 
In a place — Here, there, where, &c. 
To a place — Hither, thither, whither, &c. 
Towards a place — Hitherward, thitherward. 
From a place — Hence, thence, whence. 
Repetition of times definitely — Once, twice, thrice, again, &c. 
Repetition of times indefinitely — Often, seldom, frequently. 
Order — First, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
Quantity — Sufficiently, enough, &c. 
Negation — Nay, no, not, &c. 
Separation — Apart, separately, asunder, &c. 
Conjunction — Together, generally, universally, &c. 
Interrogation — Why, when, how, &c. 
Defect — Almost, nearly, &c. 
Preference — Rather, chiefly, especially, &c. 
Abatement — Scarcely, hardly, &c. 
Contingence — Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c. 
Certainty or affirmation — Verily, truly, yea, yes, certainly. 
Comparison — More, most, less, worse, &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are 
formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with the adverbs 
of place, here, there, and where ; as, 2 hereof thereof whereof] hereto, 
thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, where- 
with; herein, therein, wherein; therefore (i. e. there-for), wherefore, 
•i. e. where-for) ; hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or 
whereon, &c. Except therefore, these are seldom used. 

It may be particularly observed, with respect to the word therefore, 
that it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the 
sense of for that reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it 
is a conjunction ; as, " He is good, therefore he is happy." 

In 3 some instances, the preposition suffers no change, but becomes an 
adverb, merely by its application ; as when we say, "He rides about;" 
"He was near falling;" "But do not after lay the blame on me." 

There are 4 also some adverbs which are composed of nouns, and the 
letter a used instead of at, on, &c. ; as, aside, aikirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, 
aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, &c. 

The words ^ when and xohere, and all others of the same nature, such 
as whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c, may be properly called ad- 

Questions. 

(1) For what purpose were adverbs contrived ?— Give an example of each kind of 
adverbs. — (2) Give examples of adverbs formed by a combination of adverbs of place 
and prepositions.— (3) Do prepositions become adverbs '?— (4) Are adverbs com- 
posed of nouns 1 — (5) What words are called adverbial conjunctions 1 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

verbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs 
and conjunctions: — of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences; — of ad- 
verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of place. 

There are several combinations of short words which are used adver- 
bially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing; as, "not 
at all," " a little while ago," " to and fro," " in vain," &c. 

Of Adverbs of Degree. 

* The words l very, quite, exceedingly, extremely, excessively, too, much, 
&c, are denominated Adverbs (or Ad-words) of Degree. These words 
2 are prefixed to adverbs of manner, time, &c. ; as, " He rides too fast ; " 
" The stage will arrive very soon ; " and to other adverbs of degree ; 
as, "He rides much too fast." They are also prefixed to adjectives; 
as, "The weather is very warm;" "The house is too large," &c. (See 
page 21.) 

OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun 3 is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a too fre- 
quent repetition of it ; as, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he 
is useful." 

[Pronoun comes from the Latin word pro-nomen, compounded of pro, for, 
and nomen, a noun or name.] 

There are 4 four kinds of pronouns, viz. the personal, the relative, the 
interrogative, and the adjective pronouns. 



Of Personal Pronouns. 

There are 5 five Personal Pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, and it ; with 
their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case. 

The Numbers of pronouns, like those of nouns, are two, the singular 
and the plural ; as, 7, thou, he, we, ye or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns 
he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the sub- 
jects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; from which, and other 
circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be 
marked by a distinction of gender in the pronouns; but the third person, 
or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is 
necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender; at 

Questions. 

(1) What words arc' denominated adverbs of degree 7 — (2) To what parts of 
speech are adverbs of degree prefixed ?< — (3) What is a Pronoun ? — (4) How many 
kinds of pronouns arc there ? — Name them. — (5) How many personal pronouns arc 
there ? — Name tliein. 



* The words very, quite, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, too, and 
some other words, are called by some grammarians helping adjectives, 
when they modify adjectives : when they modify adverbs, they are 
called helping adverbs. — Blair. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

least, when some particular person or thing is spoken of, that ought to 
be more distinctly marked ; accordingly the pronoun singular of the third 
person has the three genders, he, she, it. 

Pronouns 1 have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different from 
that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 



A Table of the Personal Pronouns in the Three Cases. 
Singular Number. 



1st person. 
M>m. I, 2 
Poss. Mine, 
Obj. Me ; 


2d person. 3d per. mas. 
Thou, He, 
Thine, His, 
Thee ; Him ; 

Plural Number. 


3d per. fern. 
She, 
Hers, 
Her; 


3d per. neut 
It, 
Its, 
It. 


Nom. We, 
Poss. Ours, 
Obj. Us. 


Ye or You, They, 
Yours, Theirs, 
You. Them. 


They, 

Theirs, 
Them. 


They, 

Theirs, 

Them. 



Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns 3 are such as relate, in general, to some word or 
phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent : they are, who, 
which, and that ; as, " The man is happy who lives virtuously."* 

What 4 is a kind of compound pronoun, including both the antecedent 
and the relative, and is equivalent to that and which ; as, " He praises what 
you dispraise ; " that is, " He praises that which you dispraise." 

Who 5 is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate things ; as, 
" He is a friend who is faithful in adversity ; " " The bird which sung so 
sweetly is flown ; " " This is the tree which produces no fruit." 

That, 6 as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent repeti- 
tion of ivho and which. It is applied to both persons and things ; as, 
" He that acts wisely deserves praise ; " " Modesty is a quality that highly 
adorns a woman." 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : — 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative, 7 Who, 

Possessive, Whose, 

Objective, Whom. 

Questions. 

(1) How many cases have pronouns ? — (2) Repeat the table of personal pronouns, 
— (3) What are relative pronouns ? — (4) What is what equivalent to ? — (5) How is 
V)ho applied ? — (6) For what is that used ?— (7) Decline the relative who. 

* The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word 
or phrase which is not antecedent, but subsequent, to the relative. 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

MTiich, what, and that, are likewise of both numbers; but they do 
not vary their termination, except that whose is sometimes used as the 
possessive case of which; as, " Is there any other doctrine whose follow- 
ers are punished ? " 

Who, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever and ever an- 
nexed to them ; as, whosoever or whoever, whichsoever or whichever, what- 
soever or whatever ; but they are seldom used in modern style. 

The word l that is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a demon- 
strative, and sometimes a conjunction. 2 It is a relative when it may 
be changed into who or which without destroying the sense ; as, " They 
that (who) reprove us may be our best friends;" "From every thing 
that (which) you see, derive instruction." 3 It is a demonstrative 
pronoun when it is followed immediately by a noun, to which it is 
either joined or refers, and which it limits or qualifies; as, "That boy 
is industrious ; " "That belongs to me ;" meaning, that book, that desk, 
&c. 4 It is a conjunction when it joins sentences, and cannot be 
turned into who or which without destroying the sense ; as, " Take care 
that every day be well employed ; " "I hope he will believe that I have 
not acted improperly." 

Who, which, and ivhat, 5 are called Interrogatives, when they are U6ed 
in asking questions ; as, " Who is he ? " " Which is the book ? " " What 
art thou doing?" 



Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns 6 are words of a mixed nature, participating the 
properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns 7 may be subdivided into five sorts, namely, 
the possessive, the distributive, the demonstrative, the indefinite, and the 
interrogative. 

The Possessive Pronouns 8 are those which relate to possession of prop- 
erty. There are seven of them ; viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns: — "My 
lesson is finished." " Thy books are defaced." " He loves his studies." 
" She performs her duty." " We own our faults." " Your situation is dis- 
tressing." " I admire their virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive case of the personal pro- 
nouns : — " This desk is mine ; the other is thine." " These trinkets 
are his; those are hers." "This house is ours, and that is yours." 
" Theirs is very commodious." 

Self is added to possessives ; as, myself, yourselves ; and sometimes to 
personal pronouns; as, himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, 
expresses emphasis and opposition; as, "I did this myself;" that is, 
" not another ; " or it forms a reciprocal pronoun ; as, " We hurt ourselves 
by vain rage." 

Questions. 

(1) How is the word that construed ?— (2) When is it a relative? — (3) When a 
demonstrative ? — (4-) When a conjunction ? — (5) What words are called interrogative 
pronouns ?— (6) What are adjective pronouns? — {7) How are adjective pronouns 
subdivided /— (8) Which are the possessive ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

Himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead of 
hisself, theirselves ; as, " He came himself; " " He himself shall do this ; " 
" They performed it themselves." 

The Distributive Pronouns l are those which denote the persons 
or things that make up a number, as taken separately and singly.. They 
are, each, evei-y, either; as, "Each of his brothers is in a favorable 
situation ; " " Every man must account for himself; " " I have not seen 
either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of 
the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them, all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly used apart from 
its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, except in legal proceed- 
ings ; as in the phrase, "all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signi- 
fies the one or the other. To say, " either of the three," is therefore 
improper. 

Neither imports not either ; that is, not one nor the other; as, "Neither 
of my friends was there." 

The Demonstrative Pronouns 2 are those which precisely point out 
the subjects to which they relate : this and that, these and those, former 
and latter, are of this class ; as, " This is true charity ; that is only its 
image." 

The Indefinite Pronouns 3 are those which express their subjects in an 
indefinite or general manner. The following are of this kind; some, 
one, any, other, all, such, &c. 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are varied. One has 
a possessive case, which it forms in the same manner as nouns do ; as, 
one, one's. This word has a general signification, meaning people at 
large ; and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
speaking ; as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind ; " " One 
is apt to love one's self." This word is often used by good writers in the 
plural number; as, "The great ones of the world;" "The boy wounded 
the old bird, and stole the young ones ; " " My wife and the little ones are 
in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : — 





Singular. 


Plural.. 


JVom. 


Other, 4 


Others, 


Poss. 


Other's, 


Others', 



Ob], Other ; Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to which 
it refers, whether expressed or understood; as, "When you have pe- 
rused these papers, I will send you the others ; " " He pleases some, but 
he disgusts others." When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either 
singular or plural, it has no variation ; as, " the ' other man ; " " the 
other men." 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article an and the 
word other. 

Questions. 

(1) Which are the distributive adjective pronouns 1 — (2) Which are the demon- 
strative? — (3) Which are the indefinite ? — (4) Decline the pronoun other. 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

None is used in both numbers; as, " None is so deaf as he that will not 
hear ; " " None of those are equal to these." It seems originally to have 
signified, according to its derivation, not one, and therefore to have had 
no plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in the plural num- 
ber; as, "None that. go unto her return again." — Prov. ii. 19. 

The Interrogative Pronouns J are which and what, when prefixed to 
nouns ; as, " What time did he arrive ? " " Which house did he occupy ? " 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction 2 is a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences, so 
as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one : it sometimes con- 
nects only words. 

Conjunctions 3 are principally divided into two sorts — the copulative 
and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative 4 serves to connect or to continue a sen- 
tence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c. ; as, " He 
and his brother reside in London ; " "I will go if he will accompany 
me ; " " You are happy, because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive 5 serves not only to connect and continue 
the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different de- 
grees; as, " Though he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" 
" They came with her, but they went away without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions: — 

The copulative : 6 and, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, 
wherefore. 

The disjunctive C but, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, 
neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction and as an 
adverb ; and sometimes as a preposition : — « I rest, then, upon this argu- 
ment;" then is here a conjunction: in the following phrase, it is an ad- 
verb ; " He arrived then, and not before." — " I submitted, for it was vain 
to resist;" in this sentence,/or is a conjunction : in the next, it is a prep- 
osition ; "He contended for victory only." — In the first of the following 
sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition ; and 
in the third, an adverb : — " Since we must part, led us do it peaceably." 
" I have not seen him since that time." " Our friendship commenced 
long since." 

Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- 
tences ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his 
commandments." 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite 
only words; as in the following instances: — "Duty and interest forbid 
vicious indulgences." "Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these 
forms of expression contains two sentences, namely, "Duty forbids 
vicious indulgences; interest forbids vicious indulgences;" "Wisdom 
governs us, or folly governs us." 

Questions. 

( 1 ) Which are the interrogative adjective pronouns? — (2) What is a Conjunction ? 
— (3) How are conjunctions divided ? — (4) What is the oflice ofa copulative conjunc- 
tion ? — (5) What of a disjunctive ? — (()) Repeat the copulative conjunctions. — (7) 
Repeat the disjunctive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated 
to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the 
members of a sentence; so there are several conjunctions appropriated 
to the latter use, which are never employed in the former ; and some 
that are equally adapted to both those purposes ; as, again, further, be- 
side, &c>, of the first kind;' than, lest, unless, that, so that, $z,c. r of the 
second; and but, and, for, therefore, &c, of the last. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition l is a word used to connect other words, and to show 
the relation between them. They are, for the most part, put before 
nouns and pronouns; as, "He went from London to York;" "She is 
above disguise ; " " They are instructed by him." 

[Preposition comes from the Latin prc-pono, which signifies to put before; 
and prepositions are so called because they are put before nouns and pronouns.], 

A List or the principal Prepositions. 2 Above, against, about,, 
after, amidst, across, among, athwart, at ; behind, beloiu, before, beside,, 
beneath, between, betwixt, beyond, by ; concerning ; down, during ; except ; 
for, from ; in, into ; near ; of, on or upon ; round or around ; since ,•: 
through, throughout, till, touching, toward; under, underneath, up; within, 
without; — out of ; over; over against; next to; according to; instead 
of, &c. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to up- 
hold, to invest, to overlook ; and this composition sometimes gives a new 
sense to the verb ; as, to understand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in 
English, the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and 
separately from it, like an adverb, in which situation it is not less apt 
to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning; and may 
still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part of it; as, 
to cast is to throw ; but to cast up, or to compute, an account, is quite a 
different thing ; thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So that the 
meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the 
preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables em- 
ployed, which grammarians have called inseparable prepositions ; as, be r 
con, mis, &c, in bedeck, conjoin, mistake. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those rela- 
tions, which, in some languageSj are chiefly marked by cases, or the 
different endings of nouns. (Seepage 61.) The necessity and use of 
them will appear from the following examples : — If we say, " He writes 
a pen;" "They ran the river ;" "The tower fell the Greeks;" "Lam- 
beth is Westminster Abbey;" there is observable, in each of these ex- 
pressions, either a total want of connection, or such a connection as 
produces falsehood or nonsense ; and it is evident, that, before they can 
be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting 
word ; as thus, " He writes with a pen ; " " They ran towards the river ; " 
"The tower fell upon the Greeks;" "Lambeth is over against West- 
minster Abbey." We see, by these instances, how prepositions may be 
necessary to connect those words, which, in their signification, are not 
naturally connected. 

Questions* 

(1) What is a Preposition 1 — (2) Give a list of the principal prepositions. 

8* 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to have 
denoted relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively to ex- 
press other relations. For example, " as they who are above have, in 
several respects, the advantage of such as are below." Prepositions ex- 
pressing high and low places are used for superiority and inferiority in 
general ; as, " He is above disguise ; " " We serve under a good master ; " 
" He rules over a willing people : " " We should do nothing beneath our 
character*" 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections l are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence, 
to express the passions or emotions of the speaker ; as, " Oh ! I have 
alienated my friend ! " " Alas ! I fear for life ! " " O virtue ! how ami- 
able thou art ! " 

The English interjections, as well as those of other languages, are 
comprised within a small compass. They are of different sons, accord- 
ing to the different passions which they serve to express. Those which 
intimate earnestness or grief, are, O! oh! ah! alas! Such as are ex- 
pressive of contempt, are, pish ! tush /—of wonder, heigh ! really ! 
strange! — of calling, hem! ho! soho! — of aversion or disgust, foh! fie! 
away! — of a call of the attention, lo ! behold! hark! — of requesting si- 
lence, hush ! hist! — of salutation, welco me! hail! all hail! — Besides these, 
several others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enu- 
merated ; but, in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to 
expatiate on such expressions of passion as are scarcely worthy of being 
ranked among the branches of artificial language. 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

These are words chiefly derived from other languages. 2 They have, 
like all other words, though seldom employed singly, a separate and 
distinct meaning of their own. As the most difficult, but most neces- 
sary part of study (to use the words of a great philosopher), is to find 
out and fix the meaning of words, the following explanation of what 
are called inseparable prepositions or particles is particularly worthy 
of the attention of the learner. A few of these words are still used 
separately. 

.# signifies on or in ; as, a-foot, a-shore, a-bed ; that is, on foot, on shore, 
in bed. 

After denotes posteriority of time ; as, afternoon, after-times. 

Be is said to signify about ; as, besprinkle, bestir, that is, stir about ; — 
also for and before ; as, bespeak, that is, speak for or before. 

" The true character of 6e," says Mr. Grant, " seems to be, to commu- 
nicate, or deeply involve in, an action, a thing, or quality ; as, bedaub, 
bewilder, bewail, belove." Be has the same general effect as all the other 
prefixes and affixes : it fits the word to which it is added, to be joined to 
other words. 

For implies negation or privation; as, forbid, forsake, that is, not bid, 
not seek. 

Fore signifies before; as, see, foresee, that is, see before-hand; fore-foot, 
fore-father. The opposite is hind ; as, hind-foot. 

Questions* 

(1) What is aii Interjection? — (5) From what are Inseparable Prepositions chiefly 
derived ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 9$ 

(}din is a contraction of against ; as, gainsay, or contradict. 

./ffiss denotes defect or error ; as, take, mistake, take wrongly. This- 
word is said to be derived from the Saxon mis and Gothic missa, a fault 
or defect ; hence probably fhe English to miss or to fail, and amiss ; and 
hence also the French mes, as in meconnoitre, to forget. 

In has its usual signification, in instil, imprison, inlay, imprint. 

Over denotes eminence, superiority, inversion, or transition ; as, come, 
overcome, overthrow, oversee, overlook ;— -also excess; as, overhasty ;-— figura- 
tively, overhear, overtake. 

Out signifies excess or Superiority ; as, outdo-, outrun. 

C/n, before an adjective, denotes negation,, or privation ; as, unworthy, 
that is, noi worthy, But before verbs, it denotes the undoing or the fife^ 
stroying energy or act 5 as, unsay, that is, retract what you have said. 

Up denotes motion upwards 5 as, start) upstaH; — -rest in a higher place 5 
as, hold, uphold; — -sometimes subversion ; as, set) upset 

With signifies against; as, withstand^ that is,' stand against ;— from 
or back; as, withhold, that is, hold from, or back ;^withdraw, or draw? 
&ac&. 

Under implies inferiority or cfe/ed ; as, underdo, undersell ; — figura-* 
tively, undergo-, understand, undertake. 

The following are borrowed from the French counter, en, enter, sur : — « 

Counter denotes against ; as, counterbalance, that is, balance against. 

En or em, the same as in enrich, encourage, embroider ; — enrage, that is, 
put in a rage. 

Enter denotes between; as, enterline {interline), that is, put a line be- 
tween ; enterlace, that is, intermix ; enterprise, something taken in hand, or 
between hands. 

Sur denotes over or addition ; as, surpass, that is, exceed ; surname, &c 

The Latin prepositions used in the composition of English words 
arc, a, ab or abs, ad, ante, con, circum, contra, de, di, dis, e or ex, extra, 
in, inter, intro, ob, per, post, pre, pro, preter, re, retro, se, sm&, subter, super f 
trans, ultra. 

A, ab, abs, denote from or away ; as, abstain, that is, keep from ; abuse, that 
is, from the use, wrong use. 

Ad signifies to or at; as, adhere, that is, stick to. 

Ante signifies before ; as, antecedent or going before. 

Circum signifies about ; as, circumspect, that is, looking about. 

Com, con, co, col, from cum, signify together; as, condole, that is, lament 
together ; co-operate, that is, work together. 

Contra denotes against ; as, contradict, that is, speak against. 

De signifies down or from ; as, deject, or cast down ; depart, of part 
from. 

Di, dis, signify asunder ; as, distract, or draw asunder. In many words, 
dis seems to denote negation or privation ; as, disinter, that is, unbury ; 
displease, that is, not please. 

The French say, cfe-courager, to dis-courage. Their preposition is 
der. 

E, ex, out of; as, eject, or cast out ; exclude, or shut out. 

Extra, without,. beyond, out of; as, extravagant, or wandering beyond. 

In before an adjective, like un, denotes privation ; as, indecent, not decent* 
Before a verb, it has its simple meaning. 

Inter signifies among or between; as, intervene, or come between. In 
interdict, or forbid, it has a negative effect 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

Intro denotes loithin ; as, introduce, or lead in. 

Ob denotes opposition; as, object, or cast against; obstacle,, that is, 
something in opposition. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly; as, pervade, that is, pass through ; 
perfect, that is, thoroughly done. 

Pre, before ; as, prepare, or procure beforehand. 

Post, after ; as, postscript, or written after. 

Pro denotes forth, forward ; as, promote, or move forward ; produce, or 

Preter signifies past or beyond ; as, preternatural, or beyond the course 
of nature. 

Re signifies again, or ocroft j as, reprint, or _prai£ ajg-ain ; repay, or jja?/ 
oac/c. 

Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, or going- backwards 

Ss, apart, or without; as, £o secrete, or j?m£ aside; secure, or w#/i- 
ot/£ care* 

iSwo signifies under ; as, subscribe, or t^rife under. 

Subter signifies under; as, subterfluous, or flowing under; subterfuge, 
or escape under. 

Super, above, or over ; as, superadd, add over or above. 

Trans or fra signifies over or beyond ; as, transgress, go over or beyond ; 
— it denotes yhm one place to another ; as, transplant, transpose, &c. 

£7ftra signifies beyond ; as, ultra-marine, or beyond the sea. 

The Greek prepositions and participles compounded with English 
words are, a, amphi, anti, apo, hyper, dia, hypo, epi, meto, para, peri, syn, hemi. 

A signifies privation ; as, anarchy, or the state of being without govern- 
ment. 

Amphi, both, or the two ; as, amphibious, or the state of living in tivo 
Ways. 

Anti, against; as, antidote, or something given against poison. 

Apo, from ; as, apogee, or from the earth. 

Hyper, over and above ; as, hypercritical, that is, over or too critical. 

Dia, through ; as, diaphoresis, or a wearing through, perspiring. 

Hypo, under, implying ; as, hypocrite, or a person concealing his reed 
tharacter. 

Epi, upon ; as, epidemic, or upon the people. 

Meta denotes change, or transmutation ; as, metamorphose, or change 
the shape. 

Para, beyond, on one side ; thus, paragraph, that is, a writing by the side 
[onginally used to mean a marginal note) ; paradox, that is, an opinion 
beyond, or on one side, an extraordinary opinion ; paraphrase, that is, a 
phrase that may be placed by the side, an equivalent phrase. 

Peri, about ; as, periphrasis, or a speech in a roundabout way, a cir- 
cumlocution. 

Syn, sym, syl, ivith or together ; as, synod, or meeting together; sympa- 
thy, or feeling together. 

Hemx, as well as semi and demi, denotes half; — hemisphere, or half of a 
sphere ; semi-circle, or half a circle ; demi-god, or half a god. 



OF DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. 
1. Nouns are derived from verhs; as, from to love comes "lover; 1 
from to visit, " visitor ; " from to survive, " survivor," &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from ad- 
verbs ; as, from the noun salt comes " to salt ; " from the adjective warm, 
"to warm;" and from the adverb forward, " to forward." Sometimes 
they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; 
as, from grass, " to graze ;" — sometimes by adding en; as, from length, 
"to lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from short, "to shorten;" 
hright, "to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner: — Ad- 
jectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns, by adding y ; as, from 
health, " healthy ; " wealth, " wealthy ; " might, " mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding fid ; 
as, from, joy j "joyful;" sin, " sinful ;" fruit, "fruitful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns, by adding less; as, 
from worth, "worthless;" care, "careless;" joy, "joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns, by adding ly ; 
as, from man, " manly ; " earth, " earthly ; " court, " courtly," &c. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the ter- 
mination ness ; as, white, " whiteness ; " swift, "swiftness;" — sometimes 
by adding th or t, and making a small change in some of the letters ; as, 
long, " length ; " high, " height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or 
changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from 
which they are derived ; as, from hose comes " basely ; " from slow, 
' ; slowly ; " from able, " ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, 
that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enume- 
rate them. 



SYNTAX. 



The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats of the agreement 
and construction of words in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words forming a complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A Simple Sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite * verb ; as, 
" Life is short." 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected; as, "Time flies swiftly, and death approaches us;" "Idleness 
produces want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so 
the members of sentences may be divided, likewise, into simple and 
compound members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound- 
ed, may become members of other sentences, by means of some addi- 
tional connection ; as in the following example ; " The ox knoweth his 
owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not know, my 
people do not consider." This sentence consists of two compounded 
members, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, which 
are properly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences — the explicative, or ex- 
plaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, or commanding. 

An Explicative Sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not to be, 
to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner ; as, " I 
am ; " " Thou writest ; " " Thomas is loved." If the sentence be nega- 
tive, the adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself 
when it has no auxiliary; as, "I did not touch him;" or, "I touched 
him not." 

In an Interrogative Sentence, or when a question is asked, the nomi- 
native case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary ; as, " Was it he ? " 
" Did Alexander conquer the Persians ? " 

In an Imperative Sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, 
to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the verb or the aux- 
iliary ; as, " Go, thou traitor ! " " Do thou go ; " " Haste ye away ; " un- 
less the verb let be used ; as, " Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes 
part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, the attribute, 
and the object. 

The Subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the Attribute is the thing 
or action affirmed or denied of it; and the Object is the thing affected 
by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the 
verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase denoting the object follows 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in 
the infinitive mode have no respect to number or person. 



SYNTAX. 95 

the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his passions." Here a ivise man 
is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and Ms passions, 
the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, concord and government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gen- 
der, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, 
in directing its mode, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of words in a sentence, 
the following rules and observations should be carefully studied. 



ADJECTIVES. 

RUL.E I. 

Every adjective belongs to some noun (or pronoun) expressed or 
understood. 

Note I. Adjectives (in prose) should not be used for adverbs ; as, " indiffer- 
ent honest; " " excellent well; " " miserable poor; " instead of " indifferently 
honest; " "excellently well; " " miserably poor." — " He behaved himself con- 
formable to that great example;" "conformably." — '• I can never think so 
very mean of him ; " "meanly" — " He describes this river agreeable to the 
common reading ; " " agreeably." — " Agreeable to my promise, I now write ; '" 
" agreeably." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule I. 

She writes very neat. 

[Not proper, because the adjective neat is improperly used to express the 
manner in which the action icrite is performed. According to Note 1, under 
Rule I., " Adjectives should not be used for adverbs." Therefore neat should be 
neatly ; thus, ' : She writes very neatly."] 

His property is near exhausted. They lived conformable to the rules 
of prudence. He reasons very clear. He was extreme beloved. He 
speaks very fluent, he reads excellent, but does not think very coherent. 
He behaved himself submissive. I cannot think so mean of him. He 
was scarce gone when you arrived. 

Note II. When united to an adjective or adverb of degree not ending in 
ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it ; as, " exceedingly great ; " " exceed- 
ingly well;" but when it is joined to an adverb of degree, or an adjective 
having that termination, the ly is omitted ; as, " Some men think exceeding 
clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly;" "She appeared, on this occasion, 
exceeding lovely." — " He acted in this business bolder than was expected ; " 
" They behaved the noblest because they were disinterested." They should 
have been " more boldly" "most nobly." — The adjective pronoun such is often 
misapplied; as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his 
whole patrimony in a few years;" it should be, " so extravagant a young 



96 SYNTAX. 

man." — " I never before saw such large trees ; " " saw trees so large.'" — When 
we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied ; 
as, " Such a temper is seldom found ; " but when degree is signified, we use 
the word so; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule I. 
They rejected his advice, and conducted themselves exceedingly indis- 
creetly. He is a person of great abilities, and exceeding upright. The 
conspiracy was easier discovered from its being known to many. Not 
being fully acquainted with the subject, he could affirm no stronger than 
he did. Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard. Such 
distinguished virtues seldom occur. 

Note III. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; thus, " They were 
seen wandering about solitarily and distressed y" " solitary." — " The study of 
syntax should be previously to that of punctuation ; " "previous."* 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule I. 
Conformably to their vehemence of thought was their vehemence of 

* Young persons, who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particu- 
lar constructions, whether an adjective or an adverb ought to be used. A few 
observations on this point may serve to inform their judgment and direct 
their determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the ad- 
jective and the adverb; and consider whether, in the case in question, quality 
or manner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper; in the lat- 
ter, an adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction, and prove 
useful on other occasions : — 

She looks cold — She looks coldly on him. 

He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him. 

He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous. 

She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense. 

Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly. 

Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in reputation. 

They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest. 

The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point. 

The verb to be, in all its modes and tenses, generally requires the word 
immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb; and con- 
sequently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying 
the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with an 
adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations :— " This is 
agreeable to our interest." " That behavior was not suitable to his station." 

is 
"Rules should be conformable to sense." "The rose smells sweet." "How 

is is 

sweetthe hay smells ! " " How delightful the country appears ! " " How pleas- 
are are vvas 
antthe fieldslook ! " " The clouds look dark." " How black the sky looked ! " 

is were is 

" The apple tastes sour ! " " How bitter the plums tasted ! " " He feels happy." 
In all these sentences, wc can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tenses 
of the verb to be, for the other verbs. But in the following sentences we can- 
not do this:— "The dog smells disagreeably." " George feels exquisitely." 
" How pleasantly she looks at us ! " 

The directions contained in this note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us; 
but we must not reject rules because they are attended with exceptions. 



SYNTAX. 97 

gesture. We should implant in the minds of youth such seeds and 
principles of piety and virtue, as are likely to take soonest and deep- 
est root. Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often in- 
firmities. He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their 
circumstances. 

Note IV. Comparative terminations and adverbs of degree should not be 
applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison ; and double com- 
paratives and superlatives should be avoided ; such as, "a worser conduct;" 
" on lesser hopes j." "a more serener temper." They should be, " worse con- 
duct;" " less hopes;" "a more serene temper." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule I. 
'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. The 
tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it car- 
ries. The nightingale sings ; hers is the most sweetest voice in the grove. 
The Most Highest hath created us for his glory and our own happiness. 
The Supreme Being is the most wisest, the most powerfulest, and the 
most best of beings. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and 
should be his chief desire. His assertion was more true than that of 
his opponent ; nay, the words of the latter were most untrue. His 
work is perfect ; his brother's more perfect ; and his father's the most 
perfect of all. 

Note V. When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter 
term of comparison should not include the former ; and when the superlative 
is used, the latter term should never exclude the former. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule I. 
Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. Profane swearing is, of all 
other vices, the most inexcusable. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, 
prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. He spoke with so much 
propriety, that I understood him the best of all the others who spoke on 
the subject. 

Note VI. The personal pronoun them should never be used in the place of 
the adjective pronoun those; as, " Give me them books," instead of " Give 
me those books." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule I. 
Go and ask for them articles. How many of them apples did you 
purchase ? Which of them three men came to his assistance ? I will 
give them two quills to my friend. 

Note VII. The demonstratives this and these relate to the things last men- 
tioned, or nearest ; that and those to things first mentioned, or farthest off. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule I. 
Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes : that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable 
earth ; this opens for them a prospect to the skies. 

And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
In that, 'tis God directs, in this, 'tis man. 
9 



98 . SYNTAX. 

Note VIII. The adjective pronouns this and that, these and those, should 
agree in number with the nouns to which they are added ; as, " these three 
years," not " this three years." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 8, Rule I. 

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. Instead of 
improving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. Those 
sort of favors did real injury under the appearance of kindness. 

Note IX. The adjective pronouns each, every, either (and neither), agree 
with pronouns and verbs in the singular number only ; as, " Each of you has 
his friends." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 9, Rule I. 

Each of them in their turn receive the benefits to which they are en- 
titled. By discussing what relates to each particular, in their order, we 
shall better understand the subject. Every person, whatever be their 
station, are bound by the duties of morality and religion. Every leaf, 
every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. Every man's heart and 
temper is productive of much inward joy or bitterness. Whatever he 
undertakes, either his pride or his folly disgust us. Every man and 
every woman were numbered. Neither of those men seem to have any 
idea that their opinions may be ill founded. 

Note X. The adjective pronouns either and neither must be used in refer- 
ence to two things only : when more are referred to, any and none should be 
used ; as, " any of the three," not " either of the three ; " " none of the four," 
not " neither of the four." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 10, Rule I. 

Have you recited either of the, ten commandments this morning? He 
presented five copies, but neither of them were received. 

Note XI. When the adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to which 
it belongs must be plural also; as, " twenty pounds," not " twenty jwund." 
There are, however, some exceptions to this; as, "a hundred head of cat- 
tle," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 11, Rule I. 

The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, and one 
hundred fathom in depth. 

Note XII. The noun means has the same form in both numbers; it should 
therefore be used with an adjective pronoun of the singular or plural number, 
as the sense requires. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 12, Rule I. 

Charles was extravagant, and by this means became poor and des- 
picable. It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his end. 



SYNTAX. 99 

Though a promising measure, it is a mean which I cannot adopt* 
This person embraced every opportunity to display his talents ; and by 
these means rendered himself ridiculous. Joseph was industrious, 
frugal and discreet ; and by this means obtained property and repu- 
tation. 

Note XIII. The comparative degree of an adjective can be used only in? 
reference to two objects ; as, "He is the taller of the two." The superla- 
tive degree has reference to three or more ;as, " He is the youngest of the 
twelve." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 13, Rule I. 

He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. Trisyllables are- 
often accented on the former syllable. 

Note XIV. When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, that which 
expresses the most distinguishing quality should be placed next to the noun } 
as, " a poor old man," not " an old poor man." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 14, Rule I. 

He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole as- 
sembly. Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a new pair 
of gloves; he is the son of an old rich man. The two first in the row 
are cherry-trees ; the two others are pear-trees. 



ARTICLES. 

RULE II. 

The article refers to its noun (or pronoun) to limit its signification. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individ- 
ually or collectively ; as, " a Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." The 
definite article, the, may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number; 
as, " the garden, the houses, the stars." 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly 
applied, according to their distinct nature ; as, " Gold is corrupting ; " " The sea 
is green ; " "A lion is bold." If I s^y, " He behaved with a little reverence," 
my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with little reverence," my 
meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used 
in the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I 
dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we 
may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article before nouns of number. 
When I say, " There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and mean 
to represent them as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I say, " There were a few 
men with him," I evidently intend to make the most of them. It is correct to 
say, with the article, "He is in a great hurry," but not "in great hurry." 
And yet, in this expression, " He is in great haste," the article should be omit- 



100 SYNTAX. 

ted, as it would be improper to say, " He is in a great haste." A nice dis- 
cernment and accurate attention to the best usage are necessary to direct us 
on these occasions. 

Note I. When a noun or pronoun is used in an unlimited sense, the article 
should be omitted ; as, " Man is the noblest work of creation," not " A man," 
&c. The articles are omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. They are not pre- 
fixed to proper names, as Washington, Jefferson (because those of themselves 
denote determinate individuals, or particular things), except for the sake of 
distinguishing a particular family ; as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of 
the Howards ; " or by way of eminence ; as, " Every man is not a Newton ; " 
or when some noun is understood; as, " He sailed down the (river) Thames, 
in the (ship) Britannia." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule II. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

[Not proper, because the article a is used before man, which should be 
used in its widest sense. According to Note 1st, Rule 2d, " lVJien a noun 
or pronoun is used in an unlimited sense, the article should be omit- 
tedr Therefore it should stand thus, '• Reason was given to man to control 
his passions."] 

The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are the four elements of 
the philosophers. Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. My 
friend is another sort of a man. He is strong in the faith. I am per- 
secuted this way unto the death. Such qualities honor the nature of 
a man. 

Note II. When a noun is not used in an unlimited sense, an article (or 
some other definitive) should be prefixed to it ; as, " The wisest and the best 
men sometimes commit errors." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule II. 

We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and 
from matter. Beware of drunkenness; it impairs understanding. 
There are some evils of life which equally affect both prince and 
people. 

Note III. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to the same 
thing, the article should not be prefixed to the latter; if to different tilings, it 
should not be omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule II. 

He is a much better writer than a reader. I should rather wrong a 
friend than foe. 

Note IV. When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the article should 
not be used. 



SYNTAX. 101 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule II. 

The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. Our commander 
presented him the commission of a captain. The highest title in the 
state is the governor. 

Note V. When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used 
before the sound of a consonant, and an before that of a vowel. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule II. 

This is an historical allusion. This is an hard saying. I have not 
seen such an one. 

Note VI. Inconsistent qualities should not be joined to the same noun ; as,. 
" The old and new method." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule II. 

The book was read by the old and young. I have both a large and 
small grammar. I saw both the large and small vessel. 



VERBS. 

RULE III. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in person and number; 
as "I learn ; " " Thou art improved ;" " The birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : — " What sig- 
nifies good opinions when our practice is bad ? " " What signify." — " We may 
suppose there was more impostors than one; " " there icere more." — " If thou 
would be healthy, live temperately ; " " if thou wouldst" — "Thou sees how 
little has been done ; " " Thou seest." — " Though thou cannot do much for the 
cause, thou may and should do something;" " canst not, mayst, a,nd shouldst." — 
" Full many a flower are born to blush unseen ; " " is born." — " A variety of 
blessings have been conferred upon us ; " " has been." — " In piety and virtue 
consist the happiness of man ; " " consists." — " To these precepts are subjoined 
fc copious selection of rules and maxims;" " is subjoined." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule III. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

[Not proper, because the verb charm is of the plural number, and does not 
agree with its nominative, variety, which is of the singular. According to 
Rule 3d, " A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person." 
Therefore charm should be charms ; thus, " A variety of pleasing objects 
-charms the eye."] 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope 
give consolation. The smiles that encourages severity of judgment, 
hides malice and insincerity. He dare not act contrary to his instruc- 
9* 



102 SYNTAX. 

tions. Fifty pounds of wheat contain forty pounds of flour. The 
mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown a few centuries 
ago. The number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland do not 
exceed sixteen millions. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight 
some persons. In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture of wisdom and 
folly were very conspicuous. The inquisitive and curious is generally 
talkative. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. I am 
sorry to say it, but there were more equivocators than one. The sincere 
is always esteemed. There is many occasions in life, in which silence 
and simplicity is true wisdom. Thou, who art the Author and Bestower 
of life, can doubtless restore it also; but whether thou will please to re- 
store it, or not, Thou only knows. 

-O Thou, my voice inspire, 



Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 
Accept these grateful tears ; for thee they flow, 
For thee that ever felt another's wo. 

Note I. Every verb (excepting the infinitive mode) must have a nomina- 
tive case, either expressed or implied ; as, "Awake ; arise ; " that is, " Awake 
ye ; arise ye." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule III. 

If the privileges, to which he has an undoubted right, and he has long 
enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be flagrant injustice. 
These curiosities we have imported from China, and are similar to those 
which were, some time ago, brought from Africa. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

Note II. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an 
address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or 
implied; as, " Who wrote this book? — James ;" that is, "James wrote it." 
"To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule III. 

Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the 
same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. Virtue, however it 
may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to ac- 
knowledge and respect genuine merit. 

Note III. Though a noun of multitude (or signifying many) may have a 
verb or a pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or the plural number, 
yet regard must be had to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plu- 
rality of idea; as, "The meeting was large;" "The nation is powerful;" 
" The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule III. 

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. The crowd 
were so great, that the judges with difficulty made their way through 
them. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their 
voice. In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 



SYNTAX* 103 

as its chief good. The church has no power to inflict corporeal punish- 
ment. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The regiment con- 
sist of a thousand men. The meeting have established several salutary 
regulations. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 



ADVERBS. 

RULE IV. 

Adverbs qualify verbs and participles, 

Note I. Adverbs, though they have no properties, should have that posi-> 
tion which will render the sentence most perspicuous and elegant. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Example to be corrected under Note 1, Rule IV. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

[Not proper, because the adverb perpetually is not in its proper place. 
According to Note 1st, Rule 4th, " Adverbs, though they have no properties, 
should have that position which will render the sentence most perspicuous and 
elegant." Therefore perpetually should be placed before in; thus, " The 
heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion."] 

He was pleasing not often because he was vain. William nobly acted, 
though he was unsuccessful. We may happily live, though our posses- 
sions are small. He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he 
became submissive. So well-educated a boy gives great hopes to his 
friends. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is im- 
possible continually to be at work. One argument should happily appear 
to rise from another. These things should be never separated. 

Note II. The adverbs here, there, and where, ought not to be applied to 
verbs signifying motion ; as, " He came here hastily \" " They rode there with 
speed ; " instead of" He came hither," " They rode thither" &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule IV. 

It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow. George is 
active : he walked there in less than an hour. Where are you all going 
in such haste ? Whither have they been since they left the city ? 

Note III. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are equiva- 
lent to an affirmative; as, " Nor did they not perceive him; " that is, " They 
did perceive him." — " His language, though inelegant, is notungrammatical ;" 
that is, " it is grammatical." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule IV. 

Neither riches, nor honors, nor no such perishing goods, can satisfy the 
desires of an immortal spirit. Be honest, nor take no shape nor sem- 
blance of disguise. We need not nor do not confine his operations to 
narrow limits. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of her child, 



104 SYNTAX* 

Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb my retirement 
The measure is so unexceptionable, that we cannot by no means permit 
it. I have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor 
from his friend. 



PARTICIPLES. 

RULE V. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are governed by 
prepositions 

RULE VI. 

Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs* 

PRONOUNS. 

RULE VII. 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in person, number^ 
and gender. 

[The relative, being of the same person that the antecedent is, requires the 
verb which agrees with it to be of the same person that it would be to agree 
with the antecedent ; as, " Thou who lovest wisdom walkest uprightly ; " " He 
who loves wisdom walks uprightly."] 

Note I. All pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in 
person, number, and gender. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule VII. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in the house, and 
put thein on Jacob. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun them is of the plural number, and there- 
fore does not properly represent the noun raiment, which is of the singular. 
According to Note 1st, Rule 7th, " All pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand, in person, number, and gender." Therefore them should be 
it ; thus, " Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with her in the house, 
and put it upon Jacob."] 

The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color 
of its species. The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. The fair sex, whose task is not to 
mingle in the labors of public life, has its own part assigned it to act. 
The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the ac- 
tivity of his thoughts. I do not think any one should incur censure for 
being tender of their reputation. Thou, who has been a witness of the 
feet, canst give an account of it. In religious concerns, or what is con- 






SYNTAX. 105 

ceived to be such, every man must stand or fall by the decision of the 
Great Judge. 

Note II. The relative pronoun who should be applied only to persons 
(and to other animals personified), which to other animals, and inanimate 
things. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule VII. 

I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. The exercise 
of reason appears as little in these sportsmen as in the beasts whom they 
sometimes hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. They which 
seek Wisdom will certainly find her. The wheel killed another man, 
which is the sixth that has lost his life by this means. 

Note III. The relative that (applied to persons) is preferable to who in the 
following cases: — First, after the interrogative who; as, i: Who that has any 
sense of religion would have argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons make 
but part of the antecedent; as, " The woman and the estate, that became his 
portion, were rewards far beyond his desert." Thirdly, after an adjective in 
the superlative degree, and after the adjective same, that is generally used 
in preference to who or which; as, " Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one 
of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule VII. 
Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testa- 
ment. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can pos- 
sess. The men and things which he has studied have not improved 
his morals. 

Note IV. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, the rela- 
tive Aohich should be used, and not who. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule VII. 
Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero, 
who was indeed another name for cruelty. Flattery, whose nature is to 
deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder. 

Note V. The relative pronoun should be placed as near its antecedent as 
possible, to prevent ambiguity in the sense. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule VII. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who had never 
before committed so unjust an action. There are millions of people in 
the empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Note VI. When the antecedent only implies the idea of persons, and ex- 
presses them by some circumstance or epithet, which should be used, and not 
who; as, "The faction which," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule VII. 
He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. The court, 
who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 



106 SYNTAX. 

Note VII. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of the noun, 
should not be employed in the same part of the sentence ; as, " The king, he 
is just." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule VII. 

Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. The 
cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 

RULE VIII. 

Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed 
or understood. [See Examples under Rule I.] 

VERBS. 

RULE IX. 

I 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who did they entertain so freely ? 

[Not proper, because the relative who, which is the object of the transitive 
verb did entertain, is in the nominative case. According to Rule 9th, "Tran- 
sitive verbs govern the objective case." Therefore tcho should be whom; thus, 
" Whom did they entertain so freely ? "] 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, 
cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. Who have I reason to love 
so much as this friend of my youth ? Ye, who were dead, hath he 
quickened. The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. He and 
they we know, but who are you ? She that is idle and mischievous, re- 
prove sharply. Who did they send to him on so important an errand ? 
That is the friend who you must receive cordially, and whom you can- 
not esteem too highly. He invited my brother and I to see and examine 
his library. He who committed the offence, you should correct ; not I, 
who am innocent. 

PARTICIPLES. 

RULE X. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which 
they are derived ; as, " I am weary with hearing Mm; 11 "She 
is instructing us ; " " The tutor is admonishing Charles.'* 

FALSE SYNTAX 
Examples to be corrected under Rule X. 
Suspecting ye of unfairness, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. 
[Not proper, because the pronoun ye, which is the object of the participle 



SYNTAX. 107 

suspecting, is in the nominative case. According to Rule 10th, " Participles 
have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived.''' 
Therefore ye should be you; thus, " Suspecting you of unfairness, 1 was stu- 
dious to avoid all intercourse."] 

Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. Suspecting not only 
ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. I could not 
avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me, and he as a 
suspicious friend. From having exposed hisself too freely to different 
climates, he entirely lost his health. 

Note I. When an article, possessive adjective pronoun, or noun in the pos- 
sessive case, is prefixed to a participle, it becomes a noun, and should be fol- 
lowed by the preposition of, if there be any following word which needs gov- 
ernment. Both must be used, or both omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule X. 
By observing of truth, you will command esteem as well as secure 
peace. He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them proper 
information. A person may be great or rich by chance, but cannot 
be wise or good, without the taking pains for it. Nothing could have 
made her so unhappy as the marrying a man who possessed such 
principles. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

RULE XI. 

Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in the 

same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XI 

You and us enjoy many privileges. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun us, which is in the objective case, is con- 
nected to you, which is in the nominative. According to Rule 11th, " Nouns 
and pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in the same case." Therefore 
us should be we ; thus, " You and we enjoy many privileges/'] 

My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. She and him are 
very unhappily connected. Between him and I there is some disparity 
of years, but none between him and she. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

RULE XII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX, 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XII. 
He laid the suspicion on somebody, I know not who, in the com- 



pany. 



108 SYNTAX. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun icho, which is the object of the preposition 
upon, is in the nominative case. According to Rule 12th, " Prepositions gov- 
ern the objective case." Therefore who should be wham; thus, "I know not 
iohom in the company."] 

I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. To poor we, there is 
not much hope remaining. Does that boy know who he speaks to ? 
Who does he offer such language to ? It was not he they were so angry 
with. What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, 
and they who abhor them ? The person who I travelled with has sold 
his horse which he rode on during our journey. Who did lie receive 
that intelligence from ? 

Note I. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, when they follow 
verbs, and participles of motion ; but at is generally used after the verb to be. 
The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; but before 
villages, single houses, and cities, which are in distant countries, preceded by 
a neuter verb, at is used. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XII. 

I have been to London, after having resided a year at France ; and I 
now live in Islington. They have just landed in Hull, and are going for 
Liverpool. They intend to reside some time at Ireland. 

[For further remarks on the use of prepositions, see page 89.] 

RULE XIII. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun 
it possesses; as, "My father's house;" "Man's happiness;" 
" Virtue's reward." 

Note I. In writing the possessive case, its proper form should be ob- 
served. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XIII. 

His brothers offence will not condemn him. 

[Not proper, because the noun brothers, which is intended for the singular 
number possessive case, is in the plural number, and has not the proper form 
of that case. According to Note 1st, Rule 13th, "In writing the possessive 
case, its proper form should be observed." Therefore brothers should be broth- 
er's; thus, " His brother's offence will not condemn him."] 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. Nevertheless, Asa his heart 
was perfect with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, 
are natures gifts' for mans advantage. A mans manner's frequently 
influence his fortune. Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans interest 
and happiness. 

Note II. When several nouns in the possessive case come together, the 
apostrophe, with s, is annexed to the last, and understood after the others. 



SYNTAX. 109 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule XIII. 

It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calami- 
ties. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of fishermen. 

Note III. To avoid a recurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe only retained ; as, " Achilles' wrath. 

Examples to lie corrected under Note 3, Rule XIII. 

And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. Moses rod was turned into 
a serpent. For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife. If ye suffer 
for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. Ye should be subject for con- 
science's sake. 

RULE XIV. 

The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or 
participle. 

Note I. When a verb in the infinitive mode follows make, need, see, hid, 
dare, hear, feel, let, and some other words, the sign to should be omitted; as, 
*' I make him study." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XIV. 

I need not to solicit him to do a kind action. 

[Not proper, because the sign to is inserted before the verb solicit, which 
follows need. According to Note 1st, Rule 14th, " When a verb in the infini- 
tive mode follows make, need, see, «§/•<;., the sign to should be omitted." There- 
fore to should be omitted ; thus, " I need not solicit him to do a kind 
action."] 

It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal. You ought not 
walk too hastily, I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. I dare 
not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. I have seen some 
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. It is a great sup- 
port to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintain its patience 
and tranquillity under injuries and affliction, and to cordially forgive its 
oppressors. 

RULE XV. 

Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same mode and tense, 
and of the same form of conjugation. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XV. 

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 

[Not proper, because the word entreated, which is of the common form of 
conjugation, is connected to did tell, which is of the emphatic form. Ac- 
cording to Rule 15th, " Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 
mode and tense, and of the same form of conjugation." Therefore en 
10 



110 SYNTAX. 

treated should be entreat; thus, " Did he not tell me his fault, and entreat me 
to forgive him?"] 

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. 
If lie understand the subject, and attends to it industriously, he can 
scarcely fail of success. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of 
them is gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth 
into the mountains and seeketh that which is gone astray ? To be mod- 
erate in our views, and proceeding temperately in pursuit of them, is the 
best way to insure success. 

Note I. When the sense requires the verbs to be of different modes or tenses, 
the nominative must be repeated ; — then the conjunction will connect two 
members of the sentence, not two words. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XV. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue. 
He does not want courage, but is defective in sensibility. These peo- 
ple have indeed acquired great riches, but do not command esteem. 
Our season of improvement is short, and, whether used or not, will 
soon pass away. He might have been happy, and is now fully con- 
vinced of it. 

Note II. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, 
and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun, or pronoun, 
which should be placed next to the verb. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule XV. 

Both of the scholars, or one of them, at least, was present at the trans- 
action. Some parts of the ship and cargo were recovered ; but neither 
the sailors nor the captain was saved. The cares of this life, or 
the deceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a 
promising mind. 

Note III. When two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun, of different per- 
sons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree in number and person 
with the word nearest to it. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule XV. 

Either thou or I art greatly mistaken in our judgment on this 
subject. I or thou am the person who must undertake the business 
proposed. 

RULE XVI. 

A perfect participle, unconnected with an auxiliary, relates to the 
noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 

RULE XVII. 

Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same case after as 
before them, when both words signify the same person or thing. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

FALSE SYJNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVII. 

I would act the same part if I were him, or in his situation. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, which follows the neuter verb were, 
is in the objective case, and does not agree in case with the pronoun J. Accord- 
ing to Rule 17th, " Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same case 
after as before them, when both words signify the sameperson or thing." There- 
fore him should be he; thus, " If I were he, or in his situation."] 

Be composed: it is me: you have no cause for fear. I know not 
whether it were them who conducted the business ; but I am certain it 
was not him. He so much resembled my brother, that, at first sight, I took 
it to be he. After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? If it 
was not him, who do you imagine it to have been ? Who do you think 
him to be ? Whom do the people say that we are ? 

RULE XVIII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning the same thing, 
and having the same grammatical relation, are put by apposition 
in the same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVIII. 

I paid the money to the merchant, he that bought your house. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun he, which is in apposition with merchant, 
is in the nominative case. According to Rule 18th, " Two or more nouns, or 
nouns and pronouns, meaning the same thing, and having the same gram- 
matical relation, are put by apposition in the same case.'' 1 Therefore, he 
should be him ; thus, " I paid the money to the merchant, him that bought 
your house."] 

We should fear and obey the Author of our being, even He who has 
the power to reward or punish us forever. They brought Varus, he that 
was mentioned before. 

RULE XIX. 

A verb having two or more nominative words connected by the cop- 
ulative and, must be of the plural form. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XIX. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

[Not proper, because the verb removes, which is of the singular form, has 
two nominatives connected by the copulative and. According to Rule 19th, 
" A verb having two or more nominative xoords connected by the copulative and, 
must be of the plural form." Therefore removes should be remove; thus, 
" Patience and diligence, like faith, remove mountains."] 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. Wisdom, vir- 
tue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. In unity consists 



112 SYNTAX. 

the welfare and security of every society. Time and tide waits for no 
man. His politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their effect, 
entirely changed. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels 
pride and ignorance under costly attire. 

RULE XX. 

A verb having two or more nominatives of the singular number, con- 
nected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the singular form. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XX. 

Neither custom nor analogy support this opinion. 

[Not proper, because the verb support is of the plural form, and therefore 
does not agree with its two nominatives, custom and analogy, taken separately. 
According to Rule 20th, " A verb having two or more nominatives of the singu- 
lar number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the singular 
form." Therefore support should be supports; thus, "Neither custom nor 
analogy supports this opinion."] 

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own 
hands. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move 
merely as they are moved. Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing 
that betrays inattention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal. There are 
many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor pronunciation justify. 
When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of 
friendship is proved. 

RULE XXI. 

When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, but is placed 

before a participle, it is in the nominative case absolute. 

RULE XXII. 

When a direct address is made to a person or thing, the noun or 
pronoun is in the nominative case independent. 

RULE XXIII. 

The infinitive mode or part of a sentence is sometimes the subject of 
a verb, and therefore its nominative. 

Note I.- When the sentence conveys a unity of idea, the verb must be of 
the singular number ; but when it conveys a plurality of meaning, it must be 
plural. The verb must always be singular when the nominative sentences, 
or parts of sentences, are preceded by the conjunction that. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XXIII. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 

[Not proper, because; the verb arc is of the plural number, and does not 
properly agree with the preceding words, which convey a unity of idea, and 
form its nominative. According to Note 1st, Rule 23d, " When the sentence 
conveys a unity of idea, the verb must be of the singular number," &c. 



SYNTAX. 113 

Therefore are ought to be is; thus, " To live soberly, righteously, and piously, 
is required of all men."] 

To do unto all men as we would that they, in similar circumstances, 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. From a fear 
of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precepts which 
the heart approves and embraces, mark a feeble and imperfect character. 
The erroneous opinions which we form concerning happiness and misery, 
gives rise to all the mistaken and dangerous passions that embroils our 
life. Tnat it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to 
be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious and faithful to 
Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and well-informed 
mind. To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure means of be- 
coming peaceful and happy. The possession of our senses entire, of a 
sound understanding, of friends and companions, are often overlooked; 
though it would be the ultimate wish of many, who, as far as we can judge, 
deserves it as much as ourselves. 



ON THE USE OF THE MODES AND TENSES. 

Note I. In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to 
each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. Instead of say- 
ing, " The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," we should say, 
u The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, " I remember 
the family more than twenty years," it should be, " I have remembered the 
family more than twenty years." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1. 

The next new-year's day I shall be at school three years. And he that 
was dead sat up and began to speak. I should be obliged to him if he will 
gratify me in that particular. And the multitude wondered, when they 
saw the dumb to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame to walk, and 
the blind seeing. In the treasury belonging to the cathedral in this city, 
is preserved, with the greatest veneration, for upwards of six hundred 
years, a dish which they pretend to be made of emerald. 

Note II. All verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, 
must invariably be followed by the present tense, and not the perfect, of 
the infinitive. 

Examples to he corrected under Note 2. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his merit. 
It would, on reflection, have given me great satisfaction to relieve him 
from that distressed situation. It required so much care, that I thought 
I should have lost it before I reached home. We have done no more 
than it was our duty to have done. He would have assisted one of his 
friends, if he could do it without injuring the other; but as that could 
not have been done, he avoided all interference. These enemies of 
-Christianity were confounded, whilst they were expecting to have 
found an opportunity to have betrayed its author. His sea-sickness 
10* 



114 SYNTAX* 

was so great, that I feared he would have died before our arrival. If 
these persons had intended to deceive, they would have taken care to 
have avoided what would expose them to the objections of their op- 
ponents. 

Note III. Some conjunctions require the indicative form of the subjunctive 
mode, and some the elliptical, after them. It is a good general rule, that when 
something doubtful is expressed, with an allusion to future time, the elliptical 
form ought to be used ; as, " He will not be pardoned, unless he repent 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3* 
If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be Useless to 
others. Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, 
unless he advances more forcible reasons. I shall walk in the fields to- 
day, unless it rains. As the governess were present, the children be- 
haved properly. She disapproved the measure, because it were very 
improper. Though He be high, He hath respect to the lowly. 

Note IV. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily re- 
quire the elliptical form of the subjunctive mode; and if, with but following 
it, when futurity is denoted, also requires the elliptical form. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4. 
Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your own. Let him 
that is sanguine take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that thou 
breakest not any of the established rules. If he does but intimate his 
desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. At the time of his 
return, if he is but expert in the business, he will find employment. If 
he do but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention. If 
he be but in health, I am content. Though he do praise her, it is only 
for her beauty. If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be for- 
given. If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accord- 
ingly. Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar. Though he falls, 
he shall not be utterly cast down. On condition that he comes, I will 
consent to sta)'. 

Note V. The imperfect tense, and all the compound tenses of the sub- 
junctive, retain the same termination with the conjunction that they would, 
in any other mode, without it. 

This Note applies to all verbs except the neuter verb be : this verb, when in 
the subjunctive mode, varies its form from the indicative, in the imperfect as 
well as in the present tense. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5. 
If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Though he 
have proved his right to submission, he is too generous to exact it. Un- 
less he have improved, he is unfit for the office. If thou had succeeded, 
perhaps thou would not be the happier for it. Though thou did injure 
him, he harbors no resentment. Was he ever so great and opulent, this 
conduct would debase him. Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would 
look like flattery. Though I was perfect, yet I would not presume. 
Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. Though 
thou might have foreseen the danger, thou could not have avoided it. 



SlfNTAX. 115 

NotfE VI i When the qualities of different thiilgs are compared, the latter 
noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as, but agrees 
with a verb, or is governed by a verb or a preposition expressed or Under- 
stood ; as, " Thou art wiser than I ; " that is, " than I am."- — " They loved 
him more than me ; " that is, " more than they loved me.'* — " The sentiment 
is well expressed by Plato^ but much better by Solomon than him; " that iSj 
" than by him." 

Examples' to be collected under Note 6i 

In sonie respects, we have had as many advantages as them j but 
in the article of a good library, they have had a greater privilege than 
us. The undertaking Was much better executed by hjg brother than he,- 
They are much greater gainers than me by this unexpected event. They 
know how to write as well as him ; but he is a much better grammarian 
than them. Though she is not so learned as him, she is as much be- 
loved and respected. These people, though they possess more shining 
qualities, are not so proud as him, or so vain as her. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, 

To be corrected by the preceding Rules and Notes. 

Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. The! 
first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second. He 
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his companion* 
Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence it 
Cometh, and whither it goeth. Neither has he, nor any other persons, 
suspected so much dissimulation, The court of France or England 
was to be the umpire. In the reign of Henry II. all foreign commodi- 
ties were plenty in England. There is no talent so useful towards 
success in business, or which puts men more out of the reach of ac- 
cidents, than that quality generally possessed by persons of cool tem- 
per, and is, in common language, called discretion. The first project 
was to shorten discourse, by cutting polysyllables into one. I shall 
do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their 
cure which I have. The greatest masters of critical learning differ 
among one another. Micaiah said, If thou certainly return in peace, 
then ' hath not the Lord spoken by me. I do not suppose, that we 
Britons want a genius more than the rest of our neighbors.- The 
deaf man whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, doubtless 
glorified the great Physician. Groves, fields, and meadows, are, at 
any season of the year, pleasant to look upon, but never so much as 
in the opening of the spring. The intentions of some of these phi- 
losophers, nay, of many, might, and probably were, good. It is an 
unanswerable argument of a refined age, the wonderful civilities that 
have passed between the nation of authors and that of readers; It 
was an unsuccessful undertaking, which, although it has failed, is 
no objection at all to an enterprise so well concerted. The reward 
is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be given to him. By 
intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who know the world,* 
we may improve and rub off the rust of a private and retired educa- 
tion, Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge* 



116 SYNTAX. 

No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortification, as 
he has done to-day. The Romans gave not only the freedom of the 
city, but capacity for employments, to several towns in Gaul, Spain, 
and Germany. Such writers have no other standard on which to 
form themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and popular. 
Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light. To the happiness of possessing a person of such uncom- 
mon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest 
honor his country could bestow. 



The pupil should now be required to apply the principles inculcated 
in the preceding Rules, Notes, &c, in pointing out and correcting er- 
rors in paragraphs of a more promiscuous character, and of greater 
length. He should be required not only to point out and correct such 
errors, but to state his reasons for so doing. For this purpose, the fol- 
lowing Exercises, selected from a late work on Rhetoric, are presented. 
To aid such as have not the assistance of a teacher, the more objection- 
able words and phrases are printed in Italic. 

The caret A denotes that some word or phrase is improperly omitted. 



Improprieties in the Use of the Noun, fyc. 

" Some men are susceptible of emotions of beauty in view of objects 
and scenes around them ; others, the circumstances of whose life have 
been different, look upon the same objects and scenes without any 
emotion of this nature." 

" Here, then, is found the united voice of men of the present age ; and 
the artist knows, that so far as his production exhibits what excites emo- 
tions of beauty in this painting, it is in agreement with the general 
opinion of men now living, or the standard of the taste of the age." 

" By construction, as the word is applied to sentences, is meant the 
forming of the sentence in such a manner, that the relations and con- 
nection between the different parts of the sentence may be made 
known." 

"Hence, then, the caution may be given, To avoid ambiguity in the 
construction of the adjective, let it be placed as near as practicable to 
the noun it is intended to qualify." 

"The persevering thought, that has now been enjoined, has done 
more towards enlightening and improving men, than all the brilliant 
sallies and sudden efforts of genius." 



Improprieties in the Use of the Adjective, the Adjective Pronoun, fyc. 

" In the first part, a writer is regarded as addressing himself to the 
understanding of his readers, and the importance of being able to 
think well, as including the number and value of our thoughts and the 
proper arrangement of them, is considered." 

"He will be mindful, that the extent of his knowledge will depend 
more on the manner of his reading [his manner of reading] than on 
the amount read, and on his attention to those facts which fall under 
his observation, more than on the number of these facts." 



SYNTAX. 



117 



" There can be no doubt, that the practice of most young writers is 
contrary to what is here recommended. Immediately upon selecting 
a subject on which to write, they read what others have written ; and 
thus, instead of trusting to the resources of their own minds, they look to 
books for their thoughts and opinions." 

" Suppose, further, that these same individuals, in the course of their 
journey, stop to examine a gallery of paintings." 

" It will be shown, in the examination of the ornaments of style, that, 
whether we regard them as parts of the literary production in which 
they are found, or as tending to produce some designed effect, we may in 
part account for the emotion of taste which they excite, on this same 
principle of adaptation." 

" With the design of exhibiting the skill which is requisite, when 
language is thus used figuratively, a few more examples will now be 
given." 

" Now, should we say of the image, that there is much naturalness in 
its appearance, and of the dancer, that there is much naturalness in 
his movements, we should use the word in the same sense in which it is- 
here applied to style." 



Improprieties in the Use of the Article. 

'* As an example of a well-executed conclusion, the following passage, 
which is found at the close of an eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, 
may be cited." 

" In reading the story of the two friends Damon and Pythias, who 
were the objects of the cruelty of Dionysius, we are struck with the 
closeness of their friendship." 

" Incorrectness in the use of words, and in the construction of sen- 
tences, like inaccuracies of pronunciation, is considered as evidence of 
careless intellectual habits and an unfinished education. There is also 
something of the nature of incivility, when a writer asks us for our atten- 
tion, and addresses us in a language we cannot understand." 

" Lawyers, and those of other professions, have many terms in use, 
which are peculiar to the profession, and which are not expected to be 
understood by those unacquainted with its mysteries." 



Improprieties in the Use of the Verb, fyc. 

"The next transition from France to Holland is also founded on 
contrast, and need not be stated." 

" Other emotions are included under what is called the passions ; and 
we speak of the objects which excite them as objects of desire or aver- 
sion, of fear or remorse, or of some other passion." 

"The only caution, then, which need be given, is the general one, that 
whenever adjective pronouns are used as connectives, and the noun to 
which they belong is left to be supplied by the reader, care should be 
had, that this noun be obvious." 

" This, as was remarked when treating of the metaphor, aids the dis- 
tinctness of the view ; and what was there said need not be repeated." 



118 SYNTAX. 

"What has been mentioned as conducive to its attainment, are but 
different ways in which the excited feelings manifest themselves." 

" The word is here used as referring to a common standard, which 
is found in the mind of every man whose taste is not perverted and 
vitiated." 

"Here he sees presented before him the representations of those beau- 
tiful forms of nature, the knowledge of which, without this assistance, he 
could have obtained only by frequent and tedious processes of observa- 
tion and analysis." 



Improper Use of the Tenses. 

[See Note 1, page 113.] 

" Should we read the production of one who is justly accounted a 
good writer, we should be conscious that our attention had been engaged; 
that we had been pleased ; and, if the subject ivas one which could interest 
the feelings, that we had been moved. If, from being conscious of these 
effects, we are led to search for their causes, we shall find that our atten- 
tion has been engaged by the valuable thoughts and just reasonings that 
have been exhibited ; we have been pleased by what has given exercise 
to our imagination." 

" Hence the fondness for metaphysical and moral investigations, and for 
the exact sciences, which is ever felt by those who have excelled as 
sound reasoners." 

" The student, with his relaxed and enfeebled system, could not ex- 
pect to vie with the hardy laborer .in a trial of strength. But let him 
leave his study, let him inure himself to toil, and he may gradually ac- 
quire an equal hardiness of constitution and strength of muscle." 

" It is said, that when the great Newton was asked, how he was 
enabled to make the greatest discoveries that a mortal has ever commu- 
nicated to his fellow men, he answered, ' By thinking.' " 

" The writer [speaker] seems aware of the thoughts and feelings which 
had taken possession of every heart, and, giving utterance to these thoughts 
and feelings, he arrests with consummate skill the attention, and con- 
ciliates the good will, of those whom he addresses." 

" This individual may have been originally constituted with as much 
sensibility as Addison ; but such have been the circumstances around 
him, — such has been his lot in life, — that this sensibility has been lost." 

" Had this picture existed through successive ages, and been uniformly 
admired, this would give it higher authority, and the artist, in conforming 
his work to it, would know, that what he produced is in agreement with 
the opinions of men of different ages of the world." 

" Locke was an accurate thinker and a close reasoner. His judgment, 
where lie forms an opinion, is based on careful and minute exami- 
nation. Hence his taste was severe. He used but little ornament, 
and that simple and illustrative. Fearful also that it might betray 
him, he condemned the use of it in the writings of others. Burke, on 
the contrary, was a man of much refinement. He possessed extensive 
classical attainments — had large and liberal views of subjects ; and, 
susceptible, to a high degree, of emotions of taste, he is ever prone to 
indulge in the excitement of these emotions. But then he approves 
only of what is truly beautiful and sublime, and his judgment of what 



SYNTAX. 119 

is fitted to excite these emotions, has evidently felt the influence of his 
enlarged and liberal views on other subjects, or, in other words, of his in- 
tellectual habits." 

"The attention of the others being called to it, they express the same 
opinion ; and again they unite in calling the individual who has pointed 
out the painting, a man of taste." 

" The traveller, in passing the river Rubicon, might regard it as a com- 
mon stream ; but should it be told him, that he was standing where Caesar 
stood, when he decided the destinies of Rome, the scene before him, 
from association, excites an emotion of sublimity." 

"This would have been pursuing the metaphor too far ; it would have 
been called forced, and good taste would condemn it." 

" Eve parts from them, as from friends with whom she had long been 
familiar, and whom she fondly loves." 

" We seem to hear him thinking aloud, and his thoughts flow forth to 
us in the same order, and with the same clearness, with which they have 
sprung up in his own mind." 

" Were it asked, in what way the awkward dancer may attain the easy 
and graceful movements of the other, it would be answered, 'By pursuing 
a similar course of instruction and practice.' " 

" Were men simply intellectual beings, and were it the only design of 
the writer to convey instruction to his readers, what has been said in the 
preceding chapter would be all that is required, preparatory to the con- 
sideration of the qualities of a good style." 

" The standard of taste, then, is the agreeing voice of such as are sus- 
ceptible of emotions of beauty, both of those who have lived in past ages, 
and of those now existing." 

" As we have seen in the last chapter, it is by the aid of the imagination 
that the artist is able to design those objects and scenes, which are the 
creations of his own mind." 

" It has been the design of the preceding chapters to treat of the princi- 
ples and rules of good writing." 



Improprieties in the Formation of several of the Tenses 

" Of these ornaments of style, some have been classified and . re- 
ceived appropriate names." 

" In saying that these words are in agreement with each other, refer- 
ence is had to the use of them in their common application ; and this is 
necessary, that the metaphor be well supported." 

" But our ennui and disgust, in reading their works, do not arise from 
the perspicuity of their expressions, but from their saying what had better 
have been omitted." 



Improper Use of the Elliptical Form of the Subjunctive Mode, fyc, 

•' Unless the writer have some object, at which he aims, as the goal 
he would reach, he will ever be liable to go astray, A lose himself and hie 
readers." 



120 . SYNTAX. 

" In determining whether an object fee familiarly known, regard must 
be had to those who are addressed." 

"It is not enough that the productions of good writers be read. They 
must be studied as models of style." 

" This liberty is given them, and it is expected in return, that they be 
uniform in the use of the word in the sense defined." 

" Perspicuity is the next quality of a good style to be considered. It 
implies that the expressions used be such as to convey, and clearly con- 
vey, the true meaning of the writer." 

"If the subject do not require it — if the form of sentence do not have 
its foundation in the thought itself, it will have the air of something arti- 
ficial, and, instead of exerting an influence favorable to vivacity, it will 
have a different effect." 

" But if the eulogium be excessive, and the writer indulges himself in 
praise and high commendation, an effect is often produced different from 
that designed." 



Improprieties in the Use of the Adverb, fyc. 

"At the close of the work, also, exercises are found, the analysis of 
which may call forth the skill of the learner, and niake him familiar with 
the rules which are stated." 

" The grammarian gives us rules for the attainment of correctness in 
the use of language ; and logic informs us of the different modes of con- 
ducting an argument. The intellectual philosopher also explains to us 
the phenomena of mind, particularly of those emotions with which taste 
is connected." 

"And where can this skill be better acquired than in the study of those 
sciences, which are made up of abstract reasonings, and which furnish 
instances of close and long-continued trains of argumentation." 

" In the treatment of intricate subjects, ivhere there are many divis- 
ions, and where it is of importance that the order and connection of 
each part should be carefully observed, to state the divisions is the better 
course." 

" In ancient systems of rhetoric, many rules are given to aid the 
writer in forming his plan ; but it is believed that these rules are but of 
little value." 

"Still, as has been intimated, there may be skill shown in the ar- 
rangement of the arguments, and one may happily appear to rise from 
another." 

"As the result of past experience of emotions, certain principles seem 
fixed in the mind, and lohere taste is called into exercise, it is the imme- 
diate application of these principles to particular instances." 

"The beau ideal is delineated to his view, and he forms his taste from 
the contemplation of perfect forms of beauty, instead of those imperfect 
forms where beauty is mingled with deformity." 

" As the wound made in the bark of a young and healthy tree soon 
closes over, so sorrows in the minds of the young are but of short du- 
ration." 

" They refer us also to those pages where our tastes have been formed, 
and our minds disciplined and furnished with knowledge." 



SYNTAX. 121 

"This may rather be called an impropriety, than an equivocation; 
since it results from the application of a qualifying word in a sense dif- 
ferent from that which is authorized by good usage." 

" As several examples will be given, while treating of complex sen- 
tences, the farther notice of them is here omitted." 

" Still such instances are but of rare occurrence." 

" In the two examples now given, we have instances where greater 
distinctness is given to the view, by using a word in a more general sense 
than that usually applied to it." 

"Hence any directions for its attainment are hut of little practical im- 
portance." 



Redundant Words, fyc. 

"With this view, he unites several simples; and in selecting the sim 
pies that are to be united together for producing the required mixture, 
and in determining the quantity of each to be used, there is judgment." 

" What has been thus selected must now be combined together, and so 
combined as to produce one harmonious effect." 

" The artist, under the guidance of taste, collects together those scat- 
tered fragments of beauty, and combining them in one view with har- 
monious effect, presents to us objects and scenes more beautiful than 
those which can be found in nature." 

" The emotion of beauty, which is thus excited, is then to be accounted 
for on the principle which has been before stated." 

"That in metaphors we guard against uniting together language ap- 
plied figuratively and literally." 

"Under the bead of connectives are included those words which are 
used to connect different sentences together, or to connect different 
clauses and members of the same sentence." 

" Conjunctions of the same class may be connected together, but such 
coalitions are often unnecessary, and should be avoided." 



Improprieties in the Use of the Pronoun, Sfc. 

" While, then, inconvenience is experienced from the changes of lan- 
guage, in that it renders the authors of one period unintelligible at anoth- 
er, this evil is balanced by the introduction of more significant and har- 
monious words." 



Improprieties in the Use of the Conjunction, 8$c. 

" They differ from those of beauty, as being more elevating and en- 
nobling." 

" Every one acquainted with grammar, knows that adverbs are not 
essential parts of language, but that they might be dismissed, and the 
same meaning expressed by circumlocutions." 
11 



122 SYNTAX. 



Improprieties in the Use of the Preposition, 8pc. 

" He might then direct his attention more immediately to the style, 
and examine its correctness, perspicuity, smoothness, adaptation of the 
subject, and the various qualities of a good style." 

" It is in accordance, then, with the directions stated above." 

" In good examples of the preceptive kind, each part, though suggest- 
ing another, is in itself separate and distinct, and the writer seeks rather 
to be fully understood, than to assign the reasons o/what he says." 

" Of the fine arts, some are imitative, and others symbolical. Some 
exhibit an exact representation of the object or scene they would present 
before the mind : such are painting and sculpture." 

" Hence the man of literary taste approves of the comparison from its 
fitness to the design of the writer." 

" It would be difficult to make any alteration of the sentence, which 
would place it nearer." 

" Perspicuity is a word of similar import with transparency, which is 
applied to air, to glass, and to water, or to any substance, through which, 
as a medium, we are wont to look at objects." 

" I refer to what is included under the name of allusions. It will at 
once be seen, that though they differ in form from the comparison, they 
are of the same nature, and their introduction depends on similar 
principles." 

"Such expressions, however, are allowed as the language of passion ; 
and to instances of this kind the name of hyperbole is applied." 

" We say that the object is in this case suggested naturally, because the 
transition is easy from the minds of the aged to the tombs, to which they 
are approaching." 

" Every language has certain forms of construction, either peculiar to 
itself, or A common with other languages." 



Ambiguous Words and Phrases. 

"Different modes of combination present themselves before, his 'mind's 
eye,' and of these different combinations, one is to be selected as most 
beautiful" 

" The definition here given of taste is also different from that found in 
Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, which, as a text-book, is in most frequent 
use" 

"He might then hope, that his work, being conformed to this genera! 
standard of taste, would please all men, every where, and of every age, 
who are susceptible of emotions of beauty, and whose minds are not 
under the influence of some particular bias." 

" He whose mind is enriched with various knowledge, and whose in- 
tellectual powers have been strengthened and improved, and who is 
wont to take large and comprehensive views of subjects, will discover the 
greatness of his mind and the liberality of his views in his judgment of 
what is fitted to excite an emotion of taste." 



SYNTAX. 123 

" We never complain that glass is too transparent, and no more can 
style be too perspicuous." 

" The imploring look of the beggar had asked for silver and gold, 
and Peter in his answer discovers that he fully knew the meaning of 
that look, and lets the attention first rest on that which is first in the 
mind's view." 

" In conversing on grave subjects, we should not use the lively and fa- 
miliar forms of expression which are suited to an hour of gayety ; and we 
should be equally far from imitating the stately and involved modes of 
expression which characterize some other language." 



"The advantages derived from the study of this branch of educa- 
tion, are not such as should be derived from it. It does not offer that 
exercise and improvement to the intellectual powers, which it should 
offer." 

The language of the preceding extract refers to the kind of advantages 
derived from the study, rather than to the degree of improvement made. 
The phrase not so great would, probably, have given the meaning which 
the writer intended to convey to his readers. 

"It does not give that assistance towards forming a good style, which 
it ought to afford. And it is believed, that these effects have arisen in 
part from the manner in which it is studied" 

The verbs here used do not correspond with each other in point 
of time. See Note 1, page 113. [" On the Use of the Modes and 

Tenses."] 

" But we now ask, what may be hence inferred on the part of the writer ? 
Do we not discover, that his mind has been stored with knowledge ? 
— that his imagination is active and well regulated, and his heart alive 
to emotion ? " 

It was, undoubtedly, the object of the preceding, to inquire what may 
be inferred respecting the writer ; but the language made use of (" on the 
part of the writer ") refers to what the writer himself may infer, rather 
than to what may be inferred respecting him by others. 

Again. Allowing that we are able to discover from the productions of 
a writer, that " his imagination is active and well regulated," there would 
seem to be no reason for supposing that his mind has been deprived of 
any portion of the knowledge with which it had been stored. The pres- 
ent tense of the verb should have been used instead of the perfect — "is 
stored," instead of "has been stored." 

" Comparisons of this kind are called embellishing comparisons, and 
when naturally suggested, and in agreement with the subject and occa- 
sion, A excite strong emotions of beauty." 



124 SYNTAX. 

Good usage requires that the pronoun they should be inserted be- 
fore excite. 

" It is not unfrequent tojind classical allusions in her writings, of which, 
even to the classical student, it is no shame to be ignorant." 

" It is not unfrequent to find " is not good English. " It is not unfre- 
quent that we find," — "We not unfrequently find,"— are forms of expres- 
sion supported by good authority. 

" Since the words of a language are ever changing, some becoming 
obsolete, and others coming into use, it is impossible, from the nature of 
the case, that any dictionary can continue for a length of time to be a 
standard of good usage." 

Since a dictionary which is a standard at all (even for a moment), is 
so "for a length of time" great, considerable, or some other qualifying 
word, should have been inserted before length, to fix the meaning of 
the writer. 

" Hence, then, may be inferred the need of additional caution in the 
use of those words which may be regarded as adverbs or adjectives, ac- 
cording to their position in the sentence." 

The words adverbs and adjectives, not being synonymous, either 
should be inserted after regarded, and as before adjectives ; thus, " which 
may be regarded either as adverbs, or as adjectives, according to their 
position," &c. 

"The nominative and accusative, as the agent and object, are of 
more importance in a sentence, than other nouns which are dependent 
upon them." 

The writer here asserts that the nominative and accusative are of more 
importance in a sentence than other nouns; improperly substituting the' 
names of two of the cases for the nouns he intended to describe. Mere 
accidents of nouns and pronouns cannot with propriety be so used. Pro- 
nouns are found in the position indicated by the cases denominated nom- 
inative and accusative, as frequently as nouns are. " Nouns in the nomi- 
native" would probably have given the meaning of the writer. 

"But another inquiry on this subject has arisen — ' May not a writer be 
too perspicuous, and not leave enough to exercise the ingenuity and re- 
flection of his readers?' " 

In order properly to analyze the language in which this question is 
stated, we must supply the ellipsis in the latter clause; thus, "May 



SYNTAX, 125 

hot a Writer be too perspicuous, and [may] not [a loriter] leave enough ? " 
&c. Does this give the meaning which the author intended to convey 
to his readers ? Surely not. Will it be contended that a negative is im- 
plied before leave $ and that the sentence should be understood thus, 
"May not a writer be too perspicuous, and not not leave?" &c, i. e. 
" May not a writer not leave ? " &c. The form of the sentence should; 
be varied. 

" How much, then, does it add to the vividness of our conception of 
what the author here says, that he fixes our attention on that quality 
which he designs should be immediately in view, and on which his as- 
sertion is founder!." 

The verb designs, in the preceding paragraph, is transitive, and gov- 
erns the relative which, according to Hule 9 ; leaving the verb slwuld 
be without a nominative, either expressed or understood. The same 
remarks are applicable to the words in Italic in the following paragraph. 

" It may be Considered either as a synecdoche, when a part is put for 
the whole, or a metonymy, when the instrument is put for the agent. 
In either case, it directs the attention to what [that ivhich] the writer de- 
signed should be a prominent circumstance." 

" And, as a general remark, it may be said, that what is easy to read, is 
smooth in its sound to the ear." 

The passive form of the verb read should have been here used, instead 
of the active— to be read, instead of to read. 

" Long and short sentences should be intermingled, since the continu- 
ance of either for a length of time is tedious and disgusting." 

Here adjectives expressing inconsistent qualities are improperly con- 
nected with the same noun. Correct thus,,— "Long sentences and short 
[ones] should be intermingled," &c. 



The Solecism, or Grammatical Blunder. 

To prevent the solecism, or grammatical blunder, is the appropriate 
object of syntax. — Prof. Newman. 

"The writer should, ask himself, * What do I wish to establish? 
What is the point at which I aim ? ' And when this is seen, it never 
should be lost sight of. The necessity of this direction will at once be 
perceived." 

"It may be said of the first part of this division, that it has no particu- 
lar reference to the object of the writer. It is a truth of general appli- 
cation, and might with equal propriety be assigned in enforcing any other 
•duty, as in this instance." 
^ 11* 



126 SYNTAX. 

" The forming of a plan is a species of scaffolding to aid us in erecting 
the building. When the edifice is finished, we may let the scaffold- 
ing fall." 

"The traveller, when he stands on the banks of the Mississippi, and 
looks upon that noble river, flowing on with the power of collected 
waters, and bearing on its bosom the wealth of the surrounding region, 
stops to gaze on the scene before him, and regards it with admiration." 

"The admirer of Byron, whose mind is filled with his delightful hor- 
rors, and who is wont to admire his master-strokes of passion, in exam- 
ining the productions of other poets, will pronounce on their excellence, 
from their comparative effect on his own mind, and will approve or 
condemn, as they agree A with those of this great master of the art." 

" It is well known, that the use of numerous particles is a defect of our 
language. It weakens the strength of expression." 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts: the former teaches the true pronun- 
ciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; 
and the latter, the laws of versification. 

Accent. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a 
certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress 
of the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable, sume, which 
takes the accent. 

Quantity. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied 
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel ; which 
occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the following letter ; 
as, fall, bale, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant ; which oc- 
casions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ant, 
bonnet, hunger. 

A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing 
it : thus mate and note should be pronounced as slowly again as mat 
and not. 

Emphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, 
by which we distinguish some word, or words, on which we design to 
lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. 
Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular 
tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

Pauses. Pauses, or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation 
of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable 
space of time. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Versification, or poetry, is a species of composition made according 
to certain harmonious measures, or proportions of sound. 

Rhyme is that kind of poetry in which the terminating sound of one 
line agrees with that of another ; as, 

Go tell my son, said he. 
All thou hast heard of me. 

Blank verse, like other poetry, is measured, but does not rhyme ; as, 

All on earth is shadow ; all beyond 

Is substance : the reverse is folly's creed. 



128 MOsdM\ 

Of Poetical Feet* 

A certain number of syllables, connected, form a foot. They are called 
feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through 
the verse in a measured pace ; and it is necessary that the syllables which 
mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some way, be dis- 
tinguished from the others. 

Feet are all reducible to eight kinds^-four of two syllables, and four 
of three syllables, viz. 

A Trochee, — ^ A Dactyle, — <^ ^ 

An Iambus, ^ — An Amphibrach, w — w 

A Spondee, a An Anapest, s> v., — 

A Pyrrhic, ^ ^ A Tribrach, 



N_* \^> \_^ 



A Trocliee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as, 
hateful, pettish. 

Restless mortals toil for nought; 
Bliss In vain from earth Is sought. 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as, 
delay, behold. 

And may at last my weary age 
Find out the peaceful hermitage* 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " a high tree," 
K the pale moon." 

Sec the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 
Old time brings man to his long home. 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, " on the 
tall tree." 

In a small stream, by the side of a. mountain, 
We bathed with delight. 

A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented ; 
as, conqueror, honihlc. 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the 
middle one accented ; as, delightful, amazing. 

The piece, you say, is incorrect : why, take It:— 
I'm all submission ; what you'd have it, make it. 

An Anapest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accent- 
ed ; as, incommode, contravene. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway,. 
And grow wiser and better, as life fades away. 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, unparddnablej 
innumerable. 

And rolls impetuous to the plain. 



PROSODY. 129 

Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet ; as pieces of 
poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the 
trochee, iambus, dactyle, and anapest. They are capable also of numer- 
ous variations by mixing them with each other, and by the admission 
of the secondary feet. The spondee, pyrrhic, amphibrach, and tribrach, 
are secondary feet. 

Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet contained in a line. 
The measures that are most in use, are those of ten, eight, and seven 
syllables ; but the iambic, trochaic, and anapestic verse, is sometimes 
very short, and sometimes long measure. 



DIRECTIONS RESPECTING THE USE OF 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Capitals are used in the following situations : — 

1. At the beginning of every principal word in the titles of books,, 
chapters, &c. ; as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language;" 
" Rollin's Ancient History." 

2. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other 
piece of writing. 

3. The beginning of the first word after a period ; and, if the two sen- 
tences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclama- 
tion. But, if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are 
thrown into one general group, or if the construction of the latter sen- 
tence depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with 
small letters ; as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and 
the scorners delight in their scorning? and fools hate knowledge?" 
" Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same ! " 

4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a semicolon, or 
when it is in a direct form; as, "Always remember this maxim; 
« Know thyself.' " 

5. The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, must always be capitals ; as, 
"I write ;" "Hear, O earth." 

6. At the beginning of every line in poetry. 

7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, 
if not wholly written, with capitals ; as, " God, Lord, Supreme Being, 
Almighty, Most High, Divine Providence." The word Heaven must 
always begin with a capital when used as the name of the King of 
heaven ; as, " May Heaven prosper you." But when it is used as the 
name of the abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, except 
at the beginning of a sentence ; as, " the angels of heaven ; " " the Lord of 
heaven and earth." 

8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with capitals ; 
of persons, heathen gods and goddesses, brutes, the planets,* towns, 
streets, islands, mountains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. ; as, " Benjamin 
Franklin ; Sir Isaac Newton ; the Alleghany Mountains ; the Ohio 

* Earth excepted. 



130 PUNCTUATION. 

River ; Lake Superior ; the Red Sea ; the Frigate Guerriere ; " — also all 
adjectives derived from proper names ; as, "the Newtonian System ; Gre- 
cian, Roman, American, French, Italian," &c. 

9. All titles of honor, professions, and callings of men, particularly 
when an address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as, " President, 
Governor, General, Judge, Esquire, Mr." &c. ; — also all qualities used as 
titles of men; as, "Honorable, Reverend," &c. 

10. Capitals are always used to begin the names of all courts, societies, 
and public bodies of men ; as, " Congress, the General Assembly, the 
Supreme Judicial Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane So- 
ciety, the Corporation," &c. 

11. The names of all religious sects and denominations are begun with 
capitals ; as, " Episcopalians, Baptists, Friends," &c. 

12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months and the days 
of the week; as, "January, February," &c, " Monday, Tuesday," &c. ; 
— also all public days ; as, " a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast," &c. 

13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in mer- 
chants' books, advertisements, &c, should begin with capitals ; as, " Lin- 
en, Cotton, Silk, Rum, Sugar, Tea," &c. ; — also all sums of money speci- 
fied in notes, bonds, &c. ; as, "Ten Dollars and Seventy -five Cents." 

14. Very emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes wholly 
written, in capitals. 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 



COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though 
veiy closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause be- 
tween them. 

Rule 1. The several words which compose a simple sentence, have 
in general so near a relation to each other, that no poiuts are requisite, 
except a full stop at the end of it. But when the simple sentence is a 
long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable ad- 
juncts, a comma should be inserted immediately before the verb. 

Rule 2. When the connection of the different parts of a simple sen- 
tence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually placed 
at the beginning and at the end of such phrase. 

Rule 3. When two or more nouns, two or more adjectives, two or 
more verbs, or participles, or adverbs, occur in the same grammati- 
cal construction, they are separated from each other by a comma ; but 
when they arc closely connected by a conjunction, the comma should 
not be inserted. 

Rule 4. Expressions in a direct address, the nominative case abso- 
lute, and infinitive mode absolute, are separated from the body of the 
sentence by a comma. 

Rule 5. Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, 



PUNCTUATION. 131 

are, for the most part, separated by commas, If the members are short, 
the comma is better omitted. 

Rule 6. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with 
some marked variety, they should be distinguished by a comma. Such 
sentences are called antithetical. 

Rule 7. Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally 
admit a comma before them ; but when two members or phrases are 
closely connected" by a relative, restraining the general notion of the 
antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted. The 
whole of this rule applies, when the relative is understood, as well as 
when expressed. 

Rule 8. A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, 
or following another, must be distinguished by a comma. If, however, 
the members succeeding each other are very closely connected, the 
comma is unnecessary. When a verb in the infinitive mode follows its 
governing verb, with several words between them, those words should 
generally have a comma at the end of them. Several verbs in the infin- 
itive mode, having a common dependence, and succeeding one another, 
are also divided by commas. 

Rule 9. When the verb to he is followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mode, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative, the verb 
to be is separated from the following verb by a comma. 

Rule 10. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be proper- 
ly introduced. 

Rule 11. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, 
and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be 
separated from the context by a comma. 

SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or 
more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other as those which are 
distinguished by a colon. 

COLON. 

[This point is not so much used as formerly.] 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less 
connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, but not so in- 
dependent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be applied in the three following cases:— 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by 
some explanatory remark. 

2. When a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the concluding sentiment,, 
and show its relation to the first. 

3. The colon is generally used when an example, a quotation, or 
speech, is introduced ; as, " The Scriptures give us an amiable represen- 
tation of the Deity, in these words : ' God is love.' " 



132 PUNCTUATION. 



PERIOD. 



When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in 
construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period. 

The period should be used, also, after every abbreviated word ; as> 
"M. S.— P. S.— N. B.— A. D.— O. S.— N. S." &c. 



The Point of Interrogation [ ? ] is used when a question is asked. The 
Exclamation [ ! ] is used when some sudden emotion of surprise, joy, 
grief, &c, is expressed. The Parentheses [()] are used when some 
necessary information or useful remark is introduced into the body of 
the sentence obliquely, and which may be admitted without injuring the 
grammatical construction ; as, 

" Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in com- 
position, which may be explained in this place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus, ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a 
word ; as, His, for it is ; tho\ for though; e'en, for even; judged forjudg- 
ed. Its chief use is to show the possessive case of nouns ; as, " A man's 
property ; a woman's ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus A is placed where some word happens to be left 
out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. 

A Hyphen, marked thus, - is employed in connecting compounded 
words ; as, lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother- 
in-law. 

A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the 
beginning of a phrase or a passage which is quoted or transcribed from 
the speaker or author in his own words ; and two commas in their direct 
position are placed at the conclusion ; as, 

"The proper study of mankind is man," 



wemesgaEe^wsm^^im 




IP 








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