motmmi m K rniSni ' ■; •r v fWii ! § m SBt i J If ^ac OSES BBC | i 8w jj§§ If H 9H wa tfw are ftftK IB BB m£k 1 (figjl MB ml B Isfln HI 'OflA |w yoK 8J85 HDuJ 9g|*j §8$ rjffS HqH Bb HMW wgR Sufc m ign ’ 9K MB fH Class.. ill Vq Book 2 ./ COPYRIGHT UEPOBm Q O Q * . THE FIRST BOOK IN UNITED STATES HISTORY BY WADDY THOMPSON M AUTHOR OF “a primary history of the united states” “a history of the united states” and “a history of the people of THE UNITED STATES ” REVISED D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO DALLAS LONDON "C-X'vfc • \ A z °l Copyright, 1929, By D. C. Heath & Co. 2 B 9 ©CIA 5421 PREFACE The value of biography in teaching history to young pupils is well recognized. The personal, or human, element that this form of narration adds to the text arouses the interest that is essential to the study of history. Care should be taken, however, not to overemphasize biography lest the relative importance of the in¬ dividual and the event be misunderstood and lest the historical connection between events be lost. The biographies furnished in this text are abundant, and they have been selected because, taken together, they cover nearly all the events of the history of our country that the young pupil need know. Wherever biography is not available, or wherever it is advisable to emphasize the event rather than the individual or to preserve a closer connection between events, the author has resorted to the ordinary form of narration. In preparing the text he has used portions of his earlier work, A Primary History of the United States. When undertaken properly the study of history is not only very useful, but is a source of delight. If the pupil, in taking up the study for the first time, can see in it the wonderful story of people who have gone before him and builded that he might live the better, he will acquire a liking for history that will abide with him in after years. To give to the young people of America not only the advantages, but the pleasure, that may be found in the study of the history of their country is the purpose of the author. With the hope that his purpose will be fulfilled, this little book is sent forth on its mission. ■ - ' CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The World before America Was Discovered Life in the Old World. Trade with the East. “Prince Henry the Navigator”. II. Finding a New World. Columbus Discovers America. Cabot First Reaches the Mainland of America III. The People whom Europeans Found in America . IV. The Spaniards in America. The Rush of Gold Seekers. Ponce de Leon, Seeking the Fountain of Youth, Finds Florida .. Balboa, Seeking a Sea, Discovers the Pacific Ocean Magellan’s Ship Sails around the World De Soto, Seeking Gold, Discovers the Mississippi River Coronado’s Quest of the Seven Cities of Cibola . V. The Coming of the French. Why Other Europeans Followed the Spaniards to America. Admiral Coligny and His Huguenot Colony . Samuel de Champlain, “The Father of New France” . VI. The Coming of the English. Sir Francis Drake, who “Singed the King of Spain’s Beard”. Sir Walter Raleigh and His “Lost Colony” John Smith and the Virginia Colony VII. The Coming of the Dutch. Henry Hudson on the River that Bears His Name New Netherland and New Amsterdam PAGE i i 6 9 12 12 22 25 28 28 28 30 32 37 41 45 45 48 5 i 56 56 60 65 74 74 77 v VI CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE VIII. The English in New England . . . .. . 79 William Bradford and John Winthrop in Massachu¬ setts .79 Thomas Hooker and His Congregation Seek Con¬ necticut .87 Roger Williams Founds Rhode Island . . .91 IX. Neighbors of Virginia .96 Lord Baltimore and His Maryland Colony . . 96 The Eight Lords Proprietors of Carolina . . .100 Oglethorpe and the Georgia Colony . . . .104 X. The Middle Colonies. no Peter Stuyvesant Surrenders New Netherland . no William Penn Founds Pennsylvania . . . . 115 XI. In Old Colony Days .... Industrial and Commercial Conditions Social Life in Early Colonial Times . Relations with the Mother Country . Troubles with the Indians 122 122 128 134 139 XII. The French in America .... Marquette and La Salle on the Mississippi Iberville and Bienville in Louisiana . 142 142 ISO XIII. Driving the French from America . George Washington, an Officer in the Virginia Militia Montcalm and Wolfe, Heroes of Quebec . 159 159 169 XIV. English Settlements Extend beyond the Alle GHANIES. 177 The Western Country.177 Daniel Boone and his Experiences in the West . 178 XV. Later Colonial Times . . . . * . .185 Growth of the Colonies.185 The Unwise Course of Great Britain . . .188 Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, Forerunners of the Revolution.189 CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI. Armed Resistance to Great Britain George Washington, Commander of the American Army . . .. Thomas Jefferson, Author of the Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklin and the French Alliance . XVII. A Successful End to the Contest George Rogers Clark Holds the Illinois Country John Paul Jones, the Naval Hero of the Revolution The Partisan Bands of the South .... Westerners Win a Splendid Victory Surrender of Cornwallis . XVIII. Early Days of the Republic. The Constitution of the United States . George Washington, the First President Thomas Jefferson, and the Purchase of Louisiana . XIX. Protecting Our Rights. The Second Struggle with Great Britain Harrison and Perry, Heroes of the Northwest Andrew Jackson, the Hero of the Southwest . How We Gained Florida. The Monroe Doctrine. XX. Industrial Changes. The Use of Machinery. Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin .... Cyrus Hall McCormick and the Reaper Robert Fulton and the Steamboat The Coming of the Railroad. Samuel F. B. Morse and the Telegraph Elias Howe and the Sewing Machine The Cotton Gin and Sectionalism XXI. Winning the Far West. The Republic of Texas. The Story of Sam Houston. War with Mexico. Completing Our Boundaries. vii PAGE 198 I98 208 211 217 217 219 220 225 228 232 232 235 239 245 245 246 248 2 53 254 257 257 259 26l 263 266 270 272 273 276 276 277 280 283 CONTENTS viii CHAPTER XXII. Progress of the American People . Growth of the Middle West Immigrants from the Old World . The Factory System and the Eastern Cities Andrew Jackson the “ People’s” President. The “Forty-niners”. PAGB 286 286 292 295 296 298 XXIII. The North and the South Drift Apart . . 301 Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, “The Great Trium¬ virate” .301 Secession of the Southern States .... 307 Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States . 308 Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States.315 XXIV. The War of Secession.321 Early Events of the Contest. 321 Robert E. Lee, the Leading General of the South . 322 Ulysses S. Grant, the Leading General of the North.. . . 328 Grant and Lee Grapple.332 XXV. An Era of Industrial Progress (1865-1920) Rapid Growth of the United States The North and the Middle West . Peopling the Far West. Building a “New South” .... Thomas A. Edison, “The American Magician” Alexander Graham Bell and the Telephone . The Wright Brothers Invent the Aeroplane . John Philip Holland Invents the Submarine . Other Important Inventions .... • 338 • 338 • 340 - 34i • 344 • 346 • 350 • 35i • 354 • 355 XXVI. How We Became a World Power . The Cruel Treatment of Cuba War with Spain . Our Colonial Possessions Cutting the Panama Canal . 357 357 359 362 364 CONTENTS IX CHAPTER PAGE XXVII. American Women.367 Woman’s Part in Our History .... 368 Hannah Dustin and Eliza Lucas, Colonial Hero¬ ines .371 Molly Pitcher, Elizabeth Zane, and Nancy Hart, Heroines of the Revolution . . . -374 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Champions of Woman’s Suffrage . . -377 Frances E. Willard, Leader of the Temperance Movement.380 Clara Barton and the Red Cross.382 XXVIII. The World War.386 Before the United States Entered the War . . 386 After the United States Entered the War . . 393 The Treaty of Peace and the League of Nations . 399 XXIX. Conquering the Air .405 The Advance of Aviation.405 Byrd Flies to the North Pole .... 406 Lindbergh, “ The Lone Eagle ” . . . .411 Other Achievements of Byrd . . . .418 List of Presidents.4 2 3 Date of Admission of the States.424 Pronouncing Vocabulary.425 Index. 4 2 7 . THE FIRST BOOK IN UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER I THE WORLD BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Life in the Old World Four Hundred Years Ago. — A little more than four hundred years ago civilized people lived only in Europe, Asia, and the northern part of Africa. They did not know that there was such a country as America. Beginnings of Our History. — The history of the United States began long before America was discovered. The ancestors of most of the people of this country were immi¬ grants just as are the foreigners who seek our land to-day. They brought to the New World the knowledge that had been gained by thousands of years of civilization in the Old World; and they planted in their new homes many of the customs and laws of their old homes. What We Owe to the Old World. — Though we now have more knowledge and enjoy more conveniences than did the people who lived four or five hundred years ago, yet we owe much to the civilization that existed before America was known. In fact, for the origin of a great 2 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED part of that civilization we must go back to very ancient times. For instance, from the ancient Greeks we get the best art, from the ancient Romans we get government and laws, and from the ancient Hebrews we get Chris¬ tianity. Science was begun by the early Egyptians, banking by the Baby¬ lonians, and printing with type by the ancient Chi¬ nese. From ancient peo¬ ples has come some of our finest literature. The Classes that Ruled in Europe. — At the time of the discovery of America, Europe had made little advancement over ancient times. Many cruel customs still prevailed. Every country was ruled by a king. With few exceptions the kings were all powerful — they alone declared what should be the law and they compelled the people to obey. Next to the king came the nobility and clergy — the classes that owned most of the land. These two classes had great influence, not only on account of their wealth, but for other reasons. The nobility were regarded as superior by birth to the so-called common people; and A King of England Who ruled less than a hundred years before America was discovered LIFE IN THE OLD WORLD 3 the common people were made to do as the nobility wished. All the people of western Europe were Catholics. The clergy were revered because they were the priests of that faith and because they were the only class that had any learning. Few of the nobility could do more than barely read or write; the common people could do neither. The Merchants. — Another influential class was the merchants. When we speak of a merchant we usually Venetian Merchant Ships of the Fifteenth Century mean a man who keeps a store for selling to his neighbors, but in those days the merchant traveled from country to country to dispose of his wares. He often sailed in his own ship to near-by ports of Asia and Africa to get valuable cargoes which he would sell in Europe at a large profit. The Laboring Class. — The great mass of people were peasants who farmed the land. In most countries the peasant was a serf. A serf could not own land, but must 4 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED till it for its owner — usually a nobleman or the clergy. Without the consent of the owner he could not leave the land upon which he worked. Most of the crop that the serf raised went to the landlord. What was left was barely sufficient for himself and his family to live upon. Indeed, the serf had so few rights that he could not even marry without permission of the landlord. The Rights of Englishmen. — In England, the land from which the ancestors of most of the people of the United States came, there was more freedom than in other countries. The English had a charter which they had forced a king, many years before, to give them. The charter was intended to protect the rights of the people, and they called it the Magna Carta (Latin words meaning Great Charter). The English also had a parliament, composed of smaller landlords and citizens of the towns as well as noblemen and clergymen. This body, instead of the king, had the right to make laws and levy taxes. Yet, the kings of LIFE IN THE OLD WORLD 5 England were still so strong that they were often able to ignore the Magna Carta and to control parliament. England was one of the few countries that had abolished serfdom, but the freeing of the English peasant had not helped his condition much. He was paid so little for his labor that he could not buy land, and he was not allowed to vote. A Promise of Better Things. — It must not be thought, however, that the times were altogether bad. There were kings who ruled wisely; there were noblemen who had the interests of the people at heart; and many of the clergy nursed the sick, cared for the poor, and gave shelter in their monasteries to the distressed. Already there had been going on in Europe for more than a century a movement that was improving conditions. This movement is known by the French word, Renais¬ sance, meaning “ new birth,” because it put such a new spirit into the world that it seemed as if men were born again. It grew out of the desire of Europeans for greater knowledge. Not only did Europeans wish to know more about literature, art, and science, but they wished to know more about the problems of life. The Renaissance was the beginning of the spread of learning, and learning was making the minds and hearts of men better. The Desire for Exploration. — As a part of the broaden¬ ing of their minds that the Renaissance had brought about, men began to travel more. Visits to other countries made them wish to explore unknown lands, and most of the land of the world was unknown then. The desire for exploration led to the discovery of America. 6 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Trade with the East The Center of Commerce. — The trade most valuable to Europe came from the eastern part of Asia, called India. The easiest way then known to get this trade to Europe was across the Mediterranean Sea. Con¬ sequently, this sea was the center of commerce, and Europeans were accustomed to sail upon it. Though for many hundreds of years European mer¬ chants had traded with the people of eastern Asia, they had learned little about that distant land. Most of the people in Asia did not wish strangers to enter then- country. They brought their wares to cities on the Asiatic and African shores of the Mediterranean Sea and there traded with Europeans. Traders from the East did not know much about the sea and sailing. They usually traveled overland much of the way to reach the Mediterranean. They loaded their goods on the backs of camels, and made the journey in large parties called caravans. Merchants of Venice and Genoa Do Most of the Trad¬ ing. — European merchants bought from the caravans silk and cotton cloths, pepper, nutmegs and other spices, ivory, gold and silver, and precious stones. Most of the trading with the caravans from the East was done by merchants from the Italian cities of Venice and Genoa. Stories of Marvelous Riches in the East. — When the European merchants and the men from the East met to trade, they talked about the countries from which they came; and the Eastern men told wonderful stories of TRADE WITH THE EAST 7 the wealth of their land in gold and silver and sparkling gems. The few Europeans who succeeded in making visits to India came back with even more wonderful stories. They described great cities where people dressed in cloth of gold and in finest furs, and lived in palaces built of marble, with roofs, floors, and pillars made of gold. In these wonderful palaces guests sat in chairs of solid silver. They said also that the beds of the rivers were covered with gold, that in one place there was a mountain of turquoise, and that there were islands rich in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and spices of all kinds. It was not hard in those days for people to believe in almost any kind of marvelous story. When Europeans heard these tales about India, they became even more eager to go into that country and get some of its riches. 8 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Why a Water Route to India was Needed.—The Turks, a wild race from the interior of Asia, began to conquer the lands through which the caravans came. This made it very hard for Europeans to keep up their trade with that country. Europeans then began to dis¬ cuss whether a way to India could be found by following the Atlantic Ocean around Africa. The People Very Ignorant of Geography. — So little of the world was known at that time that most persons did not believe that such a thing as sailing around Africa could be done. Seamen did not mind sailing the Mediterranean Sea where they could keep near the land, but they were unwilling to go any great distance out on the Atlantic Ocean, which they called the “ Sea of Darkness.” Most persons believed that the earth was flat. They feared that the ocean might have no end, and that if they sailed very far they might not be able to return. Besides, they thought that the ocean was filled with monsters that would devour sailors who ventured too far on its waters. Bold seamen had steered a little way down the Atlantic coast of Africa, but had always kept close to the shore. They had not ventured farther because it was the common belief that the equator was so hot that the water there boiled. And, they reasoned, even if one could cross the equator, a land of terror might lie beyond. It was generally believed that Africa was joined to some unknown land in the southern part of the world, and that, therefore, a ship could not sail around it to India. Does PRINCE HENRY, THE NAVIGATOR 9 it not 9eem strange that people could ever have been so ignorant of geography? “Prince Henry, the Navigator” A Portuguese Prince Starts Exploring. — At that time there were very few men besides kings who were rich enough to fit out fleets for long voyages. A prince named Henry, son of the king of Portugal, became very much interested in finding a water route to India. He thought it would be a great thing to teach the Christian religion to the heathen, and at the same time to encourage trade with the East. He therefore decided to spend his money in sending out ships to ex¬ plore the coast of Africa. On the coast of Portugal, on a high point of land that juts out into the Atlantic Ocean, Prince Henry built an observatory. There he studied the stars and consulted maps and charts. There he kept a light burning to guide his ships on their return. The Portuguese Cross the Equator. — For forty years Portuguese ships sent out by the prince explored the coast of Africa, each going farther south than the one before it. But the noble prince died before any of his ships had reached the equator. Prince Henry, the Navigator 10 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Prince Henry had inspired the Portuguese with such a spirit of discovery that his work did not stop with his death. His countrymen sailed their ships farther and farther down the coast of Africa, until in 1471 a Portu¬ guese ship finally crossed the equator. The Portuguese Route to India The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East. The solid line shows the new Portuguese route The Value of Prince Henry’s Work. — We should always honor the memory of this wise and enterpris¬ ing prince, for he began the explorations that brought about the discovery of America. So earnest was he in this work that he is rightly called “ Prince Henry, the Navigator.” QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW II QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Where did all civilized people live a little more than four hundred years ago? 2. How did our history begin before the discovery of America? 3. What do we owe to the Old World? 4. Tell about the kings, the nobles, and the clergy of Europe at the time America was discovered. 5. Tell about the merchants; the serfs. 6. How was there more freedom in England than in other countries? 7. Tell all you can about the Renaissance. 8. How did the Renaissance lead to the discovery of America ? 9. Tell how the people traded in those days with the East. 10. What did Europeans buy from India? n. What did the merchants from India tell about their country? What did the travelers tell? 12. Why did not European traders go overland to India? 13. Why were sailors afraid to take long voyages on the ocean? 14. Tell about “Prince Henry, the Navigator.” 15. Why should we honor the memory of this prince ? Dangers of the “ Sea of Darkness ” From an old picture CHAPTER II FINDING A NEW WORLD Columbus Discovers America Boyhood of Columbus. — Soon after the Portuguese began their explorations down the African coast, there was born in or near the city of Genoa a boy who became one of the greatest of all explorers. His name was Christopher Columbus. The father of Columbus earned his living by weaving woolen cloth. He sent Columbus to school for a while, Later he put the boy to work at his own trade, but the lad did not like this work. He must have spent his spare hours studying geography, as far as it was known at that time. He longed to become a sailor. Genoa, as we have seen, was then one of the greatest seaports of Europe. Ships were always entering or leav¬ ing its harbor. Little Christopher listened to the won¬ derful tales that sailors told of strange lands they had v : sited and of the thrilling adventures they had met with. Columbus Takes to the Sea. — When Columbus was about fourteen years old he had a chance to go on a voy¬ age. After that he spent much of his time on the water. In those days the rival European cities on the Medi¬ terranean Sea were almost always at war with one another. They captured one another’s trading vessels and seized 12 COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 13 the cargoes. There were many pirates upon the seas, and the Turks were always ready to destroy a vessel belonging to a Christian. So when men went to sea they had to be ready to fight as well as to trade. Probably Columbus was in more than one sea battle. Columbus Believes in the Western Route to India. — As Columbus went on studying maps and charts his ambition grew. He wished to do greater things than sailing the Mediterra¬ nean Sea. The Atlantic Ocean, the “ Sea of Dark¬ ness,” had no terrors for him. He had heard of the brave Portuguese and their voyages down the coast of Africa, and after a time he went to their country to live. He made his home in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, until he married. Then he went to live on an island off the coast of Africa, where he kept up his studies, reading every book that he could get that told about the earth or the heavens. Out on that lonely island, with only the waves beating upon the shore and the stars shining overhead, Columbus, after deep study, came to believe that the world is round. He reasoned that a route to India shorter than the one around Africa could be found by sailing directly westward across the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus 14 FINDING A NEW WORLD The Portuguese King Tries to Trick Columbus. — It would take a great deal of money to buy ships and fur¬ nish them for the voyage across the Atlantic. As Colum¬ bus was poor, he asked the king of Portugal for help. The king asked a council of wise men what they thought of Columbus’ idea of reaching India by sailing westward. The wise men thought the idea very foolish; so the king refused to aid Columbus. Yet the king seemed to have some faith in what Colum¬ bus said, for he secretly sent out ships to try to discover for himself a westward route to India. His treachery failed, for a storm came up and the men, frightened by the great ocean before them, turned the ships back to port. Aid Asked of the King and Queen of Spain. — Colum¬ bus was very angry when he heard that the king had tried to deceive him. He left Portugal and went to Spain, tak¬ ing with him his little four-year-old son. When Colum¬ bus arrived in Spain, he asked King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to help him carry out his plan for a westward voyage. Ferdinand and Isabella did not treat him un¬ kindly, but their time was taken up with a war against the Moors, an African race that occupied parts of Spain. They left the matter to their court geographers, who laughed at Columbus when he laid his plan before them. After seven years of pleading and waiting and suffering, Columbus gave up hope of getting aid from Ferdinand and Isabella, and set out for France to ask help of the king of that country. A Monk Befriends Columbus. — On the way to France Columbus stopped at a monastery in Spain to beg bread COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 15 for his little boy, and there he met a monk who became greatly interested in his story. It so happened that the monk was a friend of Queen Isabella, and he persuaded Columbus to wait at the monastery until he himself could see the queen. Columbus Asking the Aid of Queen Isabella The monk went to the queen and told her that he be¬ lieved in the idea of Columbus. He said that it would be a pity for Spain to lose the glory of finding the western route to India. Queen Isabella Aids Columbus. — Queen Isabella listened attentively to the monk and decided to give Columbus a hearing. She sent the monk back to the monastery with a sum of money for Columbus, and with a message bidding the sailor appear before her. i6 FINDING A NEW WORLD Columbus found the queen in the camp of the army where she then had her court. She consented to fit out a fleet for him, and to make him admiral and viceroy of all lands he should discover. It was further agreed that he should be given a certain portion of all the gold, precious stones, and spices that should be found. . Three vessels were secured — the Santa Maria , the Pinta , and the Nina. These vessels were very small, and would to-day be thought unsafe for sailing except near the land. Yet Columbus was willing to risk crossing an unknown ocean with them. Difficulty in Getting Sailors. — It was not easy, how¬ ever, to get sailors to man the fleet. Most persons thought Columbus was crazy. They said that if the world were round, a ship would have to sail downhill one way and uphill another. “ Who ever heard of a ship sailing uphill ?” they asked. On the other hand, they argued, if the earth should prove to be flat the ships would keep on sailing forever and could never get back. Besides, who wanted to go out on a sea that was full of monsters? But Columbus would not give up, and at last ninety men were secured. The Voyage. — On August 3, 1492, the ships set sail* from Palos in Spain. Women, and even men, wept when they saw the three little vessels disappear on the ocean, for they did not expect to see the ships or their crews again. They had not the faith of Columbus, who was so sure that he would reach India that he took a letter from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to the Emperor of India. COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 17 The vessels were hardly out of sight of land when the sailors wished to turn back; but Columbus kept the prows of his ships pointed to the west. Each day added to the terror of the men. They muttered among them¬ selves in discontent and talked about killing their leader. Columbus never faltered. On and on he sailed. After Caravels of Columbus After the model shown at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 the first few weeks he began to see land birds and float¬ ing weeds and other things that made him more and more certain that he was going in the direction of land. The Discovery. — Many weeks had passed when early in the morning of October 12, 1492, land was sighted. There was the wildest excitement on the little vessels. A boat bearing the admiral was put to shore at once; and Columbus, kneeling upon the beach, offered a prayer of thanks. Then rising, he claimed the country in the name of the gracious queen who had sent him. i8 FINDING A NEW WORLD The land discovered was one of the islands that we now know as the Bahamas, lying off the coast of North America. Columbus believed it to be one of the islands near India. The men thought their chance had come to make fortunes from the riches of the East. Overcome with joy, they crowded about Columbus, begging his for¬ giveness for the way they had acted during the voyage. The inhabitants of the island — people of a race un¬ known to the Spaniards — flocked to the shore. At first they were frightened, and stood at a distance peeping from behind trees and bushes. Soon, however, presents of beads and other bright trinkets from the newcomers made them friendly. The Land Believed to be Asia. — The visitors and natives could not understand each other; but Columbus thought from certain signs made by the natives that gold was to be found toward the south. Setting sail, he soon came upon an island which we now know as Cuba, but which he took to be the continent of Asia. As the natives here also pointed southward when he asked about gold, Columbus continued his voyage in that direction until he reached an island that he took to be Japan. He named this island Hispaniola , meaning “ Spanish Land,” but we now call it Haiti. The Return to Spain. — Columbus could not under¬ stand why he found no traces of the rich and populous cities of the East, yet, he was so sure that he had reached Asia that he decided to return to Spain to report the discovery to his sovereigns. Moreover, his largest ship, the Santa Maria , had been wrecked on Christmas day, COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 19 and the captain of the Pinta had sailed away with his ship to search for gold. Leaving nearly half his men on one of the islands to await his return, Columbus set out for Spain in the Nina, the smallest of his vessels. Early in the year 1493 he arrived at Palos, the port from which he had set sail the Map of Lands Discovered by Columbus summer before. The people of the town, who had given him up for lost, welcomed him with joy. Ferdinand and Isabella received him at court with great honor. The curiosities that Columbus brought from the strange lands attracted much attention, especially some natives whom he had persuaded to return with him to Spain. To the natives Columbus gave the name “ Indian,” because he thought they were inhabitants of India. This is the name by which we know these people to-day. 20 FINDING A NEW WORLD Other Voyages of Columbus. — Ferdinand and Isabella at once began to make plans for taking possession of the new-found country. Another and larger fleet was fitted out, and Columbus was put in command. There was no trouble in getting men to go this time. As everybody believed that Columbus had reached India, people from all walks of life crowded upon his ships, hoping to find riches in the wealthy cities of the East. Since it was the intention of Spain to colonize the new country, Columbus, on reaching the island of Hispaniola (Haiti), built a town which he called Isabella in honor of the queen. Then he began to explore the neighboring islands. He was still puzzled because he could not find great cities, but he was as firmly fixed as ever in his belief that the land was Asia. When Columbus returned to Spain the second time his sovereigns soon sent him on a third voyage on which he discovered the northern coast of what is known as South America. Here sickness came upon him, so he sailed to Hispaniola to recover. Columbus in Chains. — Columbus found no rest at Hispaniola. Troubles bore heavily upon him. The colony that he had planted on the island had become rebellious. Disappointed because they had not found riches quickly, the settlers had quarreled among them¬ selves and also with the Indians. Many had been killed in brawls with one another and in fights with the natives. Those who remained put on Columbus all the blame for the bad condition of affairs. A man who had been sent from Spain to find out the cause of the trouble declared COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 21 himself governor, arrested Columbus, and sent him back to Spain in chains. To see Columbus treated like a criminal caused great indignation among the Spanish people. The queen was very angry and she at once ordered the chains removed. Columbus was afterwards sent on a fourth voyage, but failing again to find won¬ derful cities he returned disappointed to Spain. Death of Columbus. — When the great dis¬ coverer was sent home in chains, his sovereigns promised to restore to him his rights in the lands that he had found, but the promise was not kept. His good friend, the queen, died soon after his fourth voyage. Columbus now an old man, broken in health and spirit, soon followed her to the grave. He passed away at Valladolid, Spain, in 1506. He died be¬ lieving that he had found India by the western route. Perhaps his last hour would have been happier could he have known that he had discovered a new world. The Name America. — The new world should have been named Columbia in honor of its discoverer. If the The Columbus Monument at Genoa 22 FINDING A NEW WORLD truth of his discovery had been known at first, without doubt it would have been so named. It came to be called America from an Italian explorer, Americus Vespucius, who for some time was thought to have discovered it. Cabot First Reaches the Mainland of America John Cabot. — It was believed in England, as else¬ where, that Columbus had found Asia. People were excited and said, “It is a thing more divine than human to sail by the West into the East.” Nobody in England was more excited over the news than John Cabot. Cabot, like Columbus, was born in Genoa and, also like Columbus, he was a sailor. When Columbus made his first voyage across the Atlantic, Cabot was living in Bristol, then the chief seaport of England. Cabot’s First Voyage to America. — Cabot thought that Columbus had found the southern part of Asia. That portion, therefore, would belong to Spain. He saw no reason why he should not explore and claim for Eng¬ land some other part of Asia. With this idea in mind, he presented himself before the English king, Henry VII. He reminded that monarch that Spain and Portugal were winning wealth and glory by their explorations. He said that if King Henry would fit out for him a ship, he would sail westward and secure for England some of the riches of the East. The king, pleased with the idea, granted the request. With one vessel, the Matthew , and with only eighteen men, Cabot started across the Atlantic in the year 1497. CABOT FIRST REACHES THE MAINLAND 23 At the end of six weeks he came in sight of land. But it was not the beautiful country Columbus had visited. It was bleak and barren, and there was no sign of wealth. Going on shore, Cabot claimed the country for England. He saw no people, but he found traps set to catch game, and from these and other signs he knew that the land was inhabited. He feared that if he were to come upon strange people they would kill him and his crew, so he hastened back to his ship and set sail for England. Cabot’s Second Voyage to America. — Cabot thought that he had visited Asia, but he had really found what is now Canada, the country north of the United States. Cabot firmly believed that if he should return to the land that he had dis- covered and then sail southward, he would reach Japan. This island was known to be off the coast of Asia. When Cabot told the king of this belief, the king gave his consent to a second voyage. The next year (1498) Cabot again crossed the Atlantic. With his son Sebastian and a fleet of five or six ships he explored a great part of the coast of what is now the United States. 24 FINDING A NEW WORLD When Cabot made his first voyage the people of Eng¬ land looked upon him as a hero, but after his second voyage they became disappointed with what he had done. They thought that he had found a cold, bleak part of Asia, while they had expected him to discover the part where there were gold and precious stones and spices. Consequently the English did not follow up his discovery. Why the Voyages of Cabot Are Important. —For two reasons the voyages of Cabot are important. First, John Cabot was the first European known to have landed on the American continent. Though Columbus had already discovered islands off the American coast, Cabot landed on the coast of North America a year before Columbus made his voyage to South America. Second, many years afterward, when England wished to plant colonies in North America, she claimed the right to do so because Cabot had discovered the continent for England. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Where was Columbus born? 2. What made it possible for a poor boy like Columbus to accomplish such great things? 3. What great idea came to him? 4. Tell how he tried in different countries to get help. 5. Describe his first voyage. 6. When did he discover land? 7. What is it now called? Where is it? 8. What did he do when he first landed? 9. What did he think he had discovered? 10. How many voyages did he make? n. Tell of his misfortunes and his death. 12. For whom was America named and why? 13. Who was John Cabot ? 14. When Cabot heard of the discovery made by Columbus, what did he propose to the King of England? 15. Describe his first voyage and what he found. 16. How much did Cabot explore on his second voyage? 17. Why did England not follow up Cabot’s discovery at once ? 18. For what two reasons were the voyages of Cabot important ? CHAPTER in THE PEOPLE WHOM EUROPEANS FOUND IN AMERICA The North American Indians. — The land that Colum¬ bus found was a wild country, covered with forests and prairies. It was inhabited only by a barbarous red¬ skinned people of a race that was unknown to Europeans. Indian and Canoe Columbus, as we have already learned, called these people Indians, thinking that they were the inhabitants of India. How the Indians Lived. — When the Europeans first came to America, the Indians usually lived in tents made 25 26 THE PEOPLE WHOM EUROPEANS FOUND of skin or bark. These they called wigwams. They hunted in the great woods with bows and arrows; and fished in the rivers and lakes, using light birchbark canoes in which they could glide about very swiftly. They also did some planting. The tobacco and potato plants, now so common with us, had never been known to the white people until they saw them raised by the Indians. On the other hand, there were no horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, nor barnyard fowls in America until Europeans brought them over. How the Indians Dressed. — In summer, the men wore only light coverings on their bodies; in winter, they wore shirts and leggings made of skins. Their shoes, called moccasins, were also made of skins, and with them they could easily walk through bramble or thicket. The women wore loose-fitting sleeveless dresses made of skins. ‘Both men and women painted their faces and bodies in many colors. The red men had no money, but used, instead, in their trade, strings of shell beads called wampum. Wampum belts were also used in mak¬ ing records of treaties. Indian Worship. — The Indians knew nothing about our God. Some tribes worshiped the sun, the moon, and the stars; others, the trees, the mountains, and the rivers; others, the wind and the snow. Besides the gods of the tribe every Indian had his own personal god — some beast or bird or fish, which he called his manitou. A Warlike Race. — The Indians were a warlike people, and tribes were constantly fighting against one another. Until they obtained firearms from the white people, they THE INDIANS V fought with bows and arrows and stone hatchets called tomahawks, and they carried knives with which to take the scalps of enemies. They were very cruel and used to torture their prisoners by putting them to death in the most dreadful manner. Indians did not fight in open battle; they preferred to steal upon their enemies and kill them while sleeping; or to fight them from behind trees or rocks. Yet the Indians had good traits. They always kept their promises; they were loyal to their friends, and were exceedingly hospitable. When tribes wished to be friendly with one another, they would join in smoking tobacco in a calumet, or pipe of peace. The Red Men and the White Men. — The Indians treated the first Europeans who came to this country very kindly. They thought that the white-faced, beau¬ tifully dressed strangers were beings from heaven; and that the ships, with their great sails stretched to the wind, were white-winged birds. The red men found out all too soon that many of the newcomers, though fair in face, were not fair at heart. They found that the palefaces would cheat and plunder and murder. So there came to be almost constant war¬ fare between the two races. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. How did the Indians live at the time America was discovered? 2. Describe their dress. Their religion. 3. Tell how they made war. 4. Describe their character. 5. How did the natives treat the white men at first? 6. Why did the Indians’feeling for the white man change? CHAPTER IV THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA The Rush oe Gold Seekers Finding the Precious Metal in Haiti. — Four years after Columbus discovered Hispaniola (Haiti), all Spain was set wild over the news that gold had been found there. Immediately a number of adventurers from Spain flocked to the newly discovered island, eager to seize its wealth. They were for the most part bold, bad men; and did not stop at any sort of wickedness in their greed for riches. They were especially cruel to the Indians. When the ignorant natives heard the roar and saw the flash and smoke of the Spanish guns, they thought that the white men were using thunder and lightning against them, and became too terrified to defend themselves. Settlement of the West Indies. — The Indians were forced to yield much of their richest lands to the white men; and the Spaniards soon had small settlements planted on the larger island of the West Indies and even on the near-by shores of the continent. Ponce de Leon Finds Florida De Leon Governor of Porto Rico. — Among the ad¬ venturers who came to Hispaniola from Spain on account PONCE DE LEON FINDS FLORIDA 29 of the gold fever was Juan Ponce de Leon. On arriving at Hispaniola, he took a leading part in subduing the natives and was rewarded for his services by being made the first governor of Porto Rico, an island east of Hispaniola. Ponce de Leon lost no time in conquering the natives of Porto Rico and making himself master of the island. By gathering gold and working the Indians as slaves, he soon grew rich. He was living in luxury when he heard the Indians tell about a wonderful spring, the waters of which had the power to make people young forever. De Leon’s heart leapt for joy, for he was growing old. Like others of his time, he was ready to believe all sorts of fanciful stories. It had long been believed that such a magic spring did exist somewhere in Asia. Since it was still thought that the islands dis¬ covered by Columbus were near Asia, Ponce de Leon be¬ came convinced that the fountain of which the Indians told him was the famous Asiatic Fountain of Youth. The Search Started. — Determined to find the magic fountain, De Leon fitted out at his own expense a fleet of three vessels, and sailed from Porto Rico in the spring of 1513. He explored the group of islands now called the Bahamas, searching through forests and thickets for the secret of youth. He tasted of every spring he saw, and bathed in every rivulet and lake. 30 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA Discovery of Florida. — Failing to find the youth¬ giving fountain on any of these islands, De Leon con¬ tinued his voyage in a northwesterly direction. On Easter morning he sighted land, to which, because that day is known in Spanish as Pascua Florida , he gave the name Florida. This land is now the State of Florida. Ponce de Leon landed and claimed the country for Spain. Thinking Florida was an island, and hoping to find there the wonderful fountain, he once more began his vain search. Finally, disappointed by his failure, he returned to Porto Rico. A few years later De Leon died from an arrow wound received in a fight with the Indians while he was trying to plant a colony in Florida. Balboa Discovers the Pacieic Ocean Balboa Goes to Darien. — Spaniards had settled on the isthmus of Darien (now Panama), little dreaming that only a narrow strip of land separated them from another ocean. Among these settlers was Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who belonged to a noble but very poor family of Spain. Soon after arriving at Darien, Balboa became a leader in the colony. By his tact he gained for the Spaniards the friendship of neighboring Indians. This friendship he made stronger by marrying a daughter of one of the chiefs. Hearing of a Great Sea. — One day a party of Spaniards were dividing among themselves some gold that the Indians had given them. They soon began to quarrel BALBOA DISCOVERS THE PACIFIC OCEAN 31 over the amount that each one should receive. The Indians were surprised that the white men should value so highly a metal they thought to be of no use except for making simple trinkets. One of the Indians said that, since the Spaniards desired gold so much, they should go to a great sea which lay only a little way toward the south. On the shores of that sea they would find Indians who had so much gold that they made their cups and plates of it. Balboa Gazes upon the Great Sea. — Balboa was eager to find the sea and the wealthy Indians. In the autumn of 1513 he started upon the search, taking with him a small body of men. Had Balboa known it he could have gone straight across the narrow neck of land in a very short time. As it was, he spent more than three weeks in roaming through forests, climbing moun¬ tains, and fighting hostile Indians. At last he came to a mountain from the top of which, a friendly Indian said, the great sea might be seen. Balboa wished to be the first white man to gaze upon the sea. Bidding his companions stay behind he climbed alone to the top of the mountain. From the lofty peak he looked down upon blue water stretching further than the eye could reach. Going down to the shore, Balboa, with his sword in one hand and the flag of Spain in the other, waded into the Vasco Nunez Balboa 32 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA water to the depth of his thighs. In a loud voice he declared that the sea and all lands bordering on it be¬ longed to the king of Spain. The Pacific Ocean Called the South Sea. — The body of water that Balboa discovered we now know as the Pacific Ocean, but Balboa and his companions, still thinking that Asia was near, took it for a smaller sea. Balboa called it the South Sea. When Balboa found that Darien (Panama) was an isthmus, he suggested to the king of Spain that a canal be cut through the isthmus to connect the Atlantic Ocean and the South Sea. It remained for the United States, four hundred years later, to cut the canal. Fate of Balboa. — While making plans for going further in search of the Indians who owned so much gold, Balboa was arrested by the governor of Darien. The governor had become jealous of Balboa. Pretending to believe that Balboa was guilty of treason against the colony, he caused the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean to be beheaded. Magellan's Ship Sails around the World Discovery of an Eastern Water Route to India. — The Portuguese had continued their explorations down the African coast. Before Columbus died, a Portuguese seaman, named Vasco da Gama, had succeeded in reach¬ ing India by sailing around Africa. Da Gama returned to Portugal with a cargo of fine cloths, spices, and precious stones. Other Portuguese seamen followed in voyages to India, bringing back great riches. MAGELLAN’S SHIP SAILS AROUND THE WORLD 33 Magellan Wishes to Try the Westward Route to India. — Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese soldier and navigator, spent some years in the East Indies. Because the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, are so far east, Magellan came to think that the shortest way to reach them from Portugal was by sailing westward and passing around South America. He asked the king of Portugal to fit out for him a fleet with which to make the western voyage to the Spice Islands. His monarch refused his re¬ quest. Thereupon, Magellan went to Spain to ask the king of that country to help him. The king of Spain at that time was Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns who had helped Columbus. He was only a boy, but he remembered the glory and riches that had come to his grandparents through listening to the pleadings of a poor sailor. So he readily consented to fit out a fleet for Magellan. Mutiny, Shipwreck, and Famine. — Five ships were secured and with these Magellan put to sea in 1519. The voyage across the Atlantic was long and full of danger. At the end of two months the fleet sighted the coast of Brazil in South America. Then Magellan turned the prows of his ships south¬ ward and sailed down the coast. Four months had thus Ferdinand Magellan 34 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA passed by the time he reached Patagonia. There, as cold weather was coming on, he landed and went into winter quarters. Some of the men mutinied, one of the vessels was wrecked, and the food supply ran low; but Magellan was determined to go on. He declared that he would go to the Spice Islands if he “ had to eat the leather on his ship’s yards.” Winter over, the fleet passed into the strait now known as the Strait of Magellan. This passage would carry the exploring party into the ocean on the other side of South America. While in the strait one of the ships deserted and sailed back to Spain. Eating the Leather on the Shipyards. — The ship that deserted, the largest in the fleet, carried most of the pro¬ visions. The danger of starvation became still greater for the men who remained faithful to Magellan. Never¬ theless the bold commander, with his three remaining vessels, steered out into the great western ocean. The smoothness of this ocean was in such strong contrast to the stormy Atlantic that Magellan called it the Pacific Ocean. The word Pacific means peaceful. The Pacific Ocean is much wider than the Atlantic and it took many weeks to cross it. A number of the sailors sickened and died for want of food Fortunately the sea continued calm, for none would have been strong enough to contend against the added hardship of storms. What little food there was soon spoiled, and the men gladly caught and ate the rats that were in the ships. MAGELLAN’S SHIP SAILS AROUND THE WORLD 35 At last Magellan was forced to do what he declared he would do rather than turn back — eat the leather from the yards of the ships. The leather was tough, but the crew soaked it in sea water for several days, broiled it, and ate it with great relish. Those who could not get enough had to satisfy themselves with sawdust. To add to the horror of their plight, the drinking water was nearly gone, and the ships were now near the equator where the heat is intense. The men had become so weak from thirst and heat that often a sailor in climbing the rigging would fall lifeless to the deck. In all the terrible hardships of the voyage Magellan cheerfully took his part. He ate the same food as his men, and night and day kept faithful watch over his fleet. Death of Magellan. — In March, 1521, the Spaniards arrived at a group of islands now known as the Philippines. Here Magellan heard a native tongue very much like the language of islands near India. Here he met traders from Asia; so he knew that his goal, the Spice Islands, 36 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA was near. Magellan died in the hour of his triumph. He was killed in a fight with the natives of one of the Philippine Islands. One Ship Completes the Voyage. — The Spaniards hurried away from the Philippines. Soon after leaving, one of the ships was considered no longer safe, and she was emptied and burned. Of the five vessels with which Magellan had set out, only two were now left. These two ships reached the Spice Islands in the autumn of 1521. There both vessels were loaded with spices to carry home, but one of them was soon captured by the Portuguese. The sole remaining vessel, the Victoria , continued her westward way. Many of the crew were dying for want of food, and the vessel was battered and worn. Finally the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa was rounded and the voyage up the west coast of that continent was begun. Death continued to reduce the crew. At last in the fall of 1522, the Victoria arrived at Seville, in Spain, the port from which the fleet had sailed more than two years before. Of all that great expedition only eighteen half- starved men returned. The little vessel had sailed around the world. She had made the greatest voyage known to history. Importance of Magellan’s Voyage. — Magellan’s voyage had two important results. It showed that a wide ocean lies between America and Asia, and proved beyond doubt that the world is round — for one of his ships had sailed out by the west and come back by the east. DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI 37 De Soto, Seeking Gold, Discovers the Mississippi Conquest of Mexico and Peru. — Hernando Cortez, leading an army over from Cuba, had conquered Mexico. Later Francisco Pizarro crossed the Isthmus of Darien (Panama) with an army and conquered Peru. Both of these countries were very rich in gold and silver. Peru is thought to be the country about which Indians had told Balboa. The Spaniards robbed the natives of Mexico and Peru of the precious metals. De Soto Made Governor of Florida. — Among those who had gained riches in Peru was Hernando de Soto. While in Peru he had been an under officer in Pizarro’s army. He wished now to be at the head of an expedition in search of gold. Believing that Florida and the lands lying near con¬ tained even more gold than Mexico or Peru, De Soto told the king of Spain that he would undertake a search for the metal, if the king would make him governor of the territory he explored. As the expedition might bring further riches to the king, and would cost him nothing, he gladly accepted De Soto’s offer. An Army Sets Forth Gayly. — De Soto at once began to prepare for the journey. His fame was so great and everybody was so sure that all who went with him would Hernando de Soto 38 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA find wealth, that members of the best families of Spain hastened to join his army. To equip themselves for the expedition many sold all the property they owned. Amid a blare of trumpets and the shouts of a great multitude assembled on the wharves, De Soto sailed from Spain with a large and well-equipped fleet. Since every one of the adventurers thought he was going on a trip that would be one of pleasure and wealth getting, there was much merry-making and music and dancing through¬ out the voyage. The March through the Wilderness. — Early in the year 1539 De Soto’s fleet appeared off the west coast of Florida. Almost from the moment of landing the Spaniards met with trouble. De Soto, instead of making friends with the natives, treated them with cruelty and injustice. He began by capturing Indians and trying to force them to go with him as guides. At every opportunity along the march Indians, hidden behind trees, showered arrows upon the explorers. When the Indians captured a Spaniard, they put him to death. When the Spaniards captured an Indian, they placed him in chains and made him carry their heavy burdens. If they had no need for him, they killed him. In his search for gold, De Soto spent two years in marching through the present states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. He met disappointment after disappointment, for as he marched on, he was always greeted with the same story, that gold was to be found a little farther ahead. The men suffered greatly from want of food and from DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI 39 the constant attacks of the Indians. De Soto had kept up his cruelties and news of his outrages went ahead of him. Naturally the fierce red men were ready for him all along the way. Battle of Mavilla. — In southern Alabama De Soto's army came upon a palisaded Indian village, called Mavilla. There a severe battle was fought, for the natives felt that their homes were at stake, and they made a desperate resistance. The Indians were defeated and many of their warriors were killed. Among the dead was their brave chief, Tuscaloosa. In the fight the Spaniards lost a number of their men and all their baggage. 40 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA Soon after landing in Florida the men wished to turn back. All along the march they had begged De Soto to return to Cuba. After the battle of Mavilla they became more discouraged than ever, and pleaded with their leader to march towards the coast where ships awaited them. But De Soto was proud as well as brave, and could not bear the thought of failure. He declared that he would not turn back until he had found gold. Discovery of the Mississippi. — In the spring of 1541 De Soto and his men reached a high bluff near the present city of Memphis. There they beheld a mightier river than they had ever dreamed could exist. It was the Mississippi and it flowed a mile wide between them and the unknown west toward which they had set their faces. So far as is known, they were the first white men to look upon the waters of that great stream. Death of De Soto. — De Soto and his men crossed the river in rudely constructed boats, and spent the third winter in Arkansas, still searching for gold. Discouraged by failure, De Soto at length made his way back to the Mississippi. The ranks of the army that had set out so joyously had been greatly thinned by death, and those left were weary with the toil and hardships of the long march. The Indians, seeing the desperate condition of the Spaniards, became bolder. With his health broken and his fierce spirit crushed, De Soto died in the spring of 1542. It was thought best to keep his death a secret, for the Indians held him in great dread and should they learn that he had died they might increase their attacks. The men placed his body in CORONADO’S QUEST 41 a boat, and in the darkness of the night they lowered it into the muddy waters of the great river that he had discovered. An unknown grave was the only reward of the man who had dared so much for gold. The Survivors Escape to Mexico. — The followers of De Soto, reduced to one half their number, wandered De Soto’s Discovery of the Mississippi, 1541 After the picture by W. H. Powell, in the Capitol at Washington. over the country a year longer. Finally they built boats, floated down the Mississippi River, and succeeded in reaching a Spanish settlement on the shore of Mexico. Coronado’s Quest of the Seven Cities of Cibola The Seven Cities of Cibola. — While De Soto was making his unsuccessful search for gold in the southern 42 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA part of what is now the United States, other Spaniards were exploring the far western part. Reports had come that in the country north of Mexico the people were so rich that they lived in great luxury. Their cities were large. Their houses were built of stone and were many stories high; the doors of the houses were decorated with turquoises. Men and women used balls of gold as ornaments for their ears and noses and wore belts studded with the turquoises around their waists. Indeed, the country was so full of gold and silver and precious stones that whole streets were used by goldsmiths and jewelers. The cities were seven in number and came to be called the Seven Cities of Cibola. Coronado Seeks the Wealthy Cities. — Having seen the wealth of the natives of Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards believed the story. Francisco de Coronado, a Spanish official of Mexico, led an army in search of the seven cities. He marched over the dreary desert lands of Arizona and New Mexico, and was the first white man to gaze into the depths of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. He crossed the rolling prairies until he had gone as far north as Kansas and probably Nebraska. The men of Coronado’s party did not suffer as much as those of some other Spanish expeditions. It is true that, because they were cruel to the Indians, they had con¬ stantly to fight their way forward, but they did not lack for food. For meat they killed the buffalo, and they forced the Indians to give them large supplies of corn. No gold was found and the Seven Cities of Cibola turned out to be only seven squalid Indian villages, CORONADO’S QUEST 43 Disappointed and dejected were the men who turned back over the many weary miles to Mexico. Results of the Spanish Explorations and Settlements. — By this time much of the Atlantic coast of America had become known through the explorations made mainly by the Spaniards. The long marches of De 44 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA Soto and Coronado into the interior proved North America to be a large continent. Spain claimed the continents of both North and South America, but had made settlements only in Mexico and Central America and South America where gold had been found in abundance. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. When gold was discovered in America, how was the news received in Spain? 2. What class of people hurried to the New World? 3. How did they treat the natives? 4. What kind of man was Ponce de Leon? 5. For what was he searching? 6. What land did he discover, and what did he call it ? 7. How did he die ? 8. What name is now given to the Isthmus of Darien ? 9. Who was Balboa? 10. How did he hear of another ocean? 11. Describe his journey to the ocean. 12. What did he do when he reached the ocean? 13. What name did he give to the ocean, and why ? 14. Tell the fate of Balboa. 15. What great idea did Magellan wish to prove ? 16. How did the king of Portugal treat him ? What did Charles V do for him ? 17. De¬ scribe the route that he took. 18. Tell about the sufferings of his men. 19. How did Magellan die? 20. Tell about the Victoria’s home-coming. 21. What two important results had Magellan’s voyage ? 22. Tell about the wealth that the Spaniards seized in Mexico and Peru. 23. What did the finding of so much wealth make De Soto ambitious to do? 24. How was De Soto equipped for his expedition? 25. How did he treat the Indians? 26. Trace the line of his march. 27. What great discovery did De Soto make? 28. Tell about his death and burial. 29. Compare the expeditions of De Soto and Columbus. 30. Tell the story of the Seven Cities of Cibola; and Coronado’s search for them. 31. Give the result of the Spanish explorations. 32. Where did the Spaniards make settlements? CHAPTER V THE COMING OF THE FRENCH Why Other Europeans Followed the Spaniards to America The Power of Spain. — Spain had become the strongest nation of the world. Most of her power came from the great quantities of gold and silver and precious stones that she obtained from America; for with this treasure she equipped large armies and fleets. Other nations feared that Spain would become so powerful as to endanger their independence, and they set about crippling her by attacking her commerce with America. Whether a nation was at peace or at war with Spain made no difference. The Work of the Corsairs. — In those days every nation had its corsairs. It was mainly the corsairs that attacked Spanish commerce. The corsair sailed in his own ship, but with the consent of his king who often helped to outfit the vessel. He usually divided with his king the booty that he captured. Nowadays we all know that it is very wrong for a ship of one nation to attack a ship of another nation unless the nations are at war. But in those days it was considered right to attack a ship of another nation, in time of peace, if such an attack would benefit one’s own country. 45 46 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH Indeed, the corsair considered himself a patriot, and his fellow countrymen looked upon him as one. By capturing or destroying Spanish ships coming from America, and seizing their rich cargoes, corsairs did much damage to Spanish commerce. As all vessels venturing beyond the waters around home were heavily armed, many fierce combats occurred. The most active of the corsairs preying upon the ships of Spain were those of England, France, and Holland. Jacques Cartier in Canada. — The French were the first to think of the idea of planting colonies in America as a help in the struggle against Spain. They hoped that such colonies would, as in the case of Spain, bring wealth to the treasury of France. They believed that the colonies might be used as starting points for expedi¬ tions against Spanish ships coming from the West Indies. The French naturally turned their attention to Canada, for the voyage to that country had become familiar to French fishermen who had for many years been catching cod off the banks of Newfoundland. Francis I, king of France, sent Jacques Cartier to Canada with a small party of settlers in 1541. One winter in the cold climate was enough for Cartier and his men. With the coming of spring, they sailed back to France. For some years afterward the French could do nothing more toward establishing colonies in America, for a war with Spain had broken out, and they had all they could do to defend their country. The Reformation. — Meanwhile a religious movement, known as the Reformation, had begun in western Europe. WHY THE FRENCH CAME 47 It resulted in many persons leaving the Catholic Church. Those who left the Church are now usually called Protes¬ tants. In Spain, every one remained faithful to the Catholic Church. In England and Holland, the government and most of the people became Protestant. In France, Thus; ist Voyage — 2nd Voyage-3d Voyage —» —> the Protestants, or Huguenots as they were called in that country, became very numerous, though the king, the nobility generally, and most of the people continued to be Catholic. Persecution on Account of Religion. — The ruler of almost every country believed that the government would be stronger if all its people had the same religion as the king. Therefore, any one who did not willingly 48 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH accept that religion should be forced to do so. Besides, it was generally thought that it would benefit the soul of a person of another religion for him to suffer per¬ secution and even death. Consequently, Catholic or Protestant, whichever was in power, maimed or put to death followers of the other faith. Admiral Coligny and His Huguenot Colony in Florida Persecution in France. — Religious wars broke out in France. The Huguenots, being the weaker party, were the greater sufferers. The distress of the Huguenots deeply grieved Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot nobleman. He determined to found in America a colony where his fellow-churchmen might live free from persecution, Charles IX, who was then king of France, though a Catholic, was very friendly to Coligny, whom he had appointed an admiral. The king would be glad to be rid of the Huguenots, and he looked upon a French colony in America as a great blow against Spain. For these reasons he willingly gave Coligny per¬ mission to establish the colony. Huguenots in Florida. — In 1564 Coligny sent out a party of Huguenots to settle in America. These Hugue¬ nots built a fort on the St. John’s River, near the site of the present city of Jacksonville. In honor of their king, they called the fort Caroline, from Carolus , the Latin word for Charles. Founding of St. Augustine. —The king of Spain was alarmed when he heard that a French colony had been HUGUENOT COLONY IN FLORIDA 49 planted so near his West Indian possessions. He hurried over Pedro Menendez de Aviles with a strong fleet and army to destroy the young colony. The Spaniards landed on the coast of Florida at a point south of Fort Caroline. Here they set to work (3:565) to build a fort. From this fort has grown St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States. The Massacre at Fort Caroline. — Jean Ribault, the cool brave commander at Fort Caroline, acted quickly. He put most of his men on board ships, and sailed forth to attack the Span¬ iards before they could finish their fort. Un¬ fortunately, a furious storm arose which so tossed the ships about that they could not get near enough to shore for the French to make an attack. Fort Caroline, the French Huguenot Menendez, seeing Settlement in Florida that the French fleet was helpless, immediately marched across the country to attack Fort Caroline. He fell upon the small garrison that had been left to defend the fort and massacred all except a few who escaped into the woods. Meanwhile the storm had wrecked the French fleet and only a few persons escaped and reached land. When Menendez came upon the survivors from the wrecked ships, he massacred them also. 50 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH The Revenge of the French. — The people of France were very indignant when they learned of the foul way in which their countrymen had been murdered. Charles IX, who was a weak king and at heart afraid of the power of the Spanish king, did nothing; yet the crime was avenged. A Frenchman, Dominique de Gourgues, in¬ censed at the cowardice of his king, took it upon himself to punish the Spaniards. In order to raise the money to buy ships and supplies for the men whom he induced to join him, Gourgues sold all his lands. Still not having enough money, he borrowed what was lacking from his brother. Upon landing in Florida, Gourgues persuaded an Indian tribe against whom the Spaniards had made war to aid him in the attack. Most of the Spaniards who had taken part in the massacre were at Fort Caroline. Sud¬ denly and without warning Frenchmen and Indians surrounded the fort. All the Spaniards except about fifty were killed; these Gourgues hanged later. The Frenchmen had heard that Menendez had placed over the scene of the massacre an inscription which read, “ I do this not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans (Protestants).” After the Frenchmen had finished their work of revenge, Gourgues nailed upon a tree a notice reading, “ I do this not as to Spaniards, but as to traitors, robbers, and murderers.” Spain Continues to Hold Florida. — Gourgues and his men soon afterward returned to France, and the Span¬ iards continued to hold Florida. The Huguenots made no further attempt to plant colonies in America. SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN 51 Samuel de Champlain, “The Father of New France” New France.—Peace having come once more to the French, they again turned to Canada, which they called New France. The French king gave New France to a commercial company. This company was to get its profits from having entire con¬ trol of the fish and fur trades. Samuel de Champlain. — One man, Samuel de Cham¬ plain, stands out above all others in the early history of Canada. Champlain had spent his young manhood in the service of France, part of the time in the army and part in the navy. Champlain was a most loyal Frenchman, and he resented that France should be domineered over by Spain. His life on the sea had increased his spirit of adventure, and he longed to explore the wilderness that stretched far into the interior of America. It was natural, there¬ fore, that Champlain should wish to take part in es¬ tablishing in Canada a French colony. Beginnings of Quebec. — Having been appointed governor of New France, Champlain founded the town of Quebec in 1608. He carried to Quebec twenty-eight men; but so great was the suffering from cold and Samuel de Champlain 5 2 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH disease that all, except Champlain and eight others, died during the first winter. The brave Champlain kept up the courage of the survivors. In the spring other settlers with more provisions came and the colony was saved. Why New France Grew Slowly. — For nearly a quarter of a century Champlain was governor of New France. So slow was the growth of the colony that during all that time the number of inhabitants was never more than about one hundred. The trouble was that the company owning the colony wished to make out of it all the money possible. It cared nothing for settlements where people built homes and made their living by planting crops.*, it cared only to establish trading posts where furs and skins could be bought from the Indians with cheap trinkets. There were only one or two farms at Quebec, for practically every inhabitant of the town was employed in trading for the company. Champlain knew that only through thrifty, self- supporting settlers could the colony become strong. He begged the company to send over such settlers, but he begged in vain. Champlain and His Indian Allies. — Champlain made friends with the neighboring Indians, who were Algon- quins. These Indians were the bitter enemies of the Iroquois, who dwelt in what is now the upper part of the State of New York. The Iroquois were the most powerful and the most warlike of all the North American tribes. When the Algonquins saw how deadly was the shot from the Frenchmen’s guns, they looked upon it as some¬ thing marvelous. With such weapons they could easily SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN 53 conquer the hated Iroquois. They reasoned among themselves that if the white chief was a real friend to the Algonquins, he would be willing to fight against their dreaded foes. They asked Champlain to go on the war¬ path with them against the Iroquois, and he, wishing to keep them friendly, consented. War with the Iroquois. — Bedecked with war-paint and shrieking their war-whoop the Algonquin warriors The Defeat of the Iroquois at Lake Champlain After the drawing by Champlain in his Voyages guided Champlain and two other Frenchmen to Lake Champlain in the Iroquois country. These three French¬ men were the first Europeans to look upon the beautiful waters of the lake. Near by they met the Iroquois. Just as the fighting was about to commence, the Algonquins called to their white allies to come forth; and Champlain and his two companions took position in front of the battle line. The 54 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH Iroquois had never before seen white men, and they stood dumbfounded while they watched the Frenchmen approach¬ ing. When Champlain fired his gun and two of their chiefs fell dead, they turned and fled in terror. Why the Frenchmen Pushed Westward. — As the years passed Champlain joined the Algonquins in other battles against the Iroquois. These wars had an im~ The First View of Quebec After an old print port ant effect upon the history of America. The Iro¬ quois, ceasing after a while to look upon the French as superhuman, came to hate them. They prevented the French from carrying their explorations and settlements into New York. Unable to go southward from Canada, the Frenchmen pushed westward, thus leaving New York, as we shall see later, for the Dutch and then the English to colonize. Champlain’s Work. — Champlain stands foremost among the explorers of America. He sailed along the QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 55 entire coast of New England and he penetrated the western forests as far as Lake Huron. He was a close observer, and in his accounts of his explorations he described so well everything he saw that he gave Euro¬ peans their first clear ideas of the northern part of the continent of North America. Though he explored much, Champlain did not neglect the Frenchmen under his charge. He watched over them with the greatest care. In his twenty-five years as governor he made many sacrifices and suffered many hardships in order that the colony he had founded might survive. He richly deserves the title that has been given him, “The Father of New France.” Champlain died and was buried in his beloved Quebec* QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Why was Spain the most powerful nation of Europe ? 2. What did other nations fear from Spanish power? 3. Describe the work of the corsairs. 4. How did the French plan to injure Spain? 5. Tell about Jacques Cartier. 6. Tell about the Reformation, and the perse¬ cution that followed it. 7. Relate how the Huguenots attempted to plant a colony in America. 8. Tell how it was destroyed. 9. How was its destruction avenged? 10. Which is the oldest city in America? n. Who continued to hold Florida ? 12. What country was formerly called New France? 13. Describe the settlement of Quebec. 14. Why did New France grow so slowly? 15. Why did not the French settle New York? 16. Tell why you think Champlain deserves the title, “The Father of New France.” - CHAPTER VI THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH Sir Francis Drake, who “ Singed the King of Spain’s Beard” Growth of the English Navy. — In the many years that had passed since John Cabot, sailing in an English ship, discovered the continent of North America, the English nation had grown much stronger. Elizabeth, one of the greatest queens of the world’s history, ruled over England for nearly fifty years, from 1558 to 1603. As England is on an island, Elizabeth knew that the best way to defend her country would be to have a large navy. She built many warships; still, her navy was not as powerful as that of the king of Spain. English, French, and Dutch corsairs continued to attack the commerce of Spain for the purpose of crippling her power. The English corsairs did more damage than those of any other nation. Drake Sails around the World. — The most famous of the English corsairs was Sir Francis Drake. In the year 1577 Drake started from England with five vessels for the purpose of attacking the rich Spanish colonies on the Pacific side of South America. By the time that he had passed the Strait of Magellan all but one ship, 56 SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 57 the Golden Hind , had deserted him, yet he kept on. Cruising northward along the Pacific coast Drake ran his single ship into the ports of Chile and Peru, and vast quantities of gold, silver, and precious stones fell into his hands. From one ship alone he took a cargo worth three million dollars. Drake continued his course northward, and explored the coast of California. On the shores of a bay, now thought to be the San Francisco Bay, the natives made Drake their king, placing upon his head a crown of feathers. But Drake, instead of keeping the kingship thus thrust upon him, claimed the country for Elizabeth, his queen. From California Drake steered the Golden Hind straight across the Pacific, and, passing around Africa, returned to England. Drake was the second explorer, and the first Englishman to sail around the world. His voyage had lasted nearly three Sir Francis Drake years. The people of England welcomed Drake home with much enthusiasm. Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with his exploits that she went down to the Golden Hind , anchored in the Thames River near London, and knighted the intrepid sailor. 58 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH # “ Singeing the King of Spain's Beard. ” — A few years later, Philip II, king of Spain, determined to punish England for her continued unfriendly acts against his country. In the harbor of Cadiz, Spain, he began build¬ ing a great fleet, or Armada, for the purpose of invading England. Drake was sent with a fleet to do what damage he could to the Armada. Cadiz was strongly defended by forts and warships. Boldly entering the harbor, Drake sunk all the supply ships and many of the warships of the Armada. Sailing out of the harbor he continued his work of destruction by attacking Spanish vessels on the high seas. Drake called his exploit in the harbor of Cadiz “ singe¬ ing the king of Spain’s beard.” It took a year for Philip to repair the damage done to his Armada. Defeat of the “ Invincible Armada.” — Finally, in 1588, the Armada was completed. Undoubtedly it was one of the most formidable fleets that the world had ever seen. It numbered one hundred and thirty ships and carried three thousand cannon and thirty thousand men. The king of Spain boastingly called the fleet the “ Invincible Armada.” So sure was he of victory that he posted on the coast of France a large army which was to land in England as soon as the Armada had swept the English ships off the sea. Englishmen rallied to save their native land from the threatened calamity. Volunteers hurried to join the army and shipowners loaned their vessels to the navy. When the dreaded Armada appeared in the English channel, Drake and other high commanders of the English SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 59 navy were playing a game of bowls at Dover where their fleet had been assembled to await the coming of the Spaniards. The other players wished to stop and rush to their ships, but Drake insisted that the game continue, for, he said, “ There is time to finish the game first and beat the Spaniards afterwards.” The Spanish Armada in the English Channel After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the House of Lords Drake was right. The battle ended in a disastrous defeat for the Armada. Few of the Spanish ships got back home. Some were sunk by English gunners and others were wrecked in a storm that arose while they were trying to make their escape. Twenty thousand Spaniards were killed or drowned. The English lost only about a hundred men. Decline of Spanish Power. — The defeat of the “ In¬ vincible Armada ” did more than save England; it So THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH marked the beginning of the end of Spain’s naval power. The Spaniards were disheartened by the terrific blow. England kept up her destructive war upon Spanish ships and it was not many years before Spain was so weakened in her naval power that she could not prevent other nations from colonizing America. Sir Walter Raleigh and His “Lost Colony” The English Turn to America. — Before the defeat of the “ Invincible Armada,” Sir Walter Raleigh had tried to plant an English colony in America. Raleigh and the Queen. — Raleigh was a great favorite of Elizabeth. There is a pretty story of the way he first came into her notice. One day as her Majesty was walking through the garden with her ladies, she came to a muddy place in the path and hesitated. Raleigh was near by, and he quickly drew off his handsome scarlet cloak, and kneeling, spread it over the mud, that the queen might pass without soiling her shoes. Queen Elizabeth was so much pleased with this graceful act that she made Raleigh one of her courtiers. Raleigh Sends out an Exploring Expedition. — Raleigh believed that a better way to cripple Spain than by seizing her ships would be to settle English colonies in America, and through them check the growing power of Spain in the New World. You will remember that the French had the same idea. Raleigh probably got his idea from them. When Raleigh asked Queen Elizabeth to let him plant a colony in the New World, she willingly gave him a charter which declared that the colony should be his own. SIR WALTER RALEIGH 61 Raleigh was to govern the colony and all the profits were to be his. The colonists, of course, were to continue to be subjects of Elizabeth. A colony like Raleigh’s — one owned and governed by a man or a set of men instead of the sovereign — is called a proprietary colony. Raleigh sent two ships to America to find a good place for his colony. These entered Pamlico Sound on the coast of North Carolina. There the men found much to please them —a mild climate, fish and game in plenty, and good fruits and vegetables. They made friends with the Indians, who enter- . . , , Sir Walter Raleigh tamed them most hospitably on Roanoke Island. On their return to England, the men gave a glowing account of the land they had visited, and the queen herself suggested that it should be called Virginia, in honor of herself. Elizabeth was known as the “ Virgin Queen ” because she had never married. Raleigh’s First Colony.—In the next year (1585) Raleigh sent a colony to Roanoke. But as their food ran low and they could get none from the Indians, whom 62 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH they had offended, the colonists, after a short stay on the island, returned to England. They carried back to Raleigh tobacco and white po¬ tatoes. The Spaniards and the Portuguese had long before discovered these American products, but people in England knew little or nothing about either. Sir Walter Smokes a Pipe. — When Sir Walter re¬ ceived the tobacco, he formed the habit of smoking like the American Indians. Now Raleigh’s servant did not know how the weed was used. On entering the room one day he saw smoke coming from his master’s mouth. He thought his master on fire and instantly threw a pitcher of water into his face to “ put him out.” Raleigh planted on his estate in Ireland the potatoes that his colonists gave him. They became so plentiful in that country that, although the plant was brought from America, it came to be called the Irish potato. Raleigh’s Second Colony. — Of course Raleigh was sorry that his colonists did not remain on Roanoke Island, but he was not yet ready to give up. In 1587, he sent out another party with John White as governor. Among these colonists were Eleanor, daughter of the governor, and her husband, Ananias Dare. Shortly after the landing at Roanoke, a daughter was born to them. The little girl was called “ Virginia ” from the new province. This baby was the first child born of English parents within what is now the United States. When little Virginia Dare was only ten days old, her grandfather, the governor, had to return to England to get aid for the colony. SIR WALTER RALEIGH 63 It was just at this time that England was preparing for the coming of the “ Invincible Armada.” Raleigh could not send White back to America for all the ships in England were needed to repel the invasion. As the war with Spain continued even after the defeat of the Armada, more than three years passed before White could return to Roanoke. Disappearance of the Second Colony. — When White’s ships at last ar¬ rived at Roanoke Island, there was not a living being on shore to hail them. Cannon were fired and English songs were sung by the sailors in the hope that the colonists would answer. But no reply came except the murmur of the waves. White and his companions were seized with a terrible fear as they passed through thicket and forest to the spot where the colonists had built their village. There their worst fears were realized. Everything was deserted; the houses were in ruins, and grass had grown in the fort. “ Croatoan ” Carved on a Post. — Before White had sailed for England, it had been agreed that should the colonists decide to move their settlement, they would mark on doorposts and trees the name of the place to 6 4 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH which they had moved. In case they were in danger, they were to make a cross under the name. White saw, plainly carved on a doorpost, the word “ Croatoan.” His heart bounded with joy because Croatoan was the name of an island near by where friendly Indians lived. Since he saw no cross under the name, White felt sure that his loved ones, with the other colonists, were safe on this island. He wished to go at once to Croatoan Island to search for the missing settlers, but a storm arose, and the captain of the ship refused to skirt those dangerous shores. So leaving the colonists to their fate, the fleet put for the open sea and home. What became of the colony is not definitely known. Raleigh sent out other searching parties, but the missing ones were never found. The Fate of Raleigh. — Misfortune now befell Raleigh himself. His good friend Queen Elizabeth died, and James I, who had no love for Sir Walter, came to the throne of England. Raleigh was accused of plotting to take the throne from James. The charge was false but that made little difference in those days. At his trial Raleigh was given no chance to defend himself and was convicted. King James sent him to the Tower of London, a famous old prison that is still standing. For thirteen long years Raleigh was kept a prisoner in the Tower, and was then released. The king of Spain looked upon Raleigh as one of his most dangerous enemies, and the Spanish king had much influence over the weak English king. Two years after his release from prison, JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 65 Raleigh, because the Spanish monarch wished it, was led to the scaffold and beheaded. Thus died the brave, generous knight — a victim of the ambition of kings. John Smith and the Virginia Colony The London Company. — Raleigh’s work lived; for other men, inspired by his example, planted in Virginia the first permanent English colony in America. For the purpose of establishing the colony these men formed a company, which came to be known as the London Company, because the members lived in or around London. King James I gave the company a charter very much like the one Queen Elizabeth gave to Sir Walter Raleigh. As was the case with Raleigh, the com¬ pany was to govern the colony and receive all the profits. Settlement of Jamestown. — In 1607, the London Company sent out three vessels, the Susan Constant , the God-Speed , and the Discovery , having on board one hun¬ dred and five colonists — all men. On New Year’s Day, the men bade farewell to England and set their faces toward a new world. After four long months, the straining eyes of the colon¬ ists sighted the Virginia shore. The fleet entered Chesa¬ peake Bay and sailed some distance up a broad river. The land was fair and all things promised well. Choosing a spot on the bank of the river for a settlement, the colon¬ ists landed, May 13, 1607. In honor of their king they named the settlement Jamestown and the river the James. As soon as the settlers had pitched their tents, they began building a fort. They made a church by nailing 66 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH between two trees a board for a pulpit and stretching a sail from one of the vessels above it. Under the shelter of this awning the colonists had prayers twice a day. The Indians did not like the idea of white men settling on their lands, and before long they banded together and attacked the little col¬ ony. They were quickly driven away. Sickness and Starva¬ tion. — Soon a worse danger threatened the settlers. The food had spoiled during the long voyage, and the only drinking water was from the muddy river. Be¬ sides, the location of the town was unhealthful. Fever broke out, and the suffering was most pitiable. Before the end of the summer more than half the colo¬ nists had died of fever or starvation. Captain John Smith. — One man, Captain John Smith, saved the colony. Smith had already lived a life of varied adventure before trying his fortune in the wilds of America. Before he was twenty years old he took part in two wars. Then, growing tired of helping Christians kill one another, he set out to join in a war against the Turks. While fighting the Turks he was taken prisoner and sold into slavery. After suffering Captain John Smith JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 67 much from cruel treatment, he made his escape and wandered on foot through many countries of Europe. On arriving in England, Smith found that the London Company was preparing to send its first shipload of settlers to America. His love of adventure would not permit him to remain in England; so he joined the band of colonists. John Smith Gets Corn from the Indians. — One of the first things that Smith did after the colonists had settled at Jamestown was to make friends with the Indians. Now that starvation was threatening the few survivors of the colony, Smith’s friendship with the natives stood them in good stead. Smith went up and down the river, trading with the Indians. He exchanged hatchets, knives, looking-glasses, and bright-colored cloth for corn. When winter came, Smith had collected such a large quantity of corn that all danger from starvation had passed. In the meantime cool weather had driven away the fever. John Smith and Pocahontas. — Smith’s task often exposed him to danger. On one visit to the red men they suddenly turned against him. Their chief, Pow¬ hatan, decided that he should die. Accordingly, Smith’s hands were tied behind his back, he was stretched upon the ground, and his head was laid upon a rock. As a brawny warrior raised his club to crush Smith’s head, Pocahontas, the young daughter of Powhatan, rushed forward, and throwing herself across the captive’s body begged her father to spare his life. Powhatan loved his little daughter, and he could not refuse her request, so he set John Smith free. 68 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH Marriage of Pocahontas. — From that time Pocahontas was a good friend to the colonists, bringing them food herself, and persuading other Indians to help them. Some years later Pocahontas was married to one of the settlers, John Rolfe. Pocahontas had one son. Through him some of the best families in Virginia are to-day proud to claim descent from the “ Indian princess/’ as Poca¬ hontas was fondly called by the colonists. Further Trouble for the Colonists. — When Smith re¬ turned from his captivity, he begged the settlers to plant corn, for he feared that the Indians would not always fur¬ nish them with food; but the men would not listen to him. Most of them had been unused to hard work in England, and thought themselves too good for it. They had come to Virginia to find riches, so instead of working they searched for gold which, of course, they did not find. Smith’s fear that the Indians would stop trading with the settlers soon came true. With alarm the natives saw more and more white men coming over to the settle¬ ment, and they began to think that there would soon be too many to drive away. The Indians of Virginia were not yet used to the strangers, and were timid about making war upon them. Pocahontas JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 69 They had seen many of them die of starvation, however, and they planned to refuse them corn and let the colony perish. Therefore, at the beginning of the second winter, when Smith went again to the Indians, they would not trade with him. Smith found that he could not per¬ suade them, so with a show of boldness he frightened the redskins into letting him have a large supply of corn. Smith Puts the Colonists to Work. — The charter that the king gave the London Company did not allow a settler to own the product of his labor. The crop he raised, the fish he caught, the game he killed, and the food he secured from the Indians had to be placed in the village storehouse, there to be divided equally among all. Even the house that a man built belonged as much to the other colonists as to himself. Thus the lazy men, of whom there were many in the colony, spent their time in idleness, living upon what the hard-working men had earned. Now John Smith, who had by this time been placed at the head of the colony, was a just man and he was as wise as he was bold. He knew how to make the lazy men work. He made a new law: “ He who will not work shall not eat.” Every man in the colony under¬ stood that John Smith meant what he said, and the idle went to work in a way that was surprising. Before the second year ended a number of houses had been built and much land planted. Smith Returns to England. — A few months later John Smith was severely wounded by an explosion of gunpowder. As there was no surgeon in Virginia who 70 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH could properly treat the wound, he had to return to England. The “ Starving Time.” — After Smith left there was no one strong-willed enough to rule the colony, and the men again fell into idle and evil ways. They treated the Indians harshly, and the Indians in turn killed every settler who strayed any distance from the town. The settlers were wasteful of their provisions, and when they had eaten up everything, they found that the Indians would not supply them with food. In the winter of 1609-10, what is known as the “ starv¬ ing time ” set in. The suffering was terrible. When Smith left in the autumn, the settlers numbered five hundred. When spring came so many had died from hunger and cold that only sixty half-starved settlers were left. Prosperity Comes to Virginia. — In the spring some English ships arrived at Jamestown, and the wretched settlers decided to give up the colony and go back to England. Bidding farewell to Jamestown, they boarded the ships and sailed down the river. Before they reached the bay, however, they were met by a fleet sent over from England. As the fleet had plenty of provisions, the settlers changed their minds and returned to Jamestown. With the fleet had come Lord Delaware, whom the London Com¬ pany had made governor of the colony. John Smith, whose energy and force of character had kept the colony from perishing in its infancy, never came back to Virginia. But his wise counsel in making the JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 7 * settlers work was followed by Lord Delaware and other governors who came after him. Since every person works better when he is allowed to enjoy the product of his labor, each settler was allotted a plot of ground to cultivate for his own profit. The planting of tobacco was begun, and trade in the weed was opened up with England. Soon the colony was prospering. First Legislature in America. — The London Company allowed the colony to have a legislature, or assembly as it was called, to make its laws. The legislature, the first in America, met in the little wooden church at Jamestown in 1619. One of its acts was to declare that the colonists should be taxed only with the consent of the assembly. The meeting of the first legislature of Virginia is an important event in our history. English colonists who came to Virginia regarded themselves still as English¬ men, and, therefore, entitled to the same rights as English¬ men who remained at home. In England the people were taxed only with their consent — that is, by a parlia- 72 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH ment whose members they elected. The Englishmen in Virginia claimed that they should be taxed only by their own assembly. The English, who settled other colonies later, followed the example of Virginia in claiming the right to be taxed only by their own representatives in their own assemblies. Women Come to Virginia. — In the same year that the first legislature met at Jamestown a shipload of young women of good character came to Virginia. The London Company sent them over to become wives of the colonists, for the company knew that the men would never be satisfied unless they had wives in their homes. Each woman was allowed to marry whom she chose, but the husband had to give the company enough tobacco to pay the cost of sending her over. We may well imagine how gladly the men in that lonely country sought life- mates among these young women. Virginia Becomes a Royal Colony. — In England, opposition to the king’s ruling as he pleased had become so strong that a political party had been formed to check his power. Most of the members of the London Company belonged to this party, and King James, becoming angry with them, took away their charter in 1624. The king became the owner of Virginia, thus making it a royal, or crown colony. After that time the king appointed the governor, though the colonists still retained the right to elect the members of the assembly. The Virginia Colony Brings Other English Colonies. — The success of the Virginia colony was now assured. While there were occasional troubles with the Indians QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 73 and quarrels with unjust governors sent over by the king, the colony continued to prosper. We shall see later how other Englishmen, attracted by the success of Virginia, planted colonies in America. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Why did Queen Elizabeth wish England to have a great navy? 2. Who was the first Englishman to sail around the world? 3. Tell the story of the Golden Hind. 4. How did Drake singe the King of Spain’s beard? 5. What was the Invincible Armada, and what became of it ? 6. Mention some of the results arising from the defeat of the Armada. 7. How did Raleigh win the favor of the queen? 8. How did Virginia receive its name? 9. What became of the first Raleigh colony? 10. Tell the story of the “Lost Colony.” n. Why was Raleigh put in the Tower of London, and why was he finally put to death ? 12. Tell how, when, and where the Virginia colony was planted. 13. Describe the sufferings of the first settlers. 14. Relate some of the early experiences of John Smith. 15. How did John Smith save Virginia? 16. Tell the story of Pocahontas. 17. How were idle men allowed to impose on the industrious ? 18. What rule did Smith make to change this injustice ? 19. Why did Smith return to England ? 20. What terrible trouble came upon the colonists after Smith left? 21. When and where did the first legislature in America meet? 22. Why was the meeting of this legislature important? 23. How were wives obtained for the early settlers? 24. What is a royal, or crown colony, and why was Virginia made such a colony ? 25. What effect did the success of the Virginia colony have ? CHAPTER VII THE COMING OF THE DUTCH Henry Hudson on the River that Bears His Name Henry Hudson. — Captain John Smith had a friend in England named Henry Hudson, who, like Smith, was fond of adventure and would undergo any peril for the sake of it. Hudson, who was a sailor, had made a number of voyages into far-away waters, and his fame as a seaman had spread throughout Europe. Seeking a Northeast Route to Asia. — The Dutch had for many years carried on a fine trade with India by sailing around Africa. This was a long way, and they began to wonder if a shorter route could be found. At length a Dutch Company employed Hudson to find a northeast route to India — for it was thought that a passage around the north of Europe would be shorter than the one around Africa. Hudson Sails in the Half Moon. — The Dutch Company fitted out for Hudson a small vessel called the Half Moon. The crew was made up half of Dutchmen and half of Englishmen — about twenty in all. With his little ship and small crew Henry Hudson started bravely out to find the northeast passage to India, but in the 74 HENRY HUDSON 75 Arctic region north of Europe the ice became so thick that the ship could go no farther. The Dutchmen and the Englishmen in the crew quar¬ reled with each other, and their suffering from the bitter cold made their discontent worse. Hudson was in a dangerous position. Up in that lonely ice-covered sea he was facing a crew ready to mutiny. He knew that at The “Half Moon” in the Hudson River any time they might kill him in order to sail the ship back home. Hudson Turns His Ship Westward. — Hudson was un¬ willing to return home without further effort to find a passage to India. He told the crew of a letter which he had received from his friend John Smith, in Virginia. In the letter Smith said that somewhere, not far north of Virginia, a sea or strait passed around North America, and that through this body of water India could be 7 6 THE COMING OF THE DUTCH reached. Although more than one hundred years had passed since Columbus first came to America, Europeans still held to the belief in such a passage to India. Hudson suggested to his men that since the ice kept them from finding the northeast passage to India, they might try to find the northwest passage which Smith had told him about. The crew, glad to get away from the frozen sea, agreed to make the attempt. The little Half Moon was then turned westward, and the voyage across the broad Atlantic was made. Entering New York Harbor. — When North America was reached, Hudson sailed his ship up and down the coast, looking for the northwest passage. Finally, in 1609, he entered a magnificent bay which is now New York harbor. He saw emptying into this bay a large river. Sailing on the Hudson. — Nothing would satisfy Hud¬ son and his adventurous crew but that they should ex¬ plore the river. So the Half Moon sailed upstream as far as the depth of the water would permit. The men were charmed with the magnificent scenery. Because of the picturesque mountains on either side, Hudson named the stream the “ River of Mountains,” but it is now called the Hudson in honor of its discoverer. As the Half Moon sailed up the river and down again, the crew traded with the Indians along the banks, buying valuable furs and skins in exchange for cheap trinkets, On coming out of the Hudson River and New York harbor, the Half Moon steered straight for Europe, for every one was eager to report the discovery. NEW NETHERLAND AND NEW AMSTERDAM 77 New Netherland and New Amsterdam The Beginning ot New York. —When the Half Moon returned to Holland, news quickly spread through that country that a beautiful river had been discovered, on the banks of which rich furs and skins could be bought from the natives for almost nothing. The Dutch at once began sending out vessels to trade on the Hudson. Sketched by a Dutch officer in 1633 In 1613, a fort and a few small trading houses were built on Manhattan Island. This little settlement was the beginning of the great city of New York. New Netherland Given to the Dutch West India Com¬ pany. — Dutch vessels also explored as far north as Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, and as far south as the Dela¬ ware River. They claimed for Holland all the land be¬ tween these points. They called the country New Nether¬ land, in honor of Holland, which is sometimes called The Netherlands. 78 THE COMING OF THE DUTCH In 1621, the Dutch government gave this land to a com¬ pany of rich merchants in Holland, known as the West India Company, and settlers were sent over. The island of Manhattan was bought from the Indians for twenty- four dollars, and the settlement already begun there was named New Amsterdam, from Amsterdam, the chief city of Holland. The Slow Growth of New Netherland. — The colony of New Netherland grew very slowly. As was the case with the French colonies, most of the men who came to New Netherland were not seeking to make homes there but to trade with the Indians. Hence they were con¬ stantly coming and going. The Patroons. — In the hope of increasing the popula¬ tion of New Netherland, the West India Company agreed to give a large tract of land and the title of “ Patroon ” to every one of its members who should bring over to the colony fifty settlers. A few men, who succeeded in bring¬ ing over fifty settlers, were made “ Patroons,” but the plan was soon given up for it did not work well. The conditions under which the tenants were to till the lands of the “ Patroons ” were too hard to induce many farmers to leave Holland. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. What did Henry Hudson undertake to do for the Dutch? 2. What change did he make in his plans ? Why ? 3. What discovery did he make for the Dutch ? 4. Tell about the beginning of New York City. 5. What part of this country did the Dutch claim? 6. What was the Dutch West India Company? 7. Why was the growth of New Netherland slow? 8. Why did not the plan of creating “Patroons” succeed? CHAPTER VIII THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND William Bradford and John Winthrop in Massachusetts Who the Puritans Were. — Before the first English settlement in America was made, the Protestants of Eng¬ land had begun to quarrel among themselves about church matters. The Church of England had long been, as it is now, the “ established church ”; that is, the church favored by the government. From this church has come the Episcopal Church in America. A number of the members of the church objected to the way it was gov¬ erned and to its form of worship. These people were called Puritans, because it was said they wished to purify the church methods. King James I did not like the Puritans because he thought their attacks upon the church were attacks upon himself and his government. He had his officers break up their meetings and put them in prison. The Pilgrims. — At length a little band of Puritans, who had suffered persecution because they withdrew from the church, decided to leave their native country and seek a place where they could worship as they wished. They went first to Holland, where they called them¬ selves Pilgrims — meaning travelers. But as they did 79 8o THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND not wish to mix with the Dutch, they decided to take refuge in the wilds of America, where the Virginia colony had already been successfully planted. A committee was sent over to England to ask King James to give the Pilgrims a charter for planting a colony in America. The king refused to give the charter, be¬ cause he did not wish to have any dealings with the Pil¬ grims. However, he dropped a hint that the Pilgrims might without his consent settle a colony in America. He gave them to understand that he would not trouble them if they lived there peaceably. The Voyage of the Mayflower . — The Pilgrims were very poor, so they had a hard time raising enough money to get ships and the supplies needed for the long voyage. When everything was ready, those who had been chosen to make the first voyage to America went back to England, for it was planned that they should start from that coun¬ try. One hundred and two persons, — men, women, and children, — crowded upon one small vessel — the May¬ flower — and set sail from Plymouth harbor. The voyage was stormy, and the vessel, which came near being wrecked, took three months to cross. The Landing at Plymouth. — The Pilgrims had in¬ tended landing somewhere near Virginia, but storms drove them far north, and when they at last sighted land they were off the coast of New England. Winter had come; the ground was frozen, and heavy snows were falling. Yet the Pilgrims had become so weary of being crowded together in the little vessel that they welcomed even that cold bleak coast. MASSACHUSETTS 8x On December 21, 1620, a landing was made on the shore of what is now Massachusetts. A site was chosen for their town, which they called Plymouth, after the city from which they had sailed. The Mayflower Compact. — Before landing, the men had met in the cabin of the Mayflower and drawn up a paper by which all agreed to obey the laws of the govern¬ ment that they would set up. The paper is known as the Mayflower Com¬ pact. John Carver was made the first governor. A Winter of Suffer¬ ing. — At first the building of progressed slowly, for bad weather often kept the men from working. The colonists suffered much from cold and hunger, and sick¬ ness spread rapidly among them. So many became sick and so many deaths occurred that at one time there were hardly enough well men to bury the dead. By the end of the winter half the settlers had died, and among the dead was Governor Carver. William Bradford. — The survivors kept stout hearts. In the spring when the Mayflower returned to England, not one of the brave little band went back. They chose The “Mayflower” houses From the model in the Smithsonian Institution at Washington 82 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND William Bradford to succeed Carver as governor. Brad¬ ford was a young man who, much against the wishes of his family, had joined the Pilgrims and had come to the New World ready to undergo all sorts of hardships for what he believed to be the right faith. Samoset and Massasoit Make Friends with the Pil¬ grims. — Fortunately the Indians did not attack the settlement in its weak condition. It was not long before the colonists learned why the Indians had left them un¬ troubled. One day, an Indian named Samoset walked into the settlement, saying, “ Welcome Englishmen.” The settlers were surprised to see a native who could speak English. They found that Samoset had learned a little of the language from some Englishmen who had come to the coast of- New England to fish. Samoset told the settlers that about four years before, a band of Indians had killed some white fishermen, and soon afterward a plague had wiped out all the tribe. The Indians of other tribes believed that the plague had been sent as a punishment for the killing of the whites, so they were afraid to harm the Pilgrims. Samoset brought Massasoit to visit the Englishmen. Massasoit was the chief of the Wampanoags, the tribe living nearest to Plymouth. The settlers received the chief most kindly, and made a treaty of peace with him. Massasoit lived for fifty years longer and during all that time the terms of the treaty were faithfully kept. The First Thanksgiving Day in America. — The friend¬ ship of the Indians was worth a great deal to the colonists, for the Indians were able to help them in many ways. MASSACHUSETTS 83 Their greatest help was in teaching the settlers how to plant corn. By autumn the health of the colonists had been restored; a good crop of corn had been raised; wild turkeys, deer, and fish had been secured in abundance; and enough fuel for the coming winter had been laid by. Then Governor Bradford set a day for thanksgiving to God for His blessings to the colony. Thus began the cus- Copyright . 1891, by A. S. Burbank A View of Plymouth in 1622 tom of setting aside one day in the year as Thanksgiving Day — a custom that is now followed all over the country. The Desperate Struggle of Plymouth against Diffi¬ culties.—The Pilgrims were very thrifty. They wrenched crops from the stony soil, and they traded with the Indians for skins and furs. By dint of hard work Plym¬ outh became in a few years a self-supporting colony. Other Pilgrims came over, but the colony did not be¬ come strong in numbers for the Pilgrims were only a very small branch of the Puritans. 84 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND Bradford lived for thirty-five years after coming to America, and was governor of Plymouth with the excep¬ tion of four years during all that time. He ruled the colony so wisely that he was greatly beloved. Other Puritans Come. — When James I died, he was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Charles I. The new king treated the Puritans who remained in Eng¬ land even worse than his father had done. Some of them decided to follow the example of the Pilgrims in planting a colony in America as a place of refuge. They organized a company and, in 1628, sent over sixty men who settled Salem, in Massachusetts, not far from the town of Plymouth. The company thought it would be safer to have a charter from the king if possible. It will be remembered that King James had refused to give the Pilgrims a charter. King Charles, however, willingly gave a charter to the Puritans when they asked one of him, for they were not like the Pilgrims, poor humble folk, but were persons of influence and wealth. They were members of the strong political party that had been formed against the king, and doubtless Charles was glad to be rid of them. The new company was called the Com¬ pany of Massachusetts Bay. John Winthrop. — The persecution of the Puritans in England became so severe that the members of the company themselves resolved to go to America, and to carry their charter with them. They thought that it would not be so easy for the king to take away their charter if the broad ocean lay between them and England. MASSACHUSETTS 85 John Winthrop, who was a member of the company, was elected governor. In 1630 he crossed the ocean with a large party of Puritans in a fleet of four vessels. Puri¬ tans now began coming in great numbers and before the end of the year there were more than one thousand in the Massachusetts Bay colony. Settlement of Boston. — There were not enough houses in Salem for all these people, so they scattered along the shores of Massachusetts Bay, building new towns. Among these was Boston, which was made the capital of the colony. Winthrop Encourages His People.—As was the case with most other colonies, the settlers suffered greatly during the first winter for want of food and proper shelter. The food sup¬ ply got so low that they were glad to eat acorns and nuts. Many of the colonists died. Governor Winthrop by his courage kept up the spirit of his people. Though he was rich, and had been used to all the comforts of life, he set to work with his own hands to build houses and clear the ground for planting. Massachusetts Has a Church-Controlled Government. — The Puritans had come to America in order to worship God in their own way. They feared that if they allowed other religions, they might lose control of the colony and perhaps finally be persecuted again. So when any one John Winthrop 86 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND who did not attend the Puritan Church came into the colony, he was sent away. Only members of the Puritan Church were allowed to vote. The ministers decided who should be church mem¬ bers, and they admitted only a few. In this way the church controlled the government of the colony. It is interesting to know that the present Congregational Church grew out of this early Puritan Church. Winthrop’s Great Heart. — We now realize that it is wrong to pass laws against religion, but in those days even good men like John Winthrop thought it dangerous to allow any other religion than their own. Still, though most of the Puritans believed in dealing very severely with people who did not belong to their church, John Winthrop was too kind-hearted to be harsh. He always tried to make the punishment of offenders as light as possible. Winthrop lived in the Massachusetts Bay colony nine¬ teen years. He was elected governor term after term, serving in all fifteen years. Most of the other four years, he served as deputy governor. He, more than any one else, made the Massachusetts Bay colony a success. Winthrop left a record that stamps him as one of the fore¬ most men of America’s colonial history. Rapid Growth of Massachusetts. — Unlike the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth, the Massachusetts Bay colony grew very rapidly. In twelve years it had a population of twenty thousand. In 1691 the English government united the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth under the name of Massachusetts Bay. CONNECTICUT 87 The English Settle in New Hampshire. — Before the Puritans settled Massachusetts Bay, a few men from England founded (1623) the towns of Portsmouth and Dover in New Hampshire. Later, emigrants from Massa¬ chusetts moved into the colony. For a while during the colonial period, New Hampshire was a part of Massachusetts, but at the time of the Revo¬ lution it was a separate colony, belonging to the king. Thomas Hooker and His Congregation Seek Connecticut Dutch and English Claim Connecticut. — We have seen that the Dutch claimed that the territory of New Nether- land extended far into New England. For the purpose of trading for the fine furs that were plentiful in the valley, the Dutch had built a fort on the Connecticut River. This fort they called Good Hope. Now, the English also claimed Connecticut, and the people of the Plymouth colony wished the fur trade of the valley. So a small band of Plymouth men built a trading post on the Connecticut River. The Dutch governor of New Netherland vowed that the English should not be allowed to stay on land that he claimed belonged to Holland, and he sent a body of soldiers from New Amsterdam to drive them away. But the men from Plymouth would not leave. The Dutch soldiers, after much talking and blustering, marched back to New Amsterdam without firing a shot. News of a Rich Valley Reaches Massachusetts. —The Dutchmen and the Plymouth people, seeking only to 88 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND trade with the Indians, made no effort to settle Connecti¬ cut. It was finally settled by emigrants from the Massa¬ chusetts colony. The people of Massachusetts had a hard struggle to make a living from the stony soil of their colony. When news of the fertile land and rich furs of the Connecticut Valley reached them, it seemed to them that the valley was a land of milk and honey. Many longed to go there. As one colonist wrote with the quaint spelling of the time, “ Hereing of ye fame of Conightecute river, they had a hankering mind after it.” There was another reason why these people were im¬ patient to leave Massachusetts and make new homes in the wilderness of Connecticut. Although they were mem¬ bers of the Puritan Church, they did not like the church- controlled government of Massachusetts; they wished to go where they could form a government of their own that would be freer. The First Towns in Connecticut. — In the year 1635, small parties of Massachusetts people moved overland into Connecticut. Some of them, settling around the Plymouth trading post, began the town of Windsor; others founded the town of Wethersfield. Thomas Hooker and His Congregation. — The next year, the entire congregation of the church at Newton (now Cambridge), Massachusetts, decided to leave. Led by their pastor, Rev. Thomas Hooker, they started through the wilderness for Connecticut, driving their cattle and hogs before them. In the congregation were about one hundred men, women, and children. The dis- CONNECTICUT 89 tance to be traveled was less than one hundred miles, and Hooker and his flock were ten days on the way. It was a pleasant journey. The time was the balmy days of early June, when the woods were bright with flowers and green foliage, and alive with the music of the New England in the Seventeenth Century birds. Some traveled on horseback, some on foot, and the weaker ones in wagons. All went with light hearts, seeing before them happier times in the land of promise. Founding of Hartford. — Arrived at the Connecticut River, Hooker and his congregation built their cabins around the spot where the Dutch had erected Fort Good Hope. This settlement became the city of Hartford. 9 o THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND Trouble with the Indians. — Within less than a year after the arrival of Hooker’s party, eight hundred persons from Massachusetts had moved into Connecticut. The Pequots, the most powerful Indian tribe in New England, lived in Connecticut. They watched with alarm the coming of the English, for they knew that, if the English became very numerous, the Indians would be driven from the home of their ancestors. So they went upon the warpath to wipe out the colony while it was still feeble. They killed men, women, and children, and destroyed houses, livestock, and crops. Weak as the colony was, it raised a little army which, after some months of fighting, destroyed the whole Pequot tribe. Other tribes of New England were amazed that any people should be strong enough to destroy the powerful Pequots. Warned by the fate of this tribe, they gave no trouble for forty years. This long period of peace enabled all the New England colonies to grow steadily. The Connecticut Constitution. — Shortly after the Pequot War, the inhabitants of the three towns, Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield, drew up a constitution for the government of Connecticut. It was the first written constitution in the history of the world, and was the only constitution adopted by an English colony before the outbreak of the Revolution. Why We Should Honor the Connecticut Constitution. — The drawing up of the constitution was a bold thing to do, for the people of Connecticut had not asked permission of the king. Indeed, the king was not men¬ tioned in the document, which required that the people RHODE ISLAND 9 * take an oath to support the colonial government, not the king 0 Most governments, at that time, oppressed the people, but the government of Connecticut gave them many rights. Thomas Hooker took a leading part in the framing of the constitution. We should always honor these pioneers of the forest who were so far ahead of their time. Roger Williams Founds Rhode Island Young Williams in Massachusetts. — Soon after the founding of Massachusetts, there came to that colony one of the best and bravest men known to American history, Roger Williams. Williams had been a Puritan minister in England, but he was wiser than most of his sect. He did not like the kind of government that had been formed in Massachusetts, and he spoke strongly against it. Williams’ Liberal Views. — Williams declared that every one should be allowed to worship God as he pleased; that a man should be allowed to vote whether he belonged to the Puritan Church or not; that people should not be made to pay taxes for the support of any one church; and that a man should not be made to go to church against his will. Roger Williams meant simply that the govern¬ ment should not meddle with a person’s religion. He was merely trying to put an end to laws that we all know now to be wrong, and that have long since been changed. The Young Minister Called a “ Troubler.” — For the Puritans of Massachusetts to do what Williams wished 92 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND meant the overthrow of the government that they had been at such great pains to set up. Naturally they did not like this idea, and they tried to make Williams hold his peace. There was no power great enough to silence him. He even went further and said that the king had no right to give to settlers land in America for the reason that the land was not the king’s to give. The Indians, he said, were the owners of the land, and they alone could give it away or sell it. Roger Williams so annoyed the Puritans that they called him a “ troubler.” Williams Flees to the Wilderness. — When they found that they could not control his speech, the Puritans de¬ cided to drive Williams from the colony. Orders were given to arrest him and place him on board a ship about to sail for England. Williams heard of these orders; so, kissing his wife and children good-by, he slipped out of his house in the dead of night and fled into the wilderness. Befriended by the Indians. — Finally Williams sought shelter among the Indians. He had often before visited them, staying with them days at a time. He once said, very truly, “ My soul’s desire is to do the natives good.” The natives had learned to love him, and they gave him a cordial welcome when his own people had driven him from home. Massasoit, the old friend of the Plymouth colony, took Williams into his wigwam, and later gave him land upon which to build a house. Williams Ordered to “ Move On.” — Soon a messenger came from Plymouth to warn Roger Williams that the RHODE ISLAND 93 land which Massasoit had given him belonged to the Plymouth colony, and to order him to move on further. Again the wanderer set out. Rhode Island Begun. — Williams went to the head of Narragansett Bay, and there, with a few friends who had followed him from Massachusetts, he founded the town of Providence in 1636. Williams was careful to buy the land from the Narra¬ gansett Indians to whom it belonged. A government was formed which was not in any way to interfere with a man’s religion. As Wil¬ liams said, the colony was founded “ as a shelter for the poor and persecuted.” To all who sought the colony, Williams gave land. He gave away so much land that he had none left for himself. From this humble beginning grew the colony of Rhode Island. Williams Saves New England. — When the Pequots went on the warpath to destroy the colony of Connecticut, they wished the Narragansetts, another very powerful tribe, to join them in the war. The Pequots thought that by this union every colony of New England could be overwhelmed. At that time the two tribes could muster many more warriors than there were fighting men in all the colonies of New England combined. The Monument to Roger Williams at Providence 94 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND When news of the plan of the Pequots reached Massa¬ chusetts, the officials of that colony — the very men who had persecuted Roger Williams — wrote Williams a letter beseeching him to use his influence with his friends, the Narragansetts, to keep them from joining the Pequots. Williams, forgiving the men who had wronged him, took a canoe, and alone, in a heavy storm, paddled across Naira- gansett Bay to the village of the chief. There he found messengers from the Pequots begging the Narragansetts to help drive the white men from the land of their fathers. For three days and nights Williams stayed with the Narragansetts, urging that they remain friendly to the whites. At every moment he was in danger of being murdered by the Pequot messengers, but not once did he waver in his purpose. His influence with the Narra¬ gansetts was so great that he not only kept them from joining the hostile tribe, but actually persuaded them in¬ stead to help the colonists against the Pequots. Williams in Later Life. — The other New England colonies disapproved of Rhode Island because it allowed all kinds of people to live within its boundaries. They would have nothing to do with such a colony, and pre¬ dicted that it would fail. But its founder cared nothing for other people’s opinion when he knew that he was in the right, and continued to welcome every unfortunate white man who sought protection in his colony. He pro¬ tected the red men, too, and he never lost their good will. Roger Williams’ name shines brightly upon the pages of American history, for his long and useful life was spent in the cause of liberty and justice. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 9 5 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Who were the Puritans ? Why were some of them called Pilgrims ? 2. Describe the voyage of the Mayflower , and the first winter at Plym¬ outh. 3. Who was William Bradford? 4. Why were the Indians good to the Pilgrims at first ? 5. Tell about the first Thanksgiving Day. 6 . Why was the Plymouth colony never strong, and how did Bradford watch over it ? 7. Why was Massachusetts settled? 8. Tell all you can about John Winthrop. 9. Why did the Puritans treat other people harshly ? 10. What kind of government did Massachusetts have? n. What became of the Plymouth colony? How was New Hampshire settled? 12. What two nations claimed the Connecticut Valley? 13. Why did people in Massachusetts wish to go to the valley? 14. Relate the story of Thomas Hooker and his congregation. 15. Tell of the PequotWar. 16. Why should we honor the framers of the Connecticut constitution ? 17. What was it about the Puritan Church of Massachusetts that Williams did not like? 18. Do people now think as he did? 19. What did he say the king had no right to do ? 20. How did the people of Massachusetts treat him? 21. Where did he go; and what colony did he found? 22. How did he get on with the Indians? 23. Tell how Roger Williams saved New England. 24. Why should the name of Roger Williams be a household word with Americans ? CHAPTER IX NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA Lord Baltimore and His Maryland Colony Why Baltimore Wished to Establish a Colony. — Catholics were persecuted in England on account of their religion. George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, was a Catholic and wished to settle a colony in America as a refuge for people of his faith. As he was a just man, he desired that the colony should be a haven of peace for every Christian, whether Catholic or Protestant. The King Gives Baltimore a Charter. — In order to carry out this worthy plan, Lord Baltimore asked King Charles I, who was his friend, to give him a charter and a grant of land in America. The king consented and gave him land north of the Potomac River, next to the colony of Virginia. How Maryland Received Its Name. — When the char¬ ter was written, Baltimore had a space left for the name of the colony. He took the charter to the king to be signed, and Charles asked, “ What will you call the country? ” Baltimore answered, “ I wish your majesty to name it.” “ Then,” said the king, “ let us name it for the queen. Let it be Mary Land.” So Maryland became the name of the new colony. g6 MARYLAND 97 The Rights of the Lord Proprietor. — The great seal of England had to be put on the charter to make it lawful. Before this could be done Lord Baltimore died, and the document was given to his son, Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore. By this charter Baltimore was made lord of the colony. In fact, he had as much power as if he had been its king. The revenues from the col¬ ony were to go to Lord Baltimore, and the laws passed by the colonists were to be sent to him for ap¬ proval, and not to the king. As Lord Baltimore was the owner of Maryland, he was called the Proprietor. However, to show that the king was sovereign over the colony, Baltimore was made to give him two Indian ar¬ rows every year. The Voyage of the Ark and the Dove. — Balti¬ more intended to com^to America with the colonists, but as there was hard feeling in England because the charter had been given to a Catholic, he stayed in London to protect his rights. He sent his brother, Leonard Cal¬ vert, to act as governor in his stead. Lord Baltimore had said Christians of any creed might live in his colony. Hence, a number of Protestants as Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore After a painting in the State House, 9 8 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA well as Catholics sailed in his two ships, the Ark and the Dove , when they left England near the end of the year 1633. Two Catholic priests came with the colonists. The fleet crossed the ocean in a terrible storm, and arrived at Jamestown, Virginia, after a three months’ voyage. The Virginians Jealous of the Maryland Colony. — The Virginians did not like Lord Baltimore’s plan of settling Maryland. They claimed that the land given to him belonged to Virginia, and furthermore they did not wish to have so near them a colony ruled by a Catholic. They had to be friendly, however, for the king had written a letter commanding them to be kind to the new colonists. Landing on the Potomac. —After a short stay at James¬ town, the Maryland colonists sailed up the Chesapeake Bay into the Potomac River, and landed on an island about thirty miles from the mouth on a bright day in 1634. A large cross made of wood was at once set up, and around it the Christians knelt while the priest said mass. Then Leonard Calvert took possession of the country. “For our Savior and for our Sovereign Lord, the King of England.” Buying a Town from the Indians. — Before choosing a place for the settlement, Cal verf'Visited the native chiefs to tell them that the settlers had come as friends. One chief received him kindly and said that his people and the white men should share all things in common. Another would not at first express any opinion about the coming of the white men; but before Calvert left him the two were friends. MARYLAND 99 Sailing up the St. Mary’s River, which flows into the Potomac, Calvert came to a high bluff that overlooks the stream. There stood an Indian village, and he spent the night with the natives, the chief giving him his own sleeping mat. Calvert was so much pleased with the place that he decided to plant his settlement there, if the Indians would sell the land. Calling the natives together under a large mulberry tree, he bought the land and the village in exchange for cloth, axes, hoes, and other tools, to¬ gether with some gaudy trinkets. A Maryland Shilling Maryland Prosperous and Peaceful. — As the Indians had already begun their planting, it was agreed that they should keep half the village until their crop was harvested. In the meantime the white people were to live in the other half. The colonists at once began planting. Side by side the white men and the red men worked together, and together they went hunting. The squaws taught the white women to make corn bread and hominy. By the time winter came, the colonists had built com¬ fortable houses to live in, and had raised so much corn that they were able to send a shipload to New England to exchange for codfish. From the first Maryland was one of the most prosper¬ ous and most peaceful of the colonies. ICO NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA The Eight Lords Proprietors of Carolina Puritans in Control in England.—It will be remembered that the Puritans in England had, on account of their persecution by the government, joined a political party opposed to the king. As most of its members were Puri¬ tans, it was known as the Puritan party. In the reign of Charles I, the Puritans secured control of parliament. A civil war between the Puritan party and the king’s party followed. Charles I was taken prisoner and be¬ headed. His young son, Prince Charles, had to flee from England to save his life. A republic, called the Commonwealth, was then set up in England, with Oliver Cromwell at its head. Crom¬ well ruled England until his death, nine years later. After Cromwell’s death, Prince Charles was brought back to England and put on his throne. He was known as Charles II. King Charles II Rewards His Friends. — Charles II was so glad to secure his throne that he showered all kinds of gifts upon the friends who had helped him. In 1663, he gave to eight of these friends the vast tract of land lying between Virginia and Florida, and known as Caro¬ lina. These eight men were to be lords and proprietors of this entire tract and were given the right to establish a colony here. North and South Carolina. — In 1653, ten years before Charles II gave Carolina to his eight friends, people from Virginia had begun to settle on Albemarle Sound. In 1670, the proprietors sent over from England colonists THE CAROLINAS IOX who settled on the Ashley River. This settlement was named Charles Town, in honor of the king. In 1680, the town was moved to the peninsula between the Ashley and the Cooper rivers, where the city of Charleston now stands. The proprietors did not intend to form two colonies in Carolina, but the settlement on the Albemarle Sound and the settlement on the Ashley River were so far apart that their governments had to be more or less separate. From the settlement on Albemarle Sound grew the colony of North Carolina, and from the settlement on the Ashley River grew the colony of South Carolina. Troubles with the In¬ dians, the Spaniards, and the French.—From the very first the two colonies of the Caro- linas had trouble with the Indians who would swoop down upon the settlements without warning, and kill men, women, and children. The settlers had to take turns at their work, one planting while the other stood guard with his gun. The colony of South Carolina was also exposed to at¬ tacks from the Spaniards who claimed the land as a part of Florida. Port Royal, a small settlement south of 102 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA Charleston, was destroyed by Spanish soldiers who came up from St. Augustine in Florida. Later, France and Spain, then at war with England, joined in sending a fleet with an army to capture Charles¬ ton, but the little colony fought so bravely that the in¬ vaders were driven away. Noblemen and Serfs for Carolina.—Besides their many war troubles, the colonies of North Carolina and South Carolina both suffered from bad government. The proprietors had drawn up a constitution, known as the Grand Model, for the government of Carolina. The constitution was entirely too big for the needs of the handful of settlers living in log cabins in the wilderness. It also interfered too much with the personal rights of the people. For example, a court should decide what kind of clothes men and women should wear and what kind of games children should play. One of the most absurd things about the Grand Model was that it provided for noblemen and serfs for the colony. There were to be two orders of nobility, “ langraves ” or earls and “ caciques ” or barons; and there were to be laborers, called “ leet-men ” and “ leet-women/’ who could not own land at all, and could not leave the land they rented without the consent of the owner. The proprietors appointed a few langraves and caciques, but the system soon died out. This is the only instance in the history of the English colonies in America where orders of nobility were established. Quarrels between the governors and the people were frequent because the governors tried to enforce the foolish THE CAROLINAS 103 constitution and to collect taxes that the colonists thought to be unjust. The colonists were not backward in assert¬ ing their rights and successfully resisted these acts of oppression. The Carolinas Become Royal Colonies.— Finally, South Carolina grew tired of the rule of the proprietors and rose in revolt. Though the revolution was bloodless, it was Charleston in 1673 From an old print none the less complete. The colonists turned the governor out of office and asked George I, who was then king of Great Britain, to appoint the officials of South Carolina instead of allowing the proprietors to do so. The king granted their request and South Carolina became a royal province. Though the proprietors no longer ruled the colony, they continued to own it until 1729, when the king bought 104 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA their rights to all Carolina. The two colonies which, for many years, had really been separate, were then for¬ mally divided into North and South Carolina. Oglethorpe and the Georgia Colony How Debtors Suffered in Prisons. — Up to a hundred years ago it was legal and customary in England to put men in jail when they could not pay their debts. The same law existed in America, though it was not put into practice very much in this country. The jails, even in England, were filthy, loathsome places and, sometimes, debtors were thrown into cells with mur¬ derers, thieves, and other criminals. They often suffered horrible tortures, and deaths among them were frequent. The most distressing feature was that many of the prisoners in jail for debt were worthy men. Oglethorpe’s Plan for Relieving Debtors. — James Edward Oglethorpe, who had served as a soldier in the English army, was for many years a member of parliament. All the time that he was in parliament, Oglethorpe worked to have laws passed for the relief of the poor and dis¬ tressed. It grieved him that so many worthy men were serving as prisoners for debt, and he thought that a good way to relieve their pitiable condition would be to send them to America where they could begin life again. Aid of the King Sought. — With this idea in mind, Oglethorpe and some of his friends asked King George II to grant them a charter for planting a colony between the Carolinas and Florida. Oglethorpe told the king that such a colony would protect the growing settlements in GEORGIA io 5 the Carolinas from the Spaniards. The king was wise enough to see the truth of this statement; so he granted the charter (1732). The colony was called Georgia in honor of the king. Oglethorpe and the other men who had asked for the charter were made trustees of the colony on condition that they should serve without pay. Aid of the Public Sought. — Oglethorpe then asked everybody who could to give money to the colony. Many were glad to help in such a good cause, and money was given by persons in every walk of life. Parliament also added a large sum, while Oglethorpe spent nearly all his private for¬ tune on the scheme. Oglethorpe Appointed Gov¬ ernor. — When enough money was raised to make a begin¬ ning, the trustees visited the jails and chose for colonists James Edward Oglethorpe debtors of good character. The trustees appointed Ogle¬ thorpe governor of the new colony, and he consented to take the office, but refused to accept pay for his services. There were those who thought Oglethorpe very foolish to give up his fine home and high position in society for a life of hardship and danger in a wilderness; but these were selfish people who could not understand the nobility of spirit that led this man to sacrifice himself for others. Settlement of Savannah.. — With one hundred and twenty colonists in one ship, the Anne , Oglethorpe crossed io6 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA the ocean. Early in 1733, the settlers sailed up the Savan¬ nah River. On a high bluff overlooking the river, a few miles from its mouth, they began building a town which they named Savannah. Oglethorpe and Tomochichi. — While Oglethorpe urged on the work in the town as much as possible, he did not neglect to make friends with the Indians. For this pur¬ pose he paid a visit to Tomochichi, the chief of the tribe living nearest to Savannah, and through his influence made friends with all the neighboring tribes. A treaty was made by which the Indians gave to the English a large tract of land along the coast, and Ogle¬ thorpe agreed to see that the white men dealt justly with the Indians. In token of the treaty the chiefs gave Ogle¬ thorpe eight buckskins, one for each tribe, saying that they were the best they had to give. Then Tomochichi presented Oglethorpe with a buffalo skin, saying, “ Here is a buffalo skin adorned with the head and feathers of an eagle. The eagle signifies speed, the buffalo strength. The English are swift as an eagle and strong as a buffalo. But the feathers of an eagle are soft, and signify kindness; the skin of the buffalo is a covering, and signifies protection. Let these remind them to be kind to us and to protect us.” Oglethorpe’s Influence over the Indians. — No man ever had greater influence over the Indians than Ogle¬ thorpe. He was so kind and just to them that they soon learned to love and trust him. If a white man did them a wrong, they would not kill him or make war upon the colony, as Indians would often do in the case of other GEORGIA 107 colonies. Instead, they would report the matter to Ogle¬ thorpe and let him settle it. They were always satisfied with his decision. It was most fortunate for the Georgia colony that Oglethorpe won the friendship of the Indians. Spain claimed that the land upon which Oglethorpe and his colonists had settled was a part of Florida, and demanded that they should leave. Of course, Oglethorpe refused. Thereupon the Spaniards in Florida tried to persuade the Georgia Indians to attack the English, hoping thus to destroy the young colony. The love of the Indians for Oglethorpe was too great, however, for the Spaniards to overcome. The Colonists Well Cared For. — Oglethorpe also took good care of the colonists. He made them work, but he did so because he knew that their safety depended upon their having houses to live in and forts to protect them from the Spaniards in Florida. He made them do no work io8 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA that he did not share. Often he slept in a tent or by a camp-fire, while his men were comfortably housed. As more settlers came over, Oglethorpe built other towns besides Savannah, and on the islands toward Flor¬ ida he erected a number of forts. Spaniards Invade Georgia. — War having broken out between Spain and England, the Spaniards planned to drive the English out of Georgia and the Carolinas by sending a large army up through Georgia. In 1742, the Spaniards came. With more than five thousand men and fifty ships they landed on St. Simon’s Island, on the coast of Georgia, to attack the town of Frederica. To meet this strong force Oglethorpe had only eight hundred men, including Indians, and two ships. In order to reach Frederica, the invaders had to march over a narrow road where not more than three men could walk abreast. As the Spaniards came up the narrow pass they were caught in ambush. Oglethorpe and his men, hidden in the forest, poured volley after volley upon them, killing or wounding many. The others fled in confusion and retreated to Florida. Oglethorpe cap¬ tured cannon and great quantities of ammunition and provisions. After this the Spaniards never again in¬ vaded Georgia. Georgia Becomes a Royal Colony. — In the year fol¬ lowing the defeat of the Spaniards, Oglethorpe returned to England where he lived until a very old age. Because of Oglethorpe’s unselfish devotion to others, his is one of the names most cherished in America to-day. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 109 On account of its growth Georgia became too large for the trustees to take care of. In 1752, they turned the colony over to the king, who then governed it through officials whom he appointed. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why did Lord Baltimore wish to plant a colony in America ? 2. Tell how the colony came to be called Maryland. 3. What rights were given Lord Baltimore by the charter? 4. Why did not the Jamestown colonists like the plan of settling Maryland? 5. How did Leonard Calvert take possession of the country? 6. Tell about Calvert’s visits to the Indians. 7. How was land obtained for the settlement ? 8. Describe the life of the Indians and the settlers during the first summer. 9. What religious rights were granted in Maryland ? 10. Compare these rights with those in the Puritans’ colony. II. Tell about the civil war in England. 12. How did Charles II reward some of his friends? 13. From what did the colony of North Carolina grow ? The colony of South Carolina ? 14. Tell of the early history of the Carolinas. 15. What may be said of the only two orders of nobility in America? 16. Tell about the troubles between the settlers of South Carolina and the Spaniards and the French. 17. How did the Carolinas become royal colonies ? 18. Describe the suffering of debtors in the English prisons. 19. Who was James Edward Oglethorpe; and why did he wish to plant a colony in America? 20. Why was King George II willing to give him a charter? 21. What town was founded in 1733? Where? 22. What sort of man was Tomochichi? 23. What may be said of Oglethorpe’s influence over the Indians? 24. Relate the events of the Spanish invasion of Georgia. 25. Why should the character of Oglethorpe be admired ? Seal of the Georgia Colony CHAPTER X THE MIDDLE COLONIES Peter Stuyvesant Surrenders New Netherland Growth of New Netherland Continues Slow. — While the English colonies were growing rapidly, the growth of the Dutch colony of New Netherland continued to be slow. Although New Amsterdam was still a small village, it had become a place of some importance; for it was situated on the best harbor in America. The fine furs secured in the valleys of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers were shipped to Europe from this port. Traders from many different countries of Europe met at New Amsterdam. Peter Stuyvesant Comes to New Netherland. — The settlers of New Netherland had suffered so long from the harsh rule of other governors sent over by the Dutch West India Company, that they were glad when they heard that Peter Stuyvesant, whom they knew as a brave soldier, was coming to govern them. As the ship bearing Stuy¬ vesant entered the harbor of New Amsterdam (1647), the people greeted it with loud cheers and used up nearly all the powder in the town in firing salutes. When he landed, Stuyvesant, instead of receiving the enthusiastic welcome of the people in a friendly way, marched through the town “ like a peacock, with great no NEW NETHERLAND III state and pomp.” The citizens who had come to pay him their respects were made to stand bareheaded in the sun while he sat comfortably in his chair with his hat on. It is said that after listening to the speeches of welcome, the only promise he would make the people was, “ I shall govern you as a father his children.” Stuyvesant’s Stern Rule. — Stuyvesant must have had stern notions of a fathers govern¬ ment, for he ruled with an iron hand. He was a bluff old soldier, who did not think the people had sense enough to help in the government. He was hard-headed and impatient, and would have his own way about everything. For any one to appeal to the mother country, Holland, over his head was to his mind treason. To one person he said, “ If I thought there was any danger of your trying an appeal, I would hang you this minute to the tallest tree on the island.” “ Father Silver Leg.” — It must not be thought, how¬ ever, that Stuyvesant was a bad man. He had the welfare of the people at heart, and wished to do what he thought was right. He made many rules that were of benefit to the colony, and under them the people did well. He treated the Indians justly, and they became his friends. Peter Stuyvesant 112 THE MIDDLE COLONIES Stuyvesant had lost a leg in war, so he wore a wooden leg, around which were silver bands. The Dutchmen nicknamed him “ Old Silver Leg / 7 but the Indians affec¬ tionately called him “ Father Silver Leg . 77 Swedes Settle Delaware. — Some years before Stuy¬ vesant came to America, a company formed in Sweden had sent out a party of colonists. Sailing up Delaware Bay, they had built a fort on the Delaware River on the site of the present city of Wilmington. The Swedes called their settlement New Sweden. As the Swedes had settled on land claimed by the Dutch, Stuyvesant attacked the feeble Swedish garrison, over¬ powered it, and made New Sweden a part of New Nether- land. The English Overrunning the Dutch Claim. — In the meantime, New Englanders who swarmed into Connecti¬ cut, which it will be remembered the Dutch claimed, had pushed their settlements over to Long Island, which the Dutch also claimed. Stuyvesant fussed and fumed against the English, but he could do nothing, as his forts were weak and his soldiers few. He wrote to Holland for troops, saying, “ We declare it is wholly out of our power to keep the sinking ship longer . 77 He pleaded in vain, for Holland sent him no help. England Covets New Netherland. —As long as Holland owned a colony between the English settlements, England could not unite her colonies. Moreover, the English coveted the fine harbor of New Amsterdam and the fur trade that passed through it. Therefore, since England had long claimed the territory included in New Nether- NEW NETHERLAND 113 land, Charles II resolved to make good the claim by seizing the Dutch colony. The fact that England and Holland were at peace made no difference to Charles II. First, he gave New Nether- land to his brother, the Duke of York, who afterward be¬ came King James II. Then, in 1664, he sent a large fleet and army to capture the colony. New Netherland Given Up to the Eng¬ lish. — When the fleet entered the harbor of New Amsterdam, the town was summoned to surrender. The leading men of New Amsterdam, knowing that the town could not be held against such a strong force, advised Stuyvesant not to fight. Most of the people had grown tired of Dutch rule, and were willing that the English should govern them; but the brave old Stuyvesant, purple with rage, stumped around on his wooden leg, refusing to surrender. The English commander, who was still with his ships some distance down the harbor, sent a second summons for Stuyvesant to surrender, saying, “ I shall come foi your answer to-morrow with ships and soldiers.” THE MIDDLE COLONIES 114 Still the valiant Dutchman held out. But when women and children in tears crowded about him begging him to surrender, and even his own son joined with the other citizens in advising him to give up, the old soldier finally consented. “ Well, let it be so,” he said with a heavy heart, “ but I had rather be carried to my grave.” A white flag was raised over the fort of New Amster¬ dam in token of surrender. The Dutch soldiers marched New Amsterdam in 1665 After Van der Donck’s New Netherland out, and the English soldiers marched in. The Dutch colony became an English colony. New Netherland Becomes New York. — The names of both the colony and its chief town were changed to New York, in honor of their English master. Stuyvesant and the Dutch settlers stayed in the colony, and English¬ men then began coming in even greater numbers. Under English rule New York soon became prosperous, though many of the English governors were as objectionable as the Dutch governors had been. PENNSYLVANIA US William Penn Founds Pennsylvania The Quakers. — Of all the religious sects that were persecuted in England at the time of the settlement of America, the most ill-treated was that of the Quakers, or Friends, as they called themselves. The Quakers at that time came mainly from the poorer classes and had many peculiar customs. Because of their poverty they were held in contempt, and because of their peculiar customs they were ridiculed. Contempt and ridicule soon led to cruel persecution. A Quaker, because he believed all men to be equal, would not take off his hat to any one, or call any one by a title. In speaking to another he always used “thou” and “thee” instead of “you”; he would not take an oath, even in the courts, and was opposed to war or any kind of strife. According to the rules of A Quaker of the . . n i I 7 TH Century the sect, preachers were not allowed to receive pay for their services. The Quakers had no churches, but held their meetings in the open fields, in the streets, or in market places. Persecution of Quakers.—Laws were passed in England forbidding the Quakers to hold meetings, but they contin¬ ued to do so, and as a consequence they were often arrested. To punish them for holding meetings against the law, they were flogged, put in the pillory, or thrown into jail. Even women and children were treated in this cruel manner. THE MIDDLE COLONIES 116 William Penn. — The greatest of all the Quakers was William Penn. He did not come from the poorer classes. His father was a rich man and an admiral who stood high in the favor of King Charles II and his brother, the Duke of York. From early childhood Penn was very religious, but he did not like the Church of England to which his father and most of the great men at court belonged. His father wished him to be a statesman and sent him to college at Oxford. While he was a student there, he attended a Quaker meeting and was much moved by the eloquence of the preacher. From that time he drifted further and further from the Church of England. Penn Becomes a Quaker. — Penn’s father, the admiral, was much disappointed that his son, for whom he had such high ambition, should favor the despised Quaker sect. He sent the boy first to France and then to Ireland to keep him from the influence of the Quakers. In Ire¬ land, young Penn again met the preacher who had so affected him while at college. Unable to resist longer the promptings of his heart, he became a Quaker. The admiral sent for Penn to come home, and father and son again quarreled. As the use of “ thee ” and ‘ thou ” was considered very disrespectful, the old ad¬ miral said to his son, “ You may thee and thou other folk as much as you like, but don’t you dare to thee and thou the king, or the Duke of York, or me.” Young Penn declined to promise not to thee and thou these three personages, so his father drove him from home. PENNSYLVANIA 117 Penn a Quaker Preacher. — Penn then went about the country, staying with friends and preaching the Quaker faith. His mother in the meantime secretly sent him' money. He was several times put in prison, and his old father was always willing to help him out, though still unwilling to forgive him. Disappointed as he was in Penn’s course, the admiral loved his son dearly, and it is pleasant to know that they at last became friends. On his deathbed the admiral called Penn to him and said, “ Son William, let nothing in this world tempt you to wrong your conscience. ’ ’ The admiral had at last learned, what his son already knew, that the highest duty of a man is to follow his own conscience. Quakers Buy New Jersey. — The death of the admiral left Penn rich, and he decided to use his wealth in provid¬ ing a refuge in America for Quakers. The Duke of York had given the part of the colony of New York lying be¬ tween the Hudson and the Delaware rivers to two of his friends. The new owners had sent over a party of Englishmen who had settled Elizabethtown. This colony became New Jersey. Penn and other rich Quakers bought New Jersey for the purpose of making there a Quaker settlement, and a William Penn At the age of 22 ' n8 THE MIDDLE COLONIES considerable number of the persecuted sect came to this colony. Some years later the Quakers sold New Jersey to the king, thus making it a royal colony. Penn and King Charles II. — In the meantime, how¬ ever, Penn had established a larger colony in America for Quakers. In order to establish the larger colony it was necessary to secure territory not yet occupied by white men. Penn, therefore, asked King Charles II for a grant of such lands. Now the king liked Penn both for his own and for his father’s sake, and the two were on very friendly terms. The king, who was called the “ Merry Monarch ” because he was so fond of fun, always had a joke for Penn. One day on meeting him the king took off his hat, while Penn, according to the Quaker custom, kept his hat on. Said Penn to the king, “ Why dost thou remove thy hat, Friend Charles? ” The king laughingly replied, “ Because, wherever I am, it is customary for only one to remain covered.” But Penn had another claim on Charles besides the bond of friendship. The king had borrowed a large sum of money from Penn’s father and had never returned it. Penn asked the king to give him in payment of this debt a tract of land in America for a colony. ‘Charles was delighted to grant the request, for by giving away land for which he had no use, he could not only pay a large debt but could do his friend a favor as well. The King Gives Pennsylvania to Penn. — In 1681, the king gave to Penn the land lying north of Maryland and west of the Delaware River. The Merry Monarch named the country Pennsylvania — “ Penn’s Woods ” — in PENNSYLVANIA ng honor of the old admiral. In order for Pennsylvania to have an outlet to the sea, the Duke of York gave Penn the colony of Delaware, which was still a part of New York. Over all the land given to Penn, Charles, of course, was still to be king, and in token of the king's sovereignty Penn was to send him every year two beaver skins. Rapid Settlement of Pennsylvania. — In making up his colony Penn welcomed any settler of good character, but he especially wished Quakers to go to Pennsylvania. Reduced Facsimile of Part of the Royal Deed Given to Penn His plans for the colony were good and generous. Settlers were to own their homes; every man in the colony was to help to make its laws; and each was to worship God as he pleased. Truly the scheme was what Penn called it — “ a holy experiment." William Penn was held in such high esteem, especially among his own sect, that his colony at once became popular. During the first year about three thousand settlers, most of whom were Quakers, came over. Houses could not be built fast enough, and many of the settlers had to spend the first winter in caves dug in the banks of the Delaware River. Philadelphia. — The next year (1682) Penn himself came to Pennsylvania. The settlers gave a warm greet- 120 THE MIDDLE COLONIES ing to their proprietor and governor. Penn laid out the streets of a town that he wished to make the chief city of the colony, and called it Philadelphia — the City of Brotherly Love. Penn’s Treaty with the Indians. — In drawing up his plan for his “ holy experiment,” Penn had not forgotten The Treaty Elm, Philadelphia From an old print the Indians, for he arranged to pay them for their land. He was so desirous that the Indians should always have justice that he provided in his plan for governing the colony that every dispute between a settler and an Indian should be tried by a jury of whom half should be settlers and half natives. Soon after his arrival in America, Penn met with Indian QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 121 chiefs under a spreading elm tree and made with them a treaty of friendship. As a great man has said, this is “ the only treaty between savages and Christians that was not sworn to and that was never broken.” Quakers and Indians alike kept their pledge of friendship. The Old Age of Penn. — Pennsylvania grew more rapidly than any other colony, though, in spite of this rapid growth, Penn had to use his own money to keep up the government. Once Penn wrote sadly, “ O Pennsyl¬ vania, what hast thou cost me! ” In his old age, with his health gone and his fortune vanished, Penn was imprisoned for debt. Yet his life must be counted as a glorious triumph, for it brought religious liberty to thousands of oppressed Christians and by its noble example gave to the whole world a wonderful lesson in brotherly love. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Describe the growth of New Netherland. 2. What kind of man was Peter Stuyvesant? 3. How was Delaware settled? 4. Give an account of the capture of New Netherland by the English. 5. Com¬ pare the growth of the colony under English rule with its growth undei Dutch rule. 6. What may be said of the Quakers and their persecution? 7. Who was William Penn? How did he become a Quaker? 8. Tell about his quarrel with his father, and how the two finally made friends. 9. State how New Jersey was settled. 10. How did the Merry Monarch treat Penn? n. How did William Penn get the land for Pennsylvania? 12. Describe the rapid settlement of Pennsylvania. 13. What city was laid out by Penn? 14- Tell how Penn and his colonists treated the natives. 15. What was remarkable about the treaty Penn made with the Indians? 16. What hardship did Penn suffer in his old age? 17. Why must his life be counted a success? CHAPTER XI IN OLD COLONY DAYS Industrial and Commercial Conditions Population of the English Colonies. — By the year 1700 the population of the English colonies in America had reached about two hundred and seventy-five thou¬ sand. When we think of the one hundred and five million people, or more, now in the United States, the number of inhabitants of the colonies in 1700 seems very small. However, when we remember that less than one hundred years had passed since the first permanent English settle¬ ment in America was planted in Virginia, and that crossing the Atlantic and building homes in the new country were still full of danger, we realize that the English colonies had made wonderful growth. As yet the English settlements extended inland such a short distance from the coast that they lay like a narrow fringe along the Atlantic Ocean. Just back of this narrow fringe lived the Indians. Farther to the north and west were the French and to the south the Spaniards. The English in the Majority. — The majority of the white people in every colony, except New York, were of English birth or descent. In New York there were still more Dutchmen than Englishmen, though the English were rapidly gaining in numbers. 122 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS 123 The Colonies in 1734 124 IN OLD COLONY DAYS In some of the colonies there were small numbers of immigrants from countries in Europe other than England, Besides the Dutch in New York, that colony also con¬ tained Huguenots and Germans and a few Jews. In Pennsylvania and Delaware were Dutch, Germans, French, Swedes, Finns, Welsh, and Scotch-Irish. In North Caro¬ lina were Huguenots, Swiss, Moravians, and Germans. More Huguenots came to South Carolina than to any other colony. Later, when Georgia was settled, Sal- burgers, Moravians, and Scotch Highlanders were among the first to come to that colony. Fishing and Manufacturing in New England. — In New England, except in the valleys of the few large rivers, the soil is stony and infertile. The farms in that sec¬ tion were small, and many of the people took to the sea for a living. They caught cod off their own coast and the coast of Newfoundland, and they went as far as the Arctic Ocean fishing for whales. The chief products of New England were dried cod, fish oil, timber, hay, grain, and cattle. New Englanders had made a beginning in manufacturing. There, as everywhere else in the world, manufacturing was done entirely by hand, and most of it was done in the home. A few es¬ tablishments had been started, however, for making linen, INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS 125 woolen goods, hats, paper, and furniture of the simplest kind. Agriculture in the South. —In the South, where the climate is mild and the soil fertile, agriculture was the main occupation. Large plantations lay along the rivers. Often they were many miles apart, with great forests between. Tobacco was the chief crop in Virginia and Maryland, yet some wheat, barley, and corn were grown. Carrying Tobacco to the Wharf in Virginia In North Carolina, while the growing of tobacco was im¬ portant, the people found profitable trade in lumber, turpentine, and tar. Rice and indigo were the chief crops of South Carolina and Georgia. In both the Caro- linas cattle were raised, and in all the Southern colonies there was some trade in furs. Cotton, which is now the largest crop of the South, was then very little grown in America. Except for the few things that could be made on the plantation, manufactured goods used in the South were purchased from England. Occupations in the Middle Colonies. — The farms in the Middle colonies were larger than those of New Eng¬ land, yet not nearly so large as the plantations of the 126 IN OLD COLONY DAYS South. Wheat was the staple crop, though almost every kind of farm product was raised. Nowhere in the English colonies were to be found furs of greater value than those obtained from the interior of New York and Pennsylvania. There was some manufacturing in the Middle colonies, but most of the manufactured articles were brought over from England. Colonial Commerce. — The colonies engaged in a lively trade with one another. They also shipped many of their products to the West Indies and to England and other countries of Europe. Practically all the trade between the colonies, and much of the trade with foreign countries, was carried on in ships built in New Eng¬ land. Very soon after the settlement of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies New Englanders began building ships. By 1700 shipping had become as important an in¬ dustry in New England as the fisheries. Slavery. — In 1619, the year that the first legislature in America met in Jamestown and the first shipload of women came to Virginia, a Dutch vessel brought to James¬ town a few negroes from Africa and sold them to the Virginia planters. From this beginning slavery spread to all the English colonies. At that time few persons thought that slavery was wrong. Slaves were never numerous in the Northern colonies, for the climate of the North and the kind of crops grown there made slavery in that region unprofitable. Most of the slaves in the North were employed as house servants. In the South, on account of the climate and the crops, INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS 127 slave labor could be used to advantage and slaves were more numerous. Although slavery did not flourish in the North, many New Englanders engaged in the slave trade. The traders sailed to Africa, where negroes were bought from the native chiefs, or forci¬ bly seized. The negro men and women were then brought to Amer¬ ica, and sold to the Southern planters for slaves. Redemptioners and Indentured Servants. — Besides the negro slaves there were white servants who were bound to work for their masters for a certain period of years. These servants were of two kinds — redemp¬ tioners and indentured servants. Redemptioners were men and women who wished to come to America but were too poor to pay for their pas¬ sage. They voluntarily sold their labor for a period of years to colonists who, in return, paid the expenses of the voyage across the ocean. As a rule the redemptioners were of good character and, after serving their term of labor, became highly respected inhabitants. Indentured servants were usually criminals sent over Redemptioners. THERE flill remain, on board the {hip Aurora from Amlterdam, about 18 palfcngtrs, aroonaft whom are, ® Servant girls, gardeners,, butchers, luafons, • ugar bakers, bread bakers, 1 fhoernaker, x Elver fmith, k leather dreffer, 1 tobacconifl-, 1 pa£hy cook, and fome a. lirde acquainted with waiting on families, as well as farming and tending horfes, &c- They are all in. good health. Any perfoo d euro us of beiog accommodated in the above branch es will pleafe fpeedily to apply to Captain JOHN BOWLES, 5 n the fir earn, off EeU’sPoint: Who offers for Sale, 80 Iron-bound Water Calks 1 chefl elegant Fowling Pieces, fingle and dou¬ ble barrelled iy,ooo Dutch Brick, and Sundry fbips Provisions. July 14. dff;€94t Advertisement of Servants for Sale 128 IN OLD COLONY DAYS from England. The colonists paid the government for their labor for a term of years. Sometimes indentured servants were men or women, or even children, kidnapped in England and sold to the colonists. If a redemptioner or an indentured servant attempted to escape from his master, his term of service was made longer. Social Life in Early Colonial Times Life in the South. — Since agriculture was the main occupation in the South, most of the people of that section lived on the plantations. Visiting was common, and with neighbors so far apart, often a visit lasted for days. Stran¬ gers were given such cordial welcome at every home, that the Southern planter became noted for his hospitality. Dancing was the fa¬ vorite amusement for the young people, who would gather from miles around at the commodious home of some genial host and make the evening merry. Outdoor sports, such as horse¬ racing, cock-fighting, and wrestling, were very popular. The capital of a Southern colony during the meeting of the assembly was the scene of much gayety. All the prominent families of the colony then gathered there to A Virginia Mansion Party SOCIAL LIFE IN EARLY COLONIAL TIMES 129 attend the receptions of the governor, and the rounds of balls and tea parties. Life in New England. — In New England the people lived in villages built close together. Consequently, there was no need for much entertaining. Besides, the Puritans looked upon most pleasures as sinful, and they forbade all amusements except such as corn-husking bees and quilt¬ ing parties. On Sunday, or the Sabbath as the Puri¬ tans called the day, no work of any kind was done. No one could walk the streets except to go to church, and everybody was made to go to church. The prayers and sermon lasted for hours. Dur¬ ing the rest of the day every person, old and young, was expected tc think only of religious matters. Boston, Newport, and Old South Church, Boston New Haven were the principal towns of New England, and, as their inhabitants were gaining wealth, many handsome homes adorned their streets. Life in the Middle Colonies. — People from so many nations gathered in the town of New York for the pur¬ pose of trading that many different languages might be heard on its streets. Many of the Dutch customs still 13 ° IN OLD COLONY DAYS prevailed. The houses were built, as in Holland, of yellow brick, and the floors were covered with white sand. Both in the town and in the rural districts there were many amusements. The anniversaries that the Dutch are so fond of observing, such as New Year’s Day, Easter, and Christmas, were celebrated with much merry-making. When Penn founded Philadelphia, he laid out the streets regularly, like a checker¬ board. The town pre¬ sented a neat appearance with its brick residences set back from the street amid gardens and or¬ chards. The Quakers, whether they lived in An Old-time Stagecoach town or in the country, were a sober, thrifty sect that frowned upon worldly pleasures. How the Colonists Dressed.—Men wore knee breeches, long stockings, and low shoes with large buckles. Fashion¬ able men and women had garments of finest material. The plainer folk contented themselves with homespun. Laborers wore breeches of leather or buckskin. Traveling in Early Colonial Days. — Traveling was very difficult. The roads were bad, and few were fit for heavy vehicles. In the interior they were mere bridle paths. On account of the miserable condition of the roads, the most popular mode of travel in the Northern colonies, when not on foot, was horseback, though a light two-wheeled vehicle, known as the sulky, was some¬ times used. SOCIAL LIFE IN EARLY COLONIAL TIMES 131 In the South, travel was mostly done by water, because the rivers in that section are usually deep for great dis¬ tances from the sea. In a small sailing vessel, known as a sloop, the Southerners went to church, paid social visits, or made business trips. Few Towns Established in the South. — It was because the rivers were navigable that there were so few towns in the South. The plantations lay along the river banks, and the plant¬ er did his trading at his own door. On his planta¬ tion he had a wharf where ships unloaded the goods from the outside world and reloaded his products. Charleston, which later became the only impor¬ tant town in the South, had not long been settled and was then only a small place. How Children Got Their Education. — Every town in New England had a public school. Though these schools would be considered very inferior when compared with the splendid schools that we find all over the country to¬ day, they were excellent schools for the times. The sessions were usually two months in the winter and two months in the summer. There were not many schools in the Middle colonies nor in the South. The few schools that were in these A School in New England 132 IN OLD COLONY DAYS sections were usually taught by ministers and were at¬ tended only by children whose parents could pay the tuition. The children of the well-to-do were often in¬ structed by a tutor who lived with the family. Sons of very rich men in the South were sometimes sent to Eng¬ land to be educated. Harvard College, in Massachusetts, was established in 1636; William and Mary College, in Virginia, in 1693 ; and Yale College, in Con¬ necticut, in 1701. These institutions are still in existence. Punishment for Crime. — For many offenses not now considered very seri¬ ous, persons were then put to death, and, for many other acts not now considered offenses at all, persons were often severely punished. It was commonly believed that if a convicted person was punished as publicly as possible it would prevent others from com¬ mitting the same crime. Hence, for some offenses the culprit was made to wear upon his breast a placard, bear¬ ing the initial letter of his crime; for other offenses he was placed in the pillory or the stocks erected on the most public street; and for still others his forehead was branded, or his ear clipped. Religious Differences Cause Injustice. — Persecution on account of religion was not common in America as SOCIAL LIFE IN EARLY COLONIAL TIMES Y33 it was in the Old World, for one of the chief reasons for people coming to this country had been to escape persecution. Still, there had been persecution, more or less severe, in many of the colonies. For instance, Virginia at one time fined or put in the pillory Catholics and Quakers. Religious persecution was extreme only in Massachu¬ setts, where it will be remembered the Puritan Church controlled the government. Between 1659 an d 1661 four Quakers, one a woman, were hanged in Boston be¬ cause they refused to leave the colony. By 1700 all persecution of a cruel nature had stopped, but there was still a good deal of religious injustice. Most of the colonies levied taxes to support a particular church. It made no difference whether a person be¬ longed to that church or not; he had to pay the tax. Some colonies allowed only the members of a particular church to vote or to hold public office. Witchcraft. — Superstition lingered throughout the world, even among the intelligent classes. One of the commonest superstitions was the belief in witches. Per¬ sons convicted of witchcraft had been punished in Vir¬ ginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other colonies. In 1692, the witchcraft craze, in its most violent form, seized upon Salem, a town in Massachusetts. The colony had been visited by disastrous fires, Indian wars, and epidemics of smallpox, and the people of Salem had be¬ come convinced that these troubles were due to the evil spell of witches. More than a hundred men and women were arrested upon the charge of being witches. Of these, 134 IN OLD COLONY DAYS nineteen were put to. death. Most of the evidence against the victims was given by little children, who afterward confessed that they had sworn falsely. The craze did not last long, and, when the people of Salem came to their senses, they released all the supposed witches who were still held in jail. Relations with the Mother. Country The King and His Unworthy Officials. — The colonists were very proud of being Englishmen and were loyal to the mother country; yet they often had cause to complain of the way they were treated by the government in Eng¬ land. Although the colonies were generally allowed to manage their home affairs through their assemblies, the king had the right to veto laws passed by the colonies. Sometimes he vetoed a law because it prevented selfish persons in England from making money out of the colonists. Many of the governors and other officials that the king sent over to America were incompetent or dishonest. They gave the colonists much trouble, and would have given more had it not been for the fact that the assem¬ blies paid their salaries and could hold them in check by refusing to do so. Laws of Navigation and Trade. — We have already learned about the profitable trade that the colonies had built up with one another and with the West Indies and certain countries of Europe. We have learned also that manufacturing had been established in America. Most of this trade and manufacturing was illegal, for England RELATIONS WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 135 had passed laws to forbid it. It was England’s plan to control all American commerce for the benefit of English .merchants and manufacturers. Laws were passed compelling Americans to sell to Eng¬ lish merchants nearly everything they produced, although they could often have had better prices elsewhere. They were required to buy from English merchants nearly everything they needed, even when they could have bought goods cheaper from other countries. These merchants could thus buy from the colonists at a low price and sell to them at a high price. To force the colonists to buy all manufactured articles from English manufacturers, laws were passed forbidding them to manufacture anything. So rigid were these laws that a distinguished English statesman said that Ameri¬ cans could not legally manufacture a nail for a horseshoe. The Laws Evaded. — On account of the long years of warfare between Great Britain and France, the mother country was unable to enforce strictly these laws of navi¬ gation and trade, as they were called. In fact, the colonists paid little attention to them and traded very much where they pleased. The attempts that were made to enforce the laws caused much irritation in America. Colonial Policies of England, France, and Spain. — In considering the policy of England toward her American colonies two things should be borne in mind. First, the English colonial policy, though it was unjust, was better than that of other countries at that time. England al¬ lowed her colonies a great deal of self-government, and in this and in other ways, she treated her colonies more 136 IN OLD COLONY DAYS generously than France or Spain treated theirs. Second, although parliament had taken from the king much of his power, that body did not, as it does to-day, represent all the English people. It represented only the upper class and most of its laws were passed for the benefit of that class. The wishes of the great mass of people had little influence then upon parliament. Bacon’s Rebellion. —Sir William Berkeley, whom Charles II appointed gov¬ ernor of Virginia, made himself very unpopular with Virginians by the despotic way in which he conducted his office. One of the things that greatly Bacon and Berkeley outraged the people was that he made very little effort to protect outlying settlements from Indian attacks. Nathaniel Bacon, who lived on the frontier near the present site of the city of Richmond, made up his mind that, if the governor would not stop these savage raids, he himself would, and he led a party of neighbors against the Indians. As Bacon had acted without his consent, the governor declared him a rebel. Many of the colonists took sides with Bacon, and a civil war, known as Bacon’s Rebellion, broke out (1676). Bacon’s little army de¬ feated the governor’s forces. Berkeley fled from James¬ town, and Bacon’s men burned the town to keep the gov¬ ernor from getting possession of it again. RELATIONS WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 137 In his hour of triumph, Bacon died of a fever. After the death of its leader, Berkeley quickly put down the rebellion. Once more in power, the governor took re¬ venge by hanging more than twenty of Bacon’s followers. Charles II was shocked at Berkeley’s brutal course, for Charles, though he made a very undesirable king because he was too fond of his own pleasure, was more kind hearted than most monarchs of his time. King Charles said, “ The old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father.” He removed Berkeley from the governorship, and Berke ley, crushed because of the way his king had treated him, died soon afterward. The New England Confederation. — In 1643, the Nevi England colonies, with the exception of Rhode Island, formed a union for the protection of their interests. It was the first union of American colonies and was known as the New England Confederation. Rhode Island was not allowed to become a member of the Confederation because the Puritan colonies of New England did not approve of the religious liberty allowed in Rhode Island. Charles II distrusted the New England Confederation for he thought it might make the colonies so powerful that they would become independent of England. Charles thought Massachusetts especially showed a disposition to be too independent. He ordered the colony to change some of its laws that he did not like, and when the colony refused, he took away its charter, making Massachusetts a royal province. 138 IN OLD COLONY DAYS James II and Sir Edmund Andros. — When Charles II died he was succeeded on the throne of England by his brother James, the Duke of York, to whom Charles had given the colony of New York. The new king was known as James II. James II, who was a very tyrannical king, determined to crush the independent spirit of New England, which his brother had failed to do. He took away the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut; then, he united all the New Eng¬ land colonies and New York and New Jersey under one govern¬ ment with Sir Edmund Andros as governor. Andros thus ruled over the country extending from the present state of Maine to the Delaware River. He made his capital at Boston. Andros had ideas as tyrannical as those of his king. He governed so harshly that the colonists hated his very name. Finally the people of England, growing tired of the tyranny of James II, drove him from the throne (1688). When the news reached America, the people of Boston seized Andros and put him in prison. The Colonies under William and Mary. — When James II was driven from the throne, William and Mary were made joint sovereigns of England. William, who was at the head of the Dutch government, was a nephew, Sir Edmund Andros TROUBLES WITH THE INDIANS 139 and Mary, his wife, was a daughter of James II. William and Mary were good sovereigns and during their reign the colonies received better treatment. Troubles with the Indians King Philip’s War. — The Indians had never become reconciled to the coming of the English, for they knew that either the white men must go, or else they, themselves, would have to give up their homes. They were constantly attacking exposed settle¬ ments and farms. The Indian war from which New England suffered the most is known as King Philip’s War. King Philip was the name that the whites had given one of the Indian chiefs. Through King Philip’s influence many Indian tribes united to make a combined attack on all the New England colonies and utterly destroy the English. The war began in 1675. Fortunately the New England Confederation was still in existence, and it was able to raise an army promptly. A year was required to subdue the red men. In the meantime twelve towns in New England had been de¬ stroyed, numerous others had been attacked, and many men, women, and children had fallen victims to the tomahawk. War with the Tuscaroras. — One of the most severe Indian wars in the Southern colonies was with the Tus¬ king Philip 140 IN OLD COLONY DAYS caroras, a very warlike tribe that lived in North Carolina. In 1711, the Tuscaroras took the war-path and killed every settler they came upon. The North Carolinians flew to arms and volunteers from South Carolina came to their aid. In a terrible battle fought on the Neuse River the Tuscaroras were defeated. They remained quiet for two years, when they broke out again. This time an army from the two Carolinas inflicted such a terrific defeat that the Tuscaroras removed from North Carolina. French and Spaniards Incite the Indians. — The French colonists to the north and west of the English, and the Spanish colonists to the south, were as desirous as the English of controlling the American continent. To cripple English power they incited the Indians to make war upon the English colonies. In another chapter we shall see that when wars between England and France spread to America, the French were able to get more aid from the Indians than the English could get. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. What was the population of the English colonies in 1700; and what did it show? 2. What other peoples, besides the English and the Dutch, came to the English colonies? 3. Tell of the occupations of New England; the Southern colonies; the Middle colonies. 4. De¬ scribe colonial commerce. 5. Relate the story of the beginning of slavery in the English colonies. 6. Why were slaves more numerous in the South than in the North? 7. What colonies engaged in the slave trade? 8. Name the kinds of bonded white servants, and tell the difference between them. 9. Describe life in the South in early colonial times; in New England; in the Middle colonies. 10. Describe the dress ®f the early colonists. 11. How was traveling done in the North? In the South? 12. Why QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 14* were there so few towns in the South in colonial times? 13. How were boys and girls in early colonial times educated? 14. Name some of the methods for punishing crime. 15. Describe the religious in¬ tolerance of the colonies. 16. Tell the story of the witchcraft delusion. 17. What was the attitude of the colonists toward the mother country? 18. How did the king interfere with the colonies, and why did some of his officials give trouble? 19. What were the laws of navigation and trade? 20. How did they come to be evaded? 21. Compare the colonial policies of England, France, and Spain. 22. Tell the story of Bacon’s Rebellion. 23. What was the New England Confederation, and how did King Charles II feel about it? 24. What did he do to Massachusetts? 25. Tell of the tyranny of James II and Sir Edmund Andros. 26. Who were William and Mary, and why should we remember them with gratitude ? 27. Describe King Philip’s War. 28. Describe the War with the Tuscaroras. 29. Why did the French and Spaniards incite the Indians to make war upon the English ? Tinder Box, Flint, and Steel CHAPTER XII THE FRENCH IN AMERICA Marquette and La Salle on the Mississippi The French in Canada. — The population of Canada grew very slowly. The French were interested chiefly in trading for skins and furs, and gave little attention to clearing the land for settlement. Yet it was from Canada that the Middle West was explored. Catholic missionaries came from France to Canada soon after Champlain had founded Quebec. As the years passed they came in larger numbers. These pious men devoted themselves to carrying the gospel of Christianity to the Indians. They plodded through tangled forests and drifts of snow, and waded in ice-cold rivers; they went without food, and slept on the frozen ground; they bravely faced even the greater danger of the tomahawk and scalping knife. Some were put to death by torture; but no danger could turn them from their noble work, and they succeeded in making Christians of many of the Indians. French traders also penetrated the forests. Before 1660, the West had been explored by missionaries and traders as far as Illinois. Father Marquette. — One of the missionaries who had come out from France was Father Jacques Marquette. Upon his arrival in Canada, Marquette at once began to 142 MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 143 study the languages of the different tribes so that he might work among them more easily. It was not long before he could speak with ease six native tongues. This good priest went into the wilderness, even to Lake Superior. He lived among the In¬ dians like one of them, caring for the sick and afflicted. He told them of God, baptizing all whom he con¬ verted. Marquette was a delicate man, and was ill fitted to endure the hardships of the wilderness, but the faith that was in him gave him strength. Marquette Seeks the Mississippi. — The Indians spoke often of a great river called the Mississippi; and the French thought that it must empty into the Pacific Ocean. The French¬ men could not know that this river, far up in the northwest, was the same stream that DeSoto had discovered, far to the south, more than a hundred years before, nor did they dream that ^ Caplto1, it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico. The governor of Canada wished to find the river so that he might claim for France all the lands drained by it and also might secure for that country a western route to Asia. Marquette wished to find the river in order that he might carry the knowledge of God to the Indian tribes along its banks. Jacques Marquette From the statue in the £44 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA Marquette and an explorer named Louis Joliet began a search for the Mississippi. In the spring of 1673, they set out from the upper end of Lake Michigan. They traveled in two canoes made of birch bark, and took with them five men. For food they had smoked meat and Indian corn, but they carried a large supply of hatchets and beads and other trinkets as presents for the Indians. Difficulties of the Journey. — In their light canoes they kept along the western shore of Lake Michigan until they came to the Fox River, up which they headed their boats. Finally the seven explorers came to a point on the Fox River where a path led to the Wisconsin River. Over this path, which ran through woods and swamps, Mar¬ quette and his men plodded. Two of them carried the canoes on their heads while others bore the baggage strapped to their backs. When the Wisconsin River was reached, they again launched their canoes and gently drifted downstream. They soon passed out of its waters into those of the broad Mississippi. They gazed upon the mighty river with a joy they could not express. On the Mississippi. — Up to this time the explorers had met with many Indians, all of whom they had kept friendly by giving them presents. Now, as they journeyed down the Mississippi, sometimes paddling, sometimes using sails, they did not see a human being for more than two weeks. They saw only great herds of buffalo that stared quietly at them through their shaggy manes as they passed. With their trusty rifles they were able to kill game enough to supply themselves with food. MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 145 Although they met with no human being, the men moved very cautiously. At nightfall they would go on shore and cook and eat their supper, and then, pushing out into the stream, would sleep in their canoes — one man always keeping watch. Finally they came upon an Indian village. Here the Frenchmen and the Indian chiefs smoked together calu¬ mets or peace pipes. These Indians tried to persuade Marquette not to proceed on his journey, saying that the tribes living farther down the liver were very warlike. Indian Peace Pipe When he insisted on proceeding down the river, the chief gave him a calumet, telling him that if he showed it no Indian would harm him. It was well that Marquette had this token, for more than once, as he drifted down the Mississippi, natives would have attacked the little band if he had not shown the calumet. The Return. — Having gone down the river as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, Marquette and his com¬ panions became convinced that the great river did not enter into the Pacific Ocean, but the Gulf of Mexico. Therefore, seeing no reason why they should go farther, they decided to return to Canada. 146 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA As the men had been two months on the trip it was now midsummer, and they found it very hard to paddle their canoes upstream under the intense heat. Worse still, the health of the good Marquette gave way under the strain of the journey. He kept up until the party reached a mission in Wisconsin, but there he had to remain while Joliet went on to Quebec to make a report of their exploration to the governor. Marquette never recovered from the tax the journey put upon his weak constitution. Two years later he died in the wilderness of Michigan. La Salle. —At the time that Marquette explored the Missis¬ sippi River there was living in Canada a Frenchman named Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, who had become noted as an explorer. When twenty-three years old he had come to Canada and engaged in the fur trade. While exploring the western country he discovered the Ohio River. Marquette’s expedition to the Mississippi determined La Salle to go down that river to its mouth and thus establish for France a claim to all the country along its banks. La Salle and the King of France. — To carry out so great a scheme, money was needed to buy supplies and Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 147 to hire men. La Salle was poor; so he went to France and told the king what he wished to do. The king was pleased with the young man and gave him the right to hold land, build forts, and control trade in all the countries he might explore. As much as the king liked the young man’s plan, however, he would give no money for it. La Salle was a man who would let nothing stop him when once he had set his mind on doing a thing, so he borrowed the money to fit out the expedition. Others Jealous of La Salle. —As the king had given him the sole right to trade on the lands bordering on the Mississippi River, other traders became jealous of La Salle, and did all they could to make his expedition a failure. They sent word to the king that La Salle was crazy; they persuaded men in his employ to leave him; and they tried to get the Indians to kill him. Still* La Salle would not give up. Years of Disappointment. —La Salle started out from Canada for the Mississippi in the fall of 1678. Four winters passed without his getting farther than the Illinois River, because the suffering of his men from cold and hunger was so great. At one time the con¬ dition of the men was so desperate that some deserted. Others who feared La Salle too much to run away — for he was a stern man — tried to kill him by putting poison in his food. Twice during his stay on the Illinois River La Salle made the one thousand mile journey back to Montreal on foot to get more food and more men. La Salle Reaches the Mouth of the Mississippi. — At last La Salle was able, with twenty-three Frenchmen 148 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA and a number of Indians, to push on toward the goal that he was seeking. This time his efforts were successful. Out of the Illinois River and into the broad Mississippi, La Salle and his party sailed in 1682. The fleet of canoes went down the river. At the end of two months they reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and La Salle looked upon the mighty waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Louisiana. — Near the mouth of the river La Salle planted a column bearing a cross and the arms of France. He claimed for France all the land drained by the river, and called the country Louisiana in honor of the French king, Louis XIV. The country thus claimed stretches from the Alleghany Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. An Attempt to Colonize Louisiana. — The explorers turned their boats about and made their toilsome journey back to Canada. La Salle then went to France and laid before the king a plan to settle a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi. Louis XIV readily agreed. It made no difference to him that more than a hundred years before De Soto, on discovering the river, had claimed the country for Spain. Spain was now too weak to prevent the French king from doing what he pleased. With nearly three hundred settlers, La Salle sailed from France in 1684 to plant a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Through a mistake the party passed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed on the coast of Texas. There the ship containing the supplies went to the bottom. These misfortunes were so dis¬ heartening that about half of the colonists, together with the captain of the fleet, sailed away for France. MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE Map Showing French Explorations Death of La Salle. — Those who remained suffered intensely for two long years. Finally, La Salle set out for Canada — a distance of two thousand miles — to get aid for his colony. He had not gone far on his journey when some of his companions, who blamed him for the disasters that had befallen the colonists, THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 150 treacherously killed him. Thus ended the life of the Si Father of Louisiana/’ Fate of La Salle’s Colony. — Some of La Salle’s colo¬ nists died of disease, some were killed in quarrels among themselves, and many were massacred by the Indians. Only a few of the three hundred ever got back to France. Iberville and Bienville in Louisiana France again Turns to Louisiana. — France had be¬ come engaged in war with England and other nations, and King Louis had to wait for some years before follow¬ ing up La Salle’s idea of colonizing Louisiana. The king knew that if France did not hold the country, England would seize it. Therefore, as soon as the war ended, he began preparations for sending out another colony. Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur dTberville. — From those who asked to be allowed to lead the expedition he selected Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville. This man, commonly known as Iberville, was a Canadian, born of French parents. Perhaps no better selection could have been made. Iberville was brave and, like most Canadians, was accustomed to life in the forests. As an officer of the French navy he had distinguished himself by defeating with a single vessel an English fleet of three vessels in Hudson Bay. Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville. — In 1698, Iberville set sail from France with two ships. Among those who accompanied him was his brother, Jean Bap¬ tiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, commonly called Bienville, a youth only eighteen years old. Young as IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE IN LOUISIANA 151 Bienville was, he had already served in the French navy and had been wounded in battle. Entering the Mississippi River. — The voyage across the Atlantic was made without mishap. On reaching the shores of Florida, Iberville skirted the coast of the Gulf of Mexico till he reached Ship Island, off the coast of the present state of Mississippi. Here he left his ships at Iberville Bienville anchor and, with Bienville and a few of his men, sailed westward in two barges in search of the Mississippi River. He kept close to the shore and watched intently that he might not pass the mouth of the river as La Salle had done. In a few days the boats ran into the mouth of a mighty river. As Iberville could not be sure that he had found the Mississippi, he continued his journey for many miles upstream until he became convinced from what Indians told him that he was on the river that La Salle had 152 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA descended. Satisfied at length that it was the river he sought, he returned to his ships. Settlement of Mississippi. — As provisions were run¬ ning low, Iberville returned to France for more supplies and other settlers, without waiting to plant his settle¬ ment on the Mississippi River as he had intended. Be¬ fore sailing, he left orders which the colonists were to follow. Acting under these directions, they started their first settlement by building, in 1699, a fort on the Bay of Biloxi, in the present state of Mississippi. Bienville the Saving Spirit of the Colony. — Food became scarce in the new settlement and fresh water was even more difficult to get. The hot summer, to which the men were unaccustomed, added to the suffering. Soon there was much sickness. The youth Bienville was the saving spirit of the colony. Active, brave, and tactful, he spent the time encouraging the settlers, exploring the country, and making friends of the Indians. Bienville gained the affection of the Indians in a marked degree, for he knew how to touch their savage hearts. He visited them, slept in their wigwams, smoked their pipes of peace, and gave them trinkets for presents. He very soon learned their language. The friendship of the Indians was valuable, for, if they had wished, they might easily have destroyed the feeble colony. A Poor Class of Colonists. — Meanwhile, Iberville sailed back and forth between Louisiana and France to bring over settlers and supplies. He begged for men who would make their homes in the new country and who would earn their living from the soil, as the English IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE IN LOUISIANA 153 colonists were doing, but the government sent out men to search for gold and silver and to gather wool from the The Country around the Mouth of the Mississippi From a map made in 1758 buffalo. They found neither gold nor silver, and the gathering of buffalo wool was not profitable; yet the men would not try to raise crops. Settlement of Alabama; Death of Iberville. — Iber- ville built Fort Mobile, in the present state of Alabama, in 1702, and moved the capital of the colony there. Soon afterward, another war between France and England THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 154 having broken out, Iberville resumed his command in the French navy. While fighting the English in the West Indies he fell ill of yellow fever and died. Bienville in Charge of the Colony. — The entire care of the colony now fell upon Bienville, and a harder task could hardly be imagined. The war prevented France from helping the colony and the colony could do little to help itself. More than once the settlement was on the verge of famine. To lessen the number of mouths to feed, Bienville sent the young unmarried men into the woods to live with the Indians. To add to the horrors of hunger, yellow fever broke out and carried many a poor settler to the grave. Other officials of the colony, jealous of Bienville, often hindered his noble efforts to save Louisiana. There were foes without the colony, as well as within. An English fleet, cruising in the gulf to cut off supplies for the colony, threatened to attack the settlement, and traders from the English colonies went among the In¬ dians, urging them to make war upon the French. Bravely, Bienville met these difficulties. He went about caring for the sick among his people, cheering the timid, warding off starvation, and watching his jealous officials. As best he could, Bienville defended the settlement against the English fleet, and he visited the Indians constantly to hold their friendship. Why Louisiana Did Not Prosper at First. — Except for a short interval Bienville was governor of Louisiana from 1702 to 1724. During most of that time, life in the colony was a mere struggle for existence. Even when peace IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE IN LOUISIANA I5S came to France, prosperity did not come to Louisiana, but it was not the fault of Bienville that the colony did not flourish. The French had wrong ideas about col¬ onizing. The men sent over were too few and they were not the kind to build thriving settlements. Moreover, France would not allow the settlers to govern themselves and made laws for the benefit of home merchants that ruined the trade of Louisiana. In time there came a change in the policy of sending over colonists. Shipload after shipload was sent until Louisiana suffered from too much immigration. Settlers came so fast that it was difficult to take care of them. Many were worthless and seemed to think that all they had to do was to sit idly by and let Bienville feed them. He was sorely taxed to provide for so many persons until he could transport them to various points in the territory, but with his usual tact and energy he succeeded. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 156 Founding of New Orleans. — Bienville took advantage of the coming of the new settlers to carry out a project that he had long cherished — the starting of a settlement at a place on the Mississippi River that he had selected as a site for the chief town of the colony. In 1718, he cleared the site, erected buildings, and settled there sixty-eight persons. Thus began the great city of New Orleans. In a few years, New Orleans was made the capital of Louisiana. Prosperity Comes to Louisiana. — The colony now began to prosper. Many of the worthless immigrants died; others deserted to the English colonies or went to live among the Indians, while others took to the sea and became pirates. The better class remained in the colony, built homes, and tilled the soil. They laid the foundations of the high type of society for which Louisiana has ever since been noted. Bienville Goes to France. — There were still in the colony officials who were jealous of Bienville. They sent charges against him to France. Thereupon the king removed Bienville from the office of governor and ordered him to France. Although the charges were false Bienville could not convince the king, who refused to reinstate him in the governorship. Bienville again Governor. — For nine years the officials who had been left in charge of Louisiana governed the colony very badly. They treated the natives so unjustly that some of the red men started a war upon the whites. It was feared that all the tribes would combine to wipe out the little colony. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 157 The colonists in their distress remembered how well Bienville had managed the Indians and wished for his return. The king, in his anxiety for the colony, turned to Bienville as the man to save it. He again made him governor and ordered him to Louisiana. Bienville arrived at New Orleans in 1733 and served as governor for ten years. He then resigned because he had failed to govern to the satis¬ faction of the settlers and he was unwilling to remain at the head of the colony when some one else might take his place biehv^Ta^apk and accomplish more. In 1743, Bienville sailed away from Louisiana forever. He had come to this land as a boy, and to it he had given forty-four years of devoted service. He took up his abode in Paris where he lived a quiet life, reaching the good old age of eighty-eight. The French gave many great men to the exploration and early settlement of America, but none greater than Iberville, the founder of the Louisiana colony, and Bien¬ ville, its preserver. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. What pious work did the French missionaries in Canada do? 2. What kind of man was Father Marquette? 3. Why did the governor of Canada wish to find the Mississippi? 4. Why did Mar¬ quette wish to find that river? 5. Tell what route Marquette and Joliet traveled. 6. How did the Indians treat them? 7. Relate the story of the calumet. 8. How far down the Mississippi did Mar¬ quette and Joliet go; and why did they turn back? 9. Describe the death of Marquette. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA JS8 10. Who was La Salle and what expedition did he undertake? 11. Why did others become jealous of him? 12. Describe the suffer^ ings of La Salle and his men. 13. After entering the Mississippi, how long did it take La Salle to reach its mouth? 14. How did he take possession of the country ? 15. What was it named? For whom was it named? 16. Why was the king of France willing to take land that Spain claimed? 17. How did La Salle meet his death? 18. What became of La Salle’s colony ? 19. Who was Iberville? Who was Bienville? 20. Tell how Iber¬ ville found the Mississippi River. 21. When was Biloxi settled? 22. Tell what Iberville did for the young colony. 23. Describe the work of Bienville. 24. Explain why the colony of Louisiana did not flourish at first. 25. When was Mobile settled? New Orleans? 26. How did prosperity come to Louisiana? 27. Why was Bienvillg removed from the office of governor and why was he reinstated? 28. Why did Bienville resign the governorship? CHAPTER XIII DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA George Washington, an Oeficer in the Virginia Militia Great Britain and France at War. — Great Britain and France had for many years been almost constantly at war. As Spam’s power had declined, both Great Britain and France were struggling to take her place as the leading nation of the world. Since the nation that controlled North America would be the stronger, the wars were extended to this country and the British and French colonies took part in them. Three wars had already been fought, in which Great Britain had greatly weakened the power of France in Europe. In America she had gained the French provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; but France still held Canada and Louisiana. A fourth war between Great Britain and France was likely to occur because both na¬ tions claimed the Ohio Valley — the country lying be¬ tween the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi River and drained by the Ohio River. George Washington.—Trouble began in 1753 when the French started building forts in the Ohio Valley. The governor of Virginia resolved to send a message to the French commander, warning him that the French were upon British territory and would have to leave. 16c DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA But who should be the bearer of the message ? It is an easy matter now to travel by train from Virginia to the western part of Pennsylvania, where the French were building the fort, but in those days the journey could be made only on foot or on horseback. The route lay through a wilderness inhabited by hostile savages and claimed by unfriendly Frenchmen. So the governor had to select a man who was strong enough to endure the hardships of the trip, brave enough to face its dangers, and tactful enough to make friends of the Indians. The governor chose as his messenger George Washing¬ ton, who, though only twenty-one, was already a major in the Virginia militia. Boyhood of Washington. — George Washington was born in the colony of Virginia on February 22, 1732. His father, who was a planter, died when the boy was eleven years old, leaving the mother to rear a large family and to take care of the plantation. George Washington said of his mother in after life, %< All I am I owe to her.” When we think what a noble son Mary Washington reared, we realize that she must have been a great and good woman. George was like his mother in character. Though he was high spirited, he learned from her how to control his spirit so that it would not lead to ill temper. Even as a boy he understood that the whole duty of life is to do right. He was sober-minded, yet he was full of life, and there was not a boy in the neighborhood who could beat him running, wrestling, pitching quoits, or riding. At an early age George was sent to a country school. GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 161 The building was rough, and the boys and girls had to sit for hours on hard benches. Only reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught. As he grew older George went to better schools. By the time that he was fourteen, he had become a very serious boy, studying even at recess, for he now saw that he would have to help his mother with her business affairs. Birthplace of Washington The house is no longer standing: its site is marked by a monument Washington as a Surveyor. — When sixteen years old, Washington became a surveyor. He was given his first work in the western part of Virginia — a section that was then a wilderness, inhabited by Indians and a few traders. This work taught him how to live in the woods and how to deal with the natives. Washington Delivers the Governor's Message. —When Washington started out to deliver the letter of the governor of Virginia to the French commander in the Ohio Valley, he took with him as guide Christopher Gist, 162 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA a man who knew the woods well, and six other companions. On the way he made treaties of friendship with several Indian tribes who had become alarmed because the French were building forts on their land. A chief, called Half King, and two other Indians went with him to the French fort. On reaching the fort, Washington handed to the commander the letter from the governor of Virginia. The French officer received him politely and gave him a letter in reply. Washington Returns with the Frenchman’s Reply. — Washington set out on his return trip. The ground was covered with heavy snow and the streams were choked with floating ice. After a few days the pack horses carrying the tents, baggage, and provisions began to give out. To relieve the jaded animals Washington and his companions dismounted and placed a part of the load on their own horses. The men proceeded on foot. Washington was impatient to deliver the letter to the governor, so he took Gist, the guide, and pushed forward rapidly, leaving the rest of the party to follow. At every step on the way back the two men faced danger and suffering. Once Washington narrowly escaped death from a shot fired at him by an Indian. At another time, he came near drowning by falling from a raft while crossing an ice-choked river. At length, however, Washington delivered to the governor the letter from the French commander. The Virginia Governor Decides to Build a Fort. — The letter was such as might have been expected. It said that the Ohio Valley did not belong to the king of Great GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 163 Britain, but to the king of France, and that, therefore, the French commander would not withdraw from it* Then the governor of Virginia decided that he, also, would build a fort in the disputed territory. Washington Builds Fort Necessity. — Washington sug¬ gested as the site for the English fort a place that is now the site of Pittsburgh, Penn¬ sylvania. Acting upon this suggestion, the governor sent Washington, who had been made a colonel in the Virginia militia, to seize and hold that point. The little army of less than two hundred men toiled over the mountains only to find that the French had acted more quickly than the British and had built a strong fort, called Fort Duquesne, at the very place that Washington had selected. Washington was very much disappointed. His army was not strong enough to capture Fort Duquesne, which was defended by a large force of French and their Indian allies. Yet he did not wish to retreat, for the Indians usually wished to be on the winning side. If they saw the French advancing and the British retreating, they would all take sides with the French. 164 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA Washington, therefore, decided to stand his ground, although his supplies had run so low that his men were suffering. He threw up small earthworks, which he called “ Fort Necessity,” on account of the half-starved condition of himself and his men. There he waited for more soldiers. The Indian chief, Half King, joined him with a few warriors. Washington Starts a War. — One day Washington heard that a party of Frenchmen were scouting near his fort, so taking a few of his men and the Indian warriors, he went in search of the scouting party. Coming upon their camp in a secluded spot in the woods, Washington began an attack, and in the skirmish that followed all the French were killed or captured, except one, who escaped and carried the news of the fight to Fort Duquesne. Thus Washington, a young man of twenty-two, began a war that spread not only over America, but over Europe as well. In America the war became known as the French and Indian war. Washington Surrenders Fort Necessity. — The French at Fort Duquesne, on learning of the defeat of their comrades, determined to have revenge. A strong body of French and Indians marched to attack Washington at Fort Necessity. Half King and his warriors, seeing the weakness of the English defense and not liking the scarcity of provisions, deserted Washington in his greatest need. From behind trees and sheltering rocks, the French poured a galling fire upon the Virginians, who found GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 165 their small intrenchment little protection. Yet the Virginians fought well. Standing knee-deep in water in a blinding rain, the brave men held their little mud fort all day long and into the night till their guns became useless from the dampness. Then, since further resistance was impossible, Washington surrendered. He was allowed, however, to march out with the honors of war. Washington re¬ turned to Virginia. Nowhere west of the Alleghany Mountains did the British flag now wave. General Edward Braddock. — The next year (1755) Gen¬ eral Edward Braddock sailed from England and landed in Virginia. He had been sent to command the British forces in America, and he brought with him two regiments of regulars. Braddock was as brave as the bravest, but he would not listen to advice. He thought that British regulars knew how to fight anywhere, and he had a contempt for colonial troops and even for the Indians. When warned that he would find the Indian allies of the French formidable enemies, Braddock refused to believe that they could stand against the king’s troops. He was soon to find that the king’s troops, trained to fight in open battle, were no match for Indians shooting from behind cover. George Washington At the age of 30, in the uniform of a Virginian colonel i66 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA Braddock’s Treatment of the Militia and the Indians, — In spite of the fact that Braddock had spoken scorn¬ fully of the colonial troops, militia from both Virginia and Maryland joined his army. But Braddock had so little confidence in the American troops that he had an officer of the regular army drill them so as to make them, as he himself said, “ as much like soldiers as possible.” Indians who were friendly to the British offered to join Braddock, but he treated them so coldly that they left in disgust. One of the chiefs said of him, “ He looked upon us as dogs and would never hear anything we said to him.” The March across the Mountains. — When everything was in readiness, the army crossed the mountains to drive the French from the Ohio Valley. Colonel Washing- ton went with Braddock as an aide. The army was a fine sight as it marched through the woods with bands playing and banners flying, and the gay red uniforms of the British regulars and the blue uniforms of the colonial militia contrasting beautifully in the bright sunlight. Washington advised Braddock to place the colonials in the front of the army because they were used to fighting in the woods, but Braddock was indignant that a pro¬ vincial colonel should try to teach a British general how to fight. Braddock’s Defeat. — The French at Fort Duquesne had learned that Braddock’s army was marching to capture the fort, so they determined to attack first. A party of French and Indians went out from the fort to meet the British, hoping to surprise them. GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 167 Braddock’s army, unaware of danger, had arrived within a few miles of the fort, when suddenly from both sides of the road a deadly volley was poured into its ranks. The British, though taken by surprise, stood their ground, shouting “ God save the King.” They returned the fire, but could do little damage because they could not see the enemy who had placed themselves behind trees and rocks. On the other hand, the red uniforms of the British in the open road gave the enemy fine targets to shoot at. Bullets mowed down the British as they crowded together. Above the din of battle the forest rang with the terrible war-whoop of the Indians. The colonial militia used to this way of fighting sought protection of trees, and from this cover kept up a spirited fire. Some of the regulars tried to follow the example of the militia, but Braddock beat them back into line with the flat of his sword; and there they huddled to¬ gether in confusion. When Braddock saw that the day was lost, he ordered a retreat. Just at that time a bullet struck him down, and the retreat became a panic. The regulars fled pell- mell along the road from which they had come, leaving the wounded and all the artillery and baggage. Braddock, British Soldier 168 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA mortally wounded, was carried away by the Virginians. He died on the retreat. Washington’s Narrow Escape. — It seemed a miracle that Washington’s life was spared, for at all times he was in the thickest of the fight. Two horses were shot under him and four bullets pierced his coat. He and Fort Duquesne his troops covered the retreat and saved the army from complete destruction. Washington Raises the British Flag over Duquesne. — Three years later (1758) another British army crossed the mountains to attack Fort Duquesne. Washington com¬ manded the Virginia troops. This time the British were successful. The French had left in the fort only a few men who, when the British drew near, destroyed the fort and fled. Washington was given the honor of raising the MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 169 British flag over the ruins. The British rebuilt the fort and named it Fort Pitt in honor of William Pitt, a great British statesman. By the capture of Fort Duquesne the British gained control of the Ohio Valley. Washington’s Modesty. — Washington returned to Virginia and took his seat in the colonial legislature to which he had just been elected. When the meeting was called to order, the speaker arose from his chair and said that he had been instructed by the House to thank Colonel Washington, in the name of Virginia, for his valiant service to his country. Washington was taken completely by surprise. He arose to his feet but was so much embarrassed that he could make no reply. The speaker came to his rescue, however, saying, “ Sit down, Colonel Washington, your modesty is equal to your valor, and that surpasses the power of any language I possess.” Montcalm and Wolfe, Heroes of Quebec Marquis de Montcalm. — Before the British were able to take Fort Duquesne, they had met with a number of reverses in America besides that of Braddock’s defeat. The British generals frequently made a great show of doing much, yet in the end did nothing. In the mean¬ time the French general, Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont¬ calm, a skillful and active officer, captured and held im¬ portant posts. Montcalm was so successful in outwitting the slow-moving British generals that most of the Indian tribes eagerly sought to become his allies. On one occasion a party of Indians traveled from the 170 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA far west all the way to Montreal just to see Montcalm, the man whose generalship they had heard so much about,, The chief said to Montcalm, “We wanted to see this famous man who tramples the English under his feet. We thought that we should find him so tall that his head would be lost in the clouds. But you are a little man, my Father. It is when we look into your eyes that we see the greatness of the pine tree and the fire of the eagle.” William Pitt at the Head of the British Government. — After a while the fortunes of war changed, for there came to the head of the British government the great states¬ man, William Pitt, who was determined to push the war with vigor, and to drive the French from America. Pitt removed the slow inefficient generals who had command of the British forces in America, and put in command men who knew how to win battles. Then success after success followed. General James Wolfe. — Still, to break the power of France in America, Quebec, the most important post in Canada, had to be taken. For this task Pitt selected General James Wolfe. At this time Wolfe was only thirty-two, yet he had already distinguished himself in many battles. It was because he had proved himself such a good soldier that Pitt selected him for the important and difficult work of capturing Quebec. Just before the beginning of spring in the year 1759, Wolfe set sail from England with his army, accompanied by a strong fleet. The Defense of Quebec. — When news that Quebec was to be attacked reached Canada, there was much MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 171 bustle to put the town in a state of defense, and Mont¬ calm hurried to Quebec to take command. He had to depend on a few French troops already in the colony, aided by Canadian militia, Indian allies, and volunteers from among the farmers of the country. Quebec is divided into an upper and a lower town. *Ihe upper town is built on a very steep cliff rising more Quebec in the Eighteenth Century than two hundred feet above the St. Lawrence River. As Montcalm did not think it possible for the British to scale the heights, he posted only a few men there to guard them. Looking over the great precipice, Montcalm declared that the enemy could not reach Quebec that way unless they had wings. The lower town is built along the river bank. To protect this side of the town, Montcalm threw up strong intrenchments and placed his army behind them Unsuccessful Assaults upon Quebec. — Toward the latter part of June, Wolfe’s army and fleet joined in a 172 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA bombardment of the lower town, hoping that Montcalm would be compelled to come out of his intrenchments and give battle. Though buildings in the town were destroyed, the French army remained unharmed behind the fortifications, and the British gained nothing. At last, a French officer, carrying a flag of truce to Wolfe, said to him, “ You will demolish the town, no doubt, but you shall never get inside of it.” And Wolfe replied, “ I will have Quebec if I stay until the end of November.” Nevertheless, Wolfe was becoming anxious. A month had now passed. True, the town was nearly reduced to ruins by the bombardment, but he was no nearer capturing it or defeating Montcalm’s army than when he began. At length Wolfe grew so impatient because Montcalm would not come out to fight him that he resolved to attack the French in their fortified lines. Wherever Wolfe would lead, his men were glad to follow, and gallantly they charged the French works, but only to be driven back with great slaughter. When news of this reverse reached England some one remarked to the king that Wolfe was mad. “ Wolfe mad?” replied the king, who had grown tired of generals who did nothing. “ Then I hope he will bite some others of my generals.” Wolfe Falls Ill. — Under the stress of anxiety and disappointment, Wolfe now fell desperately ill. Lying on his bed, racked with pain and burning with fever, he still would not give up the idea of taking Quebec. On MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 173 the contrary, he resolved to try what had been thought impossible — to scale the heights of the upper town. It was a desperate chance, but his only hope. Knowing that he could not recover from his illness, Wolfe’s one fear was that he might die before he could put his daring plan to the test. He said to his physician, “ Oh, doctor, just patch me up enough for this business, and I’ll ask no more.” Scaling the Heights. — As soon as he could leave his sick¬ bed, Wolfe marched a part of his army up the opposite bank of the river some distance above the town. Selecting a dark night, the British soldiers embarked in their boats and drifted down the river, moving quietly to keep from alarming the French. They finally reached a spot ever since known as Wolfe’s Cove, where a path leads up the lofty precipice. Here the men left the boats and began the ascent. The path was so narrow that they had to go in single file, and so steep that in many places they had to pull themselves up by trees and roots and overhanging rocks. The few Frenchmen guarding the path were surprised and quickly overpowered. The Battle on the Plains of Abraham.—By early morning, September 13, 1759, Wolfe and his men had gained the plateau at the top of the cliff, called the Plains General James Wolfe 174 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA of Abraham. They were less than a mile from the walls of Quebec. The British were now in a position where Montcalm would have to fight them in open battle, for if he allowed them to remain where they were, they would capture all the provisions intended for his army. When Montcalm saw the British drawn up on the plateau, he was amazed, for, as will be remembered, he had said that an enemy would have to have wings to get up the cliff. “ This is a very serious business!” he exclaimed. Montcalm sent orders for his army to come up from the lower town as quickly as possible. He soon had on the plateau more men than Wolfe, but they were mostly militia. Hurriedly forming his ranks, the gallant French general made an impetuous charge. The British held their fire until the French got quite near them, when they poured forth such hot volleys that the French line gave way. The British then charged; and the French, thrown into confusion, fled. Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. — Wolfe had led the charge of the British. He was shot in the wrist, but tied up the wound with a handkerchief. He was shot in the thigh, still he kept at the head of his men. Finally, shot in the breast, and about to fall, he called to an officer and said, “ Support me. Do not let my brave soldiers see me drop, the day is ours — keep it.” The brave general was borne to the rear and gently laid upon the ground. He was dying then, but he heard MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 175 some one cry out, “ They run ! They run ! See how they run! ” “ Who run?” he gasped. “ The enemy, sir, they give way everywhere.” Sending a hurried order to one of his officers, Wolfe turned upon his side, and said faintly, “ Now God be praised, I die in peace.” Montcalm had also received a mortal wound. He was trying desperately to rally his flying troops when a bullet pierced his breast. When told by his physician that he could live only a few hours, he calmly remarked, “ So much the better, I shall not live to see Quebec sur¬ rendered.” He spoke truly. Quebec surrendered a few days later, but Montcalm had already passed to his reward. Many years afterward a monument was erected in Quebec upon which was inscribed, “ To the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm.” Linked in fame is the memory of these two men — as noble soldiers as ever met in battle. The fall of Quebec was followed by the surrender of all Canada. Effect of the French Wars. — When the war ended in 1763, French power in America was broken. Great Britain kept Canada. France gave up all claim to the Ohio Valley, and ceded to Great Britain all her ter¬ ritory east of the Mississippi except New Orleans. The city of New Orleans and that part of Louisiana lying west of the river she gave to Spain. After that, for a time, France had no possessions in North America. 176 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Describe the rivalry between France End England. 2, What part did America play in this rivalry ? 3. Tell how Great Britain was weakening the power of France both in Europe and America. 4. What valley in America were both nations desirous of controlling? 5. Why was George Washington selected to carry a message to the French? 6. Tell of Washington’s boyhood. 7. How did his work as a surveyor help him? 8. Tell the story of Washington’s visit to the French fort. 9. What reply did he bring from the French commander? 10. Where did the Virginia governor wish to build a fort, and why did he not build it? n. How did Fort Necessity come to be built ? 12. How did Washington begin the French and Indian War? 13. Relate the story of the loss of Fort Necessity. 14. Who was Braddock, and what kind of man was he? 15. Tell of Braddock’s defeat. 16. Tell of Washington’s part in the fight. 17. How was Fort Duquesne finally taken? 18. Tell how Virginia thanked her valiant son. 19. What kind of general was Montcalm? 20. What did Pitt do when he came to the head of the British government? 21. Why did he select Wolfe to attack Quebec? 22. Describe the situation at Quebec. 23. Describe Wolfe’s attempt to take the lower town, 24. What did the king say of him? 25. What desperate plan did Wolfe make during his illness? 26. How did he gain the Plains of Abraham? 27. Describe the battle that followed. 28. Relate the story of Wolfe’s death. 29. Tell how Montcalm died. 30. What were the results of the French wars ? CHAPTER XIV ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS EXTEND BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES The Western Country Traders First Visit the West. — The English had pushed so far inland, by 1760, that straggling settlements had reached the foot of the Alleghany Mountains. Far to the west, near the Mississippi River, were the few scattered villages that the French had begun. The wide stretch of country between the Alle¬ ghany Mountains and the French set¬ tlements was a wilderness. As a result of the wars with the French, this wilderness had become an undisputed possession of the English. French traders from Louisiana and Spanish traders from Florida had long been accustomed to trade among the Indians in the region now comprising the states of Tennessee and Kentucky. Through these traders news of the valuable furs and skins that could be obtained on the western side of the mountains reached the English. Then French Fur Trader 177 i 7 8 BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES traders from Virginia and the Carolinas began crossing the Alleghanies to share in this profitable trade. The “Long Hunters.” — English traders brought back home stories of the abundance of game in the country they had visited. Game had now become scarce near the English settlements, and when English hunters heard the glowing stories of the traders, they turned to the West. These hunters were daring men, accustomed to hardship, and in their search for game they went much farther into the western forests than the traders had gone. Often hunters would remain in the West for a year or even two years. On account of their long absences they became known as the “ long hunters.” Kentucky and Tennessee. — The “ long hunters ” told the eastern settlers of the fine fertile land in the West inhabited only by a few scattered Indians. Lands in the East were rapidly being taken up; and here was the chance for a poor man to get land merely by occupying it. In 1769, Daniel Boone, then living in North Carolina, began exploring Kentucky. In the same year, William Bean of North Carolina built a home near the Watauga River in Tennessee. Soon other settlers removed from North Carolina to the Watauga. Five years later (1774) James Harrod, of Virginia, following in the wake of Boone, founded Harrodsburg the first town in Kentucky. Daniel Boone and the West Boone’s Early Life. — Daniel Boone was the most famous of all the early frontiersmen. The story of his THE WESTERN COUNTRY 179 life will give an idea of the hardships endured by the pioneers of the West. Daniel Boone was born in Pennsylvania. His parents were Quakers, but there was little of the quiet Quaker in him, for he loved adventure from the time he was a little fellow. When he was about sixteen years old, his father moved to North Carolina and settled in a region that was still a wilderness. The boy loved the woods and spent much of the time hunting. He lived for months away from the settle¬ ment. Boone Goes West. — From his cabin door in North Caro¬ lina Boone could see the moun¬ tains that raised their lofty peaks in the direction of the setting sun. As he looked upon them, he wondered whether the stories told about the country on the other side, by traders and hunters who had been there, were true. He resolved to find out for himself. If the country proved to be as wonderful as they had described it, he would make his home there. He talked so enthusiastically about exploring the West, that several neighbors decided to go with him. The party set out in 1769, and spent a month crossing the mountains. The Beautiful Lands of Kentucky. — On the summit of the last range, Boone and his five companions stopped Daniel Boone i8o BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES one bright summer day to gaze upon the beautiful scene below them. Stretching to the west, as far as the eye could reach, were the great green forests and vast prairies of Kentucky. The First Winter in the West. — Descending from the mountains to the level country Boone built a hut in which to pass the winter. Later Boone and one of his friends, named Stewart, while on an exploring expedition, were captured by Indians. It was seven days before they could make their escape and when they returned to their hut they found it deserted. What became of the men they had left in the hut is not known. Boone Alone in the Forest. — Daniel Boone’s brother, Squire, and a companion crossed over the mountains and joined Boone and Stewart in their camp. Soon after¬ ward, Stewart was killed, probably by the Indians. The man who had come with Squire Boone was so frightened by Stewart’s death that he deserted and fled back to the white settlements. Daniel Boone and his brother continued to live in the wilderness. It finally became necessary for one of them to return home for fresh supplies, and they agreed that it was better for Squire to go. In that immense forest Daniel Boone remained alone. For three months he stayed there, often changing his sleeping place to keep the Indians from finding him. Boone Moves His Family to Kentucky. — When Boone’s brother came back, he brought supplies, and together these hardy frontiersmen explored a great part of Ken¬ tucky on horseback. Having decided to settle in Ken- THE WESTERN COUNTRY 181 lucky, the brothers returned to North Carolina for Daniel’s family. In 1773, Daniel Boone and his family set out for Ken¬ tucky. Other settlers joined them until there were in all sixty or more persons in the party. On the way, Indians attacked the emigrants and killed six, among whom was Boone’s oldest son. Most of the others were so frightened that they returned home. But Boone and his family would not retreat. The family stayed in a deserted cabin, while Boone went on ahead and joined other pioneers in building on the Ken¬ tucky River a fort that they called Boonesborough. To this fort Boone moved his family. Capture of Boone’s Little Daughter. — The dangers in such a wild country were great for men; what must they have been for women and children? Late one eve¬ ning Boone’s daughter and two other little girls went out on the river in a canoe. They were having so much fun 182 BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES playing in the water and splashing with the paddles that before they realized it they were out of sight of the fort. Suddenly five Indians sprang out of the bushes, caught hold of the canoe, and drew it to shore. They seized the girls and ran into the woods with them. The Rescue. — The screaming of the little girls was heard at the fort, and the men rushed out in pursuit. They could follow the trail by the twigs and bits of clothing that the girls scattered as they were hurried along. All that night, and all the next day, the Indians carried their captives through the woods. On the second night, Boone and his men slipped upon the redskins so quickly that they did not have time to seize their rifles. The Indians, seeing that they were outmatched, fled into the deeper forest, leaving the little girls in the hands of their overjoyed rescuers. Boone Adopted by the Indians. — One day, while Boone was hunting alone, he was captured by Indians who carried him many miles away from Boonesborough. The Indians had great respect for him. They knew that he was a just man and had always treated them well, and they ad¬ mired his skill as a hunter. Instead of killing him, they adopted him as a member of their tribe. They pulled out by the roots all the hair of his head except a small tuft on the crown which they allowed to remain for a scalp lock. This they decorated with feathers and ribbons. They took him to a river and scrubbed him to wash out the white blood. Then they painted his face and body and dressed him in Indian THE WESTERN COUNTRY 183 clothes. Truly, Boone looked so much like an Indian warrior that he could hardly be told from one. An Attack on Boonesborough. — Boone did all he could to keep in favor with the Indians. He knew that he must win their confidence or he would have no chance of escape. When Boone found out that the Indians were planning an attack on the fort at Boonesborough, he felt that he must warn the settlers as soon as possible. He seized the first op¬ portunity to slip away from his captors and set out in the direction of the fort. He had to go nearly a hundred miles, but he covered the distance in four days, although he had almost no food in all that time. As soon as the Indians discovered that Boone had run away, they pursued him, but failed to overtake him. Shortly after this, five hundred warriors appeared be¬ fore Boonesborough, and one of the most furious Indian battles ever fought in Kentucky followed. The brave defenders of the fort, though numbering only fifty, fought so desperately that they finally drove the savages away. Boone’s Old Age. — When Daniel Boone was an old man he lost all his property. Broken-hearted, he emi- Boone’s Fort x84 BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES grated to Missouri, where he went into the woods trap¬ ping for furs. At the age of eighty-five, the man who blazed the way for the settlement of the Middle West — the great hero- hunter— died, leaving all America indebted to him. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW i. Describe the western country in 1760. 2. Tell of the traders who went into that region. 3. Account for the name “long hunters.” 4. How were Kentucky and Tennessee settled? 5. Tell of the boyhood of Daniel Boone. 6. Where did he go in 1769? What was this region like? 7. Describe Boone’s life in the wilderness before his family joined him. 8. What happened to the immigrants who joined Boone on his return to Kentucky with his family ? 9. Tell the story of the capture of the three little girls. 10. Relate the story of Boone’s adoption by the Indians. n. Give an account of the Indian attack on Boonesborough. 12. What trouble came to Boone in his old age? 13. Why are we indebted to Daniel Boone? CHAPTER XV LATER COLONIAL TIMES Growth of the Colonies Population. — By 1765, a little more than one hundred and fifty years after the English had first settled in America, the population of the thirteen colonies had in¬ creased to about a million and a half. The colonies were thirteen in number: New Hamp¬ shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Settled Areas Growing. — In the early days, when colonists were few, great stretches of forests separated the settlements of one colony from those of another. With the increase of population the colonists had spread out until, in 1765, the settled portions were almost con¬ tinuous along the Atlantic coast. These settled portions extended inland to the foot of the Alleghanies. Germans and Scotch-Irish. — The colonists continued to be overwhelmingly English; but for some years large numbers of Germans and Scotch-Irish had been coming over. Most of the Germans had sought the unoccupied lands of the interior of Pennsylvania and from there many of them, following the base of the mountains, had moved down into the back country of the Southern colonies. 185 i86 LATER COLONIAL TIMES The Scotch-Irish had come in two streams, one entering at Philadelphia and the other at Charleston, and had settled between the Germans and the mountains. Most of the pioneers who passed over the Alleghanies a few years later and opened up the Middle West, were men and women of the hardy Scotch-Irish race. Trade and the Cities. — Trade had increased as rapidly as population. Since trade had brought much wealth to the colonies and had given employment to many per¬ sons, life in the cities and other well-settled sections had become more comfortable. Philadelphia, though it had been settled much later than either New York or Boston, was rivaling those cities as a seaport for the trade of the Northern colonies. Charleston had become an important port, controlling practically all the trade of the Southern colonies. Slaves and Bonded Servants. — In every colony could still be found slaves, redemptioners, and indentured serv¬ ants. Slaves had become very numerous in the South where they worked on the large plantations. Colonial Government. — The colonies still managed their home affairs through their assemblies. The quarrels between the assemblies and the governors and other officials, which had been going on for so many years, almost always ended in victories for the assemblies. Thus the colonists were receiving excellent training in self-government. All the colonies continued to require that a man should own property in order to vote, and some of them still taxed the people for the support of a particular church. GROWTH OF THE COLONIES 187 The Colonies in Closer Touch. — As the colonies had been settled as separate and distinct communities, they were naturally jealous of one another. Yet there were many things that were bringing them closer together in feeling. Foremost was the fact that for years hostile Frenchmen and Indians had been at their backs. The colonies, fighting shoulder to shoulder against these com¬ mon enemies, had learned to depend more upon one another. With the opening of new lands, and the building of new settlements, roads had improved somewhat, and travel from one colony to another had become more common. Between some of the larger towns stage¬ coaches, for carrying pas¬ sengers, were making regular trips. A colonial postal system had been put in operation by the British gov¬ ernment. While post offices were yet few in number and a letter was a long time in reaching its destination, still the postal system was another link binding the interests of colonies together. Newspapers had also been established. They were not many and none were dailies; yet they gave the people of one colony news of what the people of another colony were doing. Travel, letter writing, and newspaper reading brought the people of all the colonies closer together in their sympathies. Post-Rider of the Olden Times 188 LATER COLONIAL TIMES The Colonists Self-Confident. — The colonists were very proud of what they had accomplished. They had a right to be proud, for thev had erected in a wilderness stable communities, had built up a world-wide trade, and had fought successfully against the French and Indians. They had become confident of themselves and of their country. They had begun to realize that, no matter in what colony they lived, they all had interests in common, and that while they were still Englishmen and loyal to the mother country, they were something more — they were Americans. The Unwise Course or Great Britain The Mother Country Would Tax Her Colonies. — Just at the time when the colonies were beginning to realize their own strength, the British government adopted a very unwise course toward them. The French and In¬ dian War, and the many other wars that Great Britain had been engaged in for nearly a hundred years, had left the mother country very much in debt. George III and his ministers claimed that, as these wars had been waged partly to protect the American colonies, the people of England should not be taxed for the further protection of the colonies, but that the colonies should be made to raise the money through taxes levied by parliament. Therefore it was announced that parliament would be asked to levy a stamp tax upon the colonies. Under such a law all deeds, wills, mortgages, and all other legal papers and all newspapers and advertisements must bear stamps purchased from the British government. PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS 189 “ Taxation without Representation.” — Naturally the colonists objected. They said that Great Britain had profited by the wars more than America had. They claimed that they had already paid their share of the ex¬ penses, and declared that they did not need British pro¬ tection. But the truth is, Americans objected to being taxed by the British parliament for any purpose whatso¬ ever. It will be remembered that at the very first meeting of the first colonial assembly, which was held in Jamestown, it was declared that the colonists had the same right as the Englishmen at home to be taxed only by their own representatives. This had come to be the established principle in every colony that was settled afterwards. If the colonists should be taxed by parliament, they would be taxed by a body in which they were not represented. They protested that “ taxation without representation is tyranny.” Passage of the Stamp Act. — In spite of the objections of the colonists, parliament, which was under the control of the king, passed the Stamp Act in 1765. 1 Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, Forerunners or the Revolution A Country Lawyer and His Resolutions. — The Virginia assembly was in session at Williamsburg when the news 1 The comparison between the colonial policies of Great Britain and other countries (page 135) should be reviewed here. A Stamp of 1765 190 LATER COLONIAL TIMES of the passage of the Stamp Act came like a summons to battle. The members were indignant. What to do was the question. There was much excited discussion. They were yet undecided when a tall, awkward young man arose to speak. He was hardly known to the others, for he was a country lawyer who had become a member of the assembly only a few days before. His name was Patrick Henry. This new member had written some resolutions on a blank leaf which he had torn from an old law book, and he now asked the house to adopt them. The resolutions startled the assembly by declaring that Great Britain had no right whatever to tax Americans without their consent. They were meant, of course, to con¬ demn the Stamp Act. Patrick Henry’s Great Speech. — It was a serious matter for a colonial assembly to object to a law passed by parliament, as the members voting to do so might be charged with treason. There were some even among those opposed to the Stamp Act, who thought that Henry had gone too far. When the fiery young patriot exclaimed “ Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus; Charles I, his Cromwell, and George III — ” some of them broke in with the cry, “ Treason, treason! ” but Henry defiantly continued — “ and George III may profit by their example. Patrick Henry PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS 191 If this be treason, make the most of it.” His resolutions were adopted amid intense excitement. Patrick Henry, the “ Son of . Thunder.” — After his speech against the Stamp Act, the young country lawyer, who had been looked down upon by the great men of the colony, suddenly became the leading statesman of Virginia, and the most famous speaker in America. His eloquence earned for him the nickname “ Son of Thunder.” Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly The Action of Virginia Stirs the Other Colonies. — When news reached the other colonies that Virginia had taken such a bold stand against the Stamp Act, the spirit of Americans was fired as never before. The feeling was aroused everywhere that the colonists should resist the tax. Most of the colonial assemblies followed the ex¬ ample of Virginia and condemned the Stamp Act. Thus Patrick Henry “ gave the first impulse to the ball of the Revolution.” 192 LATER COLONIAL TIMES The People Stand Firm. — Riots broke out in every colony, and stamps were seized and destroyed. “ Liberty, property, and no stamps.! ” was the popular cry. Crowds marched through the streets carrying banners upon which was printed, “ England’s Folly and America’s Ruin.” Societies, called “ Sons of Liberty,” were formed for the purpose of resisting the tax. Merchants of New York and other towns agreed not to buy goods from England as long as the Stamp Act was a law. Women formed societies, called “ Daughters of Liberty,” for spinning thread, weaving cloth, and knitting socks. It came to be the fashion to wear homemade clothes. Samuel Adams. — Boston became the center of the opposition, and Samuel Adams was the leader. Adams was of a fine old family, and a graduate of Harvard College. His father had left him some property, but Adams spent so much time working for the rights of the people that his own business went to ruin and he was reduced to poverty. He became the people’s trusted champion, and he never betrayed their trust. The Stamp Act Repealed. — The Stamp Act was never put into effect, because when the day came for it to be¬ come a law, there was no one in all America who would sell the stamps that had not been destroyed. The courts could not proceed and all business requiring stamped paper was at a standstill. Ships lay idle at their docks. However, newspapers were issued bearing skulls and cross- bones in place of the stamps. There was great rejoicing among the colonists at the failure of the act. The rejoicing was still greater when PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS the British parliament, seeing that Americans could not be forced to use the stamps, repealed the law. The Colonies again Taxed. — Great Britain, however, had no idea of giving up her claim to the right to tax America. Shortly after the repeal of the Stamp Act, parliament passed an act taxing all glass, paper, lead, paints, and tea brought to the colonies. Again the Americans were aroused, and they declared that they would not buy these articles as long as they were taxed. Samuel Adams and His Circu¬ lar Letter.—Samuel Adams once more came to the front. He wrote a circular letter for the Massachusetts assembly, asking the other colonies to join in “ maintaining the liberties of America.” All the colonies re¬ sponded, saying that they would stand by Massachusetts. The “ Boston Massacre.” — In Boston the feeling became so intense that two regiments of British troops were sent to the town, at the request of the governor, to help him keep order. The king announced to parliament that he would make Boston obey the laws. The people of Boston resented having troops forced upon them, and there were many quarrels between the citizens and the soldiers. On a night in March, 1770, a riot occurred in which the citizens fought with sticks and balls of ice while the soldiers used their muskets. Firing 194 LATER COLONIAL TIMES into the crowd, the soldiers killed five citizens and wounded others. In the moonlight the stain of blood shone red on the snow. “ That stain, though it melted away in the next day’s sun, was never forgotten nor forgiven.” A Famous “ Tea Party.” — The bitter opposition of the colonists to the taxes caused Great Britain to remove all except the tax on tea. This tax she kept merely as a sign that she did not give up her claim to the right to tax America. And just because of the claim, the colonists objected, for it was taxation without representation still. As the tax on tea affected the women chiefly, they de¬ cided to do without tea, and used in place of it the dried leaves of mullein, catnip, sage, or raspberry. Three English ships loaded with tea appeared in Boston harbor. In the darkness of night, about sixty men, dis¬ guised as Indians, boarded the ships and threw the tea into the harbor. This affair, known as the “ Boston Tea Party,” occurred in 1773. In New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston the people either drove away the ships bringing tea, or seized the tea. Boston Punished. — The British government was very angry with the people of Boston for destroying the tea, and parliament passed a law closing the port of the town. No ships were allowed to enter or to leave the harbor. Of course this was a serious blow to the business of Boston, It began to look as if the people would be hard pressed for food; but every other colony came to their assistance, and rye, flour, rice, peas, cattle, sheep, oil, fish, and money poured into the town. Even far-away Georgia sent rice PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS 195 and money. The cause of Boston was felt to be the cause of all America.. The day on which the port bill went into effect was observed throughout the country as a day of mourning, fasting, and prayer. Virginia Calls a Continental Congress. — The governor of Virginia would not allow the assembly of that colony to meet. The members, therefore, formed a con¬ vention which invited all the colonies to hold a Congress for the purpose of consulting as to what had best be done to pro¬ tect the interests of America. Meeting of the First Continental Congress.— In response to this invi¬ tation of Virginia, the First Continental Con¬ gress met in Philadelphia in 1774. The Congress condemned the acts passed by parliament for the taxation of America and approved the course of Massachusetts in opposing them. It advised all the colonies to help Massachusetts if Great Britain should attempt by force to put the laws into effect. Both Sides Determined. — Meanwhile, in every colony military companies were organized and constantly drilled. Carpenter’s Hall, Philadelphia, 1774 Where the First Continental Congress met 196 LATER COLONIAL TIMES Some of these companies were called “ minutemen ” be¬ cause their members pledged themselves to be ready at a minute’s notice to fight for their country. Swords and bayonets were forged, bullets were molded, muskets were made, and gunpowder was manufactured. Each colony tried to outdo the others in preparing for defense. Nor was Great Britain idle. The prime minister boasted that he was determined to see America at the king’s feet. He sent more soldiers to reenforce the troops at Boston. Massachusetts was declared to be in a state of rebellion, and General Gage was made military gover¬ nor of the colony. To prevent an attack from the pa¬ triots, Gage threw up fortifications around Boston. Another Great Speech by Patrick Henry. — At a con¬ vention held in Richmond, Virginia, in the spring of 1775, Patrick Henry offered resolutions urging that the militia of the colony be even better organized for resistance. The resolutions were adopted. Some members of the convention, though disliking the action of Great Britain, still hoped that the quarrel between the colonies and the mother country might be settled peaceably. These mem¬ bers did not like Henry’s resolutions, for they could mean but one thing — war. To the members who yet hoped for peace Henry passionately cried: “ Gentlemen may cry peace, peace — but there is no peace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Why stand we here idle? Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 197 not what course others may take, but, as for me, give me liberty or give me death” QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What was the population of the thirteen colonies in 1765? 2. How had settlements expanded? 3. Tell of the coming of the Germans and the Scotch-Irish. 4. Describe the condition of trade. 5. What can you say of the cities? 6. What may be said of slaves and bonded white servants? 7. Give an account of the colonial governments. 8. Give reasons for the colonies having become closer in feeling. 9. How did the colonists feel toward England? 10. Of what accomplishments were they proud? II. Why did Great Britain decide to tax the colonists? 12. What was the Stamp Act? 13. Why did the colonists object to it? 14. When was the Stamp Act passed? 15. Tell about Patrick Henry and how he “gave the first impulse to the ball of the Revolution.” 16. How did the people show their opposition to the Stamp Act? 17. Who led the opposition in Massa¬ chusetts? Tell what you can of this great patriot. 18. Why was the Stamp Act not put into effect? 19. What other taxes were imposed on the colonists? 20. Tell of Samuel Adams’ circular letter. 21. Why did the king send troops to Boston? 22. What clash came between the citizens of Boston and the soldiers? 23. Tell the story of the famous “tea party.” 24. How did the British government punish the people of Boston? 25. How did the other colonists feel about Great Britain’s treatment of Boston, and what did they do? 26. How was the meeting of the First Continental Congress brought about? 27. When and where did the Congress meet, and what did it accomplish? 28. Who were the “minutemen”? 29. What was the next move made by Great Britain? 30. Relate what happened at the convention held in Richmond in 1775. CHAPTER XVI ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN George Washington, Commander of the American Army Battle of Lexington. — The warning of Patrick Henry, that “ the next gale that swept from the north would bring the clash of resounding arms,” came true. Less than a month after he made his speech in the Virginia convention, a battle was fought in Massachusetts and the Revolutionary War began. About daylight on the morning of April 19, 1775, British soldiers fired into a small party of minutemen who had gathered on the village green at Lexington, ten miles from Boston. Eight men were killed and several wounded. The soldiers thought they were doing some¬ thing very much to their credit in killing a few minute- men, but the battle of Lexington sealed the doom of British rule in America. The British Retreat. — With loud huzzas the soldiers marched on to Concord for the purpose of destroying the guns and ammunition that the patriots had stored there. By the time the soldiers reached Concord, the alarm had gone through the country and many Ameri¬ cans, armed for battle, had already arrived in the town. 108 GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER 199 After a skirmish, in which the patriots gained the ad¬ vantage, the soldiers began a retreat to Boston. The Americans followed. From behind houses, fences, and trees the patriots poured shots into the ranks of the British, many of whom fell dead. Panic-stricken, the soldiers fled in disorder. The patriots kept up the pur¬ suit until the British had reached Boston. The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 After an engraving made by two Continental militiamen who were in the battle Effect of Lexington upon the Country. — Reports of the fighting spread so rapidly that by the next morning a small army of New England militiamen had gathered in camp near Boston, ready to defend their rights. The news flew from colony to colony. Men on fleet horses galloped through town and village crying, “To arms! to arms! the war has begun.” The patriots, dropping their work, rushed to arms. 200 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN Washington Made Commander-in-Chief. — The Con¬ tinental Congress was in session in Philadelphia when the news of the battle of Lexington reached that town. Immediately plans were made to carry on the war. George Washington was chosen commander-in-chief of the American forces. Bunker Hill. — Before Washington could take command of the army, another battle had been . fought near Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments on a spur of Bunker Hill. General Gage ordered his troops to seize this point, and twice the British charged up the hill only to Bunker Hill Monument . , . . . . ",. be driven back by the Americans. Once again the British charged ■— this time with success. The ammunition of the Americans had given out, and they were forced to retreat. The battle of Bunker Hill, though ending in defeat, greatly encouraged the Americans, for twice their militia had driven back trained British soldiers. They were soon to find, however, that they had little ground for confidence. The American Army. — When Washington took com¬ mand of the patriots near Boston, they could hardly be GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER 201 called an army, but rather a great “ gathering of neigh¬ bors, school-fellows, and friends.” Many did not have bayonets and some even lacked muskets. Their only food was what patriotic farmers gave them. Unused to soldier life, the Americans were high-spirited and unruly. It was one of the hardest tasks of Washington’s life t1 yes of passengers and crew safe before the submarine attacked. Germany, therefore, announced that her submarines would sink without warning the merchant ships of her BEFORE THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 391 enemies when sighted on seas near England. It made no difference to Germany that such method of fighting is not proper warfare, but murder. President Wilson Warns Germany. — The people of every nation have the right to sail the seas on the mer¬ chant ships of a nation which is at war; and all the world, except the countries on the side of Germany, condemned her use of the submarine. They declared that, since the submarine could not be used in a legal manner to de¬ stroy merchant ships, it should not be used for this purpose A Submarine at all. President Wilson promptly served notice on Ger¬ many that the United States would hold her responsible for any injury done to an American citizen by the unlawful use of the submarine. Sinking of the Lusitania. — Germany did not heed the warning. In May, 1915, the English passenger ship, Lusitania , while making a regular trip from New York to En ind, was torpedoed and sunk, off the coast of Ire¬ land, by a German submarine. More than a thousand innocent men, women, and children — among whom there were about three hundred Americans — were killed or 392 THE WORLD WAR drowned. The American people felt greatly outraged at the murder of their fellow citizens. Many thought that the United States should immediately declare war upon Germany. President Wilson, not wishing to rush the country headlong into war, made a demand upon Germany that she pay damages for the injuries done Americans, and promise not to commit the crime again. Germany ignored the demand, and continued to sink merchant ships of her enemies, causing the loss of other American lives. Germany Breaks a Promise Made to the United States. — Finally, Germany promised to stop sinking mer¬ chant ships without warning. But her promise was not sincere. The British navy had destroyed most of Germany’s submarines and until she could build more, she was willing that the United States should be deceived into thinking that she had given up the illegal practice. Early in 1917 a new fleet of submarines was completed. Germany then announced that she would resume her submarine warfare upon shipping, and that it would be on an even greater scale than before. Not only merchant vessels of nations at war with Germany, but those of na¬ tions not at war with her, were to be sunk without warn¬ ing ; and the waters in which they were to be sunk were extended so as to include seas bordering on other Euro¬ pean countries besides England. To Make the World Safe for Democracy.—President Wilson asked Congress to declare that, by Germany’s acts violating the rights of Americans, a state of war existed between the United States and Germany. He said that AFTER THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 393 the war should be waged not for conquest, but to make the world safe for democracy. On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. After the United States Entered the War Germany Thought America Weak in War.—The United States, not being a military nation, was unpre¬ pared for war. It was be¬ cause of our unpreparedness that Germany was willing to risk our joining her many ene¬ mies. The German leaders be¬ lieved, and they led the German people to believe, that America would not count for much in the war. They thought that their splendid army and their submarines would bring the war to an end before an Ameri¬ can army could get ready to fight, or if not, that their sub¬ marines would sink the vessels carrying the American army over the ocean. Americans Bent on Winning the War. — In spite of their natural dislike for the grim business of war, when the American people realized that they must fight, they responded vigorously and enthusiastically. “ Win the War/’ became the national slogan. Raising an Immense Army. — The regular army of the United States and the militia of the states, called the 394 THE WORLD WAR National Guard, were together not a force sufficient for so large a war. The government, therefore, required every man in the United States between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one to register, and from those registered were drawn, or drafted, such men as could be best used in the army. Thousands upon thousands of Americans, however, volunteered before the draft was made; and even after it was made many, both over the draft age and under, volunteered. The National Guard, the volunteers, and the drafted men were all sent to camps for military training before being sent to Europe. The camps located in different parts of the country were built at great cost, and each was large enough to take care of twenty-five to forty thousand men. The Building of Ships. — Submarines destroyed so many ships carrying food to the allied countries that for a time it seemed that the Germans might succeed in de¬ feating the Allies by starving them; but the United States began the rapid building of ships to take the place of those destroyed. England also rushed work on new ships. When the point was reached at which these two countries were building ships faster than the submarines could sink them, the danger of defeat for want of food was passed. How America Fed the Allies. — The United States had to furnish the food sent to the Allies, besides feeding its own army. In order that there might be enough food for this gigantic undertaking, the people of the United States used less than they had been accustomed to. On certain AFTER THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 395 days they did not eat meat, and on others they did not eat wheat. Such days came to be called “ meatless days ” and “ wheatless days.” Other articles of diet needed by the Allies were saved by limiting the amount that each person in America might use. To save coal for fuel for the ships carrying food to the Allies, heat was cut off from public and business buildings on certain days — “ heatless days,” and the use of electric lights was curtailed on certain nights — “ lightless nights.” Work of the American Navy. — Soon after the United States entered the war, General John J. Pershing, who had been placed in command of the American army, reached France. Then our soldiers began cross¬ ing the Atlantic. By the spring of 1918 three-quarters of a mil¬ lion American soldiers had ar¬ rived in Europe, and the number going over each month was steadily increasing. The fact that our army could cross three thousand miles of an ocean infested with hostile submarines was due to the excellent condition of our navy. When war was declared, the navy was ready. An American fleet under the command of Admiral William S. Sims was immediately sent to European waters. It assisted the allied navies in blockading Germany, sinking German John J. Pershing 396 THE WORLD WAR submarines, and guarding the transports carrying our troops across the ocean. Germany Realizes that She Must Act Quickly. — By the beginning of 1918, German military leaders realized that their submarine warfare was a failure. It had neither starved the Allies nor kept American soldiers from reach¬ ing Europe. These leaders also knew that although the fighting in eastern Europe had gone well for Germany, the war could not be won until Germany had crushed the allied armies in France and Belgium, and that she would not be able to crush them unless she did so before many more Americans arrived in France. The Germans Shoot Their Last Bolt. — Therefore, the Germans collected on the western front a very large army for the purpose of striking the allied armies quick and terrific blows. In March, 1918, they began their drive. The first blow fell upon the British army in north¬ ern France, which, unable to withstand the assault of overwhelming numbers, retreated from their trenches. The retreat of the British compelled the other allied armies to leave their trenches and fall back in order to keep from being separated. With the trenches evacuated, the fighting was now carried on in the open. The next blow fell upon the French who were, in turn, driven back. The number of men killed and wounded on both sides was appalling. In three months the drive had forced the Allies so far back into France that once more the Germans had reached the river Marne, only a few miles from Paris. Americans Rushed to France.—The months of the German drive were months of anxious suspense for the rest AFTER THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 397 of the world. An appeal was sent to America to save the cause by hurrying over troops. America responded by sending across the Atlantic three hundred thousand sol¬ diers, or more, a month — the most remarkable military and naval feat of history. Chateau-Thierry.— Meanwhile (June, 1918), General Ferdinand Foch, a French officer who had been made commander-in-chief of all the allied armies, had stopped the Germans at the river Marne. He had used French troops and a small body of Ameri¬ cans. The Americans, stationed near the village of Chateau-Thierry, held their ground against a “ A Caterpillar Tane ” greatly superior number of Germans, and showed that, though they had not re¬ ceived much training, they were good soldiers. Second Marne, St. Mihiel, and Argonne Forest. — Hav¬ ing stopped the Germans on their drive to Paris, Foch continued to attack them instead of waiting to be attacked. Soon the French, with the assistance of the Americans, had driven the enemy from the river Marne. Shortly afterward the Americans won two battles. They first beat the Germans back from St. Mihiel and then drove them through Argonne Forest. The battle of Argonne Forest was one of the most difficult of the war and was the largest engagement in which an American army has ever 398 THE WORLD WAR taken part. It was fought in woods thick with under¬ brush where the Germans had placed many nests of ma¬ chine guns. In fighting their way through, thousands of brave Americans gave up their lives. Breaking through the Hindenburg Line. — Ameri¬ cans also fought side by side with the British army, and they valiantly assisted that army in driving the Germans back. In front of the British was the famous Hindenburg line, the most strongly fortified of all the German trenches. It was not thought possible that an army could pass these trenches, but the British and Americans smashed the Hindenburg line to pieces, the Americans being the first to break through. Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria Surrender. — By the middle of October, 1918, the Germans had given up most of the territory that they had captured in northern France and Belgium, and their whole army on the western front was in retreat. While the Germans were meeting with defeat, the Italians had routed the Austrians in northern Italy, and another allied army was marching toward Bul¬ garia. In quick succession Bulgaria, Austria, and Turkey surrendered. Germany Seeks Peace. — With her associates out of the fighting and with no more men at home for her to draw upon for her army, Germany saw her scheme of world conquest vanish. The German government sent a note to President Wilson asking that an armistice — that is, a cessation of hostilities — be arranged so that peace might be made. President Wilson had already announced the terms THE TREATY OF PEACE 399 upon which America would be willing to make peace. Among them were: Every nation, great and small alike, should have the right to its own government; Germany and the nations in alliance with her should give back to other nations all territory taken from them in the past; a League of Nations should be formed for the purpose of preventing wars in the future. In the note to President Wilson the German government accepted his terms as a basis upon which to make peace. The Armistice. — The allied nations having also ac¬ cepted President Wilson’s terms, General Foch arranged the armistice. Under the conditions of the armistice Germany was compelled to surrender much of her fleet and most of her arms and ammunition. This was to make it impossible for her to continue the war if she should be unwilling to sign the treaty of peace when finally drawn up. The armistice went into effect November n, 1918. The Awful Toll of War. — The fighting that had for more than four years drenched Europe in blood had come to an end. About nine million men had been killed in battle or had died in service. More than twice that number had been wounded. Large areas in France, Belgium, Russia, Poland, and Serbia had been laid waste, and in these devastated areas suffering and misery and death had befallen the inhabitants. The Treaty of Peace and the League of Nations The Nations Gather at Paris to Make Peace. — The Peace Conference met in Paris in January, 1919. All 400 THE WORLD WAR the nations, great and small, that were at war with Ger¬ many, sent delegates. President Wilson headed the delegation from the United States. Never before had a President left the country for more than a day or two^ at a time. Since, however, the terms which he proposed had been accepted as a basis upon which to make peace, President Wilson thought that he should present them to the Conference in person. So many difficult questions growing out of the war had to be settled that the Conference was in session for nearly six months before it completed the treaty of peace with Germany. The treaty required Germany to restore territory that she had seized from other countries in previous wars; to pay large sums for damages she had un¬ lawfully inflicted upon other countries during the World War; and forbade her keeping a large army. The treaty also acknowledged the independence of certain small nations that had sprung up in Europe as a result of the war; and it contained a plan for a League of Nations. The Senate Refuses to Ratify the Treaty. — Under the Constitution of the United States the Senate must ratify a treaty by a two-thirds vote before it can go into effect. When President Wilson sent the peace treaty to the Senate for ratification, in the summer of 1919, the members of the Senate divided on the question of the League of Nations. Some were willing to accept the plan of the League just as it was written in the treaty; others were willing to accept the plan provided certain clauses, or “ reserva¬ tions ” which they thought necessary to protect the in¬ dependence of the United States, were added; while still others — these few in number—were opposed to a League THE TREATY AND THE LEAGUE 401 of Nations in any form. The differences of opinion caused the Senate to remain deadlocked over the treaty for some months. Finally, all efforts to come to an agreement having failed, the Senate, in the spring of 1920, returned the treaty to President Wilson unratified. The League of Nations before the People. — Mean¬ while most of the nations of the civilized world had joined the League of Nations, and in the election, in the fall of 1920, for a President of the United States the League was made an issue before the people. The Democratic party advocated the United States’ enter¬ ing the League; the Republican party opposed the country’s entering the League under the existing plan, but favored its joining with other nations in forming, under some other plan, a league or association for preserving peace. The Democrats nom¬ inated James M. Cox of Ohio, for President, and the Republicans nominated Warren G. Harding of Ohio. Harding was elected by an overwhelming vote. While other issues entered into the campaign, the immense ma¬ jority given the Republican candidate indicated that the people preferred a League of Nations different from the one that had been established. 402 THE WORLD WAR The Armament Conference. — Because the Senate had refused, on account of opposition to the League of Nations, to ratify the peace treaties, the United States was still technically at war with Germany and Austria. Therefore, soon after President Harding was inaugu¬ rated, Congress passed a resolution declaring the War at an end. As large navies, besides being a great expense to the people, are apt to bring on wars, and as some of the nations, including the United States, were building large navies, President Harding thought that steps should be taken to put a limit upon this policy. He in¬ vited certain other nations to send delegates to meet in a conference at Washington with delegates from the United States. The conference met near the end of 1921. The five great naval powers, — the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, — agreed upon a treaty which bound each coun¬ try to limit its navy to a size necessary only for self-defense. The treaty will remain in force until the year 1936. All the world approved of this treaty as it is looked upon as a powerful influ¬ ence in preventing war. Calvin Coolidge THE TREATY AND THE LEAGUE 403 Death of Harding. — While on his return from a visit to Alaska, President Harding died, after a brief illness, in San Francisco, August 2, 1923. Calvin Coolidge, of Mas¬ sachusetts, the Vice Presi¬ dent, thereupon assumed the office of President of the United States. Coolidge and Hoover. — In the election of 1924, Pres¬ ident Coolidge was chosen to continue in the office of President for the four year term following the unex¬ pired term of President Harding in which he was then serving. In the election of 1928, Herbert C. Hoover, of Cali¬ fornia, was selected to succeed to the Presidency. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. How did Germany bring on the World War? 2. Explain how the World War was a struggle between democracy and autocracy, and name the principal countries engaged on each side at the beginning of the war. 3. How did Germany lose her national honor when she in¬ vaded Belgium? 4. Describe the first battle of the Marne, and show the results of this battle. 5. Which side gained the advantage in Eastern Europe? 6. Tell about the cruelty of the Germans 7. How did the people of the United States at first look upon the World War? 8. Describe Germany’s use of the submarine, and explain why this use was illegal. 9. Describe the sinking of the Lusitania. 10. Why did the United States enter the World War? 404 THE WORLD WAR ii. Why was Germany willing that the United States should join her many enemies? 12. Tell how we raised an army, built ships, and fed the Allies. 13. Describe the work of the American Navy. 14. Tell all you can about the great German drive of 1918. 15. Describe the battles of Chateau-Thierry, Second Marne, St. Mihiel, and Argonne Forest, and the part that Americans took in these battles. 16. Tell about breaking through the Hindenburg line. 17. Tell how the war came to an end. 18. What was the Armistice? 19. Relate the story of the Peace Conference at Paris. 20. What is meant by a League of Nations? 21. Why did the Senate refuse to ratify the treaty of peace with Germany? 22. What did the presidential election of 1920 show?^ 23. Tell about the Armament Conference. 24. Who succeeded Harding as President? 25. Who was chosen to succeed President Coolidge? CHAPTER XXIX CONQUERING THE AIR The Advance of Aviation The Dirigible. — Aviation has progressed with as¬ tonishing rapidity in the years since the World War. Already dirigibles, flying machines lighter than air, have successfully made, with a number of passengers, flight voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. The Aeroplane. — Flights across the ocean have also been made by the aeroplane, the machine heavier than air. Better built planes, improved engines, and steadily increasing knowledge of how to cope with winds and weather are rapidly making aeroplane flying practically as safe as any other method of travel. In Europe aero¬ planes carry passengers between cities on regular sched¬ ules, and in the United States they carry mail over routes totalling thousands of miles. Aviators of almost every civilized country have per¬ formed wonderful feats with the aeroplane, and two American aviators have gained world-wide fame — Richard Evelyn Byrd and Charles Augustus Lindbergh. 405 406 CONQUERING THE AIR Byrd Flies to the North Pole Boyhood of Byrd. — Not so very many years ago there lived in Winchester, Virginia, a family named Byrd, whose people had lived in Virginia since early colonial days. In this family were three boys, Thomas, Richard, and Henry. Friends called them “Tom, Dick and Harry.” All the boys grew to be prominent and useful citizens. Tom gained a captaincy in the American Army in the World War for gallantry in the storming of the Hindenburg line; Harry became Governor of Virginia in 1926; and Dick became a famous aviator. Dick — whose full name is Richard Evelyn Byrd — was born in Winchester on October 28, 1888. From the time he was a little boy he has shown an adventuresome spirit. When only twelve years old he went around the world by himself, and had many thrilling experiences. It was natural that a boy so fond of adventure should wish to be a sailor. He secured a cadetship in the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, and, though he injured a foot in the gymnasium in his last year at the Academy, he graduated with his class in 1912. A Young Naval Officer. — Still suffering from the injury to his foot Byrd began service in the Navy. No duties are more exacting than those of the Navy, and Byrd struggled so manfully to do his work, despite his handicap, that by the end of four years he had been pro¬ moted to the rank of Lieutenant Commander. By that time, however, the condition of his foot had become so bad that it was necessary to retire him from active serv- BYRD FLIES TO THE NORTH POLE 407 ice. Still, he had had adventure in his short term of service, for he had helped in putting down two revolu¬ tions in the West Indies. Byrd Becomes an Aviator. — Byrd chafed over the inactive life that his retirement from the Navy had forced upon him. Then came the World War, when the country could use the services of even crippled men, and Byrd thought he saw an op¬ portunity to “do his bit.” He re-entered the Navy, hop¬ ing to go into aviation, but on account of his injured foot he was given work in an office in Washington. He fretted so much because he was working at a desk instead of flying that his physical con¬ dition became serious. The naval surgeons threatened to send him home for a rest. Byrd was desperate. “Give me a chance,” he begged the surgeons, “I want to fly. Give me a month of it and if I don’t improve to suit you, I’ll do anything you say.” The surgeons, unable to resist such earnest pleading, gave Byrd a chance. Fresh air, the thrill of flying, and the feeling that at last he was doing for his country what he wished to do, made him physically a new man. His recovery was most rapid. Never since has he been troubled with his foot. Richard E. Byrd 408 CONQUERING THE AIR Byrd learned to fly at the naval station at Pensacola, Florida, and was then made commanding officer of the aviation station that the United States Navy established temporarily in Nova Scotia for war purposes. While the war was in progress and again after the war had closed, Byrd made unsuccessful attempts to get the Navy Department’s permission for him to make in a seaplane a flight across the Atlantic Ocean. The Science of Aviation. — Byrd has directed his work as a flyer toward the perfecting of the science of aviation. His desire is so to increase knowledge of the science that flying will become of every-day use. For the scientific phase of his work he is particularly well fitted. To his adventuresome spirit he adds the accurate scientific training he gained as a naval cadet and officer. Especially is his training in sea navigation of help in his study of air navigation. That the science of aviation is rapidly approaching the desired safety point is due to the daring and skill of the pioneer aviators, and of none more so than Byrd. Be¬ sides making important discoveries about flying, es¬ pecially in relation to the varying conditions of the air, Byrd has invented several instruments of great value to aviation. Exploring the Arctic Region. — In the summer of 1925, Byrd explored in a plane, with the temperature below zero, 30,000 square miles of the Arctic region — a wide field of ice most of which had never before been seen by man. He brought back from this expedition much information concerning air conditions. BYRD FLIES TO THE NORTH POLE 409 Byrd “Hops” to the North Pole. — On May 9, 1926, Byrd and his assistant, Floyd Bennett, starting from one of the Spitzbergen Islands in the Arctic Ocean, “hopped” in a plane to the North Pole. From the Spitzbergen to the Pole is 750 miles and the dash to the Pole and back was made in about fifteen and one half hours. Since the magnetic compass does not work satisfactorily that far north the sun compass had to be used, but, since the flyers were in the “land of the midnight sun/'’ where the sun does not set for six months, they had the benefit of bright light during the entire trip. The directness with which Byrd steered his plane to a location in the air not discernible by the eye and the directness with which he steered it back to the starting point show his extraordinary skill in air navigation.^ Peary had been the first man to reach the North Pole, in 1909, but it took him two-thirds of a year to get there and back on dog sleds. Byrd made the dash to the Pole and back in less than two-thirds of a day. Moreover, it was not until five months after Peary had gained the Pole that news of it reached the outside world; whereas Byrd, though he could have sent the news while at the Pole, for he had a radio set with him, waited until his return to Spitzbergen, and yet announced his feat to the world within a few hours. Such has been the progress in travel and communication in the short space of seventeen years! While over the North Pole, Byrd made pictures, and then circled his plane around the Pole. “We thus,” says Byrd, “made a non-stop flight around the world 4io CONQUERING THE AIR in a very few minutes. In doing that we lost a whole day in time and of course when we completed the circle we gained that day back again. Time and direction be¬ came topsy-turvy at the Pole. When crossing it on the same straight line we were going north one instant and south the next! No matter how the wind strikes you at the North Pole it must be traveling north and how¬ ever you turn your head you must be looking south.” How Byrd Felt at the North Pole. —(Imagine, if you can, a picture of the two flyers as they paused in their flight over the top of the world.) As far as their eyes could see there was nothing but snow and ice, just a vast stretch of dreary waste with no sign of life of any kind. Byrd has described their sensation: “We felt no larger than a pinpoint and as lonely as the tomb; as remote and detached as a star — two insignificant specks of mortality flying there over that great, vast white area in a small plane — just a dot in the center of 10,000 square miles of visible desolation.” Byrd’s Triumphant Homecoming. — Byrd’s flight to the North Pole thrilled the world. On his reaching New York, the city gave him a triumphant homecoming. Everywhere else he went great crowds met him) Con¬ gress promoted him, for his brilliant exploit, to the rank of Commander in the Navy, ByrcJ, like all truly great men, is modest, and like other aviators devoted to their calling, he is unwilling to commercialize his fame. He has refused many op¬ portunities to make large sums of money from his exploits. \ LINDBERGH “THE LONE EAGLE >> 411 Lindbergh, “The Lone Eagle” Boyhood of Lindbergh. — Charles Augustus Lind¬ bergh was born at the home of his grandfather in Detroit, on February 4, 1902. When he was a few weeks old his parents took him to their home on a farm near Little Falls, Minnesota, and there he spent his early boy¬ hood. The little Lindbergh boy was fortunate in his parents. His father, reared in the hard pioneer life of the West, was rugged, courageous, honest, and clear thinking. His mother was well edu¬ cated. She had been a school teacher, and after his father’s death, she again took up teaching. Both father and mother made a companion of the boy. The father taught the boy to shoot and ride well, and frequently the two went on camping or fishing trips in the woods and on the lakes and streams of Minnesota. / The boy’s fondness for the woods often took him on long walks by himself or in company with his ever faith¬ ful dog. His outdoor life made him strong and healthy. Because he cared so little for the companionship of other boys his schoolmates said he was a “queer guy,” but he w;as not unpopular. ^ Charles A. Lindbergh 412 CONQUERING THE AIR Fondness for Machinery. — Young Lindbergh early showed a strong liking for machinery. He knew how to repair first the bicycle he owned and next his motor cycle; and then, when still a boy, he learned every bolt and screw of his father’s automobile. While at college he made an ice boat and equipped it with a motor cycle engine and aeroplane propeller, and sailed the lakes near the college. At School and College. — From the time young Lind¬ bergh was four years old until he was fourteen his father was a member of Congress, and during that time the family was constantly moving back and forth between their home in Minnesota and the city of Washington. As a consequence the boy in his earlier years attended school very irregularly, but his mother made up the handicap by teaching him. In 1918 Lindbergh graduated from the high school at Little Falls at the age of sixteen. Two years later he entered the University of Wisconsin with the view to completing a course in mechanical engineering. For a year and a half Lindbergh stuck closely to his work at the University. In that time, however, he decided that he would like to become an aviator. He consulted his mother who was near by and who approved of his following the career he wished. Since he could not see that the course he was taking at the University would help him particularly in becoming an aviator, he resigned from the University and, mounting his motor cycle, rode to Lincoln, Nebraska, where he\entered an aviation school. 4i3 LINDBERGH ‘ THE LONE EAGLE” Lindbergh Becomes a “Barnstormer.” — Before Lind¬ bergh had finished the course at the flying school, for he had not yet done “solo-flying” — flying by oneself — he left the school to accompany a friend, who owned a plane, on a “barnstorming” tour of the Northwest. “Barnstorming” in aviation is flying from town to town and for a price taking persons to ride in a plane. Towns where fairs are in progress are preferred and usually “ stunts ” are done in the air to draw crowds. Lindbergh, who was then only twenty years old, did the “stunts.” The charge Lindbergh and his friend made for a ride was five dollars a person. In this way they paid their ex¬ penses and Lindbergh saved a little money. Buys His First Plane. — Lindbergh longed to have a plane of his own. On hearing that the United States Government was selling at Americus, Georgia, at cheap prices a lot of old planes built for use in the World War, he hastened to that city and bought for himself a plane for five hundred dollars. The next day, although he had not before done “solo-flying,” he tested his plane by making a flight alone. After a week’s practice, he flew alone from Americus to his far-off home in Minnesota, “barnstorming” along the way to pay his expenses. Lindbergh Graduates at Army Aviation School. — Still, Lindbergh was not satisfied. He wished to know all that was then to be known about aviation and to fly the very best of planes. Therefore, in 1924, he enrolled as a cadet in a school of the Air Service Reserve Corps of the Army at San Antonio, Texas. After a year’s instruction he graduated with a commission in the Re- 4 T 4 CONQUERING THE AIR serve Corps. The training at army flying schools is very severe, and of the one hundred and four young men who had entered the school in the class with Lindbergh only eighteen graduated. r Decides to Fly to Paris. —\The greater part of the year following his graduation from the army school Lindbergh spent in “barnstorming” towns of the far West.) In the spring of 1926 he became a pilot in the air-mail service between Chicago and St. Louis. One autumn night (of 192(h) while flying the air-mail route, Lindbergh thought of sdmething he would rather do, something nobody had ever done — make in an aeroplane a non-stop flight between New York and Paris. Seven years before a prize of $25,000 had been offered to the person or persons who would first make this flight and the prize was still awaiting the winner. Lind¬ bergh determined to try for it. V Since, with Lindbergh, deciding to do a thing is to do it,\he immediately set about making his plans. To save for extra fuel the space and weight in a plane that another flyer would take he decided to make the flight alone. He would be both navigator and pilot. Next he interested a group of public spirited citizens of St. Louis who furnished the money for building the plane. Lindbergh had the plane built in San Diego, California, and he named it the Spirit of St. Louis in compliment to the friends who had helped him. During the two months that it took to build the plane, Lindbergh worked out the details of navigation and plotted from maps and LINDBERGH “THE LONE EAGLE 415 charts the course he would follow in flying over the ocean. The “Lone Eagle ” off for Paris. — Flying his plane from San Diego and stopping only at St. Louis, Lind¬ bergh landed at Curtis Field, Long Island, New York. There he found other flyers waiting for good weather to make the flight to Paris, but he was the only one who would make the flight alone. Lindbergh also waited for good weather. A week passing and the weather im¬ proving somewhat, though yet far from favorable, he determined to wait no longer. From Roosevelt Field, adjoining Curtis Field, in the early morning of Friday, May 20, 1927, Lindbergh took off for Paris. Friends who had gathered at an early hour of the murky morn to assist in the take-off saw the winning smile and heard the cheery “so-long” and then watched in silent awe and admiration the “Lone Eagle” disappear in the east. Soon telegraph, cable, telephone, and radio carried to the remotest corners of the earth the startling news that Lindbergh and the Spirit of St. Louis had gone on their flight to Paris. All the world waited eagerly for further news. As long as Lindbergh’s course continued over New England, and Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland his progress could be followed, but, when he turned the nose of his plane over the broad Atlantic, he was lost to the world; for, just as he had sacrificed many other things for fuel, he had refused to carry a radio set with which he could have kept in touch with the outside world. Vessels plying the ocean were instructed to be on the 416 CONQUERING THE AIR lookout for the lone flyer as he passed overhead, but night wore away without his having been sighted. Morning came and still no news; a few hours more, and then a wireless message from Newfoundland carried the tidings that a vessel had broadcasted: “Lindbergh sighted 500 miles from Irish coast. Plane keeps full speed. May be expected 8:00 p.m., New York time, in Ireland.” And the world breathed freer. The Perilous Flight. — We now know from his own story that the dauntless flyer, scarcely more than a boy, alone in the sky that night, flew through the darkness and dangers of fog, cloud storm, and sleet storm. jWe also know, though he is too modest to have told it him¬ self, that his heart never quaked. Arrival in Paris. — Shortly after ten o’clock (5 :oo p.m., New York time) the second night, Saturday, May 21, Lindbergh landed in Paris, where an enthusi¬ astic, wildly cheering crowd of one hundred thousand persons had gathered to greet him. He had flown straight as a bird and had covered the distance of 3,160 miles, half of it over the ocean, in thirty-three and one-half hours. All the world sounded praise for the remarkable feat. (Men, women, and children could think of nothing, could talk of nothing but the young hero, his courage, his daring, and his skill A Reception in Europe. — Lindbergh’s stay in Paris, and his visits to Brussels and London were one continual ovation. He was received by crown heads and presi¬ dents, by parliaments and ministers of State, and by marshals and generals of the World War. Queen LINDBERGH “ THE LONE EAGLE ” 417 Elizabeth of Belgium took a snapshot of him as he stood by King Albert. The Prince of Wales wished to know of him what he would do now that he had accomplished the great feat, and he with his modesty and his loyalty to his calling, replied, “I am going to keep on flying.” It was the people, however, that nearly overwhelmed Lindbergh with their enthusiasm. Wherever he appeared in public, in Paris, in Brussels, or in London, it was the same story. A seething mass of humanity madly pushed and pressed and jostled one another just for the sight Home Again. — President Coolidge sent a warship to bring the young hero home. On his arrival at Wash¬ ington President and Mrs. Coolidge received him and all Washington poured out to honor him. New York gave him the greatest reception in the history of that city. As a crowning tribute to his remarkable feat, St. Louis, the city that had given him his faithful plane, gave him an enthusiastic welcome home. $ Lindbergh Tours the United States. — In the summer and autumn of 1927, Lindbergh, in the interest of avia¬ tion, toured the United States in the Spirit of St. Louis. He made one or more landings in every State, and when¬ ever he landed immense crowds flocked from miles around to see him. It is estimated that during this tour more than thirty million persons saw him — more than have ever looked upon another man. “Good Will Ambassador.” — At tile invitation of the President of Mexico, Lindbergh flew in the Spirit of St. Louis , in the winter of 1927, to Mexico City, where 418 CONQUERING THE AIR he took the President and the ex-President of Mexico for their first ride in an aeroplane. From Mexico City he continued (1927-28) his good will tour to Central America, parts of South America, and some of the islands of the West Indies. Why Our Hearts Warm to Lindbergh. — We admire Lindbergh for his courage, his daring, and his skill, but we admire him more for his level-headedness, his modesty, and his unselfishness. Although he has re¬ ceived plaudits of the world such as no other man has ever received, he remains the unassuming youth with the winning smile; although he has performed perhaps the greatest single feat of history, he has never boasted of it — in speaking of the flight he always says “we,” so that his plane might have the same credit as himself; although he could have made for himself many millions of dollars by commercializing his feat, he prefers that whatever benefit should come from what he has done should be for the good of aviation. Our hearts warm to Lindbergh for in him we see the highest ideals of the spirit of American youth. Other Achievements of Byrd Byrd’s Trans-Atlantic Flight. — At the time that Lindbergh made his flight to Paris, Byrd was at Roose¬ velt Field preparing to make a trans-Atlantic flight for scientific purposes. He wished to make the flight under conditions as nearly as possible like conditions as they must be for aeroplane voyages over the ocean to become a common method of travel. For this reason he gave, OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS OF BYRD 419 in building and equipping his plane, his chief thought to safety. To prove that a plane can carry passengers over the ocean, he carried three companions, G. 0 . Noville, Bert Acosta, and Bernt Balchen, all experienced aviators, and, to make observations of the weather, he carried many scientific instruments. All the things that Byrd did to make a flight across the Atlantic under the conditions necessary for every-day flying to Europe made the plane very heavy. When loaded it weighed about 15,000 pounds. The “America” Over the Ocean. — Byrd’s plane, the America , took off in the rain early in the morning of June 29, 1927. Byrd had selected unfavorable-weather because planes to make flights over the ocean on regular schedules must be ready to cope with different kinds of air conditions. During the night fog so enveloped the America and rain and sleet so beat upon it that, for two thousand miles and for nearly nineteen hours, the flyers could see neither land nor sea, nor sky nor ship: yet, during all that nerve racking time Byrd was in communi¬ cation with the outside world through his radio set. When storms made it impossible for him to take bear¬ ings he learned his position through exchange of radio messages with ships. Over France, — As the America arrived over Paris early in the second night another terrific storm made such intense darkness that Byrd could not see below him the lights that should have guided him to the landing field. He knew that for him to make in the 420 CONQUERING THE AIR darkness a haphazard descent on land meant certain death and that the only thing for him now to do was to drop down into the sea. He turned his plane and steered for a lighthouse which he remembered passing when over the coast of France. Reaching the lighthouse, he came down in the ocean a short way from shore. The plane was wrecked but the men extricated them¬ selves, and, inflating a rubber raft that the plane carried, rowed to land. The lighthouse keeper and his wife kindly gave shelter to the weary and drenched, but un¬ daunted, aviators. Result of Byrd’s Trans-Atlantic Flight. — Although Byrd did not land at Paris as he had designed, his trans- Atlantic flight was a success. He not only proved that a heavy, passenger-carrying aeroplane can make the voyage over the ocean, but he brought back observations of weather conditions that are of the greatest value to aviation. Reception in Europe and America. — Byrd and his companions were given a royal welcome in Paris. On their return to New York another great welcome greeted them — the second triumphant homecoming that the city has given Byrd. Byrd Off for the South Pole. — In the autumn of 1928 Byrd sailed from the United States, at the head of a party of eighty, including eminent American scientists, for the purpose of exploring the Antarctic region — an expanse of ice the area of which equals the combined area of the United States and Mexico, and in the center of which is the South Pole. This ice field lies 10,000 OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS OF BYRD 421 miles from the United States and 2,300 miles from New Zealand, the nearest land of civilization. No man, nor beast, nor bird lives in the region where it is common for the temperature to be sixty degrees below zero. While making explorations, which will be done mainly in aeroplanes, Byrd will attempt a flight to the South Pole. Desolate as is this broad expanse of ice, Byrd hopes to bring back from it much information that will be of value to science. A Stupendous Undertaking. — The explorers left the United States with the intention of staying, if necessary, two years in the Antarctic region. The preparations re¬ quired for an expedition that may stay so long in a region so cold and barren cost nearly a million dollars. Hun¬ dreds of thousands of dollars were spent for food supplies alone. The commissary carried 28 tons of meat, 12, tons of potatoes, 17 tons of flour and 4,500 pounds of coffee. Food for the one hundred sled dogs taken on the expedition cost eight thousand dollars. The scientific instruments cost forty thousand dollars. So complete is the equipment that three ships were needed to carry the expedition to the rim of the ice field. A Ready-Made Village on Ice. — The ships carried portable houses, made especially for protection against the bitter cold. These houses were planned to be erected on the ice, making a little village, laid out in streets and lighted by electricity. In this village in the ice bound, far-away region — the farthest south of the/ earth — powerful radios were provided to keep the men in touch with home. During the weather too bad for 422 CONQUERING THE AIR exploration or for use of the radio it was arranged that they might while away many a weary hour with phono¬ graphs or motion pictures or with a library of 2,000 volumes. Truly has it been said that “in magnitude of prepara¬ tion, the expedition is without doubt the most stupen¬ dous undertaking in the history of exploration.” Byrd’s Place in Aviation. —■ No better estimate of Byrd, the man, and of his work for the advancement of aviation, may be found than in the words of Byrd’s superior officer, the Admiral at the head of the aviation bureau of the Navy: “I am glad we have Byrd. It is his idealism, modesty, unflagging industry and devotion to the scientific advance of flying that combine to make him so immeasurably valuable to aviation today.” QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW f 1. How has aviation advanced since the World War? 2. Tell about the dirigible. The aeroplane. 3. Who were “Torn, Dick and Harry” Byrd? 4. What is to be said about “Dick’s” boyhood? 5. Tell about his life at Annapolis and in the Navy. 6. Why was he retired from the Navy? 7. How did he become an aviator? 8. Why is Byrd so useful to the science of avia¬ tion? 9. Describe his exploration of the North Polar region. 10. Tell about his flight to the North Pole. 11. Relate the story of Lindbergh’s early life. 12. Describe his “barnstorming” trips. 13. How did he later get the best of training in aviation? 14. When did he first think of making the flight to Paris? 15. Relate the story of the flight. How the people felt about it and how he met the dangers he encountered. ^16. Tell of the ovations given Lindbergh in Europe and in America. 17. Tell of his later flights. 18. Describe Byrd’s trans-Atlantic flight. 19. Why was it a success? 20. Tell all about Byrd’s expedition to the South Pole. LIST OF PRESIDENTS 1789-1797 George Washington of Virginia 1797-1801 John Adams of Massachusetts 1801-1809 Thomas Jefferson of Virginia 1809—1817 James Madison of Virginia 1817-1825 James Monroe of Virginia 1825-1829 John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts 1829-1837 Andrew Jackson of Tennessee 1837-1841 Martin Van Buren of New York 1841 William H. Harrison of Ohio 1841-1845 John Tyler of Virginia 1845-1849 James K. Polk of Tennessee 1849- 1850 Zachary Taylor of Louisiana 1850- 1853 Millard Fillmore of New York 1853-1857 Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire 1857-1861 James Buchanan of Pennsylvania 1861-1865 Abraham Lincoln of Illinois 1865-1869 Andrew Johnson of Tennessee 1869-1877 Ulysses S. Grant of Illinois 1877-1881 Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio 1881 James A. Garfield of Ohio 1881-1885 Chester A. Arthur of New York 1885-1889 Grover Cleveland of New York 1889-1893 Benjamin Harrison of Indiana 1893-1897 Grover Cleveland of New York 1897-1901 William McKinley of Ohio 1901-1909 Theodore Roosevelt of New York 1909—1913 William H. Taft of Ohio 1913-1921 Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey 1921-1923 Warren G. Harding of Ohio 1923-1929 Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts 1929- Herbert Hoover of California 423 DATE OF ADMISSION OF THE STATES 1. Delaware. 2. Pennsylvania 3. New Jersey . . . 4. Georgia. 5. Connecticut 6. Massachusetts 7. Maryland .... 8. South Carolina 9. New Hampshire 10. Virginia . 11. New York 12. North Carolina 13. Rhode Island . . 14. Vermont . 15. Kentucky 16. Tennessee . 17. Ohio . 18. Louisiana . .. . . 19. Indiana . 20. Mississippi . 21. Illinois . 22. Alabama . 23. Maine . 24. Missouri . 25. Arkansas . 26. Michigan . 27. Florida . 28. Texas . 29. Iowa . 30. Wisconsin . 31. California. 32. Minnesota . 33. Oregon . 34. Kansas . 35. West Virginia . 36. Nevada . 37. Nebraska . 38. Colorado . 39. North Dakota 40. South Dakota . 41. Montana . 42. Washington . . . 43. # Idaho . 44. Wyoming . 45. Utah. . 46. Oklahoma. 47. New Mexico- 48. Arizona. Dec. 7, 1787 Dec. 12, 1787 Dec. 18, 1787 Jan. 2, 1788 Jan. 9, 1788 Feb. 6, 1788 April 28, 1788 May 23, 1788 June 21, 1788 June 25, 1788 July 26, 1788 Nov. 21, 1789 May 29, 1790 . March 4, 1791 . June 1, 1792 . June 1, 1796 . Feb. 19, 1803 . April 8, 1812 . Dec. 11, 1816 . Dec. 10, 1817 . Dec. 3, 1818 . Dec. 14, 1819 . March 15, 1820 . Aug. 10, 1821 . June 15, 1836 . Jan. 26, 1837 . March 3, 1845 . Dec. 29, 1845 . Dec. 28, 1846 . May 29, 1848 . Sept. 9, 1850 . May 11, 1858 . Feb. 14, 1859 . Jan. 29, 1861 . June 19, 1863 . Oct. 31, 1864 . March 1, 1867 . Aug. 1, 1876 . Nov. 3, 1889 . Nov. 3, 1889 . Nov. 8, 1889 . Nov. 11, 1889 . July 3, 1890 . July 10, 1890 . Jan. 4, 1896 . Nov. 16, 1907 . Jan. 6, 1912 . Feb. 14,1912 424 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Key to Symbols a. as in bay, a as in bat, a as in Mre, a as in farm, a as in solace, a as in cask, a as in walk, e as in be, e as in bet, e as in there, e as in her, e as in they, i as in pie, l as in bit, 5 as in go, 6 as in got, 6 as in c6rn, oo as in moon, u as in tune, u as in but. e represents a sound similar to, but shorter than, short u—sometimes almost silent, g hard as in get. n as in ink, hunger, ow has the sound of ow in how. Alamo, a'la-mo Andr6, an'dra or an'dri Antietam, an-te'tam Bahama, ba-ha/ma Balboa, bal-bo'a Beauregard, bo're-gard' Bienville, be'an-vel' Biloxi, bil-ox'i Bon Homme Richard, bo-nom f re- sharr' Buena Yista, bwa'na ves'ta Cabot, kaVot Cartier, kar'tya' Cerro Gordo, ser'ro gOr'do Champlain, sham'plan' Chateau-Thierry, sha-tS'tye-re' Chippewa, chip'pe-wa Cibola, se'bo-la Coligny, Gaspard de, gas-parr de ko-len'ye Concord, konk'urd Coronado, ko-ro-na/tho Corsair, kdr'sar Duquesne, du'kan' Foch, f5sh Genet, zhe-na' Gourges, Dominique de, do'me'nek de goorg Guam, gwam 425 426 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Haiti, ha'ti Hawaii, ha-wi'e Houston, hu'ston Huguenot, liu'ge-not Iberville, e'ber-vel' Iroquois, ir-o-kwoi' Jesuit, jez'u-it Joffre, zhoff Joliet, zho'le-a La Espagnola, la es-pan-yo'la La Fayette, la'fa'yet' La Salle, Robert de, ro'bairr de la sal' Magellan, ma-jel'an Manila, ma-nil'a Marconi, mar-ko'ne Marquette, mar'ket' Massasoit, mas'sa-soit' Menendez de Aviles, Pedro, pe'dro ma-nen'deth da-a-vee'les Monterey, mon-te-ra' Moultrie, mool'tri New Orleans, nu or'le-anz Nina, nen'ya Palos, pa'los Pamlico, pam'li-ko Pascua Florida, pas-cwa flor'i-da Pequot, pe'kwot Philippine, fil'ip-in Pinta, pen'ta Pocahontas, po-k£i-hon'tas Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-on' Porto Rico, por'to re'ko Powhatan, pow-ha-tan' Pueblo, pweb'lo Raleigh, raw'll Ribault, Jean, zh5n re'bo' Roosevelt, roz'e-velt Samoa, sa-m5'a Santa Maria, san'ta ma-re'a Santiago, san'te a'go Schley, sli Sevier, se-ver' Stuyvesant, sti've-sant Tecumseh, te-kum'seh Tomochichi, tom'o-che J chi Valladolid, val'ya-tho-leth' Vincennes, vin-senz' Oglethorpe, o'g’l-thorp Wampum, wom'pum INDEX Abraham, Plains of, 173. Adams, John, 210. Adams, Samuel, 188-197. Aeroplane, the, 351 - 353 - Agriculture, 125, 261, 291, 338, 340- 341, 342-343, 345-346. Alabama, 38, 153, 251, 253, 308, 346. Alamo, battle of, 276. Alaska, 283. Allies, the, 387. American Women, 367-385. Andre, Major, 207. Andros, Sir Edmund, 138. Anthony, Susan B., 377-379. Antietam, battle of, 324. Anti-Saloon League, the, 382. Appomattox, 334. Argonne Forest, battle of, 397. Arizona, 42, 283, 285. Arkansas, 40, 242, 30S. Armistice, the, 399. Arnold, Benedict, 206, 207. Atlanta, 332. Automobile, the, 355. Aviation, 404-422. Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, 49. Bacon’s Rebellion, 136. Bahama Islands, the, 18, 29. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 30-32. Baltimore, 267, 271, 296. Baltimore, Lord, 96-99. Barton, Clara, 382-384. Bean, William, 178. Beauregard, P. G. T., 321, 322. Bell, Alexander Graham, 350-351. Berkeley, Sir William, 136. Bessemer, Henry, 338. Bienville, 150-15 7. Biloxi, 151. Birmingham, 346. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 240, 241. Bon Homme Richard , the, 219. Boone, Daniel, 178-184. Boonesboro, 181, 183. Boston, 85, 129, 138, 186, 192, 193, 194, 196, 201, 296. Boston Massacre, the, 193. Boston Tea Party, the, 194. Braddock, Edward, 165-168. Bradford, William, 79-84. Brandywine, battle of, 204. Buena Vista, battle of, 281. Bunker Hill, battle of, 200. Burnside, A. E., 326. Burgoyne, surrender of, 206. Byrd, Richard E., 404-410, 420-422. Cabot, John, 22-24. Cabot, Sebastian, 23. Cahoka, 218. Calhoun, John C., 301-306. California, 283, 298-299, 305, 343. Calvert, Leonard, 97-99. Camden, battle of, 225. Campbell, William, 226. Canada, 23, 51, 142, 159, 175, 245, 248. Canals, 266, 289. “Carpet-bag” Governments, 344-345. Cartier, Jacques, 46. Carver, John, 80. Catholic Missionaries, 142. Catholics, the, 3, 47, 96. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 282. Champlain, Samuel de, 51-55. Chancellorsville, battle of, 326. Charles I, of England, 84, 96, 100. Charles II, of England, 100, 113, 118, 136, 137 - Charles V, of Spain, 33. Charles IX, of France, 48, 50. Charleston, 101, 102, 131, 186, 194, 200, 220, 222, 321. Charlotte, 227. 427 428 INDEX Chateau Thierry, battle of, 397. Chattanooga, battle of, 332. Chicago, 291, 340. Chilton, Mary, 367. Church of England, the, 79, 116. Cibola, the seven cities of, 41-43. Clark, Elijah, 223. Clark, George Rogers, 217-219. Clark, William, 242-244. Clay, Henry, 301-306. Clermont, the, 263. Cleveland, 340. Clinton, General, 207, 222. Cold Harbor, battle of, 333. Coligny, Gaspard de, 48. Colombia, United States of, 365. Colonial Governments, 186. Colorado, 242, 283, 341. Columbus, Christopher, 12-22. Commerce, 126, 186. Concord, 198. Confederate States, the, 308, 321-336. Confederation, the, 128-134. Congregational Church, the, 86. Connecticut, 87-91, 138. Constitution of the United States, the, 2337235. Constitution, the, 246. Continental Congress, the, 195, 200, 201, 204, 210. Coolidge, Calvin, 403. Cornwallis, Lord, 223, 225, 228-230. Coronado, Francisco de, 41-43. Corsairs, the, 45. Cotton gin, the, 259-261, 273-275. Cowpens, battle of, 228. Cox, James M., 401. Crime, punishment for, 132. Croatoan, 63. Cromwell, Oliver, 100. Cuba, 18, 357-362. Cumberland Road, the, 289. Dare, Virginia, 62. Darien, 30-32. Davie, William R., 223. Davis, Jefferson, 308, 315-320, 321. Declaration of Independence, the, 201, 210-211. Delaware, 112, 124. Delaware, Lord, 70. De Soto, Hernando, 37-41. Detroit, 245. Dewey, George, 360. Dirigible, the, 351. Drake, Sir Francis, 56-60. Dustin, Hannah, 371-372. Edison, Thomas A., 346-350. Education, 131-132, 370. Electricity, 214, 339, 348. Electric light, the, 348. Elizabeth, queen of England, 56, 60. Erie Canal, the, 289. Ferdinand, king of Spain, 14, 16, 20. Ferguson,•jColonel, 226, 228. Fishing industry, the, 124. Florida, 30, 37, 38, 48, 151, 177, 253, 254, 308. Foch, Ferdinand, 397. Forts, Caroline, 48; Donelson, 330; Duquesne, 163, 166, 168; Fredrica, 108; Good Hope, 87; Moultrie, 220; Necessity, 163; Pitt, 169; Sumter, 321. Franklin, Benjamin, 211-215. Frederica, 108. Fredericksburg, battle of, 326. French Alliance, the, 206, 215. Fulton, Robert, 263-266. “ Gadsden Purchase,” the, 285. Gage, General, 196, 200. Gama, Vasco da, 32. Gasoline, 339. Gates, Horatio, 206, 225. Genoa, 6, 12. George I, of England, 103. George II, of England, 104. George III, of England, 188, 193, 203. Georgia, 38, 104-109, 124, 194, 222, 253, 308, 322. Gettysburg, battle of, 326. Gist, Christopher, 161, 162. INDEX 429 Gourges, Dominique de, 50. “ Grand Model,” the, 102. Grant, Ulysses S., 328-336. Greene, Nathanael, 228, 229. Guam, 361, 362. Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 228. Haiti, 18, 20, 28. Half King, 162, 164. Hamilton, Alexander, 236. Harding, Warren G., 401, 403. Harrison, William Henry, 246-248. Harrod, James, 178. Hart, Nancy, 376. Hartford, 89. Harvard College, 132. Hawaiian Islands, the, 363. Henry VII, of England, 22. Henry, Patrick, 189-197, 209, 217. Hessians, the, 203. Hindenburg line, the, 398. Hispaniola, 18, 20, 28. Holland, John Philip, 354 ~ 355 - Honolulu, 363. Hooker, Joseph, 326. Hooker, Thomas, 88-91. Hoover, Herbert C., 403. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 251. Houston, Sam, 277-280. Howe, Elias, 272-273. Howe, General, 201, 202, 204. Hudson, Henry, 74-76. Huguenots, the, 48-49, 125. Iberville, 150-154. Idaho, 285. Illinois, 142, 219, 340. Illinois country, the, 217. Immigration, 292-294. Indentured servants, 127, 186. India, 6, 8, 9, 13, 32. Indiana, 219. Indians, the, 25-27. Intemperance, 370, 380. “ Invincible Armada,” the, 58. Iowa, 242. Iroquois, the, 53. Irrigation, 343. Isabella, queen of Spain, 14-16, 20, 21. Jackson, Andrew, 248-254, 297, 302. Jackson, T. J. (Stonewall), 326. Jacksonville, 48. James I, of England, 64, 65, 72, 79, 80. James II, of England, 113, 138. Jamestown, 65, 98, 126. Jefferson, Thomas, 208-211, 239-244. Johnston, A. S., 330. Johnston, J. E., 322. Joffre, Joseph J. B., 388. Joliet, 144. Jones, John Paul, 219-220. Kansas, 42, 242. Kaskaskia, 218. Kentucky, 177,178,179, 252, 286,346. King Philip, 139. King’s Mountain, battle of, 226. Lafayette, Marquis de, 205. Lake Erie, battle of, 246. La Salle, 146-150. League of Nations, the, 399-401. Lee, Robert E., 322-328, 332-336. Legislature, the first in America, 71. Lewis, Meriwether, 242-244. Lexington, battle of, 198. Lincoln, Abraham, 307, 308-315, 321. Lindbergh, Charles A., 411-418. Lisbon, 13. London Company, the, 65, 72. “Long Hunters,” the, 178. Louis XIV, of France, 148, 150. Louisiana, 148-157, 159, 175, 177, 240-244, 251, 308, 346. Lucas, Eliza, 372-373- Lusitania , the, 391. McClellan, George B., 322, 324. McCormick, Cyrus H., 261-263. McKinley, William, 359. Machinery, 257, 338-339- Madison, James, 245. Magellan, Ferdinand, 32-36. Magna Carta, the, 4. Maine , the, 358. 430 INDEX Manassas, battles of, 322, 324. Manufacturing, 124, 257, 259, 295- 296, 338-339, 340-341, 346 . Manila, battle of, 360. Marconi, Guglielmo, 355. Marion, Francis, 223, 224. Marne, battles of the, 387, 397. Marquette, Father, 142-146. Maryland, 96-99, 133, 324. Massachusetts, 79-87, 133, 137, 103, 194, 195, 196, 198. Massasoit, 82, 92. Masses, influence of the, 296-297. Mavilla, 39. Mayflower, the, 80. Mayflower Compact, the, 81. Meade, George G., 326. Mediterranean Sea, 6, 8, 12. Mexico, 37, 41, 276, 280-283. Michigan, 219. Minnesota, 219, 242. “Minutemen,” the, 196. Mississippi, 38, 151, 308, 315, 3 * 7 - “Mississippi Rifles,” the, 316. Mississippi River, 40, 144, 147, 148, 151, 240-241. Missouri, 242, 274. Missouri Compromise, the, 274. Mobile, 153. Moluccas, the, 33. Monmouth, battle of, 207. Monroe, James, 255. Monroe Doctrine, the, 255. Montana, 242. Montcalm, Louis de, 169-175. Monterey, 281. Montgomery, 318. Morgan, Daniel, 206, 228. Morse, S. F. B., 270-272. Motion picture, the, 348. Moultrie, William, 220. Napoleon I, 240, 241. Narragansetts, the, 93. Navigation and Trade, laws of, 134. Nebraska, 42, 242. Nevada, 283, 341. New Amsterdam, 78, no. New England Confederation, the, 137. Newfoundland, 159. New France, 51. New Hampshire, 87. New Haven, 129. New Jersey, 117, 203. New Mexico, 42, 283, 285. New Netherland, 74-78, 110-114. New Orleans, 153, 175, 240, 241, 251. New Orleans, battle of, 251. Newport, 129. New York, 74-78, 110-114, 124, 186, 192, 194, 202, 207, 296. North Carolina, 60-64, 100-114, 124, 140, 228, 229, 308, 322, 346. North Dakota, 242. Nueces River, 281. Nullification, 302. Oglethorpe, James Edward, 104-109. Ohio, 219, 340. Ohio River, 146, 159. Ohio Valley, 159, 161-169, 175. Oklahoma, 242, 346. Oolooteka, 278, 279. Oregon, 283-285. Pacific Ocean, 31, 32, 34. Palos, 16, 19. Panama Canal, the, 364-366. Panama, Isthmus of, 30-32, 298, 364- 366. Parliament, 3, 188, 189, 193, 194. Partisan Warfare, 223-225. “Patroons,” the, 78. Penn, William, 115-121. Pennsylvania, 115-121, 124, 133, 203, 326, 340- # Pennsylvania, University of, 214. Pensacola, 254. Pequots, the, 90, 93. Perry, Oliver Hazard, 246-248. Persecution, religious, 47-48, 79, 84, 92, 96, 115, 132. Pershing, John J., 395. Petersburg, siege of, 334. INDEX 431 Philadelphia, 119, 186, 194, 195, 204, 207, 234, 296. Philip II, of Spain, 58. Philippine Islands, the, 35, 360, 362. Phonograph, the, 348. Pickens, Andrew, 223. Pickett, George E., 326. Pierce, Franklin, 317. Pilgrims, the, 79-84. Pitcher, Molly, 374 ~ 375 - Pitt, William, 170. Pittsburgh, 173, 340. Plymouth, 80-84. Pocahontas, 67. Ponce de Leon, 28-30. “Poor Richard’s Almanac,” 213. Pope, John, 324. Population, 122, 185, 286, 290, 295- 296, 338 , 34 L 343 - Porto Rico, 361, 362. Port Royal, 101. Powhatan, 67. Prince Henry, the Navigator, 9-10. Princeton, battle of, 203. Prisons, 104, 370. Proclamation of Emancipation, the, 313 - Proctor, General, 247. Prohibition, 370, 380-382. Providence, 93. Puritans, the, 79-94, 100, 129, 133. Quakers, the, 115-121, 133. Quebec, 51, 170. Railroad, the, 266-270, 290, 341-342. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 60-65. Ranchman, the, 342. Reaper, the, 261-264, 291. Reconstruction, 344-345. Red Cross, the, 369, 383-384. Redemptioners, 127, 186. Reformation, the, 46. Renaissance, the, 5. Rhode Island, 91-94, 137, 138, 234. Ribault, Jean, 49. Richmond, 136, 196, 322, 324. Roanoke Island, 61, 62. Rolfe, John, 68. Roosevelt, Theodore, 365-366. St. Augustine, 48, 102. St. Louis, 243, 290. St. Marks, 254. St. Mary’s River, 99. St. Mihiel, battle of, 397. St. Simon’s Island, 108. Salem, 84, 133. Salvation Army, the, 369. Samoan Islands, the, 363. Samoset, 82. San Jacinto, battle of, 277. Santa Anna, 276, 277, 282, 283. Santiago, battles of, 360. Saratoga, battles of, 206. Savannah, 105, 222, 265. Savannah, the, 265. Schley, W. S., 361. Scott, Winfield, 281, 282-283. “Sea of Darkness,” the, 8, 13. Secession, 274, 302, 307-308. Sevier, John, 227. Sewing machine, the, 272-273. Shafter, W. R., 360. Sharpsburg, battle of, 324. Shelby, Isaac, 227. Sherman, W. T., 332. Shiloh, battle of, 330. Ship Island, 151. Sims, William S., 395. Slavery, 126, 186, 261, 273-275, 291, 299, 304-305- Smith, John, 65-71. Social life, in early colonial times, 128-134; in later colonial times, 185-188. South Carolina, 100-104, 124, 140, 220, 222, 302, 308. South Dakota, 242. Spice Island, the, 33, 36. Spottsylvania, battle of, 333. Stamp Act, the, 188-193. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 377 - 379 - States’ Rights, 302. 432 INDEX Steamboat, the, 263, 290. Steam engine, the, 258. Stephenson, George, 267. Stuyvesant, Peter, 110-114. Submarine, the, 354 - 355 , 390-392, 394 - Sumter, Thomas, 223, 224. Tarlton, Colonel, 228. Taylor, Zachary, 281-282. Tecumseh, 247, 248. Telegraph, the, 270-272, 355. Telephone, the, 35°~35 I - Tennessee, 177, 178, 250, 251, 252, 308, 346. Texas, 148, 276-277, 280-281, 283, 308, 346. Thames River, battle of, 247. Thanksgiving Day, 82. Tomochichi, 106. Tories, the, 202, 222, 226. Traders, the French, 142, 177. Travel, modes of, 130, 187, 266-270, 289-290, 341-342. Trenton, battle of, 203. Turks, the, 13. Tuscaloosa, 39. Tuscaroras, the, 139. Valladolid, 21. Valley Forge, 205. Venice, 6. Vera Cruz, 282. Vespucius, Americus, 22. Vicksburg, siege of, 331. Vincennes, 218. Virginia, 61, 65-73, 124, 126, 133, 136, 191, 195, 196, 308. Virgin Islands, the, 363. Wake Island, 363. Wampanoags, the, 82. Wars, Pequot, 90; King Philip, 139; Tuscarora, 139; French and Indian, 159-175; Revolutionary, 198-231; War of 1812, 245-256; Mexican, 280-283; War of Secession, 321- 336; Spanish American, 359-362; World War, 386-399. Washington (city), 248, 271. Washington (state), 285. Washington, George, 159-169, 198- 208, 230, 231, 235-238. Washington and Lee University, 335. Watauga, 178. Watt, James, 258. Webster, Daniel, 301-306. West Point, 209, 315. West Virginia, 340. Wethersfield, 88, 90. Whigs, the, 202, 222. White, John, 62-64. Whitney, Eli, 259-261. Wilderness, battle of, 333. Willard, Frances E., 380-382. William and Mary, of England, 138. William and Mary College, 132, 208. Williams, Roger, 91-94. Williamsburg, 189, 208, 217. Wilmington, 229. Wilson, Woodrow, 389, 391, 392, 398, 399-401. Windsor, 88, 90. Winthrop, John, 84-87. Wireless telegraph, 355. Wisconsin, 219. Witchcraft, 133. Wolfe, James, 169-175. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, the, 380-382. Woman suffrage, 370, S 77 S 79 - Women, the first to come to America, 72; their place in American His¬ tory, 367-371. Wright, Orville, 35i~353- Wright, Wilbur, 35 I “ 353 . Wyoming, 242, 283. Yale College, 132. Yorktown, 229-230. Young Men’s Christian Association, the, 369. Young Women’s Christian Association, the, 369. Zane, Elizabeth, 375-376. ■ L '-c : !' >- Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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