SB 732 .C6 Copy 1 Circular No. 473-A American Railway Perishable Freight Association The Plant Diseases of Importance IN THE Transportation of Fruits and Vegetables By G. H. Coons, Ph. D., and Ray Nelson, B.S. Plant Pathologists FIRST EDITION PRINTED FOR SPECIAL DISTRIBUTION BY American Railway Perishable Freight Association 135 EAST 11th PLACE CHICAGO FEBRUARY. 1918 Wonocrsph Table of Contents Part I. The Relation of Plant Diseases to Transportation The Purpose of this Bulletin 3 The Causes of Plant Disease 3 Rant Diseases Caused by Fungi 3 Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria 4 The Control of Plant Disease 5 The Causes of Decay in Shipments 6 The Problem of the Elimination of Waste in Shipments 7 Part II. The Diseases Commonly Found in Shipments Fruits 9 Citrus Fruits 9 Pineapple 12 Banana 12 Mango 13 Apple 13 Stone Fruits 18 Grape 21 Small Fruits 23 Vegetables 25 Diseases Found in Vegetables in General 27 Bean 28 Cabbage 28 Celery 30 Watermelon, Muskmelon and Cucumber 34 Lettuce 37 Onion 38 Potato 39 Sweet Potato 45 Tomato , 46 Frost Injury 50 Part III. The General Principles of Successful Shipping Cultural Practices in Relation to a Sound Product 52 Soil 52 Soil Fertility 52 Choice of Crops 52 Rotation of Crops.. 53 The Seed : 53 Seedlings 53 Planting 53 Cultivation 53 Marketing 53 The Preparation of Fruits and Vegetables for Safe Transportation 54 What Preparation Includes and Its Importance 54 Harvesting 54 Sorting and Grading 55 Packing and Packages 55 Loading 56 Loading Climax Baskets 58 Western New York "End to End" Loading System 59 Plant Diseases and the Farmer: A Call to Action 60 Index 61 Circular No. 473-A American Railway Perishable Freight Association The Plant Diseases of Importance in the Transportation of Fruits and Vegetables By G": H: Coons, Ph. D., and Ray Nelson, B.S. Plant Pathologists First Edition Prinfed far Special Distribution by American Railway Perishable Freight Association 135 East Uth Place, Chicago February, 1918 Copyright. 1918, by American Railway Perisliabte Freight Associa Fig. 1. The empty baskets show the shrinkage in a car of peaches caused by the Brown Rot. -The purpose of this bulle- tin is to teach how to avoid such wanton waste. ©CI,A492734 28 1918 PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION The Plant Diseases of Importance in the Transportation of Fruits and Vegetables^ PART I. THE RELATION OF PLANT DISEASES TO TRANSPORTATION The Purpose of This Bulletin This bulletin, which is, of course, subject to revision and amplification, has been prepared for a triple purpose. This bulletin is a handbook of plant diseases important in transportation. It seeks first to give access to the facts of those plant diseases which are factors in the com- mercial handling of fruits and vegetables. It aims to be a brief guide for the grower, and to teach by simple statement and by pictures the diseases important in the produce business. The identification of many of these diseases is a matter for the expert plant pathologist, but the trade in general which has either been ignoring the diseases or lumping them all as rot, black rot, or soft rot, must, if it is to be efficient, master the characteristics of the diseases and understand their causes. The control Where jKDSsible the control measure of disease is is indicated for certain plant diseases, important. The grower must learn to control the parasitic fungi and bacteria because they are thieves which steal his profits. The com- mission man, the man in the market, and the rail- road employee must know and preach the control of these diseases because indiiTerence in this regard means loss to the farmer. The success of the farmer is vital to the success of the produce business and to the success of the railroad busi- ness. The literature of The facts of plant pathology plant diseases. which can be turned to direct use and profit in this regard are numerous. This presentation is purposely brief. Instead of attempting to cover all points it seeks merely to make available the books and bulletins on the subject.- It is up to all concerned to study the details of the produce business. Claims. In the second place this bulletin seeks to present facts that will enable a fairer adjustment of claims. If a fruit or vegetable is diseased when it starts it never gets better in transit. If a railroad mishandles a shipment it must expect to pay the bill. Each case presents its own peculiarities. The grower and railroad must have a common basis of understanding and must use the same terminology if cases are to be settled on their merits. The public is In the third place, regardless of concerned. the party to blame, the great body of consumers is ultimately paying for the present wanton loss of food stufifs. The city never has enough good fruits or good vege- tables. The sound fruit must pay for the imper- fect fruit, the healthy, crispy vegetable must pay for the soft-rotted one which yields no return to the farmer and is a bill of expense to the rail- road. The improper handling of perishables is a game in which everybody loses. This bulletin seeks to benefit the general public by focusing attention on the present needless wastes, and to make a start toward their elimination by indicat- ing the role which plant disease plays. The Causes of Plant Disease The causes of plant disease such as concern us in this bulletin are chiefly parasitic fungi and bacteria. Plant Diseases Caused by Fungi: A fungus is A parasitic fungus is a microscopic a mold. plant which makes no food for it- self, but which steals its living from another plant, called its host. The body of the fungus-parasite consists of minute threads which grow either upon or through the tissues of the host and thus secure food. Fungi spread by means of small seed-like bodies called spores, which are commonly produced in enormous num- bers, and which are blown or washed about, thus insuring the dispersal of the parasite. (Prepared for : BIBLIOGRAPHY lilroad man or market man ell for grower) complete list The bibliographies given do not pretend to b of all valuable or available bulletins. They seek rather to serve as a guide to enable anyone interested to get in touch with the important transportational disease problems. The books of the working library should be available at the offices of all who are actively engaged in transportational work. For a small ex- penditure a fairly complete set of handbooks is thus available. .\s complete a set of these bulletins and books, as possible to obtain, has been assembled at the office of the American Railway Perishable Freight Association and these are available for loan to members of the Association. All the literature mentioned in tliis bulletin may he obtained at the larger scientific libraries, such as those connected with universities, the John Crerar Library, etc. The bulletins still available at the experiment sta- tions and Farmers' bulletins are marked with a *. Government bulletins with a price quoted may be obtained from the Super- intendent of Documents at Washington upon receipt of cost price. (Stamps not accepted.) AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION The life story of Many of the fungi causing a typical fungus, plant diseases of importance in shipments have a type of life story similar to that of apple scab. The apple scab funo-us lives over winter on the fallen leaves Fig. 2. Apple Scab (Venturia waeqitalis). Microscopic structure of the scab fungus. Section through a scab spot on an apple showing the fungus (b) spreading under and lifting the cuticle (a) from the partly disorganized cells of the apple (c) ; (e) healthy cells of the apple; B, two spore-bearing stalks giving rise to summer spores (conidia) (f ) ; C, spores germinating: D, portion of section through an affected leaf of apple which has lain on the ground over winter and has given rise to the winter spore stage of the disease, (g) spore case (peritliecium) containing a bundle of spore sacs (asci) ; E, two spore sacs (asci), more highly magnified, each con- taining eight two-celled winter spores three of which are shown at F. All highly magnified. (After Longyear.) of the apple. About blossoming time, the sexual or "winter" stage of the fungus (Fig. 2D) matures its spores ( Fig. 2F ) , which under moist conditions are popped from the sac-like structures in which they are formed (Fig. 2E). Some of these spores, blown about by minute air currents, reach the unfolding apple leaves and lodge there. These spores, if given several hours of proper conditions of temperature and moisture, such as come with warm rains of considerable duration, sprout (Fig. 2C) and bore into the apple leaf. In about a week or two the fungus will have grown so that a noticeable spot is formed at the site of infection. Soon a crop of spores is pro- duced giving the scab spot an olive-green appear- ance. (Fig. 2A.) These spores are the asexual or "summer" .spores. (Fig. 2B.) They mature rapidly and are blown about the orchard. At rainy periods, spores, lodging on leaves or young fruits, infect them and soon produce spots with another crop of spores. Over and over again the process of infection and spore formation takes place, leading, unless control measures are adopted, to severe injury to leaves and a blemish- ing of the fruit. The life stages Other types of life history are show many known, as well as other methods variations. of infection, but in the majority of ftingi there is formed a sexual stage which carries the organism over winter ; and an asexual stage, which repeated over and over in the summer, spreads the fungus through- out the field or orchard. The study and inter- pretation of the life histories of parasitic fungi and the devising of appropriate control measures is a part of the science of Plant Patholog}'. Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria: Bacteria. Bacteria are microscopic plants, each consisting of a single cell, commonly in the form of a small rod or sphere. Bacteria reproduce by simple cutting in two. ■GENERAL WORKS TO OUTLINE THE SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT Of use to executives, lawyers, and those who wish to see trans- portational disease problems in their entirety CoRBETT, L. C, 1912. A successful method of marketing vege- table products. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook, 1912: 353-362. No Sep. $1.00. A plea for standardization of grade and pack as well as co-operation among shippers. Powell. G. H., 1905. The handling of fruit for transportation. Dept. of -Agr. Yearbook, 1905: 349-362- No sep. $1.00. Dis- cusses decays of various fruits resulting from improper treat- ment before transportation; also gives a discussion of various fungous diseases. Stevens, F. L., 1915. Some problems of plant pathology m reference to transportation. Phytopathology 5: 108-112. Re- printed with author's permission as Circular 473 of Amer. Ry. Perishable Freight Association. Stubenrauch. .-X. v., 1909. The handling of deciduous fruits on the Pacific coast. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook, 1909: 365-374- No sep. $1.00. "Sound fruit of good quality, honestly and uniformly graded and packed, is the fundamental factor upon which success of the business depends." Pages 372-374 deals with refrigeration and precooling. Wfed L. D. H., 1916. The marketing of farm products. Mac- Millan Co. ^WORKING LIBRARY OF PLANT P.\TH0L0GY r field worker. Subject matter arranged hich are grouped so that related crops The Fungi Which Cause Plant Disease. 10. Companion volume to preceding, but or technically trained man. Illustrated characters of the genera of fungi, ex- ■ities. Fungous Diseases of Plants. Stevens, F. L. and Hall. J. G., Plants. MacMillan (To., $2.00. petent authorities. Non-technic of Economic useful work by com- ■itten from the view- point of the gro' under host plan come together. Stevens, F. L., 19 MacMillan Co., $4.0 written for student to show microscopic tensive citations of auth DuGCAE, B. M., 1909. Th. and Co., $2.00. .\ textbook of plant diseases. More tech: than Stevens and Hall but containing much information of value to practical grower or shipper. A list of the diseases found upon eadh host plant makes the subject matter readily available. Cook. M. T., 1913. The Diseases of Tropical Plants. Mac- Millan Co., $2.75. Non-technical. Excellent discussion of tropical diseases from the standpoint of the grower. Bancroft, K., 1910. Handbook of the Fungous Diseases of West Indian Plants. Hesler, L. R., and Whetzel. H. H., 1917- Manual of Fruit Diseases. iVIacMillan Co., $2.00. Admirable presentation of facts of fruit (other than tropical) diseases from point of view of fruit grower. Complete discussion with well chosen bibliography. Marshall. C. E., 1916. Microbiology. Blakiston, $3.00. Text- booit of applied bacteriology. Besides covering field of gen- eral bacteriology, this book discusses the general problems of hygiene and sanitation. One section by W. G. Sackett is devoted to bacterial diseases of plants. Smith, E. F., 1905. Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases. Carnegie Publ. 27, $4.00 per volume. Three volumes have appeared. Monograph of bacterial plant diseases. PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION This process takes place in a very short period when conditions for growth are fav(7rable. In 24 hours from a single germ there may arise millions of germs. Some of the kinds of bacteria are able to attack living plants and take from them food materials. In such a group the para- sitic bacteria fall. They produce diseases of plants comparable to tuberculosis or typhoid in the higher animals, but of course, it should be understood that the bacterial parasites of plants are not the cause of animal diseases. The life story The life story of a bacterial parasite of a parasitic is simple. The bacteria are washed bacterium. or carried to the host plant (by insects, etc.) and enter the host commonly through wounds or at the so-called "breathing pores" of the leaves. As the ultimate result of their rapid growth in a favorable site the\- cause spotting, rotting, or interference with the plant's functioning. They may dissolve the cementing material of the host, thus causing soft rot, kill the tissues outright, cause excessive growth or plug the water channels, etc. The types of disease produced, the points of attack, and the effects under various condi- tions, determine the control nieasures which are effective. A disease is The plant disease caused either by a battle. fungi or bacteria is the struggle be- tween the cells of the host plant and an invader, the parasite. The marks of battle mav be mere blemishes, or they may be so severe that the plant is worthless. The science of Plant Pathology classifies the various forms of disease, determines their cause, and seeks to find practical control measures. The Control 01' Pl.wt Disease The control of a plant disease is ordinarily based upon our knowledge of the life history of the parasite. Each disease is a separate problem and for each. crop a set of control recommenda- tions must be formulated. In general, plant disease control measures (aside from exckision or quarantine measures) fall under three heads, namely : 1. Sanitation and Hygienic Measures. 2. Plant Protection Measures. 3. Use of Resistant or Disease-escaping \'arieties. Sanitary The first group of control measures Measures. recognizes that clean seed in clean ground tends to produce a clean crop. Clean seed may be such as comes from areas or fields free from disease ; or it may be seed that is freed from contamination by some form of seed treatment. Soil may in many cases be freed from infestation by a proper rotation, by destruction of trash from the preceding crop. etc. It may be ground which is freed from its infestation by actual soil treatments — for example, it may be disinfected with formaldehyde, steamed as is commonlv done in greenhouses, or treated with lime, as for cabbage clr.b root. Get rid of the In all of these measures the attempt source of is made to get rid of the source of infection. infection. Trash, infested seed, diseased plants are to be so treated as to remove the points of danger. Certain in- sects are known as carriers of infectious material or they may open the way for infection. As a hygienic measure insect pests must be controlled. The means of control of plant diseases in- cluded in this group, are many and they are available to everv grower at slight expense. They merely rec|uire vigilance and care in the growing of the crop. Spraying. Lender the head of Plant Protec- tion is included the covering of plant parts with a protecting, germicidal coat which prevents the entrance of tlie parasite into the host. Spraying operations seek to protect the growing plant by repeated applications so that the parasites cannot get in to do damage. .A leaf or fruit once sprayed is probably protected throughout the season, so far as the spray material reaches, but as new leaves unfold or the fruit grows, new tender surfaces are produced which must be covered. The spray material must "get there first," not only in the case of the particular leaf or fruit, but as a seasonal practice. Spray- ing must begin early in the season to prevent the establishment. of centers of infection. The spray Bordeaux mixture (Fig- 3) has mixture. the widest range of applicability. Conditions of various fruits, the parasite to be handled, weather conditions, etc., determine the spray to be used. For example, with certain plants, apples in the northern states, and plums and cherries, lime-sulphur prepara- tions are to be used. For the peach, self-boiled lime-sulphur or some other weak sulphur and lime compound is recommended. In California, sulphur dust is used on grapes, while in the New York and Michigan grape districts Bordeaux is the only spray mixture that is successful. Dusting of apples for scab and codling moth in New York State with mixed sulphur dust and arsenicals has recently come into prominence. Spraying is undoubtedly our best and most efiicient remedy for many fruit and vegetable diseases, but it must be used to supplement sanitary and hygienic measures. The best con- Bv the use of resistant or disease- trol measure, escaping varieties, the easiest and best control of plant diseases will come. Several notable advances have been made which clearly demonstrate that the hope of the AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 1 DIP EQUAL PflRT5 FROM 1 ^sS3=^-=?f"™«att^ ANn2lNT0 3 r BLL/EST0NE^iSrHEN5Tlfi 2 Iba. in iZ^aok. fllvi&oR- coldwhter J^^^^^^" Fine mesh screen and funndl to stram Dordeoux Ustthiaminturcat once nibpro^cr* Sproyer Fig. 3. Making Bordeaux mixture for small acreages. Good Bordeaux is easy to make if these directions are followed. Note. — Where much Bordeaux is needed, use method of making a strong stock solution by dissolving 25 pounds of Bluestone in 25 gallons of water. Make a milk of lime using 25 pounds of stone lime to 25 gallons of water. These stocks will keep. Then one gallon of stock carries one pound of future in the elimination of losses will come from this type of endeavor. The "yellows"-resistant cabbage selected in Wisconsin, the resistant watermelons bred by Orton, the "rust"-resistant cantaloupes developed by Blinn and the disease- escaping beans advocated by the Michigan Station point the way for effort by pathologists and plant breeders. The control of plant diseases and insect pests is the great problem in American agriculture. We must not expect to increase production by phenomenal increases in yields from new varieties or new cultural practices. The great gains are rather to come from a greater conservation of the crop we already produce. The Causes of Decay in Shipments The packing Fruits and vegetables decay in ship- of infected ment due to the activity of fungi produce. and bacteria. Some of these fungi and bacteria are the parasites which are capable of causing disease in the field. In many cases, partially decayed fruit or vegetables are packed. These are cases of incipient dis- ease. Some fungi which appear only as a cause of blemishes in the field, are sometimes found under the conditions of shipment to increase enormously or to open the way for severe rotting. In many cases the decay in the caf is merely the outcome of a latent infection which started in the field. Such fruits and vegetables are dis- eased when loaded in the car and they never im- prove. Rotting fruits and vegetables are notorious in bringing about conditions which promote infection of neighboring plants and in furnishing the inoculating material as well. Bluestone (or one pound of lime). To make lot spray, dilute eight gallons of stock Bluestone to and eight gallons of stock lime to 50 gallons a; gether. Bordeaux may be tested to determine if is present by means of blue litmus paper. If turns red, add more lime. With good lime, using given, no test is needed. ' gallons of 50 gallons, d pour to- nough lime litmus iiounts the Infection Again, infection nia}' take place in within the car. the car as a result of the conditions there presented, and although this decav arises from the same fungi as cause disease in the field, and although the spores lodged upon the fruit or vegetables in the orcliard or field, such a case must be carefully distinguished from the types of infection previously mentioned. Bruising, The most prolific cause of decay in and rough shipments is the group of weakly handling. parasitic forms which are com- pletely excluded by the unbroken skin of the plant, but which quickly cause rot when once the skin is broken or bruised. To this group of decay-producers the great bulk of losses may be attributed. Rough, careless handling either in picking or packing, or by the carrier is, therefore, responsible for the large percentage of our losses. The breaking There is still another class of decay- down of producing organisms. These are natural resist- fungi and bacteria which are not ance due to parasites at all ; such organisms car conditions, when inoculated into the healthy living fruits or vegetables do not produce disease. Yet such organisms in many shipments bring about, more rapidly than is nor- mal, what is called "inherent decay." All are familiar with the fact that apples will keep well in the cellar until late winter. The fruit becomes more and more mellow. Then comes a period when the fruit rapidly decays — molds attack through the sound skin, and around the stem end. It would seem that a certain maturity was reached and the cells began to lose their tone, perhaps to die. The native resistance dis- PLAXT DISEASES IMPORTANT IX TR A X S Pd RT ATI OX appears and the fruit decays rapidly. In this ilkistration we have a parallel to what is frequently seen in shipments. Due to conditions in the car, period on the road, or age of the plants when shipped, etc.. the resistance of the liost suddenly breaks down and the car becomes a mass of rotted produce. Such a breakdown starts with the older leaves on the older parts of the product. These decay first and quickly in- volve the remaining parts. It is evident that we have to do here with the physiology of plants under storage conditions. The problem of keep- ing fruit or vegetables so that they will put off the condition of "inherent decay" is more than a mere problem of refrigeration. The presence of some rotting vegetation in the car has its elTect on the carbon dioxide relation and upon the humidity relation and these factors must not be neglected. It must be confessed that in but few instances-' has plant physiology given us the data on which to determine the optimum conditions for storage. The inauguration of studies along this line will open an almost untouched field anil we may expect great advances in our knowledge and in our practices when plant physiology turns attention to this important line of endeavor. The Problem of the Elimination of Waste IN Shipments Find the The elimination of wastes in ship- cause, ments depends fundamentally upon the discovery of the causes of the losses. In the preceding section several group- ings were made of the causal factors. With the discovery of the cause of loss usually comes the fixing of responsibility. Prevent claims The fixing of responsibility should instead of not end the matter. It is often the fighting them, case that the shipper is just as well satisfied to realize on a claim as he is to sell at the market. It is claimed that some firms make a j^ractice of collecting a high-grade price on second-grade fruit, paying the farmer only a pittance. On the other hand, the rail- road cannot be satisfied with being able to fight claims successfully. It has the larger duty of preventing claims if it expects those along the line to prosper. Educate the If the cause of a loss is a plant shipper. disease which begins in the field and which can be prevented by proper control measures by the farmers and fruit growers, this fact must first be established. Then no elTort must be spared to enlist the services of all concerned in the doing away with this need- less condition. The colleges and experiment stations have for years taught the proper methods for controlling- fruit and vegetable diseases. They speak to large groups, and those whom the college exten- sion forces reach soon learn to avoid trouble. On the other hand these educational forces do not ordinarily have the intimate relation with the man having trouble that the market man or the carrier has. The railroad and commission n-ian can reap great returns if they will assist in bring- ing the teachings of the college to their customers. Care in Aluch of the loss comes from care- handling is less handling in picking or packing, first essential. Without exception it may be said that the first essential for shipment is freedom from wound or bruise. Fruit must be picked without bruise, cut or injury, carefully handled in the various grading operations, and carefully packed by experienced and careful packers. Mold fungi are always present on fruit and the least bruise or woiuid may open the avenue for them. Eliminate If the cause of loss depends on con- losses due to ditions in the car, be it faulty pack- faulty stow- ing, stowing, bracing, lack of ven- ing, etc. tilation channels, overloading, these must be remedied. The railroad cai-inot be satisfied with a mere notation on the billing which will protect it. Better business demands that losses be prevented. The railroad must educate its shippers. Part III deals with the general principles underlying this phase of the problem. Train the' If the cause of loss is due to faulty inspectors. icing, faulty car construction, etc., these should be readily avoided. The inspection service on most railroads needs an overhauling or checking. In self protection all railroads should have some definite system, such as has been developed on 3THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS IN STORAGE V, Vf. D., Gore, H. C, and Howard. B. .L.^igos. Studies on apples; storage, respiration and growth. Bur. of Chem. Bui. 94: i-ioo; 20 cents. CoRBETT, L. C, 1916. Color as an indicator of the picking maturity of fruits and vegetables. Bur. Plant Ind. Sep. 686: 6 pp. E)ept. Agr. Yearbook 99-106. Fui-ToN, S. H.. 190;. The cold storage of small fruits. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. loS: 1-28; 15 cents. Gore, H. C, 1911. Studies of fruit respiration. Bur. Chem. Bui. 142: 1-40: 5 cents. This pamphlet contains three separate studies: (a) The effect of temperature on the respiration of fruits; (b) The effect of picking on the rate of evolution of Carbon Dioxide; (c) The rate of accumulation of heat on the respiration of fruit under adiabatic conditions. Greene, Lawrence, 1913- Cold storage for Iowa grown apples. Iowa Sta. Bui. 144: 357-.178. Hill, Geo. R., 1913- Respiration of fruits and growing plaiit tissues in certain gases, with reference to ventilation and fruit storage. N. Y. (Cornell) Sta. Bui. 330: 379-408.* Langworthv, C. F., and Milker, R. D. Some results obtained in studying ripening bananas with the respiration calorimeter. Yearbook 1912: 293-308. Sep. 5 cents. A study of the change which take place in ripening and after ripening in order to determine principles underlying the successful handling of fruits. Morse, Fred. W., 1908. The respiration of apples and its rela- tion to their keeping. N. H. Sta. Bui. 135: 87-92. Powell, G. H.. and Fulton. S. H., 1905. The apple in cold storage. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 48: 1-64. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION some lines, for proving that icing service has been performed according to instructions. This system should make possible accurate determina- tion as to the condition of the car in respect to position of ventilating devices and contents of bunkers at the time of arrival at all icing stations and at destination as well. It should also afford complete record of the quantity of ice added at all icing stations, as well as the time at which this service was performed. Prof. Stevens of the University of Illinois, made an admirable start when he established a short course to teach the facts of plant diseases in relation to transportation. Men so trained become doubly valuable in the handling of ship- ments. Their reports become intelligible docu- ments available for claim decisions and their recommendations can become the basis for a rational program of improvement. The Bureau The method of shipment, the de- of Markets. mands as to icing, ventilation, con- tainers, etc., present a very im- portant problem. This matter has been solved very satisfactorily for citrus and for many other fruits. The Bureau of Markets is very actively engaged in exactly this line of work. It is not too much to expect that the efforts of the scien- tists of the Bureau will codify and improve present practices and give us a working body of recommendations. The new Food .\s a food conservation emergency Products In- measure, Congress on August lo, spection Law. iQi", passed most important legis- lation, bearing directly on the con- ditions dealt with in this bulletin. It established under the Bureau of Markets an inspection service for shippers in order that the true condi- tion as to the soundness of a shipment may be investigated and certified to by an official agency.* It is extremely likely that this service as yet limited to shipper's demands will be extended to include requests from consignees and carriers. As it stands, while not planned to determine responsibility for damage, it gives a working basis for accurate loss determination and for the eradication of serious malpractices arising in the commerce of perishables. A Food Products In- spector of the Bureau of Markets will be located in the principal markets and he should be appealed to in cases of controversy as to condi- tion, since the law provides that the findings of the Bureau are to be accepted as prima facie evi- dence. Pack a worthy The problem of elimination of loss product. is an enormous one and touches the shipper, the market man, and the carrier. Each must work for the greatest good, if the growing needs of the public are to be met. But there is no method of handling, icing or marketing which will overcome the effects of a lack of integrity of the producer or shipper. This is fundamental. Goods of high quality, free from disease, properly packed mean safety : the other sort — hazardous business. "Public No. 40, 65th Congress. "An Act to provide further for the national security and defense by stimulating agriculture and facilitating the distribution of agricultural products, for enabling the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate and certify to shippers the condition as to soundness of fruits, vegetables, and other food products, when received at such important cen- tral markets as the Secretary of .\griculture may from time to time designate and under such rules and regulations as he may prescribe: Provided, That certificates issued by the authorized agents of the department shall be received in all courts as prima facie evidence of the truth of the statements therein contained." PLANT DISEASES niPORTAXT IN TRANSPORTATION PART II. THE DISEASES COMMONLY FOUND IN SHIPMENTS Fruits Plant diseases play an important role in the handling' of fruits. Some fruits show hut little loss in shipment, while others are extremely perish- able. The fruits that are common on the markets have received considerable investigation and a large literature list dealing with important plant diseases is available. ]\Iany states have issued handbooks of plant diseases.* For many of the tropical fruits, for fruits that are found only in special markets, but little investigation has been made. These are not included in this presenta- tion. Diseases of such fruits should be referred to the pathologists of the states of origin. (For list see page 64.) For the most part, only the more important diseases to be met with in shipments are here con- sidered. In the bibliography, however, are in- cluded titles of bulletins dealing with diseases of importance in causing losses in the field, but which do not produce rots or decays of the trans- ported product. In certain cases bulletins con- cerned with the horticultural and entomological phases are also included. Citrus Fruits^ Introduction : At one time the transportation of citrus fruits was an uncertain proposition full of loss for both shipper and railroad. The handling of citrus fruit shipments today, as contrasted with the period before 1908, shows what may be accomplished by properly directed effort. Largely from the investigations of Powell and his asso- ciates the principles underlying successful fruit shipments were determined. These were simple. Disease- free fruit, if picked, handled and boxed so as to avoid bruising, scratching or puncturing, is reasonably sure of safe transit unless so packed in the car as to permit heating or "sweating," or otherwise mishandled. Blue ^lold. (PciiicilHiiiii si'.) This is the common cause of loss in shipments. Blue mold causes a rot, quickly involving the whole fruit. Lemons harden and dry up, but oranges become watery and soft. It may be recognized readily by the filmy, white growth, (which soon becomes blue-green), of the causal fungus which quickly springs up covering the rotted area. (Fig. 4.) This fungus enters through wounds or bruises on fruits, and is to be controlled by care in handling. In former years the loss from this organism made orange ship- ments unprofitable. Millions of dollars were lost each year because of unchecked rotting. Now oranges are picked and packed under careful in- spection and losses from blue mold are reduced to a minimum. Brown Rot.'' ( Pythiacystis citrophthora) This disease is probably the greatest cause of Idss in lemon shipments, now that careful handling avoids Blue Mold. In this rot the fruit shows first a greasy, scalded spot which becomes brown. The fungus scdou appears at the rotted spot as a white, filmy or cobwebby growth. ESTATE HANDBOOKS LoN'GYEAR. B. C, 1904. Fungous diseases of fruits in Michigan. Mich. Sta. Special Bui. jj: 1-68. No longer available for distribution — may be seen in larger libraries, etc. Copiously illustratea with photographs and drawings by the author. Selby, a. D., igio. A brief handbook of the diseases of culti- vated plants in Ohio. Ohio Sta. Bui. 214: 307-456. This pamphlet contains discussions and illustrations of various diseases affecting fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Smith, R. E., and Smith, E. H., 1911. California plant diseases. Cal. Sta. Bui. 218: 1039-1193. This pamphlet contains dis- cussions and illustrations of various diseases affecting fruits and vegetables, of especial value for citrus fruit diseases. Bentley, G. M., 1917. Suggestions fo insects and plant diseases. Tenn. Spraying directions for various Dep.^rtments of Entomology and control of insect pests and pla 283: 463-500. (Revised .Tune. RoBBiNS, W. W.. and Reinkinc, O. of Colo Stakma E. C. :rop plants. Col. Sta. Bui , and ToL.v\s, A. G. Fruit the control of injurious enn. Sta. Bui. 117: 111-123. insect and fungous pests. Plant P.\thology, 1915. The It diseases. Cornell Sta. Bui. 9I5-) ungous diseases 12: 1-54. nd vegetable diseases 1-67. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION (Fig. 5.) Blue mold quickly iuvolves the eutire fruit. Brown Rot of citrus fruits is not related to the Brown Rot of stone fruits. The disease Idetl appea spreads by contact and one affected fruit in a box mav communicate the disease throughout the whole container. A box of affected fruit can be ige. This may be hardly notice- ( Photo by J. IJ. Coit.) detected by its strong rancid odor. The control of Brown Rot consists of orchard treatments, such as spraying, heavy mulching and cover cropping, ancl the use of disinfectants in the washer in the packing house. Rarely found ex- cept on shipments from California. Black Rot. (Altcrnaria citri) This is a disease limited to the navel orange. The fruit as seen at market is apparently sound, but on being cut shows blackened flesh. (Fig. 6.) The causal organism enters the fruit at some im- perfection at the navel end. Aiifected fruit may be recognized in the orchard by its premature ripening, deep color, and large size. Control measures consist of sanitary measures which aim to destroy sources of infection as well as by the use of the better varieties for budding. Fig. 7. Cottony Rot of lemon, black resting bodies of the fu Note white fungous growth an gus. (Photo by R. E. Smith.) Cottony Rot of Lemons. (Sdcrotiiiia libcrtiana) This disease is recognized easil}' frnni the large mass of cottony, fungous growth surrounding the infected fruits. (Fig. 7.) Within this mass there rapidly develop several or many firm bodies from "CITRUS FRUITS Diseases of citrus fruits covered by a voluminous Department of Agricultur Lud trees, as well as msect pests, are literature chiefly published by the and by the Experiment Stations of ■ida, California and othe bulletins here listed cover only th( Culture: RoLKS. P. H., 1913. Propagation of citrus trees in the Gul States. Farmers' Bui. 539; 1-16.* Coit. J. E. Citrus Fruits. MacMillan Co., $2.00. Transportational Diseases and Transportation Problems: Powell, G. H., and others, 1908. The decay of oranges whil in transit from CaUfornia. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 123: 1-7: 20 cents. Records extensive experiments whiL-h laid tli foundation for the successful handling of California frui Tenny. L. S., and others. The decay of Florida orange while in transit and on the market. Bur. Plant Ind. Cii Ramsey, H. J., 19 the Gulf States, causes and preve H; ng and shipping citrus fruits in Bui. 696: 1-28. Deals with the of decays in transit; refrigeration. Stubeneauch, a. v., and others, 1914. The factors govern- ing the successful shipping of oranges from Florida. Dept. .\gr. Bui. 63: I 50; 15 cents. "The condition of the fruit after arrival in market depends largely upon the character of the work done in grove and packing houses .,, it is possible to so conduct operations of picking, packing and shipping as to inflict a minimum^ of mechanical in- juries from which decay may develop." "Precooling may not safely be depended upon to ofi^set decay following mechanical injuries due to improper methods of handling fruit when preparing it for shipment, but it is a valuable nd legitimate nditiii the ,ifi.- market hipper has 3. F., 1911 27-47- Californi: diseases. Cal. St: plant The Brown Rot of the PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION the size of a buckshot up to that of an orange seed. These bodies are at first white but soon become black externally. From one diseased fruit the rot spreads rapidly to the adjoining ones. This is largely a disease of the curing house but may spread from fruit to fruit in shipment if refrigeration is faulty. Anthracnose. (CoUctotricliiiin glocosporioidcs) Anthracnose occurs as a rot of grape fruits and less often of oranges from Florida and Cuba. It shows as hard, brownish spots, somewhat de- pressed, varying from less than one-fourth inch up to more than an inch in diameter. (Fig. 8.) These spots finalh Ix'cmm' L;ia\. and at length Fig. 8. Antlir.iiii.j.,i .il louuii. ll'li.jl.j liy R. E. Smith.) black and the tissues underneath the rind begin to decay, the progress being most rapid along the partitions. The taste of the flesh beneath the diseased areas becomes bitter while the rest of the fruit may remain unchanged. Infection starts on the tree but is sometimes not very noticeable when the fruit is packed, the diseased areas developing their dark masses of spores in shipment if the car is too warm or poorly ventilated. Stem End Rots.' (Phomopsls citri and Diplodia natalcnsis) These rots occur principally on grape fruits and oranges, shipped from Florida. They are caused by two or three different kinds of parasitic fungi. The characteristic symptoms are a soft rotting which begins at the stem end of the fruit and may progress rapidly, soon destroying it entirely. The infection occurs while the fruit is still attached to the tree, and begins to appear as a rot after a few days if the temperature is not kept low. Under proper cold storage the decay will not show up for several weeks. Blemishes Bv the term blemishes is understood a type of injurv that affects the rind onlv, and dues not produce a decay. The damage is chiefly from the unattractive appearance given to the fruit, although in some cases the quality is lowered somewhat. The commoner blemishes may be classified as follows : Black, flaky patches, especially at the stem end of the fruit, removable bv rubbing with a damp cloth.— Sooty Mold. Black or brown streaks running from the upper (stem) end of the fruit, sometimes reaching the lower end : not removable by rubbing. — Tear Stain. Brown or black streaks which are narrow and usually in curves or irregular rings, the adjacent portions of the rind often covered with scattered minute brown dots, the affected dots or streaks being slightly raised and giving a rough feeling to the fruit. — Melanose. Rusty to dark-brown or gray patches covering only one side of the fruit or the whole fruit, the oil glands destroyed in the affected areas, quality of the fruit often not changed. — Russeting. Gray to tan-colored, corky projections from the surface, in the form of warts or larger ele- vated areas, the surface between these areas being normal in appearance. — Scab. Sooty Mold is a fungus which feeds, not upon the fruit but upon the sugary excretions of scale insects and white fly. It does not lead to decay. It may be prevented by controlling the insects. Tear Stain is mostly caused by the same fungus that causes Anthracnose, but represents an in- fection when the fruit is approaching maturity and is confined to the outer layers of the rind. On the leaves dry patches are produced and the dying back of younger twigs — withertip — is common. The control consists of pruning out diseased twigs and in severe cases spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Melanose is caused by the same fungus that causes one form of Stem End Rot. but represents a superficial type of infection. The infection occurs before the fruit is picked. It is also found as a disease of leaves and twigs. Spraxing is recommended. Russeting is caused by the attacks of various species of mites, thrips. etc.. while the fruit is still immature. Scab is caused by a parasitic fungus, the in- fection occurring while the fruit is quite imma- ture. Leaves and twigs are usually aft'ected as well. Control is accomplished by copper sprays.* 'Stem End Rot: Fawcett, H. S., 191 1. Stem End Rot of citrus fruits.* Fla. Sta. Bui. 107: 1-23. Discusses a cause of decay in transit. Contains as an appendix a catalogue of rots, spots and blemishes on citrus fruits in Florida. Floyd, B. F., and Stevens, H. E. Melanose and Stem End Rot. Fla. Sta. Bui. iii: 1-16. Continues work of previous bulletin. States that "Stem End Rot as well as Blue Mold is most likely to develop on defective fruits. It is, there- fore, important to cull out closely all clipper cuts, long stems, and fruit injured in any way and to handle all fruit carefully." AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION I'lXHAPI'LE Pineapple Rot." (Thiclaviopsis parado.vaj This is the most serious disease of pineapples under transportation : often one-fourth of a car- load (Fig. lo) will arrive at destination in a worthless condition. Green as well as ripe fruit is affected. This soft rot is caused by the fungus Thiclaviopsis paradoxa. Beginning at various parts of the fruit, usually the base, as a soft, water-soaked spot, the decay quickly progresses on pineapples under shipment and causes blacken- ing of the flesh to the core. (Fig. 9.) The fungus commonly enters through the freshly cut stem at the base of the pineapple. The fungus can, however, penetrate the unbroken skin if the pineapples are kept moist. This disease is found «N Fig. 9. Pineapple Rot. The rotted fruit shows sunken dis- colored areas from without. in the fields and causes a considerable percentage of loss there. All rotted pineapples should be removed from the fields and destroyed. The pineapples should be cut with rather long stems. Fig. 10. Pile of rotted pineapples about a car. Sucli waste piles are usually to be found. Sanitation about the packing shed is essential. Ilruising must be avoided. The fruit, especially the cut stems, should be dry when packed. It is likely that some treatment of cut stems, stich as advocated for watermelons, would be highly successful. In shipment both in boat and in the car proper temperature and thorough ventilation arc necessary to minimize losses. i.ahiiratory experiments of the Department of Agriculture indicate that some form of disinfec- tion of cargoes with formaldehyde gas would be successful. The development of control measures for this disease presents great possibilities to stabilize the handling of this important tropical fruit. B.-XNANA The Anthraciiose of Banana. (CoUctolrichtim iinisaniin ) The blackening of the skins of ripe bananas in small circular spots or in definite areas is familiar to every one. (Fig. 11.) Instead of this being a mere normal ripening process, this blackening of the skin and the softening of the flesh is really a rot, caused by a fungus, Collctotrichuiii imtsaniiii, which attacks mature or nearly mature fruits. The fungus seemingly has no bad effects upon the tree or the green fruit in the field. Due to the importance of Citrus Canker in quarantine legisla- tion some bulletins upon this subject are listed. Stevens, II. E., 191 5. Citrus Canker.* Fla. Sta. Bui. 128: Hasse, C, 1915. Pxcicdoinonas citn Canker. Journ. .-\gr. Res. 4: 97-100 .\., 1916. Citrus Canker.' WoLK, F. 91-100 in Jouri Agr. Res.'6: 69-1 the cause of Citrus 25 cents. Ala. Sta. Bui. 190: article which appeared "Pineapple: Patterson, Flora W., ; 171: '■i-ii- HiGGiNS, J. E., 1912. Press Bui. 36: ,u PIi LarsEN, L. D. Hawa Bui. 10. '"Maneo : Jl., d Charles V. lie Pineapple i m Sugar Pla Plant Ind. Bui. ,'aii. Hawaii Sta. Assn. Exp. Sta. Dept. Agr, Eul. The Anthracnose of PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION Xevertheless the fungus lives everywhere in the epidermis. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is plantations and probably all fruit that is shipped recommended to protect the young fruit. carries the latent infection. The handling of ripe bananas, therefore, requires facilities for quick- disposal of the fruit. Bananas are transported while still green, and while care must be taken in freezing weather, the main objects in transportation depend upon keep- ing moderate, even temperatures in the car in order that ripening may be retarded and come on evenly for the whole bunch. Mango Anthracnose.^" ( Collet otrichinii glocsporioidcs) The Anthracnose disease of the mango bears to this increasingly important fruit the same rela- tion as the bitter rot to the apple. The fungus produces a blackening of the skin, which sinks as the flesh becomes dry rotted. ( Fig. 1 2. ) Under moist conditions the fungus fruits, pro- ducing masses of pink spores from rifts in the Anthracnose of mai n. and the rifting the fungus o. Note the blacke small areas where ^^Apple Diseases" Soft. RO'I'S OF THE FRUIT in-colurcd rot, starting oft speck at a worm hole or wound, soon mvolving the entire fruit which becomes dotted with white or blue fungous masses. Blue iMoId. Large, I'otted spots, fruit gradually drying to a mummy. Sunken, /iVjh, brown or black rot; bitter taste; usually seen in shipments as a circular spot % to J^-inch in diameter, gradually involving the whole fruit which wizens to wrinkled mummy. Fungus fruiting in concentric rings of pink spore masses. Chiefly of Southern distribution. Bitter Rot. Not sunken, soft, brown rot at start; taste not bitter; spot becoming mottled or zoned with black; usually starting at a worm hole ; gradually involving whole apple which dries to a smooth mummy dotted with the pycnidia** of the fungus. Chiefly of Northern distribution. Black Rot. Small shallow rot following scab. Rot firm, dry or spongy; spot white or pink with fungous growth. Pink Rot. *The diseases of pears are very similar apples. "**■ Some fungi produce their asexual or minute spherical or egg-shaped cases. Thest They appear on the fruit as small pimple pycnidia usually have small mouths from \ pushed out in teitthils or giiiiiDiy masses. the spores in are -called pycnidia. i or pustules. The ■hich the spores are SKIN BLEMISHES origin (that is, showing velvety fung Of fungou some type of fungus-fructification): Circular spots J^s to ^^-inch (or larger) in diameter, olive- green to black, or with corky centers, epidermis rifted. ^ Apples may be cracked or distorted. Scab. Sooty, blackish mold formed by a superficial fungous growth. May be scraped off leaving the epide Groups of dots appropriately named. Coal-black, wavy-bordered blotches, eithi dotted with black pycnidia. Of Southe Skin speckled with small flesh not involved deeply, Fruit Spot. (C( )n-parasitic (Fungi or bacteria Fruit not pitted. Skin corky I'ular specks mtact. Sooty Blotch. Fly Speck, raised or sunken, distribution. Blotch. (1-16 to J^-inch) chen al bu ly confused with Bitter Pit.) t primarily responsible) : russet-like; or cracked due to Bordeaux Injury, hole fruit half nooth, brown, discolo flesh only slightly affected Skin showing smooth, circular, yellow or brown areas, not involved, chiefly on Jonathan. Jonath; Fruit pitted. Sunken areas on surface, becoming bi black, flesh beneath ( 14 -inch) brown and dead. showing bitter tasting flecks or pits deep in the flesl Bitter Pit. (Baldwin Frui ivolved. Scald. Flesh n Spot. ^'Often Scab.^- ( J'oitiiria iiiacqualis) This is probably the most common ai)plt dis- ease to be found in shipments of other than the fancy grades. The life history of apple scab has been given on another page. The cuts show the characteristic blemishes — circular spots % to 3^- inch in diameter — which ma\' be larger due to running together of spots. (Fig. 13.) The spot AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION attendant serious secondary rots must be looked upon as unnecessary in properly handled orchards. Pink Rot.''' (Ccphalothccium roscitm) Chief of the secondary rots, which follow scab is that caused by the Pink Mold (Ccphalothccium roscitin). This fungus makes a soft area about each scab spot and renders an otherwise salable product worthless. The rot caused is a shallow brown rot in which the flesh dries to a spongy consistency. The scab spot is overrun with the white growth of the fungus (Fig. 15), which soon becomes pink when spores are produced. Fig. 13. Apple Scab. is velvety, olive-green or black due to the fungous growth. The epidermis is broken away and its remnants are seen at the edge of the spot. Scabby apples or pears are frequently distorted and cracked. (Fig. 14.) The disease spreads slowly in storage or shipment, arising either from latent infection or from spores which germinate and in- fect under moist conditions. Such infections show up as small, black, pin-point spots. From another point of view than the blemish apple scab is serious. The rifted epidermis exposes the apple to various secondary rots. Apple and pear scab can readily be controlled by summer spraying. Pear Scab is controlled fairly well the first year and more readily in each succeeding year. In regions where Bitter Rot is not a factor, timely applications of lime- sulphur, either commercial or home made, is effective in giving 95 to 97 per cent of fruit free from serious scab infestation. Apple scab and its Pear Scab on leaves (Photo by B. O. Longyear.) Ccphalothccium roscum is widely distributed in nature and commonly infection of apples takes place in the orchard. Greenings are especially susceptible. Pink mold injury may be expected i^APPLE DISEASES Handbooks: QuAiNTANCE, A. L., and Scott, Wm., 1912. The more im- portant insect and fungus enemies of the fruit and foliage of the apple. Farmers' Bui. 49J: 1-48.* "Apple Bitter Rot is often the cause of most refrigerated fruit going down in transit. In the same way, Apple Scab furnishes an entrance point for pink mold and other rot fungi by which the fruit goes down rapidly in transit when not properly cooled or refrigerated." Brooks. Charles, 1909. Sta. Bui. 144: 109-138 Morse, W. J., and Lewi Maine Sta. Bui. 185: Clinton, G. P., 1902. 69: 189-224. Various Smith, R. I., and Stevens, F. L., diseases of apple and pear. apple diseases. . New Hampsl IS, C. E., 1910. Ma 337-392. Apple Rots of Illini fruit rots described In C. Sta New Hampshire Sta. Bui. 157; 1-32. .aine apple diseases. nois. 111. Sta. Bui. tid figured, cts and fungous Jul. re Blight: Whetzel, H. H., and Stewart, V. B., 1909. Fire blight of pears, apples, and quinces, etc. Cornell Sta. Bui. 272: 31-51. Stewart, V. B., 1913. The fire blight disease in nursery stock.* Cornell Sta. Bui. 329; 328-371. Pickett, B. S., 1914. The blight of apple, pears, and quinces.* III. Sta. Bui. 172: 3-8. Insects : Britton, W. E. The San Jose Scale and methods of con- trolling it. Conn. Sta. Bui. 165: 1-24. Quaintance, a. L., 1915. The San Jose and its control. Farmers' Bui. 650: 1-27.* San Jose causes reddish blotches on fruit. Samson, G. H., 1912. Some apple insects of Connecticut. Conn. (Storrs) Sta. Bui. 71. O'Kane, W. C. The Apple Maggot. New Hampshire Sta. Bui. 171: 1-120.* Discusses life history, importance of control of Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. ^-Scab: Wallace, E., 1913. Scab diseases of apples. Cornell Sta. Bui. 335: 545-624. Monograph of this disease with full bibliography. Morris, H. E. A contribution to our knowledge of Apple Scab. Montana Sta. Bui. 96: 69-102.* Deals with western conditions; colored plates, e-xtensive bibliography. "Pink Mold: Eustace, H. J., 1902. A destructive apple rot following Scab. New York (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 227: 367-389. Pink Mold invades the apple tissue where the epidermis is broken by Scab. Greening especially affected. PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION -—"-If" in years when excessive rainfall makes scab attacks severe. The control of Pink Mold hinges upon the control of scab. Bitter Rot. f Gloincrclla nifo-inaciilaiis) Bitter Rot is the serious apple disease of the Southern orchards. It is t_vpically a ripe rot of the fruit although it also causes cankers on the twigs and branches. These furnish the winter quarters for the fungus. Bitter rot is seen in shipments as large, sunken, rotted spots, of brown or black color. The rotted flesh is not soft and watery but firm and corky. It has a charac- teristic bitter taste. The whole fruit is gradually involved and wrinkles to a mummy. On the rotted spot, under moist conditions, the fungus fruits by producing concentric rings of pink spore masses. (Fig. i6.) Fig. 1 6. Bitter Rot dotted with the spore ) The disease is severe in a wet growing sea- son. It appears suddenly upon the fruit at harvesting time and may destroy the entire crop. Under warm, moist conditions thr^e days are sufficient for the production of good sized spots. Infection starting in the orchard may progress in shipment so that the fruit arrives in a worth- less, rotted condition. Bitter rot is prevented by summer sprays of Bordeaux mi.xture. Lime sulphur is not effective. Numerous spraying experiments have established the proper practice for the southern apple regions and fruit 90 per cent free from Bitter Rot is a possibility. Spraying is therefore a necessary orchard insurance. Blue Mold. (PciiiciHitiiii cvpansiiiii ) Blue Mold causes a very soft, tan-colored, watery rot of the apple. The disease starts as a small speck at a wound, scab-spot or worm hole, etc., and soon involves the entire fruit, which becomes dotted with white or greenish-blue fungous masses. ( Fig. 17.) This rot, and others which greatly resemble it in behavior — called collectiveh' — Bin Rots — are caused by organisms against which apples, except at the time of full maturity, are completely protected so long as the skin is intact. The spores of the causal fungi occur everywhere in nature and rot invariably follows in wormy, bruised, or carelessly handled fruit. Apples must be picked with care, never shaken from the trees, and packed so that the skins are left to give the necessary protection. Carelessly handled fruit in which stems break the skins, severe barrel bruises, codling moth holes, invariably give bad results in shipment and storage although refrigeration delays decay. Wounded apples are sure to prove a loss. The orange industry has learned that careful handling is vital to successful shipment. The apple industry must profit by the experience of the successful California and Florida shippers. BURRILI., T. J., 118: 554-608. III. Sta. Bui. SCHRENK, H. VON, ai of apples. Bur. PI: Scott, Wm., 1906. ' Plant Ind. Bui. 93; d Spalding, P., 1903. The Bitti It Ind. Bui. 44: I-S4. 'he control of .^pple Bitter Rot. 10 cents. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION Black Rot.'"' (Physalospoya cydoniac) Black Rot probably stands next to Blue Mold in causing rotting in apple shipments. The rot caused is ordinarily not sunken at the beginning of decay. The apple shows a moderately soft, brown rot which becomes mottled or zoned with black as the disease proceeds. (Fig. i8.) This Fie. 1 8. Black Rot of apple. Note that the rot starts at a worm hole. rot usuall\' starts at a worm hole since the organism is not of so virulent a type as the Bitter Rot fungus. As the rot progresses the fruiting bodies of the fungus (small black pycnidia) are produced and show as small dots or pimples on the skin. Gradually the fruit wizens to a mummv. The fruit may rot upon the tree, or the rot may develop in shipment or storage. The loss from fruit rot is ordinarily not extensive in well cared for orchards. Probably no orchard is free from infestation with the Black Rot organism. As a pest of apple this fungus is chiefly important because of its effect upon the leaves and the cankering of the main limbs and branches. The control of this disease is largely a matter of selective pruning so as to give the healthy limbs a chance, along with the general sanitation and protection that comes from regular spraying. .Sooty Blotch, Fl_\- Speck. (Lcptoth\.) This disease is a prolific cause of loss of fruit in the field, green as well as ripe, and is one of the important causes of loss in transit. trawberri« Steven; F. L., iq M- .\ destructive strawberry dis ease. Stevens, Neil E iqi6. Pathological histology of straw- C Scien ranberrie. ce 39: 949-951 berries affected by specie s of Rhi zopus .. Jo urn. Agi -. Res. r T„ Cranberr y diseases . Bur. Plant Tnd. 6: 361- 366. Bui. -IS; 20 ce nts. Stevbns, Neil E.. , a nd Wi Lcox, R. K., 1917. Rh lizopus rot Shear. c. L., 1905. C: ranberry diseases. Farmers' Bui. 221: of stra wherries ; in transit. , Dept. Agr. Bui. 531: 21 pages. 1-8.* PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION Diseased berries quickly mold. Botrytis rot seems to be of field origin and may be a serious factor in shipments. The Patellina Rot is a firm, spongy rot which shows up on fruit in transit as a sunken tan- colored spot in which the diseased area is sharply differentiated from the sound part. The rotted portion can be removed whole from the healthy surrounding tissue. The fungus fruits on the diseased portion in yellowish, waxy, spore agglomerations. These can be seen with a hand lens as small, rounded, bead-like masses between the seeds. This fruit rot is a field disease of some importance in shipments. The Control of Str.\wberrv Rots The control of strawberry rots is a necessary part of successful transportation. The diseases causing loss are, with the possible exception of "Leak" (Rhizopus), contracted in the field. The rotted berries in the field and the great piles of rotted berries about the packing sheds furnish an unlimited source of infection. The removal of the piles of refuse berries, or the burying of them beneath a thick layer of soil are helpful sanitarv measures. The careful sorting while picking, checked by close inspection in the packing shed is probably the chief essential to safe carriage. This sorting should exclude all fully ripe berries, all showing bruise, or incipient rot. The handling should be careful to avoid bruising. Daily, close picking would seem necessary to keep the berries of even grade and to eliminate over-ripe fruit. The berries should be rushed to the iced car without delay. The practice of holding over pickings from one day to the next is strongly to be condemned, as is the hauling of berries in the hot sun without proper shade or on wagons without springs. Strawberries must suflier no delay in transit. It is needless to sa}- that wet berries will not carry so well as dry fruit, although washing with clean, cold water has recently been advocated as a means of getting rid of field heat. Vegetables- Rotation \'egctables are highly perishable, necessary in This is due to a complexity of growing causes. ( I ) \'egetables are for the vegetables. most part grown intensively on fields where rotation is not prac- ticed. This method of culture is necessary with some vegetables — for example, celery in an estab- lished celery district like Kalamazoo, Mich., can- not be grown in a rotation, because no other crop will yield high enough returns to pay the rent on the land. With certain other vegetables there is no excuse for failure to rotate crops and such a practice may be looked upon as merely a bad habit. The grower reasons that since cabbage did well one year on a certain piece of land, he will put it in again on the same ground. The prolific source of infection to a growing crop is the trash from a preceding crop. Hence, wher- ever conditions permit, rotation of crops is strongly to be urged. The container. (2) In many cases the type of container used is not fitted to the product. It may be said that a container which is tight is to be condemned not only because it does not ]jermit cxaniinatiim at market, but because »Egg Plant: Hahter, E. E. Eruit Rot, Leaf Spot, and Stem Blight of the egg plant caused by Phomojjsis vexans. Joiirn. Agr. Res. 2: 331-338; 25 cents. Describes a field disease of the Wc F. A., .vhich black. the fruit to become ushy, Peppers: Fulton, H. R., Sta. Bui. loi. Peltier. G. L., i life history of ses ot peppers and beans. La. of various diseases and control. iideration of the physiology and parasitic Botrytis on peppers and lettuce. .Ann. Rept. Mo. Bot. Gard. 23: 41-74. disease of cold frame parsley. 379-384.* (Sclerotinia libertianE Parsley : McClintock, J. A, Truck Exp. Sta. Spinach — General : Kinney, L. F., 1896. Spinach. R. I. Sta. Bui. 41: 99 Harter, L. L-, 1910. Spinach troubles at Norfolk, Truck Exp. Sta. 4:61-80. Si>inach Leaf Spots: Reed. H. S., 1910. Heterosporium variable Cke. in it tion to Spinacia oleracea and environmental factors Sta. Rept. 1909-1910: 78-79.* 26 AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION Fig. 39. Lettuce in hampers, loaded to top of Note absence of the lack of ventilation sets up the conditions im- favorable for the vegetable and favorable for the decay organisms. In many sections the hamper type is used. A common fault in handling such a container is that of stowing in the car to the utter exclusion of ventilation channels. (Fig. 39.) Southern vegetables of many sorts are tightly packed in barrels using about one-fifth to one-fourth of the space in the barrel for ice. The lieads of the barrels are coopered in place. This type of pack may be successful providing no delay at all occurs, but the excessive amount of water, the lack of ventilation and the bruising make this style a rather treacherous one. The growers whose products have a long haul have more nearly solved the container question than those close to great markets. It will be noticed that the most successful shipments are those made in flat crates with slat tops. (Fig. 90.) These, if stowed in the car to permit air channels about each box, with proper cross bracing and stripping, give the maximum assurance of safe delivery. (Fig. 94.) Shippers will find it profitable to standardize their shipments and to study the methods of the successful shippers of the far west. Decay in ( 3 ) A'egetables are usually shipped transit. with tops intact. They are washed, packed while wet, and handled more or less carelessly in various ways in the packing process. The type of pack is usually tight and more or less bruising occurs. The wet condition, bruising, tight pack lead quickly to a soft, slimy, decay of the green parts. This decay is for the most part due to bacteria which are normallv not parasitic. They are invaders in tissues that are not in normal condition. The solution of It is seen, therefore, that a number the problem. of factors enter into the problem of determining the causes of losses in vegetable shipments. The elimination of losses involves discussion as to the importance of each factor in the situation. It would seem that the control of diseases in the field and the adoption of better types of containers are matters that would soon give excellent returns. It must be confessed, however, that this problem is yet to be met, since for the most part investigation of truck crop diseases and marketing has not been done. PLANT niSKASKS T!\IPORTANT 1 X TRANS PORT ATIOX Diseases Found in \"ecetables in Gexekae Softening of leafy parts to greenish slimy or gluey mass. Bacterial Soft Rots. (Fluorescent bacteria predominating.) Soft Rot of roots and tubers, material becoming musliy. accompanied bv strong creamv bacterial growth. True Soft Rot. (Bacillus carotovonis.) Softening and leaky condition. Pythium Rot. Certain types of decay occur quite g'enerall}- on vegetables in transit. These may be descrilied as general disease conditions, and must suffice for such crops as asparagus, spinach, parsley, chicory, peppers, carrots, parsnips, etc., which present but few variations from the train of symptoms described here in a general way. Soft rotting As has been indicated, the maturing in general. or dying of the tops due to the con- dition of excessive humidity in the containers, or the car, which results from lack of ventilation, quickly leads to decay. In such cases the older leaves are first involved and they show a soft, greenish, slimy rot. In such rotted tissues the fluorescent bacteria predominate. In vege- tables rich in protein putrefaction takes place. Gradually the whole plant succumbs. This type of rotting is to be distinguished from the true soft rots. True soft The true soft rot of vegetables rots. arises from the attack by one species of bacteria, Bacillus carotovonis, which has a wide range of hosts. This disease is found in the field as a soft rc.n of roots, tubers. or heads, presenting by its attack upon the deeper tissues marked contrast with the previously men- tioned rot, which typically begins on the older leaves. In the true soft rots the flesh of the plant becomes nnishy, losing all firmness. (Fig. 40.) This comes about because the causal organism forms a substance which dissolves all the cement- ing layers between the cells. The plant becomes a structure whose bricks (the cells) are without the mortar to hold them together. The rotted plants when in the field or in the car attract in- sects of various sorts and these are important in the transfer of the germ. The disease is to be looked upon as communicable and must be elim- inated from shipments by rigid sorting. Gray mold of leafy parts. White mold of leafy parts of stems panied by scierotium formation. Dead spots on leaves, rusty spots on Botrytis Rot. md roots, usually accom- Sclerotinia Rot. stems. \'arious Leaf Spots. Two common Two molds occur commonly on molds are vegetables in shipment. One of largely these is the gray mold, Botrytis, responsible. and the other is a white mold, Sclcrothiia libcrtiana. Both of these molds are common in fields. Botrytis is a weak parasite attacking plant parts that are under humid conditions. Sclcroliiiia libcrtiana is a more active parasite and is known tn produce serious loss of lettuce, celery, parsnips, beans, etc., in the field. (Fig. 41.) This particular fungus does not produce spores on the molded parts, the spread of the disease being wholly by contact. A moldy plant will quickly involve the whole bunch and in a few days the disease will overrun the whole container. After the mold has progressed for some time the fungus "produces black bodies, called sclerotia, about the size of a grain of corn. These bodies form a ready means of identification for this mold. Leak. .\ soft, leaky condition of vege- tables often occurs without the presence of the two molds just mentioned. Many of such cases are due to Pythiiiin j/'. Again the plants may be overrun with a black mold, Rhizopiis sp. The latter t\pe of rot can be identi- fied by the fruiting bodies of the fungus, which are threads with black knob-like heads. (Fig. 37.) AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION circular spots — ''Z, iracnose' Blight. . (Rhiz< Dctonia.) whole package, corn or larger. Sclerotinia Rot. rn\% or Snap Beans: Spots scattered on pod. Maroon to black, c sunken at maturity; with yellow to pink (Most common disease in shipments.) Amber colored to light red blotches. Rotted tips where pods rested on soil. Ground Rot. White mold, nesting or commonly involving producing black lumps about size of grain of Bean Antliracnose.'-' (Collctotrichiiin lindcmitthiannm) This disease as seen in the field is to be recog- nized by the characteristic circular, sunken, maroon or black spots produced on the pod. The spots start as small, reddish dots, which quickly enlarge to about J^ or ''4 inch in diameter. They Be.VX DlSE.\SliS Dry Bean severe cases rifting skii s slightly brown. racnose. , which Blight. Fig. 42. Bean .\nthi may run together, making a sunken kidney- shaped depression. The diseased areas enlarge, if conditions are humid, and the causal fungus fruits in the sunken portion, forming small, yellow or pinkish masses of spores. (Fig. 42.) The seeds beneath the spots are affected. In pea beans this infection shows as brownish stains or scars on the seed. Such beans are not market- able, but culls. .The pure food law forbids their transportation for use as human food. This disease has given rise to much litigation since unscrupulous canners have sought to can such beans and disguise their inferiority. The small percentage of slightly affected beans that are per- mitted in the standard market grades of pea beans are not included in the government ruling. The control of bean anthracnose consists largely in various methods of securing seed free from anthracnose infection. For Louisiana and the southern districts where two crops are grown, the utilization of the beans of the second crop for seed purposes is highly recommended by the Louisiana station, since the hot season effectively rids the beans of infection. . For Michigan and the northern bean growing states, short season varieties with seed hand picked to remove all beans with spot or stain are advised. The Michi- gan Agricultural College has had marked success in eliminating anthracnose from seed stock by growing Michigan beans for seed purposes in the West. -C.\BB.\C.K DlSE-XSES Cabbage shows the various types of rot described in general for vegetables. In addition two other diseases are of importance in shipments of cabbage. Found in shipments; Heads soft-rotted, usually involving the heart and often associated with true Black Rot; stumps often rotted. True Soft Rot. Outer leaves, blackened, soft-rotted, slimy; head within sound. Soft Rot due to fluorescent bacteria. (The Black Rot of the trade.) (hue le vhich ives of head showing dead :an be traced tiown mid rib hen stem is cut across. black w Small circular spot leaves only. Found in field causing failure o Plants with blackened stumi badly affected plants. Plants small, yellow, stunted. bowing concentr ;eas with black veins o heart. Veins show True Black Rot. : markings; on outer -Mternaria Leaf Spot. roots, no heads formed on Black Leg. Yellows. (Black Rot.) Black Rot. (Bacterium campcstrc) This disease is of importance in transportation largely because of the tendency of the diseased cabbage to go down with soft rot which attacks the affected heads. ( Figs. 43 and 44. ) In the trouble that is commonly called Black Rot in the markets there is merely the blackening and rotting of the outer leaves due to bacterial and Whetzel, H. H., 255; 284-307. Edgerton, C. W., .'\nthracnose. Cornel] Sta. Bui. e Bean .\nthracnose.* La. Sta. MuNCiE, J. H., 191 Sta. Bui. 68: 1-12 EoGERTON, C. W. I Blight and preser Michigan bean diseases. Mich. 1913. The Bean Bu 139: •32. PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION Fig. 43. Soft Rot of cabbage. Note rotted le Fig. 44. Soft Kot of cabbage. The stumps were rotted so that the tissue was soft and slimy. mold action. (Fig. 45.) The true Black Rot pro- duces in the outer leaves dead areas which show blackened veins. These can be traced down the midrib to the heart. When the stump is cut across, the water tubes ( woody portion ) show up as a black ring or as black patches. This disease " 1 1 ii^ii c I I i iii[ 1 tu 1 b> the improper condilioiia within tin 30 AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASvSOCIATION is caused by bacteria whicli invade the leaves at the edge, work down the veins into the stump and cause great interference with tlie water supply of the head. The disease is controlled by sanitation measures with reference to the soil, coupled with seed dis- infection. Cabbage leaves often show small ( % to i-inch) spots having concentric rings or markings. This is a minor leaf disease, Alternaria Leaf Spot, probably of little im|)ortance either in the field or in a shipment. The cabbage crop in certain sections may fail due to Black Leg (Phoma lingam), a fungous disease introduced on seed into the seed beds. The fungus persists in the soil for several years and thus infested seed beds continue year after year to furnish diseased plants. As high as 90 per cent loss has been found in some fields. ( Fig. 46.) Control measures consist in crop rotation, seed bed rotation or disinfection and seed treat- ment. Cabbage Yellows is a serious disease found in some sections. Affected plants fail to mature heads, dying out before the close of the season. This disease is a "soil sickness" and is controlled by the use of the resistant seed developed at the Wisconsin Station. Celery is commonly regarded as a highly perishable product. As a matter of fact, properly grown and properly packed celery is one of the least perishable of vegetable products. The methods in vogue in marketing celery from districts of short haul are sadly in need of improvement. The types and sizes of containers are as numerous as the whims of shippers. One crate manufacturer at Kalamazoo carries in stock 18 different styles and sizes. Li such a mixed assortment of cases, stowing in the car to give ventilation is impossible, and bracing to avoid shifting, is difficult. In addition, the market quotations cannot be used to advantage by the grower, since they commonly deal with a different package than the one he uses. Celery in general is shipped in three ways to meet as many different demands of the market: Celery ( I ) Washed, in small, tight boxes of one-half dozen or one dozen bunches; (2) Washed, in veiitilated crates; (3) In the rough, in open crates. The first type of container is used for early shipments by express to retail stores, etc., or in straight carloads under fast freight service. This is the container to be recommended for direct shipments from grower to consumer. The celery, being subject to handling and to drying condi- tions, needs the tight container to protect it from dust and grime and to prevent drying out. The second type of container — of which the "Michigan High Ball" has proven extremely popular and is cjuoted in all trade lists — is the container that is of chief value when the crop is moving in quantity. (Fig. 47.) The celery transported in cars or boats with more or less '^Insects: Britton, W. E., and LowRV. O. S., 1916. Insects attacking cabbage and allied crops in Connecticut.* Conn. Sta. Bill. Sherman, F., 191 i. Insect enemies of cabbage.* N. C. Sta. Bui. 153; 1-43. Besides an account of insect enemies this bulletin has a brief article by F. L. Stevens on cabbage ScHOENE, W. J., 1916. The Cabbage Maggot; its biology and control. N. Y. (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 419: 99-160.* Also published in briefer, popular form. Chittenden, F. H., 1916. The common Cabbage Worm. Farmers' I3ul. 766: 1-16.* Contains also a list of publica- tions by Department of i\griculture on insects injurious to truck crops. Cabbage, Cauliflower, etc. — Diseases: HarTEK, L. L.. 1916. Diseases of cabbage and related crops and their control. Farmers' Bui, 488: I-3.;.* Discussion and illustrations of the important diseases of cabbage. Reed, H. S., 191 i. Cabbage Club Root in Virginia. Va. Sta Bui. 191: i-i^. Smith, E. F. Black Rot of cruciferous plants. Bacteria in relation to Plant Diseases. Carnegie Publ. jy (Vol. 2); Manns T. F., 191 i. Two recent important cabbage diseases of Ohio, Ohio Sta. Bui. 228: 262-275.* Cabbage Yellows and Cabbage Black Leg. Jones, L. R., and Gilman, J. C, 1915. The control of Cabbage Yellows through disease resistance. Wis. Res. Bui. 38: 1-70, Details investigations in testing resistant winter- and kraut-types of cabbage. Oilman, J. C, 1916. Cabbage Yellows and the relation of temperature to its occurrence. ,\nnals Mo. Bot. Garden PLANT DISEASES lAIPORTAXT TX TR AN SPORT ATIOX solid stowin: ins; out, but ^ does not need to be kept fmni dry- on the contrary needs the ventilation that comes from the open sides and top. The container is large, handling about four times the quantit_v of the small box. It is clear that this type of container reduces greatly the expense of cases for a crop. As a third important point in the marketing process, the celery within is readily seen — an important feature in making sales. The crates as constructed are light but extremely strong and serviceable. Because of these advantages the "High Ball" crate has become increasingly popular for celery sent to the large markets. Practically all Muskegon, Mich., celery is now shipped in the "High Ball" crate. Other forms of crate are in use, and of these the California (i6-inch) is most common. The third type of shipment — in the rough and in open crates or lugs, is largch' used for ship- ping the crop from districts where celery is grown in large acreages on the one crop basis rather than intensively. Celery is shipped to large ware- houses for storage and is washed and trimmed as it is marketed. Since this method economizes labor and permits rapid shipment at the close of the growing season, it seems to be the favorite method for growers with from five to ten acres in celery. The shipments moving in the cool weather in well ventilated crates have little diffi- culty in transit providing "blight" is not present in the fields. Ck Large, slate-colore on steins, disfigu ipots DiSK.vsES Found in Shipments sunken blotches leave ng but not causing rotting. Early Blight. (Ccrcospora Leaf Blight.) Small, brown, sunken spots on leaves, no pycnidia present, disfiguring but not rotting, resembles Septoria Leaf Spot. Bacterial Leaf Spot. Small, dead spots c (pycnidia). Disfigures leave outer leaves of the plant. Sept. Soft, slimy rot of oitter leaves. Soft Rot due to fluorescent lia Soft, slimy rot of heart 1 mold, involving entire pla dotted with black specks leads iiuickly to rotting of I Leaf Spot. "The Blight." (Cf. page J7.) ■ue Soft Rot. whole Rot. Septoria Leaf Spot or Celery "Blight.""'' (Sc/^toria af^Hj This disease may readily be diagnosed b\ the small, dead spots which are peppered with small black dots — the fruiting bodies of the causal organism. (Fig. 48.) Blighted leaves lead in two or three days to rotting of the stalks when the celery is kept in a humid condition. The outer leaf stalks soften and rot away, leaving the heart as the only salable portimi. Septoria Leaf Spot is a disease which starts in the seed bed either from spores on the seed or from the trash of the preceding crop. It develops slowly under cool conditions, two to three weeks is necessary to mature spores after infection takes place. The spores are spread by splashing rains or by cultivation when the plants are wet. Infection occurs on the heart leaves from spores Septoria Leaf Sjmt ;aflet magnihed foui -"Celery : CooNS, G. H.. of celery Levin. E., 1916. The Septoria Leaf Spot f ^,- "P*.lf.r,r RlJcrlit " M,*<.li r Bui. 77: "Celery Bligl Mich. Sta. Spec. Blighted celery is notorious for its decay Lldicatcs the under transportation conditions. This bulletin i nature of the problem and its solution. Rogers, S. S., igu- The Late Blight of celery Bui. 208: 83-115.* Discusses the Septoria Leaf Spot d: ease and its control under California conditions. Sta. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION that wash from older parts. The long growing period of the fungus leads the grower into a false sense of security. The disease may make a field look badly blighted due to the killing of the older leaves. Then the growth from the heart turns the field green again. These leaves, in turn, blight — the disease being present all the time in hidden form. Such a story is repeated over and over throughout the season. The disease is readily controlled by summer spraying with Bor- deaux mixture. At a cost of $12.00 a grower saved a $1,500 crop of celery in a Michigan spraying experiment. (Fig. 49.) Fig. 49. Sprayed and unsprayed celery. Sprayed crop yielded $1500, unsprayed was worthless. Cost of spraying $12.00. (Mich. Sta. Bui. 77.) This disease must be looked upon as the most important factor in celery growing. Its control is sure if the crop is properly sprayed. Sprayed celery arrives on the market in good condition, blighted celery is notorious for its rotting. Early Blight. (Coxospora apii) This disease produces large (^-inch) slate- colored spots on the leaflets of celery. (Fig. 50.) These spots do not show the black specks seen in the Septoria Leaf Spot. On the stalks, brown, sunken, disfiguring blotches occur, but this dis- ease does not lead to rotting. Early blight is more common on celery from the south than on the Michigan or New York crop, but the disease may be expected to be important in the northern districts, especially with the green varieties in hot, dry seasons. It is controlled by the Bordeaux spray. Bacterial Leaf Spot This disease greatly resembles the spots found in Septoria Leaf Spot. The spots in the bacterial disease do not show the black dots characteristic of the Septoria trouble. Bacterial Leaf Spot does not lead to rotting in the field or transit. It is likely to be mistaken for the blight. (Fig. 51.) Celery with tops disfigured by this disease does not bring so high a price as the healthy plants. New York experiments indicate the value of Bor- deaux mixture in the control of this disease. Fig. 51. Bacterial Leaf Spot of celery. Sclerotinia Rot As has been described for vegetables in general, celery decays through the attack of Sclerotinia PLANT DISEASES nrPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION Fig. Fig. Sclerotinia Rot of Rot" whicli ... Bacterial Soft Rot of libertiana. (Fig. 52. j This fungus attacks a wide range of hosts, but members of the parsley, carrot, celery family are especially subject to attack. The chief loss in storage of these vegetables arises from this parasite. With celery the disease starts as small, shrunken areas at the base of the outer leaf stalks, resembling somewhat the injury by slugs, etc. Under moist conditions the celery decays with a white mold which overruns the specimens. Winter celery in dirt trenches is very subject to tiiis disease, which sometimes makes all the celery in a trench worthless. The disease is favored by excessive moisture in the soil and draining does much to eliminate the losses. Frequent cultivation, because of its value in assisting in ventilation, and in the prevention of crust formation on the soil is to be recommended. Spraying is not of use and dependence must be placed upon sanitation methods consisting of destroying diseased plants, etc. Bacterial Soft Rots Celery is subject to two types of rotting. The one is the general softening of tissues "by the fluorescent bacteria. This type of decay conies on the older leaves and is prevalent on celerv which has been kept for a long time in improper condi- tions. The other type of soft rot is due to a parasite, probably the true soft rot organism, Bacillus carotozvnis. Celery in the field is com- monly attacked and shows rotting of leaves and leaf stalks along with decay of the heart. In cold fall weather, the bacterial leaf spot previously described does damage by causing rotting of the petioles of the leaflets, the Soft Rot connnonly starts with the youngest leaves thus differing from the other types of rots. This rot is spread by insects and the germs persist in the soil as the disease seems to become worse on succeedino- crops. Rotation and other sanitary measures are all that can be recommended. Close sorting of celery in packing is necessary. Lth the fungous spore masses. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION DlSl-.ASIiS (II* \\\\TKRMEI.(IX, MrSKMELON, AND Cl'Cl'.M I',h:k ' Coal-black rot at stem end stages; often covered i melon. Coal-black rot at blossom to i-inch in diameter in on watermelon chiefly. Discolored skin and flesh of improperly cleaned ca Sunken spots, soon pink watermelon, muskmelon. Sunken spots, soon olive nber : skin dotted with pycnidia in late i-ith saprophytic molds; on water- Stem End Rot. (Diplodia.) end usually; skin smooth, spot V2 field; increasing rapidly in transit, Pythium Rot. where melons touch floor or sides r. Chemical injury. (Lime, etc.) with spore masses of fungus. On and cucumber. Anthracnose. green with fungous growth. On Scab, "Spot Rot." Fruit sound but of poor fla Fruit vor, netting, and qualitv. On Alternaria Leaf Blight, rot starting from crate bruises oft-rotted, moldy, ur injurv on stem end. Bacterial Soft Rot, Rhizopus Rot, Botrytis Rot, etc. Fruit showing brown, water-soaked spots, which rapidly en- large making the fruit leaky. Rotted flesh brown; known only on cucumbers from Florida. Cucumber Rot. Antliracno.se. ( Collet otvxchum lagcnarlnm) This disease is known as a serious disease of watermelons, muskmelons, and cucumbers. It shows on the fruit by the production of sunken, depressed spots J^ to i-inch in diameter. (Fig. 54.) These spots may merge, giving the afifected fruit a rugged contour. Under moist condi- tion the anthracnose fungus fCollctotrichuDi lagenarium) fruits by the production of pink spore masses. This disease is an important factor in the culture and transportation of cucurbits. The control of the disease in the field depends upon spraying with Bordeaux mixture, crop rota- tion and the use of disease-free seed. Stem End Rot." (Dif^lotlia s/^.) In this disease which, so far has been shown by investigation is chiefly of importance on water- melon, there is produced a coal-black rot starting at the stem end. The fruit in the later stages is dotted with the pycnidia of the causal organism. Saprophytic molds spring up and complete the destruction of the afifected melons. The disease is caused by a wound parasite (Diplodia) which enters the fruit at wounds or at the broken stem. This disease has caused enormous damage. It is taes»»- Stem End Rot of probable that a large part of the injury to melons attributed to chemical fertilizer left in the cars, improperly cleaned cars, etc., is in reality due to this and to the anthracnose fungus. The accom- '"Cantaloupes, Cucumbers, Watermelons, etc. — General : More, C. T., and Br.\nch, G. \'., 1916. The commerc grading; packing and shipping of cantaloupes. Farme Bui. 707: 1-23.* Blinn, p. IC, 1906. Development of the Rockyford can loupe industry. Col. Sta. Bui. 108: 1-17. ScHLEussNER, O. W., and Kitchix, C. W., 1916. and distribution of western muskmelons in igi; Agr. Bui. 401: 1-35; 15 cents. Lloyd. J. W., 1912. Fertilizer experiments with i 111. Sta. Bui. 155: 25-64.* CoRBETT, L. C, 1906. Cucumbers. Farmers General bulletin indicating cultural practii and greenhouse. PoSTlFF, W,, 1913. Cucumbers as a cash crop. Mich. Sta Marketing Dept. of ■ui. 254; 1-30.- for both field 19: 4 pages.' Outlii Michigan field practice. Spraying: Orton, W. a., 1905. Spraying for cucumber and melon diseases. Farmers' Eul. 231: 1-24.' (See also Bui. 254.) Discusses briefly various cucumber and melon diseases and details successful spraying experiments at Charleston, S. C. Johnson, T. C, 1911. Spraying cucumbers and cantaloupes. Va. Truck Exp. Sta. Bui. 5: 85-100.* Discusses success- ful spraying experiments at Norfolk, Va. JarviSj C. D., 1912. Spraying cucumbers and melons. Conn. Sta. Bui. 72:* 1-32. Gives recommendations for control of melon diseases in Connecticut based on nine years' observa- tions. Spraying was found to injure cucumber bio Soft Rots; GiDDlNcs, N. J., 1910. -A Bacterial Soft Rot of muskmelons caused by Bacillus melonis n. sp. Vt. Sta. Bui. 148; 392- 416. Technical description of a bacterial rot found severe in X'ermont fields. Burger, O. F., 1914. Cucumber Rot. Fla. Sta. Bifl. 121: 97-108.* Discusses a rot of Florida cucumbers found to be the cause of serious loss in transit. Gives full advice of fr to picking and packii "leaky" shipments, uskmelons. Bacterial Wilt: Smith, E. F. Cucumber Wilt. Bacteria diseases. Carnegie Publ. 27 (Vol. 2): and Eneows, E. M. A. ntrol of Bacterial Wilt of 417-434. Wilt germs nber; ) be Mosaic : Gilbert, W. W. ; "Orton, W. A., 1917. Wate rder to prevent in relation to plant !09-299. Transmission and ^ Cucumber Experiments Phytopathology 6 : em End Rot: Meier, F. C shown to be nelon Stem End Rot. Jour .. A black rot of watermelo ed by a fungus (Diplodia). PLANT DISEASES OIPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION Rot of water (artificial panyinc; reconiniendations of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture should be adopted.* Pythium Rot/''- This rot greatly resembles the Stem End Rot in its eiifect upon the watermelon. The fruit turns black, but it does not show the small black- dots characteristic of the other blackening dis- ease. The flesh of pink varieties becomes a yellowish white. While P_\i:hium. the causal organism, can produce a rot irrespective of the point of entry, it is usually found in the fields as a rot of the blossom end. (Fig. 56.) Green as well as ripe melons are attacked. This rot progresses very rapidly and can completely in- volve a melon in a week. Secondary molds and bacteria enter and complete the work. Artificial inoculations into muskmelons and cucumbers have shown that the fungus can produce a leaky con- ditiiin in these fruits. This disease is new to science and its im- portance is not known. The trouble was found in two Michigan fields in 1916. It is undoubtedly of wide distribution and is probably of consider- able importance. Control measures are not known. Doubtless some varieties will be found less susceptible than others. This type of fungus is more prevalent in wet than in dry seasons. Close sorting in loading is necessary since afl:'ected melons will not carry and are a source of danger to other melons. Cucunil:)er Scab,''" "Spot Rot." {Clados[>urinin cncumcvinuin) Cucumbers alone seem subject to this disease. Small spots about ]4, inch in diameter appear on the fruit, usually accompanied by beads of gnm. These spots are soon felted with the olive-green l-lg. 57- CuLinnlicr .Scalj. growth of the causal fungus ( dadosporiiiin cuciimeriiiiim ). (Fig. 57.) Scabby cucumbers decay rapidly, softening over night under hot, humid conditions. The t-erm applied by growers, "Spot Rot," is a very suggestive name. *(i) Cut and burn all weeds around the field banks during the winter. (.2) From the time that the melons set on the vines, all cull fruit should be hauled out of the field weekly and fed to hogs, or deeply buried. Wash the wagons used for hauling culls with a two per cent blue-stone solution. (3) Spraying with Bordeau-x mi.xture for - anthracnose will probably help control stem-end rot. {4) Laborers harvesting melons should never cut or touch a long ditch the stem and appH( (5) Cut melons with long stems and load into cars with the kast pnssil)le delay and with the utmost case in handling, to a\-oid bruismg. Open car ventilators. (6) Most important of all, apply a paste made of common starch with six per cent blue-stone to the freshly cut stems as the melons are being packed in the car. It has been found that disinfecting the stems at other times is less eflfective. as the paste is rubbed off by handling. .\s the packer arranges the melons in tiers, have him place the stem end outward, while a reliable boy cuts off a section of (7) Freight cars that have ci refuse should be washed clean solution of blue-stone. atained decayed nd sprayed with ■-'NgisoN, Ray. A rot of watermelon caused by Pythium. Paper read at meeting of the Bot. Soc. America, 1916. A parasitic fungus, Pythium sp., was found to be the cause of rotting of watermelons in fields of Michigan. The fruit blackens, but the skin remains smooth without evidence of fruiting body formation. Rapid progress of disease in inoculation experiments indicates that the fungus may be of importance in shipments of melons. The rut is usually at the blossom end 01 the melon. •'Cucumber Scab or "Spot Rot": UOOLITTLE, S. P., 1915. Cu Rept. 17: 87-116. nber Scab. Mich. .\cad. Sci. 36 AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION This is a field disease which frequently ruins the pickle crop. Its control is difficult, but doubt- less applications of Bordeaux mixture timed to give protection at rainy periods, will be found effective. Cucumber Rot''" Cucumbers from Florida have for several years been subject to rot in transit. The cucumbers left the field in seemingly healthy condition, but by the time they reached the market they were leaky. The cucumbers show on the outside a brown water-soaked spot. This starts as a minute dot but enlarges in a few days to a sunken spot ^-inch to yi-'mch in diameter. The fruit goes down rapidly when once the rotting reaches the seed cavity. (Fig. 58.) This disease is caused bv a bacterial organism which is capable of causing spots on the leaves and of penetrating unwounded cucumbers. Its effect is much more rapid if the organism enters through a wound. Great care in handling is essential. Affected cucumbers should not be packed. The rotted cucumbers should not be left lying about the pack- ing house. Piles of refuse should be covered with a heavy layer of soil. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is of some value. Alternaria Leaf Blight."* (Altcruaria iiigrcscens) This disease, which so far as known is re- stricted to the muskmelon, is one in which there is no rotting of the fruit. It is a trouble which shows up in fields — chiefly in seasons of plentiful rainfall — as a blighting of the foliage. Affected leaves show small, yellow or brown spots, which enlarge and eventually cause drying and death. The killing of the leaves has a profound effect on the fruit. All the starch and sugar in the melon is made by the leaves under the influence of sunshine. When this fungus cripples the leaves the fruit fails to mature properly and a small set of poorly netted fruit of inferior cjuality results. Many think such a flavorless musk- melon is the result of a cross with a pumpkin ! Aluskmelons in regions where the crop is grown for some time become an uncertain crop. The control of this disease is easy. All three of the principles of plant disease control are in- volved. It is first of all necessary to rotate the crop. Muskmelon growers often refuse to do this and lack of rotation means certain failure. Secondly, the crop must be sprayed regularly with Bordeaux mixture beginning with the plants in the cold frame. And thirdly, the varieties resistant to the disease should be used. In the Rockyford district the Pollock Netted Gem has demonstrated its superiority. It is to be recom- mended for trial in other localities. All growers should seek to make their own selections of desirable, resistant strains. \'arious Rots Melons, if bruised in handling, or if picked so that the stem is torn off, or if wounded by pressure in the crate, become rotted by a variety of fungi and bacteria. The bacterial soft rots are as yet unstudied. Rhizopus, Penicillium, and Botrytis, well known from their attacks on other products, are found here as agents of decay in the fruits with broken skins. (Cf. Figs. 91, 92, 93- ) Chemical Injury Much of the damage to shipments of water- melons has in the past been attributed to the action of chemical substances such as fertilizers and lime in the cars. Undoubtedly these will damage watermelons when in contact wath the surface for any length of time. Where water- melons touch the sides or floors of cars which are covered with the lime, the point of contact on the melon will be found injured by the caustic action of the chemical. This injury often ex- tends through the rind to the flesh. Saprophytic fungi and bacteria invade this injured area and cause rotting. Rhizopus and Blue Mold are most commonly found associated with this type of trouble. Cars that have been used for transport- ing lime or chemicals should not be used for melons without thorough cleaning. rust-resisting cantaloupe. Col. Sta Details of the discovery of the Pollock PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION Lettuce Diseases^-'^ Slimy, stringy rot involving outer leaves, proceeding from dead tips. Bacterial Soft Rots. White Mold, usually coming from infected outer leaves or from stump; black sclerotia usually present. Sclerotinia Rot. Gray mold, usually on older leaves. Botrytis Rot. Leaves with rusty spots or shot-hole perforations; midribs with elongated, rusty depn Soft Rot Shipments of head lettuce eitlicr in hampers or boxes, show decay beginning with the edge of a leaf and following the afifected leaf into the head. (Fig. 59.) An outer circle of leaves may be sound, while an inner is completely rotted. Fig. 59. Lettuce Soft Rot. This rut causes great loss in the handlina of head lettuce. The decay is a soft, slimy rot which makes rapid progress in cars where conditions are not the best. Decays of similar nature have been found in the field, having been reported from Louisiana, New York, and Michigan. Whether these field troubles are due to the same organism and whether they are the same as the rot occurring in shipments are points as yet not determined. This form of rot is a serious problem to lettuce shippers. Lettuce should be handled under refrigeration and greatest care must be taken to provide ventilation. Cars must not be filled too full. The tight stowing of boxes and hampers leads to wide differences in temperature between the bottom and top of the car, and correspond- ingly great losses in the top tiers. The hamper is a more costlv container than the box and lettuce is more subject to rot in it. It does not lend it- self readilv to a method of stowing which pro- vides ventilation channels. In the field, the disease may be associated with the burning of the tips of the leaves, such as comes about from inequalities in the water supplv, sun-scorch, etc. Levin. ^■'' of the Michigan Experiment Station, checked an outbreak of soft rot b\- spraving with weak formaldehyde. [1-400.] Shading with cheesecloth might be of value in preventing the tips of leaves from burn- ing. The disease is to be expected to be more severe in vears of high tenii)erature and scanty rainfall. Sclerotinia Rot ( Cf. Fig. 41) and the Gray Mold (Botrytis) as found on lettuce present the usual signs shown by these parasites on vege- tables in general. These are diseases common on lettuce in greenhouses and should be eliminated bv proper greenhouse practices. The Anthracnose does not lead to rotting or decay but is merely disfiguring. Affected leaves show shot-hole perforations and the stems, rusty depressions. The causal fungus is spread in the greenhouse by watering with the hose and the disease is controlled by sub-irrigation or by the use of an overhead sprinkling system. Bordeaux is also of value as a ct)ntrolling spray. '^JCettuce : Rogers, S. S., 1917. Lettuce growing in California.* Cal. Sta. Circ. 160: 16 pp. Summary of California crop prac- tices; richly illustrated. Short account of diseases. Stevens. F. L.. 1911. A Serious Lettuce Disease. Sta. Bui. 217: 7-21.* Discus.ws the disease Sclerotinia libc7-tiana and its control. Burger. O. F., 1913. Lettuce Drop. V! 27-32. Popular account of the disease tinia lihertiiniii C. aused by by Scle Brown, N. A., 1915. A Bacterial Disease of Lettuce. Journ. Agr. Res. 4: 475-478; 25 cents. Technical description of an organism isolatetl from plants from Louisiana which pro- duces a soft slimy rot on the heads. Levin, E., 1917. Control of Lettuce Rot. Phytopathology 7- 392-393- AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION *^Oxiox Diseases Soft Rots: Soft Rot. white or yellow, slim; odor; rot proceeding from neck : Gray Mold accompanied by soft tion of scales, beginning at sclerotia present. ith strong putrefactive Smutty or sooty black powder formed in long rifts in leaves. a centre scale. Disfiguring, no rot caused. Onion Smut. Bacterial Soft Rot. Smutty, purple-black powder formed in ridges between outer nd water-soaked condi- scales, or m masses in outer portions. neck; Hack, scale-like Sterigmatocystis Mold. Botrytis Neck Rot. Black or olive-green fungous masses on outer scales, forming concentric rings or fan-like blotches; on white onions. Onion Smudge. Rots Onion Soft Rot Little is known of this t_vpe of trouble although it is often the cause of important losses in trans- portation. The large pile of ill-smelling, rotted onions is a common sight in railroad yards. The bacteria commonly invade the onions from .the tops and advance down one of the interior scales, leaving the outer ones intact. (Fig. 60.) The rotted onions are soft and mushy and gradually the entire bulb is involved. While investigation has not been made, it is likely that the germs enter the plants in wounds made in the topping process, hence the disease is to be expected to be most serious in years when the onions are not fully matured at harvest time. Both the Spanish onions and the ordinary commercial onions show this type of rotting. .i^. Kig. 60. Onion Soft Rot. Nt Rot.- (Botrylis allii) This is a soft rot of the onion in which the bulb softens but does not become mushy or slimy as in the bacterial rots. In this rot the decay usually advances from the outer scales inward. On rotted onions the fungus fruits as a gray mold. On the necks or at the bases the resting bodies form black, lumpy, fungous masses, called sclerotia. (Fig. 61.) This disease is common in onion fields. It causes great shrinkage of onions in storage. In cool, well ventilated storage houses, the losses Fig. No. 61. Neck Rot of onion. (Photo by M. T. Munn.) are greatly reduced. In seasons when onions do not mature, loss is greatest. Injury in topping is in man\- cases responsible for the trouble. Blemishes The characters of these diseases are shown by the figures. They are not factors in causing decay. Onions seriously affected with these dis- eases are not of highest quality. Onion smut (Urocystis ccpidac) is more serious as a seedling disease. It is the chief cause of poor stands and yellowed, weakly plants. It is controlled by using ■'■'Onion Culture and Diseases: Halligan, C. p., 1914. Onion culture o Sta. Spec. Bui. 67: 1-18. Sayre, C. B., 1916. Commercial union g Circ, 57: 1-27. Stewart, F. C. .\ bacterial rot of (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 164: 109-212. luick lands. Mic ing. Purdue S WhETzel, H. H. Onion blight. New York (Cornell) Sta. Bui. 218: 140-161. Chittenden, F. H. Insects injurious to the onion crop. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1912: 3' 9-334- Sep. No. 594, 5 cents. ='Onion Neck Rot: Munn, M. T., 1917. Neck Rot disease of (Geneva) Sta, Bui. 437: 363-455- Ne PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION .^N?*N ;i liquid fertilizer attachment on the onion drill and dropping a few drops of weak formaldehyde about the onion seed when planted. For the other diseases no control measures have been sua:e:ested. Fig. 53. Onion Smudge. Bernuida and Texas onions show a consider- able amount of loss from the blemish caused by the growth of the Sterigmatocystis mold. (Fig 62.) This fungus causes a death of the outer scales and a purplish-black sooty deposit in the ridges. It is called "smut" by the trade. Similarly the disfiguring sooty growth of the Onion Smudge fungus ( J 'cnnicutaria circinans) (Fig. 63) is confused with smut by the trade. Smudge is a disease contracted in the field. Its chief damage is done to the white onions. Potato Diseases'"* Rots: Sunken, lead-colored or pinkish pits distributed over tubers. Flesh brown when skin is scraped away. Heart sound at first. Rot progresses into a wet or dry rot depending on conditions. Rotted tubers dotted with grav-white fungous masses. Late Blight Rot. Soft, black rot of the flesh, beginning at stem end and typically forming canals lined with bacterial slime. Black Leg. Sunken, withered, bluish areas on surface of tuber. Rot, typically, dry and powdery at surface, cheesy within. Fungus fruiting bodies pink or salmon color. Various Fusarium Rots. "Powdery Dry Ri.it." Potatoes soft, leaky. , Frost Injury (page 50). Leak. (California shipments.) th slii Potatoes rotting odor. Potatoes soft at end. Flesh Discolorations: Vascular ring at stem Heart of tuber coal bl stringy bubbling rot: putrifactive Bacterial Wet Rot. Jelly End Rot. (Fusarium.) ttd of tuber hr ium Wilt, ck Heart. Heart of tubers cleft. Fibers c potato Fibers of tubers, from vascula Hollow Heart. sh netted or blue-gray; Chilling Injury. system outward, black; flesh netted. Potatoes ; sound, di sease found in field. Net Necrosis. Flesh show ing rusty flecks. Interna! Brown Spot. Flesh shriveled, blac rkened. c if salty taste. Salt Injury. Blemishes— Scabbiness : Scab spots usually large ( ;-< potato). Skin corky in volved due to merging of border, corky texture. certain portions, scab spots. Spots covering whole or entirely in- ; with radiating Common Scab. Scab spots fringe < powdery small; appearing as oval, bulging jf rifted epidermis: brown-black texture. spots, border a within and of Powdery Scab. Scab spots deeply pitted. Deep Scab. own to black lumps, scattered on surface, 1 vill not wash off. Purple-black when wet. Black Scurf. Late Blight and Rot of Tubers.'" I Phytophtluiva i II fi stuns) This disease is the most ini])c)rtant disease of potatoes. Periodically great epidemics of the disease occur. In such years the handling of shipments of potatoes from the northern states is a very uncertain thing. Carloads will start in seemingly good condition and arrive completely rotted. Many large shippers are refusing to bu\' potatoes during blight years. The cause of this decay is a fungous parasite which produces sunken, lead-colored or pinkish pits or spots, scattered on the tuber. (Fig. 64.) The flesh is seen to be brown when the skin is scraped away. (Fig. 65.) The center of the potato is sound at first but becomes brown or black as - the disease progresses. Under moist conditions the tubers become soft and slimy due to secondary action of bacteria. Under dry con- ditions the affected tubers wizen into a hard, dry AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION mass. The funt^us fruits on diseased tubers by producing- o^rayish-white tufts of fun^^ous threads. This disease also produces a blighting^ of the top, whole fields being killed as if by frost. The disease on the tuber results from spores washed from blighted tops. This disease can be controlled by spraying the tops four or five times with Bordeaux mixture. In the northern states when July is wet and cool late blight may be expected and all potatoes should be sprayed. Fig. No. 64. Late Blight of potatoes. (Bacillus atrosepticus) This is a soft, black rot which begins at the stem end of the tuber. Canals are rotted into the flesh. The flesh bordering these canals turns black. The rotted portions become covered with a creaniv, bacterial errowth. Plants from tubers ■^Potato Culture, etc.: Gilbert, A. W., 1915. The Potato. MacMillan, $1.75. Dis- cussion of potato culture in all its phases. The section on potato diseases is contributed by Dr. M. F. Barrus, and is probably best popular account of potato troubles. " " ' " "" "., 1912. The Potato. for growing potatoes. Mich, ief popular account of best ntaining directions for seed E. S., and Guilford, Doubleday, Page & Co., S2.0C Waid, C. W., 1917- Suggestion Extension Bui. 7:6 pp.* 1 Michigan - cultural practices, 1 treatment and spraying. MiLWARD, J. G., 1917. Potato growing Sta. Bui. 280; 26 pages.* Excellent summary of best W consin practices. GiLMORE. J. W., 1917. Potatoes in California. Cal. Sta. Cii 161: 8 pp.* More, C. T.. and Dokland. C. R., 1916. Commercial handlin grading and marketing of potatoes. Farmers' Bui. 753: 1-4 Handbooks of Potato Diseases; Orton, W. a., 1913. Potato tuber diseases. Far: 544: Bui. Bui. Temple, C. E., 1914. Potato Diseases. Tdaho Sta 40-58.* Coons, G. H., 1914. The potato diseases of Michigan. Mich. Spec. Bui. 66: 26 pp. This bulletin gives a popular account of the diseases of the potato: Late Blight, Earlv Blight, Scab. Rhizoctonia, Dry Rot, Wet Rot. and Dry Scab. These are discussed under the topics: signs, losses and control measures. Dangerous diseases as yet not reported for Michigan are described. The discussion of Late Blight, Scab, Rhizotonia, Wet Rot, and Dry Rot will be of interest to potato shippers. Orton, C. R., 1916. Potato diseases. Penn. Sta. Bui. 140: 1-37.* Illustrated handbook of potato diseases containing also a discussion of injuries to the tubers caused by weather, soil, chemicals, insects, and rodents. Cook, M. T., 1915. Potato diseases in New Jersey. N. J. Sta. Bui. 53: 3-23.* Brief popular account with directions for control. Stakman, E. C, and Tolaas, A. G., 1912. Potato diseases. Minn. Extension Bui. 35: 1-16. The object of this paper is to describe the various potato diseases occurring in the state in order that they may be recognized and appropriately treated. Jones, L. R., 1914- Control of potato diseases in Wisconsin. Wis. Sta. Circ. 52: 16 pp. Clean seed, clean soil, clean crop. Hawkins, L. A., 1916. The disease of potatoes known as Leak. Joum. Agr. Res. 6: 627-640; 15 cents. The fungi, Rliicopus nigricans and Pythiiim deBaryanum entering the potato through wounds, cause exces.sive rotting of Cali- fornia potatoes in transit. Pythium is a soil fungus and "infection apparently takes place in the field by some of this infected soil getting into wounds made in digging." Ad- vises more care in harvesting, handling, and sorting. Orton, W. A., 1909. The decay of potatoes due to Rhizopits nigricans. Science 29: 916 (Abstract). Orton. W. A., 1909. Potato diseases in San Joaquin County, California. Bur. Plant Ind. Circ. 23: 1-14; 5 cents. "Leak"' in storage or transit is found due to Rliicopus nigricans. ^^"Late Blight: Jones, L- R., Giddings, N. J., and Lutman, B. F., ipi2. In.- vestigations of the potato fungus, Phytophthora infestans. Vt. Sta. Bui. 168: i-ioo. Also printed as Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 245 : I -100. Monograph of the most important plant disease. Extensive bibliography. Barrus, M. F., 1913. Late Blight and Rot of potatoes. Cor- nell Sta. Circ. 19: 77-83. Popular account of this disease. ■"JFusarium Wilt: Manns, T. F., 191 i. The Fusarium Blight (Wilt) and Dry Rot of the Potato. Ohio Sta. Bui. 229: 299-336.* Dis- cusses disease in field and as a storage rot. Orton, W. A. Powdery Dry Rot of the potato. Bur. Plant lated diseases. Dept. of Agr. Bui. 64; 1-48; 15 cents. Com- plete account of Fusarium Wilt with comparison of other diseases of similar field aspect. Smith, E. F., and Swingle, D. B., 1904. The Dry Rot of potatoes due to Fusarium oxysporum. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 55 : 1-64; 10 cents. First authoritative investigation of Fusarium Wilt. Dry Rots caused by Fusarium: Orton, W. A. Powdery Dry Rot of the potato. Bur. Plant Ind. Circ. no: 13-15; 10 cents. It has caused heavy losses in several western states from Minnesota to Washington — "Leaving their point of origin in apparently good order they arrived at their destination badly decayed, were re- jected by the purchasers and had to be consigned to the dump. The cause of this rapid deterioration was the Powdery Dry Rot." Wilcox, E. M.. Link. G. K, K., and Pool, V. W., 1913. A Dry Rot of the Irish potato tuber. Neb. Sta. Res. Bui. i: 88 pages.* Discusses Powdery Dry Rot of potatoes as a Nebraska disease. Carpenter, C. W., 1916^ Some potato tuber rots caused by Agr. Res. 5: 183-209; 10 cents. species of Fusarium. Journ Reports field observations ; five Fusaria capable of cau Jelly End Rot of Californi: ad F. trichotheciodcs : id laboratory experiments with ing rots of potatoes. Discusses potatoes in which F. radicicola :iated. Pratt, O. A., 1916. A western Field Rot of the Irish potato tuber caused by Fusarium radicicola. Journ. Agr. Res. 6: 297-309; 15 cents. Fusarium radicicola is the cause of a field black rot of potato tubers in southern Idaho. This fungus is also capable of causing a Jelly End Rot — Neither the black rot nor Jelly End Rot makes any progress in storage at or below a temperature of 50° F. Pratt, O. A., 1916. Control of the Powdery Dry Rot of potatoes caused by Fusarium trichothccioides. Journ. Agr. Res. 6: 807-831; 15 cents. PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION which are carrying this germ, rot from the attack of the causal organism upon the growing stems. The attacked parts turn coal-black, whence the name, Black Leg. The disease is sometimes a factor in causing rot of tubers in transit. Fig. 66. Black Leg. .\.,k lU ,K;i,uning mass of bacterial slime. FuS.\RIUM DlSE.VSES oF Pi iT.V'l'DKS^" The accompan\ing pictures illustrate various forms of attack on potatoes by the parasitic fungi which belong to the group called Fusarium. There are many species and they present much in common. The parasites of this group are native in many soils. They have been found in soils that have never borne a potato crop. Many are able to produce rotting of the flesh if the potatoes are hekl under humid, warm conditions. Fusarium Wilt. (Fig. 67.) ( ftisuriiiin oxysporuni) One type of Fusarium attacks the plant and produces a wilting of the tops. This parasite lives in the water tubes of the plant and is seen in the tubers as a brown ring at the cut stem end. Such tubers are unsafe for planting. The cutting off of a J^-inch slice at the butt end is recommended against this disease. Under warm, humid conditions this fungus can produce a jelly- end rot or a dry rot of the tuber. Fusarium Powdery Dry Rot. (Fig. 68.) { Fusarium trichothccioidcs. etc.) Another type of Fusarium is one which does not attack the growing plant but is primarily a Fig. 68 wound parasite, entering bruised or wounded tubers. The rot produced shows up on the tuber as a sunken, withered area — often bluish. The flesh becomes dry and powdery at the surface, cheesy within. (Fig. 69.) The fungous growth is pink or salmon color. Carelessly handled tubers, or those dug when the skin is tender, often rot badlv enroute to market and shrink Fig. 69. Powdery Dry Kot. causej by Fusarium sp. enormouslv unless storage conditions are dry and cool. The great loss in early potatoes shipped from the south arises in this way. Disinfection of tubers with formaldehyde before storage has proved to be an effective protection for seed tubers. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION Black Scurf or Rliizoctonia.*' (Corticiuin z-agiini solani) This disease causes a serious blemish on the tubers. The fungus produces lumps of purple- brown threads which cling to the tuber, resem- bling dirt. (Fig. 70.) These lumps do not wash off. but are deep purple-black when the tuber is wet. The fungus produces rot of growing Fig. 70 )f potato. sprouts under wet conditions and causes cankers on the stems. The "giant" plants which make a rank growth and set 20 to 30 unmarketable potatoes are a result of the attack of this fungus. The disease is controlled b}' seed treatment with corrosive sublimate (one-half hour soaking in a i-iooo solution), but not so completely by formaldehyde. Since the control of Black Scurf is necessary, the use of corrosive sublimate is recommended. Potato Scab.' (Actinomyces chroiiwgoius) Scab is a serious, widespread disease of pota- toes. (Fig. 71.) It causes a large percentage of the culls in the market and when present in ship- ments brings otherwise high-grade potatoes down to inferior grades. This disease causes from 10 to 15 per cent loss of the potato crop due to such depreciation. It is readily controlled bv seed treatment (formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate) and the use of soils made slightly acid by turning under green crops. Lime, fresh stable manure, etc., tend to increase scab. On many kinds of soil their application should not be made imme- diately preceding the potato crop. Common scab should be distinguished from Powdery Scab, which is as yet not widespread in this country.*' Many scab spots become depressed and pitted due to the action of soil mites, insects, etc. These animals often attack sound tubers. All con- spicuously scabby tubers should be discarded, and only smooth, clean stock used for seed purposes. 71. Common Scab. With the establishment of tlie U. grades this sort of potato will no longer be shipped. The Rhi: 194-216.' Richly DuGGAR, B. M., and Stew.\rt, F. C, 1901. The sterile fungus Rhizoctonia as a cause of plant diseases in .\merica. New York (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 186: 130 "' .-. . • injury to many plants. Morse, W. J., and Sh.\povalov, ^l., 1914. Disease of potatoes. Me. Sta. Bui. 230: illustrated. Peltier. G. L., 1916. Parasitic Rhizoctonias in .\merica. 111. Sta. Bui. 189: J83-390. Technical discussion of Rhizoctonia as a parasite on great numbers of plants. E.xtensive Bibliography. Gloyer^ W. O., 1913. The efficiency of formaldehyde in the treatment of seed potatoes for Rhizoctonia. New York (Geneva) Sta. Eul. 370: 417-431. Recommends corrosive sublimate to replace formaldehyde in seed treatment. '^Scab: LuTMAN, B. F., and Cunningham, G. C., 1914. Potato Scab. Vt. Sta. Bui. 184: 1-64. Complete account of potato scab giving evidence for classifying causal organism among higher bacteria, demonstrating occurrence of the germ in nearly all types of soils, .\dvises tuber disinfection since it prevents introduction of strains already parasitic. "The most hopeful method of attack on the organism in the soil is to change the neutrality, or slight alkalinity of the latter to weak acidity." ■Powdery Scab of Potatoes: Morse, W. J., 1914. Powdt Eul. 227: 89-104.* MELHUS. I. E., ROSENBAUM. Spongospora sublcrranea ai potato. Journ. .-Xgr. Res. account of Powdery Scab a: in affected potatoes. ;ry Scab of J., and Sci id Phoma ti nd of the Dr potatoes. Me. Sta. HuuTz, E. S., 1916. iberosa on the Irish ->□ cents. Complete y Rot which follows Silver Scurf: MelhuS, I. E., I9I3- Silver Bur. Plant Ind. Circ. 127: Scurf, a di iS-24; 10 cei Isease of the potato. Its. ScHULTz, E. S., 1916. Silver Scurf of the Irish potato caused by Spondylocladium atrovirens, Journ. Agr. Res. 6: 339- 350; 20 cents. "Under favorable moisture and temperature conditions potatoes may become infected throughout the entire storage season." " the tubers should be stored at lowest temperature permissible." PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION Black Heart." Cars of potatoes moved under conditions when heating is necessary, sometimes show after arrival in market a high percentage of the tubers with black centers. (Fig. ■J2.') The blackened portion shows a radiating, more or less star- shaped outline. It involves the center watery "heart" of the tuber. Affected tubers may become hollow. This disease is caused by overheating of the cars. The same effects have been pro- duced in controlled experiments at the University Fig. Black Heart produced by of Wisconsin by heating potatoes in an oven at ioo° F. The disease sometimes arises in the pit, presumably from heating or poor ventilation. The control in cases of carload shipments is obvious Hollow Heart Hollow Heart or Cleft Heart is a troul;)le common on large tubers in years favorable to crop production. (Fig. 73.) It seems to be associated with sudden surges of growth, pre- sumably caused by rains at the time when the plants are "making" potatoes. Close planting in varieties such as the Russet Rural, which is known to produce excessively large tubers, is to be recommended. Internal Brown Spot. The entire crop from a field or neighborh 1 may show small, rusty flecks in the flesh. This disease is associated with irregularities in the water supply and is commonly a dry weather trouble. Affected tubers do not rot and the tubers from affected seed do not reproduce the disease. In years when good seed stock is avail- able, the use of tubers with flesh discolorations bf anv sort is to be discouraged. I-'ig. 73. Hollow Heart. Net Necrosis and Chilling Injury j-Vnother tvpe of discoloration within the %_sh needs to be sharply diagnosed. This is Net Necrosis, a peculiar condition in which almost every fibre in the tuber blackens. This condition is found in tubers in the field and has generally been considered a type of physiological break- down. Net Necrosis is chiefly important in ship- ments because it might be confused with the dis- coloration of the fibers which arises as a result of chilling injury. Often in cars shipped in mid- winter, or when field freezing has occurred, although no freezing effect is noticeable, many of the tubers show slight softening and shrinking of the flesh along with discoloration of the fibers. (Fig. 74.) brought abuut by chilling. ack Heart: 3ARTHOLEMEW, E. T.. 1913. Black Heart of Potatoes. Phyto- pathology 3; 180-182. Carload shipments developed black- ened hearts. Trouble found to be due to shipments becoming overheated in transit. " black heart may be produced in potatoes that have been stored during the winter by keeping them for a certain period of time in a tempera- ture of ab periments : sion of the: Stewart, F. C. and Mr aeration of potatoes in Bui. 436: 321-362. A technical discussion of the ex- above paper and a further exten- Centralbl. f. Bakt. II, 43: 609-638, AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION Salt Injury It sometimes happens that potatoes next to the floor of cars are found shriveled and the flesh blackened by what appears to be some form of potatoes by salt rot. (Fig. 75.) If a section is cut through the potato the Ijlackening will often be found to ex- tend from '4 to 5^ -inch or more into the flesh. This injury usually occurs only upon one side of the potato and is found in the potatoes upon the car floor and nowhere else. This is due to the actfon of the salt on the floor, although the presence of this salt may not be evident due to the mixing with the dirt from the potatoes. Cars that have carried hides, etc., are almost sure to produce such injury unless they are carefully cleaned before loading. As many as fifteen bushels have been discarded from such cars. The injury to the potato is due to the extraction of water from the cells, followed by blackening and death of the tissue. Potatoes should be loaded only into cars that have been thoroughly cleaned. Control of Potato Dise.vses The diseases of potatoes are numerous and their control is a national necessity and a national problem. For the most part, clean seed of vigorous, high-yielding strains in clean ground, along with a proper spraying practice must be depended upon. The obtaining of vigorous, high-yielding stock can come only from selection in the field to eliminate weak hills. Every grower should have his own seed plot. Seed should be treated as directed and fields should be sprayed. The following is a brief program for handling tubers. For complete discussion of potato diseases and their control, the reader should send for the bulletins of his nearest Experiment Station and get in touch with the various extension forces of the Agricultural Colleges and the Department of Agriculture. 1 . Obtain seed by selection from high-yielding hills. (Select the best one-quarter acre in the field. Pull out all weak, spindling plants. Pull out or stake all "off" varieties. Dig by hand and reject all low -yielding hills.) 2. Soak uncut seed one-half hour in a corrosive sublimate solution made by using four ounces of corrosive sublimate in 30 gallons of water. The solution may be used for four batches, then should be made up fresh. This material is deadly poisonous, and should be used with great care. 3. Cut by hand and reject all wounded, bruised, rotted, scabby, imperfect stock. 4. Cut olif >4 to I -inch slice frooT the butt end. Throw this away. If the flesh of the potato is discolored, reject the whole potato. 5. Plant on ground following clover or other legume. 6. Spray for "bugs" with Paris Green or Lead Arsenate. 7. Spray four or five times at lo-day intervals witli I'ordeaux mixture in order to keep tops green and to insure against Late Pilight. Fig. 76. Rhizopus Rot of PLANT DISEASES IMPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION SwiCKT PoTAT(.) DlSKASK? Rots: Soft, watery, and stringy rot; with sweetisli odor: potato usually enveloped with mold. Attack begins at a wound or broken end. Rhizopus Soft Rot. Dry Rot: White, spongy or punky decay of tuber, beginning as small depressions, tuber not shrinking. Blue Mold Rot. Skin blackened in more or less circular spots, slightly sunken: flesh beneath greenish ; fungus fruiting bodies projecting as bristle-like spines i-i6-inch long; cooked potatoes bitter. Black Rot. Hard Rot: Skin becoming black; flesh black, difficult to break: rot progresses slowly from broken ends. Java Black Rot. Ble black — rusting, so-called; skii Rhizopus Soft Rot. (Rhi.aof'us iii::;ricaiis) This is the common decay affecting sweet potatoes in storage or transit. (Fig. 76.) The decay begins commonly on the ends of the potato and in a few days under conditions of high tem- perature and high humidity the entire potato is destroyed. Sometimes the rot starts at the center of the potato and girdles it with a rotted area. This is called Ring-rot or Collar-rot, The fungus causing this disease is found everywhere in nature. It gains entrance into the tuber at wounds or bruises. The sweet potato in general is a carelessly handled product, packed by ignorant help. It is extremely subject to this decay. "A farmer would never think of handling apples, oranges or any of the fruits in the way that sweet potatoes are handled, and yet a barrel of good sweet potatoes will bring as much on the market and often more, than a barrel of good apples, and sweet potatoes bruise often more readily than apples. It is likely that if sweet potatoes were handled with the same care and intelligence as apples little difficulty would be experienced in keeping them in storage." * Another decay caused by an organism which enters through wounds and bruises is the Blue Mold Rot. The Blue Mold is common every- where. The decay produced by its attack takes a different turn from that produced by Rhizopus. The potato has a spongy or chalky texture. It is commonlv found as small depressions around the wound or at origins of the small rootlets. C )ther Diseases The characteristics of these diseases are indi- cated bv the key. These rots are to be looked upon as slowly progressing diseases which are contracted in seed bed and field and which play an important role in cutting down yields. As storage rots a month or two is usually required, where conditions of high humidity and tempera- ture favor, for the rots to make conspicuous spots, or to injure the potato seriously. At the time of digging (as with sweet potato Black Rot for example) it is likely "that many potatoes are infected, the point of infection being so small as to be invisible to the naked eye." * This in- fection advances in storage, becoming increas- ingly important as the season progresses. The control of sweet potato diseases which cause damage in the field is based largely on sani- tary measures which go to ( i ) secure clean seed potatoes from which to get healthy plants for setting, and (2) general clean-up measures to do away with the wholesale infection which takes place in the hot bed. Numerous bulletins are now available from the e.xperiment stations in the various sweet potato sections. These should be studied and their recommendations should become a part of the field practice. *Harter, L. I,., Farmers '^Sweet Potato — General: P., 1914. Bui. 714: p. eet potatoes. Ga. Sta, Storing and marketing Stuckey, 83-11^. Thompson, H. C, 1913 toes. Farmers' Bui. 548 ndbooks of Sweet Potato D: Harter, L. L., 1916. Sweet potato diseases. 714: -26.* McCuNToCK, J. A., 1917. Sweet potato diseases. Va. T Exp. Sta. Bui. 22: 455-486.* Discusses diseases in the Norfolk trucking district and gives the result tests of various control AUBENH Aus, J. J., and Manns, T. F., 1915. The of the sweet potato and their control. Del. Sta. I .V55.* Discusses the many types of : iwcet potato and gives control raphy. Illustrated ; extensive bibliog- Harter, L. L., and Field, E. C, 1913. A Dry Rot of sweet potato caused by Diaporthe batatis. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 281: 9-38; 10 cents. Discusses a somewhat important stor- age rot found in southern and eastern potato districts. The potatoes decay with a shriveling rot which begins at the stem end. Foot rot: Harter, L- L.. 1913. Foot Rot; a ne\ potato. Phytopathology 3: 243-245. tensive form, Journ. Agr. Res. i : 25 Various Diseases: Taubenhaus, J. little known dis. 1914. Recent studies of the sweet potato. Phytopathology i ring rot, stem AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION To.MATO" The tomato is a staple crop but one which frequently gives much trouble in transportation. As a field or greenhouse crop it is subject to several important diseases and in transportation it is found to lack much in carrying quality. Fruit that is entirely firm and not colored is shipped in individual wrappers from California without great loss. It is evident, therefore, that. with care in handling and in selection of fruit for shipment, tomatoes may be safely transported. The popular containers for such shipments are small baskets which fit snugly into a stout, wooden crate. In some sections crates with sloping sides are used but the ordinary 24-quart berry crate is preferable as a container for the small baskets. Tomato Diseases Fruit Sound: Quality poor; small; acid. Septoria Leaf Spot. Fruit distorted, cracked and callused. "Cat Face." Fruit showing small corky scabs. Canker. Fruit more or less decayed. Blossom end blackened: Dry, sunken, black rot of flesh; does not increase rapidly, no mold present at start. Blossom End Rot. Similar appearing rot which progresses more rapidly than the above rot; black mold present. Black Rot. Spots not restricted to blossom end: Fruit with soft sunken spots: decay, soft and watery soon involving one-half or entire fruit; fungus fruiting in con- .-\nthracnose. centric yellow heaps. Fruit show black. Fruit showing br spots, dotted with pycnidia. Phoma vith zonate black rings. Soft rots involving whole fruit: Fruits covered with white or pinkish ni Fruits soft, decaying with a bubbling. Fruits soft; wet rot; fruit covered witl mold. Fruit showing mechanical injury. Yellow with spongy tissue beneath; mon vet, or slimy rot. Bacterial Rot. filmy or cheesy white Oidium Rot. spots (on green fruit) ear calyx end. Hail Injury. worm which enters Tomato Fruit Worm. Septoria Leaf Spot.^' (Septoria lycopcrsici) The Septoria Leaf Spot is, according to plant pathologists, the most serious disease of the tomato because of its effect in shortening the crop and in its effect on the quality of the fruit. Fruit from plants whose leaves are weakened is small, watery, and acid. This disease does not produce any decav in shipment. Its control is of interest to all concerned in the tomato crop because of the enormous crop shortage which comes about when the disease is not checked. Spraying with Bor- deaux mixture along with the sanitary practices of rotation and trash destruction give efficient protection. Blossom End Rot*** This disease is not caused by parasitic fungi or bacteria. It seems rather to be a physiological breakdown of the tissues caused chiefly from irregularities in the water supply. In the green- house, its control is readily brought about by holding the water supply moderate in amount. In the field, this disease is largely associated with drought conditions. Little can be recommended other than the selection of well-drained locations and abundance of cultivation. Certain varieties are very prone to show this trouble. Others, such as the Bonny Best, are not seriously affected. Black Rot. ( Altcrmuia sp.) This form of trouble is commonly confused with Blossom End Rot (cf. Fig. 78) and in some cases the causal fungus (Altcniaria sp.) invades Blossom End Rot lesions. This fungus is one of many organisms which is able, not only to tolerate the high malic acid content of the tomato, but to use it for food as well. In this disease the rotted spot is covered with the black, velvety growth of the invading fungus. (Fig. 79.) Occasionally invasion takes place at wounds or at cracks, such ^"Tomato — General : Thompson, H. C, 1915. Tomato growing in the South. Farm- ers' Bui. 642: 1-13.* Complete guide for tomato growing in the South. Stuckev, H. p.. 1915. Tomatoes. Ga. Sta. Bui. 112: 211- 248.* Handbook of tomato culture with rather full dis- cussions of experiments on Blossom End Rot. Fungous diseases and insect pests are briefly discussed and control measures outlined. Tomato Diseases: EdgerTon, C. W., and MorEland, C. C, 1913. Diseases of the tomato in Louisiana. La. Sta. Bui. 142: 1-23.* General handbook of Southern field diseases of this crop. Rogers, S. S., 1913. The culture of tomatoes in California; with special reference to their diseases. Cal. Sta. Bui. 239: 591-617. '. H., 1913. Tomato diseases. Fla A discussion of diseases important Florida fields. ■Levi: E.. 1915. The Leaf Spot Disease of tomato. Mich. Sta. Tech. Bui. 25: 6-51.* .\ technical discussion of the most serious disease of tomato with recommendations for control based upon the life history of the organism. While Septoria lycopersici does not produce a rotting of the fruit, it is re- sponsible for crop shortages and fruit of inferior quality. CooNS, G. H., and Levin. E., 1917. The Leaf Spot Disease of Tomato. Mich. Sta. Spec. Bui. 81: 1-14.* Popular account based upon above. "Brooks, Chas., 19 14. Blossom End Rot of tomatoes. Phyto- patliology 4: 345-374. Disease not due primarily to_ bacteria or fungi. Either excessive watering, or a check in water supply, may produce the disease. PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TR AN S P(^RTATI ON Fii;, 77, A IkI.I ..1" u|it(iria I.iaf Spot. as often occur following heavy rains. It is need- less to say that cracked fruit should not be shipped. As a rot it progresses more rapidly than Blossom End Rot and if found in shipments rep- resents a field infection. .Anthracnose (CoUctotrichuin l^lioiiioidcs J Fruit affected with this fungus rots quickly. In short, this disease behaves like the other Anthracnoses. The spot may show up at first as a small, whitish dot, but within five days to a week the greater part of the tomato is covered. (Fig. 80.) Attack is made upon green as well as ripe fruit. The control of this disease has not Black Rot of tomato caused by Alternar (.\ftcr Longyear.) been fully worked out. ing will be beneficial. It is evident that spray- Phoma Rot^''' (Phouui dcstnictiva) Tliis is the common disease found in Southern tomatoes shipped to distant markets. Each \ear many carloads are reported as lost through this rot. Investigation has shown that the causal organism is found in the fields and produces there a serious leaf blighting and wilting of the stems. Agr. Res. 4 : 48 AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION Infected fruit rots in transit with sunken black- spots. (Fig. 8i.) Control measures have not been fully worked out. It is evident that spray- Tomato "Canker" This disease, as yet undescribed, was dis- covered causing great damage in southern Illinois fields in 1917. It was also noticed in western Tennessee and in Michigan the same season. Fig. 80. .\nthi Fig. 82. Tomato Ca ing will be beneficial. The necessity of rigid sorting is obvious. Of somewhat similar character is the Buckeye Rof^" which has just been described. This rot is due to a species of Phytophthora — a fungus of the type known to produce "leaky"' decay. The disease has been found in the field and while it is potentially a serious trouble, little is known of its destructiveness. It is more commonly seen on the green fruit as white raised spots, with the epidermis rifted somewhat similar to apple scab spots. (Fig. 82.) The spots are often very numerous, and con- spicuous, resulting in disfigured fruit for the Fig. 81. Plloma Rot of tomatoes. Fig. 8,i. Hail Injury of tomato. market. .\s high as five per cent of the crop has been seen affected in some fields. Experimental evidence shows the disease is caused by an apparently undescribed bacterial organism, and that it is disseminated by insects. '"Sherbakoff, C. ology 7: 1 1 9- 1 Buckeye Rot of tomato fruit. Pliytopath- A Phytophthora rot of the fruit producing PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION Hail Injury Tomatoes are sometimes damaged in the field by severe hail storms and the effect upon the fruit is severe enough to be of importance in trans- portation. Tomatoes showing this type of injury should be classed as culls and are unsafe to pack with sound stock. The spots are more numerous near the calyx end, are bright yellow on the green fruit (Fig. 83) and the wound extends for some distance beneath the surface. The tissue under- neath is white and corky. Although no shrinkage is usually evident on the surface hollow spaces are found beneath the injured tissue. Close sort- ing is necessary to eliminate fruit iif this kind. Tomato Fruit Worm (Corn Ear Wmn) This pest is often met with in shipments of tomatoes from the South where it destroys as much as one-third of the cri>[) in some seasons. (Fig. 84.) This is the common worm found in sweet corn (Fig. 85) — its favorite food jjlant — and in cotton bolls. When crates in which infested tomatoes have been packed arrive at destination, the greenish worms ma\- l)c found crawling over the packages, or over the walls of the car, and the tomatoes from which tlie\ emerged are "leaky." The damage to shipments is often considerable, due to this "leaky" conditimi and the soiling of the crates.* AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION "Cat Face" The condition illustrated in Fig^ure 86 is typical of much of the fruit shipped from South- ern fields during- some seasons. The cause of this trouble is not well understood, but is assigned to seasonal variations, especially prolonged dr\' weather. Such fruit should be classed as culls and packed only in crates so labeled. Much of the fruit that arrives at destination in a leaky condition is due to tomatoes of this sort. A few crates containing baskets like those shown in the illustration may ruin the sale of a good car of fruit. Buyers at the loading stations often refuse to buy during periods when this trouble is very evident. Careful sorting and grading will eliminate this trouble. Fig. 86. Cat Face tomato. Frost Injury The problem a This is an economic problem of national one. much importance in the transporta- tion of perishables, especially pota- toes. It concerns the grower, the shipper, the carrier, and ultimately the consumer. It is a problem in which the responsibility lies with the grower when field-frosted potatoes, apples, etc., are met with. The presence of field-frosted stock in shipments during some seasons is serious enough to take away all profit from the handling of the commodity. The shipper is directly con- cerned since commerce in frozen perishables is an unprofitable business at the best. The carrier has generally paid the claims on all frosted stock for it has commonly been difficult to place the responsibility elsewhere. Finally the great economic loss due to frozen perishables, especially in a season like that of 1917, falls as a burden on the consumer, who must pay the price of a curtailed supply and freight charges on worthless stock. The loss is Cars arriving at destination during enormous. the fall and winter months often show from two to twenty per cent loss from frost injury received either in the field or in transit. During the fall of 191 7 it was difficult, on account of the high percentage of field-frozen stock, to find a car of sound potatoes from the northern and western potato states. Potatoes are commonly allowed to remain in the ground as late as possible in the fall that the skins may become tough. This practice, if carried too far, in a season when very early cold periods occur, leads to freezing in the ground. How to recog- Frosted potatoes when thawed be- nize frozen come soft and leaky, and badly potatoes. stained sacks are usually a good indication of the presence of such damaged potatoes. If the skin remains unbroken, the flesh retains its white color for several days, but soon blackens if exposed to the air and to the *The eggs are laid upon the leaves or fruit and after hatching the young larvae feed for some time upon the tips of the tender leaves. In most cases they enter the fruit under the lobes of the calyx and for this reason it is often difficult to detect their presence when the tomatoes are picked while green. The mature larvae leave the fruit and pupate in burrows in the soil Spraying with lead arsenate twc applied just before blossoming tir as necessary through the seaso spraying should be made about ic using paris green, one pound to important spray and is Paris green washes off of water pounds to 50 gallo e and repeated as many times is recommended. The last days before harvesting begins, 00 gallons water. This is an ually necessary for successftil control, dily than arsenate of lead and for this reason is recommended for the final spray. Sweet is the favorite food plant of the insect, and by planting it around the tomato field before the plants are set the parent moths can be lured to lay their eggs there. It is desirable to have corn in silk and tassel from fruit setting time until harvesting is over, bxit mature ears should be gathered before the worms escape. Wormy tomatoes should be destroyed. C, 1917. The BollM 872; 15 pp. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL No attempt has been made to consider insect pests or the blemishes they cause. The following bibliography will be help- ful to those interested. In this particular case of the tomato fruit worm, the insect is responsible for a specific loss in what apparently sound fruit at time of packing. 1913. 1915. Insect Pests of Farm, Garden, $3.00. Insects. MacMillan Co. $; Sling£rland. M. v., and Crosby, C. R., 1915. Fruit Insects MacMilla Sanderson, Orchard. John Wiley. O'ICxNi;, W. C. 1912. Inju Various State Handbooks: Nearly every state has a publication covering the important insects on important crops. Occasional bulletins on im- portant insect pests are referred to under various crops con- sidered in this bulletin. Bureau of Entomology Publications: The bulletins from this Bureau cover nearly all injurious species. No attempt is made to list the publications avail- able. The reader should consult the two Index publications sriv belo 1916 Index to papers on insects injurious to citrus and other sub-tropical fruits. Bureau of Entomology 99: 1916 Index to papers on insects affecting vegetables. Bureau of Entomology 109: PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION action of decay organisms. Frost-injury is not easily confused with any disease by anyone who has seen typical specimens. Careful Opposed to field frost, which is examination within the responsibility of con- will fix signer, is the freezing in transit for responsibility, which the carrier, by mishandling, or the shipper by too great careless- ness in protecting the perishable, may be re- sponsible. The statement has often been made that it is impossible to determine at destination whether freezing occurred previous to loading or while in transit. This is not true. The examina- tion of individual specimens outside the car may not lead to any safe conclusion. However, in- spection of the contents with reference to the distribution of the frozen product in the contain- ers and the location of these in the car, offer means of solving the difficulty. For example, field-frosted potatoes are found scattered through- out the sacks without any special reference to exposed portions of the car. On the other hand, shipments frozen in transit show the greatest damage in certain portions of the car — near the doorways, the ice-bunkers, and the floor. The extent of damage may vary from only slight loss to complete destruction of contents, but the loca- tion of containers holding the frozen product and the distribution in the container itself leaves little chance for controversy. The records of outside temperatures when compared with the movement of car are usually sufficient to place responsibility at the proper jxiint. Everyone The problem of elimination of losses must CO- in transit begins with the grower operate. who must guard against freezing of his goods in the field and who must cull worthless from transportable stock ; it demands that shippers properly prepare their cars to withstand extreme temperatures through which they are likely to pass ; and finally the carriers must handle shipments efficiently. The shipment The installation of false floors, must be lining with heavy paper, the use of protected. straw, etc., and the use of portable heaters are necessary protective measures that must be adopted by shippers if the losses due to the freezing of perishables are to be minimized. An "ounce of prevention" means a saving to everyone. Take no In self protection, as well as con- chances on the servation, the carriers find it neces- weather. sary early in the season to place an embargo on all shipments of perishables moving under "Carriers' Protective Service" loaded in other than refrigerator cars. But shippers handling their goods at their own risk take chances and fail to protect shipments of perishables during hazardous weather periods. The unexpected usually happens. By careful sorting and the use of the protective measures already referred to, a great reduction in the pres- ent enormous loss due to frozen perishables can be accomplished to the benefit of everyone con- cerned. AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION PART III. THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESSFUL SHIPPING Ci'i.TURAi. Practices in Relation to a Sound Product" The bulk of this bulletin is devoted to a dis- cussion of particular diseased conditions. Manv of the serious losses arise from unsafe handling and preparation. This has been considered in another section. Many of the diseases arise from specific pests which must be conibatted by specific treatments. But there is a class of ills which come about from general unthriftiness of the plants, and there are diseases which become serious because of improper agricultural prac- tices. In order that the grower may combat these untoward conditions and obtain a large and pre- vailingly sound product, the following general points in agriculture must be noted. These are grouped in more or less logical order, and the statements made are meant merely to be sug- gestive. Soil The soil. The first essential to crop growing is the proper soil. Too many crop failures are registered because the farmer puts a crop on a soil totally unsuited for it. The choice of soil must be carefully made. In general, in- tensive root or vegetable crops need a rich, pro- ductive soil. For early crops the soil must warm up quickly and must be rich enough to force the plant to rapid growth. Such soils are those which have sunny exposure and are well drained. The latter factor, drainage, cannot receive too much attention. The drainage of nearly all soils needs improvement. Certain sandy soils seem to have good natural drainage, but with loamy or clay soils drainage means a great deal in even- ness of water supply, in aeration of the soil and in earliness of crops. Drainage in the seed bed and in the field is second only to crop rotation as an important general crop practice to prevent plant disease depredations. The farmer must study his soil and learn its capabilities. Soils that are acid must be cor- rected, soils that lack humus must be enriched by proper green crops. Each farm is an experi- ment station and happy is the farmer who can make his work a series of profitable tests. Soil Fertility Improve the With a knowledge of the soil on a fertility. farm there comes to the farmer a knowledge of its needs. There are two ways of farming, namely, by conserving methods and by robber methods. Only the former method is profitable. The farmer must not only keep up the fertilitv of his soil but he must increase it. By far the best and cheapest fertilizer to use is stable manure. This must be applied liberallv. It has a beneficial efifect on the physical character of the soil aside from its mere fertilizer value. For many crops commercial fertilizer is neces- sary. The fertilizer to use and the quantity depends not only upon the soil but upon the crop to be grown. It seems safe to say that for in- tensive crops the use of the right commercial fertilizer is highly to be recommended. The grower should make careful tests and satisfy him- self as to the returns he is getting from the fertilizer. Nor must be overlooked the possibilities of in- creasing soil fertility by turning under green crops, especiallv the leguminous ones. Carefully planned rotations contain this provision for renewing the soil's nitrogen and humus, and great crops result from such a practice. Choice of Crops Crop selection. The crop to be grown perhaps needs little comment. Some men change crops so often as never to become expert. Some, on the other hand, are so conservative that they do not share in the advantages often opened up by a new industry. The crop grown should be one for which there is a good available market, and one for which the soil is adapted. Certain sections have built up a reputation for growing certain crops. This repu- tation is an asset in the markets and in such regions it pays to grow the advertised crop. Much could be said about choice of crops in order that a proper sec[uence of operations can Bailey, L. H., 1914-1917. Standard Encyclopedia of Horticulture. MacMillan Co. 6 Vols. $36.00. CoREETT, L. C, 1913. Garden Farming. 473 pp. Ginn and Co. $2.00. This book is a handbook giving instructions for grow- ing all types of garden crops. It discusses types of contain- ers used in various sections. This book has two chapters devoted especially to the problems of handling perishables. Chap. VI, Transportation of Truck Crops; Chap. VII, Pre- cooling and Cold Storage of \'egetables. Card, F. W. Bush Fruits. MacMillan Co. 4th reprint. $1.50. Gilbert. .\. W.. 1915. The Potato (With section o prepared by M. F. Barrus). MacMillan Co. $1.75. Rolfs, P. H. Sub-tropical Vegetable Gardening. MacMillan Co. $1.50. CoiT. J. E. Citrus Fruits. MacMillan Co. $2.00. Fletcher. S. W. Strawberry Growing. MacMillan Co. $1.75. Kains, AI. G. Plant Propagation. Greenhouse and Nursery Practice. Orange Judd Co. $1.50. Lloyd, J. W.. 1914. Productive Vegetable Growing. Lippincott. $1.50. Sears. F. C, 1914. Productive Orcharding. Lippincott. $1.50. Wilkinson. 1915. The Apple. Ginn & Co. $2,00. PLANT DISEASES niTORTANT IX TRANSPORTATION be maintained. Many greenhouses used for growin.c: seedlings lie idle all the rest of the year. Many farmers are crowded with work in one sea- son and have little to do at the next. Proper choice of crops brings about a balancing of jobs and greater efficiency. RoT.\Tiox (>!■ Crops Rotation is The general farmer must plan to crop insur- change crops on his field each year, ance. With intensive cropping, wherever possible, rotation must be employed. In a very few cases rotation is not practised — for example in celery culture on old established muck areas — but there is no crop but is benefited by change of soil. As crops are grown year after year diseases become intensified. Those that are harbored bv soil or trash naturally become worse as the same field is used without change. Some insects are controlled almost completely by crop rotation. Putting aside all considerations of soil fertility, crop rotation is necessary if plant diseases and insect pests are to be controlled. Tim Si'.KD Select good The grower cannot give t(io much seed. attention to the source and equality of his seed. Where possible seeds of disease-resistant and high yielding sorts should be selected. Each grower can do much bv select- ing from the best yielding and most desirable plants of his field the seed for the next year's planting. Where this cannot be done reliance must be placed upon seed from reputable houses. Where disinfection is necessary the seed should be treated in the recommended fashion in order that diseases may not be introduced. Seedlings Give the plant The grower should grow his own a chance. seedlings. Too often serious dis- eases are brought to a new locality with the seedlings. Seedlings must be given good care. Crowding in the flats must be avoided. Over-watering is injurious since it almost in- variably leads to damping-off. Most seedlings are made more stocky by transplanting once or twice. Certain seedlings after growth in hot bed or cold frame need to be "hardened off" so that they will mit wilt on being planted in the field. With good, sturdy, health\- seedlings half the battle for a sound product is won. Pl.ANTIXC. Successful The time of planting, the method, planting. depth, etc., must be governed by local conditions and by the needs of the particular crop. In general the success of the planting centers about the preparation of the seed bed. The ground must be in good tilth, the clods broken, and the incorporation of the manure or fertilizer thorough. Then when planting is made cultivation should begin as soon as possible to control weeds. CULTIX'ATION Work the Cultivation is aimed to keep the soil soil. in good working condition and to destroy weeds. Weeds crowd the growing plant and steal its food and water. \o successful agriculture can be carried on where weeds flourish. The farmer must clean up foul ground and must safeguard his fields by good seed. The fight on weeds is one that he has always before him, but profits come from a suc- cessful weed control. Cultivation at the start should be thorough and deep, but as the feeding roots increase it should be more and more shallow. For some crops, such as beans and tomatoes, wet plants must not be worked, for to do so spreads disease. Marketing The weak link The preceding discussion deals with in agriculture, the production of the plant. The points of harvesting are considered in the next topic called "Preparation." There is next to ct)nsider the problems of marketing. This is a large problem and on its successful solu- tion hinges the success of the venture. A worthy product, properly prepared and sent, with good judgment, to market, usually brings satisfactory results. By a study of the market requirements, and b\' study of market fluctuations the grower must learn to ship properly to the right place. What is given under preparation has great applicability here in insuring a favorable recep- tion for the goods at the market. In growing the crop, clean plants in clean soil assure safety. In shipment, sound plants, properly handled, arrive on the market in good condition. Integrity of product is an essential to successful agriculture. 54 AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION The Preparation of Fruits and Vegetables for Safe Transportation Waste can be Some of the important causes for eliminated. damage to shipments of perishable freight may be traced directly to the manner in which it is prepared and delivered to the transportation companies. Improper handling during harvesting, careless loading, stowing, bracing, and stripping, are some of the important factors concerned in the losses met with by ship- pers of fruits and vegetables. There is much wanton waste of foodstuffs that could be largely eliminated by a little more care in the operations preceding movement by the railroads. Responsi- bility for these things belongs exclusively to the shipper. Careful It is not enough that fruit and handling pays, vegetables be well grown, although this is a primary essential, for sub- sequent handling may detract from the value and quality of the best grown product. The experience of the citrus growers of California has shown the necessity for careful handling of the fruit during harvesting and throughout the operations preceding delivery to the carriers. Their ex- perience should be useful to growers of other crops in various sections of the country for the same principles apply everywhere. Good loading To eliminate waste in shipments, is the best not only must plant diseases be con- insurance, trolled, but in addition it is essen- tial that certain common-sense principles be observed in preparing the products for shipment. Experience has shown that the best way to assure the safe arrival of a car loaded with perishable freight is to load and brace it in such a manner that ordinary handling by the transportation company will not disturb the con- tents. Too often a first-class product, well graded and packed, is loaded in a car in a hap- hazard manner, poorly stowed and weakly braced, with the result that upon arrival at destination there is much loss from shifting and breaking of the packages. In certain sections of the country losses through shifting and breaking of the packages are practically unknown, while fruits and vegetables forwarded from regions much nearer to the markets arrive in very poor condi- tion. It must be clearly recognized that the re- sponsibility for this sphere of operations belongs to the shipper, but the carriers must assume an active interest in the methods employed. A visit to the railroad yards in a large market center like Chicago will convince anyone of the necessity for a little more co-operation among all those con- cerned in the production and handling of perish- able foodstufifs. A brief discussion of some of the most im- portant factors (exclusive of disease control) operating toward eliminating losses in transit is here given under appropriate headings. - \Vii.\T Preparation Includes and Its Importance Harvesting Wounding The guiding principle to be and bruising observed in the harvesting of must be perishable products so as to place avoided. them upon the market in the best possible condition is the avoidance of bruises and injuries in removing the product from the plant. The fruit should be as nearly mature as possible before picking but should not be mellow, the degree of ripeness depending, of course, largely upon the distance from the final market, and when in this mature, sound condi- tion, nearly all fruits stand up better under long hauls. In removing the fruit from the plant only the minimum pressure necessary, distributed as uniformly as possible over the entire surface, should be employed. In commercial orchards the grower should instruct his pickers in the best methods of removing the fruit from the tree, emphasizing the importance of sound fruit in successful transportation. When it is remem- bered that a large percentage of the rotting of fruits and vegetables occurs through the in- vasion of weak parasites that cannot enter through the unbroken skin, but are dependent upon wounds and bruises for the avenues of en- trance, the importance of proper harvesting methods is readily appreciated. The enormous losses suffered by the California citrus industry due to careless harvesting and handling of the product, were totally eliminated with the develop- ment of practices that did away with such in- juries. In picking highly perishable fruits like strawberries, raspberries, etc., much bruising usually occurs through grasping the berries and the pressure exerted in removing from the stems. It is also a common practice to pick a handful of fruit before placing it in the picking container. This practice cannot be condemned too severely, for no amount of refrigeration will overcome the inherent tendency of such bruised fruits to decay, nor is the railroad company liable for any losses that occur through the rotting of fruits due to this cause while in transit. There are many special devices upon the market designed to aid in harvesting the fruit with the least possible injury. Commercial growers should adopt the ones best adapted to conditions in their localities. It is up to the growers and shippers to improve PLANT DISEASES IMPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION the conditions under which tliey prepare and tender their products to the carriers for trans- portation. Sorting and Grading Minimum In the harvesting of small fruits handling like strawberries and raspberries, means maxi- sorting' should be done at the time mum carrying of picking so that it will not be quality. necessary to rehandle the fruit at the packing house. Investigation by the Bureau of Markets has found this to be the limiting factor in the distance over which berries can safely be transported. Sorting and grading during picking is not only commendable because it eliminates excessive handling and bruising, but should also appeal to the practical grower as an economic practice. A good Sorting and grading not only re- product makes duce the losses from transporta- an enviable tional troubles but they also build a reputation. reputation for the shipper that can- not be established in any other way. (Figs. 87 and 88.) It is a great temptation to the average shipper to pack mediocre fruits and vegetables when the market is strong and the price high. It may not at the time of packing seem profitable to discard fruit showing slight decay or bruising but to do so always pays. A few cars in poor condition arriving upon a strong market, will ruin prices quicker than any other factor, and the few dollars that the unwise shipper thought to obtain through adding a few packages of poor produce are more than lost in the prices received for subsequent shipments. The market once demoralized by an inferior product rarely recovers. Good sorting and grading facilitate a uniform pack, and attractive- ness is next to quality in regulating demand. Buyers of fruits and vegetables do not look at the fruit on the top of the package, but go deeper to seek the truth, and the product is quickly sold when uniformity is fouiul throughout the entire cnntainer. ( Fig. 8<). ) Fig. 89. The large peaches in th basket of small low-grade An attractive package always in demand. Packing and Packages Fruits and vegetables are a class of foodstuffs that command the best prices only when packed in the most attractive way. The package must appeal to the eye, and even if the uality is high the sale is sure to be slow if the |)roduct is put up in an unattractive container. -\ clean, compact, honest and serviceable package is always in demand and commands the highest ])rices on any market. The success of western grown apples is a striking example of what good grading and packing will do toward establishing a demand for a product. What has been accom- plished by western growers can be duplicated b\' every grower. Study the The producer of fruits and vege- tastes of the tables should make a special study markets. of the packages best adapted to carry his product to the markets in the most attractive and safe manner. Almost ever}- market has preferences for special styles and the grower should know the peculiarities of the markets to which he consigns his produce. S6 AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION The container A container fur perishable freight, must be first of all should be serviceable serviceable. and constructed to meet the de- mands of transportation over long distances. Many thousand dollars worth of perishable freight is wasted annually due to the use of containers unable to hold up under the strain of long hauls. The education of growers and shippers as to the best package in which to ship their products is a type of work worthy of greater consideration by the extension work-ers of the Agricultural Colleges. A good example of the losses due to weak packages may be seen by examining shipments from certain sections of the country of potatoes packed in flimsy barrels that always arrive at destination badly crushed and broken. Shipments over much longer dis- tances in Ijarrels of better construction arrive in good condition. Good ventila- For vegetables particularly, a prime tion retards requirement of a good package is decay. that it shall afford free ventilation. (Fig. 90.) The importance of this factor in the safe transportation of such highly perishable products as lettuce, celery, etc., cannot be overestimated. Rapid refrigeration cannot be accomplished unless the cold air can penetrate freely into the packages. The rots caused by bacteria and fungi develop very rapidly in poorly ventilated packages and no amount of refrigera- tion will overcome the inherent tendency to decav under these favorable conditions. Two recent reports on large shipments of lettuce packed in closed containers show almost total loss. No fault could be found with the handling of the cars and from our e.xperience with shipments of lettuce in various containers it is plain that the loss of these shipments was largely due to the poor ventilation in the packages. Good ventila- tion insures maximum refrigeration and mini- mum decay. The package Another requirement of a good must not package is that it should minimize injure the bruising and injury to the contents. contents. .\n illustration of the importance of this is shown in Figures 91, 92, 93. Sharp corners, protruding nails, and splinters, etc., cut and bruise the contents and open an avenue for the entrance of the rot-producing organisms always present up>on the surface. Uniform Uniformity in size and design are packages are very desirable features in packages easy to load, to be used for large shipments of fruits and vegetables. It is much easier to load a car with packages of uniform size, as this permits a definite plan for each load to be followed. A car cannot safely be loaded with packages of various sizes and shapes, nor will Fig. 90. r.cttuce in boxes, equi)iped to provide ventilation. good bracing always insure against shifting in loads of this kind. Lo.vDixr. Load for a The plan of the load should aim definite pur- to secure ma.ximum ventilation, pose. refrigeration and stability. T'le packages should be spaced widely enough to allow a free circulation of air but not so wide as to permit shifting. False flooring should be installed so as to give ma.ximum cir- culation of air around and through the packages. This is also very essential when heaters are used to prevent freezing in the winter months. A free circulation of air is necessary to insure rapid refrigeration, therefore, a solid load should be avoided. The height of the load should be such that the top tier of packages is below the line of safe refrigeration and well within the cooler por- tions of the car. Furthermore, overloading is dangerous because it checks air circulation and PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION thus defeats the very purpose of the refrigerator car. Strip each tier All packages with flat bottoms of packages. should be stripped between each tier as illustrated in Figure 94. Stripping hastens refrigeration, helps to secure rio'iditv and distributes the weight of the load Avoid a solid In general, cars should not be load. Brace loaded solidly but the space in the solidly. doorway should be left for ventila- tion and the installation of bracing to prevent shifting and breaking of the packages. The proper way to construct and install the gates recommended for use in bracing cars of fruits and vegetables is illustrated in Figures 95 and 96.* Experience has shown that this type of bracing is preferable to all others. It is simple to con- struct and economical of material and time. It I i i i MT^ i A S f J J 1 i Jl A 1 _ :^ i 1 f i 1 _: I A f i 4 J A A A A 1 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 4— k 1 * A A 1^^ 94. Crates properly : Fie. Q2. Casaba melons, showin r ■HH BBBi BBWBI ^H te Fig. 93. Ll^aba i el n fi 1-<^1 t l M more evenly over the packages. Stripping;' material usually consists of pieces !4 by i ^-2 inches and the length should approximate the width of the car. Two strips are used for each tier of packages, and each tier should be secured with nails to prevent shifting. efficient bracing. has proved uniformly successful in protecting shipments over the longest and roughest hauls. The use of this bracing eliminates the practice of driving large spikes into the car floors. Annually thousands of dollars' damage results to refriger- ator cars through this needless practice. The insulation is damaged and the cars are soon un- safe for the transportation of perishable freight. *The material consists of the gate; i x 4 or 2 .\ 4-inch lumber for the braces betwec AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION of gates in place showing ease with whicli cient bracing is accomplished. In the above bracing it is not necessary to drive one single nail into any part of the car. This bracing should be universally adopted for pro- tecting shipments in refrigerator cars. As an example of what may be accomplished by study of methods of preparation, stowing, etc., there may be cited the very successful trials of the Western New York "End to end offset" loading system for peaches (Figs. 98 and 99), and the somewhat similar plan for loading Climax baskets (grapes). The directions for this method of loading are as follows : Loading Climax Baskets Though the size and the strength of Climax baskets vary, the general idea of end to end load- ing applied to the various sized containers, greatly reduces damage by breakage in transit. Using the eight-quart Climax basket for load- ing in an ordinary refrigerator car, the load is started bv placing the baskets lengthwise along one side of the car, distributing any irregular outcome throughout the floor tier. The only place in the load where a basket is crosswise of the car is in the ends of the car next to the Center Spacing With One Upright For Each Tier Of Packages ction of a gate for bracing. PLANT DISEASES IMPORTAXT 'RANSPORT ATI' >\ bunker where a few baskets are needed to fill in space where a basket cannot be placed lengthwise of the car. When the load approaches the opposite side wall of the car, there is usually about four inches of slack which is taken up by ''crisscrossing" or "worming'' the baskets. The first, or floor tier of baskets in the "worm- ing" is started in each end of the car worked along toward the doorway oppositely oblique. The second tier in the "worming" is placed between the handles of the floor or first tier baskets. Advantages: i. This load giyes a solid load from end to end of the car and nearly all baskets meet the end to end jolting with the longest, strongest way of the baskets. 2. Avoids necessity of bracing and "figuring" out of the finishing of the load in the doorway. (Directions through the courtesy of E. H. Anderson, Snpt. Perishable Freight Inz'cstiga- tions, \. ]'. C. Lines.) (^z Y< Vj YvY.*^Y» Y Y Y nr XX XX T: ^-^•'X-i^-i (XT Y Y )Ia JL JL J( yV Jv JC J( a a A'''')vvC''"vC'"vv''^JL'v 'VS Ar^ V-i last two rows Y^ ' \ J J \ \ T? t_ i FLOOR TIER PLAN ded end to end method of peach loadii The Western New York "End to End Offset" Loading System Load According to Direction of .Arrows 1. Place the first basket snugly in one corner of the far side of the car icith the basket handles as shov.'n in small diagram. 2. Place the first row of baskets along far side of the car, with handles of baskets in same rela- tive position. 3. Adjust first row of baskets, to obtain the proper offset for the second row. (The number of baskets along the side of car varying with length of car.) 4. The first row of baskets is built to full height of load before starting the second row. 5. Each succeeding row of baskets is put in place as shown by the arrows in the diagram. 6. The last two rows of the load are started from both ends and should come out evenly in doorway, if the loading has been done with care. (Directions through the courtesy of E. H. Anderson, Snpt. Perishable Freight Investiga- tions, N . Y. C. Lines.) The first row is built full height, before start- ing the second row of the loading work. ^ 21ID TIER PLAN Fig. 99. Recommended end to end method of peach h:>admg. Plant Diseases and the Farmer; A Call to Action. Farming is a business and must be run on business principles. The farmer must liave the point of view tliat he is a manufacturer. Tlie fields are his factory — the grow- ing plants, the busy machines creating his product. What a wonderful mechanism is a plant! It is a machine for trapping sunshine. It possesses the wonderful chemical (chlorophyll) that is able to combine the raw mate- rials, carbon dioxide and water, to form the most important thing in America today, — FOOD. Where the factory buys coal for its energy, the plant taps the great free source of all power, the SUN. Where the ordinary factory has to pay a high price for its raw materials, the plant uses stuffs that are as free as the air or as the rain that falls! Again, if one factory doesn't use the steel another can fashion it to its own design, — but the plant uses a raw material that nothing else could utilize. The point of the whole matter is simply this : The farmer is engaged in a pecul- iarly fundamental business, he can nnt be replaced, his task is the feeding of the zcorld. With the consciousness of his importance, the farmer must gain the consciousness of the responsibility that rests upon him. We will not tolerate a factory with slipping belts, broken gears, or idle floor space. Modern business demands EFFICIENCY. A diseased plant is a crippled machine : a field with half a stand is an idle floor space. The field is the farmer's work shop and e\'erv patriotic impulse, ever}- dictate of good business judgment demands that the fields be made efficient servants of the nation. And what may be said of the wanton wastes of tlie market induced by faulty han- dling, either in production or in movement? The theme of this bulletin has been the story of these losses. The bulletin has sought to tell in a practical, workable, under- standable way, the facts al)iiut the great leak in American agriculture. The pressing problem is "Hoiv to stop the lealis." The crying need is Action! The Plant Pathologist is the doctor for sick crops. He is the efficiency expert who seeks to speed up the idle, sickly plants in the field, and who seeks to eliminate idle soils and useless wastes. The great gains in agriculture will not come so much by the invention of new systems of culture, or by the discovery of "miracle" varieties, as by a greater conservation of the crop we already produce. Food S.wkd Is Food Made — Help Save It. Index A Page Anthracnose — Banana 12 Bean 28 Citrus Fruits 11 Cucumber 34 Lettuce 37 Mango 13 Muskmelon 34 Tomato 47 Watermelon 34 Apple. Diseases of — General 13 Bitter Pit 17 Bitter Rot 15 Black Rot 16 Blotch 16 Blue Mold IS Bordeaux Injury 17 Fly Speck 16 Fruit Spot 17 Jonathan Spot 18 Pink Rot 14 Scab 1 1, Scald 18 Sooty Blotch 16 B Bacteria 4 Life History of 5 Bacterial Leaf Spot — Celery 32 Soft Rot — Vegetables 27 Celery 33 Lettuce iy Banana Anthracnose 12 Baskets, Methods of Loading S9' 60 Bean Diseases 28 Anthracnose 28 Bitter Pit— Apple 17 Bitter Rot— Apple 15 Black Heart — Potato 43 Black Leg — Cabbage 30 Potato 40 Black Rot— Apple 16 Cabbage 28 Naval Orange 10 Tomato 46 Black Scurf— Potato 42 Blight — Celery 31 Blossom End Rot — Tomato 46 Blotch — Apple 16 Blue Mold— Apple 15 Citrus Fruits 9 Grapes 22 Bordeaux Injury 17 Mixture 5, 6 Botrytis Rot — General 27 Strawberry 24 Bracing 57, 58 Brown Rot — Citrus Fruits 9 Stone Fruits 18 C Cabbage, Diseases of — General 28 Alternaria Leaf Spot 30 Black Leg 30 Black Rot 28 Canker, Citrus — Reference 12 Tomato 48 Casaba Melons, Injury to 57 Cat Face — Tomato 50 Page Causes of Decay in Shipments 6 Plant Disease 3 Celery 30 Diseases of — General 31 Bacterial Leaf Spot 32 Bacterial Soft Rot 33 Blight 31 Early Blight 32 Sclerotinia Rot 32 Septoria Leaf Spot 31 Center Bracing 57, 58 Cherry (See Stone Fruits) Chilling Injury — Potato 43 Citrus Fruit, Diseases of 9 Anthracnose 1 1 Black Rot — Naval Orange 10 Blue Mold 9 Brown Rot g Cottony Rot — Lemons 10 Melanose 1 1 Russeting n Scab 1 1 Sooty Mold II Stem End Rots 11 Tear Stain n Claims, Attitude Towards 3 Prevention of 7 Climax Baskets, Loading of 58, 59 Containers — Vegetable 25, 55 Celery 30 Control of Plant Diseases 5 Potato Diseases 44 Strawberry Rots 25 Watermelon Diseases 35 Corn Ear Worm 49 Cottony Rot. Lemons 10 Cucumber. Diseases of 34 Anthracnose 34 Pythium Rot 35 Rot 36 Scab 35 Cultivation 53 Cultural Practices 52 D Disease, Plant, Definition of 5 Downy Mildew — Grape 23 E Early Blight — Celery 32 "End to End Ofifset'' Loading 59 F Farmer and Plant Diseases 60 Fly Speck — Apple 16 Formaldehyde Disinfection of Cargoes 12 Frost Injury 50 Fruit Spot — Apple 17 Worm — Tomato 49 Fungi 3 Life History < 4 Fusarium Rots — Potato 41 Wilt — Potato 41 G Gate for Bracing 57, 58 Gradmg 55 Page Grape, Diseases of — General 21 Black Rot 23 Blue Mold 22 Downy Mildew 23 Various Rots 23 Fruit (See Citrus) H Hail Injury — Tomato .•- 49 Hampers — Faulty Stowing 26 Harvesting 54 Hollow Heart — Potato 43 I Insect Injuries — Tomato, Sweet Corn 49 Bibliography 50 Inspectors, Training of 7 Inspection, Food Products 8 Internal Brown Spot — Potato 43 J Jelly End Rot— Potato 41 L Late Blight and Rot— Potato 39 Leaf Spot — Celery 31 Tomato 46 Leak — Vegetables 27 Potato (Reference) 40 Leaky Strawberries 24 Lemon (See Citrus) Lettuce — in Hampers 26 In Boxes 56 Diseases of 37 Anthracnose ^y Sclerotinia Rot t,-; Soft Rot 37 Literature of Plant Diseases 3 Loading — General 54, 56 Climax Baskets 58 Peaches : 59 Western New York "End to End Offset" 59 M Mango, Anthracnose 13 Marketing 53 Melanose — Citrus Fruits 11 Muskmelon, Diseases of 34 Alternaria Leaf Blight 36 Anthracnose 34 Pythium Rot 35 N Neck Rot — Onion 38 Net Necrosis — Potato 43 O Onion, Diseases of 38 Neck Rot 38 Smudge 39 Smut 38 Soft Rot 38 Sterigmatocystis 39 Orange (See Citrus) P Packing and Packages 55 Peach Diseases (See Stone Fruits) Pear Diseases (See Apple) Phoma Rot — Tomato 47 Physiology of Plants in Storage 6, 7 Pineapple Rot 12 Plant Disease — Definition 5 And the Farmer 60 Plant Pathologists, List of 64 Page Planting 53 Plum (See Stone Fruits) Potato Diseases 39 Control of 44 Black Heart 43 Leg 40 Scurf (Rhizoctonia) 42 Chilling Injury 43 Dry Rot ' 41 Frost Injury 50 Fusarium Rot 41 Wilt 41 Hollow Heart 43 Internal Brown Spot 43 Jelly End Rot 41 Late Blight and Rot 39 Leak (Reference) 40 Net Necrosis 43 Salt Injury 44 Scab 42 Preparation 54 Pythium Rot — Watermelon 35 R Resistant Varieties 5, 6 Rhizoctonia — Potato 42 Rhizopus Rot — Strawberry 24 Sweet Potato 45 Rotation 53 Russeting — Apple 17 Citrus Fruits 11 S Salt Injury — Potato 44 Sanitation 5 Scab — Apple 13 Citrus Fruits 11 Cucumber 35 Peach 20 " 'otato 42 Scald— Apple 18 Sclerotinia Rot — Celery 32 Lettuce 37 On Vegetables 27 Seed and Seedlings 53 Septoria Leaf Spot — Celery '. 31 Tomato 46 Small Fruits 23 Smudge — Onion 39 Smut — Onion 38 Soft Rot — General 27 Cabbage 29 Celery 33 Lettuce 37 Onion 38 Soil and Soil Fertility 52 Sooty Blotch — Apple 16 Mold— Citrus Fruits 11 Sorting and Grading 55 Spraying 5 Spray ^lixtures 5 Stem End Rot — Watermelon 34 Rots — Citrus Fruits II Stone Fruits 18 Diseases of 19 Black Spot 21 Brown Rot ■ 19 Curculio Injury 21 Scab — Peach 20 Strawberry, Diseases of 24 Botrytis or Gray Mold 24 Leaky Strawberries — Rhizopus 24 Pateliina Rot 25 Rots, Control of 25 Stripping 57 Sweet Potato Diseases 45 Control of 45 Rhizopus Soft Rot 45 Tear Stain — Citrus Fruits ii Thielaviopsis Rot — Pineapple 12 Tomato. Diseases of 46 Anthracnose 47 Black Rot 46 Blossom End Rot 46 Canker 48 Cat Face 50 Fruit Worm 49 Hail Injury 49 Page Phonia Rot 47 Septoria Leaf Spot 46 V V'egetables, Diseases in General 27 W Watermelon Diseases Anthracnose 34 Chemical Injury 36 Pythium Rot 35 Stem End Rot 34 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. Offia' of Fruit Diseases Dr. M. B. Waite OJfice uj Cotton and Truck Disease Dr. W. a. Orton PLANT PATHOLOGISTS OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS Alabama — College Station, Auburn; Dr. G. L. Peltier. Arkansas — Fayetteville ; Dr. J. C. Elliott. California — Berkeley ; Prof. R. E. Smith. River- side Station ; Dr. j. T. Barrett. Colorado — Fort Collins ; Prof. W. W. Robbins. Connecticut — New Haven ; Dr. G. P. Clinton. Delaware — Newark ; Dr. T. F. Manns. Florida — Gainesville ; Prof. H. E. Stevens. Georgia — Experiment ; Dr. B. B. Higgins. Idaho — Moscow; Miss M. A. Willis. Illinois — Urbana ; Dr. F. L. Stevens. Indiana — LaFayette; Prof. H. H. Jackson. Iowa — Ames; Dr. I. E. Melhus. Kansas — Manhattan; Prof. L. E. Melchers. Kentucky — Lexington ; Dr. H. Garman. Louisiana — Baton Rouge; Dr. C. W. Edgerton. Maine — Orono ; Dr. W. J. Morse. Maryland — College Park; Prof. J. B. S. Norton. Massachusetts — Amherst ; Dr. P. J. Anderson. Michigan — East Lansing ; Dr. G. H. Coons. Minnesota — University Farm, St. Paul ; Dr. E. C. Stakman. Mississippi — Agricultural College ; Prof. J. M. Beal. Missouri — Columbia; Dr. G. M. Reed. Montana — Bozeman; Prof. D. B. Swingle. Nebraska — Lincoln ; Dr. E. M. Wilcox. Neiv Hampshire — Durham ; Dr. O. R. Butler. Neiv Jersey — New Brunswick ; Dr. M. T. Cook. Xczi' York — State Station, Geneva ; Prof. F. C. Stewart. Cornell Station, Ithaca ; Prof. H. H. Whetzel, Dr. Donald Reddick. North Carolina— West Raleigh ; Dr. F. A. Wolf. North Dakota — Agricultural College ; Prof. H. L. Bolley. O/i/o— Wooster ; Prof. A. D. Selby. OWaAoma^Stillwater; Dr. F. M. Rolfs. Oregon — Corvallis ; Prof. H. P. Barss. Pennsylvania — State College; Dr. C. R. Orton. South Carolina — Clemson College ; Dean H. VV. Barre. ']'cn)icssee — Knoxville; Prof. S. M. Bain (Botanist J. Texas — College Station; Dr. J. J. Taubenhaus. Utah— Logan ; Dr. G. R. Hill, jr. / 'crniont — Burlington ; Dr. B. F. Lutman. J'irginia — Blacksburg; Dr. F. D. Fromme. Washington — Pullman; Dr. F. D. Heald. West Virginia — Morgantown ; Dr. N. J. Giddings. Wisconsin — Aladison ; Dr. L. R. Jones.