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 1 
 
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/ 
 
 A. 
 
 •4 i- 
 
 ' '^O'jj ' J J 
 
A NEW GRAMMAR 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ENGLISH TONGUE 
 
T] 
 
A NEW GRAMMAR 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ENGLISH TONGUE 
 
 WITH CItAT'TERS ON 
 
 COMPOSITION, VERSIFICATION, rARAI'lIRASING, 
 AND PUNCTUATION 
 
 nv 
 
 J. M. ]). MEIlvLEJOHN, M.A. 
 
 PROFESSOn OK TIIK TUEOnV, HISTORY, AND I'RArTrCE OF EDl'CATIOX 
 IN TIIK rNIVKUHlTV OK ST. .ANUHKWS 
 
 SIXTEENTH KDITIOX 
 E>fLARnED, WITH EXERCISES AND ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS 
 
 TORONTO 
 THE W. J. GA(}E COMPANY, LTD. 
 
 1898 
 
/-^ 
 
 ~/1 J. '■' '• 
 
 i 
 
 This (Imiinnar consists of (he fird two Paris of Professoi 
 .]fi'iklt'Jo]L)t's hook: * The Etujlish Lamjuage; Us Grammar, 
 llislory, and Literature,' along vith a set of Exercises. 
 
 ICiitiM'i'il !\i'i'(inliiiu 1(1 tlui Ai'i of I'nrliaiiu'iit of ('aiiiwl.i. in tlio .year iwil, in the 
 <itHi'u (if llic Mininlt'i'of Airriciilturc. liy \V. J. Gacik & Co., Toronto. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 \nT I. 
 
 OKTHoaUAI'lIV . 
 KTVJIOLOdY 
 
 NorNS , , 
 
 I'KOXUL'NH . 
 ADJKCTIVKW . 
 VKKII.S 
 ADVKUliS 
 I'HKroSlTlOXH 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 INTKRJKCTIONS 
 WOKDS AXU TllKlU la'XCTIOXS 
 SYNTAX . 
 NOL'N 
 
 XOMIXATIVK CASK 
 I'OSSKHSIVK CASK 
 OUJKCTIVE CASK 
 liATIVK CAHK . 
 ADJKCTINK . 
 I'ROXOUX 
 VKllB 
 AUVKlili 
 I'KKroSITlOX 
 CONJL'XCTION 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 SIMPLK SKXTEXCE . 
 F0UM8 OF SKXTKXCES 
 PARTS OF THK SEXTEXCF, 
 NOMINATIVE OF ADDltESS 
 COMI'I.KX SKNTKNCK 
 CAUTIONS IX THE ANALYSIS 
 THK MAPPING OUT OF COMI 
 COMroUND 8ENTKN'CE 
 CO-OUDINATB SENTENCES 
 PARENTHETICAL SENTENCES 
 
 fiF CO 
 -EX SI' 
 
 PLEX 
 TENCE 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 PAOI 
 1 
 
 5 
 8 
 9 
 23 
 28 
 34 
 57 
 58 
 GO 
 
 (Jl 
 
 64 
 
 (i4 
 
 ()4 
 
 «7 
 
 G8 
 
 69 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 
 TG 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 107 
 
 109 
 
 111 
 
 112 
 
 115 
 
iv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 WORD-BtriLDIN'O AND DERIVATION 
 COMPOUND NOUNS . 
 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES 
 COMPOUND VERBS 
 COMPOUND ADVERBS 
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 
 ENGLISH PREFIXES . 
 LATIN PREFIXES 
 GREEK PREFIXES . 
 ENGLISH SUFFIXES . 
 LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES 
 GREEK SUFFIXES 
 WORD-BRANCHINO 
 
 ENGLISH ROOTS 
 LATIN ROOTS 
 GREEK ROOTS 
 IVORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS 
 WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES 
 WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM 
 WORDS THAT HAVE CHANGED IN MEANING 
 
 PART II 
 
 COMPOSITION 
 
 PUNCTUATION 
 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 PARAPHRASING . 
 
 PROSODT . 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONg 
 
 PAGE 
 116 
 
 116 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 118 
 
 119 
 
 120 
 
 123 
 
 128 
 
 128 
 
 134 
 
 141 
 
 143 
 
 144 
 
 147 
 
 152 
 
 ir.4 
 
 158 
 
 161 
 
 168 
 
 175 
 
 187 
 189 
 192 
 194 
 207 
 243 
 
 THE 
 

 
 . 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 . 116 
 
 
 
 
 . 116 i 
 
 
 
 • 11^ 1 
 
 
 
 . 118 1 
 
 
 
 . 118 
 
 
 
 . 120 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 . 123 
 
 
 
 . 128 
 
 
 
 128 J 
 
 
 
 134 ! 
 
 
 
 141 ■ 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 
 
 147 
 
 
 
 152 
 
 
 
 154 
 
 PAET r. 
 
 
 158 
 
 
 
 161 
 
 
 
 168 
 
 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 • I'^S 1 
 
 
 • 187 J 
 
 
 . 189 fl 
 
 * 
 
 . 102 M 
 
 
 • ^'^'^ 1 
 
 
 . 207 fl 
 
 
 , 243 ^ 
 
 
f; 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. What a Language is. —A Language is a number of con- 
 nected sounds -wliicli convey a meaning. These sounds, car- 
 ried to other persons, enable them to know how tlie speaker 
 is feehng, and what he is thinking. ]\Iore tlian ninety per cent 
 of all language used is spoken language ; that which is written 
 forms an extremely small proportion. But, as peoi)le grow more 
 and more intelligent, the need of written language becomes more 
 and more felt ; and hence all civilised nations have, in course 
 of time, slowly and with great difficulty made for themselves a 
 set of signs, by the aid of which the sounds are, as it wore, 
 indicated upon paper. But it is the soinuls that are the 
 language, and not the signs. The signs are a more or less 
 artificial, and more or less accurate, mode of representing the 
 language to the eye. Hence the names language, tongue, 
 and speech are of themselves sufficient to show that it is the 
 spoken, and not the written, language that is the language, — 
 that is the more important of the two, and that indeed gives 
 life and vigour to the other. 
 
 2. The Spoken and the Written Language. — Every civilised 
 language had existed for centuries before it was written or 
 printed. Before it was written, then, it existed merely as 
 a spoken language. Our own tongue existed as a spoken 
 language for many centuries before any of it was committed 
 to writing. ^lany languages — such as thixse in the south of 
 
 Africa— 
 
 MTitten 
 
 called sounds ; the smallest parts of a written language are 
 
 •are born, live, and die out witliout having ever been 
 down at all. The parts of a spoken language are 
 
'it 
 
 i r 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 4 CKAMMAR OF THE EXGLISII LAXGUAGK 
 
 3 ThP PtKrUci, T Alphabetics. 
 
 -^^ liie English Language. -Tile Englisli Lu.^in... i ■ ti,„ 
 
 I.vl.„„l r : /, f''^ .;«»• ><p,va,l over C;,,,,! I,,ii„i„ „„, 
 
 4. The Grammar of Enfflish — 7m„,.,. i 
 chan-es -w ; u ,1 ^""SiisH—lAvvy language grows. It 
 
 look .1 it „.. ;t /,, %v„ 2 r / • °"""=' •"'" """•• "> 
 
 ""»• »i.l „...i„ ,;„, , ' "' """'"■ '"' "''''■«'■•' '» look l™ck 
 
 ter; lli,,. next ^nviUo.t ,• • . . V ^'"'y>i'V?« is a let- 
 
 sentences. ^1 vt ,";\7^ "";■''' ""'^'^ ''■'• "-^- 
 
 y oiogy. and tlie Grammar of Sentences is called Syntax. 
 
UAGi:. 
 
 s is calloil Pho- 
 Iphabetics. 
 
 ^aiij,'iia^'(' is tlio 
 ' iii'e a 'J'cutoiiic 
 i-M"(j8t <if Eurojie 
 
 i'nylisli tongue 
 lisli sjiokcu in 
 
 consisting of a 
 lousund settlors 
 rokon by more 
 n-er the world ; 
 nd words. It 
 mguages in the 
 »f land in tlie 
 it JJritain and 
 3 of Australia, 
 
 ^e grows. It 
 ler as it grows 
 '■ tree loses old 
 iiiiig of every 
 to trace the 
 just now, to 
 1 to look back 
 the language 
 mly M-hen m'c 
 f our tongue, 
 'iistitution, or 
 
 's and exaiii- 
 lost complex 
 iiiige is a let- 
 ils M-e make 
 a 'iranimar 
 Ulnar of Let- 
 'ds is ealled 
 Jed Syntax. 
 
 i 
 « 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF LETTEKS. 5 
 
 Tliere is also a Oraniniar of musically measured Sentences ; 
 and this grammar is called Prosody. 
 
 (i; orthography coiuc {ram tw„ Greek words: orth.., yy^U; a.,.l 
 ;/raphr, a writing, Tlie word tlier^- ,ie luouns correct writing.' 
 
 {iii Etymology comes from two Greek words: ,iamo,, t,.„e; ,u,d loyos, 
 an account. It therefore means a true account of words. 
 
 (Hi) Syntax comes from two Greek words: .v.^^ together, with : and 
 iax,^ an order. When a Ch-eek general .h-ew up l,is men in order of 
 hattle, he was said to have tliem " in sifutaxU." The word now means 
 an account of the build of sentences. 
 
 iv) Prosody comes from tw,. (ireek words: pros, to; and ode, a ^ong. 
 it means the measurement of verse. 
 
 THE geam:mae of souxds axd letters, 
 
 OK OKTIIOGKAPHY. 
 
 6. The Grammar of Sounds.-Thcre are two kinds of sounds 
 m our language: (i) the open sounds; an.l (ii) the stopped 
 sounds. Tne open sounds are calk-d vowels; the stopped 
 somids consonants. Vowels can b,.. known bv t^vo tests— a 
 negative and a positive. The negative test is tlLat they do not 
 need the aid of other letters to enable them to be sounded • 
 tlie positive test is that they are formed by the continuous 
 passage of the breath. 
 
 (i) Vowel comes from Fr. voi/dlc ; from Lat. vScalis, sounding, 
 (ii) Consonant comes from Lat. ron, witli; and ,r.no, I sound.^ 
 (iii) Two vowel-sounds uttered without a break bet^^•een them are 
 called a diphthong. Thus ol in ,„i! ; .i i„ .,,,, arc diplithong.s l" 
 word comes from Greek dis, twice ; an,l phthonge, a sound.) 
 
 7. The Grammar of Consonants: (1) Mutes.— There are 
 •lifl.Tont ways of stoppiug, checking, or penning-in th. con- 
 tumous flow of sound. The sound mav be stopp.tl (i) l,y the 
 hps as m ib, ip, and im. Sucli consonants are called Labials. 
 Or (11) the sound nmy be stoppe.I by the teeth-as in id, it. 
 and in. Such consonants are call(>.I Dentals. Or (iii) the 
 ^ound may be stopped in the throat-as in ig. ik, and ing 
 
6 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 These consonants are called Gutturals. The above set of sounds 
 are called Mutes, because the sound conu^s to a full stop. 
 
 (i) Labial comes from Lat. laMum, the lip. 
 
 (ii) Dental comes from Lat. dens (dents) a to„th. Hence also dentist. 
 
 (iii) Guttural comes from Lat. guttur, tlic tliroat. 
 
 (iv) Palatal comes from Lat. palatum, the palate. 
 
 8. The Grammar of Consonants : (2) Spirants. Some con- 
 sonants have a little breath attached to them, do not stop the 
 sound al,ruptly, but may bo prolonged. These are called 
 breathing letters or spirants. Thus, if wo take an ib and 
 breathe through it, Ave make it an iv— the b becomes a v. If 
 we take an ip and breathe through it, it becomes an if— the p 
 becomes an f. Hence v and f are called spirant labials. The 
 following is a complete 
 
 TABLE OF COXSOXANT SOUNDS. 
 
 
 MUTES 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 SPIRANTS 
 
 
 
 Flat 
 (or Soft), 
 
 Sharp 
 (or Hard) 
 
 k 
 ch 
 
 (ehiirpli) 
 
 Nasal. 
 
 Flat 
 (or Soft). 
 
 Sharp 
 (or Hard). 
 
 Trilled. 
 
 Gutturals 
 
 S 
 
 ("igig) 
 
 ng 
 
 ... 
 
 h 
 
 ... 
 
 Palatals . 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 y 
 
 (yea) 
 
 sh 
 
 (sure) 
 
 ... 
 
 Palatal \ 
 Sibilants / 
 
 ... 
 
 
 zh 
 
 (azure) 
 
 Z 
 
 (prize) 
 
 th 
 
 (bathe) 
 V & W 
 
 r 
 
 Dental \ 
 Sibilants J 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Dentals . 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 n 
 
 th 
 
 (bath) 
 
 ... 
 
 Labials 
 
 b 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 f&whj ... 
 
 (i) The above table goes from the throat to the lips-from the back to 
 the front of the mouth. 
 
 (ii) b and d are pronounced with less effort than p and t. Hence b and 
 d, etc., are called soft or flat ; and p and t, etc., are called hard or sHarp. 
 
JACK. 
 
 )vo set of sounds 
 full stop. 
 
 Hence also dentist. 
 
 its. 801110 con- 
 do not stop tlio 
 liese are called 
 take an ib and 
 ?comes a v. If 
 es an if — the p 
 t labials. The 
 
 IRAXTS. 
 
 Sharp 
 )rHarci). 
 
 Trillec. 
 
 1 
 
 i ■ : 
 •^3 
 
 h 
 
 
 1 
 
 sh 
 
 (sure) 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 'f 
 
 ".4 
 
 th 
 
 batli) 
 
 &wh 
 
 1 
 
 rom the 
 
 t. Hen 
 harder 
 
 back to i 
 
 ce b and $ 
 sharp. 1 
 
 THE GEAMMAR OF LETTERS. 7 
 
 9. The Grammar of Letters.— Letters are conventional 
 signs or symbols ciaployed to represent sounds to the eye. 
 They liave grown out of pictures, which, being gradually pared 
 down, became mere signs or letters. The steps were" these; 
 picture ; abridged picture ; diagram ; sign or symbol. The 
 sum of all the letters used to write or print a language is called 
 its Alphabet. Down to the fifteenth century, we employed a set 
 of Old English letters, sucli as a h C—X v }, which were the 
 Eoman letters ornamented ; but, from that or about that time, 
 we have used and still use only the plain lioman letters, as 
 a b c — X y z. 
 
 The word alphabet comes from the name of the first two letters in 
 tlie Greek language : alpha, Ida. 
 
 10. An Alphabet.— An alphabet is, as we have seen, a code 
 of signs or signals. Every code of signs has two laws, neither 
 of which can be broken without destroying the accuracy and 
 trustworthiness of the code. These two laws are : 
 
 (i) One and the same sound must be represented by one and 
 the same letter. 
 
 Hence: No sound should be represented by more than one letter. 
 
 (ii) One letter or set of letters must represent only one and 
 the fe.^mo sound. 
 
 Hence : No letter should represent more than one sound. 
 Or, put in another way : 
 
 (i) One sound nuuit be represented by one distinct symbol, 
 (ii) One symbol must be translated to the ear by no more 
 than one sound. 
 
 ., ?. '^l-l ^"'^ '^''' '' ^'°''^" ''^''" '"^ represent the long sound of a in 
 eight different ways, as in-fate, braid, say, great, neigh, prey, gaol, 
 
 (ii) The second law is broken when we give eight different sounds to 
 the one symbol ough, as in-bough, cough, dough, hiccough {=- cup) 
 hougii (-hock), tough, through, thorough. " 
 
 11. Our Alphabet.— The spoken alphabet of English contains 
 forty-three sounds; th. written alphabet has only twenty-six 
 symbols or letters to represent them. Hence thj English al- 
 
8 
 
 CKAMMAli OK TIFF KNT;i.I.=^rT LANGUAGE. 
 
 phabet is very deficient. V,x\t it is also redundant. F.,r it 
 contiiins iivo superfluous letters, r, ,j, .,■, //•, an.l ;/. The work 
 of tho letter c might Le done hy either /• or by >i ; that of </ 
 l)y /.• ; .'- is e(iiial to /,••>■ or rjs ; >r could be represented l)y u,, ; 
 and all that // does could be iVma by /. It is in the vowcl- 
 souuds that tho irregularities of our ali)habet ar(> most discern- 
 ible. Thirteen vowel-sounds are represented to the eye in more 
 than one hundred dillerent ways. 
 
 (i) There are twelve ways of printin- a sliort !, as in s/t, C//ril, bi/.sv, 
 women, etc. 
 
 (ii) There arc twelve ways of printing a short c, as in set, any, bwi-v, 
 hrnnl, etc. 
 
 (iii) There are ten ways of printing a long C; as in mete, marine, meet, 
 meat, key, etc. 
 
 (iv) Tliere are tliirteen ways of printing a short :<, as in hm], love, 
 berth, rough, ilood, etc. 
 
 (v) There are eleven ways of jirinting a long Ti, as in nide, move, blew, 
 tri(e, etc. 
 
 THE GEAM:\rAIi OF WOED.S, on ETY^ilOLOGY. 
 
 There are eight kinds of words in our language. These are 
 (i) Names or Nouns, (ii) The words that stand for Xouns arc 
 called Pronouns, (iii) Xext come the words-that-go-with- 
 Nouns or Adjectives, (iv) Fourthly, coim- the words-that- 
 are-said-of-Nouns or Verbs, (v) Fifthly, the words that go 
 with A'erbs or Adjectives or Adverl>s are called Adverbs, (vi) 
 The words that -join -Nouns are called Prepositions; (vii) 
 those that-join- Verbs aie called Conjunctions. Lastly (viii) 
 come Interjections, which aie indeed mere sounds without 
 any organic or vital connection with other wm-ds ; and they 
 are hence sometimes called extra -grammatical utterances. 
 Xouns and ^Vdjectives, Verlis and Adverbs, have distinct, indi- 
 vidual, and substantive meanings. Fronouns have no meaii- 
 ings in themselves, but merely refer to nouns, just like a ^T 
 in a book. Prepositions and Conjunctions once had independent 
 
HE. 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 » 
 
 idant. Fur it 
 //. I'lio \\(irk 
 i A'/ tliat of ij 
 sontc'd by va ; 
 ill tlio vowl'1- 
 ' iiidst discem- 
 i(! cyo in iiiui'o 
 
 Si't, Cyril, bifsy, 
 n !!Ct, ony, bioy, 
 ;e, marine, meet, 
 ^s in 1)»(1, love, 
 iide, move, bit «v 
 
 MOLOGY, 
 
 'i. Tlicse are 
 "or Xouns are 
 hat-go-with- 
 words-that- 
 ords that go 
 [verbs, (vi) 
 itions ; (vii) 
 Lastly (viii) 
 nds without 
 Is; and tliey 
 
 utterances. 
 listinct, indi- 
 I'e no mcaii- 
 
 hkc a ^r 
 indojiendent 
 
 meanings, liut have not nmcli now ; their chief use is to join 
 words to each other. They act tlie part of nails or of glue in 
 language. Interjections have a kind of meaning ; hut they 
 nev('r represent a thought — only a feeling, a feeling of pain 
 or of i)leasure, of sorrow or of surpri.se. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 1. A Noun is a name, or any Avord or words used as a 
 name. 
 
 Ball, house, fish, Juhn, Mav)/, nre all names, and are thcrefcire nouns. 
 " To milk in the ojien air \n pleasant in Kunnner eveuiug.s." The two 
 words to walk are used as the name of an action ; to walk is therefore 
 a noun. 
 
 The word nonn comes frciiii tlie Latin iinidcn, a name. From this word wu liave 
 also nominal, denominate, denomination, etc. 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 2. Xouns are of two classes — Proper and Common. 
 
 3. A proper noun is the name of an individual, as an in- 
 dividual, and not as one of a class. 
 
 John, Mary, London, Birndmjham, Shakespeare, Milton, are all proper 
 nouns. 
 
 Tlie word ^iroper comes from the Latin 'proiirius, one's own. Hence a 
 jiropcr noun is, in relation to one person, one's ov:n name. From the same woid 
 we have appropriate, to make one's own ; erj'ropriate, etc. 
 
 (i) Proper nouns are always written with a capital letter at the 
 beginning ; and so also arc the words derived fnnn them. Thus we 
 write France, French, Frenchified; Milton, Milton ic ; Shakespeare, Shake- 
 spearian. 
 
 (ii) Proper nouns, as such, have no meaning. They are merely marks 
 tfj indicate a sjiecial person or place. They had, however, (jrigiually a 
 meaning. The persons now called Armstrong, Smith, Greathcad, no 
 doubt had ancestors who were strong in the arm, who did the work of 
 smiths, or who had large heads. 
 
 (iii) A proper noun may be used as a conunon noun, when it is eni- 
 ploypd not to mark an individual, liut to indicate one vf a class. Thus 
 we can say, "He is the Milton of his age," meaning by this that he 
 possesses the qualities which all tho.se jwets have who are like !Milton. 
 
 (iv ! We can also speak of " the Howards," " the Smiths," meaning a 
 number of persons who are called Howard or who are called Smith. 
 
10 
 
 GRAM.^rAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 I I 
 
 con ic rod not T '' • """" '' ■•' '•'■"""' I"'"-' -^ thin,, 
 consule cd not merely as an in.livi.lual, ],„t us one of a class 
 ^for,e, town, hoy, tall,, are common nouns. 
 
 Tlio wi:i(l ciimmnn comes frmn flm int , ... 
 
 4^:::;;;i~ ,;;; -^^ ^--- — ^'^ ~ to .. 
 it i. common ;i 111 aVi:::rortVe''ir ''nr "•'•"' '•"- '^"""^^- 
 
 c mti ei^ .signs, and not significant marks. 
 5. Common nouns are generally subdivided iuto^ 
 (i) Class-names. 
 (ii) Collective nouns, 
 (iii) Abstract nouns. 
 
 « i • , "JtiLcuais — as ifflf, suiiar, wheat vnirv ti,^ 
 
 of materia s can be usprl \^^ f),o ,i i ' "^"^ names 
 
 material a,-e mean^ tI Ve.'" "filet!" -.r"^'^* ^""^^ °^ *^« 
 ^ve mean^ft'.c lUnh of tea etc ^ '' '"''''" '"g'^''^'" ^^'l'^" 
 
 rcr """ "" '""" "' ""- ""«««" -'%z -'::;■ 
 
 which t really exists TI.„. , ^ "'' Pei'son in 
 
 think of la.iZ:T. ,S l^Z^Tf'Z 1}'''''' ^— . -d 
 (From Lat.„., from ; .^.7:^,;;.;n;^' " " *'" ^"•^°"^- 
 
 pers„„.s who practise them' Th "« I,,!- , r ^'^«*"*<=*«d from the 
 astronomy, are abstract .khuls. ' ^""""«?. !/™»"««r, c;ie«i,<,y, 
 
 (iv) Abstract nouns are (a) derived frntn a,i;„ *-■ 
 dulncss, sloth, from hard c/J// « ; ^'^'"".^^''j^'^t'^-es. as hardness, 
 tkouyhl, from „.. and ;Lt' '"'" " ^'^ '^°" '^'•^^' ^ ^--^^ 
 
J>IiU'o, or thinp, 
 •ne of a class. 
 
 ■il liy several"; niiij 
 
 in cnmmnn to all 
 
 hat animal from 
 t from another — 
 \ivAy Kay : a com- 
 istinguiwh within 
 
 have not. The 
 !"ally Hot ai)])ro- 
 Ics may be dark 
 gnificant marks. 
 
 THE INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS. 
 
 11 
 
 ry names, but 
 
 Tlie names 
 
 kinds of the 
 
 sugars," wlien 
 
 of persons or 
 
 say committee, 
 rsons as each 
 
 ;ion, or state, 
 or person in 
 persons, and 
 the persons. 
 
 se they are the 
 .cted from tlio 
 nar, chemistry, 
 
 as hardness, 
 <s, as groivth, 
 
 t 
 
 (v) Abstract nouns are sometimes used as collective nouns. Thus we 
 say " the nobility and gentry " for "the nobles and gentlemen " of the 
 land. 
 
 (vi^ Abstract nouns are formed from other words by the addition of 
 such endings as ness, th, ery, hood, head, etc. 
 
 6. Die following is a simiiimry of the divisions of nouns :— 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Proper. 
 
 Common. 
 
 Class-Names. Collective Nouns. Abstract Nouns. 
 
 THE INPLEXIOXS OF NOUNS. 
 
 7. Xouns can be inllectod or changed. They are inllected to 
 indicate Gender, Number, and Case. 
 
 AVe must not, liowover, forget tliat dilFerences of gender, 
 number, or case are not always indicated l)y inflexion. 
 
 Infl,'xio is a Latin word which iiieiins bcndim,. Au iuHexiou, therefore, is a 
 bendiiitr away from the ordinary form of tlie word. 
 
 Gexdeh. 
 
 8. Gender U, in grammar, the mode of distinguishing sex by 
 the aid of words, i^relixes, or suffixes. 
 
 The word f/endci- comes from the Lat. f/cnus, (jcncris (Fr. fjenre). a 
 kmd or sort. We have the same word in (jeneric, (jcncral, etc. (The 
 d in gender is no organic or true part of the word ; it has been in- 
 serted as a kind of cushion between the n and the r.) 
 
 (i) Names of males are said to be of the masculine gender, as rmstcr, 
 lord, Harry. Lat. vms, a male. 
 
 (ii)_ Names of females are of the feminine gender, as mistress, lady, 
 Harriet. Lat. fanim, a w.nnan. (From the same word we have 
 effeminate, etc.) 
 
 (iii) Names of things without sex are of the neuter gender, as land 
 tree, London. Lat. muter, neither. (From the same word wo li.^ve 
 neutral, neutrality.) 
 
 (iv) Names of animals, the sex of which is not Indicated, are said to 
 be of the common gender. Thus, sheep, bird, hatvl; parent, servant, are 
 common, because they may be of either gender. 
 
ouAMMAi; or Tin: f.xglisii language. 
 
 w 
 
 o iii.iy sum iqi tliu.t ; — 
 
 ]■ 
 
 Gkxdkh. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Neuter. Common. 
 
 i'^'illhrr) {Either) 
 
 (vi, If ^yopn;o„!/;/ ihi.ig., i,a...ion,s i,ov.cr.-, ,„• natural {„vvcs, wo may 
 make tl.ctu oither ina..culinc or fcninino. Thus tl,o Suv, Time tlio 
 O'-cn,, A „;,a; II ,„•, a vim; arc gouorally nia.le iim.sculi.ie. ( )n the other 
 han,l the Moo,,, the J:,n,h ("Mother Karth"), Vl,-i„r, a .,/.;>, IMi,,io„, 
 J ity, J'tarr, are generally si.okon of as feminine. 
 
 (vii) Sex i.s a .listin.tinn l.etween animals; gender a distinction be. 
 tween nouns. In (.1,1 l.h.glish, noun.s en.liuK in <l'»n, as f,ralo,„, were 
 masculine ; noun, in ««,,, as f/oo</„r8.<>, fen.inino ; an.l n.nms in c„ a.s 
 ««„/,„, ,-/,Wr«, always neuter. H„t we i,uve In.t all the.,o distinction., 
 and, ni modern Fngli-h, gender always follows sex. 
 
 9. Tliero nrc throe wav.s of niarkiu" I'eiuler • 
 
 (i) By tlie use of Suillxe.«. 
 
 (ii) By Prefixes (or Ly Composition). 
 
 (iii) By using distinct words fur the names of the male an.l 
 lemaic. 
 
 I. GeNDEU MAIJKED by "WfFtXEj^ 
 
 A. Purely English or Teutonic Suffixes. 
 
 10. There are now in our language only two purely English 
 
 snfhxos u.se.l to nuu'k the feminine gender, and these are used 
 
 m only two word.. The two endings are en and eter. and the 
 
 two words are vixen and spinster. 
 
 (i) Vixen is the fenu-nine <,f /,«; and spinster of i,pi,aicv {spti-dn- or 
 .y)<.J/ur winch, later on, became .yn<Ic,'). King Alfred, in his writings, 
 speaks of the spear-si.le and the s,,in,lle.si.le of a house "-meaning the 
 men and tho women. 
 
 ' Ster was used as a feminine suffix very largely in Old English, 
 xliu. ■,/,...,',.. was a rvoman-7rca,rr ; hnxta- {ov hansta-), ^ female hake,- ; 
 no^fc::, .; ,. m,u' ■lo,ccr ; rrcksfr,; u. vomnn-vcadcr : huchte,; n /male 
 tiawKir f.i el!v,u- merchant) ; and >,> on. 
 
 (i:;> li\ ,s Tinit English r.i.glo-Saxon) the masculine ending wa? a, 
 and tne fenn,.,ne e, as in wicer,, vlrce. witch. Hence we fin.l the names 
 ot many Saxon kings ending in a, as hr,, Offa, Penda, etc. 
 
 3 
 
 ,1 
 .■s> 
 
%:.,A 
 
 •GE. 
 
 c;i:niii:i! iNDirATKu nv sfri'FXiis and ri!i'!Fixi 
 
 13 
 
 Common. 
 
 {i'ithir) 
 
 il fnrccs, wo may 
 Sun, Time, tlio 
 c ( >n the otlier 
 a n/i>ji, [tdujlnn, 
 
 . distinction be. 
 IS firidm, were 
 niiuns in tn, r.s 
 oao dlstinctioni, 
 
 the male and 
 
 ces. 
 
 irely Engli.sh 
 ('SO are usclI 
 3ter, aud the 
 
 if)' {ii/iuulir or 
 n lii,-s writings, 
 — meaning the 
 
 1 Old P:ngli.sli. 
 fciaalc haJcer; 
 l-stcr, a female 
 
 ending was a, 
 ind the names 
 
 15. Latin and French Sufflxes. 
 
 11. The I'liicf fciiiiiiiiKj ciiiliiig which we liavi' received from 
 the French i-; ess (i.atin, /.x,>v«), Tliis is also the mily feiniiiiiio 
 .sullix witli a livui:.,' force at tiio present day— tlie laily smIILk wo 
 couM aihl to any new word that nii,L;lit lie aduptcd by us finni 
 n t 111 )'_;ii source. 
 
 12. Tlio followinf' arc nouns who.so feininine.s end in eas : — 
 
 Masccuki;, 
 
 FKMtNINK. 
 
 Masccmnk. 
 
 Ff.minisf. 
 
 Afti ir 
 
 Actre.-is, 
 
 Host 
 
 Hostess. 
 
 liiirmi 
 
 Baroness. 
 
 Lad 
 
 1 .iiss ( = ladess) 
 
 Caterer 
 
 CateresH. 
 
 Marquis 
 
 Miircliioness. 
 
 Count 
 
 Countess. 
 
 .^hlstor 
 
 .Mistress. 
 
 Duke 
 
 Duche.s.s. 
 
 Jhiyor 
 
 ^hiyllres.s. 
 
 Kmiiei'or 
 
 Empress. 
 
 Murdoror 
 
 .Murderess. 
 
 ggr It Avill 00 noticed that, besides a(hliii;,' r.is, some of the 
 letters undergo change or are thrown out altogether. 
 
 There are other feminine .snflixe.s of a foreign origin, .such as 
 ine, a, and trix. 
 
 (V Ine is a fh'uek ending, and is found in heroine. A similar ending in 
 landgravine and margravine, the fomininc.s ot landgrave (a (jerman 
 count) and margrave (a lord of tlie Mark- or of mavrhcs), is (ici'inan. 
 
 (ii) a is nn Italian or Spanisli ending, and is found in donna (the 
 feminine of Don, a gentleman^ infanta (= the child, the lioiiuss to tlio 
 crown of Spain), aultana, and slgnora (tlio fominiiin of ,^i<j)wr, the 
 Italian for Senior, elder, which we have compressed into Sir). 
 
 (iii) trlx is a i)ure!y Latin ending, and is found only in those words 
 tliat have oome to us dircrtlii fi m Latin ; as tt-stator, t<'ttt<itrl.i- (a persnii 
 aLo has made a will), executor, executrix (a person who carries out the 
 directions of a will). 
 
 II. CIexdeu indicated liY Prefixes (oh bv Co.mpositiox). 
 
 13. The distinction between the masculine and the feminine 
 gender is indicated by rising .sucli words as man. maid — bull, 
 cow — he, she— cock, hen, as prefixes to the nouns men- 
 tioned. In the oldest English, carl and cwen ( = queen) were 
 employed to mark gender; and carl-fug"! is - cock-foM'l, cwen- 
 fugol = hen-fowl. 
 
14 
 
 GRAMMAll OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ^^_ 14.^1.e following are the most important wonls of tins 
 
 .Mascl'Li.nj;. 
 
 Man-servant 
 Mail 
 
 He -goat 
 He -ass 
 Jack-ass 
 Jackdaw 
 
 Fk.MINI.\e. 
 
 ^laid-servant. 
 
 "Woman ( = \vife.nian), 
 
 She-goat. 
 
 She-ass. 
 
 Joniij-.ass. 
 
 Masculine. 
 Ijull-calf 
 Cock-s])arro\v 
 Wetlier-hamh 
 Pea-cock 
 Turkey-cock 
 
 Fe.mivine. 
 
 Cow-calf. 
 
 Heu-sparrrow. 
 
 Kwe-lanilj. 
 
 Pea-hen. 
 
 Turkev-lien. 
 
 aniwssibleslie." lairest she, 'That not 
 
 in. Gexdku indicated by Difpehkxt Words. 
 15. The nse of different M-ords for the nKtsculine and the fem- 
 -nme does not really helong to gran.natical gender It ,.' be 
 -■dl, however, to note son.e of the n.ost in.portant - ' 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Bachelor 
 
 Boy 
 
 Brother 
 
 Foal 
 
 Drake 
 
 Drone 
 
 Earl 
 
 Father 
 
 Gander 
 
 Hart 
 
 Horse 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Spinster. 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Filly. 
 
 Duck. 
 
 Bee. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Motlier. 
 
 G oo.se. 
 
 Koe. 
 
 ^fare. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Husband 
 
 King 
 
 Lord 
 
 Monk 
 
 Ne])hew 
 
 Feiiini.ve. 
 
 AVife. 
 
 Queen. 
 
 Lady. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Ram (or Wet her) Ewe. 
 
 ^''" IVLadam. 
 
 Sloven Slut. 
 
 ^"n Daughter 
 
 ^ "'^Is Aunt. 
 
 "Wizard Witcli 
 
 (li) Girl, fiY)ni Low Gorman r,or t ni,n,i i ..i , ,. . 
 diminutive^. '^ ' '''"'''' ''^' <^''« a'l'lition of the 
 
 (IV) Drake, formerly anlralr ; cM = ducl; an.l nrXr-kine Tl , 
 therefore means K«7 o/- </ic ,/,/,•/!•. ^Ti ' "'" '"'^f-'^'i'g- The word 
 form in the ric of ..'.ip.vlt t ,^"'^ '''''', '^'^^^^^^ "' --ther 
 
 ' - ^"'''■"" *^"'S''^'!""rclomamofai,Vion) 
 
 (V) Drone, from the r/rwnng sound it makes. 
 
 svoSlo'i:.'"" ^•'- '""' ' "-''''"■ ^°""*-« --- f-- the French 
 
rAGE. 
 words of tliis 
 
 Fe.mimne. 
 Cow-calf. 
 Hen-sparrrow. 
 Kue-lanib. 
 Pea-lien. 
 Turkey-hen. 
 
 id as nouns. We 
 t she," "That not 
 
 and tlie fem- 
 -1". It may be 
 
 t:— 
 
 Feminixe. 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Queen. 
 
 Lady. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Kwe. 
 
 Madam. 
 
 .Slut. 
 
 JJaughter 
 
 Aunt. 
 
 '\^'itch. 
 
 ">■; from bacca, 
 
 Iditioii of the 
 
 1, the iircviouii 
 ■ool; l-itrfun.) 
 
 og. The word 
 ar'- in another 
 
 1 of a bishop.) 
 
 m the French 
 
 GENDER. 15 
 
 (vii) Ta.thn= feeder; cognate ol fat, food, feed, focldo; foster, etc. 
 
 (viii) Ooose; in the oldest A.S. ;/rr»,?; Gandr-a (the a being the sign 
 of the ma.so.). Hence gander, the d being inserted as a cushion be- 
 tween n and ?•, a.s in thunder, 'jender, etc. 
 
 (ix) Hart = the horned one. 
 
 (x) Mare, the feni. of A.S. lacurh, a horse. Hence also mnrtshal, which 
 at first meant horse-servant. 
 
 (xi) Husband, from Icelandic, hushondl, the master of the house. A 
 farmer in Norway is called a humh r. 
 
 (xii) King, a contraction of A.S. cyning, son of the ki". or tribe. 
 
 (xiii) Lord, a contraction of A.S. hlaford — from hl£Cf, a loaf, and 
 weard, a ward or keeper. 
 
 (xiv) Lady, a contraction of A.S. hladfdlge, a loaf-kneader. 
 
 (xv) The old A.S. word.s were nefi, nece, 
 
 (xvi) Woman = wife - man. The jiroiiuncintum of women {wimmen) 
 come.s nearer to the (jld form of the word. See note on (iii.) 
 
 (xvii) Sir, from Lat. senior, elder. 
 
 (xviii) Madam, from L.^t. Mea domina (through the French Ma dame) 
 -my lady. 
 
 (xix) Daughters milker. Connected with (^w^r. 
 
 (xx) Wizard, from old French yuiscart, prudent. Witch has no con- 
 nection with wizard. 
 
 16. All feminine nouns are fornieil fidin the masculine, witli 
 four exceptions : bridegroom, widower, gander, ami drake, 
 which come respectively from bride, widow, ;^ooi=e, and duck. 
 
 (i) Bridegroom was in A.S. hrydtjumn = t\\c Ijride's man. [Gunia is a 
 cognate of the Lat. hom-o, a man — whence humunitij.) 
 
 (ii) Widower. The old masc. was widiiwa ; tlie fem. widtmr. It was 
 then forgotten that widmva was a masculine, and a new masculine had 
 to be formed from widuiee. 
 
 XuMBER. 
 
 17. Number ip-, in noun?!, the mode of indicating whether we 
 arc ,'ipeaking of one thing or of more. 
 
 18. The English huiguage, like most modern languages, has 
 two numbers : the singular and the pluraL 
 
 I] 
 
16 
 
 GIlAMirAK OF THE EXGLISII LAXGUAGE. 
 
 (i) Singular comes fr„m the Lut. si.^u/i, one l,v cno ; plural, from 
 the Lat j,/urc,,, in..ro (thiai one). > v ai, iiom 
 
 (ii) :^r.- Barnes, the enuneut Dorsetshire poet, ^vho has written an 
 excellent gran.niar, called ' Sneech-craft,' calls then. ,../,; a,,.! ,,,„,/^. 
 
 19. Th.ru arc tluvo ,Iuef way.s of formin,,^ Ih. phu,,! in 
 
 (i) liy aildiii-- os or s to tin; singular, 
 (ii) Jiy adding g^. 
 (iii) I!y eliaiigiug tlio vowd-sound. 
 
 20. First Mode.-Tl.e plural is f„rn,ed hy adding es ov a 
 J lie ending es is a inodc-rn form of tl... old A.S. plural in a, as 
 ^<f«m.^, .^fo,u;^. Tlu. folloM-ing aro examples :— 
 
 SlN-(il-LAH. 
 
 Box 
 
 <jas 
 AVitch 
 Hero 
 Ladv 
 
 I'LCKAL. 
 
 Boxes. 
 
 Gases. 
 
 Witches. 
 
 Heroes. 
 
 Ladies. 
 
 •SlXGl'LAll. 
 
 Beef 
 Loaf 
 Shelf 
 Stair 
 Thief 
 
 Plvral. 
 
 ]5eeves. 
 
 Loaves. 
 
 Shelves. 
 
 Staves. 
 
 Thieves. 
 
 (i) It will be seen tiiat cs in heroes docs not add a syllable to the sing, 
 (ii) X<,uns ending in f change the sharp f into a Hat v, as in >.,ars, 
 etc. But we say rvojg, dif,, dwarfs, chiefs, etc. 
 
 (iii) An old singular of /,„/,, was /.,//. ; and this spelling is preserved 
 a the plural But there has arisen a rule on this pohtt in u., d 
 Lnghsh, winch may be thus stated :- 
 
 Ihua ^N o write keys, valleys, chimneys, days, etc. 
 
 .iSw' t"' \'°'''°^^^t before it, is changed into ie when s is 
 added tor the plural Tims we write ladies, rulics, and also solilo- 
 
 (iv) Beef is n,.t now used as the word for a single ox Shnl-o nno,.„ 
 has the phrase " beef-witted -with no more sense fLT^n !:^'''^'''"' 
 
 21 Second Mode.-The plural is fonaod by adding en or 
 ne. liius we have oxen, children, brethren, and kine 
 
 (i) Children is a double plurah The oldest plural was cild-r-u which 
 became childer. It was forgotten that this wL a proper pha'l a d ^ 
 -.. added. Brethren is also a .h.uble plural. Eu wa! ad Id to " a 
 ^oitlu-rn plural drether-the olde.t ph.ral being brothr-u. 
 
 of COW. 
 
 and tl 
 added. 
 
 is still exists 
 
 1' 
 
 in Scotland in tlie form of kye. T 
 
 le oldest plural was c^^, 
 
 hen ne w; 
 
AGE. 
 
 'lie ; plural, from 
 
 o lias written nii 
 1(1 !l ami f Hindi]. 
 
 tln! plural ill 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 17 
 
 ddin^i,' es or s. 
 i)lural in (i,<, as 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Beeves. 
 
 Loaves. 
 
 Shelves. 
 
 Staves. 
 
 Tliieves. 
 
 lalile to the sing. 
 
 !ut V, as in haves, 
 
 lling is iirescrved 
 !)uiiit in iiiudeni 
 
 d in the plural, 
 
 ito le when s is 
 
 , and also solilo- 
 
 X. SIiakesj)eare 
 an ox. 
 
 1 kine. 
 
 clld-r-u, which 
 r ]>lural, and en 
 ddr.l to the old 
 ■u. 
 
 plural was cj>, 
 Then ne was 
 
 22. Third Mode. — The plural is fnrnuMl l)y changing the 
 vowel-sound nf tin; ^Vllr(l. Tlui I'lilluwiii^ arc cxaniplcs : — 
 
 .SiNor-LAli. 
 
 Pi.riiAL. 
 
 aiNiui. 
 
 Ml. 
 
 ruiiAi 
 
 .Alan 
 
 .Alen. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 Foot 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Mouse 
 
 
 Mice. 
 
 Goi ISO 
 
 Gee.se. 
 
 Louso 
 
 
 Lice, 
 
 (i) To understand this, wo must observe that \\heii a new syllable is 
 added to a word, the vowel of the pi-eeeiling s\ liable is often weakened. 
 Thus we find nation, national; fox, vixen. Xow the olde.-t jihn'als (jf 
 the above words had an additional syllable ; and it is to this that the 
 change in the vowel is due. 
 
 '2J There are in English several nouns with two plural 
 forma, with diflPerent meanings. The fnllowinu; is a list: — 
 
 .SlNT.l-LAR. PlUIIAL. 
 
 Brother brothers (by bl<Jod) 
 
 Cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) 
 
 Die dies (.stamps for coining) 
 
 Fish fishes (looked at separately) 
 
 Genius geniu.ses (men of talent) 
 
 Index inde.Kcs (to books) 
 
 Pea peas (taken .separately) 
 
 Penny pennies (taken separately) 
 
 Shot .shots (separate dischai'ges) 
 
 Pl.rUAL. 
 
 brethren (of a community), 
 clothes (garments), 
 dice (cub(;s for gaining), 
 fish (taken collectively), 
 genii (powerful sjiiiits). 
 indices (to quantities in algebra) 
 pease (taken collectively). 
 l)ence (taken collectively), 
 sliot (ball.-<, collectively) 
 
 (i) Pea is a false singular. The s belongs to the root ; and we find in 
 Middle English "as big as a pease," and the plurals pesen and peses. 
 
 24. Some nouns liave the same form in the phiral as in the 
 singular. Sucli are deer, sheep, cod, trout, mackerel, and 
 
 others. 
 
 (i) Most of these nouns were, in Old English, neuter. 
 
 (ii) A sjiecial plural is found in such phrases as : ^1 troop of home ; 
 a companij of foot ; ten snil of the Ihu ; three hraee <f birds ; six i/ross of 
 steel pens; ten stone v:ci<jht, etc. In fact, the names of nundjers, 
 weights, measures, etc., are not put into the plural foi'ui. Thus we say, 
 ten hundrednr'xjht, five score, five fntheim, six brace. In (!)ld English we 
 also said/orf// i/rur, sixti/ tcinter ; and we still say, et tKclvemonth, a fort- 
 night ( = fourteen nights). 
 
 25. There are in English several false plurals — that is, real 
 singulars which look like plurals. These arc alms, riches, and 
 eaves. 
 
18 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (i) Alms is a compressed form of the A.S. aelmesae (which is from the 
 Greek dcem<mmo). We find in Acts iii. 3, "an ahus." The adjective 
 connected witli it is chcmosi/ixtr//. 
 
 (ii) Riches comes from the French rlchesse. 
 
 (iii) Eaves is the modern form of the A.S. efese, a margin or edge. 
 
 26. Tlioro are iu Englisli several plural forma that are re- 
 garded aiul treated as singulars. Tlie folloM-in- is a list :— 
 
 Ocl^'ls. Smalli)ox. 
 
 P<'^"i'«- Thanks. 
 
 Shambles. Tidings, 
 (i) Smallpox = small pocks. 
 
 27. There are many ncnins tliat, from the nature of the case, 
 can be used only in the plural. These are the names of 
 things (a) That consist of two or more parts; or (b) That are 
 taken in the mass. 
 
 (a) The following is a list of the first :— 
 Bellows. Pincers. Shears. 
 
 Drawers. Pliers. Snuflers. 
 
 Lung3. Scissors. Spectacles. 
 
 Amends. 
 
 Gallows. 
 News. 
 
 Tweezers. 
 
 Tongs. 
 
 Trousers. 
 
 (h) The following is a list of the second -.— 
 Annals. Dregs. Lees. 
 
 Arcliives. Embers. Measles. 
 
 Ashes. Entrails. Molasses. 
 
 Assets. Hustings. Mumps. 
 
 «®- It must bo noticed tliat several nouns-some of them in tlie 
 above class-change tlieir meaning entirely wlien made plural. Thus- 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Staggers, 
 
 Stocks. 
 
 Victuals 
 
 SiNOLT.AR. 
 
 Beef 
 
 Copper 
 
 Good 
 
 Pll'ral. 
 Beeves. 
 Coppers. 
 Goods. 
 
 SiNGULAB. 
 
 Iron 
 Pain 
 Spectacle 
 
 Pn-RAL. 
 
 Irons. 
 Pains. 
 Spectacles. 
 
 28. The English language has adopted many foreign plurals. 
 These, (a) wlien fully naturalised, make their plurals in the 
 usual Lnghsh way ; (A) when not naturalised, or imperfectly, 
 keep their own proper plurals. 
 
 (a) As examples of the first kind, we have— 
 
 Bandits, cherubs, dogmas, indexes, memorandums, focuses, formulas, 
 terminuses, etc. '' """'"' 
 
rAGE. 
 
 (which is from tlie 
 i." The adjective 
 
 nargiii or edge. 
 
 ms tliat are re- 
 g is a list : — 
 
 CASE. 
 
 19 
 
 nallpox. 
 
 hanks. 
 
 diugs. 
 
 ire of tlie case, 
 
 the names of 
 
 or {h) That are 
 
 Tweezers. 
 
 Tongs. 
 Trousers. 
 
 Oats. 
 Staggers. 
 Stocks. 
 Victuals. 
 
 of them in the 
 ural. Thus— 
 
 Plural. 
 Irons. 
 Pains. 
 Spectacles. 
 
 breign plurals, 
 plurals in the 
 r imperfectly, 
 
 Kuses, formulas, 
 
 (b) As 
 
 examples of the second, 
 
 we find — 
 
 
 
 SlNGLLAU. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 SiXOULAR. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 (1) Latin 
 
 Aninialculuiu 
 
 AnimK-lcula 
 
 Radix 
 
 Radices. 
 
 
 Datum 
 
 Data. 
 
 Scries 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 Formula 
 
 Formula). 
 
 Species 
 
 Species. 
 
 
 Genus 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Stratum 
 
 Strata. 
 
 (2) Greek 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Analyses. 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 Elli{)se.s. 
 
 
 Axis 
 
 Axes. 
 
 Parenthesis 
 
 Parentheses 
 
 
 Miasma 
 
 Miasmata. 
 
 Phenomenon 
 
 Phenomena. 
 
 (3) French 
 
 Monsieur 
 
 Messieurs. 
 
 Madam 
 
 Mesdames. 
 
 (4) ItaUan 
 
 Bandit 
 
 Banditti. 
 
 Libretto 
 
 I.iljretti. 
 
 
 Dilettante 
 
 Dilettanti. 
 
 Virtuoso 
 
 Virtuosi. 
 
 (8) Hebrew 
 
 Cherub 
 
 Cherubiui. 
 
 Seraph 
 
 Seraphim. 
 
 (i) The Greek plurals acoustici!, cthic/i, mathcimitlcs, 02>tics, pilitics, etc., 
 were originally adjectives. 'We now say %(c— but hyics, which still 
 survives in the Irish Universitiei— was the older word. 
 
 29. Compounds attach the sign of the plural to tlie leading 
 word, especially if tliat word bo a noun. These may be divided 
 into tlu'ee classes : — 
 
 (a) When the i)lural sign is added to the Noun, as: sons-!n-lau; 
 hangers-on, lookers-on, etc. 
 
 (h) When the comjiound word is treated as one word, as : attornci/- 
 (jcnerals, major-generals, court-martials, sjMonfuls, handfuh, etc. 
 
 (c) When both parts of the compound take the plural sign, as : men- 
 servants, knights-templars, lords-justices, etc. 
 
 Case. 
 
 30. Case is the form given to a noun to show its relation to 
 other words in the sentence. Our language has lost most of 
 these forms; but we still use the word case to indicate the 
 function, even when the form has been lost. 
 
 (i) The word case is from the Latin 
 casus, and means a falling. The old gram- 
 marians regarded the nominative as the 
 upright case, and all others as fallings 
 from tliat. Hence the use of the words 
 decline and declension. (Of course the 
 nominative cannot be a real case, because 
 it is upright and not a, falling.) 
 
 
1^ 
 
 30 
 
 r.RAMMAi; OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 li» 
 
 iiii 
 
 ,i! 
 
 J! r s 
 
 31. We iinir f'lnploy five eases; Nominative, Possessive, 
 Dative, Objective, ami Vocative. 
 
 (i) In Nouns, only due of these is inflected, or hus a case-ending— tlie 
 Possessive. 
 
 (ii) In Pronouns, the Pos^rcssive, Dative, and Objective are inflected. 
 But the inflexion for tlie Dative and tlie Objective i.s tlie same. Him 
 and them are indeed true Datives : the old inflection for tlie Objective 
 was hine and hi. 
 
 32. Tlie following are tlie definitions of these cases : — 
 
 (1) Tha Nominative Case is tlie case of the subject. 
 
 (2) The Possessive Case indicates possession, or some sim- 
 ilar relation. 
 
 (3) The Dative Case is the case of the Indirect Object, 
 and also the case governed by certain verbs. 
 
 {}) The Objective Case is the case of the Direct Object. 
 (5) The Vocative Case is the case of the person spoken 
 to. It is often called the Nominative of Address. 
 
 (i) Nominative comes from the Lat. nominarc, to name. From the 
 same root we have nominee. 
 
 (ii) DatWe comes from the Lat dativus, given to. 
 
 (iii) Vocative comes from the Lat. vocativus, spoken to or addressed. 
 
 33. The Nominative Case answers to the question Who ? or 
 "What? It has ahvays a verb that goes with it, and asserts 
 something about it. 
 
 34. The Possessive Case has the ending 's in the singular ; 
 's m the plural, when the plural of the noun ends in n ; and ' 
 only when the plural ends in s. 
 
 ^° The possessive case is kept chiefiy for nouns that are 
 the names of living beings. "We cannot say "the book's 
 page " or " the box's lid," though in poetry we can say " the 
 temple's roof," etc. There are many points that require to be 
 specially noted about the possessive : — 
 
 (i) The apostrophe (from Gr. apo, away, and strophe, a turning) stands 
 in the place of a k)st e, the pos.sessivo in O.E. having been in many 
 cases es. In the last centuiy the jirinters always put hop'd, walk'd, 
 etc., for hoped, walked, etc. The use of the apostrophe is quite modern- 
 
AGE. 
 
 CASE. 
 
 21 
 
 re. Possessive, 
 
 case-ending— tlie 
 
 Live are inflected. 
 s the same. Him 
 fur the Objective 
 
 3ases : — 
 
 subject. 
 
 1, or some sim- 
 
 direct Object, 
 
 rect Object, 
 erson spoken 
 
 !3S. 
 
 name. From the 
 
 to or addressed. 
 
 ition Who ? or 
 it, and asserts 
 
 I the singular ; 
 s in n ; and ' 
 
 louns that are 
 
 f "the book's 
 
 can say " the 
 
 require to be 
 
 I turning) stands 
 g been in many 
 it hop\l, walk'd, 
 is quite modeni- 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 (ii) If the singuhar iu)un ends in s, we f)ftcn, but not always, write 
 Moses' rod, far cuiiscicncc' sake, J'IuiJjus' jirc ; and yet we .say, and ought 
 to say, Junes's books, Wilkins's hat, St James's, (Jhamhcrs's Journal, etc. 
 
 -iii) yy-i find in the Prayer-Book, " For Jesus Christ his sake." Tiiis 
 arose fiuin the fact that tlie old iiosse.ssive in es was soniotinies written 
 is; and hence the corruption into his. Then it cauie to be fancied tliat 
 'S was a sliort form of his. Hut this is absurd, for two reasons : — 
 
 (a) We cannot say that " the girl's book " u = thr <jirl his look. 
 {'<> We cannot say tliat " the men's tools" iA = thr mtn his tools. 
 
 35. IIuw .-iludl we auuMunt for the coiitvadictdry forms Lord's- 
 day and Lady-day, Thurs-day and Fri-day, Wedn-es-day and 
 Mon-day, and for tlio curious possessive Witenagemot ? 
 
 Lady-day and Friday arc fragments of the possessive of feminine 
 Nouns in O.K., which ended in an. Thus, an old I)o:^sossive of lady 
 Vv-as ladyan, which was shortened into ladye, and tlien into lady. 
 So with Frija, the .Saxon goddess of love. Thus we see that in Lady- 
 da// a.nd Friday wo have old feminine possessives. The word ■witena- 
 fjemot means the 7na't or mectiiiij of the witan (=:wise men), the 
 possessive of which was witfina. 
 
 36. The Dative Case answers to the question For whom ? 
 or To whom ? It has no separate form for Nouns ; and in 
 Pronouns, its form is the same as that uf tlie Objective. But 
 it lias a very clear and distinct function in modern English. 
 This function is seen in such sentences as — 
 
 (1) He handed the lady a chair. 
 
 (2) ]\rake me a boat ! 
 
 (3) Woe worth the day ! ( = "Woe come to the day !) 
 (■4) Heaven send the Prince a better companion ! 
 
 (5) Heaven send the companion a better Prince ! 
 
 (6) " Sirrah, knock me at this gate, 
 Eap me here, knock me well, and knock me soundly." 
 
 (Shakespeare, "Taming of the Shrew," I. ii. 31.) 
 
 (7) Methought I heard a cry ! ( = Meseems.) 
 
 (8) Hand me the salt, if you please. 
 
 Some grammarians prefer to eall this the Case of the Indirect 
 Object ; but the term will hardly apply to day and me in (3) 
 and (7). In all the other sentences, the dative 7nay be changed 
 into an objective with the prep, to ovfor. 
 
 ■Ml 
 
22 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 (ii) In tl.o seventh sentence, mcthowjht i. = „usccms, or it ,re,ns to vie, 
 Ihere were „, O.K. two verb.-M,V„„, t. seem ; and 'tkencan, to thi^L 
 
 (Hi) In the eiglith sentence the phra.e ,/ you phase is = if it pUa., 
 wouVl" -T '■' ' ''**'^"- " ''"^ •""" ^^-'^ --^ "■•-•native, th pl^ 
 
 37. T],e Objective Case is always govornea l)v an active- 
 transitive verb or a preposition. It answ.r. t.; ti.e qT.ostiou 
 Whom ? or What ? It is generally placed after the verl,. Its 
 fonu IS different fro.n that of the Xonnuativo in pronouns; 
 out 13 the same in nouns. 
 
 (i) The direct object i« sometin.e.s called the reflexive object when 
 
 I ;j^ '"« Turn ';L '•; °?'"n7 '■"'"■ *" *"^ ^'^'"^ ^--"— " ^ '- 
 
 myscij , lurn {thou) thee, Lord ! " etc. 
 
 (ii) When the direct object is akin with the verb in meaning it is 
 «omet.mes called the cognate object. Tho cognate objec i? Zul in 
 such phrases a.: To die the death ; torunaraee; to fyhl a fi^luX 
 
 JS tr°''f '*'"'* °''^'°' ''^"'' ^"^''^ ^■"•'^■^ "-^ »""^-. 'create, appoint 
 ^A a, ../cr, e c. .s often called the factitive object. For ;xamre .' 
 
 tnougnt ,iwi. a good j«a«, etc. 
 
 Fao^i/ire comes from tli« Latin fact're, to make. 
 
 38. The difference between the ]S'ominative and the Vocative 
 oases _^thjs: The ^minative ease must always have a verb 
 with It ; the Vocative cannot have a verb. Tliis is plain from 
 the sentences : — 
 
 (i) John did that, 
 (ii) Don't do that, John ! 
 
 39 Two nouns that indicate the same person or thine, are 
 said to be in apposition; and two nouns in apposition mav be 
 111 any case. 
 
 tliii K!*\,*'"4t f InTt"""^ T '" *''^ ^^"^ ^^-' ""'->• °- °f 
 
 ^^^sl^rl^^°V:ltT^, ^""1- ->'' "J«l'" the 
 louiti i.s cieaci. Aow, both John and oardencr uro ir^ +V,o 
 
 4 
 
rAGE 
 
 lies called Ethicai 
 
 f, (ir it nfo/is to inc. 
 tliencan, to tliiiiL 
 
 ST is = If it 2>lcase 
 native, tlio phrase 
 se .lie. 
 
 hy an active- 
 to tlio question 
 
 the verl). Its 
 in pronouns ; 
 
 Jve object when 
 ion— as, " / hurt 
 
 in meaning, it is 
 bject is found iu 
 H a firjht, etc. 
 
 ', create, ajipoint, 
 
 For example : 
 
 '.m manager ; we 
 
 the Vocative 
 have a verb 
 is i^lain from 
 
 or thing are 
 ition may be 
 
 B, onlj- one of 
 \v, "John the 
 ener are in the 
 « the sign of 
 
 PHONOUXS, 23 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. 
 
 We say, "Jolin went away yesterday; he looked (luitt- Jiappy-" 
 In tliis ease the pronoun he stands in tlie plaee of John. 
 
 (i) Tlie word pronoun comes from the Latin ^wvv, for ; and nomcn, 
 a name. 
 
 (ii) Tiie above definition hardly apidles to the pi-oiioun /. If wo say 
 J write, the / cannot have John ^mith substituted for it. \\'o cannot 
 say Jo/in "^'mitfi m-ite. I, in fact, is the universal pronoun foi- tlie 
 person speaking; and it cannot be >aid to stand in place of his mere 
 Mime. The same remark applies to some extent to thou and tjou. 
 
 2. Tlie pronouns are anion-- the oldest paits of speech, and 
 have, therefore, been subject to many changes. In spite of 
 these changes, they have kept many of 'lieir inflexions; Aviiile 
 our JCnglish adjective has parted Avith all, and our noun with 
 most. 
 
 3. There are four kinds of pronorms : Personal; Inter- 
 rogative ; Relative ; and Indefinite. The following is a 
 table, with exami^les of each : — 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 i 
 Personal 
 
 I, 
 
 Interrogative. 
 
 Who ? 
 
 I 
 Relative. 
 
 Who. 
 
 Indefinite. 
 One. 
 
 PERSONAL PROXOTTXS. 
 
 4. There are three Personal l>ronouns : The Personal Pro- 
 noun of the First Person ; of the Second Person ; and of the 
 Third Person. 
 
 5. The First Personal Pronoun indicates the person speak- 
 ing ; the Second Personal Pronoun, the person spoken to ; 
 and the Third, tlie person spoken of. 
 
 6. The First Personal Pronoun has, of course, no distinc- 
 tion of gentler. It is made up of the following forms, ..hich 
 are fragments of different words: — 
 
 i y- 
 
24 
 
 GIUMMAR OF THE EXGLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 ?!1 
 
 SiNGfi,.vn. 
 Nominative I 
 
 Pimmsivc Jline (nr My) 
 
 JMtivc Jle 
 
 Ohjerlive Ho 
 
 Pl.t'RAL. 
 
 We. 
 
 Our (or Our.i). 
 
 r.s. 
 
 (i)_ We is i,„t ^ I f- r ; l,ei.auso tlioro can he cmly one / in all the vvorkL 
 A\e m rer.lly = l + he, I + y,,u, or I + they. 
 
 (ii) / can have n„ vocative a. such. If you a,l,lre,s.s yourself, you 
 must say Thou or Vou. ' 
 
 *J^ T';^'^''"'■'' '' P-f'-f^rvea in such wnrd.s hikI phrases a.s "Me 
 thinks .t seems ^> ,.,,"_whcrc the thinl- cmes fn.m tJnncan, to 
 
 seem, an. not from thcnr,,,, to think); "Woe is me;" " Give me the 
 plate ; If you plea.se," etc. 
 
 7. Tlie Second Personal Pronoun lias no distinction of 
 gender. It lias the follinvinir foriii.^ :— 
 
 Nmninativc 
 
 Possessive 
 
 Dative 
 
 Objective 
 
 Vocative 
 
 SlNOCLAH. 
 
 Tliiju 
 
 Thine [or Thv) 
 
 Thee 
 
 Thee 
 
 Thou 
 
 Pl.l'lt.M.. 
 
 You (or Ye). 
 
 Your (or YoUiS). 
 
 You. 
 
 You. 
 
 You {or Ye). 
 
 (i) Ye wa.s the old nominative plural: you was ahvnv.s dative or 
 objective. \ e have nut chosen me ; but I have chosen vou." 
 
 affection, of fam.l.anty, of superiority, and of contempt. This i.s .till 
 the asage m France of /« amUo/. Hence tlie verb <«<oyc,.. 
 
 (iii) My, Thy, Our, Your are used along with nouns; Mine, Thine 
 Ours, and Yours cannot go with noun.s, and they are alwavs used ahme' 
 Mine and Th ne however, are used in I>„etry and in the^Engli.sh Bib e 
 \Mtli nouns which begin with a vowel or silent k 
 
 8. The Third Personal Pronoun r.riuiro.. ,H,.tinction.s of 
 gender, because it is n.^cessaiy t,. indicat,. tlie sex of tlie iicrson 
 Ave are talking of; and it has them. 
 
 Si\Gr[,.\i!. 
 
 PlA-R.VL. 
 
 JIasitlini;. 
 iVo)?i. Ife 
 Poss. His 
 Dat. Him 
 Obj. Him 
 
 Fk.m.nink. .NtcTUi. Ar,r, Gexi-krs 
 
 ^'■e It Thev. 
 
 Her (or Hers) Its Their for Theirs), 
 
 "er It Them. 
 
 Her It Them. 
 
.GE. 
 
 AL. 
 
 !■ ('"• (Jur.-t). 
 
 ill all the world, 
 
 vss yourself, y(ju 
 
 I'lira^cs as "Me 
 Torn thincan, to 
 " "Give me the 
 
 listinction of 
 
 VoUi's). 
 
 ■e). 
 
 rt-ays dative or 
 you." 
 
 the pronoun of 
 b. This is ptill 
 
 ; Mine, Thine, 
 
 ays used alone. 
 e English Biljle 
 
 ^tinctions of 
 )i the per.son 
 
 UR.VL. 
 
 rEXDERs. 
 
 INTERKOGATIVE I'HONOUNS. 
 
 o.^i 
 
 ('"•Theirs). 
 
 (i) She is really the feminine of the old denion.strativo sc, mo, thnct ; 
 and it luw HUi>i>lanted the old A.S. pronoun /i-o, which still oxi.-its in 
 Lancashire in the form of hno, 
 
 (lii Tiio old and proper dative of it is him. The old neuter of he was 
 hit, the t being the intieetioii for the neuter. 
 
 (iii^ Him, the dative, came to be also used as the objective. The 
 oldest objective was hlne. 
 
 9. The Personal Pronouns are often used as Reflexive 
 Pronouns. Ketiexive Pronouns are (i) datives; or (ii) objec- 
 tives; or (iii) compounds of self with the personal pron(..iin. 
 For example ; — 
 
 (i) Dative: "I press me none but good householders," said by Fal- 
 btati; in "King Henry IV.," I. iv. 2, 16. 
 
 " I made me no more ado," I. ii. 4, 22.3. 
 
 " Let every .soldier how him down a bough."— Macbeth, V. iv. 6. 
 
 (ii) Object'.ve: Shakespt are has such phrases as /?(7i(;)< Wf .• Idisrohcd 
 Mf ; I have learned me. in nu)dern English, chiefly in poetry, we have : 
 J{c sat him down; Get thee hence/ etc. 
 
 (iii) Comj>ovinda : I icthouyht myself ; JIc urvwjfd himself ; etc. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 10. The Interrogative Pronouns are those pronouns which 
 M-e use in asking questions. They are who, which, what, and 
 whether. 
 
 (i The word interrogative conies from the Latin intcrrorjdre, to ask. 
 Hence also interrogation, interror/atory, etc. 
 
 11. Who is 1)otli masuuhiie and feminine, and is used only of 
 persons. Its neuter is what. (The t in what, as in that, is 
 the old suffix for the neuter gender.) The possessive is whose ; 
 the objective whom. The following ar(.' the forms : — 
 
 Singular and Pi.UHAi.. 
 
 Nomina t 
 Possessiv 
 Objective 
 
 IVC 
 
 SlASClLlNE. 
 Who 
 
 Whose 
 Whom 
 
 1'eminixe. 
 
 Who 
 Who 
 
 ise 
 
 Whom 
 
 Neitku. 
 What. 
 [Whr.se.] 
 What, 
 
26 
 
 r.liAMMAU OF THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 !!U1. 
 
 (i) Who-m i.s milly a .lutive, like hl-m. Hut we now uhc it only an an 
 (il)jective. 
 
 (ii) Whose »,wv 1,0 mci\ of neuters; but it is almost invariably cm- 
 Iiloyt'il of porsdiis only. 
 
 12. Which -f< .rinorlv /wo7--- is u ((.nipouiKl \\;m\, ma.lo up 
 of tho wh in who, i.inl Ic, wlii,], is a cniitnu'tiou of tliu U.K. 
 lic = likc. It thoivforc ivaliy uioaiis, ()/ irhal sort? It ikiw 
 asks fnr one out of a number; as, " Il,.,v arc several kinds of 
 Iruits : \vlii<li will you Jmvo ?" 
 
 13. Whether is also a compoiuid word, made up of who + 
 ther; and it ineaus. Which of the two? 
 
 (i) The tlurxu ic/uthc- is the saim; as the t/ur in nciihcr, etc. 
 
 RELATIVE OK CONJUNCTIVK PRONOUNS. 
 
 14. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun M-liirli posses.<!os two 
 fun.'tions: (i) it stands for a nnun ; and (ii) it joins two sen- 
 tences togetlier. Tln.t is to say, it is l.oili „ pron'.an. and a eon- 
 junction. For ...xaiuple, M'e say, " Tins is U,,. man whose apples 
 we bought." This stateuu.nt is made up .,f two sentences • (i) 
 "This is the man;" and (ii) "AW bought liis apples." The 
 relative proumm whose joins t<,gvtlier the two .sentences, 
 
 (i) Relative Pronouns might also be called conjunctive pronouns. 
 (ii) Whose, in the above sentence, is . .1110,1 relative, because it relates 
 to the word man. Man i.. railed its antecedent, or ;Mr-hfforc. 
 Tlie word antecahnt comes from the hat. aalr, hvtor.' ; an,l ccJo, I go. 
 
 15. The Relative I'lunouns are that; who, which; what. 
 
 As and but are also employed as ndatives. 
 
 (i) Who, which, an.l what are also combined with so and ever and 
 fonu Compound Relatives; such as whoso, whosoever, whatsoever 
 and whichsoever. ' 
 
 (ii) Tha.t is the oldest of our relative i.ronouns. It is really the neuter 
 of the ol.l demonstrative adj., ,c, m>, timet. It difiers fron> vho in two 
 respe-ts: (V,) It cannut b. u.^d after a preposition. Wo cannot sav, 
 
 ' This is the man with thivt I 
 limit. disti)i(/uish, and de^tii 
 for sale." Here the 
 
 sentence that I luUt 
 fining the noun house. Hence 
 
 went." {h) It is generally employed to 
 s we say, "The house th.at I built is 
 
 Thu 
 
 is an adiective. Hi 
 
 iting or de- 
 
 
 it has been called the defining relative, 
 
lOE. 
 
 une it only an an 
 
 >t iiivariaMy cin- 
 
 I'ord, iiiiulo lip 
 
 111 of till' O.K. 
 
 ■"ir/ ? It ii(i\v 
 
 vci'iil kinds of 
 
 ii[) <if who + 
 'her, etc. 
 
 OUNS. 
 
 possesses two 
 iiins two son- 
 nil ainl a oon- 
 whose apples 
 soiiteiiccs : (i) 
 ipples." The 
 tences. 
 
 e pronouns. 
 
 iciiuse it relates 
 
 'if/ore, 
 
 :cdo, I go. 
 
 hich; what. 
 
 and ever, and 
 :, whatsoever, 
 
 ^ally tlio neuter 
 •oin whu in two 
 i'o cannot say, 
 y employed to 
 that I built is 
 limiting or de- 
 inlng relative. 
 
 INDEFINITK I'KONOUNS. 
 
 27 
 
 Who <ir which introduces a new fact about the antecedent ; that only 
 niarliH it off from other nouns. 
 
 (iii) Who iia.-i whose ami whom ir. ll;e jiosseiisivo and objective— both 
 in tiie singular and in the jilural. 
 
 (iv) Which is not to bo regarded an the neuter of who. It i.s the form 
 used when the antecedent is tlie name of an animal or thing. After a 
 )pre]ioHition, it in sometimes replaced by trhirc; a.s wherein = in which; 
 when to = to ichlch. 
 
 (v) What iierforuis the function of a compound relative = that + which. 
 If we examine its function in ditfcrent sentences, wo shall lind that it 
 may lie eijuivalcnt to — 
 
 (o) Two Nominatives ; as in 'This is what he is" ( — the person that). 
 
 {!>) Two Objectives ; as in " He has what he askecl f. ,r " ( = tlie thing that)i 
 
 (p) >'om. and Obj.; as in " This is what he asked for" (-the tiling that). 
 
 ((/) Obj. and Nom.; as in " I know what he is" (-the person that). 
 
 (vii As is the ]iro[jer relative; after tlie adjectives Buch and same. As 
 is, however, jiroperly an a<lveib. " This is the .same as I hail " is = " This 
 is the same as that wh'n'h I had." 
 
 (vii) But is the ]iro|ier relati\e after a negative; a.s "There was no 
 man Imt would have died for her." Here but - Who + not. (,This if 
 like the Latin use of quin — <iui I- nan). 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 16. An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun that does not stand 
 in the place of a lumn wJiieh is the name for a definite person 
 or thing, but is used vaguely, and without a distinct reference. 
 
 17. Th(> chief Indelinite I'ronouiis are one, none ; any ; 
 other; and some. 
 
 (i) One is the best instance of an indefinite pronoun. It is simply the 
 cardinal <inc used as a i)ronoun. In O.K. we used hian ; and we .'■ Jll lind 
 one examjile in tlic liible — Zech. xiii. T) : " !Man taught me to keep ."ittle 
 from my youth." One, as an indefinite i)ronoun, has two peculiarities. 
 It (n) can be ]iut in the possessive case; and {h) can take a plural 
 form. Thus we can .say : (<;) " One can do what one likes with one's (jwu ;" 
 and (h) " I want .some big ones." 
 
 (ii) None i.s the negative of one. " None think the great unhappy 
 but the great," But nunc is mostly plural. No (the .adjective) is a 
 short form of none ; as a is of an ; and 7111/ of 7ninc. 
 
 (iii) Any is derived from an, a form of one. It may bo used as an 
 adjective also — either with a singular or a plural noun. 'When used us a 
 pronoun, it is generally plural. 
 
 il- 
 
28 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 i'l 
 
 (iv) Other i.s ■--= an ther. The ther is tlie same as that in either, 
 whether; and it always indicates that one of twcj i.s taken into the 
 mind. 
 
 (v) Some is either singular or plural. It is singular in the phrase 
 Some one ; in all other instances, it is a plural j)ronouu. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. An Adjective is a word that goes with a noun to describe 
 or point out the thing denoted by the noun— and hence to limit 
 the application of the noun ; or, more simply, — ■ 
 
 Adjectives are noun-marking words. 
 
 (i) Adjectives do not assert explicitly, like verhs. They assert im- 
 plicitly. Hence they aie implicit predicates. Thus, if I say, " I met 
 three old men," I make three statements : (1) I met men ; (2) The men 
 were old; (3) The men were three in numher. But these statements 
 are not explicitly made. 
 
 (ii) Adjectives enlarge the content, Vmt limit the extent of the idea 
 expressed by the noun, Thus when wo say "?<7uYf horses," we jiut a 
 larger content into the idea of liorse ; Imt, as there are fewer white 
 horses than hor.ies, we limit the extent of the notion. 
 
 2. An adjective cannot stand by itself. It must have with 
 it a noun either expressed or understood. In the sentence 
 "The good are happy,'' p^'^wn.-? is understood after ;/n(h/. 
 
 3. Adjectives are of four kinds. They are (i) Adjectives of 
 Quality; (ii) Adjectives of Quantity; (iii) Adjectives of 
 
 Number ; (iv) Demonstrative Adjectives. Or Ave may say, 
 
 Adjectives are divided into 
 
 ADJECTIVES 
 
 T 
 
 QuaUtative. Quantitative. Numbering. t)emonstrative. 
 
 These four answer, respectively, to tlie questioiis — 
 (i) Of what sort? (ii) How much? (iii) How many? (iv) Which? 
 
 4. Qualitative Adjectives denote a r|uality of the subject or 
 tiling named by the noun; such as hJin:, n-Jiifc ; happy, sad; 
 hiij, liW,\ 
 
 (i) Tlin word qunlitntitr comos from tlie Lat. 7i(f(/is = nf what sort. 
 (ii) Most of these ailjective.s admit of degrees of comparison. 
 
 it 
 
\.GE. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 29 
 
 h!i that in cither, 
 s taktMi into the 
 
 li\r in the phrase 
 
 oun to describe 
 hence to limit 
 
 Tliey assert Im- 
 if I say, " I met 
 en ; (2) The men 
 these statements 
 
 sxtent of the idea 
 orses," we j)Ut a 
 are fewer white 
 1. 
 
 lust have with 
 1 the sentence 
 iter ij(M))/. 
 Adjectives of 
 Adjectives of 
 we may say, — 
 
 Ueraonstratlve. 
 
 IS — 
 
 (iv) Which? 
 
 tlie subject or 
 ; hajij)//, sad; 
 
 lat sort. 
 ion. 
 
 5. Quantitative Adjectives denote eitlier quantity or in- 
 definite number ; and they can go either (i) with the singular, 
 or (ii) with the plural of nouns, ur (iii) with botli. The follow- 
 
 . M' 
 
 ing is a list : — 
 
 Any. 
 
 All' 
 
 Both. 
 
 Much. 
 
 No. 
 
 Several. 
 
 Some. 
 A\-hole. 
 
 Certain. Few. 
 
 Divers. Little. 
 
 Enough. Many. 
 
 (i) AVe find the phrases : Little need ; little v:ool ; much pleasure ; more 
 sense; some sleep, etc. 
 
 (ii) We find the phrases: All men; any persons; both boys; several 
 pounds, etc. 
 
 (iii) We find the phrases: Any min and any men; no man and no 
 men; enough corn and soldiers enough; some boy and some boys, etc. 
 
 6. Numbering or Numeral Adjectives express the number of 
 
 the things or persons indicated by the noun. They are generally 
 divided into Cardinal Numerals and Ordinal Numerals. 
 Eut Ordinal Numerals arc in reality Demonstrative Adjectives. 
 
 (i) Numeral conies from the Lat. numerus, a number. Hence also 
 couiL- vumcrous, numerical, and number (t\m b serves as a cushion betweeu 
 the VI and the r). 
 
 (ii) Cardinal comes from the Lat. cardo, a hinge. 
 
 (iii) Ordinal comes from the Lat. ordo, oi'dor. 
 
 7. Demonstrative Adjectives ar(> those wliich are used to 
 point out the thing expressed by the noun; and, besides indi- 
 cating a person or thing, they also indicate a relation either to 
 the speaker or to something else. 
 
 (i) Demonstrative comes from the Lat. dcmonstro, I imint out. Froui the same 
 rout coMie monster, monstrous, &c. 
 
 8. Demonstrative AdjiH-tives are of three kinds : (i) Articles ; 
 (ii) Adjective Pronouns (often so called) ; and (iii) the Ordinal 
 Numerals. 
 
 (i) There are two articles (better call them distinguishing adjectlveff 
 in our languap-e : '.', and the. a is a broken-down form of ane, the 
 northern form i one; and before a vowel or .^ileut h it retain.-; the n. 
 In some phrases a has its old sense of one; as in " two of a trade ; " " all 
 of a size," etc. 
 
 "An two men ride on a horse, one must ride liehind." 
 
 Shakespeare (Much Ado aliout Nothing, III. v. 40)^ 
 
 ' 'L 
 
30 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 i'iill 
 
 l«ri)-, (fa in " tl,i. b,.,t ■■ ia not ,,,„ ..„ " ^ '""' »" «-"oui- Si.„i. 
 
 T-.e lutta. i., .„. „,„ .....ah-r "■r;r::u:'°,;;.';;:,r™ "" "-'-" 
 
 (c) Distributive Adjective Pronouns v. i 
 
 id} Possessive Adjective Pronouns Mvhv'T"' ,"""'"' ""''"'■• 
 words perform .a dnul.Ie fun,^tion Tl„. ", "'• ' *'*°' '>^''"^--^« 
 go with a noun ; and ju-onou" Loetu lll'^l?' 'T"'^'^ ^''^^ 
 na,ne „f the ,er.on .peaking c,r' spoken of )' " '"' ''" °°"° ^ 
 
 (iv) The ordinal Numerals are : First, second, third, etc 
 
 possessive'ease. L J^^CJX "^^ '^'™^ ^'^ ^''^ 
 
 (i) Tlie i)lural of one ns m, ^ i;„ j- 
 
 "oun, one:. Thus J ."^ '<£ H " '"'"' '''■'^' ^''=- ' "^ "- ^s a 
 
 '■<^tter o».." other nun.e S'adjecS^; "J;':" ^^'^^'^'^^' ^"-g >- 
 
 Wordsworta, in one ,.f his shortei'^ l2^' " "^ """'^^- ^^'"« 
 
 "Tlie sun has long been set; 
 
 Tl,e stars -ire out by ^..„,„„a „,,,,. 
 The liftlebinls are piping yet 
 Anioii^' tlie buslies ami trees." 
 
 ^i;i^:L/sr/;,r:j::;;— i: *■? -r- ^'^ - ^^^ 
 
 has (Paradise Lost, iii. 438) S.S^^. ^ ^ "■''" '"^' ^^"^^''^^- "^^"ton 
 
 ^^^MERALS. 
 adjectives. - " '^<^ "■'^^'i as 
 
GUAGE. 
 
 ! a from the broken- 
 Tliis latter rt is a 
 a on wuciiii." Simi- 
 le more the merrier." 
 hat. 
 
 v^es ai'e .so called be- 
 
 'h the noun, or ^.s 
 
 the folLnviiig four 
 
 Jie.se ; that, those ; 
 
 what? whether (of 
 
 ', cither, neither. 
 ,^ her, etc. (The.se 
 ive.-;, because they 
 1 for the noun or 
 
 J, etc. 
 tlierofore take a 
 
 KUMERALS. 
 
 31 
 
 unu 
 
 ', t^upciiofs, 
 
 c form of tl 
 
 le 
 
 etc. ; of one as a 
 lierrie.s, bring me 
 a.s nouns. Thus 
 
 (i) One was in A.S. an or anc. The pronunciation ii-un is from a we.st- 
 ern dialect. It is still rightly sounded in its compounds atone, alone, 
 lonehi. None and no arc the negatives of one and o { — an and a). 
 
 (ii. Two, from A.S. twegen mas. ; twa feui. The form iiff^oi- appears 
 in ticiiin and twin, the 'j having been absorbed. 
 
 (iii) Eleven = en (one) + lif (ten). Twelve = twe (two) + llf (ten), 
 (iv) Thirteen = three -f ten. The )• has shifted its place, as in third. 
 
 {%■) Twenty = twen (two)-f tig (ten). Tig is a noun, meaning " a .set 
 of ten." The guttural was lost, and it became ti/. 
 
 ^ (vi) Score, from A.S. srcran, to cut. Accounts of sheep, cattle, etc., 
 
 were kept by notclies on a stick ; and the twentieth notch was made 
 deeper, and was ca"" 1 the cut — the score. 
 
 11. Ordinal Numerals are Adjectives of Relation fornitd 
 rao.stly from the Cardiiuils. They are : Fir.st, Second, Third, 
 '" Fourtli, etc. 
 
 8 (i) First is a contraction of the A.S. fijrrest (farthest). 
 
 (ii) Second Ls not Eng. but Latin. The O.E. for second was other. 
 Sci-ond comes (through Frencli) from the Latin, SLiumlus, following — 
 thao is, following tlie first. A following or favourable breeze (" a wind 
 tha.t foUoius fast") was called by the Romans a " secundus ventus." 
 Sccundus comes from Lat. scfuor, I follow. Other words from the 
 same root are se'pte/, consequence, etc. 
 
 (iii) Third, by transposition, from A.S. thridda. A third jiart was 
 called a Ihridimj (where the r keeps its right place) ; as a f(3urth part 
 was a foiirthin;/ or farthing. Thridbvj was gradually changed into Bidinr/, 
 one of the three parts into which Yorkshire was divided. 
 
 (iv) In eigh-th, as in ciyh-teen, a t has vanished. 
 
 V'h 
 
 1'. VTe can say 
 dutches. Milton 
 
 ate mimbers 
 
 'fn.y''», hun- 
 
 • be used as 
 
 THE INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 12. The modern Engliish adjective has lost all its old inflexions 
 for gender and case, and retains only two for number. These 
 two are the.^c (the plural of ilii'^) and ///r>.sv.' (tlie plural of that). 
 
 (i) The older plural was thise—pronounced these, and then so sjielled. 
 In this instance, the spelling, as so seldom liai)pens, lias followed the 
 pronunciation. In general in the English language, the spelling and the 
 pronunciation keep quite apart, and have no influence on each other. 
 
 (ii) Those was the oldest plural of this, but in the 14tli century it 
 came to be accepted as the plural of that. 
 
 *'i^T 
 
32 
 
 Mil 
 
 1 i 
 
 •4 :\ 
 
 m 
 
 'th 
 
 .; ,'l 
 
 i 'il. 
 
 GRAiniAR OF THE EXGLISH LAXGUAGE. 
 
 13. ]\Io.st adjectiv 
 
 :;s are now inflected for 
 
 pur2)osea of 
 
 parison only. 
 
 tive': 'itr "" '^'" ""'^'^^^ '^ Comparison: ti.e Posi- 
 tive . tlio Comparative ; and tl.o Superlative. 
 
 fri^ ^^'::r:'::^'z *"^ ';r'' "''-'' -'-^^ ^^-'^ --- 
 
 ual, deurnde, J. ' ^ " ' '""^ '''' ''''''' '•""' -"^ yn./., ,rad. 
 
 ^.15. Tl. Positive Degree is the simple form of the adjec- 
 
 but' oT-of ;;;: thi:.» ^" "^^^'^^^^^"'^' ^^ ""^^ ^^"-^^ ^^- ^-." 
 
 Comparative come, fro.a t„e Lat. com,a>o, I bring together. 
 
 17. The Conaparative degree is formed in two wavs • eitlie,- 
 (i) by addnig er to tlie positive • or ^ii) if iho n r : 
 
 syllahh's ^tho In.f n r . ' ^^ ^"/ ^* <^be adjective iias two 
 
 }u.ions (the la.tendnig in a consonant) or more bv n].f.J,K, 
 tlie adverb more before tlie adjective. ' ^ ^ ° 
 
 Rules : I. a silent e is dropped ; as im.., braver. 
 
 hajel: '■' ^ '''" '"^ '=''""'^^"' '^ '"^^"^^•^ '»*° ' ^'^iore er, etc. ; a. ko^.y, 
 
 red.1^ ^^S;tZ:''^' '''-' ' ^^"* ^°-^ ^^ '^-'^■^'1= - red, 
 
 not /,.•"«.., tut nire Z^C^ -t «ay .7...., ,,,, ,,,,,, .,^,^^ . 
 "ot an exanile to be fol Wed. ' "' ^^-^^tifuUest, etc.; Lv.t I.i, i« 
 
 .i.w.e.ree. Th^ "X;^^:;!:::^:.^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 tbings, or more, bo compared Tims "He f n . n 
 
 two " would bo incorrect. ^''" ^'^"^'^'^ ^^ ^^'« 
 
 Superlative con.es fron, t„e Lat. .,„p.Wa/t.„.. lifting up above. 
 
 
rOUAGE. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 33 
 
 inir2io.se.=i of com. 
 
 irifon: tlie Posi- 
 '"e. 
 
 !', wliicli itself coiner 
 lot come ijradc, ijrud- 
 
 )rm of tlie adjec- 
 
 of tlie adjective 
 
 been rai.sed one 
 
 ', sharper; cold, 
 
 e briiig.s togetlier 
 
 waller of the two," 
 
 3ther. 
 
 u-o ways : either 
 djective lias two 
 more, by placing 
 
 er, etc. ; as hippy, 
 
 doubled; as red, 
 
 id custom seem to 
 , but More select; 
 t, etc.; but liis is 
 
 ■ the adjective 
 n raised to the 
 ■es that tJu'ee 
 e tallest of tlio 
 
 Dve. 
 
 19. The Superlative degree is formed in two way.s : either (i) 
 by adding est to tlie positive; or (ii) if the adjective has two 
 .syllables (the last ending in a consonant) or nion!, by placing 
 the adverb most before the adjective. 
 
 (i) Happied. (ii) Most recent ; moH beautiful. 
 
 20. Some adjectives, from the very natnre of the ideas they 
 express, do not admit of comparison. Such are golden, icooden; 
 t'r/f, riijhf ; ,<quare, friuiKjidar; ireildij, vtouthhj ; eternal, per- 
 jiefui.il, I'tc. 
 
 21. The most freijuently used adjectives have irregular 
 comparisons. The following is a list : — 
 
 PdS- 
 ITIVE. 
 
 COM- 
 I-ARATIVE. 
 
 I.ATIVE. 
 
 Po.S- 
 ITIVK. 
 
 Co.M- 
 
 rAUA-'IVE. 
 
 Sl-pkb- 
 
 I.ATIVE. 
 
 Bad 
 
 worse 
 
 worst. 
 
 Late 
 
 later 
 
 latest. 
 
 Evil 
 
 worse 
 
 worst. 
 
 Late 
 
 latter 
 
 last. 
 
 111 
 
 worse 
 
 worst. 
 
 Little 
 
 less 
 
 least. 
 
 Far 
 
 [Forth] 
 
 farther 
 further 
 
 farthest. 
 fu"''iest. 
 
 Many 
 Mucii 
 
 more 
 
 more 
 
 most, 
 most. 
 
 Fore 
 (iood 
 
 former 
 better 
 
 foremost, 
 best. 
 
 Nigh 
 Old 
 
 nigher 
 older 
 
 Highest (next) 
 oldest. 
 
 Hind 
 
 hinder 
 
 hindmost. 
 
 Old 
 
 elder 
 
 eldest. 
 
 
 [Ivatl 
 
 lu] rat 
 
 her 
 
 [rathest.] 
 
 
 (i) Worse and worst come, not from bud, but from the rooturor, evil 
 ( War comes from the same root.) The s in worse is a part of the root ; 
 and the full comparative is really u-orscr, which was used in the 16th 
 century (Shakespeare, "Hamlet," III. iv. 157). Worst -uwscst. 
 
 (ii) The th in farther is intrusive. Farther is formed on a false anal- 
 ogy with further ; as could (from can) is with uwdd (from u-ill). Far- 
 ther is used of progression in space; further, of progression in reasoning. 
 
 (iii) Former was in A.S. forma ( == first). It is a superlative form with 
 a conii)arative sense, 
 
 (iv) Better comes from A.S. let = good— s, root which was found in 
 betan, to make good, and in the phrase to boot = " to the good," 
 
 (v) Later and latent refer to time ; latter and last to position in 
 space or in a series. Last ii as by assimilation from latst ; as best is from 
 betst. 
 
 (vi) Less does not 
 
 weak. 
 
 come 
 Least = laesest. 
 
 from the lit in little; but from the A.S. las, 
 
 \\M 
 
 (vii) Nighest is contracted into next ; as highest was into hcxt. Thus 
 gh + s = k + s = x. 
 
34 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 H 
 
 (viii) We say "the oldest man that ever lived, " aiul '=the eldest of 
 the f,tinily." Older and oldest refer to mere number ; elder an<l eldest 
 to a fiuuily oi' corporate group. 
 
 (ix) Rathe is still found in poetry. Milton has " the rathe primrose 
 that forsaken dies ;" and Coleridge, "twin buds too rathe to bear the 
 vinters unkind air." The Irish pronunciation rayihcri, the old Eug- 
 hsh pronunciation. 
 
 (x) Hind is used as an adjective in the phrase "the hind wheels." 
 
 22. The foll(nviiig are defective comparatives and superla- 
 tives : — 
 
 SlPERLATIVE. 
 
 innermost. 
 
 outermost (or uttermost), 
 
 nethermost. 
 
 uppermost. 
 
 POSITIVK. COMI'ARATIVK. 
 
 [Aft] after 
 
 [-n] inner 
 
 [Out] outer (or utter) 
 
 nether 
 
 over 
 
 [L p] upper 
 
 (i) After, as an adjective, is found in aftermath and afterthought. 
 v'ii) In is used as an adjective in the word {n-sUlc; and as a noun in 
 the phrase "the ins and outs" of a question. 
 
 (iii) In the inns of law, the utter-bar (outer-bar) is oi.posed to the 
 Inner-bar. 
 
 (iv) The neth in nether is the same as the neath in Icneath. 
 
 (v) Tlie ov in over is the ove in above, and is a dialectic form ..f up 
 It IS still found in such names as Over Leirjh in Cheshire, antl Over 
 Darwcn in Lancashire. 
 
 (vi) Hindmost, uttermost, are not compounds of most, but are 
 double superlatives. There was an old superlative ending ema, which 
 we see in Lat. cxtremus, suprSmus, etc. It was forgotten that t'his wa» 
 a superlative, and est or ost was added. Thus we had hindema, mid- 
 cma. These afterwards became hindmost and midmost. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 1. Tho Verb is tliat "jxirt of si^eecli " by inean.g of which 
 wo make an assertion. 
 
 It is tlm keystone of the arch of speech. 
 
 (i) The word verb comes from tlie Lat. ver'nim, a word. It is so- 
 called because it is the word in a sentence. If we leave the verb out 
 of a sentence, all the other words become mere nonsense. Thus we can, 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 36 
 
 saj-, " I saw him cross the bridge." Leave out saw, and the other wonl.s 
 have no meaning whatever. 
 
 (ii) A verb has sometimes been called a telling word, and this is r> 
 good and simple definition fur young learners. 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATIOX OF VERBS. 
 
 2. Vei'ljs are divided into two classes — Transitive ami 
 Intransitive. 
 
 3. A Transitive Verb denotes an action or feeling which, 
 as it were, passes over from the doer of the action to the 
 object of it. "The boy broke the stick;" ''he felled the 
 tree;" "he hates walking." 
 
 In these sentences we are able to think of the action of breaking and 
 felling as pnssin;/ uvcv to the stick and the tree. 
 
 Transitive comes from tlio Liit. verb tran-nre, to jiass over. 
 
 The more correct definition is this : — ■ 
 
 A Transitive Verb is a verb that requires an object. 
 
 This definition covers the instances of have, own, posscsa, inherit, etc, 
 as well as breed; strike, fell, etc. 
 
 4. An Intransitive Verb denotes a state, feeling, or action 
 which does not pass over, but which terminates in the doe - or 
 agent. " He sleeps ; " " she walks ; " " the grass grows." 
 
 5. There is, in general, nothing in the look or appearance 
 of the verb which will enable ns to tell whether it is transitive 
 or intransitive. A transitive verb may l)e used intransitively ; 
 an intransitive verb, transitively. In a few verbs we possess 
 a causative form. Thus we have : — 
 
 iNTHANSmVE. 
 
 Causative 
 
 Intransitive. 
 
 Causative. 
 
 Bite 1 
 ! Deemi 
 
 Bait. 
 
 Doom (verb). 
 
 Quoth 
 Rise 
 
 Bequeathe. 
 Raise. 
 
 Drink 1 
 
 Drench. 
 
 Sit 
 
 Set. 
 
 Fall 
 
 Fell. 
 
 AVatch 1 
 
 Wake. 
 
 1 Lie 
 
 Lay. 
 
 AN'ring i 
 
 M'rench. 
 
 1 These are also used transitively. 
 
 The following exceptional usages should be uiliger.tly 
 noted : — 
 
 I. Intransitive verbs may be used trar.sitively. Thus — 
 (i) (o) He walked to London. (b) He walked his horse, 
 
 (a) The eagle flew. {b) The boy flew his kite. 
 
 Hif 
 I- 
 
 lljii.l 
 
30 
 
 GltAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH I.ANOrAGE. 
 
 (ii) AVhon the intransitive verb is compounde.I witli a pre- 
 position eitlier (i) s(-paral)le, or (ii) inseparable. 
 
 (i) («) IIo lau-hed. (M Ho laugliod-at me. 
 
 (ii) (a) He ca.ne. (/,) ]r„ overcame the enemy. 
 
 (ill) (a) He spoke. (/,) }re bespoke a pair of Loots. 
 
 Siicli vpil.s aru sometimes callt-.l " rrciio.siti.mal Verbs." 
 
 ir. Transitive verbs may be nsod intransitively— 
 (i) ■\Vitli the pronoun itself unJerstood :— 
 
 (a) He broke tlio dish, 
 (rt) She shut the d(jor. 
 (a) They moved the table. 
 
 i'j) The sea break.s on the roeks. 
 {h) The door shut suddenly. 
 {'j) The table moved. 
 
 (ii) WJien tlie verb describes a fact perceived by tlie senses 
 
 (a) He cut the beef, 
 (a) He sold the books. 
 (a) She smells the rose. 
 
 {>j) The beef cuts tough. 
 (6) The books sell well. 
 (b) The rose smells sweet. 
 
 Tlie following is a tabular view of the 
 
 KINDS OF VERBS. 
 
 INTRANSITIVE, 
 
 TRANSITIVE. 
 
 Of State. 
 
 (Sleep.) 
 
 Of action. 
 (Run.) 
 
 Active. 
 
 (Wound ) 
 
 Passive. 
 
 (Be wounded.) 
 
 THE IXFLEXIOXS OF VERBS. 
 6. Verbs are changed or modified for Voice, Mood, Tense, 
 Number, and Person. These changes are exiuessed, partly by 
 inflexion, and partly by the use of auxiliary verbs. 
 
 (i) A verb is an auxiliary verb (from Lat. auxifium, aid) when its 
 own full and real moaning drops out of sh/kl, and it aids or helps the 
 verb to which it is attached to express its meaning. Thus we say, "He 
 «'orks liard that he ma./ yula the prize ; " and here ma;/ lias not'its old 
 meaning of pmva; or its jjresent meaning of pcnnissiou. Rut— 
 
 (ii) If we say " He may go," here may is not used as an auxiliary 
 but IS a notional verb, with its full meaning; and the sentence is=' 
 " He has leave to go." 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 37 
 
 r 
 
 Voice. 
 
 7. Voice is that form of the Verb Ity ■vvhicli wo show 
 whether the subject of tlie .statement denotes tlie doer of the 
 aetion, or tlie object of tlie aetion, expre.sst'd hy the vitI). 
 
 8. There are two Vniies ; tlie Active Voice, and the Passive 
 Voice. 
 
 (i) When a verb i.s u.scd in the active voice, 
 
 the subject i)t" the t>eiiteiieo stiiiid.s for 
 
 the doer of the action. " He killed the niou.se." 
 
 (ii) AVhen a verh is in the passive voice, 
 
 the subject of tlie sentence .stands f<ir 
 
 the object of the action. "The mou.se was killed." 
 
 Or we in.av say that, in the passive voice 
 the grammatical subject denotes the real 
 object. 
 
 (iii) There is in English a kind of middle voice. Thus we can say, 
 "He opened the door" (active); "The door was opened" (passive); 
 " The door ojiened " (middle). In the same way we have, " This wood 
 cuts easily ; " " Honey tastes sweet ; " " The book sold well," etc. 
 
 9. An Intransitive Verb, as it can have no direet object, 
 cannot lie n.sed in the jiassive voice. ]]ut, as we have seen, 
 we can make an intransitive into a transitive verb by adding 
 a preposition ; and hence we can say : — 
 
 Active. Passive. 
 
 ((/) They laughed at him. (';) He was laughed-at by them. 
 
 («) The general spoke to him. [b) He was spoken-to by the general. 
 
 10. In changing a verb in the active voice into the pas.sive, 
 we may make either (i) the direct or (ii) the indirect object 
 into the subject of the passive verb. 
 
 Passive. 
 
 (i) A chair was offered her. 
 (ii) She was ofifered a chair. 
 
 (i) The house was shown him. 
 (ii) He was shown the house. 
 
 (i) A coat was promised the boy. 
 (ii) The boy was promised a coat. 
 
 The olijoct .aftor tlie iiassivi"! verb is not the veal object of tlmt verl), for 
 a passive verb cannot rightly take an ohjcet. It is left over, as it were, from the 
 active verb, and is hence soinetiines called a Residuary Object. 
 
 AiTivi;. 
 
 1. They oii'ered her a chair. 
 
 2. They showed him the house. 
 
 3. I promised the boy a coat. 
 
 ' , i ' 
 
 f.:ii 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 m 
 
I' 
 
 f1 I 
 
 W" 
 
 38 
 
 GRAMMAll OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 11. Tlio passive voice of u veil) is fonned by using a part 
 of tho verb to be and tlio past participle of tlie verb. Thus 
 Ave say — 
 
 ACTIVK. 
 
 I beat. 
 
 Passivf.. 
 I am beaten. 
 
 Active, 
 I have beaten. 
 
 Passive. 
 I have been beaten. 
 
 (i) Some Intransitive verbs form their perfect tenses by means of the 
 verb to be and tlieir pa.st participle, a.s " I am come ; " " He is gone." 
 I5ut tlie mcaninrj here i.s quite different. There is no mar!: of anything 
 done to tlie subject of the verlj, 
 
 (ii) Shakespeare ha.s tlie phrases: is ,nn; is arrived; are marched 
 forth; is entered into; ia stolen away. 
 
 Mood. 
 
 12. The Mood of a verb is the manner in which the state- 
 ment made by the verb is presented to the mind. Is a 
 statement made directly? Is a conuuand given? Is a state- 
 ment subjoined to another? All these are different moods or 
 modes. There are four moods : tho Indicative ; tbo Impera- 
 tive ; the Subjunctive ; and the Infinitive. 
 
 (i) Indicative comes from the Lat. indicarc, to point out, 
 
 (ii) Imperative comes from the Lat, impcrare, to command. Hence 
 also emperor, empress, etc. (through French). 
 
 (iii) Subjunctive comes from Lat. suhjunr/fre, to join on to. 
 
 (iv) Infinitive comes from Lat. inftnlfus, unlimited ; because the verb 
 in this mood is not limited by person, number, etc. 
 
 13. The Indicative Mood makes a direct assertion, or puts 
 a question in a direct manner. Thus we say : " John is ill ; " 
 "Is John ill?" 
 
 14. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command, 
 request, or entreaty. Thus we say : " Go ! " " Give me the 
 book, please ; " "Do come back ! " 
 
 (i) The Imperative Mood is tlie pure root of the verb without any 
 inflexion. 
 
 (ii) It has in reality only one person — the second. 
 
 15. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb which 
 is used in a sentence that is subjoined to a principal 
 
 
 fl 
 
 i 
 
THE VERH. 
 
 39 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
 sentence, — ami which does not exin'es.s a fact directly, but 
 only the relation of a fact to the mind nf the sjR'aker. 
 ^Most often it expresses botli doubt and futurity. Thus Ave 
 say : (i) "U that he were hen,"!" (ii) " Luve not sleep, lest 
 thou come to poverty." (iii) " Whoever ho be, he cannot bo 
 a good man." 
 
 (i) In the first sentence, the person is not liere. 
 
 (ii) In the second, the person i*imkeii to has not come to poverty ; but 
 he may. 
 
 (iii) In the third, we do not know who tlie person really is. 
 
 (iv) The Subjunctive Mood is rapidly dying out of use in modern 
 English. 
 
 16. The Infinitive Moo-' is that form of the verb which 
 has no reference to any agent, and is therefore uidimited liy 
 person, by number, or by time. It is the verb itself, pure and 
 simple. 
 
 (i) The i)repo.sitiou to is not an essential part nor a necessary sign of 
 the infinitive. The oldest sign of it was tiie ending in an. After mai/, 
 can, shall, will, must, bid, dare, do, hi, make, hear, sec, feel, need, the 
 simple infinitive, without to, is still used. 
 
 (ii) The Infinitive is really a noun, and it may be (a) either in the 
 nominative or {>>) in the obj. case. Thus we have: («) "To err is 
 human ; to forgive, <livine ; " and (b) " I wish to go." 
 
 (iii) In O.E. it was declined like any other noun ; .and the dative case 
 ended in anne. Then to was placed before this dative, to indicate 
 purpose. Thus we find, " The sower went out to sow," when, in O.E. 
 to soiv was to saifenne. This, which is now called the gerundial infinitive, 
 has become very common in English. Thus we liave, " I came to .see 
 you ;" "A hou.se to let." "To hear him (= on hearing him) talk, you 
 would think he was worth millions." 
 
 (iv) We must be careful to distinguish between («) the pure InHnltive 
 and {b) the gerundial Infinitive. Thus we say— 
 
 {a) I want to see him. (b) I went to see him. The latter is the 
 gerundial infinitive— that is, tlie old dative. 
 
 (c) The gerundial infinitive is attached (1) to a noun ; and (2) to an 
 .adjo.-tive. Thus we have sucli phrases aa— 
 
 (1) Bread to eat; water to drink; a house to sell. 
 
 (2) ^yon<.\erin\ to relate ; quick to take offence ; eager to go. 
 
 17. A Gerund is a noun formed from a verb by tlie addition 
 of ing. It may be either (i) a subject ; or (li) an object ; or 
 
 n 
 
40 
 
 OUAMMAU OF THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (Hi) it may bo govonitMl Ly ii prppositinn. It Ims two funotiona : 
 tliiit (if ii noun, fiiiil tliiit of a verb — tliat is, it i.i itself a iioun, 
 and it A'^^• tln' p^ovcrniiig power of a vevh. 
 
 (i) Keailiiig ii< jileasaiit. (ii) I like icailiiii,', (^iii^ He got ofl' by cross- 
 iiig the river. In this lant sentence, cronnhif/ is a noun in relation to hy, 
 and a, verb in relation to river. 
 
 Gerund comes from tlio Lat. (icro, I carry on ; lid'ause it cnrrics on 
 the power or funcUim of tiio verl). 
 
 (ii) The Qerund must be carefully distinguished ft-om three other 
 kinds (if woi-ds : (u) fidin the verbal noun, which used to end in mnj ; 
 (b) from the present participle ; and (c) from tiie infinitive with to. 
 The following are e.xamides : — 
 
 (r() " Forty ami six years wns this tiiii- 
 ple in luiilding." Here building is a 
 verbal iinim. 
 
 (')) "Dreaming aa he wont along, lio 
 fell into the lirook." Here divinainrj is 
 an mljeotive agreeing witli Iw, ami is tliere. 
 fore a particiiile. 
 
 ((■) "T(i write is iinitc easy, when one 
 has a good jien." Here to u'rite is a pres- 
 ent inllnitive, and is the nnniinative to is. 
 (It must not he forgotten that the oldest 
 Intinitive had no tn, and that it still exists 
 in this pure form in such lines as " Helter 
 (Ju-ell in the midst of alarms, than reign 
 in this horrible iilace." 
 
 (•0 "He was imnished fir robbing the 
 orchard." Here rnhhimj is a gerund, be- 
 cause it ii a noun and nlse governs a noun. 
 
 (Ii) " He was tired of dreaming such 
 , dreams." Here ib-enmimj Is a gerund, 
 
 Ijceause it la a noun ami gnvrrns a noun. 
 
 I 
 
 (c) " He comes here to write his letters." 
 Here to write is the gerundial inllnitive; 
 it is in the dative case ; and the O.E. 
 form was In v-ritunne. Here the to lias 
 a distinct meaning. This i-i the so- 
 called "infliutive of purpose; ' but it Is 
 a true gerunJ. In the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, wlien tlie sense of the to was weak- 
 ened, it took a /u", — " Wh'it went ye out 
 
 I for to sec?" 
 
 r 
 
 (iii) The following three words in iny have each a .special function : — 
 («) He is reading about the passing of Arthur (verbal noun). 
 (h) And Art'.ar, passinr/ thence (par^ "iple), rode U) the wood, 
 'c) This is only good for pnnsinf/ the ..ae (gerund. 
 
 II If^ 
 
 18. A Participle is a verbal adjective. Tliere arc two par- 
 ticiples : the Present Active and the Perfect Passive. The 
 former (i) has two functions : that of an adjective and tliat 
 of a verb. The latter (ii) has only the function of an adjective. 
 
 (i) " Hearintr the noise, the porter ran to t.lie i^ate," In this sentence 
 hearing is an adjective tiualifyingj)7or<cr, and a verb governing noise. 
 (ii) Defeated and discouraged, the enemy surrendered. 
 
 t^ 1. We must he very careful to distinguish between (n) the gerund in 
 ing, and (6) the participle iu ing. Thus running iu a " running stream " 
 
TiiK vi;i;». 
 
 41 
 
 is (lu ftdjcutive, ami thcrefuro ft luirtiLiiilo. In the iihraso, " in luiming 
 iilong," it is ft uouii, iind tlieret'uio u guruiul. .Milton sny« — 
 
 " Ami I'ViT, nKiiiii«t cutiiij,' ciiri's, 
 Lap nil' ill soft l-Viliaii airs 1 " 
 
 Hero rutin;/ is (in uiljcLlivo, uiiil mviui^ fiullliifj ; and it is tliorcforo » 
 [iftrticiiilu. Hut it' it hud meant aires ahout vatiivj, lutiu'j would have 
 been a noun, and tliereforo n gerund. So a jinhituj rud is not a rod 
 that fishes ; a frijbuj-pnn Uxwl i\, jmn that fries ; a walkimj-stick i» not 
 a stich th'it valks. The mil is a rail fir fish itir/ ; tlic ]n\n, i\ pfin fur 
 frijin'j ; tlio stick, a stick fir walkitnj ; and therefore fishiwj, frijiwj, 
 and wnlkiii'j are all gerunds. 
 
 2. The word purticiplc comes from I. at. particlpdrc, to t)artalce of. 
 The partiuijilo fartakvs of the nature uf the verlj. (Hence also par- 
 ticipate.) 
 
 Tensk. 
 
 19. Tense i.s Ww form M-liich the vorl) takes to imlicato time. 
 
 Tlii'i'c are, in Inuiian life, tliree times : past, present, and 
 
 future. Hence there are in a verl) three chief tenses : Past, 
 
 Present, anil Future. These may lie represented on a 
 
 straight line : — 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 ■ ' n 
 
 Fast. 
 I wrote. 
 
 Present. 
 
 I write. 
 
 Future. 
 I shall write. 
 
 (i) The word tense comes i i us from tlie French tempis, which is from 
 the Lat. tcmpus, time. Henoo also temporal, tempiorary, etc. (The modern 
 French word is temp the old French word .vas tens.) 
 
 20. The tenses of an English verh give not only the time of 
 an action or event, l)ut also the state or condition "f that 
 action or event. This state may he complete or incomplete, 
 or neither — that is, it is left indefinite. These states are 
 ofteuer ciUed pei'fect, imperfect, and indefinite. The eon- 
 dition, then, of an action as expressed hy a verh, or the con- 
 dition of the tense of a verb, may be of three kinds. It may 
 
 (i) Complete or Perfect, as "Written. 
 
 (ii) Incomplete or Imperfect, as "Writing, 
 (iii) Indefinite, as Write. 
 
li 
 
 42 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 We now have therefore — 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 I 
 
 Past. 
 
 I i I 
 
 Perfect. Indef. Imjxrf. 
 
 Had Wrote. Was 
 
 written. writing. 
 
 Present. 
 
 I 
 
 Future. 
 
 I I I 
 
 Perfect. Indef. Imperf. 
 
 Have Write. Am 
 
 written. writing. 
 
 Perfect. Indef. Impcrf. 
 
 Sliall Sliall Sliall lie 
 
 )iave write, writing. 
 
 written. 
 
 (i) The only tense in our language that is formed by inflexion is the 
 past indefinite. All the others are formed by the aid of auxiliaries. 
 
 (a) The imperfect tenses are formed by be + the imperfect 
 
 participle. 
 {h) The perfect tenses are formed by have + the perfect par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 (ii) Besides had written, have written, and will have written, we can say 
 had been ^oriting, have been writimj, and will have been writing. These 
 are sometimes called Pact Perfect (or Pluperfect) Continuous, Perfect 
 Continuous, and Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 (iii) " I do write," " I did write," are called Emphatic forms. 
 
 XUMBER. 
 
 21. Verbs are modified for Number. There are in verbs 
 two numbers : (i) the Singular and (ii) the Plural. 
 
 (i) We say, " He writes " (with the ending s). 
 
 (ii) We say, " They write " (with no inflectional ending at all). 
 
 Person. 
 
 22. Verbs are modified for Person— that is, the form of the 
 verb is changed to suit (i) tlie first person, (ii) the second 
 person, or (iii) the third person. 
 
 (i)" I write." (ii) "Thou writest." (iii) " He writes." 
 
 Conjugation. 
 
 23. Conjugation is the name given to the sum-total of all the 
 infie.xions and combinations of tlie parts of a verb. 
 
 The word conjugate comes from the Lat. conjugare, to bind together. 
 
 1 1 
 
 I 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 43 
 
 all be 
 ■itiiig. 
 
 8 the 
 rfect 
 par- 
 
 1 say 
 ?hese 
 rfect 
 
 erbs 
 
 tlie 
 3nd 
 
 the 
 
 24. There are two conjugations in English — the Strong ami 
 the Weak. Hence we have : (i) verbs of the Strong Con- 
 jugation, and (ii) verbs of the Weak Conjugation, which 
 are more usually called Strong Verbs and Weak Verbs. 
 These verbs are distinguished from each other by their way 
 of forming their past tenses. 
 
 25. The past tense of any verb determines to which of these 
 classes it belongs ; and that by a twofold test — one positive and 
 one negative. 
 
 26. (i) The positive test for the past of a Strong Verb 
 is that it changes the vowel of the present, (ii) The nega- 
 tive test is that it never adds anything to the present to make 
 its past tense. 
 
 (i) Thus we say write, wrote, and change tlie vowel. 
 (ii) But in wrote there is nothing added to write. 
 
 27. (i) The positive test for the past tense of a Weak Verb 
 
 is that d or t is added to the present, (ii) The negative test is 
 
 that the root-vowel of the present is generally not changed. 
 
 (i) There are some exceptions to this latter statement. Thus tell, 
 told ; buy, bought ; sell, sold, are weak verbs. The change in the vowel 
 does not spring from the same cause as the change in strong verba. 
 Hence — 
 
 (ii) It is as well to keep entirely to the positive test in the case of 
 weak verbs. However "strong" or "irregular" may seem to be the 
 verbs teach, taught ; seek, sought ; say, said, we kno^u that they are 
 weak, because they add a d or a t for the past tense. 
 
 (iii) In many weak verbs there seems to be both a change of vowel 
 and also an absence of any addition. Hence they look very like strong 
 verbs. In fact, the long vowel of the present is made short in the past. 
 Thus we find meet, met ; feed, fed. But these verbs are not strong. 
 The old past was mette and fedde ; and all that has happened is that 
 they have lost the old inflexions te and de. It was owing to the addi- 
 tion of another syllable that the original long vowel of the verb was 
 shortened. Comp&re nation, national ; vain, van it i/. 
 
 (iv) The past or passive partici{)le of strong verbs had the suffix en 
 and the prefix ge. Tlie suttix has now disappeared from many strong 
 verbs, and the prefix from all. But fje, which in Chaucer's time had 
 been refined into a ?/ (as in yeomen, yronnen), is retained still in tliat 
 form in the one word yclept. Milton's use of it in star-y -pointing is a 
 mistake. 
 
 11 
 
 ! )|U 
 
 < M 
 
 i 
 
 w.\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 H i 
 
u 
 
 ! 
 
 44 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE EXGLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 28. The following is an 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LLST OF STRONG VERBS. 
 
 (All strong verbs except those which have a, jn-cji.c are mouo.^yllabic.) 
 
 The forms in italics arc iccalc. 
 
 Prcs. 
 Abide 
 Arise 
 Awake 
 
 Bear 
 
 Past. 
 abode 
 arose 
 awoke 
 
 {uivaked) 
 bore 
 
 (bring forth) 
 Bear bore 
 
 (carry) 
 Beat 
 
 Begin 
 Behold 
 
 Bid 
 
 Bind 
 
 Bite 
 
 Blow 
 
 Break 
 
 Burst 
 
 Chi.le 
 
 Choose 
 Cleave 
 
 (split) 
 Climb 
 Cling 
 Come 
 Crow- 
 Dig 
 Do 
 Draw 
 D::jk 
 
 Drive 
 
 Eat 
 
 Fall 
 
 Fight 
 
 Find 
 
 Fling 
 
 beat 
 
 began 
 
 beheld 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 bound 
 
 bit 
 
 blew 
 
 broke 
 
 burst 
 
 chid 
 
 chose 
 clove 
 
 clomb 
 clung 
 came 
 crew 
 
 dug 
 did 
 drew 
 drank 
 
 drove 
 
 ate 
 
 fell 
 
 fought 
 
 found 
 
 flung 
 
 Pass. Part. 
 abode, 
 arisen, 
 awoke 
 
 {awahcd). 
 boru. 
 
 borne. 
 
 beaten. 
 
 begun. 
 
 beheld (be- 
 holden). 
 
 bidden, bid. 
 
 bound. 
 
 bitten, bit. 
 
 blown. 
 
 broken. 
 
 burst. 
 
 chidden, 
 chid. 
 
 chosen. 
 
 cloven. 
 
 (climbed). 
 clung, 
 come, 
 crown 
 
 (cro2i.rd). 
 dug. 
 done, 
 drawn, 
 drunk, 
 
 drunken, 
 driven. 
 euU'u. 
 fallen, 
 fouglit. 
 found, 
 flung. 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Fly 
 
 Forbear 
 
 Forget 
 
 Forsake 
 
 Freeze 
 
 Get 
 
 Give 
 
 Go 
 
 Grind 
 
 Grow 
 
 Hang 
 
 Hold 
 
 Know 
 
 Lie 
 
 Ride 
 
 Ring 
 
 Rise 
 
 Run 
 
 See 
 
 Seethe 
 
 Shake 
 
 Shine 
 
 Shoot 
 
 Shrink 
 
 Sing 
 
 Sink 
 
 Sit 
 
 Slay 
 
 Slide 
 
 Sling 
 
 Slink 
 
 Smite 
 
 Speak 
 
 Spin 
 
 Spring 
 
 Stand" 
 
 Stave 
 
 Pa^t. 
 
 flew 
 
 forbore 
 
 forgot 
 
 forsouk 
 
 froze 
 
 got 
 
 gave 
 
 v:cnt 
 
 ground 
 
 grew 
 
 hung 
 
 Qiaivjcd) 
 held 
 knew 
 lay 
 rode 
 rang 
 rose 
 ran 
 
 saw seen. 
 
 fiO(\( seethed) sodden. 
 
 Pass. Part, 
 flown. 
 forliorHe. 
 forgotten, 
 forsaken, 
 frozen, 
 got, gotten. 
 given, 
 gone, 
 ground, 
 grown, 
 hung, 
 
 hanged. 
 held, 
 known, 
 lain. 
 I'idden. 
 rung, 
 risen, 
 run. 
 
 shook 
 
 shone 
 
 .shot 
 
 shrank 
 
 sang 
 
 sank 
 
 sat 
 
 slew 
 
 sli.l 
 
 slung 
 
 slunk 
 
 smote 
 
 spoke 
 
 spun 
 
 sprung 
 
 stood 
 
 stove 
 
 shaken. 
 
 shone. 
 
 shot. 
 
 shrunk. 
 
 sung. 
 
 sunk, 
 
 sunken, 
 sat. 
 slain, 
 slid, 
 slung. 
 slunk, 
 smitten, 
 spoken. 
 spun, 
 sprung, 
 stood. 
 staved. 
 
 ■ 
 
 ' 
 
Ijic) 
 
 Part. 
 
 •He. 
 
 ten. 
 en. 
 
 stten. 
 
 led. 
 
 
 
 THE 
 
 A-ERB, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pass. Part. 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 Pass. Part 
 
 Steal 
 
 i5tole 
 
 stolen. 
 
 Thrive 
 
 throve 
 
 
 thriven 
 
 Stick 
 
 stuck,! 
 
 stuck. 
 
 
 [thrived) 
 
 (thrived). 
 
 Sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung. 
 
 Throw 
 
 tlirew 
 
 
 tlirown. 
 
 Stink 
 
 stank 
 
 stunk. 
 
 Tread 
 
 trod 
 
 
 trodden, 
 
 Stride 
 
 strode 
 
 stridden. 
 
 
 
 
 tr.id. 
 
 Strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck. 
 
 AVake 
 
 woke 
 
 
 {waked). 
 
 String 
 
 strung 
 
 strung. 
 
 
 (u-al- 
 
 ^d) 
 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 .striven. 
 
 Wear 
 
 wore 
 
 
 worn. 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn. 
 
 Weave 
 
 wove 
 
 
 W(ivon. 
 
 Swim 
 
 swam 
 
 swum. 
 
 Win 
 
 won 
 
 
 won. 
 
 Swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung. 
 
 Wind 
 
 wound 
 
 
 wound. 
 
 Take 
 
 took 
 
 taken. 
 
 Wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn. 
 
 Write 
 
 wrote 
 
 
 written. 
 
 It is ■well for th . ' v.ng learner to examine the ahove verbs 
 clo.sely, and to m " ■ classifieatiou of them for his own use. 
 The following are a few suggestions towards this task : — 
 
 (i) Collect verbs with vowels a, e, a ; like fall, fell, fallen, 
 
 (ii) Verbs with 0, e, o ; like throw, threw, thrown, 
 
 (iii) Verbs with 1, a, u ; like begin, began, begun, 
 
 (iv) Verbs with 1, u, u ; like fling. Hung, flung. 
 
 (v) Verbs with 1, ou, ou ; like find, found, found. 
 
 (vi) Verbs with ea, o, O ; like break, lu-oke, broken, 
 
 (vii) Verbs with 1, a, i ; like give, gave, given, 
 
 (viii) Verbs with a, o or oo, a ; like shake, shook, shaken, 
 
 (ix) Verbs with i (long), o, 1 (short) ; like drive, drove, driven. 
 
 (x) Verbs with ee or 00, o, ; like freeze, froze, frozen ; or choose, 
 chose, chosen. 
 
 29. Weak Verbs are of two kinds : (i) Irregular Weak ; 
 and (ii) Regular Weak. The Irregular AVeak are such verh^^ 
 as tell, told; buy, bought. The Regular Weak are sucli 
 verbs as attend, attended ; obey, obeyed. 
 
 (i) The Irregular Weak verbs are, with very few exceptions, mono- 
 syllables, and are almost all of purely English origin. 
 
 (ii) The Regular Weak verbs are entirely of I.utin or of French origin. 
 Since tlie language lost the power of changing tlio ivHit-vowel of a vei'b, 
 every verb received into our tongue from another language ha.s been 
 placed in the Regular Weak conjugation. 
 
 ^ Tlie past tenses of di>/ and stick wore formerly v:eak ; so were the pas. 
 sive participles of hidcg rot, show, strew, saiu. 
 
 ml 
 
 •'r 
 
 .1' 
 
 t 
 
 1 2 •< i 
 
 ': ; l! 
 
 If!! 
 
46 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 JM 
 
 (iii) The efi 
 love did. 
 
 •r d i. a sliortened form of did. Thu«, I loved is = I 
 
 which ™ „„„ ,,^2\ 'Zllt 17' <"^ "" """ '""• '•»"• 
 
 eh",.::°i"'" «■■"" -l™-'"- to attend to th» toUowin, 
 
 the ,.« tase, it is tl,e'pre"„ 2' ■ J"'- "»■«'"• ""t it is .„ 
 wprsMt. tl„ . i„ ,„,,, /"""" ""' '"■ '"««"'■ Thus the m Md 
 
 (vi) A largo class liave the tlirPP ,,n,.+=. 
 particzple-exactly alike. Such arrlKretr"'' ""'*' '"'^ P"'''"' 
 Tlie following is an 
 
 Prcs. 
 Bereave 
 Beseech 
 Bring 
 Bum 
 Buy 
 Catch 
 Cleave 
 
 (split) 
 Creep 
 Deal 
 Dream 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAK WEAK 
 
 Class I. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Past. 
 
 bereft 
 
 besought 
 
 brought 
 
 burnt 
 
 bought 
 
 cauglit 
 
 cleft 
 
 crept 
 dealt 
 dreamt 
 
 Pass. Part 
 
 bereft. 
 
 besought. 
 
 brought. 
 
 burnt. 
 
 bought. 
 
 caught. 
 
 cleft. 
 
 crej;t. 
 dealt, 
 dreamt. 
 
 Past. 
 
 dwelt 
 
 Telt 
 
 fled 
 
 graved 
 
 had 
 
 hewed 
 
 hid 
 
 kept 
 
 knelt 
 
 laid 
 
 leant 
 
 Pasc. Part. 
 
 dwelt. 
 
 felt. 
 
 fled. 
 
 graven. 
 
 had. 
 
 hewn. 
 
 hidden. 
 
 kept. 
 
 knelt. 
 
 laid. 
 
 leant. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 47 
 
 Past. 
 learnt 
 leapt 
 left 
 lost 
 made 
 meant 
 jiaid 
 pent 
 
 (penned) 
 rapt 
 
 Pres. 
 Learn 
 Leaj) 
 Leave 
 Lose 
 Make 
 Mean 
 Pay 
 Pen 
 
 Rap (to 
 
 transport) 
 Rive rived 
 
 Rot rotted 
 
 Say said 
 
 Saw sawed 
 
 Seek fiouglit 
 
 Sell sold 
 
 Shave shaved 
 
 ^ Rotten, tight, and wrought 
 
 passive participles : cp. wrought 
 
 Pass Part. 
 
 learnt. 
 
 leapt. 
 
 left. 
 
 lost. 
 
 made. 
 
 meant. 
 
 paid. 
 
 pent. 
 
 rapt. 
 
 riven. 
 
 rotten.' 
 
 said. 
 
 sawn. 
 
 sought, 
 
 sold. 
 
 shaven. 
 
 Pres. 
 Shear 
 Slioe 
 Show 
 Sleep 
 Sow 
 Spell 
 Spill 
 Strew 
 Sweep 
 Swell 
 Teach 
 Tell 
 Think 
 Tie 
 AVeep 
 AVork 
 
 Past. 
 
 sheared 
 
 shod 
 
 showed 
 
 slei)t 
 
 sowed 
 
 spelt 
 
 spilt 
 
 strewed 
 
 swept 
 
 swelled 
 
 tauglit 
 
 told 
 
 thouglit 
 
 tied 
 
 wept 
 
 wrought 
 
 worked 
 
 Pass. Pari. 
 
 sliorn. 
 
 shod. 
 
 shown. 
 
 slept. 
 
 sown. 
 
 spelt. 
 
 .si)ilt. 
 
 strewn. 
 
 swept. 
 
 swollen. 
 
 tauglit. 
 
 told. 
 
 thought. 
 
 tight. 1 
 
 wept. 
 
 wrought.' 
 
 worked. 
 
 are now used as adjectives, and not as 
 n-on, a tight knot, roUen wood. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Bend 
 
 Bleed 
 
 Blend 
 
 Breed 
 
 Build 
 
 Cast 
 
 Clothe 
 
 Cost 
 Cut 
 Feed- 
 Gild 
 
 Gird 
 
 Hear 
 
 Hit 
 
 Hurt 
 
 Knit 
 
 Lead 
 
 Lend 
 
 Let 
 
 Light 
 
 Past. 
 bent 
 bled 
 blent 
 bred 
 built 
 cast 
 clad 
 
 Class 
 Pass. Part. 
 bent, 
 bled, 
 blent, 
 bred, 
 built, 
 cast. 
 clad 
 
 IL 
 
 (clothed) (clothed). 
 
 cost 
 cut 
 fed 
 gilt 
 
 (gilded) 
 girt 
 heard 
 hit 
 hurt 
 knit 
 led 
 
 ICilt 
 
 let 
 
 cost. 
 
 cut 
 
 fed. 
 
 gilt (gilded). 
 
 girt. 
 
 heard. 
 
 hit. 
 
 hurt. 
 
 knit. 
 
 led. 
 
 lent. 
 
 let. 
 
 lit (lightedHit (lighted). 
 
 Pres. 
 Meet 
 Put 
 Read 
 Rend 
 Rid 
 Send 
 Set 
 Shed 
 Slired 
 Shut 
 Slit 
 Speed 
 Spend 
 Spit 
 Split 
 Sjiread 
 Swfi.at 
 Tlirust 
 Wend 
 
 Wet 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pass. Part 
 
 met 
 
 met. 
 
 put 
 
 put. 
 
 read 
 
 read. 
 
 rent 
 
 rent. 
 
 rid 
 
 rid. 
 
 sent 
 
 sent. 
 
 set 
 
 set. 
 
 shed 
 
 shed. 
 
 shred 
 
 shrecL 
 
 shut 
 
 shut. 
 
 slit 
 
 slit. 
 
 sped 
 
 spe<l. 
 
 spent 
 
 spent. 
 
 spit 
 
 spit. 
 
 split 
 
 split. 
 
 spread 
 
 spread. 
 
 sv.cat 
 
 sweat. 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust. 
 
 wended 
 
 wended. 
 
 or went 
 
 
 wet 
 
 wet. 
 
 I'i'i 
 
 lihd 
 
 '^1 ui 
 
 till 
 
 41 
 
 
 u 
 
 \%\t 
 
 '!■• '" 
 
It 
 
 
 
 ii I J 
 
 48 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 31. Before we can leani the full conjugation of a verb, avg 
 must acquaint ourselves ^yhh all tlu. j.arts of the auxiliary 
 vsrbs— Shrll and Will : Have and Be. 
 
 (i) It be mean, existence merely (as in the sentence God is), it is 
 called a notional verb; if it i,s used in the f.rn.ation of tlie passive 
 v.uoe, .t ..s an auxiliary verb. In the san.e way, have is a notional 
 verb when it means to possess, as i„ the sentence, " I have a sliilling." 
 
 32. The following are the parts of the verb Shall :— 
 
 Sinr/ular, 
 
 1. I shall 
 
 2. Tliou shal-t. 
 
 3. Hesha'I. 
 
 Siivjular. 
 
 1. I slioul-rf. 
 
 2. Thou shoul-rf-st 
 
 3. Heshoul-f/. 
 
 I.N'DiCATiVE Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Imp. Mood 
 
 Inf. Mood 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall. 
 
 2. You sliall. 
 
 3. They.« .dl. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shoul-c7. 
 
 2. You slioul-f/. 
 
 3. Tlioy shoul-(/. 
 
 — . Participles 
 
 (Should comes from an old dialectic form shol.) 
 33. Tlie following are the parts of the verb Will :— 
 
 Singular. 
 I will. 
 Tliou wil-t. 
 He will. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I would-rf. 
 
 2. Thou would-f^st. 
 
 3. He woul-(/. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We will. 
 
 2. You will. 
 
 3. They will. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. Wo would-rf. 
 
 2. You woulf/. 
 
 3. They woul-d 
 
 I.MP. M 
 
 iiOU 
 
 Ixp. Mood . Participles 
 
 (i) ShaU and will are used as Tense-auxlllaries. As a tense-auxiliary 
 shall ,s used only in tlie first person. Thus we say, I shall write 
 tliou wUt write ; he will write-wlien we speak merely of future time ' 
 
I 
 
 THE vEnn. 
 
 49 
 
 ..f'2/f'' w!fi7''? T'- W°'^'*'^ = -l'-^«-^,ei„g an older fur.n 
 <-t ^tin. A\ e find vM also m «v.;,/c-an .Jd spelling of uvuld. 
 
 (iii) Shall in the l^t person expresses simple futurity; in the 2d and 
 
 i ; r'oT'' T'?'"f • "^"^ '" ''^^ '^* I'^'-'^'^" ^•^l"'^---^ determination ; 
 Ki tlie 2d and 3il, only futurity. 
 
 34. TJie following aro tlio parts of tlio verb Have :-^ 
 
 Sinfjuhr. 
 
 1. I iiave. 
 
 2. Tliou ha-Bt. 
 
 3. He lia-s. 
 
 Indicative Moon. 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I'luml 
 
 1. Wo have. 
 
 2. You have. 
 
 3. They have. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. I have had. .. ^Ve have had. 
 
 ■-. 1 hou liast had. 2. You have had. 
 
 "• "° •'''^■'^ '"^^1- 3. They have had. 
 
 (i) Hast = liavest. Compare cVu and cir/i. 
 
 (ii) Had=haved. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 'Sitiffular. p;„^„;_ 
 
 VJ^^^- 1. We had. 
 
 -. Ihou had-st. 2. You had. 
 
 ^- ^^^ h''*'^- 3 They had. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Tense. 
 
 Sinr/ular. 
 
 1. I had had. 
 
 2. Tliou hadst had. 
 
 3. He had had. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had had. 
 
 2. You had had. 
 
 3. They had had 
 
 Future Indefinite Tense. 
 Singular. pi,^,.^^^ 
 
 I shall have. 
 Thou wilt have 
 He will have. 
 
 1 
 
 A\'e shall have. 
 
 2. You will have. 
 
 3. Tliey ^^•ill have. 
 
 Sinrjula 
 1 . I shall have had. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have had. 
 
 3. He will have had. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 1. We shall have liad. 
 
 2. You will have had. 
 
 3. They will have had. 
 
 ;if 
 
 If 
 
 """1! 
 
 1 '1 
 
 If 
 
v. w 
 
 BO GRAMMAR OF THE ExXGLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 SuBJUNCTiVK Mood. 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Sinfjular. Plural. 
 
 ^- I '^'^^'e- 1. We have. 
 
 2. Thou have. 2. You have. 
 
 3- He ''"^e. 3. The^ have. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sinrjular. pi^^^j 
 
 1. I have had. ]. ^Ve have had. 
 
 2. Thou liave had. 2. You have had. 
 
 3. He have liad. 3. They have had. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Same hi form as in the Indicative ; but v th no inflexion in the 
 second person. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 Same in form as in the Indicative ; but with no inflexion in tlie 
 second person. 
 
 Sinr)ulnr. 
 
 1. I had. 
 
 2. Tliou had. 
 
 3. He had. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. We liad. 
 
 2. You had. 
 
 3. They had. 
 
 Past Perfect (Plunerfect) Tense 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had had. 
 
 2. Thou had liad. 
 
 3. He had had. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We liad had. 
 
 2. You had had. 
 
 3. They had had. 
 
 Plural : Have ! 
 
 i 
 
 Imperative Uood.— Singular : Have ! 
 Infinitive Mood. -Present Indefinite : (To) have. Perfect : (To) have had, 
 Pakticiples.— Imperfect : Having. Past (or Passive) : Had. 
 Compound Perfect (Active) : Having had. 
 
 35. The foUoAving are the parts of the verb Be :— 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Indefinite Tens©. 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 2. Thouar-t. 
 
 3. He is. 
 
 1. AVe are. 
 
 2. You are. 
 
 3. They are. 
 
THE A'ERB. 
 
 51 
 
 9 
 
 n in the 
 
 11 in tlie 
 
 Present Perfect Tenae. 
 
 Singular. p^^^ ^ 
 
 1. I have been. i «• i ,' 
 
 o rp, , ^ , 1- "ehave been. 
 
 -2. 1 hou hast been. 9 v ■■ i i 
 
 Q „ , , ^- 1 "u have been. 
 
 0. He has been. q ti „ i i 
 
 ti. They have been. 
 
 Past Inaeflnlte Tense. 
 Singular. pi^.^i 
 
 1. i was. 1 11- 
 n mi 1. We were. 
 
 2. Thou wast or wert. 2. You were, 
 o. Jie was. n m, 
 
 •5. lliey were. 
 
 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense 
 ,f7"^'"-- Pluml 
 
 J,^^^'^';"- 1. Wehmlbeen. 
 
 1 hou had.st been. 2. You had been. 
 
 "^ ''"'^ '^°'^"- 3. Th^y had been. 
 
 ^*Tshllf r"; ^'"''- '"*"" P«^^««t Tense. 
 
 ^''^''"^^'^t'^- I. shall have been, etc. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 I 
 
 ' ■ li 
 
 I. 
 
 d. 
 ^d. 
 
 ave had. 
 1. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I be. 
 
 2. Thou be. 
 
 3. Hebe. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Singular. 
 I have been. 
 Thou have been. 
 He have been. 
 
 SuBJuxcTiVE Mood. 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 1. We be. 
 -• You be. 
 3. They be. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 AVe have been. 
 
 2. You have been. 
 
 3. They have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 , 1. I were. 
 
 2. Thou wert. 
 
 3. He were. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had been. 
 
 2. Thou had been. 
 He had been. 
 
 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. 
 
 3. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had been. 
 
 2. You liad been, 
 
 3. They had been. 
 
 
 if" 
 
 
 I' in 
 
62 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 i* I 
 
 Fast Indefinite (Compound Form). 
 
 Sh\r/ul(ir, I'iural. 
 
 1. I should be. 
 
 2. Thou sliould be. 
 
 3. He should be. 
 
 1. We filiould be, 
 
 2. You should be. 
 
 3. They should be. 
 
 Future Perfect (Compound Form). 
 
 Sitiyular. Plural. 
 
 1. I should have been. 
 
 2. Thou should have been 
 
 3. He should have been. 
 
 1. "We should have been. 
 
 2. You should Iiave lieeu. 
 
 3. They should have been. 
 
 Lmi'Erative Mood. — Singular: Be! Plural: ]?e ! 
 
 Infinitive :\Iood.— Present Indefinite : (To) be. Present Perfect : 
 
 (To) have been. 
 
 Participles.— Present : Being. Past : Been. Compound : Having beeu. 
 We find the sliort simple form Be ! in Culeridgo's line — 
 
 '■ Be, ratlier tluin be c.illed, a child of God ! " 
 
 (i) It is i^lain from the above tliat the verb Be is made up of fragments 
 of three different verbs. As when, in a battle, several companies of a 
 regiment have been severely cut up, and the fragments of those that 
 came out safely are afterwards formed into one company, so lias it licen 
 with the verb be. Hence the verb ought to be printed thus : — 
 Am 
 
 was 
 
 been. 
 
 (ii) Am is a different verb from was and been. The m in am is the 
 same as the m in me, and marl;" the first person. The t in art is the 
 same as the th in thou, and marks the second person. Compare Wi7-t 
 and shal-i. Is lias lost the suffix th. The Germans retain this, and say 
 ist. Are is not the O.E. plural, which was sind or sindon. The word 
 are was introduced by the Danes. [The Danish word to this day is er, 
 which we have learned to pronounce ar, as we do the cr in clerk and 
 Derby. ] 
 
 (iii) Was is the past tense of the old verb wesan, to be. In some of 
 the dialects of England it appears as war — the German form. 
 
 (iv) Be is a verb without present or past tense. 
 
 (v) (a) Be is a notional or principal verb wlien it means to a-ist, as 
 " God is." (/,) It is also a principal verb when it is used as a joiner or 
 copula, as in the sentence, " John is a teacher," where the is enables us 
 to connect John and teacher in the mind. In such instances it is called 
 a Copulative Verb or Copula- 
 
 
 
TIIK VEIIC. 
 
 53 
 
 AUXILIARY VEIfBS. 
 36. Auxiliary Verbs are A'crbs wl.ich are used to mo.lifv 
 ho sense of other verbs or to assist them in express ng a 
 
 Auxihary Verbs may be classified as Auxiliaries of Voice 
 of Tense, of Mood, and of Form. 
 
 and It IS used to enable ,h to form the Passive \'oice. 
 
 Acn-re Voir,. y.„,,,,,;,,^ ,.^^^.^,^_ 
 
 Theylnudaship. The shi,, /.v In.ilt. 
 
 He reared a monu.nent. A .no.u.n.ent .■«. reared 
 
 (b) Auxiliaries of Tense. Th.. Tense Auxiliaries, in the 
 order of then- importance, are Have, shall, will, and be 
 
 (I) Have is used to f.,rm the Perfect Tenses- (a) Present 
 (b; Past, and (c) Future Perfect. 
 
 (a) He ha, been, (b) They had gone, (c) She will hare returned, 
 (u) Shall and will are used to form the Future Tense. 
 
 The l)oy ,r;il go. I ,,;,„^; ^^^^^^,^ 
 
 tl,^,J" °'l^ f '^'"''' ^'"'■' ''■■^' "" '^P'"'"'^^" ^""" ^"'' t'>e future tense; 
 the present ten.se was made to do duty for the future, an X.lverb 
 sometimes assisting the process. This usage still survives in sueh 
 
 mtri t";.'''v f ;"" to..„orrow." where a futur. meaning t 
 impaite, to the ^oib by tlie Adverb. Shall and will, originally 
 principal verbs only, gradually crept into use as tense-auxiliarfes! ^ 
 Be is used optionally with Have, to form the Perfect 
 Tenses of Intransitive Verbs of motion, as go, come, rise, fall, 
 arrive, depart, ascend, descend, pass, escape, return, enter. 
 He i, arrived (Present Perfect). He ,ras gone (Past Perfect). 
 
 (c) Auxiliaries of Mood. The Auxiliaries of the Subjunc- 
 sWd ''' ""^^ ^"' ''' P'"'*^ ^"''' '^'^^^^' ^°^^^' and 
 
 ^ L-xampIes of the uses of these are given on pages 53(c) and 
 
 ^ Let, though sometimes regarded as an Auxiliary of the 
 Imperative Mood (tliird person), is better taken as a Principal Verb. 
 
 •f.'. 
 
 M 
 
 '■'■ i 
 
 if 
 
63Ca) GRAMMAR OF IIIE ENTiLISH LANGUAGK. 
 
 (d) Auxiliaries of Form, Be d. 
 
 (i) Be is !iii auxiliary of tiie Progressive Form of the pre- 
 sent, the past, and the future tenses. 
 
 I am going is the progressive form of I go. 
 
 He was wilting ,, ,, ,, He wrote, 
 
 James will be starting ,, ,, ,, Jam<;8 will start 
 
 (ii) Do, as an au.viiiary, may bo employoil to assist in 
 expressing ; 
 
 (n) I']niphaais. He docs know lii.s work. 
 
 {h) Interrogation. X'o you see ? 
 ('■) Negation. I f/o not see it. 
 
 W In llie first of tliese three sentences "does"lenils additional 
 force or emplmsis to the word know ; in tiie second and third 
 Bentonces it lends no emphasis, but is simply used to express the 
 more usual and idiomatic of two alternative forms. 
 In sense " Do you see ? " is the e.xact equivalent of " See you ? " 
 and " I do not see it " ,, ,, ,, " I seJ it not." 
 
 The alternative forms are quite correct in gramnuir ; but they are 
 not usual or idiomatic. 
 
 IfP 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 37. Defective Verbs are such as are wanting in one or more 
 of their parts. Most, if not all, of them were at one period 
 complete, but, through modification of their u.se or from some 
 other cause, part of the verb has fallen into disuse, and thus 
 gradually disappeared. The principal Defective Verbs are — 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Beware 
 
 Can 
 
 Forego - 
 
 Right 3 
 
 ^May 
 
 Melists'* 
 
 Meseems 
 
 Methinks 
 
 Pa'^l Ttme. 
 Could 1 
 
 Past Piirticiple. 
 
 Bight 
 Foreiiono 
 
 Hight 
 
 Might 
 
 Melisted 
 
 Meseemed 
 
 Methought 
 
 ' Could (ill O.E. cu-ttu) is a weak form. The 1 is intrusive, and came in 
 frnm a falso analogy v,-itli s/if/r/t? and vyyidd. 
 
 3 Tins ought to be spelled forgo. The for in this word is a prufi.\- of 
 negation, as in fotyct,/orffive, etc. 
 
 * Hight ( = is ur was called) is the only instance in our language of a pure 
 passive verb. ■» Him listed is also found. 
 
Present Taise, 
 
 Ought 
 
 8iiiill 
 Will 
 
 Wot(/»/. to wit) 2 
 
 Wort) I'' 
 
 THE VRRR. 
 
 P'l-t 2'tHie. 
 
 (,>uoth 
 Sliould 
 WoiiM 
 Wist 
 
 53(b) 
 Pa^f Pnrticij/le. 
 
 » c 
 
 lept 
 
 AXOMA LOT'S YhVm. 
 
 38. Anomalous Verbs arc such as are i; .de un of two or more 
 quito distinct ^'..rb.s. The Anomalous Verbs are Be and Go 
 
 (i) Be. This verb contains three distinct roots. The Pre- 
 sent Indicative is from the root as ; the Present Subjunctive. 
 Imperutive, Infinitive, an.l Participles are from the root be; 
 the last Indicative and Past Subjunctive are from the root 
 wesan (see ])age 52). 
 
 (n) Go. This verb contains two distinct roots. Tlie Present 
 ten,se ,s from the root go; the Past tense is from the root 
 wend, which is still occasionally used both in prose and verse. 
 
 the ordniary tests do not api)ly to them. 
 
 KE.AIAKKS OX PECULIAR VEKBS. 
 
 CAN, MUST. 
 
 _ 39. Can (or its j)ast tense Could) and Must arc always and 
 invariably Principal verbs. They are Principal Aerbs because 
 m every instance in which they are used, a distinct and inde- 
 pendent meaning of power, possibility, or obligation attaches to 
 them apart from the Infinitive Veil, which follows them. 
 I can run=:I hare the jyoiirr to run. 
 I could see at one time = I had the power to see etc 
 I could have gone if I had been present = I had th opportunity, etc. 
 He must depart = He is ohliyul or compelled to depart 
 
 They d.fler, liowever, from ordinary Verbs in this respect, viz : 
 that they can take only an Infinitive Verb as object after them • 
 they are never followed by a Xoun or Pronoun as object. 
 
 J,^r' iV-' °':'^""'">' ^""•^ i""*t tense of the old verb .notan ( = to be able 
 
 Swi°n rS' ,rVrT"'?'' '^■^^^--t^^isl't-etc. Mun takes the place 
 ^f must in the North of England and in Seatland. 
 
 = This verb has also a present participle witting, wluch is fouud in ^nltinnly 
 
 I'll' 
 
 ..r 
 
 |! 
 
 ,;,,„, 
 
 .il 
 
 t| 
 
 r . . 
 s' jji i 
 
 t M, li 
 
 hi 
 
 
W ' 
 
 tl j 
 
 ■I- 
 
 II' 
 
 53(c) GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 MAY, SHALL, WILL. 
 
 40. (i) May (with its past tenso might), shall (with its past 
 tense should), and will (with its pa^^t tense would) are some- 
 times Principal and sometimes Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 (a) May is a Principal Verb when it denotes 2)ermission. 
 
 The boys jnay go out to play ( =are allowed). 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive ^lood when it 
 denotes iinci-Ttainfij. 
 
 He may succeed, if he takes pains. 
 
 ^ (ii) Might is (a) a Principal Verb when it denotes permis- 
 sion or ahilitij. 
 
 She might liavc gone, but preferred to remain ( = She had the 
 power to go). 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood when it 
 denotes uncertainty. 
 
 I thought he m'ujht call. 
 
 (iii) Shall is (a) a Principal Verb when it denotes compul- 
 sion (or, occasionally, leave), and when used with the Second 
 and Third Persons. 
 
 You sliall depart. Rome shall perish. 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of Tense, and denotes s\n\Y>\\ futurity, 
 when used with the First Person. 
 
 I shall soon go. \\q ^.j^all remain. 
 
 (iv) Should is (a) a Principal VerV when it implies obligation. 
 Children should obey their parents. 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood when it 
 denotes uncertainty. 
 
 If he xhoidd appear (or Shoidd he appear), I will admit him. 
 
 (v) (a) Will is ,: Principal Verl), denoting volition or deter- 
 mination, when used with the First Person. 
 
 I xdll remove it. 
 
 ^T In some of these cases, however, it is to all intents and 
 purposes an auxiliary verl;., ^he idea of volition being aljsent, and the 
 word indicating nothing beyond mere futurity. The context usually 
 indicates the amount of force att.. .'hing to " will." 
 
 I 
 
■'H 
 
 h 
 
 THE VERB. 53(-(j) 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of Tense, simply denoting futuritu, 
 when used with ti.e Second and Third Persons. 
 You vi/l Keep this. They ^oll soon return. 
 
 (vi) (a) Would is a Princiijal Verb when it expresses deter- 
 mtnatioii. 
 
 He would go in spite of my entreaties. 
 _ (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood when it 
 implies uncniainfi/. 
 
 If ho applied himself more vigorously, ho 7could succeed. 
 
 m- Notice here that both verbs of this complex sentence n- ^ in 
 
 the Subjunctive Mood. "Would" is occasionally used practically 
 
 ?'^" v"': ''""l'^ "^ '^"''"'^ indicating a habitual repetition of the action. 
 
 His listless length at noontide tc-oukl he stretch," i e. was accusto7ned 
 
 to stretch. 
 
 OUGHT. 
 
 _ 41. (vii) Ought is an old preterite (or past tense) of owe. It 
 IS now used as a present, and it possesses the exceptional privi- 
 lege of being allowed to violate the sequence of tenses. The 
 past tense of any other verb when followed by an Infinitive 
 has to t..ke the Infinitive in the simple form, thus : 
 
 She wished to leave. 
 Ought, 1 ^wevcr, takes the Perfect Infinitive : 
 You ought to have yone. 
 The reason of this is that, since ought is no\/ a present form with 
 no past, we signify the past idea tlirough the medium of the 
 Infanite, instead of by the preceding verb, as is otherwise the 
 universal rule. 
 
 IMPERSOXAL VERBS. 
 42. Impersonal Verbs are such as have a non-personal sub- 
 ject. They may be divided into two classes. 
 
 (a) Old Impersonal Verbs, whose subject is a sentence 
 following the verb, and whose dative (or indirect) object is 
 attracted to the verb. 
 
 MetMnks he doth protest too much. 
 Meseems they have gone. 
 Melisteth they will follow. 
 
 <^ MeUata and meseems are practically obsolete, methinks is 
 obsolescent. 
 
 (b) yerb.s following a personal pronoun used in a purely 
 indefinite and impersonal sense. 
 
 It raim, it snows, etc. 
 In the above sentences, if it stands for anything, it stands for rain, 
 anoio, etc. " The rain rains." "The snow snows," etc. 
 
 
 ',« 
 
 'i 
 
 111 
 
 11 
 
 •i<i 
 
 I i 
 
 'i 
 
Pi 
 
 54 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 43. The following is the full conjugation of a verb : — 
 
 ACTIVE Y C) I C E. 
 IxuicATivB Mood. 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 I strike. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 I have struck, 
 
 11. Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I struck. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Tense. 
 I liad struck. 
 
 III. Future Indefinite Tense. 
 I shall strike. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 I shall have struck. 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. 
 I am striking. 
 
 Present Perfect Continuous. 
 
 I liave been striking. 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 
 [ was striking. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Continuous. 
 I had been strikhig. 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I sliall he striking. 
 
 Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 I shall have been striking. 
 
 Subjunctive ^rooD. 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he strike. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he I'ave struck. 
 
 II. Past IndefiM'te Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he struck. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Plupe oct) 
 Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he hail struck. 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he be striking. 
 
 Present Perfect Continuous. 
 (If) I, tliou, he have been striking. 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, lie were striking. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Continuous. 
 
 (If) I, thou, lie hiul been striking. 
 
 III. Future Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he sliould strike. 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he should liave struck. 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 (If ) I, thou, he should be striking. 
 Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he should liave been 
 striking. 
 
 f i,l?' ^if w, ^"iJ""":;!^^' ^^•''''» »°t preceded by a Conjunction, is some- 
 turrthe child ") °''^'*'°''*^ ^°°^- "I '^'''^'^ ^''•''^•^ '"•" if !'« were to 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 66 
 
 Impeuative Mood. 
 
 I. Present Tense. 
 
 Simjular. 2. Strike (thou) ! Plural. 2. Strike (ye) ! 
 
 II. Fast Tense. 
 
 (Xoiie.) 
 
 III. Future Tense. 
 
 2. Tliou shalt strike. 2. You aliall strike. 
 
 Infinitive ]\roon. 
 
 1. Fresent Indefinite, 
 
 2. Present Imperfect, 
 
 3. Present Perfect, . 
 
 4. Present Perfect Continuous, 
 6. Future Indefinite, 
 
 I'AIiTICirLE.S. 
 
 1. Indefinite and Imperfect, 
 
 2. Present Perfect, . 
 
 3. Perfect Continuous, 
 
 4. Future 
 
 (To) strike. 
 (To) be .striking. 
 (To) liave struck. 
 (To) liave been striking. 
 (To) be about to strike. 
 
 1. Striking. 
 
 Gerunds. 
 
 Striking. 
 Having struck. 
 Having been striking. 
 Going or about to strike. 
 
 2. To strike. 
 
 m 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative ]\Ioon. 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 I am struck. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 I liave been struck. 
 
 II. Past Indefijiite Tense, 
 I waa struck. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 I had been struck. 
 
 Ill, Future Indefinite Tense. 
 I sliall be struck. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 I shall have been struck. 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. 
 I am being struck. 
 
 Present Contiuaous. 
 I am being struck. 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I was being sb'uok. 
 
 Past Continuous. 
 
 I was being struck. 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 (Xone, ) 
 
 Future Continuous. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 n 
 
 ^H 
 
 m 
 
 'I 1:1 
 !■ Jil 
 
56 
 
 w " 
 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. Prn=«„+ t 
 
 Present Imperfect Tensb. 
 
 (If) I, thou, lie be struck. 
 
 Present Perfei-i; Tense. 
 (If) I, tliou, lie have been struck. 
 
 IL Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (If) I, tliou, he were struck. 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 (it) I had been struck. 
 
 III. Future Indefinite Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he should be struck. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. ^.^^ 
 
 (If) I, thou, he should have been (Xono . 
 struck. w>oin,.; 
 
 caStl^SSdS;:;r^^?'T*;P7;f 7 ^-etion, is sonieti.es 
 iwouai JHood. I should be struck were i to ^o there.") 
 
 Imperatzve IMood. 
 
 I. Present Tense. 
 Singular. 2. Be struck ! p/. 7 „ „ 
 
 J^itiral. 2, Be struck! 
 
 II. Past Tense. 
 
 (Xone.) 
 
 (None.) 
 
 Present Perfect Continuous. 
 (None. ) 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he were being struck. 
 
 Past Perfect Continuous. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 (None. ) 
 
 Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 m. Future Tense. 
 
 oinffttiar. 
 
 2. Thou Shalt be struck. 
 
 Plural. 
 2. You shall be struck. 
 
 1. Indefinite, 
 
 2. Imperfect, 
 
 3. Present Perfect, 
 
 1. Indefinite, 
 
 2. Imperfect, 
 
 3. Present Perfect, 
 
 4. Future, . 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 (To) be struck. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 (To) have been struck. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Struck. 
 
 Being struck. 
 
 Having been struck. 
 
 Going or about to be struck. 
 
 ii! 
 
 Gerunds. 
 
 (None.) 
 
ADVEKBS. 
 
 67 
 
 It! 
 
 it 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 1. An Adverb is a M-ord which goes witli r. verb, witli an 
 adjective, or witli another adverb, to modify its nicuiiing :— 
 
 (i) He writes badly. Here badly modifies the verb writes. 
 
 (ii) The weather is very hot. Here very modifies the adjective 
 hot. 
 
 (iii) She writes very rapidly. Here rapidly modifies writes, aud* 
 very, rapidly, 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 2. Adverbs— so far as their function is ooncorned— are of 
 two kinds : (i) Simple Adverbs and (ii) Conjunctive Adverbs, 
 (i) A Simple Adverb merely modifies the word it goes with. 
 A Conjunctive Adverb lias two functions: (a) it modifies, 
 and (/;) joins one sentence with another. Tluis, if I say " IIo 
 came Avhen he was ready," the adverl) when not only modifies 
 the verl) came, and shows the time ( f his coming, but it joins 
 together the two sentences " He came • wl " he was ready." 
 
 3. Adverbs— so far as their meaning is concerned— are of 
 several kinds. There are Adverbs : (i) of Time, (ii) of Place, 
 (iii) of Number, (iv) of Manner, (v) of Degree, (vi) of 
 Assertion, and (vii) of Reasoning :— 
 
 (i) Of Time : Now, theu ; to-da;- to-morrow ; by-and-by, etc. 
 
 (ii) Of Place : Here, there ; Iiither, thither ; hence, thence, etc. 
 
 (iii) Of Number : Once, twice, thrice ; singly, two 1,y two, etc. 
 
 (iv) Of Marnier : Well, ill ; slowly, quickly ; better, worse, etc. 
 
 (v) Of Degree : Very, little ; almost, quite ; all, half, etc. 
 
 (vi) Of Assertion : Xay, yea ; no, aye ; yes, etc. 
 
 (vii) Of Reasoning : Therefore, wherefore ; thus ; consequently. 
 
 THE COMPARISOX OP ADVERBS. 
 
 4. Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of degrees of comparison. 
 
 Thus we can say, John works hard ; Tom works harder ; but 
 William works hardest of all. 
 
 ! 
 
 
 ■ li 
 
 '/i^ 
 
 
 .1 
 
 i' 
 
 
 ik 
 
 ..h 
 
 
 "m i 
 
 
 'mm 
 
 % 
 
 -iH 
 
68 
 
 ill 
 
 
 «I'AMMAH OF 'um KXGLISl, LANGUAGE. 
 
 5. TJ^^'fuJluwiugaroc-xaiuiJc.sof 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Ill yor BiuUy) 
 
 M'ell 
 
 -Much 
 
 Xigli (o/- Xcar) 
 
 Fiirth 
 
 Far 
 
 Late 
 
 Compart: tive. 
 
 WliJ'.so 
 
 better 
 
 more 
 
 less 
 
 nearer 
 
 further 
 
 faruior 
 
 later 
 
 liitter 
 
 rather. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 l''!.st. 
 lljDst. 
 
 least. 
 
 next. 
 
 furthest. 
 
 fartliest. 
 
 last. 
 
 latest. 
 
 (Rathe) 
 
 <■•> Much i....,,erh .,..„.,,•■ ^'^^-1--'--- 
 
 ^•erb i„ the phrase rnich Utter. 
 
 ,.... _. " r'".ise 7,iuc/i Utter 
 
 ^-)L>t«e is an adverb fu the phrase /...;„,,;:,,, * 
 
 really tI,n,~"S;^;.:;^;i^ "'^ '"' ^'^" hext^highcst. Near is 
 
 and ' t^sT^tiirtu^; • ;\:;;x^^^ <.. f.„, 
 
 false analogy with forth, further, iurthes! '" ^''''' ™'"°-^ ^'•'"" ■■* 
 
 (vi) Late is an adverb in the phrase /A. :,,.;,,,,„,, 
 
 (' WeloianSnO ''^^' '^'"^""^^' "' ^'^ ti.ught."-Ten„y.on 
 
 CONNECTIVES. 
 
 (i) tliose M-l.ich ioin ^n. ^^°''''^^- -^'"^3' «i'o of two classes : 
 Preposition, ; „,„ «,„, Oonjunion, '■" """ °'° '""='' 
 
 PREPOSITIOXS. 
 
 (It «», .w. i,:'I.: :;;;^j;;;!*-- „., ..„.,, 
 
 ana an action, etc.) °'' '''' between , Hfng 
 
 (i) He stood on tlie table. Hprf. nn ,• • 
 
 • ^^""^ °° J""i8 a verb and a noun. 
 
 tl 
 
 SI 
 
 ail 
 
 tini 
 fur 
 
E. 
 
 CONNECTIVES. 
 
 59 
 
 perlative. 
 
 ■'St. 
 
 lost, 
 ast. 
 
 JXt. 
 
 irthest. 
 rtliest. 
 «t. 
 ;est. 
 
 U'art,r r. 
 
 Near is 
 
 lias farre, 
 'iiie.s fvinn i\ 
 
 -Ten 
 
 nysoii 
 
 may be 
 ' classes : 
 'v word ; 
 "e called 
 
 
 
 (ii) Mary is fond of music. Here of join.s an adjective and a noun. 
 
 (iii) The man at the door is \viiitinf<. Item at jt.in.s two nouns. 
 
 The wdv.l preposition cnmcs f.nn, ()„. r.iit. prn; },ri\Hr, and ;/..,s,7»,v, jilawl. 
 Wi! liavo sirniliu- coiMiHmn.ls in composition and tloposition. 
 
 3. Till' iiiMiu or priiiiouu uhicli f..ll,,\v.s tlir lavpositinn is in 
 the objective case, and is said to Le governed l.y tlic prepo- 
 sition. 
 
 (ii But the ]irop()sit,i(in niiiy cmnc at tlio end of the sentence. Thus 
 we eaii say, "Tliis is tlie li„use we wei'c looking at." But at still gov- 
 eiiis which (understodd) in the (jljjeutive. We can also say, " Whom 
 were you talking to ? " 
 
 4. Preiiositions are divided into two classes: (i; simple; 
 and (ii) compound. 
 
 (i) The following are simple prepo-sitions : at, by, for. In, of, nff, on, 
 out, to, with, iq\ 
 
 (ii) The compound i-repositions are formed in several ways :— 
 ('() «y addinj,' a comparative suffix U, an adverb : <i/ler, over, umier. 
 (h) By prefixing a preposition tn an adverb : above, ahout, he/ore, bchiwt. h-'- 
 
 neuth, hitt( = \<,'-«nt), thnnnihnut, vuthin, etc. 
 
 (c) By prenxing a preposition to a noun: aboard, across, aroun,!, omonn h^. 
 side, outside, etc. > J' 
 
 (d) By prenxiiig an adverb cm- a(lv,Tl,iaI particle to a preposition : into, vpon, 
 
 (iii) The preposition but is to be carefullv distinguished from the con- 
 junction but. "All were there but him." Here but U a j-reposition 
 " A\ e waited an hour ; but he did not come." Here but is a conjunction 
 But, the preposition, was in O.K. bc-iltan, and meant on the outside of, 
 and tlien without : but, the conjunction, was in O.K. bot. The old pro- 
 verb, "Touch not tlie cat Ijut a glove," means "without a glove." 
 
 (iv) Tioym was adoim = ofdown^off the down or hill. 
 
 (v) Among was = on geniong, in the crowd. 
 
 (vi) There are several compound prepositions made up of separate 
 words : instead of, on account of, in spite of, etc. 
 
 (vii) Some participles are used as prepositions: notu-ithstanding, con- 
 cerning, respecting. The prepositions except and save mav be regarded 
 as imperatives. 
 
 5. The same words are used sometimes as adverljs, and some- 
 times as prepositions. AVe distinguish these Avords by their 
 function. They can also be used as nouns or as adjectives. 
 
 l! •» 
 
 
 ! i!;! 
 
 tll^ 
 
 "k 
 
;i;! n 
 
 60 
 
 OIUMMAU OF THE ENYJLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 (i) Thus we find the following wonls used cither a- 
 
 Adverbs „, .^, 
 
 (J) Stand uj) ! 
 
 (2) Come on ! 
 
 (3) JJeofJ'! 
 (•1) He walked quickly past. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 (1) The boy run uj) the hill. 
 
 (2) The ljo(jk lies on the table. 
 ^3) (iet off the chair. 
 W He walked past the church. 
 
 fii) A, 1 ,.<>,.) ^'' "•- "'"Kea past the church. 
 
 (H) AdxerUs are «onietinies used as noun« . • ., 
 have met him before now " " u T T ' '" '" *''^ sentences, " I 
 fiii) Tn fi,„ <■ 1, • " '''•'■■*'^ '""'^c t^eo-" 
 
 t.1'11 •■ T.:sr,":rs.:' r™'-^' - '■■■ "'™' ^'-- 
 
 COXJUXCTIOXS. 
 C. A Co^3•^nction is a ™i tl.at Joins sentences togotho. 
 
 roll .^Sn^in:t:t£iir*r^ ^'"~ *'^^ ^'^-^'^^'-^ 
 
 -e a happy pair ; " " Two ani t,;:; te l:!'' ''" "^'' '"''" ^"^^ ^"- 
 
 ^ - other. The following'^ r^— ^^ ^IrS^!-:^ 
 
 -Sn!f S|r:^;^S°"- - "'ose which connect subordinate 
 The type of a subordSL "l^^^^^^^ * • Hl^ *'^^^ ^^ --'>•''■-*. 
 monstrative ,,ronoun. ' I k, o Z f )' ' '"'"''' ''^ '"'^"^' ^''^ *'«■ 
 
 '- gone to Zondon : I know that.^'* '" '"" ^""^ "" ^^^'o" " i« = "He 
 
 mj 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 ««« into .he b„iM or orga„is„ :L^ :: r 't1 ', " ""' 
 
e liiU. 
 lie table. 
 
 e cliurch, 
 Jntences, " I 
 
 '68 : "thine 
 om beyond 
 
 'getlipr. 
 
 additiimal 
 ' and Jane 
 
 ve; and 
 
 o-ordinate 
 ;le]jeii(]ent 
 ^r, neither 
 
 bordinate 
 'ordinate, 
 y tlie de- 
 is =" He 
 
 : After, 
 unless ; 
 
 ■ tliem- 
 ;ion of 
 io not 
 ive no 
 there- 
 
 WOI{DS KXOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIOxXS. 61 
 
 fore not, strictly speaking, " parts of speech." Tin,, we say, Oh ! 
 Ah! Alas! unci so on; but the sentences ^ve eniph.y M-ould be 
 just as co.nplete-in sense-without tlieni. They are extra- 
 grammatical utterances. 
 
 (ii) Someti.uo.s words with a meaning are u.od as interjections. Tbus 
 
 you/ U.e interjection "^ow tlien ! " ean.sists of two woni.., each of 
 which has a ,nean.ng ; but when en.ployed intorjectionally, the cLnn.ound 
 meaning is very different fr„n. the moaning .,f either. ^"'"I'""'"l 
 
 mlTl -'; I'T- '?:^ ^'""*"^ ,''"^"''«'' '"terjections are followed by the 
 mark (!) of admiration or exclamation. '' 
 
 WORDS KNOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIONS, 
 AND NOT BY THEIR INFLEXIONS. 
 
 1. The Oldest English. -W]> en our language first came over 
 to tins island, m the fifth century, our words possessed a lar^^e 
 number of inflexions; and a verb could be known from a noun 
 and an adjective from either, by the mere look of it Verbs 
 had one kind of inllexion, nouns another, adjectives a third • 
 and It was almost impossible to confuse them. Thus in O e' 
 (or Anglo-Saxon) thunder, the verb, was thuur km ~[yith the 
 endmg .., but the noun was tkunor, without any ending at 
 all. Ihen m course of time, for many and various reasons, 
 the Engh,^x language began to lose its inflexions; and they 
 dropped off very rapidly between the 11th and the 15th cen- 
 turies, till, nowadays, we possess very few indeed. 
 
 2. Freedom given by absence of Inflexions. -In the IGth 
 century wiien Shakesj^.a-. began to write, there were very 
 few inflexions; the l„n,,age began to feel greater liberty 
 grea er ease m its movements; and a writer would use the sanie 
 word sometimes as one part of speech, and sometimes as another. 
 Ihus Shakespeare himself uses the conjunction hut both as a 
 verb and as a noun, ar,J makes one of his characters say, "Eut 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^;)i« 
 
 ^1 
 
 m 
 
 .IHfi 
 
 
 '!<■ 
 
62 
 
 If:" 
 
 GRAMMAR Qi,' JUK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Sf " 
 
 a. the a.lvorb f.,rkward with tho f„. .,-, , Z'^' ,^ "'' 
 
 the pluus. "Th.. ].aok.vnr.l and abyss of tim. " a ' ' 
 
 ".s au uda.fb .loin., tho work of ., 1 ^"'"' ^'' °^"^^ 
 
 "n^y ofton .n..;tion; ^Vlei:^i:^^^^^^^^ 
 way. Shakospoaro has tho verbs " to -dad "3'' to , 1 T" 
 often ].. uses an adjective as a nounl nd ' " fu '' i l' ^ "''' 
 
 power of USUI- one "nnf nf \P '^"^^''^- Ho carries this 
 
 extraordinary lenhs r ^^""f ^^^ ^^t^-- to the most 
 
 " Cymbehne " hollas :1 ' ' "' '''"'' ^"^^ '' ''^'' "f' ^'^ 
 
 "will'l^in '" '^''"'"',\' "•■ '''^ '"'='' «*»«■«« "madness 
 Will tongue, ami brain not. ..." 
 
 a good run •" and "Tl. ' ^^ ^' ^^'"^ ^">'^ ^^''^^^ 
 
 p ^uii, and intj uoys run verv -i H " ^\r 
 
 -V, .. an adverb modifying the adjec, e I ' "^" 
 
 4. Function. — It follows thnf ;,, .i " 
 
 ^..^.he„, ..r.r-ji^rrjr^- 
 "3 a We. 0. . a _ha,., „t t . " .^TLZ 'ri^ 
 
WOKDS KNOWX HY TI'.IIR FUNCTION.^, 63 
 
 a weapon, m a wcml ,nay },.■ a„ a.l j,.,;tivo, <,r a noun, or a verb, 
 —just as it is used. 
 
 6 Examples.-Wlieu wu nay, <'He {,.u'o a .sl.illing f„r tho 
 book, /or IS a prop.^ition connecting tlio noun book witli tho 
 yeih rjave. ]Jut wlion ^v.. say, "Lot t.s assist tl,..,,., for our caso 
 IS theirs, tho ^^■onl for juiu. two sentences tog(.tlier, and is hence 
 a conjunction. In tho same way, wo can .ontrast rar/i/ in tho 
 provorb. "Tho early bird catches tlic worm, and in tlic sentence 
 lie rose early." J/nrd in tlu" sentence " He works hard " is an 
 adverb; i:i the pliras.. ".\ hard stone " it is an adjective. Ji/r/Id 
 IS an adverb in the phrase "I^ight reverend;" but an adjective 
 in tlio sentence " Tliat is not the right roa.h" JJar/.- in an a.l vorli 
 1.1 tl,e sentence "He came back yesterday;" but a noun in fho 
 sent.,.- 0" He fell on liis back." Here is an adverb, and whcro 
 ■Ml adv.. 4ul conjunction ; but in the line— 
 
 " Thou iosest here, a better where to find," 
 
 Shakespo, . emplov. those words as nouns. T/tr, in ninety-nine 
 cases out of a hu ^d, is an adjective; but in such phrases as 
 Ihe more, the mer, r," it is an adverb, modifying mcrr/rr and 
 more. Indeed, some words seem to exercise two functions at 
 the same time. Thus Tennyson has— 
 
 " Slow and sure comes up the golden year,"— 
 
 wliere dow and sure may either be adverl.s modifying romr, or 
 adjectives marking year; or both. This is also the" case with 
 the participle, which is both an adjective and a verb; and with 
 the gerund, ^vhich is both a verb and a noun. 
 
 6. Function or Form ?-rrom all this it appears that we are 
 not merely to look at the form of tho wor.i, we are not merely 
 to notice and oherve; but we must ihlnk-wo must a k our- 
 selves what the word does, what is its function? In other 
 words, we must always-when trying to . -ttle the class to which 
 u wor< belongs— ask ourselves two .iuestions— 
 
 (i) What other Avord does it go with 1 and 
 
 »|i- 
 
 i if, 
 
 I'lr 
 
 mi< 
 
 Wr , 
 
 (ii) AVTiat does it do to that word ? 
 
 
 £ 
 
03(u) 
 
 WORDS IX COMMON USK, mm DirmENT 
 rraOTIONS <u. A,S KimuEKT PABTS OP sp,,oH). 
 
 About 
 
 Adverb— 
 
 (a) (Manner) : 
 
 (b) (Dr^Tce) ; 
 I'repositioii 
 
 After 
 
 1. 
 
 AU 
 
 2 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 Adjective 
 Adverb 
 
 Pi'ei)().sitiou 
 <-'ojj junction 
 
 Alone 
 Another 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 He stopped, then turned him about. 
 i e man was «/;o.< forty years old. 
 
 And love thee „Ar.» (s„ake«„earc ) 
 The boy ran 0//C7- his father 
 
 AVe resumed our walk a/<c. the pro- 
 cession had passed. 
 
 Adjective— (ShskesjKsare.) 
 
 (") Of Quantity, Definite : 
 
 "And a// this throve, untill redded 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : (Tennyson.) 
 
 "Ah! when shall admen's good 
 Be each ^an's rule?" (Lnyson.) 
 
 IUt£' °° "'^ "^'« «« too 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 And he „;, remains to comfort me. 
 
 She never feared to enter the church 
 aWatnight." ^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Teach me «no<A,.', griefs to share, 
 hurt "^"""'^"''■'^^^Wer, 
 
 Whom she would soothe." 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 3. Adverb 
 
 Adjective 
 Adverb 
 
 Xoun 
 Adjective 
 
WORDS IN COMMON USK. WITH DILTKUENT KUNCTR,NS. G3(b) 
 
 ^y h Adjoi-tive- 
 
 ('0 Of Quantity : 
 
 We m to see atiy truth in his arcu- 
 inent. 
 (•') Of Number, In(i...finito ; 
 
 ., r, ^"^*^ you «»i/ books for me ? 
 
 -. 1 i'onoim (Indefinite) - 
 
 d. All V orb Can you not write any better / 
 
 ^» 1. I*i'oiioim (Relative)— 
 
 "Such as sleep o' nights." 
 
 2. Adverb Sheiq««r,«„i i , (Shskc'iwe.j 
 
 .. ,, . . '^"^ '««« good as she IS beautiful. 
 
 ^- Conjunction (or Conjunctive Adverb)- 
 " I am not all so wrontr 
 
 B„,., , ,, '''•' ^ *^'"er jest is dear." (Te,my«on.) 
 
 isesides 1. Adverb w-» * u. , 
 
 ., '^^» '^ He taught, and studied hcsUlcs. 
 
 -. 1 reposition I have other strings to „.y bow 
 
 oesides this. 
 ^. Conjunction The king will pardon us ; besides, we 
 
 have your written promise. 
 1- Adjective (Definite Numeral)- 
 
 " He gazed so long 
 That both his eyes were dazzled." 
 2. Pronoun (Indefinite)— (Temiysau.) 
 
 He carried away both. 
 
 2*Pm!l .P, ^"" '^'^''^y^ '»«et me with a 6«^ 
 ^. I'ronoun (Relative, Negative)^ 
 
 " '^^11^^^'''-'^^'^^ ^'°^ clansman of thy 
 
 But would have given his life for 
 thine " 
 8. Vfii'b u T, ' (Scott) 
 
 ? j5m< mo no buts " ,«u , 
 
 *• Adverb "-Ti,.„.,ar»,,.M.u:nr 
 
 6. P«po,iti„„ M ^;k* had «o„. our""""' 
 
 6. Conjun, t,ou "Knowledge c.„e., i„, „m„„ 
 
 lingers." .„ 
 
 " (Tennyson.) 
 
 Soth 
 
 But 
 
 I; ,i' I 
 
 dm 
 
 i u' 
 
 
 'l! 
 
 ^ !il: 
 
 
i !ii 
 
 la. 
 II- 
 
 ^^ i 
 
 63(c) GRAMMAR OF THE DNGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Either 1. Adjective On either hand tl,e lawns and 
 
 meadow ledges midway down 
 ., ,, . ,. Hang rich in bloom." (Tennyson.) 
 
 -:. conjunction Either go at once or stay for ever. 
 
 Else 1. Adjective « Him destroyed, all else will follow." 
 
 2. Adverb He would else have paid f c dlbr"'^ 
 
 rf. Conjunction She has had many visitors, else she 
 
 would have written. 
 
 Enough 1. Noun " Enough is as good as a feast." 
 
 Z. Adjective— 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 Have you money enough for tho 
 journey ? 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 We have enough books already. 
 He is strong enough for this work. 
 
 Do you know how to play odd and 
 
 even ? 
 The edges are now even. 
 It is necessary first to even the sides. 
 " And even then he turned." 
 
 Sven 
 
 3. Adverb 
 1. Noun 
 
 Except 
 
 2. Adjective 
 
 3. Verb 
 •i. Advex'b 
 
 1. Verb 
 
 For 
 
 Half 
 
 When making your list, except those 
 named herein. 
 
 2. Preposition All were early except my brother and 
 
 me. 
 
 3. Conjunction "I will not let thee go, except thou 
 
 bless me." 
 
 1. Adverb This book has been sent for several 
 
 times. 
 
 2. Preposition " She gave me /or my pains, a world 
 
 .. ,, . ,. of sighs." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 o. Conjunction ^ " Call me early, mother dear, 
 
 For I would see the sun rise." 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 " The half of my goods I give to the 
 
 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adjective 
 
 3. Adverb 
 
 poor. 
 Half measures are worse than useless 
 
 in such cases. 
 "So saying, from the paveiricnt he 
 
 half rose." crcmyson.) 
 
 ij 
 
WORDS 
 
 Least 
 
 Less 
 
 Like 
 
 IN COMMON USE, WITH DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS. 63(d) 
 
 M!,re 
 
 Most 
 
 Much 
 
 1. Xoun 
 
 2. Adjective 
 
 3. Adverb 
 
 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adjective 
 y. Adverb 
 
 1. Adjective 
 
 2. Adverb 
 
 The least of them would suffice. 
 The hast child in the room knows so 
 
 much. 
 This is the least praiseworthy. 
 Give me less. 
 
 Of two dangers choose the less, 
 " I warrant you love me less than I 
 
 love thee." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 •' His face is like the tan." (Longfellow.) 
 And like an arrow from the bow, 
 He darted then and there. 
 
 " To whom little is forgiven, the same 
 _ ^ , loveth little." 
 
 ^. Adjective— 
 
 (a) Of Quantity: 
 
 He takes but little heed of such idle 
 tale.s. 
 
 (b) Of Quality : 
 
 " A little thing may harm a wounded 
 
 o A 1 1 man." (Tennyson.) 
 
 'i. Adverb " A little more than kin and less than 
 
 ^^^^<i" (Shakespeare.) 
 
 I need more than you. 
 
 Little 1. Xoun 
 
 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adjective- 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : " 
 
 Have you no more complaint to 
 make ? 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 
 There were more ants than one could 
 count. 
 
 3. Adverb "Once more unto the breach, dear 
 
 friends." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 1. Noun ^ The youngest boy knew most, 
 
 ii. Adjective — 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 Most wool is brought to London. 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 
 iWosi! people would prel'^r this, 
 'i. Adverb The Duke spoke most loudly. 
 
 1. Noun We saw much which was worthy of 
 
 praise. 
 
 <flri> 
 
 
 
Neither 
 Next 
 
 No 
 
 4 
 
 63(e) GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. Adjective (of Quantity)- 
 q A,i 1 ^'o'"t^a needed miic/t comfort. 
 
 3. Adverb The wise speak les.s. but think W. 
 , ... "Jore than the foolish. 
 
 1. Adjective Neither book is very expensive 
 
 2. Conj, tion "iV^.^V/.,- a borrower nor\a]en.i;r be" 
 
 k Adf;; ;" wf ""' """"" v^-^ ^^'^^ ^'^"^ °^ ^e. 
 
 ^. ^\u \ ei o AV ],o comes ne^'i ? 
 
 •^. 1 reposition Will you sit nca:< me ? 
 1. Adjective— 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 CO Of Number'SnTe^^' ""' '" encouragement. 
 
 2. Adverb V^to 1 ''"' ^i^--^^"'^"'^^- 
 
 vve 710 longer believe in St. 
 
 ■»•, J. .A, Edmund." /d , ■ ! 
 
 9 <^, . ^. P'^'^) I wmnot consent. 
 
 ^. Conjunction KoUcitkstandlnrj they had arrived, we 
 
 1 A,n ,. left Without seeing them. 
 
 1. Adjective A gentleman got down from the off 
 
 i-ieposition Anton.o's argosy was wrecked off 
 1 A 1- . Tripolis. '*' 
 
 1. Adjective (Numeral, Definite)— 
 
 "Allwor]dlvjoysgoless,totheo«e 
 
 2. Pronoun (Indefiniter''"'^"'""'^"^^-^'' <"«'-«-) 
 
 "I «ed into the castle like one 
 , . ,. pursued." 
 
 1. Adjective Thou art my on/y hope. 
 ^. Ad^^rb She is only a child. 
 
 Acljcctue Among new men, strange faces, 
 
 o -r. °'''<^>' "iinds." IT.. 
 
 2. Pronoun (Demonstrative)- (Tennyson.) 
 
 " Then that o/Aer, left alone, 
 Sighed, and began to gather heart 
 
 correct .n^':^:Z:7L n^ ^^^^^SmI n^'"^-'^'- - ""« -n, onlXl 
 word or phraae wl.icli it modlnC. ^'^'-^"'''^' (""^ necesaarily t-, the verb, but) to tl.o 
 
 Off 
 
 One 
 
 Onlyi 
 
 Other 
 
 » A-;;.. 
 
 
Save 
 
 Since 
 
 WORDS IN COMMON USE, WITH DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS. 63(f) 
 
 Round 1. Noun " The trivial mmrf, the common task, 
 
 Will furnisii all we need to ask." 
 
 2. Adjective He owns a round tubla. 
 
 3. Verb He rouiuls his phrases well. 
 
 4. Atlvei'b Bound (;oes the wheel. 
 
 5. Preposition A moat ran roitnd the castle wall. 
 
 1. \ erb ,S'afe the women and children first. 
 
 2. Preposition " And save his good broadsword, 
 He weapons had none." (Scott.) 
 
 .3. Conjunction Who could do such deeds save God 
 were with him ? 
 
 1. Adverb They have not written since. 
 
 2. ]'r(}i)osition She has not been out alone since 
 Easter, 
 
 3. Conjunction Further advice is useless since you 
 are already determined what to do. 
 
 1. Adverb "*S^ work the honoy-bee.s." 
 
 2. Conjunction My fatiier is away ; .^r; I nmst stay at 
 home with mother. 
 
 Adjective— 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 " Whose least distinguished day 
 
 Shines with some portion of 
 heavenly lustre." 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 "Some men are born great." 
 There was an earth(iuake there some 
 
 four years ago. 
 
 So 
 
 Some 
 
 1 
 
 2. Adverb 
 
 Somewhat 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adverb 
 
 That 
 
 I know somewhat of the matter. 
 You were somewhat late to-day. 
 
 Adjective (Demonstrative)— 
 
 " My loyalty shall be growing, 
 Till death, that winter, kill it." 
 
 2. Pi'onoun — 
 
 (a) Kelative 
 
 (Shakespeare.) 
 
 " He that has humanity will tread 
 aside." 
 
 (b) Compound " We speak that we do know." 
 
 (c) Demonstrative : 
 
 " That 's news indeed." 
 3. Conjunction " We eat that we may live." 
 
 I 
 II 
 
 /**. . 
 
 r ^ 1' 
 
C3(g) 
 Then 
 
 ORAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Adverb 
 
 Well 
 
 What 
 
 " Then shall man's pride and dulness 
 comprehend 
 Ilia actions', passions', beino's xise 
 and end." 
 2. Conjunction Did he say so? then it must be true 
 Therefore 1. Adverb " God made him, and .^ore let him 
 
 9 r^, • .' pass for a man." (Shakespeang 
 
 ^. Conjunction (or Conjunctive Adverb)- 
 
 "Tliou hast not left the value of a 
 
 cord, 
 Therefore thou must hang at the 
 State's charge." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 1. Noun Leave ivell alone. 
 
 2. Adjective « I am not well." 
 
 3. Adverb « I know how well I have deserved 
 4 T, X . j_. the ring." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 4. Interjection Well, peace be with you ! 
 
 1. Adjective (Demonstrative)— 
 
 " And both together heard 
 What time the grey-fly winds her 
 
 o r> sultry horn." /v,^^ » 
 
 -i. -Pronoun— (Miiton.) 
 
 (a) Interrogative ; 
 
 (h\ n ." /'^"^ ^°^^* *^°" J^ere, Elijah ? " 
 
 (b) Compounded of Relative and Demonstrative : 
 
 " ^eJl me ^<'/ia< you want." 
 
 3. Adverb What with one thing, and what with 
 . - another, I am almost undone. 
 
 4. Interjection 7r/m< ./ not gone yet ? 
 
 Wherefore I. Noun t • i. , 
 
 i>oun I wished to know the wherefore of hia 
 
 action. 
 2. Adverb JF7*er./or. do ye rebel ? 
 
 Whether 1. Pronoun (Interrogative)- 
 
 Whether is easier : to say "Thy sins 
 be forgiven," or to say "Arise 
 and walk ■■ ? 
 2. Conjunction "To be resolved whether Brutus so 
 unkindly knocked." 
 
; s use 
 
 WORDS IN COMMON USE, WITH DIFFERKNT FUNCTIONS 63(h) 
 
 Which 1. Adjective Did you see which way the boy ran ? 
 2. Pronoun — 
 
 (a) Relative : 
 
 " That tvhich you have touched." 
 
 (b) Interrogative : 
 
 " Which is yours ? " 
 Why 1. Noun I don't consider the u-hy and the 
 
 wherefore. 
 
 2. Adverb IFIiy are tlie days longer in summer 
 
 than in winter? 
 
 3. Conjunction This is the reason why I spoke. 
 
 4. Interjection " How doth the king? Why, well !" 
 Wont 1. Noun " It is not his wont to he the hind- 
 most man." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 " Come ! but keep thy wonted state." 
 
 (Miltoii4 
 
 " Beneath whose shade 
 
 I wont to sit and watch the :otting 
 
 sun." (8onthey.\ 
 
 " As when men, wont to watch 
 
 On duty, sleeping found . . . rouse 
 
 and bestir themselves." (Milton). 
 
 Yet 1. Adverb " OM age hath yet his honour and his 
 
 toil." (Tennyson.) 
 
 2. Conjunction " Yet I thy hest will all perform at 
 
 full." (Tennyson.) 
 
 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adjective 
 
 3. Verb 
 
 4. Participle 
 1. Adverb 
 
 fl 
 
 ■ ii.ii- 
 
 m 
 
 t 
 
 >m 
 
li - 
 
 IIN ' 
 
 64 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 # 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 mL'^^VT'^ ^•'^"''" ''^ ' ^"'''^ ^^«^'^^ -^"«h moans arrange- 
 
 (i) Concord means airreement Tiio ,!,•<• 
 tI.o«e of tl.e Verb with Its sTwL ''"'^ '=°"'=°'"''« "' g'-''^mmar are 
 
 Noun With anoth^Noun ti.e'p tnJr^^^^^^ ''^^ '^'^"'^ '• «'« 
 
 the Relative with its Scedent ""'^ *'° """^ '* «*^'"'''^ ^- = 
 
 a Noun; a Preposition and rNou^. °" "' '^ ^''"'^""^^ ^erb and 
 
 I—SYNTAX OF THE mUK 
 
 1.— THE NOMINATIVK CASE. 
 
 cir" '""'° *"''^''°' °^ » '°"'-« - » "- Nominative 
 are always /„ ft, «„, o.,„, '" '""'°""°" ' """ ''-J' 
 
 J 
 
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 
 
 65 
 
 Thus we find in Shakespeare's Henry V,, i. 2. 188 :— 
 
 " So work tlie honey-bees, 
 Creatures tliat by a rule in Natuie teach 
 The art of order to a peopled kingdom." 
 TTore bees i.s the nominative to work ; creatures is in apposition witli 
 bees, and hen.e ,s also in the nominative case. {0{ course, two nouns 
 m apposition may be in tlie objective ca.se, as in the sentence, "We met 
 John tlie gardener.") 
 
 (i) The wonls in apposition may he separated from each other, as in 
 Cowper s well-known lino about the postman :— 
 
 " He comes, the herald of a noisy world." 
 
 JluLR in.— Tlifi verb to be, and other verl).s of a like nature, 
 take two nominatives— one, Ijefore and tlie other after. 
 Thus we find such sentences as — 
 
 (i) Genci'al Wolseley is an able soldier, 
 (ii) The long-remembered beggar was liis guest. 
 In the first sentence Wolseley and soldier refer to the same person • 
 beggar and guest refer to the same person ; and all that the verbs is 
 and was ,lo ,.s to c.mnect them. They have no influence whatever upon 
 either word. AV lien is (or are) is so used, it is called the copula. 
 
 caS y::.Sio^Z:''^' '""^ ^^ "•'^""'''-' nou„.apposition, this ini.ht be 
 
 Rule IV.-The verbs become, be-called, be-named, live, 
 turn-out. prove, remain, seem, look, and olliers, are of an 
 appositional character, and take a nominative case after tlieni 
 as well as before them. 
 
 Dins we find : — 
 
 (i) Tom became an architect. 
 (ii) The boy is called John. 
 (iii) He turned out a dull fellow- 
 (iv) She moves a goddess ; and she looks a queen. 
 On examining the verbs in these sentences, it will be seen that they 
 do not and cannot govern the n(mn that folhnvs them. The noun be- 
 r..re aiiu the noun afte." designate the same person. 
 
 Eur.E v.— A Noim and an Adjective, or a Noun and a Par- 
 ticiple, or a Xoun and an Adjective Phrase,-not syntactically 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 
 ^: 
 
 
 m 
 
 
66 
 
 V II 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 connected with any othor word in tho scntenco,-aro pnt in the 
 Nominative Absolute. 
 Tlius we liave : — 
 
 (i) "She earns a scanty pittance, and at night 
 
 Lies down secure, lier heart and pocket light. "-CowPEn. 
 (ii) The wind ahifting, wo sailed slowly, 
 (iii) "Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. "— Coluns. 
 (iv) Dinner over, we went upstairs. 
 
 JI^H 7T^ "''f'?"! '""*"' ^"'"^- "'"^ "'« '"'«°!"t« caao 1ms hvnx free,! from 
 nnd'is imlependent of, the construction of the sentence. ' 
 
 REMARKS.-1. In tlie Oldest English (or Anglo-Sa.xon), tho 
 absolute case was the Dative; and this we find even as late as 
 Milton (1608-1674), who says- 
 
 " Him destroyed. 
 
 All else will follow." 
 
 2. Caution! In the sentence, "Pompey, having been de- 
 feated, Hod to Africa," the phrase having heen defeated is an 
 attributive clause to Pompey, which is the noun to Jled Eut 
 in the sentence, "Pompey having been defeated, his armv broke 
 up, Pompey~not being tlie noun to any verb — is'in tho 
 nominative absolute. Hence, if a noun is the nominative 
 to a verb, it cannot be in the nominative absolute. 
 
 Remarks on Exceptions. 
 
 1. The pronoun It is often used as a Preparatory Nomina- 
 tive, or-as it may also be called-a Representative Subject 
 Jlius we say, "It is very hard to climb that hill," where it 
 stands for the true nominative, to-climb-that-hill. 
 
 2. In the same way, the demonstrative adjective that is often 
 used as a Representative Subject. "That (he has gone to 
 laris) IS certain." What is certain? That. What is that? 
 I lie fact that he has gone to Paris. 
 
 3. Still more oddly, we find both it and th...t used in one 
 ■sentence as a kind of Joint-Representative Subject. Thus 
 we have: (i) « it now and then happened that (ho lost his 
 temper) ; and, in Shakespeare's " Othello "— 
 
 W 
 
 Tl 
 th 
 
 on 
 
 at 
 
 th 
 
 ti( 
 po 
 lai 
 
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 
 
 (ii) "That (I have ta'eu away this old niau'w daugliter) 
 It in iiid.tt true." 
 
 67 
 
 What is most triU'J It. Wlmtisit? That. Wluit is that?i 
 That([ liiive tiikeii awuy, aU;.) Hero tlie verb is lias really 
 three subjects, all meaning the same thiii^'. 
 
 ^ tS" It iiiust lie obsci'VPd tliiit tlio iloiiioiislrativc that 1ms liy tisc f,'aiii('il tlio 
 force, and exercises the function, of ii cDnjunction juinint^ two senlvnces. 
 It liere joins tlie two sentences "It is most true," anil "I Iiave tal<uu 
 away," etc. 
 
 ■i. The nominative to a verb in tliu Imperative ]\Io(kI is often 
 omitted. Thus Come along ! = Come thou (or i/c) along ! 
 
 -I 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 t. lit; ,' 
 
 ;' I, 
 
 2.— THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 RuLK VI. — When one Xoun stands in the relation of an 
 attribute to another Noun, the first of these nouns is put in 
 the Possessive Case. 
 
 (i) The Possessive Case originally denoted mere possession, as John's 
 book ; John's g;m. But it lias gradually gained a wider reference ; and 
 wo can say, " Tiie Duke of Portland's funeral," etc. 
 
 (ii) The objective ca.se with of is - the posscKsive ; and we can say, 
 "The might of England," instead of "England's might." 
 
 KuLK VII. — AVhen (i) two or more Possessives are in apposi- 
 tion, or (ii) when several nouns connected by and are in the 
 possessive case, the sign of the possessive is affixed to the 
 last only. 
 
 (i) Thus we find : (i) For ciiy eervant David's sake, (ii) Messrs Simp, 
 kin & Marshall's house. 
 
 tS^ Tlio fact is, that JMeasra SimpkiniS-Marshall, and other siicli i)lirasc», 
 are regarded as one compound phrase. 
 
 ^ (ii) The sentence " Tliis is a picture of Turner's," is --- " This is a 
 picture (one) of Turner's i)icture)»." The o/ governs, not Timer's, hut 
 pictures. Hence it is not a double possessive, though it looks like it. 
 
 Tlie plirase, "a friend of mine," Contains the sanie idiom ; .idy mine is used 
 In place of my, because the word friend has beeu suppre^,^?(l. 
 
 lifl 
 
 If 
 t ^ 
 
 u1 
 
f. t 
 
 ii: 
 
 68 UHAMMAU OF TIIK EXC.LlS.r LA^aUAUE. 
 
 3.-THP: ORJECTIVE CASE 
 
 The Kngli noun^LSr;;:,*;:*; "- '^ ^!--I ^"n for thi« case. 
 and 1300, "'"^ '"*'' '*^' '^"^ ''^«t it between the years IO06 
 
 t.fi;^r^ire::^:7 r'^" "^-°^ °^-^ 
 
 something more. *''' ^''^''^'' Object-and 
 
 (i) The B.- , Object answer, to the ,ue.sti,.„ Whom . or What . 
 (!') The Indirect Obiect an^w,.r. t *i wuat 7 
 
 or For Whom? For what 7 '" *'" •^""*'"' ^^ ^^°«^ ? To what 1 
 
 (rJ.'z„r s'^rirr^M, "" ^f-n <'■> «-» met bim 
 -- ('.«n.«v.,. „ , w„/ss <iStt5„t j;:L'e,"'" '° 
 
 <nf:::.,;::i7;:x:r'"^- ^•■''"*' --- --'-■ 
 
 him Treasurer. «^ager. (iv) riie Queen appointed 
 
 *" '" " ■■"' '" '"""-• "•' •-«■ ■" "-«"- ..« ,«„v. .ki,„.. 
 Rule X.— Some Intransitive Verbfl t..l-,. i • • 
 after them, if tlio obiectivo hn/! -^ '" °''J''^*^^'^ ^'-^s^ 
 
 to that of the verb S. ""^'" "' °°^"^^« ----&' 
 
 Thus we find : (i) To die the death (ii) To ] 
 go one's way. To wend one's way ( v) To ro ''' ^ '''"P" ^"'^ ^o 
 dreams no mortal ever da,*d to d^;an; bef!,; ' '""'• ^^'^ ^''^^"""g 
 ^ Such object, are culicd cognate objects. 
 
 Rule XL— The limitations nf n -\^-.^i i 
 
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 09 
 
 •'" night, (,„) l|,„ stone woishcl three pounds. 
 
 Kkmahks (j\ Exceptions. 
 
 1. The sanu. vcrl. may bo cither Intransitive cr Transitive 
 according to its use. Tlius— i^nsiuve, 
 
 Intransitive. 
 
 (i) The soldier ran away. 
 
 (ii) The 1 ,au works very hard. 
 (iii) We walked up the hill. 
 
 Transitive. 
 
 (1) The soldier rau his spear into 
 the Ai'ab. 
 
 (ii) The master works his men tou 
 hard. 
 
 (iii) The groom walked the horse 
 up the hill. 
 
 2. \n Intransitive verb performs the function of a Transi- 
 tive verb when a preposition i.s added to it. Tlius- 
 intransitive. ^^^^.^.^^ 
 
 (0 The children laughed (l\ ti,.^ 1 -u 
 
 (ii) The man spoke. /; Th! ^'"''^^^"^■'^"Kl.ed at the clown. 
 
 ^ (») The man spoke of wild beasts. 
 
 «o Lm^' ^'''^'?'''''''' "^^y '^°"«^"« to adhere to such a verb 
 - that It reniams even when the verb ha.s been n.ade pass.v 3 
 
 in the use of the English languagf "°™""* convenience 
 
 :^i 
 
 |. r^ 
 
 4.-THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 1. The Dative i.^ the case of the Indirect Object. 
 
 Thus we say : He handed her a chair. She gave it n,e. 
 
 2. The Dative is also tlie case of the Direct Object, with 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
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 A 
 
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 u 
 
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 ^^^ 
 
 # 
 
 >^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 %• 
 
 ^^%. '^\ 
 
 ^\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-u- 
 
 i 
 

 
 t/u 
 
 { 
 
 I 
 
70 
 
 GKAMMAU OF THE ENGUSII LANGUAGE. 
 
 IV 
 
 Eft 
 
 ,' 1': 
 
 ii'li 
 
 such vi'i'l)s as be, worth, seem, please, think [ = acciii) ; and 
 with tho adjectives like and near. 
 
 Thus we liave tho phrases, meseenis ; if you please ( = if it i>lcase 
 you); meUiought ( = it sceiiied to me); won is me! and, she ia like 
 him ; he was near us. 
 
 " Woe Worth the chase I woo worth the day 
 That cost thy life, my yallant grey ! " 
 
 — " Lady of the Lakp." 
 
 " When ill Salamanca'H cave 
 Ilim listed his magic wand to wave, 
 
 The bells would ring ill Notrc-Daiiie." 
 
 — " Lay of the Last Minstrel." 
 
 3. Tho Dative is aunictinies tho case of posseasion or of 
 benefit. 
 
 As in, Woe is me I Well is thee ! 
 
 " Convey me Salisbury into his tent." 
 
 EuLE XII. — Verbs of giving, promising, telling, showing, 
 etc., take two objects ; and tho indirect object is put in the 
 dative case. 
 
 Thus we say : He gave her a fan. She promised me a book. 
 a story. Show me the picture-book. 
 
 Tell us 
 
 KuLK XIII. — When such verbs are turned into tue passive 
 voice, either tlio Direct or tho Indirect Object may bo turned 
 into tho Subject of tlie Passive Verb. Thus wo can say 
 either — 
 
 Direct Object used as Subject. 
 
 (i) A fan wa.s given her. 
 (ii) A book was promised me. 
 (iii) A story was told us. 
 
 Indirect Object used as Subject. 
 (i) She wati given a fan.' 
 (ii) I was promised a book.* 
 (iii) We were told a story.' 
 
 (iv) The picture-book was shown (iv) I was shown the picture-book.* 
 me. 
 
 ' This has sometimes been called the Retained Object. The words 
 fan, etc,, are in the objective case, not because they are governed by the 
 passive verV)a 7ms ;/ivni, etc., but because they still retain, in a latent 
 form, the influence or government exercised upon them by the active 
 verbs, give, promise, etc. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 71 
 
 Rkmahrs on Exceptions. 
 
 1. The Dativo of the Personal Pronoun was in frequent use 
 in the time of Sluikespeare, to add a cortuin liveliness and in- 
 terest to the statement. 
 
 Tims we find, in several of ]m j lays, such sentences as— 
 
 (i) " He plucked me ope his doublet." 
 
 (ii) "Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, and rap me woll." 
 
 (iii) " Your tanner will last you nine year." 
 Grammarians cull this kinJ of dative the ethical dative. 
 
 2. The Dative was once the Absolute Case. 
 
 " This said, they both betook them several ways." 
 
 —Milton. 
 
 / 
 
 n.— SYNTAX OF .THE ADJECTIVK. 
 
 \y 
 
 1. In our Old English— the English spoken 'ocfore the coming 
 of the Normans, and for some generations after— every adjec- 
 tive agreed with its nomi in gender, number, and casfl ; and 
 even as late as Chaucer (1340-1400) adjectives had a form for 
 the plural number. Thus in the Prologue to the ' Cantcburj 
 Tales,' he writes — 
 
 " And ittudg fowll's maken melodic," 
 where e is the plural iniloxion. 
 
 2 In course of time, partly under the influence of the Nor- 
 mans and the Norman Linguago, all these inflexions dropped 
 off; and there are now only two adjeeiives in the whole lan- 
 guage that have any inflexions at all (except for comparison), 
 and these inflexions are only for the plural number. The two 
 adjectives that are inflected are the demonstrative adjectives 
 this and that, which make their plurals in these (formerly thide) 
 and those. 
 
 (1) The, wluch is a broken-down form of that, never changes at all. 
 (ii) When an adjective is used as a noun, it may take a plural inflec- 
 tion ; as the bUicls, goods, equals, edibles, annuals, vwnthlies, wceliies, etc. 
 
 3. Most adjectives are inflected for comparison. 
 
 F 
 
 I 
 
 h! 
 
 Hi '!' 
 
 "; J' 
 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
72 
 
 GRAMMAR OP THE ENCtLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 4. Every adjective is nither an explicit or an implicit ^^-edi- 
 cate. Tlie following are examples : — 
 
 Adjectives used as Explicit Predicates. 
 
 1. Tlie way was long; the wind was cold. 
 
 2. The minstrel was infirm and old. 
 
 3. The duke is very rich. 
 
 Adjectives used as Implicit Predicates. 
 
 1. We had before us a long way and a cold wind. 
 
 2. The infirm old minstrel went wearily on. 
 
 3. The rich duke is very niggardly, 
 
 5. WJien an adjective is used as an explicit predicate, it is 
 said to be used predicatively ; when it is used as an implicit 
 predicate, it is said to be used attributively. 
 
 Adjectives used predicatively, 
 
 1, The cherries are ripe, 
 
 2, The man we met was very old. 
 
 Adjectives used attributively. 
 
 1. Let us pluck only the ripe cherries. 
 
 2, We met an old man. 
 
 Rule XIV.— An adjective may qualify a no- .r pronoun 
 predicatively, not only after the verb be, bi\* v such in- 
 transitive verbs as look, seem, feel, taste, etc. 
 
 Thus we find : (i) She looked angry, (ii) He seemed weary, (iii) He 
 felt better, (iv) It tasted sour, (v) He fell ill. 
 
 Rule XV.— After verbs of making, thinking, considering, 
 etc., an adjective may be used factitively as well as predica- 
 tively. 
 
 Thus we can say, (i) We made all the young ones happy, (ii) All 
 present thought him odd. (iii) We considered him very clever. 
 Factitive comoa from tlic Latin /ado, I make. 
 
 Rule XVI.— An adjective may, especially in poetry, be used 
 as an abstract noun. 
 
 Thus we speak of " the True, the Good, and the Beautiful • " " the 
 sublime and tlie ridiculous ; " Mr.s ]3r„ , uing ],«, the phrase, " from the 
 depths of God's divine ; " and Longfellow speaks of 
 
 "A band 
 Of stem in licart and strong in Iiand." 
 
 po 
 
 
 wit 
 
 w 
 lo 
 
 tVfO 
 tiV€ 
 
 th 
 
l./edi< 
 
 e, it is 
 xplioit 
 
 onoun 
 ch in- 
 
 [iii) He 
 
 sring, 
 3dica- 
 
 (ii) All 
 
 I UPed 
 
 •"the 
 itn the 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 73 
 
 Rule XVII.— An adjective may be used as an adverb in 
 
 poetry. 
 
 Thus we find in Dr Johnson the line— 
 
 " Slow rises worth, by poverty depressed ; " 
 and in Scott — 
 
 " Trip it deft and menily ;" 
 and in Longfellow— 
 
 " The green trees whispered low and mild ; " 
 and in Tennyson — 
 
 " An 1 slow and sure comes up the golden year." 
 
 (i) The reason for this is that in O.E. adverbs were formed from adjectives by 
 adding e. Tlu.s brightS v/as=:lrightJy, and deepe=deep!y. But in course of 
 time the c fell otf, aiul an adverb was just like its own adjective. Henoe we still 
 'T,"f.£';''tr= ""«^'«^'<«hard; "Runquick!" " Speak louder I "" Run 
 fasti "Right reverend," etc. 
 
 (ii) Shakespeare very frequently uses adjectives u.'. :,averbs, and has such sen- 
 tences as : " Thou didst it excellent 1 ' '"Tis noble spoken !" and many more. 
 
 EuLE XVIII.— A participle is a pure adjective, and agrees 
 with its noun. 
 
 Thus, ill Pope — 
 
 " How happy is the blameless vestal's lot, 
 The world forgetting, by the world forgot ! " 
 
 where forgetting, the pre^ont active participle, and forgot, the past 
 passive participle, both aeree witli vestal (" the vestal's lot " beingzrMe 
 lot of the vestal). 
 
 (i) But while a participle is a pure adjective, 't also retains one function of a 
 verb-the power to govern. Thus in the sentence. " Respecting ourselves we 
 shall be respected by the world," the present participle mj.ec«i«o agrees with 
 ■we, and governs ourselves. " "S'ocb wha 
 
 Rule XIX.— Tlie comparative degree is employed when 
 two things or two sets of things are compared ; the superla- 
 tive when three or mor-j are compared. 
 
 Thus we say " Jame.', is taller than I ; but Tom is the tallest of the 
 three. 
 
 (i) Than is a dialectic form of then. " Jamos is taller ; then I (come)." 
 (ii) The superlative is sometimes used to ir.dicate superiority to aU others 
 Thus fehakesi)e« e suys, " A little ere tlie mightiest Julius fell ; " and we use such 
 
 superlative oi pro eminence." 
 
 (iii) Double comparatives and superlatives were much used in E and 
 Shakespeare w.as especially fond of tl,e,M. He gives us su .h phrases as "a 
 ..ore larger list of sceptres," "more better.' "more nearer," •• most wo'rst " 
 "most unkindest cut of all," et<^ These cannot be employed now. 
 
 
 •k, 
 
 r!: 
 
 i .lii 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 •A 
 
 % 
 
 
 (- 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 h •: ■"«!, 
 
 ^— 
 
 
 1: :- 11 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 'fiH 
 
 
 :» 
 
 
 ;,»■ 
 
 
 .■ jji 
 
 ij. 1 J II 
 
 1 
 
74 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TITE ENOLISII LANOUAOE. 
 
 If'. * 
 
 EuLE XX, — Tho distributive ailjiictivcjs curJi, crrrif, t'/l/iir, 
 7i(!if.ht;r, go witli singular nouns only. 
 
 Thus wo say : (i) Each boy got an apple, (ii) Every noun is in its 
 place, (iii) Either book will do. (iv) Neither woman went. 
 
 Either and neither are dialectic forin.s of other and nother, whicli 
 were afterwards compressed into or and nor. 
 
 Kemauks on Exceptions. 
 
 1. There are some ailjoctivos tliat cannot ]u\ uhvaX attribu- 
 tively, but only predicatively. Such arc, well, ill, ware, 
 aware, afraid, glad, sorry, etc. (I hit we say "a glad lieart," 
 and — in a diifcront sense — " a sorry nag.") 
 
 (i) We say " He was Jflad ; " but we cannot say " A glad man." Yet 
 Wordsworth has — 
 
 " Glad sight wlieuever new and old 
 Are joined thro' some dear honie-ljorn tie." 
 
 We also speak of "glad tidings." 
 
 (ii) We say "He was sorry ; " but if we say "He was a sorry man," 
 we use the word in a quite different sense. The attributive meaning of 
 the word is in this instance quite different from the predicative. 
 
 2. The phrase " the first two " means the fud and second 
 in one series ; " the two first " means the first of each of two 
 
 series. 
 
 m 
 
 as 
 
 th 
 
 n\. 
 
 III.— SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 EuLE XXI. — Pronouns, whether personal or relative, must 
 agree in gender, number, and person with the nouns for 
 which they stand, but not (necessarily) in case. 
 
 Thus we say : " I have lost my umbrella : it was standing in the 
 corner." 
 
 (i) Here it is neuter, singular, and third person, because umbrella is neuter 
 singuLir, and tliird i>erson. ' 
 
 (ii) Umbrella is in tlie objective case governed by 7uife lost; but it is in the 
 nominative, because it is tho subject to its own verb vms sUiiuUng. 
 
 Rule XXII. — Pronouns, whether personal or relative, take 
 their case from the sentence in wliich they stand. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE PHONOUN. 
 
 75 
 
 I'lllicr^ 
 
 
 ThuH we Hay : " Tlio sailor wlwm we met <>n the beuuh ia ill." Here 
 sailor in in the nominative, and whom, its pronoun, in the objective. 
 
 (i) Whom is in the (itycctive, becauso it is governed liy tlin verl) met in its 
 own sentence. "The siiilor is ill" is one sentence. "Him (whom -.and him) 
 we met " ia a second sentence. 
 
 (ii) Tlio relative may be governed by a prepoeition, as "The man on whom I 
 relied has not disappointed me." 
 
 KuLE XXIII. — Who, whom, and whose are \isod only of 
 rational beings; which of irrational; that may stand for 
 nouns of any kind. 
 
 (i) In poetry, whose may be used for of which. Thus Wordsworth, in 
 the ' Laodamia,' has — 
 
 " In worlds whose course is equable and pure." 
 
 lluLE XXIV. — Tlie possessive pronouns mine, thine, ours, 
 yours, and theirs can only be used predicatively ; or, if used 
 as a subject, cannot have a noun with them. 
 
 Thus we say : " This is mine." " Mine is larger tlian yours." But 
 mine and thine are used for my and thy before a noun in poetry and 
 impassioned prose : "Who knoweth the power of thine anger? " 
 
 Eui.E XXV. — After such, same, so much, so great, etc., 
 the relative employed is not who, but as. 
 Thus Milton has — 
 
 " Tears sucli as angels weep." 
 (i) Slmkespcarc uses oa even after that— 
 
 " But Itind of fruit m maids call medlars." 
 This usage cannot now be employed. 
 
 Remarks on Exceptions. 
 1. The antecedent to the relative may be omitted. 
 Thus we find, in Wordsworth's " Ode to Duty "— 
 
 " There are a who ask not if thine eye 
 Be on them." 
 
 And Shakespeare, in "Othello," iii. 3. 157, has— 
 
 " A Who steals my purse, steals trash." 
 
 And we have the well-known Greek proverb— 
 
 " A Whom the gods love, die young." 
 
 H 
 
 -y 
 
 ( ,' 
 
 \ II 
 
 ■ i[ 
 
 m 
 
 I : 
 
 
 liJ 
 
 m 
 
76 
 
 GUAMMAU OF THE ENCiLLSII LANGUAQE. 
 
 
 fi 
 
 i 
 
 U 
 
 J 
 
 ! 1 ,1' 
 
 It may licnco 
 
 2. The relative itsolf may bo omitted. 
 
 (i) Tlius Shelley has the line — 
 
 " Men must reap the things A they sow," 
 
 (ii) And such phrases as, " Is tiiis the book A you wanted ? " are very 
 common. 
 
 3. Tlie word but is often used for who + not. 
 be called the negative>relative. 
 
 Thus Scott has— 
 
 " There breathes not clansman of my line 
 But ( = who not) would have given his life for mine." 
 
 4. Tho personal pronouns, when in the dative or objective 
 case, are generally without emphasis. 
 
 (i) If we say " Give me your hand," the me is unemphatic. If we say 
 " Give me your hand ! " the me has a stronger emphasis than the give, 
 and means me, and not any other person. 
 
 (ii) "Very ludicrous accidents sometimes occur from the misplacing of 
 the accent. Thus a careless reader once read : " And he said, ' Saddle 
 me the ass;' and they saddled him." Nelson's famous signal, "Eng- 
 land^ expects every man to do his duty," was once altered in em- 
 pluvsis with excellent effect. A midshipman on board one of H.M.'s 
 ships was very lazy, and inclined to allow others to do his work; and tho 
 question went round the vessel : " Why ia Mr So-and-so like England ? " 
 " Because he expects every man to do his duty," 
 
 it '! 
 
 if,- 
 
 h ( ;, 
 
 if i ;i 
 
 IV.— SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 1.— CONCORD OF VERBS. 
 
 We cannot say / writes, or lie or The man write. We always say / write, 
 lie writes, and The man writes. In other words, certain pronouns and 
 nouns require a certain form of a verb to go with them. If tiie pronoun 
 is of the first person, then the verb will have a certain form ; if it is of the 
 third person, it will have a different form. If tlie noun or pronoun is sing- 
 ular, the verb will have one form ; if it is plural, it may have another form. 
 In these circumstAneea, tlie verb is said to agree with its subject. 
 
 All these facts are usually embodied in a general statement, which may 
 also serve as a rule. 
 
 EuLB XXVI.— A Finite Verb must agree with its subject 
 
SYNTAX OF THE VERU. 
 
 77 
 
 Tims wc siiy: "Ho calls," "They 
 
 in Number and Person, 
 walk." 
 
 (i) The subject answers to the question Who 7 or What 7 
 
 (ii) The subject of a finite verb is always in the nominative case. 
 
 Or and nor are conjunctions which do not add tlie things mentioned 
 to each other, but allow the mind to take them separately— the one 
 excluding the other. We may therefore say :— 
 
 Rule XXVII. — Two or more singularnouns that are aubjecta, 
 connected by or or nor, require their verl) to ho in the singular. 
 Thus we say : " Either Tom or John is going." " It was cither 
 a roe-deer or a large goat ! " 
 
 On the other hand, when two or more singular nouns are connected 
 by and, they are added to each other ; and, just as one and one make 
 two, so two singular nouns are equal to one plural. AVe may therefore 
 lay down the following rule : — 
 
 RuLB XXVIII. — Two or more singular nouns that are sub* 
 jects, connected by and, require their verb to he in the plural. 
 We say: "Tom and John are going." "There were a roe- 
 deer and a goat in the field." 
 
 Cautions.— {i) The compound conjunction as well as does not rec -; 
 a plural verb, because it allows the mind to take each subject separately. 
 Thus we say, "Justice, as well as mercy, allows it." We can see the 
 truth of this remark by transposing the clauses of the sentence, and 
 saying, "Justice allows it, as' well as mercy [allows it]." 
 
 (ii) The preposition with cannot make two singular subjects into one 
 plural. We must say, "The Mayor, 'vith his attendants, was there." 
 Transposition will show the force of this remark also : " The Mayor was 
 there with his attendants." 
 
 Rule XXIX. — Collective Nouns take a singular verb or 
 a plural verb, as tlie notion of unity or of plurality is upi^er- 
 most in the mind of the speaker. Thus we say : " Parliament 
 was dissolved." "The committee are divided in opinion." 
 
 (i) When two or more nouns represent one idea, the verb is singular. 
 Thus, in Milton's " Lycidas," we find— 
 
 " Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear 
 Compels me to disturb your season due. 
 
 ii 
 
 .'Sll 
 
 ;lUi 
 
 »-*f,»l 
 
 1 r-}- 
 
 i 
 
78 
 
 OnAMMAU OF THE KNGLISH LANGUACK. 
 
 P 
 
 \.i 
 
 M 
 
 i,. 
 
 
 
 
 And, in SlmkeHiieare'H "Tempest" (v. 104), we read— 
 
 " All torment, trouble, wonder, and amazement 
 Inhabits here." 
 
 In this caao we may look upon the Htatement as = " A condition which 
 embraces all torment," etc, 
 
 (ii) When the verb preoedea a number of different nominatives, it is 
 often singular. The speaker seems not to have yet made up his mind 
 what nominatives he is going to use. Thus, in the well-known passage 
 iu Byron's " Childe Harold " we have— 
 
 "Ah I then and there was hurrying to and fro, 
 And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress." 
 
 And so Shakespeare, in " Julius Caesar," makes Brutus say, " There is 
 tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honour for liis valour, and death 
 for his ambition." And, in the same way, people say, " Where is mv 
 hat and stick?" 
 
 KuLB XXX. — The verb to be is often attracted into the same 
 number as the nominative that follows it, instead of agreeing 
 witli tlie nominative that is its true subject. Thus we find : 
 "The wages of sin is death." "To love and to admire has 
 been the joy of his existence." "A high look and a proud 
 heart is sin." 
 
 2.— GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 Rule XXXI. — A Transitive Verb in tlie active voice 
 governs its direct object in the objective case. Thus we say : 
 •' I like him ; " " they dislike her." 
 
 The following sub-rules are of some importance : — 
 
 (i) The participle, which is an adjective, has the same governing 
 power as tlie verb of which it is a part— as, " Seeing the rain, I remained 
 at home"— where seeing agrees with I as an adjective, and governs 
 rain as a verb. 
 
 (ii) The gerund, which is a noun, has the same governing power as 
 the verb to whicli it belongs. Thus we say : " Hating one's neighbour is 
 forbidden by the Gospel," where hating is a noun, the nominative to 
 is forbidden, and a geruad governing neighbour in the objective. 
 
 Rule XXXII. — Active-transitive Verbs of giving, promis- 
 ing, oflfering, and suchlike, govern the Direct Object in tho 
 
SYNTAX OF THE VERH. 79 
 
 objective case, and tho Indirect Object in thn dative. " J 
 gavo him an apple." "lie. promiHos me a book." 
 
 (i) In turning these active verbs into passive, it is tl.e direct object 
 that should bo turned int., the subject of the paesive verb ; and wo 
 ought to say, "An apple was given n.o." But custom allows of either 
 mode of change ; and we also say, "I was given an apple;" "I was 
 
 retained objects, because they are retained in the sentence, even 
 although we know that no passive verb can govern an objective case. 
 
 RuLK XXXIII. — Such verbs as make, create, appoint, 
 think, believe, etc., govern two objects— tlie one direct, tho 
 other factitive. Thus we say: "They made him king;" 
 "tho king appointed him governor;" "we thought her' a 
 clever woman." 
 
 (i) The second of these objectives remans with the j.assive verb 
 when the form of the sentence has been changed; and we say. "He 
 was made king ; '■ " he was appointed governor." 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 ■U; 
 
 Rule XXXIV.— One verb governs another in the Infinitive 
 Or, 
 
 Tho Infinitive Mood of a verb, being a pure noun, may be 
 the object of another verb, if that verb is active-transitive. 
 Thus we say : " I saw him ,^0 ; " " we saw the ship sink ; " 
 "I ordered him to write. 
 
 (i) In the first two sentences, him and ship are the subjects of go 
 and sink. But the subject of an infinitive is always in the objective 
 case. The infinitives go and sink have a double face. They are verbs 
 in relation to their subjects him and go; they are nouns in relation to 
 the verbs that govern them. 
 
 (ii) In the sentence, " I ordered him to write," him is in the dative 
 case; and the sentence is = "I ordered writing to him." To write is 
 the direct object of ordered. 
 
 (iii) Conclusion from the above : An Infinitive is always a noun, 
 whether it be a aubjent or an object. It is (a) a subject in tho 
 sentence, "To play football is pleasant." It is (&) an object in the 
 sentence, "I like to play football." 
 
 Rule XXXV.— Some Intransitive Verbs govern tho Dative 
 
 i- I- 
 
 Wi: 
 
r; 
 
 4 :• ; 
 
 'I 
 
 f1 
 
 "1 
 
 
 I;- 
 I* ! K 
 
 80 
 
 tJKAMMAK UK TIIK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Case. Tlius wm Imvo " Meffinii<//i/," « me.syr/«.y," " Woo w»r//i 
 thu day ! " " W(.u is me ! " "If you />/<vw,! / " 
 
 (i) Worth in tlio imi.erutivo of mi old KngliMli verb, wcorlhnn, t<i l.c- 
 cdiiio. (T!io Gcriiiun form of thin vcrl) u wcnicii.) 
 
 (ii) Sliiiki-HixMiro cvoii coiirttrueH the verb look with a ilativo. lu 
 "Cyiiibeline," iii, 5, 32, ho lia«— 
 
 Kho lookH us like 
 A thing more made of malice, than of duty. 
 
 3.— MOODS OF VERBS. 
 
 u 
 
 1. The Indicative Mood is the mood of direct assertion or Htateiiient, 
 ai'tl it wpoiiks of actual facts. The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of as- 
 Hcrtion also, but with a modification given to the assertion by the mind 
 through which it passes. If wo use the term Ohjcctive as describing what 
 aHu(dli) cxhU indei)endently of our minds, and subjective as describing 
 that which cxisU in the mind of the speaker,— whether it really exists 
 outside or not, — we can then say that — 
 
 (i) The Indicative Mood is the mood of 6bjectlve assertion. 
 
 (ii) The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of subjective assertion. 
 
 Tlie Iiidic'ntive Moot! may bo coniimreil to a ray of liglit coiiiiiig straight 
 tlirough tli(." air; tlie Siilijiinetive Mood to the effect pro.liiced by the water on 
 the .same ray— tlio water deflects it, inaltes it form a quite different angle, anU 
 heneo a stick In tlie water looks broken or crooked. 
 
 2. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command or of request. 
 
 3. The Infinitive Mood is the substantive mood or noun of the 
 verb. It is always equal to a noun ; it is always either a subject or an 
 object ; and hence it is incapable of making any assertion. 
 
 4. Tiie Subjunctive Mood has for some years been gradually dying 
 out. Few writers, and still fewer speakers, use it. Good writers are 
 even found to say, " If he was here, I should tell him." But a know- 
 ledge of the uses of the subjunctive mood is necessary to enable us to 
 understand English i)rose and verse anterior to the present generation. 
 Even so late as the year 1817, Jane Austen, one of the best prose-writers 
 of this century, used the subjunctive mood in almost every dependent 
 clause. Not only does she use it after t/and though, but after such con- 
 junctions as till, until, because, and others. 
 
 Kur.R XXXVI.— The Subjunctive Mood was used— and 
 ought to he used — to express doubt, possibility, supposition, 
 consequence (which may or may not happen), or wish, all as 
 moods of the mind of the speaker. 
 
 
SYNTAX OK TflK VKItll. 
 
 81 
 
 y 
 
 (I) " If Ukiu read Huh, O CujHar, thou raayHt live." (Doubt.) 
 (ii) " If lio come, I will Kpeiik to him." (I'oHHibility.) 
 (iii) " Yot if Olio lieiu t throb Iii^^her iit iin Mway, 
 
 The wizard note liiw not huoii touciied in %uiu." (Suiiiiusitioii.) 
 (iv) " Oot oil your niglitgown, lent occ xion call um 
 
 And ehow u« to bo watcherB." {ConHC(jucncc.) 
 
 (v) " I would my daughter were dead at my foot and the jewel« in \w\- 
 oar!" (Wish.) 
 
 «ar III all (if till- above sentences, the clauses with subjunctives do not state facts, 
 but feelings or notions of what may <ir might 1)0. 
 
 Rule XXXVII. — Tho Subjunctive Mood, being a xiihjolncil 
 11100(1, is always dependent on some other claiiso antecedent 
 in thought, and gonorally also in cxprcission. The ante(;c(lent 
 clanso, Avhich contains tho condition, is called the conditional 
 clause ; and the clause which contains the consequence of the 
 supposition is called tho consequent clause. 
 
 (i) If it were wo , it woa a grievouH fault. 
 Condition. Consequence. 
 
 (ii) If i t were d one when 'ti« done, 
 Condition, 
 
 Then 'twere well it wore done quickly. 
 
 Cuiiscniicnce. 
 
 Eemarks on Exceptions. 
 
 1. .Sometimes the conditional clause is suppressed. Thus we 
 can .say, " I would not endure such language " [if it were ad- 
 dressed to me = conditional clause]. 
 
 2. The conjunction is often omitted. Thu.s, in Shakespeare's 
 play of " Julius Csesar," we find — 
 
 " Were I BrutUH, 
 And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony 
 Would ruffle up your spirits." 
 
 EuLK XXXVIII.— Tho Simpie Infinitive — without the sign 
 to— is used with auxiliary verbs, such as may, do, shall, will, 
 etc. ; and with such verbs as let, bid, can, must, see, hear, 
 make, feel, observe, have, know, etc. 
 
 *! 
 
 ^^K 
 
 ''l\ 
 
 :-m 
 
 a, 
 
 Hit 
 
 t ^' 
 
 smP t. 
 
 
 !• 
 
82 
 
 GUAMMAIt OF THE ENGLISK LANGUAGE. 
 
 Vf 
 
 If 
 
 < 
 
 ' \ 
 
 (i) Let darkness keep lier raven gloss, 
 (ii) Bid tlie porter come. 
 (iii) I saw liim run after a gilded butterfly. 
 (iv) We heard him cry. 
 (v) They made him go, etc., etc. 
 It was the Danes who introduced a prciio.sition before tlie infinitive 
 Their sign was at, which was largely used with the infinitive in the 
 Northern dialect. 
 
 KuLE XXXIX —Tlie Gerund is both a noun mitl a verb. 
 As a noun, it is governed by a vorl) or preposition ; as a 
 verb, it governs other nouns or pronouns. 
 
 There are two gerunds— (i) one with to; and (ii) one that 
 ends in ing. 
 
 (i) Thefirst is to be carefully distinguished from the ordinary in- 
 finitive. i>ow the ordinary infinitive never expresses a purpose ; the 
 gerund with to almost always does. Thus we find— 
 
 "And fools who came to scoff remained to pray." 
 
 Tliis gerund is often called the gerundial infinitive. 
 
 _ (ii) The second is to be distinguished from the present participle iu 
 mg, and very carefully from the abstract noun of the same form. The 
 present participle in ing, as loving, hating, walking, etc., is always an 
 adjective, agreeing with a noun or pronoun. The gerund in ing is 
 always a noun, and governs an object. " He was very fond of playing 
 cricket." Here plaj/ing is a noun in relation to of; and a verb govern- 
 ing cricket in the objective. In the words walking-stick, frying-pan, etc., 
 walking and frying are nouns, and therefore gerunds. If they were ad- 
 jectives and participles, the compounds would mean the stick that tvalks 
 the pan that fries. ' 
 
 (iii) The gerund in ing must also be distinguished from the verbal 
 noun in ing, wliich is a descendant of the verbal noun in ung " He 
 went a hunting" (>diere a = the old an or on) ; "Forty and six years 
 was this temple in building ; " " He was vei-y impatient during the 
 reading of the will." In these sentences hunting, building, and read- 
 ing are all verbal nouns, derived from the old verbal noun in ung, and 
 are called abstract 7iouns. But if we say, " He is fond of hunting deer- " 
 "He is engaged in building a hotel;" "He likes reading poetry,"— then 
 the three words are gerunds, for they act as verbs, and govem the throe 
 objectives, deer, hotel, and poetry. 
 
 RrLE XL.— The Gerundial Infinitive is frequently con- 
 strued with nouns and adjectives. Thus we say: "A house 
 
 i 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB — AND PREPOSITION. 83 
 
 to sell or let ; " " Wood to burn ; " " Deadly to hear, and 
 deadly to tell ; " " Good to eat." 
 
 v.— SYNTAX OF THE ADVEEB. 
 
 EuLB XLI. — The Adverb ought to be as near as possible to 
 the word it modifies. Tluis we ought to say, " He gave me 
 only three sliilliugs," and not " He only gave me three shil- 
 lings," because only modifies three, and not gave. 
 
 Tliis rule applies also to compoui 
 manner, at random, in part, etc. 
 
 Iverbs, such as at least, in like 
 
 EuLE XLII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
 adverbs ; but they can also modify prepositions. Thus we 
 have the combinations out from, up to, down to, etc. 
 
 In the sentence, "He walked up to me," the adverb up does not 
 modify walked, but the prepositional phrase to me, 
 
 VI.— SYNTAX OF THE PEEPOSITION. 
 
 EuLE XLIII. — All prepositions in the English language 
 govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case. 
 
 The prepositions save and except are really verbs in the imperative 
 mood. 
 
 EuLE XLIV.— Prepositions generally stand before the words 
 they govern ; but they may, with good eff'ect, come after them. 
 Thus we find in Shakespeare — 
 
 " Ten thousand men that fishes gnawed apon." 
 " Why, then, thou knowest what colour jet is of." 
 And, in Hooker, with very forcible eff'ect— 
 
 " Shall there be a God to swear by, and none to pray to 7 " 
 
 EuLE XLV. — Certain verbs, nouns, and adjectives require 
 special prepositions. Thus wo cannot say, " 1'his is difl'erent 
 to that," because it is bad English to say "Tliis differs to that." 
 The proper preposition in both instances is ft-om. 
 
 ,^l 
 
 . M 
 
 i 
 
 
 rh 
 
 iiii 
 
 I I ! 
 
 II; 
 
84 
 
 GUAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 I^'i 
 
 ■«"• 
 
 f I 
 
 TIio following is a list of some of tlieso 
 Special prepositions: — 
 
 Absolve from. 
 
 Abhorrence for. 
 
 Accord with. 
 
 Acquit of. 
 
 Affinity between. 
 
 Atlaiited to (intentionally). 
 
 Adapted for (by nature). 
 
 Agree with (a per.son). 
 
 Agree to (a iiro})o.sal). 
 
 Bestow upon. 
 
 Change for (a tiling). 
 
 Change with (a per.son). 
 
 Confer on ( = give to). 
 
 Confer with ( = talk with). 
 
 Confide in ( = trust in). 
 
 Confide to ( = in trust to). 
 
 Conform to. 
 
 In conformity with. 
 
 Comply with. 
 
 Convenient to (a person). 
 
 Convenient for (a purpose). 
 
 Conversant with. 
 
 Corresjjond with (a person). 
 
 CoiTespond to (a thing). 
 
 Dependent on (but independent of). 
 
 Derogatory to. 
 
 Differ from (a statement or opinion). 
 Difier with (a person). 
 Different from. 
 
 Disappointed of (what we cannot 
 get). 
 
 Disappointed in (what we have 
 
 got). 
 Dissent from. 
 Exception from (a rule). 
 Exception to (a statement). 
 Glad of (a jjossession). 
 Glad at (a piece of news). 
 Involve in. 
 Martyr for (a cause). 
 Martyr to (a disease). 
 Teed of or for. 
 Part from (a person). 
 Part with (a thing). 
 Profit by. 
 
 Reconcile to (a person). 
 Reconcile with (a statement). 
 Taste of (food). 
 A taste for (art). 
 Thirst for or after (knowledge). 
 
 afl 
 r(j( 
 ye 
 or, 
 
 0111 
 
 Shi 
 
 VII.-SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Rule XLVT.— The Conjunction does not interfere with the 
 action of a transitive verb or preposition, nor with the mood or 
 tep«!e of a verb. 
 
 (i) This rule is usually stated thus : " Conjunctions generally connect 
 the same cases of nouns and pronou. , and the same moods and tenses 
 of verbs, !m We saw him and her,' ' Let cither him or me go ! > " But 
 It 18 plan, that saw governs her as well as him; and that or cannot 
 mterfere with the government of let. Such a rule is therefore totally 
 artificial. ^ 
 
 (ii) It is plain that the 
 one plural, an " He and I are 
 
 iijunction and must make two singulars = 
 i of the same age," 
 
 Rule XLVIF,— Certain a^jectiveB and coiyunctions take 
 
SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 85 
 
 after thom certain special conjunctions. Thus, such (adi ) 
 rcimres as. both (aaj.). and; so and as require as; though 
 yet; Whether, or; either, or; neither, nor; nor. nor; or.' 
 
 or. iJio following are a fmv examples :— 
 
 (i) " Would I describe a preacher such as Paul ! " 
 
 (ii) "Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull." 
 
 ^.!''^ ^^^yi"— 'i'lio subordinating conjunction that may bo 
 omi ted. llu,s we can say, "Are you .sure be i,s hv.v.V 
 felmkespeare bas, "Yot Brutus says be was ambitious t " ' 
 
 I'! 
 
 H.<S 
 
 lii 
 
 (•'Hi; 
 
 ■>■ ii!' 
 
 
 if/ 
 
 H i 
 
 I- -i 
 
 fi 
 
86 
 
 iiv il. 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OP SBNTBNOBS. 
 
 1. Words arc gregarious, and go in groups. When a groi\p 
 of WDrds makes complete sense, it is called a sentence. A 
 sentence is not a chance collection of words ; it is a true 
 organism, with a heart and linihs. When we take the limbs 
 apart from the central core or heart of the sentence, and try to 
 show their relation to that core, and to each other, we are said 
 to analyse the sentence. Tlie process of thus taking a sen- 
 tence to pieces, and naming and accounting for each piece, is 
 called analysis. 
 
 (i) Analysis is a Greek word which means breaking up or taking 
 apart : its opposite is Syntbesis, which means making vp or putting 
 together. 
 
 (ii) When we examine a sentence, and divide it into its component 
 parts, we are said to analyse the sentence, or to perform an act of 
 analysis. But when we put words or phrases together to make a 
 sentence, we perform an act of composition or of syntbeils. 
 
 2. A sentence is a statement made about something, as, 
 The horse gallops, 
 
 (i) The something (horps) is called the Subject. 
 (ii) The statement (gallops) is called the Predicate. 
 
 3. Every sentence consists, and must consist, of at least t'wo 
 parts. These two parts are the thing we speak about and 
 what we say about that thing. 
 
 (i) The Subject is what we speak about. 
 
 (ii) The Predicate is wbat we say about the subject, 
 
 (i) There is a proverb of Solomon which says: "AH things are double one 
 against another," So there are the two necessarily complementary ideas of «t«ii 
 and odd; of right and left; of north and louth ; and many more. In language, the 
 two ideas of BalOact and lYedlcata are necessarily coexistent ; neither can exist 
 '»ithont the other; we cannot even think the one without the other. They are 
 the two polu of thought. 
 
 o"' 
 
THE AxVALYKIH oF SKNTENt'ES. 87 
 
 .. Jo y!!u"r '""°'' "'" ^"''^''' " ■"" """'"" "' ""''"""^'' ''^'"'«"'='"'. ''•^ "' "<">!■■- 
 
 (iii) Tlifi Predicate can never !«• simprtscea • it imwt „iv>-.,.,. i 
 otherwise nothing .' all would be -Id. ^'"''"'''^ ' " ""'•^^ "'^^''i'^ ^"^ expr.ued; 
 
 4. Tliero are three kinds of sentences : Simple, Compound, 
 and Complex. 
 
 (i) A simple sentence contains only one .subject and one predicate. 
 (11) A complex sentence contains a chief .sentence, a.id one or 
 more sentences that arc of subordinate rank to the chief sentence. 
 
 of eqiatrlnk^""'"'^ '""*'""' '""*'"" ^^'' "' '""'" ^""P'° ««"t''""<^« 
 
 I. -THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 5. A Simple Sentence i.s a sentence wliieli ecn^i.st.j of one 
 subject and one predicate. 
 
 verb^ ^f^"P;«S«';t-'ce contains, an.l can contain, only one flnlto 
 verb. If v^e say, "Baby likes to dance," there are two verbs in 
 
 ni'u!'"^''/-'"*'"'^^- ^"* '" ''""'•'^ ^^ '-t - «-te verb; it s a 
 p^icaTe.' '" "^ "^'^ ' ^'"" °°"^' ""^ ^'^"""^ t'^'^^^f-^ be" 
 
 ri"nfr" r.?r^^' ""^'"^"^ *"'^ '^*'"'' '■^" °^'" *hc sentence is-" John 
 ran off f "James ran off." It is therefore a c,.n,pound sentence 
 consisting of two simple sentences, with the predicate of one of t .em 
 suppressed. Hence it is called a contracted compound sentence- 
 contracted in the predicate. scnieacc— 
 
 In tins case the sentence may be treated as Simple, " Janios 
 and John" forming a Compound Subject to the Predicate 
 " ran olf. 
 
 FORMS OF SENTi:NCES. 
 
 6. Sontencos differ in th(, Form avIu,.]! they take. As re- 
 yards form thoy may Le classilied as follows :— 
 
 (i) 
 
 Assertive- 
 Positive ; 
 
 ■The night grows cold. 
 
 (b) Negative :— I am not going 
 
 Not a drum was hoard. 
 They caught never a one. 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ,i 
 
 ■A 
 
 
 1 •• 
 
 ' ■ 
 
 -Kj 
 
 
 ^l 
 
 1-'; 
 
 •^ *'■;!* 
 
 iM 
 
 ■^iil 
 
 ;v ill 
 
 !;r! 
 
88 
 
 UllAMMAU OF TlIK ENGLISH LAN(iUAlJE. 
 
 f 5 . L 
 
 -.1 
 
 • '.I 
 
 nil 
 'I if 
 
 
 
 (ii) Interrogative : — Whom seek yol 
 (iii) Exclamatory : — IIow swiftly the river flows ! 
 In the cases of Interrogative or Exclamatory sentences, in 
 Avliich the usual order of the words is changed for the sake of 
 cnipliusis or effect, tlie sentences should bo put in assertive 
 straightforward order for the purpose of analysis, thus : — 
 
 Ye seek whom ? 
 
 The river flows how swiftly. 
 
 (iv) Imperative : — Sir, look to your manners. 
 In imi)crativ(' sentences the subject is usually omitted. In 
 this sentence "8ir" is really a nominative of address, and the 
 real subject " thou" js not expressed. 
 
 (v) Optative, expressing a wish or invocation : — 
 
 ' ' God bless us every one ! " 
 " Oh, could I flow like thee ! " 
 
 In Greek there is a special mood of the verb, called the 
 optative, for expressions of this kind, but in English the verb 
 is in the subjunctive. 
 
 Note how the Optative differs from the merely Assertive. Com- 
 pare :— 
 
 God bless us, i.e. May God bless us (Optative) ; and 
 God blesses us (Assertive). 
 
 PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 7. The Subject of a sentence hj what we speak about. 
 AVhat we speak about we must name. 
 
 If we name a thing, wo must use a name or noun. 
 Therefore the subject must always be either — 
 (i) A noun ; or 
 (ii) Some word or words equivalent to a noun. 
 
 8. There are eight kinds of Subjects — 
 
 (i) A Noun, as, England is our liome. 
 (ii) A Pronoun, as, It is our fatherland. 
 
TlIK ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNCKS. 
 
 Com- 
 
 89 
 
 (iii) A Verbal Noun, as. Walking is h,dlhy. 
 (IV) A Gerund, us, Catching ii..], is u pleasant pasti.nu. 
 (v; An Infinitive, as. To swim is .juitc ,.asy. 
 (vi) An Adjective, witli a noun understood, as TJie 
 
 prosperous aro suiuelimus cul,l-],carte.l. 
 (vii) A Quotation, as, "Ay. ay. sir!" burst f,,,,! a 
 
 tliousand tli routs, 
 (viii) A Noun-clause or sentence, as, That he was a 
 tyrant is ,^'OIlera]ly uaiiiitt(...l. 
 
 (b) Catchlngrisagorun.l, l.ecausc it is l.oth . noun (nondn- 
 atu-e to ..) and a verb, governing,^./. i„ the objecir 
 
 Tori^lord?"'^"* " ^°"^^*^"^- composite-consisting of two or 
 The home, the home.tead, the very fence., aU were destrovcl 
 10 thcin hli heart, hi. love, hi. grief., were given. 
 "S"''%if"''^"'\r"''''"'' '^^'"^' •" apposition to «lt" „r 
 
 ^i.t^z;;:j:i:'tz:^: ^ ^^ -- --- to su.eod:^ 
 
 -SS'^^iJL^^'S:;-:- ::;- ;;;;: ';5^;-.u..ate ..ve .. h...- t,.c 
 
 sole reward, the approval of their king/' "'"'''■"■' "''" =" T'"''' ^^"^ "'<=»'• 
 
 In tliese cases, " it," " this " ami " fi.of •• „ 
 su.,,io.t c„n,i„, after;ards out is n ttal oX' ^. t""'"'"' ""^T''^' ""= '■^"'' 
 is called the ProvLlonal Snbject "' ""^ ^''^ '''°'''l """* ""cd, 
 
 My banks, they are furnished with bees. 
 
 Tired Nature's sweet restorer, bahny sleer, 
 He, like the wori, , his ready visit pays 
 Where fortune smiles. 
 
 «ubiccf%fr"'' "\;\'^^"^'^"'-"" ^«-l-t M. say about the 
 «ub, ct. If ,vc say n.ytlang, wo must use a saying or telling 
 word. Xow a telling Avurd is a verb. 
 
 Therefore tlio Predicate must always b., a verb or 
 some word or words equivalent to a verb. 
 
 i-'if 
 
 (• 
 
 ■ i 
 
 ..i.» 
 
 
 I ! 
 
 It li:. 
 
 ill: 
 
 [ii 
 
90 
 
 GRAMMAn, OF THK KNCILISH LANGUA(iE. 
 
 rk. 
 
 10. There iiro six kinds of I'rodiciito — 
 
 (i) A Verb, as, God is. Tlio stream runs, 
 (ii) " To be " + a noun, as, He is a carpenter. 
 (iii) " To be " + an adjective, as, Tlioy are idle. 
 (iv) " To be " + an adverb, as, Tlie Ijooks are there. 
 
 (v) " To be " + a phrase, as, She is in good health. 
 (vi) "Tobe"-t a clause or sentence, as, His cry was, 
 I die for my country. 
 
 NOTE (i) Only Finite «r Complete Verba can form I'redicatcs. When 
 the Vurb is iuconiplute or infinite, as in tlie case of — 
 
 (a) A Participle, 
 (1)) All Iiinnitivc, 
 f 
 it cannot form the I'reilicate of a sentence except by the addition 
 
 of otlier completing words. Tiiua "hni-.ig" or "to love" coidd 
 never form a predicate, although "lovirg," wlien converted into a 
 finite verb by prefixing "was," may form a predicate. 
 
 (ii) The Verb ia sometimes modified by an Adverb or Preposition 
 wliicli is closely attached to it, and which for the purpose of analysis 
 may be regarded as part of the Predicate. 
 
 They agreed to ( ^accepted) my proposal. 
 The subject was well thrashed out ( = debated). 
 The pirates atovo in ( = broke) the cabin-door. 
 
 11. Cautions :— 
 
 (i) Tlicro is a large class of verbs known as Copulative 
 
 Verbs, ■which being connective rather than notional 
 
 in their character, rcijuire another word or jihrase. 
 
 to be associated with them to make the predicate 
 
 comiilete. Thus : — 
 
 He appears healthy. 
 
 The apprentice became a merchant 
 
 The girl grew tall. 
 
 The poor creature seems to be dying. 
 
 John stands six feet. 
 
 NOTK. — Some of these verbs are also used transitively, and then take 
 ail Object like other irausitivc verba :— Stand it on the table. 
 
 (ii) The frequently occurring verb " to be " (except in 
 the few cases where it means "to exist"), and some 
 
When 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SRNTKNCRS. yj 
 
 otlior copulativo vorl,., a.s, to seem, to become. 
 etc., can never f..rm predicates by themselves. 
 (iii) IJowar,, of associating two dissimilar verb.s as prodi- 
 «^tt.,.. Thus in tho .s,.„l,.„oo : " Ho reftised to ]oav., 
 tl.oHlnp, tlu, j.nMlicat. is not "r..fus,.d to Icavo " 
 IJUt simply " refused." ' 
 
 12. When the predicate consists of an active -transitive 
 
 verb, tmpurcs an object after it to make complete sonso 
 
 J Jus object .s called either the object or the completion. A 
 
 we must name the object, it is plain that it must always, like 
 
 ■ tho^^ibject, be a noun, or some word or wonls e.uivalei; to a 
 
 13. As there are eight kinds of Subjects, so there are ci^dit 
 knids of Objects or Completions. These are :- 
 (i) A Noun, as, All of us love England. 
 (ii) A -Pronoun, as, Wo saw him in the -arden. 
 (iii) A Verbal Noun, as, We like walking. 
 (iv) A Gerund, as, The angler prefers taking large fish 
 (v) An Infinitive, as, We hate to be idle. 
 (vi) An Adjective with a noun understood, as, Good 
 uien love the good. 
 
 ^'"'^ Ton?r°'^"°''' '"' ^^' '""''^ ^""' ^'"^ "Good-bye, 
 
 (viii) A Noun-clause or sentence, as, I knew what 
 was the matter. 
 
 They consider it infamous to desert. 
 This I command, no parley with the foe 
 That he abhors, the sale of flesh and blood 
 
 At noon the outlaw reached his glen 
 His gathered spoUs, his merry mea ' 
 
 pa^eU"'" *'' P"°^ ''' '^^'^^ *° ''"- - ''-'- and (to) help his 
 
 fill 
 
 I 
 
 ■ft 
 
 m 
 
 ,4. ? 
 
 'ii 
 
 ir:l» 
 
 ri 
 
 ( ; I ^ 
 
 iU 
 
 !J1 
 
92 
 
 fiRAMMAU OF TIIK KNOMHII T.ANCilTAnK. 
 
 rlf-^^ 
 
 <^:|l 
 
 i' 
 
 If 
 
 
 14. Verbs (if giving, promising, oifering, handing, and 
 lurtiiy such, tako also an indirect object, wliioli is soiiictimca 
 called till) dative object. 
 
 'J'hero are several kinds of Indirect Objects : — 
 (i) A Noun, AVo <,'av(! the man a shilling'. 
 (ii) A Pronoun, We ofl'crcd him sixiiciice. 
 (iii) A Prepositional Phrase: 1 took liini for a sailor 
 
 And therefore think liim as a serpent's egg. 
 (iv) An Infinitive : — - 
 
 (a) after the Direct Object : I saw him (to) run. 
 
 (I)) after an Intransitive Verh : Tiiey appeared to sbine. 
 
 t^ Some authorities prefer to regard sucli a case as (a) "him 
 run " as a Compound Object, treating as a whole tlie two or more 
 words forming the object. 
 
 15. The following,' may ho regarded as special kinds of 
 Indirect Objects : — 
 
 (i) A Factitive Object : — 
 
 They made him President. 
 
 Milton (lid not hesitate to call Spenser a better teacher than 
 Socrates or Aquinas. 
 
 It should he noted that the words "made" and 
 "call "have a more restricted nieaiung than 
 when followed by ordinary simple objects. 
 
 Compare: — "They made him "President" with "They made 
 a boat," "Milton . . . Aquinas," with "Call them tjuickly." 
 
 In the latter cases "made" and "call" have a fuller meaning 
 than in the former. 
 
 NOTE. — Sometimes it may appear as an Adjective with a Noun 
 understood. 
 
 J'xercise made him strong ( =a strong man). 
 Tliey painted the house white ( = a white house). 
 
 (ii) A Cognate Object, in whicli the Predicate and 
 Object are words from tin same root : — 
 
 ' , Let me die the death of the righteous. 
 
 He rau his godly race. 
 
 Pl 
 
 fa 
 
 r 
 
 A 
 
 or a 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNCES. 
 
 93 
 
 (lii) Wh.Mi an nctivn vorb with two nl.jpcta is rlmtiRoa 
 into tho passive form, that o],j..,:t which is retained 
 wliilo tho other boconius the suhjet^t is terniud the 
 Retained Object : — 
 
 A sliilling was given the man. 
 Tho ih)or waa denied him. 
 
 16. Cautions: — 
 
 (i) Speeial care is „oo,lo,l in ,h"alin^' witli the Indirect 
 Object. 'J'here is a tendency „n tlie j.art of many 
 yoHiiK students to put down any word or pbrase 
 wliicli they cannot easily classify iis " JiHlin^ct 
 Object." Thus words or phrases wliich are Ext(;n- 
 siojis of the Predicate or Enlargements of the 
 r)])ject are often wronyly classed as Indin.'ct Oljject. 
 
 Compare :-I heard him read (him read = Compound Object). 
 
 I heard him reading (reading = Enlargement of 
 Object). 
 
 I took him for the master (for the masters Indirect 
 Object) 
 
 I sent him for the master (for the ma8ter= Extension 
 of Pred.). 
 
 (ii) Some authorities propose to overcome the difficidties 
 attending the Indirect Object by recognising a Com- 
 plement of the Predicate as a secondary part of the 
 Predicate ; but on tlie whole it seems preferable to 
 widen somewhat tlie signification of the Indirect 
 Object, as the term is universally accepted. 
 
 ^ In difficult cases the student, before classing any word or 
 phrase as Indirect Object shoukl satisfy himself tliat it does not 
 fall under one of the other heads. 
 
 17. The Subject or the Object must always be either— 
 (i) A Woun ; or 
 
 (ii) Some word or words equivalent to a noun. 
 A Noun may have attached to it any number of adjectives 
 or adjectival ohrases. An adjective or adjectival phrase that 
 
 • iiiil 
 
 1 
 
 
 iiill 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 ■ ifii 
 
94 
 
 ORAMMAR OF TICK KNOI.ISir LANOUAnjC. 
 
 • '-I 
 
 ! ' * 
 
 gons with ft subjfrt nr with an objcM.'t is culled, in Aniilysia, nn 
 Enlargement. 
 
 It JH 80 culled becnuso it enlarges our knowledgo of the subject. 
 Thus, if wo Hay, '"I'lie i.i.iu i« tir.'d," wo have no knowliMlKo of 
 what kiiiil of imm in npokuii of ; Init if we my, ' ' 'I'ho poor old inau 
 istired/'oiiriiotionof the nun. i.s enlarged by the addition of the 
 facts that he is both jioor and ohi. 
 
 18. 'I'horo arc seven kinds of Enlargements: — 
 
 (i) An Adjective— one, two, or inurc-^'riuit big old 
 red book is sold. 
 
 (ii) A Noun (or nouns) in apposition. Williiim tlio 
 Conqueror dofeutod Harold. 
 
 (iii) A Noun (or jiruuoun) in tho Possessive Case, 
 His hat flow off. 
 
 (iv) A Prepositional Phrase, Tho Avalk in the fields 
 
 was pleasant. 
 
 (v) An Adjectival Phrase, Tho l)oy, ignorant of his 
 
 duty, was soon dismissed, 
 (vi) A Participle (a), or Participial Phrase (h)— 
 Sobbing and weeping, .she -was led from tho 
 room (a). The merchant, having made a fortune, 
 ^'avo up busin(iss (b). 
 
 (vii) A Qerundial Infinitive — Anxiety to succeed ( = of 
 succeeding) woro him out. ]h'ead to eat (:^for 
 eating) could not be had anywhere. 
 
 19. It is plain that ijU these seven kinds o: VAiUtf^HUHiiita 
 may go with the Object as well as with the Subject. 
 
 20. An Enlargement, being a word or phrase that goes 
 with a noun or its equivalent, must alway.s bo an adjective 
 o" equivalent to an adjective. 
 
 • ''K 1) An Enlargement may itself be enlarged by the same parts 
 '" spefit^n ,is form the primary enlargements. 
 
 ( .) The handle n ..ij sword forged by Indian* is richly jewelled. 
 
 (-0 Tlie Romans orossetl a stream fed by a glacier of the Southern Alpi. 
 
 Tho phrases " forged by Indians/' mi " of the Southern Alps," 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 si 
 
 in 
 
 da 
 
 seel 
 free 
 tho 
 
 III 
 
uts 
 
 I 
 
 THR ANALYSIS OF SI VTEXCKS. 
 
 91 
 
 are onlargoments of ".word" and "glacier" respectively, wluch 
 oie theniHelves parts of (lualifyinj,' plirases. 
 
 (ii) A Subject or Object iimy li.vvo an unlimited number of 
 enUrgementa of variouH kinds :— 
 
 Pho poor K ing, an outcast from his own domain, sufTerlng the p&agt 
 of hunger and stting by bitter reproaches, indeil his days in aiHury. 
 
 Here King is enlarged by— 
 
 (a) An AdJi'Ctlvc. 
 
 (b) A Nimii ill Apposition. 
 
 (c) Two I'lirticiiiiiil plirasi's. 
 
 21. Tlio Predicate is always a Verb, .stMiidiiif,' nlonc^ if 
 comi)lct(', or accoiiipaiuiid hy utlier wurds if a verb of in- 
 coniploto predication. 
 
 Thf) piu't of tljo sentonco that ^ocs witli tho verl) is eitlicr a 
 Blmple adverb, a compound adverb, or a phrase adverbial 
 ill its cliaractor. 
 
 22. The adverbs or adverbial phra.=iea that go witli tho predi- 
 date are called, in Analysis, tho Extensions of the Predicate. 
 
 23. There arc seven kinds of Extensions : — 
 
 (i) All Adverb, as, Tho time went slowly, 
 (ii) An Adverbial Phrase, as, ]\lr .Smith writes now 
 
 and then, 
 (iii) A Prepositional Phrase, as, m Smith siHjke with 
 
 great effect, 
 (iv) A Noun Phrase, as, AVo walked side by side, 
 (v) A Participial Phrase, as. The mighty rocks came 
 
 bounding down, 
 (vi) A Qerundial Phrase, as, ]fu di<l it to insult us 
 
 ( = for insulting ns). 
 (vii) An Absolute Infinitive Phrase, as, To tell you 
 the truth, I think him V(;ry stui)id. 
 
 t3- Under (v) ni.iy come also tho Absolute Participial Phrase, such 
 as, " The clock having struck, we had to go." 
 
 24. Extensions of the predicate are classified in the above 
 section from the point of view of grammar; but they are also 
 frequently classified from the point of view of distinction in 
 thought. 
 
 1' 
 
 <'4 
 i 
 
 I'll 
 
 I 'J 
 
 ';'] 
 
 
 ( 
 
 '■ 
 
 - 
 
 ' 1 
 
 J 
 - 
 
 
 .1 
 
 ( 1 
 
 1 
 
 

 , I'l 
 
 . U 
 
 U: 
 
 «■■ 
 
 J 
 
 96 r.RAMMAR OF THE ENOLIRH LANOUAOE. 
 
 In this latter way Extensions are classified as extensions of— 
 (i) Time, as, We lived there three yeaxs. 
 (ii) Place, (a) Whence, as, We came from York. 
 
 (b) Where, as, He lives over the way. 
 
 (c) Whither, as, Go home ! 
 
 (iii) Manner (a) Manner : He treads firmly. 
 
 (b) Degi-ee : She writes better. 
 
 (c) Accompanying circumstances : They went for- 
 
 ward under a heavy fire. 
 (iv) Agent : James was represented by his minister. 
 (v) Instrument : They ravaged the land with Are and sword. 
 (vi) Magnitude (a) Order : He stood first In his class. 
 
 (b) Number : Tlie field measured ten acres, 
 (vii) Mood (a) Affirmation : He certainly returned. 
 
 (b) Negation ; The enterprise will never succeed. 
 
 S^ Never is here a more emphatic form of not, 
 and therefore comes under tlie head of Nega. 
 tion rather than of Time. 
 
 (c) Doubt : Perhaps you will meet your friend, 
 (viii) Cause : The clerk was dismissed for idleness. 
 
 (ix) Purpose : They went abroad to better their condition. 
 (x) Condition : Without me ye can do nothing, 
 (xi) Concession : With all thy faults, I love thee still. 
 Here the sense is obviously " Notwithstanding all thy faults, "etc. 
 25. 
 
 NOTK (i) Just as a Subject or Object may have an unlimited number 
 of Enlargements, so a Predicate may have any number of Exten- 
 sions. 
 
 For three years the widow dwelt quietly In the lonely cottage. Here we liave three 
 extensions of time, manner, and place respectively. Care should be taken to keep 
 the various extensions quite distinct in analysin- ; the student sliould letter or 
 number them (a), (b), (c), etc., or (1), (2), (3), etc., and state after each its kind. 
 
 (li) Where two or more extensions of the same class appear they 
 should be kept distinct. At nightfall, during a heavy snowstorm, 
 they wandered forth. 
 
 Here the two extensions of time should be taken separately. 
 26. Cautions : — 
 
 (i) I'lio same word may lio u.scd as Object or a.s an 
 Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 ai 
 fi 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SKNTENCES, 
 
 97 
 
 Compare :-I care nothing for your threats. (Extension of Degree. ) 
 He gave me nothing. (Object. ) 
 
 "Nothing-' in the first sentence simply shows to what extent 
 you are affected by tlie tlireats ; " nothing " in the second sentence 
 IS obviously the Direct Object of "gave," expressing what ho gave. 
 
 Compare :— What did you see ? (Object. ) 
 
 What recks he of his daily duty? (Kxtension— Degree.) 
 
 "What" in the first sentence is evidently the Direct Object of the 
 mterrogation " did see" ; in the second sentence " what " expresses 
 the extent to wliich he is atlected by considerations of his dailv 
 duty. ^ 
 
 Compare with the latter the sentence :— " What with war and 
 what wilh famine, the nation was almost exterminated." Where 
 the two "whats" are evidently adverbial in their nature, and the 
 plirases they introduce are extensions of the predicate. 
 
 (ii) Tlio same phrase may ho an Enlargement (of tlie 
 .Subject or Object) or an Extension of the Predi- 
 cate. 
 
 Compare :-Exercise in the open air is liealthy. (Enlargement of 
 Subject.) 
 
 He takes his exercise in the open air. (Extension— Place.) 
 In the first sentence the phrase "in the open air" qualifies or 
 limits the word " exercise," indicating a particular form of exercise • 
 in tlie second sentence "in the open air » indicates the place where 
 he takes lua exercise, and hence it is an Extension of the Predicate 
 
 NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS. 
 
 27. The Xoniinative of Adilress may relate to— 
 
 (a) Tlie Subject : Milton ! tlion shoiildst bo living at this 
 
 hour. 
 
 (b) Tilt! Object : I Avolcomo you, good Masters. 
 
 (c) An Extension: AVe shall pull towards you, Sir 
 
 Knight, 
 
 Or it may bo detached, The castio keep, my Lord, I hold. 
 
 The iSTominative of Addre.ss is interjectional in its nature, 
 
 and just as the Tntcijection is a part of si)eoch standing apart 
 
 from the family formed by the others, so a Nominative of 
 
 t!\i 
 
 
 llM 
 
 ; ! 
 
 
 
 iiii 
 
 
m 
 
 ,t*^ N- 
 
 'l^^' 
 
 98 
 
 ORAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAGR. 
 
 Address really forms no part of the logical sentence. Regarded 
 as somewhat appositional, it may be placed with that p^art of 
 the sentence to which it specially belongs, or the rule may be 
 adopte.l of placing it in tlie same column as tlu; Subject, care 
 being taken to indicate that it forms no part of the logical 
 subject, 
 
 28. The following cautions are of importance :— 
 
 (i) The Noun in an absolute clause cannot be the 
 Subject of a simple sentence. AVe can say, " The 
 train having started, we niturned to the hotel." 
 Here we is the subject. 
 
 The phrase "the train having started" is an adverbial phrase 
 modifying returned, and giving tlie reaaon for the returning. 
 
 (ii) A subject may be compound, and may contain an 
 object, as, " To save money is always useful." Hero 
 the subject is to save money, and contains the 
 object money— the object of the verb " to save." 
 
 An object may also contain another object, which is not the 
 object of the sentence. Thus we can say, " I like to save money," 
 when the direct object of like is to save, and money is a part only 
 of that direct object. 
 
 (iii) An Absolute Participial Phrase (or jS^ominative 
 Absolute) is always an Extension of the Predicate, 
 and may express — 
 
 (a) Time : The clock having struck one, we proceeded. 
 
 (b) Cause : Darkness coming on, the wanderers quick- 
 
 ened their pace. 
 
 (c) Circumstances : I crossed the moor, the snow falling 
 
 heavily. 
 
 (iv) Not usually forms an Extension of the Predicate, 
 but it may also form — 
 
 (a) Part of the Subject : Not a drum was heard. (Nega- 
 
 tive Eaiaigeinent.) 
 
 (b) Part of the Object : We carved not a line. (Negative 
 
 Enlargement. ) 
 They heard never a sound. (Negative Enlargement. ) 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 99 
 
 ts- As an Extension of tlio Predicate, not is usually independent of 
 other extensions, as. 
 
 They moved | ""* (Extension of Negative) 
 
 / during the storm (Extension of Time) 
 but sotnef mes it simply nujathr, another Extension, and must not 
 be dissociated from it ; as. Not in vain he wore his sandal-shoou. 
 
 (v) There is generally — 
 
 (a) An Extension of Place : There tliey rested. 
 Lilt it is sometimes — 
 
 (b) An Indefinite Extension (a mere Expletive). 
 There were twenty present. 
 
 The sliadowy and vague character of Ihn;: is shown by the 
 paraphrase "Twenty were present," and also by tiie fact that in 
 translating the sentence into many languages no equivalent would 
 be put for "there." 
 
 (\'i) Distinguish between various uses of tlie Infinitive. 
 
 (a) Subject : To quarrel is not my wish. 
 
 (b) Part of the Predicate : He might (to) win the shield. 
 
 £S- Those who regard mi<jht as being always a 
 Principal Verb would put iciii as part of the 
 Object. 
 
 (c) Object : They love to wander. 
 
 (d) Extension of the Predicate : She came to learn. 
 
 In this case "to learn " is not an ordinary infinitive, but a ger- 
 undial inflnitive or infinitive of purpose, and is eciuivalent to " for 
 learning." Seep. 40. 
 
 (vii) Care must be taken to distinguish Ijetween the 
 same word wlieii used as — 
 
 (a) An Adjective, forming part of the Predicate with an 
 Intrausitivo Copulative Verb— 
 
 The king looks well, 
 This apple tastes iweet, 
 
 or (b) An Adverb, forming an Extension of the Predicate after a 
 Verb — 
 
 Tlie king cats well. 
 
 How sweet the inoonliKlit sloops upon tliis l.auk. 
 Students must be very careful to discriminate between these 
 cases. V, here the word indicates quality, it is adjectival in nature, 
 and win form part of the Predicate ; wlicre it indicates manner, it is 
 adverbial in nature, and forms an Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 
 U- . 
 
 
 '.h 
 
 ill 
 
 :•'! 
 
 i| 
 
 
Ilii" 
 
 ! I 
 
 li 
 
 
 i 
 
 100 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (viii) III til,! case of qualifying or liiuitiii,L,' plirascs 
 (especially participial i)]irases), it is soiiietiiiies ilifU- 
 cult to detenu ine wliether they are simple Enlarge- 
 incuts of the Subject or Extensions of the Predi- 
 catc. 
 
 Returning tlicn tlie bdlt lie drew. 
 
 A widow biiil sat mourning for her love. 
 
 In the first sentence "returning" is an enlargement of "he" • in 
 the second sentence mourning does not enlarge " bird," but shows 
 how It sat mourning, i.e. sadly, sorrowfully. 
 
 The safest plan in cases of this kind is to determine what principal 
 l«irt of the sentence the qualifying or limiting word or phrase is 
 most closely connected witii. If it is essentially qualifying in nature, 
 It IS probably an Enlargement of the Subject or Object ; if, on the 
 other hand, it expresses some modification of, or condition in respect 
 to, the Predicate, it is an Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 THE MAPPING-OUT OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 29. It is of the greatest iniportaneo to get the eye to hel]) the 
 mind, and to present to the sight if possible— either on paper 
 ur on the black-board— the sentence we have to consider. This 
 is called mapping-out. 
 
 Let us take two simple sentences : — 
 
 (i) " From the mountain-path came a joyous sound of sonir person 
 whistling. " 
 
 (ii) "In the Acadian land, on the shores of the l]asin of Minas, 
 Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pr6 
 Lay in the fruitful valley." 
 
 30. These may be mapped out, before analysing them, in tho 
 following way : — 
 
 joyous 
 (i) A SOUND CAME 
 
 ■ o ■ > 
 
 ■ <-•. ■ o 
 
 ■3 
 some person whistlin g the m ountain path. 
 
 distant, secluded, stilL 
 little 
 
! Tl 
 
 JIU 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SKNTENCKS. 
 
 101 
 
 (ii) The VILLAGE 
 
 LAY 
 
 At 
 
 ^/ \% 
 
 the fruitful valley. 
 Orand-Pr6 the Acadian land the shores of the Basin, etc. 
 
 31 Sucli a mapping-out .nal.lcs us easily to sec, witli tlic 
 bodily as yell as with the mind's eye, what is the main purpose 
 of all analysis-to find out .vhieh words go with which, and 
 Avlmt IS the real build of tlie sentence. Hence, unless we see 
 at a glance the build of the sentence we are going to analyse, 
 Ave ought, before doing so, to set to work and map it out. 
 
 FOEMS OF ANALYSIS. 
 32. The sentences may then be analysed in either-^ 
 (a) the Detailed form, 
 or (b) tlie Tabular form. 
 
 (a) The Detailed form is analogous to th.at a<lo^,^ed for parsing, 
 and gives us scope for subdividing tl.e sentence to an unlimited 
 extent, and giving tlie maximum amount of detail. 
 
 (b) The Tabular form does not provide for so mucli detail, but it 
 has the advantage of great clearness, and, as it greativ ^cilitates 
 the examination of an exercise, it is the form usually preferred by 
 public examiners. '^ "y 
 
 33. 
 
 Detailed Analysis. 
 
 (i) a, A sound 
 
 h, joyous 
 
 c. of some person whistling 
 
 d. came 
 
 c. from thj path 
 
 / mountain 
 
 (ii) rr. The village 
 h. little 
 
 c. distant 
 
 d. secluded 
 c. still 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Adjectival Enlargement of Subject. 
 
 Prepositional Plirase, Enlargement 
 
 of Subject. 
 Predicate. 
 Extension of Predicate. Place 
 
 whence. 
 Adjectival Enlargemei.L of c. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Adjectival Enlargement of Subject. 
 »» »» 
 
 >» M 
 
 
 '1 
 
 !■ \. 
 
 •Ii 
 
 i I! 
 
 
 if! 
 
 M; 
 
m 
 
 hf 
 
 1'^. 
 
 fi 
 
 102 tiUAMMAU OF TIIK ENGLI8JI LANGUAGK. 
 
 /. of Grand-l'ro 
 
 .'/• lay 
 
 h. in the laud 
 
 i, Acadian 
 
 j. on tlie shores 
 
 k. of the basin 
 I. of !Minas 
 W(. in the valley 
 
 n. fruitful 
 34. 
 
 Prepositional Phraao, Enlargement 
 
 of Subject. 
 Predicate. 
 Extension of Predicate. Place 
 
 where. 
 Adjectival Enlargement of h, 
 Exten.sion of Predicate. Place 
 
 where. 
 Prepositional phrase, enlarging _;, 
 
 Extension of Predicate. Place 
 
 wliere. 
 Adjectival Enlargement of m. 
 
 Tabular Analysis. 
 
 
 KNI.AHliF.- 
 
 
 
 KNI.AlKiB- 
 
 EXTENSIOK 
 
 SUHJKCT. 
 
 MKNT (IK 
 
 rnKUICATi:. 
 
 OHJKI T. 
 
 .MKNT (IK 
 
 (IK 
 
 " 
 
 aUlUKCX. 
 
 came 
 
 
 OlWKCT. 
 
 rillUlCATK. 
 
 A sound 
 
 (a, joyous 
 
 
 
 from the 
 
 
 (b) of some 
 
 
 
 
 mountain 
 
 
 person 
 whistling 
 
 
 
 
 path (place 
 whence) 
 
 The village 
 
 ya.) little 
 (H) distant 
 
 (c) seclud- 
 
 ed 
 
 (d) still 
 (c)of 
 Grand-Pre 
 
 lay 
 
 
 
 (a) in the 
 Acadian 
 land 
 (jdaca 
 where) 
 
 (b) on the 
 shores of 
 the Basin 
 of Minaa 
 (place 
 vhere) 
 
 (o) in the 
 fruitful 
 valley 
 (place 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 where) 
 
 II.— THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 35. A Complex Sentence i.s .1 statement wliicli contains one 
 Principal Sentence, and one or more sentences (le]jenilent nj^on 
 it, M-hicli are called Subordinate Sentences. There are three 
 
Place 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SENTONCKS. 
 
 103 
 
 kinds— and thoro. can only b(>, thron kinds— nf subordinate 
 sentcncos— Adjectival, Noun, and Adverbial. 
 A subordinate sentence is sometimes called a clause. 
 
 36. A Subordinate Sentence that goes with a Noun or 
 
 Pronoun fulfds the function of an Adjective, is cquiil to an 
 
 Adjective, and is tliereforo called an Adjectival Sentence. 
 
 "Darkness, which might be felt, fell upon the city." Here the 
 sub-sentencfi, " which-might-be-felt," goes with the noun darkness, 
 lelongs to it, and cannot be separated from it ; and this sentence is 
 therefore an adjectival sentence. 
 
 37. A Subordinate Sentence that goes with a Verb fulfils 
 the function of an Adverl), is e(;;ual to an Adverb, and is 
 therefore calhid an Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 "I will go whenever you are ready." Here the sub-sentence, 
 "whenever you are ready," is attached to the verb go, belongs to 
 it, and cannot be separated from it; and hence this sentence is an 
 adverbial sentence. 
 
 38. A Subordinate Sentence that forms the Subject of a 
 Predicate, or the Object, or that is in apposition with a noun 
 fulfils the function of a Noun, and is therefore called a Noun 
 Sentence. 
 
 "He told me that his cousin had gone to sea." Here the sub- 
 sentence, " his cousin had gone to sea," is the Object of the transi- 
 tive verb told. It fulfils the function of a noun, and is therefore a 
 noun sentence. 
 
 39. An Adjectival Sentence may be attached to 
 
 (i) Tlio Subject of the Principal Sentence ; or to 
 (ii) The Object of the I'rincipal Sentence ; or to 
 (iii) Any Noun or Pronoun. 
 (i) The book tliat-I-bouglit is on the table : to the subject, 
 (ii) I laid the book-I-bov.ght on the table : to the object; 
 (iii) The child fell into the stream that-runs-past the mill : to the 
 noun stream— a noun in an adverbial phrase. 
 
 40. NOTE.— (i) As may in certain cases be regarded as a relative 
 
 introducing an Adjectival Sentence. In such cases 
 it is usually a correlative of such or same. 
 
 I never saw such fish as he caught in the Avon. 
 
 This is the same bag as you gave me last year. 
 
 H 
 
 T ■ 
 
 m¥- 
 
 m 
 
 
 ■hi i^ 
 

 ■II ■ 
 
 104 
 
 ORAMMAn OF THE ENOLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 (ii) But in cortaiu cases inny lie taken na a negative rela- 
 tive introdncing an Adji'ctival Si'ntoncc. 
 
 (a) There is no man here but loves you. 
 This= " There is no man here who does not love you." 
 
 (b) " No land but listens to the common call." 
 "But" is equivalent to "which does not." 
 
 41. An Adverbial Sentence may be attached to — 
 
 (i) A Verb ; 
 
 (ii) An Adjective ; or to 
 (iii) An Adverb. 
 
 (i) To a Verb. It does not matter in what position the verb is. 
 It may be (a) the Predicate, as in the sentence, "I walk when I 
 can." It may be (b) an Infinitive forming a subject, as, •' To get up 
 when one is tired is not pleasant. " It may be (<•) a participle, as in 
 the sentence, " Having dined before he came, I started at once." 
 
 (ii) To an Adjective. " Hia grief was sucli that all pitied him." 
 Here the sub-sentence " that all pitied him " modifies the adjective 
 such. 
 
 (iii) To an Adverb. " He was so weak that he could not stand." 
 Here the sub-sentence "that he could not stand" modifies the 
 adverb so, which itself modifies the adjective weak. 
 
 42. Just as there are many cluases of Adverbs, so there are 
 many different kinds of Adverbial Sentences. 
 
 (i) Time. I will go, when you return. 
 (ii) Place. "Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 
 (iii) Manner. He strode, as though he were in pain. 
 (iv) Degree. I spoke as loudly as I could (speak). 
 (v) Proportion. The sooner you complete your 
 
 task the sooner you can leave, 
 (vi) Condition. If you stand by me, I will oiiposo 
 him. 
 
 (vii) Concession — Provided this is done, I will consent, 
 (viii) Cause. Avoid him, because he is dishonest, 
 (ix) Eflfeot or Consequence. I carefully tended him; 
 
 consequently the wound soon healed. 
 (x) Purpose. He worked very hard, for he wished 
 to do well. 
 
TKK ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 105 
 
 Cautions : — 
 
 (i) Tu nearly every case the wor<l introducing tlie ad- 
 verbial sentence, as when, where, if, etc., lielps 
 us to recognise it, but occasionally there is no 
 introductory Avord, and we must judge by the 
 sense alone. 
 In the sentence — 
 
 " Pass tiat line, and I fire upon you, " 
 
 t\l" wlnVl'r *'" '^f,^''"" ^^ ^'^^^^^^^^^ -"1 that the real 
 
 Z^Zr^ '°"""'*'^^ ''''''''"" ^y ^'- ^-"" "" yo» pass 
 
 (ii) 
 
 "Ye meaner fowl, give place, 
 
 I am all splendour, dignity, and grace. ' ' 
 
 Hero the second sentence is Adverbial to H.o fl..o«. i 
 
 demands "for," "becus* " or "tince " a, ! ' '""' '*'°"' 
 
 . ^-i.' 10%, or smce, as a connecting word. 
 
 (iii) Avoid tlio mistake of calling a sentence Adverbial 
 simply because it begins with an adverb. 
 "First (he) loves to do, then loves the good he does." 
 ^ J^he second sentence is not adverbial, but co-ordinate with the 
 
 43. Adjectival and Adverbial Sentences are easily reco^^nised 
 fron^ the fact that they have no complete meaning inr.n 
 selves apart from the Principal Sentence to which they are 
 attached Of some Principal Sentences-as, e.g., those be^in- 
 mng with who, which, etc.-the same thing may be said, but 
 m the vast majority of cases a Principal Sentence is independent 
 ni ^senso and self-contained in meaning. 
 Take two of the sentences given above. 
 
 "Which might be felt." (Adjectival.) 
 "When I can." (Adverbial.) 
 
 Their incompleteness is at once perceived. Their function is 
 to quality, extend, modify, or limit the master sentence to 
 which tliey are attached ; they are distinctly subordinativa. 
 
 Iho subordinate character of Noun-sentences is best per- 
 ceived when they are introduced by th.-r ordinary connective 
 tha ; in other cases their true nature may be recognised 
 from their relationship to the principal sentence. 
 
 >\ri: 
 
 h-r, 
 
 I. ^t 
 
 
 
 
If 
 
 lOG 
 
 ORAMMAn OF TTfE KNOLTSII T-ANOUAOE, 
 
 *%*^'* 
 
 I'i 
 
 m 
 
 44 iV Noun Sentence may he — 
 
 (i) Tlio Subject of tlic Principal Sontonco ; or 
 (ii) The Object of tho luaiii vi'ili; or 
 (iii) The Nominative after is ; tn- 
 (iv) III Apposition with anotlicr Xoun. 
 
 (i) "That-he-is-better cannot ho denied": tlie subject. Here 
 tho true nominative is that. " That cannot ho denied." What? 
 " That = he ia better." (From usage thatiii such sentences a'-qnirea 
 the function and force of a conjunction.) 
 
 (ii) " I heard that-ho-was-better : " tho object. 
 
 (iii) "My motive in going was that 1-mlghtbeof-use " : uoiiiina- 
 tive after was. 
 
 (iv) "The fact that-he-voted-agalnat-hls-party is well known": 
 In apposition with fact. 
 
 Impersonal Construction — 
 
 And methought, while she liberty sang, 
 'Twas liberty only to hear. 
 " 'Twas-liberty-only-to-hear " is a Noun sentence, subject to the 
 impersonal verb "methought," and forming with it a principal 
 sentence. 
 
 45. Any number of Subordinate Sentences may be attached 
 
 to tlie Principal Sentence. The oniy limit is that dictated by 
 
 a regard to clearness, to the balance of clauses, or to good taste. 
 
 Tlie best example of a very long sentence, which consists entirely 
 of one principal sentence and a very large number of adjective 
 sentences, is "The House that Jack built." "This is the house 
 that- Jack-built. " "This is the malt that-lay-in-the-house-that- Jack- 
 built," and so on. 
 
 Co-ordinate Subordinate Sentences. Two or more subor- 
 dinate sentences of the same kind may be attached to tho 
 same principal sentence. 
 
 Type of the M'ise, who soar but (M-ho) never roam. 
 If the day be fine and (if) I am free, I will go over the common. 
 John knew that the farmer had cut his corn and (that he had) 
 stacked it. 
 
 In the first sentences we have two Adjectival sentences, subordin- 
 ate to the principal and co-ordinate with one another. In the other 
 sentence we have Adverbial and Noun-sentences of a corresponding 
 character. The words within parentheses are understood and 
 should be shown in your analysis. 
 
TIIK ANALYSIS OF SENTKNX'KS. 
 
 107 
 
 46. Principal and Subordinate. Tho hui-o sontonct! may 
 be subordinate lo a principal .sentence, and ut tlie .same lime 
 principal iu andtluT .sentence. 
 
 Tho man who hesitates wlicn danger is at hand, is lost. 
 
 The sentence "who hesitates" is adjectival to the princinal 
 sentence, and principal to "when danger is at Hand." 
 
 The sentence wonl.l ,..,t ho properly analysed unless its twofold 
 character and relationship weio fully shown. 
 
 Compare :— Tell her that wastes her time and me, 
 Tbat now she knows, 
 When I lesenihle her to thee, 
 How sweet and fair she seems to be. 
 
 47. Connectives : — 
 
 (i) Care must 1)e taken to a.s.sociato introductory and 
 connective words willi their proper sentences ; 
 otherwise confiisio]i will result and the nature 
 of the sentences may be misunderstood. 
 Vet he who reigns within himself, and rules 
 Passions, desires, and fears, is more a king. 
 The Principal sentence here is " Yet he is more a kirz." 
 Thus, while I ape the measure wild 
 Of tales tliat charmed me as a child, 
 Kude though tliey be, still with tho chime 
 Return the thoughts of early time, 
 
 "Thus " in the first line introduces the principal sentence " Still 
 . . . time." 
 
 Note tiie inversion in "Rude thougli they be," and remember 
 that Inversions are very common in poetry. 
 
 CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX 
 SENTENCES. 
 48. (i) Find out, first of all, the Principal Sentence. 
 
 (ii) Secondly, if the sentence is complicated or of 
 more than average difficulty, look out the finite 
 verbs ; those arc the kernels of the various sen- 
 tences ; reiuenibcr that each finite verb means 
 a sentence. When you are sure o'' your verbs 
 you will be able to connect with c tch its sub- 
 ject, object, and cxteusions. 
 
 i 
 
 '■■ 1 
 
 '^H 
 
 
 j 
 
 I- 
 i 
 
 1 
 
108 
 
 CUAMMAll ()V THE KN(iMSH LAN(iUA(il';. 
 
 
 (iii) Thirdly, look for tlic scutonccs, if any, that iittach 
 thcnisolvcs to tlio Subject of tho rriiiciiml fSen- 
 tenco. 
 
 (iv) Fourthly, fiiul tlinso sontoncos, if any, that heloiig 
 to tho Object of the rriiioipal Sciitcneo, or to 
 iiny oth(>r Noun or Pronoun in it. 
 
 (v) Fifthly, look for tlio suhordiimto sentences thiit 
 are attached to tho Predicate of tho Principal 
 .Sentence. 
 
 When a subordinate sentence is long, quote only tho first and last 
 words, and place dots , . . , between tbem. 
 
 49. Tho following Cautions are necessary : 
 
 (i) A connective may bo omittod. 
 In Shakespeare's "Measure for Measure," Isabella says— 
 "I have a brother is condemned to die." 
 
 Here who is omitted, and "who . . . die" is an adjectival sen- 
 tence qualifying the object brother. 
 
 (ii) Do not bo guided by tho part of speech that in- 
 troduces a subordinate sentence. Thus : 
 
 (a) A relative pronoun may introduce a noun sentence, as, "I do 
 not know wl.o-he-is" ; or an adjectival sentence, as, "John, who- 
 was-a-soldicr, is now a gardener." 
 
 (b) An adverb may introduce a noun sentence, as, " I don't 
 knovriv/tere it las gone to;" or an adjectival sentence, as, "Tho 
 spot where he Iks is unknown." In tlie sentence, "The reason wliy 
 so few marriages are happy is because young ladies spend their time 
 in making nets, not in making cages "—the subordinate sentence 
 'I why , . . happy " is— though introduced by an adverb— in appo- 
 sition to the noun reason, and is therefore a noun sentence. 
 
 (iii) It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a given 
 sentence is Adjectival or Noun. 
 
 Whoever first reaches the fort gains the prize. 
 I will reward whoever first reaches the fort. 
 
 In these sentences some would prefer to regard the subordinate 
 sentence as qualifying "he" or "him," and would class tliem as 
 adjectival, but, inasmuch as they stand in tho one case for subject 
 and in tho other for object, it is preferable to take them as noun 
 sentences. 
 
 We speak that we do know. 
 
 a 
 tl 
 
TIIK ANAI-VSrS Op SKS'tKSCKH. 
 
 109 
 
 Here, instcft,! „f takiny "that wc do know " as a noun 8ontni.;i., it 
 is better to aplit up " tliat " (a co.ni.oun.l rdativc) into "that wliich " 
 and tako "which wo ilo know " as an Adjectival sentence. 
 
 THE MAPPINO-OUT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 50. (.'(.iiii.lcx .Sentences Khoulil ho nmi)po(l out <m the siinio 
 rrinripk's as Sinii)lo .Sentences. Let U8 tako a sentonco from 
 Mr :^[oms'3 " Jason " ;— 
 
 "And in his hand lie bare a mighty bow, 
 No man could bend of those that battle now." 
 This sentence may bo drawn up after the foUowiny phin :— 
 his hand 
 
 a mighty 
 
 Be 
 
 bare 
 
 bow 
 
 IS 
 
 no man could bend 
 
 those 
 
 e 
 ja 
 is 
 
 battle now. 
 
 _ (The single lino indicates a preposition; the double line a con 
 junction or conjunctive pronoun. ) 
 
 51. The larger number of subordinate sentences then; are, 
 and the fartlier away tliey stand from the principal sentence] 
 the larger will be the space that the mapping-out will cover. 
 
 Let us take this sentence from an old Greek writer : 
 
 "Thou art about, king! to make war against men who wear 
 leathern trousers, and have all their ot! Jr garments of leather; who 
 feed not on wnat they like, but on vliaf, they can get from a soil 
 that IS sterile and unkindly ; who do not indulge in wine, but drink 
 water ; who possess no figs, nor anything else that is good to cat." 
 
 This M'ould bo set out in the folloM'ing way : 
 
 Thou art about . . . against men 
 
 o 
 
 (i) wear . 
 (ii) have . 
 (iii) feed not on that 
 
 trousero 
 eather 
 
 » ! 
 
 ^1 
 
 urn 
 
 i I i 
 
 dai they like 
 
i^lL 
 
 u 
 
 EC-' 
 
 w 
 
 
 : . I 
 
 ipl 
 
 no 
 
 OllAMSrAH OV TIIK ENCiLISU LANGUAGE, 
 (iv) feed on that 
 
 M 
 o 
 
 (b) they can get from a soil 
 
 a 
 
 JS 
 
 (bi) is sterile and unkindly 
 (v) do not . . . wiiie 
 (vi) drink water 
 (vii) possess no figs 
 (viii) possess not anything else 
 
 I 
 (c) is good to eat 
 
 52. Sentences may also be pigeon-holed, or placed in marked- 
 off spaces or columns, like the foUoAvin" •— 
 
 O * 
 
 " Thro' the black Tartar tents he passed, which stood 
 Clustering like bee-hives on the low black strand 
 Of Oxus, where the summer floods o'erflow 
 When the sun melts the snow in high Pamir." 
 
 Sentences. 
 
 A. He passed 
 through the 
 black Tartar 
 tents 
 
 (a) which clus- 
 tering like 
 bee - hives 
 stood on the 
 strand of 
 Oxus, 
 
 (b) [intheplace] 
 which the 
 Hoods o'er- 
 flow 
 
 Kind of 
 (Sentence. 
 
 Subject. ' Enlarge. 
 
 MENT. 
 
 (c) when 
 melts 
 
 A. Prin. 
 
 sentence. 
 
 (a) Adj. 
 sen- 
 tence 
 to A. 
 
 (b)Adj. 
 sent, 
 to 
 
 jilace 
 under- 
 stood 
 
 (c) Adv. 
 
 sent. 
 
 to e'er- 
 Jlow 
 
 Predi- 
 cate. 
 
 He 
 
 which 
 
 cluster- 
 ing 
 
 floods 
 
 i the sun 
 
 passed 
 
 stood 
 
 Exten- 
 sion. 
 
 Object. 
 
 thesum-'o'erflow 
 mer 
 
 melts 
 
 thro' the 
 tents 
 
 on the 
 low 
 black 
 strand 
 
 when in 
 high 
 Pamir 
 
 (which) 
 
 E 
 
 snow 
 
 O] 
 01 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 arkeJ- 
 
 BJKCT. 
 
 I 
 
 hich) 
 
 low 
 
 53. Tlici'c is a kind of Continuous Analysis, Avhich iimy 
 often — not without benefit — bo applied to longer passages, and 
 especially to passages taken from the poets. For example : — 
 
 "Alas ! the meanest herb that scents the gale, 
 The lowliest flower that blossoms in the va'e 
 Even where it dies, at spring's sweet call renews 
 To second life its odours and its hues," 
 
 1. Alas ! an interjection, with no syntactical relation to any word 
 
 in the sentence. 
 
 2. the meanest, attributive or enlargement to 3. 
 ' 3. herb, Subject to 4. 
 
 4. renews, Predicate to 3. 
 
 5. odours and hues, Object to 4. 
 
 6. at , . . call. Extension of renews, to 4. 
 
 7. to . . . life, Extension of reneivs, to 4. 
 
 AJ 
 
 B, 
 
 8. the lowliest, attributive or enlargeuieut to 9. 
 
 ' 9. flower, Subject to 10. 
 
 10. renews. Predicate to 9. 
 
 11. odours and hues, Object to 10. 
 
 12. at . . . call, Extension to 10. 
 
 13. to . . . life, Extension to 10. 
 
 ri4. that. Subject to 15 and connective to 3. 
 C| 15. scents, Predicate to 14. 
 U6. gale. Object to 15. 
 
 (17. that. Subject to 18 and connective to 9. 
 18. blossoms, Predicate to 17. 
 19. in the vale. Extension to 18. 
 
 po. even. Adverb modifying 21. 
 K j 21. where it dies. Extension to 18. 
 
 I 
 
 22. it, Subject of 23. 
 
 23. dies, Predicate of 22. 
 
 Ill— THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
 
 54. A Compound Sentence is one which consists of two 
 or more Simple Sentences packed, for convenience' sake, into 
 one. 
 
 Thus, in the " Lay of the Last Minstrel," Sir Walter Scott writes :— 
 
 " The way was long, the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old." 
 
 He might have put a full atop at long and at cold, for the sense ends 
 
 I, 
 
 i : 
 
 "'''!J* 
 
 '1 
 
 i .1- 
 
112 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE KNGLISir lANGUAGK. 
 
 l\ 
 
 \U'> • 
 
 «i . : :»[ 
 
 in these places, and, grammaticaUy, the two lines form fhmo 
 separate and distinct sentences. B.ft because in Zght the 
 
 r^Te^iiLtr^^^^'"^^^^"^'^^^^^^^^ 
 
 55 A Conipouiul Rentonco may l,c contracted. 
 
 (1) If we say, "John jumpd up and ran off, the sentence is- 
 
 John jumped up''+.<John ran off." It is th;refore a comZ^^ 
 
 entcnce consisting of two simple sentences, but, for eonvenien o 
 
 sake, contracted In the subject. i-onvenienco 
 
 be\*„aTvL^' *''^" "' "" Compound Contracted Sentence, and should 
 be analysed as two connected sentences. 
 
 Compare :-And out again I curve and flow 
 To join the brimming river, 
 (ii) In the sentence, <• Either a knave or a fool has done this " 
 the sen.enee is contracted In the predicate for the purpose of avod 
 mg tlie repetition of the verb has done. ^ 
 
 (iii) In " The troops cauglit, and the King executed the rebels " 
 
 (iv) Sometimes both Subject and Predicate are omitted, as- 
 Who grewest not alone in power 
 And knowledge ; but from hour to hour 
 In reverence and in cliarity. " 
 Here " who grewest " must be inserted after " but." 
 
 (V) Some sentences require modification or addition before thev 
 can be satisfactorily analysed. ".uuiwon oeiore they 
 
 "No land but listens to the common call. 
 And in return receives supply from all." 
 Tliis may be rendered 
 
 There is no land | which listens not to the common call I 
 And which m return receives not supply from all " 
 
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 
 56. Tlie Principal Co-ordinate Sentences of a Compound 
 bentcnce arc connected in various ^vay.s by diliorent classes of 
 Conjunctions. The relationship of a sentence to a co-ordinate 
 one preccdnig it is eitlier— 
 
 (a) Copulative or coutiuuative. 
 
 (b) Disjunctive, 
 
 (c) Adversative. 
 
 (d) Illative. 
 
 or 
 
 NO 
 
 ex 
 
TllK ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCES. 
 
 113 
 
 57. A Copulative Sontoiico is so connoctcd with a preceding 
 one llmt tlio idea expressed hy it agrees with or simply carries 
 further the thoiiglit going before. 
 
 Each change of many-coloured life ho drew, 
 Exliaustetl worlds, and then imagined new. 
 The connectives of copulative Bcntencea are : And, alao, likewise, 
 moreover, further, furthermore; and correlatives such as: both— 
 and ; not merely — but, etc. 
 
 NOTE (i) The sense of the sentences and their relationship to one 
 another must be the chief guide in deciding the nature of the con- 
 nection. In many cases the connecting word in itself is mis- 
 leading. 
 
 We met a man at the gate, who told us the way. 
 Here the function of the sentence "who told," etc., is not to 
 (jualify the preceding sentence, but to express an additional fact, 
 which is co-ordiuato with the preceding. Who = and he, and is 
 really copulative. 
 
 (ii) He was not at home, which was a great pity, 
 "Which" does not introduce a subordinate qualifying sentence, 
 but is really copulativo, introducing a co-ordinate sentence. It is 
 equivalent to " and this." 
 
 (iii) Nor and neither, when they are equivalent to "are not," arc 
 copulative. 
 
 The enemy will not fight, nor will they even prepare for battle. 
 They refused to pay, neither did they oiTer to explain, 
 (iv) While and whilst are sometimes only copulative — 
 " The greater number laid their foreheads in the dust, whilst a 
 profound silence prevailed over all." 
 
 The second sentence is noway subordinate to the first ; it is not 
 used to adverbially modify tlie first in regard to time, but to 
 introduce a sentence of equal rank, the two sentences being 
 co-ordinate. 
 
 (v) Sometimes the connective is entirely omitted, but the logical 
 connection of the sentences shows that the second is co-ordinate with, 
 and stands in copulative connection with, the first. 
 Her court was pure ; hei life serene ; 
 God gave her peace ; her land reposed. 
 
 58. A Disjunctive Sentence is a sentence -which implies 
 exclusion, or presents an alternative to tho one before it. 
 Neither a borrower nor a lender bo. 
 The breatli of heaven must swell the sail, 
 Or all the toil is lost. 
 
 m 
 
 
 I ! 
 
 
 L'- 
 
 1 
 
 '!- ' 
 
 ;j 
 
 ■ 
 
 i i 
 
 p9 
 
 : 
 
 ■■i^^M 
 
 ■ 
 
 v' 
 
 f^^l 
 
ii^ 
 
 IP ' 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 . -^ , 
 
 114 
 
 GRAMMAll OF THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The connectives of disjunctive sentences v.c : Either, or ; neither 
 nor J and sometimes " else " and " otherwise. " ncitner, 
 
 59. An Adversative Sentence is on. Avl.ich expresses au 
 utea m opposition to or in contrast Milli tliut of a prc- 
 cednig one. '■ 
 
 To them his heart, liis love, liis griefs were given ; 
 But all his serious thoughts had rest in lieaven. 
 
 Tlie connectives of adversative sentences are : But, however, never- 
 the ess, no withstanding, only, still, yet ; and such correlatiles as : 
 on the one hand-on the other hand, now-then. 
 
 NOTE.— Sometimes the connective is not expressed : 
 
 it dwYya!'""* ^°"' ^°°''*^ ^"^ ^" '°'*^°* ' ^^^y """^ *^^"'^ y°" f°r 
 
 60. An Illative Sentence expresses a reason or inference in 
 reference to one before it. Illative sentences may be- 
 
 (a) lUative Proper: when the idea expressed is a natural inference 
 
 from or tmpbed consequence o/what is previously expressed. 
 The leaves are faUing ; therefore the swallows will soon be gone. 
 
 (b) causative : when the idea expressed forms the grounds of a 
 
 certam inference expressed in the preceding sentence. 
 The swallows will soon be gone ; for the leaves are falling 
 The connectives are (a) Illative Proper : Therefore, hence, so, con- 
 
 sequently, etc. 
 (b) Causative : For. 
 
 Caution. -Great care is necessary in <listinguishing • be- 
 tween an Illative Sentence and an Adverbial Sentence of 
 Consequence. 
 
 Juo^ni^l ''°*rr'' '^^ V'"''''' ""'' ^'^"'■'^S ' '^'''^'^^ the swallows 
 will soon be gone, the second sentence is a fair inference from, but not 
 a necessary consequence ui, the first, and is an Illative Sentence 
 
 wiJunTl' \ '^"^ !r *'"'"' '^^^ ^'^^^^ ""'^ ^'-^"^"g ' t'^«ref ore the trees 
 
 h firstan'! "' 'trT^ T'"'"'' '' ' "— ^y ~^--e of 
 the first, and is an Adverbial Sentence of Effect or Consequence. 
 
 tween ^ ""'^ ^"^"^ ^"" ''™''" " corresponding di«tmetion be 
 
 The swallows will soon be gone ; for the leaves ai . falling, 
 
 and 
 Tlie trees wUl soon be bare : for the leaves are falling. 
 
TIIK ANALYRVe: OF SENTENCES. 
 
 116 
 
 61. Note. — (i) In smiip, cases an introductory " for " is 
 
 simply a preposition, and tlio sentenco is noithor Illative 
 
 nor Adverbial. 
 
 For pathless marsh and mountain cell 
 The peasant left his lonely shed. 
 
 (ii) Tlio connection in tlio following is exceptional : — 
 
 Anil out agaui I curve and flow 
 
 'J'o join tlie brimming river ; 
 For men may come, and men may go, 
 
 Hut I go on for ever. 
 
 " For men may come " is neither an Illative nor an Adverbial 
 Sentence, but a co-ordinate sentence, copulative to the preceding 
 ones. 
 
 In Illative Sentences the connective is very rarely omitted, but 
 examples are not unknown. 
 
 Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour : 
 Enghand hath need of thee ; she is a fen 
 Of stagnant waters. 
 
 The second and third sentences are in illative relationship to the 
 first ; they give tlie grounds of the first statement, and might fitly 
 begin with for. 
 
 I; "i^ 
 
 ' !i 
 
 PARENTHETICAL SENTENCES. 
 
 62. Sometimes sentences are interposed in u. ^/ay that com- 
 plicates the analysis?. 
 
 These are the very people who you thought were lost. 
 
 Here " who were lost " is really a noun sentence to its principal 
 "you thought"; but it is an adjectival sentence to the real prin- 
 cipal " These are the very people. " "You thouglit " is therefore best 
 taken as a parenthetical sentence, having a principal relationship to 
 " who were lost." 
 
 In other cases the relationship of the interposed sentence to the 
 rest of the sentence is less clear. 
 
 Then I stood up — and I v.as scarcely conscious of my surroundings 
 — and fired my gun. 
 
 The interposed sentence may be regarded as principal and co- 
 ordinate with the other two, but on account of its loose relationship 
 it is better taken as simply "parenthetical." 
 
 mi 
 
^ 
 
 116 
 
 If 
 
 (mil' 
 
 .1 
 
 WORD-BUILDING AND DERIVATION. 
 
 1. The primary element-tJiut whicli is tlic shortest form- 
 
 the root of the words tale and tell and till (a box for n.onoy . 
 
 2. The stem is the root -f some modification. Thus iove 
 (=lov + e) IS the stem of lov. 
 
 3. It is to the stein tliat all inflexions are added, and tlms to 
 love we add d for the past tense. 
 
 4. If to the root we add a suffix, then the word so formed is 
 
 5 In general, we add English prefixes and English suffixes 
 to Lnghsh words; but this is not always the case. Thus we 
 have cottage, where the Latin ending age is added to the Eng- 
 lish word cot; and covetousness. where the English endin". 
 
 ^v:ir::d:r.:;:r::L^rr^^^ 
 
 7. Ihe adding of prefixes or of suffixes to words, or the 
 maknig one word out of two, is called word-formatSon. 
 
 COMPOUND NOUNS. 
 
 8. Compound >^ouns are formed by the ad.lition of :^ 
 (i) Noun and Noun, as— 
 
 ' •"y"''W( = lu\vfurai^()r town). 
 
COMrOUND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 117 
 
 Daisy (= day's eye). 
 Evensong. 
 
 Garlic (= gar-leek = spear-leek ; 
 
 O.E. gar, spear). 
 Gospel ( = God's spen = story). 
 Housetop. 
 
 Huzzy ( = housewife). 
 Icicle ( = is-gicel = ice-jag). 
 
 Lapwing ( = leap- wing). 
 Nightingale ( = night-singer). 
 Orcliard ( = ort-yara = wort-yard, i.e., 
 
 herb -garden). 
 Stirrup ( = stig-rup = rising rope). 
 Tadpole ( = toad-liead. Pole = poll, a 
 
 head, as in poll-ta.\). 
 Wednesday ( = Woden's day), 
 (ii) Noun and Adjective, as— 
 Blackbird. Midnight. Quicksilver. 
 
 Freeman. Midsun.n.er. Twilight ( - two lights). 
 
 IM, £*'""' ""' "" "'"'" "" ''""'' ""^ '-^ "»" ^^■-"- A in>clJ,W^ ..eed „.,t be a 
 
 (iii) Noun and Verb, as— 
 Bakehouse. Grindstone. 
 
 Cutpurse. Pickpocket. 
 
 Godsend. Pinfold. 
 
 (iv) Noun and Adverb, as offshoot, 
 (v) Noun and Preposition, as afterthought, 
 (vi) Verb and Adverb, as- 
 Castaway. Drawback. 
 
 Spendthrift. 
 
 Wagtail. 
 
 Washtub. 
 
 Welfare. 
 
 Farewell. 
 
 Income. 
 Welcome. 
 
 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 9. There are in the language a great many compound adjec 
 tives. such as heart-whole, seaside, etc.; and tlicso are furniecl 
 ni a large number of different ways. 
 
 Compound adjectives may be formed in the following ways — 
 greik TyUitt''"*'"' '' ''''''■''''''' -'^'■-'''' -^'■weary, sea- 
 
 (ii) Noun-fPresent Participle, as ear-piercing, death-boding heart- 
 rendmg, spa-it-st,rrmg, sea-faring, night-walking, hon.e-keeping 
 
 (iii) Noun + Passive Participle, as moth-eaten, worm-eaten, tempest- 
 tossed, way-laul, forest-born, copper-fastened, moss-clad, sea-girr 
 
 (iv) Adverb -1- Present Participle, as far-darting, everlasting hidi 
 steppmg, well-meaning, lo:,g-suffering, far-reaching,\ard-w:Trkh,g ' 
 
 (V) Adverb-f Passive Participle, as high-born, "ill-weaved," well-bred 
 thorough-bred, high-strung, ill-i,leased. ' 
 
 I -''1 
 
 '■ 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 ! (i 
 
 m 
 
 ft: '# 
 
 n 
 
 M' !!l 
 
*]'■ 
 
 ' 't!i 
 
 1 *' 
 
 118 
 
 OIlAMMAIl OF THE ENr.LISII LANCUAGE. 
 
 (vi) Noun + Noun + ed, m liare-braiiied, dog-hearted, beetle-headed, 
 peri\vig-i)ated, club-footed, lily-livered, truin; jt-tougued, sagle-eyed. 
 
 (vii) Adjective -f Noun -fed, as evil-eyed, grey-headed, thin-faced, 
 em])ty -headed, tender-hearted, tliick-lii)i)ed, two-legged, three-cornered, 
 four-sided, high-minded, bald-pated. 
 
 (viii) Noun -f Noun, as bare-foot, lion-heart, iron-side. 
 
 (ix) Adverb -f Noun -fed, as down-hearted, under-handed. 
 
 COMPOUND VERBS. 
 10. Tlioro are not many compound verbs in tlie English 
 language. Tlie hw tliat tliere are are formed thus : — 
 (i) Verb and Noun, as — 
 
 Backbite. Hamstring. 
 
 Browbeat. Heniieck. 
 
 (ii) Verb and Adjective, as— 
 
 Dumfound. Fulfil ( = fill full). 
 
 (iii) Verb and Adverb, as— 
 Doff ( = do off). Dout ( = do out). 
 
 Don ( = do on). Dup ( = do up). 
 
 Hoodwink. 
 Kiln-dry. 
 
 Whitewash. 
 
 Cross-question. 
 Outdo. 
 
 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 11. Adverbs are derived from Nouns, from Adjectives, from 
 Pronouns, anfl from Prepositions. 
 
 a. Adverbs derived from Nouns are either : (i) Old Posses- 
 
 sives, or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of a Noun and 
 
 a Preposition : — 
 
 (i) Old Possessives : Needs = of need, or of necessity. The Calendrer 
 says to John Gilpin about his hat and wig — 
 
 " My head is twice as big as yours, 
 Tliey therefore needs must flt." 
 
 Of the same class are : always, nowadays, betimes. 
 
 (ii) Old Datives. These are seldom and the old-fashioned whilom 
 ( = in old times). 
 
 (iii) Compounds: anon = (in one moment), abed ( = on bed) asleep^ 
 aloft, abroad, indeed, of a truth, by tr^ms, perchance, perhaps. 
 
 h. Adverbs derived from Adjectives are either : (i) Old 
 Possessives, or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of an 
 Adjective and a Preposition : — 
 
 , (i) Old Possessives: else (ell-es, possessive of a/ = other), unawares, 
 once (=one8), twice, thrice, etc. 
 
 s 
 a 
 
 La 
 
P1{KFIXES. 
 
 119 
 
 I 
 
 (11 Old Datives. The old English way of forming an a.lverl. wiu, 
 t-nni.ly to une the dative case of the adjcctive-which cnde.l in e. Thus 
 we lia<l deep6, brighte, for ikci.lu nnd hn.jhUy. Then the e dropne.l 
 away. Hence it is that there are in Knglish several adverbs exactly 
 like adjectives. These are: fast, hard, rvjht (in "Kight Keverend"), 
 far, M, late, early, loud, Iwjh. 
 
 (iii) Compounds of an Adjective and a Preposition : on high in 
 vain, In short, at large, of late, etc. 
 
 c. A(lver],.s dorivcd fn^iii I'roin.iiiis coiuo from Uhj i.roiioininul 
 stems : who, the (or this), and he. Tho following is a UUv, 
 and it is important to note tlie beautiful correspondences :— 
 
 Pronominai, : 
 Stems. 
 
 Place 
 In. 
 
 Place 
 To. 
 
 Pl,A(E 
 
 From. 
 Whe-nce 
 The-nce 
 He-nce 
 
 Time 
 In. 
 
 Whe-n 
 
 The-n 
 
 Mannkk. 
 
 ' Cause. 
 
 Wh-o 
 
 Where 
 
 Whither 
 Thi-ther 
 
 Ho-w 
 Th-us 
 
 Wh-y 
 Th-e 
 
 Th-eorth-isi 
 
 The-re 
 
 He 
 
 Hc-re 
 
 Hi-ther 
 
 
 
 
 (i) How and why are two forms of the same word-the instrumental 
 case of who. How = in what way ? Why-with what reason .' 
 
 (ii) The, in the last column, is the adverbial the (A.S. thy) before a 
 
 comparative. It is the instrumental or ablative case of that or thact. 
 
 The more, the merrier " = by that more, by that merrier. That is, the 
 
 measure of the increase in the number is the measure of the increase in 
 
 the merriment. 
 
 (iii) Thus is the instrumental case of this, and is = in this manner. 
 tl Compound Adverbs are formed by adding together— 
 (i) Noun and Noun, as lengthways, endways, 
 (ii) Noun and Adjective, as — 
 
 Always. Head-foremost. Otherwise. 
 
 Breast-high. Meanwhile. Sometime., 
 
 (ni) Preposition and Noun, as Aboveboard, outside, 
 (iv) Adverb and Preposition, as— 
 
 Hereafter. Therein. Whereupon. 
 
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. ^ ' 
 
 12. The Ih'cfixes used in our languagt; arc of JOnglish, French, 
 Latin, and (Jreek ori"in. 
 
 (i) French is only a modified Latin. Hence French prefi.xes fall 
 naturally under Latin preQxes, as the one is only a form of the other. 
 
 
 -''M 
 
 
IL'O 
 
 GUAMMAK (JF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 HI 
 
 Will 
 
 mf 
 
 «: 
 
 J' 
 
 13. Englisli Profixes ■nv divided into Inseparable and 
 Separable. Inscinirablo Pix-Hxcs aro tliosc tluit ]iiiv<. no ni.-aii- 
 my })y tliciiisoivcs and cannot be used apart from another word. 
 Separable Prefixes may l)e used and are used as independent 
 Avords. 
 
 14. The following are the most important 
 
 English Inseparable Prefixes: — 
 
 1. A (a broken-dort-n form of O.E, an = on), as- 
 Abed. Aloft ( ^ in the lift or sLy). A-builrling. 
 
 Aboard. Away. Athwart ( = on the cross). 
 
 2. Be (an O.E. form of by), wliich has several functions :— 
 (i) To add an intenaive force to transitive veib,-., em— 
 
 Bedaub. Beseech Besmear. 
 
 B&sprinkle. ( :^ beseek). BesmirclL 
 
 (ii) To turn intransitive verbs into transitive, as— 
 
 Bemoan. Bespeak. Bethink, 
 
 (iii) To make verbs out of nouns or aci„ actives, a.«— 
 
 Befriend. Beguile. IBenumb. Betroth. 
 
 Besiege ( = to take a siege or seat beside a town till it surrenders), 
 (iv) To combine with nouns, as — 
 
 Behalf. Bequest. Bypatn. 
 
 J^ehest. Byname. Byword. 
 
 (v) To form part of prepositions and adverbs, as before, besides, etc. 
 
 3. For (O.E. /or- Lat. per) means thorouyUy, and has two func- 
 tions : — 
 
 (i) To add an intensive meaning, as in — 
 Forbid. Forget. 
 
 Fordone ( = ruined). Forgive. 
 
 Forswear. 
 
 Forlorn ( = utterly lost). 
 
 m^ Forswctr m«ans to swear out uml ont. to swear to anythinfe', hence faUely. 
 Coinp.aretlieLiitiiipcoHr«;'c; hence our ;w,;y)(rc. 
 
 (ii) To give a negative meaning, as in forgo (wrongly spelled /orfvo). 
 to go without. 
 
 4. Fore = before ; a.'i forebode, forecast. 
 
 ■ 5. Gam (O.E. rjacgn, back, again), found in gainsay (to speak 
 against) ; gainstand. 
 
IS] leak 
 
 i'KKKI.XES. 
 
 121 
 
 ^^O.^Mls (O.E. ,uU, w....g; and couuecte.l .ith the veW. to ,.nss), 
 
 jMimlcod. 
 
 Jli.le»l. Mi.tiu,t, Mi.t«ko. 
 
 believer). ^' •"«■•"'»•■'. •'"«■««,„, „„•„,„„, , ^ „„„. 
 
 ™r s:^ ji'"- T.e,. 
 
 mere. Theuco. The. 
 
 S. L'n = ijot, as 
 
 Unholy. Undo. Unblnd. 
 
 fouud^^^-^- """' ^™'^'"«' -'^ -""-tod with .«„.). .vhich i. 
 
 W;nit«in ( = waut(jweii, 
 hvokiiig eduuatiou). 
 
 AVanhope ( = despair). 
 
 Wantruwt. 
 
 fuu:Kir- ^'^ ^""^*^"^' ^"™ "^ ^■^- -•^/-= back or agah.t) i. 
 AVithstand. Withdraw. waw.oW. 
 
 .r " "'^^ "'^^ '" ' ^""" '■-■'" '■" the wora ....•„,..... . ,,,,,„,,.^. 
 
 15. Tlio following arc tJic most important 
 
 English Separable Prefixes :— 
 
 1. After, wliich is found in— 
 
 Aftergrowth. Aftennath (/..« n,ow). After-di.ner. 
 
 2. AU (O.E. al, quite), which i« found in- 
 
 Almighty. Alone (quite by .,.'„elf). Almost. 
 
 3. Forth, found in forthcoming, forward, etc. 
 
 4. Fro (a shortened form of /.<„«), iu froward. 
 
 5. In appears in modern Englislx in two fonus as — 
 (i) In, in— ' ' 
 
 Income. 
 
 Inbori 
 
 Insight. 
 Inbred. 
 
 (ii) En 
 
 ■ em (wliich U a Frenchified for 
 
 Instej), 
 Inlay. 
 
 End 
 
 •ni), iii- 
 
 (!ar. 
 
 Enlighten. 
 
 Kntwino. 
 Embitter. 
 
 Knibolden, 
 
 I J 
 
 t'^H 
 
u 
 
 i 
 
 1; 
 
 ill •• 
 
 122 GIJAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 6. Of or Off (wliich aro two KiioUingH of tlio Haiae word), m — 
 
 (Jfl'rtpring. Offset. 
 
 Offahoot. Offal (that which /«//» uf). 
 
 7. On, aH in oiiHct, uiiHlaught, onward. 
 
 8. Out, which takes also tiio form of ut, as in — 
 
 Outbreak. Outside. Utter. 
 
 Outcast. Out[iust. Utmost. 
 
 9. Over (tiie coinparative of the ove in above), which combines :— 
 (i) With nouns, as in — 
 
 Overcoat. Overflow. 
 
 (ii) AVitli adjectives, as in — 
 
 Over-bold. Over-merry. 
 
 (Shakespeare is very fond of Hucli funiis.) 
 
 (iii) With verbs, as in — 
 
 Overthrow. Overspread. 
 
 10. Tborough or through, two forms of the same word, as in — 
 Throughout. Through-train. Thorough-bred. Thoroughfare. 
 
 Sliakcspcarc has "thorough bush, tlioroufli brier, tlioruugh flood, thorough liiu, 
 
 11. Twl = two, in twiligla, twin, twist, etc. 
 
 12. Under, which goes : — 
 (i) With verbs, as in — 
 
 Overhand. 
 
 Over-proud. 
 
 Overhear. 
 
 f 
 
 Underlie. 
 
 Undersell. 
 
 Undergo. 
 
 (ii) With nouns, as in- 
 
 - 
 
 
 Underhand. 
 
 Underground. Undertone 
 
 (ill) With other words, 
 
 as in — 
 
 
 Underneath 
 
 • 
 
 Underlying. 
 
 13. Up, which goes : — 
 
 
 
 (i) With verbs, as in— 
 
 
 
 Upbear. 
 
 Upbraid. 
 
 Uphold, 
 
 (ii) With nouns, as in- 
 
 
 
 Upland. 
 
 Upstart. 
 
 Upshot. 
 
 Viii) With other word.s, 
 
 as in — 
 
 
 Upright. 
 
 
 Upward, 
 
PREFIXES. 
 
 123 
 
 38 :— 
 
 n — 
 
 rouglifara 
 iruughtliu. 
 
 
 16. Tlinro are in use in onr language many Latin Prefixes ; 
 and many of tlioni are of great service. Som." of them, as 
 circum (almut), eomo to us direct from Latin ; others, like 
 counter (against), liuvo come to us tlirongli tlio medium of 
 French. The following are tlio most important 
 
 Latin Prefixes:— t - 
 
 1. A, ab, abs (Fr. a, av), aivayfrovi, m in— 
 
 Avert. Abjure. Absent. Abstain. 
 
 Avftunt. Advantage (wliich ought (o be avaiitage). 
 
 2. Ad (Fr. a), to, which in coini.osition becomes ao, af, ag, al, an ap 
 ar, as, at, to asHiniihite witli the first consonant (,f the root. The 'fol- 
 lowing are examples of each :— 
 
 Adapt. Affect. Accord. Agree. 
 
 Aggression. Allude. Annex. Appeal. 
 
 Arrive Assimilate. Attain. Attend. 
 
 ntbun Tlie (oll„wing arc als„ Fr,,,cl> : Achieve (to t,rlng to a <■/,./ or I, .a,lL 
 
 3. Arab, am (rtjrtif, ,t), asin— 
 
 Ambition. Ambiguous. Amputate, 
 
 4. Ante (Fr. an), Ijefore, as in— 
 
 Antedate. Antechamber. Ancestor (= antecessor). 
 
 B. Bis, bl, fwice, a» in— 
 
 liisect. Biscuit ( = biscoctus, twice baked). 
 
 6. Circum, circa, around, as in— 
 
 Circunifer nee. Circulate. Circuit. 
 
 7. Cum, with, in PYencli com, wliich becomes col, con, cor, coun. and 
 00 before a vowel, as in — 
 
 Compound. Collect. Content. r>rrect 
 
 Counsel. Countenance. Coeval. ( oiiperate, 
 
 (i) In cost (from comtare, to "stand"); couch (from colVuco, I r'ace)- cull 
 
 (l^omcolUvo, I collect); ami combi (from consobrlnu,, the ol.ild of a mother's 
 
 sister), till! prefix has unilergone great changes 
 (ii) Co, tliough of Latin origin, can go wiUi purely English words, as in co- 
 
 worker, co-itmlersUmding. These are not desirable compmnds. 
 
 S. flnntr.'i (Fr. coatrft), against, which also becomes contro and 
 counter, as in — 
 
 Contradict. Controvert. Counterbalance, 
 
 (i) In counler,',eigh and counterwork we find it In union with English roots, 
 (li) In encowUer we find it converted into a root. 
 
 
if ' 
 
 m 
 
 124 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Depart. 
 
 9. De (Fr. de), down, from, about, as in— 
 
 Decline. Describe. 
 
 It lias also two different functions. It is— 
 (i) negative in destroy, deform, desuetude, etc. 
 (ii) intensive in desolate, desiccate (to dry up), etc. 
 
 10. Dls, <U (Fr. des, de), asunder, in two, as in- 
 
 Dissimilar. Disarm. Dismember.. 
 
 Differ (8 becomes f). Disease. Divorce 
 
 Defy. Defer. Delay. " 
 
 .^i.Si^riS:;"^'""^'""''^"^"^^ '""'^ *" '-''« the hy,.,.id. .,/..„, .,„^, 
 
 11. Ex, e (Fr. ea, e), out of, from, as in- 
 
 Erect.' ividt- Ere!""*" ^"''■"' ""^'^ '"""^'-y^- 
 
 (1) ex lias a privative sense in ex-emperor, etc. 
 
 (ii) In amend (emendo), astonish (etonner), tlie e is disguised 
 
 4i!;:r!;a?s:„':;ar"'"^>' ''-'-' <«• ^'■- --'^. ->^ ^-^'^ c^r 
 
 12. Extra, beyond, as in — 
 
 Extraneous. Extraordinary. Extravagant. 
 
 (1) In stranger (0. Fr. estranger, from I.at. extranens) the e has fallen away. 
 
 13. In (Fr. en, em), in, into, which changes int<j 11, Im, Ir, as in- 
 
 Invade. invent (to come upon). Infer, 
 
 llusion. i,np,,„,e. Immigrate. 
 
 Irritate irrigate. irradiate, 
 
 luichant. Endure. Envoy 
 
 .£<" S£?;r«'"' '•°°^ '" "^'^■^'^ ^'"^ '■^"■"»^ -r^'ody, em„olde,, end.ar, 
 (ii) In amhusk (Ital. inhosatrsi, to put one's self in a wood), the in is disguisc.U 
 
 14. In, not, wliich becomes il, im, ir, and ig, as in- 
 
 Inconvenient. Illiberal. Impious. Irrelevant. 
 
 Incautious. Illegal. Impolitic. lgu„bie. 
 
 (i) The English prolix un sometimes takes its place, and forms hvbrid, wifl, 
 Latm roots in unable, niu,pt, uncomfortuhle. ^ '* '*"'' 
 
 (ii) Shakespeare has unpossible. nnpropor, and many others. 
 
 15. inter, Intro (Fr. entre), between, among-as in 
 
 Intercede. Interpose. Interfere. 
 
 Introduce. Entertain. Knterprise. 
 
 16. Male (Fr. ni^u), ill, as in— 
 
 Malediction, (contracted through French into) 
 Malison (opposed to Beniaon). Maugre. 
 
 
 i ♦:, 
 
PREFIXES. 
 
 I2r) 
 
 'in, (lum-e, 
 
 ountry). 
 
 rectal (for 
 
 Jway, 
 1 — 
 
 , endear, 
 
 sguised 
 
 lis with 
 
 17. Mis (Fr. mea, from Latin minus), less, as in- 
 Misadventure. Mischance. 
 
 Mischief. 
 
 Oppase. 
 
 Cautlon.-Not to lie confounded with the English prefix mis in mi». 
 take, mistrust, etc. 
 
 18, Non, not, aa in — 
 
 Nonsense, Non-existent. Nonsuit. 
 
 (i) The initial n has dropped ofT in umpire, formerly »Mmpire = 0. Fr. nnnpn^ 
 Lat. nonpar, not equal. »"»/»-r 
 
 tin' nlt,?^ ^Z ^f '" "''"f '"?'""'' ^''"'" "'"■'"'^*' ""^'•"'^ (conneeto,! with ,u,p. 
 *m, napery), etc., Ijy wrongly cleaving to tlie indefinite article a. 
 
 19, Ob, against, becomes oc, of, op, etc., as in— 
 Obtain. Occur. Offend. 
 
 20, Pene, almost, as in — 
 
 Peninsula. Penultimate (the last but one). 
 
 21, Per (Fr, par), through, which becomes pel, as in— 
 Pellucid, Perform. Perjure. 
 Perfect. Permit. ]'iigri,„. 
 
 ♦..i'^fl^f '"'? m'"" ^'T ■P^'"'-'?'-'""''' ^ P'"'S''" who wanders per agros. throng], 
 the fields,-hy the medium of Ital pelleyrino. ■ 
 
 (ii) Perhaps is a hybrid, 
 
 22, Post, after, as in— 
 
 Postpone. Postdate. Postscript, 
 
 (i) Tlie post is much disguised in pvny, which comes fn.in the Pvenchvuh7i^ 
 
 23, Prse, pre (Fr. pre), before, as in— 
 
 Predict. Presume, Pretend, Prevent, 
 
 (i) It is shortened into apr in prize, prison, apprehend, comprise (all from «r«. 
 Aejwo, I seize). ^ 
 
 (ii) It is disguised in provost (impositus, one placed over), in preach (from pr„: 
 aicn, I speak l)elore), and^rnreni^er (from pnebeo, I furnish). 
 
 24, Prseter, beyond, as in — 
 
 Preternatural. Preterite (beyond the present). Pretermit. 
 
 2r). Pro (Fr. pour), whicli becomes pol, por, pur, as in— 
 
 Pronoun. Proconsul. Procure. Protest, 
 
 Pollute. Portrait. Pursue. Purchase, 
 
 26. Re (Fr, re), back, again, which becomes red, as in- 
 Rebel. Reclaim. Recover. Refer. 
 Redeem. Redound, Readmit, Recreant, 
 
 (i) It is much disguised in rail,/ (^re-aily), in ransom (a shortened Fr form of re- 
 demplion), and in runagate (^renegade, one wlio has denie(l-,ie<7rtri<-Iiis faith). 
 
 (il) It combines with EngUsli roots to form the liybrids relay, reset, recall. 
 
 
 n 
 
 I If 
 
 w 
 
 ml 
 
 ' JiJ : 
 
!f 
 
 126 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 27. Retro, backwards-as in retrograde, retrospect. 
 
 (i) It is disguised in rear-guanl (Ital. retrcgardia), rear, and arrears. 
 
 28. Se (Fr. se), apart, wliich becomes sed, as in - 
 
 Secede. Seclude. Seduce. Sedition. 
 
 «.TJ^^ *^''' °°'"' °' '°''^' ""'^^''' ^"^"'^'^ b^'^^'^e*' 0^0, suf. 8ud, sum, 
 sup, sur, and sus, as in— ' ' 
 
 Subtract. Succour. Suffer. Suggest. 
 
 Summon. Supplant. Surrender. Suspend 
 
 30. Subter, beneath— as in subterfuge. 
 
 31. Super (Fr. sur), above, as in- 
 Supernatural. ' Superpose. 
 Surface (superficies). Surname. 
 
 Superscription. 
 Surtout (over-all). 
 
 Ultramontane. 
 
 32. Trans (Fr. tres), beyond, which becomes tra, as in— 
 Translate. Transport. Transform. Transitive. 
 Tradition. Traverse. Travel. Trespass. 
 
 (i) It is disguised in treason (the Fr. form of tradition, ft-o,n trado (=transdo) 
 I give u,.), u^ betray and traitor (from tl,o same Latin root) in trance la I7ran.e 
 
 !r,"a ,iu;ro:rc:r '^^'""''' "■" "■ "'"" ^^'■°"' ^'"' ■"™'""''- '"-^- 
 
 33. Ultra, beyond, as in — 
 Ultra-Liberal. Ultra-Tory. 
 
 (i) In outrage (0. Fr. oultraje) the ultra is disguised. 
 
 34. Unus, one, which becomes un and unl, as in- 
 Unanimous. Uniform. Unicorn. 
 
 S.'i. Vice (Fr. vice), in the place of, as in— 
 
 Viceroy. Vicar. Vice-chancellor. Viscount. 
 
 17. Our language possesses also a considerable number of 
 prefi.xes transferred froni the Greek language, many of wliich 
 are very useful. The following are tlie most important 
 Greek Prefixes: — 
 
 1. An, a {iiv, a), not, as in — 
 
 Anarchy. Anonymous, 
 
 2. Amphl (dM^O. on botl 
 
 Amphibioui 
 
 Apteryx (the wingless). Atheist 
 
 sides, as in — 
 
 Amphitheatre, 
 
niEFIXES. 
 
 127 
 
 3. Ana (avd), up, again, bock, as in— 
 
 Anatomy. AnalyHi«. Anachronism. 
 
 4. Antl (avTi), against or opjwsite to, as in— 
 
 Antidote. Antipathy. Antipodes. Antarctic. 
 
 5. Apo {an6), away frotn, which also becomes ap, as in— 
 
 Apostate. Apostle. Apoh^gy. Aphelion. 
 
 6. Arch, archl, arohe (dpxi}), chief, as in— 
 
 Archbishop. Archangel. Architect. Archetype. 
 
 7. Auto (avTds), self, which becomes auth, as in— 
 
 Autocrat. Autograph. Autotype. Authentic. 
 
 8. Cata, cat (koto), down, as in— 
 
 <^ata,.,gue. Catapult. Catechism. Cathedral. 
 
 T'. T;,,.. Sid), tlirough, across, an in— 
 
 liiameter. Diagram. Diagonal. 
 
 10. Dls, dl (Sis), twice, as in— 
 
 Dissyllable. Diphthong. Dilemma. 
 
 11. Dys (5i;y), ill, as in— 
 
 Dysentery. Dyspeptic (contrasts with Eupeptic). 
 
 12. EC, ex {iK, i^), out of, as in- 
 
 Eccentric. Ecstasy. Exodus. E.xotic. 
 
 13. En {if), in, whicli becomes el and em, .-is in- 
 
 Encyclical. Encomium. Ellip.se. Emphasis. 
 
 14. Epl, ep (eVi), upon, as in— 
 
 Kpitaph. Epiphany. Epoch. Ephemeral. 
 
 If). Eu (eS), well, which also becomes ev, as in— 
 
 Euphemism. Eulogy. Evangelist. 
 
 IC. Heml (mi), half, as in— 
 
 Heuiisphere. Hemistich (half a line in poetry). 
 
 1". Hyper (Mp), over and above, as in- 
 Hyperborean. Hyperbole. Hypercritical. Hypermetrical. 
 
 18. Hypo, hyp (iirJ), under, as in— 
 
 Hypocrite. Hypotenuse. Hyphen. 
 
 19. Meta, met {^trd), after, changed for, as in- 
 
 Metaphor. Metamorpliosis. Metonymy. Method. 
 
 20. Mono, mon {n6vof), alone, as in— 
 
 Monogram. Monody. Monad. Monk. 
 
 
 
 't ■■ 
 
 ill 
 
 t 'ii 
 
 
 ! M II 
 
! 
 
 i28 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 21. Pan {vav), all, as in— 
 
 Pantheist. Panacea. Panorama. Pantomime. 
 
 22. Para {^apd), by the side of, which becomes par, as in- 
 
 Paradox. Parallel. 
 
 23. Perl (ntpl), round, as in— 
 
 Perimeter. Period. 
 
 24. Pro (Trpd), before, as in— 
 
 Propaet. Prologue. 
 
 25. Pros (irpds), towards, as in— 
 
 Prosody. 
 20. Syn (<rd.), with, which becomes syl, sym,"and sy, as in- 
 Syntax Synagogue. Syllable 
 
 Sympathy. Symbol. System. 
 
 Parish. 
 
 Perigee. 
 
 Proboscis. 
 
 Proselyte. 
 
 Parody. 
 
 Periphery. 
 
 Problem. 
 
 18. Tlio Suffixes employed in the English language are much 
 rnore nun.rous than the Prefixes, and much mo^e ulef" L 
 the P efixes they co„,e to us fronx three sources-from Old 
 Engl.h (or Anglo-Saxon), from Latin (or French); and from 
 
 19. The following are the most important 
 
 English Suffixes to Nouns:— 
 
 1. Ard or art (^habitual), as in— 1 ,,- 
 
 Braggart. Coward. Drunkard. Diiliard 
 
 Laggard. Niggard. Sluggard. Wizard.' 
 
 / 
 
 2, Craft (skill), as in— 
 
 Leechcraft ( = medicine). 
 AVoodcraft. 
 
 Priestcraft. AVitchcraft. 
 Itimecraft (old name for Arithmetic). 
 3. D, t or th (all being dentals), as in— 
 (i) Blood (from Mow, said Blade (from the same), 
 of flowers). 
 Flood (flow). Seed (sow). 
 
 Deed (do). 
 
 (ii) Drift (drive). 
 Flight (fly),' 
 
 Rift (rive). 
 
 (iii) Aftermath (mow). 
 • Death (die). 
 Mirth (merry). 
 
 Drought (dry). 
 Height (high : Milton 
 uses highth). 
 Theft (thieve). 
 
 Berth (bear). 
 Earth (ear = plough). 
 Sloth (slow). 
 
 Thread (throw). 
 
 Draught (draw). 
 Shrift (shrive). 
 
 Weft (weave). 
 
 Dearth (dear). 
 Health (heal). 
 Tilth (till). 
 
/ 
 
 SUFFIXES. 
 
 129 
 
 Writer. 
 
 _^^ 4. Dom (O.E. dom=cloom), power, office, from deman, to judge, as 
 
 Dukedom Kingdom. Halidom (==holines3). 
 
 Clinstendom. Tliraldom. AVisdoin. 
 
 !). En (a diminutive), as in — 
 
 Chicken (cock). Kitten (cat). Maiden 
 
 6. Er, wliicli has three functions, to denote— 
 (i) An agent, as in— 
 
 Baker. Dealer. Leader, 
 
 (ii) An Instrument, as in— 
 Knger (from O.Kfanffan. to take). Stair (from sttgan, t. mount), 
 (ni) A male agent, as in- 
 Fuller (from /«//;««, to cleanse). Player. Sower 
 
 cieep in be o I H ' ';;"'""'" "^ Norman-Prencl,, an i or ^ 
 
 STete '' "' '" """"''• (f™' «'««. '««'^«r. <,fa.i,r (fro,n 
 
 7. Hood (O.E. had), si,ate, rank, person, as in- 
 
 Brotherhood. Childhood. Priesthood. Wifehood. 
 
 (1) In Godhead, this sufTa takes the form odiead. 
 
 8. Ing (originally=sort of) part, as in— 
 
 Farthing (fourth). Riding (tnthin,=tkirding). Tithing (tenth) 
 
 9. Kin (a diminutive), as in— 
 
 BoJki,,. Firkin (from /„„,). i.,„,|,ti„. j,,„„.^.„ 
 
 10. Llng= l + lng (both diminutives), as in- 
 
 Darling (from dear). DucklliiD- n i- / 
 
 ill: 
 
 < f 
 
 :j 
 
 ■ '( 
 
 ^H', 
 
 1 
 
 ^i 
 
 ■J 
 
 1 
 
 
 < i 
 
 ..'!, 
 
 1 
 
 Ii" 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
n 
 
 m 
 
 ii*i 
 
 IW 
 
 I' ■ !■' 
 
 130 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 11. Le or 1, aa in — 
 
 Beadle (from leodan, to bid). 
 Settle (seat). 
 
 Bundle (bind). 
 Nail. 
 
 Saddle (.seat). 
 Sail. 
 
 12. Lock fO.E. l£o. gift, sport), which also becomes ledge, as in- 
 
 Kuowledge. Wedlock. Feohtlacihattle). 
 
 (i) Tins IS not to be confused with tlie lock nn,l 7M- ,-, *i 
 which i,>O.E. was leac, and whi.h we tod nhemLir.V I '"""f "' '^'''"*''' 
 plant) and barley (^betdk). hemlock, charlock; garlick { = spear 
 
 13. Ness forms abstract nouns from a.ljectives, as in- 
 
 Darkness. Holiness. AVeakness. Weariness 
 
 ^^14. Nd (which is the pnding of the present participle in O.E.), found 
 
 Friend (=the loving one). 
 Errand. 
 
 15. Ock (a diminutive), as in — 
 Bullock. Hillock. 
 
 /iend (=the hating one). 
 Wind (from a root vd, to blow). 
 
 Ruddock (=redbraast). 
 (i) In hawk (=the seizer. from have) this suffix is disguised, 
 (ii) It is also found in proper names, as in— 
 
 Pollock (from Pavl). Maddo. (fron, ^fatthew). Wiloo, (from WllUan). 
 10. M or om, which forms nouns from verbs, as in— 
 
 Bloom (from Wo^-). Qualm (from jwcm. 
 
 Gloom (from glow). geam (from se^o). 
 
 Gleam (from glow). Team (from tow). 
 
 hjSil'tf,".'"' """"""" *'" ^•~^-'''--rd™Z ^royal) to fonn the 
 
 17. Red (mode, fash on— and also counsel), as in— 
 
 Hatred. Kindred. Sibrede (relationship). 
 
 (.) Thm ending is also foun.l in proper nouns. Thus we have 3f;W,«f-,«t7,7 
 m counsel; me rnl^_nom m counsel, called also t/nm^.. which d^'sot.ne, 
 vnremly, but witluntt co-unsel. "' ""^''" 
 
 18. Rio (O.E. rice, power, dominion)— as in bishopric, 
 (i) In O.E. we had abbotrtc, hcvenricke, and kingrk. 
 
 a.ufJn*'' (®-E. BfPe. Bhape or form), which is also spelled scape 
 ana sinp, makes abstract nouns, as in— 
 
 Fellowship. Frien.lship. Lordship 
 
 , Landscape. Workmanship. Worship (=worthship). 
 
 (0 Milton writes landskip for landscape. 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 131 
 
 20. Stead (O.K. st^de, place), as iu— 
 
 Bedstead. Homestead. Haiupstead. Herkhauutead. 
 
 21. Rterwas originally the feminine of er, the suffix for a male 
 ayent : it haa now two functions :- 
 
 (i) It denotes an agent, as in — 
 
 Huckster (hawker). Maltster. Songster. Roadster. 
 
 (ii) It has an elemept of depreciation in — 
 
 Gamester. Punster. Oldster. Youngster. 
 
 (iii) We had, in Old Englisli, baxter (fcm. of hakcr), wcbsler (weaver), brew- 
 ster,fithelstre O'i(iaifr), seamesti-e (sewer), and even bdkrlngeslre (Cor feiiialu bell- 
 ringer). Most of tliese are now used as proper naiiics. 
 
 (iv) Spinster is the feiiiinine of spinner, one form of wliich was spindcr, 
 wliich then became spider. 
 
 22. Ther, der, or ter denotes the agent — with the notion of dwditi/—' 
 as in — 
 
 Father. Mother. Sister. Brother. 
 
 Bladder {bloiv), Kudder {row). Water (tvct). Winter {ivlnd). 
 
 23. Wright (from work, by metathesis of the r), as in — 
 Shipwright. Wainwright (= waggon wright). Wheelwright. 
 
 24. Ward, a keeper, as in — 
 
 Hayward. Steward (=sti)-ward). Woodward. 
 
 (i) Ward has also the Norman-French form of guard. 
 
 (ii) In ateviard, the word atlge or sty meant staJi for horses, cows, etc. 
 
 20. Tlie following are the most important 
 
 Englisli SuflElxes to Adjectives : — 
 
 1. Ed or d, the endingJor the passive participle, as iu — 
 
 Cold ( = chilled). Long-eared. Lauded. Talented. 
 
 2. En, denoting material, as in — 
 
 Golden. Silvern. Flaxen. Hempen. 
 
 Oaken. Wooden. Silken. Linen (from Un, flax). 
 
 3. En, the old ending for the passive participle, as in — 
 
 Drunken. Forlorn. Molten. Hewn, 
 
 4. Em, denoting quarter, as in — 
 
 Eastern. Western. Northern. Southern. 
 
 5. Fast (O.E. faeat, firm), as iu— 
 
 Steadfast. llootfast. Shamefast (wrongly shamefaced). 
 
 6. Fold (O.E. feald), as in- 
 
 Twofold. Threefold. Manifold. 
 
 (i) Simple, from Lat. simplex, has usurped the place of an/euld = one/old. 
 
 ■>\:i 
 
 Villi 
 
 ■iii 
 
 I J 
 
 ;K5 
 

 
 132 caUMMAK OF THE KXOLISir LANGUAGE. 
 
 7. Ful = taU, as iu- 
 
 Hateful. Needful. si„f„. ,^.j^^j 
 
 8. ISMO Else) has three function.; it denote.:- ' 
 («; 1 artakuig in the nature of, as i„_ 
 
 Moorish. Childish. Churlish. Waspish 
 
 lackish. Greenish. Whitish 
 
 (»i) A patrlal relation aa in_ 
 
 ^«gl-l^- Irish. Scottish. 
 
 »• le. with a dinnnutive tendency, as in- 
 Little m. Brittle (from break). 
 10. less (O.E. leas), loose from, as in- 
 Fearless. Helpless. Sinless. 
 "•'l"^(,^:f-^''')'-^t.nedinly, .i„_ 
 Childlike. Dovelike. Wifelike. 
 
 Goodish. 
 
 ^ elsh (= W>^liscl 
 Fickle {unsteady). 
 Toothless. 
 
 Af. 1 ""enke. Warlike, 
 
 ^^-ly. Womanly. Ghastly (= ghostlike). 
 
 1 wal. aj. In- 
 
 Godly. 
 
 12. Ow(O.E.u and wa), as in- 
 Narrow. Callow. Fallow y 11 
 
 -2 """'" '^ ---^^ -" ^^e a^-tive'^.. J,L wUh t.o yol . 
 13. Right, with the sense of direction, as in- 
 
 Forthright. Downright Upright. 
 
 l^.S0»e(O.E.s«n.,aformof.^,,ike),asin- 
 
 Bu.om(..m .„,„„, ,,,^„^^, Lissom ( = lithesome). 
 
 Irksome. ^ 
 
 IK n, ,^ Gamesome. Winsome. 
 
 15. Teen O.K. t^e) = ten. y addition, as in- 
 
 Thirteen. Fourteen. Fifteen «• . 
 
 16. Ty(O.E. tig) = tens by multiplication, as i„- 
 2;;^^=-^-y). Thirty ( = .wty). F„,ty. 
 
 tlon'as';^- ^'•'- ''^"'•' ^™- --^I'an, to become), denoting .irec 
 
 Froward (from). m , 
 
 Awkwjird (from azi?- "^varcl. Untoward, 
 
 contrary). ' Homeward. geaward. 
 
 wS ll:::ss^:^:: ^';^:'irs ;;::::!• i!:--:. i^ - — «. 
 
 the chase, woo worth eiie day I 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 133 
 
 18. Wise (O.K. wis, mode, manner), as in- 
 
 liighteou. (properly rl.ht.lsc). Boi„terou« (O.E. Lostu.s) 
 
 o,!s\i:z ;;:?:".■,:;, 5;'"""^ """« '""^ ""^ «-' -'■^"-" -"■ "- ^-t !,,« 
 
 f.-ul^'.IIan?;^'^;::!' "' ""^" has vanished) form« adjectives 
 Woody. Crafty. jj„,.„ 
 
 ^'•Shty. Silly Uul). ZZ "ZT'^''^- 
 
 21. Tlio following are the inost inii,ortant 
 
 English Suffixes for Adverbs :— 
 1. Ere, denoting place In, as in 
 
 Here. 
 
 There. 
 
 Where. 
 
 Utterly. 
 
 ^ J. =s or 8 (the old genitive or possessive), whieh becomes ae and ce. 
 
 Needs. Besides. Wonietimo. it 
 
 ^'- Hence. ^nt ^^^ [J^-es. 
 
 (')"lnmatn€e<hgo" = o/nee(l. 
 
 3. Ly (O.E. ace, the dative of lie), as in- 
 
 Only {=onely). Badly. Willingly. 
 
 4. ling, long, denotes direction, as in— 
 
 Bad^ling. Grovelling. Headlong. s^aelong. 
 
 O.E. :XZ. '^ "°' "^"^ ' ^'^^^^"' "^•^"''^'^•- '' '^ -' ^^vcr.. a„a ,va. in 
 (ii) We once had also the ad verbs /a«»,,, and noselinos. 
 ^. Meal (O.E. maelum = at times), a,s in- 
 Piecemeal. T ;r^x. 1 
 {■A au , Limbmeal. 
 (0 Shakespeare, fn " Cymbcline." has the llne- 
 
 fii) Chan... ," ^ ""* ^ ^""^ ''"'' ''""' *° ^"^^ ^'' llmbn.eal." 
 =stilSreaTonrrdrerL=''°"^ '^ ^'"-^ ^'"^ ^'^-'1 ^- .,U«„, 
 6. Om (an old dative plural), a^ in- 
 
 . ^^'">- (= - old times). Seldom (from .M, rare). 
 
 /. Ther, which denotes place to, as in- 
 
 H:ther. Thither. w„t,,. 
 
 Homeward. „o.eward.. Backwards. l^.wnwards. 
 
 9. Wise (O.E. WIS, manner, mode), as in- 
 
 Anywise. Nowise. Otherwisn t -i • 
 
 „ „ vtnei wise. Likewise. 
 
 Some i,eoi,le are wise ; and some are otherwise." 
 
 ! . ;.] 
 
 :i i !■'■ 
 
 
 'HI 
 hi 
 
I 
 
 :. k 
 
 r3 
 
 
 !! 
 I!i 
 
 Jill 
 
 134 
 
 GJiAMMAU UF TIIK ENCLISH LANGUAGK 
 
 22. Tlio following arc the, most iiaiiortiiiit 
 
 English Suffixes for Verbs : 
 
 1. Le or 1 lia.s twii functions : — 
 (i) I'loquentative, as in— 
 
 K.ililile (,/„/,). '".rn|.i,Iu(;/mfc), 
 
 Di'il.lilo (,(rij'). I /, ,i/.\c (li-oiii drcusaii, tu fall), 
 
 (li) Diminutive, as in— 
 
 IJazzle (<la:c). IMl.blc ((/(». 
 
 Oaldilo. Niggle. 
 
 2. Er (.1- r adds a frequentative or intensive force to tlie original 
 verb, HH in — 
 
 Batter (6caO. Chatter. Glitter (y/y,y). Flniicr (Jlit). 
 
 Ghnnner (ylam). Clatter. Sputter (.^j.-O. 
 
 fetagger. Stammer. Stutter. "Welter. 
 
 Er lias also (l,o function of making causative vorbtt out of atl joctlvcs, as linaer 
 ((".■iij), lower, himlcr. 
 
 3. En or n makes causative verbs out of nouns and adjectiveH, as in— 
 
 Wa.1.110 (wade). 
 
 .Jostle. 
 
 Uwiiullo. 
 Sparkli 
 
 Brighten. 
 Broaden. 
 
 Fatten. 
 Oladdeu. 
 
 Liglitei! 
 Soften. 
 
 4. K has a frequentative force, r.s in— 
 Hark {hear). Stalk (steal). 
 
 6. S or se has a causative force, as in— 
 Cleanse (clean). Curse. 
 
 Lengthen. 
 Sweeten. 
 
 Talk (tell). 
 
 Rinse (from hrclnn). 
 
 23. The Suffixes of Latin origin are of great importance ; and 
 they have been of great use for several centuries. Many of 
 them— indeed, most of them— have been influenced by passing 
 througli Trench mouths, and hence have undergone considei° 
 able change. Tlie following arc the chief 
 
 Latin and French Suffixes for Nouns: — 
 
 1. Age (Lat. atlcum), which forms eitlier abstract or collective 
 nouns, as in — 
 
 Beverage. Courage. Carnage. Homage. 
 
 Marriage. Personage. Vassalage. Vintage, 
 
 (i) It unites easily with Englisl. roots to fonn liybiids, as in honduoe, mileane, 
 tuumigc, tmiindarn; liUmje, shruiJoige. 
 
 2. An, aln, or ane (Lat. Snus), connected with, us in— 
 
 Artisan. Pagan. Publican. Roman. 
 
 Cha])lain. Captain. Humane. Mundane, 
 
 (i) Tlir Hullixis ilist;uisiMl in atircniriiiiO. Fr. snvcmin), wliicli lia.s been wrongly 
 . siipiMised (o bavc scinielliing to do with rdon; in warden, cltizoi, surgeon, etc. 
 Jlilton always spells sovereign, sovran. 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 135 
 
 8. Al or el (Lat. JUIb), possesaing the quality of, ^ in- 
 
 Animal Cardinal. Canal. Channel 
 
 Hospital. Hostel. Hotel S u 
 
 caSl^al^l^ilTar'^ '"""' '— «>-^'«'-"f '"■0 «--. SO are 
 
 Assistant. Servant. Agent. stu.lent. 
 
 as in- "' "'"''• "'' '°°''' ''^°^<^'^*- ""^' «""»). form abstract nouns, 
 
 Abundance. Chance. Distance. Brilliancy 
 
 I)'l«gence. Indulgence. Constancy. Co„roLv 
 
 8. AIT. rjr, or er (Lat. arlum), a place where a thing is kept as in- 
 A..y^«...ahee, Arn Or..., ' .Jt^^ ^ 
 
 «\ Ti if vestiy. Larder. Suucer 
 
 leSfvi mSi/'""*''^ ^"^'^'""^>' '«»'"'-^. *— "•^. --/.,, the ., has a ool. 
 
 traltr^rlr "r^Tni'^' "'"^' '^'^°*^^ ' ^^ ^^^^^'^ ^ «- 
 Sr"- f*^"^- «^^-*-^- «t«tuary. 
 
 den;d- ''''■ **""' ^^"* P"''"'^''° ^"'""^>' ^-"'"-g in French e or ee. 
 (i) An agent, as In— 
 
 Advocate. Curate. Leirate n , . 
 
 (ii) Tl,e object of an action, as in- ^'■'™''- 
 
 Grantee. Legatee. Trustee v , 
 
 ^ In grandee the passive signification is not retline,.. '''' 
 
 9. Ce (Lat clum. tlum, or tla) forms abstract r.ouns as- 
 
 Benefice. Kdifice. ,Sarrifi!.« 
 
 10. El, le or 1 (Lat. iUus. eUuB, etc.), a diminutive, as in- 
 Angle a little corner). BucklpCfrnm/,, .i , , 
 
 Castle. Chapel Libel P ^ , T' ^'"^ ''^'^^^>- 
 
 m», ,, 7""I'^'- l-ibel. Pommel. Title. Seal 
 (i) A buckle used to :,ave a cast of the human face 
 
 fiilwT; f '""" r"t '"''"""• " """' '"''' ^■-" «-'"'-. « fort, 
 (ni) Libel, from Ut. «6e;;„,,, a little U,ok (liber). 
 
 (iv) Pomme?, from Ut. jiomina, an apple. 
 
 (v) Seal from Lat. eiyjWuw. 
 
 K 
 
 'tli 
 
 ^' 
 
 : I: 
 
 :''! 
 
 
 :,i ; 
 
 fl 
 
I» 
 
 K\ 
 
 R?T/f^' 
 
 ! B 
 
 I 
 
 ill! 
 
 I3r. 
 
 OHAMMAn OF THE ENnuSFI I.ANOUAnR. 
 
 1 1. Era (r,at. erna), ilonnting place, na in— 
 Cavera. Cistern. T.antern. 
 
 Tftvern. 
 
 12. Bt, ette, and let M-v. et, ette) all diminutives, oa In— 
 
 Ooblut Gibbet. l.H,u,.et. Leveret, 
 
 luppot. Trumpet. Ticket. Turret 
 
 (I) Tlin let l.s = l + et. anil In I'duikI In bmirtet Allet rulht „tn ii. i 
 
 I ^. Ess (late Lat. Issa), a female agent, oh in— 
 
 Emi.n..sM. (J..verness. Marchioness. Sorcerm* 
 
 I I no last IS a double feminine, as mimestre is the old word.) 
 1 ». Ice, lae, or ess (Lat. tla ; Fr. esse), as in— 
 
 Avarice. Cowardice. Justice. Merchandise. 
 
 ]:)istre.ss. t.argeHS. Noblesse. Riches. 
 
 (I) It m a 8i«„incant nwuk of tl,o carelessness with whicl, tlm English Unmnse 
 
 has always U.en writte,,, that the very same ending should a Z T three 
 
 «lMMIii)fc's in laryess, nohlesse, riches. " '""^ 
 
 (Ii) niches is a false plural : It is an abstract noun, the French form beLig rtchesse. 
 
 15. Ice (Lat. icem aec. of nouns in x), which has also the forms of 
 ise, ace, as ni — 
 
 Chalice. Pumice. Mortise. Furnace. 
 
 (I) The Hufllx is nmoh -lisjiuised in radish (=the root, iVom ra,lt,-em) 
 
 (II) It IS also disguised i.i partridge ami jndye (Judlcem). 
 
 16. Icle (Lat. iculua, eUus, ulus), which appears also as eel and sel 
 a diminutive, a.s in— ' 
 
 Article (a little jo/nO. Particle. Receptacle. Versicle 
 1 arcel Ivarlice/la). Morsel (from morcleo, I bite). 
 
 Damsel {dominiccUa, a little lady). 
 
 i^s^aXSi ;:sSm i"' '"'"""^' "'""""^ ^''°'" ^'">' ^ -«»• --'^ 
 
 (ii) I'arcd and purticle are doublets. 
 1". Ine or In (Lat. Inus) related to, as in- 
 Divine (noun). Cousin. 
 
 th?i.SiS'ai;^^;;s:" -"""'""' """"^"-"^ "■" ^^^^^ --^^^'"". 
 
 IS. Ion (Lat. ICnem), which 
 
 Frcncl 
 
 li, as son, som, denotes an 
 
 ajipears also as tlon, slon, and, from 
 action, as in — 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 13 
 
 i 
 
 Opinion. 
 
 PoiHOIl. 
 
 lianHom. 
 
 P<>«iti«ii. 
 
 Benediction. 
 
 Malediction. 
 
 Vocation. 
 
 Heniwon, 
 
 MaliHon. 
 
 Action, 
 Potion. 
 liedeni])tion, 
 
 the numtl, and car. fron. Fmlch * '" ^""' "'« '"^"'"^ "'"mBh 
 
 t.sxrtSi.;:^;'''"' *^'"""'"-)' ~ (-"o-. the .o„.;„, 
 
 /iwf „ , , '^' ^""unient. Ornament 
 
 (I) It cnmblnea easily wM, i , „ikf .„ i » . "lauitin. 
 
 20. Mony (I.at. monlum) makes abstract nouns n,- 
 Acrimony. Matri.aony. Sanctimony. 
 
 Testimony. 
 
 21. Oon or on (Fr. oa ; Ital. one), an augmentative, as in- 
 Balloon. Cartoon. Draeoo , a , 
 
 Flagon. Million. p2Z nfT 
 
 Clarion. Galleon. ^rTbone ¥ ""l"' 
 
 ^-n*,a.arge.„.«^e.; *n,„c. A I larg^ :;:;;V.S;'or-;5cT '"'"^•' '™'"- 
 denlsiC^ ;;:"">' ^'^'•^'^ ''PP-^ ^>- - or, our, and .r. and 
 
 Dormitory. Refe^etory. Lavatory. 
 
 Parlour. Dormer. Manger 
 
 Auditory. 
 Mirror. 
 
 for domiUory, from </<,rm«c^S "'" '''**' "Si'loee. Dormer Is short 
 
 .^23. our (Lat. or; Fr. eur), forms abstract or collective nouns, as 
 
 Ardour. Clamour. Honour. s,vour 
 
 (1) Tlie ending resumes its French form In grandeur. 
 (ii) It forms a }iybria in behaviour. 
 
 24. or or our (Lat. orem ; Fr. eur) denotes an agent, as in- 
 Actor. Governor. Emperor. Saviour. 
 
 This ending is disguised in interpreter, labourer, preacher, etc. 
 
 ;.i| 
 
 ^i 
 
 i:> 1 
 
 .< i' 
 
 [I,. 
 
 =i'l 
 
 5: 'I- 
 
 " I 
 
 
138 
 
 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 <(' J 
 
 I 
 
 it' 
 
 J.' Jin- ■ *'''"*^" '"'^'"^ °^ *'^° P^* P'*''*'^'P^«) '"'"^'^t«« a completed 
 ^'^*- F^'*- Joint. Suit 
 
 26. Ter (Lat. ter) denotes a person, as in- 
 
 Master (contracted from magister). Minister 
 
 n^iSZ:Z:!Z:''''''' ■"°"'^^"^'=" '^-^'^ «- rootor .«,„«, great; 
 
 27. Tery (Lat. terlum) denotes condition, as in- 
 
 Mastery. t^. . . 
 
 •' Ministry. 
 
 28. Trlx (Lat. trlx) denotes a female agent, as in- 
 
 Executrix. Improvisatrix. Testatrix 
 
 29. Tude (Lat. tudlnem), denotes condition, as in- 
 
 Altitude. Beatitude. Fortitude. Multitude 
 
 (.) In custom, from Lat. consuetudinem, the ending is disgnise.l. 
 
 30. Ty (Lat. tatem ; Fr. t4) makes abstract nouns, as in- 
 
 Bounty Charity. Cruelty. Poverty, 
 
 -^aptivity. Frailty. Fealty. Vanity 
 
 frSSiXSlS^^^^^^^^^ -^/-% ccne. no; direct,, 
 
 .^31. Ure (Lat.ura) denotes an action, or the result of an action, as 
 Aperture. Cincture. Measure. Picture. 
 
 32. Y (Lat. la ; Fr. le) denotes condition or faculty as in- 
 Company. Family. Fury. Victory 
 
 JO This snmx unites casi,. with English words in e.-as 6«../;,.,e.,. «6. 
 (ij) It stands for Lat. ium in augury, remedy, study. s.bsidy.-,tc. 
 «i.) It represents the i at. ending atus in attorney, deputy. ««,, ,„„,^. 
 
 tolk?li'"'-^"'''^'"'^^"^''"'^^'^"^P^«y-l - our language 
 cLT ""^^^^'^"^^ ^^^ '^^y "«^f"J- The following arc the 
 
 Latin Suffixes for Adjectives. 
 1. A-.OU8 (Lat. aceufl) = made of, as in- 
 
 Argillaceous (c^«y.y). Farinaceous (>„ry). 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 2. Al (Lat. aus) = belonging to, as iu- 
 
 139 
 
 Legal. 
 
 Regal. 
 
 (i) Loyal and royal are the 
 
 Loyal. 
 
 lioyal. 
 
 thro«ghF.e,K^,ti;;h;;;r;h:sr:;:fli"tirS''''' "'"'^ '"'•"■ ^'-"'« 
 
 Certam. Human (korno). Humane. Peg.,. (^„,,,, , 
 
 tlicir passage tl.rougl, the French '"* '^'""^'^ influenced in 
 
 Current (c«..., I run). Distant. President. Discordant. 
 5. Ar^(.a. ^^3) wHiel. apj_ .. ,,„^ ,^^ ^ ^^_ 
 
 (i) i'rmter (Lat. j-Wmartas-. !,„« • ,"''*''• Tremier. 
 
 through Frenoi, '"^'"^'^'''^>' ^''^ --"ce'ved its present spelling by passing 
 
 Contrary. Necessary. Gregarious. Agrarian. 
 
 7. Atic (Lat. fttlcus) = belonging to, as in- 
 
 A^l-t- Fanatic ifanun.). L,„,tic. 
 
 ^8^ Able, Ible, ble (Lat. ftbllls, fibms, Ibllls) = capable of being, 
 
 Amiable. Culpable. Flexible m ,, 
 
 ovsr- ^'^"^' --- - -- -' "vSUs to ^r i. ,, 
 
 <^^:i^:.=.?SS'^ -;S^;^^- - -.. ..Mds. :i.e ea^., 
 ^^^•^ Pie, ble (Lat. pie., from plico. I fo.,1) = the English suffi.-fold, 
 Simple ( = oncfold). Double. Triple. Treble. 
 
 10. Eaque (Lat. lacus ; Fr. esque) = partaking of, as in- 
 
 «--l-que. Grotesque (^.o«o). Picturesque 
 
 n. Ic (Lat. Icus) = belonging to, as in- 
 Gigantic Metallic. Public (;,o;,«Z„.). r^^^j, 
 
 .rr "'"■« '^ '^''^"'-'^ '» ^'"''•^^ (r-" /'"^^c. [colour, =*;:.„,,„, 
 
 • 1 ij 
 
 ii 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 1 i 
 
 !_ 
 
 
 j^i 
 
 
 1 t 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 \ 
 I 
 
 'i 
 
 ! 
 
140 
 
 I'M 
 
 IJLl. 
 
 GUAMMAli OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Morbid. 
 
 12. Id (Lat. IdU8) = havtog the quaUty of, a« in- 
 A«d. Frigid. Limpid. 
 
 13. lie, II (Lat. Ills), often used as ^passive suffix, as in- 
 DocUe. Fragile. Mobile. civil 
 
 a.m b^Z'5ir'"' "'""«" "^'="'="' ■-' "- ^-LiC. was „Uva,.s /„.,.^ 
 (ii) The aufflx f/e is disguised in gentle and ,u6(fc. 
 ... ^-«;;.;-«. and ,en..^ are a., different fonns of the same .ord. 
 (n) Kennel ( = can./e) ,s really an adjective from canis. 
 
 14. lae (Lafc. Inus) = belongliig to, as in- 
 
 ^-"•ne. Crystalline. Divine. Saline. 
 
 VronmoTtro:!' *'' "'''"«' ">' P^^^"'^ "-"8" French, ha, acquired a French 
 
 15. Ive (Lat. Ivus) = inclined to, as in- 
 
 Abusive Active. PugitHe. P„,,tive. 
 
 <=^'^^^^r:Xr^^£,^Z^^-^^^ -nch, as in c«.., 
 
 ^«S" «S'.S/;=XS' "'•''" '"'^' ^''"^' '"'"• -"-" - O. Fr. were 
 
 ("i) It unites With the English word ,al, to form the hybrid talkative. 
 16. Lent (Lat. lentus) = ftill of, a« in- 
 Corpulent. Fraudulent. Opulent (o,c.). Violent (.;.). 
 ir. Ory (Lat. Crius) = fUll of, as in- 
 
 ^'-tory. Admonitory. iu„,„ry. 
 
 1 8. Ose, 0U8 (Lat. fisus) = ft,ll of, as in- 
 
 Bellicose. Grandiose. Verbose P,,.- 
 
 (i) T..e form in o. has heen inHuenced hy th! Frlh ending r^' 
 
 19. 3tt» (Lat. us) = belonging to, a.s in- 
 
 Anxious. Assiduous. InL'eniioii« n. • 
 
 Cix ,f ., ^"feenuous. Omnivorous. 
 
 20. Und (Lat. undue) = fuil of, as in- 
 
 Jocund. Moribund. Kotund 
 
 r.?»tsf;;?;x»';Tfrowf ^^ /^^-'"^ ■•^' *"-"«" ^-c... from 
 
 ^ceun^ns is a rlvourahniJdiraX?::,^^^^^ "'« «-'. ^e... 
 
 (..) This ending is slightly modified in vagabond and second. 
 21. 
 
 ii|5 
 
 inous (Lat. tUus) = ftill of. 
 Querulous (full of complaint). 
 
 as in- 
 
 Sedulous. 
 
SUFFIXKS. 1 . , 
 
 141 
 
 25. TJic following aro the cliief 
 
 Latin Suffixes for Verbs. 
 1. Ate (Lat. atum, supine), as in- 
 
 Complicate-. Dilate. delate ^ r 
 
 2. Esce (Lat. esco), a frequentative suffix, .s i._ 
 
 Coalesce (to grow together). Effervesce (to boil up) 
 
 ^ Magnify. s;gjjif^._ 
 
 4. ish (connected ,v;th Lat. e8co)=to make, as in- 
 
 AcJ-on.h. Establish. p,,,,. ^^^^.^,^ 
 
 't::L:i^^^""Sr^-)'--;: active function, as in- 
 
 Greek Suffixes. 
 1- Y (Gr. <a), makes abstract nouns, as in- 
 Melancholy. Monarnliv. x- 
 
 2. Ic(Gr.<«J,) = belonging to, as in- 
 Aromatic. Rai-Ivi..;,. r. 
 Arithmetic. Sll^^l^,. ^^- graphic. 
 
 ("0 -n-....-e, ,„,,, „,„ ,„„^,, ,,^^ ^^,^^__ -^'^^^^ _^^^^^^ ^_^^^^^^^ __^ ^_^^_^ 
 
 3. Si8(Gr. o-ij)=. action, as in— 
 
 Analysis. Emphasis. Genesis s tl • 
 
 (") I" t.c f.Uowi.« the ^ na.. ,..,,., ,,., aUo.c.U.r-..M ./^. 
 
 «:!:, 
 
 - •[ 
 
 I 
 
 , '<: 
 
 ■ ■ ■ If 
 
 .1' 
 ' U 
 
 ' ,'. ■ 'I 
 
 m 
 
 
 ill 
 
 4lli 
 
!(• 
 
 i 
 
 mi 
 
 ?) . 
 
 m 
 I*' 
 
 142 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 4. Ua or m (Gr. ^a), passive suffis, aa in- 
 
 BaSr ST'- ^'^'^--(^omethin.don.). Schism, 
 
 i^aptisin. Barbarism. Despotism. Egotism 
 
 beS ctSTntr:;. r '" "^ " •'■•^ '^-^'P^^ ""^^ '« -"- a„a . JTt' ha. 
 (ii) ^AJ.. comes fron. scM.o. I cut. The ending in rsnos is ..ost frequent 
 
 5. St (Gr. (TT7jy)= agent, as in— 
 Baptist. Botanist. 
 
 Iconoclast (image-br<;<\ker). 
 
 ^wuu»;ii«D iiraage-r)r<;<Mi:er). 
 
 6. T or te (Gr. t„s) = agent, as in- 
 Comet. Planet. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 Apostate. 
 
 wlio h.i3 /a;?cji aioay. JnaKKers ) , an apostate, a person 
 
 ^^^(ii) This ending is also found in the form of ct and it, as in iaiot, ^ntrlot. 
 
 7. Ter or tre (Gr. rpou), denotes an Instrujient or place, as in- 
 
 Metre. Centre. Theatre. 
 
 8. Isk (Gr. la-Kos), a diminutive, as in— 
 
 Asterisk (a little star). obelisk (a small spit). 
 
 9. Ize or ise (Gr. ^C^) makes factitive verbs, as in- 
 
 Baptise. Criticise. Judaize. Anglici.e 
 
 JO^TIns^ending comhines with Latin worda to ibn„ the hybrids ninir^Uc 
 
Schism. 
 Egotism. 
 theme it has 
 
 ' frequent. 
 ; as in deism. 
 
 143 
 
 :er). 
 
 d. It forms 
 onist, educa- 
 
 I maker (ir 
 te, a person 
 
 iot, 2>atriot, 
 
 in— 
 
 viininite 
 
 WORD - BRANCHING. 
 
 ■VVHm our language was young and unin-.oncocl by other 
 anguagcs .t had .he power of growing words. Thos Lords 
 I'ke plants, grew 'rom a root; and ^^o words, 
 
 all tlie words that grew from the same 
 root had a family likeness. Thus 
 byrn-an, the old word for to htirn, 
 gave us brimstone, brown (which is 
 the hirnt colour), brunt, brand, 
 brandy, and brindle. These we 
 might represent to ourselves, on the 
 blackboard, as growing in this way. 
 
 But, unfortunately, we soon lost this 
 power. From the time w. the Nor- 
 mans came into this country in 1066, the language became less 
 and less capable of growing its own words. Instead of produc- 
 ">g a new word, we fell into the habit of simply taking an r.ld 
 and ready-made word from French, or from Latin, or from 
 Greek and giving it a place in the language. Instead of the 
 Old Enghsh word f.,irhood. we imported the French word 
 beauty; mstead of forewit. we adopted the Latin word cau- 
 tion; instead of licherest, we took the Greek word cemetery 
 And so It came about that in course of time we lost the power 
 of growing our own new words. The Greek word asterisk 
 ha. prevented our making the word starkin; tlie Greek name 
 astronomy has kept out star-craft; the Latin word om-ibu» 
 has stopped our even thinking of folkwain; and the name 
 vocabulary IS much more fan.iliar to our ears than word- 
 hoard. Indeed, so strange have some of our own native 
 
 ' ) 
 
 ^ili 
 
 -!:■'( 
 
 ~il 
 
 -i 
 
 fffl 
 
 ! 'jl 
 
I. 
 
 144 
 
 h: 
 
 'V, 
 
 f ' I- 
 
 '.'J 
 
 (f 
 
 GliAJUUI: OF THE KNCiLISII LANGFAGIt, 
 
 Ki.alM, TOl, h,co,„o to u», ll,Ht sonlcces comp.oa uUiMv 
 
 word, ,„to G,«.k or i,., Lalu,. It i, „,11, „„„,„, fof f 
 won our own nafve „o,s, a,„l ,v,„d. owo notl.in, ,v,,„C 
 most homely an,! tl,e most ..t,m,i„o part „f „„ ,„,,,„;,„ .'„,„, 
 
 mo',::' *™ :",r f'™ "^ P-^'very ,„Uoa coudition. 
 -inc I. .t.m.i;, avo the nj><it important 
 
 KNGLVSil K00T.-5 
 
 AND BRANCHES (OR DERIVATIONS). 
 
 Ac, !i)i oak-a<-nrn, Acton, Uckfiold. 
 Bac-an to bakn-bakor, baxter i (a woman 
 bilker), batch. 
 
 '"l.T.fba'nf '"■""'"''' '""^'"'^ ■•^*«'^^"«. 
 
 Beaa-an to pray - bedesman ; beartle; 
 WC'tobidone'sbcarls-wastosJ 
 one s prayers ; and these were marked 
 ofr by small round balls of wood or glass 
 -now called i.at/s - strung upon a 
 string) ; /jj-bid. b f a. 
 
 Beat-an to strike -beat, bat (a short 
 cudgel)- battle; beetle (a wooden bat 
 for beatmg clothes with); batter (a kind 
 of pudding), ^ 
 
 m Canterbury- and verb); burgh 
 burgher; burglar (a house-robber) ; h' ! 
 bour. Cold Harbour; 2 harbinger per. 
 son sent on in front to procure lodg. 
 ing.); borrow (to raise money on secnl 
 
 B6r.an, to bear-bear, bier, bairn; birth, 
 
 I berth; brood, brother breed, bird -3 
 
 burden ; barrow. 
 B^t-an, to make good-bett^n-, best ; boot 
 in "to boot "-"to the good"), boot- 
 less. 
 
 Bind-an, to bind-band, bond, bondage- 
 
 bundle ; vmdhine ; bindwerd. 
 Bit-an, to bite-bit; beetle; bait; l)ittcr 
 Blaw-an, to putf-bladder, blain (chil- 
 
 blain), blast, blaze (to proclaim), blazon 
 
 (a proclamation), blare (of a trumpet) ; 
 
 blister; blot, bloat. 
 Blow-an, to blossom- blow (said of flow- 
 
 ers); bloom, blossom; blood, blade; 
 
 lilow.sy. ' 
 
 Brec-an, to break-break, breakers; braka 
 bracken; breach, brick; break ./a.(i 
 brook (=the water which breaks up 
 through the ground); brittle (= brickie 
 or breakable); bray (whore the liard 
 guttural has been absorbed) 
 
 Breow-an, to brew-brew, brewer; broth. 
 brose ; bread (perhaps). 
 
 '^'^^^^n:^'o::iy::^^ -^'-^er, and others. B.wer, Baxter, 
 
 0" the great Roman roads ami ^hpt I ""V.'''*"'^ '" ^^"g''''"'- Man^ 
 t--avol!er.s who onrrieU -l Z!^ ? " '='"'-'''y «'" "'ins -- n^,,,^ 
 and Places,' p. 250. ' ' " ^"''''"S ""d Provisions. See : v " 
 
 '^ Brid or bird was or , lu fi,„ 
 
 or.,, , . .iy the young of any animal. 
 
 vithout 
 
 lie. 1 stand 
 
 liis used by 
 
 >r'a 'Words 
 
WORD-URANCHING. 
 
 Bug-an, to boi,d-l,ow, dl„nv ; i ,,„„gi, ■ , 
 ''igl.t; buxoMi (O.K. b0Mu,„, rtexihle o^ ' 
 obedient). The hard g i„ ,,,>„,„,„,„ J 
 asaw>nte»sasaghiM W3/,, as a y 
 
 bnnwo^e .• brand, brandy ; brindled. 
 
 ^in.?m~?"'"" '^'«'^>'.'<'t'i"«; cater. 
 
 '.Mar (the hany cat, from Lat. pilos,cs. 
 
 I'aii-y)- caterwaul. ' 
 
 CeapUn to buy-cheap, cheapen; cho,, 
 (o exchange); a choi.pin,- .,ea; chap, 
 
 cmpman; Chaffer; Easteheap,'chea;: 
 
 Ceowan, to chew-chew; cheek; j.w 
 
 (=chaw); jowl; chaw.fcaoo-t; cud (= the 
 chewed). Compare s«(A6 and .wte 
 
 Cleovan to split-cleave, cleaver; cleft • 
 clover (split grass). ' 
 
 Clifl-an, to stick to-de.ive; clip (f„r 
 Wp.ng papers together); claw bv 
 which a bu'd cleaves to a tree); club (k 
 set of men who cleave together) ^ 
 
 Cndw-an. to know-ken. know(=ken.ow 
 
 -ow bemg a dim.) ; knowledge. 
 Cnotta, a knot-knot, knit, net (the k 
 
 LTr^tSarr^^'^^^"^"'^*^^'^---" 
 
 '=ngr::;~^°''-'^— .-= 
 
 Cweth-an, to say-quoth; bequeath. 
 
 mn:.J '~'^"'."'' 'l"'^'^^"; lUi^kset; 
 qucWme; quicks&«r,. to cut to the 
 quick. "^ 
 
 dole, deal (sr,M „/ i.ood); dale, doll (the 
 original sense being deft, or separated) 
 
 stti (the name for a j«rfi7c in the Isle of 
 Man); doomsday; kingilom. 
 
 Deor, dear-dearth; darling; endear. 
 Ddan, to act-do; don, doff, dup ( = ,]„ 
 
 '•P<;roi.en);dout(=dooutorputout)' 
 aeed. Compare mo w, mead ; so w, seed 
 
 145 
 
 Drag-an to ,lraw-d,ag, draw, dray 
 (thiec forms „( the ..a,„e wor.l); ,h'aft 
 ;;™,ght); drain; dredge; L,,:,] 
 
 ^aS: '" ^'"■'"'-•■''^•e; drove; drift, 
 
 ^'?f'7r'."->' ('"* "'"^ "rfj.) ; drought ; 
 
 di ugs (originally rfWwi plants). 
 Dnnc-an, to soak-dri„k ; .Irench (to 
 
 make to drink). Compare sit, .set ; fall, 
 
 'ell, etc. 
 
 Drlp-an, to drip -drip, drop, droop; 
 'Inbble, driblet. 
 
 Dug-an, to be good for-do (in "How 
 "> you do?" and "That will do")- 
 doughty. ' ' 
 
 Edo also-eke (verb and adv.); ckenamc 
 («hicli became a nickname; the n hav- 
 ■Mg dropped from the article and el ung 
 to the noun). " 
 
 Eige eye-Egbert (=bright.eyed) ; daisy 
 
 (- day s eye) ■ window ( = wind-eye). 
 J!.ri-an, to plough-ear (the old word for 
 
 J'?o»3/,); earth (= the ploughed). 
 Far-an, to go or travel-far, fare; welfare, 
 
 fieldfare, thoroughfare ; ferry : ford 
 Feng. an to cateh-fang, finger, new. 
 
 fangled (catching eagerly after new 
 
 thing,s). 
 
 Fe6wer, four-farthing ; firkin ; fourteen • 
 forty. 
 
 Fledt-an, to float-fleet (noun, verb, and 
 adj.); float; ice-floe; afloat; flotsam a 
 {things found floating on the water after 
 a wreck). 
 F6d-a, food-feed; food, fodder, foster- 
 fath-er ; forage (=fodderage), forager ; 
 foray (an excursion to get food). 
 Fredn, to love-freond = friend (the pres. 
 part.) a lover ; Fri-day (the day of Friya, 
 tlie goddess of love); friendship, etc 
 Gal-an, to sing-gale, yell ; nightingale.4 
 Gang.a„. to go-gang, gangway;%g„. 
 (The words gate an,l g„it do not come 
 from this verb, but from get.) 
 (-nag-an. to bite -gnaw (the g has be- 
 
 ^ Se°sTme"roo7- J'"" f "'"^ ""^ '""■'''P'"-' °^ ''- arm. 
 Chan's" nrel""' '^ '"""^ '" "'« «-*«" ^^^P^^ and the Dani.sh Copenhagen^Mor. 
 
 boird^^r: s.'i^::x:tmS":r7'^! "■" ""-^^ *^-- -- 
 
 water" ; jetty, etc. Jetsam is a hybr d 1 ' '' i ' *" ""'"'"■ (""'"^ »>«" " 'et of 
 
 * The n in nightingale is ifo m t n7f f " ^^"'"''"avian suftix. 
 
 it also is in passenger, 'Z^r. Zul^^^.T' " '^ '"*'"^'^"= ^"'^ "-o^S-ic ; as 
 
 : fi 
 
 
 i' I 
 
 I :^ • 
 
 
U6 
 
 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 
 
 j?i' 
 
 i; 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i' >> 
 
 ■ • M -(It 
 
 t rougl, trees); graft, e^grnft; enl'e 
 
 ^2T; '>" ^"'•'•°""''-8irfI, girdle; gar 
 <^n, yanl, v.noyard, l,o,,y„rd. 
 
 STil/" "^'',' -•-■«: holy, hallow, 
 A -hallow.,; health; hail; wholo 
 
 Wholesome; wasHail(=Wae3hAl!.= B; 
 
 JcavM-thatrequ,re.,,„uch heaving).: 
 Hlaf, bread-loaf; lord (hlaford = loaf 
 
 knead) . Lamnms (=Lonf.mas,s, Aug i ■ 
 a loaf was offered on this da^ as tl e' 
 offering of the first-fruits) 
 Wcj^a leek-house-leek; garlic; hem. 
 
 ;;^S;:t^^^?-s-^;-o.sta. 
 
 Mang, a mixture — a-moiur • ^ 
 mingle; cheesemonger '' '"°"^''' = 
 
 Waw-an, to cut-mow; math, aftern.afh • 
 mead,meadow(theplaces Where grS-; 
 
 TxhTs' word T"" -.'"''"*'' ■■ '""""'hine. 
 Unis word comes from a very old root 
 
 nap" y^C." ^^r''"" ^^'"' "i^"' 
 napery) , umpire, from numnirB ti,„ 
 
 found in nag, fron. an ag; nicC'm! 
 from an ekename "'cxname 
 
 JmmlinthoNaze,Sheemo«, etc.); 
 
 Penn.an,toshutuporenclote-pe„,,i„ 
 \ 1^11/13 01 the same word)' Dntnwi 
 Pona _(two n,nns of the sanij ~: 
 
 Pic, a point-pike, peak (two forms of the 
 
 «an.eword); pickets (Stakes driven to 
 t -e grou„.l to tether I,orscs to) n k ' 
 
 ^^ckerel (the fish); peck, pcVe?' ''"'•'' 
 iUed-an, to read or guess-rede (advice) • 
 
 Mildred (im^dTh:.Sr""-'"*^' 
 roMl'''"^''^°''''^-«°-t''rol>-rob 
 Rine Hn "^''' ''''"''■''' '•««vcr; robe 
 sSdanTJT^^" «'•*'"=' ^'•'^t is ripe) 
 
 (t'.atwhichisr:fo a2;.st? 
 ter, shuttle; scud "oeu;, shut- 
 
 't^^ifS^^ATe'"'^^^'-^''^--'''-' 
 scare; sco," rt h? , T' '^^'^ ' ««""•' 
 the tlllv 1 / t^vcntieth notch in 
 
 other? hcS;"!'! '"^«-- ".an the 
 skirf /fi ^'^l''y' s''ai'P ; short, shirt 
 si d^r/''r°^ "'«««'"'' word); 
 
 t er'f/ '"■'' ^""^ ««■"« W'H. with 
 tlie r transposed) ; sheriff (=«,, ...eZ 
 
 SSHSSS 
 
 SK, to the northern 
 
 "r;»r,,.';7;;.7.'s :"•■ -»" 
 
 away). guttural has been refined 
 
 SpeU,astoryorrae88afie-spen(=togivo 
 
 prL?uLTj,\:^„':t"so wSS *"j? r "r^'*""=' ^« '" -'-i'. and in wun ( 
 
■E. 
 
 iheernoga, etc.); 
 '•I'm tfiirlian, td 
 iio.si'fe'ay. 
 
 nclosL'-peii, i)iii 
 « word) ; lownl, 
 fie saiiiG word); 
 
 wo fniins of tlie 
 likes driven Into 
 'I'ses to); i.ike, 
 I pei'ker. 
 -redo (advice); 
 le in counsel); 
 liout counsel)- 
 
 30l). 
 
 in, to rob— rob, 
 reever; robe, 
 wliat is ripe), 
 (to part tlio 
 
 -shape; shij) 
 Etc.) ; scapo 
 etc.) 
 
 '. sliot, s]iu6 
 door); .sheet 
 abed); shut- 
 
 i sheer, shire, 
 word); scar, 
 til notch in 
 1' tlian the 
 il'ort, sliirt, 
 iaiiie word); 
 wirl. with 
 = S(i'-t'er6fa, 
 rap, scrape, 
 fie southern 
 rins, so and 
 
 el. shuffle; 
 
 -set, seat; 
 set. 
 
 'aid g has 
 'ter; slog, 
 
 leave (into 
 
 'ke, snail 
 2n relined 
 
 = to give 
 
 =ono, so 
 ten hole; 
 
 WOUD-niUNCIIINf}. 
 
 an account of or tell the story „f ti,o 
 
 etters,naword);spell.l.o„„d go.s 
 (= God's .spell) '' * 
 
 I"' °f /''"•'■■); string (tlmt which is 
 
 Stedo, a plaec-stead. instea.l, hon,e.stead 
 mrm-steading; steady; steadfast; b 1 
 stead; Haniiistcad. 
 
 ^"rtrl" '^'"''~''^'^^- «"tch (two forms , 
 
 ade stock-dove; stock-fl.sh (li.sh dried ' 
 okee,.i„„„rt);stock..still. 
 Stig-an. to elin,h-.,tair; stile; .stirrup 
 
 saddle); sty (Ml pig.sty). 
 
 «ny, aeimtow (= the place where a 
 A™^ or market is held); IM.tol (the 
 
 - and w being mtereliangeable). 
 Sundr"' *" f ''«t-steer, stern; steerage 
 Sundri.an, to part -sunder; sundry ^ 
 o^:"'"'''\(C°»'Pare.e..rand.ew.Jf' 
 Swen-an, to declare-swear, answer ( = 
 
 rtw"" V f'"^''-*'-''"''. teacher; token 
 
 Ka d r" '^ '"°^">' ^"«"* (when 
 the hard c reappears as a gh). 
 
 ti;;k'!^Sfrw"'-~'-t«":ta.e,i 
 
 Teoh-aa (or tedn), to draw- tow tuir 
 
 guttural havnig been preserved in the 
 -e: wanton (= Without right upbrilg^ 
 'ng). Compare wanhopo = despair- 
 wantrust = mistrust. '"^spair, 
 
 Thaec, a roof-thatch ; deck. 
 
 in 
 
 Trad an, to walk-tread, treadle; trade; 
 tradesman, trade-win 
 
 ^S. '■'""'^ """'-t">e. truth, troth, be- 
 
 Twa, two-two, twin, twain; twelve (- 
 
 wo + l„fan, ten); twenty ; hetvee" 
 
 tw,«; twiddle; twine, twist, etc. ' 
 
 , ^""r- *''•;""■'•-'''-■■'' «"ard- wake. 
 
 »at eh (two forms of the same word^' 
 
 I awake, wakeful. " 
 
 Street (the road of the pilgrin.s). The 
 
 .„rd ,«,<,« i. of the .san,e origin as 
 the Lat. viule in evade, Uuwte, etc. 
 
 Wana a defleiency-wan, wane; want 
 ,r/r) ' '"""'■'''" ^"" ""'' "■"••^' '■"'• '^'^■ 
 
 Wefan, to weave-weave, weaver; web, 
 Webster (a woman-weaver); cobweb- 
 
 War a ^ate of defence-war. wary, aware 
 
 -on ones guard); warfare (<,„Jn, to 
 
 war ward, guard (a Norman- French 
 
 jublet^of ward); warden, guardian 
 
 Wit-an. to know-wit, to wit; wise, wis- 
 
 iom; wistful; witness; Witena.g;mote 
 (= the Meeting of the Wise) ; y-wis (the 
 past participle, wrongly written I wis) 
 Wraest-an, to wrest -wrest, wrestle; 
 
 Wring-an, to force-wring, wrong (that 
 
 which is wmng out of the right course) 
 Wyrc-an to work-work, wright (the r 
 
 shifts Its place) 
 Wyrt a lierb or plant-wort ; orchard (= 
 
 wort.yard); wart (on the skin); St 
 
 John's wort, etc. 
 
 LATIN ROOTS 
 
 Acer (acris), sharp; acrid, acrimony, vine- 
 gar (sharp wine. F.). eager (F ) 
 
 .«de8. a buUdinff; edifice, edify 
 
 ^uus. ciud; equality, equator, en„i. 
 '"■X, equity, a<Ie.qiiate, iniquitv. 
 
 Ager, afield: agricultuw, agraHan. pore, 
 gnuato. - 1 I - 
 
 '^=°.f:f"'">' ^'"'' "^'' «<=t, agent, agile, 
 agitate, cogent. ' 
 
 Alo, I nourish; aliment, alimony 
 
 Alter, the other of two ; alternation, sul- 
 
 altern. altercation. 
 
 AUns,^^fj/,; aitit„ae, exalt, alto (It.), 
 
 §'!*'' 
 
 1 
 
 |ji* 
 
 
 i "• 
 
 'i. ■ : 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 itlfl 
 
 ■"5:i:z£=«r5£'ii=--ss. 
 
I 
 
 hV. 
 
 148 
 
 GlfAjMAfAT' or Tin? w»-/N,,~ 
 
 •r irrK ENOLTSir UNnUAOK. 
 
 Ambiilo, /iw7/,. .,„),i^, , 
 
 ^5""' •• ■"*■■ '""* ■ "'.•.'',;;;:;,;:;'■ ' '""■■ ""«-• - 
 
 Y-r,;;:?-,,,..,. „, ; .,.,„ i ;;s/.t;;;;£,r;'' - '• - 
 
 l-I!aut,raal(„C.,cll..).' ' """"""' ''"• ^laudo (clau.sun,), / shut; danso clo.o 
 Aqua, ,m<.r; aqueduct, aquatic anuc,,,,. p, ^' '""'"''-'• """'"^i""- 
 aquariun.. 'l""'"' «1"'^""S Clino, / Onul; ineli,,., decline, recline 
 
 
 
 Augeo (aiictuni), / j;,crp„„ . ,„ . '""«'''. corporation. ' °'^^* ^ ^' "^'"■" 
 
 an.hor, auction'eer. "'""'"' ^"«"'-'- '^"do. /6.«.,,,. credibility, credence ,P , 
 
 Barba, a V.,.,i; „arb, barber, bar.,, , (all cZ'T'"' ^''•^' ""'"' ''■-'itor ' •^• 
 
 through F.) ' "'"" <*" ^reo, I create; create, creati.,,, 
 
 BeUum, n.ar; rebel, rebellion, bell,. L "•""• «-«ture. ' "''''"'"' '^'■-«- 
 
 «rent, bellicose. '"°"'^' ''^"'«- fresco, / ^r<,«,; increase, decrease inor« 
 
 Bis, twice, biscuit i ,• .■, "'e"*- "ei-rease, mere 
 
 bicycle.' ""'''"• '^--'■'^. '"-^. Crux (crucis). „ .0.; crucial crucnv 
 
 Cad^o^cSinrij^f ^'i tt' "^ ""'""'• ^•"^'*' "-^*^. rec„.„. 
 
 'S":;i^t;;-™<^---.ca„J^"-.C-^^^^ «--. accu.te. 
 
 ;-..?^tSaiat:,;; -"'■ --. L '^S^'S^i.^^^^T^'tr^- 
 Caput, We /ifmi; eanita'' ■ „• P«»» Mentis), a too/;, • donti.f , ., 
 chapter (F.) ' . ■am, cap., | in-b-nt, trident. ' "«"''-^'' 'l"ntal, 
 
 Caro(carnis), /,,,/,,. earnal, .arnival ear I D,V? /'"l'' ''"'^y' ^eify, divine. 
 
 nivorous, carnation ' "^''"('''^•t"'"), / sr,«; verdict ,w, 
 
 Causa, a cause; caLtive, accuse ,F ) L.''''^'"^' - '"^"'■-n J.iS '•'"'°""^' 
 excuse (F.) "'^'^"^'^ (f-), Dies. .„,. ,i,-,,j._ ,,,„,, 
 
 Ca.«.., cavity, cave, .cava, "j^^' .'Sf^ ^-''^^ -.S: .... 
 
 :="ir:;:^r:.cSS -"- 1 '°--.- "■' ^ "^^^ ^-'^ -'- 
 
 0^. anu„are„; century, centurion. 1^1^*" 'T'.'- ""j^r^"' '-""'""• 
 
 /' .nadan,e(F.)"""'' ' ^' '"""■^"' <*'^. 
 
rE, 
 
 ingMUh; disnern, 
 
 '; cincture, siic- 
 
 clt/ition, recite 
 (V) 
 >. civic, civil, civ- 
 
 f"-), claiijour, TV. 
 I, 
 
 Iwlarc, rlarion, 
 
 '; clause, close 
 
 'liiio, recline, 
 vato, arboricul. 
 
 urage (F.), cor- 
 
 f'oi'oncr, coro- 
 
 orpse (F.), cor- 
 
 crecknco (F.), 
 iitor. 
 iatiun, ie(i«a- 
 
 ecrease, incre 
 
 cial, crucinx, 
 
 ibate, recum- 
 
 pable, excul. 
 
 r, accurate. 
 
 Tent, recur, 
 f"-)i occur, 
 iiiber, deoi- 
 
 'st, dental, 
 
 i.ictionary, 
 
 3ridi:in. 
 ife'"ify, iii- 
 
 '«> donor, 
 
 ■". doctor, 
 
 dominion. 
 
 WORD-nRAXCIIIXO. 
 
 149 
 
 Domui, «;»„,„,. ,,^,„p,f, 
 
 ^ Siis 'ri;,:?';-:;* '^' ! !"~ '!:=? ' ■"*^ — *'• 
 
 ileeiM, ' '■^'•"'l'fl<"i, re- Homo, « ,,„,„ . , , . ,, 
 
 Pn /,* > , 1 ■ ''o"iicl( e, lonmL'n iv \ 
 
 •t£fsi'-t^ ^1. 'S!ri'f.=2?S"i 
 
 Rnl., «.„„,. „„|,| m,. ^ • J""*^ (P.), Jnr,, to. 
 
 .i':*.„.,., : • T'xi':.'~* '«•■• ■•.- *.«■. 
 
 flexible. 
 "cuZf^'''^'^''''-«-'.«ora,«ori 
 
 ^'"uSr"^''^'^'' «"•■»*.«"'••- 'lux. 
 
 't:':::ssi;;^f-'-^.-aM...iaud. 
 
 Lego do, :tu,M), / „„„, ^^„^. 
 
 5;^;:? --; ^^etu; (p?,; s;:!; 
 
 '•>«,a?^«/;foliaL'e fnilrif^ H'iWe. '^"^^'''e (P.), legend, 
 
 trefoil (F. ''"'^''"•'"■'^^•>'P-^^'>"o.Ue«o(legatun,), /.«.,.,„,, ,. ^ 
 
 Forma, o .j . f,„,,„ , , Ifgaoy. ' '''"'^' '''•'l.'j.ate, 
 
 Fortls, strong; fortify, fortitude f . '"•"•• ''"vin '' """"*"■' '"'''' (^'•). 
 
 force (F.) *^' '"""»''«. fortress, Lex (iegi.,), „ /„,,, . ,,„„, , . , 
 
 ^a„.oVic..), . ,,e„,.. ,,„,„^ .n.te.° '"" ' '«««'' '"«'«>"to, logiti. 
 
 '■■agmentary, infraction, infringe ^^' J'?^^''' ^''^^ • "I'eral, liberty, libertine 
 
 ':?rr;:i!,n;if <»^^^ '"S' « "•"- --• ".-. -»- 
 
 XS;:t,u:;. -■ «»-J '"-rSc;*"'- •■""•■• "■- '■■■ 
 
 ^9.SiSirjr-i',s7 1 . """■ *'■■ " "•• -■ ""■ 
 
 Sradient. ' ^les.-i.. . mna, tlm vwon • in..,,.. .. 
 
 Gratia, /u«o«r,pM;,„„;... .. '^^y' ""^ ''""'"•' «"Wunary, hm. 
 
 • :? 
 
 •I 
 
 I 
 
 
 K m 
 
if 
 
 ino 
 
 ORAMMAU < P TIIR RNOUSII LANGUAOE. 
 
 
 mi 
 
 ,1 ' 
 
 i\\i 
 
 PV I 
 
 It ' 
 
 l'<> 
 
 'I \ 
 
 -•'if 
 
 Lux (lucls), light; lucid, eliicldato, i>cl- 
 liiukl. 
 
 J/lagaixn, great ; Illll^, itinlp, magnify, mog- 
 iilflrttiit, iimgniuiiiiioiis. 
 
 Malus, had ; iiiulady, iiiallvu (P,)> nmliirla, 
 iiiulevolcnt, 
 
 Maneo (inansiiiii), / remain; iiiansc, timu- 
 sloM, iKtriimin'iit. 
 
 ManuB, the hand; iimniiHcrliit, iiiaiiiial, 
 1 iimfacturp, ninainKMialH. 
 
 Muro, the sea; nmriiic, iimriTior, iiinritinic. 
 
 Mater, a wither; iiiEtiTiial, iiiutrlciilc, 
 iimtron, iimtriciilate. 
 
 MaturuB, rliie; mature, Immature, pre- 
 [nature. 
 
 MediUB, the middle ; luedlum, mcdiato, 
 iiiimoJiiito, MtHllterranean. 
 
 Memini, / remember; memor, mindful; 
 memory, meiii>lr (F.), commemorate, 
 immemorial. 
 
 MenB (mentis), the mind; mental, de- 
 mented. 
 
 Mergo (mersuni), / dip; emerge, Immer- 
 hIou, cmergeiioy. 
 
 Merx (mercis), yoods; mercliandlse (F.), 
 commerce (P.), merclmnt (F.) 
 
 Miles (mllites), a soldier; military, mili- 
 tant, militia. 
 
 MIror, / admire; admirable, miracle, 
 mirage (F.) 
 
 Mitto (missuni), I send; commit, misHile, 
 mission, remittance. 
 
 Modus, o measure; niood, modify, accom- 
 modate. 
 
 Moueo (monitum), / adrise; monition, 
 monitor, monument. 
 
 Mens (montis), a mountain; amount (F.), 
 dismount (F.), promontory, ultramon- 
 tane. 
 
 Mors (mortis), death ; mortify, mortal, 
 immortality, 
 
 Moveo (motum), / dwdc; mobile (F.), 
 promote, motor, motive. 
 
 MultuB, many; multitude, multiple, mul- 
 tiply. 
 
 Munus (muneris), a gijl; nmniflcent, re- 
 nuinerate, municipal. 
 
 Muto, / change ; mutable, transmute. 
 
 NaBCor (natus), to he horn; nascent, natal, 
 nativity, nature. 
 
 Navis, a ship; navy, naval, navigate, 
 nave. 
 
 Nect-o (nexum), / tie ; connect, connec- 
 tion, annex. 
 
 Nego (iiegatum), / deny; negative, nega- 
 tion, renegade (Sj).) 
 
 Noceo, I injure; noxious, Innocuoun, ln» 
 noi'i'nt. 
 
 Nomon, a name ; nominal, cogimmen, no< 
 nilnatlon. 
 
 Novus, new; novel, renovate, noveltyi 
 innovation. 
 
 Nox (noctJH), night; nocturnal, equinoc- 
 tial, eriuinox. 
 
 NuduB, miked ; nude, denude, denudation. 
 
 NumeruB, a number; numeration, In- 
 numerable, enumerate. 
 
 Octo, eight; octave, octagon, October. 
 
 OmniB, all; omnibus, omnipotent, om« 
 nisclent. 
 
 Opua (opcrls), work; operation, co-oper- 
 ate, opera. 
 
 Ordo (ordinis), order; ordinal, ordinary, 
 ordinance. 
 
 Oro, / iiraij ; oration, orator, peroration. 
 
 Pando (pansum or pnssum), / spread ; ex- 
 panil, expanse, compass, pace. 
 
 Pareo, / appear; appearance, ap{>arent, 
 apparition. 
 
 Paro (paratum), / prepare ; repair (F.), 
 apparatus, compariwin (F.) 
 
 Pars (partis), a part; particle, partition, 
 partner, parcel (F.) 
 
 Pasco (pastum), / feed; pastor, repast^ 
 pasture. 
 
 Pater, a father; paternal, parricide (P.), 
 patrimony. 
 
 Patior (passus), / miffer ; impatient, paS" 
 sive, passion. 
 
 Pax (pacis), peace; pacify, pacific. 
 
 Pello(pulsum), / drive; repel, expel, ex- 
 pulsion, impulsive. 
 
 Pendeo (pensum), / hang; pendant, de- 
 pend, su.spend, suspense, appendix. 
 
 Pes (pedis), the foot ; pedal, impede, ped- 
 estrian, biped. 
 
 Peto (petitum), I seek; petition, petulant, 
 compete, appetite. 
 
 Planiu, level; plan(F.), plane, plain, ex- 
 plain. 
 
 Plaudo (plausum), / clap the hands; ap- 
 plaud, plausible (F.), explode. 
 
 Pleo (pletum), I Jill; complete, comple- 
 tion, supplement. 
 
 Plico (pllcatum), I fold; complicated, pli- 
 able (F.), reply (F.), display (F.), simple. 
 
 Poena, pxmishment; penal, repent, pen- 
 alty, penitent, penance. 
 
 Pono (positum), I place ; deponent, posi- 
 tion, imposition, post. 
 
 Pons (pontis), a hridge; pontiff, transpon- 
 tine. 
 
WORD-nRANCIIINO. 
 
 101 
 
 Porto, / carry; export, ileportnient, re- 
 jKirt, portrrmiiteau (K.) 
 
 Pouum, / am ahle ; poteni, ahlt; i><»i- 
 Hllile, poti'iicy (K.), iiiiiiotcnt. 
 
 Prehendo (i>rt'liu!inimi), (Fr. jrrewlre, 
 lirin), I take; prolitnslle, ((jiiipreliLMKl, 
 uiipriitd, coinprUe, a|>pruntice (F.) 
 
 Primus, Jlmt; primary, priiiiltivu, prim- 
 tune. 
 
 Probo, / try, prove; probe, probable, Im- 
 prove (F.), approvu (P.) 
 
 Propriui, one'* uwn; proper, property, 
 appropriation. 
 
 Pungo (punctum), / prick; pungent, ex- 
 punge, punctual, poignant (F.) 
 
 Puto (putatum), 1 cut, think; compute, 
 Count (P.), amputate, reputation. 
 
 Quatuor, /our; quadra, a «vuar«; quart, 
 quarter, quarry (F.), quailruiit. 
 
 Radix, a rout; radical, eradicate, radish 
 (F.) 
 
 Rapio (raptum), / seize ; rapture, rapine, 
 surreptitious. 
 
 Rego (rectutn), / rule ; rex (regis), a king; 
 regal, regulate, regent, rector. Interreg- 
 num, royal (P.), realm (N.-Fr. rial). 
 
 Rideo (risum), / laugh; ridicule (F.), d«- 
 ride, ridiculous (F.), rJHililo. 
 
 Rogo (rogatum), / ask; rogation, Interro- 
 gation, derogatory. 
 
 Rota, a wheel ; rotary, rotation, rotund 
 —contracted Into round (F.) 
 
 Rumpo (ruptum), / 6reaA: ; rupture, erup- 
 tion, disruption. 
 
 Sacer, sacred; sacrament, sacrilege (F.), 
 sacerdotal, sexton (contracted from 
 sacristan). 
 
 Salio (saltiun), / leap; sally (P.), assail 
 (P.), salient, salmon. 
 
 SanctUB, holy; sanctuary, sanctify, saint 
 (F.) 
 
 Scando (scaiisum), / climb; scala, a lad- 
 der; scan, seale, descent, ascension. 
 
 Scio, / know; science, scientific, con- 
 science, onmiscient. 
 
 Scribe (scriptum), / write; scrllie, .scrib- 
 ble, scripture, inscription, postscript. 
 
 Seco (sectum), / cut; bisect, diss.ct, in- 
 sect, section. 
 
 Sedeo (sessum), / set, iit; sedimtut, si b- 
 slde, see (P.), residence (F.), insidious. 
 
 Sentio, / /eel ; sense, sentiment, sensual, 
 scent (F.) 
 
 Septein, seven ; septennial, September. 
 
 Sequor (secutus), / follow ; sequence (F.), 
 sequel, consequent, prosecute. 
 
 Servio, / ji«M'«; servlre (P.), servant, ser- 
 gcaMt(R) 
 
 Slgnura, a .ifffn ; signify, slgnidront, dei- 
 igiiation, ensign (P.) 
 
 SimiUi, like; similar, similitude, reiemble 
 (F.) 
 
 Socius, a companion; loclal, soeloty, ■«• 
 Hoeiatlim. 
 
 SoluR, alone; solitude, sole, solo (It.) 
 
 Solvo(solutum), / loose; dissolve, resolve, 
 absolute, resolution, 
 
 Spocio (spectuni), I see; aspect, spectator, 
 siieciiiien, spectre. 
 
 Spero, / h(ij)e; despair (P.), desperate. 
 
 Splro, / breathe; inspire, asjiire, con- 
 spiriiey, 
 
 Statuo, / Ht up; ito (statum), / stand; 
 statue, statute, stature, institute. 
 
 Stringo (strictuni), / bind ; stringent, 
 constrain (F.), district. 
 
 Struo (structum), / build ; structure, con- 
 struct, obstruct, construe. 
 
 Sumo (sumptum), / take; assume, eon- 
 .sume, assumption. 
 
 Tango (toctum), / touch; tangible, tan- 
 gent, contact, contagious. 
 
 Tego (tectum), / cover; integument, de- 
 tect, tile (P.); from Liit. tegula. 
 
 TempuB (temporls), time; temporal, oon- 
 temporary, extemporC. 
 
 Tendo (tensum), / stretch ; contend, ex- 
 tend, attend, tense (P.), tendon. 
 
 Teneo (tentum), / hold; tenant, tenet, 
 tendril, detain (P.), retentive. 
 
 Terminas, an end, boundary; terminate, 
 term, interminable. 
 
 Terra, thv earth; subterranean, tenrcstrial, 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Terreo, I/ri'ihlen; terror, terrify, deter. 
 
 Texo (textum), / weave; textile, text, 
 texture, context. 
 
 Timeo, I fear; timid, timorous. 
 
 Torqueo (tortuni), / twist; torture, tor- 
 ment, contortion, retort. 
 
 Traho (traotum), / ((raic; traction, sub- 
 tract, contraction, tract. 
 
 Tres (tria), three; trefoil, trident, trinity. 
 
 Tribuo, / give; tribute, tributary, con- 
 triViution. 
 
 Tumeo, / swell ; tumulus, a swelling or 
 mound; tumult, tumour, tomb (P.) 
 
 TJnua, owe • imion, unit, unite, uniform, 
 unique (F.) 
 
 TTrbs, a city; suburb, urbanity, nibane. 
 
 Valeo, / am strong; valour, valiant (P.), 
 prevail (P.) 
 
 a. 
 
J ( 
 
 I*^' 
 
 162 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 VanuB, empty; vanity, vanish, vain(F.) 
 
 Veho (vectuni), / convey; veliiole, con- 
 veyance (F.), convex. 
 
 Venio, / co-me; venture, advent, convene, 
 covenant (P.)l 
 
 Verbum, a word; verb, adverb, verbose, 
 verbal, proverb. 
 
 Verio (verauin), I turn; convert, revert, 
 divert, versatile. 
 
 Verus, trne; verity, verify, aver, verdict. 
 
 Via, away; deviate, previous, trivial. 
 
 Video (visum), I see; vision, provide, visit 
 {¥.), revise (P.) 
 
 Vinco (viotuni), / conquer; victor, con- 
 vict, victory, convince. 
 
 Vitium, a fault; vice(F,), vitiate, viciou.i 
 (F.) 
 
 Vivo (victum), Hive; vivid, revive, viands 
 (P.), survive. 
 
 Voce (vocatuui), I call; vocal, vowel (P.), 
 vocation, revoke, vociferate. 
 
 Vole, / wish; volition, voluntary, benev- 
 olence. 
 
 Volvo (volutum), I roll; revolve, involve, 
 evolution, volume. 
 
 Voveo (votum), I vow; vote, devote, vow 
 (P.) 
 
 Vulgus, the common people; vulgar, di- 
 vulge, vulgato. 
 
 ,l|f 'M 
 
 l^{ 
 
 GREEK ROOTS. 
 
 3? 
 
 Ag9n, a contest; agony, antagonist. 
 
 Alios, another; allojiathy, allegory. 
 
 AngeloB, a inessenger ; angel, evangelist. 
 
 AnttirdpoB, a man; misanthrope, philan- 
 tlirop.-/. 
 
 Archo, / begin, rule; monarch, archaic, 
 archbishop, archdeacon. 
 
 ArithmoB, number; arithmetic. 
 
 Aster or aatron, a star ; astronomy, astro- 
 logy, asteroid, di.saster. 
 
 Atmos, vapour; atmosphere 
 
 Autos, self; autocrat, auttigraph. 
 
 Ballo, I throxo; symbol, parable. 
 
 Bapto, / dip; baptise, baptist. 
 
 Bares, loeigkt; barometer, baritone. 
 
 Bibloa, a book; Bible, bibliomania. 
 
 Bios, life; biography, biology, amphi- 
 bious. 
 
 Cheir, the hand; surgeon folder form, 
 chirurgeon]. 
 
 Chole, bile; melancholy, choler. 
 
 Chrio, I anoint ; Christ, ehiism. 
 
 Chronos, time; clironology, chronic, chron- 
 icle, chronometer. 
 
 DaktuloB, a finger; dactyl, pterodactyl, 
 date (the fruit). 
 
 Deka, ten ; decagon, decalogue, decade. 
 
 D'mos, the people; democrat, endemic, 
 epid.;niio. 
 
 Dokeo, / think; doxa and dogma, an 
 
 n)>n)!0?l 
 
 doxiO.o^v, ortluidox, hetern- 
 dox, ilo^m.T, dogmatic. 
 Drao, /f/o; drama, dramatic. 
 Dun.lmis pov<er ; dynamics, dynamite. 
 Eidos, ,^irm ; kaleidoscope, sidieroid. 
 
 Eikon, an image; Iconoclast. 
 
 Electron, amber; electricity, elecirotype. 
 
 Ergon, (( work; surgecn (=chirurgeori), 
 energy, metallurgy. 
 
 Eu, well ; eucharist, euphony, evangelist. 
 
 Games, marriage; bigamy, monogamist, 
 misogamy. 
 
 Qe, the earth; geograpliy, geometry, geo- 
 logy. 
 
 Gennao, / produce; genesis, genealogy, 
 hydrogen, oxygen. 
 
 Grapho, I write ; gramma, a letter ; gra- 
 phic, grammar, telegraph, biography, 
 diagram. 
 
 Haima, blood ; hsiraorrhage, hajmorrhoid. 
 
 Haireo, / take aivay ; heresy, lieretic. 
 
 Hecaton, a hundred; hecatomb, hecto- 
 metre. 
 
 Helios, the sun; heliogi-aph, heliotype, 
 
 Hemi, half: hemisphere. 
 
 HieroB, sacred ; liierarchy, hieroglyphic. 
 
 Hippos, a horse; liippopotanms, hippo- 
 drome. 
 
 H5doB, a way ; method, period, exodus. 
 
 HBmos, the same; lionioeopathy, homo- 
 geneous. 
 
 Hudor, water; hydraulic, hydrophobia, 
 hydrogen. 
 
 IchthuB, ajish; ichtliyology. 
 
 IdioB, one's own ; idiom, idiot, idiosyn- 
 crrisy. 
 
 Isos, eiiml; isochronous, isobaric (of equal 
 weight), isns(^eleH. 
 
 Kalos, heautiful; caligraphy, kaleidoscope. 
 
 Kephale, the hra/l .■ liydrocephalus. 
 
WORD-BRANCHING. 
 
 153 
 
 Klino, / beml ; clinical, climax, climate. 
 KosmoB, order; cosmogony, eosniograiiliy, 
 
 cosmetic. 
 Krino, I judge: critic, criterion, hypo- 
 crite. 
 Kuklos, a circle ; cycle, cycloid, cyclone. 
 Kuon (kun-os), a dog; cynic, cynicism. 
 Lego, / say, choose ; eclectic, lexicon. 
 Llthos, a stone . lithograph, aerolite. 
 L6g08, a word, speech; logic, Uialogue, 
 
 geology. 
 Luo, / loosen; dialysis, analysis, paralysis. 
 Meter, a mother ; metropolis, metropo- 
 litan. 
 Matron, a measure; metre, metronome, 
 
 diameter, theririometer, barometer. 
 M6nos, alone ; monastery, monogram, mo- 
 nosyllable, monopoly, monarch. 
 Morphe, shape ; amorphous, dimorphous, 
 
 metamorphio. 
 Naus, o shiji ; nautical, nausea. 
 Nekroa, o dead body; necropolis, necro- 
 mancy. 
 Nfiraos, a law, autonomous, astronomy, 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 Oikos, a house ; economy, economical. 
 Ondnia, a imme ; anonymous, synony- 
 mous, patronymic. 
 OptSmai, I see ; optics, synoptical. 
 Orthos, right : orthodoxy, orthograjihy. 
 Pais (paid-os), o boy; ped.igogne [lit. a 
 
 boy-leader]. 
 Pan, all : pantheist, panoply, pantomime. 
 VaXhoB, feeling ; pathetic, sympathy. 
 Pente, five , pentagon, pentateuch, Pente- 
 cost. 
 Petra, a rock ; petrify, petrel, Peter. 
 PhainSmai, I appear ; phenomenon, plian- 
 
 ta.'iy, phantom, fantastic, fancy. 
 Phero, / bear; periphery, pho.sphorus 
 [=the light-bearerj. 
 
 Phileo, / Inve; philosophy, Philadelphia, 
 
 philliarmonic. 
 Phone, a sound; phonic, phonetic, eu- 
 phony, symphony. 
 Phoa (phat-os), light ; photometer, photo- 
 graph. 
 Phusis, nature; physics, physiology, phy- 
 sician, 
 Poieo, / make ; poet, poetic, pharmacopaia. 
 Polia, a city ; Constantinople, metropolis. 
 Polua, many; polytheist, Polynesia, poly- 
 anthus, polygamy. 
 Poua (pfid-os), afoot', antipodes, tripod. 
 Protos, first ; prototype, protoplasm. 
 Pur,y!;e,- pyrotechnic, pyre. 
 Rheo, / floio ; rhetoric, catarrh, rheu- 
 I matic. 
 
 , SkSpeo, / see; microscope, telescope, 
 siiectroscope, bishop [from episkojm, 
 an o\-erseer]. 
 Sophia, luisdom : sophist, pliilosophy. 
 Stello, / send .■ apostle, epistle. 
 Stratos, an army; strategy, strategic'. 
 Strgpho, I turn; catastrophe, apostroplie. 
 Techne, an art ; technical. 
 TSle, distant ; telegraph, telescope, tele- 
 phone, telegram. 
 Temno, / cut ; anatomy, lithotomy. 
 Tetra, /our.- tetrachord, tetrarch. 
 Theaomai, I see ; theatre, theory. 
 Theos, a god : theist, enthusiast, theology. 
 Therme, heat ; thermal, thermometer, 
 
 isotherm. 
 Tithemi, / fiace ; theais, a placing ; syn- 
 thesis, hypothesis. 
 Treia, three; triangle, trigonometry, tri- 
 pod, trinity, trichord. 
 Trepo, 7 turn ; trophy, tropic, heliotiopc. 
 Tupos, the impress of a seal ; type, stereo- 
 
 type. 
 Zoon, an animal ,■ zoology, zodiac. 
 
 if I 
 
 5>iM 
 
 i'.i 
 
 f!^ 
 
 
 m 
 
Mil' \^ 
 
 154 
 
 Bii 
 
 i-: 
 
 T Sra^ I 
 
 WORDS DERIVED PROM THE NAMES OP 
 PERSONS, ETC. 
 
 Argosy, from the name of the ship Argo. in which Jason and hi« com- 
 pan.ons sa.led to the Black Sea to find the Golden Fleece. Used by 
 
 % tZr' '" " '''"'"* "' ''"'"'^'" '■'■'' '" *'" '''''' °^ '-'' 
 
 Assassins, the name of a fanatical Syrian sect of the thirteenth century 
 
 vho under the nfluence of a drug prepared from he.np, called S-' 
 
 X'Jt^iC '''"' ''-'-' ''' ''-'-^' -^ «>au,htetd 
 
 '"tz?rsriSi3^r"^-^°^^--*''----^ 
 
 iTv.'*' ^v"" '^."^"'*"' ^^"'"'•' *'^*^ ^^''°°'l Emperor of Rome. 
 
 Boycott (to) from Captain Boycott, a land-agent in the west of Ireland 
 
 ^^'"chtoMr^*'"'' 'T' -"'T '"'^ ^"*^^'l"'' •'"^g^ °'- -""'^eption ; from 
 ChimsBra. a monster in the Greek mythology, half goat half lio , 
 
 Cicerone a gude; frorn Cicero, the g^Wtest uL.. ofatl; and w L of 
 
 .speeche.s tha ever ived. (Guides who described antiquities, etc were 
 
 supposed to be as " fluent as Cicero.' ) ' 
 
 Cravat, from the Croats oi- CrAhnti ' <-<..„„*• ^ 
 
 ■wiwauo ui ^raoaw . Croatia, who supplied an annw 
 
 ivcre ,«i,l to have bee,, » „,.itte„ i„ l,l„„d ■■ "'" '»"" 
 
 Scotists," and in course of time " Dunces. " 
 
OP 
 
 WOKDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. 155 
 
 ^"^^Zliir^- '"'^ °' ^°°' """*'' ■ '''""^ ^P^'^^"'^' '^ 8-at Greek phil- 
 oboper Hm enemies nn«represented him as teaching that pleasure 
 was the highest or oliiefeat good pleasure 
 
 Euphuistic (style) a style of high-flown refinement; from Euphues (the 
 well-born man), the title of a Look written in th; reign of EhJab t 
 by John Lyly which introduced a too ingenious and far-fetched 'vav 
 of speaking and writing in her Court ^ 
 
 Fa^us ?if' " """, 'T ""^I' "" """"'■^ "f ' -^-» -• -""try ; from 
 Faunus, a Koman god (,f the w.j.xk and country. (The Fauni wp,o 
 nnnor rural deities of Home, who had the legs, fee\ and ear! of a ^i 
 
 Plnr: i 1: '. '"'^ "^ ^'''^ ^-^''y "^ ^ l'"'"^' shape.) ^ ' 
 
 Flora, the collective name for all the plants and flowers of a region or 
 
 country ; from Flora, the Koman goddess of flowers ^ 
 
 Galvamsm, from Galvani, an Italian physicist, lecturer on anatomy at 
 
 endowed with a certain kind of electricity 
 Gordian (knot), the knot tied by Gordius a king of Phrygia, who had been 
 ong.„ally a peasant. The knot by which he tiec 'th dilg'^t 
 of his chariot to the yoke w^s so intricate, that no one could uiei 
 A rumour s,.read that the oracle had stated that the empi e o Isit 
 ould be ong to him who should untie the Gordian knot. Alexamkr 
 the Great, o encourage his soldiers, tried to untie it; but rdi ^ 
 
 ^tirr f iiLiu;;:^^ ^^' "^'^ '-^^ --- - '^--- ^'- 
 
 GuUIotme. an instrument for beheading at one stroke, used in France 
 
 Haniom r T^: fr''' ""^ ''"" '' *■'« devolution by Dr Guillot^^ 
 Hansom (cab), fron> the name of its inventor w""«Qwn. 
 
 ^'"'Zum^' "" ^^\^"«= ^'•""' H«°*<»-. t'- '-avest of the Trojans, as 
 Achilles was the bravest of the Grecian chiefs 
 
 Tom'Heri.r'^'!^' ^" '^''f T *" -'«-'y -dude the outer au- ; 
 
 olf T/V """"V' *'^' ""'"'^ ^"'' ^^''"^ -rresponds to the 
 
 diZtry '■ """"'^ "" ''''"''' "^ '- the inventor of 
 
 Jacobin Fnars in Pans, where the revolutionists used to meet 
 Kobespisrro was for some time their chief 
 Jacobite H follower of the Stuart family; f;on. .Tames II. (in Lati. 
 
 T2J::; aL'"'""" ^'"^^ ^-"«' '^ ^-' ^^-^t'^ ^- ^-s, ..looking 
 
 "'"S S'sW ;:;;'f *^"'7--»t -^ ^ I— born under the influence 
 
 J„7v V;.'.'' T r •■^' "'V'"' «"''^""y' ^•*^^''"»« born under the star Saturn") 
 
 l^azaietto "'^^''^'^-'"'^"'-who was bori, in this month. ' ' 
 
 l^azaretto or Lazar-house. from U«ams. the beggar at the gate of 
 
 
 I 
 
 If 
 i| 
 
(i? 
 
 Il 
 
 r 
 
 y 
 
 Mj'> 
 
 ')" 
 
 U, 
 
 ( 
 
 ? 
 
 
 «i 
 
 !l 
 
 "'."^^J- 
 
 wy 
 
 15G 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 from on board shii, ' ^""^ *''" reception of sick people 
 
 £.ynch-law, from a famous Judge Lvnch nf T„. 
 
 work of ln« trials, and then tf uf i.^^ """"^' ^^"'^ '"-'« ^'-^t 
 Macadamise, to make roads of fragrnentlof -f , 
 
 cohere in one nmss; from John ^0,! m J ' ""'"''' 'ifterwards 
 
 in 1827, received fr'om the Govenit^r T t'" ''"""*°'-' ^'"'' 
 plan. ^o\eniment a rev/ard of £10,000 for his 
 
 SaS//"'" ■''''''■ '''" "°'^^" g«d of war. 
 Martinet, a severe disciplinarian t.mVi 
 
 ""=u:^i:ii^ SlS^r^^^ ^T«-t, as havin, heeu 
 Panic, a sudden and'^acefunS tT'^t t' ^"T^"^' ^^^ 
 
 and shepherds. He was faWedtn I ' T, ^*°' *''" K"'' "^ «ock« 
 Parrot ( = z;«?e /'e^.r or p!/; t .^'^'^'" ^^^'^'^'^ *° travellers. 
 
 from Pierre vlr ^f"-^'''^'^'''^ *''« French Perrot == AVrro^ 
 
 Petrel, the name of a sea i ll .. ? <;' «^''>"'0, a donkey, etc. 
 
 the diminutive ^f ^ ' i' '^ t:Z^ T.^' ''^ ™« '" ^ ^t-. 
 
 ^-fatherper„4sL^r;:^:r;s^r^:t^^^^ 
 
 action of water ; from So f R ^ "^''"/T^^ ^y the depositing 
 Protean,_ assuming many 'upS f^^ "S^V^^^^^ 
 
 received the gift of p,.„) l.ecv from K ! ' \^^-''-''«'ty. ^vho had 
 difficult to catch as he • fn f .^^f^*""", but who was very 
 
 Quixotic, fond of utteH ilraoScr; r'^.^*--/-- '- pleased. ' 
 hereof the nationafs;Srr;t^^^^^ ^-f ^0- Quixote, the 
 
 made to tilt at windmill pSrn Id TT "' """^ ^"'^°*'^ '■" 
 nations by himself, a„d ko mlnv „« "?'^' T" ''S^'"^* ^^'^'^Ic 
 things. ' ^^ ""^"y "^^'e'- chivalrous and absurd 
 
 Si^non Mag.: ^sSl^ 'S!'^;"^ ^'""^ -^'--h livings; from 
 
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. 157 
 
 ''"tl^'Sr'.^l^^^^"^' ''°'" Stentor, whom Homer describes 
 Troy '""'^^^t-vo.ced man in the Grecian army that was bcBieging 
 
 Hades un to Ir He ofiended the gods, and wa. placed in 
 
 <irTnl7t'2 a at'- 2 ^ '-^ f ''T' "'"'=^^' ^■''•'" ''« ^"-P^-l t^ 
 when he tr d o'L;'; ,"''' '""'^^ °^ ^^I^"^'^ -'- '''« I'-cl, which, 
 wind. ^""P *^'"' ^^^^ b'°^™ from his reach by a blast of 
 
 ::^y; 
 
 
 ^ ;"«! 
 
 ■C;^.' 
 
 :r-' 
 
 1 1 11 
 
 llJI 
 
 .E:^'?"'::>^^ 
 
158 
 
 fu','! 
 
 
 WORDS DERIVED PROM THE NAMES OP 
 
 PLACES 
 
 ^ImTHoTpf^ ' '"""■" "^"'■°- --"«» <" ".«-.. Both. 
 
 Brown ta hrge ,u2 , T..^ . "' I'""' "'"" ""'»' "™ """ 
 
 plum. (H.nne,.l.,o,(«,J.) ' """"'"»■«»■ -"» D.,„«!cu. 
 
 Dollar, . colu-the chief coi„ „,«1 i„ j(,„.,,fc , 
 
 = i<,rf«-, or .omotLing ,„..1„ i„ . dale or v« 1„) T ,. «r,..!? ^ 
 
 rzxrr ' '° ^' '""'■'"■■"■•' ■•■■ "..- J«/tr:;:' 
 
 Elysian (userf with fields or bliss) from Plvfl,-n«, *i 1 
 
 «,.ui'' of V«"P r. 1 !^' , Elysium, tlie place to whicl. the 
 
 u.s (). .-.rave G»et;ks went after death. 
 
 Ermine, the fur 
 
 worn 
 
 r*t'r'/!'!^.' ^^"- ^^-^^ because thi« 
 
 ' the spoil of the Armenian rat 
 
 fur 
 
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES. 159 
 
 coins of Florence " '^' ^'"^ "'"''"^^ '^^t"' ^'^ 
 
 Oipsy, a corrupt form of the word Egyctian TI,p r; • 
 
 to come from Etrvnf rn,„ v ^P"^f- , -"'^ Gipsies were supposed 
 Oiiin-.,. .'™m ii,gj pt. ( The I rench call them Bohemians ) 
 
 Lacomc, short, pithy, and full of RPns« . <•. t 
 
 south of Greece the ca if/l ^^ '-^ Laconia, a country in the 
 TheLaconrans aLd es/e :,;\ttf,^ '^'^^ - Laced.emon. 
 ing unlike the'ir lively ^^^^^,2::; ''''' ''''' ^^^^ ^ '^^'■ 
 
 TSeS;:::!iit;^::n*;i^''^"^^ 
 
 ''"rC.t:Si r^^L^^^^^^^^ ---« -nXous for 
 
 pawnLkers placed thi pledgt L^^^^ I-nbrokin, ; an.l 
 
 gradually came to contain'a 1 k Ld "f ,bt " I T' "'^ " '' 
 to be called " lumber-room " Tn A '"""^'"/''^^'''^ ^Iso to mean and 
 
 Meander (to), to " whlS about and in^^d'tut -' f '' ^f ^t'""'^^' 
 verr winding river in the plahi of in p> "^ *''° ^^ander, a 
 of Asia Minor ^ '°^' '" ^^""^fe''*' >" *''« north-west 
 
 ""^f te^e. '"^''' ''-'' "^^««^^' ^ ^-- - T'^-ly. in the north 
 Milliner, originally a dealer in wares from Milan a Wr^. v • ., 
 
 of Italy, in the plain of the I'o ' ^' "*^' '" *''" ""''t'' 
 
 MuBlin, from Mosul, a town in Asiatic Turkey, on the Ti«i. 
 Palace, from the Latin palatium a b,iii,u„ \^ T 
 
 the seven hills of liome ^I'll h > "I "' ^^^^'^^s- -"« <'f 
 
 PMch, from Lat. Pergioimi U,^i \ +}- - p 
 
 The r ha. been gradi^dly absorbed. ■ "'" "^^^^'' ""'^"^ ^«"'»- 
 Pheasant, from the Phaais, a r-'ver of Cnl.-liw ;« a • nr- 
 
 11 
 
 
 '5 
 
 ij .: 
 
 m 
 
160 
 
 I, 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Port, a wine from Oporto in PnrtiKrai in 
 
 tlie souti. of Spain" ''"■' '^'^''"^ ^"""^ ^'^"'' '» 
 
 ""'^irttfr ':'»'"'/•''"' r.lnMro„l,, » ,„„!, ,„ Atl,,.., wl„ro 
 
 UWplao, „„,.„„i,|„ t,, „,|i,^ f^^,^^ Nowhere the title of » 
 
 -tor, „„te,, ,„ Si, Tl,„„,„ More, i.f.vhlh he d^ il!" „ tr t .^ 
 
 li-'j 
 
 :i^ 
 
 
 .3\- 
 
 k 
 
 9f:' 
 
 L .J- 
 
X\) i 
 
 WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 
 
 When a word i« i„,ported from a foreign languac^o mto our 
 
 Zd oi: 7""^^ ''""''r '^'"°"^' '- ^'-'^ ^^^- - ^« 
 
 ™s Tl!;t ' J'7 '^ "''"'''^y "^« •^-« -'th proper 
 am Palace to tlie House of Commons was called ^o«,^. r«/^, 
 
 t^^^^l "^^'^ ^ '"^' ^'^ ^^^^'^^ -- '^ «trange'vord 
 he Londoner it becanie quiekly corrupted into JJirdcI^e Walk 
 
 'So h^r "t'-T' ''''"' '"'-' *^"^ ^■■^'" "^ ^-^-^- ^^ t " 
 tl at IS the whole matter. In the same way. our English sailors 
 
 tt E ck Ho; ' v'T "'^ I'"' *^" ^^"«"«^^ 1-— -to 
 
 ob^ v^^^^^^^ " ^"' """'"' ""''''''■ ^^^ -'- Phenomenon 
 s observed also in common names-and not infrequently. The 
 following are some of the most remarkable examples :- 
 
 ^'"""ZT-t" ^'"''-"^''"'^ ''^'^ E'^Bh. and ,.«., a Latin cn.lin, 
 made even, atone togeTher ^^^^-l-- 1- " I'-arthly thing., 
 
 Babble, from ba an.l tlie iVeonpntu.tivp le • it -,pn„ « • • 
 
 B.U., . .■„„„ .„ „,e „„, ta„.t;; ;„^j;::;;r " "•- ■•" "">■-« '* 
 
 1 
 
iin 
 
 v.t 
 
 ?? 
 
 Iff, '! 
 
 162 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENQLLSII LANGl VGK. 
 
 moved '. 
 
 Brimatone. from bum. The r m m o. 
 turn, trundle, c(c. 
 
 of io.. ^ "• ^'**- ''"^■«''". " l>ull..ck, a diniinutivo 
 
 Bustard, fro. 0. Fr. oustarde. foa. Lat a.ls tarda, the tardy or «,ow 
 
 '"'l;:^,^::.:^^.^^ --" -- «^-^^-s he.oat«; .o,n boo. 
 
 Buxom, .tou, healthy tt tat SS ^J^^^^^^^^^- 
 yourparenta.- Connected wifl T 7, ^ ''''"'■''" ''"^""' '*^ 
 
 Causeway (no connection »itl, „,),,„,„ j,„j,^„,. . ., 
 
 nt n» ™"i;r"L»!.'''"^"«Ai»'" ""ter »f 
 
 Constab!-,, 
 
 fcli.. Kufve . i„i,i ;„ ti,p „,---—'—"•' "' "«= »uioie; jience Master o 
 
 C..P. ,. CO,,,,,;, o, i;: r. tr™x:;:r"'" °' "■= "■■«•• "-'■ 
 
 C,p=, .^,»ter .pelling „, eap,. ,,,, „,,, „„ „^^ ^ ,^^_^^ __^ ^^ ^_^^ 
 SSZr;r'lX"''°"''""»''--' '"■" '»""^. » l»'e« apple. 
 
 5,^;:; ': , rrwiicTe" r;"* ''"■■™i*» »' «» I'vend. 
 
 .««fe i,i, ,;«,,;" ""'■ "'°''' """" " '■"'"■ ■» 
 
 ""Si^.VSr '""' *°"' '"- ""• °- ^'- '»■ ««^ «->.• Ton. Ut. 
 
 .ppe™. •'^ ■ ^ "'"" "■• """'-S ~".«eoUon with i.4 di,. 
 
 CuBtard, a misspellincr of the M V ,.r„,. i . j 
 
 made with crust "^ '"*"*'^'^' * S^'^^'''^' "^^i^e for pies 
 
 Daley = daVs eye. Chaucer aays: "The d.ye« e.ve or .U. .. ... ,, 
 
 day.' 
 
 eye 
 
in three, third; 
 
 cal instiumeiit, 
 k, II iliniinutivo 
 
 > tardy or slow 
 
 ate; horn boo, 
 
 B. (Tlie whole 
 is a bottle. ; 
 
 r bo llUXOIll to 
 
 n A. S. Inigan, 
 
 Latin quatuor 
 
 ;yiiip a goblet. 
 *. Fr. pclounr, 
 
 caleeala via, a 
 
 Jseniblance to 
 
 lice Master of 
 king's aruiy. 
 
 I of tlie same 
 
 e apple. 
 
 le, but with 
 
 til is eontre- 
 
 the French 
 or contra or 
 
 ; from Lat, 
 
 his is really 
 he German 
 3 word into 
 th fish dis- 
 
 ■me for i)ies 
 
 the eye of 
 
 WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 
 
 163 
 
 Dandelion = dent de lion, the lion's tooth ; so named from its iagged 
 leaves. 
 
 Dirge, a funeral song of sorrow. In the Latin service for the dead, one part 
 began with the words (Pa. v. 8) dirlge, Dominus meus. in conspeotu 
 tuo vitam meam, " Direct my life, O Lord, in thy sight ; " and dirlge 
 was contracted into dirge. 
 
 Drawing-room = witbdrawlng-room, a room to which guef ' to after 
 dinner. 
 
 Dropsy (no connection with drop), from 0. Fr. hydropisic, from Gr. 
 
 huddr, water. (Compare chirurgeon, which has been shortened into 
 
 mrgeon; example, into aampl,' ; estate into stale.) 
 Easel, a diminutive of the word ass, through the Dutch ezel; like the 
 
 Latin asdlus. 
 
 Farthing = fourthing. {Four appears as fir in firkin ; and as for in fortif. 
 
 Frontispiece (not connected withjuiccr), that which i.s seen or placed in 
 front. Lat. specio, I see. 
 
 Gadfly = goad-fly (sting-fly). 
 
 Gospel = God-spell, a narrative about God. 
 
 Grove, originally a lane cut tlirough trees. A doublet of groove, and 
 grave, from A. S. grafan, to dig. 
 
 Haft, that by which we have or hold a thing. 
 
 Hamper, old form, hanaper; from Low Latin hanaperlum, a large basket 
 ffir keeping drinking-cups (hanain) in. 
 
 Handsel, money given into the hand ; from A. S. seUan, to give. 
 
 Hanker, U , keep the mind hanging on a thing. Er is a frequentative suffi.x, 
 as in hatlcr, linijcr, etc. 
 
 Harbinger, a man who goes before to provide a harbour or lodging-place 
 for an army. The n is intrusive, as in porringer, passenger, and mes- 
 senger. (The ruins of old Roman villas were often used by English 
 travellers as inns. Such places were called " Cold Harbours." There 
 are fourteen places of this name in England— all on the great Koman 
 roads. ) 
 
 Hatchment, the escut( ' n, shield, or eoat-of-arms of a deceased person, 
 displayed in front ot his house. A corruption (by the intrusion of h) 
 of atch'ment, the short form of atchievement, the old spelling of 
 achievement, which is still the heraldic word for hatchment. 
 
 Hawthorn = hedge-thorn. Haw wa,s in 0. E. haga; and the hard g 
 became a w ; and also became softeiu il, under French influence, into 
 dg.Haha, older form Hawhaw, is a sunJ- fence. 
 Heaven, that which is heaved up ; heavy, that which requires much 
 
 heaving. 
 Horehound (not connected witli houtxd), n ; ' nt with stcrr.s covered with 
 white woolly down. The M. E. form i, noar-hune ; and the second 
 syllable means scented. The syllable huar means white, as in hoar- 
 frost. The final d is excrescent or inorganic— like the d in sound, hound 
 (= ready to go), etc. 
 
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 I 
 
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 m 
 
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I 
 
lA 
 
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 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
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 I.I 
 
 12i 125 
 
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 11:25 i 1.4 
 
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 WIBSTiR.N.Y. MS80 
 
 (716)«72-4S03 
 
 
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 u. 
 
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164 
 
 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Hiunble-bee (not connected with the adjective humble), from M. E. 
 hiunmelen, to keep humming — a frequentative; the b beim' in- 
 organic. ° 
 
 Humble-pie (not connected with the adjective humble), pie made of 
 
 umbles, the entrails of a deer. 
 Husband, (mt connected with bind), from Icelandic husbuandi, bmndi 
 
 being the pres. participle of bua, to dwell ; and bus, house 
 HuBsJf (connected with house, but not with wt/e), a case containing needles 
 thread, etc. From Icelandic, htfsi, a case, a cognate of house. The f 
 IS intrusive, from a mistaken opinion that the word was a short form 
 of housewife. 
 Hussy, a pert girl ; a corruption of housewife. 
 
 Icicle, (the ending cle is not the diminutive) a hanging point of ice. The 
 A. S. form is isgioel, a compound of is, ice, and gicel, a small piece of 
 ice ; so that the word contains a redundant element. (The ic in icicle is 
 entirely different from the ic in art-ic-le and in particle.) 
 Intoxicate, to drug or poison ; from Low Lat. toxicum, poison ; from Gr. 
 toxon, a bow, plural toxa, bow and arrows— arrows for war being fre- 
 quently dipped in poison. 
 Island (not connected with isl.) = water-land, a misspelling for iland (the 
 epellmg that Milton always uses). The s has intruded itself from a 
 confusion with the Lat. insula, which gives isle. 
 Jaw, properly chaw, the noun for chew. Cognates are jowl and chapi. 
 Jeopardy, hazard, danger. M. E. jupartie, from 0. Fr. jeu parti a game 
 m which the chances are even, from Low Lat. jScus partitus, a divided 
 game. 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke (not at all connected with Jerusalem), a kind of sun- 
 flower. Italian girasole, from L.vt. gyrus, a circle, and sol, the sun. 
 (In order to clench the blunder contained in the word Jerusalem 
 cooks call a soup made of this kind of artichoke "Palestine Boup ! ") 
 
 Kickshaws, from Fr. quelquechose, something. There was once a plural 
 — Kickshawses. 
 
 Kind, the adjective from the noun kin. 
 
 Ledge, a place on which a thing lies. Hence also ledger 
 
 Lme (to line garments) = to put linen inside them. (Limn is really an 
 adjective from the M. E. lin, just like wooUen, golden, etc. ) 
 
 Liquorice (not connected with liquor), in M. E. llcoris ; from Qr 
 glykyrrhxza, a sweet root. (For the loss of the initial g, compare 
 Ipswich and Gyppenswich; enmgh and genoh; and the loss of ge 
 from all the past participles of our verbs.) 
 
 Mead, meadow=a place mowed. Hence also -.nath, aftermath, and moth 
 ( =the biter or eater). 
 
 Nostrils-noss-thirles, noae-holes. Thirl is a cognate of thriU, driU, 
 through, etc. (For change of position of r, compare turn, trumUe ■ 
 work, wrtght; wort, root; bride, bird, etc.) 
 Nuncheon, a corruption of M. E. none-scbencke, or noon-drink. Then 
 
WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 
 
 165 
 
 this word got mixed up with the provincial English word lunch, 
 
 which means a lump of bread ; and so we liave luncheon. 
 Nutmeg, a liybrid compounded of an English and a French word. Meg is a 
 
 corruption of the 0. Fr. musge. from Lat. museum, musk. 
 Orchard = wort-yard, yard or garden for roots or plants. Wort is a 
 
 cognate of wart and root. 
 Ostrich, from I at. avis struthio. Shakespeare spells it cstridge in " Antony 
 
 and Cleopatra," iii. 13. 197, "Tlie dove will peck the estridge." {Avis 
 
 is found as a prefis: in bustard also. ) 
 Pastime = that which enables one to pass the time. 
 Pea-jacket (not connected with pea], a short thick jacket often worn by 
 
 seamen ; from the Dutch pije, a coarse woollen coat. Thus the 
 
 word jacket is superfluous. In M. E. pr/ wap a coat ; and we find it 
 
 in Chaucer combining, with a French adjective, to make the hybrid 
 
 courtepy, a short coat. 
 Peal (of bells), a short form of the word appeal; a call or summons. 
 
 (Compare penthouse and appentis; sample and example; scutcheon 
 
 and escutcheon; squire &nd esquire ; etc.) 
 Penthouse (not connected with house), in reality a doublet of appendage, 
 
 though not coming from it. 0. Fr. appentis, from Lat. appendicium, 
 
 from appendix, something hanging on to. {Pendere, to hang. ) 
 Periwinkle, a kind of evergreen plant ; formed, by the addition of the 
 
 diminutive le, from Lat. pervlnca, from vincire, to bind. 
 Periwinkle, a small mollusc with one valve. A corruption of the A. S. 
 
 pinewincia, that is, a winkle eaten with a pin. 
 Pickaxe (not connected with axe), a tool used in digging. A corruption 
 
 of M. E. pickeys, from 0. Fr. picois ; and connected witli peak, pike, 
 
 and pick. 
 Poach = to put in the poke, pocket, or pouch. So poached eggs are eggs 
 
 dressed so as to keep the yoke in a pouch. Cognates are pock, small- 
 pox ( =poeks), etc. 
 Porpoise (not connected with the verb poxse) ; from Lat. porcum, a pig, 
 
 and piscem, a fish. 
 Posthumous (work), a wcrk that appears after the death of the author ; 
 
 from Lat. postumus, the last. The h is an error ; and the word 
 
 has no connection with the Lat. humus, the ground. 
 Privet, a half -evergreen shrub. A form of primet, a plant carefully cut and 
 
 trimmed ; and hence prim. (For change of m into v (or p), compare 
 
 Molly and Polly ; Matty and Patty, etc. V and p are both labials.) 
 Proxy, a contraction of procuracy, the taking care of a thing for another. 
 
 Lat. pro for, and cura, care. 
 Quick, living. We have the word in quicklime, quicksand, quicksilver; 
 
 and in tho phrase " the quick and the dead." 
 Quinsy, a bad sore throat, a contraction of 0. Fr. squinancie, formed, by 
 
 tlie addition of a prefixed and strengthening 8, from Or. kynanche, a 
 
 dog-tJirottling, 
 
 IJ 
 
 > i 
 
 
 i . •! 
 
 1^ i 
 
 
in 
 
 ••I 
 
 166 
 
 Biding, 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLTSII LANGUAGE. 
 
 3 of the three divisions of YorL„hire. Tlie oldest form is Trlth. 
 ing or Thrithing (from three and inff, part; as in farthitig =M{o\irih 
 part, etc.) Tlie t or th seems to liave dropped from its similarity 
 and nearnecs to the th in north and the t in cast ; as in Nm-th-thrithiruj, 
 East-trithing, etc. 
 Sexton, a corruption of sacristan, the keeper of th sacred vessels and 
 vestments ; from Lat saccr, sacred. But the sexton is now only the 
 grave-digger. (In the same way, sacristy was shortened into scxtri/.) 
 Sheaf a collection shoved together. Shove gives also shovel; and the 
 
 frequentatives shtij^e and scuffle. 
 Soup, a cognate of sop and sup. 
 
 Splice (to join after splitting), a cognate form of split and splinter. 
 Squirrel, from 0. Fr. esourel; from Low Lat. scuridus; from Gr. skia, 
 
 a sliatlow, and oura, a tail. Hence the word means "shadow-tail." 
 Starboard, the steering side of a ship— the right, as one stands looking to 
 
 the bow. 
 Stew, the verb corresponding to stove. 
 
 Steward, from A. S. stiward, from the full form stigweard; from stige, a 
 sty, and weard, a keeper. Originally a person who looked after the 
 domestic animals. 
 Stirrup, modern form of A. S. stigrap, from stigan, to climb, and r&p, a 
 
 rope. Cognates are sti/, stile, stair. 
 Straight, an old past participle of stretch. {Strait is a French form of the 
 
 word strict, from Lat. strictus, tied up.) 
 Strong, a nasalised form of stp-'' Derivatives are strength, strengthen, 
 
 string, etc. 
 Summerset (not connected eiti . .oh summer or with set), or somersault, a 
 corruption of Fr. soubresault, f.om Lat. supra, above, and .'altu7n', a 
 leap. (There is a connection between the b and the m— the one 
 sliding into the otuer when the speaker has a cold.) 
 Surgeon (properly a hand-worker), a contruction of chirurgeon; from 
 
 Gr. cheir, v.l:e hand, and ergein, to work. 
 Tackle, that which takes or grasps, holding the masts of a ship in their 
 
 places. Th j le is the same as that in settle (a seat), girdle, etc. 
 Tale, from A. S. talu, number. Derivatives are tcU and till (box for 
 
 money), but not talk, which is a Scandinavian word. 
 Tansy, a tall plant, with small yellow flowers, used in medicine ; from 
 
 0. F. athanasie; from Gr. athanasia, immortality. 
 Thorough, a doublet of through, and found in thorough-fare, thorough- 
 bred, etc. (The dr, thr, or tr is also found in door, thrill, trill, drill, 
 nostril, etc.) 
 Treacle, from M. E. triacle, a remedy; from Lat. thertaca, an antidote 
 against the bite of serpents ; from Gr. therion, a wild beast or 
 poisonous animal. Milton has the phrase "the sovran treacle of 
 sound doctrine." (For the position of the r, compare trundle and 
 turn; brid and iird; etc.) 
 
WORDS DISGUISED IN FO.UM. 
 
 167 
 
 Truffle, an undergrouiid edible fungus; from Italian tartufola; tar 
 being r.Lat. tcrrw, of the ground, and tuf5la = tuber, a root. Trifle 
 ia a doublet of ti-uffle. 
 
 Twig, a thin brancli of a tree. The tw here is the base of ttvo, and is 
 found also in twin, twU.i'jht, twice, twine ; and probably also in tieeak, 
 twist, twinkle, etc. {Twit is not in this class ; it comes from at- 
 witan, to throw blame on.) 
 
 Verdigris (not connected with grease), the rust of brass or copjicr. From 
 Lat. viride aeris, the green of brass. (The g is intrusive, and has not 
 j-et been accounted for.) 
 
 Walrus, a kind of large seal ; from Swedish vallross = a whalc-horsc. 
 The older form of ross is found in Icelandic as hross, which is a doub- 
 let of the A. S. hors. The noise made by the animal somewhat 
 resembles a neigh. 
 
 Wassail, a merry carouse ; from A. S. wes hae'l = Be well ! Was is the 
 imperative of wesan to be (still existing in ims) ; and hael is connected 
 with liaUf hale (Scijiid. ), whole (Eng. ), and health. 
 Whole, a misspelling, now never to be corrected, of hole, the adjective 
 connected with hale, heal, health, health/, c'x. The w is j.robably an 
 intrusion from the S.-W. of ICnglan.l, wheve they say whoam f.jr hmae, 
 woat for oat, etc. If we write whole, v,e ought also to v/rite wholy 
 instead of holy. 
 
 , .11 
 
 '-1 
 
 '^fii 
 
WORDS THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANGED 
 IN MEANING. 
 
 Abandon, to iiroflaiin ojienly ; to tie- 
 noiiiiue ; then to cast out. (From Low 
 Lat. hanuiis, an odict.) The e.-irlier 
 iiii'iiiiing still survives iu the phrase, 
 " lianns of inarriaL'e." 
 
 Allow, to praise (connected with laud). 
 
 Amuse, to cause to muse, to occupy the 
 mind of. " Caniillus set upon tlie Gauls, 
 when they were amused in receiving 
 their gold," says a writer of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Animosity, high spirits; from Lat. ani- 
 mosus, brave. 
 
 Artillery (great weapons of war), was used 
 to include bows, crnssl>ows, etc., down 
 to the time of Milton. See P. h. ii. 715 ; 
 and 1 Sam. xx. 40. 
 
 Awkward, going the wrong way. From 
 M. E. awk, contrary. "The awk end" 
 was the wrong end. "Witli awliward 
 wind " = with contrary wind. 
 
 Babe, doll. Spenser says of a pedlar— 
 " He "jore a truss of trifles at his back. 
 As bells, and babes, and glasses in his 
 pack." 
 
 Blackguard, the band of lowest kitchen 
 servants, who had to look after the spits, 
 pots, and i>ans, etc. 
 
 Bomb.a«t (an inflated and Jiompous style 
 of speaking or writing), cotton-wadding. 
 
 Boor (a rough unmannerly fellow), a tiller 
 of the soil ; from the Dutch boawen, to 
 
 till. (Comj)ound neighbour.) In .South 
 Africa, a farmer is still called a bucr. 
 
 Brat (a contemptuous name for a child), 
 a Celtic word meaning rag. In Wales 
 it now means a pinafore. 
 
 Brave, sliowy, splendid. 
 By-and-by, at once. 
 
 Carpet, the covering of tables as well aa 
 of floors. 
 
 Carriage (tlnit which carries) meant for- 
 merly thai which was carried, or bag- 
 gage. See Acts xxi. 15. 
 
 Cattle, a doublet of chattels, property. 
 Lat. capitalia, heads (of oxen, etc.) 
 Chaucer says, " The avaricious r.an hatli 
 moie hojie in his catel than in Christ." 
 
 Censure (blame) meant merely opinion ; 
 from the Lat. censeo, I think. Shake- 
 speare, in Ilandet i. 3. 69, makes Polon- 
 ius aay: "Take each man's censure, but 
 reserve thy judgment." 
 
 Charity (almsgiving) meant love.; from 
 Lat. cams, dear, through the French. 
 
 Cheat (to deceive for the purpose of gain) 
 meant to seize vpon a thing as escheated 
 or forfeited. 
 
 Cheer, face. " Be of good cheer "= " Put 
 a good face upon it." " His cheer fell " 
 = " His countenance fell." 
 
 Churl (an uncourtoous or disobliging per- 
 son) meant a countryman. Der. chur- 
 lish. (Shakespeare also uses tlie word 
 in the sense of a mi«er.) 
 
WOimS THAT HAVE GKEATLY CHANGED IN MEANING. 169 
 
 Clumsy, stiff with cold. -'Wlieii tlw.ii 
 clamscst witli colli," myn Unglaml (Mlli 
 century) = art benuuilwd. (Cogmites, 
 clamp, cramp.) 
 
 Companion, low fellow. Sliakenpeaie lin 
 sucli pliraseH as " Companions, hence !" 
 
 Conceit (too hi^h an opinion of one's .self) 
 meant simply thought. Cliaueer was 
 calle<l ''a eonceiteil cleik"="a learned 
 man full of thoughts." From Ut. am- 
 ceptus, a numlier of facts brought to- 
 gether into one gciuTal conceplion or 
 idea. .Shakespeare has the phrase " pass- 
 ing all conceit " = beyond all thought. 
 
 Count (to number) meant to think (J 
 with ;i, &c.) with ; from Lat. ronipiitu, 
 I oompute or think with. Count is a 
 doublet, through French, of compute. 
 
 Cunning, able or skilled. Like the word 
 craft, it has lost Itii innocent sense. 
 
 Danger, Jurisdiction, legal jiowcr over. 
 Tlio Duke of Venice says to the Mer- 
 chant, " You stand within his danger, 
 do you not?" M. V. iv. 1. 180. 
 
 Defy, to pronounce all bonds of faith 
 dissolved. Lat. Jides, faith. 
 
 Delicious, too scrupulous or finical. A 
 writer of the seventeenth century says 
 that idleness makes even " the sober- 
 est (most moderate) men delicious." 
 
 Depart, part or divide. The older version 
 of the Trayer-Book has "till death us 
 depart " (now corrupted into do jxirt). 
 
 Disaster, an unfavourable star. A term 
 from the old astrology. 
 
 Disease, discomfort, trouble. Shakespeare 
 has, " She will disease our bitter mirth ; " 
 and Tyndale's version of Mark v. 35, is, 
 "Thy daughter is dead: why discasest 
 thou the Master any further?" 
 
 Duke, leader. Hannibal was called in old 
 English writers, "Duke of Carthage." 
 
 Ebb, shallow. " Cross the stream where 
 It Is ebbest," Is a Lancashire proverb. 
 (The word Is a cognate of even.) 
 
 Essay, an attempt. The old title of such 
 a book was not " Essay on " but " Essay 
 at." From Lat. exagium, a weighing. 
 
 An older form is Asxiy. Shakespeare lias 
 such phrases as "the assay of arms." 
 
 Explode, tn drive out by clai>ping of the 
 liiinds. The opiMisite of applaud. Lat. 
 jiUtudo, I clap my hands. 
 
 Explosion, a hi.ssing a thing off the stage. 
 
 Firmament, that which makes jinn or 
 strong. .Tcrcmy Taylor (seventeenth 
 century) .s.iys, "Custom is the lirnia- 
 ment of the law." 
 
 Fond, foolish. The past )>articip!o of 
 A. H. fonnan, to act foolishly. 
 
 Frightful, full of fcitr. (Compare the old 
 nicaning of (/ren(//u;.) 
 
 Garble, to sift or cleanse. Low Lat. 
 garbellare, to .sift torn. 
 
 Garland, a king's crown ; now a wreath of 
 
 (lowers. 
 
 Gazette (Italian), a ni,ig|iic. Hence the 
 Ital. (ja:ett(trf, to chatter like a magpie; 
 to write tittle-tattle. (It was also the 
 name of a very small coin, current lu 
 Venice, etc.) 
 
 Generous, liigh-born. Lat. nnitis, race. 
 Compare the jilirases " a man of family ; " 
 " a man of rank." Shakesjieare has 'the 
 generous citizens" for those of high 
 birth. 
 
 Gossip, sib or related in God ; a godfather 
 or godmother. It now means such jicr- 
 so7wl talk as usually goes on among such 
 persons. (Compare the French coinmire 
 and cominirage.) 
 
 Handsome, clever with the hands. 
 
 Harbinger, a jierson who prepared a har- 
 bour or lodging. 
 
 Heathen, a person who lives on a heath. 
 (Cf. jmgan, person who lives In a jwgus, 
 or country district.) 
 
 Hobby, an easy ambling nag. 
 
 Idiot (Gr. idiotes), a private person ; a 
 person who kept aloof from public busi- 
 ness. Cf. idiom; idiosyncrasy ; etc. 
 
 Imp, an engrafted shoot. Chaucer says : 
 " 01 feeble trees there comen wretched 
 
 impe.^." 
 Spenser has " Well worthy impe." 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 'ill 
 
 
 rJ 
 
 :i«il: 
 
 I 
 
 i ^1 
 
 4 if 
 
i'S 
 
 li 
 
 If: 
 
 
 170 
 
 GUAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Impertinoiit, iml pertaining t 
 inattor in liuncl. 
 
 (lie 
 Odd 18 indiU'i'r. 
 
 Indifferent, liniinrtial. 
 I'lit ti) bU." 
 
 Insulont, uiiuaiial. An oM writor inaiscs 
 HnlclRh'H poetry us "insolent and pas- 
 aiouate," 
 
 Kind, born, inborn ; natural ; and tlii'n 
 loving. 
 
 Knave, boy, " A knavr cliild "^^a nmlr 
 I'lild. Sir John Miinclcville sjioiiks of 
 Malonictas "a ponro knave." 
 
 Lace, a snare. Lat. la'inens, a noose. 
 
 Livery, that which is given or deliverei'., 
 Fr. iinrer; from Lat. liherare, to free. 
 It was ai)iilied bcitli to food and to 
 clothing. "Aliorscatlivcry" si ill means 
 a horse not merely kept, but also/cd, 
 
 Magniflcent, doing great things ; large- 
 minded, liacon says, " Bounty and 
 niagnilieciicc arc virtues very regal." 
 
 Malier, a poet. 
 
 Manure, to work with tlie hand ; a doublet 
 of manoeuvre. (liat. vumtis., the hand.) 
 
 Mere, utter. Lat.?/wn(s,)Mire. Shakesjieare, 
 in "Othello," spealis of "the mere jier- 
 dition of the Turkish fleet." "Mere 
 wine " was unmixed wiue. 
 
 Metal, a mine. 
 
 Minute, sojuething very small. Lat. min. 
 ii'us, made small ; from miniif, less. 
 Cognates, Minor ; minish; diminish; etc. 
 
 Miscreant, an unbeliever. Lat. mis (from 
 minm), and credo, I believe; through 
 O. Fr. meacr^ant. 
 
 Miser, a wretched person. Lat. miser, mis- 
 erable. 
 
 Nephew, a grandchild. (I^t. nepos.) 
 
 Nice, too serMi)ulous or fastidious. Shake- 
 speare, in "K. John," iii. 4. 1,38, says— 
 " He that stands ujion a slippery place, 
 Makes nice of no vile hold to stay him 
 up." 
 
 Nieco, a grandchild. Lat. Jiej)(js. 
 
 Novelist, an innovator. \ 
 
 Offal, that wliich is allowed to fall off. 
 
 Officious, obliging. In modern diploniai y, 
 an official eummunieatinn is one madu 
 in tlie way of business ; an officious com- 
 munieatiim is a friemily and irregular 
 one. liurke, in the eighteenth eentin-y, 
 sjieaks of the Flench nobility us "very 
 olllcious 011(1 hosjiitable." 
 
 Ostlers: hosteller. The keeper of a hostel 
 or hotel. (A comic derivation is hut it 
 is a contraction t}{ vutstcakr). 
 
 Painful, painstaking. Fuller, in the seven- 
 teenth century, sjieaks of Joseph us "a 
 painful eai'iienter." 
 
 Palliate, to throw a cloak over. Lat. pal- 
 lium, a cloak. 
 
 Pencil, a small hair brush. Lat. iienccilltu, 
 a little tail. 
 
 Peevish, obstinate. 
 
 Perspective, a glass for seeing either near 
 or distant things. 
 
 Pester, to encumber or clog. From Low 
 lAt. pasturittm, a clog for horses in a 
 pasture. 
 
 Plantation, a colony of men planted. 
 
 Plausible, having obt;iined ajiplanse. 
 " Every one received him jdausibly," 
 says a aeventcenth-centiiry writer. 
 
 Polite, polished. A seventeenth-century 
 writer has "polite bodies as looking- 
 glasses." 
 
 Pomp, a procession. 
 
 Preposterous, putting the la.st lirst. Lat. 
 jiw, before ; and post, after. 
 
 Prevaricate, to re\cise, to shutllc. Lat. 
 prxvaricari, to spread the legs ajiart 
 in walking. 
 
 Prevent, to go before. Lat. pro; licfore, 
 and venio, I come. The Prayer-Ilook has, 
 " Prevent us, Lord, in all our doings." 
 
 Prodigious, ominous. "A proiligicms 
 meteor," meant a meteor of bad omen, 
 
 Punctual, attending to small points of 
 detail, Lat, punctuin,; Fr. jioinf. 
 
WOKDS THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANOEIl IN MEAMNO. 171 
 
 III 
 
 Quaint, Hkllful. rrosporo, In tlie "T(im- 
 jicrtt," calkN Arii'l * .My iinaint Ariel 1 " 
 
 Racy, having tln! .stl■lill^; and native qual- 
 il.ics cif tliH nice, (jiwlry says of ii [Kict 
 tliat liols— 
 " Frauj^lit with liiisk racy verses, in 
 
 which we. 
 The Hdil froMi wliencethey come, taste, 
 siiiull, aiiil see." 
 
 Reduce, to lead hack. 
 
 Roaent, to be fully Hensible of. Resent- 
 ment, grateful recoguitiim (jf. 
 
 Restive, obstinate, inelineil to rest or 
 .stand still. "To turn rusty " ( = resty) 
 i.s to turn obstinate. 
 
 Retaliate, to give back benedta as well as 
 injuries. 
 
 Room, space, place at table. Luke xiv. 8. 
 
 Rummage, to make room. 
 
 Sad, earnest. 
 
 Sash, a turban. 
 
 Secure, free from care. Den Joiison says : 
 " Men may securely sin ; but safely, 
 never." 
 
 Sheen, bright, pure. Connected with 
 shine. 
 
 Shrew, a wicked or hurtful person. 
 
 Silly, bli^saed. 
 
 Sincerity, absence of foreign admixture. 
 
 Soft, sweetly reasonable. 
 
 Spices, kinds— a doublet of species. (A 
 gnjeer in French 's called an I'picier.) 
 
 Starve, to die. Chaucer says, "Jesus 
 starved upon the cross." 
 
 Sycophant, "a fig-shower" or informer 
 against a person who smuggled ilgs. Or. 
 siiA'ou, a llg ; an<l phaino, I sliow. 
 
 Table, a picture. 
 
 Tarpaulin, a .sailor ; from the tarred 
 canvas suit lie wore. Now shortened 
 into tar. 
 
 Thews, habits, manners. 
 
 Thought, deep sorrow, anxiety. Matthew 
 
 I vl. LT). In "Julius Ciesar," ii. 1. Is7, we 
 
 llnd, "Take Ihiuight, and die fcprCiisai-. ' 
 
 Trivial, very common. Ij«t. triria, a 
 place where three roads meet. 
 
 Tuition, guardianship. Lot. tuitio, look- 
 ing at. 
 
 Uncouth, unknown. 
 
 Union, oneness ; or a pearl in whioli size, 
 
 roundness, smoothness, purity, lustre, 
 were united. See "I[a)iilet," v. 2. '-'Nil. 
 .\ doublet is onion— so calleil from its 
 shape. 
 
 Unkind, unnatural. 
 
 Urbane, living in a city. I^t. urbs, a 
 
 city. 
 
 Usury, money paid for the use of a thing. 
 
 Varlet, a .serving-man. Low JM. vusm- 
 lettus, a minor va.s.sal. Vuilettxml vaUt 
 are diminutives of vassal. 
 
 Vermin "•" s apjilied to noxious animals 
 uf wl' '- size. "The ero<'o(liU! is 
 a dangufj.-.i vermin." I^at. Dermis, a 
 worm. 
 
 Villain, a farm-servant. Lat. vi»a, afarm. 
 
 Vivacity, pertinacity in living ; longevity. 
 Fuller speaks of a man as " most remark- 
 able for his vivacity, for ho lived 140 
 years." 
 
 Wit, knowledge, mental ability. 
 
 Worm, a serpent. 
 
 Worship, to consider worth, to honour. 
 
 Wretched, wicked. A. 8. i/wcca, an out- 
 cast 
 
 r 
 
 *f 
 
 •„,l: 
 
cc 
 
PART 11. 
 
 COMPOSITION. rUNCTTTATTON, PARAPHRASING. 
 AND PROSODY 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
ct 
 cl 
 
 St 
 
 fo 
 
 til 
 
 (ii 
 wl 
 
HINTS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Composition ia tlio art of puttiii- sfut- ncos toRothor. 
 
 tence hat i. l.oth clear an.l neat. We all Hpeak an.l write HOMte.uoH 
 every .lay ; l.ut tl^ne senten.eM ,u«y be neat or thoy n.ay he cluiUHy- 
 tl.ey may 1^, pleasant t.. rea.l, .,r th.y ,„ay l,e .lull an.l hmvy. 
 
 (ii) Sir Arthur Helps nays; "A sentence hIu.uI.I l,e p..worfiil in itH 
 Hubstant.vx.«, cl..,i..e an.l .li^u-eet in its a.ljectiveH. ni,.ely c-.rre.t in itn 
 verbH ; n.t a w.r.l that c.ul.l be a.l.le.l, n„r one whi.-h the n.ost f.u,ti.l. 
 .oUHW.n.1,1 venture to Hui,pre.« ; in or.ler, luci.l ; in sequence, logical ; 
 lu nietliod, perHjucuouH. ' i » b . 
 
 2. The mannor in yvhu-h wo jHit our sentences together is 
 called style. Tluit style n.ay l,e f,.,,„l or l.a.l ; feeble or vigorous • 
 clear or obscure. The whuio purpose of sty!. , an.l of stu.lyin.. 
 style IS to enable us to present our thoughts to others in a cleai^ 
 forcil)le, and yet graceful way. 
 
 "Style is but the onler an.l the movement that we put into our 
 
 thoughU If we bind them together closely, con.pactly. the style be- 
 
 comes firm, nervouH, conci.se. If they arc left to follow each other 
 
 negligently, the style will be .liffuse, „lip«ho,l, a,,,! insipid."-BuKKON. 
 
 3. CJood composition is the result of three things : (i) clear 
 
 thinking; (ii) reading the best and most vigorous writers • an.l 
 
 (.11) fre.p,ent practice in writing, along witli careful polishim^ of 
 
 what we have written. ° 
 
 esiir 7^''* *;° """'^ '?'^'"*'^ '" *''" ^''' P°'^' historians, and 
 essayi8t«,-to rea.l over and over again what strikes us as tinely or nol.lv 
 
 or powerlully expressed.-to get by heart the nm.st .striking passages i,", 
 a good author. This kind of study ^riIl give us a large st..ck of appro- 
 priate words and striking phrases ; an.l we shall never be at a l..ss f..r 
 the right words to express our own seme. 
 
 ' i 
 
 I ; 
 
 i< 
 
 ». 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 
176 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 thlTrUT"''- '^^'\"^'' ^ '"^^ t° -'-ite well, there are required 
 th.ee nece««ar.es: let lum read the be«t authors; observe the be.V 
 speakers ; and have much exercise of his own style." 
 
 .ff PM^f T'*,''"' ^"'"'''^ "'"' ^y '^"'•^y "^"^y ^< to l«arn long chapters 
 of the Bible by heart ; as well a« to read it every syllable through, aloud, 
 hard names and aU, from Genesis to the Apocalypse, about once a-year: 
 and to that aisc,phne,-patient, accurate, and resolute,-! owe, not only 
 a knowledge of the book, but much of my general power of taking pains, 
 r.nd the best part of my taste in litcrature."-Jom Huskin. 
 
 (iii) But, though much reading of the best books and a great deal of 
 practice m composition are the only means to attain a good and vigorous 
 style there are certain direcfcions-both general and special-which may 
 be of use to the young student, when he is beginning 
 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 4. We must know tlie subject fully about which we are mm 
 to write. ^ 
 
 (i) If we are going to tell a story, we must know all the circumstances ; 
 tJie tram of ev-ents that le.l up to the result ; the relations of the person 
 ll>raf 17^ each other; what they said ; and the outcome of the 
 \vliole at the close. These considerations guide us to 
 
 Practical Rule I.-Draw up on a piece of paper a short 
 Bkeleton of what you are going to write about. 
 
 (i) Archbishop Whately says : "The more briefly this is done, so that 
 It does but exhibit clearly the heads of the composition, the betLr • be- 
 cause It IS important that the whole of it be placed before the eye' and 
 m,nd in a small compass, and be taken in, as it were, at a glance : and it 
 Should be written, therefore, not in sentences, but like a table of con Jtl 
 Such an outline should not be allowed to fetter the writer, if in the 
 course of the actual composition, he find any reason for deviating from 
 his ..ngmal plan,-it should serve merely as a track to mark out a path 
 tor liim, not as a groove to confine him." 
 
 nofi?v^rrr^ "Sit down to write what you hive thmght,mA 
 not to think what you shall write." 
 
 5. Our sentences must be written in good English. 
 
 Good English is simply the English of the best writers ; and we can 
 only learn what it is by reading the books of these ^vriters. Good writers 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 17 
 
 going 
 
 of the present century are such authors as Charles Lamb, Jane Auston, 
 Scott, Coleridge, Landor, Macaulay, Thackeray, Dickens, Mattliew 
 Arnold, Froude, Uuskin, and George Eliot. 
 
 6. Our sentences must be written iii pure English. 
 
 (i) This rule forbids the use of obsolete or old-fashioned words, such 
 as erst, peradventure, hiyht, beholden, vouchsafe, methinks, etc. 
 
 (ii) It forbids also the use of .slang expressions, such as awfully, joUy, 
 rot, bosh, smell a rat, see with h(df an eye, etc. 
 
 (iii) It forbids the employment of technical terms, unless these are 
 absolutely n jary to exjiress our meaning ; and this is sure to be the 
 case m a paper treating on a scientific subject. But technical terms in 
 an ordmary piece of writing, such as quantitative, connotation, anent, 
 chroDMtic, are quite out of place. 
 
 (iv) In obedience to tliis rule, we ought also carefully to avoid the use 
 of foreign words and phrases. Aftectation of all kinds is disgusting; 
 and it both looks and is affected to use such words as confrere, raison 
 d'itre, amour propre, congi, etc. 
 
 (v) This recommendation also includes the Fractlcad Rule : " ' v'hen 
 an English-English (or 'Saxon') and a Latin-English word offer them- 
 selves, we had better choose the Saxon." 
 
 (vi) The following is from an article by Leigh Hunt : " In the Bible 
 there are no Latinisms ; and where is the life of our language to be 
 found in such perfection as in the translation of the Bible ? We will 
 venture to affirm that no one is mastcv of tiie English Zan//Ma^e who is not 
 well read in the Bible, and sendble of its peculiar exceUenees. It is the 
 pure well of English. The taste which the Bible forms is not a taste 
 for big words, but a taste for the simplest expression or the clearest 
 medium of presenting ideas. Jiemarkable it is that most of the sublimities 
 in the Bible are conveyed in monosyUables. For example, ' Let there be 
 light : and there was light.' Do these words want any life that Latin 
 could lend them ? . . . The best styles are the freest from Latinisms ; 
 and It may be almost laid down as a ru/e that a good writer will never 
 have recourse to a Latinism if a Saxon word will equally serve his jmrpose 
 We cannot dispense with words of Latin derivation; but there should 
 be the plea of necessity for resorting to them, or we wrong our English." 
 (vii) At the same time, it must not be forgotten that we very often 
 are compelled by necessity to use Latin words. Even Leigh Hunt in 
 the above passage, ha^ been obliged to do so while declaiming against it 
 This IS apparent from the number of words printed in italics, all of 
 which are derived from Latin. This is most apparent in the phrase 
 equally serve his purpose, which we could not now translate into " pure " 
 English. '^ 
 
 
 r I 
 
 11 
 
 It* 
 
178 
 
 COMPOSITION, rUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 11 J 
 
 7. Our sentences must be written in accurate English, 
 Tlmt is, tlie words used must be appropriate U, the sense wo 
 wish to convey. Accuracy is tlie virtue of using "the ri-dit 
 word in the right place." " 
 
 (i) " Tlie attempt w.aa found to be impractiavble." Now, impracticable 
 means impossible of accomplishment. Any one may attempt anything- 
 carrying ,t out is a different thing. The word used should have been 
 design or plan. 
 
 _ (ii) " The veracity of the statement was called in question." Veracitu 
 18 the attribute of a person ; not of a statement. 
 
 (iii) Accurate English can only be attained by tlie careful study of the 
 different shades of meaning in words ; by the constant comparison of 
 synonyms. Hence we may lay down the 
 
 Practical Rule II.-Make a collection of synonyms, and 
 
 compare the meanings of eacli couple (i) in a dictionary, and 
 (ii) in a sentence. 
 
 The following are a few, the distinctions between which are 
 very apparent : — 
 
 Abstain 
 
 Active 
 
 Aware 
 
 Character 
 
 Circumstance 
 
 Forbear. 
 
 Diligent. 
 
 Conscious. 
 
 Reputation. 
 
 p]vent. 
 
 Custom 
 
 Delay 
 
 Difficulty 
 
 Strong 
 
 Think 
 
 Habit. 
 
 Defer. 
 
 Obstacle. 
 
 Powerful. 
 
 Believe. 
 
 8. Our sentences should be perfectly clear. That is, the 
 reader, if he is a person of ordinary common-sense, should not 
 be left for a moment in doubt as to our meaning 
 
 (i) A Roman writer on style says : "Care should be taken, not that 
 tlie reader may understand if he will, but that he shall understan.l 
 whether he will or not." 
 
 (ii) Our sentences should be as clear as " mountain water flowing over 
 a rock. Tl. y should " economise the reader's attention." 
 (iii) Clearness is gained by being simple, and by being brief. 
 (iv) SimpUclty teaches us to avoid (a) too learned words, and (6) 
 roundabout ways of mentioning persons and things. 
 (a) We ought, for example, to prefer— 
 Abuse to Vituperation. Neighbourhood to Vicinity 
 
 Begin „ Commence. Trustworthy „ Reliable 
 
 Commence n Initiate. Welcome „ Reception. 
 
GENERAL DIllECTlOKS. 
 
 179 
 
 (6) W« ought to avoid such stale and hackneyed iiluwen as the 
 "Swan of Avon" for Shakespeare; the "Hard of Florence" for 
 ban to ; "the Great Lexicographer" for I)r Johnson. 
 
 (v) Brevity enjoins u{)ou us the need of expressing our meaning in ad 
 few words as possible. 
 
 Opposed to brevity is verbosity, or wordiness. Pope says— 
 
 " Words are like leaves; nnd, where tlicy most abuuiicl, 
 Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely fnuiid." 
 
 (vi) Dr Johnson says : " Tediousness is the most fatid of all faults." 
 
 9. (_)ur sentences sliould l)e written in flowing Englisli. 
 Tluit is, till) rliytlini of each sentence oiiglit to Ije pleasant Uj 
 the ear, if read aloud. This axiom gives rise to two rules : — 
 
 Practical Rule III— Write as you would speak ! 
 
 (i) This, of course, points to an antecedent condition— tliat you nmst 
 bo a good reader. Good reading aloud is one of tlio chief conditions oi 
 good writing. "Living speech," says a philosophic writer, "is the cor- 
 rective of all style." 
 
 Practical Rule IV. — After we have written our piece of com- 
 position, we should read it aloud cither to ourselves or to some 
 one else. 
 
 Thus, and thus only, shall we be able to know whether each sentence 
 has an agreeable rhythm. 
 
 Practical Rule V. — " Xevor write about any matter you do 
 not well understand. If you clearly understand all about your 
 matter, you will never want thoughts ; and thoughts instantly 
 become words." — Cobbett. 
 
 " Seek not for words ; seek only fact and thought, 
 And crowding in will come the words, unsought."— Hokack. 
 
 " Know well your subject ; and the words will go 
 To the pen's point, with steady, ceaseless flow."— Pkntland. 
 
 10. Our sentences should bo compact. 
 
 (i) That is, they ought not to be loose collections of words, but firm, 
 well-knit, nervous organisn^s. 
 
 (ii) A sentence in which the complete sense is liuspcndod till the close 
 ia called a period. Contrasted with it is the loose sentence. 
 
 ' i 
 
 • i 
 
 . 
 
 * ■ 
 
 ••1. - 
 
180 
 
 COMPOSITIOX, I'UNCTUATIOX ETC. 
 
 (a) ^•'^^ f«'^*«»"--'i;'- I'uHtans ln..ked .lowu with contcu.pt on 
 ^'"^ "«'» '"'fl the eloquent, on nobles and priests. 
 
 the Puritans looked down with contempt. 
 (Hi) The following is a fine example of a loose sentence ■ "Notwith 
 
 excessive, an(. which conhned h.,n, without intermission, six weeks to 
 ■B r-o'". -0 could not induce him to come home." T i' o il^ 
 
 «^c:;;s:::^h:;r ^^^""^^^ -^ ''^'^ '•— ^-^^ ^^-^ 
 
 EMPHASIS. 
 
 Ono object in stylo is to call the attention of tl.e roa.lor in a 
 furciblo and yet agreeable way to the most important parts of 
 uur subject-in otiier wor.ls, to give emphasis to tbat is 
 ciiipliatic, and to make what is striking and inii)ortant strike the 
 eye and nnnd of the ..ader. This purpose n.ay be attained in 
 n ny diflerent ways; but there are several easy devices that 
 will bo found of use to us in our endeavour to give weight and 
 emphasis to what we write. These are :— 
 
 1. The ordinary grammatical order of the words in a sentence 
 may bo varied ; and emphatic words may be thrown to the 
 beginning or to the end of the sentence. This is the device 
 ol Inversion. 
 
 Jrd'' :jJ^^^-^"«'--^^ - I'e that cometh in the name of the 
 Lord Jesus I know, and Paul I know : but who are ye ? " "Some 
 
 lar-"^^^^^^^^ °*'1h ^ J'"*/"<^-*'>-" "Go he must?" "Doi 
 vlhed mZrf : .*'""' '•"*' '"' *'"'>' ^^'^ Lord Straflonl 
 Zf 1; ^ '*'■"''■ '"'" *''^>' *''"«^«^- ''"" they obeyed." " He 
 
 that to Is a he is not sensible how great a task he undertakes • for to 
 
 plira^e to vmintum on^ gains emphasis by being thrown out f.f it. 
 usual and natural position. But '*'' 
 
 Caution 1.-D0 not go out of your way to invert. It has a 
 look of aftectation. Do not sajj, for example, "True it is," or 
 Of Mdton .t was always said," etc. And do not begin an 
 essay thus : " Of all the vices that disfigure and degrade," etc 
 
EMPHASIS, igi 
 
 2. Tho Omission of Conjunctions ^ivcs forco and onu'lmsiH 
 Tl.us Hu.ne writer: "JIo runhcl ami.U tl.cn with hi« swor.l 
 complete % ictory. We may wrUe : " Vou «ay this ; I deny it." 
 
 cnpha^lr "'' '^ "'" Inoperative Mood gives liveliness and 
 
 more fordblf '• " ''"' " "''''' ^" '^' ^"'* '"'•'> '" ^"^ ''^ --!» 
 
 Potm^''"^'^'''''' '' '''■'" ^'"""'^ ^'^ emplc.ying the Interrogative 
 
 (i) Thus to say "Who doe. not ho,.o to live long? "is much morn 
 forcible and hvely than "All of us hope to live long.- 
 
 (ii^) This is a well-known form in all in.,,a.ssi„ned speech Thus in 
 
 5 The device of Exclamation may also be employed to -ivo 
 oniphasis ; bi.t it cannot be fre,uently used, .vithout dangc^- of 
 falling mto affectation. 
 
 Thus Shakespeare, instead of making Ha.nlet say, "Man is a wonder 
 ful piece of work." etc.-which would be dull and lat- writes " W at 
 a piece of work is man ! " etc. ' 
 
 gained by the use of the device of 
 
 6. Emphasis may bo 
 Periphrasis. 
 
 "It waa no other iharjolwh;." etc " '°'" "'" '""^ '''' ^'""^^ '" 
 
 7. RepetitioD, is sometimes a powerful device for producing 
 emphasis; but, if too frequently employed, it becomes a tire^ 
 some mannerism. 
 
 (i) Macaulay k very fond of this device. He says : "Tacitus tells a 
 till st.mul.vnts lose their power." Again: "He aspired to tlie highest 
 
 i 
 
 f. 
 
 
 
 Ml 
 

 If 
 
 ^ * 
 
 1 
 
 X' 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 p 
 
 i(1i 
 
 fir 
 
 ly- COMI'OSITION, rUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 (ii) ItH effect in i)oetry is soinetiineH very fino : — 
 
 " Hy foreign hands tliy clyiiiK oycs were closed ; 
 By foreign hands thy decent linihs composed ; 
 By foreign liands thy Immlilo grave adorned ; 
 By strangers honoured, and by strangers mourned." 
 
 8. Tlio device of Suspense adds to the weight and enipliasis 
 of a statoineiit; it keeps the attention of the reader on tlie 
 stretch, because lie feels the sense to be incomplete. 
 
 (i) The suspense in the following sentence gives a lieiglitcned iden of 
 tlie difficulty of travelling: "At last, witli no small diHiculty, and 
 after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads, storms of wind and 
 rain, and bad weather of all kinds, to our journey's end." 
 
 (ii) This device is frequent in poetry. Thus Keats opens his " lly- 
 jieriou " in this way : — 
 
 " Deep in tlie sliady sadness of a vale, 
 Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, 
 Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star- 
 Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone." 
 Here the verb is kept to the last line. 
 
 9. Antithesis ahvays commands attention, smd is therefore a 
 powerful mode of emphasising a statement. But antithesis is 
 not always at one's conmiand ; and it must not be strains .. after. 
 
 Macaulay employs this device with great effect. He has : " The 
 Puritans liated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain t<j the bear, but 
 because it gave i)leasure to the spectators." Swift was very fond of it. 
 Thus he says : " The two maxims of a great man at court are, always to 
 keep his countenance, and never to keep his word." Dr Johnson has 
 this sentence : " He was a learned man among lords, and a lord among 
 learned men." " He twice forsook his party ; his principles never." 
 
 10. A very sharp, sudden, and unexpected antithesis is called 
 an Epigram. * 
 
 (i) Thus Lord Bacon, speaking of a certain procession in Rome, says that 
 " The statues of Brutus and Cassius were conspicuous by their absence. " 
 Macaulay says of the dirt and splendour of the Russian Ambassadors : 
 "They came to the English Court dropping pearls and vermin." 
 
 (ii) The following are additional instances of truths put in a very 
 Btrikmgand epigrammatic way: "Verbosity is cured by a large vocab- 
 ulary" (because when you have a large stock of words, you will be 
 able to choose the fittest). " We ought to know something of every- 
 thing, and everything of something." " He was born of poor but dis- 
 honest parents." "When you have nothing to say, say it." "He 
 
1»ISTINXT.\K.S.S OK .STV(,K. 
 
 The 
 
 Ks;J 
 
 •n particular ; and .lid it very well." ^' ^'^ ''"' ""''''"« 
 
 (iii) But no one should straiu after Bucli n ^.f.-io * •.• 
 
 MSTINCTUKSS OF .SITLH, 
 
 and crucifying ' "" """ ""^^ ^""'•^'' ''^ ''«"Ki"g. burning, 
 
 two J!r*!^rf'V;'' '''^^''"^"^«^ '^^ «^^^" -^y bo uttaine.1 iu 
 
 a A concrete or particular term strikes both the feeling's 
 
 ::'„ 3:""" "*" ^'~"'"' "-- "- - »"-- - --> 
 
 (i) Let U8 make a few coiitrasts :— 
 Abstract. 
 
 Quadruped. 
 
 Building materials. 
 
 Old age. 
 
 Warlike weapons. 
 
 Hi;h and poor. 
 
 A miserable state. 
 
 " I have neither the necessaries 
 of life, nor the means of pro- 
 curing them." 
 
 Concrf.tr. 
 Horse. 
 
 Bricks and mortar. 
 Grey hairs. 
 Sword and gun. 
 The palace and the cottage 
 Age, ache, and penury. 
 " I have not a crust (jf bread, 
 "or a penny to buy one." 
 
 *!.. might, „.i.„ .. ,. ,„„„ „•„,„. ,1, ,. .^^^ ^VZ'Ll'^Jr" " 
 
 i 
 
r 
 
 184 
 
 C0MP08ITI0X, PUNCTUATION, KTO. 
 
 4. Details ciiaMe the rcador to fnnii in liis mind n vivid pic- 
 ture of the event narrutod or the person descrilied ; and, licfore 
 beginning to write, we ought alvviiys to draw up a list of such 
 details as are hoth striking and api»ropriat(i — sucli details as 
 tend to throw into strongi.T relief the chief person or event. 
 
 The following is a good exainiile from the ehxiueiit writer and 
 profound thinker Edmund liurke. lie is Bjieaking of the philanthro- 
 pist How ard : — 
 
 "He liuH visited all Europe to dive ii.to tlie dcptlis of dungeoiiH ; to l)l^ln^e 
 into tlie infections of liosjiitala ; to survey tlio mansions of scjrniw and jiain ; 
 to take the gauge and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt ; to 
 rememt>er tJie forgott<(n, to attend to tlie neglected, to visit tlie forsaken, and 
 to coinpare and collate tlic distresses of all men in ai; countries." 
 
 gt<:np]ral cautions, 
 
 1. Avoid the use of threadbare and hackneyed expressions. 
 Leave them to people Avho are in a hurry, or to penny-a-liners. 
 
 Instead of 
 At the expiration of four years. 
 Paternal sentiments. 
 Exceedingly opulent. 
 Incur the danger. 
 Accepted signification. 
 Extreme felicity. 
 A sanguinary engagement. 
 In the afHrmative, 
 
 Writk 
 At tlie end, etc. 
 The feelings of a fatlier. 
 Very rich. 
 Run the risk. 
 Usual meaning. 
 Great Iiappiness. 
 A bloody battle. 
 Yes. 
 
 2. Be very careful in the management of pronouns. 
 
 (.; Cobbett says : " Never put an it upon paper without thinking 
 well what you are about. When I see many it's in a page, I always 
 tremble for the writer." See also 2 Kings, xix. 35 : "And when thei/ 
 arose early in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses." 
 
 (ii) Bolingbroke lias the sentence : " They were persons of very moder- 
 ate intellects, even before they were impaired by their passions." The 
 last thei/ ought to be these, 
 
 (iii) The sentence, " He said to his patient tiiat if he did not feel 
 better in lialf an liour, he thought he liad better return," is a clumsy 
 uentence, but clear bnough ; because we i;an easily ««« fiiat id is thfl 
 fifUinU thai i>i to takd ihti ndVic^ 
 
;i, 
 
 SJ'FOrAL rAUTlONS. 
 
 I8r. 
 
 3. Be rareful not to use inixod mctapliors. 
 
 (i) The following is a fearful exaiaj-le : "TI.Ih Ih the arrow of convic 
 t.on which, like a nail driven in a nure place, strikes i(^ roots .lownwar.U 
 into the eaith, and hears fruit uinvards." 
 
 (ii) Sir ]iuyle Koche, an Irish n.en.ber, began a speech thus: "Mr 
 Speaker. I smell a rut, I see Imn floating in the air; hut, mark n.e, 
 r shall yet n.p hnn m tlie bud." A siniihir statement is : " Lord Kim- 
 berleysa.d that in taking a very large bite of the Turkish cherry the 
 way liatl been paved for its partition at no distant day." 
 
 4. Be simple, quiet, manly, frank, and .straJKhtforwar.! in 
 your style, as in your conduct. That is : Bo yourself ! 
 
 If 
 
 SPECIAL CAUTIOXS. 
 
 1. Avoid tautology. 
 
 Alison says: "It was founded mainly on the entire monopolv of 
 
 iticaf f " ' *'" '^'^'"'"•" """ ^'"''•^ --^"^ -'^''^ «- t«ut,. 
 
 logical , for i,^nopoly means entire posnesnon, orpo,,ex.v,m of the wfo^e 
 
 2. Place the adverb as near the word it modifies as vou 
 can. 
 
 "He not only found her employed, but also pleased and tranquil" 
 I he not only belongs to cmj^foyed, and should therefore go with it. ' 
 
 3. Avoid circumlocution 
 
 "Her Majesty on reaching Perth, partook of breakfast." This 
 Miuuld be .lunAy Irea^fastecl. But the whole sentence should be recast 
 ...to : On reaching Perth, the Queen breakfasted in the station." 
 
 4. Take care that your participles are attached to nouns, and 
 that they do not run loose. 
 
 "Alarmed at the news, the boat was launched at once." Here 
 TTA '-''^"' K,'-^"""^ti^^"y. agree with loat only. The sentence 
 should be: "The men, alarmed at the news, launched their boat It 
 
 5. Use a present participle as seldom as possible. 
 
 JO/T have documents proving this " is not so strong as " to prove 
 
 . V' 
 
 
i8r. 
 
 COMPOSITION, PDNCTFATION, ETr. 
 
 Rl 
 
 fifif 
 
 (ii) " Hfl dwelt a long time oti the ndvuiitAK**'* '>f nwift .tt^amei-ri, thuit 
 iu(M)Uiitiiij< for tlie iiiiTeiwe," eU', The |)hriiKt> " thun tt(■l•o^^lltill^ " ii* very 
 lou«e. Kvery nenU'iice ought to be neat, tirin, aiul coniiiadt. 
 
 6. lit'ineialHU' tliut who = and he or for he; whilo that 
 
 introduces a iiunely adjectival clau.se. 
 
 " I lieard it from the doctor, who told the gardener thatworka-for- 
 the-college." Here who = av<l he; and that intriKlucee the adjectival 
 
 Kfiutence. 
 
 7. Do not change the Subject of your Sentence. 
 
 (i) Another way of putting this in : " Prenerve the unity of the 
 sentence ! " 
 
 (ii) "Archbishoj) Tillotson died in thi« year. He wan e.xceedingly 
 beloved both by King William and Queen Mary, who nominated Dr 
 Teni.son to nucceed him." The la«t statement about nmninaliwj another 
 bishop liaa no natural connection with what goes before. 
 
 (iii) " After we came to anchor, they put me on :<hore, where I wan 
 welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kind- 
 ness." This sentence ought to be broken into two. The firs); should 
 end with on nhore ; and the second begin " Here I was met and, etc." 
 
 8. Sea that who or which refers to its proper antecedv-^nt. 
 
 " Shakesf^eare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a yeoman, 
 to whom he left his second-best bed." Here the grammaticn' antece^ 
 dent is yemimn ; but the historical and sense-antecedent is certainly 
 daughter. 
 
 9. Do not use and which for which. 
 
 (i) " I bought him a very nice Ixwk as a present, and which cost me 
 t«n shillings." The and is here worse tlian useless, 
 (ii) If another which has preceded, of course and which is right. 
 
 10. Avoid exaggerated or too strong language. 
 
 Unprecedented, most extraordinari/, incalculable, hcmndJrM, rxtremely, 
 awfully, scandalous, stupendous, should not be used unless we know that 
 they are both true and appropriate. 
 
 11. Be careful not to mix up dependent with principal 
 sentences. 
 
 " He replied that he wished to help theu., and intended to give 
 orders to his servants." Here it is doubtful whether intended is co- 
 ordinate with replied or with winhed, If the former is the ease, then 
 we ought to say he intended, 
 
rUNCTUATION. 
 
 187 
 
 12. l?o very ciircftil ahont tlic right poHiticji of ,.,„.|, ,,1,,.,,,.,. 
 or I'lauHc in your scnttfiico. 
 
 The following are curious examples of (linlooHtionw or tniKnlaoe- 
 «ne..t« : "A ,.i«no for mh \,y a la.ly about U, cro«H the Chai.nel in an 
 oak c^ewith carved legH." "1 believe that, when he die.l, Car.linal 
 Me/zofant. spoke at le.i«t fifty languages." " }Ie blew out hin brains 
 alter bidding his wife good-bye with a gun." " Krecte.l to the n.e.nory 
 of John^ Phillips, accidentally shot, as a mark of aflection by his 
 brother. "The Board ha., resolved to erect a building largo enough 
 to accommodate 500 students three storeys high." "Mr Carlyle has 
 taught us that silence is golden in thirty seven volumes." 
 
 I <> 
 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 irCertain signs, calknl points, aro ii-scd in .sontonccs to mark 
 rfff their difterent part.s, and to show tho reh.tion of each part to 
 the organic whole. 
 
 (i) Putting in the right points is called punctuation, from the Latin 
 punctum, a point From the same wor.l come punrtuai an.l punctvaJh,,. 
 
 1 These points are the flill atop, tlie colon, tlie semicolon. 
 tJie dash, and the comma. 
 
 3. The full stop (.) or period marks tlie close of a seiiteiiLe. 
 
 4. The colon (:) introduces (i) a new statement that may 
 he regarded as an after-thought ; or (ii) it introduces a cata- 
 logue of things ; or (iii) it introduces a formal speech. 
 
 (The word colon is Greek, and means limb or mnnber.) 
 
 (i) "Study to acquire a habit of accurate expression: no study is 
 more important." 
 
 (ii) " Then follow excellent parables ulwut fame : as that she gathereth 
 strength in going ; that she goeth ui-on the gi'ound, and vet hideth her 
 heat! in the clouds ; that in the day-time she sitteth in a watch-tower 
 and rtieth most by night."— Bacon. ' 
 
 (iii) " Mr Wilson rose and said : 'Sir, I am sorry,' eto." 
 
 5. The semicolon is employed when, for reasons of sound or 
 of sense, two or more simple sentences are thrown into one. 
 (Semicdon is Greek, and means hnlfn colon.) 
 (i) " In the youth of a state, arms do flourish ; in the uiid.Ile age of 
 
;.iiii 
 
 CUMl'OSlTIuy, I'lTNCTUATlUN, KTC. 
 
 anUi loarning; und then Ix.th of them together for h time; in tho 
 ilcilining ngn of a ntiite, mcchftnical nrtH and menhnndiHe."— Hacon. 
 (ii) Learn from the birdw what fo.xlH tho thitketH yield ; 
 
 Leani from tho heaMt^t the jihyMic of the Held ; 
 
 Thy artH of ImildinK from the bee receive ; 
 
 I-oarn of tho r/i<ilo to plough, tlio worm to weave."— T'lrK. 
 
 6. Tlio dash is tiho.1 (i) to introduco an anijilifici tion or cx- 
 plariiition; ami (ii) two diishos uro often L'nii)lo;)c(l m phico of 
 tilt) old paronthosis, 
 
 (i) " During the march a storm of rain, thunder, and lightning cama 
 on— a Btorm such as in oidy seen in tropical '.■ountries." 
 
 (ii) "RiHH)n8, buckles, buttons, i)ieceH of gold-lace -any trifles he had 
 \vorn— were stored as priceless treasures " 
 
 7. Tho comma is used to iiHlicute a strong pause, cither of 
 Hvnm or of sound. 
 
 (i) It is true that the comma is the weakest of all our stops ; but 
 there aio many pauses which we ouglit to make in reading a sentence 
 aloud that are not nearly strong enough to warrant a comma. 
 
 (ii) It is better to understop rather than to overstop. For example, 
 the last part of the last sentence in tho paragraph above might liave 
 been printed thus : " there are many i)ause», which we ouglit to make, 
 IP reading a sentence aloud, that are not nearly strong enough to war- 
 rant a comma." This is tho old-fashioned style ; but such sprinkling of 
 fomnias is not at all necessary. 
 
 (iii) Two things are all that arc required to teach us the use of a 
 comma : (a) observation of the custom of good writers ; and (6) careful 
 consideration of the sense and build of our own sentences, 
 (iv) The following are a few special uses of the comma :— 
 (n) It may be used in place vi and: — 
 
 " We first eiulurr "Ji. ; n,^,,- i, n embrace." 
 (5) After an address : ' Jolm, come here." 
 
 (c) After certain introductory adverbs, as however, at Icmjth, at 
 last, etc. " He came, however, in time to catch the train." 
 
 8. The point of interrogation (?) is placed at the end of a 
 question. 
 
 9. The point of admiration (!) i.s ciiiployed tu mark a state- 
 iviont which calls for surprise or wonder ; but it is now seldom 
 used. 
 
J'lGUItK.S UK Sl'KKci/ 
 
 18U 
 
 PiaURES OP SPEECH 
 
 1. Tlin min.l imtiinilly tonds, especially when in a state of 
 I'xriteiiicTit, to the use of what is called figurative language. 
 It is as if wo calli'd upon all the thinys we see or Imve seen to 
 come forward and help ns to express our overinasterin},' eniotions. 
 In fact, the external sliows of nature are retiuirod to express the 
 internal nioveiuents of tlio mind ; the external world provides a 
 language for tlio internal or mental world. Tleneo wo find all 
 language full of figures of speech. Though wc do not notice 
 them at the time, wo can liardly open our nu. iths without using 
 thoni. As Rutler says in his famous poem : — 
 " For Hudibrart,— lio could not ope 
 His mouth, but out there (lew a trojir-." ' 
 
 Wo speak of a town being tttormcd; of a ch'ur head; a hinl 
 heart; tchiffiid -.vonh; t/hmntj cloqncncG; viivjin now; i\ ton-cut 
 of words; tlio thirdy ground; the angry sea. Wo speak of 
 God's Word l)eing a h'fjht to our feet and a himp to our patli. 
 
 2. This kind of language has been examined, lassified, and 
 arranged under lieads ; and the chief figures of sp. .'ch are called 
 Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synecdoche, 
 Metonymy, and Hyperbole. 
 
 3. A Simile is a comparison that is limifed t^ one point. 
 "Jones fought like a lion." Here the single point .f likeness 
 between Jones and the lion is the bravery of the ighting of 
 each. 
 
 {Simile conies from the Latin similis, like.) 
 (i) " His spear was like the ma«t of a Hhip." " His saltd t. rds striken 
 down like rain," says Chaucer. "Apollo came like the ii i,'ht," nays 
 Homer. "Hia words fell soft, like snow upon the ground," are the 
 words used by Homer in speaking of Ulysses. " It stirs the heart 
 like the sound of a trumpet" said Sir Philip Sidney in sji aking of 
 the ballad of "Chevy Chase." Tennyson admirably comparer a miller 
 covered with flour to "a working-bee in blossom-dust." 
 
 • A trope— from Greek trdpos, a turning. A word that has been turned 
 from its or. Unary and primary u»o. From the same root come tropici 
 and tropical. 
 
 if 
 
190 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 4. A Metaphor is a simile with the words like or ax left out. 
 Instead of saying "Roderick ])hu foiiglit like a lion," we use a 
 metaphor, and say "He wm a lion in the fight." 
 
 {Mttaphor is a Greek word meaning tramference.) 
 
 (i) All language, as we have seen, is full of metaphors. Hence lan- 
 guage has been called "fossil poetry." Thus, even in very ordinary 
 prose, we may say, "the wish k father to the thought;" "the news 
 was a dagger to his heart;" or we speak of the Jire of passion; of a 
 my of hope ; n flash of wit ; a thouglit striking us ; and so on. 
 
 (ii) By frequent use, and by forgetfulness, many metaphors have lost 
 their figurative character. Thus we use the words provide (to see 
 beforehand), edify (to build up), express (to squeeze out), detect (to 
 unroof), ruminate (to chew the cud), without the smallest feeling of 
 their metaphorical character. 
 
 (iii) We must never mix our metaphors. It will not do to say : " In 
 a moment 'Jie thunderbolt was on them, deluging the country with 
 mvaders." < I will now embark upon the feature on which this question 
 mamly hinges." 
 
 (iv) Metaphors and similes may be mixed. Thus Longfellow :— 
 
 Metaiihor,.. f '^'''^ ''*J' '" ^^^^^ ! »"<! tlie darkness 
 y tails from the wings of night, 
 
 Simile \ ^*^ * f«»ther is wafted downward 
 
 ' ( From an eagle in ids fiiglit. 
 
 (v^ A metaphor is a figure in which the objects compared are treated 
 by the mind as identical for the time being. A simile simply treats 
 tiiem as resembling one another ; and the mind keeps the two carefully 
 apart. 
 
 (*) 
 
 1 I I ^fc 
 ! ' 1! 
 
 1 
 
 m*^' 
 
 5. Personification is that figure hy whicli, under the influence 
 of strong feeling, we attribute hfe and mind to impersonal and 
 inanimate things. 
 
 (i) Tlius we speak, in jioetic and impassioned language, of jmle Fear • 
 gaunt Famine ; >jrecn-e>/edJei,\au»y ; an.l whitr-luinded Hope. The niorn- 
 mg IS said to laugh; the winds to whisper; the oaks to sigh ; and Mie 
 brooks to prattle. 
 
 (ii) Milton, in the 'Paradise Lost,' ix. 780, tlius descriljes the fall of 
 Eve : — 
 
 "Ho sayini.', Iipr rash hatul t,i evil hour 
 Forth reacliing to the fruit, slie pluclted, she ate I 
 Karth ftlt the wimnd; ami Nature, from her seat, 
 SiijhiHfi ttirougli all Iwr worltx, ga\'e signs of im,t 
 That all was lost." 
 
 
FIGURES OF SPEEcrf. 
 
 1»1 
 
 IK left out. 
 ' we use a 
 
 Hence l»ii- 
 ;ry orclin»ry 
 
 "the news 
 a8»iou ; of a 
 m. 
 
 rs have Icwt 
 vide (to Bee 
 ), detect (to 
 b feeling of 
 
 say : " In 
 luntry with 
 his question 
 
 are treated 
 ;nj)ly treats 
 r'o carefully 
 
 influence 
 sonal and 
 
 ■pale Fear ; 
 Tlie luoni- 
 ! ; and the 
 
 tiie fall of 
 
 Shelley's ' Cloud ' is one long personification. 
 
 (iii) When the i)ersonified object is directly addressed, the figu.e is 
 called Apostrophe. Thus we have, " Death, wliere is thy sting ] 
 O Grave, where is thy victory ? " 
 
 6. An Allegory is a continuous personification in the form of 
 a story. 
 
 (i) The genus is itersonification ; the differentia, a story ; and the 
 species is an allegory. 
 
 (ii)^ Milton's " Death and Sin," in the tenth book of the ' Paradise 
 Lost,' is a rfhort allegorj-. Spenser's 'Faerie Queene' and Bunyan's 
 ' Pilgrim's Progress ' are long allegories. 
 
 (iii) A short allegory is called a Fable. 
 
 7. Synecdoche is that figure of speech by which a part is 
 put for the whole. Thus we say, in a more striking fashion, 
 hmid instead of /oorZy a. cut-throat for a murderer; fifty mil for 
 fifty ships; all hands at work. 
 
 (i) Lear, in the height of his mad rage against his daughters, shouts, 
 "I abjure all roofs/" 
 
 (ii) The name of the material— as a part of the whole production— is 
 sometimes used for the thing matle : a« cold steel for the sword; the 
 marble speaks ; the canvas glows. 
 
 8. Metonymy is that figure of speech Ijy which a thing is 
 named, not with its own name, but by some accompaniment, 
 'rhus we say, the crown for the king; the sword for i)hysical 
 
 force. 
 
 (The word metonymy is a Greek woi-d meaning ehamje of names.) 
 _We wTite the ermine for the bench of jud;/es ; the mitre for the 
 bishops; red tape for official routine; a lomj purse for a great deal of 
 money ; the bottle for habits of drunkenwss. 
 
 9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration is a figure by which inucli 
 more is said than is literally true. This is of course the re- 
 sult of very strong emotion. 
 
 (i) Milton says : — 
 
 "So frowned the miglity coiiiUitatit.s, tlmt liell 
 Grew darker at tlipir frown.* 
 
 ^ (ii) Scott, in ' Ke!iilworth,' has this j.assage : "The ti.in.1 nf England's 
 Kli/^beth wa« like one of those ancient Druidical inonumeuts called 
 
 
 ii 
 
;•: 
 
 192 
 
 COMPOSITION, I'tJNCTUATION, KTU. 
 
 rockiiig-HtoneH. The finger of Cupid, l..,y as he in j-aiiited. culd ].ut 
 her feehnga in motion ; but the power of Hercules could not Imvc de- 
 stroyed their equilibrium." 
 
 10. Tho following is a suiniuary of tlic cliicf of tlio almvo 
 statcmoiits :— 
 
 1. A Figure of Speech employs a vivid or .striking iiiiag(! 
 
 of something without to expre.ss a feeling or idea 
 
 within. 
 L'. A Simile nsos an external image -with tlio word like. 
 'i. A Metaphor u.se.s the sanici image without tlio word like. 
 
 4. A Personification is a metaphor taken from person or 
 
 living being. 
 
 5, An allegory is a continuous personification. 
 
 
 I.J; 
 f 
 
 PARAPHRASING. 
 
 1. Paraphrasing is a kind of exercise that is not without 
 its uses. These uses are chiefly two : (i) to bind the learner's 
 attention closely to every word and phrase, meaning and shade 
 of meaning; and (ii) to enalile the teacher to see whether 
 the learner has accurately and fully understood the passage. 
 But no one can hope to imi)rove on the style of a poem by 
 turning the words and phrases of the poet into other language ; 
 the change made is always— or almost alway.s— a change for the 
 worse. 
 
 2. Passages fronr good prose writers are sometimes given out 
 to paraphrase, but most often passages from poetical writers. 
 The reason of this is that poetry is in general much more highly 
 compressed than prose, and hence the meaning is sometimes 
 obscure, for want of a little more expansion. The following 
 lines by Sir Henry Wotton, the Provost of Eton College, are 
 a good example of much thought compressed within a little 
 space : — • 
 
 j.T 
 
 ij 
 
I'AHAJ'JIKA.SINCi. 1<J3 
 
 THK HAPPY LIFE. 
 
 1. How happy is he born and taught 
 Tliat serveth not anotlier's will — 
 Whose armour is his honest thought, 
 And simple truth his utmost skill ! 
 
 2. Whose passions not his mastors are, 
 Whose soul is still prepared for death — 
 Not tied unto the worldly care 
 
 Of public fame or private breath ! 
 
 3. Who envies none that chance doth raise. 
 Or vice ; who never understood 
 
 How deepest wounds are given by praise ; 
 Nor rules of state, but rules of good ; 
 
 4. Who hath his life from humours freed, 
 Whose conscience is his strong retreat ; 
 Whoso state can neither flatterers feed, 
 Nor ruin make accusers great , 
 
 5. Who God doth late and early pray 
 More of His grace than gifts to lend , 
 And entertains the harmless day 
 With a well-chosen book or friend : — 
 
 6. This man is freed from servile bands 
 Of hope to rise, or fear to fall — 
 Lord of himself, though not of lands ; 
 And, having nothing, yet hath all. 
 
 3. Let us try now to pariipliraso tlu'sc lines— tliat is, to de- 
 velop the thought by the aid of more words. Eut, though we 
 are obliged to use more words, we must do our utmost to find and 
 to employ the most fitting. We must not merely throw down 
 a mass of words and i)hrases, and leave the reader to make his 
 own selection and to grope among them for the meaning. 
 
 L How happy, by birth as well as by education, is the man who is not 
 obliged to be a shive to the will of another— whose only annour is his 
 honesty and simple goodness, wliose best and utmost skill lies in plain 
 straightforwardness. 
 
 2. How happy is the man who is not the slave of his own pa.ssions, 
 whose soul is always prepared for death, who is not tied to the world 
 or the world's opinion by anxiety about his public reputation or the 
 tattle of individuals. 
 
 ■,M 
 
 f 
 1, 
 
 ill! 
 
i 
 
 ^f 
 
 n 
 
 !'"« 
 
 1 
 
 ■\ 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 
 '' I 
 
 
 •! 
 
 i 
 
 ■; 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 i' 
 r 
 
 194 
 
 COMPOSITION, PDNCTUATION, KTC. 
 
 I:' 
 
 'fi 
 
 3. Happy, too, because he envies no man who lias Ijeen raised to lank 
 by accident or by vicious means ; because lie never understood tlie sneer 
 that stabs while it seems to praise ; because he cares notliing for rules 
 of expediency or of policy, but thinks only of what is good and right. 
 
 4. Wlio has freed himself from obedience to humours an.l to whims 
 whose conscience is his sure stronghold ; whose rank is not exalted 
 enough to draw flatterers, or to tempt accusers to build their own 
 greatness upon liis fall. 
 
 5. Who, night and morning, asks God for grace, and not for gift^ ; 
 and fills his day with the study of a good book or conversation with 
 a thoughtful friend. 
 
 6. This man is freed from the slavery of hope and fear-tlie hope of 
 rising, the fear of falling-lord, not of lands, but of himself ; and though 
 without wealth or possessions, yet having all that the heart of man need 
 desire. 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OP VERSE, OR PROSODY. 
 
 1. Verse is tho fcmi of poetry; and Prosody is t\w jmH ..f 
 (iiaimiiHr whicli deals with the laws and nature of verse. 
 
 (i) Verse comes from the Latin versa, turned, (hath vvrs,, was 
 "turned speech "-that is, when the line came to an en.l, the reader or 
 writer or printer ha<l to begin a new line. It is opposed to oratlo 
 prorsa, which means " straight-on speech "-wlienee our word prose \ 
 Ime in prose may be of any length ; a line in verse vimt be of the length 
 wluch the poet gives to it. 
 
 (ii) It is of importance for us to become ac<iuainted witli the laws of 
 verse. First, })ecause it enables us to enjoy poetrv more. Secondlv it 
 enables us to read poetry better-and to avoid putting an emphasis 'on 
 a syllable, merely because it is accented. Thirdly, it shows us how to 
 write verse ; and the writing of verse is very good practice in composition 
 -as it compels us to chouse the right phrase, and makes us draw upon 
 our store of words to substitute and to imjirove here or there. 
 
 2. Verse differs from prose in two things : (i) in the regular 
 recurrence of accents; and (ii) in the proportion of un- 
 accented to accented syllables. 
 
 (i) Thus, in the line 
 
 '" nii'^wi' nW cMild Aii'),'iis sjiHak', 
 
 the rx'cent occui-s regularly in every second sylkble. 
 
lisert to tank 
 od the Hjieer 
 iig for rules 
 11(1 right. 
 
 Ill to wliiins, 
 not exalted 
 1 their own 
 
 t for giftrt ; 
 ■sation with 
 
 ihe hojie of 
 and though 
 'f man need 
 
 SODY. 
 
 le part ..f 
 
 virga waH 
 ) reader or 
 to oratlo 
 1 prose. A 
 tlie lengtli 
 
 ;he laws of 
 Bcondly, it 
 nphauitj on 
 Uti how to 
 )nii)o.sition 
 Iraw upon 
 
 regular 
 
 I of iin- 
 
 TIIK (iRAMMAlt OK VERSE, OH PROSODY. 19.'> 
 
 (ii) But, in the line 
 
 Mer'rily, uici'iily, sliall' we live imw', 
 
 the accent not only comes first, but there are two unaccented .syllable* 
 for every one that is accented (except in the last foot). 
 
 3. Every English Avord of more than one .sylliihle lias an 
 accent on one of its syllables. 
 
 (i) Begin', mtnmnnV , attack' have the accent on the last syllalde. 
 (ii) Hnp'pji, la'dii, wel'come have the accent on the first .syllable. 
 
 4. Englisii ver.se is made up (.f lines; each line of ver.se con- 
 tains a fixed number of accents; each accent has a fixed 
 number of unaccented syllables attache*! to it. 
 
 (i) Let US take the,se lines fr.,m ' Mariiiion ' (caut<j v.) :— 
 
 Will) love.s' I not more' | the iilglit' | of June' 
 Than dull' | Decern' | Ut's gloom' | of noon' ? 
 
 Kach line here contains four accents ; the .accented syllable comes last ; 
 each accented syllable has one unaccented attached to it. 
 
 (ii) Now let us compare these lines from T. Hood'.s " J'.i-idge of Sighs " : 
 
 Touch' h • not | scorn'fully, 
 Think' ot her | mourn'fully. 
 
 Kach line here contains two accents ; the accented syllable comes flrst; 
 and each accented syllable has two unaccented syllables attached to it. ' 
 
 5. One accented syllable + one or two unaccented, taken 
 together, is called a foot. A foot is the unit of metre. 
 
 Lfi X statid/oi- an unaccented, and afar an accented di/flaft/r. 
 
 6. One accented preceded by one unaccented syllable is 
 called an Iambus. Its formula is xa.— One accented .sylla])le, 
 followed by one unaccented is called a Trochee. Its formula 
 is ax. 
 
 (i) The following are iambuses : PerAa;)s' ; comlemn' ; compel'; with- 
 out' ; career'. 
 
 (ii) The following are trochees : (ien'tle; rir'er; lu'dy ; ra'ven; tum'hlt. 
 
 {\\\\ The following ver.se is made up of four iambuses— that is, it i>i 
 iambic verse : — 
 
 'twere long', | and need' | less, here' | to tell' 
 ttoW td Illy h«nrt thf.ne (lapers felt. 
 
 i 
 
 '1 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 I' 
 
 iff 
 
 \ i 
 
ion 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 fiv) Tlip fcillowiiiK verse is made u). of four trodieen— 
 
 W 
 
 i'' i' 
 
 -1: 
 
 
 trocti.'ii 
 
 that 
 
 iH, it is 
 
 In' liis I cliiiiiiljiM', I weak' ,'iihl | ily'ii 
 
 Was tlif \ 
 
 iii'imiii liiiidii lyiiiK. 
 
 (v) lam' I l)ifH iimrcir | from nliort' | to long', 
 (vi) Tro'chee | trijw' from | long' to | short' — | . 
 
 7. One accented syllable preceded by two unaccented is 
 called an AnapsDst. Its formula is xxa.— One accented syl- 
 lable followed by two uiuiccented is called a Dactyl. Its 
 formula is axx. 
 
 _ (i) The following are anajn-csts : Scrrruule' ; dimppcar' ; eomprehend' ■ 
 ■intercede'. ' 
 
 (ii) The following are dactyls : .¥a^';,i/3/; ,,^r'rUy; shu'ilar; hWlmoii 
 (iii) The following lines are in anai)wstic verse :— 
 
 I am nioii' | arch of aU' | I survey', 
 My riglit there is none to dispute. 
 
 (iv) With a leap' | and a bound' | the swift an' | apsv^sts tlirong' | . 
 
 (v) The following are in dactylic verse :— 
 
 Can'noii to|ri«lit'oftheiii| 
 Caii'iiou t(i| left' of thciii |. 
 
 (a) The word ductyl comes from the Greek dakWos, a finger 
 For a finger has one long and two sh(jrt joints. 
 
 (4) The word ampcvst comes from two Greek words: palo 
 strike, and ana, back ; because it is the reverse of a dactyl. 
 
 8. The Anapajst belongs to the same kind or system of verse 
 as the Iambus ; because the accented syllable in each comes last. 
 —The Dactyl belongs to the same kind or system of verse as 
 the I'rochee; liecause the accented syllable in each comes first. 
 
 (i) Hence anapa3sts and iambuses may be mixed (as in "My right' I 
 there .sncme' | to dispute' | "); and so may dactyk and trochees (as i„ 
 Hark to the | sum'mons | "). 
 
 (ii) But we very seldom see a trochee introduced into an iambic l--.,e • 
 oi- an iambus into a trochaic. " ' 
 
 9. An accented syllable with one unaccented syllable on each 
 sidn of it is calle.l an Amphibrach. Its formula is xax. 
 
 The word amphibrach comes from two Greek woris : amphi, on both 
 •"'I^h; ami hyachug. «b.>vt,. fCimpare nviphitnQU.i.) 
 
THE GKAMMAH OK VEUSK, OH I'liOSOIiV. 
 
 19: 
 
 '' !. 
 
 that i.t, it ia 
 
 ecented is 
 ;ented syl- 
 etyl. Its 
 
 ymprehend' ; 
 r; hil'lowi) 
 
 rong 
 
 '.', a finger 
 
 s : palo, 
 ■1. 
 
 L of vorse 
 Dies last. 
 verse as 
 les first. 
 
 My riglit' | 
 hees (as in 
 
 nibic I'lie ; 
 on each 
 
 IX. 
 
 (', on both 
 
 (i) The following aro ami.liil.ia.lis : nr.y.idr'hi;/; iilmUiht'ii: trrmtmi- 
 oi/s; t/eirlt'fiil. 
 
 (ii) The following is an ainphihraohii' line :— 
 
 Tl"'™ <•» ' li' I till' Ij.aeli' a | ]iinir i'\ilc | of E'riii |, 
 
 10. A verse made up of iambuses is called Iambic Verse ; 
 of troehees, Trochaic; of anapaests, Anapeestic; and of dactyls, 
 Dactylic. 
 
 11. A verse of tlnee feet is called Trimeter; of four feet. 
 Tetrameter ; of five feet, Pentameter ; and of nix iwi, Hex- 
 ameter. 
 
 (i) We find the prefixes of these words in Triam/h; Tctmrrh (a ruler 
 over 0. fourth part); Pentateuch (the five books of Moses); and Hexuyun 
 (a figure with six corners or angles). 
 
 12. By much tlie most usual kind of verse in English is 
 Iambic Verse. 
 
 (i) Iambic Tetrameter (4xa) is the metre of most of Scott's poems ; 
 of Coventry Patniore's "Angel in the House"; (,f fiay's Fables, and 
 • many other poems of the eighteenth century. 
 
 (ii) Iambic Pentameter (6xa) is the most common line in English 
 verse. There are probably more tlian a thousand iambic pentameter 
 lines for one that there exists of any other kind. Iambic Pentameter is 
 the verse of Chaucer, of Shakespeare, of Jlilton, of Dryden, of Pope, and 
 of almost all our greater English poets. 
 
 13. Ehymed Iambic Pentameter is called Heroic Verse ; un- 
 rhymed, it is called Blank Verse. 
 
 (i) Any unrhymed verse may be called blank— such as the verse em- 
 ployed by Longfellow in his " Hiawatha "—but tlie term is usually 
 restricted to the unrhymed iambic pentameter. 
 
 (ii) Blank verse is the noblest of all verse. It seems the easiest to 
 write ; it is the most difficult. It is the verse of Shakespeare and Milton, 
 and of most of our great dramatists. 
 
 14. Iambic Trimeter consists of tliree iambuses; and its 
 formula is 3xa. 
 
 Tlie king' | was on' | his throne'; | 
 His sa' I traps thronged' | the hair; | 
 A thou' I sand bright' | lamps shone' | 
 On that' I high fes' | tival'. | 
 
 ThrVP U Vefy little of tlii« kind t.f verse iti Kli^li.sh. 
 
 w 
 
h 
 
 i »— 
 
 
 ¥ 
 
 I 'J : 
 
 m 
 
 i:. 
 
 f:' 
 
 Mi- 
 
 
 hi' 
 
 BiHf 
 
 10.<< 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION-, KIV. 
 
 15. Iambic Tetrameter co.isi.Ls of four iau.lnises ; .,i.l its 
 loniiiilii IS 4x11. 
 
 The fire,' | with well' | dried lug.' | supplied/ I 
 V\ent n.ar' | ing up' | the chini' | ney wide'; I 
 The huge' I hall-ta' | Lie's „uk' ( en face' I 
 SoruJ.hed till' I it shone,' | the day' J to grace.' [ 
 
 '^^r •■' ■'' ^ • "'''"' -f tJ'- v.Ts,. in En.lisl. ; an.l most of it 
 
 js l)y Scott. 
 
 16. ia.nl.ic 'IVtran.otor with Jan.hic Tri.a,.t..r in ultiM-nat., 
 Im.'s-tho s.M:on,l an.l fourti, rI.ynunK-i,s oallcl Ballad Metro 
 W lien u,sed, as it often i.., in hynin.s, it is called Service Metre. 
 
 They set him high upon a i;art; = 4xa 
 
 The hangman rode below; = axa 
 They drew his hands behind his back, = 4xa 
 
 And bared his noble brow. =3xa 
 
 Ti.is i.s th. n.otre of Alanmlay'.. 'Lay. of Anc.i.-nt Hon,..,' of 
 Snotts 'Lay of the Last Minstrel,' an.l many other noenix 
 Seott mixes frequently, hut at .luite irregular intervals, the 
 lamhio trimeter witli the iamhic tetrameter; an.l this he eallod 
 the "hght-horse gallop of verse." 
 
 Vn pnt, flank, and rear, tlie squadrons sweep = 4 x a 
 To break the Scottisli circle deep,=;4xa 
 
 That fought' I around' j their king.' = ,3xa 
 
 17 Iambic Pentameter consists of five iamhuses; an.l its 
 tormula is oxa. 
 
 (i) Tlie following is rhymed iambic pentameter :— 
 
 True wif | is ua' | ture to' | a.lvsn' | tage dressed ' | = 'ixa 
 
 Wlwt off I was thouglit/ I hut ne'er' | so well' | expressed.' | = Sxa 
 
 (ii) The following is unrhymed iaml)ic pentameter :— 
 The first | time cv' | er Cres' | .-ir put' | it on'. | = 5 x a. 
 
 The first extract is from Pope's "Essay on Criticism", the 
 st-.;ond from Shakespeare's "Julius Cissar." ' 
 
 18. Iambic Hexameter consists of nix iambuses; and its 
 fornnda ia 6xa. 
 
THE GRAMMAU OP VEItSE, OU TltOSODY. 
 
 199 
 
 (i) The following is from Drayton's " Tolyolbion " :— 
 
 Ujinn the Mi<llnn(lrt now tlio inilustridus muse ilcitli fall, |-=«xa 
 That shire which we tlic heart of EiiKlaml well may call. |-6xa 
 
 Tho ohjcction to this kind of vrrso is its intnlcml)l(! nioiiritoiiy. 
 It i)rctcn(ls to he lioxiinictcr ; hut it is iiideocl simply two tri- 
 meter versos printed in one lonj,' line. Tlio monotony comes 
 from tlie fact tliiit tlie piuisc is always in the. miildle of the line. 
 There is very little of this kind of verse in Kn},'lish. The line 
 of Gxa is also called an Alexandrine, and is used to close tho 
 lon^' stanza employed l)y Kpenser. 
 
 19. Trochaic Tetrameter consists of four trochees ; and its 
 formula is 4 ax. 
 
 (i) The following i,s rhymed trochaic Iclranicfccr :— 
 
 When llie licatlieii tniiiiiict'.s claiif,'-|-^4!ix 
 Uiiiiinl lii'l('aj;iii'rcil Chester rang, -|-4iix 
 Veih'il mm atid friar gmy- |^-.|ax 
 Marchea from Jiangor's fair aliliaye-|-lax 
 
 It will ho noticed that each line has a syllahle wantiii;,' to 
 make up the four complete feet. Tint the missing' syllalile is 
 only an unaccented syllahlo; and the line contains four ac- 
 cents. (The above extract is from " The Monks of Eangor's 
 March," by Scott.) 
 
 (ii) The following is unrhymed trochaic tetrameter :— 
 Then tlio | little | Ilia | watlia | =4ax 
 Learnefl of | ev'ry | bird the | laiignage, | = 4ax 
 Learned their | nrnies ami | all tlicir | seciels, |=^4ax 
 How they | built their | nests in | summer, |^4ax 
 Where they I hid (hem I selves in I winter, |-^4ax 
 Talked witli | tiicm when | e'er lie | met them, |^4ax 
 Called thorn | "Hia | watha's | Chickens." | = 4ax 
 
 It will be observed that, in the above lines from Longfellow's 
 " Hiawatha," each trochees is complete ; and this i;; tlie case 
 throughout the whole of this poem. " Hiawatha " is the only 
 long poem in the language that is written in unrhymed trochees, 
 
 20. Trochaic Octometer consists of eight trochee.-? ; and its 
 formula is Sax. 
 
 (i) The chief example of it thit we have i« Tennyson's poem of 
 ' Locksley Hall": — 
 
 ■■!■ 
 
 i si I 
 
' , !!' 
 
 
 
 ft; 
 
 '^1 
 
 Igl.. 
 
 IIM 
 
 200 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 Coiii'radL's, | leave' iiip | hero' a | little, | while' nH | yet' 'tis | onr'ly | iiiorn'-| = 8ax 
 Leave' mo | horo', mid, | when' yoii | want' me, | soiirul' uj) |(in' the | bu'Kle | h()rn'-| = 8ax 
 
 (ii) There i^ a HyllaWe wanting in each line of " Lockwley Hall " ; but 
 it is only an unaccented syllalile. Each line consists of eight accents. 
 
 21. Anapaestic Tetrameter consists of four anapaests; and 
 its formula is 4xxa. 
 
 (i) There is very little anapnestic verse in English ; and what little 
 Uiere exists is written in tetrameter. 
 
 (ii) The following lines, from " Mac£,reg;)rs' fathering," by Scott, is 
 in auapicstic verse ; — 
 
 The moon's' | on the lake', | ami the mist's' | mi the luae', | =4xxa 
 And the clan' | has a name' | that is name' | less liy day'. | - Ixxa 
 
 (iii) It will be observed that the first line begins with an iamlius. 
 This is admissible ; because an iambus and an anaptest, both having the 
 accented syllable last, belong to the same system. 
 
 22. Dactylic Dimeter consists of two dactyls ; and its formula 
 is 2axx. 
 
 (i) A well -known example it Tennyson's "Charge of the Light 
 Brigade." 
 
 Can'non to | right' of them, | 2axx 
 Can'noM to | left' of them, | 2axx 
 Can'non he | hind' them,- | 2axx 
 
 Vol'leyed and | thun'dered. - | 2axx 
 
 (ii) It will be observed that the last two lines want a syllabic to make 
 up the two dactyls. Such a line is said tobe = 2axx- (minus). 
 
 (iii) Or we may say that the last foot is a trochee ; for a trochee and 
 a dactyl can go together in one line, both belonging to the same system 
 — both having their accented syllable first. 
 
 23. Dactylic Tetrameter consists of four dactyls ; and its for- 
 mula is 4axx. 
 
 (i) Bishop Heber's hymn is one of the best examples :— 
 
 Bright'est and | best' of the | sons' of the | morn'ing. 
 (ii) The last foot here again is a trochee, 
 (iii) There is very little of this kind of verse in English poetry. 
 
 24. Amphibrachic Tetrameter consists of four amphibrachs ; 
 and its formula is 4xax. 
 
1 1 ' I 
 
 T/fK GRAMMAU OF VERSE, OR PROSODY. 
 
 201 
 
 (0 Campbell-B well-known i.em in a good example :- 
 Tl,t.r„ coM.e' to | the beach' a | poor cx'ile | of E'rin. 
 (u) There are very few exumpleH in KngliHh of thin kind of verne 
 
 ucscriptions of the most important metres exi.lainp.l i,. n 
 - ;... I.a^.rap.s. It musf 1. observed th^Si:: ^l^i: 
 
 term Ion, f„r arcenf.l; and .hart for nnaccenied syllables -1 
 Tro'chee | trir-.s' from | long' to | short'- I 
 I-rom long to long in solemn sort 
 Slow B,,on I dee . «talk« || strong' fU, yet | ill' able 
 
 Anu.lu'brach | y« hastes' with | a state'ly | stride 
 
 icct ot whicli It consists ,s called Hypermetrical. 
 (•) Thus, Coleridge has. in his "Ancient Mariner"- 
 Dayaflterciay, Mayaflterdav, I 
 
 We stuck: I nor breath I nor mo I tion. (hyiur) 
 As Id I Ic as I a paint ; ed shin I ' 
 
 Upon I a paint | ed o | cean. (hyper) 
 
 Here the syllables tion and ccan are over from tho m,>.i • * • . 
 verse, and the line is therefore said to be hypermetrtV ""'*"' 
 
 27 A verse with a syllable wanting to the number of feet 
 uf which It consists is said to be defective, 
 (i) Thus, in Scott's " Monks of Bangor "— 
 
 Slaugh'tered | down' by | heath'en | blade'- I 4ax- 
 Ban gor s | pence'ful j monks' are | laid'. - | 4 a x - 
 we find a syllable wanting to each line But fi,af n . i • 
 
 Shall' I I wast'ing [ in' de | spair', - I 
 
 J^'e' te I ''^■ise a | woin'an's i fair? . ; 
 the syllable spair is not hyDermetriml a„ 
 
 wanting to it , „. th^JiJTfrt^. ^rrn" ""•""' " 
 * A spondee consists of two long or accentpH <.^ii„ui 
 
 .»r%^ in En„uh : .„. . „,f. / rrwzr:;,, ^;}:,::r 
 
 f 
 
202 
 
 COMPOSITION, I'UNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 RHYME. 
 
 28. Rhyme has buoti ilcfiiicl })y Millon as the "jingling 
 sound uf like cndingH." It may also bo delincd as a corre- 
 BpondencG in sound at llic ends of linrs in iioctry. 
 
 (i) Jih'/mc iH proiicfly s[ielleil rime. The wmd originally iiiciiiit num- 
 ber; iiiid tiio Old KngliHh word for arithmetic wiw rlme-craft. It 
 received itn preaent Kct of letterw from a confuMiou with the (Jreek word 
 rhijtUm, which means ujtowiiuj, 
 
 (ii) I'rofcsHor Skeat wayn "it is one of the worMt-niielt words in the 
 language." "It is," he says, " inii>iwHil>le to find an instance of the 
 si)clling rhyme before 1550." Shakespeare generally wrote rime. 
 
 29. No rhyme can bo good unless it satisfies four conditions. 
 These arc : — • 
 
 1. Tho rhyming syllabic must Im; accented. Thus rut'/ 
 
 rliymes with fiiiu/; but not with thlnk'inij, 
 
 2. Tho vowel sound must be the same — to the car, that is ; 
 
 though not necessarily to the eye. Thus lusc and close 
 are not good rhymes, 
 
 3. The final consonant must bo the same. {Mix and Irklcs 
 
 are good rhymes ; because x = ks.) 
 
 4. Tho preceding consonant must be different. 
 
 Beat and feet ; jump and pump are good rhymes. 
 
 30. Tho English language is very poor in rliymes, when 
 compared with Italian or German. Accordingly, half-rhymes 
 are admissible, and are frequently employed. 
 
 The following rhymes may be used : — 
 
 Sun. 
 Goue. 
 
 Love. 
 Move. 
 
 Allow. 
 Bestow. 
 
 Ever. 
 lliver, 
 
 Taste. 
 Past. 
 
THE C.1?,SURA. 
 
 -03 
 
 TITE C^':STTRA. 
 
 31. Tlio rhythm or musical How of verso depends on th(> 
 vivritul succession of plimses of tliirt'ivnt ]cii<,'tlis. I'.ut, most of 
 nil, it is upon tlio Caesura, anil tho jwsition of thu Ciusura, 
 that musical How dcpciids. 
 
 Tilt) wiiril cir3ura U a Lutiii woid, anil means a cutting. 
 
 32. The Cixisura in a line is the rest or halt or hroak or 
 pause for the voice iu reading uloud. It is found in sJiort as 
 well as in long lines. 
 
 (i) The following is an exanijjle from the short lines of 'Marmion' 
 (vi. 332) :— 
 
 IJ More pleuHed tliat || in a Iwrbarons ago 
 2J He gave rude Scdtland || Virgil's page, 
 
 1 Than tliat || Ijoneatli liis rule lie lield 
 
 2 The bislKiiirie || of fair Dmikeia. 
 
 It will be seen from this that Sir Walter Scott takes care to vary the 
 poaition of tlie cresura in each line— sometimes liaving it after LJ feet, 
 Bometinies after 2 ; and so on. 
 
 (ii) The following is an examiile from the long lines of the " Lycidas " 
 of Milton ; — 
 
 2 Now, Lycidas, || tlie shepherds weep no more ; 
 1 Henceforth || thou art the genius of the shore 
 
 3 In thy largo recompense, || and shalt be good 
 2J To all that wander || in that perilous flood. 
 
 Milton, too, is careful to vary the position of his ctcsura ; and most of 
 the music and much of the beauty of liis blank verse depend upon the 
 fact that the cajsura appears now at the beginning, now at tlie middle, 
 now at the end of his lines ; and never in the same place in two con- 
 secutive verses. 
 
 (iii) Of all the greut writers of English verse, Pope is the one who 
 places the ctcsura worst — worst, because it is almost always in the 
 same place. Let us take an example from his "Rape of the Lock" 
 (canto i.) : — 
 
 2 The busy sylphs || surround their darling care, 
 2 These set the head, || and these divide the hair ; 
 2 Some fold the sleeve, |i whilst others plait the gown ; 
 2 And Betty's praisei! J fur labours not lier own. 
 
 And so he goes on for thousands upon thousands of verses. The symbol 
 of Pope's caesura is a straight line ; the symbol of Milton's is "the line 
 of beauty "—a line of perpetually varying and harmonious curves. 
 
 fj 
 
 
 Ii; 
 
 ^!-" 
 
 II 
 
204 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC, 
 
 THE STANZA. 
 33. A Stanza is a group of rhymed lines. 
 
 Tim word comes frnin an oM Italian word, stantia, an abode. 
 
 34 Two rhymed lines are called a couplet; and tliis may be 
 looked ni)on as the shortest kind of stanza 
 
 (i) The most unual couplet in Englisli consists of two rhymed iambic 
 pentameter lines. This is called the " heroic couplet." 
 
 35. A Stanza of three rhymed lines is called a triplet. 
 
 Tw^V •''^''^.^T^r*"'^^^ '' ^ ^^ ^ound in Tennyson's poem of "The 
 Two Voices," which consists entirely . f triplets :— 
 
 " Whatever crazy sorrow siitli, 
 No life that breathes with ^luman breath 
 Has ever truly longed for ueath." 
 
 36. A Stanza of four rhymed lines-of which the first (some- 
 times) rhymes with the third, and the second (always) with 
 the fourth— is called a quatrain. 
 
 (i) The ordinary ballad metre consists of quatrains-that is, four 
 lines, two of lambio tetrameter, and two of iambic trimeter. 
 
 (ii) A quatrain of iambic pentameters is called Elegiac Verse The 
 best known example is Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard."" 
 
 37. A stanza of six lines is called a sextant. 
 
 (i) -There are many kinds. One is used in Hood's " Dream of Eugene 
 
 nr;hymbg. " " " '" "' ''' ' *'' "^°"*^' '°"^*''' '''' ^^*" 
 
 (ii) Another in Wliittier's " Barclay of Ury," which has the first and 
 
 Tcrotilr' "' '"*'' "" '°"'*'^ ^"'^ '''''' ^"^y-'^g -*h 
 
 (iii) Another in Lowell's "Yussouf," which has the first and third 
 lines, the second and fourth, and the fifth and sixtli rliyming. 
 
 38. A stanza of eight lines is called an octave, or ottava 
 rima. 
 
 (Prnaouticod oitahva retma.) 
 
 39. A stanza of nine lines is called the Spenserian stanza, 
 because Edmund Spenser employed it in his " Faerie Queene." 
 
THE STANZA. 
 
 205 
 
 (i) The first eight lines of th's stanza are in 5xa ; the last line, in 6xa. 
 (ii) The rhymes run thus : abab ; bcbcc. 
 
 40. A short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines — with 
 the rhymes arranged in a peculiar way — is called a sonnet, 
 
 (i) This is a form which has been imported into England from Italy, 
 where it was cultivated by many poets — the greatest among these being 
 Dante and Petrarch, both of them poets of the thirteenth century. 
 The best English sonnet-writers are Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs 
 Browning. 
 
 (ii) The sonnet consists of two parts— an octave (of eight lines), and 
 a sestette (of six). The rhymes in the octave are often varied, being 
 sometimes abba, acca : those in the sestette are sometimes abc, abc ; 
 or ababcc. 
 
 (iii) Shakespeare's " Sonnets " are not formed on the Italian model, 
 and can hardly be called sonnets at all. They are really short poems of 
 three quatrains, ending in each case with a rhymed couplet 
 
 (iv) The following is Wordsworth's soimet on " The Sonnet " i— 
 
 /"Scorn not the Sonnet; critic, you liavo frowned a 
 
 Mindless of its just lionouis : with this key h 
 
 ShakKpcaro unlocked liis heart ; the melody 6 
 
 Of this s)na'l lute gave ease to retraicirs wound; a 
 
 I A thousand times this iiipo did Tasso sound ; a 
 
 With it Camoeiis soothed uu exile's grief; o 
 
 The sonnet glittered a gay myrtle leaf o 
 
 Mmid the cypress with which Danto crowned a 
 
 /His visionary brow; a glow-worm lamp d 
 
 lit cheered mild Spenser, called fTom fairyland < 
 
 'To struggle through dark ways; and when a damp d 
 
 Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand e. 
 
 The thing became a trumpet, whence he blew / 
 
 ^Soul-animating strains— alas, too few ! " f 
 
 ■i 
 
 nil 
 
tin 
 4. 
 
 ceil 
 mil 
 ortl 
 and 
 
 1 
 
 whi 
 
 hyj) 
 
 in ( 
 
 lane 
 
 guti 
 
 hog, 
 
 and 
 
 bdel 
 
 spin 
 
 ants 
 
 9. C 
 
 siiar 
 
 gab, 
 
 cat, 
 
 fund 
 
 1. 
 3. M 
 
 alplis 
 
EXEKCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE I. (Introduction, p. 3). 
 
 1. What do you understand by the language of a peoDle » 5 m. 
 tinguiah between phonetics and alphabeticr % iLT ^'^" 
 
 4. Contrast our pLsent language S'*Sat it was i'n S'S 
 century. 5. Account for tlie difi'erence R XVh.l ^ I "^*'' 
 
 unnecessary except in a written I^g .age i 7 l/^LtTrr " 
 orthogra-.hv and etviTinln</v « «k Tc" iJistinguish between 
 
 and prosody. ''^'""^"Sy- ^- S^ow the connection between syntax 
 
 EXERCISE II. (Sounds and Letters, p 5) 
 
 gutturals from the following words w/1; „^- ^^'^'^'tl^e dentals r .nd 
 and labials from the following w^rds 1; ««• ^^^'"^ f-^ P"^^^^' 
 
 cat, .et, tnck chick .et i pi ^ -c f, *^ ^'^^ ^"""'^^ = ^«'^'^'. ^«ci-, 
 fundamental: ' ^ "^ ^'^''^^^ *''" consonants in the word 
 
 EXERCISE III. (The Alphabet, p. 1). 
 alphabet faulty. OMV^ich are the red«™daStttrs^ 4. Prove our 
 
 
 ji 
 
 
208 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I n 
 
 EXERCISE IV. (Nouns, p. 9). 
 
 1. What is a noun ? 2. How are nouns classified ? .3. Define 
 abstract nouns. 4. Classify the nouns in the following :— 
 («) "Conin forth into the liglit of things, 
 
 Let nature be your teacher," — Wwdsworth. 
 (h) " Welcome, learn 'd Cicero ! whose blessed tongue and wit 
 
 Preserves Rome's greatness yet."— Co»o%. 
 (f) "All in the Downs the fleet lay moor' A."— Dihdin. 
 (il) " Poictiers and Cressy tell, 
 
 When most their pride did swell. "—Drayton. 
 
 (e) "Life without industry is guilt, and industry without art is 
 hmtaXity. "—RusUn. 
 
 if) Parliament was prorogued. The troop returned to barracks. 
 The jury disagreed. Many a congregation missed him. The Hock 
 was driven down the lane, 
 
 5, Make abstract nouns of true, noble, young, king, patient, man, cord, 
 intrude, rogue, slave, poor, domain, catechise, exemplify. 
 
 
 EXERCISE V. 
 Classify the nouns in the following : — 
 
 (a) " Young Henry met the foe with pride ; 
 
 Jane followed, fought ! ah, hapless story ! 
 In man's attire, by Henry's side, 
 She died for love, and he for glory." — T. Dibdin. 
 
 (b) "Though I fly to Istamboul, 
 
 Athens holds my heart and soul." — Byron. 
 
 (c) " The time I've lost in wooing, 
 
 In watching and pursuing 
 
 The light that lies 
 
 In woman's eyes, 
 Has been my heart's undoing," — 7'. Mocre. 
 {d) " Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
 
 Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray," Gray, 
 
 EXERCISE VL (Gender, p, 11), 
 
 1, What is inflexion? 2, Define gender, 3, Give the diflferent 
 ways in which gender is marked, 4. Give the gender of Londoner 
 chiff, xfnor, actor, debtor, sai'or, kidvn, sheep, chariti/, knave, moon, ant] 
 fipome, bee, laundress. 5. Gi"" the masculine of spinster, doe, slut, ewe, 
 nym/ih, bride, heifer, Jfarriei, infan'a, buxter, lass, czanna, vixen. 
 6. Write the feminine of jwaw, mdaiver, patron, drake, marquis, gan- 
 
TSXERCISES. 
 
 209 
 
 ^^^> frinr, sire, benefactor, Rxecutor, tutor harf 7 Whnf :» +1, t 
 
 i : 
 
 EXERCISE VII. (Number, p. 15). 
 1 ^^, ^f "f ""'"^er- 2. Give the chief ways of formintr nlurala 
 
 |t:^t^tl;e^; ^^v^;: :Lzz:i S2"s z""/*; 
 
 genu. 7. Justify the use of each of the following : memorandum, fori 
 
 Sm !! ^^® audience were too much interested. "Scott. 
 
 W llie court were seated for judgment. "—/(/ 
 
 ,1 u V^^ ^"«on only bestow a few bolts on it.'"-/(/ 
 
 ^ .< 4> ,^^ *^f ^°'"*^' ^^""^ «o "i"ch influenced."— //«nifi 
 
 (e) " The weaker sex themselves."— /rf 
 (/) "AH his tribe are blind."— ^M«ya7i. 
 
 m 
 
 H i If 
 
 Vixen. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII, 
 
 foHowfn.^*^!^'"'^ ^""^ ''""'^'' °^ '^'^ °* *^" "°""« i" the 
 
 (a) " He sees that this |reat round-about, 
 The world with all its motley rout,— 
 
 Church, army, physic, law, 
 Its customs and its businesses, 
 Is no concern at all of hiB."—Cowper. 
 (6) " Nature is but the name for an effect 
 Of which the cause is God."— M ' 
 (c) " Perhaps thou wert a priest— if so, my struggles 
 
 Are vam, for priestcraft never owns its juggles, "-//omcc Smith, 
 id) " The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new. 
 
 And hope is brightest when it dawns from fears."— <yco«. 
 {e) " Alook of kind Truth, a word of Goodwill, 
 Are the magical helps on Life's road ; 
 A\ ith a mountain to travel they shorten the hill, 
 With a burden they lighten the load." 
 
 — EHza Cook. 
 
ifW-l 
 
 lii 
 
 210 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 
 Give the kind, gender, and number of the nouns in the 
 following : — 
 
 («) "A baby was sleeping, ita mother was weeping, 
 
 For her husband was far on the wild raging sea." — S. Loner. 
 
 {!>) "Perhaps that very hand, now pinion'd flat, 
 
 Has hob-a-nobb'd with Pharaoh, glass to glass ; 
 
 Or dropp'd a halfpenny in Homer's hat, 
 
 Or doffd thine own to let Queen Dido pass, 
 
 Or held, by Solomon's own invitation, 
 
 A torch at the great Temple's dedication." — Horace Smith, 
 
 (c) " Britannia needs no bulwark, 
 
 No towers along the steep." — Campbell. 
 
 (d) " He spoke of the grass, and flowers, and trees, 
 
 Of the singing birds, and the humming bees, 
 
 Then talked of the haying, and wonder'd whether 
 
 The cloud in the west would bring foul weather. " — J. O, fVhittier. 
 
 EXERCISE X. (Case, p. 19). 
 
 1. Define case. 2. For what casea are nouns inflected? ,3. What 
 determines the nominative case ? 4. Define nominative absolute, 
 
 5. Show the two ways of denoting the possessive case, 6. Define 
 cognate object. 7. Why are dative objects so called ? 8. Give the 
 meaning of factitive as applied to the objective case. 9. What is an 
 adverbial object. 
 
 EXERCISE XI. 
 
 Select the nominatives in the following : — 
 
 1. The bloom falls in May. 2. The ostriches' heads were not to 
 be seen. 3. "The kine," said he, "I'll quickly feed." 4. The kine 
 were fed. 5. The captain falling ill, the boatswain took charge. 
 
 6. A wandering minstrel am I. 7. Here lies the body of a noble 
 man. 8. Richard, they say, was cruel. 9. The bell ringing, the 
 children assembled. 10. Richard, William's son, was killed in the 
 New Forest. 11. Go quickly, 12. A number of sheep, losing their 
 way, fell over the precipice. 13. Rattle his bones over the stones, 
 14. Tiie guide falling ill, the travellers had to rely on his dog. 15. 
 Ah 1 Charlie, my son, you cheer your old mother i 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 
 
 Point out the objective case in each of the following sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 I, Britannia rules the waves. 2. Pardon me. 3. I beg your par- 
 don. 4. To-iught no moon I see. 5. How many birds did they catch ? 
 6. He rode two miles. 7. The king conferred with the general. 8. 
 
ouns in the 
 
 ■S, Lover. 
 
 Smith, 
 
 r. 0. WhUtier. 
 
 3? 3. What 
 ive absolute, 
 le. 6. Define 
 8. Give the 
 . What is an 
 
 were not to 
 4. The kine 
 took charge, 
 y of a noble 
 ringing, the 
 killed in the 
 , losing their 
 r the stones. 
 Ilia dog. 15. 
 
 lowing sen- 
 
 3€g your par- 
 
 l they catch ? 
 
 general. 8. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 211 
 
 The children laughed at the squirrel. 9. Let me die the death of the 
 righteous. 10. The crooked oak I'll fell to-day. 11. A liar who can 
 trust? 12. We know a tree by its fruit. 1,3. He told a good talc. 
 14. The boy sneered at the idea. 15. Richard slew his godfather, 
 Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, the kingmaker. 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. 
 Write the following in the ordinary possessive fomi : — 
 
 1. The bark of a dog. 2. Tlic twitter of the swallows. 3. The 
 books of .John. 4. The spailos of the workmen. 5. The studies of 
 James. 6. The scissors of Miss Cissy Moses. 7. The lute of Or- 
 pheus. 8. The sword of Achilles. 9. The sul)scription8 of the ladies. 
 10. The death of the Marquis of Londonderry. 11. The cries of tlie 
 babies. 12. The marriage of Richard, Earl of Cambridge. ]',i. The 
 innocence of the lilies. 14. The head of a sheep. 1.5. The tails of 
 sheep. 16. The jubilee of Victoria, Queen of England. 17. The sake 
 of my conscience. 
 
 EXERCISE XIV. 
 
 Give particulars of the cases of each of the nouns in the 
 following : — 
 
 1, Toll for the brave. 2. Flaxen was his hair. 3. Ho, gunners ! fire 
 a loud salute. 4. Give the man a draught from the spring. 5. The 
 parson told the sexton, and *'i.e sexton toU'd the bell. (i. Boys, you 
 deserve to have a holiday given you. 7. It is very like a whale. 
 8. In this place ran Cassius' dagger through. 9. He paid him the debt 
 for conscience' sake. 10. The king's baker dreamed a dream. 11. 
 The lady lent the boy 'Robinson Crusoe.' 12. Bid your wife be 
 judge. 13. The Count of Anjou became leader. 14. .Joan seemed a 
 holy woman. 15. Charles appointed Buckingham commander. 
 16. Let the actors play the play. 17. John walked two hours and 
 travelled seven miles. 18. How many hired servants of my father's 
 have bread enough. 19. I have a sixpence, but no pennies. 20. Ben- 
 jamin, Joseph's own brother, Jacob's youngest son, was kept a 
 prisoner. 
 
 EXERCISE XV. 
 
 State fully the cases of the nouns in the following : — 
 
 1. The sergeant choosing the tallest, the other recruits dispersed. 
 2. Old Kaspar's work was done. 3. William, sing a song. 4. She 
 made the poor girl a dress. 5. She knitted all day. 6. The tide 
 floated the vessel. 7. The boy swam his little boat. 8. Let the king 
 be your leader. 9. A small hole will sink a ship. 10. Let bygones 
 be bygones. 
 
 11. It rains, it hails, it blows, it snows, 
 Methinks I'm wet thro' all my clothes, 
 
 « i 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 Mt , 
 
 *■ 
 
 1 
 
 t ij 
 
212 
 
 EXEKCISES. 
 
 ('/) 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. 
 
 below :!-^""^ ^" *^' "''""' "'""'"""^ "» *'•« ««ntcncc8 quoted 
 
 ^"^ "In'irf'n^.u^^ ?u''''; ''"'^ *""'«« ^'•°'" '"^. t» every little boy 
 And tell them thus from me, their time most happy is ^' 
 
 If to theyr time they reason had to know the truth of this." 
 
 (6) " Underneath this sable hearse ~^'^" ^'"'^ of Surrey. 
 
 Lies the subject of all verse, 
 
 Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother, "-//c* Jo««on. 
 (c) "Give me a looke, give me a face, 
 
 That makes simplicitie a grace. " Id. 
 
 His house was known to all the vagrant train ; 
 
 He chid their wand'rings. but relieved their pain. "-Voldsmith. 
 (e) • Yet shall poor Tom Hnd pleasant weather, 
 When He, who all commands, 
 
 Shall give, to call life's crew together 
 The word to pipe all hands."— a Dibdin. 
 
 EXERCISE XVII. (Pronouns, p. 23). 
 
 pronoJlr?"Vwrr"' *lf «^r derivation. 2. What is a personal 
 ?o~ case' 4 wT,*^' ''"'y P,'"""""^ ^^^^ '^^'^ ^' »««d in the 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 
 (a) "I am monarch of all I survey 
 
 My right there is none to dispute. "—Cowper. 
 .. l.Z y°"r,«flf "^re much condemn'd."-^Aa/te,s«eare. 
 
 Liittle children, love one another."— ^jft/e 
 " Few shall part where many meet. "- Campbell. 
 
 Who would fill a coward's grave ? "—i?Mr/M 
 
 (c) 
 id) 
 (e) 
 
 i{\ .. ^'''ITj'f ? y?"'"''^ *° '^"*^ '" «»ch a case."-.VA«/lr,«,eare 
 (g) "Each had his nlace annm-ntBrl «„„v, i,:„ ,, ^'"['^'■Veare. 
 
 (!J) 
 (h) 
 
 (0 
 
 m 
 
 (I) 
 
 ' Fa^h i,oj v.- -';"'""" -V, .T.xLo iu Huca a case. "— .S'M/tvwje 
 Each had his place appointed, each his course. "-.l/i7<o« 
 ;;Right as a serpent hideth him under flowers. "-r;/..,,"." 
 Ui them He chose twelve, whom also He named apostles'." 
 
 ;;The stars are out by twos and threes. "- frorrf.^.or^r^'^^'' 
 We IS the freeman whom the truth makes free 
 And all are slaves besides."— Cow>per. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 213 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 
 Parse tho relatives and antecedents in the following :— 
 
 («) "To know 
 
 That which before us lies in daily life, 
 
 Is the prime wiBAom."~Milton. 
 {!)) « Who steals my purse steals tTash."—Shal-es27eare. 
 (c) " He prayeth best, who loveth best 
 
 All things, both great and small."— Co/eW(/j/c. 
 {d) "Freedom has a thousand charms to show. 
 
 That slaves, howe'er contented, never know.'^—Coicper. 
 (e) *« Vain, very vain, my weary search to find 
 
 That bliss which only centres in the mind."— (?oW,m(7/t. 
 (/) " Be strong, live happy, and love ; but first of all, 
 
 Hnn whon) to love is to obey."— Milton, 
 i'j) " Whoever lov'd, that lov'd not at first sight ? "S/iakcspeare. 
 
 , lu^ V J^.®""® '^^'^^ "°"^ °^ ^^''^ Grograms but could sing a sontr. or 
 of the Marjorams but could tell a story. "—(?oW«H,7/j. 
 (i) " Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper."— i5t We. 
 (k) " Let such teach others, who themselves excel. "—Po^jc. 
 
 EXERCISE XX. 
 Parse fully the nouns and pronouns in the following :— 
 («) "That thee is sent receive in buxomness."—CArt«cer. 
 (6) "Forth, pilgrim forth- on, best out of thy stall, 
 
 Look up on high, and thank the God of all."— M 
 (c) " The place that she had chosen out, 
 Herself in to repose, 
 Had they come down, the gods no doubt 
 The very same had chose. "—Z»ray<oji. 
 (cO "So, Willy, let you and me be wipers 
 
 Of scores out with all men, especially pipers : 
 
 And, whether they pipe us free from rats or from mice. 
 
 If we ve promised them aught, let us keep our promise." 
 
 (e) " Let beeves and homebred kine partake ""^' 
 
 The sweets of Burn-mill meadow ; 
 The swan on still Saint Mary's lake 
 Float double, swan and shadow."— Wordeworlh. 
 
 EXERCISE XXL (Adjectives, p. 28). 
 
 1. Define an adjective. 2. Show the twofold function of an adjective. 
 S. JVame the kinds of adjectives. 4. Give the derivation of each 
 
 (•' 
 
 M 
 
 ■- M 
 
 m 
 
214 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 namu. 5. In wliiit ways may (iuaiititati\o adjcctivca be used? 6. 
 l[o\v arc niiinural adjeotivcs clasaitiud? 7. What adjcotiveH are 
 inHected for muiibcr ? 8. What adjectives are inflected for comparison ? 
 9. How is the comparative formed ? 10, Distiajjuish between /mW/V'T 
 a.n<\J'ar(/icr, oldrr and thhr, Inter anA hitter. 11. NN'rito the ordinals 
 of one, two, three, four, forty, evjht, twenty, hundred, Jive, iwelve. 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 
 Classify tho adjectives in the following : — 
 
 1. " In tho l)ody politic, as in the natural body, morbid languor 
 succeed*! morbid excitement." — Mucnntciy. 2. "So tliick a drop 
 serene liath fjueiidied their or})8." — Milton. .'?. "His ain coat on his 
 back is." — Old SotKj, 4. "He was a ready orator, an elegant poet, 
 a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and a most contemptible 
 sovereign." — Gibbon. 5. "Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy 
 sleep." — Youmj. (i. "Y u gave good words thu other day of a bay 
 courser I ro.ie." — S/iakexpcare. 7. "The poor man that loveth Christ 
 is richer than the richest man." — Bunyan. 8. " Sole Eve, associate 
 sole, to mc beyond compare above all living creatures dear." — Milton, 
 9. "Fox beat half the lawyers in the House at their own weapons." 
 ' — Macaiday. 
 
 \ t 
 
 i,i 
 
 EXERCISE XXIII. 
 
 Parse fully all the adjoctives in the folliwing : — 
 
 1. "The better part of valour is discretion; in the which better 
 
 part I have saved my life." — ^'hakesp' are. 2. " Act well your part; 
 
 there all the honour lies." — Pope, 3. "Tho greater the new power 
 
 they create, the greater seems their revenge against tiieold." — BtUwer, 
 
 4. "It was a very low fire indeed for such a bitter night." — DickeiiK 
 
 5. " Some three or four of you go, give him courteous conduct to this 
 place." — Shakespeare, 6. "Many a carol, old and saintly, sang the 
 minstrels." — Longfellou: 7. "The morning comes cold for a July 
 one."— Carl i/le. 8. " I'll fill another pipe."— »S'«€?-ne. 9. " Our host 
 presented us round to each other," — Thackeray. 10. "He is one of 
 those wise philanthropists." — Jerrold. 11. "Wo two saw you four 
 set oil four." — Shakespeare. 12. "This said, they both betook them 
 several wsiys,"— Milton. 13. " Blazing London seem'd a second 
 Troy." — Cowper. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. 
 
 (1) Compare the following adjectives where they admit of 
 it:— 
 
 Stout, thin, marrcUoi(,s, calm, shy, lady-like, (jcnttemanly, ivet, honour- 
 able, dead, jiear, full, ^mm, lot^ely, clayey, happy, sad, solar. 
 
 (2) Write the positive of 
 
 Next, more, inner, last, least, Jirst, inmost, better. 
 
! used? 6. 
 cctives are 
 ionipnriHon ? 
 ecu further 
 hi! ordinals 
 vdvc- 
 
 \w\ languor 
 ick a (hop 
 coat on his 
 egiant poet, 
 mtcniptihlo 
 rur, balmy 
 y of a bay 
 veth Christ 
 0, associate 
 ."—Milton, 
 I weapons.'' 
 
 hich better 
 your part ; 
 new power 
 "—Bulicer. 
 " — Dickens. 
 iuct to this 
 ', sang the 
 for a July 
 " Our host 
 e is one of 
 w you four 
 stook them 
 1 a second 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE XXV. 
 
 219 
 
 Parse fully the adjectives in the following :— 
 ..-rl " T'^" ,f '•es^ '^"'^ thf^t l^y turns you tr'u^d. "—Tnuiymt. «> 
 
 3. Those thy fears might have wrought fears in mersiudrspean: 
 ?•„ ^??, *''°. f'^l^'^-hearted boy havu chosen such a tool as yon.ler 
 fellow ?'-ZJ<d.e,M. 5. "Look here, upon this picture, and on this 
 the counterfeit presentment of two brothers. "-.SV/a^f^^ears. (j. " mJ 
 father lived at Blenheim then, yon little stream hard hy. "Southey. 
 
 7. "The oracles are dumb ; 
 
 No voice or hideous hum 
 
 Runs thro' the arch(-d roof in words deceiving. "—M^^o«. 
 
 8. "She stepped upon Sicilian grass, 
 
 Demeter's daughter, fresh and fair, 
 A child of light, a radiant lass, 
 
 And gamesome as the morning air. "—Jean Imjdow. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVI. 
 
 Par^e the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in tht following:— 
 (a) " Lord ! Thou dost love Jerusalem, "" 
 
 Once she ^vtts all Thy own : 
 Her love Thy fairest heritage, 
 
 Her power Thy glory's throne, "—il/oorc. 
 
 (6) "As proper men as ever trod upon neat's leather have gone 
 upon my handiwork."— ,S'Aayl'e,speare, ^ 
 
 (c) _ "0, Sir, to wilful men, 
 
 The injuries that they themselves procure 
 
 Must be their schoolmasters."— ,S'^a/C'c.<;>ear(?. 
 ((0 "True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 
 
 As those move easiest who have learned to dance."— Po^e. 
 (e) " Who said that I had given thee up ? 
 
 Who said that thou wert sold ? "—Mrs Norton. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 T admit of 
 vet, honour- 
 
 EXERCISE XXVIL (The Verb, p. 34). 
 
 1 • Define a verb 2. What are the two great classes into which verbs 
 are divided ? 3. Define a transitive v.rb. 4. Nan.e the ways S wS 
 an intransitive verb may become transitive. 5. What is the test for a 
 prepositional verb? 6. What is an auxiliary? 7. Why are auxdi 
 aries necessary? 8. What is voice? 9. What are the only ^Sbs 
 
 W fomed"^ ^^'"'^^ ''"''' • ^^- ^^'^^ • "• "°^ ^^ the passive 
 
 
ll 
 
 216 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVIII. 
 
 Classify the verbs in tho following into transitive and in- 
 transitive : — 
 
 (a) " Who reads 
 
 Incessantly, and to his rtuding brings not 
 A spirit anil judgment cijuiil or suiiorior, 
 Uncurtain and unsettled still rcnmins. " — MUton, 
 
 (ft) " As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame, 
 
 I lisped iu nunihtn's, for tlio nunil)ers came." — Pope. 
 
 (c) " I tliiiik, articulate, I laugh and weep. 
 
 And exercise all the functions of a man ; 
 How then should I and any man that lives 
 He strangers to each other '/ " — Cowptr. 
 
 (d) " A thing of beauty is a joy for ever ; 
 
 Its loveliness increases ; it will never 
 Pass into nothingness." — Keatn. 
 
 (e) '• He prayeth best, who loveth best 
 
 All things, both great and small ; 
 For the dear God who loveth us. 
 He made and loveth all." — Coleridyc 
 
 EXERCISE XXIX. 
 
 Arrange the following verbs as prepositional or causative : — 
 1. The magistrate tiwore in the constables. 2. The goodness of the 
 soil SOI n raised a crop. 3. 1 liave spoken to a num who once baited a 
 hook aud drew in a pike. 4. The gardener will fell the tree, and lay 
 out the bordiTS. 5. Tlic pirates having jeered at the threats, sank 
 the ship. 6. Some of the children will tly kites, others swim boats. 
 7. Tom will run hi> pony up and down. 8. They glory in little 
 faults, wink at grt.u ones, and cough down the remonstrances of the 
 wise men. 
 
 9. "A falcon, towering iu her pride of place. 
 
 Was by a mousing owl hawk'd at and killed." — Shakespeare, 
 
 EXERCISE XXX. 
 
 Rewrite the first eight sentences in the foregoing exeicise 
 in the passive voice. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXI. 
 
 Give particulars of the tense of each of the verbs in the fol- 
 lowini; : — 
 
 (a) " The king ia come to marshal us, all in his armour drest." 
 
 — Macauluy. 
 (6) " I would not have believed it unless I had happened to have 
 been there." — Dickens. 
 
 (c) " I am, I will, I shall be happy." — Lytton. 
 
EXEffCISES. 
 
 217 
 
 ve and in< 
 
 •>c. 
 
 isative : — 
 
 Inc i of the 
 ice l)aite(l a 
 •ee, ttiul lay 
 ireuts, uuiik 
 wiiii boats. 
 py in little 
 luces of the 
 
 kespeare. 
 
 in the fol- 
 
 Irest." 
 -Macaiday. 
 led to have 
 
 ( /• uT, V Z ^3'»t";« a Hhadow. (e) I nhall have ha.l enough of this 
 A) \V. k, r '"•*'"'• <'^> ^^"''^^ y^ '"'t what tht.ylm, loS 
 
 ;; .n.t y.u will not ,et the.. tll/y^.Z. j;^.. t;^.,rn.£ '■^^i 
 tr;viS-'nhr;--Trrn^-^^^^^^ 
 
 EXERCISE XXXII. 
 
 Pohxfout^tL'"""'' '/ '"'1' "^ '''^ ^'•■''^^^ "^ *he following, and 
 point out tlu) gerunds and participles :— " 
 
 («) " I (laro do all that may become a man • 
 
 Who dares do more is imuo. "-i^ hakes pmre. 
 (i) "Now, wherefore stopp'^t thou mc1"~Coknd,je. 
 (c) "Truth from his lips prevail'd with double suay, 
 
 And fools who came to scoff remained to J^my. "-Goldsmith. 
 " ^^'-'"' *•'* ^^'^ down, 
 ^ And let us hear Bernardo speak of this."-Shake^pean. 
 " I watched the little circles dio/'—'remiymi. 
 "I am ashamed to observe you heeitate. "— &o«. 
 " Come unto these yellow sands, 
 And then take hands ; 
 Curtsied wlien you liave, and kissed, 
 (ilie wild waves wliist) 
 
 Foot it featly here an.l there. "-^AaA-e.^mre. 
 (h) " I do not think my sister so to seek." ^JLton 
 (i) ' ' Cromwell, I did not think to she.l a tear 
 n ^'^ "7.""f ry. but tliou hast forc'd me 
 Out of th.ne honest truth to nlay the woman. 
 Lets dry our eyes, and thi, urhear me, Cromwell." 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 EXERCISE XXXIII. 
 
 tl!tt oreS:"!^"^ '"" ''-' '^"^^-'^^^ --*--> and show 
 (a) " I did send to you for goWShakespeare. 
 ib) ^'^' The king is come to marshal na."~Macaulay. 
 (C) " Full fathom five tJiy father lies ; 
 Of his Ijones are coral made : ' 
 Those arc pearls that were his eyes, 
 Nothing of him tiiat doth i^de."~Shakespeare. 
 id) " The lark has sung his carol in the sky, 
 
 Ihe bees have humm'd their noon-tide lullaby."_^oi,era. 
 
 id) 
 
 (e) 
 
 {jj 
 (9) 
 
 I 
 
 : I 
 
218 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 (e) " He was — whatever thou hast been, 
 
 He is — what thou shalt be." — Montgomery, 
 
 {/) "I have done the deed. Didst thou not hear a noise J'' — 
 Shakespeai'e. 
 
 {g) " Must I then leave you ? "—Id. 
 
 (h) I shall be drowned if none will save me ! (i) Will he not come 
 again? {k) We have been thinking over the matter. (l) The 
 soldiers are to be marching by six o'clock, (m) By Friday they will 
 have been working four days, {n) Do try to come early, (o) He 
 could have been there had he wished to have been seen by his old 
 friends. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIV. 
 
 Arrange the verbs in Exercises XXVII. to XXXIII. as 
 strong or weak. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXV. 
 
 1. Of what verbs is the verb be made up? 2. Give the four ways 
 in which this verb is used. 3. State the use of be in each of the 
 following instances: {«) "Whatever is, is right." — Pope, (b) Thou 
 art the man. (c) I shall be there, (d) They are to resign, (e) David 
 was a bold man. (/) The men will be chosen by lot. {g) He is gone 
 to his grave, (h) " Be off ! " cried the old man to the boys who were 
 teasing him. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVI. 
 
 1. Give the mood auxiliaries. 2. Name the tense auxiliaries, and 
 give the limitation of each. 3. Why are can and ma;/ called defective 
 verbs ? 4. In what tense is the verb must never used ? 5. What was 
 the original meaning of the word ? 6. And what is its present idea ? 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVII. (Adverbs, p. 57). 
 
 1. Define an adverb. 2. In what two ways may adverbs be classi- 
 fied ? 3. Show the twofold function of a conjunctive adverb. 4. Give 
 the classification of adverbs according to their meaning. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVIII. 
 
 Arrange as simple or conjunctive the adverbs in the follow- 
 
 1. Come where the moonbeams linger. 2. Where are you going? 
 3. Where the bee sucks, there lurk I. 4. Come in. 5. Look out ! 
 Here comes the beadle, so let us run. 6. Who's there ? 7. I know 
 a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. S. Then out spake bold 
 Horatius. 9. I love my love because my love loves me. 10. Verily 
 here are sweetly scented herbs, therefore will we set us down awhile 
 till our friends leisurely return. 
 
he not come 
 p. (I) The 
 ay they will 
 ■ly. (0) He 
 by his old 
 
 XXIII. as 
 
 e four ways 
 each of the 
 :. (b) Thou 
 (e) David 
 He is gone 
 fs who were 
 
 iliaries, and 
 ed defective 
 i. What was 
 3sent idea ? 
 
 bs be classi- 
 [•b. 4. Give 
 
 the foUow- 
 
 you going? 
 
 Look out ! 
 
 7. I know 
 
 spake bold 
 
 10. Verily 
 
 lowu awhile 
 
 EXERCISES. 219 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIX. 
 
 Classify all the adverbs in the following : — 
 
 (a) " Once again we'll sleep secure. " — Shakespeare. 
 
 (b) "My father lived at Blenheim then, 
 
 Yon little stream hard by. " — Southey. 
 
 (c) " Thus have I yielded into your hand 
 
 The circle of my glory." — Shakcipearc. 
 
 (d) " Now came still evening on." — Milton. 
 
 (e) " Now the great winds shoreward blow, 
 
 Now the salt tides seaward flow." — ^1/. Arnold, 
 if) "We no longer believe in St Edmund." — Carlijle, 
 (g) " What so moves thee all at once ? " — Coleridge. 
 (h) " Vex not thou the poet's mind." — Tennyson. 
 
 EXERCISE XL. 
 Parse the adverbs in the followins : — 
 (a) " The solemn peaks but to the stars are known, — 
 
 But to the stars, and the cold lunar beams." — M. Arnold. 
 (6) " My life is spann'd already. "—^AaJC-espeare. 
 
 (c) " You always put things so pleasantly, "—^ij^jfcj-. 
 
 (d) " Slow and sure comes up the golden year." — Tennyson. 
 
 (e) " Not all the pearls Queen Mary wears. 
 
 Nor Margaret's still more precious tears, 
 Shall buy his life a day." — Scott. 
 
 (/) "Therefore make her grave strsAghV—Shalcespeare. 
 {g) " Why holds thine eye that melancholy rheum ? "—Id. 
 {h) A very inquisiiive child once saucily asked of an exceedingly 
 needy-looking man, "Where do you most generally dine? " Immedi- 
 ately the all but actually starving man replied somewhat sadly, though 
 quite smartly withal, "Near anything I may get to eat." 
 
 EXERCISE XLI. 
 
 Parse fully the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and 
 adverbs in the following: — 
 
 (a) " Go out, children, from the mine and from the city, 
 Sing out, children, as the little thrushes do : 
 Pluck your handfuls of tlie meadow cowslips pretty. 
 Laugh aloud, to feel your fingers let them through." 
 
 — Mrs Broxming, 
 (6) "None of us yet know, for none of us have yet been taught in 
 early youth, what fairy palaces we may build of beautiful thought- 
 proof against all adversity." — Rushin, 
 
 ill 
 
 
r: 
 
 I'M' 
 
 22() 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Ilip, 
 
 EXERCISE XLII. (Prepositions, p. 58). 
 
 Select the prepositions in the following, and say what thoy 
 connect and govern : — 
 
 1. In the corner of the box near the bench behinl the door, is the 
 picture of a man without a coat to his back. 2. Notwithstanding 
 he had returned with wood, they sent for some more. 3. The lady 
 m violet is in mourning. 4. ReSijecting the scholars, all but Charles 
 read through the chapter concerning Galileo. 5. Whom are you 
 writing to? 6. Come in, Puss, to your kittens. 7. That is the 
 book I spoke about. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIII. 
 
 I. Define a preposition. 2. What words are affected by preposi- 
 tions? 3. Give a list of simple prepotitions. 4. Show the com- 
 position of the following prepositions : but, beside, after, until, aboard, 
 beneath, among, bei/ond. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIV. (Conjunctions, p. 60). 
 
 1. Define a conjunction. 2. What is a subordinate conjunction? 
 3. Classify the conjunctions in the following : 
 
 (a) " My hair is grey, but not with years, 
 Nor grew it white 
 In a single night." — Bi/ro7i. 
 
 (b) '< Neither a borrower nor a lender be. "Shakespeare. 
 
 (c) " Awake, arise, or be for ever iaWen."— Milton. 
 {d) "Man never is, but always to be blest." — Pope, 
 (e) " Must I then leave you ? "Shakespeare. 
 
 if) ""Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought."— FoMn^. 
 (g) "I saw Mark Antony oflFer him a crown ; yet it was not a crown 
 neither. " — Shakespeare. 
 
 EXERCISE XLV. (Syntax, p. 64). 
 
 1. What determines the "part of speech" a word is? 2. Define 
 syntax. 3. Into what two parts may it be divided? 4. What two 
 questions might be asked concerning each word in a sentence? 
 
 5. State the principal concords existing in the English language. 
 
 6. Name the chief instances of government in our language. 
 
 EXERCISE XLVI. 
 
 Crivp. fill] particulars of all nominatives in the following 
 quotations : — 
 
 (") " So work the honey bees, 
 
 Creatures that by a rule in nature teach 
 
 The art of order to a peopled kingdom. "—.S'Aoies^jeare. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 221 
 
 what they 
 
 door, is the 
 withstanding 
 t. Tlie lady 
 but Charles 
 m are you 
 rhat is the 
 
 by preposi- 
 V the com- 
 itil, aboard, 
 
 jnjunction ? 
 
 Young. 
 
 ot a crown 
 
 2. Define 
 What two 
 
 sentence ? 
 
 language, 
 .ge. 
 
 following 
 
 xre. 
 
 (h) " Clatters each plank and swinging chain." — Scotf. 
 
 (c) "A white wall is the paper of a fool."— O'. Herbert. 
 
 (d) "I that speak to thee am he."— Bible. 
 
 (e) " Thus now alone lie conqueror remains."— 6^ewse?'. 
 (/) "He returned a friend who came a foe." — Pope, 
 ig) " Ah, then, what honest triumph flush'd my breast ! 
 
 This truth once known— To bless is to be blest ! "—Goldsmith. 
 
 (h.) " Ho ! gallant nobles of the League, look that your arms be 
 bright. — Macaulay. 
 
 EXERCISE XLVII. 
 
 Explain the possessives in t'-'^ followino : 
 
 (a) " She sent the deathless passion in her eyes 
 
 Thro' him, and made him hers, and laid her mind 
 On him, and he believed in her belief." — Tennyson, 
 (h) "Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend 
 
 His actions', passions', being's use and end." — Pope. 
 
 (c) " Ere thou remark another's sin. 
 
 Bid thy own conscience look within. " — Gay. 
 
 (d) " Anything that money would buy had been his son's. " 
 
 Thackeray. 
 
 (e) "Though dark be my way, since He is my guide, 
 
 'Tis mine to obey, 'tis His to provide."—/. Newton. 
 
 EXERCISE XLVIII. 
 Give full particulars of all the objectives in the following : 
 
 (a) "Your tanner will last you nine year. "Shakespeare. 
 
 (b) " There were some that ran, and some that leapt 
 
 Like troutlets in a pool. " — Hood. 
 
 (c) " He has two essential parts of a courtier, pride and ignorance. 
 
 — Ben Jonson. 
 
 (d) "I would gladly look him in the face. "Shakespeare. 
 
 (e) " Clearing the fence, he cried " Halloo ! " 
 
 (/) "They made him captain, and he gave them orders to sail the 
 boat six leagues south of the point." 
 
 EXERCISE XLIX. 
 
 I. How are most adjectives inflected? 2. In what two wavs are 
 adjectives used ? Classify those in the following in accordance with 
 your last answer : — 
 
 (a) " When I was dry with rage and extreme toil, 
 Breathless and faint, leaning upon my sword. 
 Came there a certain lord, neat, trimly dvea3'd."Shak€speare. 
 
 ill' 
 I i 
 
 Hi 
 
 U 9 
 
 til 
 
222 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 (b) Still more majestic shalt thou riae. 
 
 More dreadful from each foreign stroke • 
 As the loud blast that tears the Sies ' 
 Serves but to root thy native o^k."-nom8on 
 
 'I ,' 
 
 EXERCISE L. 
 
 1. In what way is a participle au adiectivpK 9 wi, * * .. 
 a verb does it retain' S vvL+ ^ojecnve/ 2. What function of 
 
 "Each horseman drew his battle blade, 
 And furious every charger neighed. "_Cam/,Je;;. 
 m^ , . , . " H^ "lade me mad 
 
 And talk so like a waiting.gentIewoman.»-;yAa^.e.;,eare. 
 "Sweet Isle ! within thy rock-girt shore is seen 
 Nature m her sublimest dress arrayed. -^'J^Lfc^ 
 
 («) 
 
 (b) 
 
 (c) 
 (d) 
 (e) 
 (/) 
 
 '■!■: 
 
 "Intothe valley of death 
 
 Rode the six hundred, "—yen^y^on. 
 " A forni more fair, a face more sweet, 
 
 Ne er hath it been my lot to meet.-V. O. WhUtier 
 
 " Wearv'^hi^T^'uf-'^ ''''^ ^ *'>°"^"d dangers ; 
 I'm cSi'd f 'v/"" -'l"! ^'*^ ^ ^'^""^'^"d termors, 
 "^" «; '/;anquish'd, to receive a sentence 
 >Vorse than Abiram's."— Co w;,er. 
 
 Ui.'i 
 
 EXERCISE LI. 
 
 low"' '"""""' '' '''' P^°^°"- -*J^ --ns in the fol- 
 
 "On she came with a cloud of canvas, 
 Right against the wind that h\e^v."-Coleridge 
 
 "Who said that I had given thee up ? 
 Who said that thou wert sold ? "—Mrs Norton 
 
 And I lov d her that she did pity them."-^A„^,,^,„,,. 
 1 he eye-it cannot choose but see ; 
 
 V\ e cannot bid the ear be still ; 
 Our bodies feel, where'er they be 
 
 Against, or with our ^ill"- mrdmvorth. 
 
 (a) 
 W 
 (c) 
 (d) 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 rJ3 
 
 EXERCISE LII. 
 folfowrng -"""'' °' the antecedents and relatives in the 
 (a) " Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, fro. whom all glories are " 
 (6) •• Not a pine in my grove is there seen. -^'^-««^«y. 
 
 .. ^-' w.th tendnls of woodbine is bound. "Skenslone. 
 {c) This sword a dagger had, his page. 
 
 That was but little for his age."~Butler 
 (d) "Aly banks they are furnished with bees, " 
 
 ^hen pa acos shall rise ; tlie joyful son 
 
 Shall hmsh what his short-liJcd sire begun. "-P<^«. 
 
 EXERCISE LIII. 
 
 Show the concord of each verb in fJi« f^n • 
 subject, and quote the rule in each case -1 "^ "^''^ '^' 
 
 (a) " I sing the birth was born to-night, 
 
 The author both of life and ligf.,'-_5e. Jonsou. 
 (h, Blow, blow, thou winter wind, 
 Inou art not so unkind 
 
 As man's ingratitude. "~Shake,'<peare. 
 n„ v J\ ^""f'ays the pillars are 
 
 id) " Cant" """' '''"' "^'^^'^ ''''■"~^- ^^-•*-^- 
 W Can storied urn or animated bust 
 
 (e) Our company were now anived within a mile of Highgate " 
 (/) •' Neither a bo.ower nor a lender be. "-S.akespeareT'''''''' 
 
 EXERCISE LIV, 
 lowing :-!"' *^' ^°^""^^"»" ^^^b« -^d their objects in the fol- 
 (a) .. He gave to misery all he had, a tear. "^Grat,. 
 
 L .. T^"^ r """ ''"'" '' *'^^ ^--."-Tennyson. 
 (c) Thou hast a tongue, come, let us hear its tune." 
 
 — Horace Smith. 
 
224 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 {(I) " Past all dishonour, 
 
 Death lias left on her 
 
 Only the beautiful."— r. Hood. 
 
 (e) " Methinks we must have known some former state." 
 
 — L. E. Landon. 
 (/) " To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, 
 
 And read their history in a nation's eyes, 
 
 Their lot forbade."— (?m:/. 
 
 EXERCISE LV. 
 
 Explain fully the mood of each verb in the following : — 
 (a) " Had I a heart for falsehood framed, 
 
 I ne'er could injure you. " — Sheridan. 
 
 (6) " The good of ancient times let others state ; 
 
 I think it lucky I was born so late." — Sydney Smth. 
 (c) " Oh. *-hen, while hums the earliest bee, 
 \ lere verdure fires the plain. 
 Walk thou with me, and stoop to see 
 Tiie glories of the lane ! " — Eb. Elliott. 
 
 {d) " They make obeisance and retire in haste, 
 Too soon to seek again the watery waste : 
 Yet they repine not — so that Conrad guides, 
 And who dare question aught when he decides ? " — Byron. 
 
 EXERCISE LVI. 
 Distinguish between gerunds and infinitives in the follow- 
 
 ing 
 
 (a) " To gild refin^jd gold, to paint the lily, 
 To throw a perfume on tlie violet. 
 To smooth the ice, or add another hufi 
 Unto the rainbow, or witli taper light 
 To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, 
 Is wasteful and ridiculous excess." — Shakespeare. 
 
 (6) " To make mankind, in conscious virtue bold. 
 
 Live o'er each scene, and be what they behold : 
 For this the tragic muse first trod the stage. 
 Commanding tears to stream through every age. " — Pope. 
 
 (f) " Good-niglit, good-night ! parting is such sweet sorrow. 
 
 That I shall say good-night till it be morrov:."— Shakespeare, 
 
 (d) " In framing an artist, art hath thus decreed. 
 
 To make some good, but others to exceed." — Id. 
 
 (e) " Giving is better than receiving." 
 
 3. 
 
 ne 
 
 CO 
 
 of 
 
 m( 
 m( 
 me 
 we 
 La 
 
 a g 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 225 
 
 -Byron. 
 
 EXERCISE LVII. 
 
 the^'SlowirT"-?' '^^'"'^' P-P°«^t--' -nd conjunctions in 
 (a) " Bunya I'a famed Pilgrim rests that siielf upon • 
 
 A genius rare but rude was lionest John."~Crabbe. 
 (i) " A second man I lionour, and still more highly: him who is 
 E i*ot'l?flt*^:W?r"'^"^' '^'^^^^^-'^^ ■' -* ^^^'y VeadT but'th: 
 
 (c) "This only grant me, that my means may lie 
 
 Too low for envy, for contempt too high."— (7oM;?ei:. 
 
 (d) " A man that looks on glass, 
 
 On it may stay his eye ; 
 Or, if he pleaseth, through it pass, 
 
 And then the Jieavens esiiy."— 6'. Herbert. 
 
 (e) " All precious things, discovered late, 
 
 ^ To those that seek them issue fortli ; 
 For Love in sequel works with FatQ:'— Tennyson. 
 
 ANALYSIS (p. 86). 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 1 What is a sentence? 2. Of what two parts must it consist? 
 3. What can form a subject? 4. Define a predicate. .5. What is 
 necessary for the completion of some predicates ? 6. Why are these 
 completions called objects ? ^ 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Arrange in columns the subjects in the following, and say 
 01 what each consists : — '' 
 
 JtLr^^ r* < w *' T^ »''°'"'- , <^^ ^'^* •*• (^) " H"«h ! " said the 
 mother, {(/) Hurrah ! rang from the ranks, (e) The lazy take 
 most pams (/) Thinking leads to action. (,) To learn IZgrTly 
 
 wpTh nf>-''T"'^;, W^^'J^o loves not liberty? (.) AmaSing 
 wealth oft ruins health, (k) "Bravo!" shouted the audience. (I) 
 Laughing is contagious. ^ ' 
 
 EXERCISE m. 
 Supply subjects, and so make sentences of the following :— 
 
 (a) ^ shall clothe a man with rags. (/;) catch mice." (c) 
 
 ■ IS a good dog. (d) tips the little hills with gold. e 
 
 discovered America. (/) was killed by Brutus. (a) 
 
 . deserves play, (h) does not love his home ? (i) makes 
 
 
 I: 
 
 a glad father, {k) fell great oaks. 
 
^'^^ EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 
 Select the predicates in the following, and say of what each 
 
 COIlSlSuS ■ 
 
 1. A cheery old soul lives here. 2. It rains. 3. A live doe is 
 
 crastinate. 6. The dead alone are happy. 7. Wo are all herp S 
 Chanty bear th all things. 9. Heroes 7^ once. 10 No on' SVes a 
 
 EJERCISE V. 
 
 Supply predicates to the following subjects :— 
 I. Short reckonings . 2. Boys 
 
 Odd 
 
 David 
 
 Truth 
 
 5. Diamonds 
 
 8. Lazy workmen 
 
 11. Beauty . 
 
 6. 
 
 A 
 9. 
 
 12. To be idle 
 
 — ■ 3. A man 
 
 stitch in time 
 Puss in boots - 
 
 4. 
 
 7. 
 
 10. 
 
 U ' 
 
 EXERCISE VI. 
 
 Select the objects in the following, and say of what each 
 
 consist/S I " — 
 
 JitTi^ ^°?'^ "'? "^f^'^y- ('') '^^'^ Vret^chev cries "Prepare!'- 
 (c) Ruskm adores the beautiful, (d) Cats love to lie basking e) 
 
 ?rS^ r P"'^'^^'^'^ '•««^- (/) Who does not love singing? J) 
 Friends dishke saymg good-bye! (h) Him they found in great 
 distress. (») He destroyed all. W She left none behind. Vone 
 sailor saved the other, (m) One good turn deserves another. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. 
 
 direclT-^i *^^ °^"^^°*'' distinguishing between direct and in- 
 
 1 Give the knave a groat. 2. Thrice he offered him the crown 
 S. He handed his daughter down-stairs. 4. They handed the visitors 
 programmes. 5 The weather promises the anglers fine sport 6 The 
 boatswain taught the midshipman swimming. 7. Grant us a holiday 
 a J ipr fn T. ''T 1""^* attention. 9. Thomas posted his uncle 
 n. Sa^hl';hnl;r\ra W.'^ ""^" '"°= '''''' '''^^'^ -"-*^- 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. 
 
 Supply objects to the following :— 
 
 1. \\^ste brings . 2. Perseverance merits . 3 
 
 taught the little a new . 4. Tlie postman brought • 
 
 lr~' ^•/^Z^'nen enjoy . 6. He gave the poor — 
 
 ^^^ • /• -1 he Queen prorogued . 
 
 She 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 227 
 
 4. 
 
 7. 
 10. 
 
 FORMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
 
 SCHEME I. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 The sun 
 The soldiers 
 A good son 
 Ripe corn-fields 
 The child 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 shines, 
 were brave, 
 obeys 
 
 always rejoice 
 appears ill. 
 
 Object. 
 
 his parents. 
 
 the farmer's heart. 
 
 SCHEME II. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Enlargement. 
 
 Thompson 
 The company 
 
 The princes 
 Parraenio 
 
 of huntsmen 
 
 of Europe 
 the Grecian 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 mended 
 
 very soon 
 
 had taken 
 
 early next 
 
 
 morning 
 
 have found 
 
 recently 
 
 had done 
 
 once 
 
 Object. Enlargement. 
 
 the gate 
 dcjiarturo 
 
 a plan 
 something 
 
 broken, 
 their. 
 
 better, 
 pleasing to 
 the multi- 
 tude. 
 
 I! 
 
 SCHEME III. 
 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 Maud Miiller 
 
 on a summer's day, 
 
 Raked 
 
 the meadow 
 
 sweet with hay. 
 
 1. But 
 
 2. knowledge 
 
 3. to their eyes 
 
 4. her ample 
 
 5. page, 
 
 6. Rich with the spoils of time 
 
 7. did unroll 
 
 8. ne'er. 
 
 Subject, 
 
 Extemion of predicate (3). 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Object. 
 
 Enlargement of object (4). 
 
 (connective tvord). 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Extension of predicate (7). 
 
 Enlargement of object (5). 
 
 Object. 
 
 Enlargement of object (5). 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Extension of predicate (7). 
 
 
OOJ 
 
 EXEKCISKS. 
 
 SCHEME IV. 
 
 Analyse : — 
 
 m?llJ'r" '''? "^ conversant wit), booka well know how often tl„.v 
 
 A. 1. Those 
 who 
 are conversant with 
 
 1 looks 
 well 
 know 
 how often 
 
 mislead 
 lis, 
 when 
 we 
 have 
 not 
 
 a living 
 monitor 
 at hand 
 
 to assist us in comparini' 
 theory with practice. 
 
 A. Principal sentence. 
 -6. Adjective sentence to (.4) (1), 
 C Noun sentence to (A) (6). 
 D. Adverbial sentence to (C) (9). 
 
 Subject (6). 
 Subject (3). 
 
 Preilicttte {= understand). 
 
 Object (.3). 
 
 ExtennioH of manner (G). 
 
 Predicate, 
 
 Ejitendon of time (9). 
 
 Subject (9). 
 
 Predicate, 
 
 Object (9). 
 
 {Conjunction), 
 
 Subject (13). 
 
 Predicate, 
 
 Extension of negation (13), 
 
 Enkmjement (16). 
 
 Object (13). 
 
 Extension of place (13). 
 
 Enlarrjement (16). 
 
 pi 
 d 
 c 
 
 a 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 229 
 
 often they 
 ussiat ua iu 
 
 'and). 
 
 (13). 
 J). 
 
 o 
 
 is 
 
 c i 
 
 
 .a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 "5 
 
 
 I I 
 
 
 i 
 
 2 J I 
 
 §1 
 
 O -5 .3 
 
 a « £-2 
 
 5 J3 ^ = 
 
 o til* 
 
 3 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 -55- ;se .5S> sr .Set sp 
 
 S,B 
 
 o o 
 
 m o 
 
 £3 
 
 3 
 03 
 
 IS 
 
 p. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 o a 
 
 
 
 «b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS.. 
 
 
 
 s;S§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■«-> a; ■'" 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 T( 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^•s: 
 
 To 
 
 'J2 
 
 
 
 
 §P^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 ■a 
 <1 
 
 a 
 
 
 IS -2 
 
 .a 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 
 = ^> 
 
 
 .— D 
 
 — 
 
 fn 
 
 
 
 
 -i = 
 
 rtl 
 
 «ja 
 
 't3 4J 
 
 --J to 
 
 rt ^^ 
 
 
 B'E 
 
 .^ '^ 
 
 
 •3 ci 
 
 2" 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Z 
 
 o 
 
 1.1 
 
 c ~ 
 
 "^ „ 
 
 " = !? 
 
 «^— 2 
 r; *— -. w 
 
 ;ic = = 
 ®.i!c 2 
 3 ti 
 c "-^ 3 
 
230 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 
 Analyse the following 
 
 (a) Cowards fear thoinsel 
 ining teaches Helf-relianoe. 
 said tho sentry. ( /') Mak 
 Oeorgo told his father tlio 
 leaks. (/) Tho pipe leaka. 
 {n) Love not wlecp. (o) H 
 invalid a garland. {//) TJie 
 Luna ahowa the traveller 
 eorn-fields. (0 Chanticleer 
 cattle. 
 
 accordinL' to Scheme I. : — 
 
 ves. (i) He appears earnest, (r) Swim- 
 (d) To labour ia to pray. (») '< Beware," 
 o haate. (</) The bella are chiming, (h) 
 triitli. (/) Stop. (/•) riundiera stop the 
 im) Tlie Held yields tlio fanner a fortune, 
 ere we are. {/>) The child brought the 
 • nptain will give tiie crew a warning, (r) 
 t '(! way. (s) l'hn3l)U8 loves gilding tho 
 announces the morn. («) Mary, call the 
 
 EXERCISE X. 
 
 Of what may enlargements consist? 
 
 Point out the enlargements, and say of what kind each is :— 
 
 1. A good little girl sat under a tree. 2. Wilful waste makes 
 woful want. 3. A desire to excel actuates Smith, the foreman. 4. 
 A ramble on a summer evening restores the drooping spirit. 5. Feel- 
 ing sorry, he gave the poor old fellow a hearty meal. 6. William, 
 the captain of the school, knowing the game, taught the new scholars 
 the rules. 7. One man's meat ia another man's poison. 8. Re- 
 membering your duty, visit the sick. 
 
 
 EXERCISE XI. 
 Supply enlargements in Exercise IX. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 
 
 Select the extensions in the following, and say of what each 
 
 consists : — 
 
 1. Sweetly sing soft songs to me. 2. In a whisper she gave them 
 the order. .3. They filled the gardens quickly and completely. 4. 
 Inch by inch the a))ider travelled. 5. I come to bury Ca?sar. 6." 
 Listen patiently to liear the nightingale. 7. Everything passed off 
 successfully. 8. The tide came creeping up the beach. 9. The old 
 man walks with two sticks. 
 
 EXERCISE XIIL 
 Supply extensions to Exercise IX 
 
EXKllCISES. 
 
 231 
 
 ('•) Swim- 
 " Beware," 
 iiniiig. (/j) 
 rs Htop the 
 r II fortune, 
 roiight the 
 .riiiiig. (/•) 
 i;iMing the 
 ry, call tlie 
 
 mch is : — 
 
 iste makes 
 'euiaii. 4. 
 5. Feel- 
 . William. 
 !W BcholaM 
 1. 8. Ke- 
 
 i^hat each 
 
 gave them 
 etely. 4. 
 ^Joc'sar. 6. 
 passed off 
 ). The old 
 
 KXKRCISK XIV. 
 Analyse the following sentoncos according to aohon.o Tl ■_ 
 («) I will make thee beds of roHe8."-r, J/«,./„„v. 
 {f>) "Then eaine the Autumne all i„ yellow elad. "-.SW,,..,. 
 ('■) '• (iive me my Hcallop-Hl,,!! of .miet, 
 
 My Htutr of faith to walk upon. "- '^nM,/h. 
 (<t) " 'Hmis clad ami fortified, Sir Knight 
 
 l- 10 i» peaceful home set forth to Hght. "—Butler. 
 e) "I^ear "homaH, didst thou ever pop 
 
 Ihy h< . d into a tinman's shop ? "_^/. p,^o^^ 
 «/> One 1 ■ .Tl a Peri at the gate 
 
 Of Jvien stood, disuonsolate."— y. Moore, 
 dt) " The spirits of your fathers 
 
 Shall start from i ^ ery wave."— </aw;>ft./A 
 (A) "The castled crag of Drachenfels 
 
 b rowns o'er the wide and winding Khine. "_ /;y,,,„. 
 
 EXKRCISE XV. 
 
 (") 
 
 'Sometime we'll angle in the hrook, 
 Ihe freckled trout to take."-JA Drayfo,,. 
 
 (a) 
 ('■) 
 
 (e) 
 
 " J'^^^^'Phe/^' swains shall dance and sinir 
 ^ i^or thy delight each May morning, "-cfj/a,./,,,,,^. 
 {(■) " Read in these roses the sad story 
 
 Of my hard fate, and your own glory. "-r,,,r„. 
 ('/) " Tiiy gentle flows . ,f guiltless joys, 
 
 On fools and villains ne'er (hscend. "-Johmo,,. 
 (") " The cheerfu- supper done, wi' serious face 
 
 I hey, round the ingle, form a circle wide. "-IhirnH. 
 
 KXEKCISE XVI. 
 
 Analyse the following .sentences :_ 
 
 " Attend, ye gentle powers of musical delight. "-^/[v>,Mr/^. 
 
 Mu,« f 1 *, •" ''^!l'°"fe'f» the trembling ayre 
 Sweet-breatlung Zephyrus di.l softly play. "_,V„.,,. 
 
 "When then shall Hope and Fear their objects find , "-Jokn.on 
 " Close by the regal chair 
 
 Fell Tiiirst and Famine scowl 
 A baleful smile upon their baffled guest. »_^Vaw 
 " The Sundays of man's life, 
 Threaded together on time's string, 
 
 Q 
 
 
m 
 
 232 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Make bracelets to adorn tlie wife 
 
 Of tlie eternal glorious king." — Geon/! Herbert . 
 (/) "The trenchant blade, Toledo trusty, 
 
 For want of fighting was grown rusty. " — Butler. 
 ((/) " With beating heart to the task he went." — i^cotl. 
 (/() " How calmly gliding through the dark-blue sky, 
 
 The midnight moon ascends ! " — Southey. 
 
 EXERCISE XVII. 
 
 1. What is a compound sentence? 2. How are co-ordinate sen- 
 tences sometimes contracted? 3. Show that relative pronouns are 
 sometimes used as conjunctions. 4. Analyse tht following compound 
 sentences according to Scheme II. : — 
 
 («) " Of conversation sing a.i ample theme, 
 
 And drink the tea of Heliconian stream." — Chatterton. 
 
 (I>) "Come forth into tlie light of things, 
 
 Let Nature be your ;teacher. " — Wordsw<yrth. 
 
 (c) " He gazed at the flowers with tearful eyes, 
 
 He kissed their drooping leaves. " — Longfellow. 
 
 (d) " On piety, humanity is built ; 
 
 And, on humanity, much happiness." — Young. 
 («) " On the green bank I sat and listened long." — Dryden. 
 (J) " 0, young Lochinvar is come out of the west. 
 
 Through all the wide Border his steed was the best, 
 
 And, save his good broadsword, he weapons had none ; 
 
 He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone." — Scott. 
 
 II 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 
 Expand the adjectives in the following into phrases . — 
 
 1. A merciful man considers his beast. 
 
 2. The mistress scolded the lazy servant,. 
 •S. A ragged man went down the lane. 
 
 4. The plague carried off the young ones. 
 
 5. Numerous birds were found dead. 
 G. Sailors dislike a dead calm. 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 
 Expand the adverbs in the following into phrases : — 
 
 1. Green seldom tries the eye. 
 
 2. The soldiers rested there. 
 
 .'}. The man answered the ctiarge easily. 
 
 4. Ill weeds grow apace. 
 
 5. Dead dogs never bark. 
 
 6. Come quickly. 
 
 H 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 233 
 
 rdinate sen- 
 ronouna are 
 g compoiuid 
 
 tterton. 
 
 h-yih.n. 
 
 best, 
 I none ; 
 
 'icon. 
 
 les:- 
 
 (a) 
 (b) 
 (c) 
 id) 
 (e) 
 
 EXERCISE XX. 
 Analyse the sentences in Exercises XVIU. and XIX. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. 
 1. What is a complex aerten^pn o i^ c 
 3. In what three ways can subo 'iS. J' . ^ subordinate sentence. 
 
 subordinate sentencerbe coord naf, T^^r r"^/n *' ^«^ ^^" 
 sentences complex ))v exnandin^^f ,.''\^^^^'' *^« following simple 
 tence :- ^ ^ expanding the adjective into an adjectival sen- 
 
 Empty vessels make the most noise. 
 1 he kitchen clock keeps time, 
 hmall strokes fell great o..ks. 
 A hard hand often owns a soft heart. 
 
 A T r-?f * '''°'*^* 8'''^^ '" ^ «''aJy bed. 
 lAJ I said to my nearer comrade, "Hush ! " 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 
 in ttffoiw'llfg"-'' "'"'""""' "' "'" ^"P"™'™ <" 'I'" "Overly 
 
 1. He writes legibly. 
 
 2. The king behaved shamefully. 
 
 3. The rich deride the poor very seldom 
 
 4. Men often think themselves fmmortei; 
 
 5. Ijemosthenes gradually became free of speech 
 
 6. Stephenson overcame difficulties bravely 
 
 EXERCISE XXIII. 
 Change the subjects or objects into sentences •- 
 1. It 18 good for us to be here. 
 ^. He soon learnt to read. 
 
 3. To love one's child is natural. 
 
 4. Carelessness brings its punishment. 
 o. Being deserving should precede success. 
 
 fteigning in peace is mor^ fflnr.v,.c 4.i,„-. 
 
 fi p- "6.""°r'''"'g •"louiu precede success. 
 
 0. R«igning in peace is more glorious than dvine in war 
 
 7. Borrowing means sorrowing. ^ ^ "' '^^'^• 
 
 S. Lending is not always befriending. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. 
 
 "'^"■'''If '.?^f r"^.^*^"*'^"^^^ ^^^ording to Scheme IV. 
 W 1 he harp that once through Tara'*. halls 
 ■Ihe soul of music shed, 
 Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls 
 {^s If that soul were fte(]."~ Moore 
 
 
 ! 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 ' The autumn winds rushing 
 
 Waft the leaves that are seareat, 
 But our flower was in flushing 
 
 When blighting was nearest. "Srotl. 
 
 Her beads while she numbered, the baby still slumbered, 
 And smiled in her face, while she bended her knee. 
 * Oh ! blessed be that Warning, my child, thy sleep adorning, 
 For I know that tlie angels are whispering with thee.' " 
 
 EXKHCISK XXV. 
 
 f^ii.. 
 
 (6) 
 
 (</) 
 
 Analyse the following sentences according to Scheme V. :^ 
 
 (N.B.— 7%w is the scheme prescribed by the De.parlment for the nrho/ur- 
 ship examination.) 
 
 (a) " And ye that byde behinde. 
 Have ye none other trust, 
 As ye of clay were cast by kynd, 
 So shall ye waste to dust."— &V T, Wyatt. 
 '' Ah ! yet, e'er I descend into the grave, 
 May I a small house and large garden have ! 
 And a few friends, and many books, both true, 
 Both wise, and both delightful too ! "—Cordey. 
 
 (c) " Ring ye tiie bells, ye young men of the town, 
 And leave your wonted labours for this day : 
 This day is holy ; do you write it down, 
 That ye for ever it remember ma.y."— Drayton. 
 "This alwve all — to thine own self be true ; 
 And it must follow, as the niglit the day, 
 Thou canst not then be false to any man." — Shukespmrf. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVI. 
 
 Analyse, as in the preceding : — 
 
 («) " Take physic, pomp ; 
 
 Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel ; 
 That thou may'st shake the superflux to them, 
 And show the heavens more just." — Shakespeare,, 
 (b) " When God with us was dwelling here. 
 In little babes He took delight ; 
 Such innocents as thou, my dear, 
 
 Are ever precious in His sight." — G. Withi-r. 
 
 ((•) " That man is freed from servile bands. 
 
 Of hope to rise, or fear to fall ; v' 
 
 Lord of himself, though not of lands, 
 / And having nothing, yet hath all."— Woffon, 
 
 w 
 
 •A'- 
 hi 
 til 
 ro 
 
 .V 
 
 poi 
 gn 
 
oniiiig, 
 
 me V. :— 
 
 the. nvholur- 
 
 {h) 
 
 EXEUCisEa. 235 
 
 {d) " The seaa are quiet ^ilien the wh.ds give o'er • 
 ba^alm are we when passions are no more ; 
 n/^'^'^'' V'ow liQw vain Jt was to ba-i^t 
 Ut feehng things too cgitaU, to b« lost."— Walter, 
 
 EXERCISE XXVII. 
 Analyse, as before :— 
 
 (a) "Let me tell the adventurous stranger, 
 In our calmness lies our danger ; 
 Like a river's silent running, 
 Stillness shows our depth and cunning. "- -Dur/ey 
 "•'sTr •t'f/r."'"' ^'r '^'^''Sev, hesitating then no longer, 
 B„t 'fh f ; • T ""^^'''"' *''"'y y^"'- forgiveness I in.plore ; 
 Kut the fact ,8 I was napping, and so gently you ™ rappinL' 
 
 iftat 1 scarce was sure I heard you.'"— /v. ' 
 
 (c) " ' My Lord has need of these flowerets gay ' 
 I he reaper said, and smiled ; 
 • Dear tokens of the earth aie they, 
 Where He was once a child.' "—Low//t(/ow. 
 
 
 ulfujicai-''. 
 
 WOKD-BUILDING (p. 116). 
 EXERCISE L 
 
 whlV ^^''"'* it '''■ '■°°'' .^- J^^'^t'^guish between root an.l dem. 3 To 
 what are ii^exions made? 4. Define ,/mm^^Ve. 5. What are ,Je 
 .Axe«and«*#W 6. Give a general rule for their use. 7.^1^^* 
 hybml? 8. Dehne cowpo.nd as applied to words. 9. Say of e^ch of 
 the syllables of the following wor.ls whether it is a prefix, a suffix a 
 
 iTsLti::t7zr f '"""= '"'•^""-•^■"'' ->-^-cMiu.kn2%'. 
 
 my, snon-mgiu-ta, nik-ntmid, man-mrv-ant. 
 
 11 
 
 hi 
 
 V 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Show that the following words are compounds of two nouns •— 
 .\tmday, wheatjiefd, ndnhow, home.ttad, key.tone, Ladvdau 
 Mrchadmas, cost.rmo.yer, .teamMp, sheriff, viceroy, >,nd drake. 
 
 EXERCISE III. 
 
 p«m!ds?!! ''"'■' "-^^'"'"'^ '« ^^""^ «^ the wor.l3 of the following con,- 
 
 aZI'lnT' r"'f"^' '^Ifr'^^ xoft.soap, nhjhtmare, backbone, .cape- 
 ffr(u-e,i(uiy,u!he^ear,J,el,(/are, upstart, and steward. 
 
ii I: 
 
 236 
 
 EXEKCISK8. 
 
 fir 
 
 mi 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 
 In the following compound adjectives say to what Class of H'orfi 
 each jiart belongs : — / -uo- 
 
 Stl/Une «i/„tetal, l,o„I..V,,„o,--lih, onn-au-M,,,,, «(o«„■<,■.^ Mri- 
 
 s "S>r;i '*'""'"'■'■ """"■*• *""■"'"■"'■» ■■«'•»»". "»• 
 
 EXERCISE y. 
 
 \yhat other Parts of Speech )iave been used to make up the fol- 
 lowMig compound verl)s ?— ' 
 
 ^_^^0,/(/,u:e, hamlcuf, ckarxtarch, outnmnh,,; ,chUtwa,h, imjathtr, out- 
 
 EXERCISE VI. 
 Connnent on each of the following adverbs : — 
 
 whUatwhencT'' "'^'^' '"*"' '^'"''''' '""'' "^"'"^' "''"''' "''''""'' '"'*"'• 
 
 EXERCISE VII. 
 
 Show the force of each of th^ prefixes in the following words •— 
 Unloose, withankful, forehead, bewail, mthdrew, misrepresent, bem-ime 
 wanhope, gamsay, I hoof, forlorn, benighted, atone. > J ^ 
 
 EXERCISE VIII, 
 
 eavi' word*-"^ °^ ^^^ '^'^^^''^^ '" ^^^ following by the meaning of 
 
 Engrane, offcast, overdone, inmost, overland, underpay, outcome, 
 thoroughfare, embalm, overstep, welfare. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 
 «.2S,W;I"'"' " *'^ '''"°""^' ^'^°"'"S> "''-•« -~y. the 
 
 jfll^re, acclaim, abstract, absolve, assume, affront, aspire, attract, 
 arrest, aggravate, address, pardon. ■" > i > «»«.t.i, 
 
 EXERCISE X. 
 
 „,^tZye^V°'7 f ■'!" r^-^^ i"-6'- -rf, ambient, circumnavigate, 
 amcipate, coeval^ desuetude, cispri^ ^, ransit, countenance, country^ 
 dance, corrode, desiccate, emig^-ri , t--x.niural. ivuniry 
 
 EyEr/:"^sE xi. 
 
 folbwi^n "^-""^ ^^^ variations from the original prefix in each of the 
 Difer, irregular, impending, illiberal, ignoble, embrace, occur, sedition. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 23( 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 
 
 Show the value of the prefixes in the following •— 
 Merlude noupareil, malefurtor, mutational, iutramuml, ntmmhrn 
 .ZriTrZu! '"'"'""' "'"'■"' '""'-""'' ^"■"''^■"'^' retrorer', ..rll^;:: 
 
 EXERflSE XIII. 
 
 Explain tlie prefixes, noting the cases of assimilation •— 
 itcar, Kufer, s„r/eif, vi.roiuif, tm,l,tce, l,;.^pas,, su,rer,f, nnifif,/, wb- 
 trancml, mjre.jaii, mcamh, ultramarine, .superhuman, suffi,; Surface. 
 
 EXERCISE XIV. 
 
 ^/•^f l.'"'lT?' °^ '"" *'^'^°"'^f '■'- '>' '■"'. ':' ■• iind of oh becoming or, 
 Of, 0, op. Istate a general rule for such changes. 
 
 EXERCISE XV. 
 
 Select the prefixes, and justify the use of each :— 
 byptdemic, emhmic, autonomy, eclectic, dy.pcp.ia, arvhiem.copal 
 teriZer "''""'' "'°''"''' '''"'"''"'' '"""'> ''^' '^^^tcitropheZZt 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. 
 
 ,Jn?^ f ' "'^^7 °^ f ' P'f '^"^ m-mo„olot,uc. Pantheon, x.llahh, 
 r ihn. ' J'";'°'1'''''^'^yP'^f^'(phitc, programme, hyperbole, hemiplcjia, 
 euphoiiii, •synthesis, Polynesia, monarchy. i J > 
 
 EXERCISE XVII. 
 
 Give the root and the suffix in each of the following •— 
 
 v/i /'/)'"' '7'*^^''';'. ^^'"-f^' *«*<'''•. P^nman.hip, hammock, loveliness, 
 straddle, saphng, ch,ppings, sisterhood, carter, starling, collier, sawyer 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 
 Explain fully thn auflSxes in the following ■— 
 
 Mitten, earldom stealth, breadth, handicraft, rimerraft, drunkard 
 laddie, hardshp, haft, spindle, shut/:.; hrazier, xkiting, hilt, H^T 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 
 ing^woTdt'':-'^''* °^ '^' '"*'• *'^ ^''''"^ ^^' '"^'^"^"^'^ "^ ^^^ ^""o^- 
 Frolicsome, knotty dromied, clayey, xcoollen, leeward, awru-ard 
 
 Z32ts&'i';r*-'' '-«• /*""^. ■*-■;», ^t 
 
 !f 
 
238 
 
 EXERCISKB. 
 
 lUil 
 
 y ', 
 
 EXEIW7LS>: XX. 
 
 In the following aflverbs shov the force ol the siiflixes, notinc 
 hi'i'ridn in pissiiig : — 
 
 Always, utmi'jhUmy, candU/;/, duly, once, myxltriQiuly, nowise, 
 tulkdr/f gtmlth'dij, if'deloiiij, seldom, prndiarly. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. 
 
 .Show the effect of the Auf&x in each of the roHowing verbs :— 
 Stalk, snivel, falter, s'reny'h^u, flu,-^S, Iwilhr, dribble, trundle, aush, 
 {/lister, blush, drcKjijle. 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 
 In the following nouns show the value of each suffix :— 
 
 Actor, testavient, briijandair . librartu)i, covsomtnt, 'ludural, resident, 
 
 radiance, patrimony, temiou, Inpidary, graduate, conduct, presbyter, 
 
 reticule. 
 
 EXEKl LSE XXIII. 
 
 Explain each of the component parts of the following hybrids :— 
 Colour, frailty, bigamy, atoncnent, oddmeiU, bondage, starvation, 
 foreigner, bilingualism, unjustly, grandfather, martyrdam, ungrateful, 
 handkerchief, unconceitedly, falsehood, demigod, witticism, unacted, art- 
 ful, Cockneyism, Bowdlerise, blackguardism, cerecloth, druggist, surname. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. 
 (Hve the meanings of the suffixes in Exercise XXIII. 
 
 EXERCISE XXV. 
 
 1. What are the following pairs of words called? Potion and 
 poison ; cadence and chance. 2. Give the corresponding word to each 
 of tJie following : betdson, chattels, malediction, channel, hotel, redemp- 
 tion. 3. Give the meanings of the suffixes. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVI. 
 
 Give the meaning of each of the suffixes ii, the foUowini^ ad- 
 jectives : — 
 
 Arabesque, ratable, torrid, arenaceous, mundane, se</uent, peninsular, 
 riparian, aromatic, ductile, j)edanfic, submissive, feminine, viruleiU, 
 jocose, valedictory, moribund, umlrarieous. 
 
 EXERr 
 
 KXVII. 
 
 1. Arrange the follov.- ^ wc ^ and their doublets in two columns 
 
 distinguishing the French ; ■> e Latin. 2. Explain the suffixes in 
 
 the words and tlie (/o«Wr- •/u supply. Loyal, regal, fragile, caitiff, 
 iKXond, particle, sample, spfeu >;. 
 
EXEltCISES. 
 
 23'J 
 
 EXERCISK XXVIII. 
 In the following verbs explain the surtixes :— 
 
 .Jw(/j/i/y, txitdife, eMimale, coalesce, deify, publish, tmifu, alituule 
 mibellish, permeate, ejctuKjuis/i. ' Jn^ i . /"^'/y, nutmue, 
 
 EXERCISE XXIX. 
 
 Show the force of the suffixes in the following, (listingnishintt be- 
 tween the Greek and hybrid words :— 'sunguisning De- 
 
 f-'-lomatic, theorist, philanthropy, mitlicixm, theorist, nepotimn, parol. 
 ysiH, demi, pesmnist, panorama, minimise. ' 
 
 EXERCISE XXX. 
 
 Show the derivation of the following, c.uefully noting hybrids . _ 
 
 111 / ,' , ', ':*''''"*"• '"'U jetsam, uicbiame, borroo; blush, kind 
 
 mad, bakery, club, hmjle, draught, window, eyelet. ' 
 
 EXERCISE XXXI. 
 Derive the following words : 
 
 • m,,, til, ,jarhc, lady, lodestar, wake, mi,,ht, nozzle, stile, ,roo,> ,r„ddle 
 Inn; pickerel, scuttle, slo.,, weft, wanton, reap, scrape, sl^evl 
 
 EXKRCISE XXXII. 
 
 occur, course, damsel, domineer, chapter, alto. ^ ' ' 
 
 l^XEUCISE XXXIII. 
 •nd^" te[:'!S.iil'''°"'' ""'■"" """"■« ''•'"' "<■'•' »- I-tin. 
 
 i< 
 
 ! 
 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIV. 
 
240 
 
 EXEUCISKS. 
 
 force, irlii/ioii, ajlueiil, leaven, flexible, rencijade, collapue, d'mmount, 
 /eat, projile, conjoint, annex, exhibit, facet, ijrateful, memoir. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXV. 
 
 St'lei^t tlio wonlH of direct Latin origin : — 
 
 Dormouse, fuMihlf, ilnke, jirofovnd, hnlicrovK, ijrnttel, manne, redeem, 
 (lislnre, ahsohite, aherrtition, jiroi/rcsH, scent, prohily, poifinnnt, repair, 
 'liiarry, row, ten.se, terrible, iirhane, innidioun, sexton, nacriliye, jilattKi''!" 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVI. 
 
 <tivc the (lurivation of each of the following wohIh : - 
 JJate, cosmelir, siiri/eon, itatutea, doijmo, economy, dynamite, catarrh, 
 hematite, idiot, melancholy, hieroiflyphic. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVII. 
 
 Give two roots for each of the following words : — 
 Ifi/pocrite, aerolite, demaifoijue, onomatopoetir, lithotomy, tetrarch, 
 kaleidoscope, hydrophobia, heliotrope, catastrophe, evangeliM. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVIII. 
 
 State the origin of the following words : — 
 
 Lizard Point, panic, tantaline, petrel, chimera, cravat, cicerone, mar 
 tinet, dunce, euphuistic, saturvine, hermetically. 
 
 EXPjRCISE XXXIX. 
 
 Trace the following words to their origin : — 
 
 Peach, cherry, damson, rhvbarb, pheasant, dollar, florin, (juinea, 
 solecism, pistol, laconic, iitopian, kimber. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 l! 1 
 
 EXERCISE XL. 
 
 Show the origin of the following words : — 
 
 Babble, intoxicate, </adfly, belfry, liijtioi-ice, bustard, luncheon, easel, 
 buttery, custard, sheaf, carouse, stirrup, causeway, treacle, crayfish, 
 verdigris. 
 
 EXERCISE XLL 
 
 Compare the original with the modern meaning of the followintf 
 words : — ^ 
 
 Sycophant, alloiv, restive, i/azette, amuse, handsome, awkward, knave, 
 blackguard, mere, brat, painful, censure, cunning, preposterous, sillv. 
 vivacity. > v> 
 
KXKRCISES. 
 
 'J41 
 
 PLAN FOR PAUSING. 
 When parsing a wor.I „l,8erve the following rules :_ 
 
 quotation. 
 
 (iii) U 
 arranged 
 
 (iii)_ U«e the following tenns. when applicahle. and in the order as 
 
 NOUNS.-KIND. Pkopkk; Common; Co..KCTrvK; Abstk.ct. 
 
 GENDER. MA.SCUUNK; Fk.minine; Common; Nkutkr. 
 NUMBER. Singular; Plural. 
 PERSON. First; Second; Thiki.. 
 
 CASE. Nominative, subject of tlie verb ; pp^ 
 
 sition with ; of address (Vocativk) ; 
 
 absolute ; after copulative verb ■ . 
 
 Possessive, limiting the noun . 
 
 Objective, governed directly by the transitive, 
 factitive, causative, prepositional, or cognate 
 
 verb or the participle ; or ii,directly 
 
 by the verb or participle (Dative); or 
 
 adverbial object; or governed by the pre- 
 
 position ; or by the ........g Adjec- 
 
 ~ ; or in apposition v, ic/i . 
 
 tive 
 
 PKONOUNS.-KINB. Personal; Relative, agreeing .ith it« 
 
 antecedent in gender, person, and number; 
 Interrogative; Indefinite; Reciprocal; 
 Emphatic; Reflexive; 
 
 GENDER, \ 
 NUMBER, f 
 PERSON, 
 CASE. 
 
 / 
 
 As in 
 
 nouns. 
 
 M 
 
ii 
 
 'yi<>. 
 
 21 
 
 EXEIJCI.SES. 
 
 ADJECTIVES.— KIN I ». Qualitativk, positive, co jwirutivo, of 
 
 superlative degree, going with the noun ; 
 
 QuANTiTATiVK, Indefinite or detinite, nu- 
 meral, cardinal, or ordinal, or distributive, 
 
 limiting the noun ; Demonstkativk, 
 
 pointing out the noun . 
 
 VERBS. — CLASS. Transitive (active or iiassive V'oicE); 
 Intranhitive ; 
 Auxiliary, of voice, mood, tense, or emphasis. 
 
 C0N.IU<4ATI0N. Strong or Weak. 
 
 MOOI>. iNOio.vnvE, assertive or uiterrogative ; 
 
 Imperative ; Suiwcnctive; Infinitive (nomina 
 tive, objective, or gerun<lial). 
 
 TENSE. Present; Past; Fotdre. Perfect (ii -nplete), 
 imperfect (incomplete), indefinite, co i> nous 
 (progressive). 
 
 PERSON, \ . . .,, ,. ,. , 
 
 ' > Agreeing with the siuiiect . 
 
 NUMBER. / *> « J 
 
 (PARTICIPLE) (Active, (jualifynig the noun oi pronoun 
 
 , and governing the noun or pronoun 
 
 ; or Passive). 
 
 ADVERBS.— Of TIME PLACE, MANNER, ASSERTION, or REA- 
 SONING, modifying the verb ; of DEGREE 
 
 modifying tb .-dverb or adjective . 
 
 DEGREE of comi, .ison (Pos. ; Comp. ; Sit..^ 
 
 PBE. OSI }NS.— SIMPLE or COMI'OUNl), governing the nouoi 
 
 or pron' nn . 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS.-CO-ORDINATK. 
 SUBORDINATE, 
 
EXAMINATION QUKSTIONS. 
 
 243 
 
 SELECTIONS rium QUESTIONS SET AT THE 
 
 rUPIL-TKACHER AND SCHOLAItSlIll' 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 I 
 
 Thffi,mr,sjimvin,, mne o/,h, IJur.Unn, r.fir In the ,.,,„. („ MHWjnhn; f!r,mmn,: 
 
 I'lJPIL-TEACHERS.-FIRST YEAR, 
 SET A. 
 
 1, 
 
 " Toll for the brave ! 
 Brave, Kempenfelt h r/oni-. 
 His last t<ea-ji;/ht ia /iiwjlit ; 
 JII.1 work of glory done." 
 
 Analyse these lines, and parse the words in italics. 
 
 2 Explain the use of the adjective hrave in the first line, and cive 
 similar instances. (10.) ■ i bive 
 
 3 VVrite out the past indefinite tense .,f each of the verbs, tofl, go. 
 <lo,jt<jht. (44.) ' ' " • 
 
 SET B. 
 
 1. 
 
 " Cowards die many times before their death, 
 The valiant only taste of death ))iit once." —Sihakespf are. 
 Analyse these lines and parse them. 
 
 2. Point out any K„,ilUh termiuationa in them ; and give instances 
 ot words with a similar ending. (117.) 
 
 3. What is meant by mood, and how many moods are there ' Write 
 out tlie imperative mood of the verb ' it." ,:vs.) 
 
 SET C. 
 
 1. Parse and analyse the following : — 
 
 " And now a gallant tomb they raise, 
 With costly sculptures decked ; 
 And marbles storied with his praise 
 Poor Gelert's bones ])rotect." 
 
 2. Distinguish between &yxinfle.rum and a miffiT-, iliustratin.' your 
 answer from the lines above. Hlfi.) 
 
 3. Explain the apostroph,. in aeltrt's. Write down the i)osse,ssive 
 case pin.al number of woman, o.r, moii.^e, child, and eon-iti-lmr. (20 I 
 
 I. ^hen a singular noun ends in an s sound, how is the possessive 
 sign affected ? Give examples. (21.) 
 
 1 
 
 \ 1\ 
 
244 
 
 KXAMINATION gUESTIONS. 
 
 SET I). 
 
 1. 
 
 •5! 
 
 ¥ t 
 
 I' 
 
 t!l! 
 
 
 " //«/•« Ouie, slow wtmUwi tliroiigh a lovel plnhi 
 Of gjiaciotia me.ttd.^, with cattle »prinkli'<l on; 
 < 'oikIiicIh the eyt- a/0/1.7 hJH njiiuoiis tonrat' 
 Deliifhifil."— Coirpcr. 
 
 Analyse the ;i1iovn, parsing the words in italicB. 
 
 2. Mention verbs ending in />; like n/nlnUc. (134.) 
 
 3. (Jiv^ examples of a.ljectivefl en.ling in -.V, and ^n, and explain 
 the signihcance of those terminations. (131,i;{'.>.) 
 
 SET K— OcToBKU 1892. 
 {ATuwer Qimtion 1 ami two nlher (Jufilloni.) 
 1. Say how many sentences tlierc are in this jiaasago, imint out th.' 
 BUbjeot, predicate, and object, or extensions in each ; and parse the 
 words printed in italics :- 
 
 " A mist was diioiny down the British Channel, 
 
 The day was just begun, 
 And througli tlio window j.anes, on floor and panel, 
 
 Strmmed the red autumn sun. 
 It glanced on flowing flag and rippling pennon 
 
 And the white sails of ships, 
 And from the frowniny rampart the black cannon 
 
 Hailed it with feverish lips."- Loni/felloiv. 
 
 2. Give the past tense and j)ast participle of the following verbs •— 
 lead, teach, Jl, I, sit, lay, rist; lit-. (44, 4G.) 
 
 3. Show the meaning of the i)art in italics in each of the following 
 words ; and give some other illustrations of the use of the same ter° 
 niination : woman Aoo,/, darkHe^^ posi<io«, love/y, despotwm, move»«e«<. 
 and claima///. (128, etc.) ^ r . , 
 
 4. Adjectives are sometimes classified as those of quality and those 
 f Quantdti. Explain this distinction, and give some examples of 
 boti). (28.) 
 
 5. Give some examples of nouns which you know to be feminine by 
 the form of the final syllable. (11.) 
 
 0. What arc the plurals of phenomenon, species, axis, syllabus, ox, 
 and sheep? Why are their plurals so formed? Give examples of 
 words that have no sing.ilar form. (18, 19.) 
 
 SET F— April 1893. 
 
 1. Point out the several sentences in the following extract, and the 
 principal parts of each : — 
 
 " Dear is my little native vale, 
 
 The ringdove builds and vuirmurs there ; 
 
 Close to my cot she lills her tale 
 To every passing villager. 
 
 The squirrel leaps from tree to tree 
 And i lis his nuts at liberty."— Rofjert, 
 
K.YAMINATION (^rRSTfONS. 
 
 24.1 
 
 each of their pa ! L^Z ; "i"'"'"'' ""•' *''.'.*''« "'-^"'"^ "f 
 
 
 "leuuiMg and U80. (53) •' •"•""• ^'-^imbih meir 
 
 SET G — Octohkr 1893. 
 {Amwer (Motions 1 „ml 2 „„</ « .„ „<Aer« ) 
 
 priliciX'a o?LX:"' ""*""" '" *•'« ^"""^■'"''' -^*-t. -' the 
 
 "^/a«/ they had heenfrlen,/. in y<.uth, 
 But wlu.pn-hi,, t,.ng„ea c«« ?,r./..o« truth, 
 An. coM.stancy dwells in realms aho,;. 
 Ami life is t/ionii,, and youth is vain." 
 
 ': ^ Z:TJ:'^!:\f7 -traet^whid, are printed in italic. 
 .^Lowing how " ^ ^ '''" '"*« "f «"«5-^«« <"■ terminations, 
 
 (a) Nouns may be formed from verbs. (128 ) 
 ; )«':1'« '"ay be forn,ed from a<ljective . (1.34 ) 
 (c) Adjectives may be formed from nouns. (S) 
 
 both purposes. Name Zne^r'^n.^^^t ^ad ^rJr'^orilrT^' ^"^'^ 
 
 5. Verbs m the infinitive son.ettmes h^v^the wold'" o '- b.f 
 them, and are Bometmes without if i.\.. i • i-il- , before 
 
 word ..to', is necessary a.:! w£ "t istS^Lf '^',?r ^'^^ ^"^" ^''^' 
 
 QnotAt;\"uer;r 'SsSS"* ^rr' "'^"^'•'«'' «^"*"^ 
 
 «i4, etc.) ' '"''J'"* *"'• Illustrate them by sentences. 
 
 SET H--APRIT. 1894. 
 
 {Amwer QneHtiom 1 and 2 and tioo others. ) 
 
 rr.ucip:rpa;;i'o*?:;eh f- "'"''"^" •" *'^^ ^""°-"'^' -^-^t. an.l the 
 
 " The rampart is won and the spoil begun, 
 Aud all but the after carnage done. 
 
 Desperate groups of twelve or teji 
 Make a pause and turn again, 
 " -*h handed backs against " 
 
 M 
 
 ^ < 
 
 lercely stan.l or fi,,hH„,j fa/i; 
 
 •all 
 
246 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 2. Parse the words in the foregoing extract which are i)rinted in 
 italics. 
 
 3. What are the Auxiliary Verbs ? Explain their use. (5:}.) 
 
 4. Classify pronouns. Make sentences introducing words that are 
 sometimes used as adjectives and sometimes as pronouns. (2.3, 30.) 
 
 5. Explain the terms— Nominative and Objective cases. ' What 
 different kinds of words are followed by a noun in the obiective case ' 
 Give examples. (19, etc.) 
 
 6. What do the following terminations mean: .icard, -ance, -al, 
 •dom, -ish? Give examples, (l.'jl, 135, 129, 132.) 
 
 1. 
 
 SET I- October 1894. 
 (Anwer Questiom 1 and 2 and two others.) 
 Analyse the following sentences: — 
 
 (rt) " In that hour of deep contrition. 
 
 He beheld with charer vision 
 Justice, the art'jKjer, rine." 
 (h) " mth her dart the jit/ing deer she loottnds." 
 
 2. Parse the words in the above extracts which are in italics. 
 
 3. What is the meaning of these terminations : -fy, .f,d, -en -ish 
 ■atet Give three examples of each. (141, 132, 131, 134, 132, 135.)' 
 
 4. What part of speech does the enlargement of the subject corre- 
 spond with ? Give three ways in which the subject may be enharged 
 with examples of each. (94.) ' 
 
 5. What is meant by an impersonal and a defective verb ' Name 
 any such verbs. (53(a), 53(d).) 
 
 G. What ])art of speech, other than the adjective, admits of com- 
 parison ? Illustrate your answer by examples. (57.) 
 
 ' I w 
 
 
 SET J— April 1895. 
 (Answer Question 1 and two others only.) 
 
 1. Analyse the following passages : — 
 
 " With heavy sighs / often hear 
 
 You mourn my hapless ■woe.''' 
 " My day or niyht myself I make." 
 
 2. Parse the words in these passages which are printed in italics. 
 
 3. Give other words formed like each of the following, and the 
 signification of the termination in each case : business, hap/ess darken 
 lu'ely, and leaven. (130, etc.) ' 
 
 4 Write sentences showing the various uses of the following 
 words -.—that, for, domi. Par? e the word in each sentence, as vou 
 use It. (r)3toti3(h)) ' ^ 
 
 5. Write sentences containing the past tenses and past participles 
 of the verb lo lie (in botii .senses), to lay, to bear, and to win.' (44, 40.) 
 
 6. What is meant by the terms auxiliary verb and participle' 
 Give esainplet! of each. (5.3, 40. > 
 
•e printed in 
 
 •rds that are 
 
 (23, 30.) 
 ises. What 
 ective case ? 
 
 , -ance, -ai, 
 
 talics. 
 
 'ill, -en. -inh, 
 
 J32, 135.) 
 
 bject corre- 
 
 )e enlarged, 
 
 rb ? Name 
 
 its of coni- 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIOxVS. 247 
 
 SET K— October 1895. 
 
 ^^-^--- Questions land 2 and one otkeronl,.) 
 1- Analyse : ' 
 
 "Fill A^y, the sparkling bowl, 
 Ihe null repast pre])are ; 
 
 ^ell Thirst and Famine scou'l 
 A balefnl smile upon their baffled guest. " 
 2. Parse the words in italics. 
 
 *. tixplam the allusions: '^'-J'^-e. (/o, 39, 32.) 
 
 Explain i 
 
 "She-wolf of Prance." 
 
 "Eevere his father's fame, 
 ■His consort's faith." 
 
 "Henry's holy shade." 
 
 ;; Weave the warp and M'eave the woof." 
 dirge," "obsequies," "ratify" 
 
 "Alas! regardless of their doom 
 Ibe Jittle victims play. " 
 
 ^■^^^:'!:z:s!t:;:::^^t^ -« «- do „„,. 
 
 iV:^.— Ouestion<» i o ^ '"'"^^j ana eaC belong? (4,3) ^' 
 
 n italics, 
 g, and the 
 pss, darkfH, 
 
 following 
 ice, as you 
 
 Barticinles 
 
 (44, 46.) 
 
 participle ? 
 
 i. 
 
 PUPIL-TEACHERS.-SECOND YEAR. 
 
 SET A. 
 
 ''She, goo6. cater ess, 
 i^fJ^[^^^accordinr, to her sober iLs! 
 
 Ar^A I, 7 "7 •'"•"•V 'w iier soDer Jaws 
 
 Analyse the b ' ' "' ''""' *-I'---."-C7o... 
 
 Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics 
 
 et;.. m%lT '"'^^^ ^'^'^ terminationsT you see in ». , ,, o, 
 
 i." fc^tre^^rfirSa •^"''^" ^^^^^« *° "^^t-e.") (192 ) " 
 
 instances. (124J ^ °^ "°'^ "^""^'^'^ i° composition ? Give 
 
248 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 SET B. 
 
 " In short, you itill find that in the hightr and better class of works 
 of fiction and imagination, you possess all you require, to strike your 
 grappling-irons into the souls of the people, and to chain them willing 
 followers to the car of civilisation." 
 
 1. Analyse the above passage. 
 
 2. Parse the words in italics. 
 
 3. Show wherein prepositions and conjunctions are like and wherein 
 they are ?««W'e. (58.) 
 
 4. When is a noun said to be in the nominative, possessive, and ob- 
 jective cases respectively ? (19.) 
 
 if i 
 
 SET C. 
 
 1. Analyse the following from the words "then burst his mighty 
 heart," and parse the words in italics : — 
 
 " For when the noble Cwsar saw him stah, 
 Ingratitude, more strong than traitors' arms. 
 Quite vanquished him : then burst his mighty hearty 
 And in his mantle mufiling up his face. 
 Even at the base of Pompey's statua. 
 Which all the while ran blood, great Cxaarfell.'^ — Jidius Ccesar. 
 
 2. Point out and explain the force of the adjective suffixes in the 
 following : — 
 
 "At which time would I, being but a moonish youth, grieve, be 
 efieminate, changeable, proud, fantastical, apish, shallow, inconstant, 
 full of tears, full of 8milea."Shakespeure. (128, etc.) 
 
 3. Paraplirase the following : — 
 
 " Music the fiercest grief can charm, 
 And fate's severest rage disarm ; 
 Mufic can soften pain to ease. 
 And make despair and madness please ; 
 Our joys below it can improve, 
 And antedate the bliss above. " (176.) 
 
 SET D. 
 
 1. 
 
 **Far up the lengtheniwi lake were spied 
 Four darkenimj specks upon the tide. 
 That, slow en/argimj on the view, 
 Four manned and m.isted banjes r/rew, 
 And, bearing downwards from Glengyle, 
 Uetred full upon tlie opening isle. " 
 Turn this passage into prose. (192.) 
 Analyse the above passage, and parse the words in italics. 
 What is the meaning of ad, ex, and oh ? Givp ivords iu which 
 they oceu'-. How and when are they sometimes changed in coninosi- 
 tion? (123, 525.) ^ 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 249 
 
 lass of works 
 3 strike your 
 them willing 
 
 and wherein 
 isive, and ob- 
 
 t his mighty 
 
 ius Ccesar, 
 affixes in the 
 
 1, grieve, be 
 , inconstant, 
 
 alios. 
 
 'lis in whicK 
 in composi- 
 
 SET E-OcTOBER 1893. 
 {Answer Qnestio,,, l and 2 and two oth 
 
 Parse also the word« nr;„f i • • 
 "The notice wS v^ f ^'^ ''' ^*^^'«3- 
 
 1 he de.erfc circle spreads 
 3. What are demonstrativr y °" ' —•^"''(^^'y. (192.) 
 
 junction .-/o,, «o^,„;^/.,,„„,;-, ^P^VP";-* °"' ^nd in the other as a 
 
 ngurdtive language. (IS9.) 
 SET P'— April 1894 
 
 ««Q,./,;..j...-., ""™^ printed in ifali"" 
 
 '"«« be hU III any latitudes," ^'-"' historians have of 
 
250 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 M ff 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 it, 
 
 wm 
 
 '• 
 
 BBBmi 
 
 
 
 •'' . 
 
 vU? 
 
 2. Rewrite the following passage in words of your own : — 
 
 "0, it is excellent 
 To have a giant's strength ; but it is tyrannous 
 To use it like a giant. 
 
 Merciful heaven, 
 Thou rather with thy sharp and sulphurous bolt 
 
 Split'st the unwedgeable and gnarled oak 
 Than the soft myrtle ; but man, ])roud man, 
 
 Drest in a little brief authority, 
 Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven 
 As make the angels weep ; who with our spleens 
 Would all themselves laugh mortal." 
 
 3. Define " Adjective," and show how an adjective may be replaced 
 by a phrase or sentence. (28,103.) 
 
 4. Distinguish between moods and tenses, with examples. (38, 41.) 
 
 5. What do you know about the prefixes and suffixes of the follow- 
 ing words :— recur, suffer, lotion, society, preclude, direct, visihlel (123, 
 etc., 134, etc.) 
 
 6. How does a relative pronoun diflfer from other pronouns ? Uive 
 
 examples. (2G, 76.) 
 
 SET G— October 1894. 
 {Answer Questions 1 and 2 and two others:) 
 
 1. Paraphrase the following passage : — 
 
 " But through the town few eyes were sealed with sleep 
 When the sun rose ; yea, and the upland sheep 
 Must guard themselves for that one morn at least 
 Against the wolf ; and wary doves may feast 
 Unscared that morning on the ripening corn. 
 Nor did the whetstone touch the scythe that morn ; 
 And all unheeded did the mackerel shoal 
 Make green the blue waves, or the porpoise roll 
 Through changing hills and valleys of the sea." 
 
 2. Analyse : — 
 
 " The heroe.s icent afoot along the way 
 That led \into the haven of the bay, 
 And as they went the rosea rained on them 
 From windows glorious with many a purple cloth." 
 
 And parse fully the words printed in italics. 
 
 3. Give words in which each of these prefixes and terminations 
 occur, and explain their meaning •.—swfc-, super-, col-, ex-, in-, pre-; -ate, 
 -ation, -osity, -enve. (123, etc., 1.34, etc.) 
 
 4. Distinguish clearly between strong and weak verbs, and give 
 three examples of each class. (43.) 
 
 5. What'is meant by inflexion Y Show that, in English, nouns are 
 only partially inflected. (11.) 
 
 6. Some pronouns n\ay be used as adverbs. Name them, and show 
 in seutences their use in the latter sense. (1 19.) 
 
TZT 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 251 
 
 louns ? Give 
 
 SET H— April 1895. 
 1. Analyse ,if "'""'' ^"'*^'''« ^ ""^ (>"0 others only.) 
 
 Anil It steiiu-U to a lanciful view 
 To weep for the biula /< had left witli regret, 
 On the floiirishmg bush whtre it grew^ 
 Z, ^arse the words jjiinted in italic 
 i. Paraphrase the following passa^^e •— 
 
 "Now from the roost, or from the neighbouring pale 
 Where dihgent to catch the first faitt gleam" ^ ' 
 Of smiling day, they gossii.ed side by side, 
 Come trooping at the housewife's well-known call 
 Ihe feathered tribes dojnestic. Half on wing 
 And half on foot, they brush the fleecy flooT' 
 Conscious and fearful of too deep a phmge."-lco...;,... 
 
 4. wnat are the noun terminations corresDondin.r tn tlio o i ■ 4.- 
 —silmt, varl(,us, verdant, splendid ,,1,?" ' ° *° , ^'''^J'''^*''^^-" 
 (1^4, etc.) oinenuiu, jaiuoii.^, severe, simple, and kingly. 
 
 5. Give words formed with each of the followin.. prefixes •_/. d! 
 p^ad., ^n, giving the meaning of the prefix in thVwo'rd yVu telect! 
 
 1. 
 
 SET I — October 1895. 
 (Answer Question 1 or 2, Question 3, and one other.) 
 "Less worthy of applau.se, though more admired 
 Because a novelty, the work of man, 
 Imperial mistress of the fur-clad Russ, 
 Thy most magnificent and mighty freak, 
 The wonder of the N.^rth. No forest fell 
 
 Tolur^nl'^"''^']f ^f'^ '■ ""^ '^"'^"■y "^^^ it« stores 
 To enrich thy wall. ; but thou didst hew the floods 
 
 IV ; ■ ™''^° *^y "'*'''^^<' «f f'e glossy wave." 
 
 Wht' ' '° P^/^'".r"««' .*J'« ^'^-^^^^S of this passage. 
 \V hat was the " magnificent and mighty freak " ? 
 
 2. '« Nature, a mother, kind alike to all. 
 
 Still grants her bliss at labour's earnest call. 
 With food as well the peasant is supplied, 
 On Idra s cluF aa Arno's shelvy side • 
 An.i though the rocky-crested summ'its frown 
 Ihese rocks by custom turn to beds of down 
 i rom art more various are the blessings sent— 
 ^ea h, commeree. L.uour, libe.ty, co'ntent; 
 Yet these each other's powers so strong contest, 
 w •* ■ , . ^'*''^'' ^^*^™'* destructive of the rest " 
 Write, in plain prose, the meaning of this passage" 
 
 :;'--■;% i;f?^::- 
 
252 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 im 
 
 I 
 
 3. Analyse and parse the words in italic contained in two of the 
 following sentences : — 
 
 *' War's a game which, ivere their subjects wise, 
 Kings should not play at." 
 "'Twas transient in its nature, as in show 
 'Twas durable." 
 
 "Where to find that happiest spot below. 
 Who can direct, when all pretend to know ? " 
 
 " Calm, and brtd in ignorance and toil. 
 Each wish contractiny fits him to the soil." 
 
 4. Explain the meaning and gramuiatical construction of two of 
 the following phrases : — 
 
 "Mirror needed none, where all was vitreous." 
 " It3 utmost force 
 Can but arrest the light and smoky mist." 
 "The pregnant quarry teemed with human form." 
 " I sit me down. " ■ 
 
 5. Give the etymology of the words contained in (a) or (b). 
 
 (a) Undeviatiug, iuimitablo, prejudge, antedate. 
 
 (b) Pensive, pretend, succession, abstract. (123, etc.) 
 
 G. Explain, with examples taken from the poem you have read, the 
 meaning of the terms: adverbial extension of the predicate, and 
 participial nouns. (95, 40. ) 
 
 iV.5. — Questions 1, 2, 3, 4 are on Goldsmith's Traveller and 
 Cowper's Morning Walk, annotated editions of which should be con- 
 sulted. 
 
 PUPIL-TEACHEES.— THIRD YEAK. 
 
 SET A. 
 
 1. 
 
 Analyse the following, parsing the words in italics : — 
 
 " Oh, how it yearned my heart, wlien I beheld, 
 In London streets that coronation day, 
 When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary ! 
 That horse, that thou so often hast bislrid, 
 That horse, that I so carefully have dresst\l ! " — Richard II, 
 
 What are impersonal verbs ? Give examples. 
 
 What is the origin and force of the particle be in beheld, bestrid? 
 Give instances of it as a prefix to nounf!. (120.) 
 
 4. Most monosyllabic words ai'e of English origin, 
 exception to this rule in the above. (132.) 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Point out any 
 
•v.. •, •:.»v'.j 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 253 
 
 SET B. 
 
 gazed reverently on what was t?t c^n a L ^1 ol^^ itJ " 1 r/',f rf 
 mmd the pathetic appeal of their foref«tl,Pr < h .^J, recallo.l to 
 ing for me, also, my father? "' ^'''^^^^^'''> «««* ^'O" "ot a bless- 
 Paraphrase this passage. (19") 
 
 anL^^^^^^nSa^tSrllO^r " •^■-^^>^-«- two last, 
 pre^ixelTtir pt^agT' (SSg^T '""""' '^ "'^ '"*'° °^ ^"^^^^'^ 
 
 1. 
 
 SET C. 
 
 /-I J , , . Morning /aw- 
 
 Came forth with pilrjrm steps in a.nke r,rau, 
 n Ao with her radiant finger .til/'d the roar 
 Of thunder, .^«,,erf the clouds, an.I laid the winds 
 And grisly .^.../.e. „.«/cA tlie fiend had raised. "-Milton 
 Analyse the foregoing, parsing the words in italics 
 
 2. Paraphrase the passage. {Amice, means a pilgrim's robe ) 
 
 3. Point out the prefix in each of tl.« fr.ii '«."'" ^ rooe.) 
 eno7-,,wus, symmetry accede Jl^ll ;, ^°'^'^^'"g words: spend 
 bustion. (IL'O-lTs ''''''^'' i''"^"^< "J»ohle, coa<jnlate, siq^ess, com 
 
 (192.) 
 spend. 
 
 SET D. 
 
 paraphrase this passage. (192) 
 and p^lh:t:t:,!i':^^^*r,^^f--« "> ^*. -a'y- the two first. 
 
 EiiirSd^:;^ 't^^S^r^,^':^^^^ »^^ween wo.ds of 
 passage. (299.) ^ -^^^^ y"«r examples from the xbove 
 
254 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 SET E— OcTonER 1892. 
 {Answer Question 1 and two otiiers.) 
 
 1. Paraphrase the following extract : — 
 
 " Lo ! the poor Indian whose untutored mind 
 Sees God in cloiula, and hoars Him in the wind: 
 Hia soul proud Science never taught to stray 
 Far as the solar walk, or milky way ; 
 Yet simple nature to his hoi)e has given, 
 Behind the cloud-topi>'{l hill, a humbler heaven, 
 Some safer world in de[)ths of woods embraced, 
 Some happier island in the watery waste, 
 Where slaves once more their native land behold, 
 No lionds torment, nor Christians thirst for goXtk."— Pope. 
 
 Analyse the first four lines in the above passage, and parse the first 
 word in every line. 
 
 2. Select from the same passage any words wliich you know to be 
 of Latin origin, and give their derivaticms. (120, etc.) 
 
 3. Give the meaning of each part of the following words : — repre- 
 hend, forgo, forward, abroad, intercession, and disreputable. (147, 
 etc.) 
 
 4. Take two of the following authors, and say where he lived and 
 .vhat he wrote: — Milton, Pope, Cowptr, Hume, Coleridye, and 
 Macaulay. (381, 395, 407, 452, 418, 42!).) 
 
 5. If there is anything wrong in the following sentences, correct 
 it and give your reasons : — 
 
 Mr. Jones and myself had decided to travel together. 
 
 I shall have great pleasure in accepting your invitation. 
 
 I should like much to have seen him. 
 
 He was strongly averse to the proposal. 
 
 I differ with you entirely. 
 
 Scarcely had he gone, than his brother arrived. 
 
 6. Explain, with full illustrations, the terms : —root, sujft.r, jjar- 
 ticiple, indirect, object, and (jcrtind. (116, 40, 92, 39.) 
 
 SET F— October 1893. 
 (Answer Question 1 and two others.) 
 
 1. Paraphrase the following extract from Coleridge's Hymn to 
 Mont Blanc, and explain separately the meaning of the words 
 printed in italic : — 
 
 Thou first and chief, sole Sovereign of the vale ! 
 Oh, struggling with the darkness all the night, 
 And visited all night by troops of star*. 
 Or when they climb the sky, or when they sink : 
 Companion of the morning star at daicn. 
 Thyself earth's rosy star, and of the dawn 
 
I 
 
 ■ T'ly » 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. o^r 
 
 Co-herald ,yake. oh, wake and i.tter praise • 
 
 Who m^'7 ""''': ''''^'"- ''-I' in earth 
 Who hlk.l thy countenance ^vith rosy IkOit' 
 Who made thee parent oi perpetual streams? 
 
 employed^ ameJ'r ^^THTT ""^ '^^''^^^^^^ ^'-^^ -^ -t 
 how ;ou would exnla, i ''«'"-*''V" "r poetical sen.se ; and .ay 
 scholars, nso) ^ *'"''' '*l'I'«-'>P"atenes3 to a class of older 
 
 ita?i«l!!!^'" *'" '°"°""'« I"»«-g^-. •'nd parse the words printed in 
 ..,^.. written l;^Srr;e^:K^ 
 
 exit';::2i^:;:'tils;:i4tc;^j?^,r""'''^ -"^'^^' «^^^ *'-'«• 
 
 own:-,„.,An,/tw^/,,>;.„„„/,'«% 'f/1; *''''" '.".» ««"tence of your 
 04, 95, 104.) examples the pimcipal varieties of the latter. 
 
 SET G- April 1894. 
 
 {Answer Question I and two others.) 
 1. Paraphrase the followiuL' extract i,,-] i • 
 meaning of the words printed in itaSs;-^ ^''''" separately the 
 
 Spring. 
 
 "Newborn flocks iu rmtic dance, 
 
 Fnsklwj ply their feeble feet : 
 J^orgetful of tJKjir wintry tranc<i 
 
 The birds hia presence greet •' 
 But chief tl.e sky-lark icarbles high 
 His trembling tkrininu ecstasy; 
 And It^s^utn,; from the dazzled sight 
 Jlelts mta. air and liquiU light:''— Gray. 
 
 ^J'iof;"-''' *^' '"""^''^S ^^«^^S^' -'^d l-"e the words printed in 
 
 J^Z'lf ^''' ^f"*" ""^^ ^'■''""^ °f *^^ ""^".1 h.t^^n n-.,. -,, 
 
 yajpole u-nen aL-ioau, i do ,to/! know )',„f \" "'"*J' ""^"^ 
 
 that it was of too dee,, a nat, r^ 1 / , ^'''''' '''"*''" *<* ^^J'^^^ 
 bosom ; whkh I ItW frn™ . *" ^^ eradicated from Gray's 
 
 Robinson.' ^ ^'°°' "'^"'^ expressions half dropped to Mr. 
 
 y 
 
r:ii 
 
 % 
 
 m. ', 
 
 
 256 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 3. Wliat flo you mean 1)y " verbs of incomplete predication"? 
 Give ail example, ami analyst; the sentence which contains it. (90.) 
 
 4. If you were explaining the following line to a class, what .should 
 you say about the words printed in italics ? — 
 
 " Seats beneath the shade, 
 For talking af/c and whispering lovers made." (191, 129.) 
 
 5. What is meant by " compariaon of adjectives " ? Give instances 
 of irregular forms. (31.) 
 
 6. Give examples of Latin words which came into English (1) through 
 French, and (2) direct. (308.) 
 
 
 SET H— October 1894, 
 {Ani^^er Question 1 and two others.) 
 
 1. Paraphrase the following extract, and explain separately the 
 meaning of the words printed in italics : — 
 
 " Farewell the tranquil mind ! farewell cont nt 1 
 Farewell the pluined troops, ami the big m ars, 
 That make ambition virtue ! 0, farewell I 
 Farewell the neighing sti'cd and the shril' trump, 
 The spirit-stirring drum, the < r-piercing fife, 
 The royal banner, and all quality, 
 Pride, pomp and r.i rcnmxtanct of glorious war! 
 And, you morlal engines, whose rude throats 
 Th' immortal Jove's dread clamours counterfeit, 
 Farewell ! Othello's occupation 's gone ! " — Shakespeare. 
 
 2. Analyse the following passage, and parse the words printed in 
 italics : — 
 
 "Caleb Balderston knew too well, from what he had witnessed, 
 upon what enterprise his master was bi)und, and hoio vaii ill inter- 
 ference on his part must necessarily 2)rove. He had hut timt lo retreat 
 from the door, so nearly was he surprised by his master suddenly 
 coming out and descending to the stables." 
 
 3. Explain, as to a class, what is meant by " word-building." l\ IG.) 
 
 4. Explain, with examples, the uses of the different kinds of stops. 
 
 (187.) 
 
 5. Give, with examples, the different ways of formmg the possessive 
 case, both in singular and plural. (20.) 
 
 G. Assign six of the following words to their respective origin : — 
 father, uncle, ancestor, sister, so?^, parent, coimn, wife, nephew, bride, 
 stepmother. 
 
 SET I— Apkil 1895. 
 
 (Ansiver Questions 1 and 3 and one other only.) 
 
 1. Analyse the following passage : — 
 
 " The worm, aware of his intent. 
 Harangued him thus, right eloquent — 
 
KXAMIXATION Ql'KSTIONS. 
 
 257 
 
 ' ^id you admire my lamp,' quoth lie 
 'As «'«c/j r^, /your ,„.-,„,V.4 
 
 ^ ^" •""«'' '^B^ to spoil your song.'" 
 
 :' ^*"^*'"'^^-'>'-J« printer! in italics. 
 «*■ I'arapljraso : — 
 
 oo M'heii a Rpi 
 
 Calm MtarJ I'""," """"• '"P"" 
 
 And .kio, bcocatirwii'l, ,? ■'e|'i'"'lii.g gro,,, 
 
 Jut .f . ...»/.i'i'gr.lr;:u;x°'°"' "°- ■ 
 coin fro°"rt-r°:;:-:"t:;;r ^ f -f .i-r«,:„..-»:^ 
 
 Wi.. in n. ,„„i;,™ »-;;^ • ».,,.,„ .„a Wn.a.io. ., .V;!^. ;„ 
 
 w. uive the form of tlm .,.„r ' , 
 printed in italics. (I23/et:./;34 ^L.)"' "•®^" '" ^'-' ^-^^s not 
 
 SET J— OCTOBKR lS9o. 
 
 (Answer Question 1 or 2 0»^.7/n„ i j 
 
 -' V"f'^tion 3, a«rf o;(f o'/ier ) 
 
 "Just are the ways of God, 
 And justifiable to 1)1011 ■ 
 
 rn.Tl f ■^" ^ nncroscopic eve ' 
 
 £y "/t^"~'°^■■^•^'^•'°"-fly; 
 Write in n- . theT """I"*^^^'^^ ^^<^ l^eaven." 
 ^ast four lines iiu.t;atethrt£afomeSf:; '"' ^'°" ^"^ *J^- 
 J. ^Analvse the last four lines of eit.er (.„. noUo,, of the passage. 
 

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258 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 Parse the following words as they occur in the passage you have 
 chosen for analysis : — 
 
 (a) be, obscure, but, heart, therein, himself, 
 (6) why, man, eye, reason, what, use, t'inspect. 
 
 4. Explain the meaning aiicl any peculiarity of expression in one 
 {not both) of the following phrases : — 
 
 (a) " Why am I thus bereaved thy prime decree ?" 
 " T'incorporate with gloomy night." 
 
 Give the etymology of "bereaved," "incorporate." (14G, 148.) 
 
 (b) •' Man's as perfect as he ought." 
 " The soul — 
 Rests and expatiates in a life to come." 
 
 Give the etymology of "perfect," " ought," " expatiates." (149.) 
 
 5. Quote any allusion to his own misfortunes which can be found 
 in the earlier portion of Sa)H.-ion. What sliort poem did Milton write 
 on the same subject ? 
 
 6. Show how to distinguish the origin of the following words : — 
 wisdom, iiiejHcknf, ahsolvr, unt'^'odc^, antediluvian, manliness, lovely, 
 and epigram. (129, etc.) 
 
 y.B — Questions 1-5 are on Milton's Samson Aronistes, and 
 Pope's Essay on Man, annotated editions of which should be 
 consulted. 
 
 PUPIL-TEACHEKS.— FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 X.B. — The Fourth Year Syllabus and Fourth Year Examination 
 are now abolished, but these four sets of questions are retained for 
 the convenience of those who use the Key to the Grammar. Many 
 of the questions are similar to those set at the Queen's Scholarship 
 Examination. 
 
 SET A. 
 
 1. "Now stir the fire, and dose the sliutters /as<, 
 
 Let/aW the curtains, loheel tlie sofa round, 
 And while the bubbling and loud hissing urn 
 Throws ^^p a steamy column, and the cups 
 That cheer but not inebriate, ivait on each. 
 So let us welcome peaceful evening in. " 
 
 Analyse the above passage, and parse the words in italics. 
 
 2. From wliat source is the word sofa derived? Mention other 
 words derived from the same source. (341.) 
 
 3. To what dates and events would you assign the adoption and the 
 discontinuance of French as the language of tlie Court and nobility in 
 England? (304, etc.) 
 
 4. Name the authors of the following works : ' Paradise Lost,' 
 'The Faery Queen,' 'Vanity Fair,' 'Robinson Crusoe,' 'The Tasli,' 
 ' Keuilworth,' ' The Excursion,' ' The Idylls of the King.' (445, etc.) 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, 
 
 259 
 
 SET S. 
 
 ^' T?« J' ^?'l °' ^? ^^^''"ing hill8 and spacious plains ! 
 
 Besprent from shore to sliore with steeple-towers 
 And spires wh^se silent finger points to heaven ; ' 
 >or wanting, at wide intervals, the bulk 
 Of ancient minster lifted above the cloud 
 Ut the dense air, which town or city breeds. 
 10 intercept tiie sun's glad beams— may ne'er 
 Inat true succession fail of English hearts, 
 VVho, with ancestral feeling, can perceive 
 "hat in those holy structures ye possess 
 tit ornamental interest." 
 
 Paraphrase this passage. (192 ) 
 fui?y !;:L"iLt"sen"enc:'^ S f '"^'^ ""*^"'=^^' ^"'^ ^"^^^^^ ^'^ P^^ 
 
 lanlale''* sl^f ' '^ ^ff'^ ^'°':*^^ ""'' ^^''''^'^ ^''""^ «>« Anglo-Saxon 
 Anf^fl , """^ chrteience in inflexion between the English and 
 
 Anglo-Saxou languages. (281, 329.) i^ngiisn ana 
 
 SET C. 
 
 1. 
 
 " The poet, fostering for his native land 
 Such hope, entreats that servants may abound 
 Of tliose pure altars wortliy ; ministers 
 Detached from pleasure, to the love of gain 
 superior, insusceptible of pride, 
 And i)y ambitious longings undisturbed ; 
 Men whose delight is where their duty leads 
 Or hxes them ; whose least distingiiislied day 
 bhines with some portion of that heavenly lustre 
 \\ hich makes tlie vSabbath lovely m the sight 
 Ot blessed angels, pitying human cares." 
 Paraphrase this passage. (192.) 
 
 f„i?; J*"'"* °"* ^\^ subordinate sentences in it, and analyse and parse 
 fully the noun sentence. Point out also any adjectives ofTatSn odghi 
 
 h.t ?*f*«*he various ways by which words of Latin origin have 
 been introduced into our language. (237, etc.) 
 
 SET D. 
 
 1. "It is well known to the learned that the ancient ln«-« nf iff.- „ 
 rend_ered the exportation of figs cnminal - thTt Sng suppot d J 
 species of fruit so evcfillpnt in A.ttifi tint tl,o mv • , »iippos< a a 
 
 i 
 
 
260 
 
 KXAMTNATIOX QUESTIONS. 
 
 Analyse eacli of the sentences in the above which begins with f , 
 •^vorA f ha/. (lO'J. ) 
 
 2. Purse each word in the following : " That being supposed a 
 species of fruit so excellent." 
 
 3. Write out a list of words compounded or derived fron: the I^tin 
 verbs, amo, <luco,Jero, audio. (14S, 149.) 
 
 QUEEN'S SCHOLARSHIP. 
 
 SET A. 
 
 {Two hours and a half allowed for this paper, including Composition, 
 which IS now a .separate subject.) 
 
 No abbreviation of less than tliree letters to be used in parsing or analysis 4. 
 candKlates mast do the composition, parsing, and analysis. analysis. A 
 
 l._ Parse the words in italics in the following passage, not oniittinir 
 to give and explain their syntax : — ° 
 
 " Breathes there the man with soul so dead 
 
 Who never to himself hath said, 
 
 This is my own, my native laiul ! 
 
 WhosQ heart liath ne'er within him burned 
 
 As home his footsteps he Iiath turned 
 
 From u-anderinri on a foreign strand ? 
 
 If such there breathe, ijo, mark him well ; 
 
 For him no minstrel raptures swell ! 
 
 High thoutjh his titles, proud his name, 
 
 Boundless his iceu'th, as wish can claim, 
 
 Despite those titles, power, and ))elf. 
 
 The wretch concentred all in self. 
 
 Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
 
 And, doubly dying, shall ijo down 
 
 To the vile dust from u-hence he spru7oj, 
 
 Unwept, unhonoured, and nnsun;/." 
 _ 2. Analyse either the first or the last half of the above passage into 
 its component sentences, and show in separate columns— 
 
 (a) The nature of the sentence. 
 
 (b) (If dependent) its relation to the principal sentence. 
 
 (c) Subject. {d) Its enlargements (if any), 
 (e) Predicate. ( /•) Its extensions (if any). 
 (.7) Object (if any). (h) Its enlargements (if any). 
 
 3. Explain by a paraphrase, or otherwise, the portion of the passage 
 winch you take for analysis. (192.) 
 
 , 4. Examine and illustrate the etymology of any five of the following 
 words from the above: Own, native, luhose, heart, foreign, minstrel, 
 raptures, titles, boundless, claim, wretch, concentred, forfeit, renoim. 
 (143, 160.) "^ 
 
 5. Distinguish common, proper, and absti.ict nouns,— cardinal and 
 ordinal iiumbcrs,— intrausitis e and neuter verbs,— continuative and dis- 
 junctive conjunctions,— •)ersonal, possessive, reflexive, and relative 
 pronouns. 
 
 L. 
 
 ( 
 t( 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 run 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 261 
 
 lattr^hirhrrwit't^^^^^^ language in it, 
 
 give a few instances of inflexion in F.S" ''* '" '""'■'"* ^^ *'»''. ^^<i 
 
 7. Show by examnlprh^,^''''''''^"°^^ spoken. (61.) 
 ^g^^ y examples how analysis helps us to parse correctly. 
 
 hisLy tf'll^'l.Ct'lL't'i;^ irosHZ!;^^ "^^* ^^•^"*«' •" the 
 
 language of the inhabitants Ilhs at" vmI '"^''' "^^^ ^^""'^ '" ^^^^ 
 
 Auusti ate your answer. (2S0-;J16.) 
 
 SET B. 
 
 Xo abbreviation of less th.M, tliiee letters to ho „. i ■ 
 
 Candidates must not answer n.ore than „ '" '""'''""' °' """"y^'^- 
 
 tences (syntax is rnns'\lf;an';a\^^^^^^^^^^^ *'^° ^°"--g «- 
 "Yet /;,, there still, who m« ',Tm.mi.r well 
 
 bZ fi^oJr ' ,7""^"^-*=^^^^ l^'^ '-'.'// blew, 
 ^o^A field anil forest, dingle, cli/r and dell 
 And sol tary heath the signal knLf '"' 
 
 wK time the warning note was keenly «■« ,„,/ 
 Wlnle T" '^°^* *'^''' ^•'■'"^'•'^'^ ^^""er flew ' 
 
 Ind w rX Fie?;Sr yelled the gathering sound. 
 
 ii^g in separate columns':- '°"°""^°« ''"*^"°^^' '"^'^^"g ^ table, show- 
 ii! S^"''*"''^ °^ *h« sentence. 
 (3) ^ubjeTr'"*^ '*^ "'^*'°" *« "- P-cipal sentence. 
 
 (sJprXT'"^'^* <"->')• 
 
 (6) Its extensions (if any). 
 
 (7) Object. -^^ 
 
 (8) Its enlargement (if any) 
 
 While "the In ancul "" ' ^'^^^""^ l"-^'-" 
 nm off inte the jungle tTthTe prey"^ '"^ "'^"'' '^' '''^'^ ^^^ 
 
 " }I^° «PillB the foremost foeman's life, 
 tiis party conquers in tlie strife. " 
 
 " If I suffer causeless wrong. 
 Is then my selfish rage so strong 
 My sense of public weal - '"-•■' 
 
 ;;ince 
 
 li! 
 
 Those cords of lo 
 
 foe 
 ve I shf.uld unbind 
 
 ^^hich knit my country and my kind 
 
 9" 
 
262 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 Section III.— Select and classify the pronouns, conjunctions, and 
 adverbs in the sentences given above. 
 
 Section IV. — 1. Write out rules for the spelling of those classes 
 of words which include receiving, judgment, chaug<'able, so far as 
 relates to the part of the word printed in italic type. 
 
 2. Explain the terms reflexive, indefinite, and show in what sense 
 they are applie<l to some of the parts of speech. (25.) 
 
 3. Explain the term subjunctive mood, and give examples of its 
 uses. (80.) 
 
 Section V. — 1. Show that the following words may represent two or 
 more parts of speech : next, under, till, by, that, like. 
 
 2. Derive the following words : compact, arrange, acquaint, algebra, 
 geography, dissuade, abroad, precede, suspend. 
 
 3. Give a noun, an adjective, and a verb, formed from each ot the 
 following Latin words : disco, sedeo, scribo, rerto, duco, dico. (148, etc.) 
 
 Section VI. — 1. State whether the concords in the following sen- 
 tences are incorrect, and give the proper rule of concord in each 
 case : — (76.) 
 
 Neither she nor James were there. 
 
 Either Mary or Jane must fetch me their rake. 
 
 Scott's ' Tales of a Grandfather ' were written for his grandchildren. 
 
 2. Explahi the terms metaphor, simile, and give appopriate ex- 
 amples. (189.) 
 
 3. Give examples of defective English verbs, and show how the 
 deficiencies are supplied. (53«.) 
 
 SET C. 
 
 (Tico hours and a half allowed for this jmjKr, including Comjiosition, 
 \rhich is noxu a separate subject.) 
 Section I. — Parse the words in italics in the following passages: — 
 
 "Tlie monarch saw, and shook. 
 
 And bade no more rejoice ; 
 All bloodless waxed his look, 
 
 And tremulous his voice : 
 Let the men of lore appear, 
 
 The ivisest of the earth. 
 And expound the words of fear 
 
 7%a< mar our royal mirth." 
 
 Envy is of all crimes the basest : for malice and auger are appeased 
 with benefits, but envy is exasperated, as envying to fortunate persons 
 both their power and their wish to do good. 
 
 Write the first passage in simple prose, (192.) 
 
 Section II. — Analyse the following passages : — 
 
 " Yet time may diminish the pam : 
 
 The flower and the shrub and the tree, 
 Which I reared for her pleasure in vain, 
 In time may have comfort for me." 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 263 
 
 Btill remaining ^^ ^"^ '^'''^ "P°" ""^ f«^' virtues they l.ave 
 
 of t^^t^^^T^ Siring JJ^P- fro. wU.. taken. 
 
 A primrose by a river's lirim 
 
 We wltSl """^P''-^" f'^^t with dauntless breast. 
 SoHhSl l" '^••^'^^''•"g tl"-°"gh the night. 
 U hohtude 1 where a.-e the cliarnis. 
 
 The world was all before them where to ehoose 
 
 Ihe quality of mer-.y is not strained. ^ 
 
 0_w-oman ! in our hours of ease, 
 iligher still and hikdier from i ho «n,.fi, +i 
 
 JNowa „he day and now's the hour. 
 Section IV._Classify in parallel columns- 
 
 pos^e'sslfo'r tn"::rorr'wr.'^y'^"T^' "^'\*^^'^' -t-ogative. 
 
 irrJular/wLk^oTSonrV^^^^ '^^ "^*-'^^*^-, regular or 
 
 regard, speak, come brit "^ /° .''"^ ^t^er way: Fetch, can, love, 
 ^g^_^ P , come, bnn,j, go, smg, become, hang, do, loill, earn/. 
 
 de'g^eesZ JhCbad, Zr!^ fa^ m\T/^'''^^Z ^"'^ «"P-rlative 
 Na.ne some compa.tives 'aS's^iS Tf (re^To^p olS 
 
 tive verbs.' r44 ;tc.;ti etc '.^r'' '""'"• ^^^ ^^^° «-"« ^eL-' 
 
 -S^'in- c^XS;^r^p*^ii*^KTf 7 ""^ ^'-' -^ ^"^' 
 (123, etc.) Pienxes, with examples of each meaning. 
 
 suSs7(aT\lsS\o"uL°.°S) JLLIT" °V"f °^ ^'^^ ^""™8 
 of sentences containing adSJelaurer" '' '''''''' ^'^ ^' '^^'^^^ 
 
 Section Vir.. 
 
 ; process ; {b) 
 
 \ce Darling ; Ul) The Prinno r.v a\7 T" V" ".". ' '"''='^ ' ^"^^ "^e ston 
 
 — o r— - 
 
 Grace 
 
 '.rt"«'f if ±"Sl™!a«'^°™ -'-'«". 
 
 I* 
 
 If 
 
 I' 
 
264 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 SET D— 1891. 
 
 ( Two hours ajid a half allowed for this paper, includitKj Compotition, 
 which is now a separate subject.) 
 
 No abbreviation of less tliaii tlino letters is to be used in Parsing or Analysis. 
 All Candiilati'S niuat answer Quesfiuus 1 and 2, and may select four (not more) of 
 the remaining eight (luestiuns. 
 
 1. Analyse fully the following lines, and jiarse the words i^rinted in 
 
 italics : — 
 
 "'Tia morn, but scarce yon level sun 
 Can jj'ietxe the war clouds roUaxj dim. 
 Where furious Frank and fiery Huu 
 Shout in their sulphurous canopy. 
 
 Few, few shall part where many meet, 
 The snow shall he lht\r xcindinij sheet, 
 And every turf beneath their feet 
 Shall be a soldier's sepulchre." 
 
 2. Paraphrase the following, passage : — 
 
 " In misery's darkest cavern known, 
 His useful care was ever nigh, 
 Where hopeles-s anguish poured his groan, 
 And lonely want retired to die. 
 
 His virtues walked their narrow rouud. 
 Xor made a pause, nor left a void ; 
 And sure the Eternal Master found 
 The single talent well employed." 
 
 3. State the requirements of the Code under the head of " English " 
 in Standard III., and show how the lessons may be utilised so as to 
 teach the children to frame sentences and sjieak correctly. 
 
 4. From each of the words "joy," "glory," "true," "wise," form 
 three other words by the addition of a suffi.x, introducing each word 
 into a short sentence. (12S.) 
 
 5. Explain as to Standard VI. the meaning of a "noun sentence," 
 and write four short passages each containing one. (103, 106.) 
 
 6. What do you mean by the " Comparison of adjectives" ? When 
 ought the comparative and when the superlative form to be used ? 
 What classes of adjectives do not admit of comparison ? (31.) 
 
 7. In what manner does a relative pronoun resemble a conjunction ? 
 How would you distinguish one from the other? (26, 60.) 
 
 8. Explain the meaning and the grammar of the word but in each 
 of the following sentences : — 
 
 (a) There is no man here but honours j'ou. 
 {b) But yesterday, the word of CiBsar might 
 
 Have stood against the world, 
 (c) He came, but did not remain long. 
 {d) Life has passed 
 
 With me but roughly since I saw thee last, 
 (e) No tongue i«< Hubert's. (63 to 63(h).) 
 
 in 
 
 4. 
 
 persi 
 expli 
 root 
 
 (l)bj 
 
KXAMINATIOX QUESTIONS. 
 
 205 
 
 SET E_1802. 
 
 paper Will be n.viseu:" "'"" '" 1"^'^"°"«. only the ....answers conu,,^ fl... 
 
 7rr°""^'^^-^-"'-----o..ea...r..:::::::r""^ 
 
 an< comforted -'y^Z/witK/ii,^^ '-''^'•"'^-J '^y the ^acb 
 
 ''''J,'*^!^ of every kind were ;« -f 7 * '',"""• ''''^^ *^" """•' "•^' ' 
 —Goldsmith. ^* meetiug distinctioa and reward ^' 
 
 2. Paraphrase the following passage :- 
 
 wLln^JltSS'^'^^^ gifts of Heaven, 
 
 How tasteli:;ihtttr J^^^^^^^^^^ ^^'V 
 Health ,s the vital principle of lis' '""" ' 
 And exercise of healtli l„ V . 
 
 Behold .he wretchttJSlT./'''^' 
 3 c\v Thomson, 
 
 K^) yJt the same word used ImfK 
 
 preposition. (0,3 to QZ(h)). *' "" ^°"J"nction and as a 
 ■i- Take the folio wine word>. • 
 ^"■7'^>'•''^Z'r/A<; p..t to each otl^r '-'"'■'' '^''"'""•. '"^'d, scribe 
 explani how these additional svllahf.^ '"""^ ^''^'^^^^ *"d affixes and 
 root word. (119. 12S. etc ) ^ "■^^'' ^'""^ ^^'^^'^ the meaning of tie 
 
 5. Am])Iify this sentence, 
 .,., The sun shines, 
 
M6 
 
 FA'AMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 (27.) 
 (24.) 
 
 sentence ; and explain, as to a class of children, the difference between 
 these three. (57, lO.T) 
 
 6. Explain the case of the words printed in italics in the following 
 aentences : — 
 
 (a) He gave me tvhat I wanted. 
 
 (b) The book is vi'me. 
 
 (c) J/im the Alnaighty power 
 Hurled headlong. (25.) 
 
 (rf) Ho »/7ioni thou lovest is sick. (2C.) 
 
 («) He was chosen sfcrelnry. (93.) 
 
 (/) }Yeather permitting, I shall travel to-morrow. (65.) 
 
 7. Give examples from any poem you have read or learned ; (1) of 
 simile; (2) of metaphor; (3) of personification. (180.) 
 
 8. Say what a passive verb is, and how you recognise it, and give 
 some examples of its use. (37.) 
 
 9. Name any important books which were written in the eighteenth 
 century, and say what you know of the authors of any two of them. 
 (389.) 
 
 
 SET F— 1893, 
 {Timtt — 2.30 to 5, including Composition.) 
 
 All Candidates must answer Questions 1 and 2, and may select four, not more, of the 
 remaining eight questions. 
 
 If you answer more than six questions, only the tix answers coming first on your 
 jiaper will be revised. 
 
 "So abbreviation of less than three letters is to be used in Parsing or Analysis. 
 
 1. How many separate sentences are there in the following extract? 
 How are they related to each other, and what are the chief parts of 
 each? 
 
 " Fair laughs the morn, and soft the zephyr blows, 
 While, proudly riding o'er the azure realm, 
 In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes. 
 
 Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm. 
 Regardless of the sweejung whirlwind's sway, 
 That, hushed in grim repose, expects his evening prey." (102.) 
 
 2. Paraphrase the following passage : — 
 
 " I do remember me, that in my youth. 
 When I was wandering, upon such a night 
 I stood within the Coliseum's wall. 
 Midst the chief relics of almighty Rome ; 
 And thou didst shine, thou rolling moon, upon 
 All tins, and cast a wide and tender light 
 Which softened down the hoar austerity 
 Of ruKsed desolation, and filled up 
 
 CO ' t 
 
 As 'twere anew, the gaps of centuries : 
 Leaving that beautiful which still was so, 
 And making that which was not." (192.) 
 
 of 
 
 I 
 
 paj 
 
 2. 
 prin 
 
,„ Ju-v^i^rTwvimp 
 
 HiLjL. 1 mw 
 
 ■ai 
 
 *iiT«gmg!iii>,j 
 
 e between 
 following 
 
 (27.) 
 (24.) 
 
 (25.) 
 (2G.) 
 (93.) 
 (65.) 
 
 ed; (1) of 
 
 , and give 
 
 sigbteenth 
 u of them. 
 
 KXAMIXATION QUE.STION'S. 
 
 more, of the 
 
 Jrst on your 
 
 nolysis. 
 
 ig extract? 
 of parts of 
 
 sy." (102.) 
 
 . °- ^-xplain the origin and tho „..„ • 
 
 >ng words, and p„t each of them i to.'? "?'""'"« "^ "''^ "^ *he follow- 
 
 0. Take any two of th„ f n ',"' '^"'" ••">'', (''ji'i'ae. (147 l'?o » 
 J;e was. whea^koZ: . If.d wSri"' ^^'•^••«' -^ -^7 who Li what 
 VVordsworth. (452. .'^S.?; "io"''?,' , ""'''' •--"'"^«' ^^^'J^"^. Bur!!:' 
 
 ^7-^^^!^'Z^^:Z:l^l^^ -e examples of 
 
 8. Suppose wo had an ah.luI.T/,, T" ^'^^'^ "^'"'- (18».) 
 
 repres tea by a sep.,.ato t hi "1^?' '^^'"'^^^ ««""'' w- 
 V^'^els and consonants should Xl """ ^""^ ""^'ly additional 
 
 showing how the same letter oft.? ''"'""■" ^ «ive some examples 
 
 9. Give examples oiT^^lfiZlX^r'' ^ 
 nght use ;- **=" ""^ *''« following, and some rules for its 
 
 The nominative absolute. (Go ) 
 
 The subjunctive mood. SS 80 \ 
 
 The gerun.lial infinitive. 39) ^ 
 
 The double negative. ' 
 
 SET G— July 1894. 
 
 "Hi""""" *'""°" ■ •"" '■ ■' " ■'""""■ « -' »... 
 
 " more than su? nnoofin^ ■" 
 
 ■"^ly the ,« answers coming fl„t on your 
 MO be used in Parsing or Analysis. 
 
 -Vo abbreviation oness than three letter. 
 ■I. Analyse — 
 
 " And is this— Yarrna •' tu- xi 
 
 Of whin). J 7 -—This the stream 
 
 So w J > "^ ^'"""^-^ cherished 
 So wakefully, a waking dream 
 
 An image that hath perished? 
 
 And cliase this silence from fi,„ • 
 Thif fiiTo """^"i-u irom the air, 
 
 I^o'^"-^'"^ ^'^ "^«'^^' -«d die 
 
 /^^!/ore we know our liberty! 
 
 0«.hfe,s short; and our days 
 As fast away as does th ■ 
 
 run 
 
 e sun." (192.) 
 
J68 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 3. ATake a list nf English words used in the time of Shakopearp or 
 Milton, but now raroiy or never useil. 
 
 4. Who were the authors of the following jmssages, ap<l in which 
 of their works do they severally occur ? 
 
 (a) " One crowded hour of glorious life 
 Is worth an ago without a name." 
 
 {h) " But trailing clouds of glory, do we come 
 From (lod, who is our home." 
 
 (c) " He prayeth best who loveth best 
 All things both great and small." 
 
 ((/) " The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 
 
 (e) " And storied windows richly dight, 
 Casting a dim religious light." 
 
 (/) " And God fulfds himself in many ways ; 
 
 Lest one good custom sho\ild corruj)! tlie world." 
 
 5. Distinguish between Metaphor and Simile. What special 
 dangers must be avoided in the use of eitiicr ? (iive examples. (189.) 
 
 G. Comment on the words or ]ihrase8 italicised in tlie following: — 
 House to let. Thrne mrt of things. Woe vor/h the day. He is 
 justified in doiiuj this. Mesecmi'd 1 was in heaven. You oiujht to go 
 at once. Give me the book. Than whom no one is kinder. (39, 69, 
 30, 70, 53, 69, 27.) 
 
 7. Explain and derive the following terms : — 
 
 Analysis — Literature — Vocabulary — Grammar — Plural — Mood 
 
 L I terjection— Reciprocal, (8G, 349, 4, 16, 38, 60.) 
 
 8. Mention, with examples, any terminations of names of English 
 places which show their origin. (283, etc.) 
 
 SET H— December 1894. 
 
 K 
 
 (Time — 2.30 to 5, mdudinr/ Comjiosition.) 
 
 All Candidates vutst answer 1 and 2, and may select fmir, and four only, of the rest. 
 If more than tix questions are answered, only the six answer.s comin;; tirst on your 
 ■Miperwill be revised. No abbreviation of less than three letters is to be used iu 
 ■■arsing or Analysis. 
 
 1. Analyse the following passage, and parse the words in italics :— 
 
 "It is an isle under Ionian skies 
 Beautiful as a wreck of Paradise ; 
 And, /or the harbours are not safe and good, 
 This land woidd have remained a solitude 
 Ihtjor some p.nstnral people nrJivp there, 
 Who from the Elyaian, clear, and golden air 
 Draw the last spirit of the age of gold. 
 Simple and spirited, innocent and bold." (102.) 
 
KXAMTNATIOX QUESTIOXS. 
 
 268(a) 
 
 illusion. 
 
 complement. 
 
 continuous. 
 
 •lifferonce. 
 
 affluence. 
 
 liixiiriouB. 
 
 persecute. 
 
 siiff"ering, 
 
 url)ane. 
 
 2. Give a simple paraphrase of the following parage - 
 The palaces of Nat:;^'X^;-:'-f'P«. 
 
 ofcoMsu.,,imity,.t;o";:;.:t 
 
 Tl e avalanche-tho thun.k-rl.olt of snow • 
 A 1 that expands the spirit, yet a„ m , " 
 Gathers a,o„nd these sumn.L, as'to i.ow 
 
 ^"*' ""'' ''-''^ *° «-en. yet leave vain Man below •• 
 
 JeSe ^X^ir=^,^^ -"owing ...^\ 
 
 allusion 
 
 compliment 
 
 continual 
 
 deference 
 
 influence 
 
 luxuriant 
 
 prosecute 
 
 sufl'erance 
 
 urban 
 A Q . "">ane. 
 
 Kngiisir;oV(oSrng"slres":a;:^jrM'r\'^r '^">' ^ 
 
 especmlly noteworthy on account of b- !''.*°"^ *'"''' ^"" <'""«i^ler 
 
 selection by ade.juat^ roasoSs. '""^^ °^ '^•""°"' ""^ J"«t:fy your 
 
 o. Comment on the wnr<1a ,.• i i 
 y?" o.n, of ,i„i|„ g„„,„.tf ™„™ r- «';'"« "''■■"■•"ion.. rte„ 
 
 SET I-1S95. 
 (7'8W-~2.30<o5.) 
 
 naljse the following passage, and parse the words in italics- 
 The gods mete outSl!tlT le^ dread 
 
 bonie to dishonour, some to honour moulds 
 To happiness son,e, some to unhaj-piness 
 
26«<;b) 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 But thou, if e'er 
 There come a daughter of thy love, oh pray 
 To all thy gods, lest haply they should mar 
 Her life with too great beauty." (102.) 
 
 2. Select from the following passage the words containing English 
 or Latin prefixes or terminations, adding a suitable note on each : — 
 
 " Nightingale, that on yon bloomy spray 
 Warblest at eve, when all the woods are still ; 
 Thou with fresh hopes the lover's heart doth fill, 
 While the jolly houis lead on propitious May. 
 The liquid notes that close the eye of day, 
 First heard before the shallow cuckoo's bill, 
 Portend success in love ; oh, if Jove's will 
 Have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay, 
 Now timely sing, ere the rude bird of hata 
 Foretell my hopeless doom in some grove nigh." (119.) 
 
 3. Show how you would give a "word-building " lesson to an upper 
 class on etymological lines. (143.) 
 
 4. Who were the authors of any/ve of the following passages, and 
 in which of their works do they severally occur ? Give, approximately, 
 the dates of the authors : — 
 
 'a) '"Tis better to have loved and lost 
 Than nc v^v to have loved at all." 
 
 (i) "That last infirmity of noble minds." 
 
 (c) " Then none was for a party ; 
 
 Then all were for the state." 
 
 (d) " How sublime a thing it is 
 To suffer and be strong ! " 
 
 (e) "Hoist with his own petard." 
 
 (/) "The shrieks of death through Berkley's roof that ring, 
 Shrieks of an agonising king." 
 
 5. Comment on the history of these words : — gossip, villain, poison, 
 spinster. (169, 171, 309, 131.) 
 
 Give instances (a) of words that have changed in their spelling 
 from that used in the time of Shakespeare ; (b) of words tliat have 
 changed in their pronunciation, supporting the instances in the latter 
 case by quotations, if possible. (See Shakei>pearean Glossary.) 
 
 G. Explain, as to the first class of a senior school, the different 
 forma which the object of a sentence may take : and write a short 
 paragraph in illustration, which shall contain each of them. (91.) 
 
 7. Into what classes would you divide conjunctions? With vhat 
 other parts of speech would you connect and contrast them ? (CO. 
 104,112.) 
 
 8. With what periods in the history of our language are Spenser, 
 Dryden, and Wordsworth connected ? What is speciallv characteristic 
 in the writings of each? (369, 383, 415.) 
 
 ; 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 QUEEN'S SCHOLARSHIP-COMPOSITION. 
 
 268(c) 
 
 (Composition now forms a separate subject of examinatin. . , 
 
 bdngalloivedforthiexe/cise) ' ' ""^ '^'°"'* 
 
 SET A-I884. 
 
 (6) Fairy tales. 
 
 !,n ^f * "^f^" ""^ spending holidays. 
 
 CO Advantages of the study an./knowledge of geography. 
 
 SET B_I885. 
 Write a letter, or an essay, on one of the following subjects - 
 
 y The advanVa™ ^dtirt^^r^^^^^^^^ , 
 
 ^ ^^ ^ with life in the country ^'^^ *' compared 
 
 (rt) Examinations. 
 
 SET C_1886. 
 
 n T . J f "'■* '''^^ °" "'^^ °f tJ^e^e topics .— 
 (I Truthfulness, in act and word 
 (n) Poetry. 
 
 (iii) The^Queen rules over an Empire on which the sun never 
 
 SET D— 1887. 
 Write a short essay on one of these topics :- 
 (i) A ship on fire, 
 (ii) Closer union with our colonies, 
 (luj A walk round a garden. 
 
 SET E— 1888. 
 Write a short essay on one of these topics .— 
 (") Good manners, 
 
 W He .dyantages ot a school library for the chiUren IN™. 
 
 :«ohThrf~:i ''°°'" ""'"■ ■'°"'" ^« J-di„'!r; 
 
268(d) 
 
 ifiXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 SET F— 1889. 
 
 Write a short essay on one of these 8u])jects :— 
 
 (a) Any memorable i)lac8, city, castle, or battlefield which you 
 
 have visited. 
 (')) The use of pictures in teaching, 
 (c) Colonisation. 
 
 SET G— 1890. 
 
 Write a short essay on o)ie of these subjects ; 
 
 (a) Some uses of the electric telegrajjh. 
 (i) A court of justice, 
 (c) Emigration. 
 
 SET H— 1891. 
 
 Write a short essay on one of these subjects ; 
 
 (a) The snowstorm in March 1891 ; or, 
 {b) Fruit trees ; or, 
 (c) The census. 
 
 SET 1—1892. 
 Write a short essay on ; — 
 A general election ; or, 
 
 Give in substance the contents of any interesting book which 
 you have recently read. 
 
 SET J— 1893. 
 Write a short essay on one of these subjects : 
 
 (a) Holidays, and the way to use them. 
 
 (b) Parliament. 
 
 (c) Tragedy and comedy. 
 
 SET K— July 1894. 
 Do one of the following, either 
 
 {r) Write a short essay on the value of the Study of History • or 
 (6) Write a short essay on " Play " ; or, ' ' 
 
 (c) Write out briefly the plot of one of Shakespeare's comedies. 
 
 SET L— December 1894. 
 Write a short essay on one of the following subjects :— 
 
 (a) "Words are like leaves ; and when they most abound 
 
 Much fruit of seime beneath is rarely found." 
 {b) Your favourite pursuit. 
 
 (f) Christmas day on board an English ship in the Polar 
 Regions. ' 
 
 y 
 
 1 
 
EXAMIXATION QUESTIONS. 
 SET M-1895. 
 
 368re) 
 
 Write a short essay on one of the following subjects :_ 
 (a) " Hope springs eternal in the human breast • 
 
 Man never is, but always to be blest." 
 {b) The Japanese. 
 
 ^'^ ^""s Sis'? '"'"* °' ^'^*"°*'^'" ^^ P'-°'°°*«d in elementary 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF LONDOX-MATRICULATION. 
 
 SET A — January 1894. 
 
 (Not more than ten questions are to he attempted. ) 
 
 i»g LTthj ^S'LTr-Jir *'(^4T'° <^-"»°-' s'«»p. 'tow. 
 
 with inV«;^i*bl ™Lt" •' ™4'1' r") • ""■"«"■"=■■. •»»l>'"-ed 
 •J J' .f''"' '"'"'"' °' '^"S"* "« illustrated by til. plnraU ■ „„„ 
 
 ••lZ"''°(43° '°™'' "' '""" ""■"'■■' " Tl.e»>.«h.. ,*„„,," 
 
 adiecti™"'™^')'" '°™»««°°f ""iv^K^ <«» ca.e. of „„„„. .„rt 
 
 12. Li what various ways may interjections arise ? (60 ) 
 
J68(f) 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 14 Under what circumstances do words go out of use ' (306 ) 
 10. Give examples (not more than three under each head)- (1) of 
 
 writers who have contributed to fix the present literary language ; 
 
 (445 ) ' ' ''""" '*' establishment, have written in dialect. 
 
 SET B— June 1894. 
 {Not more than ten questions are to he attempted. ) 
 I. What, exactly, do you understand by the statement that two 
 languages are < related " ? How would you describe the relationship 
 
 ^.iZ T ^"^'''?,*; ^/''''^' ^'''^' Welsh, Danish, and the EngS 
 spoken by King Alfred, respectively ? (274 ) ^ 
 
 frnrnVLT^*"^' ^'n^^'"''^'' *i'° ^^'''^^ they' express, our loan-words 
 from the Norman. i<Vench and from the Scandinavian ; and show how 
 they il ustrate the character of our former intercourse with those wh^ 
 spoke these languages. (284, 21»4.) 
 
 Tnni^J" what various ways, besides borrowing from foreign languages, 
 may ^the vocabulary of a language be increased? Give exampfes 
 
 y..1l^T -^^ •■"^"=°"n* «f tlie voiceUsound now used in educated 
 i-nghsh (using some phonetic notation if possible, but illustrating 
 g>ur symbols by words iu which the corresponding sounds occur) 
 
 Tnrlf; f '''^*° ^°°.°""* of the signs of 7iumber in modern English. 
 Indicate and explain cases where (1) a plural sense is found without 
 a plural inflexion (2) a plural inflexion without a plural sense (15 ) 
 b. roint out the inflexions in then, than, him, there, whence, why 
 seldom, and show how far their older force is traceable i^ the p;esent 
 meaning of these words. (119.) « i^icoem 
 
 h^ Iffi^^''* ^^"^ "-^ adjectives have no comparative (whether formed 
 by suffix or otherwise) m modern English ? Comment on the marks 
 of comparison in the following, and point out which of them are 
 
 /n \ ^^^^^ ^f sentence. How would you deal with the following : 
 Suil^'iFer^"" '-"^^^•" ^'^ "^°^^ '' rain --..Let '.. 
 9. Explain the forms of the first /ot«- ordinal numbers. (.31 ) 
 1 U. Give all the grammatical forms in use of the verbs can, shall will 
 ought, rnust, showing (1) how far, if at all, each has deviated from ts 
 
 (4TS!)'"''''"°^ ' ^^^ *''' ^'^''' °^ *^" ^'''''^^^ ^"'•'"^ '« «"PPlied 
 
 11. Distinguish, carefully, the use of the word riding in the follow- 
 ing : (a) he 13 very fond of riding, Qj) he is always happy when 
 riding, (r) he has capital riding-horses. (39.) 
 
 12. Distinguish compounds and derivatives. Point out the nature 
 !L!, f'""^." "■''' '" ^^"^ following, and supply the p^wraito each; 
 accounting for any apparent irregularities in its formation : man- 
 servant, maid-servant, man-of-all-icork, passer-by, looker-on, castaway 
 prmce-consort, lord-lieutenant, camel-driver. (116, 19.) '^''*'""'«2'' 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 268(g) 
 
 voJ^^anlr^ °%"'*'?'^« *]'« f°"o«'ing sentences, suggesting, where 
 you^can, the explanaHon of what you tiunk gra^mafcally^anTmal 
 
 ^''^ ^'with'th? ^T^"' ^^\ ^'■''^"^"^y °^ imposture, together 
 with the inadequacy of present arrangements, serve as an 
 
 ^6) Nothing but dreary dykes, muddy and straight, guarded bv 
 the ghos s of suicidal pollards, occur to break tSe mono- 
 tony of the landscape. (76 ) 
 
 (c) Twice one are two 
 
 SET C— Jancaky 1895. 
 (Not more than ten questions are to be attempted.) 
 1. Explain carefully the following terms :-w/»7o?ow Arvan A«n7n 
 
 elemeSl'inTo ZT\ f\^ ^'*''' "^ ''^^ introduction of Latin 
 FnS?l . ,"=^"^ language. Write down any ten lines of 
 
 f286 el.r ''' " ""'"■'"' *'^ "°"'^ "f non-Teutonic orTgin 
 
 Enii^^^Xg. %j:zt '" *'^ ^''^^ ^'^^""^''^'' ^' -"^-"^ 
 
 4. Write etymological notes on the following words •—/orZo,-„ 
 
 TiS S'S; 34tf "'■ "'^'' ^'^^""' '''''''"'' ^AXX.-t^S 
 
 wd', ^^•''*r' ?•*''*"* ^y gender in grammar ? Enumerate the various 
 ways of nd.cating r,ender in English. Comment on gander JapsZ 
 vixen, bridegroom, songgfress. (15.) J'maer, laimet , 
 
 r,-A\S^^^f^ ^°S'.^'^' adjectives according to (i.) their functions and 
 OO their terminations. From what sources have we the suffix o'.' 
 
 ^i^'(^:::r '^''""'"' ''"■''''''^' '-'"'"''''' '^^^^^^ 
 
 7. Trace, as fully as you can, the history of the inflexions of the 
 third personal pronoun, singular and plural (■^4) '°""''°°' °^ *^^ 
 thei'r ,?«?'" **r °T",.1 ^''^ ^'^'^'"^^'^'^ Pronouns, and distinguish 
 
 o^' y^L" tTvf'^G^"? ;f\ 'J''^* ^""'^-^^-^^ -^ *'-- - En'.l.sh 
 " o^^ V- L ^'^'*i'i"strative Sentences. (26) 
 
 y. H-xplain the origin and formation of first, second eleven thirteen 
 twenty, hundred, thousand, tionin. (30 ) f«»rteew, 
 
 r.*?' 7^a''''°^ A''V</,r, ;S^,.o«</ IVWas Weak Verbs, Present Particivle 
 Verbal Aou7i, Auxiliary Verbs. (39, 43, 45, 40, 53.) ^"■'^^'"P^'^' 
 
268(h) 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 r^r!f%TJlifj r^fJ' "?'°* ^^ ^'-^ ^-'■'9ular, and (ii.) Defective 
 » eros. Lrive examples throughout (45 53 ) ^ ' J 
 
 II Account for the following forms \~told, sought, cauc.ht could 
 must wot, are went, ouyht, height. (45. 46, etc.) ' '^«"-/"'. «"«'''. 
 
 >..7? (V?) ''*' *^' '"'''" differences in the use of shall and 
 
 (1/9.) '^'*^"^^*^ *^' Pronominal Adverbs, and explain their formation. 
 13. Parse but in the following sentences, and explain carefully 
 mea;:;"s"-" "''°"' '" ^^'^^ "'''' ^'^^ -^"-"^^ '^ its 0'^^ 
 (a) There is no one here hut hates me 
 (6) And was not this the Earl ? 'Twas none but he. 
 ((•) He would have died but for me. 
 ((/) He is all hut pci-fect. 
 
 {e) There 's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st 
 But m his motion like an angel sings. * 
 
 (/) He IS hut a madman. (03 to G3(h}.) 
 
 14. What is the difference in meaning between apparent and 
 endent,consaoas and aware, unnatural artd supernaturJ,euhutm 
 and euphemtsm, zvgenious and ingenuous, eliminate aJetitJZZ 
 
 15. Analyse: — 
 
 _ , ^, " If I could find example 
 
 Of tnousands that had struck anointed kin?g 
 And flourished after, I'd not do't ; but since 
 i\or brass, nor stone, nor parchment, bears not one. 
 Let villainy itself forswear 't." 
 
 SET D— June 1895. 
 
 (Not more than ten questions are to he. atte^npted.) 
 
 1. State what you know of the history of any six words in the 
 
 following sentence :-.' Xo man hardly is so savage in whom SS receiv 
 
 mg kindnesses doth not beget a kindly sense." 
 
 (284.) some account of the Scandinavian element in English. 
 
 eaci; b™V^''f '^"'P'' voxoel-sounds (not letters) in English, denoting 
 
 each by means of some word in which it occurs. (5 ) *" 
 
 4. Enumerate all the waya in which the plura of English nouns 
 
 V DUH^ I '" ''''^''''' ^'''''^^' ("• °"li^ '"^ foreign words. (16 ) 
 played by the hrst in the history of English words. (194 ) 
 
 b. Distinguish between the comparative dec^rpe of an .-xdioctivp «,,r1 
 S-.Sr tV; ''''n ^°-P-^*'- f--- To which clasfb itg /o nner' 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 268(i) 
 
 ly. Analyse the folowiiic exuresoinn^ ,•„+„ !\, A^"-'' 
 and explain how its syntactical urtroaa's: ILrTr''' Pf*^' 
 jor, nevertheless, besides, anent •""'*'' ^'"^^'fo^^' 'here- 
 
 for the force of the words itali^kp,? ■ I distinguish and account 
 
 ';i ^Ua say so thou^^X^^o^^S^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^'1^^'^ 
 
 mdare not say he did. I dare say he did. (53 45 )' °* «*"• 
 
 2. Give a short account of the origin of adverbs (lu ) 
 13 State the source or sources of the suffixes \/-Y ;• 
 
 at the Ediuburgl, University Press. ^' 
 
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