pe mi X673 1919 v^SV* \^^v* "v^*V ? : a>*v -^hP* **** o^y^i aV^. :*H ^x — ^ A NEW GRADED METHOD IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR LETTER WRITING AND COMPOSITION WITH PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF RULES BY JOHN S. COLLINS and M. D. MUGAN. f/ FIFTH EDITION Metropolitan Publishing Co. ST. LOUIS, MO. \°\ V TO THE INSTRUCTOR Every mistake in language is a violation of a Rule of Grammar. Train the students in the detection and correction of errors by the application of the Rules. There are only 14 practical Rules in English Grammar. The necessary theoretical preparation, combined with an exhaustive training in the practical appli- cation of the Rules, should be commenced in the fifth and finished in the sixth grades since the great majority of pupils quit school early in the seventh grade. JOHN S. COLLINS Assistant Superintendent of Instruction, St. Louis Public Schools Copyright, 1919, by Metropolitan Publishing Co. ©CLA5H487 FEB -5 l 0, 9 . CONTENTS. GRADED METHOD. PAGE. Analysis of Words 124 Abbreviations 103, 138 Adjectives 10, 35, 87 Adverbs 24, 37, 107 Agreement of Verbs 32, 91 Appositives 26, 50, 5" Conjunc tions 12, 45, in Conjunctive Adverbs 47 Complex Sentences. 22, 45, 47 Composition 79, 155 Copulative Verbs 19, 43 Compound Sentences. 12 Comparison of Adverbs 36 Difficult Constructions 118 Exclamatory Sentences. 115 Each, Every, This 33 Irregular Verbs 94, 98 PAGE. Infinitives 52, 59 Interjections 114 Interrogative Sentences 14 Language Lessons 149 Letter Writing 139 Nouns 9, 26, 72, 77 Nominative Absolute 51, 64, 66, 68 Possessive Formed 117 Pronunciation 160 Prefixes, Suffixes 125 Prepositions 28, 40, 108 Participles 21, 62, 6° Pronouns 13, 22, 82, 84 Rules of Syntax 118 Shall, Will, Sit, Set, Lie ic 4 , 15? Strengthened Copula 59 Subjunctive Clauses. 70 CRITICAL DIGEST. Adjectives 210 Adverbs 243 Conjunctions, 249 Etymology 187 Interjections 251 Nouns .189 Orthography. 176 Participles 219 Prepositions 246 Pronouns 200 Punctuation 252 Prosody 257 Rules for Capitals 178 Rules for Italics 182 Rules for Spelling 184 Syntax 207, 21*, 234, 240 Partt of ?pe*ch .187 Verbs, .2x8 That Grammar which does not teach language by the application of Rules, within the limit of one year and, at the same time, make the work de- lightfully interesting to the pupils is practically worthless.— Webster. For the practical application of the Rules see pages 17, 23, 26, 29, 33, 34, 38, 41, 41, 51, 59, 63, 69. 71, 76, 86, 93, etc. PREFACE to Fifth Edition. 1. The authors of this work built it up on the fundamental principle that grammar is designed, primarily, as a means and method of teach- ing language, 2. The authors of this work claim that grammar should aim directly at teaching language— not definitions, explanations, observations and modifications, which the child can neither understand nor appreciate. 3. The authors of this work prepared every part of it in the school rooms, and every line of it was used for many years, by many teachers under their supervision before the first line was printed. 4. The authors of this work arpreciate the fact that the great majority of school children are compelled to quit school before reaching the seventh grade, and for this reason have brought this work within the capacity of children in the fifth and sixth grade. 5. The authors of this work appreciate the fact that every mistake in lan- guage is a violation of a rule of grammar, consequently their method Is designed to train the children in the detection and cor- rection of mistakes by the application of the rules of grammar. 6. The authors of this work claim that it is contrary to sound educational principles to require school children to spend two or three years on the theory of grammar before developing the practical side of the work by the application of the rules. 7. The so called Language Lessons with which the country has been flooded for many years under various names should be classed as 'delusions' since they produce no lasting results commensurate with the time wasted on them. TO THE INSTRUCTOR. As preparation for the recitation, assign six sentences to be analyzed by diagram on slates or paper. As the first step at the recitation, have the prepared work transferred from slates to blackboard by the pupils for convenient use. During the recitation, train the pupils into fluency and rapidity in the oral analysis. With the analysis of the sentence in the form of a diagram on the board before the class, ask every possible question about every word in it. Be prompt and generous in assisting the pupils to answer questions during the first few weeks. The practical applica- tion of the laws of language will be found on pages IT, 21, 23, 23, 27, 20, 32, 33, 34, 36, and numerous others. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. A Sentence is a complete thought expressed in words. It is an assemblage of words making com- plete sense. The Subject of a sentence is the actor. It is that of which something is affirmed (said). It is generally a name — a noun. The Predicate of a sentence is that which is af- firmed of the subject. It is generally an action- word — a verb. 1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: ( Birds sing. ) "Birds sing" is a sentence. Birds is the subject; it is that of which •omething is affirmed; sing is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the subject. 1. Trees grow. 2. Snow melts. 3. Men work. 4. Fire burns. 5. Wind blows. 0. Lions roar. 7. Flowers bloom. 8. Walter writes. 0. Horses run. 10. Jennie sews. 11. Pupils study. 12. Boys play. 13. Fishes swim. 14. Dogs bark. 15. Bees sting. Capitals. — The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital. 7 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. OBJECTS WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS. CI. Transitive, requiring an object. Verbs are <[ 2. Intransitive, requiring no object. (^3. . See page 19. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state; as, I am; Henry walks. A Transitive Verb requires an object to com- plete its meaning. An Intransitive Verb does not require an object to complete its meaning. Remark.— All the verbs in the preceding exercise are intransitive verbs; those in the following exercise are all transitive verbs. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a models "Columbus discovered America.'" ( Columbus discovered America. ( Subject Predicate Object ( Name Action-word Name ( Noun Verb Noun :) "Colnmbus discovered America" is a sentence. Columbus is the sub- ject ;discovered is the predicate; America is the object of the transitive verb discovered. 1. Merchants sell goods. 2. George studied history. 3. Birds build nests. 4. Farmers sow grain. 5. Cats catch mice. 6. Black- Bmiths shoe horses. 7. Fire burns coal. 8. Children like stories. 9. Men build houses. 10. James cuts wood. 11. Brother studies law. PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 Parts of Speech. — Words are arranged in classes according to their use in sentences, and these classes are called the parts of speech. The parts of speech ar»e: Noun, Pronoun, Adjec-* tive, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Inter- jection. A Noun is a name; as, bird, Mary, light, dark- ness. A Proper Noun is the name of some particular person, place or thing. All other nouns are called Common Nouns. f Proper; Boston, England, George, Saturday. Nouns are 1 (Common; city, country, boy, day. Capitals* — All proper nouns should begin with capitals. Suggestion.— From a careful examination :>f the diagrams on the opposite page we learn that the subject of a sentence is a name, and the name is a noun; the predicate is an action- word, and that is a verb; the object is a name— a noun. A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all the things in a class of objects, and is applied to each individual of the class, when it is spoken of. To the Teacher. — It is important that strict attention be paid to the method of 'teaching suggested in the Appendix, The tcork should be taken, invariably t in the order in ivhich it is here arranged. Copulative Verbs. — Am, was, is, «r<\ were, b\ are different forms of one copulative verb. The noun or pronoun following any one of these forms is in the nominative — not the objective case. It should have the nominative — not the objective form. 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Adjectives answer the questions: 3. ADJECTIVES. f Which? What? How many? ^ What kind? An Adjective is a word that describes or points out a noun; as, good boy, this book, Jive oranges, the seventh day. A Descriptive Adjective is one that describes or qualifies the meaning of the noun with which it is used. Examples.- Large, small, hard, soft, old, young, beautiful, strong, nice, wealthy, good, happy. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the application of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities. Examples. — This, that, these, those, an, the, fifths last, both, former, same, yonder, every, any, all, seven, few, much, certain, fourfold. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: 4 'That wealthy merchant built a fine house." ( merchant built house. ) [Thatj [wealthy J ~TjED pSeJ "That wealthy merchant built a fine house" Is a sentence. Merchant Is the subject; built is the predicate; house is the object. The subject, merchant, is modified by that, a definitive adjective, and wealthy, a de- scriptive adjective. House is modified by a, a definitive adjective, and by fine, a descriptive adjective. 1. This beautiful picture pleases the artist. 2. An old fox caught the young duck. 3. Brave men protected the ancient city. 4. One, small, dark cloud hides the new moon. 5. Blooming roses decorate his antique portico. 6. Brilliant rays of solar light pierce the heavy, broken clouds. STEPPING STONES 3IETHOD OF INVESTIGATION. The reasoning process which we use while studying, drawing conclusions and writing the analysis of a sentence in the form of a diagram, either on the board during the recitation or on slates while prepar- ing the lessons, is identical with that which we use in solving mathematical problems and requires quite as much care and attention. The formulated method of asking questions which we here present, when used with care, will aid very much in the work. The questions are designed to show clearly the use and force of each and every word in the sentence. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view! The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wild wood, And every loved spot that my infancy knew! Scenes [ the J are dear [ how of childhood I my J J to heart ) I m 7 J "How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood" is a tence, exclamatory, simple. Name the three words that make the complete statement. Scenes are dear. About what unething said, what is the subjecl I Scenes. What scenes? Of childhood. What childhood? My childhood, .What is said about what is the predicate! Are dear Are r in what, way? Are dear to heart. What heart? My heart. Can jrou now anar s in this First Part rapidly and correctly? procure the Second Part. • 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. CONJUNCTIONS. The Conjunction is that part of speech which is used for the purpose of joining together words and sentences. Explanation. — A sentence may have two or more subjects connected by a conjunction, or two or more objects connected by the same part of speech; as, Edward and Henry study history. Alice studies geography and history. (See page 21.) Remark. — The conjunction, and, is the only one here introduced, and its use is limited to such construction as the ones presented in the paragraph above. ( Arthur shot fox and duck Ian] [old J [a J [wild) > "Arthur shot an old fox and a wild duck" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Arthur is the subject; shot is the predicate; fox and duck are the objects. Fox is modified by an, a definitive adjective, and by old, a descriptive adjective. Dnck is modified by a, a definitive adjective, and by wild, a descriptive adjective. 1. Owls destroy rats and mice. 2. Industry and energy produce prosperity. 3. We have a wise judge and an able governor. 4. A carpenter and a farmer built that new house and this new fence. 5. Melvin and his brother caught a small, wild marmoset. 6. Temperance and frugality promote health and happiness. "Brilliant rays of solar light pierce the heavy, broken clouds." ( Rays R. 1. pierce " \ clouds R. 6. No. of brilliant [the J heavy [ broken J 6 light R. 7. ) ( Solar ) Rays is the subject, pierce is the predicate, clouds is the object. Rays is modified, by brilliant, an adjective and by the phrase, of light. Light is modified by the, heavy and broken, three adjectives. Direction. — Examine carefully the Method of Investigation on page 30 in the Brief Introductory Course at the end cf this book. PRONOUNS. 23 6. PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word that stands for a Noun. The Personal Pronouns are 1, you, he, she and it, in their declined forms. Remarks.— The Pronouns, as arranged in the following table, should be written on the blackboard and allowed to remain there while the class is on this and the following topics. The forms may be learned by repeatedly referring to thorn. SINGULAR NUMBER. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. INTERROG. Nominative Forms I He She It You Who? Possessive Forms - My His Her Its Your Whose? Objective Forms Me Him Her It You Whom? PLURAL NUMBER. Nominative Forms We They You Who? Possessive Forms Our Their Your Whose? Objective Forms Us Them You Whom? Capitals. — The pronoun I and the icord should be written in capitals. To the Teacher.— The spoiling, the pronunciation, the meaning, and application of alt new and dijjicult words and technical terms shouhl b > taught in special lessons devoted exclusi rely to that work. Every an&icer should be a complete sentence, every word of which should be pronounced clearly and forcibly. Remark.— The class should be carried rapidly from one exercise to another. Every sentence should be diagramed and analyzed repeatedly. The definitions may be learned incidentally by referring to them while using the technical terms In the analysis. The hands of four-fifths of the pupils should be raised In response to every question, otherwise there is a want of attention. 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a modeli "They destroyed that beautiful forest." ( They destroyed forest. J Ithat J [ beautiful J "They destroyed that beautiful forest" is a sentence; declarative; sim pie. They is the subject; destroyed the predicate; forest the object. Forest is modified by that, a definitive adjective, and by beautiful, a descriptive adjective. 1. I saw the old mill. 2. George Randall owns it. 3. He will sell it. 4. I shall see him. 5. Father wants the mill. 6. We shall have it. 7. Mary studies geography. 8. She wrote a nice letter, 9. We read it. 10. The girls saw us. 11. We saw them. 12. The little boy watched us. Remark. — The pupils should be capable of analyzing every sentence^ thug far introduced, correctly and with rapidity, before advancing beyond this topic. (See the Appendix.) The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what, when used in asking questions; as, " Who is that?" "Which is yours?" " What did you say?" A Declarative sentence is one used to affirm or deny something. An Interrogative sentence is one used to ask a question. 1. Who broke that new slate? 2. Which did you want? 3. What did you say? 4. Who has a sharp knife? 5. You saw whom? 6. Who will take your place? 7. Whose ball have you? 8. What does he want? 9. Who took the prize? 10. Whom did they call? Punctuation. — An interrogation point (?) should be placed at the end of every interrogative sentence. CASKS OF NOUNS. 15 Diagram and analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model. WriU the number of the rule in the diagram by the woi'd to which it applies. "Your little sister tore my brother's book." c sister tore book 6 L Your 3 J I little 12T I brother's 3 J 1 my 3 J Your little sister tore my brother's book" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Sister is the subject; tore is the predicate; book the object. The subject, sister, is modified by your, a possessive, and by little, a descrip- tive adjective. The object, book, is modified by brother's, a possessive, and brother's is modified by my, a possessive. » Sister is a noun, the subject of the sentence, therefore nominative case Rale 1. Book is a noun, the object of the transitive verb tore, thereforo it is in the objective case, Rule 6. Rule 6. A noun or pronoun, used as the object of a transitive verb, is in the objective case (and should have the objective form). Your is a pronoun; it denotes possession, therefore it is in the posses- Five case, Rule 3. Rule 3. A noun or pronoun denoting possession, or ownership, is in the possessive case (and should have the possessive form). Brother's is a noun ; it denotes possession, or ownership, therefore it is in the possessive case, Rule 3. 1. His dog caught our cat. 2. He broke my arrow. 3. James took your pencil. 4. I have his knife. 5. Jennie has Albert's hat. 0. She tore her apron. 7. Walter cut her rope. 8. She snatched his bright, new knife. 0. That big boy struck Henry's little brother. Suggestion.— The cases of the nouns and pronouns should be explained immediately after the close of the oral analysis of each sentence^ except when the teacher decides to have such explanation omitted. Punctuation.— The apostrophe is used to show the possessive case, and to denote the omission of a letter or Ip.ttevs* 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. Singular. Nom. I, Pass. My or mine, Obj. Me. Plural. Nom. We, Poss. Our, Obj. Us. SECOND PERSON. Singular. Plural. Nom. Thou, Ye, Poss. Thy or thine, Your, Obj. Thee. You. Singular. Plural, Nom. You, You, Poss. Your, Your, Obj. You. You. THIRD PERSON. Singular. MAS. FEM. NEUT. Nom. He, She, It, Poss. His, Her, Its, Obj. llim. Her. It. Plural. NEUT. OR COM. Nom. They, Poss. Their, Obj. Them. DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. Nom. Who, Which, Poss. Whose, Whose, Obj. Whom. Which. The Singular Number denotes but one ; as, bird, fox. The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, bi?*ds, foxes. Remark.— Pronouns agree In number with the nouns they represent— their antecedents. APPLICATION OF RULES. 17 Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, making corrections when necessary. The following may be used as a model for cor- recting: "Who did you see?" c you R. 1. did see Who R. 6. whom? Who is a pronoun, the object of the transitive verb did see, therefore In the objective case, according to Rule G, and should have the objective form, ichom. 1. Walter will go. 2. Him and I will see you. 3. Who did you want? 4. He took the carriage. 5. Me and Henry saw him. 6. Who shall I trust? 7. Who can you save? 8. 27er and fa'wi saw you. 9. Who swept the room? 10. Us. 11. Who rode the horse? 12. Him and I. 13. Who did you call? 14. He saw you and I. 15. Who did they meet? 16. George and She. Rules. ' Rule 1. — Nominative Case — Nominative form. Rule 3. — Possessive Case — Possessive form. L Rule 6. — Objective Case — Objective form. Suggestion.— All abbreviated sentences, like the tenth, twelfth and six- teenth, in the exercise above, should be completed before being analyzed or corrected. When the point is reached in the recitation where correction is made, aline should be drawn through the incorrect word and the correct one written in the diagram near it. Rule 1. — The subject of a sentence is in the nomi- native case and should have the nominative form. Remark. — Instead of the form for correcting: sentences presented above a shorter form like the following maybe used: Who is a violation of Rule ^ix; it should have the objective form, whom. Rule 6. — The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case and should have the objective form. 18 PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 6. COPULATIVE VERB. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state; as, I am; William walks; The tree stands. The Copulative Verb, to be, is used to join a predicate to a subject. C Transitive, followed by an object, R. 6. Verbs < Intransitive, " ,( no object. (^ Copulative, Be, am, was, is, are, were, R. 2. The Predicate of a sentence may be a transitive or intransitive verb, or it may be a noun, pronoun or adjective following a copulative verb. Remark, — The verb, to be, in its different forms, am, was, is, are, were, have been, has been, etc., is the only copulative verb used under this topic. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: " Virgil was a famous poet." ( Virgil R. 1. was t poet R. 2. J [ a J I famous J 11 Virgil was a famous poet" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Virgil is the subject; was is the copula; poet is the predicate. Poet is modified by a and famous, two adjectives. Poet is a noun used in a sentence after a copulative verb and meaning the same person as the subject, Vigil, it is therefore in the nominative case, according to Rule two. Rule 2. — Every one of the different forms of the verb, to be, takes the same case after it as before. Remark. — Pupils should be well trained in reading sentences omitting all modifiers, that is, in reading the three words which make a complete Btatement — subject , predicate, object, or subject, copula, predicate; as, Franklin was philosopher. Candle is wax. We shall be scholars. Criminal should have been executed. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1^ 1. Franklin too* a philosopher. 2. Napoleon was a great com- mander. 3. That beautiful white candle is wax. 4. This white powder is quinine. 5. The officers were old men. 6. This blade is steel. 7. They have been soldiers. 8. We are studious pupils. 9. We shall be good scholars. 7. AUXILIARIES. Auxiliary Verbs arc those which are used in the formation of other verbs. They are: do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. With the principal verbs, they form such groups as, may be, shall have gone, must have seen, etc., each of which should be treated as a single word. "Such a leader should be stern and brave." ( leader R. 1. should be t stern and brave. R. 23. ) Tsueh a J "Such a leader should be stern and brave" is a sentence; declarative,' simple. Leader is the subject; should be is the copula; stern and brave are the predicates. Leader is modified by such a, an adjective. And is a conjunction. Stern is an adjective, used as the predicate of a sentence, and it modifies the subject, leader, Rule 23. Rule 23. An adjective or participle, used as the predicate of a sentence, modifies the subject. 1. My book is old. 2. It was new. 3. It has been useful. 4. Your writing and drawing are beautiful. 5. My writing is poor. G. That man is honest. 7. He has been wealthy. 8. His residence is large and beautiful. 0. Gen. Washington ivas amiable. 10. Gen. Jackson was stern. {Predicate, followed by an object, R. 0. Predicate, " u no object. Copulative, " ll ( Predicatcorpredicate,R2. 1 Predicate, R. 23. The Predicate of « sentence may consist Of any one of what five differ- ent things? 20 VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES, 8. PARTICIPLES. The Participle is a form of the verb that may be used as a noun or an adjective. It generally ends in ing, ed, or en; as, falling, destroyed, written. Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: u The windows were broken." ( windows were -r broken. ) LTheJ First method: Windows is the subject; were is the copula; broken is the predicate. Second method: Windows is the subject; were broken is the predicate. 1. The castle hadbeen stormed. 2. That strong fortress was de- stroyed. 3. The city was captured. 4. The proud, haughty peo- ple were humbled. 5. We ivere alarmed. 6. They were terrified. 7. The scanty stores had been taken. 8. The soldiers were wounded. [ Transitive, The boy wrote a letter. Verbs < Intransitive, The boy walks. (^ Copulative, Be, am, was, is, are, were, R. 2. COPULATIVE VERBS. T A m j was y is j are j were j have been t Many of the errors we observe in general conversa- tion arise from inability to distinguish the copulative from the transitive verbs. Copulative verbs are fol- lowed by nominative forms of nouns and pronouns, while transitive verbs are followed by the objective forms. If the noun or pronoun after the verb means the same person or thing as noun or pronoun before the verb, it is a copulative verb. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 COMPOUND SENTENCES. Conjunctions join together words and sentences. A Simple Sentence is a single thought expressed in words. A Compound Sentence is composed of two sim- ple sentences joined together by a conjunction. Remark.-^«rf and but are the only conjunctions to be U9ed In this grade, and no compound sentence is to contain more than two simple sen- tences. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly and correct all mistakes by the application of the rules: "You and him may go but George must remain." You and Mm- be II. 1. may go • ("but" - ) ( George K. 1. must remain. ) ) Him is a violation of Rule one; it should have the nominative form, he. Rule 1.— The subject of a sentence is in the nomina- tive case and should have the nominative form. "You and he may go, but George must remain," is a sentence, compound. You and he are the subjects of the first simple sentence; may go is the predicate. George is the subject of the second simple sentence; must remain is the predicate. And is a conjunction connecting two words; but is a conjunction connecting two sentences. 1. Matilda and I prepared the dinner, Lawrence and he cut the wood. 2. My brother caught a wild duck but Henry and me caught nothing. 3. Doctor Lee practices surgery and his uncle practices medicine. 4. Walter and Julian discovered him and I 5. Albert and me will remain, but her and Julia may go. Suggestion. — If your class is now commencing the study of this subject, it will be Wf.ll to begin with the work in the Brief Introductory Course, Stepping Stones. Observe the 'Method of Investigation' on page 30 at the end of this book. 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun and a con- junction united in one word. It stands for a noun or pronoun, called its antecedent, and it acts the part of a conjunction, by uniting together two sentences. The second sentence modifies a word in the first, thus forming a complex sentence. A Complex Sentence is one composed of a prin- cipal clause and one or more dependent or modify- ing clauses. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, that, and as. Suggestion.— In the diagram draw a line connecting the relative pro- noun with its antecedent. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: "That old gentleman who carries the cane is our new post- master." Gentleman is postmaster 2 to™ J UewJ j that who carries oane 6 D ItheT •'That old gentleman who carries the cane is our new postmaster" Is a sentence; declarative; complex. Gentleman is the subject of the principal sentence; is is the copula; postmaster is the predicate. The subject, gentleman, is modified by that and old, two adjectives ; and by the clause, who carries the cane, of which who is the subject, carries, the predicate, and cane, the object. Cane is modified by the, an adjective. The predicate, postmaster, is modified by our, a possessive, and by new, an adjective. (Synthesis, page 41.) 1. Mr. Mason, who is an attorney, wrote the deed. 2. It was Henry Carter that took your letter. 3. We will honor them who honor us. 4. The g-eneral respects the man who obeys his com- mand. 5. The youth who was speaking was applauded. 6. We RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 2o Copulative Verb, to be — its different forms — followed by nominative, Rule two — Am, was, is, are, were, have been, etc Explanation.— The relative clause is a modifier of the noun for which the relative stands. Analyze and correct the following sentences: "It is her that has your book." ( It is T -fee?- R. 2. she ) that has book ( your ) Her is a pronoun used in a sentence after the copulative verb, Is, and meaning the same person as the subject, it, it is therefore iu the nominative case, Rule two, and should have the nominative form, she, 1 It was him that called you. 2. Him and I saw your little brother. 3. It is her that plays the organ. 4. Your friend, who we met, knows the doctor. 5. Some think it was her and some think it was me that won the prize. G. It was not him but me that met you. 7. It could not have been her that wrote that let- ter. S. If I had been him I would have done the same thing. 9. Whom do they say that I am? 10. I am him for whom you search. 11. It is them, not we, who are to blame. Suggestion. —Some of the above sentences, being out of grade, may be omitted for the present. Rule 2. — Every one of the different forms of the verb, to be, takes the same case after it as before. Her is a violation of Paile 2; it should have the nominative form, she. t Transitive, always followed by the Objective, R. 6. Verbs Intransitive, V Copulative, To be, am, was, is, are, were, Nominative, R. 2. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The different forms of the verb to be, such as am, was, is, are, were and others, should be followed by the nominative forms of nouns and pronouns — not the objective forms. To the Teacher.— Everything should be learned by experience and observa- tion ichile doing the ivork— analyzing the sentences— not by memorizing definitions and explanations. Nouns used as adjectives: George has a paper box. Skilful workmen make glass ornaments. Walker has a gold watch. A tall iron fence surrounds the park. Adjectives used as nouns? The good are happy. The innocent are blessed. The faithful will be rewarded. The charitable relieve the poor. The honest are the just. 10. ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word that is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs of inanner answer the question: How? They generally, though not always, end in ly. The adjectives from which they are formed do not end in ly. Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: "The wind blows violently." ( wind R. 1. blows ) [ The J [ violently ! ••The wind blows violently" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Wind is the subject; blows the predicate. Wind is modified by the, an adjective-, blows is modified by violently, an adverb of manner. (See Appendix.) 1. The river rose rapidly. 2. The sluggard sleeps soundly. 3. He acted foolishly. 4. They acted wisely. 5. The moments fly rapidly. 6. He f ell suddenly. 7. We live happily. 8. Harry came quickly. 9. Our pupils write nicely. 10. The boy broke the stick ADVERBS 25 easily. 11. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 12. You should analyze these sentences correctly and rapidly. Remark. — In the exercises above, name the adjective from which the ad- verbs are formed. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly and correct all mistakes by the application of the rules: "That steamboat moves slow." ( steamboat moves ) [That J [ slowly J Slow modifies the verb, moves; it is therefore an adverb, and should have the adverbial form, slowly. Rule 18. Rule 18.— Adverbs of manner should have the ad- verbial form which generally ends in ly. 1. That girl reads fluently. 2. Those beautiful birds sing sweet. 3. The doctors handled the wounded officers gentle. 4. The old gentleman treated us kind. 5. The rising sun shines brilliant. 6. The owl flies noiselessly. 7. How swift that racer runs! 8. That boy runs rapidly. 9. I thought it was them. 10. He knew it was us. 11. I am sure that it was them. "Whom do they say that I am?" ( They do say f I am T who R. 2.) No. 9 Whom is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form who. They is the subject, do say is the predicate, and the clause, I am who, is the object of the transitive verb, do say. Remark. — A few extra lessons may, with advantage, bo given in draw- ing diagrams without rulers and omitting the words. Neatness and rapid- ity are desirable if not necessary. 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 11. APPOSITIVES. An Appositive is a noun or pronoun used to ex- plain or identify a preceding noun or pronoun; as, Sherman, the general, not Sherman, the statesman, was appointed. An Appositive means the same person or thing as the noun or pronoun which it modifies and it is put by apposition in the same case. "Magellan, the navigator, sailed around the globe." c Magellan R. 1. 1 sailed j ) around ( navigator R. 4. ( «* ) globe R. 7. Navigator is a noun used to identity Magellan, it is, therefore, put by apposition in the same case — the nominative, according to Rule 4. "Have you seen Florence, she who found your book?" ( You | have seen | Florence R. 6. ) ( she her R. 4. ) ( who | found book J She is a pronoun used to identify Florence, it is, therefore, put by apposition in the same case — the objective according to Rule 4, and should have the objective form, her. Remark. — The practical work under this topic may be omitted until the *lass has completed the work as far as page forty-two. 1. Milton, the poet, was blind. 2. My brother, John, knew Gar- land, W\e attorney . 3. That boy, James, took my new knife. 4. The steamer Baltic, crossed the ocean. 5. I saw Matilda, your sister. 6. Victor Hugo, the famous French author, is dead. 7. You know George Herder, the physician. 8. W. B. Smith, that enterprising APPOSITIVES. 27 merchant, is exceedingly wealthy. 9. Your brother, Arthur, took your paper. 10. Bolivar, the famous zoarrior and patriot, van- quished the Spanish forces. Rule 4. — A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify a preceding noun or pronoun is put by appo- sition in the same case. Direction.— Correct the following sentences first by the application of the rule and afterwards by the elimination of such words as may be considered superfluous. 2. I met your brother, he who owns the mill. 2. It was G-eorge, him that we met. 3. Did you see Mrs. Taylor, she who keeps the store? 4. I know your sisters, they that go to school. 5. It was Nettie, her whose name they called. 6. Have you seen Victoria, she who found your book? 7. I know the manager, he who made the contract. Punctuation. — The appositive with its modifiers should be sep- arated from the rest of the sentence by commas. An Imperative Sentence is one used to express a command, an entreaty, an exhortation or permission ; as, "Children, obey your parents" "Study your lesson. "Come here quickly." To the Teacher.— Are you doing the work iri the order in which it is given without omitting any part ofitt If not you will fail to produce the best results. Questions. — What is a relative pronoun? A complex sentence? The relative sentence — clause — generally modifies a word; what is that word called? What is the difference between a compound and complex sentence? Give an example of an adjective a noun. A noun used as an adjective. Are adverbs ever formed from adjectives? Adverbs of manner generally end in v. lable? When is an appositive in the nominative case? Under what conditions is it in the objective case? What about the punctuation of the appositive? 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 12. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. A Preposition is a word used with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase that is used as a modifier. A Phrase is two or more words that cannot be separated without destroying the meaning. A Prepositional Phrase is composed of a prep- osition and a noun or a pronoun, which is called the object of the preposition. Explanation.— A preposition is never used, except with a noun or pro- noun-its object— and the two words invariably form a combination— a phra?f —which is used as an adjeotive or an adverbial modifier. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: "A life of prayer is a life of heaven." ( life E.l. is j life R. 2. ) ( A R.12. ) ( a ) of prayer R. 7. ) of heaven R. 7. ) "A life of prayer is a life of heaven" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Life is the subject; is is the copula; life is the predicate. The subject, life, is modified by a, an adjective, and by the phrase, of prayer; of being the preposition, and prayer its object. The predicate, life, is modified by a, an adjective, and by the phrase, of heaven; of being the preposition, and heaven its object. 1. Mr. Dodd is wealthy. 2. He is a man of wealth. 3. Henry is strong. 4. He is a boy of strength. 5. The City of Mexico is beau- tiful. 6. The captain of the guard disappeared. 7. The lion is a beast of prey. 8. The parrot is a bird of beautiful plumage. 9. Hilda tore the cover of my book. 10. A man of honor will never forsake his friends. Kule 7. — The object of a preposition is in the ob- jective case (and should have the objective form). 2. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 2. The church stands beside the river. 3. The artist came from Italy. 4. The crow flew wer XhQ hill. 5. The squirrel climbed up the tree. 6. They went PREPOSITIONS 29 to Boston. The arrow flew through the air 8. It dropped on the pavement. 9. The steamer moves toward the east. 10. The dog ran around the garden. "It could not have been her that wrote the letter." cz R. 2. ) could have been she 1 llPt J N9. 7 that wrote letter Her is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, she. She is modified by the relative clause, that wrote the letter. Analyze the following sentences repeatedly and correct the mistakes by the application of the rules. "The Captain left the stores in charge of Wilson and I." ( Captain left stores 6 ) I The J in L the J charge ) of Wilson%>me 7 ) I la a pronoun, used as the object of a preposition, it is therefore In the objective ca.-e, It. 7, and should have the objective form, me. •'The captain left the stores in charge of Wilson and me" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Captain is the subject; left is the predicate; stores is the object. The subject, Captain, is modified by the, a definitive adjective. The predicate, left, is modified by the phrase, in charge, and charge Is modified by the phrase, of Wilson and me. 1. Who did you write to? 2. They gave the books to George and 7. 3. Who did you get the picture from? 4. I will a you and him. 5. He should have received bis share from you and I. • 6. Walter and me gathered these flowers in the wild forest. 7. He and I are cousins. 8. She and Clara are great 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR friends. 9. My sister and me prepared the breakfast. 10. Him and I remained at the academy during the whole day. Remark.— The use of a preposition at the end of a sentence should be avoided. 1. All the cadets were present except my brother. 2. I know your cousin, he who lives in Cleveland. 3. Who does the slate belong to? 4. To whom does the slate belong? 5. Between you and I he is not noted for honesty. 6. Him and I were present at the time. "Who can he have taken it from?" ( He can have taken | it ) from ■ w ho- whom R. 7. ) Who is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the objective form, whom. "If I had been him I would have done the same thing" R. 6. ) I would have done i^P thing IjhDT No. 8 had been he ]lD Him is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, he. I is the subject, would have done, is the predicate, thing is the object. The predicate, would have done, is modified by the clause, if I had been he. Remark.— Every mistake in language is a violation of a Rule of Grammar. We cannot apply a single Rule of Grammar to a single word in a sentence without analyzing the sentence— or a part of it. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 EXAMINATION IN GRAMMAR. Examine the following sentences carefully. If 3^011 find a mistake in an}- one or more of them, give the number of )he sentence, correct it and give } T our reason for Leaking the change. 1. Him and I are old friends. 3. Neither of the boys were present. :. Who did your brother want? 4. Who did lie set that machine from ? 5. I was sure that it was them. 6. Walter is the tallest of the two boys. If the members of your class are prepared to correct the sen- tences above as they are corrected below, you may conclude that you are using the best method of teaching language through the medium of grammar. 1. ''Him" is a violation of Rule one; it should have the nominative form, he. He and I are old friends. Page 17. 2. "Who" is a violation of Rule six; it should have the objective form, whom. Whom did your brother want? 3. "Were" is a violation of Rule thirteen; it should have the singular form, was. Neither of the boys was present. Page 3 ; . 4. "Who" is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the objective form, whom. From whom did you get that machine ? 5. "Them " is a violation of Rule two ; it should have the nominative form, they, 6. "Tallest" is an adjective used in comparing two per- sons, it should, therefore, have the comparative form, taller. If the members of the class cannot analyze and correct the sentences above as rapidly as they can talk, there is something deficient in the method of instruction and you had b< review, commencing with page seventeen. Remark.— }-;very class in the fourth or fifth grade should do the work in that section known as Stepping Stones, beginning with pi 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15. AGREEMENT OF VERBS. Speaking of ourselves ■ Singular. I am, Plural. We are. J Speaking of other persons or things : was. I We were He is. They are. He was. They were. He has. They have. w He writes. They write. Singular forms of the verb, to be, are am, was, is. Plural forms are were and are. Of verbs in general it may be said, when speaking of persons and things in present time: Singular verbs end in s. Plural verbs do not end in s. . ^Singular: The boy reads well. ISumber< to , * „ (Plural:. The boys read well. Correct the following sentences, using the following as models: "Many members of the House of Lords was absent at the time." Was is a verb, having the plural subject, members, therefore it should have the plural form, were ; R. 13. Rule 13. — A Verb must agree with its subject in number. <( The president, the auditor and the secretary of state writes letters every day." Write* is a violation of rule thirteen; it should have the plural torn*, DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES, 33 Remark.— The pronoun you is plural in form, and should be followed by a verb in the plural, even when a represents a singular noun. Sentences to be collected: 1. Mr. Johnson and his brother toas at the meeting. 2. Tim3 and tide waits for no man. 3. He works at the mill, and his brother and sister stays in the office. 4. Your uncle, in company with two young men, were here. 5. His talents, his wisdom, and his per- sonal appearance attracts attention. 6, George, together with his sister, are attending school. 7. Ambition and avarice in man is a source of xmhappiness. 8. The horse and the hero falls together. 9, A number of horses, together with a large amount of other property, were destroyed by fire last night. 10. A large crowd of soldiers, sailors, physicians, lawyers, farmers and mechanics toere collected. C Transitive, The king protected the people. Verbs < Intransitive, The king arrived in time. (. Copulative, Am, was, is, are, were, nominative, R. 2. The Definitive Adjectives, each, every, either, and neither, when used as nouns, are singular. As the subjects of sentences, they should be followed by verbs in the singular. As adjectives, they modify sin- gular nouns only. Correct the following sentences, using this as a model*. "Either of the two roads lead to town." Neither of leads 13 roads 7 ) UheJ jtwoT " to town Lead Is a verb, having the singular subject, either, therefore it should have the singular form, leads, R. 13. 1. Every one of the pupils were provided with paper by the teacher. 2. Each of the boys write seven pages a day. 3. Neither of the lessons were well prepared. 4. Neither of the men were at the office. 5. Neither 01 the houses stand alone. 6. Every one of the officers do their duty well. 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Remark.— -The pronoun, them, should never be used to point out a noun Instead of this or that, these or those. Two adjectives only, this and that, have plural forms, viz. : these and those. There are, however, many others that are in their nature either singular or plural. Remark.— This and these are applied to things near the speaker, tSiat and those to things distant either in time or space. Rule 22. An adjective and the noun which it modifies should agree in number. Examples. — This book, this kind, that book, that kind, these books, those books, several hats, both hands, an hour, this sort, that sort. Correct the following sentences, using this as a model: "I have read some of those kind of books." d have read some of of ) kind 7 ) [ that J books Those is an adjective, modifying the singular noun, kind, therefore, it should have the singular form, that; R. 22. 1. I would like some of them cherries. 2. Nellie had some of those kind. 3. Jennie does not like these kind. 4. She wants those sort. 5. My uncle bad some of them kind of apples. 6. He always kept these kind for his own use, and he generally gave those sort away. 7. Them boys took my books, and they left them other books on the desk. 8. Those sort of pictures are quite com- mon. 9. I like these kind better. Questions.— What is the singular form of the verb, walk? were? know? are? ride? give? have? drink? run? sing? What is the plural form of the verb, am? is? works? writes? lives? was? rules? COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 35 EXERCISES. To be corrected — not analyzed: 1. There is several hundred people in the valley. 2. Was you there on Saturday? 3. Circumstances alters cases. 4. Peaches is very scarce this season. 5. Has the children taken your hat? 6. There is hardly any apples on the tree. 7. Several parts of a broken rope was twisted around it. 8. There is fine opportunities for energetic young men here. 9. What's them things for? 20. Those three books has cost me seven dollars. 2. Them people lived in houses that was built on piles. 2. Two of my little friends has written a letter to you. 3. Three coats is two too many for one boy. 4. No two of them was alike. 5. Has the papers been delivered? 6. He and Eugene goes to market every day. 7. Was you at home last night? 8. Those kind of people are never satisfied. 9. Which of these two books are yours? 10. Them apples will be wasted. 11. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 12. Either him or her have taken my books. 14. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Comparison is a variation in form of the adjective to express different degrees of quality ; as good, bet- ter, best. The Positive degree ascribes to an object the sim- ple quality; as, "He is a wise man." The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than that expressed by the positive. Kxplanation.— The Comparative decree is used when two things are compared. It generally ends In r or er: lie is the wiser of the two men. The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two objects. 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Explanation.— The Superlative degree is used when more than two things are compared. It generally ends in est: He is the wisest of all the men. Comparison of Adjectives. Positive, Simple form. Comparative, er. Two things. Superlative, est. More than two things. Correct the following sentences, using this as a model: "Eugene is the oldest of the two boys." ( Eugene is of older I the J boys ) I the J I twoT " Oldest is an adjective modifying the predicate, boy, understood. Since only two persons are compared, it is in the comparative degree and should have the comparative form, older; Or: Oldest, is an adjective modifying the subject, Eugene; R. 23. Since only two persons are compared, it is the comparative degree, and it should have the comparative form, older, ••Eugene is the older of the two boys" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Eugene is the subject; is is the copula; older is the predicate, and is mod- ified by the phrase, of boys; boys is modified by the and two, definitive ad' jectiv^s. 1 . My book is the best of the two. 2. Willie is the stronger of the three boys. 3. Of the four doors, this is the larger. 4. Of the five pictures, this one is the prettier. 5. Frank is the best reader of the two boys, and Maggie is the best writer of all the girls. 6. Man is the greater of all coated beings. 7. Hannibal was the bravest of the two generals. j. Of all the drawings, Percy's is the neater and the better. 9. Of the four pieces of lace, this is, perhaps, the finer. 10. Of the two evils choose the least. 11. Which of these two instruments is the best? 12. Lillie is the eldest of my two sisters. 13. The younger of the four brothers is the taller. 14. Of the two, I consider this the worst. 15. Which is the eldest, Blanch or Adelle? 16. This knife is the sharpest of the two. ADVERBS. 37 Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most, or less and least; as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful; able, less able, least able. Remark. — Some adjectives aro compared irregularly; as, good, better, best; little, less, least; much, more, most; bad, worse, worst; fore, former, foremost. 15. ADVERBS. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, a participle, or another adverb. Adverbs may be divided into five general classes: adverbs of manner, of degree, of time, of place, and of cause. Adverbs of manner answer the question: How? r How? How much? Why? Wherefore? Where? Whither? Whence? When? How long? How often? Adverbs answer the questions : Adverbs of Degree answer the questions : How much? How little? 1. His mind was wholly absorbed. 2. He was almost lost. 3. James can only read. l. He scarcely moves* 5. They labored long enough. 6. We were almost ready. 7. This work is much better. 8. It was wholly destroyed. 9. They bad partly engaged him. 10. The penalty was too severe. 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Adverbs of Time answer the questions : When ? How long? How often? 1. The doctor dines early. 2. You may call again. 3. We sel- dom go away. 4. I have seen you often. 5. The doctor sometimes smokes. 6. He seldom chews. 7. Some flowers always bloom early. 8. Dr. Brown lived here formerly. 9. Thrice they offered him a crown. Adverbs of Place answer the questions : Where ? From what place? To what place? 1. They did not know him there. 2. The man stood here. 3. He Will go hence. 4. They shot their arrows away. 5. The sailor went aloft. 6. He will come down again. 7. They climb aloft. 8. He went below. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions : Why? Wherefore? Interrogative Adverbs are such as are used in asking questions ; as, Why have you broken your con- tract ? Whither has he gone ? Remark.— The words yes and no are regarded as adverbs used as entire sentences in elliptical form; as "Will you go?" "Yes" (I will go); "No" (I will not go). 16. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. Many adverbs admit of comparison. Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the simple form ; as, fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon, sooner, soonest. Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by prefixing more, and most, less and least to the simple form; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; swiftly, less svnftly, least swiftly . Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better, best; ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most, etc. ADVERBIAL PHRASE. 39 An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words used as a single adverb; as, "In general" "hand in hand," "one by one." EXERCISES. To be analyzed: 1. They lived very happily. 2. The moments fly rapidly. 3. I came again, and away he went. 4. We reproved him severely, but he did not care. 5. The doctor was very gentle and exceedingly kind. C. We treated him handsomely. 7 The little boy was very naughty. 8. He signed it then and there. 9. The mystery will be explained by and by. 10. Mr. Willard and his companion were greatly dis- appointed. 2. I have never seen him. 2. You must do that no more. 3. He should speak more distinctly. 4. That ponderous locomotive moves that long train quite easily. 5. We were greatly excited. 6. That fine new house was shaken violently. 7. I have read it again and again. 8. He will do so no more. 9. Perchance you are the man. 10. The very fairest flowers usually wither the most quickly. 11. They travel side by side. 12. The children walk hand in hand. 13. The birds flew away one by one. 14. The athlete climbed the ladder hand overhand. 15. He lost his influence little by little. 7 4. UtZim€d (Zf. v^zj^, *G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17. PREPOSITIONS-Understood. In many expressions in our language, the preposi- tions are wanting". In such cases they are said to be understood; as, "George gave (x) me his book." Prepositional Phrases are sometimes modified by adverbs; as, r, He and his brother sailed nearly around the globe." ( He and brother sailed 1 (his) around globe. (nearly R.18.) 1. Blucher arrived just in time. 2. She threw the ball almost over the house. 3. Good humor spreads happiness around just as the sun sheds its light on all (just in manner in which) . 4. The house stands exactly on the line. 5. The church is just around the corner. 6. He goes home immediately after dinner. 2. That book, Hayden's Dictionary of Dates, is valued (x) three dollars. 2. He remains at the office (x) six hours (x) every day. 3. They return (to) home in the evening. 4. Mr. Hall is worth (x) a million of dollars. 5. We don't care (x) a straw. 6. Spring has already covered his grave (x) twelve inches with flowers. 7. The poor, dissipated student was refused (x) his diploma. 8. The ship sailed (x) four knots (x) an hour. 9. He wore his coat (x) cloak-fashion. 10. That new work, Polar and Tropical America, is worth (x) five dollars. 11. Give (x) me some of those pamphlets, The Signs of the Times. 12. I will pay (to) you eome time (x) next week. CAPITALS. — Begin with capitals nouns, adjectives, and verbs, in the titles of books, or the headings of compositions. Questions.— What is an adverb? Adverbs that end in ly are of what class? What is the difference in form between an adverb of manner and an adjective? Name the different classes of adverbs. What are interrogative adverbs? Is an adverbial phrase an inseparable combination? Would yoii treat an adverbial phrase as a single word? Compare the adverbs, Xatf swiftly, well, wisely, ill, and much. SUBJUN< TIVE CLAUSES. 41 SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES. The Subjunctive Clause is used to express a con- dition, a doubt, a wish, a motive, a supposition, or a possi- bility. It is generally introduced by such conjunctions as if, though, unless, except, lest, that, etc. Rule 17. In subjunctive clauses the plural form of the verb is generally used, even with singular subjects. Analyze and correct the following sentences: "Though he slays me, yet will I guard, cherish and protect my brother." will guard, cherish, protect brother my ( though j ( he slays slay R. 17. Slays may be correct in accordance with R. 13, but it is a violation of R. 17 and it should have the subjunctive or plural form, slat/. 1. Make peace with thine enemy, lest he injures thee. 2. It is my de-ire that he goes at once. 3. Unless the miller grinds our com. we will have no meal. 1. If it pains this evening, I will re- main at home. 5. The general commanded thai the traitor dies for the crime, fi. 1 wish that I was he. 7. If thy brother offend - thee, rebuke him; if he repent-, forgive him. Page 71. Question. — }\&-/it'C4%, '2^e4^e dfa&v *z>Ws&( 't'm> etzve'Pi,. '^/iizszt O* 'i^ttt4>'?t- <£ri€Wt, & ed 9 or en. EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS 2 As subjects and objects — nouns. 1. Flying tires the duck. 2. Rowing is delightful. 3. His playing is magnificent. 4. Samuel loves reading. 5. He delights in writing letters. 6. They cheered him for winning the race. 7. He was hurt by falling. 8. George delights in riding his pony. As adjective modifiers — adjectives. 1. The rain is falling. 2. The wheel was broken by the acci- dent- 3. The soldier was wounded by a ball. 4. They were quickly dispersed. 5. He will repair the broken machine. 6. Julian was hurt by & falling stone. 7. They will he pleased to see you. 8. The officer had been wounded in battle. Remark.— The copulative verb and the participle which follows it should be treated separately. The idea contained in the two words, however, is of- ten modified by an adverb or a phrase. (See page 21.) Participles and Infinitives are often used as parts of transitive verbs. In such cases the com- bination must be taken together as one word, and treated as a transitive verb. Examples.— The soldiers had been resting their horses by the roadside. t. The actor was to imagine that his father was dead. 3. The boys have been studying their lessons. 4. The infantry was to have held the mountain pass. 5. Storms have been destroying the crops. 6. The commander was planning the attack. 7. The merchant ought to have sold the goods. Punctuation. — When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, its place is usually supplied by a comma. Examples.— One murder makes a villain; millions, a hero. 2. War is the law of violence*, peace, the law of love. PARTICIP1 \I. PHRASES. 03 Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: |4 They ought to have reconnoitered the enemy's position." (They ought to have reconnoitered position [the J [enemy's J ) They is the subject; ought to have reconnoitered is the predicate and Is modified by position, an objective element. 1. The printers ought to be doing their work. 2. Walter ought to have been preparing his lesson. 3. They were to have been paint- ing the house. 4. They were painting the house. 5. Henry should have prepared his lesson. 6. I ought to have received my share of the work. 7. They could have taken the fort by storm. 8. You must have seen him on the street. 24. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. The Participial Phrase is a combination of the participle with one or more other words from which it cannot be separated without destroying the meaning. The phrase is used as a noun, as an adjective, or as an adverb. As subjects of sentences — nouns. "My being a child was a plea for my admission." , ^ [ Being y child 5 J [ my 8 J |jj was t plea 2 J for admission J The participial phrase, my being: a child, is the subject ; plea If the predicate; was la the copula. Bering la modified by my* an adjectfo ement ; child La modified by a, an adjective element. 1. Hia being a friend of yours waa sufficient. 2. Our being Americans gave Ufl the freedom of the town on that occasion. 3. Their being too intimate with the commander of the fort led 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. to the discovery of the plot. 4. Your being a member of the or. . der will be of advantage to you. As objects of transitive verbs — nouns. "I could not avoid expressing my concern for the stranger. " could avoid [not J ( expressing 6 j concern 6 l m yj strangers ] I the J ~ 1. I cannot help remarking the resemblance between him and our author. 2. They enjoyed witnessing the various displays. 3. The proprietors favored running the machinery by steam. 4. Rachel has stopped studying music for the present* 5. I dis- like attending public receptions. As adverbial modifiers— adverbs* "The storm having passed away, they resumed their journey." ( They resumed journey [ their J storm 5 having passed ) I the J "The storm having passed, they resumed their journey," is a sentence ; de- clarative; simple. They is the subject; resumed is the predicate, and is modified by journey, an objective element, and by the participial phrase, the storm having passed, an adverbial element. Remark.— The participle is sometimes composed of two or more words. Having passed, in the diagram above, is an example of this kind. 1. The factory having closed, the men returned to their homes. 2. The war being ended, the soldiers were disbanded. 3. The weary wanderer* rested, their journey having been completed. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 65 As adjective modifiers — Adjectives. "The city baying been taken by storm, was given up to plun- der. " City TtbTJ was given having been taken ) by to plunder) storm "The city having been taken by storm, was given up to plunder," if a een- tsnee ; declarative ; simple. The subject, city, is modified by the participial phrase, having been taken by storm, an adjective element. 1. The burglar, captured in the act of stealing, was punished for the crime. 2. That famous old corporation, having been over- whelmed with indebtedness, was dissolved. 3. That street, having been paved with granite, is now a magnificent thoroughfare. "Being but dust, be humble and wise." c^ R. 1. be hnmble and wise being dnst 5 "") "G^tj "Bein? but dust, be humble and wise," is a sentence ; imperative ; simple ; Thou or you understood is the subject ; be lathe copula; humble and wl*e are the predicates. The subject is modified by the participial phrase, being but dust, an adjective element. (Sec page 27.) 1. Being innocent of the crime, bo firm and confident. 2. Be- ing in moderate circumstances, be industrious and honest. 3. Be- l American, you Bhould defend your country. 4. Beinj good circum* >e contended and happy. ftein irk.— In imperative seuieuoeo the subject is generally ^ranting— understood. 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. As independent phrases. u Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." ( speaking 5 j [ properly J ( There is T tnin g ) l no J I such J ( chance is X as 2 In this sentence the participle, speaking, is used independently. 1. This conduct, viewing it in the most favorable light, reflects discredit on his character. 2. Generally speaking, few men at- tain worldly greatness. 3. The movements of the enemy, view- ing them from the stand-point of a general, were, to say the least, graceful. Remark.— Such constructions as the participial phrases, viewing it in the most favorable light, generally speaking and viewing them from the stand-point of a general, are regarded as independent. They do, however carry with them a modifying force. As objects of prepositions — nouns. "I was not aware of his being a physician. a was aware of f being j physician 5 J I is the subject; aware is the predicate; was is the copula. The pred" icate, aware, is modified by no't, an adverbial element, and by the phrase, of his being a physician, an adverbial element; being is modified by his, an adjective element ; physician, by a, an adjective. 1* I had not been informed of his being a member. 2. We have PARTICIPIAL PHRASE 67 not been notified of their being selected. 3. Bis brother was fined for driving rapidly over the bridge. 4. For doing bo much mischief they were banished from the town. 5. He could not be dissuaded from speaking the truth. 1. ZEROISES. To be analyzed: l a He Btood leaning on his spade and gazing at the brightness in the west. 2. They could not avoid expressing their sympathy for the prisoner. 3. Endeavoring to escape, he fell. 4. The men were engaged in cutting wood. 5. "Your being a subject of the ■u of England will be of advantage to you. 6. Being pressed onflicting interests, they avoided telling what (that which) they knew of the accident. 7. The little boy could not be terri- fied into telling what he knew. 8. When they were pressed by conflicting interests, they avoided telling what they knew. 9. When Elizabeth was queen Bacon was lord chancellor. 10. When (during the time during which) we were detained by the enemy we discovered their (his) plans. 11. The boys took whatever (that which) they found. 12. You may call whoever (him whom) you see. 21. ffOMINATIYE ABSOLUTE. The Nominative Absolute Case is the use of a noun independent of any governing word. When a noun or pronoun is not in any other case, it Is put in the Nominative Absolute Case. The several distinct condi- tions under which this occurs are: 1. By amotion; as, Oh t lie folly of sin! Your brother, h<> shall be detained. Your father, whese La he? And the Prophets, do they Live forev< ■' ct addn : >"ri< >. your brother calls you. 4. With - ; as, My being a chUd, was a plea for my ad- mission. The sun approaching >w melts away. 5. With an Industrious student Is to be an excellent scholar. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 5. A noun or pronoun used independently is in the nominative absolute ease (and should have the nominative form). Explanation.— The noun or pronoun which is said to be used independ- ently with a participle, is what may be considered the subject of the participle or the predicate following a participle from the verb, to be. Analyze and correct the following sentences, using this as a model: "I had no idea of its being him." ( I had idea 6 J of [_noJ \ ( being 7 j he 5 ) I &> J 7. i "I had no idea of its being Mm." Him is a pronoun used independently with a participle, therefore it is in the nominative absolute case, R. 5, and should have the nominative form, he. (See page 51.) 1. Him being seen, they fled. 2. You did not know of its be- ing me. 3. Us having returned, they rejoiced. 4. They had not been informed of its being her. 5. Me being present, they soon retired. 6. Oh, happy us! who are thus blessed. 7. Him being rich, they feared his influence. 8. "Thee too! Brutus, my son," cried Caesar. 9. Its being me, had much to do with his decision in the matter. 10. Him that formed the eye, can he not see? 11. Its being her made no difference. Participles and Infinitives, even where used as nouns, are modified by adverbial elements, not by- adjective elements. Exception. — A Participle may be modified by a noun or pro- noun in the Possessive case; as "My being a child was a plea for my admission/ 9 "I had not been informed of Johrts having returned." The nouns and pronouns in such cases are called ad- jective elements. (See diagram, page 63.) PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 69 Remark.— Tn svcfa constructions the nominative and objective forms are often improperly used for the possessive. Cor- ng sentences, using tin's as a model: "The manager has not been informed of him having resigned." Manager "QhTJ" U2D has been y informed ) of having resigned TUT Him is a pronoun used to modify the participle, having resigned, there- is in the possessh e case, R. 8. and should have the possessive form, his. The manager has not been informed of his having resigned. Rule 8. A noun or pronoun used to modify a par- ticiple is in the possessive case (and should have the possessive form). 1. Did you not hear of me being there? 2. Him being a for- eigner was the cause of his expulsion from the town. 3. We have heard of Mm going to the falls. 4. I doubted him having a soldier. 5. Mr. Ward objected to his son joining the army. $. A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing. 7. He opposed me He had no idea of me being there. 9. The was alarmed by tb Hiking. 10. Our boat sinking threw us upon the mercy of the waves. 2. The train leaving the depot before the appointed time ran- remain a1 lnnne. 2. I am not afraid of Willie going into the water. 3. His father waa alarmed at him doingso. 4. There is do necessity of me going home now. 5. They being too intimate with the commander of the fort, led to the discovery of (he i I had nol been Informed of him being a member. 7. We being Americans gave us the freedom of the town. 8. You being a member of the order will be of advantage to you. Questions.— Is a participle ever used a£ partof a verb? \ complete verb may I d <>f how many words? What is meant by a noun used Inde- mples. in i be <■ n "A triend 1 what rule for yours? What is a possessive pronoun? (Page 82). Participles and infinitives are modified by what "dements? 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25. SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES. The Subjunctive Clause is used to express a condition, a doubt, a wish, a motive, a supposi- tion, or a possibility. This clause represents an ideal act or a real act placed under a condition of more or less doubt. Explanation. — This clause is found in complex sentences? and it is joined to the verb of the principal sentence by such conjunctions as if, though, unless, except, lest, that, until, pro- vided that, whether, etc. These conjunctions are called the Signs of the Subjunctive, and many of them may be substituted for the word, if, in the following table: SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. If I be If we be If I were If we were If I write If thou be If you be If thou wert If you were If thou write If he be If they be If he were If they were If he write INDICATIVE FORMS. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. I am We are I was We were I write Thou art You are Thou wast You were Thou writest lie is They are He was They were He writes Remark.— Nearly all the verbs in the language correspond in form, so far as termination is concerned, to the verb, write: He writes; they write; if he write. He loves; they love; if he love. He comes; they come; it he come. Remark.— The Subjunctive form of the verb is used in subjunctive clauses. The Indicative form is used in declarative, and interrogative sen- tences. Punctuation. — Transposed and parenthetical words, phrases, and clauses are usually set off by commas. SU1UI \ni\ i: CLAUSES. 7 J 1 \ l RCI SES. To be analyzed: 1. If this be true, all will end well. 1. Had I time, I would aid you. 3. If I had time, 1 would aid you. 4. Here I a king, I would be generous. 5. If I were a king, I would be generous. G. Wert he honest, he would pay me. 7. Had I been there, I should have seen him. 8. If he study, he will exeel. 9. Were I not Alexander, I would \>q Diogenes. 10. The commander suggested that the town be taken by storm. 11, The king is anxious that the army be developed and strengthened. 12. Go with the understanding that one hundred men be admitted with you. 13. I should not go if I were you. 14. Though he leave me alone, I shall not be afraid. 15. Remain until he come. 2. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he weary of thee. 2. Though he drive me from his door, yet I will not de- him. 3. Unless he return, he will lose a fine opportunity. 4. If I were you, I would not go. 5. Unless you go, I will not Btay. G. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 7. If it be proper, do it. S. If he promise, he will reform. 9. If I were now :i< strong as I was a year ago, I would begin the work at once. 10. If he but touch the hills, they will smoke. 11. Would that I were he. 12. I wish that he wore you. 13. It is our desire thai he go without further dolay. 14. Oh that he were here! 15. Pro- vided thai he come in time, 1 will remain. 10. You may stay dur- ing the summer, whether I be there or not. Remark. — Like many other things in the Bcience of language, a knowL edge of the subjuncth e clause and the verb in the subjunctive mode musl be acquired from experience In tin.' anal} Bis of sentences containing such con structions, no1 by memorizing definitions and explanation* . Rule 17. In Subjunctive Clauses the plural forxw of the verb is generally used, even with singular subjects. EXER4 i - i - . To bt correcti 1. If thlfi is brae, all will end well. 2. Was I a Idng, I would ■ is. :;. Though b me from hia door, yel will I clin^ to him. 4. I wish 1 was In power, I would teach him a 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. son. 5. If it is proper, do so. 6. If he promises he will reform. 7. I wish I was a scholar. 8. Unless he returns, he will lose a fine opportunity. 9. Unless the miller grinds the corn, we will have no meal. 10. Make peace with him lest he destroys thee. 11. It is decreed that he is banished from his native land. 12. Justice demands that he dies for the crime. 13. It is my desire that he goes home to-day. 14. The king commanded that the town should be taken by storm. 26. CLASSES OF NOUNS. Nouns are divided into two principal classes : Com- mon, Proper. A common noun is a general or class name. Examples. — Door, bird, house, gold, water, paper, pencil. A collective noun is a common noun denoting a collection of individuals considered as forming one whole or body. Examples. — Army, committee, assembly, swarm, jury, club, company. Explanation.— When a collective noun denotes the collection as one body, which is generally the case, the verb which follows it must be singular; as, "The company was large.'* Here we do not mean that the persons com- posing the company were large. A proper noun is a special or individual name. Examples. — Julian, Bismarck, Andrew Jackson, Boston, Canada. Capitals. — All proper nouns should begin with capitals. 27. PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns with regard to sex. The Masculine gender denotes males. Examples.— Afaw, father, prince, governor, lad, master, king, emperor. PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 73 The Feminine gender denotes females. Examples. — Woman, mother, princess, governess, lass, mistress, queen. The Common gender denotes cither males or fcj- males. l \ imples. — Children, parent, bird, cousin, teacher, assistant. The Neuter gender denotes neither males nor fe- males. Examples.— City, knife, tree, house, smartness, stupidity, frost, winter* Person is that property of noun or pronoun which distin- guishes the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or ob- ject spoken of. The First person denotes the speaker. Examples.—"/, Henry, was with him." "Give it to me, your cousin.' * The Second person denotes the person spoken to. Examples.—" William, T have a letter tor you." Punctuation, — N spoken to should be separated from the r< st of ti ■ ma. The Third person denotes the person or object 8poh a <>J\ Examples*— J \ the boy a book and tome pens. Number is the property of the noun which shows whether one ore than o of. The Singular Number is used when only one ob- ject i- meant : as, boy, man, hat, rivi r. The Plural Number is used when two, Si w red or nj objects are meant; as, nn n, hats, rivers* 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Suggestion. — Write on the blackboard the following outline and use it as an order of parsing nouns. By referring to the definitions the pupils will learn the meaning of the terms used. ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUN. NOUN. CLASS. GENDER. PERSON. NUMBER. CASE, R. Common Proper Masculine Feminine Neuter. Common First Second Third Singular Plural Nominative Possessive Objective ♦ MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. "William, Henry's lesson is prepared." William ... is a noun; proper; masculine; second;, singular; nominative absolute case, it is the name of a per- son addressed. Rule 5. Henry's ... is a noun; proper; masculine gender; third person; singular number; possessive case, it denotes posses- sion, and modifies lesson* Rule 3. 2. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. ' Greeks .... noun; proper; masculine; third; plural; subject of the verb, took, therefore, nominative case. Rule 1. Troy noun; proper; neuter-, third; singular; object of the verb, took; objective. Rule 6. Stratagem . . noun; common; neuter; third', singular; object of the preposition, by; objective. Rule 7. 3. Victor Hugo, the famous French author, is dead. Victor Hugo . noun; proper; masculine; third; singular; subject of verb, is; nominative. Rule 1. Author .... : noun; common; masculine; third; singular; in appo- sition with Yietor Hugo; nominative. Rule 4. letters :;> fit-. $io-i^L^ f U(o-- f pi^p^t. 8, /SSJ. HseAAs. %Ms/lAJU C^ZZ ZsV^Z 20-Vls UsO-Us C/tWt' bsU^O-'U^ ///'/ if '/ €6 /fffr// < ■' /•/ ^vr/y /rtf//. f / / (/ A- // /f JJ/f 'r /''J fJ//'/f*)/-l tJS /, <ir ; Pains, ethics, politics, means, series, news, odds, amends^ physics, optics, mathematics. 78 COMPOSITION. GENDER OF NOUNS. TJie gender of nouns is distinguished in three ways : 1. By a change of form; as, count, countess; tiger, tigress; hero, heroine. 2. By the use of different words; as, boy, girl; man, woman; father, mother. 3. By prefixing or affixing another word; as, Mr. Hall, Mrs. Hall; step-son, step -daughter; man-servant, maid-servant. Suggestion.— The following nouns may be arranged under the three dif- ferent heads just given. The lists of words on these pages may be treated as a special spelling lesson in which the meaning of the words should be taught. Duke, duchess; miss, master; empress, emperor; marquis, marchioness; king, queen; lad, lass; sir, madam; papa, mamma; wizard, witch; groom, bride; lady, gentleman; Paul, Pauline; baron, baroness; lord, lady; widow, widower; hart, roe; Joseph, Josephine; he -bear, she-bear; doctor, doctress; belle, beaux; czar, czarina; uncle, aunt; youth, maiden; nephew, niece; sultan, sultana; arch-duke, arch-duchess; male-child, female-child; testator, testatrix; monk, nun. COMPOSITIONS. Before undertaking to write a composition oti any subject the teacher or pupil should ask questions suggested by the object, and construct an outline like the following on peaches: Topical Outline. What they are. Where they grow. f Size. General appearance. } Shape. [ Color, ( Skin. Parts. < Pulp. I Seed. ^ Use and preparation. Peaches. COMPOSITION. 79 Write outlines of the following subjects and afterwards write compositions on them: Apples, plums, cherries, water- melons, tomatoes, etc. Having written several compositions on subjects as familiar as the preceding, more difficult ones may be selected. The sources of the necessary information should be suggested or supplied by the teacher. A chapter on the subject may be read to the pupils, then, after a brief discussion of it by the entire class, the outline may be prepared and the composition written. Sturges' Manual of School Exercises furnishes inter- esting information for one hundred compositions. THE OSTRICH. Questions.— What is it? Found in what countries? In what kind of a climate does it flourish? As compared with the birds of this country, what can you say of it? What do you know of ostrich farming? Of what use is it? Can you give a brief sketch of the first one you saw, and the circumstances attend- ing the occasion? Subjects Suggested. — The condor, eagle, goose, tiger, ele- phant, hyena, whale, herring, alligator, turtle, lobster, etc. Topical Outline, f Birth and parentage. Early education. C French and Indian war. Services. < Revolutionary war. ( As President. Character and rank as a General. Death. Interesting incidents in life. /.— Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Bnrr, Sir Wil- liam Pitt, Abraham Lincoln, William the Conqueror, Horace Greeley, Henry W. Longfellow, Christopher Columbus, etc. George Washington. 80 COMPOSITION. MEXICAN WAR. Information from United States History. Questions. — To what three generals was the conduct of the war entrusted on the part of the United States government ? Where was the first battle fought. Give an account of Gen. Taylor's operations in Texas at Palo Alto and at Rasaca de la Palma, In Mexico at Monterey and Buena Vista. Give an account of Gen. Kearney's exploits in New Mexico and California. With how many soldiers did Gen. Scott set out for the City of Mexico ? Describe the attack upon and capture of Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo. How long and for what purpose did the army rest at Puebla ? Describe the march upon the Capital City, the attack upon Contreras, Churubusco, Chapultepec arid the final entry of the army into the City of Mexico. [Limit to one page of foolscap.] fFort Brown. ' Texas. Mexican War. ' Gen. Taylor. Gen. Kearney. Mexico. < Palo Alto. I Rasaca de la Palma. ( Monterey. ( Buena Vista. f New Mexico. I California. Gen. Scott. 'Vera Cruz. Cerro Gordo. Puebla. f Contreras. .Mexico. ] Churubusco. I Chapultepec. Subjects Suggested. — King George's War, French and Indian War, King Philip's War, Burgoyne's Invasion and Capture at Sar- atoga, Siege and Capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Battle of New Orleans, Perry's Victory. Suggestion.— After a lesson has been prepared in the School Reader a com- position may be written which will contain a brief sketch of the incidents related. LETTERS. 81 (QwWIVWbafiv, ©fW^ ©0O. 5tfl/j ^ SST. (^ O/iri/ £>,2, / \y,2/v\Xwv\/ wqqAA ot "aae^ fcu© uWtn- foeevi/vvvti/ -and q$ am Vaia-wi 1/W j/t-avtAe6r ©eaq/i/Ki/tj, a/m^ ty&vitl&wv&vb tf^e Ioam>V oX curb wi/taVU/i/©u> } <$ SUPERSCRIPTION, 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 28. PROPERTY OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a part of speech which is used to represent a noun. Pronouns are divided into four classes: Personal, Kelative, Interrogative and Possessive. (See page 13.) Personal Pronouns show by their form whether they are of the first, second or third person. (See page 16.) A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a pre- ceding word, or phrase, called its antecedent, to which it joins a modifying clause. Remark,— The Simple Relatives are icho, which is used to represent persons; which and what, to represent things; that, to represent both persons and things; and as, to take the place of ivho, which, or that, after such, many and same. Interrogative Pronouns are relative pronouns which are used in asking questions. Remark.— The antecedent of the interrogative pronoun is found in the answer to the question. The interrogatives are who? which.? what? Possessive Pronouns represent both the pos- sessor and the thing possessed. Remark.— The possessive pronouns retain the same form in the nomina- tiye and objective cases. They are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs. Compound Personal Pronouns retain the same form in the nominative and objective cases and are not used in the possessive. Remark.— They are myself, thyself or yourself, himself, herself, it- self with the plural forms, ourselves, yourselves and themselves. The Compound Relative Pronouns are, who- PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 83 ever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever and whatsoevi r. Analyze the following sentences: "This is the boy whoso book you found.*' ( This is 13. boy U. 2. ) c found 11. 13. book i?. £ ( whose B. 3. ) D 1. The gentleman, ^/tose aid was solicited, has left town. 2. A man. wfo Reveres,' will be honored. 3. The tempest, w>/Wcft was raging, drove them to the nearest shelter. 4. Paul, who was an apostle, visited Rome. 5. Solomon, who built the temple in Jeru- salem, was the wisest of kings. 6. The house in which he lived has passed into other hands. 7. The time in which Priam, king of Troy, lived, is uncertain. S. You may do what (that which) you please. Remark—The words which, what, and that are used as adjectives as well as relatives and interrogative*. 1. Which book did vou take? What lesson did the teacher as- rign the class yesterday? 3. That lesson is easily prepared. 4. Which boy is the best scholar of thethree? 5. What prof ession did he chooser "Take whatever he gave you/' ( [Vou] take /.'. 13. that /;. '/. ) ( whatever ) c be gave which ich B. 6. J VOU It. 7. ) 1. Whoever tries will succeed. 2. Call whoever you want. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Whatever is, is right. 4. That is right which is. 5. Whatso- ever ye shall ask in my name that will I do. 6. Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son. 7. We should avoid doing whatever injures others. Remark.— A compound relative pronoun is generally equivalent to two words— a relative and its antecedent. In the analysis, the two words should be used instead of the compound relative. ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUJST. Pron. Class. Gender. Person. Number. K Case. II personal Masculine First Singular Nominat. Relative Feminine Second Plural 9 Possessive 3 Interrogative Common Third Objective Possessive Neuter Eule 9.— Pronouns must agree with their antece- dents in person, gender, and number, MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. "That book is hers." first method: Hers . . is a pronoun; possessive; neuter gender; third person; sing- ular number (to agree with its antecedent), Rule 9; nominative case. Rule 2. SECOND METHOD: Hers Who =her book. Her, pronoun; personal; feminine; third; sing- ular (to agree with its antecedent, the name of the per- son referred to), Rule 9; possessive. Rule 3. 2. "Who is taller than he V pronoun; interrogative; common; third; singular (to agree with some name understood), Rule 9; (the subject of a sentence, therefore in the) nominative case. Rule 1. PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 85 He .... pronoun; personal; masculine; third; singular (to agree with Us antecedent, the name of him referred to), Rule 9; (subject of the verb, is, understood, therefore) nom- inative, Rule 1. 3. "The work is your oton." FIRST METHOD : Your own is a pronoun; possessive; its antecedent is work; neuter xder; third person; singular number; nominative case. Rule 2. SECOND METHOD: tour own is a pronoun; possessive; it is equivalent to your work. Parse your as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, Rule 3; work as a noun used as the predicate. Rule 2. 4-. " Whatever purifies, sanctifies/' whatever is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to that which. Parse that and which — that being the subject of sanctifies; which, of purifies. 5. "As many as came were baptized." As .... is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is many; simple; common gender; third person; plural number; Rule 9; nominative case; it is used as the subject of the subor- dinate proposition, as came, i. e., who came. Rule 1. E X B BC IS ES« Parse the nouns and pronouns: 1. Henry, come to me. 2. This hat is yours. 3. My hat, where is it? 1. George, that knife is mine. 5. This is yours, Henry. G. Oh. the ghost of my f.ither! 7. Drugs and Fancy Ar- 3, Goodness, what ;i sightl 9. The captain, what can T say to him? 10. He, himself, will do it. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Brother, the honor is yours, (it is) not mine. 2. That ball, it is his. 3. He is older than I (am), but I am older than she (is). 4. They, themselves, said so. 5. It is yours, not mine. 6. It is your book, it is not my book. 7. My brother and I will go when he returns. 8. We will go at the time at which he re- turns. 9. The officer arrived while George was present. 10. The officer arrived at the time at which George was present. 3. The vessel sank as it entered the harbor. 2. The vessel sank at the time at which it entered the harbor. 3. He acted as he was directed. 4. She is as amiable as her sister. 5. She is ami- able in the same degree in which her sister is amiable. 6. She looks as tall as he. 7. The boy as well as the girl was there. 8. He looks as if he could do the work. 9. He was not only a good scholar, but also a fine musician. 10. He was a good scholar and fine musician. EXERCISES. To be corrected: 1. It was Yirgil, him who wrote the iEneid. 2. It was bought of Mr. Brown, he who keeps the book store. 3. We have visited our friends, they who live in the city. 4. Mary, Queen of Scots, her that was beheaded, was pious. 5. I speak of Cromwell, he who beheaded Charles. R em ark.— When the gender of a pronoun referring to a person is not known, the masculine form should be used. 2. Every person should love their friends, and do good to them. 2. No person should boast of themselves. 3. The news has ar- rived and they are unfavorable. 4. Rebecca took goodly raiment and gave them to Jacob. 5. Let every pupil obey their teacher. G. The Christian who knows their duty, loves their God. 7. No person can with propriety commend themselves. 8. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 9. The nation was once pow- erful, but now they are feeble. 10. The court was unanimous in their decision. 11. The assembly was so dense that we could scarcely see through them. PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 87 29. ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun. 1. A Descriptive Adjective limits or describes a noun by denoting some quality belonging to it. Remark.— Many descriptive adjectives admit of comparison. (Page 35.) 1. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the application of a noun without expressing any of its qualities. (Page 10.) 1. Pronominal Adjectives are definitives, most of which may, without an article prefixed, repre- sent a noun understood. Examples. — Each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, former, latter, same, each other, one another, some, such, all, none, any, whole, one. Numeral Adjectives are definitives used in counting, in numbering and in multiplying. Examples. — One, two, six, first, sixth, once, twice, tenfold, triple. ORDER OF 'PARSING. 1. An adjective, and why? 2. Descriptive or Definitive, and why? 3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison. 4. Degree of comparison, and why? 5. What does it describe or define? 6. Rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. "Every diligent boy will be rewarded." Every .... is an adjective; definitive; distributive pronominal, and defines boy. Rule 12. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Diligent ... is an adjective; descriptive; compared, diligent, more diligent, most diligent ; positive degree, and describes boy. Kule 12. 2. "The first painting is an American mountain scene." The is an adjective; definitive, and defines painting. Rule 12. First is an adjective; definitive; numeral, and belongs to painting. Rule 12. American . . is an adjective; descriptive, and describes painting. Rule 12. 3. u The weather is pleasant ." Pleasant . . is an adjective; descriptive; compared, pleasant, more pleasant, most pleasant; positive degree, and de- scribes weather. Rule 23. 4. '•'-Many a flower is born to blush unseen." Many a ... is an adjective; definitive; indefinite pronominal, and defines flower. Rule 12. Suggestion.— Parse the adjectives in the exercises on page 36. Selections may be made in any part of the work. 30. VERBS. The Verb is that part of speech which is used to say or to tell something about some person or thing. Verbs, with reference to use, are divided into three general classes : Transitive, Intransitive, and Copulative. (See page 8.) Yerbs, with reference to form, are classed as Regular and Ir- regular. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB. 89 A Regular Verb Is one whose past tense and perfect participle end in ed. Examples.-! cry, I cried, T have cried; I depart, I departed, I have departed; l love, I loved, I have loved. An Irregular Verb is one whose past tense and perfeel parti- ciple do not end in ed. Examples. — I £<>, I went, 1 have gone; I see, I saw, I have seen; I write, I wrote, I have written. Auxiliary Verbs are used in the conjugation of other verbs to make some modification of mode, tense, number or person. Examples.-/)*), be, have, may, can, must, shall, will, did, had, should, might, canst, couldst. Remark.— In many instances several auxiliaries unite with the principal verb to form one complete verb. 31. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB. Transitive Verbs have Voice : an Active and a Passive Voice. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting. Examples.— "Williams sair Henry." "The owl caught the mouse." "Georue prepared the work." The Passive Voice represents the subject as being acted upon. Examples. -"Henry wat seen by William." "The mouse was caught by the owl." "The work was prepared by George.' 4 To the T«arher.- The use of the term, voire, in the parsing is not recom> ■ i . it is betU r to >■ parole the parts— the copula and the participle -and to >■>/ itself. - 21.) The rLoss should be well drilled in changing to the other. 3Iode is the manner in which the action, being, or state is expressed. 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact; as, u The boy writes.'* 1 Remark.— The Indicative Mode is used in asking questions also; as, "Does the boy twite?" The Subjunctive Moae asserts a thing as doubtful. It is used only in subjunctive clauses. The Potential Mode asserts the duty, necessity,, power, liberty, or liability of acting or being; as, "They must go." Remark.— The signs of the Potential Mode— the auxiliaries used— are, may, can, must, might, could, would and should. The Imperative Mode is used in commanding, exhorting, entreat- ing or permitting ; as, "Go, and come no more;" "Lead us not into temptation." The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which is used as a noun, adjective, or adverb; as, "To play is pleasant;" "Children love to play " Tense is that property of the verb which indicates the time of an action or an event. The Present Tense denotes present time; as, "He sleeps;" "He is writing." The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time; as, "I have written my letter;" "She has learned her lesson." Remark.— This tense may be known by the auxiliaries, have and had. The Past Tense expresses what took place in time passed : as, 'I wrote my letter;" "He learned his lesson." The Past Perfect Tense expresses an action as completed in time passed. "He had finished his task before I arrived." Remark.— The auxiliary, had, is used in this tense. The Future Tense expresses what will take place in future time; as, "We shall see you again soon." PARSING OF THE VERB. 91 Remark.— The auxiliaries, shall and Ufitt, are u>ed in this tense. The Future Perfect Tense represents an action as completed at or before a certain future time; as, u We shall haw finished our work by the time you arrive." The Person and Number of verbs are their modifications (changes in termination) to mark their agreement with their sub- jects; as, "J love:" -thou Loves*;" tl he loves;" 4 *they love." Rule 13. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. ORDER OF PARSING THE VERB. VERB FORM. CLASS. MODE. 1 TENSE. PERS'N NUMBER. II. Regular Transitive Indicative Present First Singular 13 Irreg. Intransitive Subjunctive P. Perfect Sec'd Plural 13 Copulative Potential Imperative Infinitive Past P. Perfect Future Third F. Perfect MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. u IIe should have ansioered my letter/' Should have answered ia a verb; regular; transitive; potential mode; past perfect tense; third person, singular number. Rule 13. 2. "Liberty is sweet." I 8 is a verb; irregular; copulative; indicative mode; pres- : third person, singular number, to agree with Its Bubject, liberty. Rule 13. 3. "Mr. Walker was considered wealthy." Was considered, verb; regular; copulative; indicative; past; third; lingular* Rule 13. 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. "That carpenter did build our house." Did build, . . verb; regular; transitive; indicative; past? third, sing- ular. Rule 13. 5. u Bring me a glass of water." Bring .... is a verb; irregular; transitive; imperative mode; pres- ent tense; second person, singular number, to agree with its subject, thou, understood. Rule 13. 6. "You should have answered my letter. " Should have answered, v>erb; regular; transitive; potential; past perfect; second; plural. Rule 13. 7. "If this be true, all will end well." Be verb; irregular; copulative; subjunctive; present. R. 17. 8. "The storm has destroyed the crops." Has destroyed, verb; regular; transitive; indicative; present perfect; third, singular. Rule 13. 9. The crops have been destroyed by the storm. Have been, . verb: irregular; copulative-, indicative; present perfect; third, plural. Rule 13. 10. "The watchman ought to have notified the police." Ought to have notified, verb; regular; transitive; potential; past per- fect; third, singular. Rule 13. 11. "The police ought to have been notified by the watchman." Ought to have been, verb; irregular; copulative; potential; past per- fect; thirdi plural. Rule 13. rARSIXG OF THE VERB. 93 EX BBC! 8 E B. Parte the nouns, pronouns and verbs, and correct the errors. 1. They waa discontented. 2. Thou can assist me if thou will. 3. You was there. 4. There was mountains where 1 spent the summer. ">. Them's my Bentiments. 6. William and John was walking together. 7. Circumstances alters cases. S. If I was you. 1 would not go. 9. The derivation of these words are uncer- tain. 10. The ignes-fatui was a terror to our new guide. 11. This heart of mine will break. (Page 77.) 2. Each of the workmen have done their share. 2. Every one of the drivers walk home. 3. Xot one of the books are left on the desk. 4. Either of the pens are good enough for me. 5. Such phenomena is seldom observed. 6. The alumni meets this even- ing. 7. Politics are going to ruin him. 8. Mumps are contagious. 9. The memoranda is lost. 10. His hypotheses leads to error. 3. He dare not do it. 2. She need not do it. 3. The scissors is broken. 4. Her pulse are very quick. 5. The Pleasures of Hope are a fine poem. 6. The fleet were seen off the cape. 7. The committee were asked to report. S. The legislature have adjourned. 9. Polities are his trade. 10. The news are con- firmed. 11. Sing to the Lord, all ye saints of his. "The little boy could not be terrified into telling what he knew." boy could be R. 13. -j- terrified R. 23. \ (The) (! (not 7?. JS.) into ( telling that II. G. \ ( he knew which J In this sentence the preposition, into, has for Its object tin clause, telling what lie knew. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IRREGULAR VERBS. Write a paragraph on the blackboard similar to the one below; then erase the words in italics. Let the lessons on irregular verbs be so prepared that when any one of the three forms is named the pupils may be able to read the paragraph supplying the correct forms to fill the blanks. I ivrite, I wrote, I have written, he has written, they have written; it is written, it should have been written, etc., etc. PRESENT. /see, /bear, / blow, i" break, They choose, They draw, lie forsakes, He gives, The different have, has and cipial form of tense forms. PAST. /saw, I bore, I blew, / broke, They chose, They drew, He forsook, He gave, PERFECT PARTICIP. I have seen. / have borne. I have blown. I have broken. They have chosen. They have drawn. He has forsaken. He has given. forms of the verb, to be, as well as had, should be followed by the parti- the verb, — not by the present or past Correct the following sentences, using these models: "We have saw him before." I see, I saw, I have seen. Have should be followed by the participial orm of the verb, only, therefore the sentence should be, We have seen him oefore. "George done it." I do, I did, I have done. An action in past time is expressed, therefore the past tense form of the verb should be used, and the sentence should be, George did it. 1. They had bore it long enough. 2. The tree was blew down by the wind. 3. My pencil is broke in two. 4. He has chose this boy for the place. 5. George has not drew the prize as was re- ported. 6. They had drank too much. 7. The birds were all drove away by the hawk. 8. The wigwam had been forsook by the wild hunter, 9, The land was all gave away by the government. IRREGULAR VERBS. 95 PRESENT. Hi goes, He knows, J iv lie, Wi load, W( ride, jr» ring, 77<< ;/ drive, Z%< y drink, /lie, /lay, fsit, /set, /£ runs, 7; Bl lakes, It shows, 7/, speaks, /spring, /strive, 7 swim, /take, PAST, //< wont. Hi knew, We lay. We loaded, We rode, W( rang, 27^'// drove, They drank, /lay, / laid, /sat, / set, /£ ran, It shook, It showed, It spoke, /sprang, /strove, /swam, /took, PERFECT PARTICIP He has gone. He has known. We have, lain. We have laden. We have ridden. We have rung. They have driven. They have drunk. I have lain. I have laid. / have sat. I have set. It has run. /i ftas shaken. It has shown. It has spoke u. I have sprung. / have striven. I have swum. I have taken. 1. The children had went to school before Walter arrived. 2. We have kneio that for a long time. 3. It has lay on the grass under the sun all day. 4. That car is loaded with salt. 5. The boy has rode that pony all over the prairie. G. The bell was rang some time ago. 7. They must have ran the race before we ar- rived. S. I have saw such things many a time. 9. The houses were shook by the storm. 2. The apartments should have been shoioed to us. 2. Those words w< by somebody who was present at the time. 3. The fox had sprang the trap. -1. She has strove hard to win the victory. 5. The boys have swam across the pond. 6. George has : my pencil. 7. The children have tore my book. 8. The boys had thn ,r their books on theground. '.). My book i- wrote through. 10. I seen him yesterday. 11. They done it themselves. 12. •ge and John run a race this morning. 13. The squirrel swum >sa the river. 11. They rung the hell. 15. William win the las! race. HO ik. -The Irregular verba may i><; learned in the becoud and third grades before the study of grammar is commenced. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PERFECT PERFECT PRESENT PAST. PARTICIP. PRESENT PAST. PARTICIP. Arise, arose, arisen. Say, said, said. Begin, began, begun. Sink, sank, sunk. Beat, beat, beaten. Sing, sang, sung. Catch, caught, caught. Slay, slew, slain. Creep, crept, crept. Smite, smote, smitten. Cling, clung, clung. Speak, spoke, spoken. Come, came, come. String, strung, strung. Do, did, done. Mistake, mistook, mistaken. Drive, drove, driven. Forget, forgot, forgotten. Eat, ate, eaten, Steal, stole, stolen. Freeze, froze, frozen. Swear, swore, sworn. Fling, flung flung. Tear, tore, torn. Grow, grew, grown. Teach, taught, taught. Mean, meant, meant. Throw, threw, thrown. Pay, paid, paid. Tread, trod, trodden. Weep, wept, wept. Write, wrote, written. Shrink, shrank, shrunk. Wear, wore, worn. Beseech, besought, besought. Weave, wove, woven. Buy, bought, bought. Win, won, won. 1. Have the parcels came yet? 2. Father has drove from Belle- ville. 3. The boys have blew out the light. 4. They have arose early this morning. 5. My sister begun about an hour ago. 6. Is your brother's arm broke? 7. James has not broke the pointer. 8. You have drunk too much of it. 9. I have chose my seat. 10. Have you drew your wages?. 2. The horse has drank enough. 2. Disputes have frequently arose on that subject. 3. They have just arose from the table. 4. The insect crept up the wall. 5. He always dinged to his own opinion. 6. I done three examples. 7. They have began it again. 8. I have came to see you. 9. Mother come home yesterday. 10. He done it himself. 3. The water I drunk there was good. 2. The pupils have did their work well. 3. He drawed this from the village. 4. I have drank three cups. 5. You have broke your promise. 6. They have did their work very well. 7. I have knew him for a year. 8. My em- ployer give me my wages yesterday. 9. The plant has grew sis. inches. 10. The water in froze. IRREGl LAK VERBS. ( J7 4. The poor old man was forsook by everyone. 2. lie /•>,■■ me at once. 3. The dinner was all eat, 4. I eat a hearty break- fast. this morning, 5. Be had his ears froze, 6. Father has 1 witli me several times. 7. The little girls were forsook by all their friends. 8. Thomas has give two dollars. ( .». It growed a lit- tle Last month. 10. Eas Wallace went yet. .■>. Save you payed your accounts. 2. 1 h&veknew him for two months. 3. The children went home. 4. Those apples were ate last night. 5. Jt was gave for that purpose. 6. He lias gana m public before. 7. Jennie sung very well. S. The wicked man has his brother. 9. French is spoke in every state in Europe. 10. Have you shook the carpet. (5. I have rang several times. 2. They seen him do it. 3. She remarkably well. 4. They seen the boys in the garden. 5. The hell lias rang. G. Carrie has saio it before. 7. The steamer, Emerald, sunk with all on board. S. The eggs have sank in the water. 9. Have you shook the tree. 10. We have ran all the way. 7. He strived to obtain the appointment. 2. Willie has sto hard to win the prize. 3. The school bell has rang an hour ago. 4. Charley has wrote his exercise. 5. I have threw away my peaches. 6. Is the boy's coat tore? 7. Has he wove the cloth yet? 8. A thief has stole my watch. 9. He has mistook his true interest. 10. Cousin Frank has wore his boots three months. 8. I have often siram across the river. 2. I throwed my box- away. 3. They have forgot to call. 4. I have mistook the street. 5. Are the goods stole? G. The dog sprung over the hedge. 7. His mother teached him how to do it. "Some discus-ion arose in regard to who should be sent." ( discussion L'. ?. arose B.13. ) ( Some ) to ( WhO U.I . Should be -|- sent ) In * Itton, t<>, tuu for tt - obJe< I I who tihonld be suit. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ail Irregular Verb is one which does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present tense. These lists contain the Principal Parts of most of the Irregular Verbs. Those marked r have also the regular forms. PERFECT PERFECT PRESENT. PAST. PARTICIP. PRESENT . PAST. PARTICIP Abide, abode, abode." Deal, dealt, dealt. Am, was, been. Dig, dug, R. dug, R. Awake, awoke, R. awoke. Dream, dreamt, p, . dreamt, r Become , became, become. Dress, drest, r. drest, r. Befall befell, befallen. Dwell, dwelt, r. dwelt, r. Behold, beheld, heheld. Fall, fell, fallen. Bend, bent, r. bent, R. Feed, fed, fed. Bereave , bereft, r . bereft, r. Feel, felt, felt. Bet, bet, r. bet, r. Fight, fought fought. Betide, f betided, I betid, betided, Find, found, found. betid. Forbear, forbore, forborne, Bid, (bid, 1 bade, bid, Flee, fled. fled. bidden. Fly, flew, flown. Bite, bit, f bitten, I bit. Freight, freighted, fraught,R. Get, got, gotten. Bind, bound, bourfd, Gild, gilt, r. gilt, R. Bleed, bled, bled. Gird, girt, r. girt, r. Bless, J blessed, I blest, blessed, Grave, graved, graven, r. blest. Grind, ground, ground. Breed, bred, bred. Hang, hung, r. hung, R. Bring, brought, brought. Have, had, had. Build, built, r. built, r. Heave, hove, R. hove, R. Burn, burnt, r. burnt, R. Hew, hewed, hewn, R. Burst, burst, burst, Hear, heard, heard. Cast, cast, cast. Hide, hid, hidden. Clothe, clad, clad. Hit, hit, hit. Cost, cost, cost. Hold, he4d, held, Crow, crew, R. crowed. Hurt, hurt, hurt, Cut, cut, cut. Keep, kept, kept. Dare, durst, r. dared. i Kneel, knelt, r. knelt. IRREGULAR VERBS. 99 PRESENT. PAST. Knit, Lay. Lead, Lean, Leap, Learn, Leave, Lend, Let, knit, R. Laid, led, leant, R. leapt, r. learnt, k. left, lent, Let, Lie(r«cKne)lay Light, Meet, Mow. Pass, lit, R. lost, met, mowed, past, r. Pen, incZ.)tPent, r. Plead, Put. Quit, Rap, Read, Reave, Rend, Rid, Seethe, Seek, Shak«\ Shape, Shave, Shear, Shed, Shine, Shoe, Shoot, Shred, Shut, f plead, R. I pied, put, quit, r. rapt, R. read, reft, rent, rid, sod, R. .-ought, set, shook. Bhaped, shaved, Bhore, R. shed, shone, r. shod, shot, shred, shut, sat, PERFECT PARTICIP. knit, R. laid. led. leant, r. leapt, r. learnt, R. left. lent. let, lain. lit, R. lost. met. mown, R. past, pent, r. plead, pled. put. quit, R. rapt, r. read. reft. rent. rid, sodden, r. sought. set. shaken, shapen, r. shaven, r. shoni. R. shed, shone, R. shod, b ho t . Bhred. Bhut . sat. PRESENT. Sleep, Sling, Slink, Slit, Smell, Speed, Spell, Spend, Spill, Spin, j Spit, { Split, Spread, Spoil, Stav, Stand, Stave, Stick, Sting, Stride, j Strike, St row, sweat, Sweep, Swell, Swing, Tell, Think, Thrive, W;,ke, Wed, Whet, Wind, Work, Wri: PAST. slept, slung, slunk, slit, smelt, sped, Spelt, R. spent, spilt, R. spun, span, spit, spat, split, spread, spoilt, R. staid, R. stood, stove, R. stuck, stung, strode, strid, struck, strowed, sweat, R. swept, swelled, SWIM told, thought, throve R. woke. R. wed, r. Wet, \l. Whet, tt. wound, wrought, wrung, PERP1 CT PARTICIP. slept. slung, slunk, slit. smelt, R. sped, spelt, r. spent. Spilt, R. spun. spit, spit ten. split, spread. spoilt. R. staid, K. stood. stove. R. stuck. stung, stridden, strid. struck. strown. sweat, k. swept. Swollen. K. swung. told, thought. thriven. u. woke. 1;. wed. 1:. Wet. B. whet, i:- wound. wrought, wrui 100 APPENDIX c CONJUGATION OF THE YERB " TO BE," INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I am, 1. We are, 2. You are (thou art), 2. You are, 3. He is; 3. They are. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. You have been (thou hast,) 2. You have been, 3. He has been; 3. They have been. PAST TENSE. 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. You were (thou wast), 2. You were, 3. He was; 3. They were. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 2. You had been (thou hadst), 2. You had been, 3. He had been; 3. They had been. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. You will be (thou wilt), 2. You will be, 3. He will be; 3. They will be. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 3. He will have been; 3. They will have been, SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.* PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 2. If you be, 2. If you be, 3. If he be; 3. If they be. PAST TENSE. 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 2. If you were (thou wert), 2. If you were, 3. If he were; 3. If they were. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. *The forms of the subjunctive, which differ from those of the indie ative. are shown by the full -face type. APPENDIX, 10] POTENTIAL MODE PRESENT TENSE. Singular, Plural, 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 2. You may bo, 2. You may be, ;i. Ho may bo; 3, They may be. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, :». He may have been; 3. They may have been. PAST TENSE. 1. I might be, 1. We might be, '2. You might be, 2. You might be, 3. He might be; 3. They might be. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, :». He might have been; 3. They might have been. RBM.—Sftall 1 in the first person, and will, in the second and third, fu- ture tenses, are used to denote futurity. When loill is used in the first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity, as well BS futurity, is represented. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. 3. lar. Plural. I love, 1. We love, Thou lovest, 2. You love, He loves; :'>. They love. 1. 2 PRESENT PERFECT TEN6 I have loved, 1. We have loved, Thou hast loved. -i. You have loved, He has loved; 3. They have loved i. 2 € PAST TENSE. I loved, 1. We loved, Thou loved- 2. You loved, He loved: . Loved. 102 APPENDIX. PAST PERFECT TENSE. Singula?*. Plural. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love; 3. They will love. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If thou love,, 2. If you love, 3. If he love; 3. If they love. PAST TENSE. 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 3. If he had loved; 3. If they had loved. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love; 3. They may love. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love; 3. They might love. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 PAST PERI I 01 .7(7/'. 1. I might have Loved, 2. Thou mights! have Loved, ;;. He might have loved ; TENSE. Plural. 1. We might have Loved, 2. You might have loved, S. They might have Loved. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. Si HO"/ (17'. Plural. Jut per. 2d per. vVf/ per. 1st ))cr. 2d per. 3d per 1 Thou ire Vim riu n Pres. — Am art is are are are Past — Was wasl was were were were Pres. —Do dost does do do do Past — Did didst did did did did — Have hast has have have have Past -Had hadst had had had had — Wi 1 wilt will will will will Past — Would wouldst would would would would Pre-. —Shad shalt shall shall shall shall Past —Should shouldst should should should should -May mayst may may may may —Might mightst might might might might Pres. — Can canst can can can can —Could conldst could could could could ABBREVIATIONS. Dr. Or. Uaj. Doctor. lit. Colonel. ral. Lieutenant. Company. ire. Governor, end. Hon. Atty. A. M. P. 8. M. P. .)/. Bbl. Lb. Honorable. Attorney. ( laptain. Forenoon. Post Office, script. Noon. After Barrel. ikI. Prei. Feb. Mr J,. Apr. Ident. January. February. March. April. August. Sept. ►ber. i;iltrr. ! ). cember. ttt, or Str rintendent. United B M. I V:;er of (.'■ A. D. In theyear of our Lord lect on deliverj Last month. month. This month. 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Shall should be used with the first person (I or we) and Trill with the second and third person (thou or he, you or they) to denote a future action or event. Remark.— When it is desired to express determination or necessity in future time will should be used with the first person and shall with the second and third person. SENTENCES . To be corrected: 1. I think I will return home. 2. He shall be here this even- ing. 3. Now that the war is over, the army shall he disbanded. 4. If I was you I would remain at home. 5. They shall go with you. 6. When will we three meet again? 7. The books shall be there early in the morning. 8. One of my books were on the table. 9. We will see you. PRES. TENSE. PAST TENSE. PRES. PARTICIPLE. PAST PARTICIPLE. Sit, sat, sitting, sat. Set, set, setting, set. Lie, lay, lying, lain. Lay, laid, laying, laid. Lay and set are transitive verbs; lie and sit are intransitive verbs. Fill' the blanks in the following sentences, using the proper form of one of the verbs, sit, set, lie or lay: 1. We on benches during the day, and on bears' skins during the night. 2. George the bottle on the table. 3. They have all the chairs and tables in place. 4. Belle the lamp on the table a few moments ago. 5. We on the bench by the brook yesterday. 6. We often there and read. 7. I the paper on the table only a moment ago. 8. down on the sofa and rest awhile. 9. I have on this bed for two weeks. 10. He the book on the desk and there it yet. LETTERS. 105 ORDER FOR GOODS. Kansas City, m<>., August L7, 1889, Messrs. Jones .v- Brown, Please deliver to bearer, with bill, for me, One pair Rubber Boots, No. 8. One pair Leather Slippers, Xo. 7. John TT. Lyons. Per. Suggestions. —Explain the object of such orders. Call attention to form -inning-, 086 of capital Letters and punctuation. Signature should be that of the firm with student's initials underneath. Write the following orders: Name of city, New York; date, to-day. Order two dozen nap- kin rings, plain, solid; three dozen tea-spoons; two Elgin watches, IS carat, stem winders, of Win, Dawson & Co. Sign the name of Clement, Wilson & Co. Name of city, Cincinnati; date, to-day. Order of C. W. But- ler & Co. five lbs. granulated sugar, two lbs. Rio coffee, two Lbs. Japan tea. Ordered by M. C. Coughton. ORDER FOR GOODS FROM ABROAD. Cleveland, Ohio, Jan. 1, L Messrs. H. b. Hurd & Co., 283 Canal St., New York. Gentlemen: — Please ship by American Express, as booh aa iible, the following goods: Two casks Valencia Raisins. Three boxes Sicily Oranges. I will remit promptly upon receipt oi your invoice. Yours truly, IIi.nkv Hammond. Suggestions. — \ OC from beginning name and addret Notice the ining,and modify same to apply to any freight Line, what d be need Instead ol " ■ r meaning? Each item on a line by itself. What other oloaing par* I for the one In the form? 106 LETTERS. Write the following orders: Name of city, Chicago ; date, to-day. Order of H. B. Clanin & Co., 19th and Broadway, New York, 10 yds. black broad-cloth, eight yds. French cassimere, and five yds. doeskin. Request them to use care in selecting the goods, and to forward them without delay, via Adams Express. Sign the name of J. W. Webster. Name of city, Detroit; date, to-day. Order of James Burton & Co., 123 Pearl St., Boston, five cases Labrador herring, three kits mackerel, and two hhds. N. O. sugar. Request them to ship by the Star Union line, and to draw on you at sight for the amount of the bill. Sign your own name. ORDER FOR GOODS— Inclosing Price. Chicago, Nov. 1, 1889 Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co., New York. Gentlemen : — Please forward me by U. S. Express at once, 1 Lancaster Spread, - - $3.50 12 yds. Gingham, $ .15, - 1.80. 3 doz. Napkins, $3.00, - - 9.00 $14.30 For which I enclose P. O. money order. Respectfully, William Miller. Suggestions.— Observe critically: The name and address. The punctu ation and use of capital letters. The form of expression and how it may be modified. Where the items should be placed and where the total. Write the following orders: Order of J. W. Lunt & Co., Boston, 6 prs. men's thick boots, at $3.50; 8 prs. boy's stoga boots, at $2.50; 4 prs. kip boots, at $3.00. Date, to-day. Inclose price by New York exchange. Sign your own name. Order of W. W. Nead & Co., Albany, N. Y., 4 Charter Oak stoves, No. 3, at $18.40; 6 Home Comfort ranges, at $37.75; 9 Ragburn copper boilers, at $3.50; 15 granite dish pans, at $1.13. Date, to-day. Inclose price by Buffalo exchange. Sign the name of G. E. Pallen. paksim; OF THE ADVERB. 107 81. ADVEKKS. An adverb is a word used to modify or limit the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as kk IIe arts cautiously;" "He is remarkably cautious;" "He acts mon cautiously." (See page 24.) Explanation.— An adverb is an abridged expression ased as a modifier; thus, cautious/// means in a cautious manner: remarkably means ina remarkable : and more means in a greater degree. So here is equivalent to in this place; then, to at that time, etc. Adverbs may be divided into live general classes : Adverbs of manner, of degree, of time, of place, and of cause. (See page 37.) ORDER OF PARSING. 1. An Adverb, and why? •J I lompare it. 3. Tell what it modifies. 4. Rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. "They acted wisely." Wisely. . is an adv< rh of manner; compared, wisely, more wisely, mosl wisely, and modifies acted. Rule L8: "Adverba modify verbs, adjectives, participles and adverbs. " 2. •' Why do y<>u tremble?' 1 Why . • . . is an i \verb\ interrogative ; not compared, and mod- ifies do tremble. Rule 18. \s. "Catch the manners Living as they ris< As ... standa for two phrases, at the time, and in which, and modifies catch and rite. Rule I v - 108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. "I will go whenever you wish." Whenever . is a conjunctive adverb ; it stands for two phrases, at time and at which, and modifies will go and wish. Rule 18. 5. "The two little boys walk hand in hand." Hand in hand is an adverbial phrase; it modifies walk. Rule 18. Suggestion.— Exercises for parsing may be selected from the sentences given on pages 25 and 39. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions are words which are used with nouns and pronouns in the formation of phrases which are used as modifiers ; or, a preposition is a word which is used to show the relation between its object and some other word in the sentence. (See pages 28 and 47.) Remark.— The object of a preposition may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. A; "Be quiet, and go a fishing." Aboard; "To go or he aboard a ship." About; "To run about the house." "To dine about noon." Above; "The stars above us." "To be above meanness." According to; "Proceed according to law." (Page 47.) Across; "A tree lying across the road." After; "After life's fitful fever, he sleeps well." Against; "Uplift against the sky, your mighty shapes." Along; "The cloud is gilded along the border." Amid, amidst; "A lark reared her brood amid the corn." Among, amongst; "Flowers perish among weeds." Around; "I hear around me cries of fear." As to; "As to the parts of the cargo, they were already gone." At; "She is at home." "The bell rings at six." Athwart; i l Athwart the waste the pleasant home-light shines. " PREPOSITIONS. 10? Before; u The tree before the house." k To rise before day " Behind; "The squirrel hid i>ckind the tree." Belo»; The James River la very crooked &< tow Richmond/ Beneath; "The steps creaked beneath his noiseless tread."" Beside; "A Large sycamore grew beside the river." Besides; u There is nothing at all besides this manna." Between; -The town is situated &< ftoe< w two mountain-/ Betwixt; "He was crushed b( twixt two ear-." Beyond; "The Life beyond the grave Is a mystery.' 1 But=except; "Whence all 6irt him had fled." By; "A Lily by a brook/' "Demolished by soldiers/' Concerning; "He spoke concerning virtue." Down; u The boat went down the river," During; c 'IIe remained abroad during the war." Ere; "He came ere noon." Except, excepting; k, All except him were set free." For; k T looked up for a moment." "I sell for cash/' From; "He felt like a leaf torn/ro??i a romance." In; "Late in life, he began life in earnest." Into; "Tie gazed into the vast surrounding darkness." Like; "My brother looks like him." Notwithstanding; "He is proud, notwithstanding his poverty/ Of; k% 'Tis the middle watch of a summer's night/' Off; "Juan Fernandez lies off the coast of Chili." On; 4, The picture on the wall." u To start on Tuesday." Ont of; "Drawn out of a well." "A piano out of tune." Over; "The billows had rolled over him." "He rules over us." Past; 4 *He drove past our house this morning." Round; "A shoreL 38 ocean tumbled round the globe." Save; "All save him remained " Since; "He has not been here since last Christmas. Till, until; "He will remain here till next Christmas." Through; "Then 3tep1 she down through town and field, Throughout; "Much anxiety was felt throughout the I To; "To go to the river." Toward, towards "He turned m the moonligh Under; "He stands ereel under the curved roof " Unto; "Verily, I Bay unto you." Up; "He p the river M Upon; "Th< walking upon the burr] 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With; "The sky was red voith flame." Within; " Ambition and pride stirred within him." Without; "The morning broke without a sun." Great care is necessary in the selections of preposi- tions. The ones should be used which exactly express the relations intended by the speaker. During should be used when the event continues through all the period mentioned; as "I have examined law papers during the day." In or at is used before the names of countries, cities and towns ; as, "He lives in Cincinnati;" "They reside at Clifton;" "They stayed in London." Into should be used after verbs denoting entrance; as, "She came into the house;" "He put his hands into his pockets." At is generally used after to be, not followed by a predicate; as, "They are at home;" "She is at school." When a predicate is understood, or clearly implied, to should be used; as, "I have been to Cincinnati." Upon should follow bestow and dependent; as, "Many favors were bestowed upon me;" "He is dependent upon his friends." From should follow differ and dissent; as, "I differ from you;" "I dissent from that decision." In should follow confide; as, "I confide in you." Remark.— The following is a list of prepositions which are used but little : Alongside, afore, adown, aneath, aslant, atwixt, despite, inside, outside, minus , plus, per, underneath, versus, via, along with, despite of, from among, from be- fore, from betwixt , from under, off of \ over against, round about, but for, except- ing, regarding, touching, respecting. (See page 40.) Punctuation.— The Quotation Marks [" "] are used to show that a passage is taken verbatim from some author. CONJUNCTIONS. Ill OKPEK OF PAUSING. 1. A Preposition, and why? 2. How is it used? 3. Rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. u We live on the prairie.' 1 On is a preposition; with the noun, prairie, it forms a phrase which modifies the verb, lives. Rule 24. 2. "They came /row over the river.' 1 From over . is a complex preposition; with the noun, river, it forms a phrase which modifies the verb, came. Rule 24. (Page 47.) Suggestion.— Parse (he prepositions in the sentences on page 29 and cor rect the errors. THE CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases and sentences; as, "The horse and wagon were taken, but the driver escaped." Remark.— Conjunctions sometimes merely Introduce sentei ' And it was Bald in those days.' 1 CLASSES OF CONNECTIVES. Connectives may be divided into two classes: Coordinate and Subordinate. Coordinate Connectives are those which join elements of the same rank. 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Subordinate Connectives are those which join elements of different ranks. They are used in com- plex sentences. (Page 45.) Explanation, — Co-ordinate conjunctions are connectives which form no part of the material of which a sentence is composed — their use being to unite the material into a single sentence. Examples.— "Peter and John went to the temple;" "Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers ;" "The air is damp, and hushed, and close ;" "And love the offender, yet detest the offense." Explanation. — Relative Pronouns are a class of Subordinate Conjunctions which represent antecedents and to these antece- dents join clauses which describe them. Conjunctive Adverbs connect clauses and modify a word in each. LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. And; "The winds and the waves are absent there." As; "As you request it, I will go." As well as; "He, as well as I, was deceived." Consequently; "I am sick, consequently I cannot come." Even; "It was very cold ; even mercury was frozen." For; "Rise, for it is day." If; "I shall not go if it rain." So; "For Brutus is an honorable man; So are they all, all honorable men." Since; "Since you have come, I will go." Seeing; "Wherefore come ye to me, seeing ye hate me?" Than; "I am older than he." That; "It is admitted that the war is a calamity." Then; "You know our rules; then obey them." Moreover; It sometimes begins a paragraph. Therefore; "Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wis- dom." Wherefore; Use like therefore in drawing inferences. Although, though; " Though he owns but little, he owes noth- ing." But; "I go, but I return." Either; "Either John or Charles will come." CONJUNCTIONS . 113 Neither; "Neither John nor Charles will come." Except; u He is Bane, except when he talks of me." Lest; "Neither shall ye touch it. /< st ye die." Nor; "Simois nor Xanthus shall be wanting there." Or; u We must educate, or we must perish," Provided; "He will go, provided his faro is paid," Save; "When all slept sound, save she who bore them both." Still; "He has often failed, still he strives," Unless; "Bemain, unless you must go." Whether; "I will ascertain whether he has come." Whereas; "Reason err-: ujlx&rea* instinct," etc. Yet; "All dread death, yet few are pious." Correlatives are conjunctions used in pairs, one referring to another. Both - - and; "It is both mine and yours." As - - - as; "I am as tall as you." As - - - so; "As it was then, so it is now." So - - - as; "He is not so tall as I." So - - - that; "It was so cold that I nearly perished. " Either - or; "It is either mine or yours." Neither nor; "It is neither mine nor yours." If - - - then; "If he confessed it, then forgive him." Though - yet, nevertheless; "Though deep, yet clear." Xot only but also; "He was not only rich, 6u{ also generous." Whether or; "I know not whether it is mine or yours.*" Nor - - - nor; Often used by poets instead of neither nor. Certain combinations of words have the force of connectives, and should be parsed as such: Examples.- 1 . 09 weU a$ t OS far as, as I many as, in so murk that, but a 16.) OKDEB OF PAUSING. What part ol speech ? %, l o-ordinate or Subordina U . and why? 3. What does, it connect':' 4. Rule. 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. MODELS FOR PARSING. lo "George or I will aid in the work." Or ... . is a conjunction; co-ordinate; it connects George and I. Rule 20. Rule 20. — Co-ordinate conjunctions connect similar elementSo 2. "I shall go as soon as they return." As soon as is a conjunction; co-ordinate; it connects the two sentences, I shall go and they return. Rule 20. 3o "Neither Arthur nor Henry wrote the letter." Neither - nor are conjunctions ; correlative ; neither introduces the sentence and nor connects Arthur and Henry. Rule 20. 4. "He succeeds because he is industrious." Because - is a conjunction ; subordinate; it joins dissimilar el- ements; it connects le&rns and he is studious. Rule 21. Rule 21. — Subordinate conjunctions connect dis- similar elements. Suggestion.— Parse the coujuntions in the sentences on pages selected in different parts of the work. THE INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word used to denote some sudden or strong emotion; as, "Tush! tush! 'twill not again appear." "Pshaw! that is ridiculous." Remark.— The following are some of the principal interjections: Ah, fie, ho, hallo, alas, avaunt, alack, ha, indeed, bravo, faugh, fudge, begone, adieu, farewell, good-by, ahoy, lo, hark, whist, avast, hold, eh? hey? hail, all-hail, hush, hist, heigho. [NTERJECTIONS. 115 Explanation*— Interjections have no grammatical construction or definite meaning. They occur frequently in colloquial or Im- passioned discourse, and are expressions oi emotion only. They are generally found at the commencement of sentence-. Remark.— Other parts of Bpeeofa may be treated as Interjections, when used as Bnch ; as, "My stars ! what can all ihi> be? 1 The interjection is to bo parsed as "having no gram- matical relation to the other parts of the sentence." The following* etymologies of a few common interjections may he of interest : Amen, a Hebrew adverb signifying verily, truly % yea. Good-bye, God 6 1 v:P ye— God be with you. dear, Dieu=0 God. Alas! ah lesso=0 [me] miserable. Adieu, a dieu=[l commend you] to God. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses a thought in an interjectional manner; as, "Oh! that this too, too solid llesh would melt!" "Oh, how glad I am to see you ! * ' Below will be found a few illustrations of the use of interjec- tions : 1. They opened their mouth wide against me, and Bald : "Aha! aha!" 2. Fy! my lord,/?.' a soldier, and afraid! 3. Alas! both for the deed and for thr cause. A. Alack! when once we have ouj forgot, nothing ■ ■ right .' hark! a deep Bound strikes Like a rising knell, Nature, how In every charm Bupremel 7. if'! Laugh'sl thou. Lochiel, my vision to 8. -If"! shifts Bhe thus? 91 King Benry cried. 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27. DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS. Many of the commonest expressions in our language involve difficulties in analysis which render it unsatis- factory if not impossible. They are idiomatic con- structions which do not come under the general prin- ciples which govern the language Remark.— An effort may be made to analyze the following sentences after supplying the words which are supposed to be missing: 1. They are not so proud as he nor so vain as she. 2. This heart of mine will break. 3. Sing to the Lord all ye saints of his. 4. Those lips of my father' 's are now closed for ever. (Page 82). 5. How much (x) is it (x) worth? 6. It is (x) worth (x) while to go to Strasburg to see the Cathedral. 7. Victory over one's self is a victory (x) worth (x) talking of (which). 8. (It is) So much the better. 9. (I wish you) Good morning, Uncle; what a fine day it is! "They all declared that he must be older than she." ( They declared ( he must be t older 23. j ( a11 *-*') B.6. (TEajT) (she B.l. is t — — ) In this sentence the transitive verb, declared, has for its object the com- plex clause, that he must be older than she. That, being a word of euphony, is omitted. She is the subject of is understood. 2. Thy throne is established of old (time). 2. Forgive me (x) this once. 3. All (x) at once the sky was overcast. 4. What (would be the consequence) if an insurrection should break out? 5. We have more (x) than heart could wish (for which). 6. He brought DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS, 1 1 7 me more fruit than (that La which) is Deeded. 7. I shall procure only as many books as (those books are which | are Deeded. 8. A reward shall '»<> given to whoever (him who) shall arrest the criminal. 9. At the time that (at which) I was there DOt a man was in sight. 10. They hurt themselves more than (they hurt) us. 11. [ am older than he (U). Remark.— The words in Italics are used aa the predicates In the follow- sentences. Such construction, though sanctioned bj usage, should be avoided bo far as possible. 1. He was listened to without a murmur. 2. Their enterprise is Dot to be i '. 3. Vocal music was made U8i of 1. It ought not to be lost sight of 5. They were scoffed at by the multitude. (Page GO). POSSESSIVE FORMED. The Possessive Form of singular nouns and of plural nouns which do not end in 8 is made by annex- ing 9 s to the nominative; as, John's hat; Hudson's book; men's coats; children's shoe The Possessive Form of plural nouns ending in s is formed by annexing the apostrophe only; as, boys* hats; girls' shoes. lingular nouns ending in the sound- of s or .v. take th< 3, James's book; Wells's history; For \ Igebra. Remark. — In the following and similar constructions the p< is given to the nonn which stands next to the \\<>r ; din 1 King !i rnment. 5. My brother-ln-li . My friend, the doctor's v.-ifr ba* I d taken sly ill. 7. 'J i, 118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULES OF SYNTAX. The numbers of the rules are placed in the diagrams ivith the words to which they apply. Rule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a sentence is in the nominative case. Rule II. — A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a sen- tence is in the nominative case. Rule III. — A noun or pronoun denoting possession is in the possessive case. Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing is, by apposi- tion, in the same case. Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used independently, is in the nominative absolute case. Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case. Rule VII. — The object of a preposition is in the objective case. Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun used to modify a participle is in the possessive case. Rule IX. — Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in per- son, gender and number. Rule X. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in the singular, connected by and, must be plural. Rule XI. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular. Rule XII. — An adjective describes or defines some noun or pronoun. Rule XIII. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Rule XIV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, connected by and, must be plural. Rule XV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular. RULES OF SYNTAX. 11 l J Rule XVI. — The subject of an Infinitive is in the objective case. Bulb XVII. — In Subjunctive Clauses the plural form of the verb is generally used, even with singular subjects. Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs Rtjlb xix. — The verb, to be, takes the same case after ii as before it. Rule XX. — Co-ordinate conjunctions connect similar elements. RULB XXI. — Subordinate conjunctions connect dissimilar cle- ment-. RULE XXII. — An adjective and the noun which it modifies should agree in number. RULE XXIII. — An adjective or participle, used as the predicate of a sentence, modifies the subject. RULE XXIV. — A preposition -hows the relation of it^ object to the word modified by the prepositional phrase. Page 19. Predicate, followed by an object. R. «'.. ( Pre Verbs are- Predicate, M no object. (copulative. " f Predicate or predicate, R. 2. (Predicate. R. 23. Forms for correcting to : reviewing: Page ».— Her is a violation <>f Rule 2; it Bhould have the nominative foni: . p AOa _.-,._sio\v la an adverb and Bhould have the adverbial form, tlowly. Page 87.— He la a violation of Bale 4; it should have the objective form, /,,„,, viih bi other. Page M.— In ttaeee ir< ftnd a violation ol Bole U; it should have the - lar form, thr nakedness, or peri swordt" " U'' was a great, noble, distinguished man." Hyperbole is the exaggeration of attributes, or the gning to a subject of a wonderful and impossible act a- the resull of ardenl emotion. Example*.— "The land Mows with milk and hone gllafa lay by dipping words." — Voltaire. M I and Jonatl >nyer than li<>us." "And • r dived beneath his brd." LETTERS. ^UdvlkUa,, 9cu., ©eo. i^> ) 4889. ful |v iUQ CI/O^O O' m- l t uvovfe -a^v a* 6/tvixiovi/t wv tlviA ^WuciAiXtta/k &€<© wi/© 60W/O/O/V. o done OV1/0. A/oaovv (vowve- <$ 6-woowu tvu&t i/cl Ua^t^ ^vi^oaav^vo/ eooo©l Wl/d/cLo 4^14/ Wl/^ cl/W/l/WI/ cIa uotfi/ evHoi^i/W/'Q eo&oeM/eiX ^a/tiAti/^cL toV tlw wi/O, ioa/QaL® loV wi/&. ia &tK>VM^oi36> uow l^auo euwt %(ocWw^ WORD ANALYSIS. "One hundred and forty thousand words: How shall we acquire a knowledge of them? The under- standing seems hopeless. But here Etymology, with its Greek and Latin Roots, comes to our aid." "While it is true that there are over one hundred thousand words in our language, it is also true that the key. to the meanings of a large portion of them is found in a few Root Words, numbering about three hundred." The Latin word facio, I make, enters into the com- position of about six hundred words. Three thousand words are derived from the following ten easy roots words: Capio, I take. Graphio, I write. Mitto, I send. Sedeo, I sit. Traho, I draw. Facio, I mak<>. Logos, reason. Pono, I place. Sisto,Istop. "Those who have given little attention to the sub- ject, would be astonished at the number of words into which a single prefix or suffix enters. Take, for example, the prefix un, meaning in verbs, to reverse the act of , as in the words undo, untie, unbind, and we shall find it probably in not less than seven thousand words. Con, with the various forms, co, col, com, probably enters into the composition of five thousand words." — From A. C. Webb's Manual of Etymology. 124 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. ORIGIN OF WORDS, By actual count more than two-thirds of the words in our language are of Greek and Latin origin. Anglo- Saxon words are employed so much more extensively, however, owing to the constant repetition of adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc. (all of Anglo-Saxon origin), that, in ordinary composition, they greatly predominate. A knowledge of the Pre- fixes and Suffixes, together with the Greek, Latin and Anglo-Saxon roots here presented, is estimated to give a key to the meaning of more than thirty thousand^ of our most useful derivative English words. The course is recognized as a satisfactory substitute for a classical education. A Simple, or primitive, word is a single significant term; as, man. A Complex or derivative word is one formed from some other word by placing a modifying letter, syllable, or syllables before or after it; as, manhood. A Compound word is two or more simple or complex words combined into one; as, man-servant. A Prefix is the part of a complex word placed before the base 5 as, an£i~slavery. A Suffix is the part of a complex word placed after the base ; as, anti- slaver?/. The Base of a complex or compound word is the part represent- ing the leading idea; as, saiti- slavery . Direction. — Learn the prefixes in all their forms and the meaning, which is given in italics. Analyze the words given as examples. PREFIXES. 125 Remark. — The prefixes, suffixes and roots are arranged alpha- betically and may be found as words are found in a dictionary. L. indicates Latin, G., Greek ami A. S. Anglo-Saxon. Jlodel. — in the word, avert, n means from or away; abject, »b mean* from or away; abstain, ab.s. from or away* PREFIXES. 1. A, (ab, abs), L.,/rom, away; avert, abject, abstain. 8. A, (an), G., without, not; at hoist, anarchy, apathy. 3. A, A. S., at, to, in, on; abed, afar, astern. 4. Ad. (a, ac, af, agr, al, an, ap, ar, as), L., to; adhere, ac- cede, afflict, aggrieve, allude, announce, append, arrive, assign. 5. Ante, (anti), L., before; antecedent, anticipate. 6. Anti, (ant), G., against, over, opposite; antithesis, ant- arctic. 7. Be, A. S., to make, all over; bedaub, benumb, befriend. 8. Bi, (bis), L., two; biped, bisextile, biscuit. 9. Cireum, (circu), L., around; circumference, circuit. 10. Con, (co, cog, col, com, cor), L., toith, together; convi cohere, cognate, collect, compose, correspond. 11. Contra, (contro, counter), L., against; contradict, contro- vert, counteract. 12. Pe, L., down, from; depend, deduce, descend. 13. Pis, (di, dif), L., asunder, apart t the opposite of; disable, diverge, differ. 14-. En, Em), G., in, on; encircle, emphasis, enthusiast. 15. En, (em, lm), L., to make; enable, empower, impoverish. 10. Fpi, GL, upon; epitaph, epidemic epigram. 17. Ex, fe, ec), L., out, from; exclaim, export, educe, eccen- tric. is. Extra. L., beyond; extraordinary, extravagant. \\K Fore, a. s., before; foretell, forenoon, forebode, foreman. 20. For, \. &., not, from; forg from; i. e. away from mind . forbid, forbear. 21. In. il. im. ir , L., In rerbs and nouns means in, into, i; Include, Inhale, Illusion, Impel, Irruption. 22. In, Kg, il, im, ir , L., in adj< ignoi d, immoral, Irregular. 126 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 23. Inter, L., between, among; intercede, international. 24. Mis, A. S., wrong; misguide, misconduct, misplace. 25. Non, L., not; non-conductor, non-combatant, nondescript. 26. Ob, (oc, of, op), L., in the way, against; obtrude, occur, offend, oppress, object. 27. Out, A. S., beyond, move than; outdo, outlive, outbid. 28. Over, A. S., above; overhang, overturn, overrule. 29. Per, (pel), L., through, thoroughly ; pervade, perceive, pel- lucid. 30. Post, L., after, behind; postscript, postmortem. 31. Pre, L., before; prefix, precede, prevent. 32. Pro, L., for, forward; pronoun, proclaim, propel, progress. 33. Re, L., back, anew; return, revoke, reclaim, recollect. 34. Retro, L., backward; retrograde, retrospect. 35. Se, L., aside, apart; secede, separate. 36. Sub, (sue, suf, sup, sus), L., under, below; subscribe, suc- ceed, suffuse, suppress, suspend. 37. Super, (sur), L., above, over; superfine, surmount. 38. Syn, (syl), G., together, with; synthesis, syllable. 39. Trans, (tra), L., across, beyond, over; transpose, traduce. 40. Un, A. S., before a verb means to take off, to reverse; un- roll, undo; Before an adjective, not; unable, uncertain. 41. Under, A. S., under, beneath; underbid, undermine. 42. With, A. S., from, against; withstand, withdraw. SUFFIXES. Direction. — Learn all the different forms which the suffixes assume in the formation of words, and the meaning, which is given in italics. Analyze the words given as examples. 1. Able, (ible, ble), L., able, that may be, fit to be, worthy of; amicable, blamable, soluble, teachable, digestible, visible. 2. Ably, (ibly, bly), L., state of being; amicably, perceptibly. 3. Aceous, (acious), L., full of, like, having the quality of; crustaceous, pugnacious. 4. Acy, L., being, state of being; accuracy, celibacy, privacy. 5. Age, F., state of being, that ivhich, allowance for, collection of, act of; bondage, wharfage, cartage, carriage, foliage, herbage. SUFFIXES. 127 6. Al, (ial, eal), L., o/, pertaining to, act of; naval, mental, social, paternal^ removal, filial, perusal) renewal) recital, moni- torial, corporeal* 7. An, (n, ain, ian), L., belonging to, relating to, one who; Republican, captain, American, Christian) plebeian. 8. Ance, (ancy), L., being, state of being, act of; Constancy, Ignorance) repentance, abundance. 9. Ant, L., one who, that which; assistant, defendant, depend- ant, observant, pleasant. 10. Ar, L., one who, of, like, pertaining to; globular, circular. 11. Ard, (art), A. S., one who, that which: sluggard) braggart. 12. Ary, L., one who, the place where, pertaining to; adversary, missionary, aviary, apiary, luminary, boundary. 13. Ate, L., one who, to make, full of, having or being; animate, renovate, regulate, desperate, passionate, facilitate, debilitate* 14. Cle, (cule), L., little, small; animalcule, corpuscle. 15. Dom, A. S., domain of, state of being; kingdom, dukedom. 16. Ed, A. S., did; relieved, trusted, magnified. 17. Ee, F., one to whom, one who; absentee, refugee, mortgagee. 18. Eer, (ier), F., one who; grenadier, auctioneer, brigadier. 19. En, A. S., small, made of, to make; maiden, kitten, moisten. 20. Ence, (ency), L., being, state of being, act of '; iunocency, elo- quence, existence, absence, diligence, impudence. 21. Ent, (lent), L., being, one who, that which; potent, agent, president, student, pestilent, violent, virulent. 22. Er, A. S., more, one who, that which; greater, builder, tender, fender, biographer, philosopher. 23. Ery, (ry), A. S., place, condition; gentry, pantry, flowery. 24. Es, (gees). 25. Escence, L., state of becoming ; convalescence. 26. Escent, L., becoming; convalescent, quiescent. 27. Ess, (ress), P., female; lioness, shepherdess, conductress* 28. Est, A. 8., most; Largest) homeliest, hottest. 21). Ful, A. 8., full of; truthful, watchful, deceitful) joyful. 80. Fy, L., to make; qualify, rectify, beautify, fortify, purify. 31. Hood) A. S ig; childhood, girlhood. 32. Ic, L., like, made of, pertaining to; academic, OCeanfC) astronomical, academical, cubical* 83. Ice, L., person, the thing, thai; notice, -•■rvice. 128 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 34. Ics, (ic), G., the science of, the art of; ethics, arthmetic. 35. Id, L., quality , pertaining to; frigid, splendid, torrid. 36. He, L., belonging to y may or can be; fragile, febrile, juvenile. 37. Ine, L., pertaining to; feminine, infantine, canine, heroine. 38. Ing, A. S., the act of continuing ; building, rehearsing. 39. Ion, L., the art of, state of being; expansion, rebellion. 40. Ise, (ize), G.,to make; idolize, criticise, scrutinize. 41. Ish, A. S., to make, somewhat, like; brownish, Spanish. 42. Ism, G., state of being, doctrine; heroism, spiritualism. 43. 1st, G., an agent, one who; artist, theorist, homeopathist. 44. Ite, L., one who is, being; favorite, millerite. 45. Ity, (ty), L., being or state of being; equality, immensity. 46. Ive, L., that which, one who, having power; inventive, pro- tective, captive, relative, corrective. 47. Ix, L., a female; administratrix, testamentrix, executrix. 48. Less, A. S., without; homeless, toothless, worthless. 49. Like, A. S.> resembling; homelike, warlike, manlike. 50. Ling, A. S„ little, young; darling, seedling, fondling. 51. Ly, A. S., like, manner; friendly, softly, smoothly, kindly. 52. Ment, L., state of being, act of, thing that; ornament, punish- ment, acquirement, elopement, concealment, movement. 53. Mony, L., state of being, thing that; matrimony, testimony. 54. Ness, A. S., being or state of being; tenderness, loveliness, 55. Or, L., one who, thing that; director, inspector, error, debtor. 56. Ory, L., relating to, the place where, the thing that; prefatory, factory, explanatory, purgatory. 57. Ous, (eons, ious, ose), L.,full of, consisting of; dangerous, victorious, righteous, beauteous, dubious, verbose, jocose. 58. Ky, (ery), A. S., a being, the art, collection, the place where ; bravery, knavery, coopery, entry, jewelry. 59. S, or es, A. S., more than one; annals, benches, judges; s, eth and est are used with verbs that have a singular subject; he loves, he loveth, thou lovest. 60. '$ or % A. S., his, the sign of the possessive of nouns; friend's council, horses' heads. 61. Ship, A. S., office of, state of; friendship, township. 62. Some, A. S., somewhat, causing, full of; gladsome, weari- some, lightsome, frolicsome. 63. Ster, A. S., one who; roadster, teamster. ROOTS AND PARONYMS 129 64. Tude, L., b> ■ ite of being; attitude, altitude. (>5. Dre 5 (tore)] L., the Mng t state of being, act of; creatures feature, fixture, scripture, exposure) seizure, capture. t>t>. Ward) a. s., direction of; homewards heavenward. G7. Wise, A. s., mania -wise, likewise, sidewtse* GS. Y, (ey), a. B., state f being, full of t mad, of; honesty, oon« 8isteney, bloody, watery, rocky, clayey, thorny, cloudy. GREEK, LATIN AND ANGLO-SAXON ROOTS AND PARONYMS. 1. .Equns, aequalis, L., equal; equal, co-, an-, in-, -ity -ise; equate, ad-, in-, -ion; equity; equitably; iniquity ; in iq-uitous. 2. Aer, G., the air; aer, -ial, -iform; aerolite, aeronaut-. air, -y. 3* Ago, L., I do, I drive; ag, -ent, -ency, -ile, -ity, agitate, -ion; act, counter-, en-, ex-, re-, over-, trans-, -ive, -ity, -lv, -ion, -or, meat, -ness; exigent; exigency; manage (manus), -er, -ment ; uavigate (uaris), circuin-, -ion, or; navigable. 4. Amicus, L., a friend; amie, -able, -ably; inimical. 5. Amo, L., I love; amor, en-, -ous: ami, un- -able, -ably, ability, -ty; amateur. 6. Anima, L., life, the soul; anim, in-, ate, -ed, -i<>n, h equanimity; magnanimous (magnus); unanimous (mm*). 7. Annus, L., a year; annu, -al -ity, -ly; enni, bi-, per-, tri-, mille-, al, -urn; anniversary (rerfo) ; annal, -s. .1st. 8. Arche, G , beginning; government; arch archive; anarchy; heptarchy; hierarchy; monarch: oligarchy; patriarch* U. Anna, L., t; arm, dis-, un-, -ed, -or. or] armament; armistice; Armada. 10. Ars, L., art; art, -full, -ist, -less, -ness; art i ti art- isan; artistic 11. Astron, G.. astral; astrol- _• r, astronomy; astr >nam I iter* 12. Audio, L., J hear; audi, in-, -ble, -My, -ence; radii Si -or, -ory. * 13. Beacnian, A. S., to signal; beckon, < d, »ing; beacon. 130 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 14. Beatan, A. S., to strike; beat, -ing; battle; beetle. 15. Bene, L., good, well; benedict (dico), -ion; benefact (facio), -or, -ion, -ress; benevolence (volo); benefit (flo)*, bene- ficial; beneficent. 16. Beorgan, A. S., to hide, borough; burglar; burrow; harbor. 17. Beran, A. S., to carry; bear, un-, -able, -er, -ing; berth; bier; birth; burden. 18. Bindan, A. S., to fasten; bind, re-, un-, er, -ing; band; bond; bound; bundle. 19. Byrnan, A. S., to burn; burn; brand, fire-, -ed, -ing; brandy; brimstone; brown; burnt; auburn. 20. Capio, L., I take; cap, in-, -able, -ability; capt, -or, -ure, -ious, -ive, -ity, -ate; cept, ac-, con-, de-, ex-, in-, inter-, pre-, re-, sua-, -ance, -ation, -ion, -iv«, -ible, -or; receptacle; cip, anti-, -ate, -ation; incipient; participate (pars). 21. Caput, L., the head; cap, -tion; capit, de-, re-, -ate, -al, -ist, -tion; captain, -cy; precipice; precipitant; precipitate; capitu- late; chieftain. 22. Carbo, L., coal; carbon, -aceous, -ate, -ic, -ize; carbon- iferous (fero). 23. Caro, L., flesh; earn, in-, -ate, -age, -al, -ity, -ion; carni- val; carnivorous. 24. Cedo, L., I go, I yield; cease* de-, -less; ceed, ex-, pro-, sue-, -ed, -ing; cede, ac-, ante-, con-, inter-, pre-, un-, se-, re-, -ent, -ence, -ed, -ure; cess, ac-, in-, inter-, con-, pro-, sue-, -ion, -ible, -ant, -or, -full, -ive. 25. Centrum, L., the center; centr, con-, ec-, -ate, -ic, -ity, -al; centrifugal (fugio) ; centripetal (peto) ; center, -ed. 26. Centum, L., a hundred; cent, per-, -age, centenary, -an, centennial (annum) centigrade (gradior); centipede (pes); centurion; century. 27. Clamo, L., I call, I cry out; clamat, ac-, de-, ex-, pro-, -ion, -ory, -or; claim, ac-, de-, dis-, ex-, pro-, re-, un-, -ant, -ed, -ing; clamor, -er, -ous. 28. Cor, L., the heart; cord, ac-, con-, dis-, re-, -ial, -ity, -ance, -ant, -er; cour, en-, dis-, -age, -ous, -ment; core, -ed. 29. Corpus, L., the body; corpor, in-, -ate, -ion, -al, -eal; cor- set; corselet; corpulent; corpuscle; corps; corpse. ROOTS AND PARONYMS. 131 30. Credo, L., I believe^ I trust to; cred, In-, -ence, -ible, -ity; credit, dis-, -able, -or; credul, in-, -ous, -ity; creed. SI. Caman, a. 8., t>> come; come, be-, wel-, mi-, -ly, -n< B2« ('lira, L., ca cur, ac-, in-, -ate, -acy, -ness, -able, »lve, -or; carious, cariosity; cure, sc-, In-, -ity; suit, a--, re-, en-, in-, -ty, -ance, -able. 33. Curro, L., I run ; cur, con-, ex-, in-, oc-, -ence, -sion, -ent -ency; course, con-, dis-, inter-, re-, -ed, -ing, -er; cuss, dis-, in-, per-, -ive, -ion, -ist, or; courier, succor. 34. Damnum, L., loss, harm; damn, -able, -at ion; dam, -age, -able; danger, -ous; demn, cou-, in-, -ation, -atory, -if v. -iiy, indemnification. 35. Decern, L., ten; decim, -al, ate; decimo, duo-; Deceml decennial (annus); decemvirate (vir). 36. Demos, G., the people; democrat; democracy , krat demogoixne: endemic; epidemic. 37. Dens, L., a tooth; dent, in-, -ation, -al, -ist, -ure; denti- frice; edentata; trident; rodent: dandelion. 38. Deor, A. S., dear; dear, en-, -er, -est ; darling; dearth. 39. Deus, L., a god; de, -ify, -ist, -ism, -ic, -al, -ity: divine, -ation, -ity; deification. 40. Dico, L., I proclaim, I set apart; die, ab-, de-, in-, \ -ation, -ve, -or: index: predicament. 41. Dico, L., I say; diet, ad-, bene-, contra-, e-, in-, -ate, -or, -ion, -ial; -ory, -ed, -ment; indite; dictionary. 4*2. Dies, L., a day; di, -al, -ary; meridian, ante-, post-; di- urnal. 43. Doceo, L., / teach; doc, -lie, -ity; doct, *or; document; doctrine, -al. 44. Dom, A. 8., judgment; doom, -ed; dooms-day. 45. Drifan, a 8., to drUx ; drift, -ed, Ing; drift-wood; drire, -er. -ing. M. Drincan, A. 8., to drink; drink, -ing, -er; drunk, ml, drench, -ed, 47. Dripan, A. 8. drip; drip, -ing; drop, -ed, Ing; droop, -ed, -ing; dribble ; driv 1. 48. Dneo, L., / lead, I bring forward; dace, ad , con , in-, super-, Intro-, pro-, re-, n -11 l< j dud. con., de-, -in. Intro-, pro , re-, -lie, -ion, -or, -ory, -iv< duet; viaduct (via). 132 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 49. Duo, L., two; du, -al; duel, -ist; duplicate; duplicity; double; doubt, un-, -ful, -less, -ed; dubious. 50. Durus, L., hard, lasting; dure, en-, ob-, -able, -ness, ability, -ance, -ate, -ion, -acy. 51. Emo, L, I buy, I take; empt 9 ex-, per-, pre-, -ion, -ory; redeem; redemption. 52. Eo, (it), L., I go, I pass; it, ex-, trans-, in-, -ion, -al, -ive, -ory; itinerant; ambition; initial; initiatory; transient. 53. Esse, L., to be; ess, -ence; est, inter-, dis-, -ing, -ed; ent, abs-, non-, -ee, -ity; ence, abs-; present, omni-, re-, mis-, -ly, -ation, -ative ; quintessence. 54. Facilis, L., easy; facile, -ity, -ate; difficult, -y. 55. Facio, L., I make, or do; fact, -or, -ion; benefactor (bene); manufacture (manus) ; feet, af-, de-, ef-, in-, per-, im-, dis-, un-, -ation, -ion, -ing, -ate, -ed, -ive, -ual; fici, de-, ef-, of-, pro-, suf-, in-, -ent, -ency, -cial; deficit; officer; suffice; feature; fashion, -able. 56. Faran, A. S., to go; fare -ed; farewell; ferry; ford, -ed; welfare. 57. Fedan, A. S., to feed; feed; food; foster; father. 58. Fendo, L., I keep off, I strike; fend, de-, of-, -er, -ant; fence, -er, -ing; fense, de-, in-, -less, -ible, -ive. 59. Fero, (latum), L., I bear, I carry; fert, -ile, -ity, -ize; fer, circum-, con-, de-, dif-, in-, pre-, pro-, re-, suf-, trans-, -ence, -ent, -ed, -able, -ment, -ee, -ing; deferential; pestiferous; vociferous; late, col-, di-, e-, pre-, re-, super-, trans-, -ion, -ory, -ive. 60. Figo, L., I fix, I join; fix, af-, pre-, suf-, trans-, -ture; crucifix. 61. Fluo, L., I flow; fluo, af-, con-, in-, super-, -ent-, -ency, -id -ial, -ous, -ity; fluctuate, -ion; influx. 62. Fortis, L., strong, brave; fort, com-, un-, ef-, -ify, -able, -less; force, en-, re-, -ible, -ment; fortress, fortitude; fortification. 63. Fot, A. S., the foot; foot; fetter; fetlock. 64. Frango, L., J break; fract, re-, -ion, -al, -ious, -ure; frag, -ile, -ment, -ary; frang, re-, ible; fring, in-, -ment: frail, -ty; re- frain. 65. Frater, L., brother; fratern, -al, -ity, -ize; friar; fratri- cide. 66. Frigis, L., cold; frig, -id, -ity; refrigerate, -ion, or. ROOTS AND rARONYMS. 133 67. Fugio, L., I flee; fugit, -ive; fuge, re-, subter-, -co; centri- fugal. 68. Fill, A. S., unclean; defile, -edj filth; foal; fulsome. 69. Fundo, (fusom), L., / pour; fund, re- -ing, -ed; fuse, con-, dif-, ef-, in-, pro-, re-, snf-, trans-, -ible, -ion, -ive; futile; con- found; refute -at ion. 70. Fyr, A. S., the fire; fire; fiery; fireworks; bonfire. 71. Geard, A. S., an enclosure; yard; orchard; garden. 72. Retail, A. S., to get; get, -ing; forget; got, en. 73. Gifau, A. S., to give; give, for-, mis-, -ing; gave. 74« Gradior, L., I xcalk; grade, de-, retro-, -ation; gress, ag-,' con-, di-, e-, in-, pro-, retro-, trans-, -ion, -or, -ive; gradu, under-, -al. -ate,- ation. 75. Graf an, A. S., to dig; grave, en-, -er; graft, -ed, -ing; groove; grove; grub, -ed, ing. 76. Gramma, G., a letter; gram, ana-, dia-, epi-, mono-, pro*, -ar, -ian; grammatical; telegram. 77. Grapho, G., / write; graph, auto-, bio-, geo-, lexico-, lith-, ortho-. photo-, steno-, tele-, topo-, typo-, -y, -er, -ic. 78. Gravis, L., heavy; grave, ag-, -ity, -ate, -ion; grieye, ag-, -ance, -ous; grief; gravitation. 79. Hahhan, A. S., to possess; have, be-, -ing, -ior. 80. Habeo, L., I have, I hold; habit, in-, re-, -able, -ant, -ation; hibit, ex-, pro-, -ion, -or; habiliment; able, en-, dis-, -ity. 81. Heard, A. S., hard; hard, -en, -ship, -y; hardware. 82. Hospes, EA, a host, aguest; host, -ess; hospit. in-, -al, -able, -ity; hostler; hotel. 83. Jacio, L., / throw, I cast; jeet, al)-, ad-, coil-, de-, c-, in-, inter-, ob-, pro-, re-, sub-, -ure, -al, -ed, -ion, -ment, -able, -ive, -o^ -lie; ejaculate, -ion, -ory; jetty; jut. 84. Jungo, L., I join; Janet, ad-, con-, dia-, in-, sub-, .ion, -nre, join, ad-, en-, con-, dis-, re-, enb-, -ed, -er ; rejoinder; conjug- al; conjugate, -ion; joint, -ed. •S."i. Jus, L., r'Kjia, law; just, in-, -ice, -ify, »ness; Jurist; justi- tion; Jurisdiction (diee); injure, -y, -one. m;. Kratos, O., 9trength t . crnt, aristo-, demo-, -ic; era, lemo-, t r s7. Lecgan, \. S . lay; lair: law; lea J ledge; lie; low; outlaw; lying. 134 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 88. Lego, L., I gather, I read; leg, il-, e-, in-, ible-, ibility, -ant, -ance, -ion, -end; lect, col-, re-, -ec, e-, se-, ion, ic, -ive, or; dilig- ent; eligible; intellect, -ual; intelligent. 89. Lex, L., law, a rule, leg, il-, -al, -ity, -ize; legislate (latum; see fero), -ion, -or, -nre; privilege, legitimate. 90. Liber, L., free; liber, il-, -al, -ity, -ate, -or, -ty; deliver, -ance, -y. 91. Litera, L., a letter; liter, il-, al-, ob-, -al, -ary, -ate, -ion, literature. 92. Locus, L., a place; loc, dis-, col-, -al, -ize, -ity, -ate, -ion; locomotive. 93. Logos, L., a speech, a reason, a description; log, apo-, doxo-, etymo-, genea-, geo-, minera-, mytho-, ornitho-, philo-, phreno-, physio-, psycho-, tanto-, techno-, zoo-, -ic^ -al, -ian, -y, -ize, ist; logue, apo-, cata-, deca-, pro-. 94. Lufe, A. S., love; love, un-, -able, -er, -ing, -ly, -est. 95. Magnus, L., great, large, grand; magni, -fy, -tnde; magnificent (f acio) ; magnanimous (anima) ; major, -ity, majesty ; mayor; magistrate; master. 96. Mando, L., I command, I commit; mand, com-, de-, -ate, -ory, -er, -ment; mend, com- re-, -able, -ing; commendatory. 97. Manus, L., the hand; manu, -al; manuscript (scribo) ; manufacture (facio), -ed, -er, -ing; manufactory; manipulate, -ion, -or; mana, -cle; emancipate (capio), -ion, -or. 98. Mater, L., a mother; matri, -mony, -al; matron, -ly; maternal; maternity. 99. Memini, L., I remember, memor, com-, im-, -able, -ate, -ion, -ive, -ial, -ize, -y; remember; memorandum. 100. Metron, G. 5 a measure; metr, dia-, geo-, sym-, -ic, -al, -ian, -y; mete; meter, dia-, gas- or gaso-; aneometer; oarometer; hexameter; hydrometer; hygrometer; perimeter; thermometer; trigonometry. 101. Migro, L., / move from one place to another; migr, em-, im-, trans-, -ate, -ion, -ory, -ant. 102. Mitto, L., I send, I let go; mit, ad-, com-, de-, e-, inter-, o-, per-, re-, sub- trans-, -ance, -ee, -ent, -ed; mis, ad-, com-, inter-, o-, pre-, pro, re-, sub-, -ible, -ion, -ed, -er, -ary, -ible, -ile, -ive; com- promise; surmise. 103. Mona, A. S., the moon; moon; Monday; month. ROOTS AM) PARONYMS. 135 10-1. Moneo, T,., Tremtndt T warn; monit, ad-, pre-, -ion, -or, -y, •lal; monu, -ment, -al; moii, ad-, pre-, -ish, -er; summons* 105. Monos, G., alone; monk; monastery; monomania; mon- opolize; monosyllable; monotheism; monotone; monotonous; monotony. 106. Mors, L., death; mort, Im-, -ul, -ize, -ify; mortification; mortuary; murder, -er, -ons. 107. Moveo, L., / move; mov, im-, -able; move, re-, -ment, -er; mot, com-, e-, pro-, -ion, -al, -less, -ive, -or, -er; promote; remote,/ -ness; mobile; momentum. 108. Mynd, A. S., the mind; mind, re-, -ful. 109. Xavis, L., a ship; nav, -al, -y; navigate (ago), -ed, -or; navigable, circum-. 110. Xomen, L., a name; noinin, de-, -al, -ate, -ion, -ee, -or; misnomer: cognomen; pronoun. 111. Humerus, L., a number; nnmer, e-, in-, -al, -ate, -ion, -ic, -ons, -able; number; supernumerary. 112. Nuncio, L., I announce; nnnci, de-, e-, pro-, ate, -ion; nounce, an-, de-, pro-, re-, -able, -ment. 113. Ode, G., a poem, an ode; melody, -ons; parody, prosody; Psalmody; rhapsody- 114. Ordo, L., order, rank; ordin,co-, extra-, in-, pre-, sub-, -ate, -ion, -ance, -ary; ordain; order, -ly. 115. Fan, G. f all, the whole; panacea ; pancreas; pandemonium; paneg anorama; pantheism; pantomime. 116. Paro, L., T prepare, I get ready ; pare, com-, pre-, ln-,-ative, ■. -ation, -atory; apparel; repair; comparison; separate, in , - 117. Pars, L., a part, a share; part, a-, com-, counter-, de-, im-, -ed, -ial.-iiy, -ment, -uiv, -y« partner; participate, -ion; particle; particular, -ize; partisan; partition. 118. Pater, L., a father; pater, -nal; paternity; patron, -• -ize; patriot, com-, -ic, -ism; patrician; patrimony; -ion . 111). Pathos, G., suffering, feeling; pathetic, sym- : pathol (logos); allopathy, -ic; homeopathy; -ic, apathy: antipathy; sympathy, - 120. Pello, L., I drive; pel. Com-, dl pro-, re-; pulse com-, ex-, im-, re-, -ate, -ion, -ory, - 136 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 121. Pendeo, L., / hang; pend, ap-, de-, in-, -ant, -ing, -age, -ence, -ent; appendix; pendulum; suspense; -ion; pensile. 122. Pendo, L., to weigh, to pay; pend, com-, ex-, -iture; sti- pend; pense, com-, dis-, in-, ex-, recom-, -ate, -able, -ive, -ion, -er, -ary. 123. Pes, L., the foot; ped, bi-, ex-, im-, -al, -ient, -iency, -ite, -ion, -ious, -iment, -ler, pedestrian; quadruped. 124. Peto, L., I attack, I seek; pete, com-, in-, -ent, -ence; cen- tripetal; petit, com-, re-, -ion, -er, -or; petulant; impetus; im- petuous; impetuosity. 125. Philos, G., a friend, a lover; philosophy, -er, -ic, -al; Philadelphia; philanthropy; philology (logos); philharmonic. 126. Phusis, G., nature; phys, meta-, -ic, -al, -ian, physiology (logos), -ist; physiognomy, -ist. 127. Polis, G., a city; police, -man; policy; politic, -al, -ian, -s; polity; metropolis; micropolis; cosmopolitan. 128. Pono, L., I place; pone, com-, de-, op-, post-, -ent, -ment, pose, com-, de-, dis-, ex-, im-, in-, inter-, op-, pro-, pur-, re-, sup-, trans-, -er, -ite, -or, -ure, -al; posite, com-, de-, dis-, ex-, -im, inter-, op-, pro-, sup-, -ion-, -or, -ary, -ory; juxtaposition; compound, -ed, -ing; post, com-, im-, -age. 129. Porto, L., J carry; port, ex-, im-, pur-, re-, sup-, in-, trans-, -ance, -ant, -ation, -able, -er; portune, im-, op-, -ity; portfolio ; portmanteau. 130. Prehendo, L., I lay hold of, I seize; prehend, ap-, com-, re-, -ed; prehense, ap-, com-, re-, -ion, -ive, -ible; comprise; enterprise; surprise; prison; reprieve. 181. Probo, L., I try, I prove; prob, im-, ap-, dis-, rep-, -able, -ability, -ation, -ary, -ity, -ate; prove, ap-, dis-, im-, re-, -al, -ment, -ing; reproof. 132. Reafian, A. S., to seize; bereave; rive; rob, -er; rove. 133. Rego, L., Irule; reg, -al, -ent, -ency; regulate; regicide; regiment; regular; -ity; regalia; rect, cor-, di-, e-, in-, -ly, -ion, -ify, -or; rectitude; incorrigible; reign. 134. Ridan, A. S., to ride; ride, -er, -ing, road; roadster. 135. Rnmpo, L., J break; rupt, ab-, cor-, in-, dis-, e-, inter-, ir-, un-, -ly, -ness, -ible, -ion, -ed; bankrupt, -cy. 136. Sceofan, A. S., to push; shove; shovel; scuffle; shuffle; sheaf. j &, >ka rr/r/y ■/( yrrrr~ rr r/r t >■ > /•), '/; rr j r / r ft * -€s//r c/rr A- } . f'r / rr r / r / rr- j j r // r /r j rV / /r/.< /< :j , rr Jtr/ c ■ "ccjr/t/e co- (}(.)/*( Jrczeuce, (2* Acrj, /& >y Jrri : cced. /rrrrr /rm ir/< '■■ ) jjr rr/ ■/) r r rf / rj r/r.irr'r / '■ ¥ /r.l/r- / / f > rr rr r/ rr /•/ A /// . y ' r // /'rr r r r 4 U > ''r //// , y ;r. 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ala., Alabama. A. Ter. , Arizona Territory Ark., Arkansas. Cal., California. Col., Colorado. Conn., Connecticut. D. C, District of Columbia. Del., Delaware. Fla., Florida. tia., Georgia. 111., Illinois. Ind., Indiana. Ind. Tei •., Indian Territory. I. Ter., Idaho Territory. la., Iowa. N. M., New Mexico. • N.Y., New York. N. D., North Dakota. o., Ohio. Or., Oregon. Penn., Pennsylvania. B. I., Rhode Island. o. ^«, South Carolina. S. D., South Dakota. Tenn., Tennessee. i Mex., Mexico. J Jan., January. Feb., February. Mar., March. Apr., April. May, May. Jun., June. Agt., Agent. A nit.. Amount. ABBREVIATIONS. Kan., Ky., La., Mass., Me., Md., Mich., Minn., Miss., Mo., M. Ter., N. C, Neb., Nev., N. H., N. J., Tex., U. Ter., Ya., Yt., Wis., Wy. Ter Wash. W. Ya., Ont., P.Q., Kansas. Kentucky. Louisiana. Massachusetts. Maine. Maryland. Michigan. Minnesota. Mississippi. Missouri. Montana Territory. North Carolina. Nebraska. Nevada. New Hampshire. New Jersey. Texas. Utah Territory. Virginia. Vermont. Wisconsin. , Wyoming Territory. Washington. West Virginia. Ontario, Canada. Province of Quebec Jul., July. Aug., August. Sept., September. Oct., October. . Nov., November. Dec, December. Disct., Discount. Hon., Honorable. L ETTE R-WK1 T I NG. The essential parts of a letter are the Heading, the Address, the Salutation, the Body and the Subscrip- The Heading consists of the name of the place at which the letter is written and the date. If ruled paper is used, the heading •itten on the first line of it; if unruled, it is written one and a half or two inches from the top of the page, beginning a little t«» the left of the middle of the page. MODELS OF HEADINGS. Model 1. Model 2. Model The Address 3 of the name ofl on written to and In tfhich be lives, it should be written ■ 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. line or two below the heading, near the left side of the page, and a little to the right of the body of the letter. MODELS OF ADDRESS. Model 1. Model 2. ns holding high governmental positions; His Excellency Is applied to the President of the United States and to State Governors. The Body of the letter follow- the salutation, it should be commenced on the next line below and a little to the right of It. B is 9« l( tt< 3 should be brief, and to the point. Friendly cor- ondence requirt - an easy, familiar style, for the acquisition of which the study of good models will be very useful. The first line of the body of a letter is, probably, the mosi hu- nt, and for that reason a fen models are here presented : 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. I am in receipt of yours, etc. 2. Yours of the 16th inst. is just received, etc. 3. Your favor of the 3d inst. is received, etc. 4. Your esteemed favor of the 10th inst. is at hand, etc. 5. Yours of the 18th has remained unanswered until nuw, etc. SUPERSCRIPTION. Model 1. Model 2. <&fa The Superscription consists of the name and address as written on the envelope. This should be written neatly and plainly. When writing to a person living at or near a small town or village, the name of the county should be given. When writing to a per- son in the city, the street and residence number should be given. The Subscription, like the salutation, depends, for its form, upon the intimacy of the parties corresponding. The following- are a few of the various forms used: Faithfully yours; Bespectfully yours; Truly yours; Yours truly; Very truly yours; Your obedient servant; Your obedient humble serv- ant; As ever, your friend; Ever affectionately yours; Yours affec- tionately; Yours cordially, etc. LETTER- WRITING. 1 13 Official Letters have a more stately forma] close than any other. The following are approved forms — the first being in the diplo- matic style. I have the honor to bt , Sir, With the highest consideration , Tour obi du nt «< rvant t Alfred M. Wright. I hare the lumor to fi 0! With much r< speet, Your obedient servant, Conde J. Fallen. 1 have the honor to be (or remai respectfully, Your most obedient servant, H nry F. Miller, I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, Walter II. Low/. A FEW REMARKS. Talleyrand said: " Never destroy a letter and never write one." Modifj this so much as relates to compromising yourself, it Is a good plan, when yon find yourself Impelled to write an angry let- ter, to destroy the first one you write and the second one The third or fourth will probably be Less unpleasant in its effects. The whole art and secret of letter-writing is to write preci as yon speak; kn<>w exactly what you hav« i<> say and fray it commodate your Language to the capacity of your correspondent. I your letters tending. Make this an Imperative rule, ork will Leave your bands. Write nothing a would >ur correspondent. 3 of little importance should he answered without delay. In ii. moment, of course a certain amount ol ttiou i Id be \i^<<\. Let i : t and terse as on lions. I 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the fewest number of words. Use the shortest words that will express your meaning. The paper and envelopes used is a matter of taste, and some- times, in a degree, show the status of the writer. When possible, use fine paper, always a whole sheet, and envelopes of a fitting size to avoid many folds in the paper. I Never write a private letter on foolscap paper; to do so is awk- ward, clumsy, and generally inexcusable. Never send a half-sheet letter, except on business ; and never send less than a half-sheet under any circumstances. For a private letter, even if you write only two or three lines, use a whole sheet. No color is more tasteful than white, for any kind of letter, and a gentleman should use no other. Unruled paper is to be preferred, but without a violation of good taste, ruled paper may be used. Any one by diligent prac- tice may learn to write straight without a guiding line, and the ability to do so is a valuable acquirement. A letter requesting an answer for the exclusive benefit of the writer, should be accompanied by a stamp for return postage; or, still better, an envelope addressed and stamped. A LETTER. To be loritten: Write a letter dated to-day, at No. 37 Olive St., Cleveland, addressed to Mr. G. M. Bowers, Principal, Metropolitan Business College, in answer to the following questions: 1. When and where were you born? 2. How was your early life spent, and what were your school advantages? 3. What school did you last attend? 4. What studies did you there pursue? 5. Did you graduate? 6. When did you leave that school? 7. Have you had any experience in business of any kind, and if so what? 8. What is your purpose in attending this College? 9. How long do you expect to attend? 10. How many hours each day can you devote to study at home? LETTER- WRITING. b45 / r^ t Qo« " / ■ ><' 3 • 'O (5^ « - ^ / < / «/ i I ."// 6 / /'-(' n>o 'itcwa/e lit r/f.-j//f.&'.;r; r/ / . but -/Ae fvfiO'Le cn.L sCttzco 125 barrels Apples, No. 1, at $1.50 $187 50 11 " No. 2, at $.75 18.75 •") " Quinces, at $3.50 L7 50 Fall Tears, al Si. CD 81.75 Freight on car. $62.00 Cartage 12 50 jion on sales 11. Insurance 1.17 ge 17 A mom:! due consignor $12 / \ 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Each of these letters should be made a study — repeatedly read and copied. The relative positions of the Heading, Address, Salu- tation and Subscription to the body of the letter and to each other, as well as the punctuation of different parts, should be carefully observed. Suggestion. — The great educational and literary value of letter-writ- ing should give it a more prominent place in a model course of study than it generally occupies. Teachers should to a great extent, substitute this exer- cise for the writing of ordinary " compositions." They will thus secure greater ease and freedom of expression than by the old method, and will at the same time give their pupils a practical acquaintance with the forms and peculiarities of letters. Punctuation. — A comma should be placed after every item of the heading, address and subscription, except the last, where a period is used. QUOTING PRICES. ttdfo'W'&t «-, 4, : ^td€. ■a.-t-e ■dw£u> -tx / l€i'£ej£u / L. %£& tyo-'M fe / it,€,e>d aw '&u,-C'?i<£&d J &-6-C., &,d f&'L't'C ~ it son ised, <$/ y ' . cJktr<; £f, /6ft / /// J2? evince ?nf v<6 ANS. Many of the commonesl errors in Language can hardly be re- ferred to rules of syntax. They are violations of good taste, die- tiou and logic. A systematic discussion and correction of the sentences in this series of lessons will serve to cultivate the I and the powers of expression, and to give thestudem a knowledge of correct language even though his knowledge of grammar maj be quite limited. Explanation.— a word in tfatfc« will occasionally point oat an error. I figure at the end of a line win sometimes indicate the rule violated i air only incidental. however. The Btudent Is expected to discover the < and correct it even when lie finds it necessary to reconstruct the ruth' tence. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE, Correct the following sentences, and (five the r Hon: 1. We cannot do no more. 2. I went direct to the place. 18. ;;. The office r only discharged his duly. 4. Be read only the book; he did not tear it. 5. Nothing can just ify over an untruth. lie only read the book, not the notice of it. 7. He was not able to pay the debt but in part. 8. Be not dishonest, nor take advantage ot do one. Incorn ct. 1. It la me. It Lfl I. 2. Him and Iht went. ml -he went. n you and I. Between you and me. 4. Lay down. '! d<»\\ n, '! ". !i learned me arithmetic. He taught me arithmetic. Jane are wrong. Mary or Jane la wrong. 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the folloioing sentences, and explain why the correction is needed: 1. Do not walk slow. 18. 2. Bring them books to me. 3. The plank is ten foot long. 4. George can walk thirty mile a clay. 5. William is an awful bad writer. 6. We do not like those sort of people. 22. 7. Henry is brighter than any of the pupils. 8. Either of these four boys may be trusted. Incorrect. 1. I didn't do nothing. 2. Hain't he gone? 3. I knowed what he done. 4. I've got to get my lesson. Correct. I didn't do any thing. Hasn't he gone? I knew what he did. I must get my lesson. &4,'£/fz 1.90 COO LETTER-WRITING. 151 4 lbs. Coffee C. Sugar at 5 cts $ .20 9 " •' A " al 8 cts .72 12 •• Brown Coffee at SO cts 10 •• Oat Meal at :> cts in « Rice at 9 cts l box Starch at 25 cts 19 boxes Matches at 10 cts l } boxes Soda Crackers at 3.00 $U.47 Hoping to receive your further orders, T am, Yours truly, W. D. Armstrong, No. 137 Olive si reek ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is need> f a sentence the clearer it will be. Equivocation, Am- biguity and Obscurity are faults opposed to Clearness. Strength consists in such a use and arrangement ot words as make a deep impression on the mind of the reader or bearer. Thf strength ot a sentence may be enhanced by rejecting all superfluous words, by never closing with a preposition or any small word, and by arranging its members bo that the shorter or weaker stand before the longer or more important. 158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Harmony is a rhetorical term used to denote that smooth and easy flow of language which pleases the ear. Harmony consists in the use of euphonious, or pleasant-sound- ing words, the euphonious arrangement of words, and the adapta- tion of the sound to the sense which it is used to express. Tautology consists of the repetition of a sound by employing the same word more than once in a sentence, or by using in con- tiguous words, similar combinations of letters, either of which serves to destroy harmony. Unity consists in the restriction of a sentence to one leading proposition, modified only by such accessories as are materially and closely connected with it. A sentence may consist of parts but these must be so bound together as to convey to the mind the impression of one fact, and but one. Avoid long parentheses and do not crowd into a sentence things which have no logical connection. INVENTION. Invention is the process of developing thought in connection with any particular theme. It is this that furnishes the material of composition, and upon this, in a great measure, its value de- pends. At first, and in fact always, outline the subject before undertak- ing to write the composition. The preparation of this outline is the very essence of invention. It sets the pupil at once to thinking — to gathering thoughts instead of putting to- gether mere words. The outline, therefore, should be a leading portion of the exercise, and should in each case be submitted to the teacher for inspec- tion and comment, before the composition is written. Suppose that Anger is selected as the theme for a composition. Such questions as the following at once suggest themselves to the student and are written down : 1. What is Anger? 2. What are its visible effects? 3. How does a person feel when his fit of passion has subsided? 4. What are its usual effects on 159 individuals? 5. To what may the angry man be compared? 6. Morally *king,wha1 Is the character of this passion? These are only a lew of the questions that may be asked. In them we find the germ of the composition, and from them we con- struct an outline like the following: 1. Definition of anger. •2. Feelings produced by anger. 3. Effects on those about us. 4. Moral character of anger. 5. Methods of controlling the passion. AMPLIFICATION. The analytical outline of the theme completed, the next step is amplification. This consists in enlarging on the thoughts pre- sented in the outline. Each topic may be repeatedly enlarged upon, and the whole composition rewritten several times, and at each writing new and appropriate additional matter may be intro- duced until one complete and consistent whole has been produced. The first topic of the subject, Anger, may be amplified thus ■ 1. Anger is a passion. _'. Anger is a strong passion or emotion. Anger is a strong passion or emotion of the mind excited by a real or 3ed injury. 4. Anger Kfl a keen displeasure, a strong passion or emotion of the mind ed by a real or supposed injury and usually accompanied with a desire to punish. THEMES FOR COMPOSITION. l. friendship. -• Composition. 3. Good English. L Importance of Correctness. bools, Pnblic and Private. 6. Comfort for the Dances. 7. His ords. 8. My favorite Study. ii School. io. School a Manufactory u. Grade 12. Errors In the use of English. IS. i School Life. 14. The School- master Abroad IB. , i»;. The Delsarte Bj stem. 160 iNGLISH GRAMMAR. PKONUNCIATION. Orthoepists and great linguists do not all agree in the pronuncia- tion of certain vocal elements in our language. The shades of difference, though slight, are, in some instances, worthy of notice. A as in blast, mast, far, staff, ask. Many of our most eminent scholars give to the vowel in words of this class the sound of a as in and. Another large class of speakers give in such words the sound of a as in arm. Those who prefer the first as the proper quality of the element should avoid the drawl or thin, prolonged sound which is sometimes given to it. Some eminent orthoepists regard this vowel as of an mtermediate quality between a as in and and a as in arm. A as in fare, or e as in there. The most eminent scholars on both sides of the Atlantic give to ae vowel a or e in words of this class the sound of long a de- prived of its vanishing element e as heard in pay and say. This practice is better observed by Englishmen than by Americans. In the United States a somewhat lengthened form of a as in and, al- though not sanctioned by the Dictionaries, is more commonly given to words of this class. The sound occurs only before r, and should be closely blended with the sound of u as in urn, which is heard before r in the pronunciation of such words. The compound long vowel sound, generally'indicatedjby u, as in use, begins with the consonant y and ends with oo. This is the sound heard in the words unit, cube, mute, educate etc. Bat when the compound vowel u, or its equivalent, in a monosyllable or an accented syllable, follows t, d, I, n, s, th or j, the initial element is slighted so as to become a very brief and indistinct sound of i asm ill; as in tune, duke, lunar, nude, suit, enthusiast, jewel . When a short sound of o occurs before ss, st, th, or the sound off, as in cross, cost, broth, soft, cough, and in some cases before ng, as in long, strong, it is the practice of the best speakers to give to the o a medium sound between o as in on and a as in fall. PROM N< IATIOX. 1()1 Many speakers in England give to e, e myrtle) whose vowel element is commonly pronounced as m in urn, a sound very nearly like that of e as in end: but this distinction is very generally disregarded in this country. EXERCISES IN PRONUNCIATION. 1. Do not pronounce otr like ur or tilt ; as hol'lw tor hol'low ; shad'duh for sltu'dotr. Pronounce, Pil'low, yel'low, to-mor'row, bor'row, wid'ow, fel'low, nar'row, swal'lowiug, mel'lowing. 2. Do not pronounce ess like iss; as hardniss for hardness. Pronounce, Harmless, good'ness, care'less, bold'ness, bad'- em'press, host'ess, full'ness, clear'ness, seam'stress. 3. Do not pronounce el like U,et like it, or est Yikoist; as fu'il for Ju'el, bask' it for bask'et. Pronounce, Bush'el, cru'el, du'el, strongest, young'est, yet, get, mark'et, hatch'et, rack'et, rock'et, riv'nlet, hon'est, bold'est, larg'- est, small'est. 4. Do not pronounce ent like mit, or ence like unce; as sil'unt for sil'ent, sent' mice for sent' ence. Pronounce, Expe'rieuce, snperintend'ence, pa'tieuce, six'pence, prn'dent. de'eent, mo'ment, gar'ment, mon'nment, government, superintendent, parliament. 5. Do not use the sound of short u before a final m; as he'lum for helm, rhas'um for chasm. Pronounce, Whelm, worm, spasm, overwhelm, film, rhythm, phan'tasm, bap'tism, patriotism, elm. 6. Do not sound sh before r like s; as srub for shrub, sinnk for shrink. Pronounce, Shroud, shriv'el, shred, shrunken, shriek, shrine. 7. Do not omit the sound of r after a vowel as in arm. Pronounce, Pa'per, or'der, horse, warm, alarm'ing, dark, Start, hark, are, remark, chart, door. 8. Do not omit the sound of d when preceded by n; as bun for band. Pronounce, Winds, stand, friends, defends', depends', de- mands', hand'ful, grandfather. 162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9. Do not omit the sound of d in the terminal letters Ids; as wilz for ivilds, felz for fields. Pronounce, Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds', child's. 10. Do not omit the sound of t when preceded by c hard in the same syl- lable ; as aJcs for acts, exak'ly for exact'ly. Pronounce, Tracts, facts, direct'ly, perfectly, com'pacts, in- spects', respects', inducts', instructs', correct'ly, ab'stractly. 11. Do not suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables : as ev'ry for ev'ery, his'try for Ms'tory. Pronounce, Sev'eral, part'iciple, belief, crock'ery, fam'ily, fa'- vorite, des'perate, des'olate, nom'inative, mis'ery, li'brary, sal'ary, com'pany, com'fortable, perfum'ery, mem'ory, vic'tory, slip'pery. 12. Do not suppress the sound of e or of i before I or n in those words in which it should be articulated. Pronounce, Hov'el, nov'el, par'cel, bar'rel, trav'el, quar'rel, sor'rel, pen'cil, chick'en, sat'in, mit'ten, lin'en. 13. Do not sound e or i before n or I in the following words in which it is silent. • Pronounce, Heav'en, ha'ven, ba'sin, sev'en, hazel, gold'en, e'vil, o'pen, wid'en, fro'zen, wood'en, short'en, wak'en. 14. Give to the vowel a in the unaccented terminal syllables al, ant, ance, its short sound, but do not make it prominent. Pronounce, Na'tional, par'tial, fi'nal, eter'nal, ig'norant, ty'- rant, in'stant, fla'grant, vig'ilance, ig'norance, in'stance, fra'grance. 15. Do not give to long o, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u. Pronounce, Opin'ion, obed'ience, provide', promote', provoke', pota'to, tobac'co, posi'tion, soci'ety, el'oquence, disposi'tion, mel'- ody, composi'tion. 16. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent. Pronounce, Gigan'tic, precise'ly, salva'tion, loca'tion, vaca'- tion, ter'ritory, sec'ondary, mat'rimony, prom'issory, vac'cinated. CO M POSITION. 163 17. Do not substitute the sound of oo for that of bong ?/ in the following words. Proiiouiice, Mute, tune, cluke, duty, tube, mu'sic, nude, du'- bious, lute, in'stitute, lllude', IS. Do not give the sound of long u after r, ch or sh when the sound of oo long or short should be heard. Pronounce, Ruby, rule, fruit, truth, chew, grew, sure, sugar, truly, bru'tal, rude, ru'bicund, through. V.\ The vowel a, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of a in far, charm and star somewhat shortened. Pronounce, Pi'ca, da'ta, dra'ma, com'ina, so'fa, al'gebra, Chi'na, Amer'ica, dilem'ina, rai'ca, alpac'a, a'rea, neb'ula. COMPOSITION. Write a composition using the following outline as a guide. Each topic ma>j form one paragraph in the composition : Subject, Going to School. 1. The object of going to school. 2. Behavior at school. .. I'.ehavior on the road to and from school. 4. Difference between a school and a religious meeting. "). The usual exercises of a school. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is wsade. i. Yon was kindly treated. 18. _'. Appearances is often deceptive. 13. 3. lie don't know what it is. 13. L. II<- dare not do as he threatened. 13. r,. What, does all my exertions avail? The correctness of these rules are doubtful. 7. Thon sees the difficulty in which I am pl.e There was many reasons tor taking thai course. 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Remark. — The apostrophe, besides being used in the possessive form is used to denote the omission of one or more letters. The following are often abbreviated by the use of the apostrophe: He's = he is. It's = it is. I'm = I am. You're = you are. We're = we are. They're = they are. O' = of. He'll == he will O'er = over. Ne'er = never. I've == I have. I'll = I will. Write a composition using the folloiving outline as a guide. Let each topic form one paragraph in the composition. Subject, Cloth. 1. General appearance of cloth. 2. Some of the forms in which it comes. 3. Materials of which it is made. 4. Its numerous uses. Subjects Suggested. — Leather, Paper, Felt, Crackers. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the following sentences, and explain wlvy the correction is needed. 1. Whom do they say that I am? 2. 2. It was me that wrote the letter. 2. 3. We did not know that it was him. 2. 4. It is not me that he is angry with. 2. 5. Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 13. 6. James, and also his brother, have gone home. 7. If I had been him, I should have done the same. 8. To be good and to shun evil always brings happiness. Incorrect. Correct. 1. They believe it to be I. They believe it to be me. 2. We understood it to be she. We understood it to be her. 3. Let him be whom he may. Let him be who he may. 4. It could not have been her. It could not have been she. 5. Who do they think him to be? Whom do they think him to be? COMPOSITION. 165 PRONUNCIATION. IMroction. — Pronounce the following words giving the proper ac'cent to each syllable : Xouns. con'flict ac'cent con'trast con 'duct ob'ject es'cort prod'uce con'tract Verbs. conflict' accent' contrast' conduct' object' escort' produce' contract' Nouns. pre'fix re 'tail per 'fume surVey con 'cert con' vert convict cem'ent Verbs. prefix' retail' perfume' survey' concert' convert' convict' cement' Direction. — Pronounce each of the following words in rapid succes- sion, putting the sound of a as heard in the words, mast, blast and far into each: Pronounce, France, slant, graft, dance, blast, staff, lance, clasp, ask, plaster, grant, glance, master, cast, class, prance, pass, demand, mass, pastor, gasp, enchant, chance, grass, glass, advance, pasture, mast. Write a short composition answering the. following questions. Subject, Pears. 1. Are pears a cultivated or a wild fruit? •2. Where do they grow? 3. Is there more than one kind of pears? 4. What are some of the hest kinds of pears? :.. For what arc pean 086(1? *'.. What drink is made from pears? 7. How arc dried pears prepared? Subjects Bnggented. — Apples % Cherries t ffrapes, Peaches. Punctuation. — Transposed and parenthetical words s phrases and clauses ore usually set off by commas; as t Doubtless^ this man is guilty. 166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is needed. 1. Neither he or I are mistaken. 13. 2. Either John or his brother have done this. 13. 3. Either I or she are entitled to the prize. 13. 4. Either ability or inclination were wanting. 5. No pains nor cost were spared in her education. 6. Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 7. Neither poverty nor riches was the cause of his discontent. 8. Our happiness or our misery mainly depend upon ourselves. Incorrect. Correct. 1. Who did she marry? Whom did she marry? 2. What for did she go? Why did she go? 3. 'Taint no use trying. It is of no use trying. 4. He hadn't ought to had it. He ought not to have had it. 5. Me and John went a fishing. John and I went a fishing. DICTATION EXERCISES. To be analyzed. 1. Your coat lies where you laid it an hour ago. 2. James rises early in the morning and raises the window. 3. Arthur rose from the grass and raised his hat as we approached. 4. The chair sits where I set it some time ago. 5. It sat all day where Martha had set it before you came. 6. It lay an hour where you had laid it. Suggestion. — A few minutes may be spent in a drill exercise pronouncing the words in the following paragraph. Put the sound of a as heard in calm, charm and far into each : Pronounce, Embalm, varnish, salve, far, path, arm, star, mamma, lathing, jaunt, halves, taunt, charm, launch, guard, charcoal, palm, calves, haunch, calm, hearth, balmy, laugh, psalm, haunt, aunt, farther, gape, jaunty, half. COMPOSITION. 167 ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the following sentences i and explain why the correction ?.s needed: \. His influence was such as are rarely scon. 2. Each of us had as much as ice desired. !>. 3. Those ichich are ready may come forward. 4. We have done every thing what you ordered. 5. Truth and honesty cannot fail in its reward. i.. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 9. 7. Let every one of you attend to your own business, i). Incorrect. Correct. 1. I can't hardly tell. lean hardly tell. 2. Has the boys gone? Have the boys gone? 3. I can write better than him. I can write better than he. 4. The boys which are here. The boys who are here. "). Each must have their own. Each must have his own. 6. He don't know iiothiii' about He does not know any thing it. about it. 7. Every one should have their Every one should have his own. own. Write a composition using the following outline as a guide: Subject, Traveling:. 1. Different modes of traveling. 1 Things to be gained by traveling. 3. Mishap- and dangers to be encountered in traveling. 4. ir«H»tioii.— Have t li * * words in the following paragraph pronounced dearly, distinctly and with emphasis, patting the sound of u as heard in the words lube, mule, and tliily into each : Pronounce, Susan, dew, few, tune, glue, pupil, nubia, puny, June, tulip, flute, cube, music, pure, new. beauty, dewlap, knew. blue, blew, suit. 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. COMPOSITION, Write a composition using the following outline as a guide: Subject, Memory. 1. The importance of a good memory. 2. How far back we can go in our recollections. 3. Methods of improving the memory. 4. Instances of very great memory of which we have heard. Remark. — In writing a composition on a subject like the foregoing, it will often be found convenient to begin by taking a definition from the dictionary. i Direction.— Drill the class in the pronunciation of the following words putting the sound of o as heard in frost, fog, and borrow into each. Pronounce, Office, log, clock, gone, cloth, dog, cob- web, frog, fog, frost, sod, cotton, wrong, bottle, on, moss borrow, hod, soft, not. OTHER SUBJECTS. To be outlined: 1. Perseverance. 6. Obedience to Parents. 2. Industry. 7. Giving Way to Anger. 3. Ambition. 8. Early Rising. 4. Friendship. 9. Treatment of Animals. 5. Hatred. 10. Learning to Draw. Direction. — Pronounce the words in the following paragraph repeat- edly putting the sound of oo as heard in tooth, moon and choose into each: Pronounce, Broom, food, tool, tour, noon, rude, boot, tooth, room, ooze, choose, goose, root, poor, true, whose, bouquet, roof, rule, croup, move, moon, brute soon, hoop, prove, cool, ruin, loose, hoof, rumor, truth. PRONUNCIATION. 1 71 Direction. — Pronounce the following WOrjda rapidly and distinctly put- ting the short sound of oo as hoard in the words look, uoo«l and book into each : Pronounce, Hood, wool, bush, understood, cushion, stood, book, cooper, wood, hook, push, wooden, crooked, shook, look, footstep. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the errors in the following sentences and explain the reason for the correction: 1. It's leven o'clock. 2. Jane, do twist that. 3. She eat all there was left. 4. Where did you get it at ? 5. We was so glad to be with him. 6. The teacher saw him and /. 7. We had sparroicgrass for dinner. 8. Those kind of people will never be satisfied. 0. These sort of expressions should be avoided. Incorrect. Correct. 1. It is me. It is I. 2. Was it her? Was it she? 3. Go to wonst. Go at once. 4. It was spoke well. It was spoken well. 5. They knowed better. They knew better. Direction.— Pronounce each of the following words putting into each the sound of th as heard In the words thread* breath and truth: Pronounce, Thumb, thick, wreath, mouth, breaths, youth-, death, deaths, fifth, thrive, throng, truths. Direction.— Pronounce the words in the following paragraph patting the sound of oo as heard in the words, boot, roost and whom into each : Pronounce, Bosom, croup, rule, moon, moose, route, ruin, whoop, groom, canoe, ruby, boom, balloon, roost, coop, raccoon, recruit, school, loop, COCOOn. 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Direction.— Pronounce the following worls putting the sound of i as heard in the words, imitate, pin and diminish, into each: Pronounce, Divulge, diploma, digest, direction, piazza, pianist, piano, digestion, divisor, dividend, finance, dilute, direct. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE, Correct the errors in the following sentences and explain the reasons for the correction: 1. We was so surprised. 2. I'm most finished, wait! 3. Why don't you do like I do? 4. He don't never know how to act. 5. Which of these two books is the best? 6. Your brother has less mistakes than you. 7. I was no sooner there but I wanted to be back, 8. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 9. He was willing to take a more humble part. 10. George sold three span of horses and seven head of cattle. Write an outline for a composition on each of the following sub- jects: 1. How to Teach. 7. What is Education. 2. How to Study. 8. The best Education. 3. Examinations. 9. The Ideal School-house. 4. School-Days. 10. The Uses of Fiction. 5. Value of Attention. 11. How to learn to think. 6. School-Manners. 12. The Struggles of a Monitor. Direction. — Pronounce the words in the following paragraph giving x the sound of ks as heard in the words, tax, excuse and excel: Pronounce, Wax, expel, express, exhibition, expect, except, excite, expression, exclamation. Direction. — Pronounce the words in the following paragraph giving x the sound gz as heard in the words, exact, exist and example: Pronounce, Examine, exalt, exert, exaggerate, exertion, exactly, exhale, exhibit, examination, esample. COMPOSITION. 173 Direction. — Pronounce the following words repeatedly putting into each the sound of s as heard in the words, disaster, amuse and disdain: Pronounce, Dissolve, dishonesty, dishonorable, disas- trous, disdain, disease, disarm, disaster, dismal, disown, dishonest, dishonor. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. Correct the violations of purity and propriety, in the follouing sentences: 1. The religion of the people, as well as their customs and manners, were strangely misrepresented. 2. The king soon found reason to repent him of provoking such dangerous enemies. 3. The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- ject. 4. I shall endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a man in my station. 5. It was thought that the coup d'etat would have oc- casioned an emeute. 6. The dernier ressort of the emperor will be to make the amende honorable; but nous verrons. 7. You can't bamboozle me with such excuses. 8. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that particular. 9. May is par excellence the month of flowers; it is delicious at this season to go stroaming about the fields. 1. One is in a bad fix that has to spend a rainy day away from home. 2. It is difficult for one unaccustomed to [sophism, or sophistry?] to succeed in a [sophism, or sophistry?]. 3. We may try hard, and still be [further, or farther] from success than ever. 4. Every thing goes helter-skelter and topsy-turvy, when a man leaves his business to be done by others. 5. The alone principle; — the balance of them; — at a wide remove; — I learned him the lesson ; — to fall trees ; — like he did ; — we started directly they came ; — 6. What [further, or farther?] need have we of caution? 7. Still [further, or farther?], what evidence have we of this? B. One brave [act, or action?] often changes defeat into victory. 9. Our [acts, or actions?] genera'ly proceed from instinct or impulse; our [acts, or actions?] are more frequently the result of deliberation. SUPERSCRIPTION. , t$. INTRODUCTION TO THE CRITICAL DIGEST. In this work it is the intention that the Graded Method be completed before the work in the Critical Digest be commenced. The former is a method of teaching language through the medium of the science; the latter is designed as a concise exposition of the science itself. Those who insist on commencing with the Critical Digest will forfeit all the advantages afforded by this modern method, while those who pursue the course here suggested will find in the latter part an enjoyable review of the detail of the science, a knowledge of nearly all of which was acquired in the Graded Method. SUPERSCRIPTION. A CRITICAL DIGEST OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Language is the expression of thought by means of words, spoken or written. 2. Grammar is the science that treats of the prin- ciples of language. 3. English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the English language correctly. Remark. — As a science it explains the structure of our language. As an art it lays down rules for its correct use. 4. English Grammar is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology , Syntax and Prosody. 5. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words and spelling. £>. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation and properties of word-. 7. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, govern- ment and arrangement of words in sentences. 8. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of accenl and of the laws of versification. 175 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A more strict analysis of the science of language limits to a considerable extent the scope of grammar, by assigning to places more appropriate, several of the kinds of knowledge vaguely in- cluded in grammatical science. Orthography forms the subject-matter of special manuals of spelling, and is to be learned from these and from the dictionary. Prosody is a branch of rhetoric, or English composition. Etymol- ogy does not properly belong to grammar, but is to be studied in text-books of etymology or word-analysis. It thus appears that grammar, in its strict sense, is limited to two departments of language-study : Etymology and Syntax. ORTHOGRAPHY. DEFINITIONS. 1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, letters, syllables and spelling. 2. An Elementary Sound is one which can not be separated into two or more distinct sounds. 3. Letters are signs invented to represent vocal sounds. Thoughts and historical facts were first represented by pictures ; from these pictures the letters of our alphabet have deen derived. Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. Vowels repre- sent open sounds and are formed by the act of breathing upon the vocal chords. Consonants represent sounds produced by direct contact of particular organs of speech. 4. There are twenty-six letters in our alphabet. Of these, all are consonants except the five vowels, «, e, i 9 o, u. Remark. — The letters w and y have consonant- sounds at the beginning of a word or syllable, and vowel -sounds at the end of a word or syllable. ORTHOGRAPHY. 177 5. A Syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds produced by a single impulse of the voice. 6. A Word may be either a syllable or a combination of syllables. Examples. — Man, man-hood, in-ter-me-di-aie . There are forty-two elementary sounds in the English language. Since there are only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet it becomes necessary that some letters represent more than one sound. 7. A Diphthong' consists of two vocals sounded to- gether in the same syllable. Examples. — In boil, oi; in few, ew. 8. A Digraph consists of two vowels written to- gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced. Examples. — ^4o,gaol; an, maul; aio, maw; ay, may; ea, meat: ee, need; ei, ceiling; eo, people; ew, feud; ew, new; ey, they; ie, lief: oa, coat; oe, foe; oi, avoirdupois; oo, moon; ou, tour; ow, flow; ua, guard. 9. A Trigraph consists of three vowels written to- gether in the same syllable. Examples. — Eau, beauty; eon, gorgeous; ieu, lieu; awe, awe; ieiCy view: aye, aye. 10. A Double Consonant consists of two consonants written together and representing but one elementary sound. Examples. — Wh, when ; ng, sintj: th t thin: sh t lmsli: ch t chaise, chord: ah. laugh; ph t physic. 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 1. Various sizes and styles of type are used in. printing: Great Primer, ^ n all p ^ ica e ' SSSu, English, Bouie!S mer ' tT x 1C& 5 Brevier, Diamond, 2. The larger letters are called CAPITALS; the others, small letters. These forms of letters were used by the Romans more than two thousand years ago. Hence they are called Roman letters, Roman. Italics. @"« 3. The Italics are so called because they are used by the people of Italy in writing their language, the Italian. CAPITAL LETTERS. 1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 2. The first word in every line of poetry should be- gin with a capital letter. 3. The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter. Direct Quotation. — Cowper says, " Slaves can not breathe in England." Indirect Quotation. — Cowper says that slaves can not breathe in England. CAPITAL LKTTERS. 1 7!> 4. The names of persons, places, days, months, countries, cities, rivers, mountains — all proper nouns, should begin with capital letters. Examples. — John, Hilda, Cincinnati, Ohio, France, Paris, Lon- don, Wednesday, July, Danube, Mt. Tabor, Pikes Peak, Mr. W. A. Holmes. 5. Titles of distinction or honor, when used alone, or when accompanied by names, should begin with capital letters. Examples. — The Elder was present this morning; We saw the Duke of York and Earl Russell; Dr. Johnson; Gen. Harrison; Sir Robert Peel; George the Third; Charles the Bold. 6. Words and phrases used as the names of particu- lar objects should begin with capital letters. Examples. — They have just returned from the Cape of Good Hope; We passed through the City of Brotherly Love and visited the Falls; Johu o' Groat's House; the Round Tower; the Sailor's Home ; I have read The Tent on the Block. 7. The personal pronoun /, the interjection O, and single letters forming abbreviations of proper names, should be capital letters. 8. All appellations of the Deity should begin with capital letter-. Examples. — Divine Providence; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost: our Lord JeSUS ( 'hrist j Godj the Most High; the Su- preme ; the Infinite One; In the 086 ol pronouns referring to expressed antecedents which are names of the Deity, capitals are sometimes used, but notal- Way8. In this as irell as in many other instances the good taste of the writer must decide. 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Examples. — " God provides for all his creatures ; " " The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee;" " O thou merciful God ! " " Trust in Him, for He will sustain thee." 9. Names denoting the race or nation of individuals should begin with capital letters. Examples.—- The Italians; the Americans; the Hungarians; the Mex- icans; the Anglo-Saxons. 10. Adjectives derived from proper nouns should begin with capital letters. Examples. — Italian fruits ; American goods ; Hungarian sol- diers; Mexican leather; the Russian army. 11. Names of things addressed — things personified, should begin with capital letters. Example. — " Come, gentle Spring ! ethereal Mildness! come." 12. Words of special importance usually begin with capital letters. Examples* — Be prepared for the Great Day; Angler's Com- panion; a Complete and Superior Treatise on the art of Angling; the Commissioners of Public Schools. 13. In titles and headings the nouns, the adjectives, the participles and other important words should begin with capital letters. The unimportant words should begin with small letters. 14. The first word after an introductory clause, or an introductory word, should begin with a capital letter. Examples. — "Resolved, That the Committee, " etc. " Be it enacted by the House of Delegates, That the fourteenth section, " etc. CAPITAL LETTERS. 181 EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 1. "The day is past and gone; the evening shades appear; O may we all remember well the night of death draws near." 2. The question is, which of them can best pay the penalty? 3. The answer may be, yes or no. 4. The bible says, children, obey your parents. 5. The central park; the Ohio river; I have read " great expecta- tions ;" the mountains of the moon are in Africa. and v, are never doubled and gas has gases in the plural. 4. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last RULES FOR SPELLING. 185 syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable. r.xuinpU's. — Toil, toiling; visit* visited; general, generalize. 5. Words ending with any double letter preserve it double before any additional termination, not begin- ning with the same letter. Examples. — Seeing, blissful, oddly, kitty, stiffness, illness, smalfness, can fetsnew, agreement, agreeable. ft. Final e, is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel. Examples. — Fine, finer; lore, loving. Exceptions. — The e, is retained (I) after c and g, when the suffix begins with a or o; as, peaceable, changeable; (2) after o; as, hoeing ; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; as, singeing, dyeing. 7. Final y, preceded by a consonant, changes to l when a suffix is added not beginning with ?'. Examples. — WUty, wittier; dry, dried. Letter of Introduction. A letter given by one person to another for the purpose of Introducing the latter to some other person, is called a letter of INTRODUCTION. Toledo, O., May 30th, 1801 . My dear Friend, This mill introduce t<> you Mr. William Howard, an old and dear nntance of mine. If-' is visiting your <-ity for the first time, and any attention it mag he in your power to show him during hie stag will ■ ,,, et I by him, and regarded as a personal favor by Yours very sina n ly, Henry M. Brown, Mr. <>. If. Thompson, id, Ohio. AsIm**^L^IcL, w(p~ , Jlus^. Stlf, 1 88^. fit". \jO-'USJzs, J\p^. ^^yJCL-esm^^^t^ 9 J u^a^u^e^ bs^esvu UsC-^ots as^v^-e^JO^^esni^essiJO v^^a, to- g-LCzs'l/ vKsU,^^LC £c-t/ t^u^es i^to-oes. asms vug-Is a^Ct^as^L "Co-* vj~o-ts'fcs. %s aJCC&m,cL^cL ■ OSJSX^ Us^O^t^, G^l^cL U^O^X^^ ^SlSVUCSZs V-es€SKs est* C-esi4sdsiSsi^ay t/vues ^o^n^n^es^Csoa^^ -^Oo-LL-e^a^^s. Uus^tz^&s Cauc^C^s zv^utC Osisu-s^s u^o-ou a^'sis <^cL^cl> g~L WSAs ^GsVL^Las\^^WsL>£Ls'> OsVLscL, CL>& &V^lscLesrisX>€s c^C YI4sUs GsO-O-cL C^VfsOsXsCSC^ts'eA^ , iS €ssi^CsCo-hs€s VGs^t^is* ntso-suc&^t^ Lvc-^nu Vu^es o-C Vibes -\Oo^CCe^Gszs a^vucL n^us Co-^vHs^s'ls t^O/C^K/e^. J\jsCjs^^s^Vtsi^a^ tsuszs L-asv-Q-As c~Z> as^ v*i£eA** x^uzsjj-*, oio-, tyros, octavos. Nouns ending La o preceded by a vowel, follow the general rule and add >• ; as, (olio, folios Nouns ending In y preceded by a consonant change y Into t and add es. Examples. — Mercy , mercies; glory, glories; army, armies 192 EMGLISH GRAMMAR. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel follow the general rule of adding s. Examples. — Storey, storeys; chimney, chimneys. Pluralize, Valley, fairy, daisy, city, attorney, alley , ally , fancy , kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, soliloquy, turkey. Most nouns ending in f change f to v and add es; those ending in fe change fto v and add s. Examples. — Wife, wives ; beef, beeves ; elf, elves ; calf, calves ; loaf, loaves; thief, thieves; wolf, wolves; half, halves; leaf, leaves; shelf, shelves. Some nouns ending in/ and fe follow the general rule and add s. Examples. — Hoops, proofs, gulfs, fifes, dwarfs, chief s, brief s, beliefs, reefs, safes, waifs, safes. Pluralize, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, men; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice. Letters, figures, and other characters, are made plural by an- nexing 's. Examples* — The a's and n's in the first line. Mind yourp's and q's; the 9's and IPs; the *'s; the +'s; "Those 3's and B's. In compound words the part which is described by the rest is generally pluralized. Examples. — Wagon-loads; cowrte-martial ; brothers -m-\&w . Some compound words have both parts made plural. Examples. — Man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-tem- plars; ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. Compounds ending mful, and all those in which the principal word is put last, form the plural by annexing s. Examples. — Handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow servants, man-serv- ants. Compound terms composed of a proper noun and a title may ETYMOLOGY NOUNS . 193 be pluralized by adding a plural termination to either the name or the title, but not to both; as, the Miss Whites or the Misses White. Pluralize, Mr. Jones, General Grant, Miss Collins, Dr. Brown, Miss Clark, Mrs. Hardy. A title used with two or more different names is made plural. Examples. — Drs. Hill and Vastine; Messrs. Hall and Hamil- ton. Many nouns have two plurals, but with a difference Examples. — Fish, fishes (individuals),^^ (quautity, or the species) ; genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) ; index, indexes (tables of contents), indices (algebraic signs); brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society). Nouns from foreign languages retain their original plurals. (Page 77.) Examples. — Index, indices; crisis, crises; calix, calices; ephemeris, ephemerides ; thesis, theses ; criterion, criteria ; calculus calculi; cherub, cherubim or cherubs; datum, data; ellipsis, elllp- crratum, errata; ignis fatuus, ignesfatui; madame, mesdames; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebulae; radius, radii or radiuses; seraph, seraphim or seraphs; stratum, strata; synopsis, synop- ses; terminus, termini; vertebra, vertebrae; vortex, vortices or vortexes. The names of things weighed or measured are generally used i the singular number only. Examples. — Tea, Hour, barley, ale, wheat, cotton. Some nouns having a plural form are frequently treated as nouns in the singular number. (Page 77.) Example*. — Mathematics, alms, news, means, shambles, amends, ethics, optics. 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Some nouns are used in the plural only. Examples* — Wages, ashes, bellows, billiards, bowels, com- passes, entrails, intestines, measles, oats, pincers, scissors, snuf- fers, thanks, tongs, trousers, vespers. CASE. 1. Case is that property of nouns and pronouns which shows how they are used in the construction of sentences. There are three cases : the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Remark. — These three cases admit of only two forms : the nominative and objective, which are one and the same form, and the possessive. 2. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a sentence. Examples. — Henry is your friend; I am he. The Nominative Absolute Case is the use of a noun independ- ent of any governing word. Examples.- " John, bring me a book;" " Yomx fathers, where are they?* " Honor being lost, all is lost." (Page 51.) 3. The Possessive Case denotes possession or ownership. Examples. — William took George's hat. 4. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pro- noun as the object of a transitive verb or preposition, or the subject of an infinitive. Examples. — We saw your brother. (Page 17.) He gave it to me, (Page 29.) Henrjr wanted me to go. (Page 57.) ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 195 The possessive term is always used as a modifier — an adjec- tive element. (Page 15.) Examples. — Touched by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine ; Our Country's Welfare ; Your being an American. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 1. The Declension of a noun or pronoun is a reg- ular arrangement of its numbers and cases. Examples of Declension. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Norn, fox, foxes, Nom. Sheep Sheep Poss. fox's, foxes', Poss. Sheep's Sheep' Ooj. fox; foxes. Obj. Sheep Sheep Nom. Man Men Nom. Lady Ladies Poss. Man's Men's Poss. Lady's Ladies Obj. Man Men Obj. Lady Ladies Write the declension of the following nouns: Goose, sheep, child, mouse, woman, wife, ox, horse, James, boy, lady, bird, prince, princess, teacher, scholar, parent, farmer. 3. The Possessive Form of singular nouns and of plural nouns which do not end in 8 is made by annex- ing to the name of the owner an apostrophe (') and the letter *; as, Webster's Dictionary; men's hats; sheep's wool; oxen's horns. (Page 117.) 4. The Possessive Form of plural nouns ending in * and of singular nouns ending in s is generally formed by annexing the apostrophe only: as, Soldiers' camp; Boys* -lines: Xerxes' army; Teachers' Association. 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Many writers fail to recognize established rules for the forma- tion of singular nouns, especially proper nouns ending with an s-sound; as, "Dennis's Works." — Pope. "Louis's reign." — Macaulay. " Charles's affairs." — Prescott. When nouns in the possessive case are connected by a conjunc- tion, or put in apposition, the sign of possession must always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately precede the modi- fied noun. Examples. — William and Mary's reign; Do it for Henry, my friend's, sake; George and Matilda's teacher; Everybody else's business. When the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed, the sign may be repeated, although joint possession is implied. Examples. — He was his father's, mother's, and sister's favorite. He was the king's as well as the people's favorite. When a noun is put in apposition with a noun or pronoun in the possessive case, the sign may be omitted. Examples.-— This was Hamilton's opinion, the most distinguished scholar present. That carriage is Walter Brown's, the hatter. (Page 117.) To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes omitted, and the apostrophe only retained. Examples. — Perkins' Geometry. Achilles' wrath. For conscience' sake. Felix' book. Without the s there is no distinction, in spoken language, be- tween Miss Clintie Evans and Miss Clintie Evans'; Mrs. Heman's and Mrs. Hemans\ For that reason usage favors the use of s: Miss Clintie Evans's, Mrs. Hemans's. Remark. — Pronounce the (s) as a separate syllable (=es), when the sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. Explanation. — In the Anglo-Saxon language, es was a genitive, that is, a possessive, termination of the singular; as, nominative, Smith; genitive, Smithes. In modern English the e is dropped, and the apostrophe (') stands in its place. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS . 197 The apostrophe and s are sometimes annexed to that part of a compound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case. Examples. — He lives in the captain -of -the -guard's house. It belongs to my brother-in-law's estate. The keeper of the park's carriage has ar- rived. The Mayor of Cleveland's address. (Page 117.) In many instances it is far more elegant to make use of that form of expression in which the relation of possession is expressed by the use of the preposition of, with its object. Examples.— The wrath of Achilles. He lives in the house of the cap- tain-of-the-guard. The address of the Mayor of Cleveland. The house of my friend's father. Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following nouns: Hero, negro, volcano, mosquito, tyro, junto, cuckoo, buffalo, princess, genius, horse, lion, king, farmer, actor, fairy, elephant, lady, monkey, wolf, thief, elf, wife, calf, goose, child, mouse, ox, woman, beau, sheep, beer, fish, seraph. Make each of the following terms indicate possession, first by the use of the possessive sign and afterwards by means of the preposition of, and its object. Use a name representing the thing possessed: William and Mary, Socrates, mountain, father-in-law, Will- iam the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else, Jefferson, enemy, hero, eagle, elephant, gunpowder, book, house, chair. f Nominative. Mary, Xerxes, lady, ladies. Case Forms ] Possessive. Mary's, Xerxes', lady's, ladies 9 . [ Objective. Mary, Xerxes, lady, ladies. i Ted the following i -md improve by reconstructing when wary: 1. We purchased our books at Penfleld's the druggist's. 2. The college was founded in William's and Mary's reign. 3. The ry was doubted. 4. This was John's, Charles's and Rob- ert's estate. 5. He wore the knight's-templar's costume. 7. The 198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. goods were sent by the Merchant's Union Express. 8. That book is his'n. 9. The Bishop's of Dublin's palace. 10. We were com- paring Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 11. This is Tennyson's the poet's home. 2. It was John, not Henry's fault. 2. It was George, not John's fault. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of England's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 6. My fathers hat is lost. 7. This is my wife's father's house. 8. This was Franklin's motto; the distinguished philosopher's and states- man's. 9. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. 10. Fraver's and England's interests differ widely. 11. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired. 12. The draw- ings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much ad- mired. Sometimes the possessive case ending is omitted. In such cases the nouns simply become adjectives. Examples. —He took a three miles walk every day. The teachers com - mittee made the report. Punctuation. — The semicolon is used to separate the members of a compound sentence, when the connective is omitted. COMPOSITION. Write a composition on "fox" paying attention to the following points: 1. The different kinds of foxes. 2. Where they live. 3. How they live. 4. What they eat. 5. How they are caught or killed. 6. What their skins are used for. 7. Relate an anecdote about a fox, or give an account of a fox- hunt. Subjects Suggested. — Eagles, pigeons, crows, robins, tigers, condors. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUN. 199 NOUN. CLASS. 3RNDER. person. First Second Third NUMBER. CASE. Nominative Possessive Objective K. Common Proper Masculine Feminine Neuter Common Singular Plural MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. The Romans conquered Carthage. 2. News has been received of the generaVs defeat. 3. William, your sister, Matilda, called for you. Nouns. CLASS. GENDER. PERSON. NUMBER. CASE. R. " Romans," prop., masc, third, plur., nom., 1. " New-,'' com., ' neut., third, sing., nom., 1 "General's," com., masc, third, sing., poss., 3. "Defeat," com., neut., third, sing., obj., 7. " William,'' prop., masc, second, sing., nom., 5. M Matilda," prop., fern., third, sing., nom., 4. Exercise. Parse the nouns: 1. Henry has two Mexican dollars. 2. The Italian consul de- manded ao explanation. 3. That German steamer brought a cargo of French and British merchandise into port. 4. George, I wish you would procure for me a bar of Swedish iron and a Turkish cutlass. 5. The storm's fury is past. G. The defeat of Xerxes' army was the downfall of Persia. Capitals. — Adjectives formed from proper nouns should begin with capitals ; a s , Roman, Italian, Persian. 200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE PEONOUN. 1. A Pronoun is a part of speech which is used to represent a noun. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or equivalent expres- sion, instead of which the pronoun is used. 2. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form marks person. It distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. f Personal: /, thou, or you, he, she, it. Relative: Who, which, what, that, as. Interrogative: Who ? which ? what ? Possessive: Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. Pronouns - 3. The Simple Personal Pronouns are /, thou or you, he, she and it, with their declined forms. You is plural in form and requires a verb in the plural even when it represents a singular noun. Mine and thine were formerly used before words commenc- ing with a vowel sound, in preference to my and thy. They are still used thus in poetry. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, though used in the sacred writings, are now seldom used except in poetry and in solemn style. They may be regarded as antiquated forms. We is often used in place of I when the writer or speaker wishes to avoid the appearance of egotism. Examples. —We formerly agreed with him but we have changed our mind. " We, Louis XIV., King of France, do proclaim." ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS . 201 It is sometimes used as the subject without referring to any particular antecedent. Examples. — It rains; It 8eeui9 tome; It la cold. Since the English language is destitute of a pronoun of the third person singular aud common gender, usage sanctions the employment of the masculine forms he, his, him, for that pur- pose. Examples. —In speaking to the pupils generally, we say, " Every pupil should prepare his lesson carefully." " No pupil should be found who has not done his whole duty. 4. When pronouns of different persons are used in the same sentence, (1) The second person singular should precede the third: You and he may go. (2) The third person singular should precede the first: He and I will meet you. (3) The first person, the second person, the third person, is the order when the pronouns are plural: We, you and they depart soon. A LETTER. My Dear Father, — You were kind enough to promise me, when I left home, that you would give me anything in reason that I chose to request, when I had gone through the first book of Caesar. My teacher is ready to certify that I have won the promised reward. And now, dear father, my request is that I be allowed to come home for one week. I have studied faithfully all this term, and my preceptor i- perfectly willing to allow me this boon, if you are also willing. I long with a homesick heart to embrace you all, and am certain thai I shall improve more rapidly after a few days of entire rest from brain work. Hoping to see you soon, T remain, Your lovinir son, Henry. 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to some form of the Simple Personals. The Compound Personal Pronouns are declined as follows : FIRST PERSON. Singular. i Plural. Norn, and Obj. Myself. | Norn, and Obj. Ourselves. SECOND PERSON. Singular. , Plural. Norn, and Obj. Thyself or Yourself. | Norn, and Obj. Yourselves. THIRD PERSON. Singular. MAS., FEM. AND NEUT. C Himself, Norn, and Obj. < Herself, ( Itself. The compound personal pronouns are used in the nominative and objective cases only. 5. A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a pre- ceding word or phrase called its antecedent, to which it joins a modifying clause. : The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, that and as. They do not vary in person and number. Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate things, that to persons and things, what to things. Remark. — Relatives serve two purposes in a sentence; one to repre- sent nouns; the other to join a modifying clause to the antecedent. What and that have no declension. Declension of Who. f Nom. who Singular and Plural. 1 Poss. whose L Obj. whom Plural. Nom. and Obj. Themselves , ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUN8. 203 Remark.— Thai and What are frequently used as definitive adjec- tives ; as, That boy took your book. What kind of paper do you want ? Who is sometimes used for he that; as, " Who steals my purse steals trash." — Shakespeare. Declension of Which. f Nom. which Singular and Plural. \ Poss. whose I Obj. which Which formerly applied to persons as well as to things. Remark. — Ben Jonson speaks of "our one relative which." Addison, two centuries later, pleads for the use olwho and which, as against the in- troduction of the relative that. What is sometimes used for that which. Besides being a relative, it is used as (1) An interrogative pronoun: What did you say? (2) A definitive adjective: What day is this? (3) An interjection: What! have you lost your wits? (4) An adverb: " What (partly") by force, and what by fraud, he secures his ends." 6. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun em- ployed in asking questions. Who, which and what, when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns; as, Who did this? Which is the book? What do you want ? Remark. - The Subsequent of an Interrogative Pronoun is that pari of theanswer which is represented by it. It corresponds to the antecedent of the relative pronoun. The interrogatives, who and which, are declined like the corre- sponding relatives. (Page 13.) 7. The Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever, so and soever to the simple relatives. They are whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever. 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Whoever, ivhoso and whosoever, are equivalent to he who, or any one who. Whichever and whichsoever are equivalent to any which. Whatever and whatsoever are equivalent to any thing which. Examples. — Whoever studies will learn;" i.e.," Any one who studies will learn." " Whichever way you may take will lead to the city;" i. e., " Any way which you may take," etc. " I am pleased with whatever you may do;" i. e., " I am pleased with any thing which you may do." The Compound Relatives are indeclinable. They retain the same form in all the cases in which they are used. A compound relative pronoun is generally equivalent to two words — a relative and its antecedent. In the analysis the two words should be used instead of the compound relative. Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent both the possessor and the thing possessed. Examples.- Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used for mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our own for ours, your own for yours, their own for theirs. Examples.— Each pupil should have his own pencil; This house is my own; Stand, the ground is your own. Two sets of models are given for parsing Possessive Pronouns. Both are sanctioned by good authorities. (Page 84). The Properties of a pronoun are Gender, Person, Number, and Case. Remark. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person and number, but its case depends upon the structure of the sentence. Punctuation. — The members of a compound sentence, if long, or if their parts are set off by commas, should be separated by semicolons, even when joined by connectives . ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 205 Analyze the following sentence, using this as a model: "Whoever asks a favor of you should be treated with kind- ness. M (_H. E. I . should be B.13. treated B .23. ) (W hoever ) with kindness R.7. ( who asks 13. favor 6 _ ) of you R.7. ) In this sentence, whoever is equivalent to lie who. He is the subject of the principal sentence; should be is the copula; treated is the prelicate. He is modified by the subordinate sentence or clause of which who is the subject; asks is the predicate; favor is the object. LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. &t4> wvzf -mticri ed feewiea /ite^te/, r /. <2-i#(t ryitr^ '7 REMARKS.— It is not customary to seal a letter of Introduction. Itd&M . 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. l a I shall give you whatever you ask. 2. Call to your assist- ance whomever you want. 3. Whoso breaketh the law is not wise. 4. Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name that will I give unto you. 5. We may ask what (that which) we want. ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUN. Pron. Class. Gender. Person. Number. R Case. R Personal Masculine First Singular Nominat. Relative Feminine Second Plural 9 Possessive 3 Interrogative Common Third Objective Possessive Neuter Eule 9. — Pronouns must agree with their anteced- ents in person, gender and number, MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. He himself is responsible for the accident. 2. Anna, the prize is yours, 3. Every person should love his friends. 4. It is extremely cold to-day. Pronoun. Class. Gender. Person. Number. R 9 Case. R 1 " He," pers., masc, third, sing., nom. "Himself," pers. comp., masc, third, sing., 9 nom. 4 "Yours," poss., fern., second, sing., 9 nom. 2 "His," pers., masc, third, sing., 9 poss. 3 "It," pers., neut., third, sing., 9 nom. 1 " Whoever asks a favor of you should be treated with kind- ness." Whoever* is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to he who. He is a pronoun; personal; masculine; third; singular (to agree with its antecedent), Rule 9; (subject of the verb, should be, therefore) nominative, R. 1. SYNTAX PRONOUNS. 207 Who. • is a pronoun; relative; simple; masculine; third; singular, Rule ( j; nominative, Rule 1. Xomi native. , Cases. 1 p ossessive. Objective. Subject, R. 1. Predicate, R. 2. Independent, R. 5. Modifies a Noun, R. 3. Modifies a Participle, R. 8. Object of a Transitive Verb, R. 6. Object of a Preposition, R. 7 Subject of an Infinitive, R. 16. Rule 1. — A noun or pronoun, used as the subject of a sentence, is in the nominative case. Correct the following sentences, using this as a model: •'None of his companions is more beloved than him." c None B.l. beloved B.2S. ( more j ) ( than ) c him B.l. be (is) :> If ini i- ;i violation of Rule 1; it should have the nominative form, t\v. Page 13.) 1. Who did he want? 2. Her and her brother are older than me. 3. I have never seen larger appl<> than them. i. Whom besides Hilda do you suppose re- •1 a prize? 5. Them that sock wisdom, shall find it. 8, I am a- tall as she, but he is taller than her. 7. Him that we accuse is now present. 8. No other student is mop- Industrious 208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. than her. 9. Who swept the room? — Us girls. 10. Who wants a book? — Me. 2. I know not whom else are invited. 2. What were you and him talking about? 3. Whom do you suppose has come to see us? 4. You did fully as well as me. 5. We grieve not as them that have no hope. 6. Whom shall I say called? 7. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just: and him but naked, though locked up in steel, whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 8. I do not think such persons as him competent to judge. Direction.— After having parsed all the pronouns in the foregoing ex- ercises review the work on pages thirty and eighty-five. A few poetic selec- tions from the readers may also be used. PROMISSORY NOTE. /'** 'So C@6**4»^ <$., Qtfay, £0, /*f4. e 44 C/fg. ( &$£eUiful. 214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15. There are three Degrees of Comparison ; the Positive, the Comparative, the Superlative. The Positive degree ascribes to an object the simple quality; as, ^Heisawise man." The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than that expressed by the positive ; as, "He is a wiser man." The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two objects; as, " He is the wisest of all the men." Adjectives. Descriptive. f Positive (Page 35). I «j Comparative. I Superlative. Articles. Definite. Indefinite. f Demonstrat. Definitive. -I Pronominals. ] ? i ^ tr fi ib . u t ti a ves - I Indefinites* f Cardinals. -Numerals. -| Ordinals. Multiplicatives. Adjectives denoting qualities which cannot exist in different de- grees can not, with propriety, be compared; they are, however, sometimes used in the comparative and superlative degrees. Examples. — Dead, empty \ right, level, square, straight, perpendicular, equal, naked, honest, sincere, hollow. Some words denote a high degree of the quality without imply- ing comparison. ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 215 Examples. — Exceedingly, altogether , far, by far, vastly, much, very, a most, a little, too, very, slightly, greatly. 16. The Comparative of adjectives of one syllable is commonly formed by adding er to the positive, and the Superlative by adding est. Examples. — Great, greater, greatest; high, higher, highest. 17. Adjectives of more than one syllable are gen- erally compared by means of the adverbs more and most. Examples. — Honorable, more honorable, most honorable; worthy, more worthy, most worthy. Most adjectives of two syllables ending in y or Ze, after a consonant, form their comparative and superlative degrees like monosyllables. Examples. — Gentle, gentler, gentlest; holy, holier, holiest. Some adjectives follow no general rule in the formation of their comparative and superlative degrees. Examples. — Handsome, handsomer, handsomest; narrmr, narrower, narrowest. 18. The degrees of diminution are expressed by the adverbs less and least. Examples. — Noble, less noble, least noble; wise, less wise, least wise. Gentlemen, — I regret that it is not in my power to settle my account with you as usual on the first of the year. The general husiness depression in this vi- cinity has made it very difficult for me to collect, and consequently T am much embarrassed. I think, however, that I can safely promise you half, if not the whole sum, within a month, if you will give me that time to press my own claims. Your- very respectfully, w . M \\ [LCOX. 216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The following are some of the adjectives that are compared irregularly : POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. Good, better, best. Bad, ill, evil, worse, worst. Little, less, least. Much, many, more, most. Near, nearer, nearest. Old, older or elder, oldest or eldest, Late, later or latter, latest or last. Nigh, nigher ( near) , nighest, next. Two or more adjectives modifying the same word may be com- pared by prefixing more and most to the first. Examples. — Most potent, grave and reverend gentlemen ; The more nice and elegant parts. Punctuation. — Adjective, participial, appositive, and absolute phrases, should be separated from the context by commas. EXERCISES. Correct the sentences in the following series of paragraphs and assign the reason for the correction: 1. Ordinal numeral adjectives should generally be placed before cardinals. 1. Memorize the four first rules. 2. Sing the three first verses. 3. Are there three first verses'* 4. You may have the two first trees in the row, 5. My uncle built the five first houses on this street. 2. Double comparatives and double superlatives should be avoided. 1. More sharper than a serpent's tooth is vile ingratitude. 2. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 3. George seems more cheerfuller to-day. 4. This is far more preferable than that. 5. Worser evils than war can hardly be imagined. ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 217 3. The is used to denote a particular one or to distin- guish one class from another. A denotes one, and that not a particular one. 1. The subject of his conversation was a steam engine. 2. A carriage which you saw belongs to Henry. 3. The dime is the tenth part of the dollar. 4. A locomotive is a modern invention- 5. The owl is the bird of prey. 6. A lion is the king of beasts. 4. A should not be used before vowel sounds. An should not be used before consonant sounds. 1. She is an heroine. 2. We are a united people. 3. Daniel is an humorous boy. 4. That is now established as a historical fact. (An should be used before h when the following syllable is accented.) 5. The article should be omitted before a word used as a title, or as a mere name. 1. What kind of a man is he? 2. They gave him the title of a duke. 3. A rascal at one time meant a servant. 4. He felt a sort of a misgiving about it. 5. He is a better druggist than a musician. 6. Adverbs should never be used as adjectives. 1. Things look more favorably since your return. 2. I under- stand that he arrived safely. 3. The relative should be placed as nearly as possible to its antecedent. 4. Brother felt badly this morning. 5. The mountains look beautifully in spring. 6. This peach tastes sweetly. 7. Care should be used in selecting such adjectives as express the exact meaning intended. 1. There are less horses on the market now than formerly. 2 There were not fewer than ten tons of salt on the bridge when it went down. 3. Every member are expected to contribute liberally. 4. I will sell either of the four boats for ten dollars. 5. Neither of my three brothers went to college. G. He paid all of the labor- ers two dollars a day. 7. None of the two horses pleases me. 8. They worship both the sun, moon, and stars. 218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE VERB. 1. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state. Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four classes: regular, irregular, redundant, and defective. 2. A Regular Verb is a verb that forms its past tense and perfect participle by assuming d or ed. Examples.-— I love, I loved, I have loved. 3. An Irregular Verb is a verb that does not form its past tense and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. Examples. — I see, I saw, I have seen; I break, I broke, I have broken; I draw, I drew, I have drawn. 4. A Redundant Verb is a verb that forms its past tense or perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular. Examples. —I dream, I dreamed, I have dreamed; I^dream, I dreamt, I have dreamt. 5. A Defective Verb is a verb that forms no parti- ciples, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses. Examples. — Beware, from be and aware, used mostly in the imperative mode, as " Beware the awful avalanche ! " Ought used in both present and past tenses; as " I know I ought to go," (now) ; " I knew he ought to have gone," (then). Quoth used for said; as " ' Not I,' quoth Sancho." Wit in the sense of know; as, " To wit" i. e., namely. The Auxiliaries are also defective, wanting the perfect partici- ple. They are: do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. Remark. — Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal verbs; as, " He does well;" "I am;" "We have cares and anxieties: " " He willed me a portion of his fortune." The auxiliaries were originally used as principal verbs, fol- lowed by the infinitives of what are now called the principal verbs- Examples. —He has [to] come; They may [to] go; ETYMOLOGY VERBS . 219 6. Verbs are divided, as regards their grammatical meaning , into three classes: transitive, intransitive, and copulative. 7. A Transitive Verbis a verb that expresses action communicated from a subject to an object. ( Page 8. ) Examples. — Henry saw a black fox in the forest. 8. Voice is a modification of transitive verbs which distinguishes their subject as acting upon an object, or as being acted upon. The Active Voice is that form of the verb in which the subject acts upon an object. The Passive Voice is that form of the verb in which the sub- ject is acted upon. Examples. — Wolf e defeated Montcalm; Montcalm was defeated by Wolfe. 9. An Intransitive Verb is a verb that expresses being, or state, or action not communicated to an ob- ject. Examples. — The bird sings; The child sleeps. A verb only in the third person singular and with the pronoun it, is called a Unipersonal Verb. Examples. — It rai ns; It seems good; Methinks — it thinks me — it ap- pears to me. The form methinks is erroneously considered an affectation for I think. On the contrary, it is a remnant of a whole class of unipersonal verbs employed in older stages of the language. 10. A Copulative Verb is one which is used to join a predicate to a subject and to make an assertion. Example**.— Henry is confident of success; Henry was appointed; Henry seems determined. (Page 43.) THE PARTICIPLE. A. Participle is a word which is derived from a verb and which partakes of the properties of a verb 220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. and of an adjective or a noun. Remark. — The Participle is a form of the verb that may be used as a noun or adjective. (Page 62.) Theje are three Participles : the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound. The Present Participle denotes the continuance of action, being, or state Examples.— Seeing, being seen; loving, being loved. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of action or event. Examples.- Loved, written, appointed, seen, built, known. (Page 20.) The Compound Participle denotes the completion of an action or event at or before the time represented by the principal verb. Examples. — Having sold his horse, he walked home. The present participle always ends in ing. The perfect participle ends in d, ed, t, n or en. It is frequently used as an adjective but never as a noun. (Page 62.) The compound participle is formed by placing having or having been before the perfect participle. ORDER OF PARSING. 1. A Participle, and why? 2. From what verb is it derived? 3. Present, perfect, or compound, and why? 4. How is it used? 5. Rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. 1. " We heard the owls screaming in the wilderness. " Screaming. . is a participle derived from the verb "scream:" present participle, and it modifies owls. Rule 12. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 221 2. ".The storm having passed they resumed their journey." Having passed ... is a participle derived from the verb "pass;" compound participle and it modi- fies storm. Rule 12. 3. u Bowing is delightful." Rowing is a participle derived from the verb "row:" as a noun it is used as the subject of is; nom- inative case. Rule 1. 4. *' Their commander having been killed, the soldiers fled." Having been killed is a participle derived from the verb " kill:" compound participle, and it modifies com- mander. Rule 12. Direction. — Select parsing exercises on page 62 and the follow- ing pages. (Page 20.) MODE. 1. Mood is the manner in which the act or state is expressed with reference to its subject, 2. There are five modes: the Indicative, Subjunc- tive, Potential, Imperative, and Infinite. 3. The Indicative Mood denotes what is real. A verb in the indicative mood expresses an actual occur- rence or asks a question. Example. — Alexander the Great conquered the world ; Did Alexander conquer the world? (Page 00.) The indicative mode may be used in exclamatory sentences; also, in subordinate sentences to denote what is actual, or what La assumed as actual. Example. — I understand that you have returned to the country ; The ■A hat destroyed my work. A doubt, condition, or inference, assumed as a fact musl also be in the indicative mood. Examples. — if I wat deceived 1 did not know n ; if i am deceived, I am ruined; This will cau-e you trouble, when he return-. 222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. The Subjunctive Mode, which is generally found in subordinate or modifying sentences, is used to ex- press a condition, & doubt, a wish, a motive, a supposi- tion, or a possibility . Examples. — If this be true, he must go at once; I shall leave if he remain; I wish that he ivere you. (Page 70.) Explanation. — The subjunctive mode is so named because it is used in subjoined or modifying clauses. The subordinate conjunctions if, though, list, except, unless, until, that, and some others are used in joining the modifying clause to the word modified in the principal sentence and are called the signs of the subjunctive. The sign is frequently omitted, in which case the auxiliary or copula precedes the subject. Examples.— Were I he; i. e. If I were he; Had I time I would aid you, i. e. If I had time I would aid you. Remark. — In subjunctive clauses the subjunctive form of the verb should be used when it is intended to express doubt or denial; the indica- tive mode when the thing supposed is a fact or is assumed to be a fact. Subjunctive. — If he go, I shall remain (doubt); If he were honest, he would pay you (denial) ; Had he been there, I should have seen him (denial). Indicative. —If he goes, I shall remain; If he was present, he did his duty (neither doubt nor denial implied.) The subjunctive and the plural form of verbs are identical in all except the verb to be, hence the rule : (Page 71.) The Potential Mode expresses possibility , liberty, necessity, duty or liability . Examples. — He can write; You must go; George should be more careful ; They may now retire. (Page 101.) The potential mode, like the indicative, is used in interrogative and exclamatory sentences; also, in subordinate sentences to represent what is assumed as actual. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 223 Example*. — Can you accompany me? Wo know that we may be disap- pointed; He says t hat I may study history. (Page 90.) The Auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, icould, and should are called the signs of the potential mode. The auxiliary % can or could implies ability or power within one's self. May or might implies an agency that may be without or beyond one's self ; hence, permission, probability, or possibility. Examples. — I can read ; we could do it at one time ; he may go now ; O, that he might return. The auxiliary must denotes obligation or necessity. Should indicates that the action is not dependent upon the will of the actor but upon that of another; hence, obligation or duty, (Page 19.) Examples. — You must obey the rules; he should love, houor and obey his parents; I must remain; it is necessary. The Imperative Mood expresses command, entreaty, desire, request, or exhortation: Examples. — " Blow, blow, thou winter icind!" " Give us this day our dally bread ;" " Do come to see us ;" " Arise, go forth, and conquer as of old." Explanation. — The imperative mode indicates a command when a superior speaks to an inferior; an exhortation, when an equal speaks to an equals a prayer or supplication, when an infe- rior addresses a superior. The imperative mode may usually be known by the omission of the subject. Examples. — Come one, come all, i. e. t One of you oome t all of you (some; L(t Kdna come, i. e., Permit, thou Kdna to come. Sing to the Lord, i. c, L< ( ,u r to the Lord. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king. Proceed we therefore to our subject. The Imperative mode ISOfteil used to express a wish, a precau- tion, a grant or a demand. Examples. - Give me a book; Watch him, he is treacherous ; Let it hi- 224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. lawful, that law do do wrong; Let it be granted; Look, that he hide no weapon. The Infinite Mode is that form of the verb which is used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. There are two infinitives ; the present and the per- fect- Remark, — Transitive verbs have both in each voice; thus making/owr forms in all. (Page 52.) The Present Infinitive denotes the act or state as present or future in regard to the word on which the infinite depends. Examples. —He seems to enjoy life; To love is to obey; " Man never Is, but always to be blest." — Pope. The present infinitive consists of to, combined with the simplest form of the verb; or of to be, with a simple participle. The Perfect Infinitive represents the act or state as completed at the time referred to. Examples. — They seem to have come through the rain ; He ought to have gone before dark. (Page 59.) The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or have been, combined with a simple participle. Examples. — To have written, to have been writing, to have been written. The perfect infinitive is so combined with the verb ought, and sometimes with the verb have or was, that the whole expression is equivalent in time to the past perfect potential; as," I ought to have gone." And in the idiom, "I had like to have fallen overboard." — Swift, And, probably, " I was to have gone" implying, " I did not go." TENSE. 1. Tense is that property of verbs which shows the distinction of time. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 225 There are three divisions of time: Past, Present and Future. Each division has two tenses: an absolute and a relative. The Absolute Tenses are the Present, the Past and the Future. They denote indeliuite or incomplete action. The Relative Tenses are the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect. They denote completed action. 2. The Present Tense represents an action or event in present time. Examples. — The wind is blowing a fearful blast; The bird sings. The present tense is used in expressing a general truth, or What is habitual. Examples. — Time and tide wait for no man ; The coach arrives with the mail at nine a. m. Perseverance conquers all things. The historical present is the present used for the past, to describe more vividly what took place in past time. Examples. — "Ulysses walks, not knowing where he was." — Pope. "The Turk advances under a storm of iron hail." "Mathew traces the de- scent of Joseph ; Luke traces that of Mary." 3. The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or event as past, but connected with present time. Example. — George has finished his work. Have, the sign of the present perfect tense, originally denoted possession. As an auxiliary, it denotes completion. The present perfect potential is present or future in regard to the mood, and presents the act or state as relatively past. Examples.— Be has fallen from the bridge; The hunter has killed the wolf. 4. Tli*.' Past Tense expresses what took place in time wholly past. Examples. —The bird was ilying. The boys read and the girls wrote. 226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The past potential deuotes a duty or obligation, without refer- ence to time. Example. — Children should obey their parents. The past indicative, like the present, denotes what was habitual. Example. — They walked home every day. 5. The Past Perfect Tense represents an action or event as completed in time fully past. Example. — Your friends had departed before we arrived. The past tense is generally used instead of the past perfect, to denote the completion of an act at or before a certain past time mentioned. Example. — Your friends left before midnight. 6. The Future Tense represents an action or event in future time. Examples. — " The lion shall eat straw like the ox;" "I shall see you soon." Shall and will are the signs of the future tense. Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third persons, are generally employed to denote futurity. Examples.— We shall call to see you on Saturday; You will be pleased to hear the news. Shall expresses the action or event as a duty commanded ; Will, as something determined upon. Examples.-" Thou shalt not steal ; " I will not do it, come what may. 7. The Future Perfect Tense represents an action as completed at or before a certain future time. Examples. — I shall have finished my work at noon to-day; We shall have departed before he arrives. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 227 FORMS OF THE TERB. 1. Verbs have five forms, which may be considered subdivisions of the tenses ; the Common, the Em- phalic, the Progressive, the Passive, and the Ancient, or Solemn Style. (1) Common Form. — I write; I shall write. (2) Emphatic Form. — They do write; He declared that he did not do it. (3) Progressive Form. — I dm writing; They had been rambling. (4) Passive Form. — The letter was written; He vms injured. (5) Ancient Form. — " So shalt thou rest;" "Thou art he whom they named to me;" "Thou art a pretty fellow." Remark. — The Ancient Form, or Solemn Style, is used in the Bible, in poetry, and sometimes in burlesque. It is never used in modern prose. PERSON AND NUMBER. 1. The Person and Number of verbs are their modi- fication^ to mark their agreement with their subjects. Remark. — A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. (Page 32.) A subject in the second person singular, generally requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in t } st or est Examples. — " Thou canst not injure me;" "Thou shalt not steal;" " Thou lovedst me once." (Page 1)1 ) A subject in the third person singular! generally requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in s t es or eth. Kxnmph'H — ' Qod lorrtu his children ; '* " The horse runs; " " The boy 228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CONJUGATION. 1. The Conjugation of a verb is the proper combi- nation and arrangement of its parts. 2. The Principal Parts of a verb are: the present indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect partici- ple. 3. Synopsis of a verb is only an outline of it, which shows its parts in a single person and number, through the moods and tenses. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO BE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. Be, or am. Was. Been. SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, . . . lam. Past Perfect, . I had been. Present Perfect, I have been. Future, ... I shall be. Past, .... I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . . If I be. Past, . . . If I were. Past Perfect, . . If I had been. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, ... I may, can, or must be. Present Perfect, I may, can or must have been. Past, .... I might, could, would, or should be. Past Perfect, . I might, could, wouid, or should have been. ETYMOLOGY - VERBS. 229 IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Be, or do thou be; Be, or do ye or you be. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been. PARTICIPLES. Present, Being. Perfect, Been. Compound y Having been. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." ACTIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present Tense, Love, Perfect Participle. Loved. Past Tense. Loved. SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, ... I love. Past Perfect, . I had loved. Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, ... I shall love. Past, .... I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, If r love. Past Perfect, Past, . . . If I loved. . If I had Loved. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, ... I may, can, or must love. • nt Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved. Pastt .... I might, could, would, or should love. Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have loved. 230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Love, or do thou love; 2. Love, or do ye or you love. INFINITE MODE. Present, To love. Present Perfect, To have loved. PARTICIPLES. Present, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having loved. PASSIVE VOICE. The Passive Voice is farmed by prefixing, as an auxiliary, the various forms of the verb to be, to the perfect participle of a transi- tive verb. SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, I am loved. Present Perfect, I have been loved. Past, I was loved. Past Perfect, I had been loved. Future, I shall be loved. Future Perfect, I shall have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved. Past Perfect, If I had been loved. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, I may be loved. Present Perfect, I may have been loved. Past, I might be loved. Past Perfect, I might have been loved. ETYMOLOGY VERBS, 231 REGULAR CONJUGATION. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE. Singular. 1. I am loved, 2. Thou art loved, 3. He is loved; PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. We are loved, 2. You are loved, 3. They are loved. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 3. He has been loved: 1 . I was loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 3. He was loved ; 1. We have been loved, 2. You have been loved, 3. They have been loved. PAST TENSE. 1. We were loved, 2. You were loved, 3. They were loved. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved. 3. He had been loved ; 1. We had been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. They bad been loved. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, .'.. He will be loved; 1. We shall be loved, 2. You will be loved, :;. They will be loved. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. i . I shall have been loved, 2. Thou wilt have beeo loved, 3. He. will have been loved; 1. We Shall have been loved, 2. Von will have bed) loved, 3. They will have been loved. 232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The subjunctive mood is usually introduced by the conjunctions if, though, that, unless, lest, except. PASSIVE VOICE. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I be loved, 2. If thou be loved, 3. If he be loved; 1. If we be loved, 2. If you be loved, 3. If they be loved. PAST TENSE. Singular, 1. If I were loved, 1. Were I loved, 2. If thou wert loved, 3. If he were loved ; 2. Wert thou loved, 3. Were he loved ; Plural. 1. If we were loved, 2. If you were loved. 3. If they were loved. PASSIVE VOICE. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 3. He may be loved; 1. We may be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. They may be loved. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1 . I may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 3. He may have been loved; 1 . We may have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 3. He might be loved ; 1. We might be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. They might be loved. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 233 PAST PKRFECT TKNSE. 1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 2. Thou might st have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 3. He might have been loved; 3. They might have been loved . IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. 3e loved, or be thou loved; 2. Be loved, or be you loved. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present, Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having been loved. The Progressive, the Emphatic, aud the Interrogative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. SYNOPSIS. PROGRESSIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, I am loving. Present Perfect, ... I have been loving. Past, I was loving. Past Perfect, .... I had been loving. Future, I shall be loving. Future Perfect, .... I shall have been loving. -l INJUNCTIVE MODI.. Present, . . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were loving. Past Perfect, . . . . If I had been loving. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, I may be loving. Present Perfect^ . . . I may have been lovimr. Past, I might be loving. Past Perfect, .... I might have been loving, 234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present, ... Be thou loving. PARTICIPLES. Present, Loving. Compound, Having been loving. Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love. INTERROGATIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, .... Love I? Do I love? Am I loving? Present Perfect, . Have I loved? Have I been loving? Past, Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving? Past Perfect, . . Had I loved? Had I been loving? Future, .... Shall I love? Shall I be loving? Future Perfect . . Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving? EXERCISES. Parse the verbs in the following sentences using the models on page 91 : 1. The hunter hilled a bear. 2. The wind blows furiously. 3. The pigeon has been hilled by the boy. 4. I shall leave if you remain. 5. Do come to see us. 6. If this be true, all will end well. 7. You can write. 8. O, that he might return, 9. He rose to speak. 10. The man has fallen from the bridge. 11. If I had started sooner, I should have overtaken you. 12. We shall arrive at noon. 1. Use the proper tense to express the relation of time implied in the statement. "They have visited us last week.' ' In this sentence a statement concerning an event in past time is made, therefore, the past tense form of the verb should be used, and the sentence should be, " They visited us last week." 1. After I wrote the letter I took a walk. 2. Your son was tardy every day this week. 3. I know him more than a year. 4. They were under obligations to have assisted me. 5. George was absent all this afternoon. G. I shall live here six months next Tuesday. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 235 2. Use the present tense form of the verb in giving expression to general truths or existing facts. " He proved that the earth was round." In this sentence it is the intention to give expression to a general truth, therefore, the present tense form of the verb should be used, and the sen- tence should be, " lie proved that the earth is round." 1. Heat will radiate best from a rough surface. 2. I should think it was time for the bell to ring. 3. I have always thought that dew fell. 4. My teacher told me that every star was a sun. 5. He did not know that cheese was made of milk. 3. Shall should be used with the first person, and will with the second and third person, to denote a future action or event. Remark.— When it is desired to express determination or necessity in future time will should be used with the first person and sball with the second and third person. 16 1 shall go; no one will prevent rae." In this sentence, determination is expressed, therefore the sentence should be, " I will go ;^no one shall prevent me." (Page 104.) 1. Would we have a pleasant time if we should go? 2. If I would earn money, I would save it. 3. We will receive our share next Saturday. 4. I will not be at home to-morrow. 5. I should be sorry if you would be sick. 4. In giving expression to a supposition, use the subjunctive form of the verb — the subjunctive mode — to denote doubt or denial, and the indicative to express a fact or any thing assumed as a fact. Indicative. — " Though he drives me from door, yet I will cling t<> him." This is assumed as a fact ; he does drive me. Subjunctive. — " Though hedrive me from his door, yet I will cling to him." This denotes doubt; he may drive me. 1. If it rains, I shall not go. 2. If he promises In: will help you. 3. If he was rich he would be generous. 4. If lie is not engaged, he will accompany you. :>. If he play, he wins. <;. Un- less the miller grinds the wheat, we will have no flour. (Page 70.) ( K M&tt-l jHzwl #ff /Ae Yd® tnd/. &/e iscw&l wiM^ tUtty sl^dfeeefantz /tie G^r^^a^l ec6n/ co-'nJ%a€Z4,€Z> / fc0-'ri>. O* ■a- y wz> dwi/^isLdet/ //&&,& /-ne <&ddi4>4,ed ttedl €zw tzt/e/t/to-vz^-z -a^M^t^t^^yi^e. dtt/etec/ -vest-ty de J O* ^ w&w dee /A a/ ^e^e caw t/& tf>d/?rie'ri&, ^e 6d tub /LV-eifif /& levwl'M, t&&3, aiviz we wtw/trs&e e 'Wi^wM, tt/i c/e wt&j&e't> i3$w^«? G&vdtttiZ'tzei SYNTAX VERBS. 237 Bule 13. — A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. Are and were arc the only plural forms of the English verb, (to) be. Most verbs have but one person form, the third, made by adding s or es, in the common style. (Page 32.) In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending est, 8t, or t, and in the indicative present, the third person singu- lar adds eth. Examples. — Thou lovest me not these wintry days. Thou hast no friends. He hath no enemies. Thou art merciful, indeed. Wilt thou aid m e ? When the subject is a collective noun, conveying the plurality of idea, the verb should be pluraL Examples.— The cavalry were deployed on the plain. The peasantry wear ccarse cotton cloth. The multidude were of one mind. When the subject is a collective noun and the collection is con- sidered as one whole, the verb should be singular. Examples. — The number of people present was not ascertained. The committee favors our plan. Does the board of directors give you substantial aid? The army icas destroyed. When a subject, plural in form, represents a single thing, the verb must be singular. Examples.— The new of his defeat has been received; Optics is his study at present; Politics was Ms trade. (Page 77.) When the subject is a mere word or sign, an infinitive, or a clause, the verb should be in the third person singular. Examples. — " JfAo is there?" was heard from the thicket. Books is a plural Doun. _^_ is the sign of division. To deceive is wrong. The pronoun you, however, even when singular iu meaning, requires a verb and a pronoun of the plural form. Analyze the following sentences and justify the use of the italicized words: 1. Ten cents is the price. 2. The wealthy are not always the 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. most happy. 3. The committee were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 4. The House has decided not to allow 0rits members the privilege. 5. Five dollars is not too much. 6. Twice as much is too much. 7. Two hours is a long time to • wait. 8. To relieve the wretched was his pride. Sometimes two or more words enter into the com- position of a connective. In such cases the several words must be taken together, treated as one con- junction, and placed in the same circle in the dia- gram . Examples. — As well as, as if, not only, but also, except that, for as much as, but likewise, notwithstanding that. il The father, as well as the sons, were in fault." ( father B r 1 . -wepe- B. 13. was (The) in (as well as) fault B. 7. ) c sons (the) ;> Were is a violation of Rule 13; it should have the singular form, was. (Page 32.) As well as is a combination of words used as a conjunction. Rule 14. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, connected by and, must be plural. When the connected subjects are different names of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb must be singular. Examples. — Oatmeal and milk is excellent food. My esteemed friend and schoolmate is now in the country. SYNTAX VERBS. 239 When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with the first, and is understood with the second. Examples. — Capital, and labor also, is required. Time, as well as pa- tience, is needed. Diligent industry, and not mean savings, constitutes honor- able competence. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative. Examples.— Dissipation, and not ill luck, ruined his fortune; Books, and not pleasure, occupy his time. A verb in the imperative mode usually agrees with thou, you, or ye, expressed or understood. Examples. — Look [ye] to your hearths, my Lord! Smooth [thou] thy brow ; [Do thou] let brighter thoughts be with the virtuous dead. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest. Examples. — Yours is the responsibility and the labor and the honor; Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory. When two or more singular subjects are emphatically distin- guished, or are preceded by each, every or no, the verb should be singular. Examples.— All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy; The master as well as the servant, wot to blame; Each minute, hour and day is valuable; Every bird and beast retreats before the storm. THEMES FOR COMPOSITION. 1 Ice Palaces. 2. An Intercepted Eetter. 3. The Rainbow. 4. A World without Light. :. Daily Wonders. 0. What the Moon Saw. 7. Buried Cities. 8. My Grandfather*! Clock. 9. Tin- Pyramids. 10. How I Earned my Living 11. Greal Discoveries. 12. The Sandwich Islands 13. a Day in Venice. 14. Old and New Cities. 15. The Great West. 16. Lieut Nordenskiold's Voyage. ::. Unwritten Mosto, is. Egyptian Architecture. 240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 17. In Subjunctive Clauses the plural form of the verb is generally used even with singular subjects* 11 Though he drives me from his door, yet will I not desert him." B.I. will desert B.13. him B.6. ) c ( not ) Though yet j :> r ( he drives B.17. drive me from door B.7. \ ) Drives is a verb in the subjunctive mode therefore it should have the subjunctive or plural form, drive. This is a sentence; declarative; complex. I is the subject of the prin- cipal sentence; will desert is the predicate; him is the object. Will desert is modified by the subjunctive clause, Though he drive me from his door, of which he is the subject; drive is the predicate; me the object. EXERCISES. To be corrected: 1. If it rains to-morrow, I shall not go to Albany. 2. If he was here, I should be glad. 3. Though he slays me, yet will I trust in him. 4. If thy brother offends thee, rebuke him; and if he repents, forgive him. 5. Unless he arrives, there is danger. 6. I wish that she was you. 7. I shall depart to-morrow pro- vided he remains. 8. In case he returns, they will leave here in the morning. 9. Unless he grinds our corn we will have no dinner. 10. The president recommended that the prisoner should be given his liberty. Punctuation, — The dash should be used where the>e is a sudden break or stop in a sentence, or a change in its meaning or construction. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 241 "Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he weary of thee and destroy thee." ( [Thou] B.l. withdraw 11.13. foot B »D- from house ( lest ) ( neighbor's \ ( thy ) :) G he B.l. weary B.l 7. (_and_) of thee B.7. ( [he] destroy B.l 7. thee B.6. ) This is a sentence; imperative; complex. Thou or you understood is the subject of the principal sentence; withdraw is the predicate; foot is the object. Withdraw is modified by the two subjunctive clauses, he weary of thee and [hej destroy thee. (Page 71.) Lest is a subordinate conjunction connecting the two subordinate clauses with the modified word, withdraw, in the principal sentence. Point out the faults and reconstruct the following sentences, making them clear: 1. Your friend was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his service. 2. The clerk told his employer, whatever he did, he could not please him. 3. He told the driver that he would be the death of him if he did not take care what he was about, and mind what he said. 4. My friend, Johnson, used to relate that, when he bought the copy of his " Connection of the old and New Testament M to the bookseller, he told hhn it was b dry subject. 5. Winston answered the French minister that if he had sent in a complaint. he w«>nld have punished the sailors severely. 8. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his body Was proclaimed king in his stead 242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 2. A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a sentence is in the nominative case. Explanation. — A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a sentence means the same person or tiling as the subject. The pronoun, it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun of any person, number or gender, as predicate; as, It was he; It was I; It was you. Correct the following sentences using this as a model: " Whom did he say they were? " f f he B.l. did say j (they were j B.2. w hom j B.6. I Whom is a violation of Rule 2 ; it should have the 'nominative form who. (Page 13.) 1. I do not know whom they are. 2. We did not know it was him. 3. That was me. 4. It could not have been her. 5. It was John and me that you saw. 6, It is not him that she is angry with. 7. Had I been him, I should have done the same. 8. It was me that broke your slate. 9. Let him be whom he may. 10. Whom do they say that I am? THEMES FOR COMPOSITION. 1. A Desirable Guest. 2. Our Navy. 3. Growing Old Gracefully. 4. Discretion, 5. The Magic of Kindness. 6. The Tariff. 7. The Dollar of our Fathers 8. Self Control. 9. Difficulty of being Truthful 10. Courtesy. 11. Halloween and its Customs. 12. The Sunny Side. 13 True and False Delicacy. 14. Peacemakers. ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 243 THE ADVERB. 1. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- ing > — (1) Of a verb. " She sings sweetly. " (2) Of au adjective. " That is a very hard stone." (3) Of another adverb. i% He writes exceedingly well." (4) Of a phrase. " He sailed nearly round the world." Remark. — An adverb may be used to modify a clause ; as, His sons like* icise came to the city. (Page 40.) " Even as a miser counts his gold, Those hours the ancient time-piece told." 2. Some idiomatic phrases are commonly used as adverbs, and are therefore called adverbial phrases. The following is a partial list of the adverbial phrases most fre- quently employed in English: at large by far in truth in like mann er here and there at once by turns of purpose a truth of mornings at best as yet in that from below up and down at all by chance inasmuch as one by one in and out at length at times by and by in case now and then at last at hand by no means from above ever and anon in general in short at present in vain out and out. 3. Some adverbs and adverbial phrases are formed by combining a preposition with a noun or an adjective. A, standing for the old English an, on, in ; as a~year, a-day = yearly, daily; a-bed, a-foot, a-loft. A, with old possessive forms; as, a-nights, now-a-days English now -on- days. old 244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. An, on, o, standing for an or on, and meaning of; as man- as war, two-o-clock, Jack- an- apes. Be; as, be-times, he-side. Of , replacing the old possessive case; as, Of -course, of -force, of -truth, of -old, of -late, of-a-day, of -a- truth. To; as, to-day, to-night, to-morrow. 4. With respect to their meaning and use, adverbs, are divided into five classes : Adverbs of Time, Place, Cause, Manner and Degree. • Direction. — For classes of adverbs and comparison, see page thirty- seven. Some adverbs are the equivalents of independent sentences and some appear as remnants and representatives of such sentences : Yes, no, amen, well, why, nay. Examples. — " Yes; there is a remedy." " So, so; and this is the way." " Well, I hardly know what to say." tl Why, yon must be mistaken." 5. Adverbs are short equivalents for phrases or pro- positions. Thus = in this manner. Now = at this time. In vain = in a vain manner. There = in that place. Occasionally = as occasion requires. Where = in what place . 6. Many of the most common modifying words can be used in the same form either as adjectives or as adverbs. Examples. — No, well, better, best, very, more, most, hard, long, like, less, least, worse, worst, ill, yonder, fast, late, early. «'He is no fool;" adjective. u He is no better;" adverb. "Few men, like him, fight;" adj. "Few men fight like him;" adv. ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 245 7. In poetry and in compound words, the adjective form is allowed to a greater extent than elsewhere. " The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall. — Dimon. " Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring." — Pope. "Though thou wertfirmlier fastened than a rock." — Milton. *' By the vendurous banks of a smooth-gliding stream." — Moore. Two negatives are not employed in modern English to express a negation. Examples. — " He dosn't know nothing about it." The expression should be, "He don't know anything about it;" or, "He knows nothing about it." This method of using two negatives in the same sentence is a remnant of old English usage. Until the middle of the seven- teenth century an accumulation of negatives was employed in strengthening negation: M Thou never didst them wrong, nor no man wrong." — Shakespeare. "Therefore saith the King Solomon, lie not idle never more.'* — Robert of Brunne. Remark.- An adverb sometimes becomes a noun; as, We have enough; I will do it for once; By far the best. 8. To express manner or describe the act, the ad- verb should be used; to describe the object, the adjective. "Things look [lire] favorable this morning; " adj. " He look- skiUfuUp at the moon, through his telescope." " We arrived saje; " i. e., we were safe when we arrived. When the verb be or become can be joined to the verb, ou put in Its place, the modifying word la or should be an adjective. "The waves dashed high; " i. e., they were high, and dashed. " Soft blows the breeze; " i. e., is soft, and blown, "He spoke better;" a/lv . " He seemed better, felt belter; " adj. 9. A Conjunctive Adverb is a conjunction which carries with it the force of an adverb. 246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Examples. — "Go where (to the place at which) glory waits thee;" I shall see you when I return. (Page 47.; The clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb modifies some word in the principal sentence. (Page 48.) Remark. — The principal conjunctive adverbs are: as, after, before, how, since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while and why. Direction. —For the parsing of the adverb see page one hundred and seven. THE PKEPOSITION. 1. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation between its object and some other word. Remark. — The preposition shows the relation between its object and a word which is modified by the prepositional phrase. (Page 28.) Two prepositions are frequently combined and used as one. In such cases treat the two prepositions as one, calling the combina- tion a complex preposition. Examples. — They came from over the river; It came from under the bridge. (Page 47.) For is sometimes used as an introductory preposition. Examples.—" For him to deceive," " For us to do so," etc. When the relations between objects of thought are so obvious that they need no expression, the prepositions are usually omitted. Examples,— He went home yesterday; The river is a mile wide; That block of buildings is worth a million. (Page 40.) 2. Two or more prepositions may have the same noun or pronoun for its object. Examples. — He walked up and down the hill. But, for, since, and some others, are frequently used as conjunc- tions. SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 247 KxnmploN. — We will retire, since you have returned; I must go, for it is late. cPage 106.) Many words, prepositional iu their nature, such as after, about, up, before, beyond, beloio, are used as adverbs. Examples. — You may go before, but John must stay behind. The eagle Hew up, then soared about and afterwards descended. Prepositions are much used as parts of compound words; and when thus used they are generally adverbial. Examples. — Uphold, income, overshot, afterthought. Caution. — It is inelegant, if not ungrammatical, to place a small word, especially a proposition, at the end of a sentence. Examples. — Which house did you live in? W r hat are you looking for? The better construction is, In which house did you live? For what are you looking? Rule 7. — The object of a preposition is in the ob- jective case. Correct the following sentences using this as a model: M That is the officer who you gave my address to." ( ( man ) is j officer B.2. ) ( That ) ( you gave address R.6. to (J5L) who R.7. whom ) Who Lfl I violation of Rule 7; it should have the objective form, whom. "That i- th.> offioei to whom you gave my address;" is a sentence declarative; complex Oflleor, the predicate of the principal sentence, li 248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. modified by the subordinate sentence or clause, to whom you gave my address. Gave is modified by the prepositional phrase, to whom. (Page 29.) 1. Who is this iuteaded for? 2. How much did his parents send him to the city with? 3. Which school do you go to? 4. This was intended for Henry and I. 5. He rode several miles driving a herd of sheep on horseback. 6. Which of these books can I find that passage in? 7. What firm are you agent for? 8. He put bas- kets of peaches in his wagon without a cover. Remark.-*r/ie order of parsing the preposition, and the models are on page 111. REMARKS. 3. Care should be taken to select such prepositions, and such only, as express the relation intended. With denotes an instrument ; by denotes a cause : Examples. — He was struck with a stone, and died by violence. Of denotes possession of a thing or quality; to denotes that the thing or quality is directed towards something else. Examples. — She is a friend o/mine ; She has been a friend to me. Among, amongst, are applicable to more than two objects; between, betwixt, are applicable to two objects only. Examples. — He divided his share among his six companions ; He divided the estate between his two brothers. (Page 110.) Beview page 110 and correct the following sentences: 1. He went away of a fine morning with a basket La to his hand. 2. William has gone south, accompanied with his brother. 3. He was struck by a stone, and died with violence. 4. I shall pay you some time during next week. 5. We divided our share among the two boys. 6. I put the cards in the box. 7. Henry and James are to school. 8. He divided his share between his six compan- ions. 9. We differ with you on that subject. 10. They ought to profit from the errors of others. ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 249 2. Have you reviewed the work of page oue hundred ten? 2. He is dependent on his friends. 3. They came in the house. 4. I differ with you. 5. He has been at Cincinnati. 6. Never depart out of the straight path. 7. Where is the key to that door? 8. I shall study on page one hundred nine. 9. He put his pen in the ink. 10. The sultry morning was followed with a hail-storm. THE CONJUNCTION. 1. A conjunction connects sentences, or the ele- ments of a sentence, between which it is placed. 2. Conjunctions are divided into two general classes : Coordinate and Subordinate. 3. Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect words of the same form — verbs in the same mood and tense, or nouns in the same case. Examples. — Oxygen and hydrogen are the elements of which water is composed; Henry came and Walter went; George has come but Arthur has gone. (Page 111.) 4. Co-ordinate Conjunctions may be divided into four classes : (1) Copulative, denoting addition: And, also, further, more- <>rer. (2) Adversative, denoting opposition: But, still, yet, o?ihj, however, notwithstanding. (3) Alternative, denoting that which may be chosen or omitted: Else, otherwise, or, nor, either. (4) Illative, which implies a consequence: Therefore, ivhere- fore, hence, thence, beeauset consequently, accordingly. 250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which join elements of different ranks or names. Remark. — Subordinate Conjunctions connect modifying clauses with the words they modify. (Page ^5.) 6. Subordinate conjunctions may divided into four classes : (1) Of manner or degree, denoting likeness and excess or deficiency : As, as if, how, although, than, so as. (2) Temporal, denoting time: Ere, after, before, until, whilst, when. (3) Local, denoting rest in, or motion to or from place: Where, there, whence, t'lence, whither, thither. (4) Causal, denoting effect, condition, reason, result, or purpose: So, that, if, unless, except, as, because, since, although, though, for, whereas, inasmuch as. Correlative Conjunctions are co-ordinate or subordinate conjunctions used in pairs, one referring or answering to the other. Examples. — She is as tall as he. Though deep, yet clear. He is both learned and wise. (Page 113.) EXERCISES. Parse the Conjunctions: 1. I shall not go unless you go with me. 2. She works for no Other purpose than to pass away the time. 3. The answer is the same as that in the book. 4. Those people live in houses as we do. 5. We should be industrious and economical as our forefath- ers were. 6. This is the reason why I staid at home. 7. My sis- ter and I were at the concert last evening. 8. My brother said that he believed he would sell his horse. 9. William and Arthur are opening a new coal mine. 10. They make their crackers as we do. SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 251 7. Great care and good judgment should be used in selecting conjunctions for use in sentences. Remark, — Eikeand with are often used for as; that for irhy; but for than; without for wiless; as well as for and; how for that; together with for and. EXERCIS ES . To be corrected: 1 . I shall not go without you go with me. 2. He works for no other purpose but to pass away the time. 3. The answer is the same with that in the book. 4. Those people live in houses like we do. 5. We should be industrious and economical, like our fore- fathers were. 6. That is the reason that I staid at home. 7. I, as xcell as my sister, w T ere at the concert last evening. 8. My brother said how he believed he would sell his farm. 9. Henry, together with George, are opening a new grocery. 10. They make their bread like we do. THE INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word used to denote some sudden or strong emotion. Examples. — Alas! no hope for me remains. Adieu! adieu! my native land. (Page 114.) In our language there are interjections correspond- ing to nearly every emotion of the human heart. The principal interjections are those expressing: (1) Disappointment; as, Whew! (2) Contempt; as, Faugh! pshaw! fie! fudge! (5) Repression; as, Mist! mum! hush! (4) Imitation; as, Pop! ding-dong! bang! (5) Greeting or parting; as, Good bye! farewell! adieu* (6) Pain or suffering; as, Ah! alas! dear me! weU-a-day! (J) Jot or glad surprise; as, Oh! ah! Hurrah! Huzza! 252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PUNCTUATION. 1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written language by points, in order that the relations of words and clauses may be plainly seen, and their meaning be readily under- stood. Remark. —In reading, a pause is generally made where the point is used, but the points do not mark all the pauses. 2. The principal characters used in punctuation are the following : Comma, , Semicolon, ; Colon, : Period, Interrogation Point, ? Exclamation Point, . ! Dash, ...... . — Curves, .... () Brackets, . . . Note. — The rules for punctuation and capitals will be found scattered all through this work near exercises which furnish abundant examples for their illustration. THE PERIOD. The Period denotes the greatest degree of separa- tion. 1. A period must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence. 2. A period must be placed after every abbreviated word. Example*. — Dr. H. B. Brown. We arrived at Valparaiso, Ind., August 10th, 1891. PUNCTUATION. 253 THE COMMA. The word Comma means that lohich is cut of, and the mark so called denotes the least degree of separa- tion that requires a point. 1. Phrases and single words used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com- mas. Remark. — Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not es- sential to the meaning and structure of the sentence; as, It is mind, after all. which rules the world. 2. A complex subject, if long, should be separated from the predicate by a comma. 3. A dependent clause should be separated by a comma, or by commas, from the clause upon which it depends. Remark. —A clause is dependent when it modifies a word in the prin- cipal sentence, as, If you desire to succeed in life, be industrious and hon- est. 4. A clause used as subject, if it ends with a verb, should be separated from the predicate by a comma. Example. — That we shall go, has been decided. 5. Antithetical words, phrases, and clauses should be separated by commas. Example. — Keen logic, and not a great demonstration, produces con- viction. 6. Adverbs used independently, or modifying an entire proposition. Bhould be set off by commas. Example. — Well, since thlfl i- true, I shall depart never to return. In- r/rrti. you are mistaken. 7. Words repeated for the sake <>f emphasis should he set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Example. — M Verily, verily, I say unto you." 254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8. Nouns and pronouns in the nominative absolute case, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com- mas. Examples. — Go, my child, and do so no more. Your booh, where is it? 9. A direct quotation, separated by a principal clause, should be set off by commas. Example.- " That is right, my son," he said, "continue in the good work." 10. Absolute phrases, adjectives, participles, and apposi- tives, should be separated from the context by commas. Examples. — Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance. The maxim, " Enough is as good as a feast," has silenced many a vain wish. Remark- Nouns in apposition unmodified, or modified by the only, are not usually separated by commas ; as, The Emperor Napoleon was a great general. • 11. When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, its place is usually supplied by a comma. Example. — War is the law of violence; peace, the law of love. 12. When words are arranged in pairs, each couplet should be set off by commas. Example. — Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am forever bound to the cause. 13. Each term of a series of words in the same construc- tion, should be set off by commas. Examples. ~ He has horses, cattle, sheep, farms, houses, mills and whole forests of pine timber. 14. Members of sentences containing correlative adverbs and conjunctions, should be separated by commas. Example. — The harder we study, the better we like to study. PUNCTUATION, 255 15. The members of compound sentences, when short and connected by conjunctions, should be separated by commas. Kxample. — His simplicity inspired confidence, his eloquence aroused enthusiasm, and his gentleness invited friendship. 16. A comma should be used, even when not required by the grammatical construction, whenever it serves to de- velop the sense or prevent ambiguity. EXERCISES. Supply such points as are necessary in the following sentences: 1. Education if it cannot accomplish everything can neverthe- less accomplish much. 2. Never be discouraged however gloomy the prospect. 3. The blind and the lame and the deaf were there. 4r.I see then in revelation a purpose corresponding with that for which human teaching was instituted. 5. In every line of Dante's 11 Divine Comedy " we discern the asperity which is produced by pride struggling with misery. 6. We often commend as well as censure imprudently. 7. Apostles prophets and martyrs have proved the truth of the Christian faith. 8. The oranges lemons and figs which grow in the northern range of the Southern States are of an inferior quality. 9. Hail Patience blest source of peace blest cure for every pain. THE SEMICOLON. The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation greater than that denoted by the comma. 1. The semicolon should be placed between the members of a compound sentence, unless the connection is exceed- ingly cl Examph'. — " Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord; but they that deal truly are His delight." 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. The semicolon should be used before as, namely, to ivit, viz. , introducing an example or an illustration. 3. The semicolon should be placed between the greater divisions of sentences, when minor subdivisions occur that are separated by commas. Example.— Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web; and wit the ornament of the mind, not the furniture. 4. When several long clauses occur in succession, all having common dependence on some other clause or word, they must be separated by semicolons. Example. — My imagination would conjure up all that I had heard or read of the watery world beneath me; of the finny tribes that roam in the fathomless valleys; of shapeless monsters that lurk among the very founda- tions of the earth; and those wild phantasms that swell the tales of fisher- men and sailors. — Irving. EXERCISES. Supply such points as are necessary in the following sentences: 1. Wit is abrupt darting scornful and tosses its analogies in your face Humor is slow and shy insinuating its fun into your heart. 2. The gem has lost its sparkle scarce a vestige of its former brilliancy remains. 3. The poisoned valley of Java is twenty miles in extent and of considerable width it presents a most desolate appearance being entirely destitute of vegetal on. 4. A Scotch mist becomes a shower and a shower a flood and a flood a storm and a storm a tempest and a tempest thunder and lightning and thunder and lightning heaven-quake and earth- quake. THE COLON. The Colon indicates the next greatest degree of separation to that denoted by the period. 1. The members of a compound sentence, whose parts are phrases or clauses set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons. PROSODY. 257 Example.- We perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not see it moving; we observe that the grass has grown, though it was impossible to see it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, consist- ing of minute and gradual steps, are perceivable only after intervals of time. 2. A colon must be placed before a formal enumeration of particulars, and a direct quotation, when referred to by the words thus, following, as follows, etc. Example-Man consists of three parts: first, the body, with its sensual appetites; second, the mind, with its thirst for knowledge; third, the soul, with its undying principle. PROSODY. 1. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of accent, and of the laws of versification. 2. Versification is the art of making verse. 3. Verse i- the musical arrangement of words, according to some regular accent. 4. Prose is discourse written in language or ordinarily used, having reference, mainly, to a clear and distinct state- ment of the writer's meaning. ."». Poetry is discourse written in metrical language. Its aim i- to please, by addressing the imagination and the sen- sibilities. <>. Poetry is written either in Rhyme or in Blank Verse. 7. Rhyme i< ;i similarity of sound, bet ween the last sylla- ble of different lines or half lines. Remark.- A coujrfct or distich, consists of two lines rhyming together. A triplet, of thr- 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 9. Heroic Verse is verse that consists of iambic penta- meters. Remark. — This verse is so called because it is chiefly used iu epic poetry, or in poetry that relates the exploits of heroes. See Milton and Shakespeare. 10. A Stanza is a group of lines forming a division of a r>oem. POETIC FEET. 1. A Poetic Foot is a part of a line that consists gen- erally of two or three syllables, one of which is accented. 2. Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable of a word or foot. The quantity of a syllable is its relative quantity of sound, or it is the relative time occupied in uttering the syllable. In regard to quantity, some syllables are long, some are short, and some are variable. The principle feet used in English verse, are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Pyrrhic, the Spondee, the Anapest, the Dactyl, and the Amphibrach. 3. The Iambus; a foot of two syllables, accented on the second. Ex.-" A. mind' | not to' | be changed' | by place' | or time'." 4. The Trochee; a foot of two syllables, accented on the first. Ex. — " Ru'in | seize' thee, j ruth'less king'." 5. The Spondee; a foot of two long or accented syl- lables. Ex. — " Rocks', | caves', | lakes', | fens', j bogs', j dens', | and shades' j of death'." PROSODY. 259 6. The Pyrrhic; a foot of two short or unaccented syl- lables. The pyrrhic is sometimes used in iambic verse, to avoid ac- centing- an unimportant word. Ex. — " What could' | be less' | than to | afford' | him praise'?" Instead of resting on a short syllable, the accent is sometimes allowed to pass to the tirst syllable of the next foot, making that foot a spondee. Ex.- Of the | low, sun' | set clouds', | and the | blue' sky'." 7. The Anapest; a foot of three syllables, accented on the last. Ex. — " All at once' | and all o'er' | with a might' | y uproar'." 8. The Dactyl consists of one accented and two unac- cented syllables. Ex. — Heed' not the | corpse', though a | king's', in your | path'." 9. The Amphibrach consists of one unaccented, one accented, and one unaccented syllable. Ex- — " A pret' ti- | er din' ner | I nev' er | set eyes' on." 10. The Caesura, a long or accented syllable used as one foot. Ex. — Gold', | gold', | gold', | gold'. | . Hca'vy to | get' and | light' to | hold'. — Hood. A foot of three unaccented syllables is called a Tribrach. It is rarely found in English poetry. POETIC LINES AND PAUSES. 1. Feet arc formed into lines of various length \ and the lines are then called Iambic^ Trochaic^ Anapestic, or Dactylic, according to the kind of foot which prevails in them. 260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Lines are also named according to the number of feet composing them. (1) Monometer, a line of one foot. (2) Dimeter, a line of two feet. (3) Trimeter, a line of three feet. (4) Tetrameter, a Hue of four feet. (5) Pentameter, a line of five feet. (6) Hexameter, a line of six feet. (7) Heptameter, a line of seven feet. (8) Odometer, a line of eight feet. Verse, therefore, may be Iambic Monometer, Iambic Dimeter, etc. ; Trochaic Monometer, Trochaic Dimeter, etc. ; Anapestic Monometer, Anapestic Dimeter, etc.; Dactylic Monometer, Dactylic Dimeter, etc. A verse or foot in which a syllable is wanting at the end, is called catalectic: a full verse or foot is called acatalectic. POETIC PAUSES. 1. To improve the rhythm or verse, there are two pauses ; the final and the ccesural. 2. The Final Pause is a slight pause made at the end of each line, even when the grammatical sense does not re- quire it. Remark. — This pause should always be observed in reading poetry, even when there is no punctuation point at the end of the line. 3. The Caesural Pause is a slight pause made within the line, most frequently about the middle of it ; and it belongs chiefly to long lines. The caesural pause is a natural suspension of the voice in reading. The shorter kinds of verse are without it. Its natural place is near the middle of the line ; but the sense often requires that it be placed elsewhere. TROSODY. 26 1 Examplt's.-" Wanna In the sun, || refreshes in the breeze, Glows in the stars, || and blossoms in the trees." — Pope. " And now, || my tongue the secret tells." M Xo sooner had the Almighty ceased, |j than all The multitude of angels, || with a shout Loud, || as from numbers without number, || sweet As from blest voices || uttering joy." — Milton. This versification is admirable. The cresural pause after 11 Umd" and that before " sweet," and the final pause after "sweet" make us halt in reading, to enjoy the exquisite luxury of the sense. 4. Long lines can sometimes be divided at the c;esural pause into two lines each. IAMBIC MEASURES. 2. Iambic Dimeter, " Their love' | and awe' Supply" | the law'." 1. Iambic Monometer. " How bright', The light'!" 3. Iambic Trimeter. "IJlue light' | nings singe' | the waves', And thun | der rends | the rock." 4. Iambic Tetrameter. "The joys' | above' | are un' | derstood' And rel' | ish'd on'- | ]y by' | the good'." .">. Iambic Pentameter. "For praise' | too dear'- | ly lov'd' | or warm'- | ly sought', Enfee' | -bles all' | inter'- | nal strength' | of thought'." M With sol- | emn ad- | ora- | tion down | they cast Their crowns | inwove | with am- | arant | and gold." This is often called Heroic Measure because epic or heroic poetry La written in it. • '.. Iambic Hexameter. 'Thy realm' | forev'- | er lasts', | thy own' | Messi' | ah reigns'." This Is seldom used except to complete a stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a period in heroic rhyme. This verse [g called Alexandrine. 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. Iambic Heptameter. " The Lord' | descend'- | ed from' | above', | and bow'd' | the heav'- | ens high'.*' Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into alter- nate lines of four and of three feet ; thus, — " O blind' | to each' | indul'- | gent aim' Of power' J supreme' | -ly wise', Who fan'- | cy hap'- | piness' | in aught' The hand' J of heaven' j denies' I" 8. Long Meter is iambic tetrameter, arranged in stanzas of four lines, rhyming in couplets or alternately. Ex. —Praise God' | from whom' | all bless'- | ings now' : Praise him' | all creat'- | ures here' | below'; Praise him' | above', | ye heaven'- | ly host'; Praise Fath'- | er, Son,' | and Ho'- | ly Ghost.' 9. Common Meter is a stanza of four iambic lines, the first and third being tetrameter, the second and fourth, trimeter, Ex. — Come let' | us join' | our cheer'- | ful songs', With an'- | gels round' | the throne'; Ten thou'- | sand thou'- | sand are' | their tongues', But all' | their joys' | are one'. 10. Short Meter is a stanza of four iambic lines, the first, sec- ond, and fourth being trimeter, the third, tetrameter. Ex. — There sin' | &Jtd sor'- | row cease', And ev'- | ery con' | flict's o'er' ; There we' | shall dwell' | in end'- | less peace' Nor thirst' | nor nun'- | ger more'. 11. The Elegiac Stanza consists of four iambic lines rhyming alternately. 12. A Sonnet is a poem complete in fourteen iambic lines. TROCHAIC MEASURES. 1. Trochaic Monometer. Chang'ing, Rang'ing. 2. Trochaic Dimeter. "Fan'cy | vie'wing, Joys' en- | eu'ing." PROSODY. 263 3. Trochaic Trimeter. M In' the | da'y's of | old', Sto'rles | pla'inly | told'." •i. Trochaic Tetrameter. "Round' a | ho'ly | calm' dif - | fus'ing, Love' of | peace' and | lone'ly | mus'lng." 5. Trochaic Pentameter. " Virtue's | bri'ghtning | ray' shall | beam' for | ev'er." y'u Trochaic Hexameter. "On' a | monu'taln | stretched' be- | neath' a j hoa'ry | willow, Lay' a | shep'herd | swain', and | viewed' the | rolling | billow." 7. Trochaic Heptameter. " In' the | spring' a | fee'ble | crim'son | comes' up- | on' | the | rob' ins | breas't; In' the | spring' the j want'on | lap'wing | gets' him- | self'an- J oth' er | nest'. " ANAPESTIC MEASURES. In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syl- lable. The first foot of ananapestic line, may be an iambus. 1. Anapestic Monometer. 11 On the land', Let me stand'." 2. Anapestic Dimeter. " In my rage', J shall be seen' The revenge' | of a queen'." 3. Anapestic Trimeter. " I am mon'- | arch of all' | I survey' ; My right' I there is none' | to dispute'." \. Anapestic Tetrameter. At the close' j of the day', | when the ham'- | let is still', And mor'- | 'tall the sweets' | of forget' | fulness prove'."' 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. DACTYLIC MEASURES. 1. Dactylic Monometer. " Fearfully. Tear'fully." 2. Dactylic Dimeter, " Free' from sa | ti'ety, Care', and anx | i'ety, Charms' in va | riety, Fall' to his | share'." 3. Dactylic Trimeter. " Wear'ing a- | way' in his | usefulness, Love'liness, | beau'ty, and | truth'fulness. 4. Dactylic Tetrameter. " Boy' will an- | tic'ipate, | lav'ish, and | dis'sipate All' that your | bu'sy pate | hoard'ed with | care, And', in their | fool'ishn'ess, | pas'sion, and | mul'ishness, Charge' you with | churl'ishness, | spurn'ing your j pray'r." 5. Dactylic Hexameter. < c Now' thou dost | wel'come me, | wel'come me | from' the dark | sea, Land' of the | beau'tiful, | beau'tiful | land' of the free." A dactylic verse rarely ends with a dactyl. It sometimes ends with a trochee, sometimes with a long syllable. AMPHIBRACH MEASURES. 1. Amphibrach Trimeter. " A breath' of | submission | we breathe' not; The sword' we | have drawn' we | will sheathe' not." 2. Amphibrach Tetrameter. The flesh' was | a picture | for paint'ers | to study, The fat' was | so whit'e and | the lean' was so rud'dy. 3. Different kinds of feet are often found in the same line. 4. Different measures are frequently used in the .same poem. POETIC LICENSES. A Poetic License is an allowed deviation from the cor- rectness of ordinary prose, or from the regular laws of versification, in order that the poet may be enabled to reach the requirements of verse. APPENDIX. ADDRESSED TO THE TEACHER. The work as arranged in this book is designed for use in the fourth and rifth grades of public schools and in corresponding de- partments of other institutions of learning. Since it is through analysis that we learn to know with exact- ness the use of words in a sentence and the relations which they bear to each other, it follows that it is through the same source that we find the most systematic as well as the shortest, process in reaching the rules of grammar and the principles which govern our language. Analysis, therefore, forms a large part of our work. The method pursued in doing the work on the 7th and succeeding pages, should be substantially as follows: — 1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. The teacher should always commence the work under a new topic with the analysis of the sentence given as a model, therefore, " Birds sing" should be taken as the first sentence here. The teacher should write it on the blackboard and then commence by asking the questions: — About what is something said in this sentence? About what is the affirmation made? M Birds " will be the answei given by the pupil called upon.* Write it on the blackboard and draw the line for the diagram. Then continue: — Yes, "birds; M therefore, " birds M is the subject of the sentence. * Note. — The pupils should not be permitted to answer in concert. Those prepared to answer may indicate their willingness to do so by raising their right hands. The teacher may then call upon Individuals by name. See next page. 137 138 APPENDIX. What is said of "birds?" What word expresses the action affirmed of " birds? " 11 Sing " will be the answer given. The diagram completed, the teacher should analyze the sentence using the exact words given in the analysis on page 7. The pupils should be then called upon, one by one, to analyze the sentence orally, in exact imitation of the teacher. It is best at first to call for volunteers, and it will be found that nearly every pupil in the class will become a volunteer before the close of the recitation. The timid ones, however, should not be neglected. Al- through the work the teacher should stimulate the backward pupils by asking them to recite oftener than those who are more bold and enterprising. Children delight to do that which they can do well Thoroughness and rapidity are so desirable that they should be secured at every point in the work. Every sentence should be analyzed by from six to ten pupils and it should not be considered finished until the pupils analyze it with the fluency of ordinary con- versation. One or two recitations will be sufficient to complete the analysis of the sentences given under the first topic. 2. OBJECTS WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS. The work under this and the following topics should be com- menced by presenting to the class for analysis a few sentences written on the blackboard thus : — 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. Merchants sell goods. 3. George studied history. 4. Birds build nests. Since to diagram a sentence is to analyze it, the preparation of a lesson will consist in diagraming on slates the sentences assigned. During the recitation the same sentences should be diagramed by the teacher on the blackboard so as to give the pupils an opportun- ity of detecting and correcting their mistakes. " Columbus discovered America " being the sentence given as a model, it should, at the first recitation, be disposed of by teacher and pupils together. The teacher may ask questions like the fol- lowing to find the APPENDIX. 139 Subject: — About what (whom) is something said in this sentence? About what (whom) is the affirmation made? What (who) is the actor? What is the subject? " Columbus" will be the answer. It should be written on the blackboard and the lines drawn for the diagram. The following questions may be asked to find the Predicate : — What is said of Columbus? What word expresses the action affirmed of Columbus? What did Columbus do? What is the predicate? " Discovered " will be the answer given by the pupil named. The following question may be asked to find the Object: — Can you discover without discovering something? Could Columbus discover without discovering something? What did Columbus discover? What is the object of " discover? " 11 America " will be the answer. As soon as the diagram is com- pleted the teacher should analyze the sentence, using the words given in the analysis on page 8. A number of the pupils, not less than eight or ten, should then be asked to analyze it in exact imi- tation of the teacher. Correctness and rapidity should be secured \n the oral analysis of every sentence before it is passed. Rem. — The strict attention of every member of the class can be secured by requesting the pupils to analyze the sentence mentally with the pupil who is reciting, ami by allowing them to criticise the oral analysis at the close of each Individual recitation. (See note, page 120) The teacher should see that this request is strictly complied with. No careless inattention should be tolerated. A vital feature in this method is that everything is learned by experience rather than by definition. While doing the work re- quired by this plan, the pupils are continually making discoveries which develop into that definite knowledge which grammarians 140 APPENDIX. usually try to present in print. Diagrams and outlines like those on pages eight and nine will be found very useful in the work. The outline on page eight should be kept on the blackboard until the work under the eighth topic is completed. The diagrams and SUGGESTIONS. Page 8.— Train the pupils into rapidity and correctness in the analysis of sentences. The fewer explanations made by the instructor the better. Page 10. —Each sentence should be analyzed by several pupils in rapid suc- cession. The instructor should guide the pupils in the work and use as few words as possible. The knowledge we are seeking is acquired almost wholly by experience. Page 12.— Write on the blackboard the form for correcting given here, and train the pupils in the use of it. Every form for correcting pre- sented in this work should be adhered to strictly. Page 18.— Study the structure of this and all other letters carefully, especi- ally its form and punctuation. Page 19.— Continually ask questions reviewing the work from the beginning. Give the class to understand clearly when an answer is correct. Leave nothing in doubt. Page 22.— Hereafter it will not be necessary to have all the sentences di- agramed in full on the blackboard. Draw the lines showing the location of each word, and write a few of the most important^ The pupils, however, should always bring to the recitation all the work done on slates or paper. Page 48.— If the class is an advanced one, taking a rapid course, time being limited, much of the work presented here may be omitted. The judgment of the instructor must rule in this matter. Page 47.— The Order for Parsing will make a better form for slate work than is given in the Models. It will be sufficient to parse the uoun, pronoun and verb if your course is a rapid one. KEY TO ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Pfcge 10. 6 Brilliant rays of solar light pierce the heavy, broken clouds. R - c - ) Ravs R. 1. brilliant pierce clouds No. 6 Of . the heavy broken \ / \ * ) V light R. 7. [ Solar J * Rays' is the subject, 'pierce' is the predicate, 'clouds' is the object. 'Rays' is modi- fied by 'brilliant' an adjective and by the phrase, 'of light.' 'Clouds' is modified by 'the,' 'heavy' and 'broken' three adjectives. This sentence is out of grade on page io. Page 23 in Graded Method in English Grammar: 5. Some think it was her and some think it was me that won the prize. This is a compound sentence and each of the single sentences of which it is com- posed is complex. The first transitive verb think, has a simple sentence for its object; the second tran- sitive verb think, has a complex sentence for its object. / * ( Some think \ / ( it was T she ) 1 y ( and ) I 1 S f ^ome think ( it was -p I -rae- ) No. 5 ( J \( thai won prize J j Her in th'- first sentence is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, she. Me, in the Second sentence is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, I. 270 KEY TO ANALYSIS 6. It was not him but me that met you. We always supply the missing words in the analysis. This is a compound sentence composed of a simple sentence and a complex sentence. ( - was T -him- he ) I I * ot J No - 6 ( but ) ( » was T I E.2. ) that met you Him is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, he. Me is a violatio 3 of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, I. 7. It could not have been her that wrote the letter. d could have been she R. 2. No. 7 I * Qt J that wrote letter Her is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, she. 'She' is modified by the relative clause, 'that wrote letter.' 8. If I had been him I would have done the same thing. "Would have done" is modified by the clause, "If I had been him." D would have done thing R. 6 I the J I No. 8 CD same had been he R xi Him is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, he. See the examination on page thirty-one. KEY TO ANALYSIS 271 9. Whom do they say that I am? The transitive verb "do say" has for its object, the clause or sen- tence, "I am whom." The introductory conjunction, that, may be omitted in the analysis. { They do say [ I am y who R. 2.) No. 9 ^v Whom is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, Who. Page 29. 1. "Except him and me," "except her," "like him," "aboard the ship," "according to law," "among the weeds" and "along the border" are prepositional phrases. Examination on page 31. Page 30. 3. We were all present except him. We and all indicate the same persons. All is an appositive under Rule four. "Except him" is a prepositional phrase' He is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the objective form, him. 5. There is no one here except him and I. "There" is an expletive or word of euphony and may be omit- ted in the analysis. See page 47. "Except him and I" is a prepositional phrase. I is a violation of Rule 7: it should have the objective form, me. 272 KEY TO ANALYSIS 3. Between you and I he is not noted for honesty. 'Between you and I' may be treated as an independ- ent prepositional phrase or as a phrase modifying the verb, 'is noted.' is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the objective form, me. 4. He maketh them to stagger like a drunken man. 'Them' is the subject of the infinitive, 'to stagger, ' under Rule 16, page 42. 9. No one was there except he and his brother. 'Except he and his brother,' is a prepositional phrase modifying 'one' or 'was.' He is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the objective form, him. Page 41. 2. It is my desire that he go at once. 'That he go at once' may be treated as the real subject of the sen- tence or as an Appositive. Page 26. Goes is a vio- lation of Rule 17; it should have the subjunctive or plural form, go. 5. The general command that the traitor dies for the crime. The subjunctive clause, "That the traitor dies for the crime" is the object of the transitive verb, commanded. "Dies 9 is a violation of Rule 17; it should have the subjunctive or plural form, die. This ''Key" is for free distribution. METROPOLITAN PUBLISHING CO. Odeon Building, St. Louis, Mo., A BRIEF INTRODUCTORY COURSE IN OUR ENGLISH LANGUAGE USING ENGLISH GRAMMAR, AS THE MEDIUM BY M. D. MUGAN Metropolitan - Publishing Co. ST. LOUIS. MO. This work is designed as an easy introduction to the practical part of the subject regardless of the grammar in use in the school- It furnishes the material, leads the pupil to investigate and guides him in the work. Copyright by M. D. MUGAN 1907o STEPPING STONES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. If you memorize every sentence from the begin- ning to the end of an ordinary arithmetic and fail to solve the problems, you will then not be able to calculate the value of IOV2 ounces of silver at 48^2 cents an ounce. If you memorize every sentence from the begin- ning to the end of an ordinary grammar and fail to reason out the relations which the words bear to each other in the sentence, you will then not be able to apply the rules of grammar to the words individu- ally, and, therefore, you will not be able to detect and correct the errors in such sentences as the fol- lowing and give the reason for correcting: 1. Who did he get it from? 21 2. This is the strongest of the two. 29. 3. Who can he have given it to? 19. \. Neil her of the boys read very well. 28. 5. It must have been him that devised the plan. 24. 6. The singular form of verbs end in what letter? 20 7. Analysis of these sentences on the pages indicated by the num- bers at the ends of the lines. In this work almost everything is referred to reason. While doing the work the student discovers for himself that vast number of facts which is gen- erally presented, on the pages of the ordinary gram- mar, to be memorized. This reasoning method makes that abstruse subject easy, interesting and practical. We acquire aknowledge of words from every branch of school work as well as from the dictionary and 4 STEPPING STONES IN general conversation. A knowledge of the relations which w T ords bear to each other in sentences and ability to perceive them with the rapidity of thought can be acquired only by experience in the analysis. The interdependence of words in sentences demands the applications of laws of language, known as rules of grammar, and the use of particular forms of words. A knowledge of the forms of words and the laws of language, combined with ability to perceive the re- lations, enables us to detect errors and gives us abil- ity to select, and use the correct form of word in each and every construction. The following are examples of analysis and the ap- plications of rules which will serve to illustrate the work and the method under consideration. " Every one of the passengers -teH- the same story" is a sentence, simple. 'One' is the subject; 'toll' is the predicate; 'story' is the object. 'One' is modified by 'every' an adjective and by the phrase 'of passengers.' 'Story' is modified by 'the' and 'same' two adjectives. one \kfr tells | story passengers The analysis proves to us that 'one' is the sub- ject of the verb, ±tetf The rule says : A verb must agree with its sueject in number. The verb, 'tell' having the singular subject c one,' should have the singular form, 'tells. 9 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 5 "Who do you think I met in Paris " is a sentence, complex. 'You' is the subject of the principal sen- tence; 'do think' is the predicate; the clause, ; i met who in Paris' is the object. Of this clause or sentence 'I' is the subject; 'met' is the predicate and 'who' is the object. The analysis proves to us that 'who' is the ob- ject of the transitive verb, 'met.' The rule which we must apply says: The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case and should have the objective form. ( Ton do think ( I met whom ) in Paris ) jf Whom is the objective form and the sentence should be : " Whom do you think I met in Paris 9 " Many of the most prevalent errors in the language of every-day life cannot be referred to rules of gram- mar. They are violations of the laws of good taste, common sense and logic. Analysis, which shows so clearly the use of every word in the sentence, fur- nishes the most powerful means of eradicating all such errors and, at the same time, gives us ability to use clear, strong, precise periods instead of the obscure, weak, equivocal expressions that too often mar the beauties of composition and conversation. Having, in the foregoing pages, explored the field, to some extent, in which our work in the study of our language and literature must be done, we will now proceed to the work. STEPPING STONES IN In grading the sentences from the simplest to the most complicated, we have found thirty-six possible combinations of words forming sentences, different arrangements of which, we present in eighty-three sentences diagrammed and analyzed in full, so as to make the work easy for all. There are only about fourteen rules that are ever violated in general conversation, so our task is not a long one, and it is, by our method, intensely inter- esting. We commence with short, simple sentences but they grow, day by day, until they become very complex and complicated. We will commence the work with the analysis of sentences which will enable you — 1. To detect the relations which words bear to each other in sentences. 2. To apply the law or rule demanded by the re- lation to each and every word. 3. To detect and correct the mistakes which we hear so frequently. 4. To use correct and richly polished language with every element well selected and properly ad- justed in the sentence. You will find this analysis a delightful instrument for intellectual developement as well as a most powerful key with which to unlock the meaning of sentences. A few months by this method does the work of years by the old method. Grammar is no longer that un- satisfactory, uninteresting, endless labor that it was. This little volume is designed as a supplementary reader to be used as a companion for the third or fourth reader of the authorized edition. EJvery page should be at first treated purely as a reading lesson. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. SUBJECT, PREDICATE, OBJECT. The ocean eagle soared From his nest by the white wave's foam: And the rocking pines of the forest roared, This was their welcome home! 1. The ocean eagle soared. 2. The rocking pines roared. 3. Those white clonds float. 4. The ancients built earthen houses. 5. Arthur found a large rubber ball. ( Wind blows J [a j [ warm ] "A warm wind blows" is a sentence. 'Wind' is the subject; 'blows' is the predicate. 'Wind' is modi- fied by 'a' and 'warm' two adjectives. The subject of a sentence is the actor, the person or thing that does something. It is a name, a noun. The predicate of a sentence is an action word, a verb. An adjective is a word that points out or describes a noun. Orioles build nests [ the J [longj [hanging J "The orioles build long, hanging nests" is a sen- tence. 'Orioles' is the subject; 'build' is the predi- cate; 'nests' is the object. 'Orioles' is modified by ; the' an adjective; 'nests' is modified by 'long' and 'hanging' two adjectives. Diagram the sentences on this and the following pages neatly on slates or paper. During the recitation analyze them several times orally. Kvery pupil should be trained to analyze as rapidly as he can read. 8 STEPPING STONES IN SUBJECT AND OBJECT MODIFIED. The curfew tolls the knell of parting* day: The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea; The plowman homeward plods his weary way And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 1. The curfew tolls the knell. 2. That old hawk caught a pigeon. 3. A little yellow bird built the nest. 4. That cunning fox sees a fine large duck, 5. Some large black squirrels climbed that tree. "The plowman homeward plods his weary way" is a sentence, 'Plowman' is the subject; 'plods' is the predicate; 'way 5 is the object. Plowman is modified by 'the' an adjective; 'way' is modified by 'his' a possessive and by 'weary' an adjective. Plowman plods way | the j [ his [ [ weary | What is an adjective ? Name the adjectives in these sentences that point out nouns. Name the ad- jectives that describe nouns. Find all the adjectives in the curfew stanza. Plowman | plods 1 wa y Write six sentences each having its subject and its object modified by one descriptive adjective.. Diagram the sentences on this page and analyze them orally several times. The instructor should be generous in helping the class, especially while the work is new. Too much assistance can not be given during the first few weeks. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Singular Forms. I he she it my his her its rne him her it Plural Forms. we you they who our your their whose us you them whom Nominative forms r<>--essive forms Objective forms Nominative forms Possessive forms Objective forms The plural pronouns you, your, are now used both in the singular and the plural. Who, whose, whom are also used in the singular as well as in the plural. When a pronoun represents the name of one person or thing it is singular. When it stands for a plural noun it is plural. A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. The case forms of nearly all the pronouns are on this page. The subject of every sentence is either a noun or a pronoun. The object of every verb, the object in every sentence is either a noun or pronoun. The case forms of the pronouns, as presented on this page, should be written on the blackboard in tabular form and kept there for convenient reference. The declension or CAM fornix of pronoun-- should DC learned thoroughly by r»ote before passing this pajje. Nom, she, l'oss. her, Obj. her: Nom. they Poss. their, Obj. them. I. mv, me; we. our, us. Who, whose, whom. 10 STEPING STONES IN NOUNS— PRONOUNS- ADJECTIVES. When I remember all I've seen around me fall, I feel like one who treads alone Some banquet hall deserted, Whose lights are fled, Whose garlands dead, And all but him departed. The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. The object is a noun or pronoun. What is the predicate ? 1. One, small, dark cloud hides the new moon. 2. Brave men protected the ancient city. 3. We remember all the genteel people. 4. Who treads the deserted banquet halls ? 5. Whose banner does the captain wave ? "A blooming rose decorates his antique portico" is a sentence. 'Rose' is the subject; 'decorates' is the predicate; 'portico' is the object. 'Rose' is modified by 'a' and 'blooming' two adjectives. 'Portico' is modified by 'his' a possessive and by 'antique' an adjective. ( Eose decorates p ortico I [ a J [ blooming J I his J I antique 1 Where do we find capital letters used ? What points do we find at the ends of sentences ? What is a pronoun ? A verb ? An adjective ? I Subject Predicate Object I LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 11 PARTS OF SPEECH. "Sweet bird, thy bower is ever green, Thy sky is ever clear; Thou hast no sorrow in thy song", No winter in thy year. The parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, etc. Which of these are we now using ? 1. One sweet bird has a green bower. 2. Another good bird may have a clear sky. 3. A great pine tree shades the little cot. 4. Whose banner do the children carry •? 5. Who destroyed that beautiful apple tree ? Ensign has been blowing trumpet ? k "Whose trumpet has the little ensign been blow- ing" is a sentence. 'Ensign' is the subject; 'has been blowing' is the predicate; 'trumpet' is the ob- ject. 'Ensign' is modified by 'the' and 'little' two adjectives. 'Trumpet'is modified by 'whose,' a poss- essive. Write six sentences each having a subject, predi- cate and object. Let the subject and object in each be modified by adjectives. What is an adjective ? A verb ? A noun ? A pronoun ? A conjunction ? How many parts of speech are we now using? Write a list of the ad- jectives in the five sentences above. 12 STEPPING STONES IN HELPING VERBS— AUXILIARIES. Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? Can Honor 7 s voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death ? The helping verbs are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, in theii different forms. 1. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? 2. Who should have caught them ? 3. Whom will you have seen 1 4. Whose book must they have found ? 5. Whose banner should he have waved ? Urn can call breath storied the fleeting "Can storied urn call the fleeting breath" is a sentence. 'Urn' is the subject; 'can call' is the predi- cate; 'breath' is the object. 'Urn' is modified by 'storied,' an adjective; 'breath' is modified by 'the' and 'fleeting,' two adjectives. In this sentence 'can' is the helping verb and 'call' is the principal verb. Name the helping verbs in each of the other sentences. The helping verbs are generally scattered through the sentences and must be gathered together in the analysis. Are you diagramming all the numbered sentences neatly and correctly ? Can you analyze each and every sentence as rapidly as you can read after you have diagrammed it ? LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 13 HELPING VERBS— Continued. "0, could I fly, I'd fly with thee ! We'd make, on joyful wing, Our annual visit round the globe, Companions of the spring." 1. Has that young owl been catching mice ? 2. Will that old hawk catch our pigeons ? 3. Could a little bird have built that nest 1 4. Can that fox have seen your ducks 1 5. Must those black squirrels climb that tree ? 6. Can Flattery soothe death's dull, cold ear 1 Flattery can soothe ear ''Can flattery soothe death's dull, cold ear" is a sentence; interrogative. 'Flattery' is the subject, 'can soothe' is the predicate; 'ear' is the object. 'Ear' is modified by 'death's' a possessive, and by 'dull' and 'cold' two adjectives. How many words does it take to make one complete verb in each of the sentences above ? What is the use of a possessive? An adjective ? A verb? Have you analyzed all the numbered sentences from the first page ? Can you analyze them orally as fast as you can read ? Write six sentences using two helping verbs in each predicate. Use pronouns for subjects. Never ask: What is an adjective, what is a pronoun, what is a phrase or any other similar question unless the adjective, the pronoun or the phrase is at that time in a diagrammed sentence on blackboard where you can point to it while explaining. 14 STEPPING STONES IN CONJUNCTIONS. The splendor falls on castle walls, And snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 1. George and I saw the fox. 6. It was I. 2, She and John saw the fox. 7. It was she, 3. They saw the fox. 8. It was they 4. He caught that fox. 9. It was he. 5. He could have cought it. 10. It was we. ' 'Henry and I might have trapped that ferocious wolf" is a sentence. 'Henry' and 'I' are the sub- jects; 'might have trapped' is the predicate ; 'wolf is the object. 'Wolf is modified by 'that' and 'fero- cious' two adjectives. I Henry and I might have trapped wolf that ferocious 'Trapped' is the principal verb in this sentence. 'Might' and 'have' are helping verbs. Can you put a noun in place of each of the pronouns in the sentences above ? "What is a noun ? A pro- noun ? A verb ? A conjunction is a word that connects words and sentences. The word, and, is the only conjunction here used. Write six sentences using in each two objects, a noun and a pronoun, connected by a conjunction. Let the noun be modified by an adjective. Reduce everything to an object lesson. Never ask. what is an adverb, a preposition, an adjective until vou have the adverb, the preoosition or adjec- tive in a sentence diagrammed on the blackboard where you can point to it. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. AUXILIARIES AND COX JUNCTIONS. hark ! hear ! how thin and clear. And thinner, clearer, farther going ! O sweet and far, from cliff and scar, The horns of Elfland faintly blowing. 15 ( Horns are blowing of ( the ) faintly Elfland ) 1. Could we have caught that fox ? 2. Can she have seen that fox ? 3. Should they have seen the fox ? 4. Who should have shot that fox ? 5. Did he and John not wound it 1 You and he did catch bear "Did you and he not catch this black bear" is a sentence. 'You' and 'he' are the subjects; 'did catch' is the predicate; 'bear' is the object. 'Did catch' is modified by 'not' an adverb, 'bear' is modified by 'this' and 'black' two adjectives. Write six sentences using* two helping verbs in each predicate. Give each sentence two subjects connected by a conjunction. The diagrams are designed a- a U MOD in drawing and should receive quite as much care and attention as any drawing lesson. The printer's curves at the ends of the lines should be made Straight lines on slates and paper. The printer's badly connected joints should be made perfect with the pencil. 16 STEPING STONES IN ADVERBS OF MANNER. Softly, peacefully, lay her to rest, Place the turf lightly on her -young breast, Gently, solemnly, bend o'er the bed Where ye have pillowed thus early her head. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an ad- jective, or another adverb. The adverbs here modify verbs only. 1. George and Henry walk slowly. 2. William walks rapidly. 3. He acts carelessly. 4. They act carefully. 5. One subject makes a singular subject. 6. Two subjects make a plural subject. ( You lay her softly to Peacefully | rest j " Softly, peacefully, lay her to rest" is a sentence. 'You' understood, is the subject; 'lay' is the predi- cate; 'her' is the object. The verb, 'lay' is modified by 'softly' and 'peacefully' two adverbs, and by. the phrase, 'to rest,' a preposition and its object. A singular noun or pronoun means but one person or thing. A plural noun is the name of more than one thing. Name the singular nouns in the sentences above. Name the plural nouns and pronouns. Plural nouns generally end in s. How do plural verbs generally end ? Have you noticed that the three words in the first line of the diagram make the statement— tell the fact ? Read that one line in every diagram in the book. It contains the subject, predicate, object. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 17 ADVERBS— Continued. We buried him darkly, at dead of night, The sods with our bayonets turning, By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, And the lantern dimly burning. 1. This boy works quietly and studiously. 2. Some boys work rapidly and carelessly. 3. This girl diagrams every sentence carefully. 4. Many other girls diagram sentences neatly. 5. You should bend gently and solemnly over her bed. ( We buried him > at I darkly J dead ) " We buried him darkly at dead of night " is a sentence. 'We' is the subject; 'buried' is the predicate; 'him' is the object. 'Buried' is modi- fied by 'darkly' an adverb and by the phrase, 'at dead/ 'Dead' is modified by 'of night.' Adverbs modify what three parts of speech ? Ad- verbs of manner generally end in what syllable ? A phrase modifies what part of speech ? Name all the parts of speech. "From whom can you have taken it" is a sentence. 'You' is the subject; 'can have taken' is the predi- cate; 'it' is the object. 'Can have taken' is modified by the phrase, 'from whom,' a proposition and its object. Write six sentences and in each one let the predi- cate be modified by one or more adverbs. Every sentence should be diagrammed on the blackboard at the beginning of each recitation. This will enable the pupils to correct the mistakes in analysis on their slates. 18 STEPPING STONES IN PREPOSITIONS— PHRASES. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. The preposition is that part of speech which com- bines with the noun or pronoun to form a phrase. 1. The caves of ocean bear many a gem. 2. Tennyson lived on the Isle of Wight. 3. The whale is hunted in the Atlantic Ocean. 4. That mountain sfands on a throne of rocks. 5. The troops of sheridan rallied at Winchester. "Many a flower wastes its sweetness on the desert air" is a sentence. 'Flower' is the subject; 'wastes' is the predicate; 'sweetness' is the object. 'Flower' is modified by 'many a' an adjective; 'wastes' is modified by the phrase 'on air.' 'On' is the preposition and 'air' is its object. 'Air' is modified by 'the' and 'desert' two adjectives. Flower wastes sweetness many a on its 1 air j the desert Have you learned how to ask those questions which show instantly the use of every word and every phrase in a sentence ? If not, your teacher will gen- erously spend the time of a recitation, at this place, in training you. They are in the appendix. Write six sentences, each having at least one ad- verb and one phrase composed of a preposition and its object. Can you diagram five sentences in seven minutes and do it neatly ? If not. review the works on the six preceding pages. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 19 PHRASES— Continued. Few and short were the prayers we said, And we spoke not a word of sorrow: And we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead. And we bitterly thought of the morrow. ( we gazed on | steadfastly | face ) "We steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead " is a sentence. 'We' is the subject; 'gazed' is the predicate. 'Gazed' is modified by 'steadfastly' an adverb and by the phrase, 'on face,' 'on' being the preposition and 'face' its object. What is a preposition ? A phrase ? Do phrases modify nouns as well as verbs? Write three sen- tences in which the nouns and verbs are modified by phrases. 1. From whom did you get it ! 2. To whom did you give it ? 3. With whom has he divided it ? 4. By whom can he secure it I 5. Between whom can they have shared it I II.- havr given to whom "Who can he have given it to" is a sentence, interrogative. ' He' is the subject; 'can have given' is the predicate; 'it' is the object. 'Can have given' is modified by the phrase, 'to who,' a proposition and its object. 'Who' is in the objective case and should have the objective form, whom. Tf any of the pupils fail to understand the meaning of the term, phrase, copula adverb, preposition, or anything else in the work after having heard the definition and explanation times, show it to the whole class in a diagrammed sentence on the blackboard and explain it once more. 20 STEPPING STONES IN COMPOSITION. We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. As a class exercise have the pupils make short, simple sentences in which each of these shall be used as part of a phrase modifier. As preparation have each pupil write six sentences using six of these prepositions in phrase modifiers. Aboard, athwart, ere, till, about, before, for, to, above, behind, from, toward, across, below, in, towards, after, beneath, into, under, against, beside, of, underneath, along 1 , besides, on, until, amid, between, over, unto, amidst, betwixt, past, up, among, beyond, round, upon, amongst, but, since, with, around, by, through, within, The following are technical terms used in grammar. They should be treated as a lesson in spelling and reading until every member of the class becomes per- fectly familiar with them. 1. Sentence, simple, compound, complex, decla- rative, interrogative, imperative. 2. Noun, pro-noun, verb, singular, plural, tran- sitive, copulative, copula, adverb, time, place, case. 3. Adjective, descriptive, comparison, positive, comparative, superlative, preposition, object, phrase. 4. Subject, predicate, object, phrase modifier, clause modifier, punctuation, quotation. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 21 PREPOSITIONS AND NOUNS. "0, could I fly, I'd fly with thee ! We'd make, on joyful wing, Our annual visit round the globe, Companions of the spring." In poetry and in many old books we find the old style of pronouns used. They are, thou, thy, thine, thee, ye, etc. We would make visit with wing our annual oer joyful globe :) the 1. Who did you get it from? 2. Who did you give it to J ? 3. Who did he divide it with? "Who did he divide it with" is a sentence, Inter- rogative. 'He' is the subject; 'did divide' is the predicate; 'it' is the object. 'Did divide' is modi- fied by the phrase, 'with who,' a preposition and its object. Rule: The object of a preposition is in the ob- jective case and should have the objective form. Therefore the sentence should be: With whom did he divide it? He I did divide it with I whom What two changes were made in correcting this sentence? Name all the case forms of the pronoun, who* Correct and analyze the other sentences and write six sentences, all interrogative, using either who, whose or whom in each. 22 STEPPING STONES IN THE COPULATIVE VERB— To Be, BE AM WAS IS ARE WERE BEEN. 1. It is I. 7. It is he. 2. It was I. 8. It was who? 3. It was we. 9. It was they. 4. We were bovs. 10. They were men. 5. It was he and she. 11. It was he and I. 6. He has been a soldier. 12. They have been soldiers. The verb, to be, does not express action. It is rver followed by an object like other verbs. Its different forms are, am, was, is, are, were, has been, have been, had been. 1. The Greeks were the cultured people of antiquity. 2. He is the newly elected president of France. 3. Augustus might have been a famous monarch. 4. The prophets had been the leaders of the people. ( Chancellor is T officer of the | the | of highest | England ) kingdom ' 'The chancellor of England is the highest judicial officer of the kingdom" is a sentence. 'Chancellor' is the subject; 'is' is the copula; 'officer' is the predicate. We find in this sentence a new meaning attached to the term, predicate. The action-word or verb has been called the predicate from the beginning of the work. Friend should have been Counselor "His friend should have been his counselor" is a sentence. 'Friend' is the subject; 'should have been' is the copula; 'counselor' is the predicate. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 23 COPULATIVE YERBS-Continued. Oh! a wonderful stream is the river Time, As it runs through the realm of tears, With a faultless rhythm and a musical rhyme And a broader sweep and a surge sublime, As it blends with the ocean of years. I River is T stream I the I I a I wonderful "A wonderful stream is the river Time" is a sen- tence. 'River' is the subject; 4s' is the copula; 'stream' is the predicate. The noun following the copulative verb is called the predicate. The noun following other verbs is called the object. 1. Who is he that blows the horn? 2. What was it that struck him? 3 Who is it that tore my book? 4. Who are they that carried the banner? 5. Which is the book that you selected ? is t he | Who "Who is he" is a sentence. 'Who' is the sub- ject; 'is' is the copula; 'he' is the predicate. "That blows the horn" is a sentence. 'That' is the subject; 'blows' is the predicate; 'horn' is the object. Is the predicate of a sentence a noun, a pronoun Or a verb? Name all the different forms of the copula- tive verb, to be. A pronoun following the copulative verb is in what case? Write seven sentences each having a different form of copulative verb. Let each be followed by the nominative form of some pronoun. 24 STEPPING STONES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1. It was he that took your book. 2. It is I that saw you. 3. It was she that wanted us. 4. It must have been he that built that house. ( It must have been j he , ( that devised plan the "It must have been him that devised the plan" is a sentence, complex. 'It must have been him' is the first simple sentence of which 'it* is the subject; 'must have been' is the copula; 'him' is the pred- icate. The analysis shows that 'him' is the predicate and the rule says that it should have the nominative form, he. Rule : A pronoun used as the predicate of a sentence is in the nominative case and should have the nominative form. The predicate, 'he' in the first simple sentence is modified by the sentence, 'that devised the plan' of which, 'that' is the subject; 'devised' is the predicate; 'plan' is the object. A complex sentence is composed of two or more simple sentences. A word in the principal sentences is modified by another sentence. Write six complex sentences. Let the predicate in each first or principal sentence be a pronoun and let it be modified by a clause — another sentence. c LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 25 COMPLEX SENTENCES— Continued. 5. There are fragments of songs that nobody sings, There are parts of an infant's prayer, There's a lute unswept and a harp without strings, There are broken vows and pieces of rings, And the garments our dead used to wear. 1. These are the troops that we met on the bridge. 2. Those are the cadets that saluted them. 3. They are heroes whom we honor. 4. It was Napoleon that commanded at Waterloo. 5. It was the allies that won the victory. There are t fragments 1 of songs ( nobody 1 sings that "There are fragments of songs that nobody sings" is sentence, complex. 'There' is the subject of the first or principal sentence; 'are' is the copula; 'fragments' is the predicate and is modified by the phrase, 'of songs.' 'Nobody' is the subject of the second or modifying sentence; 'sings' is the pre- dicate; 'that' is the object. In the analysis of this sentence, is the term, predi- cate, applied to a verb, noun or pronoun? Have you memorized all the case forms of all the pronouns? Have you observed that many adjectives, and such words as fhere and it are sometimes used as the sub- jects of sentences? Copulative verbs: Am, was, is, are, were, have been, has been, had been. Reduce everything to an object lesson Never ask, What is an adverb, a preposition, an adjective, until you have the adverb, the preposition or adjec- tive in a sentence diagrammed on the blackboard where you can point to it. 26 STEPPING STONES IN SINGULAR ANI> PLURAL FORMS. PLURAL. They are. They were. The blades cut. The flowers bloom. SINGULAR. 1. He is. 5. 2. He was. 6. 3. The blade cuts. 7. 4. A flower blooms. 8. Examine these sentences and make a rule for the formation of plural nouns and another rule for the formation of plural verbs. Plural nouns end in what letter ? It looks well on the wall. They look well in the drawing" room. He works in the shop on Monday. They work in the fields during the summer- 1. 2, 3. 4. Form ends the of singular in verbs 1 letter i 1 what J "The singular form of verbs end in what letter" is a sentence, interrogative, simple. 'Form' is the subject; 'end' is the predicate. The analysis points out the fact that the verb, 'end,' has for its subject the singular noun, 'form' therefore it should have the singular form, ends. Rule : A verb must agree with its subject in number. Write six sentences using in each a plural subject modified by a phrase and four sentences with singular subjects, each modified by an adjective and a phrase. The instructor should continually ask such questions as these during the recitation: What r>art of speech is the word, form? letters? in? singular? etc. What part of speech is the subject? the predicate? etc.? If the pupil fails to answer promptly the instructor should answer and explain without delay. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. THIS, THAT, KIND, SORT. SINGULAR. PLURAL. L This boy near me. 7. These boys near me. 2. That boy over there. 8. Those boys over there. 3. This kind of cloth. 9. These kinds of goods. 4. That kind of cloth. 10. Those kinds of goods. 5. This sort of powder. 11. These sorts of powders 6. That sort of powder. 12. Those sorts of powders The adjectives, this and that are singular. They have the plurals, these and those. We use this and these when speaking of things near us; that and those when speaking of things away from us. " Do you not like thoso sort of people " is a sen- tence; interrogative; simple. 'You' is the subject; 'do like' is the predicate; 'sort' is the object. 'Sort is modified by the phrase, 'of people' and by 'those : an adjective. You do like sort / not J of | that | people ) ' Tho s e' modifies the singular noun, 'sort,' and it should have the singular form, that. What point do we find at the end of a question ? Name all the forms of the copulative verb. Decline the pronouns, who, he, she, it. What parts of speech may be used as the predicates of sentences ? Write six sentences using in each, either kind or sort and have it modified by a phrase. What subject? part of speech is, do like? the object? the predicate? people? not? sort? that? of? the 28 STEPPING STONES IN EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER. 1. Each of us will contribute a trifle. 2. Neither of them will refuse. 3. Either of the contracts will satisfy us. 4. Neither of the fleets sails this week. 5. Every one of the girls reads well. "Neither of the boys *eet&- very well" is a sen- tence; declarative; simple. 'Neither' is the sub- ject; 'read' is the predicate. 'Neither' is modified by the phrase, 'of boys,' 'road' is modified by 'well,' an adverb; 'well' is modified by 'very,' another adverb. Neither reads of boys ) jp well very the The verb, 'read' has the singular subject, 'neither,' it should, therefore, have the singular form, reads. The adjectives, this, that, each, every, either, neither, etc., are often used as nouns. They are singular, and when used as the subjects of sentences they should be followed by the singular form of verbs. What is an adverb ? Can one adverb modify another ? Name all the forms of the copulative verb, to be. What case forms of pronouns follow copulative verbs ? How many simple sentences in a complex sentence ? Can a sentence be used as a modifier of a word? What part of speech is the subject of a sentence? The predicate? The object of a transitive verb? The object of a preposition? Name all the parts of speech. What part of speech is neither? read? that? very? well? LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 29 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives have three forms, or three degrees of comparison. The positive is the simple form. The comparative form is used when we are com- paring two persons or two things. The superlative is used when we are comparing three, four or more persons or things. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. bright brighter brightest happy happier happiest able abler ablest mellow mellower mellowest genteel genteeler genteelest 1. Walter is a bright boy for his age. 2. Howard is a brighter boy than John. 3. Charles was the brightest boy in the class. "The day before yesterday must have been the warmest of the two" is a sentence; declarative; simple. 'Day' is the subject; 'must have been' is the copula; 'day' understood, is the predicate. The subject, 'day,' is modified by 'the' an adjective and by the phrase, 'before yesterday.' The predi- cate, 'day' is modified by 'the' and 'warmest,' two adjectives and by the phrase, 'of days.' Day must have been j day ) before the of warmer | yesterday 1 days ) the two 'Warmest' is an adjective used in comparing two things, it should, therefore, have the comparative form, warmer. After you have learned to compare the adjectires aboTe, rompare good, bad, wise, old, small, long, high, hard, soft. Your instructor will aid you in this. 30 STEPPING STONES IN METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. The reasoning process which we use while studying, drawing conclusions and writing the analysis of a sentence in the form of a diagram, either on the board during the recitation or on slates while prepar- ing the lessons, is identical with that which we use in solving mathematical problems and requires quite as much care and attention. The formulated method of asking questions which we here present, when used with care, will aid very much in the work. The questions are designed to show clearly the use and force of each and every word in the sentence. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view! The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wild wood, And every loved spot that my infancy knew ! Scenes 1 the J are dear I how J " of childhood ) to heart ) I m 7 J "How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood" is a sentence, exclamatory, simple. Name the three words that make the complete statement. Scenes are dear. About what is something said, what is the subject? Scenes. What scenes? Of childhood. What childhood? My childhood, What is said about scenes, what is the predicate? Are dear Are dear in what way? Are dear to heart. What heart? My heart. Can you now analyze the sentences in this First Part rapidly and correctly? If so, procure the Second Part. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 31 I shall leave the old house in the autumn, To traverse its threshold no more; Ah! how shall I sigh for the dear ones That meet me each morn at the door; i shall leave house I the j j old J ID autumn J I the J "I shall leave the old house in the autumn" is a sentence, declarative, simple. Read the three words — subject, predicate, object — that tell the whole story. I shall leave house. What is the subject, the actor? I. What is the action-word, the verb, the predicate? Shall leave. |Leave what, what is the object? House. What house? The house. What kind of house? Old house. Shall leave when? In autumn. ( You do think i— i met whom ) \ in Paris J '* Whom do you think I met in Paris" is a sentence, interro- gative, complex. What word expresses the action, what is the verb, the predicate? Do think. Who or what is the actor, the subject? You. What is the object, you do think what ? The clause, 'I met whom in Paris.' Read the three words that make the complete statement — subject, predicate, object. / met wham. Met where 1 In Paris. Ability to ask questions, which show the force and use of words in senten- ces, is necessary to Bucceasin the study of language. That ability is acquired by careful study of the paragraphs here devoted to that subject. They should, at first, be read frequently during recitation — tin ee tiiin s a week. They should be kept, for convenient reference, before the pupil while he is pre- paring his work— analyzing the sentences on slates or paper. 32 STEPPING STONES IN "Alas! my noble boy, that thou shouldst die! Thou who wert made so beautifully fair! That death should settle in thy glorious eye, And leave his stillness in thy clustering hair. How could he mark thee for the silent tomb — My proud boy, Absolum! ( He could mark thee [ how J for tomb ) [ the J [ silent J ~~ "How could he mark thee for the silent tomb" is a sentence, exclamatory, simple. Name the three words— subject, predi- cate, object — that make the complete statement. He could mark thee. What is the subject, the actor 1 ? He. What is the action- word, the verb, the predicate"? Could mark. Could mark what, what is the object? Thee. Could mark how, when, where, for what purpose 1 ? For tomb. Whattomb? The tomb. What kind of tomb? Silent tomb. one I tells i story passengers "Every one of the passengers tells the same story" is a sentence, declarative, simple. Read the three words that make the complete statement — subject, predicate, object. One tells story. Who or what is the actor, the person who does something, the subject? One. What does ' one ' do, what is the action-word, the verb, the predicate? Tells. What is the object, tells what? Story. What story? The story, same story. What ' one ' tells? Every one, one of passengers. € 27 6 >>• r ... °-fe.^* \*° ... 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