COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. msm JpISf m mm m a M *V, w !S»? 3&&S &M' ml mm mm s’’ x^:. #•.•?*» ■ *»? \ ; -^J'<5m:, -; 5? % JME jHWlTr x " Zrf 4 **’ ..^*'. H !$g - m? *m M m m M '<> **«?»» HLv S&: :•<>••■ m mmm vm= m i«i it v,-. &■*$?;' * R 1 * &l Viis*’ 5 i‘? s lr : gUPI S®*?: ■t & ■ *sSr V-V,; rx; * n V&: : :: ?w:. ££ foftV fe3SS® && III V §&s$|p ®: j*Sf- mm w$M$ I .3' JSfSltfe Stf* ?*$& * . * > >■■ *.o-*' :■*.> IlH wpi^ Bi I ar~*:. a m : • A' ■" .... wu'^Hy , 1 . Jlsw# ij¥swA^s 3 $• > fe M Mi Ml „SifS »i»r 11 L , ■*>*** / •. 1 ippf 'V % s % ■ |«#S MA 5r. ■&M » il m HP ' vis •’■ •: ,.^ ^piS /A.s ; At''?>-.'?'?'' ' wsmgMM*:* :-w: ♦'X>> * iSI :**$*.*> From painting by A. Hagborg October Potatoes Science of Food & Cookery BY H. S. ANDERSON n DIETITIAN Loma Linda Sanitarium California PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING ASSOCIATION Mountain View, California KANSAS CITY, MO. ST. PAUL, MINN. PORTLAND, ORE. BROOKFIELD, ILL. CRISTOBAL, C. Z. -xtz^ ' ,h & Copyright, 1921 Pacific Press Publishing Association Mountain View, California SEP -6 1921 ©CU622685 *** \ In presenting “Science of Food and Cookery” to the public, we do not add another cookbook to the many now in the hands of the perplexed housewives of America. This is the fifth and enlarged edition of a little work which has already made its way; and for this edition, hundreds of orders are al¬ ready filed. There is a demand for the book from those who know the first editions. There is a moral demand for the information it contains, in these days of world food scarcity and the need of wise food conservation, when the best food for the least money is called for. The recipes are not prepared by a tyro, nor gathered from miscellaneous collections, nor compounded merely to please the taste. The author has had a score of years of experience in every stage of cooking science and practical work, from mere helper to the chef. He has served for years under German and Swiss and Spanish and English and French chefs. For a year, he was second cook in the Calumet Club of Chicago, where he served European royalty; and for nearly the same length of time, in the California Club of Los Angeles; and he has also served in like capacity in many leading hotels in various cities. For the last twelve years, Mr. Anderson has given himself to the better side of the question,— healthful, palatable, scientific, economical cookery. These recipes are all tested and tried, and retested and retried in con¬ nection with experienced chemical, medical, practical collaborators, in the Medical Missionary College and Sanitarium of Loma Linda, California, in which Mr. Anderson is food expert. The present edition, having been got out in the blazing light of twentieth century discoveries, and giving special attention to the solving of the ever present problem of high cost of living, should occupy a unique place among books of its kind, being not merely a vegetarian cookbook, but a treatise on foods and nutrition as well; and as such we send it forth on its mission of health. 5 So many newly discovered facts have been added to our knowledge of foods and nutrition since the beginning of the great war, that it has seemed best, in order to bring the subject matter up to date and to produce a volume that will prove to be of greater benefit to the general public, to make some rather extensive alterations in and additions to “Food and Cookery.” That the object of the book may be more fully set forth, the following from the preface of the preceding edition is embodied in this: “The book is not a treatise on vegetarianism, although it advocates the total disuse of the flesh of animals as food, and a more extensive use of grains, fruits, nuts, and other products of the vegetable kingdom, thus propa¬ gating a principle that tends essentially to true civilization, to universal humaneness, and to health and happiness generally. “The history of vegetarianism is as old as human history itself; and probably in every age, there have been some who have practiced it either as a religious duty, or under the belief that they would thereby conserve the life forces, and be the better fitted for the pursuit of peace and happiness. Again, there are those who adopt a vegetarian course of diet in the belief that many diseases, such as gout, and gastrointestinal disorders, would largely disappear if the vegetarian diet were strictly adhered to. Another motive for adopting vegetarianism is undoubtedly economy. To a great extent, the human race is virtually vegetarian from necessity. Nor do we find that feebleness, either of mind or of body, necessarily ensues. Rather, expedience shows the opposite to be the case. “It has been the purpose of this book to make the instruction and recipes so practical that the many who are desirous of reforming their diet may do so intelligently. To such, it is well to say that changes in the habits of a lifetime should be gradual and progressive, as the functions of the body do not readily adjust themselves to changes that are too radical. When flesh foods are left off, digestive juices of a different character are required; but it is a matter of only a short time until the system adjusts itself to the change. “It is certainly true that as one perseveres in a non-flesh diet for a length of time, the relish for spices and condiments diminishes; and as these really serve to blunt the sensitiveness of the palate, there gradually comes into evidence, when they are discarded, a keener discernment of the rarer and more delicate natural flavors, which are quite inappreciable to the taste ac¬ customed to highly seasoned foods. One mistake to be avoided, however, is the opposite extreme. Food should never be served savorless and insipid. As one has expressed it, ‘When the goodman comes in expecting the usual roast mutton or kidney stew, do not set before him a dish of mushy barley or sodden beans.’ There is at command a variety of vegetarian dishes, prac¬ tically unlimited, and savory enough to tempt the most fastidious. 6 “The most common error of those who have eschewed flesh products is that, having developed the taste for natural foods, they are inclined to overeat. Many labor under the delusion that because they have discontinued the use of the more harmful articles of diet, they are licensed to eat all their appetite calls for. Soon they observe symptoms of intestinal indigestion, and attribute it to their having adopted the diet reform. The secret of success in avoiding this error is thorough mastication, and the eating of only a few kinds of food at one meal. The benefit derived from food does not depend so much on the quantity eaten as on its thorough digestion and assimilation. Therefore if the time in which to eat is limited, the amount eaten should be proportionately limited.” The various biological studies carried on in both this and other lands during the past few years, have emphasized the extreme value and potency Qf fresh foods and of ground whole meal cereals and flours, and have demonstrated clearly the deficiency of the modern so-called refined flours and foods. In the light of these experimental discoveries, many of our com¬ mon diseases are now attributed to the lack of minerals and vitamines, which have been largely eliminated from our foods, leaving them without a due share of those vital qualities which build up the body’s resistance to disease. The vitamine theory, therefore, is discussed at length in the body of the text, being traced from its early inception, dating many years back, to its modern exemplification as verified in standard dietetics. Besides the incorporation of many new recipes in this edition, it has been thought best to expand the chapter “Cookery for the Sick” to include some instruction concerning diet in particular diseases. For this new matter, we are indebted to Dr. Lavina Herzer, teacher of nutrition and cooking in the College of Medical Evangelists, Loma Linda, California. The author also acknowledges his indebtedness to Mrs. Harriet E. Buchheim for her assist¬ ance in getting the matter into satisfactory form, and to Mrs. J. J. Weir, asso¬ ciate teacher, for her contribution of recipes. To know that the information contained herein will be the means of helping some others to the “more excellent way” will be reward sufficient for the author. H. S. Anderson NOTE A number of books that are to be recommended for further study are the following: “Chemistry of Food and Nutrition ,” by Sherman. “Newer Knowledge of Nutrition,” by McCollum. “Science of Eating,” by McCann. “How to Live,” by Fisher and Fisk. “Ministry of Healing,” by E. G. White. 7 Foods, Their Uses in the Body . n Building and Repair Foods.12 Heat and Energy Foods.13 Body-Regulating Substances.15 The Vital Elements in Foods (Vitamines) .... 16 Fat-Soluble A.19 Water-Soluble B.* . 20 Water-Soluble C.22 Vitamines and Calories.26 Food Minerals Essential to All Life.29 The Body’s Internal Defenses.31 Food Iron. 32 Food Calcium.33 Demineralized Food and Constipation.34 White and Entire Wheat Bread.35 Natural Food of Man.37 True Food Satisfies Hunger.38 Vegetarian Diet and Longevity.39 Vegetable and Flesh Foods Contrasted.42 Vegetarian Diet and Endurance.45 Flesh Eating a Cause of Disease.48 Ethics of Flesh Eating . 50 Cruelty of Flesh Eating.51 Balancing the Food.53 Food Values (Chart).55 Food Economics.57 Comparative Food Values.59 Cookery and Food Preparation.61 Objects Sought in Cooking.61 Principles of Successful Cookery.67 Practical Hints.69 Food Combinations.72 Good Combinations.73 Poor Combinations. 73 Acids and Starches.73 8 CONTENTS Fruits and Vegetables. y^ Milk and Sugar. yfr Free Fats in Cooking. yy Dietetic Errors. yg Hasty Eating. yg Eating Between Meals.80 Large Variety.81 Overeating. 82 Drinking at Meals.82 Artificial Stimulants.82 About Tea and Coffee.83 Planning the Meal and Menu Making ..... 85 Table of Food Classification.86 Backbone of the Meal.87 Menus for One Week 88 Table of Food Composition.90 The Third Meal.91 About the Two-Meal Plan.91 Adaptation of Food. 93 Course of Cooking Lessons.94 Lesson Outline.94 Essentials to Success.96 Table of Measures.97 Bread.98 The Best Flour.99 Principles of Bread Making .....* .100 Molding the Loaves.101 Proving the Loaves.102 Baking.102 Yeast .103 Liquid Yeast.104 Fermented Bread.105 Unfermented Breads. hi Batter Breads.113 Dough Breads.117 Soups.122 Entrees and Noon-Meal Dishes.132 Gravies and Sauces.157 Vegetables.161 9 CONTENTS Salads and Dressings .178 Dressings.178 Vegetable Salads.181 Fruit Salads ... . 187 Desserts .190 Dried Fruits.191 Puddings and Jellies. 192 Pies.202 Cakes and Cookies.207 Icings and Fillings.213 Toasts, Breakfast Dishes, Cereals, Eggs, Sandwiches . 216 Toasts.216 Cereals.218 Eggs.221 Sandwiches.223 Cookery for the Sick ..228 Invalid Recipes .230 Diet in Disease .236 The Infectious Diseases.236 Liquid Diet.238 Soft, Semisolid, or Semiliquid Diet.238 Gastric Disorders.238 Intestinal Disorders.241 In Tuberculosis.243 Diabetes Mellitus.243 Nephritis.246 Anaemia (Secondary).246 Blood-Building Foods.246 Fruit Ices, Ice Cream, Sherbets .247 Principles of Canning and Preserving .250 Time-Table for Sterilizing.253 Vegetables.253 Preservation in Salt.255 Preservation of Eggs (Water Glass).255 Fruits.256 Jelly Making.259 Miscellaneous Recipes .'. 261 Warmed-Over Dishes .267 Wheat Flour and Sugar Substitutes .268 10 I. FOODS, THEIR USES IN THE BODY “Eat ye that which is good” Foods are substances which, when taken into the body, supply the necessary elements for promoting growth, repairing its broken- down tissue, and furnishing it with heat and power for muscular work. True foods contain the same elements as are found in the human body, and thus they are able to build and maintain the body structure. Nutrition is the sum of those processes by which food material' is assimilated and utilized by the body. When food contains the same chemical units as those found in the body, and is taken in normal amounts, the body substance is protected and built up; but it is burned as fuel when the food supply is insufficient. In other words, balanced nutrition means that the income is equal to the outgo. Natural foods, just as they come from garden, field, and or¬ chard, furnish the elements best suited to the harmonious develop¬ ment and functioning of all the tissues and organs of the body, and when served in as simple and natural a condition as possible, supply material for both the building and the repair of its intricate ma¬ chinery, endowing it with a disease-resisting vitality that is found in true food only. For our every need, the Creator has made full and wise pro¬ vision. He has given us foods suited to every requirement of the ii body. These requirements — speaking in a somewhat restricted sense — may be classed under three general heads, to which, in this brief study, we must confine our attention. 1. For Building and Repair Foods a. Proteins b. Mineral matters 2. For Heat and Energy Foods a. Starches b. Sugars c. Fats 3. For Body-Regulating Substances a. Water b. Cellulose c. Mineral matters d. Vitamines BUILDING AND REPAIR FOODS The production of heat and the expenditure of vital force necessarily involve the wear and breaking down of tissue. There is never an act, as the movement of a muscle, or a thought of the mind, but wears out many a living cell; and thus it is evident that unless continually repaired, the body machinery could last but a short time. But the One who made the machine, knowing this need, in infinite wisdom, prepared especially for it the particular kinds of food needed for repairing and building purposes. These are known as protein and mineral matters. Protein is that element in our food which builds new tissues and repairs the worn parts of the body. It is found in milk, es¬ pecially in the cujd (the part utilized in cottage cheese) ; in the white of egg; in dried peas, beans, and lentils; and in the various nuts, most of which are rich in protein. It is found in lesser quantities in all our common foods except sugar and pure fat; for instance, the gluten of wheat (that part which is gummy when chewed). Wheat gives us, in a loaf of good bread, about ten calories of protein in one hundred calories of food, which is the recognized dietary requirement in normal health. Mineral Matters are those substances in our food which are used to build up the bones and the teeth, and which enter into the formation of the blood and the tissues; hence they are included 12 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY in the building foods. They are found in small quantities in all natural foods, especially in whole grain cereals and fresh fruits and vegetables. HEAT AND ENERGY FOODS As our houses are warmed, so also our bodies are maintained at a certain temperature, about 98.4° to 98.6°. In our homes, the fires are kept burning in our furnaces; so in our bodies, heat is generated by a process similar to fire, the fire being essentially the same as any other fire,— the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon of the fuel. No matter how rapidly or how slowly these elements unite, whether in the furnace, or in the body, or in the decaying log, heat is given off. In the body, food is the fuel that furnishes the carbon, and the breath is the air that furnishes the oxygen. The union of carbon and oxygen does not take place in the stomach or in the lungs, but in the various tissues to which they are carried by the blood. The body is thus, as it were, all on fire. To satisfy the demand for heat, we have a certain class of foods especially rich in carbon; and therefore well suited to the maintaining of normal temperature. This class is known as the “carbonaceous group,” and includes starches, fats, and sugars. While our bodies must be supplied with heat, it is quite as im¬ portant that they possess an ample store of energy for work and exercise, in order that we may perform life’s duties. In physics, we are taught that heat is one form or manifestation of force, and that heat may at will be converted into force, and force into heat. This is true of the heat and energy furnished by our carbonaceous foods. The fats are the great heat producers, while the starches furnish most of the energy. Starch comes from vegetable foods,— chiefly the cereal grains, but also the potato and the banana. Fats are found in olives; in nuts; in milk and cream; in butter; in vegetable oils, and other solid vegetable fats. Sugar, generally speaking, is of four kinds,— cane, grape, malt, and milk sugar. The sugar from beets, being chemically the same as that from sugar cane, comes under the head of cane 13 2 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY sugar. In the making of refined sugar, the canes or the beets are first squeezed between rollers or presses to extract the juices. These juices are then evaporated to the sirup point, and the sirup is crystallized and separated from the molasses. The final result is the modern sugar of commerce. Cane Sugar is not digested by saliva, but by the intestinal juices after it passes through the stomach; and if delayed too long in passing, it is likely to ferment. Grape Sugar is found in fruit and honey. It is absorbed with¬ out digestion, and is perfectly wholesome. Malt Sugar is found in sprouting grains. That is, the grain, in sprouting, acts upon the starch within itself, changing it to sugar. This is really an act of digestion. Sprouted grain is mixed 14 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY with scalded starch at 140° F. (Water at 150° is added to the starch, which cools it to 140°. Anything hotter than this, would destroy the action of the malt on the starch.) This is kept warm, and stirred occasionally; and in a few hours, the starch is changed to sugar. From this process come some of our best sirups. Milk Sugar is contained in milk, and, like grape sugar and malt sugar, is natural and wholesome. BODY-REGULATING SUBSTANCES These are water, cellulose, minerals, and vitamines; and they serve to keep the body machinery in running order. Water constitutes two thirds of the weight of the body, and enters into the composition of all the tissues and fluids. It is one of the most important of regulating substances, as it equalizes the temperature of the body, serves as a carrier of dissolved food material, and prevents the accumulation of waste material. Life can be maintained for a much longer period without food than without water. Cellulose is the woody, indigestible part of vegetable foods, and is needed because it supplies a bulk necessary to facilitate the movement of food along the intestinal tract. Some raw foods, such as lettuce, celery, cabbage, radishes, water cress, cucumbers, etc., may well be eaten daily, as these pass through the system largely as bulk, at the same time furnishing to the body their valuable organic salts unchanged by heating. Vitamines are found in all natural foods, especially in the leafy vegetables, in milk, in the germ and the outer layers of grains, and in fruits. When the outer coat (the bran) is removed from the wheat, and the brown coat is removed from the rice, as is done in polishing, these otherwise wholesome and nourishing foods be¬ come devitalized, and will not support life unless foods containing the missing elements are added to the diet. 15 II. THE VITAL ELEMENTS IN FOODS (Vitamines) In recent years, numerous experiments have been conducted in an effort to ascertain the exact nature of the faults in diet which lead to such diseases as beriberi, scurvy, pellagra, etc., declared by some investigators to be due to a lack of specific chemical sub¬ stances in the diet. The relation between disease and faulty diet was first brought to the attention of scientists about the year 1880, by the experience of the Japanese navy. The prominent place of rice in the diet of those who suffered of beriberi, led to a belief that it was a causa¬ tive factor in the disease. In 1897, Eijkman took up the study of nutrition, demonstrating by experiment the fact that when pigeons were fed exclusively upon polished rice, they began to suffer of a nervous disorder, staggered, lost their power to stand up, or even to swallow food, and finally died. In other words, the pigeons developed a state of polyneuritis (inflammation of many nerves — Dorland ), which is analogous to beriberi in man. He found, more¬ over, that when the pigeons were fed on the entire kernel, the disease did not develop. In 1911, Dr. Casimir Funk took up the study of beriberi, and made an effort to isolate this singular yet unidentified substance contained in rice polishings, and also to determine what other foods contain it, and what influence it has on the health. He called this mysterious but absolutely indispensable substance “vitamine.” The results observed among his birds when they were restricted to 16 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY milled rice and water were identical with those reported by Eijk- man. He found that when the coatings that had been removed from the rice were soaked in water, and a little of this fluid was passed through a tube into each sick bird’s crop, or, if the birds had not reached the stage where they could not swallow, a portion of the rice polishings was fed to them, in a few hours they made rapid recovery, and before the day was over they were apparently as well as ever. 1 It seemed like a veritable miracle. Evidently the Creator has placed in the covering of the rice something that is absolutely essential to life, and that the rest of the grain can¬ not supply. Funk demonstrated, furthermore, that when fowls were fed on steel roller process white flour, in three or four weeks they were afflicted just as when they were fed on polished rice. That is, he discovered that the vitamines are in the outer layers in wheat, just as they are in rice. These experiments clearly proved that there is required in the diet something more than protein, carbohydrate, fat, and mineral salts. In 1914, W. Richard Ohler, M. D., 2 carried out a number of experiments with chickens, in order to furnish experimental proof for the contention that a more or less exclusive diet of white bread was the chief cause of beriberi in Newfoundland. Fourteen chickens fed on white flour bread, with or without yeast, died within twenty-eight to forty days. Before death, the birds ex¬ hibited symptoms of polyneuritis, and histological examination of the peripheral nerves revealed considerable degeneration. Five chickens fed on whole wheat bread, and two on whole wheat, lived in perfect health for seventy-five days, when the experiment was discontinued. 1 These experiments were recently duplicated in the chemistry laboratory of the Col¬ lege of Medical Evangelists, by Dr. E. H. Risley, teacher of chemistry, with similar results, thus verifying the fact. As a result of being fed on an exclusive diet of polished rice and water, in a few weeks — three to live — the pigeons began to stagger, lost their power to stand up, and finally became unable to eat. At this point, a portion of fluid extracted from soaked wheat bran (in the absence of rice polishings) was administered by opening the birds’ bills and forcing them to swallow it, with the result that the birds made rapid recovery, and in a short time were as well as ever. 2 Journal of Medical Research, volume 31, No. 2. 1 7 Beriberi is a serious disease of the nervous tissues. As it pro¬ gresses, it affects every tissue in the body and eventually the heart, and is fatal unless a substance containing anti-neuritic vitamine — or more definitely, water-soluble B — is administered. The pigeons in the former case, like the chickens in the latter, had beriberi. Observe that the rice with which the pigeons were fed was good rice, the ordinary white kernels commonly bought at the grocery, the hulls having been removed to make it attractive and to improve the keeping quality. The white bread that resulted in disease and death to the chickens in the latter case, was good bread, such as is commonly bought at bakeries. But the food was lacking in the essential accessory substances, the vitamines. Hopkins 3 discovered that small additions of milk to food mix¬ tures of purified protein, carbohydrate, fat, and inorganic salts, rendered them capable of inducing growth, whereas without such additions of milk, no growth could be secured. He interpreted this to mean that milk contains unidentified chemical substances indis¬ pensable to the diet, and that the failure of animals to grow, and to have a normal length of life, was caused by the absence of these essentials, which he designated “accessory” substances. Experiments by McCollum and Davis 4 brought out the fact that although chemical analysis of whole grain cereal shows it to contain all the essential food substances, such as protein, starch, sugar, fat, and all the mineral salts that occur in the body of an animal, cows did not do well when fed strictly on seeds or seed mixtures. But when they were fed on a corn mixture, including the seed, straw, and leaf of the plant, their nutrition was excellent, as shown by their appearance, the vigor of their offspring, and their ability to produce an abundance of milk. This indicated a dietetic value in the leaf of the plant. The work of these men showed, moreover, that certain fats, as butter fat, egg yolk fat, and numerous products of the plant kingdom, contain something that greatly stimulates growth when added to a diet of purified foodstuffs. Funk and Macallum 3 English Journal of Physiology, volume 44, 1912. 4 “Newer Knowledge of Nutrition,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 24, No. 4. l8 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY pointed out that butter does not relieve polyneuritis in pigeons. McCollum and Kennedy, after giving several reasons why the term “vitamines” was unsatisfactory, proposed the provisional terms “fat-soluble A” and “water-soluble B,” because of the characteristic solubility of these substances in fats and water respectively. (Since this was given out by McCollum, a third dietary essen¬ tial has been discovered.) FAT-SOLUBLE A The best sources of this growth-promoting dietary essential, fat-soluble A, are whole milk, cream, butter fat, egg yolk fat, and some products of the plant kingdom, as the leaves of plants and certain roots. Such foods as bolted (white) flour, degerminated corn meal, polished rice, starch, glucose, and the sugars from milk, cane, and beet, are mentioned by authorities as especially poor in fat-soluble vitamine. A lesson taught by experiences during the late war, was the importance of certain amounts of fat in the human dietary; as in those countries where milk, butter, and fats generally were unob¬ tainable, the people became singularly susceptible to contagion. Tuberculosis, for instance, became a veritable epidemic when the fat supply was cut too low. Whether tuberculosis does not follow a deficiency of fat-soluble vitamine, rather than a general deficiency of fats, is a question that is still undetermined. Whether an abundance of olive oil, cottonseed oil, or other vegetable fats, or lard, which do not contain fat-soluble vitamine, will provide against the incursions of tuberculosis, or if such fats as milk, cream, butter fat, and egg yolk fat, which contain fat- soluble vitamine, are absolutely necessary as a protective against disease, is a proposition that still awaits final solution. The facts cited by recent investigators seem to agree that fat- soluble vitamine need not be sought solely in foods known to be rich in fats. Of the various plant structures, the leaves are the richest in fat-soluble vitamine. Some roots are next, and lastly cereal grains. Clover, alfalfa, spinach, Swiss chard, and lettuce contain the fat-soluble vitamine in similar magnitude; and of these, lettuce has the least. 19 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY Writing on the subject of “Fat-Soluble as Nutrit • : Factors in Plant Tissues,” Osborne and Mendel 8 say: “o.i gm. of alfalfa, clover, timothy, and spinach evidently furnishes relatively at least as much of this vitamine as does o.i gm. of butter fat. These vegetable products may in fact contain more than butter fat.” This agrees with the work of Hindhede , * 6 whose results with young men correspond with observations on laboratory animals. He has contended that fat is not required in the diet of adults if an amount of fresh fruits and vegetables sufficient to supply the vitamines is eaten daily. Steenbock and Boutwell 7 demonstrated that fat-soluble vitam¬ ines are present also in some roots, and in cucurbitous vegetables (pumpkin and squash). They found the carrot and the yellow sweet potato to contain so much of the fat-soluble vitamine that, as a source of this dietary essential, they must be classed with leafy vegetables. They found the yellow maize (corn) to be comparatively rich in this growth-promoting vitamine, as when animals were depend¬ ent on it for their fat-soluble vitamine, the results were good, and sometimes, even if not in most cases, normal. On the other hand, white maize, in every case where experimental animals were de¬ pendent on it for their fat-soluble vitamine, proved to be an absolute nutritional failure. A lack of this essential constituent in the diet results first in a failure of growth and maintenance of life. Second, there is oft- occurring inflammation of the eyes, or xerophthalmia, and mal¬ nutrition of the skin, as indicated by encrustation of the ears, and sores on the body generally. WATER-SOLUBLE B This anti-neuritic dietary essential (the best prophylactic in the prevention and cure of polyneuritis) is found in abundance in all natural, unprocessed foods. Whole grain cereals, particularly the embryo and coverings of grain, and of the leguminous seeds, such B Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 41, No. 4, 1920, page 555. 6 Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 45, No. 1, 1920, page 152. 7 Journal of Biological Chemistry , volume 41, Nos. 1, 2, 1920. SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY as dried peas, beans, and lentils, contain it in large amounts. The leafy vegetables — cabbage, spinach, lettuce, water cress, celery, and parsley — are rich in water-soluble B. It is also found in milk and egg ^olk, but not in olive oil, butter fat, or any of the anfrnal fats. The foods that do not contain it are polished rice, white flour, starch, white sugar, sirup, and fats. Water-soluble vitamine, it will be recalled, is the food accessory without which beriberi develops in birds, animals, and man. The well-known investigators Chick and Hume 8 are quoted as saying that a real danger may be incurred by too exclusive use of bread made from highly milled wheat; that among groups of people living on restricted diets in which bread made from patent flour formed a large proportion of the total ration, beriberi was very common, whereas people living on similar diets, but with bread made from the entire kernel replacing that made from patent flour, were rarely afflicted. It is well known that in those parts of the world where the poorer classes subsist on a diet restricted largely to polished rice and fish, beriberi is very common, because of a lack of this dietary essential (B) in the food supply. A failure to provide for this important accessory results in mal¬ nutrition, followed by nerve degeneration, leading to a sort of paralysis in birds, and beriberi in man, both from the same cause. Effects of Heat .— While dry he 2 t (baking to a brown) seems to be very destructive to vitamines in general, most of the evidence agrees that A and B are not destroyed by heating for considerable periods of time by moist heat at a temperature of 212 0 F. or lower. Steenbock and Boutwell 9 showed that greens, sweet potato, carrot, squash, etc., suffer no appreciable loss of their vitamines by being autoclaved (cooked in a steamer) at fifteen pounds pressure. McCollum and Davis 10 found that wheat embryo could be heated for one hour at fifteen pounds pressure without apparent loss to the growth-promoting property. McCollum, Simmonds, and Pitz 11 detected little if any diminution when navy beans were heated in 8 Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 37, page 600. 8 Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 41, No. 2, 1920, page 169. 10 Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 23, No. 1, 1916, page 249. 11 Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 29, No. 3, 1917, page 625. a moist condition at 120 0 C. (about 15 pounds pressure) for one and one fourth hours. This shows that the vitamines A and B are stable to moderate heat. WATER-SOLUBLE C The information obtained from observations of human experi¬ ence with inadequate war diet during the recent world conflict, together with extensive laboratory research, has clearly brought to view the existence of a third dietary essential, the “antiscor¬ butic,” meaning that which counteracts scurvy. It has served to emphasize the fact that scurvy in the guinea pig, that in the mon¬ key, and that in man are alike occasioned by the lack of some specific substance in the diet which is not stable to heat. 22 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY Scurvy, often manifested in degenerative tooth changes, such as severe cases of looseness and finally falling out of the teeth, and soreness and bleeding of the gums (Osier), is one of the oldest of known diseases. It is usually associated in the mind with sailors on long voyages, living on salt meat and hard-tack. In years past, in times of war, not infrequently an army suffered a greater total of casualties from scurvy than from bullets. When the situation in Europe during the recent war became such that in some localities both troops and civilians were com¬ pelled to subsist on unsuitable food, scurvy made its unwelcome appearance. This was not attributable to an insufficient supply of energizing substances, nor to a lack of foods containing a proper supply of protein constituents, but on the contrary, it was a force¬ ful demonstration of the fact that in the midst of plenty, the nutrition of foods may be dangerously defective. It further dem¬ onstrated that while the caloric value of foods may rightly claim recognition, it avails nothing without the cooperation of acces¬ sory substances. By the authorities of the American Medical Association, 12 we are informed that definite symptoms, resembling in several details those found in infantile scorbutus, were induced in guinea pigs by dietary deficiencies. Perhaps the most striking fact brought forth is the predisposing effect of an exclusive cereal diet, and the curative and antiscorbutic potency of fresh fruits and vege¬ tables. Another fact discussed is the loss of this valuable property through certain methods of cooking and preservation, notably heat and desiccation (drying). We are told that in campaigns in Meso¬ potamia, the British forces in some places were afflicted with scurvy as the result of a constant and exclusive use of dried foods. In a memorandum on food and scurvy, issued by the “Food [war] Committee ” 1S of the Royal Society, London, England, we are informed that through the investigations carried on, especially at the Lister Institute, as to the cause of scurvy, nothing new had been found, save evidence of the presence, in many foods, of a 12 Journal of the American Medical Association, volume 73, 1919, page 1288. 13 Lancet, London, November 30, 1918. 23 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY certain basic substance, the exact nature and composition of which remain obscure, but whose benign influence is indubitable. This authority puts forth the assertion that scurvy, like beriberi, is a deficiency disease, and is traceable to a long continued con¬ sumption of foods lacking in accessory food substance, or vitamine. This antiscorbutic vitamine (water-soluble C) is contained in fresh foods — in largest amounts in oranges, lemons, and fresh vege¬ tables; in considerable amounts in roots and tubers (potato, etc.); also in small quantities in milk and fresh meat — but is very deficient in dried and preserved foods. The further statement is made that water-soluble C vitamine is destroyed by prolonged boiling; also that soda rapidly destroys the antiscorbutic properties of food, hence should not be added to the water in which vege¬ tables are either soaked or boiled. It is shown that beans, peas, and lentils in their dried condition possess no antiscorbutic properties. If, however, the dried seeds are soaked in water at room temperature for twenty-four hours, then drained and kept moist in thin layers until they germinate (about forty-eight hours more), they develop antiscorbutic vi¬ tamine, water-soluble C. It states further that the antiscorbutic value of fresh meat is very low in comparison with that of fresh vegetables, and that tinned and preserved meat possesses no anti¬ scorbutic value. Water-soluble C is very sensitive to heat or drying, although its keeping qualities seem to be much improved by the presence of an acid. Cabbage eaten in the raw state contains active, antiscor¬ butic properties; but when it is dried or boiled, its antiscorbutic properties are practically null. Most of the neutral vegetables, as peas, corn, etc., lose their antiscorbutic properties in the process of canning and drying. On the other hand, in the case of tomato and orange, which are acid, the effect of boiling or drying is not nearly so pro¬ nounced, as a great deal of the antiscorbutic vitamine is preserved in canned tomato, also in dried tomato and orange. Canned tomato therefore constitutes one of the most useful accessories for the long winter months, when, in many places, canned goods 24 are SCIENCE of FOOD ancC COOKERY largely used, likewise for sailors on long voyages, and for armies in the field. An editorial in the Journal of the American Medical Association, under the heading, “Orange Juice Considered in a New Light,” says on this point: “It is recognized by pediatricians that artificially fed infants thrive better if they receive some addition to cow’s milk, particu¬ larly when the latter is Pasteurized or sterilized. One reason for this, now understood, is that many of the artificial food mixtures are likely to be qualitatively incapable of averting scurvy in young children, so that some added antiscorbutic must be provided. For this purpose orange juice has attained a well deserved popularity. “Owing to the price and occasional scarcity of oranges, notably during the war, special efforts were made, both here and abroad, to secure suitable substitute antiscorbutics for infant feeding. The use of tomato, first urged by A. F. Hess, of New York, has been particularly promising, owing to the fact that, in contrast with some other antiscorbutics, this readily available vegetable can be dried or canned without losing its potency in antiscorbutic vitamines, and it can be administered in various ways, including intravenous injection of the juice.”— June 19, 1920. As to the best ways of cooking fresh vegetables, with regard to preserving the water-soluble C properties, we quote from the Lancet, London, as follows: “The destruction of the antiscorbutic properties depends rather upon the time than the temperature employed. All foods, espe¬ cially vegetables, should be cooked for as short time as possible, at boiling point. Slow methods of cooking, such as stewing with meat or simmering below the boiling point, should be avoided. Potatoes should be plunged into boiling water, and the boiling continued for twenty to thirty minutes after the boiling point has again been reached.”— November 30, 1918 . As throwing further light on the destructive effects of soda on vitamines, we refer to the experiments of Miller, 14 who states that the cooking of navy beans in 0.5% sodium bicarbonate (soda) 14 Journal of Biological Chemistry, volume 44, No. 1, page 173. 25 SCIENCE of FOOD and COOKERY solution for one hour and ten minutes caused a loss of 37.4% of vitamine. To the common use of “soda biscuit” and of corn bread raised with soda, throughout the Southern States, is largely attributed the prevalence of pellagra and other deficiency diseases, due largely to a lack of a proper supply of food accessories, the vitamines. When fruits, salad plants, herbs, and fresh vegetables are de¬ scribed as antiscorbutic, the meaning is simply that they have the power of preventing those changes in the blood which produce scurvy. What they really do is to supply the blood with various salts and accessory substances which maintain the body fluids in their proper chemical condition, thus preventing tissue change and decay. VITAMINES AND CALORIES In the past, it has been customary to express the value of a diet largely in terms of heat units, or calories, since it was sup¬ posed that the value of foods depended largely, if not entirely, upon the amount of heat produced from the consumption of their so-called nutritive constituents — protein, carbohydrate, fat, etc. Therefore, with the rise in prices of foods generally, as the result of the grqat war, the public was well advised to consider the caloric value of the foods purchased, in order that the greatest possible amount of energy might be obtained for the least ex¬ penditure of means. The result was, there came a tendency to purchase food by the calorie rather than by the kind. This principle is all right so far as it goes; but in the light of our newer knowledge on the subject of nutrition, it falls far short of the actual needs of the human machine, which is infinitely more complicated than an ordi¬ nary mechanical contrivance. As a result of biological studies carried on during the past few years, much light has been thrown on this important subject. For instance, a diet was constructed in which protein was repre¬ sented by the casein in milk, carbohydrate by starch, and fat by lard, all carefully purified by chemical treatment, so as to exclude anything but these three substances. This was fed to young rats 26 SCIENCE of FOOD ancC COOKERY in quantity more than sufficient for their daily output of energy. Such a diet is sufficient, both in quantity and in quality, for the nourishment of the animal; but it does not contain any of the vital constituents of fresh foods, the vitamines. In theory, this should form an ideal diet; but in practice, it was found that the animals soon ceased to grow, and also developed certain diseases, notably rickets and scurvy. When this stage had been reached, a small quantity of fresh uncooked food was added to the diet, whereupon growth was resumed and the animals became healthy again. Further experiments brought to light three very important ad¬ ditional facts; namely, that animals fed on chemically pure foods showed a markedly diminished power of resistance to infectious diseases; and in the case of female rats, the offspring were poorly developed; and the mothers were unable adequately to suckle their young. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, expert in food and nutrition, says: “Up to the era of the discovery of the cause of beriberi, the principles of correct diet were based upon the supply of a so- called balanced ration. ... We were taught that this balanced ration consisted of certain amounts of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and minerals. Much to the astonishment of physiologists, it was discovered that when an animal was fed pure protein, pure carbo¬ hydrate, pure fat, and pure mineral, it failed to grow, gradually lost weight, and finally died.” “Our whole system of diet, therefore, has to be reconstructed from the discoveries of the last fifteen or twenty years. These discoveries have particularly emphasized the food value of the ex¬ ternal coatings and germs of cereals. This value rests not alone in their content of ordinary digestible foods, but exists particularly by reason of the water-soluble vitamine contained therein. “Perhaps there is no point in medicine so confusing and con¬ flicting as the dietaries prescribed by the attending physician in case of illness, and likewise for children and grown persons as a preventive of disease. The very foods that have been most de¬ natured, and therefore are least wholesome and assimilable, are constantly prescribed by physicians for the well as for those who are ill. The functions of leaf vegetables, for instance, so important 27 in dietetics, and carrying as they do the chief fat-soTuble vitamines, are those that the physician too often neglects.”— Quoted in “Lit¬ erary Digest ” June ipip. Thus we find that there are three vitamines; and there are possibly more, as scientists believe there is a fourth which cures rickets in children; and there may be others. Vitamines are not manufactured in the body; neither are they contained in soil, in combination with minerals; but they are elaborated by the plant itself. A lack of these accessories in the daily food is a species of starvation, and ends disastrously unless the body can be supplied with those substances so abundantly provided in unprocessed and uncooked foods. The subject is one that presents fascinating fields for experimental study and research; and every advance step serves to bring us nearer to nature and to nature’s God, leading to the avoidance of needless suffering and disease, and to the betterment of mankind. 28 III. FOOD MINERALS ESSENTIAL TO ALL LIFE ‘Learn from the birds the food the thickets yield, Learn from the beasts the physic of the field.” “Eat to live rather than live to eat ” A most interesting parallel is observed in .the study of the composition of the human body, the cells of plants, and fertile, fruit-bearing soil. Professor Sherman, 1 of the Columbia Uni¬ versity, gives the following list of elements as composing the human body: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phos¬ phorus, potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron; iodine, fluorine, and silicon in very minute quantities; also traces of manganese and aluminum. The same text shows that natural, unrefined foods contain these same elements in varying quantities and proportions. Analysis of normal soil 2 reveals the same elements to be con¬ tained in earth, and experience teaches us that these various mineral elements in the soil are absolutely necessary to insure a paying crop of grain or vegetables. The average farmer seems to recognize instinctively that a lack of soil minerals would result in a feeble or stunted yield, hence he looks well to the matter of the richness of the soil before casting in his seed. Intelligent stock raisers, who make a business of feeding cattle for definite ends, calculate the results according to fixed laws. Proper food is the means whereby they supply the essential building material for the physical needs of the animals in which their money is invested. With respect to his own food, however, man persistently vio¬ lates one of the most beneficent of nature’s laws, in that he submits his most staple foods to a process of hulling and scouring that leaves them almost void of the mineral and vitamine on which life is so dependent. These very important parts of our food are carefully separated from our food and fed to farm animals, thereby developing magnificent specimens of stock, while our own health suffers proportionately from a lack of these elements. 1 “Chemistry of Food and Nutrition,” page 234. 2 “Soil Analysis,” volume 1. 3 29 SCIENCE