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MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART 
 
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 ^^ (716) 288 - 5989 - Fai. 
 
|)art. ^tbaffntr & iflan: 
 Pn^t (Etonomtt (EBsaPB 
 
 THE CAU^E AND EXTENT OP THE DECENT INDUS- 
 ■ TRIAL PROGRESS OF GERMANY I'.y Karl iK Howard. 
 THE CAUSES OF THE PANIC OF 1893. By William J. 
 
 Lauck. 
 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. By Hirlow Stafford Person, 
 
 I'h I). 
 FEDERAL REGULATION OF RAILWAY RATES. Hy Al- 
 
 b«rl N Mcrritt, Ph.D. 
 SHIP SUBSIDIES. AnF.conomicStudrof the Policy of Sub- 
 
 ",<lii; .« Mcthanl Marme.. By Waller T. Uunmore 
 SOCIALISM; A CRITICAL ANALYSIS By O. D Skelton. 
 INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND THEIR COMPENSAT ION. 
 
 By Gilbert L. Campbell, B. S. 
 THE STANDARD OF LIVING AMONG THE INDUSTRIAL 
 
 PEOPLE OF AMERiCA. By Frank H. btrcightotf. 
 
 THE NAVIGABLE RHINE. By Edwin J. Clapp. 
 HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF CRIMINAL STATIS- 
 TICS IN THE UNITED STATES. By Loui. Newton 
 Kobinun. 
 SOCIAL VALUE. By B. M. Anderson, Jr. 
 FREIGHT CLASSIFICATION. By J. K. Strombeck. 
 WATERWAYS VERSUS RAILWAYS. By Harold Glenn 
 
 Moulton. 
 THE VALUE OF ORGANIZED SPECULATION. By Harri- 
 son H, Brace. 
 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION: ITS PROBLEMS. METHODS 
 
 AND DANGERS. By Albert H, Leake. 
 THE UNITED STATES INTERNAL TAX HISTORY FROM 
 
 I 86 I TO I 87 I . Hy Harry Edwin Smith 
 WELFARE AS AN ECONOMIC QUANTITY By G. P Wat- 
 
 kins. 
 CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION 'N THE COAL IN- 
 DUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES, By Arthur h. Suf- 
 feru. 
 THE CANADIAN IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY. By W. J. 
 
 A. Donald. 
 THE TIN PLATE INDUSTRY. By D. E. Dunbar. 
 THE MEANS AND METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL EDU- 
 CATION By Albert H . Leake. 
 
 HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 
 Boston and New Yokk 
 
l^axt, ^c^affner & (JUavx (pri^e ^aaa^a 
 
 f, 
 
 XXI 
 
 TIIE MEANS AND METHODS OF 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 

 i^K 
 
 
I 
 
Tin: MKANS AM) MimiODS Ol 
 AiniKl LTLKAL EDUCATION 
 
 II Y 
 
 ALBKUT II. LKAKI-: 
 
 liinjifrtiir <./ Mitiiiiifl Triiniiiiij nii'l lliHitrhultl Scirnrt 
 
 oiihirlii, I iiiimlii 
 
 Author •>! ■■ lii'luntri'il l-'.il iKiitiiin 
 
 Its /'ri'lili in.i. Ml thoila II nil Jimnji rs" 
 
 g^^^ajjj 
 
 BOSTON AND NEW YORK 
 
 HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 
 
 ;€t)e nibcrtfibe pTt«^ Cambnbge 
 
 1915 
 
COPYKIMIT, 1915, BY HART, SCHAIFNER * MARX 
 ALL RIGHTS RKStKVEU 
 
 I'ublliheJ Sefttmbtr igtj 
 
 1993 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This scries of Ixxiks owes its existence to the generosity 
 of Messrs. Hart. Scluiffner & Marx, of Chicago, who have 
 shown a si)ecial interest in trying to draw the attention of 
 American youth to the study of economic and commercial 
 snhjccts. For this j)uq)ose they have delegated to the un- 
 dersigned committee the task of selecting or ajjproving of 
 topir-s, making announcements, and awarding prizes an- 
 nually for those who wish to compete. 
 
 For the year ending June 1, lOl'J, there were offered: — 
 
 In Class A, which included any American without re- 
 striction, a first prize of $1000, and a second j)rize of $.500. 
 
 In Class B, which included any who were at the time 
 undergraduates of an American college, a first prize of 
 $300, and a second prize of $'200. 
 
 Any e.ssay submitted in Class B, if deemed of sufficient 
 merit, could receive a prize in Class A. 
 
 The present volume, submitted in Class A, was awarded 
 second prize in that class. 
 
 J. Lalrexce LvucnLiN-, Chairman, 
 
 University of Chicago. 
 J. B. Cl.\rk, 
 
 Columbia University. 
 Henry C. Adams, 
 
 University of Michigan. 
 Horace White, 
 
 AVir York City. 
 Edwix F. Gay, 
 
 Uarvard University. 
 
,'i-- 
 
 i r- 1 
 
 
CONTEXTS 
 
 Inthodiction 
 
 IiiilKirtancv of eilui'.ition. — ("hangc in rducatinn.-il mt'thrxls 
 .111(1 tlit'orics. — Af,'rirultiiral rduciition not an i.solatiii (jui-s- 
 fion. — The economic value of tlic products of ajL,'riculfure. — 
 The nuniliiT of persons engaged in agriculture. — Agriculture 
 the hasie industry. — Consumption is rapidly overtaking pro- 
 iluction. — The part e<lucatii)n must play in the development 
 of agriculture. — The main problem. — Sulxirdinate prol>- 
 It'ms xiii-xxi 
 
 ('h.\pteu I. ^\n IIi.stouic.vl Review of toe Deveiop- 
 
 ilENT OF AgIUCLLTVIUL EDUCATION 
 
 Some ancient records and early developments. — The con- 
 triliution of agricultural societies in .\meriea. — The develo[H 
 ment of agricultural teaching in the I'nited States. — The 
 growth of the movement in ("anada. — National legislative 
 enactments in the Initetl States: the Morrill .\cts; the es- 
 tablishment of the Department of Agriculture; the Kxperiment 
 Station .\cts; the Smith-Lever Hill. — U'ork for tiie future 1-16 
 
 Ch.\pter n. Some Conditions of Rural Life 
 
 The decline in rural population in Canmia and the I'nited 
 States. — The shift in rural p<>pulation. —The witness of the 
 country chun h. — Some contributing causes of the d<-<line in 
 population: the numlwr f.f men requirtnl on the land less than 
 formerly; lack of s<Kial oj»iM)rtunities; lack of educational op- 
 portunities: lack of opportunities for amusement and n-creation; 
 the popular estimation of the farmer; the tM)y on the farm as an 
 unpaid hand; the decay of village industries; the increa,se of 
 tenancy throughout the country; lack of ailequate facilities for 
 transiK)rtation 17-51 
 
 Chapter III. The Rt'R\L Elementary School 
 
 The p'wblem of enrollment in the I'nited States and Canada. 
 — The character, tenun. and nniuncratinu nf teachers: the 
 .sex i.f t.Mch.rs, the preparation of teachers. — The problem of 
 material e(|uipment.- -The h-ni:th of sevion in rural divtriets • 
 The problem of supervi.'-ion, the lack of adequate sui)ervi.>,ion. 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 inadequate qualifirations for np[H)intment of superintendents; 
 indiistriiil suiwrvisors in rural m'IkmiIs. — The iicltiiinistration 
 and ornaiii/ation of rural scIkmpIs: tl;e district system; tlie town- 
 sliip-uiiit system; the eounty-unit system. - — Advantages of the 
 rural school. — Object of pointing out defects .... Si-417 
 
 CnAPTER IV. The Improve.ment or tiie Uuiial School 
 
 The sch(M)l survey. — Energizing the community. — The 
 question of funds. — The county as the administrative unit. — 
 'I'he need for male teachers in the rural schools. — .Vdapting the 
 rurid sciiool to rural conditions. — Demonstration, or model, 
 .schools. — The need for hetter huihiings. — 'I'he one-rooin 
 .sciiool. — The arrangement of community l)uililings. — The 
 need for comiiuKory attendance. — Nunc notJihle exampli-s of 
 rural scIkkiI improvement: rural schools in Iowa; .s<'oring rural 
 schools in .Arkansas; rural scIkhjI score card; rural scIukiIs in 
 Denmark iH-^i 
 
 CuAi'TEu V. Te-^cuixg Agriccltxre in the Rur-ax, 
 
 School 
 
 The demand for instruction in agriculture. — The correlation 
 r)f agriculture with other sulijects in the curriculum: agriculture 
 applie<l to the teaching of Knglisii. agriculture applied to the 
 teaching of arithmetic; agriculture afjpliiil to the teaching of 
 g<>ography. — N'ature stuily: its place, puriM)se, and character; 
 nature study through collections of natural ohjects. — The 
 .scIkmiI garden: care of the garden during the summer holidays; 
 •school gardening in towns and <ities. — The home garden. — 
 How time may Ix- ohtained for nature study and agriculture. — 
 Hindrances to tlu- introduction of nature study and agriculture: 
 the nature of the subject; the overerowde<l curriculum; imma- 
 turity of pupils; the employment of women as teachers; the 
 liniite<l time available; the conservatism of sch<M)l officials. 
 — Henefits to lie derived from the teaching of nature study and 
 agri<'idture. — ScIuhiI agriculture as u means of keeping the boy 
 on the farm 65-83 
 
 Chapteh VI. The Coxsolidation of Schools 
 
 The incejition of the consolidation idea. — The present status 
 of the consdliii.ition movement in Canada and the I'nited SUites. 
 Not.ible e\anipli\s of eonsoliilation: the .lohn Swancy < on.soli- 
 d.ited .School; the Mays Lick SchcK)!. — The expense and the 
 clFiciiniey of the eonsolidated school. — Some of the difficulties 
 in the way: the condition of the roads; the grciiter cost of con- 
 st)lidution. — How shall consolidation be accoaiplished? . 84-98 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CoAPTEK MI. Rural Scucxjl Extension 
 
 S<'h(K)l rri-ilil for honii' prujci-ts. — Forms of rural school ex- 
 tcnsiDU .service. — Ho\ .s" iiinl girls' iiKriiultural clubs: club work 
 in till' I nitiil Stiitos; dub coiitcsts in (aniulu. — Sc1hk)1 fairs: 
 school fairs in Ontario; method of ori,'anijHition and nmnajftv- 
 ment. — Vounj; people's institutes: objects of institutes for 
 yuun>; peo;>le; olheers and their duties; Ixiys' encampments; soj)- 
 arate institutes for girls; teachers of institutes for yr)ung peo- 
 pKv ^ Short rour.s<-s in a>;ricultiirc. — Rural evening schools: the 
 M(H>nli(,'ht whool.s; what shall be taught in evening scho<j|s ? U9-I18 
 
 ClIAPTEK \TII. SecONDAHY EoUCA-nON IN AGRICCLTtOE 
 
 Monetary value of education in agriculture. — The type of 
 hi;.'h s<ho<)l to 1m developed. — .Advantages of existing high 
 whools. — .\dva!itagi's of sei)arate agricultural high scIkkiIs. — - 
 I?oth tyix's of .s(h(M)ls are ncf'ded. — Readjustment of the 
 course of .stuily: the question of text lHH)ks. — The mo<li(i«-<l 
 cours«' of study. — Two examples of the reorganization of the 
 existing high school: ('<!lebrook .\ca<lemy; the Farragut schcMil. 
 — The organization of the sjK'cialized agricultural high school: 
 the comity agricultural high .schiKils; <i>ngressional di.strict high 
 schiMiIs; an <'xa!nple of the s[H'<'!alizcd county high s<'hool. — 
 The need foi' speciaiiv trained ti'achers; teachers as ef)unty 
 representatives of the Oepartment of Agriculture. — The use of 
 land in eonne<-tion with .scIkmiIs: home projects; the Massachu- 
 setts home-|)roject plan 119-145 
 
 Chapter IX. The Aghkulttiwl College 
 
 The purjxise of thi' land grant colleges. — The struggles of the 
 land grant colleges. — The report of the Carnegie Foumlation 
 for the .\dvancement of Teaching. — The facts in the c-ase: the 
 intluenci'of fhe<ild arts colleges; engineering is not the dominant 
 factor; taking the youth from the farm; low standar<ls of ad- 
 mission; the desire for numbers; lack of nfrreenicnt among prt)- 
 fessors; has agriculture no viK-ational value? — The future of 
 the agricultural collejM-s: cours<'S f)f collegiate grade; short spe- 
 cial courses; training teachers; extension .s<'rvice; investig.,tion 
 and research; dissi-niination of existing knowledge. — The 
 broader problems awaiting the college: problems of transporta- 
 tion; problems of distribution; a|)plication of corre<t bu.siness 
 methods til the fnnn; the training ipf leaders. — The place of the 
 agricultural college in the educational system . . . 140-166 
 
 I c„ 
 
 after X. Some Forms ok Extension Service 
 
 The iiMpe of agricultural college extension M'rvie»». — The 
 
 '|Ui-.-tiuu uf orgauizatiou. — i'liascs of cxtcnsiun service: reading 
 
X CONTEXTS 
 
 roursos; movable srhodls; county cxpiTts; farmers' cooperative 
 (lenionstration wurk; luillitiri service; demonstration trains. — 
 Tliu oullixjk for future lievelopnient 107-180 
 
 Chapteii XI. Institites and Otiieh Helps for xnE 
 Adilt Failmeii 
 
 Tlic rise of the institute rnovemenf. — The extent of the in- 
 stitute moveinent. — The ii.iture and organization of farmers' 
 institutes. — The farmers' institute lecturer: reputation in his 
 own community: scientific traiiiini,': al>iiity to teach; tact: gen- 
 eral (jualities. — Method of cli<Mi>;itii» institute le<-tiirer.s. — I»- 
 ealizalion of institute work. — The character of the program: 
 the organization of the forces; the length of the institute session; 
 the methods of teaching to Ik- ad')|)tt-d. — Farmers' cluhs. — 
 The Crange: the early history of the grange; the organization 
 of the grange; the work of the grange. — The dangers to 1)C 
 guarded against in rural orgaiiiz.itions. — -The fe<leration of 
 forces: the ne<'d for fiiieration; the form that fo«leration may 
 take; a state plan of federation. — In general . . . 181-iiOO 
 
 Chapter XII. The Wom.vn on the Faiim 
 
 Importance of the work of the farmer s wife. — The exodus of 
 girls from rural districts. — The kind of education requir^^l by 
 the rural girl. — -The work for tiie farm girl in the rural ele- 
 mentary .sch<M)l. — Ilou.sehold seienif in the home. — Home 
 helps for the girls not attending school. — Special hIgh-seh<X)I 
 work for farm girls. — College courses for women. — Women's 
 instit\ites: women's institutes in Ontario; the functions of wo- 
 men's institutes; spe<'ifie instruction given by women's insti- 
 tutes; typical contract between women's institutes and the De- 
 partment of Agriculture. — Domestie-seience trains . iiOl-218 
 
 Chapter XIII. The Training of Tb:acher3 
 
 The training of teachers for rural .schools. — The need of 
 special training for rural sehmil-teiichers. — The character of 
 the training needed. — Training for persons preparing to teach: 
 the methods in Ontario; rural teachers' conferences; methods in 
 the I'nited States; teacher-training in high sch(X)ls; county 
 normal sch(X)ls; state normal schools. — Training teachers 
 already in service: summer sch(H)ls; teachers' institutes; corre- 
 s[>ondence courses; itinerant teachers. — The training of teach- 
 ers for higher schools. — The graduate school of agricul- 
 ture 419-235 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 u 
 
 CiiAiTKK XIV. TnE Example of Dexmahk 
 
 The at'ritultnral situation in Denmark. — Tho roiiporutive 
 movi-nn-nt. — The kinds of (-(MJixTativc organizatiuns. — The 
 fx'opl.'s hij-h s(h(K.I:. — The Royal Agricultural anil Vcf.rinary 
 Instifutiv — llunil or>janization in Dcnniurk: Danish .\gri(ul- 
 tural S<xict\ ; the State Department of Agrieulture; farmers' 
 asMK-iatiuns; sinall-liolijers' Jissoeiations; sfK-eial organizations; 
 a>:rieullural <-re(|its assiKiations; essentials of agricultural 
 progress i30-il8 
 
 ■n 
 
 AiTENbix. List of .\iTiioiaTiE.s co-nsilted 
 Indkx 
 
 Ml -205 
 
 «07-)rrs 
 
m 
 
ILLISTRATIOXS 
 
 MoDKI, KfHAI. S( HOOI, ON TIIK CaMI'IS oK \hW V( )HK 
 
 Statk Coi.i.KciK OK AciuiciLTi UK .... Fr(inti.'< jii, ir 
 
 ('aHDIIOAIU) MoIJKI-S ()1 Al'l'KOVF.I) !{|1{AI, .'^( 1I()()I,I{| II.I)- 
 
 '^'•^ 40 
 
 A KkNTI ( KY Loo S< IIODLIIOISK 54 
 
 \ ColNTUV Cummi'mty-Ckntku 58 
 
 The M()NTAc;tK (Mass.) High and roNsoi.iDATKD .School 84 
 TiiK John Swanev Consoi.idatki) S< iiool .... 80 
 \ A\ rsKi) Eoa TuAN.si'oiiTATiDN in I'l I'li.s .... 88 
 .V ('(jNsuuDATEt) School and TiiANsiHjUTATiox Wagons [)\ 
 Facsimile ok Field Notes on Potato Plot . . . ]()J 
 Night School's .Vid to eliminate Illiteuacy . .Hi 
 
 ("oLEDHOOK .VcaUEMY ]JQ 
 
 Home Economics E-khiuit Cxu, Couxell Univeiusity . UQ 
 
f^- 
 
 ^f 
 
 rt"! 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^f^ 
 
IXTItODlC TIOX 
 
 
 I'.ni < \ri<)\ i- flic rii<i-t iiiiportjiiil i|iif^li(iii in .\iii(Ti<;in 
 cniiiitry lift-; jhmI, indeed, a di^^iIl^,'lli^lliIll,' mark <if jiros- 
 ciit-day di><ii>>i(iiis i-; tlir promiticiicf that is iiivcii to rdii- 
 catiorial |inil>lrins. Kdiicatioii lies at the foundation of 
 deinoeraey. and its progress is a vital eoiic<Tti of th<' coin- 
 nioii people. The I;:ynian to-day is taking' a |)art in the rlis- 
 ciissioM of educational matters second only to that of the 
 man who has made fhctn a life study. The xliools are 
 liciiii; suhmitled to the t«'st of prixiucint; n'>ults, and are 
 hein;: required, as never liefore, to -iiou rcturn> commen- 
 surate with the money inxcsfcd. 
 
 I'Mucational ni'-thods and theories are undcrt;oinfj 
 ( haiiL'c. iioth the [)o[)ular and the professional e.Ticep- 
 liniis of education that culture could lie attai >nly 
 
 throuizh the ^'ateway of an intiinale knowledge of < sical 
 laiii,Mia;.'es and literature - were louf,' un(|ues»i()ned. Kdii- 
 cators themselves were larf^ely res|)onsil)le for this nn'id 
 conception. Consciously and unconsciously they estah- 
 lished the idea that education consisted of the ac(|uisition 
 of a kiiowlcd^'cof Latin and (Jreek, and those thinj,'s which 
 had relation only to the intellectual and introspective life, 
 with the result that peojile came to look upon the posses- 
 sion of such knowledf,'e a.-^ the oidy means of ^'iving to their 
 children a better training for life than they had n-ceived 
 themselves. We are now enpif^ed in the pnxess of modify- 
 int: this conception — and, indeed, extremi>ts are almost 
 reject iiiLT it -- hy recoi^nizing the educational \alues that 
 are recei\ed from a traininir in the scicnc*' and art of 
 ii'MJcrn industries and {irofes-ioiis. 
 
 I'he ^'oal in education to-day is douhtless hut little 
 (hanged from the past, hut a new interpretation is being 
 
,vi INTUODKTION 
 
 given to lh«« I.Tni "culliir.-." aiul i.alliwnys fo r<liirnfiori 
 thill lire ciisirr for the (oiimioi. |ko|,1c to r..Il..\v an- l.nn^{ 
 oixnc.l. TIk- new (•..iicr;,! ioii is l.aM-.l ••ii a fiiilrr iindrr- 
 
 stau.link' of t»"- '"'l <" '•<• "'••''"••'!• "" •''•• ""•■ ''*""'• "'"* 
 of flu- people to l.e .-.liK ate,!. ..II tlie otli.T. Tliis is niakiMH 
 imiHTitive a re.oiisi.leralion of the roi.teiit aii<l method 
 ui a rational vlieine of e<hieatioti. 
 
 A(;UI( I I.Tl HAI. KDK ATH.N N<»T AN' ISOI.ATKH Wl KSTION 
 
 Aprieiiltiir.il e.lueation is a phase of the hn.a.ler proh- 
 h-ni of iii(hi>lrial e(hieation. In etirrent echieatioiial dis- 
 russi..i.s. however, the term "iiulustrial e(ln<-ati..n" has 
 heen inler|.rete,l to mean ahiio>t . ..hisively tlw.t form of 
 training; whi<li will fit for participation in the meehameal 
 purMiits of the factory aiul tiie workshop. In the diseus- 
 sioiis of <-du«ati..n for industrial purposes aurieulture has 
 held a suhordinate jilaee, hut the time has come uheii this 
 basic human industry must receive adeiiuale considera- 
 tion. This is especially true Ix-caiise the inlluence of tradi- 
 tion is ^'reater in aKrieullural processes than it is in other 
 indu.stries. and praeli<al knowled-e has lu-eii transmitted, 
 with a modicum of theory, from father to son, resultiuf,', 
 too often, in had farming', low ideals of living, and un- 
 sound husiness management. Covernor Harmon of Ohio 
 says, "While all other lines of our industries have received 
 a great impetus from intelligent thought, agriculture seems 
 to have been largely passed by. Too widely the idea pre- 
 vails that all u nuin has to do is to scratch the ground, sow 
 some seed into it, plough it once in a wliile, and trust the 
 lx>rd to do the rest." 
 
 The education of the farmer is a matter that concerns 
 the urban population as well as the rural population. 
 Town and country are mutually dependent. The threads 
 of our national life are now so interwoven that the prob- 
 lems of the conntry and the city cannot be wholly sepa- 
 rated. The liigh cost of living is forcing city dwellers to 
 
1 
 
 3 
 
 INTIIODKTION 
 
 X\ II 
 
 invcsti^'iifc more closc-ly llic origin iitid tlio valms of the 
 |iri>i|ii('l> Ixiii^'lit for tlir family liililr, and is itxIiKiii^' the 
 f;iriii<T iitui tlu- >,'ar(i«'iHT li> slinly I lie <ity markt-t «|inita- 
 finii>, the co-.t (if traiis|)«irlati<>ii, tin" iiifliiciM*" of ^jimmI 
 r<Mii>. ami rclati-d proMfins. 
 
 'I In- city is (Irpcndnit njxiii flu- (niinlry fur new life 
 M-mmI and \i;j:(ir to inaiiitaiii its |Mi|)iilat ion and its itidiis- 
 trial proj^'n-ss, while, on tin* oilier lian<l, flu- coiinfry eon- 
 slaiilly liMtks to the city for its markets, and hir;;«'ly, also, 
 fur its ediieational fatilities and its amusements. Cntil 
 nieiitiy the interests of town and ronnfry have In-en fre- 
 fjiieiitly regarded as anta^;onistie; litit "the wcll-heinn of a 
 people is like a tr«v: a^jrieultun-is itsriwit, mamifaetun-satid 
 <i>mmeree are its liran(ln's and its life; if the riMit is injureil 
 the leaves fall, the liranelies lireak away, and the tree dies."' 
 
 .\;:ri(iiltural prosperity is one of the most important 
 fa< tors in financial staKility. This is shown liy the iluct na- 
 tions in the inoiu-y market aceordinj,' to gmnl or liad har- 
 vests. Hu^iness men must l)e hrou^jht to an active reco^;- 
 iiition of the fact that the success of farmin^j operations 
 means increased trade, and that farmii\>i determines more 
 lar^rely the^'ciieral pros|>erity of the country' than the suc- 
 (•ess (if any other industry. 
 
 It is sometimes said that the farmer should he able to 
 look after himself, and it is assumed that aid given to 
 ai,'riculture will lienefit the farmer alone. This is not the 
 case; liut even if it were, have not matiy other industries 
 heeii sulisidized? \Vitness the aid given to railroads, the 
 granting of i)atents, and the estaMishmcnt of tariffs '.n va- 
 rious forms, all of which may fairly be regarded as direct 
 financial aids to industry. 
 
 The development of agriculture is a national question, 
 not a local or individual one; and the reasons for so re- 
 garding it may he considered under the following heads: — 
 
 • I'liHik.tt, Sir Horace. The Rural Life Problem in the Uuited Slates. 
 
X^'lll 
 
 INTRODITTION 
 
 1. Tin* (Tononiic value of tlio products of agriculture. 
 
 i. The nunihcr of persons engaged in the practice of 
 agriculture. 
 
 .'J. .Xgririillure is the basic industry. 
 
 •t. The consumption of agricultural products is rapidly 
 overtaking the production. 
 
 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE PHOnUCTS OF 
 AGRICfLTCRE 
 
 The Secretary of the United States Department of 
 .\griculture, in his Report for l!)()t, says: "An occupation 
 tiial is producing such unthinkable values as one aggregat- 
 ing nearly $.").()()0,()()(»,()()0 within a year may be better 
 nieasurc(l by some comparisons. All of the gold mines of 
 the entire world have not produced, since Columbus dis- 
 covered America, a greater value of gold than the farmers 
 of this country have produced in wc.iith in two year . 
 This year's produce [1!)()4| is over six times the amount of 
 capital stock of the national banks. It comes within three 
 (piarters of a billion dollars of equating the value of the 
 manufactures of 1900 less the cost of the materials u.sed. 
 It is twice the sum of our imports and exports for the year. 
 It is two and a half times the gross earnings from the rail- 
 roads. It is three and a half tinu s the value of all minerals 
 produced in this country, including coal, iron ore, gold, 
 silver, lead, and (juarricd stone." 
 
 According to the latest available Canadian statistics, the 
 j)roducts of agriculture in Canada amount to over $400,- 
 000,000. which is three times as great as the combined 
 values of the products from forests, mines, and fisheries. 
 
 THE NCMUKU ok I'EKSONS ENCJAGEO in the rUACTICE 
 OK ACIRICrLTlUE 
 
 The last census returns give the number of i)ersons en- 
 gaged in gainful occupations in the I'niled States as 29,- 
 .'500,000, of which number thirty -six per cent are engaged iu 
 
IN'TUODl'CTION' 
 
 XIX 
 
 nirri(ijlfi:r;il operations. This is the larjiest niiinhcr en- 
 gii^t'tl in any sinfjli- f,'r()ui> into which the industries are 
 divided. Notwithstanding the remarkable growth of nianu- 
 facliires during the past twenty years, agriculture eiu- 
 jdttys more pe(>])Ie than any of the other industrial groups. 
 In the United States, .V.i.l per cent and, in Canada, 5i.. 
 per (tilt of the population is clas.sed as rural; and while it 
 is not fair to assume that all the rural population are en- 
 gaged in agriculture, or that all the urhan ])0[)idalioii are 
 engaged in the manufacturing induslries, the proi)ortions 
 of the two afford an indication of the relative importance 
 of the two types of industry. 
 
 AGRUTLTURE IS THE BASIC INDrsTRV 
 
 .\griculture is not only the basic industry, hut it is .so 
 closely related to the commercial and business cnter|)rises 
 tliat it caiuiot be wholly separated from them. Manu- 
 facturers arc concerned with the supply of raw material, 
 and they strive both to increase the supply and to provide 
 sul)stitutes when it threatens to fail. For example, the 
 National Association of Paint Manufacturers is taking 
 steps to secure greater production of fla.xseed, from which 
 linseed oil is made. 
 
 .\n increase of only one bushel of grain per acre through- 
 out the United States would require 1'2,.>00 extra trains of 
 fifty cars each for transportation.' The great railway com- 
 panies are fully aware that agricultural prosperity means 
 increased l)usiness. This conviction is shown by their ef- 
 ^>rts to attract settlers, to develop the farm lands along their 
 riiules, and their practice of running well-eciuii)jK'd agricul- 
 tural demonstration trains for the benefit of their patrons. 
 
 fONSlMlTION IS RAPIDLY OVERTAKING PRODtTTION 
 
 The President of the Michigan Agricultural College 
 estimates that the population of the Unit^-d States fifty 
 ' New V.irk. Statt.' Dtpiirtment of .^griiulturf. Hulktin 35, p. 955. 
 
TX 
 
 INTRODrCTION 
 
 years hence will he 'iOO.orXj.OOO.' The annual yield in 
 stai)le crops is not keeping pace with the increase in popu- 
 lation. For exanij)]c, while the <(irn croi) of l!)0(>wasthe 
 lar^'cst ever [jroduced in the I'nited Stales, the yield per 
 acre was less than in IHT-J; and the same is true of wheat 
 and other important cereals. = It is evident, therefore, that 
 the additional food retjuired to feed the increasing popula- 
 tion can no lon<:er he obtained by increasing; the acreajxe 
 under cultivation. It must now be procured by increasing 
 the amount raised per acre. 
 
 The same condition holds in respect to all kinds of live- 
 stock, both in the United States and in Canada. In the 
 former )untry, from lOOO to 1!)1() all branches of live- 
 stock breedi..<; were tliminished, and in Canada during the 
 same period the number of horned stock exported was 
 decreased by S(),()()(), and of sheei) by more than 400,000; 
 and whereas Canada used to export some twelve millions 
 of poultry, it now ex{)orts none; it no longer exports eggs, 
 although it once exported 11,000.000 dozens.^ 
 
 TIIF: PAUT EDITATIOX MIST PL.\y 
 
 The welfare of the nation depends much on tiie character 
 and the extent of the means of agricultural betterment. 
 It has been well said that agricultural returns are the 
 barometer of national j)r()sperity. It is now time that na- 
 tional and state legislatures, nmnicipal organizations, and 
 local societies of farmers and business men joined their 
 forces to assist in giving to agriculture the assistance, 
 encouragement, and direction which its importance war- 
 rants. As a national business investment, the expenditure 
 of nuich larger sums in agricultural in\ siigation, educa- 
 tion, and demonstration could be made not only to give 
 adoipiatc returns in increased production, but to materially 
 
 1 Micliigan Agri( ultura! College. Kulletin, October, l!)08, p. 10. 
 
 '■ Ihid., p. Mi. 
 
 ' Jules Meliue at Tenth Internutiouul Congress of .Vgriculture. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 zxi 
 
 raise tho standards of rural living and strengthen the 
 n.'ition as a world power. 
 
 Kdiicutiori hy means of apricultural subjects, adapted 
 to the needs of rural cornniiuiities. is a much hirger and 
 more dinicult j)rol)lern than the education of the niv hanic 
 or the artisan. Agriculture is not one occupation hut many 
 coriiphcated occupations, depending on many sciences and 
 deniaiiding many kinds of skiU. It is a complex probhMn, 
 involving:, in the [)rocess of education, not only the primary 
 consideration of making the farm pay, hut also the rev- 
 olutionizing of the business methods of farmers and the 
 development of a higher social welfare. 
 
 The farmer is strongly conservative, owing largely to 
 his individualistic training, and it is no small task to over- 
 come liis strong attachment to old and well-established 
 j)racti(es. The first, and sometimes the hardest, of the 
 educational |)rol)lems is to lead him to see that the educa- 
 tion of his children is at least as imjjortant as the fattening 
 of his liogs. The task of arousing the farmer to this con- 
 ception is not peculiar to any one countrj' or generation. 
 This is well illustrated by the fact that Sir Horace Plunkett 
 found it necessary to address fifty meetings in order to 
 persuade a single Irish community to start a cooperative 
 creamery; and it was another twelve months before he 
 succeeded in establishing a second.' 
 
 Owing to the complexity of the problem, many features 
 not usually looked upon as pertinent to an educational 
 discussion must enter into its consideration. Agriculture 
 ditFiTs from most vocations in that it determines both the 
 location of the home and the nuimier of living. For this 
 reason, the study of vtx-ational agriculture must include, 
 in addition to technical training, the rights and duties of 
 citi/eiiship, the essentials of home-making and of com- 
 munity building, iiuisnuich as the country has a type of 
 organization somewhat different from that of the towns. 
 
 ' I'luiik'tt, Sir Ilofiirc. The liuml Lifr ProbUm in the United StaUs. 
 
XXII 
 
 INTUODl CTION 
 
 The prosperity of the rural districts is dependent almost 
 as niucli upon tlie social advantaf,'es as upon the ability of 
 the individual to ^,'ro\v crops and to raise stock. The prob- 
 lem to he considered is how the agricultural land may he 
 made to produce an ade(iuate food-supply for the rapidly 
 growing population, while at the same time provision is 
 made for such scnial and educational advantaj;es as will 
 induce the best of our country people to remain in the open 
 
 ct)untry. 
 
 This main problem involves a number of subordinate 
 yet closely related considerations, the chief of which are 
 
 as follows: — 
 
 1. A system of education suited to hx-al conditions and 
 to the everyday (xperiences of country children, thus re- 
 latiuf: them to the opportunities surrounding the "d 
 developing their intellects through a reasonable a 1- 
 tural and natural history outlook. 
 
 2. The adaptation of the education of the boy and girl, 
 from fourteen to nineteen years of age, toward productive 
 efliciency along agricultural and home-making lines. 
 
 ;{. The training of the adult farmer in methods of soil 
 cultivation and farm management according to scientific 
 principles, and the jiroper dissemination of the available 
 knowledge on these subjects. 
 
 4. A .serious consideration of the conditions of the farm 
 home and the work that is carried on therein. Agriculture is 
 a home industry, and the work of the woman plays a more 
 important part than in any other industry. The drift from 
 the country to the city is influenced greatly by the condi- 
 tions of the farm home. 
 
 5. The development of sound business methods in all 
 farming operations and the establishment of coiiperative 
 methods of farming, distribution of products, and buying of 
 supplies. This entails con.sideration of the means by which 
 the farmer may fairly obtain money for the exiension of 
 his operations. 
 
INTRODICTION 
 
 XXlll 
 
 f>. An unilerstanding of the swial and economic advan- 
 Uv^vs of good roads and oUut methods of trans|)orlatioii. 
 
 7. A re-vitahzation and re-dire<ti(m of country life in 
 order that the higher aspirations of farmers may (ind their 
 satisfaction in the richer hfe that the country may be made 
 
 to offer. 
 
 '1 lu' following pages will attempt, in some measure, to 
 (Kid with the above problems. 
 
 
 tm 
 
 £ 
 
¥:'■"! 
 
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 CILVPTER I 
 
 AN niSTCUICAL REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OP 
 AGUICULTURAL EDUCATION ' 
 
 I N Iho advocacy of new schemes of education we are likely 
 ;^ to for^'cl the deljt we owe to tlie pioneer workers who by 
 their hihors have made educational progress possible. Agri- 
 cultural education owes much to the educators of the past, 
 out of wliose work it has grown, and its present status can- 
 nut well be understood without a brief review of its history. 
 
 80ME ANCIENT RECORDS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENTS * 
 
 Formal instruction in agriculture probably began with 
 what may be considered a type of school-garden move- 
 ment. In 1015 B.C., Solomon possessed extensive gardens 
 in which all kinds of plants, "from the cedar tree that is in 
 Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the 
 wall," were kept, probably for purposes of instruction and 
 example as well as for adornment. 
 
 King Cyrus (559-529 b.c.) laid out in Persia the first 
 school garden, in which the sons of noblemen were in- 
 structed in agriculture. 
 
 Aristotle (82-22 B.C.) understood the importance of 
 agriculture and WTote as follows: — 
 
 The first attention should be paid to that which Is in ac- 
 cordance with nature: for by nature agriculture is first; next 
 come all tliose things which are derived from the earth, such 
 as mining and other arts of like kind. 
 
 ' Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American Agncuiture vol. 4. Consulted 
 
 freely. 
 
 ' Commissioner of Education of the United States. Repori, 1898-91>. 
 
 m 
 
I A(iRICrLTrRAL EDICATION 
 
 n.il aKri.uU.in- .luml-l l.o rank.d first hccause it is just: 
 [or it .I.MS i...t .l.rivi- its profits from mt-n. either Nv.tf. tli.ir 
 ronstnt. like- jx-tty traffic, uii.l iW- mmt-narv arts, or uilliout 
 tlair (oiis.-nt. iiki- tin- arts wliicli pt-rtain to war. 
 
 Furtficr. also, agriniiturf is natural, for naturally every 
 existiuK thin}- derives its nourishn.ei.t from it.s mother, and so 
 eonsffiuentlv men derive it from the earth. ..... 
 
 M..ri-over. it contril.utes mu( li towards fortitude: for it 
 ,1,HS n..t nuike the iKnly UMMTvieeal.le, like the illil.eral art.s. 
 hut reii.i.Ts it fit to live au.l labour in the open air. aii.f to run 
 the risks of war against a-ssailanls. For hushan.lm.-n are the 
 only iHTSons wliose posMssioiis lie outride eity v. alls.' 
 
 There is r. legend thai Kin^' Aifre.l csfahlished a .school 
 where farm bovs were t<. he taught, and thai litis .seliool 
 wa.s tlie Legiiining of Oxford Lniversity; but this lacks 
 historical coiifinnation. 
 
 Many of the older European universities had gardens, 
 which most likely were u.sed for purixKses of instruction. 
 In \515 A.I).. Caspar de Gabriel, a wealthy Italian noble- 
 man, laid .)iit the first garden of which there is record, in 
 Tii>caiiv, and this example was folh)wed by many Italian 
 cities, notably Venice. Milan, and Naples. Toward the 
 end of the sixteenth century a botanical garilen was estab- 
 lished in Paris, "becau.se the embroiderers of the court 
 dresses needed new flt>ral designs." 
 
 In 15.34, the Jesuits established the principle of "inter- 
 e.st" in education, and argued that learning should have 
 some relation to living. Early in the sixteenth century. 
 Rabelais taught that the individuality of the pupil should 
 he considered, and that the materials for his education 
 should not he drawn from hooks alone, hut from the ex- 
 ternal world, from the heavens, the trees, and even from 
 the usual occupations of men. 
 
 In 1(k>1. there was published in London a small pam- 
 phlet, by Samuel Ilartlib. entitled "An Es.say for the Ad- 
 vancement of Husbandry-Learning: or Propositions for 
 1 Economics, book 1, chap. 2. 
 
IILSTOUICAL UEMEW 3 
 
 Hie Kmlin^a Collodgc of Ilushandry: and, in onlor tliiTe- 
 iiiitn, for flic faking in of rn|)ill.s or Apiin-nticcs. And also 
 Friends of Fcllowos of the sanii- ("ollt-d^'c or S(Mit>ty." Tlic 
 author |>rof>os<'d that such a collcjio should havo four pro- 
 fessors, one of whom should he sent to Asia, one to Kurope, 
 one to Africa, and one to America to study, and that they 
 should retract whenever they taught anything' that should 
 he proved erroneous. 
 
 Alx.ut Ki.JO, Milton's "Tractate of Education" was 
 written to Ilarlli!). The educational method advocated 
 in It was largely reading. The authors chosen "would he 
 the Authors of Agriculture, Cato, Varro, and rolumella; 
 for the matter is most easy, and if the language he difficult,' 
 so nmch the better, it is not a difficulty above their years: 
 and here will be an occasion of inciting and enabling thein 
 hereafter to imjjrove the tillage of their country, to re- 
 cover (he bad .soil, and to remedy the waste that i.s made 
 of good; for this was one of Hercules's praises." 
 
 Comenius (irjO^J-lGTl) would "fit youth for the investi- 
 gafinii of the causes of things." He would know the ex- 
 terna! world: "Come forth, my son," he .says, "let us go 
 into file open air. There you shall view what.soever CJod 
 produced from the beginning and doth yet effect by Na- 
 ture." In his "Didactica Magna" he maintains "that a 
 garden should be connected with every school, where chil- 
 dren at times can leisurely gaze on trees, flowers and herbs, 
 and be taught to enjoy them." 
 
 Jean Jacques Rous.seau pointed out the importance of 
 parden work as an educational factor in his "fimile," |)ub- 
 hsh.'d ill \7(V>, and Salzman (1744-1811) wrote. "School 
 gardens have been laid out neither to draw the attention of 
 pa.ssers by, nor to give great returns, but to instruct." 
 
 For some time Pestalozzi was a farmer and employed 
 I his wards at Neuhof with field and garden work. "I wish," 
 he Slid, "to make my estate the central point of my agri- 
 cultural and educational efforts." 
 
4 AGRICL-LTIUAL EDUCATION 
 
 F.-llmWrn. the Swiss educiitor (1771 ]HVi), estuLlished 
 H s.h.H.1 at n.ifwvl. lit- took gr.-al int.Tfst in llir iwasuntry 
 '„f Ins n.ur.lrv. TIh' avowed ..l.jccl (.f his school was de- 
 finitely to train the pupil for his tra«le or (K-eupatjon. Agri- 
 culture was to he the l.asis of the sehool. 
 
 In 17(51. the National Society of Agneulture in trance 
 advocal.-d the api)ointnient ..f aurieullural profess..rs. and 
 charne<l several of its n.en.l)ers with the mission to an.iisc 
 and enlighten puhli.' opinion with referen.-e t<. ajjruultural 
 alTairs As a result of t h^s cainpai^'n some lar^je landowners 
 were in.lueed to estal.lish sch<^)l.s of agriculture. In 1703, 
 a selu.ol was organized at La RcK-hette and, in 1771, an- 
 other was estahlislu-d near Comi.it-Kne. In IHOO. I-ran(.oi3 
 ,U. Neuf<-hateau, a former Minister of the Interior who 
 had in mind the dangers to Kuropean agriculture from 
 American competition, laid In-fore Napoleon an elaborate 
 scheme for agricultural educati.,n which he had copied 
 from the Ahlu' Rozier, who had promulgated it in 1770; 
 but. though it was in the main approved, it was never 
 
 carried into effect. , . i 
 
 Campe (17«]-1S18). together with his wards. i)lanted 
 about ten thousand trees during his lifetime. In 1H40, 
 Froebel, who founded the first kindergarten at Thuringia, 
 recommended light gardening as one of its occupations. 
 
 Agriculture was placed on the program of the French 
 schools as an elective in 1850. In 18G6-C7, after a series of 
 bad harvests, an extended inquiry was held, with the result 
 that .schools of agriculture and horticulture were estab- 
 lished in 1873. The Institut National Agronomique was 
 reoi)ened in Paris in 1876. and in 1H70, the elementary 
 principles of agriculture were included among the obliga- 
 tory studies of primary instruction. This was confirmed 
 by the law of 188>2, which organized agricultural instruc- 
 tion in the primary, normal, and superior schools of the 
 country.' 
 
 . ^ ■ ■ f 1.' !.,_„.;,,„ Rr""r' \f>n^ vol. 1, n. 87. 
 
HISTORICAL REMEW 
 
 pan 
 
 Miilliall says, "It is hiinlly too much to state thiit Ilun- 
 lias (lone more flian aiiv<»lhrr country in tlic way of 
 
 ilti 
 
 The third of th 
 
 ^ta^) 
 
 ai;ri< iiltural mIumhs. ilic Uiird of llicsc scIumjIs. «-siat)- 
 \i>\n-d ill 17!)7, was for a h»ii^' period the model aj;ri<uhural 
 s( lidiil ill Kurope. In 18 iH it was suppressed l»y th«' Aus- 
 trian (ioveriunent because all the profess«)rs and pupils 
 tiM»k part in the strug>?le for independence under Kossuth. 
 Tlic present complete system of instruction in that coun- 
 try dates from the year 18')0. 
 
 The work of Alhrecht Thaer in Germany marks an 
 rjKMh in the history of (iernian agriculture. On his farm at 
 ("«lle, in Hanover, he applied science and sound business 
 iiietluxls so successfully that farmers from all over the 
 Continent came to visit it. To these visitors he l)egan to 
 pi\ f a{,'ricultural instruction in 1S()'2, and out of the instruc- 
 tion so begun, grew the Agricultural Institute of thai town. 
 In 1800, he founded the agricultural school at Moeglin, 
 near Berlin. This was raised to the Royal Academy of 
 A^'ricullure in 18i4. 
 
 THE CONTRIBUTION OK AGRICLLTUHAL SCK'IETIE.S IN 
 AMERICA ' 
 
 ScH'ieties and organizations of farmers and others in- 
 terested in agriculture have played a large part in deter- 
 mining iK)licies and stimulating progress. The first society 
 for the promotion of agriculture was organized at Phila- 
 delphia on March 1, 1785, and on the 4th of July of the 
 same year George Washington and Benjamin Franklin 
 were elected members. At the same time, a similar society 
 was formed in South Carolina. This organization, among 
 other steps, proposed to establish an exiK-rimental farm, 
 wliich suggestion was, as far as is known, the first of the 
 kind in .American historj'. 
 
 In 1791, the New York Society for the Promotion of 
 
 ' Diilmey, Agricultural Education. Munograpb li. St. Louis Exposi- 
 tion, iyo4. 
 
' ^nirrL1TU\L KDITATION 
 
 Afrrirultural Arts and Mamifiuf uri-s was cstahlislml, atnl 
 its first volume of l'ro<«M'<liii>;H was puMi^licd in ITK'i. Iti 
 tliis year Hic Mas>a<liusctts Society for the I'roiiiotioii of 
 A^'rieiiltiire was fontied, and in I7!)l a similar soeiely was 
 Ohlalilislu'd in ( 'oiuu'c ticul. 
 
 In 17!)4, the I'hihidelphiu S<Kiety a|)poinfed a eomniillpc 
 "to prepare a phui for establishing; the Stale S<Kiety for the 
 promotion of apicnhnre. ronne<tin>; with it the ethication 
 of the youth in that most iini)ortant art." One of tlie suj,'- 
 ^estiofis of this committee was "the endowment of pro- 
 fessorships, to 1k' annexed to the rniv«Tsity of Pennsyl- 
 vania, ami the ("ollcu'e of Carlisle, and other seminaries of 
 learning, for the pur|)ose of teaching' the chemical, philo- 
 sophical and eh-mentary parts of the theory of agriculture." 
 Another siif;j:esti»)n was to u.s<' the public .school system of 
 the State to educate the farmer in his husiness. "the coun- 
 try school nuisters heinj,' made Sc<re»aries of the County 
 Swieties and the .s<hool houses the |)lace of nieetinfj. aiul 
 the rc|)ositories of their transactions, motlels, etc. The 
 Icj^'islature may «'njoiii on these schoolmasters, the com- 
 hinatioti of the sultject t>f af^riculture with the other parts 
 of education. This may he easily ('':<■■ ' \ hy iiil.-K-lucinjr, 
 as .s<-hool-l)ooks. those on this subject; and thereby making 
 it familiar to their pupils." These sujj>,'estions were not 
 carried out. but that does not <letract from their signifi- 
 rance. This was probably the first formal effort made in 
 the I'nited States to present the claims of ajjricultural edu- 
 cation to a legislature, and to incorporate instruction in 
 apriculture in the course of .study for the primary scIum)1. 
 It is interesting to note that the.se resolutions, more than 
 one hundred and twenty years old. are strangely in har- 
 mony with present-day ideals: rural .s<h(Mils as community 
 centers, correlation of agriculture with other .school sub- 
 jects, and agricultural textbooks. 
 
 In 1801, a memi)er of the Massachusetts Swiety sug- 
 gested that agricultural fairs should be held at Cam- 
 
IIISTOIIICAL Iir.MEW J 
 
 IiriiL''" i" •Ik" ^I'riii^ jiiuI in tlw fall. .mkI prtMiiiutiiH should 
 l)c trivii) for farm |)ro<liicts. 'I'liis sUL't^rslioti was not actrd 
 ii[M)ii, liuwrvtT. Dr. 'riiorH'tii, (In- lir-l < 'oniiiiis>ioii(T of 
 Tatftits at Wa-'ii-ii^tuii, su^'^'^'st<'<^ ill iHiH that thf suit- of 
 ni,'ri(iiltiiral prodiKf and of calth" woiiM Ik- proinotrd liy 
 till' lioiiiinn of fairs after tin- Kn^dish niannrr. As a result of 
 till" siin^rcstion, the "National Iiitclli^Tiicer" o' thai year 
 rr|inrliMl that fairs wore held "in the Mall on tlie South side 
 of the 'liher." The first fair prov«'d Mich a sue«'ess tliat the 
 ( itizeiis themselves raised the .sum of s.'iO for premiums for 
 tlie next one, whieh was held in April, iHO.'j. The third one, 
 held in NovenilKT of Ihe same year, upjx*ar.s to have !,-oen 
 the last. 
 
 In IH(M), the citizens of Maryland, Virj^iiiia, and the 
 District of C'olunihia formed the C'ohimliian Af^rieultural 
 Society, which for many years was actively enpa^ed in 
 educating the farmer, mainly throu;,'h the aj^ency of fairs. 
 
 In 1S17. the Berkshire Aj^riculf ural Society, on the 
 iiiotiiin of Klkanah Watson, |)resented a memorial to Con- 
 gress praying,' for "the estahlishmeiit of a National Hoard 
 of .\gri( iilture in accordi;iiv«' with the ori;,'iiial su^j^^estion 
 (if I'resident Washington." The hill reported to the Hou.sc 
 of Hepresentatives .vas promjjlly defc;!*-- ! by a large ma- 
 jority. 
 
 'iiiese agricultural societies were generally open to all 
 interested in agriculture, whether actively engaged in its 
 practice or not. Certain other organizations, designed 
 especially for farmers, !iave grown up. Foremost amongst 
 these are the Cirange (IStJT), the Farmers' .Vlliance (1875), 
 tlie Farmers' I'nion (lSS."i). and the I'atrons of Industry 
 ( 1SS7). The Farmers* National Congress has met annually 
 since ISHO and has considerably influenced legislation for 
 the benefit of rural communities. 
 
 One of the earliest results of the formation of these so- 
 cieties was frequent di.scu.ssion of ex{)erinient.s to l>e con- 
 ducted for the betterment of agricultural practice. Various 
 
 fMt 
 
8 
 
 AGRICI'LTTRAL EDI CATION 
 
 kinds of model farms, test-grounds, and se<Ml-oontrol sta- 
 tions have grown out of liie agricultural societies. In 
 Europe, these experimental institutions began to separaie 
 themselves into distinct organizations al>out the middle 
 of the past century. Early American institutions were 
 planned after the experiment station organized in 1851 at 
 Mocckern, near Leipzig. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULXrRAL TEACHING IN 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Now let US consider some of the more definite and or- 
 ganized early attempts to establish agricultural education 
 in the United States. The early attempts were not always 
 received with approval; even the fret? common sclux)l sys- 
 tem was bitterly opj)osed to the encroachment of agri- 
 culture. As late as 1G71, Governor Berkeley, when ques- 
 tioned conr'crning the status of education in the Colony of 
 Virginia, said, " I thank Gcxl there are no free schools, nor 
 printing, and I hope we shall not have these three hun- 
 dred years, for learning has brought disobedience, and 
 heresy, and .sects, into the world, and printing has divulged 
 them, and libels against the best government: God keep 
 us from both." ' 
 
 One of the earliest advocates of agricultural education 
 was Benjamin Franklin. In his "Prop* als Relative to 
 the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania," issued in 1749, 
 he wrote, "While they are reading natural history, might 
 not a little gardening, planting, grafting, and inoculating 
 be taught and practised, and now and then excursions 
 made to the neighbouring pl^mtations of the best farmers, 
 their methods observed and reasoned ui>on for the informa- 
 tion of youth, the improvement of agriculture being useful 
 to all and skill in it no di.sparagement to any?" 
 
 In 1751, a prospectus was i.ssued i;y William Smith con- 
 taining a plan designed as a model for colleges. This plan 
 ' Destor, History of Education in 'he '' .S7a/w, p. 10. 
 
HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 provided for instruction in the chenn'stry of apriculture and 
 was carried out to sonic extent in the Philadelphia Academy 
 (I'nivcrsity of Pennsylvania). 
 
 In the original prospectus of King's Collepr (Columhia 
 I'nivcrsity), "husbandry and commerce" and "agricul- 
 ture and merchandize," arc mentioned in the "I^iws and 
 Orders" adopted by the Governors, June 3, 1755, In 1792, 
 the Chair of Botany and Agriculture was held by Samuel 
 I^iitham Mitchell, M.D. In describing a summer course 
 in botany Dr. Mitchell says: "An attempt is made by the 
 Professor, who is a practical farmer, to elucidate and ex- 
 pound the economy of plants, their affinity to animals and 
 the organization, excitability, stimuli, life diseases, and 
 death of both classes of })eings. The physiology of plants 
 ... is therefore particularly enlarged upon as connected 
 with gardening and farming." 
 
 The first agricultural school in North America, » with 
 the exception of the "Ixsser Seminary," to be afterwards 
 noted, which did actual work was probably the Gardiner 
 ryceuin established at Gardiner, Maine, in 1821. The first 
 term of school l)egan January 1, 1823, with twenty pupils. 
 In 1825, the legislature appropriated $1000 a year for three 
 years. In 1828, this grant was extended for three years 
 longer. This was probably the first state grant made in 
 the United States for agricultural and technical education. 
 In 1821, the school had an attendance of fifty-three persons. 
 That year a boarding-hou.se was erected at which students 
 could have board and washing for $1.25 a week, and a 
 room furnished with chairs and tables and a cot and mat- 
 tress for each individual for twenty-five cents a week. In 
 1S25, there were one hundretl and twenty students. The 
 school continued with varj-ing success till 1832, when it 
 had to be closed owing to lack of public .support. 
 
 In 1825, a school was established at New Harmony, 
 Indiana, by William Maclure, in connection with the so- 
 * United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin C. I'JL'J. 
 
 r 
 
10 
 
 AGRICITTI'RAL ED ['CATION 
 
 cialistic exporiment known as tho "Now Harmony Move- 
 ment." Maclure plai-ed tlie school in charge of Joseph 
 Nccf, who had !)«'«■» brought to I'hihi(lcl|)hia in IHOCi with 
 the object of infro(hicing the methods of teaching ad- 
 vocated by Pestalozzi. Ample equipment, consisting of 
 dormitories, hooks, nmseums, shops, ex[)erimental plots, 
 and other facilities, was provided, I)ut owing to religious 
 strife and intolerance the experiment was not successful. 
 
 From 18'.i7 to lS3-t, the Oneida Manual Lal)or Institute 
 was conducted by George Washington (lale. The instruc- 
 tion included [practice in both carpentry and agriculture. 
 
 In 1838, six thousand signatures were attached to a 
 petition sent to the legislature of the State of New York 
 praying for the establishment of an agricultural school. 
 The committee to which the petition was referred de- 
 plored "that there is no school, no seminary, no depart- 
 ment of any sclux)l in which the science of agriculture is 
 taught." ' 
 
 In 18 n, a professorship of Agricultural Chemistry, Veg- 
 etable and Aniniiil I'iiysiology, was established at Yale. 
 
 In 18a7, th<' Michigan State Agricultural College wa.s 
 founded at Lansing, with G7G acres of heavily timliered 
 land. This was the first of the Agricultural and Mechani- 
 cal Colleges, which, owing to the encouragement of the 
 Land Grant Act, are now to be found in every State in the 
 Union. 
 
 Public school agriculture began with the school-garden 
 movement in Germany about eighty-five years ago. The 
 organized effort now in progress in the United States to 
 introduce the subject into the elementary schools dates 
 from al)out 1900, although the value of the subject wa.s 
 rec()gnize<i as early as 1844. In a preface to the earliest 
 textl)ook, "The .Vgricultural Reader Designed for the Use 
 of Schools," by Daniel Adams, M.D.. Boston, published 
 
 ' I)al)ncy, Agriculliirat Educalion. Monograph li. St. Louis Exposi- 
 tion, lUUi. 
 
HISTORICAL REMEW 
 
 11 
 
 in IS24, tlic aiitlior quotes Dr. Aptliorj) to I ho effort that 
 *• A^rricii! ro and the (iospol aro the two great instru- 
 nKtitsof Divine Providence to (heck the voluptuousness 
 and exorcise tlie virtues of man." * 
 
 TIIK GROWTH OF TUE MOVEMENT IN CAN.\DA 
 
 •Apparently agricultural education in North America 
 had its beginning in the farm school established by Francois 
 <if Laval, the first BisJio]) of Canada, about IGOS, or near 
 tliat date. He established the "Lesser Seminary," where 
 "the children of artisans and i)easants were taught farm- 
 ing, and the various mechanical arts, and thoroughly 
 grounded in the doctrines of the Church." ^ According to 
 I'arknian, the school had not much success in the direction 
 inchoated. 
 
 In IH3C, a school bill was introduced into the Legislative 
 Assonibly of Upper Canada "to authorize the trustees of 
 any school district to raise, levy, and colle«t the moneys 
 as voted, and therewith to lease or purchase a lot or pared 
 of l.ind or farming utensils, seeds, grains and grasses for the 
 UM- of the teachers of the school, or to be annually appor- 
 tioned among the scholars of the school or otherwise em- 
 ployed and occupied for the jjrofit and instruction of the 
 school, or parts thereof in horticulture, agriculture, or in 
 otherwise growing plants, fruits, grasses, and grains as the 
 Trustees, together with the school teacher for the time 
 hoing. may think fit."^ 
 
 In 1847, when the first normal school was established at 
 Toronto, arrangements were made to give the subjwt of 
 agnoiilture a prominent place. Daily lectures were given in 
 a-riciiltural chemistry, demonstration plots were laid out, 
 and practical exi)oriments in field crops and fertilizers were 
 conducted. In 1849, Lord Elgin, the Governor-General, 
 
 ' St.it,- Su|HTint.-n(l.-nt n{ Ful.li,- Instruction. .Vebraska. Report, 1910. 
 
 r.irkmaii. The Old lUijimc in Canada. 
 ' IhKumcntary History of Education in Upper Canada, vol. i.p.3ii. 
 
u 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 offered two afjriculturul prizes of five poi and three 
 
 I)<)unds, respertively. to the two students ,io -hoiild at 
 the end of each halt" year pass the best examination in the 
 sut)jeet of a<;ricultural eheniistry.' 
 
 In 1840 an af^rieultural reader desif^ned for the use of 
 schools was j)uhlished by Mr. John Simpson of Niagara 
 Falls. In 1870, the second textbook was issued. Tliis was 
 Dr. Rj-erson's "First Lessons in Agriculture." The third 
 textbook was "Public School Agriculture," by Mills and 
 Shaw. This was authorized by the Minister of Education 
 for use in the public schools of Ontario, and was the first 
 official recognition of the subject in elementary schools. 
 In 1898, the fourth textbook, "Agriculture," by C. C. 
 James, now Commissioner of Agriculture for the Domin- 
 ion, was published, and authorized for use in "any high 
 school or public school in Ontario, if so ordered by the 
 Trustees." 
 
 Agricultural colleges, the first of which was established 
 in 1871', are now at work in every f)rovince. One of these, 
 at Guclpl\ in the J*rovince of Ontario, is of world-wide 
 reputation. 
 
 In 1893, the first summer school for teachers was held 
 at the Ontario Agricultural College. Thirty-four teachers 
 attended, and they received four weeks of instruction in 
 agriculture. Owing to certain changes in the regulations 
 regarding the teaching of the subject in the schools, only 
 seven teachers attended the next year and the classes were 
 discontinued. 
 
 In 1899, the regulations amending the public school 
 course of study made agriculture obligatory in rural schools 
 in forms -1 and 5. In form 5 a textbook was to be used, and 
 in form 4 the subject was to be taught by conversation. 
 Since 1899, great progress has been made, as will be shown 
 in later discussions. 
 
 * Documentary Uistory o^ Education in Upper Canada, vol. 8, p. 
 2J7. 
 
HISTORICAL RE\TEW 
 
 IS 
 
 NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENTS IN THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 The more important lof^i.slativc enactments which have 
 iniulc prof^ress possil)le, particularly in the direction of 
 hitllicr c(hication, may now he considered. In 1K,'KJ, the 
 Patent Office was made a sej)arate bureau, and Henry L. 
 Kllsworth, a practical farmer of Connecticut, was made 
 Coinmissioner. lie found one of his duties to be the dis- 
 trii)uti()n of seeds and plants. So impressed was he with the 
 needs of the people of the Western prairies, that without 
 the autiiority of (,'onf»ress, and outside of business hours, 
 he collected seeds and plants which he distributed to 
 f.-inners in all sections of the country, but esj)ecially to 
 those in the West, using the postal franks of members of 
 Congress for this purpose. An appropriation of $1000 was 
 made by the Twenty-fifth Congress from the Patent Office 
 Fund, " for the purpose of collecting and distributing seeds, 
 prosecuting agricultural investigation, and procuring agri- 
 cultural statistics." The first separate appropriation made 
 by Congress for agriculture was in 18o4, when the sum of 
 $;}.j,000 was voted.' 
 
 The Morrill Acts. — December 14, 1857, may be looked 
 upcn as the "red-letter" day in agricultural education in 
 the United States. On that date, Justin S. Morrill intro- 
 duced his first bill into the National Congress. This au- 
 thorized the establishment of colleges in all the states, and 
 for their maintenance provided ^20,000 acres of public lands 
 for each member of Congress. The bill was referred to the 
 House Committee on Public Lands, which i)resenle<l an 
 adverse report. Notwitlistanding this, the bill passed both 
 houses at the following session, but was vetoed by Presi- 
 dent Buchanan. In December, 1861, Mr. Morrill intro- 
 duced a new bill in which the 20,000 acres was increased to 
 
 ' I)al)iiey, Agriculiurd Education. Monograph 12. St. Louis Exposi- 
 tion, VJOi. 
 
14 
 
 AGRICULTL'RAL EDUCATION 
 
 30.000. In spite of another adverse report l>y tlie House 
 Coimnittee, tlie bill passed both houses and was approved 
 by President Lincoln. The eireunistanccs were dramatic, 
 and history hardly presents a parallel. In the midst of the 
 excitement of a great war, the peoj)le paused to give ade- 
 quate consideration to the (piestion of providing means for 
 the establishment of a sound system of agricultural educa- 
 tion. 
 
 The object of the grant is exj)ressed in terms so broad 
 that they have led to considerable controversy. The pur- 
 pose of the act was to provide for "the t..Jowmcnt, sup- 
 j)ort, and maintenance of at least one college where the 
 leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific 
 and classical studies, and including military tactics, to 
 teach such branches of learning as are related to agricul- 
 ture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the leg- 
 islatures of the states may respectively prescribe, in rrder 
 to j)romote the liberal and practical education of the indus- 
 trial classes in the .several pursuits and nrofessions in life." 
 
 The second Morrill .Vet was ai)prove(l by President Har- 
 rison on .Vugu.st 30, 1890, and provided $1.5,000 annually, 
 with an increase of $1000 each year until the aj)propria- 
 tion should become $'25,000 to each State, the money to 
 be taken out of the funds derive<l from the .sale of public 
 lands. The act says that this sum is to be applied "only 
 to instruction in agriculture, the mechanic arts, the Eng- 
 lish language, and the various branches of mathematical, 
 physical, natural, and economic science, with special ref- 
 erence to their application in the industries of life, and to 
 the facilities for such instruction." 
 
 The establishment of the Department of Agriculture in the 
 United Slates. — In the same year (18(54) that the first 
 Morrill Act was passed, the Department of Agriculture 
 was established, but not as an independent department of 
 the Government. Its chief officer was styled "Conunis- 
 siouer of Agriculture." By the act creating the depart- 
 
inSTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 15 
 
 iticnt, llic duties of the department were "to acquire and 
 (lifTiise i.niong the {)eopk' of llie I iiited States useful iu- 
 furiiiation on subjects connected with agriculture in the 
 nii»t generous and comprehensive sense of the word, and to 
 j)ro('ure and [)ropagate among the i)eople new and valuable 
 srcd^ and plants." In 188!), the Department of Agricul- 
 ture was raised to an executive departmeut and its chi(f 
 oiliccr, the Secretary of Agriculture, was given a seat in the 
 i i'n>idciit's Cabinet. 
 
 The Experiment Station Acl^s. — Next in importance to 
 tlic Morrill .Vets comes the Hatch Act of 1887. This act 
 :i|)|»n)i)riates $lo.000 to each State for the purpose of 
 (■(iiidijcting experiments and research. In 1888, the Office 
 of Kxpcriment Stations became a separate bureau of the 
 Department of Agriculture to serve as the official head of 
 iill the experiment stations receiving the benefits of the act. 
 There had been experiment stations Iwfore this. The first 
 one supported by the State, was in Connecticut, where 
 an appropriation therefor was made by the legislature in 
 IS7.1. Prior to 1888, there had been twenty experiment 
 stations in the I'nited States, but in that year alone, owing 
 to the encouragement of the Hatch Act, twenty-six new 
 ones were established.' 
 
 The Adams Act of 1906, provides still further aid for 
 research. This act appropriates $.5000 annually, with an 
 increase of $2000 each year until the '■.i i of $30,000 shall 
 lia\ e been reached. When the Adams Fund has matured, 
 the I'nited States Government will be appropriating about 
 one and a half million dollars annually for exi)eriment 
 .station work. In addition to this, the individual states 
 are now appropriating more for research thar. the Federal 
 (•Dvernment appropriates. 
 
 The Smilh-Lercr Bill. — This act for the encourage- 
 ment of agricultural extension was approved May 8, 1914, 
 by President Wilson. One college in each state, to be 
 ' Carver, Principlet of Rural Eco.^mics, p. 108. 
 
 IL: 
 
16 
 
 AGRICl'LTUR^VL EDUCATION 
 
 designated by the C ivernor as the recipient of the funds, 
 is to receive {jerjK'tually from the Federal Government 
 .$10,000 aiitiually without requiring an additional appro- 
 priation from the State. The act also makes provision for 
 additional annual appropriations, based on the rural popu- 
 lation. To share in these additional funds, the Stale must 
 duplicate the additional amount granted l)y the Federal 
 Government. The purpose of the act is to provide for 
 cooperative agricultural extension work. The instruction 
 is to be given only to persons not attending or resident in 
 any of the colleges. None of the money is to be used for 
 "the purchase, erection, or the repair of buildings, or the 
 purchase or rental of land, or in college course teaching, 
 promoting agricultural trains, or other purposes not si>eci- 
 fied in the act, and not more than five per cent of each an- 
 nual appropriation shall l)e applied to the printing and dis- 
 tribution of publications." This act marks the third great 
 step in federal aid to agriculture. 
 
 Such, in brief, is the history of the movement. The agri- 
 cultural colleges and experiment stations are now on a 
 solid foundation and their progress is assured. The coun- 
 try is now in a position to devote itself to the no less im- 
 portant problem of primary and secondary agricultural 
 education, to which the National Congress is already ad- 
 dressing itself. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 SOME CONDITIONS OF RURAL LIFE 
 
 TriF ooonomic and so<-iul conditions of rural life affect 
 I)r()^'re.s.s in education. This l)eing so, and it seems gener- 
 ally admitted, it l)ecomes i)ertinent to inquire what these 
 conditions are and, in so far as they are hindrances to prog- 
 ress, how they can be improved. 
 
 THE DECLINE IN RURAL rOPl'LATION 
 
 The decHne in rural iMiiJulalion is the first condition 
 which we may consider. From the prominence given to its 
 discussion in rw-ent years, it would almost appear that we 
 are faced with a new problem. In the I'nited States the de- 
 cline has been most marke<l since 18S0; but it is an ancient 
 problem. Plutarch, in his "Pnccepta Politica," protested 
 a^'ainst the threatened invasion of cities. Cicero deplored 
 the de-population of rural districts. Before the Christian 
 era, the Roman Emperor Augustus .saw that his empire 
 was l)eing undermined and the strength of the nation .sapped 
 by the migration of p)eople from the country to the city, 
 and he summoned the poets of the nation to sing of the 
 beauties and profit^ •" country life in order to entice people 
 back to the Iand.» 
 
 in the United States the decHne in population is shown 
 as follows : ^ — 
 
 1910 1900 1890 1880 
 
 t'rban 46.3 
 
 Kural 53.7 
 
 40.5 
 59.5 
 
 3«.I 29.5 
 63.9 70.5 
 
 During the last cen.sus period (1900-10), the increase in 
 urban population was 34.8 per cent, while the increase in 
 niral population was only 11.2 per cent. 
 
 I'irst I istrict Norma! Sch(X>I, Kirk.«viIIo, MLssouri. Bulletin. 1911. 
 ' Thirtcta'' Census of the United SUlcs. I'opulutwn. 
 
18 
 
 AGRICILTIU.VL EDICATION 
 
 ('ana<la, uIiIkhikIi -'i much younncr coiuitrj', has already 
 Im'^,'uii to show the same fendincy.' From I'JOl to 11)11, 
 thi- urhaii ixipulation iiuTfascd iH percent, while the rural 
 population increased only 17. per cent. This difference 
 In-lween tlie url>an and the rural in(;reii.se is all the more 
 striking wlu-n it is reniemhered that during this period 
 large tracts of virgin land were o|)oned up for settlement. 
 The prairies are looked ui)<)n as almost purely agricultural, 
 yet Saskatchewan added 389 |)er cent to her rural popula- 
 tion, and (>48 {x-r cernt to her urban po|)uiation. AllK'rta, 
 while ad<iing iH!) per cent to her rural growth, inrrcjused by 
 588 |KT cent in urban growth. Manitoba, rich in unwcu- 
 pied land, added 70,.'>11 to her farms and hamlets, while 
 to her villages, towns, and cities were aihled H9,89!2. The 
 Province of Quebec, although largely agricultural, gained 
 39,9.>1 in the rural districts, but added .'$13,863 to the city 
 population.^ 
 
 The Canadian Royal Commis-sion on Industrial and 
 Technical Education, following its investigations, reported 
 this tendency obs«Tved in every country visited, with the 
 single exception of Denmark.' 
 
 The President of the Georgia Club, at the Athens State 
 Normal School, writes, "This loss of jxipulation menaces 
 every business and social interest in the rural districts. 
 Stores and dwellings become vacant, rents decline, trade 
 drops off, land values decrca.se, tenants become restless, 
 schools and churches dwindle, life and enterprise dro^ s into 
 stagnation and decay. Witness the 282 pastorless churches 
 in Maine, many of them used as cheese factories, road 
 houses, and dance halls. . . . Witness in Iowa the 2500 
 country schools in which the attendance has dwindled to 
 ten pupils or fewer. Witness the 1032 pastorless churches 
 
 ' CVn-sus of Canada, 1911, vol. 1. 
 ' Macdou^all. John. Rural Life in Canada. 
 
 ' Hoyiil ('oiuiui.s.>ion on Irdubtrial and Technical Education. Report, 
 parU) I and u. Uttawu, I'Jl'i. 
 
SOME CONDITIONS OF RUILVL LIFE 10 
 
 of ono (Icnomination in the South, and the IGOO uhundoned 
 chiinhos in Illinois. " ' 
 
 THE 8IlIfT IN UtRAL POPUL.\TION 
 
 The moving country population is coni{>osed mainly of 
 three distinct classes: — 
 
 1 Tliose who move from the country to the city or town. 
 To some extent this movement will always be inevitable. 
 If will j)robably Iw considerably lessened when a more even 
 l)alaii(e is struck between the educational, social, recrea- 
 f iotial. and economic conditions now existing in the country 
 and in the town. Many fanners who have acquired a com- 
 I)etenee retire from the farm to the city. .\s a rule this re- 
 moval is di.sapiM)inting to all parties concerned. The farm- 
 ers themselves find it difficult to pass their time pn)fitably, 
 owing to the absence of their lifelong activities; the com- 
 miiiiilies into which they move do not absorb them into 
 their social and municipal life; and the districts from which 
 they come are deprived of the guidance and supfwrt which 
 their experience should enable them to give. 
 
 'i. Those who move from the farms of the older to those 
 of tlie more newly settled parts of the country. In the 
 midst of prosperous industrial districts offering great mar- 
 kefs, much land that was once cultivated now lies idle, 
 owing to the failure to fertilize. This lo.ss of fertility is fast 
 becoming a serious problem. In 1911, an agricultural 
 survey was made into the condition of 1912 farms .scattered 
 throughout the Dominion of Canada. The report of this 
 investigation states that, "in most of the Provinces the 
 farmers are living on the accumulated capital which na- 
 ture provided in the soil, leaving their lands poorer be- 
 cause they had been on them." Even in Manitoba, 46 per 
 cent of the farmers ac;jiowledge a marked decrease in 
 tlie amount produced per acre. The area under cultiva- 
 
 ' Confcrcncf for Education in the South. 
 Auuual .Meotinif. 
 
 Proceedings of Fourteenth 
 
20 
 
 AGRirrLTlRVL EDl'CATION 
 
 tion in tlio W«'st — MariitolKi, Saskatchrwiin, and AllMTta 
 — iiunNiscd 'J(!!) pir <(iil in tin- last <lc< ii<lc. while the 
 amount prtidiic'il iri( rr.is('(| only \H.'> per cnit.' 
 
 Siiicf 1!KM). ill tlic I uitrd Slates the yi«-ld of wheat has 
 ceased to increase, wliile the muiuIkt of mouths t«) Ik' fed 
 has increased from (i.i.OOO.OOO to !)J.()0(),()()(). The exports 
 of wh«'at, U[) to 1!M).'{, were, on an av rap\ some 1!)H,(MM),- 
 000 liushels, whereas to-<hiy they stand at scarcely .').') ,000,- 
 000 to 70,000.000.^ It is said that "within a hundre<l miles 
 of the s|)ot wliere the first pcrnuinent Knj^lisli settlement 
 was made, in what is now the I'liited Slates, one can to-day 
 huy hun<lreds of thousands «)f acres of arable land at less 
 than ii<10 |)or acre — land that was once valued at $.'jO per 
 acre, and whi<h would he now worth more than $100 had 
 its fertility heen maintained."' 
 
 13. Those who are moving' hack from the West to settle 
 on Eastern farms. This mif^ration is rapidly liecominj: im- 
 portant. In some seel ions of New York State, for example, 
 more farms arc l)ein>,' sold to farmers from the West than 
 to any other class of buyers. 
 
 THE WITNES.S OF THE COrXTKY CflfRriT 
 The condition of the churches in the rural districts is 
 another evidence of this decline in population. The Ohio 
 Rural Life Survey of 19H .shows that there were eight 
 hundred abandoned churches in that state. There is not a 
 county in the .state in which one half of the congregations 
 are even holding th'/ir own in numl>ers. In several counties 
 not ten per cent are growing. In ten counties, with a total 
 of three hundred and ninety-four congregations, not one 
 twentieth of the churches had resident ministers. The 
 ministers live in towns and go to the country to preach, 
 returning to town at the earliest possible moment; conse- 
 
 ' Commission of Coniwrviition. Report, vol. in. p. 57. Ott.awa, Canada. 
 
 * Mi'linc, M., Tcntli International Con^jr^'ss of .Xgritullure. 
 
 • Americ-n Academy cf pyUtiisiJ aiKi Sssi.i! Srion e. A 
 
 iih, p. C31. 
 
i 
 
 SOME (ONDITIONS OF HI UAL LIFE «1 
 
 qiKiifly. their outlook is uriian. not rural. Ninoty-six town- 
 .slii|)s in tlu'M- ten coiiritii's, (•()m|)ri>iii^' nearly fmir tliou- 
 fumd s<iiiar«' iniK's, are without a rf.sidi-nl minister in the 
 rural ilistricts. 
 
 In the Stair of New Hatnpshire, 'iiV.i ehunhes do not 
 raise over ^<00 for ministerial salaries. IH raise less than 
 8HM). (i,> less than sjCJOO, Zr, less than ii<4()(). and a few others 
 less than A 1 00. Forty-one |Mr cent of the hailing denomi- 
 nations in this state do not rais«' an amount for mitiisters' 
 salaries e(|ua! to the wages of eonunon lahor. .\n investijju- 
 tiun made in 1910. .sliows that outsideof one hundre<l of the 
 lar^e centers, the salaries of Metliodist mini.sters average 
 )!(.>7;{ a year.' 
 
 According' to a recent edit(.rial in the *'()utl(M>k." w'KMMK) 
 church Itiiildin^js are now out of use in the Iriited States, 
 as an indication of changing,' In-licfs and conditions, and 
 there are 10,000 more that ought to he out of use.' 
 
 A remarkuMe likeness exists iH-tween t!ie diaracter of 
 the rural churches in .\meri<a and the tyi)e of agriculture 
 which prevails. " In the piom-er stage, agriculture has con- 
 sisted ver>- largely in harvesting the soil, and very little 
 attention has Ijeen paid to .soil building. Similarly, the pio- 
 neer churches have too generally followed the plan of har- 
 vesting a meml)ership by revivalistic meth(jd.s. and have 
 given t(M) little attention to membership building. . . . They 
 .seem to have relied more upon making converts among 
 mature reprobates than upon the training of successive 
 generations of boys and girls into g(M>d neighl)ours. into 
 elficient fanners, — in short, into g(M)d citizen.s, such as 
 build up a community, increa.se the production of its farms, 
 and make it a desirable place in which to live."' Statis- 
 tics have been cited to show the parallelism of church 
 and farm as regards prosperity. 
 
 • Macdougall, John. Rural Life in Canada. 
 
 ' ("arn«-y, Matn'!. Country l.ifr and the Country School. 
 
 ' Carver. Thomas Nixon. Frinciiilea of Rural Economict. 
 
 1 
 
AGRICUl.TURAL EDUCATION 
 
 SOME CONTRIBUTING rAT'SEH OF THE DECLINE IN 
 POIHLATION 
 
 Among the causes that may be cited to account for this 
 decline in rural popuhition are the following: — 
 
 The nnmberof men required on the land is less than for- 
 merly. — The use of improved machinerj' on the farm has re- 
 duced the number of units of human labor required on the 
 land to produce a given quantity of food below that for- 
 merly required. The reduction of the farming population 
 of the United States from 70.5 per cent in 18H0. to 53.7 jjer 
 cent in 1910, represents a change from agriculture to other 
 occupations of a very large numlK-r of people. The ef- 
 fect of the introduction of machinerj' is to displace labor 
 or to increase production, or both. The sower is no longer 
 seen in the field. Machines accomplish, in one fifth to one 
 quarter the time, the work that the old hand-sower could 
 do. The modern harvester does the work of eight men, 
 while the threshing machine displaces 14 to i9 farm labor- 
 ers.' Professor Fiskc has saitl, " It was a dramatic moment 
 in history, when at the Paris Exhii)ition of '55 a hopeless 
 contest was waged between six sturdy workmen with the 
 old hand-flail, and threshing madiines from four different 
 countries. In the half-day test the six men threshed out by 
 hand CO liters of wheat, wliile a sin;;le American with his 
 machine threshed 740 liters, and easily led all contestants." 
 
 Fifty years ago it required four and a half hours of labor 
 to produce a bushel of corn; now it requires about 41 
 minutes. The cost then was 351^4 cents, now it is 103^ 
 cei-.s. Thirty-five and one half hours were then required 
 to jjroduce a ton of hay, now only eleven hours and thirty- 
 four minutes are required; and the difference in the cost is 
 $1.77. The cost of labor saved in the production of corn, 
 wheat, oats, rye, barley, and hay, compared with fifty 
 years ago, is estimated to be $(581,000,000.* 
 
 • Fi.skc, WaltiT. The Challenge of the Country. 
 
 * Bailey, Liberty HyJe. Cydupadia of American Agriculture, vol. 4. 
 
SOME CONDITIONS OF RURVL LIFE 
 
 23 
 
 The highest mechanical genius is now being devoted to 
 the invention and improvement of farm machinery, and 
 with steam, electric, and other power coming into general 
 use. the rate of decline of the rural population from this 
 cause may be still further accelerated. 
 
 Lack of social opportunities. — Lack of social opportuni- 
 ties and intellectual stimulus, owing to the isolation of farm 
 lift', is another contributing cause of rural decline. Rural 
 life on the North American continent differs considerably 
 from that in the older i)arts of the world. There the people 
 dwell in hamlets and villages; here, on isolated farms. In 
 Ciiriada. the farm homes are farther apart than anywhere 
 else in the world. In the most iK)pulous province there are 
 counties with 13.1 and d.i persons to the square mile, 
 while the rural population of the United States is 15 to the 
 square mile.' 
 
 The President of the Georgia Club states that letters 
 sent some time ago to the superintendents of state insane 
 asylums, revealed the fact that seventy to ninety per cent 
 of the patients were the wives and daughters of farmer? 
 Their presence in the asylums is due, in part at least, to the 
 state of isolation in which they have lived.* 
 
 P'ortunately there are signs that this state of isolation is 
 iM'ing rai)idly changed. Rural mail delivery, the farm tele- 
 ]>hone, radial lines through the country districts, are all 
 bringing about great changes without materially robbing 
 the farm of its manifest advantages for family life. If these 
 advantages can be extended to every rural community and 
 the evils of isolation reduced to a minimum, other rural 
 problems will be rendered much easier of .solution. 
 
 In the effort hitherto put forth to improve farm condi- 
 tions, we have been training our youth to be merely better 
 producers. This is, of course, the 6rst thing to be done; but 
 
 ' ^^a<•<^ougall, John. Rural Life in Cavnda. 
 
 ■ State Normal School, Athens, Georgia. Bulletin, Our Country Life 
 
 ProhUms. 
 
 u 
 
24 
 
 AGRICULTLTl-VL EDUCATION 
 
 the man is only half trained whrn this is done. lie must be 
 trained, as a man, to devote his energies towards the de- 
 velopment of a new siK-ial order in the open country. 
 
 Lack of educational opportunities is also a contributing 
 factor. The art of aj,'riculture will never rise higher than 
 the intellectual status of the men who are engaged in it, and 
 thus the education of the farmer becomes of great impor- 
 tance. The Countrj' Life Commission, reporting to the 
 President of the United States in 1909, states that "all 
 difficulties resolve themselves in the end into a question of 
 education." ' 
 
 In the United States there are five and a half million 
 Illiterates, and millions more little above the line cf total 
 illiteracy. Of the 5,516,163 children over ten years of age 
 unable to read and write, l,7<)8,13i^ are in urban communi- 
 ties, and 3,718,031 arc in rural districts. That is to say, 5.1 
 per cent of the urban population is illiterate, but practi- 
 cally twice this proportion^ 10.1 per cent, of the rural popu- 
 lation is illiterate.- 
 
 The above figures show the condition to .some extent, 
 but they do not tell the whole story. This lack of opportu- 
 nity to get anything beyond the mo.st clementarj' training, 
 drives all those who wish to obtain any higher education to 
 the cities and towns. The Kentucky State Supervisor of 
 Rural Schools says that out «)f more than eleven hundred 
 cases of removal to the city that he personally investigated, 
 over one thousand were brought about by a desire for 
 school or church or social advantages.^ 
 
 It is not only the educational advantages, obtainable in 
 school, that are lacking, but also other intellectual pursuits. 
 For example, there are one and a half millions of people in 
 New York State without access to books, and a million in 
 
 » Sonatp Document 70.5. Sixtieth Conpress. 
 
 « lUitcmry in the I'nited States. United States Bureau of F'ducation. 
 Bulletin iO. 19Li. 
 
 ' Fducation in the South. L'nited States Bureau of Education. Bulletin 
 30. 11)13. 
 
SOME CONDITIONS OF RURAL LIFE 
 
 25 
 
 each of the states of Wisconsin and Minnesota, notwith- 
 standing the fact that active agencies for hbrary extension 
 liiive been in operation for many years. The repHes re- 
 ceived by the Delaware State Library Commission prove 
 that a great majority of rural families in that state own 
 but few books, — and these not standard works in the es- 
 timation of librarians. Many families own no books, except 
 the Hible, and twenty i^er cent of them take no periodical, 
 not even a newspaper. ' Recognizing the influence of good 
 books, the majority of the states are now engaged in rural 
 library extension work. 
 
 Lack of opportunities for amusement and recreation. — 
 This also plays a part in the movement under considera- 
 tion, particularly in the case of the youth. Generally it 
 may lie said that the country does not provide amusements 
 of any kind, good or bad. The city supplies both. Many a 
 boy has left the farm, not because of the hard work, but 
 because he exp)erienced nothing but hard work. Any one 
 wlio has visited a sn: 11 town in the midst of a rural region, 
 in Canada or in the United States, on Saturday afternoon 
 or any popular holiday, and witnessed the crowds of young 
 men and women from the country entering the moving- 
 l)i(ture shows, can appreciate the craving for amusement 
 and excitement which has taken possession of their minds 
 owing to the lack of any healthy excitement in their daily 
 routine. 
 
 We need a broader development of rural recreation, 
 iiut it should be evolved out of rural conditions and not 
 transferred without modification from the city. There is 
 apparently no organization in the country which feels 
 tailed upon to provided facilities for healthy amusement 
 and recreation. 
 
 The popular estimation of the farmer. — The estimation 
 in which the farmer is held by the community at large, is 
 
 ' Commissioner of Education. Rejxni, I9\i. United States Bureau of 
 
 F.(luc;ition. 
 
«6 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 probably responsible for the refusal of a number of boys 
 and girls to take up life on the farm. The farmer is often 
 held in good-natured contempt. The stage farmer is usu- 
 ally one of the least desirable characters. As portrayed in 
 ordmary literature, the farmer is generally a poor specimen 
 of humanity, and farming is not looked upon as an avenue 
 to popular distinction. 
 
 While the people of the towns and cities are not wholly 
 blameless for this conception, the rural [people themselves 
 must take the greater share of the blame. The majority of 
 farmers do not take sufficient pride in their occupation or 
 their appearance. They look upon country life as a .ondi- 
 tion from which they must escape at the earliest opportu- 
 nity. 
 
 The influence of home opinion, also, is very great. The 
 estimates of the farm fireside have militated against the 
 quality of country life. Many a farmer and his wife points 
 with pride to one son who has met with success in trade, 
 commerce, or professional life, and forget to extol the work 
 of another son, who by staying on the farm has made its 
 continuance possible. The young man who has stayed at 
 home may have conquered conditions more stubborn and 
 complex than any that have been met with in the city, and 
 may have made a much greater contribution to the welfare 
 of the community; but owing to the prevailing false esti- 
 mate, he has not received equal recognition. 
 
 It is earnestly to be desired that the American farmer 
 should take a greater pride in his personal appearance, 
 exalt ) Js occupation on every occasion, and seek by legiti- 
 mate means to acquire a greater influence in the councils 
 of the nation than he now possesses. 
 
 The boy on the farm as an unpaid hand. — The treatment 
 the boy on the farm receives, in regard to financial matters, 
 also has its influence. Many a boy and girl feels humiliated 
 at having to ask parents for every cent they require. As 
 soon as they are old enough to take an active interest in the 
 
SOME CONDITIONS OF RT RAL LIFE 
 
 27 
 
 affairs of the farm, they should be given a share in the in- 
 come. The farmer often thinks that because in his esti- 
 mates he makes no allowance for the labor of himself and 
 his wife, it is not necessary to do so in the case of his chil- 
 dren. The children look upon the matter in a different 
 light. Many of their companions go to the cities, and not 
 only bring back on their visits accounts of the city's many 
 attractions, but they also speak of the money they can earn 
 and what they are able to do with it. 
 
 The farm boy and girl should be allowed to begin earning 
 at least two years before they are to leave school. There 
 are always, of course, a number of miscellaneous chores to 
 be done, but the children should not be restricted to these. 
 They should be allowed to undertake something from which 
 they Cfii see a prospect of financial gain, such as rearing a 
 calf or a pig, cultivating an acre, making butter or growing 
 fruit, and be permitted to keep the profit arising from the 
 venture. Cases have been known in which a boy has raised 
 n calf which sold at a good profit, and the only recompense 
 received was the gift of another calf on which he was ex- 
 pected to repeat the process. 
 
 Why should not the boy who remains on the farm, and 
 tlie girl who stays in the farm home, be given a definite 
 wage for the work they do? The amount need not be large, 
 but it would lessen the difference between them and their 
 city friends. "Such a practice started in the neighbour- 
 In )n(l would go far towards breaking up the old habit, not 
 ytt extinct, of working the boy as an unpaid 'hand' and 
 giving him no interest in the proceeds, a custom that has 
 driven untold thousands off the land." ' The boy must be 
 shown that agriculture, properly conducted, is economi- 
 cally profitable, or he will not be inclined to stay on the 
 farm. Instead of asking why the boy leaves the farm, we 
 vshuultl rather ask why he should stay on the farm. What 
 has it to offer him? 
 
 » State of Illinois. fUjiort of Educational Commission, 1911, p. 82. 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 i: 
 
88 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 The decay of village industries. — If we compare the 
 typical village of thirty years ago with that of to-day, we 
 shall find that the carpenter, the wheelwright, the wagon- 
 maker, the blacksmith, and many other prominent crafts- 
 men have disappeared. In the old days the farm home wjis 
 self-contained, and produced within its own limits nearly 
 everj-thing recpiired for a hap{)y and contented life. Now, 
 owing to the absence of these and other industries, work- 
 men have to be sent for in the town; and farm machinery, 
 appliances, homes, and buildings, are in many cases in a 
 dilapidated condition owing to the difficulty of obtaining 
 the necessary workmen and the inability of the farmer to 
 make small repairs when they are needed. The village 
 store, which in the old days was almost a center of social 
 life, has felt the effects of the change. The craftsman and 
 the storekeeper occupied a prominent place in the com- 
 munity, and with their disappearance the population has 
 not only decreased in numbers but has lost in quality and 
 stability also. 
 
 The increase of tenancy throughout the country. — The in- 
 crease of tenancy is having a depressing influence on the 
 character of the country population. This increase does 
 not, i)erhaps, affect the numbers living in the country, but 
 it docs affect in a material way their stability and their 
 character. The character and prestige of the average ten- 
 ant is anything but satisfactory. He seldom has interest, 
 except of the lowest kind, in church, schools, or politics, in 
 any public movement for the general welfare, in good roads, 
 or in improved agriculture. With a shifting tenant class it 
 is impossible to interest the farmer in the various institu- 
 tions and organizations which are essential to rural eco- 
 nomic development. If, as maintained by some, the rural 
 life problem may be solved by a system of rural credit, the 
 increase of tenancy is a decided hindrance, as a shifting 
 tenancy cannot supply the security demanded by credit 
 associations. 
 
SOME CONDITIONS OF RUR.VL Lira 
 
 29 
 
 Of course, in a country as large as the United States, the 
 amount and effect of tonar^y will vary considerably. In 
 Alabama and South Carolina more than three farms out of 
 cvtrj- five, and in Mississippi and Georgia nearly two farms 
 out of every three, are worked under tenancy,' while 
 Connecticut, Arizona. Montana, Wyoming, Massachu- 
 setts, Utah, New Hampshire, New Mexico, and Maine all 
 have less than ten per cent of their farms occupied by 
 tenants.' 
 
 The economic salvation of a country largely depends 
 upon a numl)er of small farmers who own the land they 
 cultivate and cultivate the land they own. The economic 
 stal)ility of France has been saved many times by its small 
 laiKJownors. A lialf-dozcn pn)s;)erous countries of the worlil 
 illustrate the far-reaching results of small landholdings, 
 owned and tilled by their occupants. The total nunil)er of 
 Danish rural properties is -ri\083. About 70,000 of these 
 are holdings of less than one and a third acres each. The 
 average size of all the farms is 3.5 acres.^ Eighty-nine per 
 cent of the farmers own their farms, and only eleven p<T 
 cent are tenants and day laborers. Their cities know little 
 of tenement houses and slum problems. The Dane does not 
 crowd into congested cities because it is made easy for him 
 to purchase a farm. If he has one tenth of the purchase 
 price, he can borrow the remainder from a state bank. The 
 prr capita wealth of the country is the greatest in Europe, 
 and the distribution of its wealth is almost ideal. 
 
 Lack nf adequate facilities for transportation. — Lack of 
 good roads has also played its part in the depletion of the 
 rural population. The difference between good and bad 
 roads is often equivalent to the difference between profit 
 and loss. Good roads have a social and refining influence 
 
 ' Eihtcnfinn in the South. United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin 
 150. 19l;5. 
 
 - I nivrrsity of Virginia. Rural Life ronferonoe. August, 1914. 
 
 ' lldval Commission on Industrial Training. Report, vol. 1, part 3. 
 Ottawa, ("anasia. 
 
80 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 upon the community ; but even looking at the question from 
 the financial side alone, they are found to pay good dividends 
 each year. 
 
 It is estimated that in the United States more than $100,- 
 000,000 is .spent annually on the roads; and if to this be 
 added the loss caused by bad roads, it will reach a sum 
 treble that amount. It actually costs the farmer more to 
 haul a bushel of wheat from his farm to the railroad than 
 it costs to ship it from New York to Liverpool.* When it is 
 considenvi that the prosperity of the faimer depends not 
 on the a lount of produce he can raise, but on that which 
 he can market successfully, the effect of good roads on a 
 farming community will be readily seen. 
 
 The average haul from farm to shipping point in the 
 United States is about 9.4 miles. The average cost of haul- 
 ing on the country roads is about 23 cents a ton a mile. The 
 corresponding cost in France and England is about 10 cents, 
 and in many cases it is as low as 7 cents. If the rate on this 
 continent could be cut in half, it is not difficult to see that an 
 immense saving would be effected. If all the vehicles used 
 could, by improved roads, be made to last one year longer, 
 the additional sum saved would run into millions of dollars. 
 
 Improved roads increase the value of property. A recent 
 investigation in the State of Ohio shows that there are six- 
 teen counties in which less than ten per cent of the roads 
 are improved, while there are forty-five agricultural coun- 
 ties in which more than ten [ter cent are improved. The 
 average price of the farm lands in the sixteen counties is 
 $18.50 per acre, while the average price of land in the forty- 
 five counties is $65,79 per acre, showing an increase of 
 $17. '•JO, or thirty-five per cent. Considering that there are 
 873 millions of acres of farm lands in the United States, the 
 possibilities from road improvement are rather startling. 
 If an increase of only $5 per acre were brought about, the 
 enhancement of farm lands alone would be $4,365,000,000. 
 
 '- tuivufsltj' of Virgima. Rural Life <.'<:nfcn-nw, 191i. Rfjxirt, p. 385. 
 
SOME CONDITIONS OF RURAL LIFE 
 
 31 
 
 All the evidence available tends to prove tliat the 
 rountry-wide improvement of toads would result in better 
 fanning, greater profits, a richer social life, and improved 
 schools. 
 
 fll 
 
 A'i 
 
 t 
 
 n 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 TUE RURAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 A LiTTi.K more than half a century apo tho first agricul- 
 tural collt^'c was cstahlished in Aincricu. There is now a 
 well-e(juii)i)e(l college in every state of the Union and in 
 every province of th« Dominion, Since their foundation, 
 the colleges have dev ,ted their attention to the improve- 
 ment of aj^riculturc throuf^h educational effort. They have 
 accoiiiplislied nnich. Collegiate education in agriculture, 
 and, in sonic sections, secondary agricultural education 
 also, is fairly well cstalilislied. The problem of rural educa- 
 tion needs now to he approached from the other end, that 
 is, through (he elementary rural school. 
 
 It may he <'ontended that the rural sch(X)ls are not now 
 doing successfully the work for which they were established, 
 and that to impose another subject of study would make 
 them still less efficient; but agricultural education, in the 
 lower grades at any rate, does not mean the introduction of 
 another subject. 
 
 It is now generally admitted that efficient rural schools 
 are necessary to the welfare not only (jf the rural districts 
 but also of the entire nation. A hurried survey, therefore, 
 of the present condition of these schools will not l>e out of 
 place. We have been so blinded by the growth of educa- 
 tional expenditure in the cities that to a very large extent 
 we have lost sight of the condition and purpose of the rural 
 schools. 
 
 From the standpoint of numbers of pupils alone, the 
 rural schools deserve more attention than they have yet 
 received. The following illustration shows the relative 
 pnMM>r!i(>ns of tb.c url>an and tlic rural population in the 
 
TIIE RURAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 33 
 
 T '..ted States and in Crnada, according to the censuses of 
 till' lust three decade.'*. It will thus readily be seen that 
 the rural population is still in the majority, even when the 
 rapid increase in the urban population is taken into ac- 
 
 r-4/M/VJ 
 
 IS9I 
 
 t//T2ZZD JTAT£J 
 
 CO.MrAKI.SON OF RURAI. AND CKUAN POPL'LATIO.V 
 
 (■(Hint. We are forced to conclude that the rural child 
 .suiFiTs from lack of educational opportunities, when we 
 cdtiipare the size of the schools, the character of the 
 liiiildings, the quality of the teaching staff, and the man- 
 UL-cnient of the schools in urban and in rural districts. 
 
 THE PROBLEM OF EN'ROLL.\IENT 
 
 In the United States.^ — In order that the extent and the 
 frra\ ity of this question may l)e understood, let us take a 
 >.'(ruTal .survey of the conditions. The following figures are 
 till' latest obtainable, and are in most cases for the year 
 1!»1(). .\lthough these figures may have changed somewhat 
 
 ' Thf Sltiliis of Rural Education in the United Staiet, Bureau of Edu- 
 cation. Bulletins. 1911 
 
 r 
 
34 AGRirrLTniAL EDICATION 
 
 since that date, the j,'eneral Hitualion remains the same. In 
 thirty-two jstutes the total puniU-r of one-teacher, which 
 jjenerally means (mc-r«iom. schools is 147,447. This is a|>- 
 proximately HO |)cr cent of the total nunil)er of 18.'J,Hi4 
 public schools in those states. These thirty-two states arc 
 well .listrihuled among the states in the Union, so that the 
 ratio of one-teacher sch(M)ls to total sch(M)ls will prohahly 
 hohl true for the entire country. If so. there is a total of 
 api)n»ximately 4^,380 one-teacher .schools in the I'nited 
 States. 
 
 Statistics showing,' the total enrollment are availat)le for 
 twenty-one states. Thes«' ^;ive an enrollment of 3,6-2 1.278 
 pupils in 114,7.')3 one-ieacher .scIuh)1s, or an average of 31.5 
 to each .school. At the .same rate, the enrollment in the 
 147,447 one-teacher schwjls re[M)rted in the thirty-two 
 states would be 4,637,650, and in the 214.380 one-teacher 
 schools of the entire country, 6,689,970 pupils. This is 
 37.6 per cent of the enrollment in all public .schools, and 
 60.2 per cent of the enrollment in all rural .schools. The 
 average number of pupils in each school may be determined 
 from the reports of twenty-one states, but only in a few of 
 these can it be determined when the avcnige is fifteen or 
 less. In fifteen of these states, 47.6 i)er cent of the one- 
 teacher schools have an enrollment of fifteen or fewer; and 
 it must be remembered in this connection that enrollment 
 does not mean attendance. 
 
 Attendance in individual states: — Kverj' county in every 
 state seems to have a number of small and jxHirly attended 
 schools. In 1911, Kansas had 1640 schools with an attend- 
 ance of ten or less; New Hampshire had 117 schools with an 
 attendance of 6 pupils or fewer, and 383 schools with 14 or 
 fewer. Maine, with a total of 4398 one-room scIkm.Is, had 
 206 with an average attendance of less than 8. Minnesota 
 had 385. Michigan 1500. and Nebraska 14(M) .schools with an 
 attendance of 10 and less. In Kansas, which perhaps may 
 ! pjy,. pjstrift Normal School. Kirksville, Missouri. Bulletin. 1911. 
 
THE RIRAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 S5 
 
 be tak«>n as typical of the other states, Ifie fifjures when 
 rDMsidfred in «letail are rather starthrig. Of the H()(».3 dis- 
 trict M luKils. there are 7H with an enrollment of :> <,r hvss, 
 m with an enrollnK-nt of l)ot\ve«-n .> and 10. lOH) U-twefn 
 10 and Lj, and I'MVt between l."> and 'iO, a total of •iOl? 
 schools with un enrollment of 40 or less — more than one 
 lliirfl of the total number of districts. In the matter of 
 avrra^^c daily attendame, there arc yMG scho<)ls with a 
 daily avera>?e of "sJO or le.s.s, or Ihi pt-r cent of tljc whole. 
 In addition to this, there ar<' 170 districts not maintain- 
 ing; schools, presumably because they And it chea|H'r to 
 send their cluldren to other districts. 
 
 In li»14, in the State of North Dakota 126 schools had 
 an average of 4 |)uj)ils or less, 100 had only .'5, ill had 0, 484 
 had 7, .SO.'J had H. 410 had ». and 3G7 had 10, making 40 |)er 
 cent of the scIum)Is with an average of 10 pupils or less.' 
 
 According to Dr. Monahan, of the United States Bureau 
 of Kducation, the rural schools enroll more than half of all 
 the |)npils in the country, and of these 60 per cent, or 
 (!,(»S!),000, are to Ik> found in the single-room schools. 
 
 Tlir sititalion in Canaila: Manitoba. — A sjMH-ial report 
 of the Department of Education shows that in 1910 there 
 were 4 .schools with an average attendance for the year of 
 less than 2, 7 with an average attendance of less than fi, 
 14 with an average of less than 4, 40 with less than 5, 
 80 with less than 6. 5i with less than 7, 411 with less than 
 10, and 400 with less than 14.^ 
 
 Ontario.^ — In the Province of Ontario, the richest and 
 most thickly populated province in the Dominion, in l!)!.*? 
 (here were .5080 one-teacher scIuk)1s. Of this numlx^r there 
 were ;UoO with an average attendance of 40 or less, partly 
 made up as follows: 3 with an average attendance of 1, 14 
 
 ' University of North Dakota. Bullptin 8. Octolier, 1912. 
 
 ' Maciloujrall, .John. Rurnl Life in Canada. 
 
 ' I'ublir and Separate Schools and Teachers in Ontario. Departnjt-nt of 
 KJucation. Torouto. 
 
36 
 
 AGIIICULTUU-VL EDUCATION 
 
 with 2, 2S with .'J, 52 witli 4, 81 with r>, 10.5 with G, 98 with 
 7, IJU with 8, 179 with 9, and 2();3 with 10, thus giving 895 
 rural sciinols with an average attendance of 10 or less. 
 
 Enough has In-en said to show that the very small school 
 is common throughout the whole of the Noith American 
 continent. 
 
 THE CIIAR.\CTER, TENTRB, AND REMUNERATION OF 
 TKiCHERS 
 
 The ncx of teachers. — The vast majority of the teachers 
 employed in rural schools are girls, .lust as the rural popu- 
 lation is declining in numbers, .so is the proportion of male 
 teachers declining. In a single generatit)n this proportion 
 has diminished 50 per cent. In the North Atlantic states, 
 8G per cent of all the teachers are women, while in the West- 
 ern states over 80 per cent are now women, compared with 
 55 percent in 1870. The statistics are incomi)lete, but it 
 is apparent that the proportion of women teachers in the 
 United States and Canada is far in excels of that anywhere 
 else in the world. In Germany, 15 |)er cent of the teachers 
 are women, in Switzerland ;5(> i)er cent, in France 47 per 
 cent, in Italy G4 per cent. In the same year the proportion 
 in the United States was 7G.4 per cent.' 
 
 The preparation of teacherit. — The fact is that teaching 
 in the rural schools cannot be regarded as a profession. The 
 salaries are so low that they are not attractive to thost who 
 have definitely prepared themselves for the profession of 
 teaching. As a result, nuist of the teachers found in these 
 schools are beginners or those who have not been suffi- 
 ciently successful to l)e called to positions oifering higher 
 salary. Mt)st of the men who are teaching in the country 
 are doing so with the object of earning money to go to 
 college or to enter some other occupation, while the girls 
 are there until the. are offered a position in a city .school 
 or receive an offer of marriage. 
 
 • Foaht, Hanild Wuldskiu. ZVjf American Rural Srhuol 
 
THE RFILVL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 "The total number of f^raduates in the normal schools, 
 1^<,7'28, was iarj^e enoii^'li to supply less than twenty-five 
 per cent of the demand for new teachers in the elementary 
 .sclinols of the country. If all these jjraduates had hegun 
 teaching in the fall after their graduation, there would have 
 heen (50,000 vacancies, or more, to be filled by young teach- 
 ers who had not had the educational and professional train- 
 ing given by graduation from a normal school. This lack of 
 preparation of teachers is one of the greatest evils of our 
 school system. In no other country that pretends to pro- 
 vide an opportunity for universal education is the condi- 
 tion in this respect so bad as in the United States. This 
 condition must be removed or the schools will continue to 
 be much less efficient than they should be." ' 
 
 When it is seen that the towns and cities have the first 
 call on these normal-trained teachers, it will be readily seen 
 that few of ther ire likely to take positions in country 
 schools. The Sta t. Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 for Illinois reports that in th;i' State, 10,000, or more than 
 lialf, of the teachers have had no education beyond a com- 
 mon-school course. They have no normal-sch(M)l (jualifica- 
 tions and no high-school training. Beyond a little greater 
 maturity, they have no advantage over the children they 
 teach. In another state that ranks high in the educational 
 world, out of 8000 rural school teachers in 1910, -ItOO were 
 found to have had no education l>eyond the eighth grade. 
 Tiiis condition exists in varying degrees in every state in 
 the Union. 
 
 If this condition existed for one year only, the effect 
 would be bad enough; but the system perjK'tuates i*^. 
 Teachers in the rural sc1kk)1s change so frecpiently t' t 
 tlu'v do not become efficient, and they never stay l-'iig 
 enough in one place either to become acquainted with the 
 conditions of the community or to deveh)p an interest in 
 
 ' ('(immissioner of Education. Report, 191i. tailed Slates Bureau of 
 
 Kiliu.it loll. 
 
 r 
 P '1 
 
 i-n 
 
S8 AGRICI'LTIRAL EDUCATION 
 
 tlio school. Seventy-five per cent of the rural school chil- 
 dren face a new teacher every fall. The fanners do not real- 
 ize that tlie teacher in her second year is worth twenty-five 
 to fifty per cent more to them and their schools than she 
 was in her first year. The oidy place where the untrained 
 teacher — with no training lu'yond that of the eighth grade 
 — may begin is in the country schot)l. As soon as she has 
 gained some experience .she finds a better position, and the 
 country .school is left to repeat the process every year. 
 
 During the last ten years great attention has been given 
 to this (luestion of teacher training, and one of the chief 
 arguments used has been the needs of the rural school. 
 There is now a fairly successful system of normal schools 
 in operation, btit their establishment has not resulted in 
 any appreciable increa.se in the number of normal-trained 
 teachers in the rural schools. 
 
 Tlie mere fact that normal schools are established does 
 not improve the rural .schools. It is of no use training 
 teachers for rural schools unless the rural schools are pre- 
 pared for the teachers so trained; and in this direction 
 little j)rogress has been made. The lamentable fact is that 
 there is no demand for the well-trained teacher in the coun- 
 try. Such a demand must be created before much improve- 
 ment can take place. The average farmer looks ujwn the 
 teacher as an official forced upon him by the Govern- 
 ment, and, generally speaking, attaches no importance to 
 the office. 
 
 The remuneration of teachern. — Among the many cir- 
 cumstances which influence the teacher in the choice of a 
 .school is the questi.)n of .salary, although probably this does 
 not play so large a part as is generally supposed. If condi- 
 tions in tiie rural districts were made more attractive ed- 
 ucationally and socially, more teachers would choose the 
 country for the sake of the life they could enjoy and the 
 ser\ice they could render. 
 
 No comprehensive study of salaries has been made since 
 
TIIE RUR-VL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 39 
 
 the report of the National Education Association in 190.5; 
 hut Professor Foght, in « more recent study, shows that 
 the average sahiry paid to rural school teachers is $-290.93 
 per annum. A still more recent study made by Coffraan 
 shows that the average salary paid to men in rural schools 
 was $390; in town schools, $013; and in city schools, $919. 
 I'lit' average salary for women in the rural schools was 
 .S;5()(i; in town schools, $49-2; and in city schools, $.J91. 
 
 In the Province of Ontario the average salary for male 
 teachers in the urban schools is $1153, while in the rural 
 s< h(M)ls it is $536. 
 
 "So long as we pay the chauffeur, the janitor, the sales- 
 woman and office girl, the mill hand and the miner, the 
 policeman and the hotel clerk more salary than we paj' the 
 teacher, it will be necessary for us to continue asking. What 
 must we do to l)e saved? So long as we continue to pay the 
 harl)er and the hair dresser more to shape np the outside of 
 our heads, than we do the teacher to mould the inside, so 
 lung will the outside work be better done than the inside."' 
 
 THE PROBLEM OF MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 
 
 Another defect that hampers the progress of the rural 
 school is the lack of material equipment, including build- 
 ings and grounds. The evolution of the schoolhouse, from 
 tlie "dug-out," sod, adobe, or log building, to the palatial 
 city school of to-day, is an interesting study; but the coun- 
 try school, generally sjjeaking, has not evolved. It is in a 
 .state of arrested development or suspended animation. In 
 (iiscussing this question we must remember that the United 
 States is a country of great extent and differing conditions, 
 and that its schools, especially its rural schools, differ ma- 
 terially in quality and usefulness. For this reason it is 
 dangerous to generalize. It may l)e said on the authority 
 <'f the United States Bureau of Education, howevi^r, that 
 only in very few cases are the buildings cfjual to the average 
 ' National Education Association. Proceeding*. lOli, p. 480. 
 
40 
 
 AGRICI'LTITIAL EDITATION 
 
 homos of the section. A rocent survey of llic conditions in 
 northern Missouri shows that in tliirty miles of travel alonj^ 
 country roads, not one unpuinted barn or farmhouse was 
 observed, but every sch(K)lhousc was out of repair. It is 
 not at all unccmmon to find a pi{,'sty or a cowshed belter 
 built and equipped for its purpose than is the rural school- 
 house. 
 
 The Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church 
 in America has made detailed surveys in selected counties 
 in each of seven states. Their rejxjrt of the school build- 
 ings in the State of Illinois reads as follows: "They are for 
 the most part old and out of date — one r(M)m, low ceilings, 
 dingj' and dark. Large grounds surround these buildings, 
 but they are for the most part bleak and bare of any at- 
 tractiveness or beauty. Where most of the population are 
 tenant farmers the buildings are in^orly kept, and there is 
 often strong opjwsition from the landlords to any iinprove- 
 niont. The surroundinij;s and inadetiuacy of the rural 
 schools have much to do with driving the young people to 
 the towns and cities." The reports on the surveys in 
 the other states differ very little from the statement in the 
 above quotation. 
 
 The Southern Educational Board recently conducted a 
 survey of conditions iu twenty-eight counties in eight South- 
 ern states. These counties contain 1579 schools for white 
 children, 1107 of v/hich have one teacher and 289 two 
 teachers; 938 were reported to be old buildings, 683 were 
 unpainied, 12^ were unceiled, 485 were not weather-tight, 
 455 had home-made desks, 27 had no desks and were 
 etjuipped with benches only.' 
 
 Apart from the condition of the building itself, the school- 
 house is generally deficient in many other essential require- 
 ments. Very few are properly lighted, either as to quantity 
 or distribution of light. Only about five per cent of the 
 
 ' Thf N/(i/u.i nf Rural Kducation in the United Utatei. 
 caliuu. liulletin t>. 1913. 
 
 Bureau of £du- 
 
m 
 
 ■"M 
 
 Ir.illt tliil -!•>•■ \ ir\v 
 
 m 
 
 r ii 
 
 ICru M 
 
 I- riMit \ i>\\ 
 
 i:i>iiM vrrt> Miii(i.i.~ 1)1 \n-i;i IV 111 i:i ic \i. ~( lie " ■! i:iiii>im 
 
THE RIILVL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 41 
 
 s<>1iooI.s visited hy representatives of the Roard of Iloriie 
 Missions were found to he i)roperIy ventilated, and even a 
 siiialler proportion were j)roperly lieated. In tlie Missouri 
 .survey mentioned above, the wat(r-suj)ply for seventy-five 
 {)er cent of the schools was iiiifiltered cistern water ob- 
 tained from the roofs of the buildings. Several sc-hools were 
 found with no water-supply whatever. Proi)er sanitary 
 conveniences are lacking in the schoolhouses in all parts of 
 rural United States. One superintendent reports that ten 
 I)er cent of his .sc1uh)1s have no outhouses of any description. 
 "The toilet facilities of the rural schools are, generally 
 .sf>eaking, not only a disgrace, but a menace to public health 
 and decent morals." ' 
 
 Fortunately the indications now point to marked im- 
 provement in all that i)ertains to the material equipment 
 of the rural school. Many districts are erecting new build- 
 ings. Several states have enacted laws which require that 
 the j)lans for all new schools .shall \>e approved by the State 
 Board of Education. This can be done, however, only in 
 those states in which the control of educational affairs is 
 vested in a .state or county Imard. Where this control is in 
 the hands of a single district board of trustees, the only hope 
 for better conditions lies in the education of public opinion. 
 
 The United States Bureau of Education has recently in- 
 stituted an exhibit that should do much to show the rural 
 |M)pulation the chief points of a good schoolhouse. The 
 bureau has had constructed, in accordance with the strict- 
 est scientific principles, several mmlels of satisfactory and 
 approved schoolhouses. These are made of cardboard and 
 show all details of construction and etjuipment. They are 
 shipi)ed flat to any board of trustees desiring to erect a new 
 school. Dr. Dresslar, of the Bureau, asserts that any car- 
 penter, with one of these models to work from, will l>e able 
 to build a schoolhouse that will meet every requirement. 
 
 ' Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds. United States Bureau uf EducatiotL 
 Uulletin U. 1U14. 
 
 a 
 
42 
 
 AGRICLLTIRAL EDI CATION 
 
 THE lf.n(;tii or session in rthal districts 
 The avcrag*' yrarly tmii of scIhm.I for the wlioK" country 
 is ;.'>7 (lays, varyiiiK from litlU- more than 100 days in several 
 states to a maximum of KKJ clays in Rho<le Island. The 
 rural average is still shorter, being less than 100 days in 
 several slates and 140 days for the whole ct)untry. These 
 figures rej)resent the number of days the seluM)l is open, and 
 not the miml)er of days the children attend. The average 
 number of «lays in which children of .school age attended 
 s<.-h»M)l was, in l!)ll, only 81.1 for the whole country. This 
 varied from 44.5 days in South Carolina to H0.4 days in 
 the District of Columbia. At this rale, the average nun)l)er 
 of days for each child in the thirttn-n years of school life 
 varies from 5.j'2.r> days in South Carolina, to \r)G'>.'i days 
 in the District of ( "olumbia. These figures reveal the condi- 
 tions in the country at large, and it is safe to a.ssumc that 
 if the corresponding figures could be secured relating to 
 rural districts only they would be even more alarming. 
 
 Only two stales. Coiuiecticut and Rhode Island, have 
 s<-hool terms in rural districts extending to nine months. 
 Eleven others have terms between eight and nine mouths. 
 Florida and :Vrkansas keep their rural sc1hm)1s oi)en for five 
 months, while North (\nrolina, South Carolina, and New 
 Mexico provide their children with barely four and a half 
 months of school each year.' These figures, hov.ever, do 
 not tell the whole story. This short term is, in some cases, 
 broken into two or three fragments for various farming 
 operations. There are counties with a six-weeks session 
 before Christinas, two months or s of s<'hool in midwinter, 
 and six weeks in summer. This broken school term is com- 
 mon throughout the State of Georgia. There is no valid 
 reason why the length of term in the rural schools should 
 not be equa" 'o that in the cities. 
 
 » Commissioner of Education. Report, VJli. Unittti States Bureau of 
 Education. 
 
THE RIILVL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 43 
 
 THK PROBLKM OF SUPERVISION 
 
 Till' lark of (ulff/iKitr mtprrvitdon. — SujKTvision is an 
 al)S()luto necessity if the rural seliools are to In- made eHi- 
 <ient. The supervision which exists to-day, except in Mas- 
 sachusetts, ()re>;on, New York Slate, and a few favoraldy 
 situated townships in other states, is more of a name than 
 a fa<'t. According to the Rural School Supervisor of the 
 Stale of Alahanui, it would take ten years to reach all the 
 seliools of the state even if twenty-five sc1um)1s were visited 
 each week. In Wisconsin, each county superintendent 
 supervises the work of LJO teachers and VIM children, and 
 covers an area of 700 sipiarc miles. In Illinois, the average 
 number of teachers to each superintendent is 113, with a 
 territory of ojO scjuare miles to l)e covered. 
 
 In the 18 larger cities of the United States in 1910, there 
 was one supervisor for each 10 teachers devoting half or 
 more than half of his time to actual su|K>rvision. Hy an en- 
 actment of lOl-i, the New York State Legislature divided 
 the 57 counties of the state into 207 supervisory districts. 
 The suiwrvisor must he a fully qualified man, and in ad- 
 dition "shall pass an examination prescribed by the Com- 
 missioner of Education in the supervision of the course of 
 study in agriculture, and teaching the same." ' In one 
 state where close sui)ervision was put into operation five 
 years ago, it has been found that the fKTcentage of attend- 
 ance in all the schools suj)erviscd incTcus<>d in three years 
 from an average of 69 per cent to 86 per cent, a gain of al- 
 most i'i per cent in that short ijeritni.^ 
 
 On the occasion of his visit to a sc1kh)1, the sujierintend- 
 eiit cannot usually concern himself exclusively with the 
 teai her and lur methods. Owing to the inefficiency of the 
 average school trustee an«l to other causes, he has to deal 
 
 ' T)ic Sintu.i nf Rural Education in the I'nitu! States. Bureau nf Educa- 
 tion. Hullctin H. l!»l;J. 
 
 ' National Education Association. Procmltngn, 1913. 
 
44 
 
 AOKK rLTIRAL EDITATION 
 
 with i\ niinilMT of matters arising' from th*- prrjiidirr. ig- 
 ii(irari<r, and apathy of tin" |m'o|i|c. TIic clrrical work and 
 I lie outside duties of the siiperiiiteiulent are freciuently so 
 great tlial h*- can spend only three or four months of the 
 year in actually visiting ami su|)ervi-.ing the work of the 
 schools. Fntin this has to he suhtracted the time taken to 
 reach the schools. In one county in Illinois, the county 
 sujxTintendent is eompt'lled to drive l&l miles, in addition 
 to railway and trolley travel, in visiting his s(ho,,ls. 
 
 Iii(iili<iuittr tiualifivatums Jot a ,„.lntmcnt of siijurinteiul- 
 cntH. — No (iualif'iation.s are required for appointment a.s 
 sui)erinlendent, except in a very few states. Only twenty- 
 three stales re(piire (|ualitieations, and even in these tlie re- 
 (juirements are l«)w, heing generally a tirst -grade certificate. 
 Before supervision can Iw nuid" efficient there n»ust Ik? de- 
 veloped a jirofession of superinteiideney, and to secure this 
 there must he eslahlished training courses, fixity of ten- 
 ure, and adecjuate salaries. The superintenth'ut's position 
 is now unstahle, owing to selection acctmling to political 
 aniliati.)ns. The field of selection is not only narrowed l»y 
 the fad that the superintendent must he a memher of the 
 dominant [xditical faction for the time heing, hut usually 
 he must also he a resident of the county. We do not ai)ply 
 this principle to the choice of a lawyer or a d(K'tor, and it is 
 difiicult to see why the suiKTintendent should not he chosen 
 entirely upon his (pialifications, quite apart from where his 
 house is situated or the political party to which he helongs, 
 qualities which "have no more to do with a man's ahility to 
 he an educational leader than the church he helongs to, 
 the age of his wife, the name of his hahy, or the size of 
 the shoes he wears." 
 
 Iiuliisfrldl supcrrisors in rural schools. — A plan that is 
 meeting with nuuh success in making supervision more 
 cllicient is the appointment of county "Uural School In- 
 dustrial Supervisors." These are industrial teachers work- 
 ing under the direction of the county superintendent. They 
 
THE UnUL KLEMEN.AUY SCH(K)L 
 
 i5 
 
 visit the rural schools fcir the |mrjH»so of introducing iiulus- 
 triiil siil»jc<'ts. such as scwin^;, cookinj;, j^ardcninn, niaiiuni 
 Iraininj;, and the hkc; and they also assist in t'st;d»lisliin>^ 
 (■(xikiiij; cluhs, caiuiinj* chil)s, corn and tomato cluhs. and 
 school iniprovcniont uss<H'ialions. During' the year \i)\i, 
 special industrial sujKTvisors for negro schools were em- 
 ployed in one hundred and sevcntcf-n cr)unties in the South- 
 ern stales. Viri^'inia h.is sevc white .-upervisors working 
 in six counties, and similar olhi crs for whilv sihools have 
 heen [jrovided in (ii>orj{ia and I>ouisian!i ' In l!)i;5, there 
 were thirty-six state ofhcers devoting their entire time to 
 the supervision of ruiv.. schools. 
 
 THE ADMINISTRATION AND OHGANIZATION OF RIRAL 
 8<HfX)L8 
 
 Probably the ji.eatest difect of all, and the one that is, 
 in the main, resp< nsihie for most of the others, is the way 
 the schools are administered. The district, or single dis- 
 trict, is the unit in twenty-tme states and in parts of four 
 others. The township i.-. the unit in t<-n states and in jjarts 
 of three others. The county is the unit in eleven states and 
 in part of one other. 
 
 The di,<<trict system presents the most objectionable fea- 
 tures. In the pioneer days the choice of the one-room dis- 
 trict school was j)erfectly natural. The size of the school 
 de|)cnded on the nuinl>er of people within traveling dis- 
 tance. The teacher " boarded round." This system origi- 
 nated in Massachusetts in 1789, and. according to Horace 
 Mann, it was the most unfortunate law ever t lacted on the 
 siiltjcct of conunon si-hools. At the time it was adopted 
 ( oiiditions were primitive, and the .scIkxjIs were jxjor and 
 few; but to-day it stands in the win of progress. The state 
 Miperintendent for Kansas says, "No system, as a whole, 
 ("uld be devised that is more extravagant, more wasteful, 
 
 ' <'<>inmissioner of Edueatiun. Report, 1912. United States liurcau 
 of EduLutiuD. 
 
46 
 
 AGRirriTrRAL EDITATION 
 
 or I«'ss efTicient in socurinj; direct results from tlie system 
 in vojjije in this cowiilry with rehition to the iiiana^'enient 
 of «)iir s«-li(M)ls. We liiive an army of over .'jOO.OOO teachers, 
 nianajjed liy another army of •2,.")(MI,()(H) oflicers — a condi- 
 tion of affairs that ensures exlravaj,'anee, represents a vast 
 amount of wasted energy, and ren<lers certain a disastrous 
 lack of unity and co-ordination." ' 
 
 I'nder this systi-m, each county has from fwenty-five 
 to two hundred and fifty entirely (hstinct school systems, 
 each under the control of three trustees, many of whom 
 luive no idea of the re(|uirements of a ^ood s<'hool. Through 
 ti county superintendent these separate systems are very 
 loosi'ly coimecfcd with the slate system of education ad- 
 ministered by a state superintendent. In the State of 
 Illinoi.s, ahout 40,000 trustees are re(iuired to manage 2000 
 teachers and to control an exjx>ndilure of $!$,000,000, which 
 is ahout one trustee for every !i(7."» of expenditure for school 
 purposes. If the same plan were followed in Chicago, there 
 would now l)C rc(|uired al)out il') different h«)ards of 
 trustees." Not only does this large number of three-men 
 school boards render any satisfactory cocirdination im|)os- 
 sible, but it does not even result in the efBcient manage- 
 ment of the one school of which they have the direction. 
 
 The toicnship-unil system is a great advance over the dis- 
 trict system, but even this, except in the more thickly popu- 
 lated regions, is too small a unit. Probably one of its great- 
 est advantages is that it lends itself much more readily than 
 docs the district .system to the consolidation of schools. 
 
 The county-unit system. — It would seem that, other 
 things being eciual, the county ought to make an ideal unit 
 for .school puq)oses. In most other public affairs, as roads, 
 bridges, administration of the law, assessment, and taxa- 
 tion, the county is already the prevailing unit. The advan- 
 
 ' Fir>t District Normal School, Kirksvillc, Missouri. Bulletin, 1911, 
 p. 61. 
 
 • Cubberley, E. P. The Improtemenl of Rural Schools. 
 
THE Rl'RAL KI-EMKNTAKV SCIKKH, 
 
 »7 
 
 tapirs of such a systotn arc tlic al)olili(m of liK-al district 
 
 taxes for education, thcc(|iiali/.atioii of tlic tax rate lliroii, 
 
 ;h- 
 
 out tlic entire county, equal educational opportutiitics for 
 Ixitli <ity and country, rural teachers |)ro|)erly paid, the 
 same (jualitications exacted of teachers for country as for 
 town, and the sc1hh)1.s in session the same length of term. 
 
 In spite of all the admitted defe<'ts and disadvantages, 
 the rural scIum>1 has iH-rformed a u.-eful Mrvice that could 
 have heen rendered by no other agency. The countrj- scIkm)! 
 generally represents hut a single class of jM-ople. The 
 rural sch<M>ls are alreaily in existence, they an- small and 
 can confine themselves t;* essentials, they are <lose to the 
 actual conditions of life of the children who attend them, 
 and they can, if they so desire, utilize this cnvTonment in 
 their educational program. 
 
 It is never a pleasant task to point out defects, and it is 
 justifiahle only when done in order to indicate a course of 
 action that is calculated to remedy the deficiencies. The 
 next chapter w ill outline sf>ine remedies which, if applied, 
 will make the M;h(M)ls more efficient in all respe<'ts and 
 particularly in the direction of affording an education that 
 shall have direct reference to the predominant industry of 
 the district, which in most cases is agriculture. 
 
.??'< 
 
 l^'W, 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE IMPFOVEMENT OF THE PURAL SCHOOL 
 
 In outlining plans for the improvement of the rural 
 school, it has become the general practice to sum up all the 
 defects and then to proclaim "consolidation " as the great 
 panacea. Many ardent educationists seem to have the 
 idea that all attempts to improve the one-room school will 
 delay the general adojjtion of consolidation. If relief is to 
 be brought to rural schools in this generation, we must, 
 while encouraging consolidation, do tho.se other things 
 which can be done without con.solidation. 
 
 There are ai)i)roximalely (),()0(),000 countrj- boys and 
 girls in the United States, and under favorable circum- 
 stances it is estimated that two thirds of them may eventu- 
 ally receive their education in consolidated schfH)ls. This 
 will leave •i.OOO.OOO children who will, as heretofore, receive 
 their education in districts where physical conditions make 
 con.solidation inii)ractic able. It is, therefore, apparent that 
 both forms of .s<'hools will always occupy an important 
 place in the educational .system of the United States. Some 
 of the measures that may be taken to improve the rural 
 schools will now be considered. 
 
 THE .SCHOOL 8rHVEY 
 
 The first need is a clear understanding of I<K'al conditions. 
 I'niiti.iaiis, newspapers, and maga/in»»> hn\r drawn alJen- 
 tion to s,»i,i(> of flu. problems in a more or less sensi'tionul 
 manner, but s<ieiitifi<- investigation is neces.sary to discover 
 facts. Tliesc can be found only by the personal investi- 
 gati)r who (-ui stay long enough in one district to become 
 thoroughly ((mver.sant with the actual condition-s. The 
 collection. .f inf..rniation is not an end in itself, it is only a 
 
^i^^%'^^^^.m&^;^-mm .m -^w^. 
 
 IMPROVTV^vr OF THE RURAL SCOOOL 49 
 
 moans toward ond. When the information has been 
 gutlicri'd it shoL . -ad to definite action. 
 
 Surveys of the i iiaracter required have Iwen made by 
 the "(JeorKia Chib " for the study of rural s<x-iolojor, at 
 the State Xornial Sch.KjI at Athens. This organization 
 grew out of a small group of interested people who met in 
 ati inf<»rmal way to discuss conditions in the State of 
 (Jcorgia. In 1912 the trustees of the normal school estab- 
 lished a chair of rural economics. The leader of the club 
 was the [)resident of the s<-hool. Finding that the work re- 
 (|iiired much time and attention, he resigned the presidency 
 to give his undivided attention to this new work. Since 
 liMO. fifty-one county surveys have l)een completed, show- 
 ing in d»>tail the gains ami losses during the past decade in 
 poi)ulati()ii, agriculture, industrj-, roads, sanitation, .schools, 
 aii.l clninhes. The rcp»)rts of these surveys have [teen 
 giv(-ii wide circulation through the newspapers. They con- 
 tain iiiforiuation much of which has never l)efore reached 
 tlu' i)n>ss, and in many cases have brought about concerted 
 action for betterment. 
 
 11-: 
 
 i: 
 
 ENERGIZING THE COM.MUNITT 
 
 The community itself is the vital factor in the upbuild- 
 ing of the school system. By financial assistance and wise 
 laws the State may do much to assist development, but in 
 the last analysis the ideal scho<il can be realized only 
 through the efforts of the local authorities. It is difficult 
 for any movement to travel very far in advance of public 
 «)F)iiiion. A conuuittee of the National Education AswK-ia- 
 tion, r(;>orting on rural .schools, says: "It is the Wief of 
 fli<« conuuittee that the chief cause for all the evils above 
 enumerated is the low educational ideals of the people in 
 rural communities. This cause exists becau.se of the lack of 
 a i)n>pcr conception of what tnie education means, of what 
 1- possiblt. in the field of industrial education for country 
 cli.Mreu. and of its value to them. Lucking this conception. 
 
50 
 
 AGRICITTITIAL EDUCATION 
 
 they fail to a[)[)reriale tin* necessity of keeping their eliil- 
 dreii in school for a jmtiKT length of time and for making 
 the proper expenditure for the purpose of securing the 
 essentials in teaching, for adccjuate eciuipment and super- 
 vision. This lack on the i)art of the rural population is 
 largely due to the character of their education and to 
 their environment. While r)tlier causes than the one stated 
 may seem to have operated to develop conditions inter- 
 fering with the eflicieney of the rural school, it is I elieved 
 that all such causes may be reduced, in final analysis, to 
 the one stated. If this is the correct view, it follows that 
 the prohlein of im[)roving the rural .schools resolves itself 
 into the problem of elevating the ideals of the people in the 
 rural communities."' To bring almut this desirabb result 
 there should be inaugurated a nation-wide campaign. 
 
 Such a campaign shouhl extend over a long jxriod, as 
 educational institution- are not ma<lc over in a day. Every 
 possible means should !><■ taken lo arouse ttie interest of the 
 IK>ople. The men conducting the campaign shouUl know 
 the educational re(juirements and be sympathetic toward 
 the difficulties of the situation. They should not scorn to 
 udiipt advertising nietlKxls, j)osters, pictures, nK>ving pic- 
 tures, and any other devices that can be employed to attract 
 the people. Curiosity comes first, then interest, and if the 
 interest be sufficiently aroused, action will follow. .\s far 
 as the Tnited States is concerned, no organization can 
 carry on this work better than the I'nited States Bureau of 
 Education. The funds recpiired will be large, but the re- 
 turns that will ac( rue in greater educational and industrial 
 ethciency will fully warrant the expenditure. 
 
 THE Ql'KSTION OK KrNlK-i 
 
 The main problem of rural education is unquestionably 
 one of funds. One object of such a campaign as that sug- 
 gested should be to bring about a realization of the fact that 
 
 • N :ili. mill lliliuat inn .Vs-six-iuliou. Industrial Educaiion in SckM>L> for 
 Rural Commututwi. 
 

 IMPROVTMENT OF THE RUIL\L SCHOOL 51 
 
 tlie interests of the rural sdiools are of the utn»).st concern 
 to the (oiiunniiify. and tliat money .si)ent in this direction 
 is a i)rofitable investment. "What tiie average farmer 
 uanls t(, know is. Will it pay? If education can show him 
 that a study of hij,'h-hred corn will bring substantial re- 
 turns, he is willing to spend more money on the country 
 schools and to si,end it in a better way. This putting an 
 e-lucational system on so low -t basis is highlv repugnant 
 to the 'educator' who cherishes lofty deals of 'culture ' 
 •educational processes.' 'periods of adolescence.' etc Hut 
 some of us who have to work m an atmosi)here of real life 
 h.ivc to meet conditions as we find them." » 
 
 The rural school has never received adequate financial 
 Mipt,orl. In the early days this was p,>rha,,s unavoidable, 
 i'lit the conditions which renderecl the dweller in the 
 '■"untry unable to pay a fair .sc1uh>1 tax are rapidiv disn,- 
 iH^.rn.g. The land has greatly imi)roved in value the 
 |"«'nlry ,s becoming more settled, the farmer's burdens 
 hav.- become lighter, and his general pros,KTity has ma- 
 tt nally increased. 
 
 Property in the country is generally as.s<>ssed at a much 
 Jnw.r i)roportion of its value than in the citv, and .-ven on 
 tl:is rate of assessment a lower school ta.i is paid. Whether 
 tin' first condition can be remedied or not is, j)erhaps an 
 ';l-M -iuestion. but for the second it seems imFx)ssil,le to 
 
 '""'"">* nomic justification. In Kansas, the hxal scj-ool 
 
 tax pu.l by towns an(t . ities in IDlO was ciirhty per cent 
 ■ix.refh.ui that paid by country districts; .,. Missouri the 
 »^'x HI towns and citi-w is over .seventy percent higher than 
 '" the.ountry; i„ Minnesota, the city tax is three times that 
 [••'"I '" tlu' country; in Ohio, towns an.l .ities pav more 
 tiKM. ten per cent higher tax than rural di>truts; 'and in 
 N' .r.,>ka and Iowa, the town .nd city rate is about double 
 llial >)\ (lie country. - 
 
 ' K.T.i. O. J. A mong Cot ■ . 'y Srhooh. 
 
 ' IklLs, G. it. Stu ldt.aa in liurai Schoolr. 
 
 I 
 
5ft 
 
 AGRICULTUR.VL EDUCATION 
 
 State aid for rural scliools is the only satisfactory solu- 
 tion of tlit> prohloin. Wlicrt' financial aid is >,'ivcn, several 
 precautions must he 'akcn. Lump sums, ^ivcn to districts 
 without special conditions, are lu'ver satisfactory. 
 
 Tlie ultimate success of the sc-hools depends on local 
 pride, local initiative, and l(K-al taxation. Only two states 
 attempt to solve the prol)lem l)y a|)i)ropriatinj,' lump sums 
 out of the state treasury, namely, Mississippi and Geori^ia. 
 The rank of these two states in the c«)lunm of illiteracy is 
 forty-fifth and forty-sixth. Duriiif,' the last twenty years 
 the cotmnon-school api)ropriation of Georgia has nearly 
 quadrupled, hut the place of the .state in the illiteracy 
 colunm has remained the same. The state slunild encourage 
 each community to spend its own money hy distributing 
 state ai)propriations on a sliding .scale according to the 
 local tax levy. " It is manifestly unfair to a>k the peoi)le of 
 towns and cities to help pay for the suppor* of rural .scIum)1s, 
 through the medium of the state treasury, excei)t on con- 
 dition that the patrons of the .schools themselves do their 
 fair .share. Mr. ' .\.., ' living in a town where he pays twenty 
 mills school tax, ought not to be asked to improve Mr. 
 *13's' rural .schools, while Mr. 'IJ' is iiimsclf paying but ten 
 mills .school tax. The farmer is as able as any other chiss 
 to pay a fair rate of tax for his schools, and should be will- 
 ing to do so before asking for aid from other .sources. Rural 
 education must not be jilaced on the basis of a mi.ssionary 
 enterprise. Stale aid should be ux'd to compensate for the 
 difference in the economic basis for taxation in different 
 localities, and not for a difTerence in the rate of tax between 
 h)caliti«'s tliat are e(iually able to j)ay the same rate."' 
 Poverty cannot be pleaded. There is plenty of money avail- 
 alile. This is shown by the large sums wasted and often 
 W(trM> than wasted on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, chew- 
 inu' gum. andy. and baseball. 
 
 ' \U-Ha, (j. H. .Viit IiULi:i in Rural 6choula. 
 
1 
 
 IMI'ROVEMENT OF TIIE RITIAL SCHOOL 53 
 
 THE rr.lSTY as TilR ADMIMSTRATIVK I'MT 
 
 TIic ((.utity should h, taken as the unit of orpuiization 
 f..r srliool purpo .'s. It should In- given full control over 
 all huil.lings. teachers. exi)enditures, and sui)ervi.sion. sub- 
 ject totherei,' ' ti.ms of the state department of education 
 No power for working luiv ',ief s' uld U- left inthehandsof 
 trustees who have no pro|>er cone ej)tion of tju- need for ed- 
 ucation and a strong disinclination to >pond monev for any 
 ferrn of nnpruveni. t. The legislation giving eontrol to 
 the county shoi i Ik- mandatory and not permissive. It i.s 
 us<>less. in the majority of c; .es, f gi%e a district the p«,wer 
 to .lo soiP.thmg it has never done and does not want to do 
 'J he who. field of cducMional effort should be entirely 
 divorced from pdlitital considerations. 
 
 T»K NKEU KOR MALE TEACHERS IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS 
 
 Hcfcren. ■ has already l,een made to the rapid increase 
 of uo,„cn m the teaching profession, and in many states 
 ^^..,^.Ml are also bemg appointed as superintendents The 
 rnam reason for the employment of women in \nyth capaei- 
 M-s m country districts is that they are willing to take posi- 
 M'us at the low salaries offered. In order to attract men to 
 the j.rofession and to retain them in it. I„>tter salaries and 
 . Ii<r .n.lu,.ements will hav, to be offered. It is argued th.it 
 lie Mhools are sn.all an,| not able to pay salaries sufficient 
 t-> '•nal>le a man to estal)lish a home in the country \s a 
 nn.cly for this, why should not the teacher in rural' dis- 
 tri..fs eon.l.me fanning with his teaching. Land is cheap 
 j'li'l the !H„e cannot come too soon when the State will 
 'asc power to refuse (,fficial recognition t<, anv rural school 
 
 i.„ d.Hs not provi.le a residence with a small farm attached 
 f'T the r.,ral school.naster. This would make jM-ssible the 
 I..r:uanent c>u{,loyment of a married ,nan. Denmark and 
 1-ran..- ollow tlu^ practice, and both countries have largely 
 .^"Ived the rural problem. ^ ^ 
 
 l[ 
 
 II 
 
 I I 
 
 w 
 
 i 
 
l^ -v. 
 
 
 -■•v/^ 
 
 y.:M't 
 
 'u . 'C'-'m:- V > 
 
 
 M 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ADAITINC. THK UIHAL HCIIOOL TO KIKAL CONDITIONS 
 
 Tlic ifica lliul Idsmi and ( ity srhools should l)e taken as 
 inodfis for tlir country must l>c discarded. It is an old hut 
 v»Ty unwise tradition which urges that what is ^jood for the 
 city is good for the country. For the pa.st twenty years the 
 city .schools have held the center of the stage and have 
 come almost universally to he looked upon as th«- pattern 
 upon which the country .schools must he modeled. A coun- 
 try school is pecidiar to itself, and und«T proper conditions 
 the education It affords cannot he excelled hy that given in 
 the hest city sch(K)ls. Parents living in the country need 
 have no nii.sgivings as to educational advantages helow the 
 liigh .sch(K)l, if they will make the country school what it 
 might be. 
 
 UK-MONSTUATION, OK MODEL, S<noOI-S 
 
 Most countr>' people recjuire practical demonstration of 
 new methods before they can be persuaded to adopt them. 
 Just as object lessons are of great value in the schools and 
 demonstration farms and plots have proved their worth 
 in agricultural extensicm, so demonstration schools might 
 prove of etpial value in the improvement of rural schools. 
 Any succ-e.ss that has attended the Macdonald movement 
 in Canada is due to the adoption of this principle of prac- 
 tical demonstration. 
 
 The deuKmstration school is said to have originaleci 
 with John Noland. Superintendent ot Schools in Madison 
 County, Kentucky. The intention is to make at least one 
 s<hool in each educational district what all .should l)e<'ome. 
 Imitaticm and emulation arc expected to accomplish the 
 rest. In the year 1910-11, the Stale Superintendent of 
 Kural ScluM)ls in Kentucky selected ten schools in each of 
 ten comities well distributed throughout the .state. The 
 county superintendent placed these schools under the im- 
 mediate direction of the State Rural School Supervisor. In 
 each of the selected schools a teacher was placed, who 
 
I 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 
msm^'^'k 
 
 ^ 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE RURAL SCHOOL 55 
 
 a>n"<^'l to manage the schools as direotefl }>y the state siifXT- 
 intendeiit. Sevni or i-ij^ht other .schools were groii|MHl with 
 each detnonstralioii sciiooL For each ^roiip an extra "sub- 
 stitute" teacher was ennaj,'e(l. This substitute t(K)k the 
 phice of each re^juhir fea<her in Ihi' ^Toup, in turn, so that 
 the regular teachers, one at a time, couhl s|M'nd one or two 
 w«^ksin the central school in stu<lying the methods adopted 
 by the mo<lel teacher. Thest> s<-h(>ols are now more than 
 two hundred in nunifnT and their immediate oversight haa 
 !>een placed in the hands of county su|H'rvis(»rs. 'I'he same 
 plan is being followed in oth«T slates than Kentucky. 
 
 Many promising exiMriments and successful efTorta 
 toward educational iK-ttcrment make the serious mistake 
 of hiding their light under a bushel. There should Im- a day 
 set apart once a month on which the i)eopIe living in the 
 district should visit the schools and be shown what is l)eing 
 done, and wherein the schools are lacking. The patrons 
 should be made ashamed of <iefects, proud of achievements, 
 never c()nij>lacent nor s^itisfied, but always anxious to ac- 
 complish more. 
 
 Model rural schools are l)cing erected in connection with 
 many normal schools and these may, to some extent, serve 
 the purixrs*' of demonstration schools. They are u.sed for 
 the purpose of training teachers for the rural schools. 
 There is a danger, however, that these s<-h(M)ls may go l>e- 
 yond the requirements and financial abilities of rural dis- 
 tricts and, like the model farms, in some instances defeat 
 the objects for which they were established. There is also 
 danger from the fact that in some cases rural conditions 
 have to be improvised. 
 
 THE NEED FOR BETTEU ULILDING8 
 
 The present tyjK' of building must l)e improved and 
 I)rovision made for a new type. Sjx'aking generally, it is 
 probably true that no more unsightly and unsjmitary 
 buildings are to be found anywhere than a large majority of 
 
\^^^^^^^^^h^g^;^^ 
 
 88 
 
 AGRinLTrRAl. EDITATION 
 
 the rural sch(M)lh(nisrs. If these scIkkiIs existed in a town 
 or city, they would Iw eoudeniiud liy the health odiccrs. 
 A Rurjil School I^-ller issued l>y the I'nited States 
 Bureau of K<lueatiori on February li), I!>I4. ^'ives an ac- 
 count of the renovation of a (ouiilry s<liool. It t(H)k just 
 one workiii),' day «)f eij,'ht hours to transform a Tennessee 
 rural scIkmjI building? that was m very had eondition into a 
 huildinf,' «)f whi<h any eornniunity nii^ht Ik- proud. What 
 was aecornplished in this inslane*- by eonuiuuiity i<)<i|M'ra- 
 tion can be carried out effe<'tively by any county su|)erin- 
 tendent, teacher, or school iniprovenient association. 'I'his 
 demonstration in public-schiMil iniprovemetit was or;,'an- 
 ized by Professor Ilaworth. of the Ka>t Stat»' Tennessee 
 Normal School. He fir.>t securcfj the codiM-ration of the 
 County Hoard of K<lucation of McMinn County, in which 
 the (h-monstration wa.s carried out. lie also secured the 
 help of tile teachers of the county and of the patrons of the 
 Neil S<h(M)l, the plan In-inj,' to show what any neif,'hborhof)d 
 can do in one day by united action in the improvement of 
 school buiIJinf,'s and grounds. 
 
 A band of teadiers, 'MuhA patrons, and normal students 
 marched out to the Neil School early in the morning to l>e- 
 gin operations. The workers were armed with shovels, hoes, 
 n.ves, cari)enter's tools, paint, whitewash, and .soap. They 
 luiiled on new boards where they were needed, painted the 
 building, built a chimney, cleaned up the rubbish, scrubbed 
 the floor, renovated the entire interior, constructed a book- 
 ca.se for the teacher, tinted the walls a pearl gray color, and 
 hung pictures. The old desks wen« removed and new desks, 
 supi)lied by the district, were placed in jwsition. The 
 expense amounted to $.'J3. It included twelve gallons of 
 paint, five gallons of lin.seed oil, four paint brushes, half a 
 bushel of whitewash, two dollars' worth of weather-board- 
 ing and lathing, two pounds of nails, four window .shades, 
 material for sash curtains, four pictures, a numlx-r of books 
 to start a library, and one American flag. 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF TIIE RIIIAI. SCHOOL .,7 
 
 Of .m.rsr it m„y f»o sai.l with prrf.-cf truth that ,.fT„rts 
 of tl... k.n.l .sIh,„I,1 ,.„t Im- r..,.,ir..,|. I.„f H,,.,. „,„>• m'v.TJh..- 
 
 .» !>.• nrrvssary m ..rder to show what , a.. Ik- donr ;.,.,! to 
 t'ruvA niMUt itnprovcraent within a «-a.s<.nablo tinu- If 
 K..Hn. ly applio,!. su.-h pbns wn„h| within a nu.nth work a 
 n-vohit.on „. the appnira.Hv of tlu- connf ry .scIum.I.s. Many 
 of th.m nuKht uruh-rKo rdapsc.. hut if only fifty fx-r m.t ..f 
 
 Ij.- schoo s wore kept in the condition in whi.h th.v were 
 
 hy t u. hand of workers, the effort wouhl he'worth 
 
 u e. U hen nlueafon .s lcK,ke<l u,K.n in its proper li«ht. it 
 
 u.ll he reeo,.Hzed that workaround the^-hool huiKJin^sand 
 
 ground, can he nmde a factor iu the education of the jnipils 
 
 THE ONK-Rf)OM WHOOL 
 
 It is generally assumed that the one-teacher school 
 nu> of ne<.ess,ty }^ a one-rm.m s.h.H,|. A new ki.nj of 
 ^inldu., .s required. Many country districts have a ,KK,r 
 M liool and a p,H,r chunh. One type of huihiin,. exis s in 
 •ra. hca ly all the rural districts of the United States, and 
 ■s .s the tyre that was adopted when public education 
 f.r^ .ame into ex.stenr^e. The sc-hool erecte.l on the grounds 
 J'f t e Nornu.1 S<.h.K>l at Kirksville. Mis.s<.uri. is an ,men"p 
 . show tha a rural school can. for an expen<liture of $3.10 
 ' addition to the usual cost of a ko<kJ building, have all 
 t - ."nven.ences that modern requirements in education 
 .•man.1. I rov.sion is made for manual training, household 
 s« I. mo, an.l agriculture. The .schcK>l is well light^l. heated 
 "".1 V nt ated and could I. built in any rural distrtt in 
 M.^-.in for about $1200. A similar school has »>een built 
 u er^tr Tr"*' '^""'^" "' Agriculture at Cornell 
 . r .te?f Z " ^ ^•"'^-^'-^^h" ■'^•h-^I. "ith a workshop 
 ..rated from the cla.ssroom by folding dcK,rs .s<, that one 
 '•'"-r can manage both rrK,ms when necessary. The 
 ' al cost was $10S.T.S2. while the average cost ot rural 
 '>' buildings and sites in New York State when the 
 6. li.M.I was built was $1833.63. 
 
h,l. ROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART 
 
 ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 \M M 2.5 
 
 
 ?„ 1^ IIIII2.2 
 
 |36 
 
 !: u 
 
 2.0 
 
 .8 
 
 1.25 
 
 1-4 mil 1.6 
 
 1— _ "'6) 288 - 59R9 - ."a. 
 
8S 
 
 AGRICULTUR.\L EDUCATION 
 
 THE ARRANGEMENT OF COMMUNITY BUILDINGS 
 
 Why should not every district have its educational 
 block or community center? Here could be group<^d the 
 school, surrounded with aini)le grounds and gardens, the 
 residence for the schoolmaster and his family, the church, 
 the [)ublic assembly and amusement hall, the park, the 
 athletic grounds, the skating-rink, and the cooperative 
 creamery, the cheese factory, the bakery, and the like. 
 Sucli a center would be a rallying-point and would do much 
 to revitalize the whole neighborhood. In planning such a 
 center, foresight should be exercised and future require- 
 ments should receive due consideration. Not all the build- 
 ings need be erected at once, but the land could be secured; 
 and if a definite plan were adopted and the building mate- 
 rial decided upon, the block when completed would be an 
 harmonious whole. There is, of course, a practical diffi- 
 culty in carrying out such a scheme, owing to the fact that 
 community institutions are now largely established and 
 their locations are not readily changed; but in new settle- 
 ments, and where new buildings are being erected, the plan 
 proposed could be gradually put into effect. 
 
 THE NEED FOR COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 
 
 A law requiring attendance at school until the age of at 
 least fourteen years should be placed on the statute books 
 of every state and province. Its enforcement should be 
 entrusted to officers entirely free from local influences. A 
 large number of children of school age are not even en- 
 rolled in the schools and the attendance of those that are 
 enrolled is lamentably irregular. In addition to the loss of 
 education by the children themselves, this leads to great 
 economic waste, as the schools are kept open however low 
 the attendance. The attendance laws and the laws regu- 
 lating child labor should be as rigorously enforced in the 
 country as they are in the towns and cities. 
 

 m 
 
 \ I CM \ ||;\ ( iiMMiM 1^ ( i:\ hi; 
 
 l!.pr,Ml„.-.-,| t,,„„ , ,„ „|,„ M, niti,-..,,( I v,,..n„„.„i ~t,,t,uMs 
 1 niti'i! >!,it.-- l>..|,uitiii.i,t ..I A-ririiltiu..- 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE RURAL SCHOOL 
 
 HQ 
 
 SOME NOTABLE EXAMPLES OF RUnAL SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 As a fitting conclusion to this chapter it will Ik- pertinent 
 to outline some .school conditions that have been achieved 
 in certain states, and finally to describe the conditions that 
 exist in what is perhaps the most educationally advanced 
 of the European countries, namely, Denmark. 
 
 Rural schools in Iowa. — The A.s.so<-iati()n of Southern 
 School Superintendents recently made a study of the 
 schools of the Middle Northwest. During this study they 
 visited the schools of Page County, Iowa, and the follow- 
 mg particulars are gleaned from their reiK)rt. It must lie 
 remembered that the visiting delegates were men of ex- 
 perience, men who knew what to look for, and who could 
 not be deceived by those preparations which are generally 
 made for the special benefit of visitors. The schools in 
 Page County were under the sufiervision and direction of 
 Miss Je-ssie Field, and they have won a national reputation 
 among rural schools. In this county there are no cities or 
 large towns; the population is rural, and the occupation 
 almost entirely agriculture. 
 
 The purpose of the investigation was "to study the best 
 that had been done in the correlation of the work of the 
 one-teacher rural school with farm life and agricultural oc- 
 cupations." The buildings were plain and inexpensive. On 
 the outside they were painted and on the inside papered 
 and furnished with all necessary equipment. "The school- 
 houses were not built in strict accordance with the well- 
 established principles of school architecture as to light, 
 heat, ventilation, dimensions, etc., but the charm about 
 these schools was that they had been transformed into real 
 homes. The school grounds were small, but attractive and 
 well kept. Ten schools were visited. The teachers were all 
 women, but women of maturity, training, and experience. 
 Every one iuid received one or more years of normal in- 
 struction, and all but one had had several years of success- 
 
 il. 
 
 m 
 
■;..,,:, ^U- 
 
 .V. 
 
 60 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIOx\ 
 
 ful tcarhiriK cxiMTicnrc. Several had been tearhinR in the 
 sanio school for years. Th*- salaries ran;,'e<i from $4.> to 8G.5 
 per month, and the terms from seven to nine months. The 
 schools were limited to a course of eij,'ht years' work and no 
 hi^h-school work was attempted. In the s(h(K)ls a farm- 
 life atmosphere had been created; agriculture and the 
 things relating to farm life j)ermeated the life of the .school. 
 Attractive pictures of farm produce, farm animals, farm 
 flowers, farm weeds and vegetables, country landscai)es and 
 barnyard scenes, hung on the walls, and interesting collec- 
 tions of produce and fruits were arranged in cabinets." 
 A .special arithmetic, dealing almost exclusively with 
 practical farm problems such as the child' en and their 
 parents need to solve every day, had been pre[)ared by 
 the county superintendent, and was used in the schools. 
 Selected bulletins from the different state and federal 
 departments, relating to agricultural pursuits and farm 
 problems, were displayed and kept within easy reach for 
 reading and reference. In addition to the creation of this 
 farm-life atmosphere, much of the instruction of the school 
 was related to the everyday life and work of the farm. 
 
 These schools are rural schools, not city schools in the 
 country, and the means adopted for the creation of such an 
 atmosphere are so simple and practical as to be easy of ap- 
 plication to the country at large, even by teachers without 
 sjiecial agricultural training. None of the teachers in these 
 schools had been specially trained to give agricultural in- 
 struction. 
 
 Scoring rural schools in Arkansas. — In many parts of 
 the country, attempts are being made, with considerable 
 success, to bring the rural schools to a high state of effi- 
 ciency. One of the means adopted is the "score card." 
 The following is an example of such a card, used in the 
 schools of .\rkansas. While not all jx^rsons may agree with 
 the number of points assigned to each item, the plan is one 
 to be highly commended: — 
 
■?1 
 
 IMTROVEMEXT OF THE RURAL SCHOOL 
 RURAL SCHOOL SCORE CARD 
 
 FOR RATLNQ AKKAX8AS SCHOOLS 
 
 (To he „sc<l l,y C.unty S.,pcrinf,-n.h-nt wli.-n visit- 
 ing and iu>ii)ttlHig rural schools of C(jurity.) 
 
 County, 
 
 School District No 
 
 Name of School 
 
 Date of Viait 
 
 Scored Points. 
 
 Superintendent. 
 
 To County Sui)eriiitendent.s and Teachers: 
 
 This Rural S<h.M,l Score Card ha.s lK>en prepare,! 
 for use by county superintendents when visiting the 
 rural schools o their counties. The aim Ls to fix a 
 definite workable standard of ideal conditions for 
 these scliools in all points which make for their 
 greater efficiency. It will be remembered that more 
 than 80 per cent of our boys an<l girls are being ed- 
 ucated in our country schools and if by the use of 
 these cards school con.litions can be improved we 
 -^ttll feel that their use has been worth while 
 
 / f ^f"' an'i judicious use of these Score Cards 
 wefeehonfident that you will beabU- to encourage 
 and stimulate w,-ll-direct.Hl efforts for better ,^m 
 ditions m our rural schools to the en.l that these 
 schools may be made fully efficient. We earnestly 
 urge that you take these Score Cards an<l use them 
 for the purpose in view in their preparation - the 
 betterment of these schools in everj- way. 
 Very sincerely, 
 
 J. L. BoxD, 
 Supervisor of Rural Schools. 
 
 Geo. B. Cook, 
 State Superintendent. 
 
 61 
 
W AGRICULTLILVL EDUCATION 
 
 SCORING 
 
 /. Il,.„m,l (1.; V.nnU) 
 
 1. (Irciiimln i)f rii lc;i-t u\\f ucri' uml f. ;ii i<l 
 
 2. <;niiiri'l» will ilraiiic.l aii'l im i-ly ki'iJt .. . 
 .t Iw.iif'KKt .jiitli.Mi.^.B, will k.'pi arnl dean 
 
 1 1 IriMin^l^s ili.ir (.r trusli unii rulibmli 
 
 .") SliriililpiT.v c,r tri-i 1 wt dut 
 
 t<. U iitiT-Bii|i|:ly (rum nufc Hourrc 
 
 
 (;irfii 
 
 //. iJwllinutrSi r.nntij 
 
 nll-it. 
 
 UniMiiiir p.-iiTit('(l nii'l 111 t'oixi ri'iiuir. . , s 
 
 / v.;l... I 1 .1 I 1 * 
 
 ■■!<■ 
 
 C'lliil anil paiiili'il or pln.-tc 
 
 ;{. Hi.rT^ Wl'll MN'-pl mill walls 
 
 4. \V iiiilowri (It an with paiii-.H all sn .' . 
 
 T>. Wmiliiw Mpaif at l.a.st (mr tifili of tl.Mir xpiirc. .'..''. 
 
 0. [.iirlit (mm n-ar ami miIpm v itii ni> KlarinK ur crona li({lit» 
 
 7. Ciilin:; uf lit,'liiir lolor than walJs 
 
 H. Winiluw- with ciioij bliailiw . . '. 
 
 !l. iJoorn with liirka anil keys 
 
 10. .Nutiiinal f la« 
 
 ///. A'vi<i//r>.f.,ri2.' /'. 
 
 S. al.s will arranifcil anil nf prii|.rr >urs 
 
 Suit.ililc ch.iir anil i\iv\(. fur traclicr. 
 
 <iu.>.n.laikl.i,aril,.. 
 
 Jarki'tnl ^tiivr, ur vpiitilatinit nio-r wjih [iruper ilurta. 
 
 .Appropriate wall [lirtures (at lea.st t«u) 
 
 Siiit.alile maiw. rhart.s, Rlobei. eti- 
 
 f'hililren .•<upplieit with prui.er hooks 
 
 r.ihrary with Miiitahle ^elietmn of boukB. 
 
 Dietionary with staml nr raek. 
 
 >i/<. 
 
 10. Sanitary ilrinkinR faiieets, fountain or iniliviiiual lirinkinK rufw. 
 
 /('. Tiiickrr (!s Pinntnl 
 
 P: 
 
 nil-, 
 
 1 With first (rrailr cortifieatcs, hiish srhrxil. rollcRe or normal work 
 J Seeunil term ur loirrer in present schof.l 
 
 3. r.-ioK modern mi'thi>il» 
 
 4. Daily attenilanee !tO per eent of enrollment and enrollment SO 
 
 per rent of enumiTatir.n 
 .'), Pupil.-i oheilient anil at work 
 (1. I'rot'rani on hoaril or wall nml rlosely followed. ....... 
 
 '■ nr>'e of stmly heinir followed 
 
 S. 
 
 <». 
 10. 
 11 
 
 Knows well the suhjert.'S 
 
 r.es'.ions as.iiirned with rare ' \ 
 
 HeL'i^le^ neat and well kept , 
 
 DoiiiK re.iuiriHi readinx in Teaeher's Reading Cirele. . 
 
 V. Community .trfi'rift*-.* (12 Point*) 
 
 1. Sehool irardenine or s|.erial work in .Atrrieulturc being done. 
 
 2. \n netive Srhool linproyeiiient .Association 
 
 3. Itoy's Corn ( liih » ork earrietl on .' ' 
 
 4. Cirl's CanninK Cluh work earrieil on 
 
 5. Literary ."Society or Ilehatine Club '.'.'.'. 
 
 P-'intu 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 .SV^,.„/, trnrino .W lo Ifo pninlx will he rnted at ri„.A ,\ Mrh'H,h; ihm,, ^carina 75 to 
 9U puiiUj OS Claai li .idmoU; aiul tlui.tc scoring tiU tu To p<niU:i ■i<i CUa C achixJU. 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF TIIE RUR.VL SCHOOL 63 
 
 Rural M in Dcnmark-^-TU, measures that J>avo l>.-o„ 
 arlopted to bring the rural sc-hcx^Is of Denmark to their 
 present state of efBcieney are full of sug^'estion for oth.-r 
 -untnes. Ail normal chil.lren n.ust attend reKulariy 
 throughout eight years. A fine is exacte.l for each .lav tha^ 
 IS nussed As a result. Danish countrj^ districts show les 
 t .an one twentieth of one per cent illiteracy . No child is 
 ol ■gc.d to go more than one and a half English milcvs to 
 Ml.oo and there must not Ik. more than thirty to thirtv- 
 five children in a room. The schools are well graded, and 
 no high-school work is attempted. 
 
 All schcjolhouses must be erected in accordance with 
 rules laid down by the Minister of Education. Evcr^- rural 
 community of reasonable wealth must provide a suitabi^ 
 covered gj'mnas.um. Districts less wealthy must furnish 
 a well-prepared and sanded space of at least 600 square 
 •netres in extent, for outdoor gymnastics and play T^ 
 sanitary rc.,u.rc.me,.ts are very stringent: fl.K.rs must be 
 scn.bfK.d daily; wcnxJwork and furniture must Ik^ wiiM^d 
 with a wet rag daily; once a week rooms must be cleaned 
 ^v.th soap and water. The length of the school year is a 
 nuninium of forty-one we<.ks. or two hundred and forty-six 
 school days. Miool is carried on six days in the week \n 
 old law prescribes that all children shall have at least 
 twenty-one hours of instruction per week for forty-one 
 w.>ks during the year. The older c-hildrcn may thus at 
 ond three whole days and two half days instead of the f u 1 
 tune during the summer, while the same holds good for the 
 younger children during the winter. 
 
 The teachers for these rural schools are required to have 
 
 the same thorough preparation as the teachers in the 
 
 ^'radec^ schools in the towns and cities. Salaries are gov! 
 
 •rned l>y law. The initial salary is from 900 kroner to i400 
 
 kroner per annum. An annual increase is providcnJ f„r 
 
 ti.l'S.SI^lS''""' '^'"''^- ^"''*^ '^'- »~ "f K<i-- 
 
 m 
 
61 
 
 AGRICULTIIIAL EDUCATION 
 
 twenty years, until \0(H) kroner additional is rearhcd, so 
 that a teacher may eventually receive 4 KM) kroner. In 
 addition, teacliers are provided with free lioines, ran^;inj^ 
 from tliree rooms, in the case of unmarried women tea<liers, 
 to seven or eight rooms for married men. All teachers arc 
 entitled to a garden varying in size from a small lot to 
 nearly an acre. This is plowed and planted to shrul)lK>ry 
 and fruit at conununity exjjense. These gardens are u.sed, 
 not only to supplement the t»'acher's income, but often as 
 experimental plots. These additions of houses and garden 
 amount to another 1000 kroner. Then the teacher may 
 earn another 100 kroner by acting as chorister in the church. 
 This means a possible total salary of ii'tOO kroner, almcst 
 three times as much as the average salary for rural teachers 
 in the I'liited Slates. Fair wages and a long tenure of 
 office warrant the prosjMvtive teacher in giving adequate 
 time and money to his preparation and training. 
 
 The improvement of the rural school has been dealt with 
 in some detail, as it is felt that such improvement is vital 
 to effective work in agricultural education. But it will not 
 be wise to wait until all these improvements are effected 
 before placing the subject of agriculture on the program 
 of the rural schools, as its introduction will pave the way 
 for many of the needed improvements. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 TEACniXO AGRICULTURE IN THE RURAL SCHOOL 
 
 Thk toiichin« of agriculture should begin in the rural 
 s<-li(M)ls. In some cases, particularly in the one-nKjm .s<h.H,l.s 
 Kical conditions can probably never Ik- attained; but the 
 ur-rncy „f the matter will not admit of delay. It is. of 
 cours... desirable and luvessary to hn.k for ideal conditi.ms, 
 for where there is no vision the nation jn'rishes; but to 
 s<-cure satisfactory and reasonably early results, we must 
 a.lapt our i)lans to existing conditions when we cannot 
 modify conditions to suit our plans. 
 
 " One thing is cert^iin: if agricultural education is to Imi- 
 eome efficient, the work of ref.)rmation must be carried on 
 in the country schools."' In this connection it must Ix- re- 
 iiicmlH-red that out of every five hundred boys an.l girls at- 
 tendmg rural s<-h.M)ls only one ever enters an agricultural 
 college, or one fifth of one jxt cent; and further, about 
 nmety ,M-r cent of the Iw.ys and girls in the common sclux.la 
 do not contmue their studies Ijeyond the fifth or sixth 
 grade.= It follows, therefore, that whatever is to be done 
 in the way of laying the foundations of agricultural knowl- 
 e<]ge for the great body of pupils nmst \yc accomplished 
 before the pupils leave the elementar>' school. 
 
 It must l)e recognized that the rural school teacher has a 
 great d.>al to do. The teacher in the country must conduct 
 on the average twenty-three recitations a dav. with an 
 iiverage period of fifteen minutes each. In the one-room 
 school the number of recitations is approximately thirty. 
 
 ' 'l^f'^th •John. Education for InduMrial Purpose,. Departraont of E.l- 
 uratiiin. Toronto. 
 
 ' Farmers- Inst it ut.-., for Young People. United SUies Department of 
 Agriculture. Circular m. 
 
eo 
 
 A(.I{I( ILTniAL EDKATION 
 
 with an avrrap- time of clcvt-n minutes rarli. I'ndcr tli«vse 
 <iriiiiMstaii(rs tlir very .sn;;;,'csli(in (if a new study is nat- 
 urally (|uilf suHi(i»-tit to aroiiM' anta^'onistn. For yrars the 
 ti-achcrs havr IxM-n urp'd to vitalizr the course of .study 
 and to hriiiK tin- schools intoflos«'r touch with tho ptniph*, 
 l)ut the untrained teacher has In-i-n uiiahle to <lo this and 
 has almost <-ome to the conclusion that those who give 
 this eouuM-l know no Iwlter than they how it is to Ikj 
 done, or they would suf)plement their general udvicc with 
 a hill of particulars. 
 
 TIIK DKWA.ND FOU INSTUKTION IN AnHKTLTrUE 
 The demand for instruction in the elemt-nls of agricul- 
 ture has Iki-u made, at difftrent times, in practically every 
 country in the world. In .some states and provinces the 
 subject hiLs made eonsiderahle progress, hut, generally 
 8|M'aking, this has lieen due to the enthusiasm of iniiividual 
 teachers working under exceptional conditions. That the 
 success so far achieved has not been greater is owing to 
 the fact that the subject was introduce<l as an additional 
 branch of study into an overcrowded <urri(ulum, without 
 any consideration of options or ecjuivalents. 
 
 Certain adjustments will have to be made, but the un- 
 trained teacher mu.st have the assistance of e.\perienee<J 
 supervision before she is in a position to make tJiese ad- 
 justments. We can, however, witliout any injustice ask 
 tlie teacher in her intercourse with her pupils and their 
 parents to present the attractive side «>f country life. In 
 short, we may reasonably ask her to create a farm-life iti- 
 liuence throughout her scIkmiI. This influence, without any 
 formal instruction in agriculture, would do nuich to change 
 the tliought direction of the \m\>\\. I'roljably the induence 
 the teacher exerts has a greater effect on the mind of the 
 child than the actual iuformatiou she imparts or the in- 
 struction she gives. 
 
A(,lUCrLTniE IS THE Rl lUL S<HOOL 
 
 07 
 
 TUt COKHKlariON OK A(Jnut KTfUK WITH 
 
 The toju'hiri;,' of 
 
 IN TIIK ( rnni( I i,t 
 
 OTHKR Hl-njEf T'l 
 
 M 
 
 "k'rinillun' 
 
 •i'H'S tu»t «I«' 
 
 rnnri(J the 
 
 - ,. " "" ""I '" iiiJind jnc onus- 
 
 .s.or, of any suIm--; now o„ ,|.,. „r„,.ra,„. hut it .|.k-. nnvs- 
 Mfato a n-v.s.on of those suhj.vts. A <riti.al study .shouhl 
 '<• ".a.h- of ..uh wlh th.. ol,j..,.t of o,„itti„« ,„att,.r uhi.h 
 h.H no prartK-al applic-ation. an.I also of .i.ar.p,,^, ,|„, 
 ;hn..l.on of what .s h-ft ... that it „.ay .>c rdat..! to hf. 
 I hcrrow.lniR of the eurric.uh.rn is not due to th.- mnltii 
 I'l'.'ty of .suhjerts. hut to the atte.npt to teach in tho.se 
 su .jerts a nun.ber of things that are not essential • 
 
 Ha.k.y has sjii.l. in .s,K«akinK of the <iirrieuhnn. " Ka<h of 
 he eonunc.n branches ean Ik- s<, r..,rKanize<l ..s to revolu- 
 •on.ze a»,^neulture within ten years"; an.l it is alo„« the 
 lines of the reorKanization of the (.,nunon branches that 
 a;,'n<.ultural education in the elementary sc-Ihm.I .should 
 "'.'•nly pro<v..d. The primary pur,H,.se of this reor,n.ni/^. 
 ■'•" -^ not to "revolutionize aKri.ultur.-." b.it f. ^'ive a 
 h«'tler clucution t.. the child and to make him a In-tter 
 nt.zen and a more intelligent worker. This means .si.npiv 
 that he teachmg should bear uik,„ the life the chil.l I,,' ds 
 and the thmgs that come within the range of his daily 
 experience. ^ 
 
 .Ujnrulture applied to the teaching of English. - One of 
 he man. subjects of study in any educational program is 
 -.l.sh. I he teac n., of English, on the principle men- 
 Lou, would nuo ve the description of c-ommon obj^.-ts 
 ..nd the typ,cal sights, soun.is. ac-tivities. and occupations 
 .f . he countr>. In des<-r.bing the.s.. objects the pupils would 
 <arn to use the.r eyes and to appreciate what thc-y .saw 
 1 assages of prcse and vers., dcvscripfive of cc>u,.try .s^-enery 
 and "J-c-upat.ons could be read with advantage more fre- 
 'inently than they are at present. The pnpils through thc-ir 
 ' '"'f^^fi-'' K<lu.ation in S<h<K,U for Rural Commuaitic-.. NatiunJ 
 
rj .r-; 
 
 IP" 
 
 68 
 
 AGRICULTLR.VL EDUCATION 
 
 daily experiences would realize the truth of tlie literature 
 and the richness and beauty of the life it reveals. 
 
 This method would teach En{,'Iish at least as effectively 
 as it is now taught, would have an equal cultural value, 
 and would unconsciously direct attention to farm and 
 country life. Unfortunately, few school readers of this 
 character are available, but the need is being felt and steps 
 will doubtless be taken to meet the recjuirement. The 
 Dc|>artment of Education for the Province of Ontario is 
 ha\iiig a reader prepared along these lines. 
 
 Ayricidture applied to the teaching of arithmetic. — There 
 is no other subject in the school program that lends it- 
 self more readily to close correlation with agriculture than 
 arithmetic; yet no other subject has failed more completely 
 to deal with real life problems. Dr. Leonard P. Ayrcs' states 
 that he was called upon, on one occasion, to pass an opinion 
 on the eighth-grade textbook in use in a certain New En<^ 
 land city. He made up an examination paper from the 
 book, and this he induced a number of successful business 
 and professioiud men to try. These were men earning froiM 
 $;}()()() to $1.>,000 a year. Not one of them passed, the 
 highest mark attained being twenty-five per cent. Dr. 
 Ayres gave the sanie paper to his fifteen-year-old office 
 girl, who had just left scliool from the eighth grade. She 
 made seventy per cent of the total marks possible. If this 
 inapplical)ility to the needs of practical life is found in the 
 city, for which the textbook was prepared, how inapjilica- 
 ble it must be to the country where practically the same 
 textbook is used. 
 
 When an arithmetical problem has been worked out. the 
 answer should state a fact worth knowing and remember- 
 ing, and that fact should be one which has some ai)plication 
 to the district in which the pupil lives. In country districts 
 the problems might deal with the price of farm produce, 
 
 ■ r<.iiinii^si..n."r ..f Hduciilioii. Riporf, VJH. United Slates Bureau 
 of Eduealiou. \\;u.hiui;lou. D.C. 
 
AGRICrLTLTlE IN TIIE RIRAL SCHOOL C9 
 
 tho cost of various farmirif; oprrnfions, estimates of the 
 cost of trans,,ort. cost of erecting' simple hnilriin-s. increase 
 air decrease of yield per acre, and nrnny other farm 
 problems. Every school should have as part of its equip- 
 ment a set of weights and measures, a pair of scales, and a 
 praduated rule. With these many practical problems can 
 be worked out. and the whole subject of arithmetic made 
 more practical and more interesting. 
 
 A,jriculture applied to the. teaching of geography. - This 
 subject should be based largely on the ol,servation of local 
 cond.t.ons. as climate, ,,revailing winds, rainfall, soil, and 
 the like, and their effects on animal and vegetable life and 
 en the activities and occupations of mankind. It is not 
 difhcult to see how teaching along these lines would give 
 interest to the most monotonous country life, and make a 
 walk through the fields a tour of observation and education. 
 Ihe country does not provide the attractions of the city 
 but If in his early years the boy can be shown how intensely 
 interesting are all the sights and sounds of the country he 
 ^Mll more likely l,e content to find his life-work there^ ' 
 
 This method may be applied, perhaps in a lesser degree 
 to other subjects on the program. If the principle "from 
 the known to the unknown" be followed, it is evident that 
 the only effective way of educating the child in the country 
 will l)e through agriculture, which comprises the evervday 
 ife of the farm and the home. This type of education will 
 l)e of no less advantage to the boy who afterwards moves 
 to the city. He is being trained in a more effective manner 
 by these methods than he could possibly be by the use of 
 illustrations that are foreign to his daily experience. Much 
 has been accomplished in many schools without anv formal 
 introduction of agriculture as a subject of studv; but more 
 than this ought to be done. Agriculture, in name and in 
 fact, should have a place on the program of every rural 
 school. 
 
 ^1 
 
70 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 NATURE study: ITS PL.\rE, puuposf:, and character 
 Tilt' basis of any rational course in agriculture is nature 
 study, but this, like agriculture, has a past to live down. 
 Nature study, at first intended to cultivate habits of ob- 
 servation, has had a nunjber of other purposes superim- 
 posed upon it. It "came into our sch(M)Is, after efforts to 
 teach agriculture had failed owing to lack of demand for 
 it and want of preparation among the teachers, after the 
 'ol)ject-lesson' fad had begun to <lie away, and when 
 so-called 'elementary science' proved too dull even to 
 thoroughly awaken the interests of the child."' Nature 
 study is difficult to define, and the line that separates it 
 from agri(;ulture is still more difficult to discover, so im- 
 perceptibly does one shade into the other. Nature study, 
 as far as it is natively taught, is agriculture. 
 
 There is a wide difference between lessons on natural 
 objects and nature study; between an object lesson on a 
 piece of coral and the study of the rock that wears down to 
 form tlie fertile soil of the farm; between a lesson on an 
 ostrich from a picture on the wall, and a study of the 
 poultry in the farmyard; between a lesson on the cocoa- 
 nut palm and the study of cabl)ages or corn grown by the 
 pupil. Nature study implies accurate observation, but 
 accurate observation does not necessarily mean com/<!"te 
 observation. One should not expect as complete observa- 
 tion and inference, even in regard to the simplest phe- 
 nomena, from young children as from older pupils, but the 
 observation, as far as it goes, sliould be accurate. 
 
 The history of education exhibits many peculiarities. .Ml 
 subjects are first j)laced on school programs for their utili- 
 tarian value. Then long after utilitarian value has disap- 
 peared they are retained for their cultural value, and later 
 they arc dropped for the sake of subjects that are sup- 
 
 ' Aj,'ri(iiltural Education. United States Bureau of Education. Bul- 
 letin i. 1907. 
 
AGRICn.Tl'RE IN THE RUILVL SCnOOL 71 
 
 pnqod f(> con fain fioth values. This has l)een somewhat 
 tJie rase with regard to nature study. The economic and 
 practical applications have l)een ignored, and the cultural 
 aspects strongly empluusized, hut that both values can be 
 secured by j)roper treatment is now being conceded. 
 
 The study of the horse is just as much nature study as 
 is the study of the development of the frog from spawn. 
 What is the objection to teaching the boy about the horse, 
 its characteristics, its capacity for work, the kind of UmhI 
 and treatment it requires in order to ])e able to |)erform the 
 best service for its master.' Dr. Andrew M. Soule, presi- 
 dent of Georgia State Agricultural College, says, "The 
 teacher is forever stumbling over the words 'elementary 
 agriculture' and wondering what their significance may [ye. 
 The real .leed is to teach the child about the life by which 
 he is surrounded, and when this is done agriculture will be 
 effectively taught no matter by what name it is denomi- 
 nated. The simplicity of the methods which may be em- 
 ployed with children in the common school accounts for 
 the slow progress which has been made, for. strangely 
 enough, every one has been trying to convert the simple 
 elementary facts of nature into an abstruse subject, diffi- 
 cult of appreciation, and commonly called agriculture for 
 want of a l)etter name."' 
 
 In opposition to this view Dr. Draper once said. "Na- 
 ture study has about the same relation to real agriculture 
 that sloyd has to laying out an electric light plant for a 
 city, or laying down the keel of a battleship — calling it 
 agriculture will not increase its importance so much as it 
 will confuse some minds and subject us to the criticism that 
 we are not doing what we i)ro«-laim."2 But the views ex- 
 pressed by Dr. Soule are rapidly coming into general prac- 
 
 Prorecdings of Thirteenth 
 
 ' ronforence for Education in the Soutli. 
 At.iniiil Confcrenco. 
 
 ' Draper, .\ii,ir,-w S. Agnnillnre and its Educational Needs. New 
 lork State Education Department. Albany. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 (•svr 
 
72 
 
 AGRiriXTURAL EDTTATION 
 
 fine, and nature sUuly is bcinp piven an inrroasing eco- 
 iK.inic and agricultural trend without at all lessening its 
 cultural value. 
 
 iXafure stmhj through cnUcrlinna of natural ohjrds. — 
 Many schools have centered their work around collections 
 of various kinds — weeds, plants, insects, seeds, eggs, etc., 
 and one way of encouraging nature study is by their ex- 
 hibition. Such exhibitions have proved very successful, 
 not only because tliey afford means for the exchange of 
 ideas among teachers, but because by means of an exhibit 
 the good work of a school l>ecomes more widely recognized 
 and serves as an incentive to good work in other schools. 
 In this connection, however, a word of warning is nec- 
 essary. No encouragement should be given to collecting 
 merely for the sake of collecting. In collecting grasses, 
 weeds, minerals, insects, and the like, there should be a* 
 definite purpose. Much injury has been caused to lo<aI 
 flora and fauna by indiscriminate collectors. It should be 
 remembered that the less common a plant or a moth or a 
 bird's egg is, the less valuable it is from the nature study, 
 as distinguished from the naturalist's, point of view. 
 
 THE SCHOOL OARDKN 
 
 School gardening may I>e made a valuable adjunct to 
 this work. The garden will not only aid the nature study, 
 hut by its means definite formal instruction in agriculture 
 may be given. It is probable that the development of the 
 school garden will afford the best means of giving agricul- 
 tural training in the elementarj- school. If education in 
 agriculture is to become efficient, a place must be provided 
 for its practice. As a schcml subject, gardening possesses 
 the double advantage that it affords exerci.se in the use of 
 tools as well us a means of instruction in nature study and 
 elementary agriculture. 
 
 The work for very young children will of necessity differ 
 from that given to older pupils. It is not always essential 
 

 fc 
 
 AGRIClLxXTRE IN TIIE RrR.VL SriIOOi. r.^ 
 
 tl.nt tI.oresho,.M ho pardon plofs. Aruoh oan J,o ,l,>no will, 
 plants .n the school u-in.i„ws. arran^o.I in ,,.,ts. hoxo.. an.l 
 l.a.sk,.ts hoT tho junior pupils, panionin^ shonl.l ho ro- 
 stncted to prow-in« a few plants on small plots, one or two 
 square yards in size. In most cases tho hea^y work will 
 have to be done for the children. It is not until eleven 
 years old. at least, that l>oys as a rule are strong enough to 
 use ordinary gardening to<,Is. In some cases tho c-ultivation 
 of a common plot hy all the boys has been found a.lvisahle 
 1 his encourages cooperation and mutual help. In this case 
 care .s needed to prevent one or two fH,ys from .loing'all 
 he work wh.le the rest look on. Educationally, the advan- 
 tage hes w-.th the individual plots, as then g<K>d and had 
 work can be seen and the responsibility therefor fived If 
 the g,rls also take gardening, their plots should be some- 
 what smaller than those given to the boys, and particular 
 at ontion should be paid to growing flowers with a view to 
 cult.vatmg a sense of the beautiful, as well as to the use of 
 llowers m adding to the attractiveness of the home 
 
 In addition to teaching the proper use of tools and the 
 -study of plant life, gardening should also he used as an 
 exorcise in practical arithmetic. The pupils should keep 
 strict accounts of the cost of seed, fertilizers, labor, etc so 
 as to be able to compute profit or loss. The plots should bo 
 measured out by the pupils, and the plan, proposed for cul- 
 tivating each, drawn to scale. A diary should he kept, and 
 as each crop is harvested a complete account of its cultiva- 
 tion should be written as an e.vercise in composition 
 
 Care of the garden during the summer holUa,,.',. - In some 
 instances the gardens have been allowed to In-come an evo- 
 sore during the summer months when the schools are not in 
 soss.on. When this has betm done, much of the good re- 
 sulting from the instruction has been lost an.l the move- 
 niont has received a setback. By a little foresight arul 
 organization this can be avoided. When tho Maodonald 
 -school gardens were being introduced into Curleton County 
 
 ^*?a 
 
Mv^' s-;.;-. 
 
 -^;<> 
 
 mmn 
 
 74 AGUKTLTrRAL EDICATION* 
 
 Ontario, the traveling instructor usually spent an hour a 
 week (luring vacation at eaeli seliool jjianlen. Kaeli pui)il 
 liavin;,' cl.ar^e of a [ilot was expe<l«M| to meet liini, or, in the 
 event (if alisenee, was held responsihle for urrani^inj^ with 
 .some other pupil to tidy up his plot. Some schools paid the 
 janitor or other suitable person a small sum for looking 
 after the general condition of the plots and walLs. 
 
 In connection with the summer vacati(m problem, it 
 .should he noted that after the garden has heen proi)erly 
 rid of weeds and weed seeds, there will he much less need 
 for weeding after June ;}0. In some rural district.s it might 
 l)e an advantage to .shorten the .summer vacation and 
 lengthen the winter one. The care of the school garden 
 during the summer presents no difficulty that cannot l)e 
 effectively met by teachers and parents in cooperation. 
 
 >^clu)ol gardening in towns and cities. — School gardening 
 is a form of instruction that is ju.st as ai)j)licable to the 
 town as it is to the country. In some cities the work is con- 
 sidered im|)ortant enough to warrant the aj)pointment of 
 special supervisors. In Memphis, Tennessee, the boys are 
 undo the instruction of a sni)ervisor from one and a half to 
 two hours each week. The trustees of this city al:io plan to 
 secure the use of a school farm ol twenty or more acres, 
 where the larger boys, who are not otherwise employed 
 during the .summer months, may, under proper direction, 
 make truck gardening profitable and educational. 
 
 In I^s Angeles more than sixty school gardens are in 
 operation, under the control of a supervisor and five assist- 
 ants. An attractive feature of the work in this city is that 
 many of these gardens are vacant lots loaned by private 
 citizens. 
 
 In (lev. land, Ohio, gardening was at first conducted 
 jointly by the Home Gardening A.ssociation and the Hoard 
 of Education. The results achieved were excellent. "At 
 present the children's work in the school garden is volun- 
 tary and not a part of the regular curriculum, though it 
 
I 
 
 AGRICrLTniE IN THE RITIAL SCHOOL 7; 
 
 F)ormeatp.s the whole (.(hirational system. . . Tho Rini.-ri 
 I..Ih-Is. markers, sticks, ef,-.. are made in the n.anual Irain- 
 ir.^' r.K„n; the dome.tie science (lasses c.,.,k or can the ve^^,.. 
 tal.les the puf.ils have raised; flowers an.J vcKctahles are 
 used for drawing and painting; cotton, hemj,. flax, and 
 .ro.„„ corn are raised to illastrate geography lessons; and 
 h<- nature study and language lessons have Ix^en vitali/e.l 
 by the school gardens." ■ 
 
 Mitmeapolis and I'hila.lelphiu also have e.M.-nsive sys- 
 tems .,f school gardens. One of the results of the work 
 '" t 'Hatter city is that ,„ore than eight thou.sand hon.e 
 gard.-ns have l,et>n planted and cultivated under the direc- 
 tion of the teachers. 
 
 'I 
 
 THE HOMK n.\RDE\ 
 
 Wherever possii.le. home gardens should he ntilized hoth 
 lu towns and rural districts. Those scho,>ls that possess 
 gardens should use the home plot as an adj.met to the 
 school ganlen. and thr.se that do not should use the home 
 I. c.t as a suhstitute. Home gardens, under the supervision 
 c.f (lie .school authorities, are proposed by Dr. Cla.xton "-is 
 a sohition of .some of the most pressing .scnial and eco'- 
 iiomic problems in city and suburban life." In a circul-ir 
 recently issued by the Nat i.mal Bureau of Kducation ut 
 Uashmgton, it is suggested that many of the vacant town 
 lots could be converted into gardens where the boys an.l 
 g.rls could raise vegetables, berries, and fruit for j.lcasure 
 "iHl profit. These should be under the direction of a teacher 
 cmph.yed twelve months in the year. He wonl.l be engaged 
 J» t<;achmg elementary agricultural scic.ce in school an<l 
 u. .hrectmg the school-garden work after school hours on 
 Nilurdays, and during the summer holidays 
 
 Dr. riaxton says. "Of the l.'3.()0().()00 between the ages of 
 SIX and twenty in the cities, towns, manufacturing villages. 
 
 '■li-' 
 
 m 
 
70 
 
 AGUICrLTlRAL EDICATION 
 
 nnd siihiirhan roinmunities of tho I'nitcd States, not more 
 than fifteen j)er cent are away from home diiriii;: the 
 suiiitiier vacation or en;,'a<,'e(| in rej^'nlar employment. The 
 remaining,' ei^'hty-five per rent remain at home without 
 any useful, henlljifnl, product ive o((ii|)ation re(|uirinfj any 
 lar^e part of their time. On the other hand, there is much 
 valuable land in hack yanis and vacant lots that is servinf» 
 no useful purpose. The prohloni is to hrin^ this land and 
 these children to^'ether. The vef,'etal)les. berries, and fruits 
 ^rown could be used as food for the children and their 
 families, and the surplus, if any. should be marketed to the 
 best advantaf,'e. Throuf,'!i the helj) of the teachers this can 
 be done in a ccniperative way. Ten or fifteen cents worth 
 of vef,'(>tal)les each day from the f,'ardens of eac-h of two 
 hundred children would amount to i^-iO or $.'}(). ... It is 
 difficult to estimate the results of this plan, when it shall 
 be in operation throuj,'hout the country. For the children 
 it will mean health. strenf,'th. joy in work, habits of indus- 
 try, an understan<lin;j; of the value of money, as measured 
 in terms of labor, and such knowled^'c of the phenom- 
 ena and forces of nature as must be had for the under- 
 standiiif,' of most of their school lessons. They will also 
 learn something,' of the fundamental principles of morality: 
 that each individual must make his or her own living, 
 must by some kind of labor, of head, heart or hand, con- 
 tribute to the conunon wealth as much as he takes from it, 
 must pay for what he gets in some kind of coin." 
 
 now TIME MAY BE OBTAINED FOR NATUBE STUDY AND 
 AGRIfULTrRE 
 
 The length of the .school day is at present five or five and 
 a half hours, and the teacher will wonder )<ow this work is 
 to be taken without detriment to the other subjects. Hy 
 careful organization, however, it can be successfully man- 
 aged. Agriculture may be taken once or twice a week in 
 place of other subjects, by arranging that through a number 
 

 I 
 
 AGRICILTI-RE IN THE RURAL SCIIOJL 77 
 
 ..f w(H>k.s each half hour in the day Ik- used f„r one of the 
 exrrcises. and that the sul.ject.s omitted he thus spread over 
 the whole eurrieuhim. % a proKram of this eharaeter no 
 appreciable loss will be felt, particularly if the subjects be 
 well correlated. 
 
 The teacher should not consider the work done when the 
 period called for by the school time-table has been em- 
 J.loved. If the work has Ixx-n tau;,'ht in tlu> ri-hl spirit it 
 will be found that th<' pupils will not bo confenl with this 
 litnited tune, but that they will s,K-nd nuich of their recre- 
 alio.i tune m the garden; and the hel,, and a(h ice ..f the 
 teacher shoul.l be available at all times. This is no work 
 for the teacher who measures .service by the cliK-k. 
 
 This work may be pursued to a great extent, bv i)ro.rre.ss- 
 iiig from the elementary nature study of the lower gnide.s 
 to the mtensive agricultural work of the higher, and the 
 teacher who approaches it from the right angle will fi„d 
 the mtercst growing and will receive the help of all in the 
 .hstrict who have the welfare of the neighborhood at heart 
 I he attitude of the teacher should be that of u fol|„w 
 learner with the pupils. V.lien any difficulty of a technical 
 character arises, he should make use of the knowledge of 
 l)ractical farmers in the district. 
 
 IIIXDBAXCES TO THE IXTKODUt U,)X OF NATURE STUDY 
 AND AGRICULTURE 
 
 Every new subject has had to fight its way for recogni- 
 tion among school studies, and the battle for agriculture 
 's not yel won. It will now be pertinent to consi.l.T tli.- 
 Miain objections that have been urged against the introduc- 
 tion of agriculture. 
 
 The nature of the subject. — First comes the general ob- 
 jection applied to every new subject that has l)een intro- 
 duced during the past twenty years. It is admitted that 
 t H- duty of the State to train its boys and girls is unassail- 
 able, but It IS argued that, when it goes beyond this and 
 
 
78 
 
 AGRICLLTIUAL EDICATION 
 
 nssunirs to teach tlifin trarh-s and prnfcsMotis, it is p>ing 
 Ix-yoiid its fiiticliiin and is iii\adiiii.' flu- realm of indis idual 
 ri^'litsand res|)<)ii.«,il)ilitie.s. 'I'lie field of State eoiilrol has 
 lieeii eotisideral)ly extended (if late years, and now all mat- 
 ters that eoneern the e(lu(alional, social, husiness, and 
 economic life of the individual are considered to come fairly 
 within its province. However ue may ditler as to the meth- 
 ods hy which the principle is to he applieil. it is now eon- 
 ceded that it is the function of the State to train il.s hoys 
 and ),'irls so that they will heconie I'dicienf social and eco- 
 nomic units. In carrying out this printii)le tlie claims uf 
 agriculture cannot he neglected. 
 
 The oirrrrowdal curriculum. — It is said that the curric- 
 ulum is already overcrowded, and this is fretpienlly urged 
 as a reason why agriculture should not he given a jjlaee. 
 'i'o make room for agriculture it may he necessary to omit 
 nmch useless or less inij)orfant matter from the suhjeets 
 now on the program. In deciding what shall he omitted, 
 u committee of the National Kducation Association sug- 
 gests that the following tests he applied: Has the suhject 
 value as usahle knowledge sufhcient to warrant its reten- 
 tion!' Is there other matter of greater value as usahle 
 knowledge, not now taught, hut which can he taught if 
 suhstituted for that of less value.^ If its value as usahle 
 knowledge is not sufficient to warrant its retention on that 
 !..T()und, has it a value for training which will justify the 
 exi)enditure of the time and effort essential for its mastery? 
 Is tliere other matter with as great value as knowledge, hut 
 with greater value for training, which can he put in its 
 place and for which there is no time unless it can he \m\ in 
 that place? The conunittee l)elieves that there is no justi- 
 fication for the retention of any matter in the ccturse of 
 study, whatever he its knowledge and training value, if its 
 retention |)revetits the introduction of other material hav- 
 ing greater value in holh directions. They further express 
 the helief that the application of these tests would result in 
 
AGKiniTrRK I\ THE HIRAL S( II(M)I. 79 
 
 Mich a reduction of siihjVct-tnattcr. aii.l such an un.l.-r- 
 sfandinK "f thr kiiowU-.l^,. and training' vahu" <.f induslrial 
 Mil.jVcfs. as wonM ^;ivc thctu their proper place in the 
 ( uiirse of .stu<ly without any overcrowding;. 
 
 Immaturit,, nf pupih. — It is arpu-d that th.- pu,,ils arc 
 too younK and inunature to appreciate and understand tlie 
 .Ic.nentary facts of agriculture. Tli.> fact that the pupils 
 are nnniature is the ^'reater reason for usiii^' their environ- 
 ment as an instrument in their education. In the case of 
 rural (hstricts. that environment is larj,'ely a>,'rieultural, 
 and many of the underlyinK F)rinci|.K-s of a^'riciilfure arc 
 c.ipahle of explanation not too dim, lilt for the child to com- 
 i>rehend. Examples arc to he found throuK'hout the conn- 
 try of even kindergarten children taking' j,'reat interest in 
 Mmple gardening. Kven if the facts are not underst.Hxl in 
 I heir entirety, they arou.se curiosity and interest and prc- 
 |)arc the mind for further in^■esti«ation later on. The im- 
 maturity argument can he as well ai)plied to practically 
 ev.-ry subject that aj)|)<>ar in the curnciilum. This argu- 
 iiH-iit is valid only when the subject-matter of the lessons 
 Ki\ en has not ht>en sutJicienf ly considered from the point of 
 view of the age of the child. A lesson on the maple leaf may 
 he given with ecjual benefit to the first-grade |)upil and to 
 flic fifth-grade ,)ui)il. but to attempt to give the .same lesson 
 to both would be folly. 
 
 The employment of women an teachers. — Tht fact that 
 the teachers in the rural schools are mainly women is al.so 
 urged as a reas,m f.)r omitting agnculture. This argument 
 •vould probably Ik- better state.l by saying that the lai k of 
 lra<hers with proper training makes if imp(.vsil)Ie to teach 
 agriculture ctfectively. The argument is not so much 
 against the .sex as against lack of training. But, if this 
 argument is to be admitted, does it not ay)ply with e<|nal 
 < H'ccf to all the subjects taught in the rural school:- Dr. 
 Draper once said: ".Vnd the gods of the (Irecks. mean and 
 sonhd as they were, would lan.iih at the >;t>ort.acle (J ..;-I 
 
 l.l-'l 
 
80 
 
 A(.I{I( ri/riHAI KDI ( ATION 
 
 Iriichcrs fraiiiiim f.irriKTs' hoys old ttioii>,'li in r«'<<'ivr it in 
 flif intricacies of n-al ii^'riciillurc. (M-rnTatioris will come 
 iirni ^;o Inforr llicrc is any snl>statilial rcsiilt to agriculture 
 tlironuli the ^'irls in the no, nial scIkmiIs." ' 
 
 'i'liis aryunicnt il<'|)«-ml> almost entirely on tli«« tncarn"nj? 
 that is read itito the word ■"a^.Ticullure." If it is taken to 
 mean the art of practical fanning;, then aKriculturo cannot 
 Ik- laii^'ht in the eleinei.tary school, nor. iiidee<l. in any 
 other kind o*" school. The Icachal.K- facts of a^'ricullure 
 ar«- many, some simple and easy to understand, and otliers 
 rom|)lex and entirely un.suitecl to elementary .seh<K)l.s. 
 This heinK true, it is sinifdy a (piestion of selection and 
 treatment. If wouhj be extremely al)surd. of course, to 
 arKUe that because mathematics is sucli a hir^*' sul)ject we 
 should not teach any of it in elementary schools; yet Ihi.s 
 is precisely the position tliat many jhtsoiis take with refer- 
 ence to the teaching,' of agriculture. 
 
 At a ("om'erence on Kducation in the South, held at 
 Little Rock, .\rkansas. one of the sjK-akers said: "Some 
 three years a^ro I sent a <iuesliotmaire to twenty or thirty 
 schools in seven states. My replies from teachers of the 
 j,'ra<ies from six io nine, mostly seven and ei^dit. who were 
 teaching VM hoys and ;{!)(> jjirls, showed twenty-two M-hools 
 which foiuid the |)U|)ils interested in the study of agricul- 
 ture. .None of them were uninterested. In eighteen schools 
 the |)arents favored this instruction, in two t)pj>osition was 
 met. These teachers were mostly women. These letters, 
 as well as my own oh.servation. convince me that the 
 woman teacher can teach agriculture succe.ssfully if she 
 will undertake it. She can teach as large a percentage of the 
 teachalde agriculture as .she can of the teachable history or 
 geograi)liy or Knglish. and with more etfeelive results. She 
 taniiot make a farmer of an eighth-grade boy. nor can she 
 make him a general by teaching him of great battles. This 
 
 ' Drii'.T. Aii.lnw S Agrirultur, , mil its Educational Seeds. Now York 
 Stall' Eiiuculiun Department. .-Mbany. 
 
.UiUICrLTlUK IN TFIK HI HAL SCIKKM- 
 
 si 
 
 is not tli«' olijrcf. hut shr ciui tojuli him that wliich will 
 trrid to makr him a In-f tcr farmer, ami hiy a foiiiKlalinii fur 
 lii> owti fiirflicr (h-vclopmrtit. I cdhIcikI lh.it any ffnch.r 
 ulio (Mil Irach history, jjrammar. cir hyKi«'iif w»>ll cati 
 ttach a^'riculturo wril."' 
 
 The liriiilnl titur aidildhlr. — It is i-ontcruicd Ity same 
 lli.it all the availalili' fiiiu- is n-cjiiirrd f«ir tlir '■fiimiainrri- 
 tiils." What are fim<himt'ntal.s? Tlu- (Jay wluii t<lti<ati.>n 
 cuuld l)e cfuifmi'd to reading, writing', and arithtnrtic has 
 inii^; sitHT |)a.ss4'd. If it had not. rv.-n lh«- so-called fimda- 
 iiKtifals could Iw hotter taii^^ht hy iisiiij,' iiKri'iilfure as a 
 iiMMiis of tcachiiif,' them to the coimtry child. It i.s said 
 tliiit the hours arc too short, and that when the <'hild can 
 L'o to school only four or five tnonths in the year there in 
 
 ill lie lime in the fe\s ycj.rs that he has in scl I for the 
 
 "tudy of even necessary suhj^-i-ts; hut whetlu-r agriculture 
 lie taken or not, thes<> cttnditions <-annot Ik* justified. Tlie 
 (|iiestion of time is determined hy the short length of the 
 M hool term permissihlc in many states, the irrefjular at- 
 tendance, and the ahsence and non-enforcement of eoni- 
 pulsory att« iidance laws. All tliese can be remedieu if 
 |)rof)er steps Im.' taken. 
 
 The rtm.iprratism of school officials. — The intrr)duetion of 
 iiLTiculture has been hindered hy the conservatism and in- 
 difr<Tence of school officers more than by any other cause. 
 This is true not only of Icxal officials, but also of state and 
 county oflicials. Some professors of aj,'ricultural colle^^'cs 
 have in the past opjHjsed this movement. They doubted 
 the wisdom or the possibility of teaching ajaieulture in the 
 conmion schools, owin<; to the absence of tcxtb<x)ks or for 
 some other reason. It is always easy to ccmjure up difficul- 
 ties, but it is an incontrovertible fact that, in those states 
 where all theoflBccrs are coiiperating in conducting an cn- 
 eri^'efie campaign along these lines, agriculture, notwith- 
 
 ' <niif.r<n.f for Education in the South. Proceedings ut Thirtiinth 
 Anuual CoiifLTcncc. 
 
82 
 
 AGRICin^TURAL EDUCATION 
 
 standing the difficulties, is actually l>oin« taught with some 
 considerable measure of success; and teachers who feel that 
 they are uni)rei)are(l are taking advantage of the numerous 
 and readily available opportunities now offered them to 
 qualify for this work. 
 
 BENEFITS TO UK DERrVED FROM THE TEArHINO OF \ATURE3 
 STUDY AND AGHICLLTIRE 
 
 Many reasons have been given for teaching agriculture 
 in the elementary schools. The following, adapted from 
 thecouiseof study for the State of Illinois, include the 
 main arguments: — 
 
 1. To cultivate an interest in country life, to instill a 
 res|)oct for the occupation of agriculture, and to create a 
 due regard for the earth and its products. 
 
 2. To create a reganl for industry in general, and an 
 appreciation of the material side of the affairs of a highly 
 civilized people. 
 
 3. To cultivate the active and creative instincts, as dis- 
 tinct from the reflective and receptive that are almost 
 exclusively used in our .schools. 
 
 4. To inculcate courage under failure and moflesty 
 under success, putting to the test early in life the ability to 
 do a definite thing. 
 
 5. To train the pupil in ways and tnethods of ac(iuiring 
 mformation for himself, and incidentally to acquaint him 
 with the manner in which information has been originally 
 acquired and the world's stock of knowledge has been 
 accumulated. 
 
 0. To connect the .sch<M)l with real life, and to make the 
 value and need of school more apparent. 
 
 7. As an avenue of communicaticm between the pupil 
 and the teacher, it being a field in which the pupil will likely 
 have a larger fund of information than the teacher, but in 
 whirh the training of the teacher can help to more exact 
 kmnvledge. 
 
AGRICLT.TURE IN THE RUR.VL SCHOOL 83 
 
 SniOOL AGRICCLTIUE AS A MEAXS OF KEEPING THE BOY 
 O.N THE KAUM 
 
 One of the reasons generally given for teaching agricnl- 
 t'.ire in the elementary school is that it will tend to keep the 
 l.oy on the farm. What right have we to keep the boy on 
 tin- farm? There is no more reason for telling the son of the 
 farmer that he must follow in his father's footstejjs than 
 there is for telling the son of the blacksmith or the carpenter 
 that he must adopt his father's trade. All that we have a 
 right to do is so to train the boy, by the use of the things 
 that lie around him, that he will be able to make an intelli- 
 gent choice uninfluenced by extraneous considerations and 
 ephemeral attractions. It is to be hoped that many city 
 Ixiys will go to the country, and it is certain that many 
 (■(.uiitry boys will still go to the city; therefore the educa- 
 tion in the elementary grades will have to be suited to 
 both classes. 
 
 Perhaps the most vital reason for using agriculture in the 
 education of the country child is that it is in strict accord- 
 ance with that recognized i)rinciple of educational psy- 
 chology which demands that education should be built 
 ii|)on past exi)erience. If this be accepted, the daily experi- 
 ence of the farmyard and the farm home will furnish the 
 groundwork of the teaching in the rural school; it will \ie 
 tlic common stock from which other subjects grow; and the 
 extent to which they grow will be limited only by the age 
 and capacity of the pupil and the interest and enthusiasm 
 of the teacher. 
 
 1 , 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE CONSOLIDATION OF SCIIOOUt 
 
 For much of tlic country the consolidated rural school 
 ofrers the hcst solution of Ih-j problems of agricultural ed- 
 ucation. The (Mmsolidated school affords, also, the basic 
 elements for a complete social and educational reorgani- 
 zation of country life. 
 
 The term "consolidated school" has hardly yet been 
 satisfactorily defined. The grouping of two or three schools 
 might be called consolidation, but the tendency now is to 
 regard the ideal consolidated sdiool as having not less thaa 
 frnir teachers, servii ,; an area of twenty to thirty square 
 miles, unless the pojMilat.oii l,e very dense, and offering 
 faciUties for transporting the pupils to and from school. 
 
 THE INCEITIOX OF THE CO.V.SOLIDATION IDEA 
 
 The first consolidated school in the United States was 
 organized in the State of Massachijsetts. In 18G!), the 
 legislature of that state authorized any town to raise 
 money by taxes in order to provide for the conveyance of 
 pu{)ils to and from school. At first pupils were transj)orted 
 to the high school. Afterwards many district schools in 
 sparsely settled places were closed, and the pupils were 
 conveyed to the school in the nearest town or village. 
 Later, the money so i)rovided was used to convey pupils to 
 the consolidated school. The first actual case of consolida- 
 tion was effected at Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1874.' 
 
 For the first twenty years after the inception of the idea, 
 the growth of the movement was very slow. This was due 
 to many causes, but chiefly to the apathy of school offir ais 
 
 ' CoiisoliiliUion of Rural Schools. L'niled States Bureau of Education. 
 Bulli'liu 30. \'JH. 
 
1 1 
 
 H 
 
 ! I 
 
d . y. ■t' 1 
 
THE CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 
 
 8.J 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 iind the conservatism of the people. It is always difficult 
 to make changes of any kind in rural districts, and changes 
 i'l educational organization are the most difficult of all 
 to bring about. The rural population needs leaders, and 
 Hiose who should have been the leaders had not yi I recog- 
 nized the importance of the movement. 
 
 Another hindrance to the acceptance of consolidation 
 lias been the fact that, under the present state of the law, 
 the people themselves must vote o!i its adoption. The vot- 
 ers in the districts where consolidation is n..>st needed are 
 often loath to change, unprogressive in educational affairs, 
 jealous of 'hose 'iving in other districts, and lacking a proper 
 conception of the importance of the best educational facili- 
 ties. 
 
 " Progress by consent of the voters is a slow and arduous 
 undertaking. Matters involving the fate of nations are 
 often settled more easily than are proposals for the improve- 
 ment of the rural schools." ^ This attitude still exists, but 
 fortunately conditions are being rapidly improved, and the 
 many examples of successful consolidation are changing 
 the attitude of both the school officials and the rural voter. 
 
 THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE CONSOLIDATION MOVEMENT 
 
 In the United States. — There are now more than 15,0()0 
 consolidated schools in the United States. The movement 
 has probably made the greatest progress in the State of 
 Indiana, due largely to the far-sightedness of the educa- 
 tional leaders in that state in securing th. necessary legisla- 
 tion. The management of the schools in Indiana is in the 
 liimds of one man, who is elected by the jK-ople, usually 
 without reference to his political affiliations. He employs 
 teachers, buys supplies, and directs the construction and 
 iinjmnement of buildings. He may legally close any school 
 having an attendance of fifteen or fewer, and nmst abandon 
 
 ' (oiix.li.latf,! Rural Stiiools. L'nitcd States Department of Xgrkul- 
 tun-. ItulU'tm i3i. 
 
 m 
 
8(5 
 
 AGRICULTUR.VL EDICATIOX 
 
 and consolidate all .s<-hools liaviiig an average daily at- 
 teiidatKi- of twelve or fewer. 
 
 Consolidation has led to the organization of the rural 
 high sehool. In i)ractically every state in the Union con- 
 solidation has proved a success, and the question of its 
 general adoption is scarcely any longer deliatable.' 
 
 In Ca inula. — In Canada, the movement has not made 
 great i)rogress. The Province of New Hruiiswick has four 
 consolidated sch(M)Is. In l!)Oi, a ty|K' school was built 
 under the Macdonald Fund. Seven districts were united; 
 1 1 ley were sparsely settled and had only one hundred and 
 thirty pupils. The country was hilly, the people poor, and 
 the distances long. The Macdonald Fund paid the exi)ense 
 l)eyf)nd what it had cost the school sections for their sepa- 
 rate schools. After three years' experience the people con- 
 cluded that they could not hear the cxikmisc of such a 
 school alone, .so arrangements were made to continue the 
 assistance for three years longer. At the end of the fifth 
 year the building was burned, but in sjjite of the additional 
 heavy cost of rebuilding, the people declined to abandon 
 the consolidated .system and voted to rebuild and continue 
 the school. 
 
 Con.solidation WcOs begun in one district in Ontario in 
 19();j, but the career of the school has not been fortunate. 
 The fifteen trustets of the five sections united formed the 
 con.solidated .school board. The sections were to maintain 
 their separate identity and retain their old premises in ca.se 
 they should wish to return to the individual .school .system. 
 The law did not provide for a joint annual meeting, and 
 local differences and jealousies arose from this. After the 
 expiration of the three years assigned for the experiment, 
 three and a half .sections withdrew, not, it is .said, because 
 they did not ai)preciate the value of the school, but because 
 it was unfavorably situated and the cost of transportation 
 
 ' Consolidation of Rural Schools. Unikd Stat-j^ Bureau of Education 
 Bulletin 30. 11)14. 
 
[Si 
 
 . 
 
11 
 
 tup: consolidation of s( hools st 
 
 excessiv<». Some of the fhildrcn had to In- tr;uis|M>rf»'(l 
 across a rity of Ki.OOO |k'oi>I«'. Wlicn llu' vt»to lo il«vi<le 
 the fate of llu- school was lukfii, rvery ral«'|)uyt'r, witli one 
 exception, who had children atteiulin>{ the s<li()ol voted 
 for its continuance at the additional exjx'nse, hut an ad- 
 verse vote was given by those ratepayers who had no 
 children attcndiuf^. 
 
 The school was placed in close proximity to the Ontario 
 Af,Ticultiiral College so that it might Ik- seen l)y the farmers 
 who, in large immhers, annually visit the college. This lo- 
 cation, because it was not the true center of the s<-hool3 
 consolidated, had much to do with the failure of the ex- 
 periment. In .spite of all this the .scIkk)! Ihls proved it.self 
 desiral)le. It is being contimied as a two-M-hool coiLsolida- 
 tion, the pupils from one se<ti(m being brought in on the 
 electric railway. This whole exj)erinient has been un- 
 fortunate, which is nuich to Ix" regretted, since, according 
 to Mr. A. ('. Monahan, of the I'nited States Bureau of 
 Kducution, Canada, owing to its »'xcelleiit system of sujH'r- 
 \ision and government support for .schools, is in a much 
 better position to undcrUike consolidation than is the 
 Ihited States. 
 
 NOTABLE EXAMPLE.S OF CONSOLIDATION 
 
 The John Swanei/ Consolidated School.^ — Probably one 
 of the l)est examples of consolidation is the John Swaney 
 Consolidated School of Putnam County, Illinois. This 
 sch(K)l "is one of the l^est examples of public sentiment, 
 private liberality, and wise organization combined, that 
 is to be found in any con.solidated district in the I'nited 
 Slates." 2 As a concrete example of the purpose and po.s- 
 sibilities of such schools, it will repay careful consideration. 
 
 The school is situated in the open country, mile and a 
 
 ' Industrial Education in Rural Schools. Committee of the National 
 
 Kdun'tion .Vs-sooiation. Prnrerdiniju. 1!K)<). 
 
 - fiirnfy, Muhvi. Country Life und thi- Country School. 
 
8fl 
 
 AGRKTLTrRAI, EDICATIOV 
 
 l.alf fn.m the noarrst villu^'c and ten rnilt-s from a stnall 
 town. The (oniiuniiity |h).sm..>m-.s ..tie „f tht- earlit-st 
 "Kraii-os." and th<> initiation .,f the cainpaiKn which 
 finally led to the i'stahlishment of the s<-h(K)l was due to this 
 or^'unization. The a^'itation for c.n.sonchition l)eKan in the 
 •spruiK' of 190.-,. N<,1 ail the voters ir. the co.nnninitv were 
 mernlMTs ..f the KratiKe; some were foreigners who of^'eeted 
 to any increase in the taxes, and some were al)sent(v land- 
 owners who ohject.'d still more slron^-ly. At first, live dis- 
 tricts were considered as suitahle for eons<>li,lali(.n. I,nt 
 owing to local jealousies it was impossible to decide on a 
 I(K-ation for a scho<,l that would l>e satisfactory to all; and 
 notwithstanding many meetings »o settle the prohlem. the 
 attempt failed. 
 
 The ne.xt attempt considered only three of the five dis- 
 tricts that entered into the first plan. Petitions were circu- 
 lated. On their return it was found that the promoters of 
 the movement had a clear majority of the legal voters of 
 eaeh district concerned. These ,M>titions were then ,,re- 
 sented, as re(,uired by law, to the township trustees, who 
 were enjoined to grant the request of the petitioners. But 
 fooling ran .so high that they refused to do this. The ne.xt 
 step was to carry the petition to the county superintendent, 
 and he, in spite of great pressure to the contrary and at 
 considerable danger to his political pros,K.cts, reversed the 
 decision of the trustees. One year later the building was 
 dedicated. 
 
 This conflict l)etween the districts was exceedingly un- 
 fortunate, as It led to considerable economic waste. The 
 building IS situated near the geographic center of the town- 
 ship, but serves less than one half the population. The area 
 of the district served is only fourtetn and one eighth square 
 miles, and the benefits of the school are too great to be re- 
 stricted to so limited an area. 
 
 The community is not wealthy, but generous donations 
 amountmg to about $i'000 were made. The building was 
 
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 v1 = 
 
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TFIK COXSOMDATIOX Ol' S('H(>f>I,s sf) 
 
 oriirinully plarirml in cost alx.iil Ji<l'2.(HM>. hut with Iho 
 .(juipriual (h.cosf n-mli.d )t(|.-,,(M)0. It i>of l.ri.k (•..n.>lru<- 
 liou uikI tonlains f(.ur k'.hhI Mhcolr.M.m.- two lahnralorKs. 
 a liFirarj', officrs. a luaniial-tramiii^,' r<M)rii. a doiiu'stic 
 wioiuf kit<-lu'ii. a l.a.s<-nH'rit ■ laynn)!!., a fiirnac«'-r.K.tn. 
 (loakrooms, iiul<M)r J.,il»-I.s. aixi a lar^f asMMiil.ly-r.HHii. It 
 has its own watrr systctn and h^htin^' plant. Thr mIi<m)| 
 IS in>h-ht«'(i to .iohti Swancy, otu- of th«' most pro.s|M.rous 
 farmers of the district, for a jjift of twcnty-foiir ■•cr.s of 
 In-anlifully wcKwh-d Ian<l for a campus. In this natural park 
 there arc over .'JOO U-auliful trees, and throuKh it winds a 
 stream. 
 
 A seh(H)l of this tyjH-. which mtvcs a hirjje area. ne<-essi- 
 tat<-s trans|K)rtation. r.nd many were the proph.-ci«-s oi* 
 failure on this ac<-ount. The lii^'hways of the district are 
 comm<m earth roads and fransportalion. it was said, could 
 iK'vei- \m aei.-omplished successfully. The s<h<H)l in actual 
 oiMTation has proved the eonfrar\'. Two wagons sinnially 
 made for the purjiose are used. In winter I hey are (om- 
 forlahly heated The drivinj,' contract amounts to $K) a 
 month for each wa^'on. They have been running since 
 Se[)temher, 19(M}. without interruption. 
 
 One of the features which :n..rks this scIum)! as a leader, 
 even among con.solidated.s<^-hfK.ls. is "Clear Creek Cotf age,"' 
 the home liiat wa.s crcidcd (^^^ the tea«he- . One of the 
 abandoned seh(^>i buildings about forty rods from the new 
 school was in very gcK)d con.htion. It was remodeled into 
 a seven-room eotUige, a housekeei)er emjjloyed. arnl the 
 problem of Jniarding and Icxlging the five teachers solved. 
 The janitor is employed for the entire year and is provide<I 
 with a cottage in another part of the campus. 
 
 The staff consists of a prinei[)al, who is a college gra<hiate 
 and a practical farmer, and four teachers. Agriculture and 
 domestic .science arc taught throughout the course oi study, 
 and are stresse.l in the higher grades. Six acres of land are 
 u.sed by the high sc-hool as an experimental plot, and the 
 
 i?i 
 
90 
 
 AGHKILTIRAL EDL'CATIOX 
 
 fliildrtMi of the lower fjrados have a school fiarden ovory 
 year. SovviiiL;, iiiamial (raining', nature study, uiusic, 
 drauiii^'. and physical traitiiii^' arc also included in the 
 course of study. The hi^di school is approved hy the State 
 I n versity. and a largo percentage of the graduates enter 
 the College of Agriculture. The closest cooperation is 
 maintained with the home:; throughout the community; 
 two leading farmers give instru<-tion in corn-judging, and 
 horses, cattle, and slieej) are frecjucntly brought from the 
 lionu's of the i)ui)ils for class study. 
 
 The s<.-hool also pnys i)arlicular attention to the social 
 activities of the comnmnity. Two literary societies, which 
 include all the pupils, are in o|)cration, meeting twice a 
 month. Two or more good jjlays are given each year. 
 A.lcfiuate attention is i)aid to music and athletics. Con- 
 ferences of i)arents and connnunity gatherings of every 
 description are held in the assemhly hall, and an annual 
 lecture course of the highest grade is given. It is said that 
 "there is no farm i)roI)lem, and no moving to town here." 
 Apart fr(;m the donations of Mr. Swaney, nothing has been 
 done in this district that could not he done in any commu- 
 nity that resolutely sets itself to face the prohlen). Millions 
 of dollars are donated every year for education and other 
 purpo.ses, and here is an opportunity for some philan- 
 thropic i,erson of means to render a .service to the nation 
 which will bring large results. 
 
 T/ic Muif.s Lick .Sc//(«>/.' -The con.solidated school at 
 Mays Lick. Mason County, Kentucky, affords a remark- 
 id)le example in overcoming ditficulties that appeared to be 
 almost insujM'rable. After .several fruitless meetings to 
 choose a site for a high school, the Mays Lick people se- 
 cured the school by agreeing to vote each year for five 
 years a local tax of $1000. Fifty substantial men signed a 
 contract that, if in any year the tax should not be voted. 
 
 1 ( oiiMili,!;!!;,,!! „f Huriil .Sohixils. I'niti'd States Biiroau of Education 
 
THE COXSOLIDATIOX OF S('II(K)LS 
 
 01 
 
 tlicy as individuals would pay the thousand dollars. An 
 oj)lion was secured on ten acres of land, and huildiiij^ plans 
 were drawn and contracts called for. When the contracts 
 were ready to be signed, it was found that there was no 
 money to huild and the law prohihited the creation of a 
 (ji'ht that could not he paid from that year's revenue. To 
 overcome this difficulty the "Mays Lick Improvement 
 Company" was or>,'anized. Fifty shares at siOO each were 
 l>oui,'ht hy members of the community, and S'2(»,0()0 was 
 borrowed. The company agreed to erect on the ten acres 
 already chosen a building according to plans and specifica- 
 tions furnished by the board of education. The board 
 agreed to pay the comi)any a rent of AtH){)l) annually in ad- 
 dition to the $1000 paid by the district, until the com- 
 pany had received all tlie money expended with six per 
 cent interest, on condition that the proj)crty should then 
 be deeded to the county. 
 
 The complete building cost about $;}-2,0(M), and seven 
 districts were consolidated. An injunction was taken out to 
 prevent the taxes from being usetl to pay for the transpor- 
 tation of pupils, and a s|K"cial act of the legislature was 
 necessary to legalize contracts entered into on this account. 
 In addition to the money raised by taxes, much was se- 
 cured by private subscription and community effort — ^and 
 Mays Lick is not a wealthy district, as may l)e indicated 
 by the fact that fifty-six {K>r cent of the children live in 
 rented homes. The groands were sodded by the boys and 
 the farmers of the district, a job that would have cost ^-i^O 
 if done by contract. All things considered, the exiM^ience 
 of this district affords one of the l>est examples of hard 
 work which resulted in the development of a proper com- 
 munity spirit, and which was crowiied with complete 
 success. 
 
 These two examples are the practical evidence of what 
 • an he accomplished in consolidation when purpose, 
 intelligence, and initiative combine. 
 
 l 
 
 
 \u 
 
 J 
 
92 
 
 ACRICrLTlRAL EDK'ATION 
 
 THE KXPKNSE AM) THE KKKICIENCY OF THE 
 CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL 
 
 One of the earliest arguments in favor of consolidation 
 was its greater economy as compared with the old district 
 system. However, in the gross amount of money expended, 
 consolidation as a rule costs more, and this fact should he 
 sciuarely faced. It has been jjroved beyond contradiction, 
 lunvever, that the cost per pupil per month at the small 
 sc.ool before con.soIidation was greater than the corre- 
 sjxinding cost after the consolidation. That method which 
 is the most successful in getting the largest number of 
 children into a good school for the greatest number of days 
 is in the last analysis the cheapest. 
 
 The farmer should not be told that consolidation costs 
 less, but that he is getting better value for the money he is 
 spending. lie must be taught to apply to his expenditure 
 for education the principles he applies when he is purchas- 
 ing a binder, a j)low, or any other piece of farm machinery'. 
 If by the expenditure of a few tlollars extra he can get a 
 nmch better article, it is economy as a rule to purchase the 
 article costing the larger sum. 
 
 It is also argued that tl consolidated school is more 
 eflicient in securing educational results. The argument is 
 perfectly true from the educationist's jwint of view, but it 
 is very doubtful if it is true from the standjioint of the 
 average farmer Usually the only way the farmer judges 
 efficiency is by visible results, and in education this some- 
 tunes means to him results as showTi by examination. In 
 1911, John Franklin Bobbit, of the University of Chicago, 
 made a statistical study of the relative efficiency of the 
 consolidated and the one-room ungraded school. From the 
 office of the Superintendent of Schools for Delaware 
 County, Indiana, he secured attendance statistics from six 
 graded consolidated schools with four t<» eight teachers, 
 and from thirty-four one-teacher rural schools taken at 
 
THE CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 
 
 03 
 
 niiidoni throughout the county and having an aggregate 
 attendance about ecjual to that of (he six consolidated 
 schools. AM the figures were reduced to the hasis of one 
 hundred ai; forty (hiys jwr year. Tlie average nuniher of 
 days attended hy tlie pupils in the consohchited schools was 
 111.1, and in the ungraded schools 107.1. In the consoii- 
 dated scliools the jjupiis attended 79.4 per cent of the time. 
 
 It was found that in the first five grades the attendance 
 was not appreciably different in the two classes of school.s, 
 but beyond these grades the attendance was from eight to 
 twelve per cent better in the consolidated that in the un- 
 graded school. No figures were available to show that the 
 consolidated school held a greater proportion of its pupiL-J 
 during the seventh and eight yt-ars, but it is altwg«'ther 
 likely that this is the case. If (he consolidated .school can 
 secure a larger number of pupils during the seventh and 
 eighth years, when serious education for livelihood may 
 be l)egun, then the establishment of consolidated schools 
 is fully justified. In addition to this, a better course is 
 provided for the high school, which can continue the voca- 
 tional training. 
 
 On the .scholarship side, the records of the superintend- 
 ent's office contained the results of the final examination 
 given at the close of the elenientarj'-school course. The 
 questions and grading were uniform for the whole county, 
 so that the results may be fairly compared. If any pui)il 
 had failed in arithmetic, the remaining papers of that 
 pupil were not ex.- mined, so that complete results could 
 l)e obtained for that subject only. The consolidated 
 .school {)upils averaged 77.7 per cent, the ungraded pupils 
 70.7 per cent. In the consolidated schools, 61 pupils wrote 
 on the examination and 73.8 per cent pa.s.sed. In the un- 
 graded schools, 71 per cent of the pupils took the examina- 
 tion and 73.2 per cent passed. If education consists in the 
 ability to pass examinations, then the education given in 
 the consolidated school does not, according to the above 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 , ^^^ 
 
 ...- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 
94 
 
 AG RIC ULT LRAL EDUCATION' 
 
 fipuros, appear to ho ai)pro(ial)ly l)cttcr than that given in 
 the un^'raded school. 
 
 This iiH'thod of measuring: eciiicutional results, l> iT, 
 
 leaves tntircly out of eousideralion a nuinlKT of ■ iilial 
 factors which arc the basic roasons for consolidation. Thc^e 
 are factors wliich caiuiot he shown l)y percenta^'cs. The 
 efl'ective teachinj^ of agriculture l»y a man, and of domestic 
 science by a woman, the greater number of pupils usually 
 retained through the .seventh and eight grades, the larger 
 number directed to the high school, in which definite voca- 
 tional training in agriculture .^nd domestic science may be 
 given, the improved health conditions due to Ix'tter san- 
 itati(m, are all within the possil)ilities of a well-organized 
 consolidated school, and some of these factors cannot be 
 fully measured in percentages. 
 
 It is i)ossil)le in the con.solidated school to give much 
 greater attention to the economic aspects of the subjects of 
 instruction than can Ix^ done in the ungraded school. The 
 State Suj)erintendent of Schools of Virginia .says: "Unless 
 the consolidated school tends to make the economic life of 
 the community profitable, while it is raising the moral and 
 intellectual life, it is failing to fulfil one of its chief mi.ssions. 
 Country life must be made economically jjrofitable, else 
 the country districts will be depopulated. It is as much the 
 «luty of the education department of the state as it is of the 
 agricultural department of the .state, to help to make it so; 
 and the consolidated school is the best center from which 
 to accomplish this vital work. But to make country life 
 economically profitable, and yet to permit it to remain so- 
 cially unattractive, will not stop the moven'.ent from the 
 country to the city." 
 
 SOME OF THE DIFFirrLTIE:^ IN THE W.\Y 
 Thr rnndition of tlir rnadi. — Consolidation involves the 
 transportation of pupils, and one of the main objections is 
 that the condition of the roads often renders transports- 
 
*n 
 
 ! . t! 
 
 t 
 
 :; , 
 
 i't4 
 
THE CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS or, 
 
 tion difKcult. if not in.ix.ssihlo. While frans,M.rtalion is 
 inack' easier by px.d roads, it does not deiH-.id on flie.n. 
 Even in .Massachusetts, where j^'ood roads ahoiiii.l, a Iar«e 
 nuniJ)er of < liildren are hauled lo eotisolidaf.'d schools <!aily 
 over mud roads. In Indiana prohahly one third of (hehaui- 
 in-,' is over dirt roads. In norfheaslern Oiiio, -.vhen- c.,n- 
 ■soiidation is cjinnion. nearly all the roads are dirt n.ads. 
 In northwestern Ohio, where there are excvllent inacadain 
 roads, con.solidation has made little {jrogress. In Kentucky, 
 which ha.s ten thousand miles of .solid uiacadauiized roads' 
 con.solidation has not been extensively ach.pted. All the 
 above facts tend to prove that the roads or n.ad conditions 
 netHl play only a minor part in the consideration of tlie 
 (|uestion, and that they need form no greater :)arrier to 
 consolidation than they do to social intercourse and the 
 liauliiii,' of farm jjroduce. 
 
 The grcntrr n>,i »f cnr,snli,l(U}im. — The second ol)jection 
 generally urged is that consolidation will cost more. So it 
 should: a better article is being delivered, and the jMv.ple 
 must be educated to the point where they are willing to 
 nay more for the education of their children, not only'^for 
 the good of the children but for the good of the State. 
 Closely allied to this objection is the feeling held by .some 
 that the abandonment of the one-r(M)in scIkk)! will'dcpre- 
 ciate the property in one district to increase the value of 
 f;irms in the district where the con.solidated .school is situ- 
 ;it<-d. This is not borne out by the facts. Consolidatioii of 
 schools means the con.solidation of neigh*- >rhoods. What 
 before consolidation were two or three .separate neigh- 
 borhoods become one strong, organized communitv, and 
 the value of every farm within the con.solidated .listrict 
 becomes enhanced. Reports from the state su,,erintend. 
 ents of education in Kan.sas. Nebraska, California, Iowa, 
 and \ermont, all state that no depreciation has taken 
 place, but. on the contrary-, that consoli.Iation has added 
 to the value of the farms in .some localities. 
 
 -1 
 
90 
 
 A(iHI(l I/nUAL KDICATION 
 
 Many other objections have been raised, hut there is not 
 one tlial has been put forth !)y the o[)i)onenfs of the niove- 
 nH'iil t! .it cannot l)e satisfactorily answeretl from the ex- 
 perience of (hstricts where conso|i<laf ion has been in suc- 
 cessful o|)cration for many years. 
 
 HOW SHALL CONSOLIDATION UK ACfOMPLISnED 
 
 This chai)ter may he ( losed hy considering the steps that 
 may he taken to hring al)oiil consohdation in a given dis- 
 trict. .\ campaign is generally ne<'essary in order to induce 
 the people to adopt the plan. First, the general school situ- 
 ation in the county should he studied. I'nless this he done, 
 .several very un«lesiral>le things are likely to hapi)en: a few 
 isolated one-room schools may Ix' left too far from the 
 central school; s<hnols may he |)l.iccd in districts where the 
 I)oi»ulation is cliangejilile, necessitating a change later to a 
 more favorable hxation; and more consolidated scliools 
 are likely to he organized than are actually re<|uired. This 
 latter lariger should he more carefully guarded against 
 than in the case of the district school, as a consolidated 
 school unwisely IcKiited may easily encroach upon the field 
 t)f neighboring school.s and thereby Ijecoriie a source of 
 permanent irritation and annoyance. 
 
 The data to be obtained in the study of the county situ- 
 ation consist of information regarding the location and 
 value of each school and its e(iuii)ment, the distances the 
 .schools are apart, the number of teachers employed to- 
 gether with their salaries and qualifications, so as to obtain 
 .some indication of the educational conditions of the com- 
 nuinity; the location of the farm h»)nies, the condition of 
 the roads, topograpliical features, such as streams, hills, 
 etc.. the number of j)apils. their ages and scholastic attain- 
 ments, the population depending upon each school, and 
 the distance at present traveled by each pupil to reach the 
 nearest school. 
 
 The dat;i should be indicated on a maj) of the county. 
 
THE CONSOLIDATION OF S(II(KM„S 
 
 !>7 
 
 with ull proposod consolidations, the su^KcstnJ wapm 
 roiitos, and the i)roI)ahl»' nuinlKT of pupils to rarh s<liool. 
 Such a map will give a <lcar and comprehensive view of the 
 school situation as a whole. The compilation of the data 
 does not mean that a widespread aj^itat ion for consoliilatioti 
 throughout the whole county should Ik* begun at once. 
 Tliis would be .i most unwise priH-iH-ding and would proh- 
 al)ly lead to failure. There are many communities that 
 would strenuously ojjpose such u movement; there are 
 many others with an open mind toward consolidation. In 
 many localities the subject is not underst<K)d. In some 
 places the opposition is stronger than in others, and thi.s 
 opI)ositi(»n may be best overcome by an actual examination 
 of a school of the new type. 
 
 The adoption of consolidation depends not only upon the 
 way the jx'ople regard it. but als<» ufjon the ftflings that 
 exist between the coiiununiticvs that are to f)e parties to the 
 consolidation. .\ community in which the I)est educational 
 conditions already prevail should be chosen for the initial 
 experiment. The agitation .should not lie sprung upon the 
 people suddenly, nor should they be given the idea that 
 consolidation is to be forced u})on them. A small committee 
 consisting of the teachers of the .sch(K)ls to Im? con.solidated 
 might first be formed. The early di.scussions should be for 
 the purpose of giving information and not for argimient. 
 This information can be given by visiting in the homes 
 and by describing some good .scIkmiIs to the children. 
 
 This quiet campai^" >f instruction may l)e followed by a 
 series of educational meetings at the .schoolhou.se and the 
 church, and discussions through the newspapers. The 
 normal school, the church, the high school, and the agri- 
 cultural college should all lie called upon for aid. The 
 chief point to be aimed at is the creation of a desire for co- 
 operation, and a broader, closer relationship between the 
 different communities; and if this can be accomplished, 
 many of the difficulties will vanish. 
 
 
AGRICTLTl UAL EDITATION 
 
 Hy this time the district may l«" ready for a really a;.';,'ri's- 
 sivc cairii)ai>.'!i. It is an cxcclliiit plan to have at this sta^c 
 a lecture illustrated l)y lantern slides, pictures, charts, etc.. 
 given ]>y Sdnie person who has nia<le a lhorou),'h study of 
 consr)Iidation. One of the j;overnnieril dejiartnients will 
 generally provide this. Meetings of the |>eople should 1)C 
 held in every schoolhouse, and combined meetings of all 
 the se<'tion.s should l>e held later. .\t these meetings the 
 methods proi)osed for j'doption and the advantages to l)C 
 gained should he laid clearly before the people, ((uestions 
 being invited and the fullest discus.sion encouraged. 
 
 If the district has any wealthy farmers, it might be jmis- 
 sible to induce them to follow the exatiiple .so well set by 
 Mr. Swaney. The whole agitation should be kept up unt'l 
 the iK'<)ple are thoroughly aroused, and the vote should 
 be taken when the interest fs thoroughly established. In 
 view of the .splendid possibilities for the efficient teaching 
 of agriculture and the general r<>organi/,ation of country 
 life, which the con.solidatcd scIk»o1 provides, any efforts that 
 may cause the peo})le to adopt consolidation will Ik' amply 
 repaid in the securing of a richer country life and a more 
 decided vcK-ational ellicieucy among the dwellers iu the 
 open country. 
 
f IIAITKR VII 
 
 %i\ 
 
 RIUAL SCHOOL EXTKN.SIOX 
 
 T:iK work that wc have „„tli,u-d tlms far will rarrv tl..- 
 P-.pil to the end ,.f tlu- fourt.ri.thyoar s., far as i,>str,utio,. 
 in s<luK,l Ks cncrrm-d. TIuto arc rmvv two ether factors 
 of Kr^-at importance to be considered: first, the part the 
 toacher can j.hiy in directing the activities of the hov out- 
 side of the school, particularly during the last two vt'ars of 
 his .s<h.H,l hfe, when he is iHrominj; of ,so,„e definite use- to 
 li.s father on the farm; second, what can Ik; done for the 
 trrc.t number ..f boys and ^'irls who leave school at four- 
 teen years of a^e or younj^er. 
 
 It is difficult for city people, and even for many in the 
 country, to realize the change that has come over the coun- 
 try .s<.|hki1. Generally they think of the ol<l-time country 
 school with an attendance of thirty to seventy pupils, 
 many of them over eighteen years of age. Large classes 
 NNvre the rule and they were generally taught bv a man 
 strong morally, intellectually, and often phvsically. Hut 
 the actual condition of things to-day is ver>' different from 
 tins. 
 
 SCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME I'UOJECTS 
 
 In many states it is now becoming the practice to give 
 (redit in school for certified work done at home Such 
 liome work as the teacher is «,ualified to supervise should 
 receive her attention. Suitable home projects are corn- 
 f^rowing. potato-growing, poultry-raising, simple garden- 
 ing, and home reading. There is no teacher, however p<K)rly 
 (juahfied, who cannot fit herself in a short time to give in- 
 struction and direction in some form of useful hoine work. 
 1 he influence of the school luust reach the iilace where the 
 
 II 
 
 i;,; I 
 
luo A(.|{I( I I.T! I{.\L r.DlC ATICJN 
 
 triiiniti;,' is to l;ik" mof, atnl tlmt i-. tli«" lioim- ami tlic fartii. 
 Til many rural |)(ii|ilc tin- xlioul i-. tuo far away in spirit to 
 In- of very irrc.it <'oiiccrii; Imt wlnti it cinruvs info ai'tiial 
 loiicli witli tlir liDiiif tliry r«'L;a!-il it from a iliffrrciil staml- 
 |)Mirit. What may Itr doiic uill (|< |itii(l >.om<uliat upon the 
 <juahlications of the teacher, hut tlic nerds of the com- 
 munity in which she works should l>e th»' deciding; factor. 
 As soon as slie has made herself a<(|uainted with .som«' ttf 
 these needs, slie should strivi' to (pialify herself to assist in 
 the work re(|uired. It will not In- lalior lo> , even if she 
 moves from the district the next year. No country scIkm)! 
 .should he allowed to limit its activities to the school and its 
 grounds. 
 
 FORMS or i(ii{\i. sciiooi, i:\ti:nsio\ skuvki; 
 
 The forms which rural mIiooI extension work has taken 
 may l)e smnmari/cd as follows: — 
 
 1. ("lulisof various kinds for hoys and ^'irls: corn-j^"ow- 
 ing, polalo-j^Towing, caniiin^^, hread-niakinj^, garment- 
 making', etc. 
 
 "i. School fairs for the exhihition of products made or 
 raised hy the cliildren. 
 
 3. The formation of youJig |H'opl»**s institutes, in order 
 to provide profilahle instruction for jHTsons too young to 
 join the regular farmers' and women's institutes. 
 
 1. Short courses, continuing for periods varying from 
 one week to two or three months, at the nearest high school. 
 
 5. Rural evening schools for continued education, and 
 also to provide opportunity for those whose early educa- 
 tion has heen neglected. 
 
 hoys' and OIRLs' AGRICrLTVRAL CLrBS 
 
 The agricultural eluhs arc associations of hoys and girls 
 who enter into a compt'tition to determine who can grow 
 the most and the hest of a specified |)roduct on a certain 
 area of ground, under definite rules which all agree to ac- 
 
IMHAL SdKKH. i:\TF,\SI()\ 
 
 101 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 rept. A corn-f^nviiif; cliil) would thus dral with roni and 
 a <ut»(.ii-^rrowirit,' . lul. vsjil, ,ulluii. 'Ih,- .oiil 's fnr ^'irln 
 liavr fr<'(|iifiilly (•.•ntcrnl ahoiif l.r<a<l-iiiakinK', jx.iilfry- 
 raiMii^'. sewing, or flosv.T-Kn.wiri^'. Kv.ntiially IIu-m- cIuLs, 
 uhich arc now vviilcspmuj, uill pn.l.ahly Uv inci.rporah-d 
 info some more prrnianrnf form of cliicafional or^'aniza- 
 lion; liiit they an- performing,' a useful fun<fion as at pn-s- 
 <iif coristitufrd and tliry Mvin to Im- an important link in 
 the evolution of a more e(Iiei«-nt system. The einl.s arc 
 \h-\uh ch.M'Iy alllliated with the work of th<' s<-||(m.Is an<l are 
 I.e^'imiiiiK to be regarded an a definite |.art of thee.hiea- 
 tional system. 
 
 Club work- in the I'nilal States. — T\u> first state-wide 
 elul) movement l.e>.'an alx.ut lH!)8in the State of New York, 
 and was a natural outgrowth of the natur<'-study h-aflets 
 issued l)y the College of Agricullun' of Cornell Iniversity. 
 Owing to the popular interest now In-ing display.d in 
 agricultural education, the recent growth of this movement 
 lias heen rapid. The first clul.s organized in the I'nited 
 States were corn cluhs, followed hy tomato, cotton, and 
 potato ciuhs. and cluhs for raising pigs and [Kiultry. 
 
 The contest cluhs have not only s<'cured the interest of 
 the hoys and girls, hut they have al.so gained the a<-tive co- 
 operation of the i)arents. husiness men. and |)rogressive 
 people of the comnumity. The organization generally fakes 
 the county as a unit, and is planned through the county 
 su[)erinten(lent of schools. The teachers explain the plan 
 and obtain names of pupils wishing to join. S*^^] is fur- 
 nished the first year, and the contestant selects his own for 
 the second year. The boys of the entire county are usually 
 assemble*! in some central place for instruction and direc- 
 tion. Each Ixjy agrees to raise one acre of corn in accord- 
 ance with directions furnished. The I'liited States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture provides circulars of instruction in 
 reganl to seed selection and prei)aration. fertilization, and 
 cultivation of the soil. A special blank form is also {..ro- 
 
 f 
 
lOi 
 
 AGRICULTUR.VL EDUCATION 
 
 vided, w'lich, when filled in, gives a complete record of the 
 work, in( hiding tlic cost and the value of the croj). 
 
 The results tliat have been achieved are almost beyond 
 belief. In 1911, three boys made better records in corn- 
 production than had ever been made before. One boy 
 produced isJl^j bushels on one acre, at a cost of 8.6 cents 
 per bushel; another, 'i-Z7\ bushels, at a cost of 14 cents a 
 l)ushcl; and another 'i\■i^ bushels, at a cost of 14. i2 cents 
 per bushel. Four other boys produced from !210 to 2'25 
 bushels on their acres, at a cost of 20 to 35 cents per bushel.' 
 
 In 1912, in the State of Alabama, 137 boys produced 
 more than 100 bushels per acre. Twenty of them made 
 an average of 165.11 bushels. Valuing corn at $1.00 per 
 bushel, and deducting all expenses, these boys made a 
 total profit of $2716.89; the average profit was $135.84, 
 and the average cost per bushel wsis 17 cents. In one 
 county in Mississippi, the boys' corn club had 300 mem- 
 bers, the average yield per acre was 70 bushels, while the 
 average for the state was only 14.5 bushels per acre. In 
 South Carolina, one boy raised 152 i bushels on a measured 
 acre, while the state average was less than 16 bushels per 
 acrc.^ 
 
 Club contests in Canada. — In Carleton County, On- 
 tario, a potato-growing contest was inaugurated in 1912, 
 open to boys twelve to eighteen years of age, who lived on 
 farms not less than fifty acres in extent. Thirty-five boys 
 entered, and twenty-two carried out the work in all its 
 details. The plot to be o[>erated was one tenth of an acre. 
 The accompanying illustrations are facsimiles of the re- 
 ports sent in by the winner of the first prize. Similar re- 
 ports were required from each contestant. The average 
 yield of the first six prize-winners was 388 bushels per acre. 
 
 • ("ommissionor of Education. Report. 1912, vol. 1. United States 
 Bureau of Kduiiilion. 
 
 2 .Miiljuniii's Country Schoob. Bulletin 33, Department of Education. 
 Montgomery, .Xlubama. 
 
'I 
 
 '11 
 
 ill 
 
 :ll! 
 
 f-'i 
 
 m 
 
RXPtNSES IN CONNECTION WITH PLOT 
 
 ll(*nt of Iiiml fal rate of :g;i-00 jut arro) ... 
 
 CoBt of lubour (.i) For LorM-H (at»I(>< per haur ca*!)) - 
 (h) Kur ( orupHtitor (;it lfV\ p-r hour) 
 ((■) For other iisKi-,t;in( c (;it 'iCK-. pt-r hour) 
 
 Cost of iiuinurt- lii( §1 <Mt p.-r tun) 
 
 Cost of (.■oriinit-ruHl fertili/.tT^ ..... 
 
 Cortt of Sfcd ... 
 
 CoHt of spriiyiii^ inati'inl ..... 
 
 T..t.il cost 
 
 KECHIMTS 
 
 Total Viiliic of s.iliiblr |>otatin's on pi'it iit t<<k- [ >r bur^hrl 
 V.iluo of unwililhlf tiilMTH ;it Uk JXT hlishel 
 T..t;il v.h..- 
 
 srATLMtM OF pwonr ano loss. 
 
 Total V.ilm- '.f . n.p ^l-. ;lt)n\«- . - - 
 
 Tot.il rosi of pmmIii. Itoti 
 N.t proht 
 Net (Ohl of proJuf lll^^ one tju-.|icl n'0 pmiTMi-.) 
 Net profit [HT acre from the ciitirpt m' 
 
 " JO* 
 
 /. av 
 So 
 
 ^/ 
 
 2_ S'cl. 
 
 *3r fo^ 
 ^39 OS'' 
 
 I liiri'liy iiTlify l] at tin inforiiiution hiibmitliil in this K. |j.irt Fuirn is ri)rrc(.t un<l 
 that I h.i\r i.omlin ti'il tin- w.irl< :u f imliiif^ til tile >I><'» ifii-ti rtil'3 "f Id'' Coiii|HHitiuii to 
 the U".t of i'i> »hiht> —V o^—v 
 
 t^ /^r .rom|«lil4»r I 
 
 thin »i 7. lUy nl I 
 
 1)1^ ' 
 
 -W*' 
 
FIELD NOTES ON POTATO PLOT 1914 
 
 4i-9ty 
 
 (i^^^y^^^^yl. Z?l<>^T.-n.h,r '^/i^*^<U<3^iAy 
 
 TVM. 
 
 Paul 
 
 A«*oa Mfty iJtb. lilt 
 
 Nun* of pftraot i^^iBi 
 
 PnM offlca •ddrMft. 
 
 VwiMy of puMtoM plUMd (1 
 
 Wb«ra wu Mart obutBMl * 
 
 Itld yoorpknooonMof giartJT I 10 icr**' ■'''^4^' 
 
 Hoofrow. X Di««K*.p»,f>frv». Jc?^t*' Nv pi.oU or bwl/.n «. h ro— ^ ^^ 
 
 CbAracMr of tub hiii .^-'^^"Ctr- ^'X^rO^-W- 
 
 W'hMcrop »U|(ro*o on itiia l4Bd .o 1911 ^"^ -5/2^-Wi. <I^^^ 
 I>«taor|oio| oa lud UnAtpnn,; <lJI«t ~^/, Ct^ /--^ 
 How »•■ II colt.T.trj h«-f.,r* (-lADl'Dil ' -^/l^j^LU^i 
 
 ".r 
 
 .Q^ 
 
 
 *«^ -C^i^L-CCCC. 
 
 CuBdtllltl of l4,ld ftt (lUi« uf plU)[,D^ 
 
 
 Iliad 01 oiumMrl"'! -<^'*^^^^ --^>-<^<i^ _^^it 
 
 D.dyooo«u, roiiiiu.,ti»l frriil Mr., iQj,r«,.r..i k,od.iiJh-,. mu.-l.' , * Z^T 
 
 ■^ * »»1*-M<«,tt.- 
 
 
 Dtu or plAatiB^ plul 
 
 Lirt you uM wbol* or cjI p-jUt 
 
 JUol poUlora nprc i.»^. t.uw »w.o i.ft«r cuitmt; ■•■" uir) u*d 
 
 U,J yoo .|,imlil< J, ma „, 1,0.1 |,Ja.trr 00 il>. wa .B.. , jiiin, 
 
 IMJ vou Iraki Ibr tubara w,ir, foroialiB tu i.ratjuil acab 
 
 How (iMp wart IM aa(a pianiaO 
 
 How w»aniaotiL^ Jooe ■ h> f, .ij I by ii-a. •> u. id r .rr. -^r .lr.,|.|,,i iq b 
 
 Nottbarnf |»>,iB.|. j'laoLJ (/3 / ^»iX- v-Avt*v^l^-^ 
 
 Did a:t r.r .ciaMrow and if -J ni' a l,--! run ^lauJ ■ ^^^'i. 
 
 I'aiaaur diBBrroi ' -. •, . .. *^ 
 
 TulAl BUUibf 
 
 Did yoo caiirTaic afu-r rath baa 
 I>al««o(*i>rayiaii r>" luit" 
 
 
 a to i.ra»»oi afab> /) ^'ift^^^ 
 
 , .I.- .. .,. ,. r ..^ ,„ ,,i^,„, ,. bo,., d,., ~.^^ryc£^^JUuiC-...^ /jU^ 
 
 i.ol...„r.,.,,..ai,d /.4<y Z^Y ^Uf-''^if<^^'''''^'''^y'^ '<^^' 
 
 DMnof aprftyia,; wir 
 
 )'jrvl««uK Uiiturp 
 
 ^2<>" >^iM,^A*v^ y^f^'^^,^^^^./^ ,.^4^4^ 
 
 Lid :u«n«*«r berume bfcJiy fkUb t,y bugi ■ j^£^' 
 
 W«i«iop%6«»»«do-ib«dly br«.mi«' Jc*,«< a2^*^ ^^Hr^-^-*^ c€4-4^4^>^ 
 
 C'o^UiUoo of topt U lUt* or JiMiDtl 
 
 -<ME^X^<-**^.^Cc/V-' 
 
 •'/' 
 
 Dkta of di|{«isc 
 
 t>.d yoa wlwt uy •p^.lly jood till, to »,- . m»1 pi.* Mii yw mj ,| ^,. t,.„ „,,^ 
 
 WMUd you l>k« to Oa aom* .pw:,*, mux\ ».ni pot»u«« a^ua Mit ,cu ' 
 
 AftOVl «bKt would te Um ««rrs^e ) i«|J , 
 
 •CaioJ. 
 
 i"tftt(i«« i*r wre ii 
 
 44^1 
 
 Co, 
 
 r Jiauiciitiia ^ear 
 
 Cc^*-J^J if Aje;*«t.. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 I ■; 
 
 i 
 
 
RUiLVL SCHOOL EXTENSION 
 
 103 
 
 that of the first thirteen was 343 bushels per arre, and that 
 of all competitors was i85 bushels jht acre, while the 
 average for the whole province was only 134 bushels iter 
 acre. 
 
 The results obtained in Canada through the Macdonald 
 movement are interesting from an economic point of view. 
 The improvement was due entirely to seed-selection by 
 boys and girls. Selection was carried on for three years and 
 resulted in increasing the yield of spring wheat by 18 {)er 
 cent in the number of grains per hundred heads and by 28 
 per cent in the weight of grains per hundred heads. Equal 
 improvements were also shown in the case of oats, during 
 a three-years course of seed-selection. 
 
 The educational results of this movement have l)een as 
 great as the economic returns. The boys have learned to 
 observe more closely not only their own particular crop and 
 all tL ''.53 affecting it, but also corresponding features of 
 other crops. They have learned how to keep simple ac- 
 counts and how to describe the work they have done, and 
 they have developed a certain power of initiative. The 
 social instinct and the ability to work with others have 
 been strengthened, and a basis has been laid for that future 
 cooi>eration which must be adopted if farming is to reach 
 its highest success as a business. 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 11 
 
 I: 
 
 SCHOOL FAIRS 
 
 Another form of extension work that needs to be con- 
 sidered is the holding of school fairs. This movement has 
 grown naturally out of the club work, and is really another 
 form of club work, as the contest idea is at the root of lx)th. 
 These rural school fairs are capable of rendering great as- 
 sistance to the work of the rural schools both directly and 
 indirectly, in arousing public interest which is so necessary 
 to the welfare of scliools. 
 
 School fairs in Ontario. — School fairs have I een largely 
 developed in the I*rovince of Ontario. During the year 
 
 if 
 
104 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 1913, seventy fairs were held in different parts of the prov- 
 ince. There was an average of 350 exhibits at each fair, 
 which gives a total of 24,500 exhibits. While at some of the 
 fairs one pupil made several exhibits, it can easily be seen 
 that this secured the active interest of at least 15,000 chil- 
 dren. Then, too, there were present at cadi of these fairs 
 from 500 to 1500 persons, with an average perhaps of 700, 
 wliich gives an approximate aggregate of 49,000 persons 
 interested. In view of the fact that the school fair had l)een 
 adof)ted only the previous year as a branch of the general 
 work of the Provincial Department of Agriculture, the 
 progress is rather remarkable. Many i)ersons who have 
 betni present at these fairs, and are in a position to estimate 
 their value, have pronounced them one of the most prac- 
 tical means yet evolved for interesting the boys and girls 
 in agricultural affairs. 
 
 The first step in organizing a rural school fair in any dis- 
 trict is the establishment of a rural-school-fair association, 
 with regular officers, just as for adult assm-iations. In this 
 way the boys and girls are given some of the honor and re- 
 sponsibility, and at the same time have opportunity for the 
 development of executive ability. The district representa- 
 tive of the Department of Agriculture, after organizing the 
 association and getting a numlwr of schools interested, dis- 
 tributes pure seeds of various grains and vegetables, and 
 eggs from pure-bred strains of poultry. These are taken 
 care of by the children during the year, and from the re- 
 sults obtained the exhibits are made. The prize money is 
 contributed by local i)eople, municipal councils, schofil 
 Ix^ards, and other public bodies. 
 
 The fair held in the Blenheim Continuation School was 
 participated in by twenty-four rural schools. This was 
 made possible by the coiiperation of the public school in- 
 spector, the district representative, and twenty-four rural 
 school-teachers. The exhibits, apart from curios, were the 
 products provided by the children, and consisted of fowls, 
 
RUR\L SCHOOL EXTEXSIOX 105 
 
 fhickens, geese, ducks, and turkeys, and a wide assortment 
 of agricultural produce. The work of tlie girls consisted in 
 cooking, sewing, and butter-making. During the after- 
 noons, contests of various kinds were held. Seventy-five 
 boys entered a com-judgmg contest, fifty boys and girls 
 entered a seed-identification contest, and thirty girls en- 
 tered a sewing contest. The attendance was about 2000, 
 and thf. actual exhibits were over 2000. filling the eight 
 rooms of the continuation school in addition to the grounds, 
 which were devoted to poultry of many kinds. 
 
 The district representative in the County of Durham 
 has mapped his county into a series of school-fair districts, 
 embracing from five to nine school sections each. At one of 
 the fairs in this county, 204 bred-to-lay pullets were ex- 
 hibited by children to whom eggs had been allotted by the 
 Agricultural College. At the same fair a large tent, sixty by 
 eighty feet, was filled with produce of field anfl garden, the 
 poultrj' lK>ing .shown outside. In organizing and conduct- 
 ing the exhibits in this county, the children were given 
 much training in the business side of fair organization; not 
 all the stress was placed on production. The summer-long 
 management of affairs prior to the great day of the fair was 
 perhaps of greater benefit to those engaged in it than the 
 school fair itself. 
 
 Method of organization and management. — Let us take 
 one of the districts into which the county is divided, con- 
 taining nine school sections. Each schf)ol elected three 
 meml>ers to represent it in negotiations to follow. The 
 pupil .securing the highest numlier of votes in each school 
 was termed "director." The.se primary elections pro- 
 vided each rural school with three representatives. The 
 directors from all the schools in the district formed a town- 
 shij) body, known as the Board of Directors, and this body 
 of nine members was responsible for all matters concerning 
 the fair. Boys and girls alike were rcpresenteti. no distinc- 
 tion being made. The board had work to do, not all of 
 
 PI 
 
 in 
 
 it 
 
 IF 
 
 ■ ft 
 
 'Mi 
 
Iflfi 
 
 AGRICULTIRAL EDICATION 
 
 wliicli was child's play. A prize list was drawn up, and the 
 money had to l>e |)r<)vided. The youthful hoard inter- 
 viewed the township council, the trustee hoanls of the nine 
 schools, and the provincial and federal Memhers of Parlia- 
 ment, and secured donations from all. The hoard met six 
 times durinj^ the summer for the transaction of husiiiess. 
 Minutes were k<'i)t, and every entry was |)receded hy a 
 resolution, moved and seconded aecordinf; to jmiper form. 
 The secretary had many letters to write, and he used jjood 
 note-i)aper hearing' the heading?, "South Hoik- Rural S<hooI 
 Fair Association." Entry tickets were |)rinted, and hooks 
 were kept as carefully as those of the larj,'e state and county 
 fairs. 
 
 The sehool-tair idea in Ontario was ori>j;inated by two of 
 the county representatives of the Department of .Vjn'ieul- 
 ture, and nmch of the succe.s.s at present achieved is due to 
 these officers, .\fter living on the },'round for two years, 
 they knew the actual condition of the country districts, and 
 they believed that in this effort they had found the best 
 method of dealinj^ with the ajxrieultural problem so far as it 
 relates to the children in the elementary .school. The active 
 cooperation of all the teachers is .secured, and the interest 
 excited in the neij,'liborlhM)d is inten.sc. The .school fairs are 
 the subject of thought and attention in the farm homes for 
 miles around. The days on which the fairs are held bring 
 the people from outlying districts together, and thus a de- 
 sirable .st)cial feeling is developed. The parents are best 
 reached through their children, and for this reason the 
 movement is bound to react favorably on the elementary 
 schools. 
 
 In the organization of these fairs one great danger nnist 
 be guarded against: they must be kept strictly educational, 
 and no side shows or other questionable attractions must 
 be allowed to creep in. The condition of many county fairs 
 at present in all parts of America shows that this warning 
 is not unnecessary. 
 
RlTtAL SCHOOL EXTENSION 
 
 107 
 
 in 
 
 YOUNG people's INSTITITES 
 
 Farmers' institutes were established for the adult farmer, 
 and they are meeting the expectations to a consideral)le 
 degree. It is now evident that something must he done for 
 the large number of l)oys and girls who leave s<'hool at the 
 age of fourteen, who do not attend a high school, and who 
 are too young to join the ordinary farmers' institute. In 
 order, therefore, that oi)j)ortunify to IxKotne acquainted 
 with agricultural operations may be given to such young 
 persons, from whose ranks the future farmers and farmers' 
 wives must be drawn, there have been organized in several 
 states "Farmers' Institutes for Young People." Owing to 
 the fact that the majority of the boys and girls of the class 
 under discussion are engaged, in whole or in part, in earn- 
 ing their own livelihood, it has been found necessary to 
 omit much of what has been looked upon as strictly educa- 
 tional, and to devote attention to direct vocational instruc- 
 tion. The primary object is the building up of a better agri- 
 culture by training young |)eople in the Ijest methods of 
 increasing crops, restoring worn-out soils, and disposing of 
 tlie products of the farm in a profitable way. The real aim 
 is to teach both how to make money in agriculture and 
 how to spend this money wisely. The instruction should 
 become the connecting link between the class in agriculture 
 and the contests in the elementary school, on the one hand, 
 and a reformed farmers' institute on the other. Institutes 
 of this kind should l)e looked upon as a step in the evolu- 
 tion of a system of agricultural education that will secure 
 tlie effective training, to at least the age of eighteen years, 
 of tiiose who voluntarily choose the occupations of agricul- 
 ture and home-making as their life work. 
 
 This need of education along agricultural lines for young 
 persons from fourteen to eighteen years of age is not yet 
 fully appreciated. But any one who has ol)served the interest 
 aroused by the clubs must have come to the conclusion that 
 
 » 
 
 M 
 
 I? 
 
108 
 
 AGRICrLTlRAL EDIC ATION 
 
 the yoiinp pvo]Av of the countrj' are now rv.uiy to receive 
 more formal and ilefiiiite ■mstniction in uKricnltnre and 
 home economics, if means are provided that are adapted to 
 their ajje, attainments, and re(inirements. 
 
 The vocational training of the country youth has not 
 HH-eived the attention that has l)een jiiven to they<inth in 
 the towns who is lookinj' toward u mechanical jiursuit. The 
 proi)osal to comiK'l the employer of lahor to allow young 
 pco|)lc from the factory to attend mIum»1 for a certain 
 numher of hours each week has heen made many times; 
 but, so far as is known, no public man has had the temerity 
 to propose that the farmer should be compelled to allow 
 his young employee to do tic same thing. This will Im? done 
 some day, however, when c are prejjared to give up sonic 
 of the boasted independen'-e of denuKracy. 
 
 It is essential that these young peo|)le's institutes should 
 be under the direction of some comiK-tent authority. Tak- 
 ing all things intf) consideration, probably the In-st head to 
 the organization would f)e the county superintendent of 
 education. This official would be able to work through the 
 clementarj' teachers, and would be most closely in touch 
 witli the boys and girls leaving school. Success will more 
 likely be achieved if there is no gap between the boy's 
 leaving .schof»l and the joining of such an association. The 
 teachers know the pupils, and they should lay the ad- 
 vantages of such an association before them. An advisory 
 committee might well l)e formed, consisting of the county 
 superintendent, the lecturer of the county grange, the 
 president of the farmers' institute, and the teacher of 
 the school. After the organization is completed, the offi- 
 cial in charge should act in an advisory capacity. lie 
 should neither dictate nor control, but should always \w 
 accessible for the purpose of giving encouragement, ad- 
 vice, and assistance. One of the advantages to be ob- 
 tained through such bodies is practice in the management 
 and control of public affairs, and this cannot be secured 
 
m lUL SCHOOL EXTENSION 
 
 Id!) 
 
 iinlt'ss Uh' niana^'finviit is in the hands of the monilHTs 
 
 IIUMUSI'IVOS. 
 
 Ohjvvtii i>f inntitiitr^ f,,r uniinij people. — Tlio ohjet'ts of 
 thosi" iiistitutrs luj-y Ik- oiiuriifrati'd as follows: — 
 
 1. To ti'ivv practiral ktiowK-dyc of tho In-st a^'ricultiiral 
 nu-thods, s|H'(ial altriitioii In-iiiK Kivon to thf ly|M's of 
 a>,'ri(iillurc prcvalci t in the district. 
 
 5i. To |)n'|)art'('xliil)itsfor annual rontrstsor exhiliitions, 
 showing the practical application of the teaching,' j^'ivcn at 
 the meetings of the institute. 
 
 .'J. To acc|uire training by the preparation of a(l<ires.se3 
 on country-life subjects, in order to give sufHcienl prac- 
 tice in this respect, not more than one or two outside 
 speakers should he allowed at any meeting. The main 
 part of all programs should lie com|M»sed of hnal taU-nt, 
 the boys and girls themselves being recpiired to give the 
 results v)f their readings and observations on assigned sub- 
 jects. 
 
 4. To gain a knowledge of the most economical methods 
 of doing business. This, of course, will necessitate the 
 study of a proj^'r system of b<H)kkeeping, to which little 
 attention has yet been given by the farmer. 
 
 5. To acquire a knowledge of parliamentary usage and 
 practice in conducting public business. 
 
 0. To instill into the minds of the boys the part they 
 have to play in the making of a home, and to show them 
 why a comfortable home is essential to the success of agri- 
 culture; that the farm home should Ik- su{)plied with all 
 modern conveniences and ai)i)liances, as the farm needs to 
 be sui)plied with up-to-date machinery. 
 
 7. To indicate the sources of agricultural literature, and 
 to direct attention to the most authoritative information 
 on all forms of agricultural enteri^rise. Every institute 
 shouhl have its library, consisting of b«K)ks and periodicals, 
 properly classified and arranged for circulation and refer- 
 ence. 
 
no 
 
 ACiUICrLTrilAL EDICATION 
 
 Offirrr.i and their (liilica. — Inslilulcs for younR p<-(.plc 
 sliuiild Im- maii.i^'cd by the ollicrrs onlinarily «lr(U'<l to 
 control orjiaiii/ationn. Tin- coiislitiitioii should s|H'«ify 
 the ofliccrs rtviuirrd and tlir dutit's of viwh. Tin' con- 
 stifnlion of an Indiana l)oys" clul) provides for tlit- follow- 
 ing' oHi<»'rs: j)rf,sidfnl, vi(«--|)rt>idrnt, rf<<irdiiij,' s«'<Ti'tary. 
 corn-spondinj,' .st-cntary, tn-asunT. (rilic, and d(M)rkfcptT. 
 'l"lu> dutifs of till- (irsl four of llu-so aro such us usually |ht- 
 lain to tlu'se offices. The critic is snt>poscd tcuall attention 
 to mistakes in lanjjua^e, and to l(K.k up disjjutcd points 
 in jrrainniar, choice of words, pronunciation, and parlia- 
 mentary usa^je. The doorkeei)er is exiK^cted to see that the 
 place of meeting is ke|)t comfortahle, tidy, and proi>erly 
 heated and ventilated, and to lo(»k aftj-r the comfort of the 
 memhers and any inviU .! ,'uesls. To these officers a lihra- 
 rian might l)e added. 
 
 Iftiiix' cncampnicntn. — In some cases, farmers' Institutes 
 or colleges of agriculture have cstahlished l)oys' encamp- 
 ments. These continue for one or two weeks, and the mem- 
 bers live and study together during the periotl. Ix-ctures, 
 demonstrations, judging contests, and other means of in- 
 sliiKlion form part of the work; and at the close of the 
 jK-riod, i)rizes are awardeil for wiimers in stcnk, grain, and 
 other judging conte.st.s. and for proficiency in agricultural 
 suhjectii. as determined by a final examination on the work 
 done during the encampment. One «)f the most interesting 
 of these encampments is that known as the "Grout Farm 
 Encampment." It is held annually on Mr. Grout's farm, 
 for all of the hoys of Scott County. Illinois, who care to 
 attend. I>o<lging is provided in large tents, and meals and 
 instruction are furnished free. The camp continues for a 
 week, and is attended every year by fifty to a hundred 
 hoys. 
 
 Separate iustitutes for girl.s. — So far the institutes that 
 have l)een formed have been composed very largely of 
 b.)v.-,, although many of them have a strong list of girl 
 
lU'IlAL S( II(X)L EXTENSION !1I 
 
 mcrnhrrs. For n time at Irast. the jiini..r inslitiiirs will 
 pn.l.alily Ih« iitiion tmrtiiij,'s, with siH-t-ial srssions fur r.uh 
 M-x. as re<miml. Whih. joint iruvtiiiKs will always Im- nec- 
 essary and dfsirahlo. the time will pn.bably come, if it i<« 
 not alrea<ly here, when separate institutes fc.r Imys and for 
 Hirls will have to Ik- formed. It is essenti.d lliat the knowl- 
 edge of the girl Ik? extended in many dire( lions [k-* iiliar to 
 her work and nmls. riiy.sical and moral welfare are at 
 the l.asi.sofa liappy life, and in maintaining them the 
 woman has u very large part. Tiu- purjxKses of institutes 
 
 for girls may be stat«'d as follows: — 
 
 1. To inculcate an ajjpreciation of the ne<-e.ssity for a 
 
 sound minri in a healthy Ixnly. 
 
 i. To leach the laws of health and sanifaticm as apfdied 
 
 to the person and to the home. 
 
 S. To teach the comjMjsition of foods and the Jm'sI 
 
 methods of comhining and preparing them in order to 
 
 meet the requirements of the lK>dy and to insure its highest 
 
 efhcieney. 
 
 i. To teach the principles of house-planning and archi- 
 tecture, with siR'oiul attention to the kitchen as u working 
 lal (oratory. 
 
 5. To encourage the intro«luction of modern lahor-.s^iv- 
 ing appliances into the home in order that time may he 
 .saved for social enjoyment and i)ersonal culture. 
 
 (i. To teach the fundamental jirineiples of honie-mirsing 
 and what to do in emergency cases until a tloclor can fie 
 secured. 
 
 7. To point out the princ-ii)Ies to Ix? followed in the 
 proper care and rearing of children. 
 
 8. In general, the instruction of the girl in all things that 
 relate to the management of the household, to the end that 
 health may be preserved and the comfort of the home 
 assured, without such an expenditure of time and strength 
 as prohibits participation in art, music, reading, and so- 
 cial enjoyment. 
 
 id 
 
ri 
 
 112 
 
 AGRICULTLKAL EDUCATION 
 
 Teachers of in.sfiiutrs for young people. — In conducting 
 institutes for boys and girls of tlic adolescent age, the great- 
 est care needs to be exercised in the choice of teachers The 
 word "teachers" is use<l instead of "lecturers," as the 
 methods of the teacher should be employed. The old-time 
 faruiers' iiislitule lecturer will not do for this work. First 
 of all, the teacher nmst be thoroughly acnjuainted with the 
 subject on which he is to speak; })ut beyond tliis, he must 
 know how to teach and how to present his subject in the 
 most attractive manner. No statement should be made to 
 boys and girls that is not capable of pr(X)f, and whenever 
 possible the principles should be demonstrated by exi)eri- 
 ment. Theniimnerof the teacher must be .such as will in- 
 spire the confidence of the young folks and encourage them 
 to ask (juestions and to take part in the institute. 
 
 If this movement be properly organized and conducted, 
 it has great |)ossibilities in the vcK-ational education of that 
 part of the rural population which at present receives no 
 instruction beyond that given in the elementary school. It 
 is quite probable that greater good will \^c accomplished 
 by teaching agriculture and the larger ideals of country life 
 to these yt)ung [)eople than in teaching the same things to 
 adult men and svoraen, the greater part of whose work 
 lies in the past. 
 
 SIltIRT COURSES IN AGRirTLTUBE 
 
 Another method of instruction that has been adopted 
 with some success is that of short intensive courses at the 
 high school or agricultural college. The proper develoj)- 
 mcnt of regular courses in agricultural high schtK)ls will 
 probably take care of the needs of all the boys and girls 
 who are able to continue their formal education beyond 
 the elementary school. The practice followed in some 
 high schools, of holding courses lasting from two to six 
 months and allowing the remainder of th<> year to be 
 sj)ent on the farm, v ill make it possible for many more 
 
Rl'ML SCHOOL EXTENSION 113 
 
 to attend than if the courses were continued for ten or 
 twelve nionth-s. 
 
 But when the agricultural high schools have done their 
 iK'st to encourage attendance at their regular courses, 
 there still will l>c a large majority of the rural population 
 tiiat will not be reached. For these, the short courses al)ove 
 referred to may be successfully offered. They should Ik? 
 held at a time when the boy is least rcfjuired on the farm 
 and the girl in the home. A great deal can be accomplished 
 in the course of three months devoted to a special subject, 
 where the course is organized in such a way as to cut out nil 
 extraneous matter and the instruction is concentrated on 
 fundamentals. 
 
 ■S i 
 
 RT'R.\L EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The only form of continued education that is open to a 
 large ninnl)er of boys and girls who are compelled by eco- 
 nomic necessity to work throughout the day, is some type 
 of evening school. It may l)e admitted that education in 
 evening schools s .serious defects, but in tlie jjresent state 
 of society it is nece3.sary and renders a service tliat is per- 
 formed by no other agency, i lie large numl)er of illiterates 
 existing in country districts is due in part to failure to es- 
 tablish and enforce compulsorj- education. The fact that 
 illiterates, by the exercise of the franchise, have as great a 
 power in the State as those who are educated, is a serious 
 menace to good government. In some close constituencies, 
 the illiterate voters control the situation. The dead weight 
 of illiteracy, wherever found, must \>e removed from agri- 
 culture if it is ever to rise to the dignity of other industries. 
 
 Two purposes are served by evening schools: they pro- 
 vide for the continuance of the elementary education of 
 children and of adults who have left the day school at u 
 early age, and they furnish industrial or vocational tr ,t- 
 ing calculated to make effective workers. As a matter 
 of fact, these two purposes are one, for unless the first is 
 
 It 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 AGRICULTITIAL EDUCATION 
 
 satisfactorily perfunnt'tl it is useless to hope to accomplish 
 the second. 
 
 For the first-mentioned puri)ose a night school is needed 
 in nearly every village; for if it is desirable for the day school 
 to be near the homes of the children, it is even more so for 
 the school for boys and girls who attend after their day's 
 work is over. In the older countries of the world, farmers 
 as a rule live in villages, and not on isolated homesteads as 
 on the North American continent. 
 
 There is a lesson in tht-sc matters for Canada and the United 
 States. The policy of village settlci>ients rallier liian isolate! 
 hi)n»estea<ls is well worth (•()nsi<krati()n and rwommendation fur 
 the unseltltMl districts; ami even where surveys liave heen maiie, 
 t!ie ((uestion nee<t not he Umked upon a.s finally settle*!. Con- 
 tent<<l women. R<)o<l ehances for the education of tlie cliildren, 
 and a reasonal>ly richly developed social life, are in the long run 
 of immensely more consctiuence than conveniences for growing 
 crops. The place of the latter is to minister to the former. ^Vhat 
 shall it profit a country to he callfl the "granary of the empire," 
 if it loses the soul of happy rural life.' 
 
 The elementary education given in the evening schools 
 should be similar, to some extent, to that given in the day 
 school, and rural environment should be its keynote. 
 
 The Monnliijht schooh. — Within r(>cent years a serious 
 attempt has been made to deal with rural illiteracy. In 
 Rowan, a mountainous and former feud county of the 
 State of Kentucky, once famous only for "the raising of 
 rackets and Christmas trees," night schools were adopted 
 as a rural institution in 1911. An account of this move- 
 ment is given in a recent bulletin of the United States 
 Bureau of Education,'^ from which the foUowing particulars 
 are taken. 
 
 The enterprise was due to Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, 
 
 ' Report nf ihr Royal rnmmission on Tndnstrial and Terhniral Kdu- 
 cation. Oft.iwa. 
 
 ' Illiterary in the United States, and an Experiment for its Elimination. 
 U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. iO. 1913. 
 
m 
 
 ^ i'^^ 
 
 "i 
 
 ■J 
 
 i- 
 
 1 
 
 
 . 
 
 >J 
 
:|i| 
 
 RURAL SCHOOL EXTENSION 
 
 115 
 
 superintendent of schools in the county. After a careful 
 study of the situation, siie (h'cided t(» open the |)uhhc 
 sc-h(K)ls of the county on moonlight nights as schools for 
 adults. As there was no money available, she called for 
 volunteers and her appeal was responded to hy all the 
 teachers in the county. On Labor day, September 4. the 
 teachers visited all the homes in the county, cxi)laim-d the 
 I)Ian, and announced the ojKMiinj,' of the scIukjIs on the next 
 evening. To the great surprise of everyone concerned, 
 more than HOO men and women from eighteen to eii^lify- 
 six years of age were enrolled the first evening. The atf end- 
 mce was drawn from all classes, and about one third of the 
 »opulation of the county was enrolled. 
 
 In referring to the difficulties of attend? nee, Mrs. Stew- 
 art says : — 
 
 They had all the excuses which any ignorant and lahorinj? 
 pe()i)Ie might offer, — high hills, hridgck-ss streams, niggi-cl roa.is, 
 wearim-ss from the day's hard toil, the sliaiiu- of beginning stu<ly 
 late m life, and all the others, — hut they w<Te not seeking ex- 
 cuses. They were sincerely and earnestly seeking knowledge. 
 Their interest, their zeal, and their enthusiasm were wonderful to 
 witness. It was truly an insi)iring sight to see the.sc aged pupils 
 heiKfing over the desks which their children and grandeliildreii 
 ha<l cHcupie<l during the day. Their delight in learning, and their 
 tlelight in their achievements, exceede<l any joy that I have ever 
 witnessed. 
 
 The forty-five schools had an average enrollment of al- 
 most thirty pupils, with an average attendance of a^)out 
 the same. The studies taken up were reading, wTiting, 
 arithmetic, and spelling. Brief <lrills were given in essen- 
 tial facts relating to language, history, geogrjiphy, civics, 
 sanitation, agriculture, and horticulture. The text used 
 for reading was the "Rowan County School Messenger," 
 edited by the county superintendent and distributed free. 
 It was given a strong local cast and dealt entirely with 
 problems relating to rural life. The results h.ive shown 
 that a few weeks of attendance have been sufficient to en- 
 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
116 AGRICrLTlRVL EDITATION 
 
 al)le the adult puiul "to pass over the dark line of illiteracy 
 and to Hi'[ into tlu" class of literates." 
 
 During' the xcoud t.rm. U'M) pupils were enrolled. Of 
 thesi>. :5()(> were unahle to read aiui write at all; ;5()0 more 
 were those who had altcMided duriiif,' the previous session; 
 and lOOO were men and women of mea^^Te education. The 
 schools were conducted two hours each evening on four 
 evenings diiring the week, and the teachers were, as a rule, 
 the regular day-school teac-hers. Before the oi)ening of the 
 sec-ond session a moonlight-school-teachers* institute was 
 held, and through this the movement spread to eight or 
 ten otlier counties. 
 
 One of the most important results of the schools has 
 l)(<en the iidluenc-e whic-h they have exerted in bringing 
 the iH'ople to a sympathetic attitude toward education 
 in general. A school trustee thus descriljes the effect the 
 schools have had in his connnunity: — 
 
 I liavo lived in tliis district for fifty-five years, and T never 
 saw any mkIi iiitcnst as wv have lure now. The scIuh)! used to 
 jn>t ilni^ aliiim. ami iioixxlv Mrinftl iiilorcslfd. We never ha<l a 
 f;at!i<Tiii«at tlu'schonl.aad iiol.i.dy tlioiight of visiting the school. 
 AVc had iiifilil school only three weeks, when we got togetlier 
 right. We |>ai>ered tlie house. i>nt in new windows, purehase<l 
 new stove-i)ii)e, and eontrihuted niont'V an<l hou^iit the winter's 
 fuel. Now we have a live Sunday sciiool. jtrayer meeting cjnce 
 each w(H-k. and preaching twiee a month. People of all denomina- 
 tions in the district mivt and worshii> together, aged people come 
 regularly, and even peoi>le from the ailjoining county are hegin- 
 ning to come to our little red scIukiI hou.se. 
 
 What sluill he faiicjiif iti crenhuj schools. — Jn tlie ojK'n 
 count ly and in scattered di>tricts it may iu)l Ik- jtossiltle to 
 (lcvch)i» evening schools for strictly vocational ])un)oses; 
 l)ut there are nuiny villages and small towns .situated in the 
 mid>t of agricultural districts, where they are an urgent 
 nece^>ity. In such schools, suhjects that are vital to agri- 
 culture shouhl he taught, and elementar>- suhjcnts such as 
 reading, writing, and siK-lling, will have only an incidental 
 
lURAL SCHOOL EXTEXSIOX 
 
 117 
 
 J 
 
 |)liic('. Consolidatfd s<-1i<m)Is have a fiiiictioii to jM-rfurm 
 Ikto which has not yrt entorc<i into thoir calnilations. 
 IVniii tlie stafs of thfso schools and in th»^ surroiindiiiK 
 vilhi^cs it shouhi not he ditficuit t(. find teachers of wood- 
 work, domestic science, poullrj-kcepin^, hind-uicasnrc- 
 nicnt, and general a;rricultural subjects. As the aim would 
 he to produce effective workers, tlie courses shoiihl he 
 systematized and should continue for a i)eriod of at least 
 three years. 
 
 In rural evening schools it is not generally i)ossi])le to 
 provide elementarj- and advanced education at the same 
 time. The idea of an elementarj' course one year and an 
 advanced course the following year is als<j inii)racticahle. 
 The curriculum must l)e such that the puj)!! can enter in 
 any year. I'nd-r these circumstances, what has heen called 
 the "cyclic" princij)le must l)e adopted. For exam[)le, a 
 three-years' course in practical arithmetic might he ar- 
 ranged, in which the second-year work is not more difficult 
 tlian the first, or the tliird than the second, a different 
 hranch of the sul.ject Itelng taken each year, so that the 
 pupil can hegiii the course with etpial advantage in any 
 year, and end it the third year after. In otlier suhjects, 
 also, there is no difficulty in arranging cyclic tliree-year 
 courses. 
 
 In .such subjects as gardening, wofxlwork, needlework, 
 and domestic science, where elementary and advanced 
 pupils can work together, there is no reason why the classes 
 should not he graded. In arranging the work for any jiar- 
 ticular school it is necessary to know what practical sub- 
 jects are needed in the district, and then to coordinate 
 with these the fundamental sul>jects which embody the 
 principles underlying the practice; then there should be 
 added such general and recreative subjects as will widen 
 the outlook of the pupil and augment the intellectual value 
 of the whole curriculum. 
 The following is an example of a course that might be 
 
 > I] 
 
118 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 arran«o«l for ii school meeting twice a week during the win- 
 ter for two hours each eveiiiTif^: on one ev«'nin(j arithmetic 
 and drawing niij^ht he tau^^lit; on the other, wocniwork and 
 choral music. On four of Uie evenings <iurinR the winter 
 tlie reguhir work might be interrupted hy a course on seed- 
 judging and testing, given by the agricultural teacher from 
 the nearest high s<h(K)l. When the evenings are light 
 enough, the indoor work might give ])lace to land-measure- 
 ment and surveying out-of-doors, or to practical gardening. 
 A second winter the fundamental subjects taught might be 
 arithmetic, rural science, secondary subjects, rural handi- 
 craft, and literature. 
 
 Where it is not advisable for girls to attend in the even- 
 ings, it might be possible to hold a household-science class 
 for them in the afternoon, in v.hich case hou.sehold arith- 
 metic- should be included as ])art of the regular curricu'um. 
 Their regular work might l)e interrupted by a cours<' of four 
 lesscms on poult ry-kcH'i)ing, or a course of dairying by a 
 jH'rii)atetic teacher. The agricultural colleges and .schools 
 can perform a great service here by jjroviding the necessary 
 instructors. 
 
 Much progress has l)een made in agricultural education 
 and many organizations exist to further it. Until within 
 recent years, the efforts have l)een concerned largely with 
 the agricultural college. Later came the develojimeiit of 
 the agricultural courses in the high .schools and the s])ecial 
 agricultural .schools, and more recently the movement for 
 the teaching of agricidture in the elementary school. These 
 provisions, however, leave out of consideration the boy and 
 the girl who leave the district school at fourteen years of 
 age or younger, and who will dis- tmtinue study entirely 
 uiilc-is special j)rovision is nuide for their pecuUar nee<ls. 
 Tlie-ic ])crsons should receive assistance through some 
 sucii means as above outlined, until pul)lit o])inion is ri])e 
 for comi)uIsory education up to the age of eighteen years. 
 
 ■i^ii^sast. 
 
fi- ,•!'>.:, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE 
 
 It is now universally admitted that no scheme of educa- 
 tion is complete without an efficient system of hi^h schools 
 in which the e<lucation l>e^'un in the primary sch(H)Is may 
 he continued. If this Ik? true of the ordinarj' academic 
 work, it is even more so of agricultural education. .\ few 
 years ago the rural high scIkm)I was simply a city high 
 school set down in the countrj', and it .struggled to realize 
 educational ideals that had little in common with rural life. 
 It was long thought that special education for the farmer 
 was unnecessary. Owing to changed conditions, however, 
 to the gradual adoption of more scientific methods of farm- 
 ing, the necessity for increasing jjroduction to keep pace 
 with an ever-growing jjopulation, and the competition to 
 which the farmer is subjected, its necessity is becoming 
 more clearly seen. 
 
 Many opponents of high-school education are willing to 
 admit that higher education may make the Ixjy a l)etter 
 man, but they contend that it will not in any way enable 
 him to farm more profitably. Nevertheless, higher educa- 
 tion has a direct monetary value when a])plied to industry, 
 including agriculture. This is shown by investigations of 
 the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell 
 L'niversity. 
 
 MONETARY VALIK OF EDUCATION IN AGRICCLTTTRE ' 
 
 The investigations were conducted in certain town- 
 
 shijjs in the State of New York. The labor incomes of all 
 
 the faruuTs in the selected lowii^iijjs were secured, the 
 
 labor income being the amount each farmer received f. ir 
 
 ' National Education Association. Annual Procceditig.i, IIMO. 
 
 N 
 
■w 
 
 I'.'O 
 
 AGRin LTIRAL EDICATION 
 
 his lahor after mct'linj? all rxjH-iisi's, iiulinliiij; five |)or cent 
 interest on Ills investment. Hy suhtraetiii^ the business ex- 
 IH'MsesfnMU the reeeijits, and liy niakin;^«(>rre«tions forany 
 (■l!an;;es in inventurj'. what is called the farm income was 
 si'ciired. As the farmer is an employer as well as an em- 
 jdoyee, he ns<'s a certain amount t>f capital; and in order 
 to sec what the farm really made, five \)er cent interest on 
 tills capital was deducttnl. In these investigations, if more 
 than one memlKT of the family worked, the value of this 
 additional unpaid lahor was deducted. The amount the 
 farmer ma<Ie, as a result of his own labor, was thus obtained. 
 The principal pun)<>se of the Inves ■ ition was to study 
 the effects of methods of farming, cajiital, area, equipment, 
 and other factors, on profits. In securing data for this 
 pur])ose, the farmer was asked to state the highest school 
 he had attended. A comi)ilation of the results in four town- 
 ships shows that 04*2 attended district schools only, iiti 
 attended high s<'hcK)ls, and 14 attended colleges or univer- 
 .sities. Figures on which it was possible to obtain the labor 
 income were obtained from 57'.^ of these men. The .'5!)8 who 
 had attended district schools only made an average labor 
 income of $iilS; 165 who had attendetl high .school made 
 $()'i'i; and 10 who had attended a college or university 
 made an average lalK)r income of $8 17. 
 
 The alxive figures are not final, as it is quite possible that 
 
 the high-s<hool men had better farming opp<irtunities. In 
 
 order to eliminate this ix)ssil)ilily, the farms were arranged 
 
 in eijual capital groups and the results appear as follows: — 
 
 ... . . Arerage labor ineome of 
 
 Capital ""^ 
 
 -rai 
 •Uh 
 
 dintrici nchixJ < 
 
 I) jiirmfra 
 ducal ion 
 
 farmem ii-ith more than 
 iliMrict school education 
 
 $i(KK) unci iindiT 
 
 
 $1H7 
 
 
 
 |«86 
 
 $JiMU t(.$KMH» 
 
 
 $til 
 
 
 
 %ns 
 
 $KK11 t.)$(!(MK) 
 
 
 $.S9S 
 
 
 
 $466 
 
 $ti(K)l to $K000 
 
 
 $3U5 
 
 
 
 $709 
 
 $S(H)1 to $10,000 
 
 
 $618 
 
 
 
 $,-!>« 
 
 $10,0(11 f<. $15,000 
 
 
 $5!U 
 
 
 
 $l(Wl 
 
 ()vt'r$I5,U00 
 
 
 $1054 
 
 
 
 $lli70 
 
SECONDARY EDITATIOX IN AC.Rirci.TrUE 121 
 
 It w "I thus lw> s(«fii that ill ovrr> • 7011 p of fiiriii> [In- uu-ii 
 Willi Ih;' In-ttcr rducaliuri swn- al.lt' to us*- llu-ir <;t|.ital 
 more dhcifiiliy, Tiu- li-unvs s!i.,« that fli<- lu.-ri «lu. at- 
 tondc'd hi^li sc-hool made 11 lalxjr iiicotiu> of !*;{(it a year 
 f,'roatcr than those who attcrid«-d distrirf ^hool mmIv. A 
 hii,'h-s<-hool I'diicatiori, to tlicso riifii. i> thus prov«>d to I.0 
 Worth more than an endowment of i^lUmi in live per cetit 
 bonds. It may l)e arj,'ued Uiat the men who attended hi_'h 
 .seh(3ol had more native ability and iiitejiii^'crirc to st.irt 
 with than those who atf'^nded t' • distn. t school only; but 
 the investigators declare that iiese dilForeiKjes are not 
 f^reat. 
 
 The hij^h schools which the majority of these men al- 
 tendiNJ were the usual ; ulemic institutions. If the educa- 
 tion there given could ^» -nprove their earning .aparity, it 
 seems quite fair to assume that had tli<'ir education Imhti 
 along agricultMral lines the results would have Ikh-mi still 
 greater. 
 
 TUB TYPH OK HIGH SCHOOL To HR DmKI,f)PKI) 
 
 Admitting, then, that se<(.tidarj' e«lueafion in agricul- 
 ture is necessary, the qu .stion now is, what form shall it 
 take. Tliis subject has given rise to much di.scussi<m. One 
 side contends that the present high schools can be full^ 
 adapted for the purpose required, and that it is neither 
 nwessary nor desirable to establish si)ecial schools. The 
 other side argues, just as strongly, that the work can never 
 ]k' .satisfactorily done in the present tj-pe of high .school, 
 and the special agricultural schools arc needed for this 
 pur{)ose. 
 
 ADVAXTAGIS OF KXI.STI.NO HIGH SCHOOL-S 
 
 The advocates of the existing high .s<-1uk)Is contend that 
 the wiser course would l)e to correlate agricultural instruc- 
 tion with the work that is now l>eing done, and make it aa 
 integral part of the educational system now in vogue. If 
 
 
Hi 
 
 AdUicn/rruAL edication 
 
 tliis can hr <lon«\ then- is saved all I hat is Iwsl iti the «.1<1 
 and advaiila-f lakni of what is (i(>iral)lc in the lu-w. 
 
 'Ih.' aru'miuMits a;;aiii-«l ih.- ^iHM-ial agricultural sch(K)l 
 ap|M'ar to \n' as f(»llo\v.>; 
 
 1. It has taken <eiitiirie>- toestat.lish the s(h<K)ls wo now 
 ha\e. With a lillle rea<ljust ineiil th«y will he al.h' lodo the 
 work re(|uired for a^;riellltu^e. To «'stal)li.sh new mIiooIs 
 anil refuse to utilize tiie old. would he to throw away the 
 experienee that has hecn gained and eause a needless waste 
 of |)ulili<- funds. 
 
 )i. Sei)arate s( IkkiIs will never ho s<i j^ootl. No soIuh)! de- 
 signed to niinister to u single class of jH>ople and to a single 
 indiistrj' will 1k' so well e(|uii)j)od in the fundamental arts 
 und s«ien«es as one designed to minister hroadly to a va- 
 riety of interests. What it gains in simi)li<ity and oflieieney 
 in doing one thing is more than offset hy the loss in hreadth 
 and variety of training and in the satisfaction of the di- 
 versify of needs. 
 
 a. Separate schools will tend strongly to jK-asantize the 
 farnuT. To sei)arate any one class of i)<'o|)lc from the com- 
 mon mass, and to echicate it hy itself and solely for one 
 puriM)so. is to make it narrower and more higottnl goncra- 
 tio:; hy generation. 
 
 4. To educate the children of difTeront classes separately 
 operates to ])revent that n-tural flow of individuals from 
 one class to another whicii is so nmch to \tc desired, hotli 
 from the scnial and from the individual standjHiint. If the 
 children of farmers are put into .schools where a;,Ticulture 
 only is taught, many a good husiness or i)rofessional man 
 will he spoiled to nmke an indifferent farmer. lioys do not 
 necessarily inherit or develop a tendency "owards their 
 father's profession. There is a difference hetween educat- 
 ing through environment and educating without environ- 
 ment. Many a city hoy has the instinct to got hack to 
 nature. The fact that a girl was h< v.i in du country is no 
 reason why she should become a 'armor's wife, nor is the 
 
SECONDARY EDKATION IN AGUirrLTrUE 123 
 
 f;i(t fli.it slu' was horn in the city a rrason wJiy she slioiiM 
 in»t. Kduciit*' all flu" pupils ti>t;«>tlHT in one tyjH- of mIkmiI. 
 with a <iirri(iiliini varied ••noiif^h to (it for nion- than on" 
 «M'('iipali(>n and nion* tlian one mode of life, and a man 
 will then Im- free t«> folhtw the (K-cupation of his father, or 
 to ehanp*. as he i)leaM's. 
 
 .V S«'condar>' schools devoted to apricnlture would, of 
 necessity, draw on so iuik h lerritorj- as to rccniire the stml- 
 eiit to live away from home. The prohlem of secondan" 
 education is verj- larp-ly the prohlem of the foiirteen-year- 
 «)ld child, anil we should never Ik" satisfie<l till every farm- 
 hoy and ii'irl may po to the nearest hiph .sch(H)l and there 
 find instruction, not only in apriculture. hut in the other 
 industries and professions which concern the community. 
 
 (J. .v;rri<ullure not only ne(>ds contact with other indus- 
 tries, hut tho.sc industries need contact with agriculture; 
 and this mutual contact pivesamuch hroader outlook to 
 all the industries. 
 
 7. To estahlish agricultural hiph school-, would materi- 
 ally hinder the development of the existing high .s«hoo|s, 
 and would check their extension into rural districts where 
 they are urgently needed. 
 
 These are the main arguments put forward hy Dean 
 Davenport; and while for the moment not advcnating the 
 esta')lishment of separate agricultural schools, it would 
 .seem that they are hased largely on the assumption that 
 agricultural high schools would content themselves with 
 a curriculum narrowed down to the hare teaching of agri- 
 culture and would ignore the related sciences, art, and lit- 
 erature. 
 
 M 
 
 i . 1 
 
 Kj 
 
 !'ll 
 
 AUVANT.\GHS OF SKI'AH ATE AGRICULTfHAL limH S( HOOKS 
 
 'i'he ahove arguments hav > not met with universal ac- 
 ceptance. The fourth annual rejM)rtof the Carnegie Foun- 
 dation for the Advancement of Teaching, dealing with sec- 
 ondary schools, saj's : — 
 
124 
 
 AGRICILTITIAL EDUCATION 
 
 The insertion of agrinilturi' into th«' nirriculiim of every 
 secoiiilary si-IkmiI iti the country would not make any (liffcn-iice 
 in tlicir output of farmers, 'riiesr .seh(M)l.s are not tra<ie seli(K)Is. 
 'I'liey are ixiteiided, au<l lliey slujuld remain, selu)ols for the gen- 
 eral training of hoys and girls for all eallings. Agrieulture, |)ut 
 info one of tliese seiio(>:s as a study, will remain, as it ought to re- 
 main, a study for general training and not a mean.s of trade in- 
 struction. We have had in the la,-,t twenty years a most striking 
 exanii)Ie of what will hapjien iu sui h a <a,se. Twtiity-five years 
 ago, when manual training was intrcMluced into the secondary 
 schools, it wa.s the expectation of many that this would lead to a 
 large group of well-trained mechanic,-.. It has had no such result. 
 Mainial training ha.s remainc<l a fruitful study, but its {)uri)ose 
 has been purely pedagogic. 
 
 The advocates of the special agricultural high .scho<>ls do 
 not believe that the course of study need he whittled down 
 to the extent that they shall 1)e less cultural or less truly 
 educational than the existinj^ hij^h-school courses. It is 
 l)c!ieve<l that better courses than arc usually offered in 
 schools attended by pupils from rural districts can he 
 worked out for these special schools, courses which con- 
 tain all that is essential in the old and, in atldition. provide 
 for training along distinctly agricultural lines. 
 
 A large part of the countrj- youth who now attend high 
 schools not only go away from home, but are not under 
 faculty control outside of school hours. Many of them go 
 on the train and return at night. Many stay for the week 
 and return home on Friday for the week-end. Any one 
 who is in the habit of traveling on local trains carrj'ing 
 high-school pupils to and from scho<il is not, as a rule, 
 favorably impressed with their lichavior. 
 
 If it were proposed to establish s))ecial schools to which 
 the farmer would lie forced to send his children, they might, 
 perhaps, tend to jK\asantize the farmer; but tiiis is not the 
 case. Where special schools have been established, the 
 farm boy is still able to make his choice between them and 
 the ordinary high school, just as in the cities the boy is able 
 to choose between the tlu-ee tyjMJS of school generally eslab- 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTrUE li5 
 
 lishcd. The spocij-l agricultural school simply offers the 
 country hoy, w' •; s already decided that he will he a 
 farmer, and w; entitled to preparation therefor, a 
 
 hetter opjjortur > prepare for his profession than the 
 
 pul)iic high school ( I'ers. 
 
 The arguments for, and the pur])ose3 of, the special 
 schools may Ijc sunuuarized as follows: — 
 
 1. To stimulate the general introduction of agriculture 
 into the ordinary higli school, and in a general way to set 
 the pace for and give permanence to secondary education 
 in apiculture. 
 
 2. To aid in the preparation of rural school-teachers. 
 This is accomplished in a definite way in Wisconsin and 
 other states hy connecting teachers' training classes with 
 the county schools of agriculture. 
 
 3. To serve as links in the chain of separate institutions 
 seeking to train boys for farm life. The course of study 
 should include instruction in English, mathematics, chem- 
 istry, and botany. 
 
 4. To serve as schools to which boys, who have chosen 
 to become farmers, may elect to go for more thorough and 
 efficient preparation for their life-work than the ordinary 
 high school can give. 
 
 5. To relieve the agricultural colleges of much of the 
 secondary and sliort-course work that has now to be done 
 by them. 
 
 6. To .serve the local farming community more inti- 
 mately than the agricultural coUegt' can. 
 
 7. Su<'h s<-hools should be limited in nund>er and should 
 serve large areas, dei)ending on the density of the jxtpula- 
 tion. 
 
 8. The curricula should be varied according to the pre- 
 dominant industry'. The schools should be kept strictly 
 secondary in grade, avoiding on the one hand the work of 
 the elementary school, an(' on the other that of the agri- 
 cultural college. 
 
 Hi 
 
 r' 
 
 .i 
 
 i 
 
 it! 
 
 n 
 
126 
 
 AGRICULTUILyL EDUCATION 
 
 BOTH TYPES OK HC'HOOLS ARE NEEDED 
 
 The ar^jutiierits of IxAh sides havinj? been fairly stated, 
 we now have to eonsider which should prevail. As is to 
 Ik- t'xi)e(tcd, tlicre is merit in the arguments of both con- 
 testants, and the solution of the difficulty seems to lie along 
 a middle i)ath. Enlarge the work of the i)resent high schools 
 to teach agricultural subjects, and establish sjjecial agri- 
 cultural schools to cover large areas, where agriculture and 
 <lomcstic science may l)e taught, together with such aca- 
 demic subjects as are necessarj*. The fiehl of agricultural 
 education is so large, the subjects to l>e covered so numer- 
 ous, the need for it so great, and the roads by which we 
 may reach the same goal so many, that there is surely room 
 for schools of the two tj'j)es. Those who have the real in- 
 terests of the farming population at heart, and who are 
 anxious that agricultural education shall become effective, 
 must settle their differences, sink their i)rejudices. and 
 work harmoniously together to bring about the desired re- 
 sults. 
 
 There are scores of examples which could be cited to 
 pro\e that agricultural education can be effectively in- 
 t'orj)orated in the existing high schools. It is quite practi- 
 cable, because it has lieen widely done, to articulate an 
 agricultural course of high-school grade with the i)resent 
 high-school schedule, and to make this course satisfac- 
 tory' for the purjwses of general training as well as for 
 efficient instruction in the theory and practice of agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 It is well to admit, at the out.set, that this -.vork cannot 
 1k' (lone in the rural higti school as at present organized; 
 but on ever>- hand comes the demand that these schools 
 shall be reorganized. Before agriculture can l)e effectively 
 introduced into any high school, revolutionarj' changes in 
 spirit and i)urjH)se will 1m> necessary. The first need is a 
 change of aim. The schools must face the actual needs of 
 
SECONDARY EDICATION IN AGRICILTIUE W7 
 
 life as found on the farm and in tlie home. They must not 
 lost" sifjht of eollejje preparation, hut neither must they 
 make that the special aim of their existence. Tliis inipHes 
 by no means that ail instruction shall he what at present is 
 known as vcx-ational, — the physical, cultural, and social 
 needs are facts of life and cannot Ik* ignored; hut it does 
 mean that the educational value of every suhjixt on the 
 proj^ram must be a.ssessed, that ';very detail of organiza- 
 tion and method must l>e systematized, and that we must 
 conduct our schools in such a wj> • as will .seiure the maxi- 
 mum of useful knowledge, .skill, and jxjv.'t, and the culti- 
 vation of the highest character, 
 
 The high schools in small towns in rural districts need 
 agriculture to save them, prohahly as nmch as farm hoys 
 need the instruction. As at present organized, secondary 
 education has helj)ed the hoy out of farming rather than 
 hcliK'ii him into it. The school should constantly i)ut hack 
 into the cojumunity as permanent residents the l)est of each 
 generation, if it is to justify its own existence and the taxa- 
 tion imposed for its maintenance. In many instances, rural 
 .secondary schools have been a source of weakne.ss rather 
 tli.in of strength to the conunutiilies supporting them. 
 Tliey have been the direct means of taking out of the 
 country' the manhood and womanhood .so necessarj* to 
 the welfare and progress of the country- ide. 
 
 .:^i 
 
 Il[^ 
 
 fll 
 
 READJUSTMENT OF TIIK COIR.SE OF STUDY 
 With the introduction of agriculture into the high school, 
 all the courses will ne>_d readjustment. j)articular!y those 
 in j)hy.sics, chemistrs', hutaiiy, and zo<)lo^y These shuuid 
 ho so shaiH'd as to forin an ap])nn)riate introduction to 
 the more formal and practical instruction in the diiTerent 
 liranches of agriculture. Whether this .s<ience shall i*e 
 taiifjht by the teacher of science or by the teacher of agri- 
 cultu.e, has caused some controversy. If the agricultural 
 teacher in the high school has been p.operly trained and is 
 
Its 
 
 AGRICILTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 fully qualified for the work, it will he easy for him to take a 
 scientific view of the jjractical work to he done. 
 
 It is bcconiinj^ more and more evident that science in its 
 pure form cannot Ik' tauglit very successfully to secondary 
 students, (^hildren of the adolescent sta^e of development 
 ai)i)arently respond much more .satisfactorily to that scien- 
 tific teaching which begins with ajjplications and concrete 
 ca.ses, and then merges into generalizations, principles, and 
 laws. This is the liistoric order in the evolution of scientific 
 knowledge, and it is not improbable that in the main it is 
 the true i)edagogic order also. 
 
 The queMion of irxihooks. — One of the most serious ob- 
 stacles in the way of bringing the rural secondary school 
 into clo.se touch -vith the needs of rural life is the present 
 organization of textbooks. A textbook in physics, written 
 to enable the pujfils to jkiss the examination of a .scientific 
 school, is often adopted for use in rural districts, and the 
 problems are usually inno<ent of any connc<tion with hx^al 
 requirements. The princii)les underlying the sul>ject of 
 physics are universal, yet they can 1k> given a hnal coloring 
 and made efrcclivc tlirough j)roblems relating to the farm. 
 Biology-, as usually treated in the texts, consists of nothing 
 more than a ela.ssification and descrijjtion of the various 
 forms of animal an<l plaiit life. A treatment of the sul)ject 
 is needed which shows the ap[)lication of its principles to 
 the farm. 
 
 The principles of botany should find application in the 
 care, selection, and cultivation of plants with regard to their 
 CHDiiomic value. ZoiilogA- should be made manifest through 
 the study of the forms of animal life that are heljjful or 
 injiiridus to tlie farmer. \ text book in chemi.str\' for rural 
 high s(li(K)ls ought to be j)re])arc(l to show the a])plieations 
 ofchemistrvto various iihas<'s of agriculture. Tliei)roblen\s 
 of meclianics find their exemplification in farm buildings 
 and farm machinerj", and tlnse should be used largely for 
 purposes of illuslralion and denu>nstralion. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE liO 
 
 In most rural high scliools the commercial course is a 
 popular oiip, and thousands of rural-s<liool i)ui)ils arc tak- 
 inj; this course and dcahii^ with problems that may have 
 little concern will, rural life Many of these students are 
 intimately connected with farm affairs and could greatly 
 assist in systematiziufr the :arm accounts if their attention 
 were so directed. ()f course, the principles of bookkeeping 
 are apphcable to any business, liut the bookkeeping that is 
 taught in the rur,.' high scIhkjI should Ije closely related to 
 the chief business of the coi luunit . 
 
 m 
 
 THE MODIFIED COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 Thecommitteeof til National Education Association on 
 Industrial Educat >n for Rural < 'ommunities recommended 
 that, "in the townshij) or oner istinctively rural high 
 school, and 'n the village high school attended by a con- 
 siderable number of pupils from the country, a modification 
 of courses of study should Ix* made which shall provide for 
 the introduction of work especially in the elements of agri- 
 culture and dcmiestic science and such further lines of in- 
 dustrial edui ation as local conditions may make feasible." 
 Throughout the country there are a large number of high 
 schools to which this modification could Ix? applied benefi- 
 cially. It is highly gratifying to note that courses of study 
 in many places are Iwing modified along the lines suggested. 
 In the towns and cities industrial training is l>eing given a 
 prominent place, and in the countrj- agriculture is coming 
 to its own. 
 
 Until within recent years the avowed purpose of the high 
 .school was to prepare for college, and there is a decided 
 danger that these new courses may f>e made preparatory 
 courses for admi.ssion to the agricultural college . If this be 
 d()n«', they will be rejjeating the blunder of the academic 
 high schools and failing to accomplish the obje<t intended. 
 The purpose of these courses may be saifl to be the provisiuu 
 oi a broad general training which will enable the boy and the 
 
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 111 
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 I 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
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 I I 
 
 Mi 
 
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'T^jg?ij.t - '^ Tvyr^ 
 
 ^i^ 
 
 "-■_,%" ^f^7.X^- i. 
 
 
 ^^^'S^gV??-^^-.- 
 
 -'^'isjgs: 
 
 ISO 
 
 AGRICIXTUILNX EDUCATION 
 
 girl to proceed directly from the school and take an active 
 part in the industries of the community. The secondary 
 course should l)e complete in itself and not a mere stepping 
 stone to higher tnlucation. This does not mean that the 
 work of these sch(M)ls shall not U- arlirulattHl with the work 
 of the colleges, but it docs mean that they shall direct their 
 work primarily to the active needs of the districts ui which 
 the sch(M)ls are situated, and be prepared to render im- 
 mediate community service. 
 
 TUB IIBOUGANIZATION OF TIIK KMSTING IIIOU StUOOL 
 TWO RXAMTLiiS 
 
 In order to show that the problem of reorganizing the ex- 
 isting high school is within tlie sphere of practicality, it will 
 be pertinent to consider a typical instance of such a re- 
 organization, in Colebrook .\cademy. A recent bulletin of 
 the United States Bureau of Education gives an account of 
 the methods employed, and from that account the follow- 
 ing particulars have been adapted.' 
 
 Colebrook Academy. — Colebrook Academy is situated in 
 the town of Colebrook, in the extreme norlhern part of 
 New Hampshire. The population of the town is about 
 iJCMM). In IHlVi, when the school was established, it received 
 a grant of land from the State. For a time it was conducted 
 as a private institution; but it had no endowment and it 
 soon became a school entirely supported by public taxes. 
 It retainetl its original name but became a public liigh 
 school of the usual academic type. 
 
 The school district comprises only part of the town, and 
 has a iM)i)ulation of about I'-.iOO. Until 1!)1(), the scliool 
 niainlained the traditional college-preparatory English 
 courses. In that year it was decided to reorganize on a new 
 basis, with a view to provide a more useful education for 
 the country boys and girls. .\ new building was erected 
 
 ' Tlu> Rcii()justtiiiiil i)f 11 Uuriil lli«li Siliool to the Nt-ed* <if llie Coui- 
 iiiimliv. I iiiliil Slatis Burt-au of Kducaliou. Uullctin iO. 19li. 
 
^^'--'.-r^rir^T^r^Tr: ^1 
 
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 t t 
 
 iii: 
 
 i 
 
 
 > :i 
 I. 
 
m^m 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGIUCILTIIIE 131 
 
 
 and a ru'W profjrarii of studies laid out aloiiji nuMlcrii lines, 
 cnnsistinjj of colh-j^'r-iin'iiaratorj', coiuintTcial, a^ritulhiral, 
 and dotnestic arts courses of study. 
 
 Tlic i)uri><>'«' of tlio now projjratn is oxi)rcs.sod hy Stale 
 Su|H'rinli'ndrnt Morrison in those words: — 
 
 It oii^lit to h<' l)<)rn(' in niirxi that tin- Itjjitiniatc fninxwo of 
 Hurli lii^li-s(-li<H)l coursi's as tills is not primarily to inakt- ^imkI 
 farnuTs, skilli-d nat-haiiit-s, or pruft-ssional liousckofpt-rs. 'I'licir 
 primary legitimate oltjeet is the eiiiieation of the hoy and the 
 fjirl ti> heeome sincere, liappy, ami e(fiei«'iit imii iiml wnmi'ti, caji- 
 ahh' of hecoriiing i-flueale*! worivers witli material tilings, capiiMe 
 of getting life's happiness out of work rather than out of the leis- 
 ure which comes after work, if indeed it comes at all. .\ further 
 legitimate purpose is to e<lucate the strongest youth towards the 
 farm and tlie industries, instead of towards husines.s and profes- 
 sions exclusively. For these ends the courses utilize agriculture 
 and the nnH-hanie and domestic arts [nirely as (sincational ma- 
 terial, ahsolutcly on a par with Greek, i>atin, and mathematics. 
 To l)e<onie thoroughly eHicii-nt, the ytnith nuist still re<'eive the 
 training of sj»«s-ial te<-hnical instruction or of experience. Hut the 
 I)U!>il who ha-s had four years of tin- kind of instruction re<oni- 
 meiidiil, will ()<> not only a t>etter edncatisi man. hut a more in- 
 tcllig<'nt farmer, mc<'hanic, or houseki-eiHT. 
 
 The courses are desi^jned to overcome the prevailing 
 teinlency to think of ajxriculture and hoine-makirifi as un- 
 worthy callings. Agriculture must he raised to as dignified 
 a position as medicine, law, or engineering. Home-making 
 must he looked ujKjn as a profession hy the girl who goes 
 out from the secondarj' sc1um)1. The .schools will never he- 
 come efficient in the highest di-gree until the hasic arts ujwn 
 which the future welfare of state an«l nation depends are 
 given their prop«'r plai-e side hy side with the traditional 
 suhje<ts. Raise the condition of the farmer and hiscxcupa- 
 lion in the mitulsof the jM'ojde, make farming a.s great an 
 avenue to distinction as politics, and give as nmch con- 
 sideration to the man who does things as is now given to 
 the rr:,m who talk-: ahoiit tliein. and then we shall uol have 
 to complain of the condition of agriculture. 
 
 l! 
 
 \ i 
 
dM 
 
 ISS 
 
 A(;iii(ri/n UAL edkation 
 
 Thr s< lifMtl premises coiisisl «)f two liiiil.lin;,'s ami ;i j^ncii- 
 hoiiM'. 'I'lic o|i| hnildin^: was rniit»«lrl«'(l ami n-paircd. Tlu' 
 main llixir is iist-d for a j;yiiiiia.siiiiii ami tin- l.as.iunil for 
 shops. 'I'Ik' first lloor of tlu* lu'W Imildiiiy coiilaiiis lal»o- 
 ralory, < uiniiKTcial room, IvjM'wriltT r<Kmi. lilirar\- («»<hm> 
 v«.luiii«-i), sii|MTiiiltii<ltiit's ofIi(«'. primipal's ollicf. IxMik- 
 roorii, ami lady ttaclicrs" room. 'I'lii' second lltMir conlaiiis 
 a larji»'sludy-r(M)ni, st'iitiiijjoiichiitulnd and fifty, an<l four 
 class-rooms, i-acli capaMo of a<c-ommodatin>: tinrty-six 
 jmpils. Thrcostof tlu' m-w IniildiiiK'. including tin- gnrn- 
 honsf. was $:{(>.(»<)(>. 
 
 'Ilie ^rcH-nhousf is on the south side of the huihIinK 
 and connetted with it Ity a continuous passage-way. It is 
 licatcd l>y a s])c<ial hot-water heater in the haseniciit of 
 the main huildin^. IJenches covered with soil to a depth of 
 •six inches are jjlaced around the walls on four sides and one 
 down the center. 'I'hey are used for cxjHTimenls in jjrow- 
 iii^' j)lants. 'I'luMosf of the Krecnh«.ii>e was !i?.>(MK and of 
 the heating; apparatus ^'IM. Tl.ere i> also a dairj- labora- 
 tory in the Itascment of the main Ituildin^. 
 
 The donn'slic arts course is four years in length, and its 
 e<iMij)ment <on>ists of kitchen and diniiij.'-riM)m. and uten- 
 sils and furniture for cooking; and serving, such as would 
 he found in the house of a family of moderate mean.s. 
 
 Two shops are provided, a for^e-shop for j,'«'neral forf,'inB 
 anil farm-hlacksmithing, and a w«mk1 shop. The nuiin pur- 
 po.se of these shojjs is stated to lie, "to erud)le a hoy to 
 accpiire so nnich of the art of the car])enter and the Mack- 
 smith as lo cnahle him to understand the structure of farm 
 buildings and ma<hines. and to make sundr> repairs to the 
 
 same. 
 
 The staff consists of six teachers, including the principal. 
 The i)rincipal and two of the teachers are graduates of the 
 ordinarj- collegiate and literary courses. The teacher of 
 agrirultiire holds a degree from the Massach\isetts .\gri- 
 tulluralC'ollcLre. The domestic arts teacher graduated from 
 
.<: -stJ , 
 
 .-,. _ — --js,,«-_. . 
 
 SE((JNI)AHY KDITATIOX IN ACIRKMITrUK iitn 
 
 pi >• 
 
 
 the home t><'(>nomics <lr|)ur!mrnt of Siintnnn.s Collcm". 
 Tin* fotntncrrial t<'arlitT is :i ^ratliiatr of tlir rotiuiu-nial 
 ruiirv tif Salem NDriiial Sliuol. 'I'liiis it will Iw Mfii lliat 
 tlif tnirliiTH of tin- iiidiislrial suhjerfs an* of the .same 
 n(-a<l<Miiic rank as (lie tcacluTs of tlu" oniiriarj' .siil>j«'<ts, 
 and this «H|uality plays its part in <l«'t«'nuiinnn th«' estima- 
 tion in which these industrial sultjects are hehl hy the 
 pupils. 
 
 The sf'h<K)l is administered hy a ,s<hool lM>ard of six 
 iiit'tnlMTs, fleeted liy tin- jH'opie. The siijKTintendrnt is the 
 exe< iitive officer of the lM)urd. and in his hands is placed the 
 siiiM'rinten«lenee, direction, nml management of the scIkmiI. 
 I'mhT the char^je of the su|HTintendent there are, in ad- 
 dition, tlu' fjraded sch«»ols of the villat^e, twelve un^raih'tl 
 scho. .Is in the farminj^ -.cctions outside, and the s<h(M)Is 
 of Krrol, a neijjlihorin^ town. Thes«' two towns unite to 
 form what is called in New Ham])shire a sujK'rvisory <iis- 
 triet, and they employ e»)njointly a suiHrintench'nt of 
 s< hools. The State pays one half the salarj' of the su|M'r- 
 iiitendcnt. The olliee is divorced entirely from politics. 
 
 Tlir Farragut hcIiodI.^ — .Vnother strikitifj example of re- 
 orj^aiii/.ation on a .somewhat simpler plan is the Farra^iil 
 school, near ("onc«ir.l, Tennes.s«'c. Six years aj^o the Ixiild- 
 inji was destroyed by fire, hut it was immediately rcl)uilt 
 hy the |>eople at a cost of about .^l-i.tKK). A complete 
 water-.system was in.stalled, costing? a little less than JjCUMMJ, 
 milking the initial co.st of the pro|K'rty. with twelve acres of 
 land, about $17,()0(). The sch(M)l stands in the o|)en coun- 
 try* about one and a half miles from Concord, a village of 
 apj) )ximately 300 jK'ople. The buihiin^ is a two-story 
 brick structure, with ba.s<Muent. The hi^^h mIiooI (K'cujtics 
 the second floor. The first floor is tK-cupied by the elemen- 
 tary- school. One half the bas<'ment contains the home- 
 economics room, the lunch-room, and toilet-r<M)ms for ^irls. 
 
 ' Till' I'jirriiKiit Slid.il. a T<iiti.'SM'f Country-lift- High School, fuileil 
 SLutt '^ iturcau of Eilucutiun. Liulletia W. IUVS. 
 
 1 f 
 
 U 
 
 t Jl 
 
 1 
 
MICkCCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART 
 
 ANTI and 1? TEST CHART No 2 
 
 
 1.0 If IS a 
 
 ' ^' 2.2 
 
 
 ;_ , .^i ■ - 
 
 I.I 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.25 
 
 1-4 III 1.6 
 
 j= APPLIED iV.>1GE Inc 
 
1S4 AGRICILTIRAL EDUCATION 
 
 Six acres of ground ar«> u.s(m1 for huildin^s. playgrounds, 
 and the like. 'I'lio rciiiaiiiirit,' six acres an* u>e(i for dciiioii- 
 st ration piirpoM-s. 'I'lirff foiir-yt'ar coursi's of study arc 
 otfcrccl — Latin, Kni^lisli, a^iricuilurc. niaiuial training for 
 tiic Ivoys. and lionic econoniics for the j^'irls. TIr- attend- 
 ance has almost trcMed during the la>t four years, largely 
 as a result of the practical work otfered in the course of 
 study and the chanf^e in the attitude of tht local farmers 
 towards agri'-ultural education. 
 
 The ahove two excellent exaitiples offer su^'f^estions as to 
 the methods hy which the uvcraK*' countrs- hii,'h sch(M)l can 
 be reorpmized for the puqM)se of j^iviiif^ efficient agricul- 
 tural education to such lK)ys and )^irl:. as are able to avail 
 themselves of the oi)portunities provided. 
 
 niK ORG.\>fIZ.VTJO.\' OF THK SI'KCI.VLIZKD AGRICULTURAL 
 
 HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 The s])ecial ty])eof airriciiltural school is an accomplished 
 fact in many states, and it is pcrformiufra function that has 
 not hitherto Ix-en performed hy any other institution. 
 
 In the study of these special schools, the first j)oint to l>c 
 Cf^nsidered is the question of their manafjement and c-ont rol. 
 On this continent, we have almost a mania for forming new 
 orj^anizations, hut it is to Ik? ho])ed that the cstahli-shment 
 of special schools will not necessitate another governing 
 body, and that the unity of the educational .sy.stem will Ite 
 maintained. 
 
 Count}! agricultural hujh schonh. — The tyj)0 of school 
 that seems to he highest in ])<ii)ular favor to-<lay is that 
 known as the county agricultural high school. Such schools 
 were first estahlished in Wisconsin in \\)iH. and the Wiscon- 
 sin jilan may jx-rhaps be taken as tyj)ical. These schools, 
 strictly speaking, are agricultural trade schools. The term 
 "trade school" is here used in tin' best and most modern 
 .sense. In the i)ast the term was sui)posed to indicate a tyi)e 
 of school that gave the narrowest kind of instruction. But 
 
i^ 
 
 ^* tOl 
 
 SECONDARY EDTTATION IN AGRICIXTITIE I'X; 
 
 tho nifMlern trade srhonl docs not iicf^hvt the cultural iitid 
 ji'.^tlu'lic side of life, which is iiun>a.siiigly iiniKjrtant if trade 
 siil)j(t'ls are to ho well taii^^ht. 
 
 These county schools are designed to eduiate the farm 
 lM)y and girl who is not ahle or d«H\s not wish to take an 
 extensive c(illegiate courst', young jhtsohs who are desirous 
 of obtaining that form of training which w ill Ik? most useful 
 to them when they take charge of the home farm or the 
 farm home. The school is made the educational center of 
 the community, and the fanners are free to call u|)on it for 
 assistance in any line of work relating to the farm and its 
 prohlems. The county is a taxable unit, and the schools 
 draw their supiwrt from l)oth county and State. In this 
 way local pride and interest is maintained to a greater ex- 
 tent than when the schools are sui)])orted entirely by the 
 State. The orginal law allowed the establishment of two 
 s<li(K)ls in the state, but it was afterwards amended to al- 
 low ten. 
 
 'I'he .schools admit boys and girls on equal terms. The 
 course of study covers a jRTiod of two years of eight monlhs 
 each. Two thirds of the cost of maintenance up to a 
 maximum of $4(M)0 is grantetl to each sch(M>l by the State. 
 Tlie entrance requirements sixK-ify that students shall 
 have completed work equal to the eighth grade. Students 
 are admitted from any part of the state. The governing 
 body consists of three meml)ers, who form the county 
 s(li(M)l-lM)ard, two of them Ixnng elected by the county 
 board of suiKTvisors for a iK'ri(Hl of three years. The county 
 siiiH'rintendent of schools is ex-officio secretary of the 
 .school-board. The county l)oard has control over all mat- 
 ters relating to the school, subjixt to the ai)j)roval of the 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction atnl the Dean 
 of the College of Agriculture. In this way the s<hools are 
 kept within the limits of the state system of public educa- 
 tion. 
 
 One of the main objections that luis Iteen urged against 
 
 ! ' ■ 
 
 
136 
 
 AGHK ILTUILVI. EDICATION 
 
 tlicsp schools is tliat thoy .irc Ian frankly vocational. It 
 must he roincnilxTcd that they are designed to reacli the 
 lioy of fourfeen years of i^e who has decided tU'tinitely to 
 make farming his hfe-work; and that if he (hd not ^et this 
 si)ecial trainiiif^ lie would i)rol)al)ly obtain no further educa- 
 tion than the elementary school affords. In addition to the 
 purely agricultural subjects, provision is made for English, 
 arithmetic, music, drawing, and scien'-e. 
 
 In similar schools in Minnesota, one third of the time is 
 devoted to general studies, one third to science related to 
 agriculture, a.id one third to technical subjects relating to 
 agricultun' and home economics. 
 
 (Umgressumal (Uxtricl hiijh srhimit. — Many consider that 
 the county is tcxi small an area to provich- for the pr(>'>er 
 equipment and maintenance of a thoroughgoing agricul- 
 tiiral high sch(K)l. The coiigressioi\al district schools of 
 Alabama and (icorgia meet this objection. Alabama was 
 the first State to esta]>lish an agricultural school in each 
 congressional district. Each of thes<» sch(M)ls accommtHlates 
 from two to nine counties, and there are now nine snch 
 swhools. F)ach of them has a branch exjK'riment statiim 
 connected with it and receives $7o(K) annually from the 
 State. Georgia has eleven such scluxils. They receive the 
 proceeds of the sUite oil and fertilizer taxes, amounting to 
 about $10,000 for each school. The buildings, land, and 
 other efjuipment were provided by local contributions. 
 Each school is provided with not less than 200 acres of 
 land. The course of study extends over four years, and in- 
 cludes two years of primary -school work and two years of 
 high-sch(Mjl work. 
 
 Thes*' s<'1km)1s are ex])re.ssly designed to l>e vocational. 
 The first stej) in the development of any biisinf . is to make 
 it pay. We may rhay)sodize about the glories of country 
 life, the songs of birds, the beautiful sunshine, and the 
 lilM'rty of life in the oj)en countrj', but no man, even if he has 
 the capacity, can fully enjoy these unless he has brought 
 
SErONDAUY EDrCATIOX IN Af.RK ILTIUE 1.57 
 
 his Imsiricss to a paying basis. I'ndor these circiinistances 
 it is jK'rf»'<lly roasonahh*. aii(K indtTti, is iHHcssiirj- to the 
 fulfilment of their |)ro|MT furictioti. that the.M' xhools 
 should (ie\-ote a ^reat ainoiiiit of atteiitioii to tiie fiiiaiuial 
 a>i>et t of their instruclioii. All s<1i(h)1 farms, exeept those 
 that are reserved for puri)oscs of demonstration and ex- 
 IRTiment, should })c run on a strictly business haais. 
 
 An fxamjdr of the Kpccialized county high ■■school. ^ — The 
 work that can l)e done for the eoninuinity l>y a county 
 agricultural hi^h sch{M)l is well shown hy the Agricultural 
 Hi^h ScluH)l of naltiinore County, Marj-land. When this 
 schiM)! had l)oen in ojH'ration for only one year, it had 
 carried on one t}^)e of work, at least, with each class of 
 IK'oj)le in the neighhorluHKl — fanners, farmers' wiv«'s, 
 youn>» [M^ople. rural s<"h(K)l-teachers. and children in the 
 elementary schools. .\s a result of this work the sch(M)l is 
 rej;arded by the jXHiple as one oi the licst institutions in the 
 county. 
 
 The school is situate*! in the (^ten count rj', apart from 
 any town or village, but near a railway station. Four ele- 
 mentary' sch(X)ls, comprising ninety pupils, were consoli- 
 dated into twoclas,ses which meet in the high-.sch<K)l build- 
 iny. In the first year the high-schof)l department ha<l fifty 
 I)upils. Those whose homes are not adjacent to the railway 
 are broupht by school wagons and private conveyances. 
 The school has seven acres of ground, and the building has 
 five cla.ss-rooms, two of which can lie converted into an 
 assembly hall seating 300 persons. In the basement there 
 are a manual-training r(K)in, a domeslic-.science room, an 
 agricultural laljoratorj*. a farm-machinery room, and toilet- 
 rooms. The school has its own lighting and water-sui)ply 
 systems. All the usual high-scluK)! subjects are taught ex- 
 <tl)t languages, agriculture, domestic M'ience, and manual 
 training Iwing offere*! in place of them. 
 
 The first principal of the .school was new to the commu- 
 
 ' Niitioiuil .SMiity fur Iht- Study of Kducation. Tenth }'tur Buuk. 
 
 H 
 
 i . ■ 
 
 :i: 
 
 f ■ n 
 
13ft 
 
 ACRirTLTTRAL EDUCATION 
 
 nity. and tlio first tliiu;:(loiio was tluM-otiiiiilation of ,i ranl- 
 in(]<x of jMTsoiis in the county, with all tlir information that 
 could ])(• r)l)t:iiiu'd al>out each individual. Three thousand 
 jHTsoiial invitations were i>Micd for the opening cere- 
 monies. i'oster.s dcs<Til>in)4 'viiat the s<h(M)l had to olft-r 
 \v»'re distributed throuj,'hout the county. The.st' were 
 nailcMJ u]) on trees, on cro.s.sroads, post oflicos, hlacksniith 
 shojis. on schoolhouses. and on churclies. The school 
 adojited husiness methods in its a<ivertisinp, and owin;,' to 
 the interest of all the county newspaiK^rs much free adver- 
 tising^ was secured. 
 
 In addition to the regular school work, the first orpini- 
 zation was a series of monthly meetinfjs for rural scIum)1- 
 teachers. These occui)ied the whole of Saturdays. The 
 mornings were spent in lessfuis on i;encral .s<'hool methods, 
 ami the afternoons in acricultiire. The teachers hroui^ht 
 their own luncheon baskets, and hot coffee and tea were 
 .served by tlie pirls in the domestic-.science kitchen. FLxer- 
 cises such as could i)e rci)eated in the couiitn.- s<hools with- 
 out exjKMisive aj)l)aratus were taken in the laboratories. 
 l/>ssons on elementary agriculture wen> i)rinted in the 
 monthly issues of a hnal .lewspajMr and sent fn^ to everv- 
 teacher in the county. Infortunately these meetings were 
 not wholly successful, owing mainly to diliicuiiiesof Irans- 
 j)ortation. 
 
 A course of ten evening lectures for farmers was given on 
 soils and fertilizers. Posters were displayed all over the 
 county. An outline of each lecture was mimeograj)hed and 
 distributed, and the audience was asked each time to bring 
 tlw outline of the prweding lecture for reference. The 
 first lecture was attended by sixty jhtsous, the second by 
 ninety, the third by one hundred. The average for the 
 entire course was 1-2.5. and this in an open farming countrv- 
 where practically evcrj' one had to drive in the dark over 
 bad roads. 
 
 At t he (lose of t lie lectures, a two days' corn congress was 
 
SFXONDARY EDLCATTON IN AGRIClLTrRE I'.t) 
 
 «l 
 
 pl:iiin("(l. Twelve speakers, the host that roiiM he oI>f;iiiic I 
 from file I'liitefi Statt's Department of Apiculture ami the 
 M.ir.\laml Agricultural ('dlle^'e, gave a<itlre»c> at the 
 series of six sessions, all directly on corn pn)wiiig and eook- 
 ini;. Posters ^vere printed in red on white ()aper ( tJie mIkkI 
 colors). Kveryhody was invited to exhihit ten ears of corn. 
 l'eo|)le eame and stayed through the two days, only going 
 home to sleep. One hundred and eighty exhibitors sent in 
 ten or more oars of corn, antl almost one thousaiul p«'rsons 
 attended the sessions. 
 
 Twenty rural schools had held small preliminary shows 
 of their own, and sent the best exhibits to the congress. 
 Meetings were held at the same time, in different parts of 
 the building, for men, women, and children. Meals were 
 .ser\ ed at a lunch-counter by the inenilKTS of the women's 
 club, and the prcM-eeds were given to the schfH)l fimd. Only 
 rilibon prizes were gi\-en. Stores in the county were willing 
 to contribute various articles for priz«'s. but owing to the 
 belief of the sch«>ol authorities in amateur rather than pro- 
 fcssioisal competitions, they were ih'clined. .Vt the close 
 flM' prize exhibits were sold by auction, and thus g<K)d seed- 
 corn was distributed throughout the county. 
 
 Monthly meetings for women were held on Saturday 
 afternoons. Three hundred postcards were sent to those 
 within driving distance. The thrcM? school wagons wi-re run 
 over he regular routes to bring them to the meeting. 
 After a fiftiH^n-minute address on some vital toi)ic. and a 
 little nuisic. the women divided into four self-<hosen groups 
 wlii( h were continuous throughout the year. The first 
 group took domestic s<ience in the school kit<hen. The 
 si'<oiid group took cari)entry in the manual-training room, 
 l<Mrning to do simjile operations re(juired in the home and 
 on file farm. The third group took instruction in chair- 
 < ailing, rug-weaving, basketry, and stenciling. The fourth 
 i-Toup took up the study of modern literature. These 
 meetings had an average attendance of eighty-five. 
 
 
 n 
 
 I 
 
 
 jfi 
 
 m 
 
no 
 
 AOHICrLTIRAL EDITATION 
 
 A litcr.'irv society \v;is foniird for yruinj^ f)orsons wlio 
 \v<T<' fodold to attnul m Imol. 'I'liis iiufts (nicr in two weeks 
 jukI has a ineiiiher^lsiji of one liiiiulred. S|ielliiij; l>e< s, Co- 
 llates, and other literary exercises are held. An interest iiij» 
 olT>lioot from this society is a reading' circle which meets 
 one*' in every two weeks. 
 
 During,' the summer the s<-hool conducts exrM'rinients on 
 the homo farms of its pui)ils. The hoys in the lii^'h sch(K)l 
 are refpiired to carry on px|)oriments of their own choosinj* 
 durin;^ the summer vacation. These experiments, scattered 
 t)ver a territory twenty-five miles lonj; l>y five miles broad, 
 attract nmch attention and arr> elTe<-tive demonstration 
 agents. Many stud«'nts test corn from seed furnislied l»y 
 the school; others test herds of dairy cows, and others con- 
 duct tests of cowi)eas or p<)p-<-orn. Tlie principal of the 
 school visits the experiments durinj; the summer and K'vo3 
 general advice concerning them. 
 
 The school tests sivdsanci milk for the farmers. Tlirough- 
 ttut the entire year tests are made of milk and cream for the 
 l)utter-fat cotitent. Many farmers in the nci^lil>orhood 
 sell tlicir milk hy the amount of hutter-fat contained, and 
 the lest made l)y the .scliool j^ives them a comparison with 
 the te.st made l)y the dealer. 
 
 It will thus he .seen that the expansion of a country hi^'h 
 school into an agricultural high s<hool is something more 
 than the addition of siihjects and a change in name. It is an 
 entire change of point of view. Perhaps an etjually great 
 field of work for the.se scluwls may he found with that part 
 of the community which does not usually attend school at 
 nil and for which the .school funds are not usually available. 
 It is by its work as a whole, with the men and women on the 
 farms as well as the pupils in the school, that the agrii-ul- 
 tural lii;:li school may find its strongest claim to poi)ular 
 attention and its greatest field for constructive service. 
 \Ve may watch the further development of these special- 
 ized schools with great interest. 
 
SECUNDAIIY KDKATION IN AGIUClLirUK Itl 
 
 TI!K NKKI) VUH S1'K< lAI.I.V TUAINKl} TKA( IIKK.S 
 
 Till- avrrii;;<' liif^li-srlioul (cachcr vvlio lias l»««'ii traiiu-d 
 altmj; traditional lines and who has iKt-n <H>nstuntly m- 
 j;am"(l in prcjiarin;; [)ii|iils for r(illr;;t> and f(»r passing' tlu> 
 cxaniinatiiiiis lu-o.^sary for iMitraiicc tlnT«'t(), finds it ilidi- 
 < lilt, and in many casi-s iinpossihlr, to chanp- his point of 
 view. Tht' fact is, a new typ<> of tcafluT will ha\»' to !•»• 
 dfveloped, — one in whos*' training; both the praclii al and 
 the acatleniie have played a part, and one who has the 
 l>readth of vision to stH' holh the pnietieal application of 
 the academic an<i the academic application of the practical. 
 
 Tcnchcrx an county Tiitrcsrntalhis of the Dvimrlmrnt i>f 
 Agriculturr. — Recently an interesliiif^ exp<riin»iit wa.s 
 tried in the Province of Ontario, (iiadnates taken dinn-tly 
 from the a^icultural college were appointed as teachers in 
 the high schools. They were all men who had taken a four- 
 years" course and had distinguished themselves along agri- 
 <ultnral lines. In addition to teaching, they were exjK'cted 
 to act as the hwal representatives of the provin<ial Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. The latter function they jjcrformed 
 admirably, hut the former was not so well tlone. They had 
 not the general education of ihe average senior teacher, 
 and they were the agents of the agricultural coIleg«- rather 
 tlian of the department of etlucation. The tea<liing of 
 agriculture to high-scluxjl pupils was a secondary consid- 
 eration with them. 
 
 The.se men were all earnest, hardworking, and enthusi- 
 astic for agriculture, hut they had their attention <'eiilered 
 oil their work in the county and on serving ihe farmer 
 directly, rather than on reaching him through the pujiils 
 in the schools. IJy their success as rejjrest-ntatives of the 
 agriculturaldepartment they have pointed the way to a most 
 successful plan for the education of the adult farmer, - • 
 till' ]ila<ing of a representative of the department in ever}' 
 county; and l>y their nun-.succcs3 us teachers in the high 
 
 I 
 
 
 til 
 
Hi 
 
 AGlllCLLTLUAL LDLCATION 
 
 s<lun)Is, llicy liJivc ltd to llic «sliil)li>liiii<'nt nf a ((iiirM' of 
 IraiiiidK in tli<' I iiivcrsily fi.r iii^riculliiral tciclur-.. 'I'\v«» 
 yt;irs <if llii-. loiirM' arr l<> Im- ><|Miit al llu' I iiiv«r>ity aiul 
 tlic S<li<)()l of lV<la^'oj(j- ami two yi-iirs at tlif AuriculUiral 
 ('ollr^f. 
 
 TIIK r^y. OK L.VNI) IN ( ()\\K< TU)\ W ITll S( I|1M)I,S. HOME 
 
 I'UIUK* TS 
 ft is al).soliitcly essential that actual work l»e done on the 
 land in connection with the coiirs*' in a><ri( nlture. No mere 
 lecture, theoretical, lalniratopt-. or texthook cours*- will Ik! 
 snllicient. It is arjjued by the advc nates of the s|K'cial 
 schools that tin- hi«li scIkm)! is not al)le to provide the nc«- 
 «'ssary e(|uii)Mient in land, iinpleinenis, animals, and the 
 like, for the satisfa<'tor>' teaehiiiK of the sul>je<t. In some 
 easesthisis prohahly true,l)ut it is(iueslional»le whetlier it 
 shouM l)e regarded as a (h-fect. The pro]H-r use of tlie iiome 
 farm for purposes of ])raclical work and instruction can \>c 
 made to yi<'ld results su|H'rior to any that can U- oiitained 
 on school proiK'rty. 
 
 I caniiut state t<H» stroiiKly tliaf I tH'Ii.'vc Jliat tin- hcst i)lafe 
 lu Icarli a^^riculliirt' is on tlu- farm, and that it will not ci>>t any 
 more iiuinev and will pnxhice nuicli more satisfactory- results in 
 (■very way, if we liavoa l)()y ai>i>lyiiiK the theory, not at tlie s<'1i<m)I, 
 l)iit (in tlic farm wlierc he is likely to earn his living in the future. 
 I need not say to you tliat one of the ^n-at handicaps in the f ea<-h- 
 inn of asrii-ulture in the liif^h mIiooI is that it teiiils to he<-onie 
 I)urfly a<-ademic routine, and a healthy energetic Iniy t)w<)rn«'S 
 utterly dis);uste<l with study ini» aliout a>;rieulture and (i<*\ufi 
 tliruM^h all sorts of motions, w hen his wliole hein^ cries out for the 
 <i|iportuiiily to shuck his coat and feel the sweat spririf? from his 
 port', . while lie knows that he is working 'is own crop with liis 
 ovsii iiiusclc and that the returns from his lahors will go into 
 ln> own p<K-kel.' 
 
 Whether the mIiooI {Hissess<>s land or not. there shoidd 
 1h' acli\e coiiperatiun hetwei-n the mIiooI and the home 
 
 ' ALTi'iiltiirii! In^tnictinn ill ScrDiidary ScIkmiIs. l'nit(Hl States Bu- 
 reau of i-tiiKalmn liulktiii 11. l"Jl;J. 
 
SECONDARY EULC.VTION L\ AGIUCLLTUIIE ua 
 
 ! 
 
 farm. Soiiit' liavo ar^jucd that the hoy cniniti;' from the 
 farm <1<ks not iitfd furthrr pra<ti«t'. Imt that all hr n*- 
 (|iiir«-s is scifiitific and thcorftical iustriKtiuii to siippU'- 
 iiu'iit thf practice hv lias alr«'a<ly ha«h Mo>t hoys, so far as 
 thi'y hriiif^ farm practicr to thf .s<hiM»|, arc more hkriy to 
 have Imh'ii traimil to um- l»a«l or iiulitfrn-nt nu'th<Hls than 
 to lis*' the lH;.st. It sifins (jiiitc certain that tlie shpshtMl, 
 unmet hixlicah unassimihited farm ex|KTieii<«' of the •onn- 
 trj-lired youth cannot, in tlie al»seiice of a<l<litionai |>ra<-- 
 tin', Ik* nia<h' a s;if<' hasis for tlic elfective teaching of 
 a>,'riculture as a Hfe vocation. 
 
 Worktioncon the home farm may take the form of sii|H'r- 
 vi-rf'<l home j)rojiits. Ihc prohlem will in- vt in the .s< hool, 
 ni(-th(Mi.s and plans discussed, hut the actual details them- 
 selves will Ih" worked out on the farm. Kvcrj' step shouhJ 
 Ix' suiKTvis<'d hy the teaclier, and the pupil should ktrp a 
 strict account of tlie whole j)roject. .V committei" of the 
 American Association for the .Vdvancement of .V^ricidtural 
 'rcachinjj reiH)rts as follows on this iH)int: "Vttur ("oiu- 
 iiiittceisof opinion that the hour is at hand for the further- 
 iti;^. not so mu<h the rai)id extension, of the teaching of 
 a^^riculture in an evcr->,'rowin^ mimln'r of hi^h schools I>y 
 t!te improvement of the quality of the instruction where 
 if is already estahlished, but the centering of it ujxm 
 sii|R'rvise<l economic prmluction carried out hy the pui>ila 
 uiM)n their home farms." 
 
 The Miutiachw'icttji home- project plan. — One of the In'st 
 inetluKls that have l)e<>n devised for working; out the 
 economic asix><'ts of the instruction, is the i)rojiHf |)Ian 
 (arried out on the home farm under average conditions, 
 and not uiuKt the ideal conditions that it may 1h' |Kissil»le 
 t'l ol)taiti on the farm of an institution supported hy Stale 
 fiiiidv The State of MassachuM-tts presc-riln's this plan as a 
 cniiditioii of lii^h si'hools receiving jjrants for agricultural 
 eiliK ation. The regulations ^overniiifj \(><atiorial depart- 
 ments in hij^li sch(H)ls in that state are strict in requiring 
 
 N 
 
 )'o\ 
 
m 
 
 AGKK ILTl'IUL EDlfATION 
 
 " tliut whrii conflict is uiiavoidaMc, or when, iis at plantin^^ 
 time, continuoiis application for u conMMulive niunlxT of 
 <lays to his projwt U'conuvs n«'<'cssarj', all t-l."* must yirid 
 to tlic |>upirs |>ro|M'r aKriciillnral instruction, no matter at 
 what cost for the time In-iiiK to his other studies." 
 
 Ihcrc arc two distinct parts to this projc<t plan: the first 
 is pHKluctivc farm-work suiMTvis*-*! hy tlu> instructor; and 
 the M'coiid isstinly dinntly related to that prcKluctive x'^'ork. 
 'I'he formal class instruction cov»ts ahoul four sprin^^ 
 months and al)oul two motiths in tlie fall. The in.structor's 
 primary husiness in the sununer (he takes his vm-ation (hir- 
 ing the winter) is to ke*-]) in tlic clo.s«>st inissihle touch with 
 the iiome proJtH-Ls of the pupils; and the fre<juency with 
 w lii<ii he visits them is determiiu-<l chiefly l>y the distance 
 he iui.s to travel. For exam|)le. one in.structor is known to 
 ruU' a cinuit of l»etween fifty and si.xty luiles. The short- 
 est cjrcuit taken is ahout thirty miles. 
 
 Aeeordiu^ to a re|M)rt of the state a^ent for a^icultural 
 education, out of a fjroup of twenty-live l)oys, five from 
 each of fiv«' .s<;h<H>ls, two earned more than $,'MM) each, 
 twelve earne<l mon- than ij^-i^HJ. anil only thn-e earned less 
 than !i<HM)from their home-proj«H't work in V.)\'i. The total 
 earnings of the twenty-five pupils ex(ree<led $50(H). The 
 lii^jhest net profit, after the pupil had paid him.self for his 
 ow n laltor and had met all other ex|)en.ses in eouneetion w ilh 
 his crop, was .'i<'i7().'i4. This pui»il had paid himself iJlOO.Oi 
 for lal><>r, and had paid others of his family for laUjr, usi' of 
 land, anil other si-rvices. $771. M). The total imome of the 
 farm from his home projeit. which was the handling of 
 twelve ilair>' cows from NovemU'r 7 to June 7, was $1 150.- 
 7o. In addition, this lK>y, eijjhteen years of age, was al- 
 lowed hy his father for other farm-work done at home the 
 sum of *it)(). Thus, the l>oy's income from farm-work for 
 the |K»riod mentioned was $579.46.' 
 
 ' 'I'll.- M:i-iv:i, IniM'tts lliirTK-Prnjcrt Flan of Vix-ational A^'ri(■Illt^lral 
 K<lur.ili..ii. I iiitr.l St.iUa Uun.au of Education. Bulletins I'Jlt. 
 
SK(()M)AUV EDITATION IN A(;UI< ll/n UK Hj 
 
 This comMnution of nl^^itl^; atxl learning' \«il| solvi' 
 many of the ecotiomir «!i(fi(iilt i«s of t lir iivrriiK*- fariu yniilli. 
 Kvcti those who diil not liavc such sur<«'ss as (hf l\v«-iify- 
 fivc riK'iifiotU'd ••aninl soim-thin^', aixi l«-ariu-<l valual.le 
 l<>soiis iK'si.Irs. 'I'hr siiialh-st aiiioiint i-unu-*! was 1^7.00 
 from a ono-fifjlith-arrc «arih'n. krpt so ranfiilly an<| Ix-au- 
 tifiilly that th«- laljor cost ran up far too hijjh for •Morioriiic 
 pnMhi<ti«)n. ("onsiilcrril from every |M)irit of view, the 
 lioiue-l)roj«'et phui, the siictH'ss of whirh (lefw-nds on the 
 most careful sufH-rvisioti. s<'ein.s to offer great iKWsibiJitiea 
 in setondury agrituHural education. 
 
 fl 
 
 li 
 
 i I 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 a/:V 
 
H 
 
 CIIAPTEIl IX 
 
 THE AOItlCLLTrUAL ( OLLEOE 
 
 TilK first agricultural colio^f on the North American con- 
 timiit was founded in 1K.>7. Now even.' state in the I'nion 
 and everv' province in tlie Dominion has one or more well- 
 r<|uipjKMi colh^es. These coliefjes have had a strenuous 
 fij^ht for existence and for recofjnition. Tliey have had to 
 train their own professors, to create a Ixxly of kiunviedj^e 
 and fxive it pedji^jogie form, to hreak down the contempt 
 of the practical farmer, and to secure the sympathy of hos- 
 tile educators. Xotwithstandinj; the difficulties that have 
 iK'set their path, they have now estahlished themselves on 
 u sure foundation and have justified their creation. 
 
 THi: PIRPOSK OK TIIK LAND flHANT rOI,LKf:F.S 
 The ohject of the orij^inal land fjrant. hy wliicli tli' nl- 
 le^es were establislied in the I'nited States, was expressed 
 in the broadest |M)ssiltle terms us follows: "To the endow- 
 ment, sui)port, and maintenance of at least one colUj^e, 
 where the leadinj^ ohjt-et shall 1k', without exeludiuH other 
 scientific and classical studies, and incluilinj^ military' tac- 
 tics, to teach such branches of leamuif? as are related to 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the 
 Icfjislatures of the states may resjKrtively prescriJK', in 
 onler to promote the lilx-ral and practical education of the 
 industrial classes in the several inirsuits and professions in 
 life." ' 
 
 This paripraj)!! has J)een the cause of much discussion. 
 SiMiator Morrill, the author of the bill, was quite clear in his 
 own mind a-s to the puri)ose for which these colleges were 
 
 ' Agriviltural Ediiratinn. M(in<i^;raph li. i;iluc:itiou ia ibc Iniltd 
 Statts. St. Louia KxiKiaitiim, I'JUl. 
 
If 
 
 p^ 
 
 f, 
 
 ) 
 
 -t 
 
 THE AGRICrLTlTlAL COLLEGE U7 
 
 rstaI)Iislio<l. On many (x-casions he sUtttl the ()l)je<t of {he 
 law in lanKiia«e which cannot Ik- niisun(ler.st(MHl. On one 
 ocvasion he said, "It is iMTliai)s mrdle.vs to say that these 
 colleges were not estal)li>ht.| for the soh- i)iinM)se of teach- 
 int: a;,'rienlture. Their t)hjeet was to pve an oi)porfnnity to 
 those en^'aged in agricultural pursuits toohtaiu some knowl- 
 ed^'e of the jjraetieal sciences relating to agriculture and 
 tlie mechanic arts: such as they could not then ohtaiu at 
 inn>t of our institutions called classical colleges, where the 
 lan^uaKes, Greek and Latin, French and (nrman, ahsorln-d 
 IKThaps two thirds of all the time of all the students in 
 coiluf^e." ' 
 
 In the title of the hill introduced l)y him on DecemlKT l.>, 
 1S7.'{, Senator Morrill called the instituti(ms "national 
 colleges for the advancement of general scientific and in- 
 dustrial education." and he used to say tliat the name 
 " agricultural college " would never have Ix'en api)lied, "ex- 
 (■•■I)f that it had haj)pene<J to suit the casual convenienct- of 
 an index clerk." Af;ain he said. "I should hope that no 
 farmer or mechanic would Ik? so illilx'ral as to wish to have 
 the monoi)oly of education in any of thes<> land->,'rant 
 colleges." They were intended to l)e. as Ezra Cornell said, 
 !!i>titutions "where any person can lind instruction in any 
 stu<ly."' 
 
 I he ori;,'inal land p-ant had two purposes in view: first, 
 the encouragement of educ; tion in the practical arts; and, 
 >econd, the stimulation of hxal supi)ort and interest. That 
 these two objects have been accomj)lished is shown by the 
 ri"i)utation the collet;es now hold, and by the large State 
 funds that are contributed towards their maintenance. 
 I'oreign observers of education on the North American 
 ' "iitinent have criticized adversely the American tendency 
 to S)end money on "bricks ami mortar" rather than on 
 nun. and to |)revent these funds from l)eing used in cx- 
 
 ' Agncultural Eduratinn. MonoRrai.h 1*. Ivlurution in the InitiJ 
 >;.it' >. Si. Louis E.\j«j^ilii)ii, IjDI. 
 
 til 
 
 
 
118 
 
 AGUICLLTIUAL EUUCATIOX 
 
 tniva^ratit projects it was expressly stipulated "that no 
 portion of tin' >ai<l fiiiul or iiitcrt-st tlicreoii shall 1)0 applit'd 
 (lirectly or indirfctiy, utnltr aii\ pr<t('ii(f w j:.itev«T, to the 
 purchase, erection, pre.->er\alion or rejKiir of any huildiug 
 or iiuildiuj^s." ' 
 
 Tin; STIU (KiLKS OF Till; I.AM) (IKANT ( OLLKGES 
 In view of the success of the colleijes. it is interesting to 
 read some of the early expressions used concerning them. 
 The older colleges looked with ( ciusiderahle disfavor upon 
 the intrusion of these institutions into what they con- 
 sidered their peculiar domain. ".\ waste of i)ul)Iic land 
 and of private fortunes"; "the ilreanis of aniiahle but 
 visionary enthusiasts"; "another illustration of the folly 
 of attempting to make a silk purse out of a sow's ear"; "a 
 jjroject analogous to the fantastic de\ ict; to extract gold 
 from sea water," and many others, wi're the expressions 
 ajjplied to them. 
 
 In a report presented hy the ( 'onnuis,-<ioner of Labor in 
 18!);}, the agricultural colleges are called "half-developed 
 colleges of agriculture and mechanics." lie places them 
 between the trade .schools and the technical colleges of 
 university grade, giving them a very indefinite and nonde- 
 script i)osition. This attitude was, perhajjs, not hostile to 
 tlie colleges, but al any rate it shows that they had not yet 
 achieved a recognized po.>ilion among the educational in- 
 stitutions of the country. 
 
 The State Sup»Tintendent of Education for Wisconsin, 
 in his report for 1S!».'5 i)k expressed grave doubts as to 
 whether the colleges had justified their existence. lie 
 argued that the State goes beyond its admitted duty of 
 training boys and girls for citizen.>hip when it attemj)ts lu 
 teach them trades and [»rofessions. It is then entering upon 
 the policy of absorption of individual rights and re.^ponsi- 
 
 ' .iijrirulliiral Kiluratiun. Monograph \i. Educatiun iu the United 
 States. St. Louis KxiHi.-itioii, IU04. 
 
^ 
 
 THE AGRirrLTlKAL COLLEGE lift 
 
 l.i'ilirs. and he flq)loros the fart that puMie opinion seems 
 If) l)e .s\vin>,Miig in that dinilion. 
 
 "It IS not easy," he say.s, "to ovcrrstiniate the importuiKv of 
 our farm idt.Tosts. aii.l any ag.-ricy that tends to impart t<i those 
 (•iiK'a>,'f<l in this purstiit that (|iii<kn»-ss of apprcln-ii.sion and ahrt- 
 n.—; of thoiiKlit that rharact.rizo lliosc cnKajjcd in mainifactnriiiK 
 ,ind <omm.T(ial .-nt.Ti.ri/cs. i> to h.- \\.l(om.-<i. Hut a^'ri. iiltiirc 
 is not a.s<ii'nc<-: it has no l.ody ,,f ,slal.lishiti dtKtritic tliat ma\ l)e 
 formiihiti'd and Un^hLas hiw or meiiiciii.' is tan;;!it. Math.inat- 
 ir.. s.irncc, lit.Tatur.-. hniKuaKcs. and alii<-,i topics arc the same 
 f(.r the farm hoy a.s for others. Nritli.T for liim nor for others is 
 tliiTi'u short cut or royal roail to learning. 
 
 "The power of roiuentrated thinking is the result of sev.Te and 
 I)rotraeti'«l mental training. Farmers nw-.! it a.s much as m<ii ia 
 other profe.s.sional pursuits, .\grieulture can offer no superior 
 facilities for the aecpiisition of mental power. In so far a.s these 
 s( liools resort to the same methods iis the literary colleges a.lopt. 
 It IS dimply a multiplication of agencies to .secure the same results. 
 The mstnictional force in our own agricultural college iWiseonsiti) 
 iiiNolves an < utlay of nearly 8-,>0.()(»0. and it has graduate.! iiiiie 
 stu.lents in ten years. The !a.st catalogue showed an attendance 
 of two. one of whom graduated in June. It .s<'cms ahsiird to rail 
 such a faculty with so many students a 'college.' .Vn aftendanco 
 at tlie dairy .sch(M>I of hoys from the farm for twelve weeks in the 
 winter gives them scant title to enrolment a.s university students, 
 ami affords little occupatiim t<j the i>rofe.s.sors." 
 
 Xot only were the teachers and (hrectors of educational 
 thoui:ht and inslitution.s opiMJsed to the eolIej;e.s, hut the 
 farmers thein.selves. for whom the eollcjies were hirgcjy (h-- 
 siLriM'd, hv.>!<ed upon them with <()nsiderahle <-ordempt. and 
 for many years they were hardly reganh-d seriously. 'I'he 
 opposition and indifTcrenee of the farmer have not yet en- 
 tirely disappeared, althom^'h now, perhaps, the opposition 
 Is taking' a different direction. In .several states it is now 
 contended that the money .spent on the maintenance of 
 the collejies would jiroduee greater results if it were de- 
 \"\i'<\ to amieultural instruction in tlie pultlic sck^oIs. 
 
 1 he leaders (»f the a^'ricultural eollegtvs and those who 
 liavt> the success and development of these colleges ut 
 
 1 i 
 
150 
 
 AGRICULTITIAL EDUCATION 
 
 licart, arc inclined to think that this opixjsition has prac (i- 
 cally ccasccl. \\v look at tin- ^Tcat pro^Tt-ss that has hern 
 niu<h', wc think of the infiiirnct' tliat the coUcges have rx- 
 crtccl on agricultural methods, we note the peneral interest 
 in aj^ricultural j'Ifairs, and this leads us to conclude that a 
 sta^'c lias heen reached when the whole situation can he re- 
 garde<l with coniplacency. That agreement or. this jMiint 
 has not heen reached, however, is shown by the fact that 
 |)rol)al)ly the most s<athing criticism to which the colleges 
 ha\c ever been subjected has lieen made within the last 
 four years. 
 
 ^M^:. 
 
 THE KEPORT OK THE CARNEGIE KOIND.KTION FOR THE 
 ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING 
 
 The Carnegie Foundaiion f<»r the Advancement of 
 Tea<hing, in its fourth annual report, considers in <l<tail 
 the teaching force and the function of these instilntions. 
 The following extracts, in almost the exact wording of the 
 report, will show its general attitude and will also enumer- 
 ate the charges: — 
 
 1. The colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts 
 have imitatetl, mainly, the old arts colleges and schools of 
 technology. 
 
 '■2. In nearly all the separate colleges of agriculture it 
 [engineering] has become the <lominant factor. . . . The 
 tendency in these institutions "has been to develoj) along 
 the lines of an engineering college." 
 
 3. No other colleges are so successful in taking the boy 
 from the farm and .sending him somewhere else. 
 
 4. The land grant colleges are "ojK'n to grave criticism 
 on the ground of low .standards." Boys go to agricultural 
 colleges for engineering "because they can obtain an edu- 
 cation cheaply and upon ea.sy entrance retjuirements." 
 
 .■>. The chief rea.son in all such cases is the desire for 
 numlxTs and the wish to impn'ss the legislatures. . . . The 
 must obvious iield for gelling students was the various 
 
THE AGRirrLTIRAL COLLEGE 
 
 151 
 
 u 
 
 Jiranrhcs of torhnolopj'. and in order to accomplish this, 
 tlic fcnn mechanic arts was conslruccl to mean hi|,'h-gradc 
 cnL'inocring. 
 
 0. The agricultural c<)Ilcf,'o in nearly cverj' state (lei)Iete3 
 the lii^'h s<h<M)l to ma^'uify its own caus*-. In every case 
 the result is educational demoralization. 
 
 7. Si)eakinK' to the professors of the colleges, the rep<irt 
 says: "There is a wide divergence amongst yourselves as 
 to what your pun)ose is in education. There is no unity 
 ,is to what your mission is, as to what your relations to 
 education are to Ik-. ... Is the work of the agricultural 
 college that of a college or that of an agricultural trade 
 school?" 
 
 8. Agriculture and similar sul)je<>ts intro4luce<| into the 
 secondary schools must remain "studies for general train- 
 ing." 
 
 Ix-t us now consider these charges for the purpose of 
 seeing how far they are Imrne out by the facts and the 
 conditions that exist. 
 
 THE FACTS IN THE CAHE 
 
 The influence of the old arts colleges. — The colleges of 
 agriculture and mechanic arts were really estaLlished 
 as a protest, though not .so stated, again.st the old-time 
 • djlege, but this protest could not lie put into efTcctivo 
 working order at once. The entire educational structure 
 liiid been reared upon the old tyjK' of college. It was the 
 only type the jK'ople knew, so it was quite natural that it 
 .should l)e taken as the starting point. The <lemand grew 
 for an education that should confer on men and women the 
 ability to do things, and as rajjidly as the needs were dis- 
 covered the colleges adaptetl thems<'lves to meet them. It 
 is (iilH( lilt to form an estimation of the educational condi- 
 tions that existed fifty years ago, when the agricultural 
 cnllc^rcs were estal)Iishe(i. There was hiiniiy a |)opular de- 
 ni.ind for education, and even to-<lav iiianv s<hcK»ls that 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
1.52 
 
 AGRICnTrRAL EDrCATION 
 
 have been rstahli.slio<l to pivc industrial trniniriR are only 
 partially filled with students. The demand for the kind of 
 instruction that the eolh-ges were prepared to give had to 
 be create*! by the colleges themselves. 
 
 Is cvginccririy the dmninant factor Y — We are told that 
 enghuH-ring has In-en the dominant factor, but the figures 
 available do not Ijear out this contention. During the years 
 19(W-1909, the increa.se in the numlnT of students taking 
 agriculture was 188 jH-r cent, while the increa.se in engineer- 
 ing wa.s (iO (KT cent. In the four years lytW to 1909. the in- 
 crea.se in the numl)er of students in the degree courses in 
 engineering wsus 34 f)er cent, and the increase iu the degree 
 cours<\s in agriculture Wiis 140 [H>r cent.' 
 
 At the time the colleges were established, agriculture 
 was largely regarded as a one-profe.s.sor subjec-t. One pro- 
 fessor, it was generally thought, could teach the subject, aa 
 another man could teach language or mathematics. The 
 subject has now l^een divided into various departments, 
 each one of which now offers more courses than the entire 
 subject of agriculture required even fifteen years ago. For 
 example, the Agricultural College at Cornell I'niversity 
 offered three subjects in agriculture in 1890, 37 in 1900 
 lf.9in 1910. and ^.34 in 1914; and this has been the tend- 
 ency in all the colleges. 
 
 Progress has also been made, of course, in engineering, 
 but the comparative growth has bet^n much greater in 
 agriculture. It is no doubt true that during the early years 
 students in attendanc-e in the mwhanic-arts courses in- 
 orea.setl more rapidly than tho.se in attendance at the agri- 
 cultural courses; but this was due largely to the condition 
 of agnc ilture at the time and to the enormous develop- 
 ment of the mec-hanical industries. Farms were mortgaged, 
 hours of labor were long and hard, and it was n;)t the ambi- 
 tion of the farmer to have his son remain on the farm. The 
 
 tio'n^T ''"i""f"'^^rT'"^ AgriculturHl Colkgos an.l Kxjxrimenl Sta- 
 tions. Iwtnty-fourth .\nnual Htport. 
 
THE AGRirrLTTRAL COLLEGE i.',!i 
 
 (levrlopment of the industries loci to the idea that the fu- 
 ture of the coutitry Injy lay in their direitioii. 
 
 Talcing the youth from the farm. -The next item in the 
 eount is the charge that the aprieultural eolU-^'os arc tak- 
 iuL' yuun^ [MH>f)le from the faru< and M«ndin>: them sonie- 
 wh.re else. With this arpiment some symf)athy must f)o 
 e\i>res.s<Ml. hut it is l)ase«J on a misapj.n-hension of the funr- 
 tini. of the oone^e. It is diffieult to ohtain definite sta- 
 tistics of the actual numbers of students returning; to the 
 farm; hut it is admitted that many of the gra.luates do n(.t 
 take up i)ractieal farming. A professor of the Ontari<» 
 Agricultural (.'ollege .siiys: — 
 
 A yoiiiiK man c-onios to the rollcR, from an Ontario farm. If 
 li.' (I.tidi-s uiH.n the four-y.-ar(ours«-. th.-re is smull cluuio- that he 
 r.tiiriis to the farm. The four-year eours«- fits hirii for on.- of the 
 many hrancli.-s of |.rof.-ssional work, and at thr same time opt-ns 
 Jus ,y.s to th.- .n.sahilitits of farming;. The Manic for th.- dire, tioti 
 of his ( }ioic<> h.-s. not in tlic .-.lii.ation he has Kainci. t.ut in the 
 • ..i.ditions .)f farm hf... Cntil thes.- are t).-tt.T th.- aRrinilturai 
 (.'ll.-i:.- nml not Im- t'xiKtf.-<i to s«Tve as a n-irtjiting ground fur 
 tlif farms any more Uiau the university. 
 
 Of the 1913 graduates of this college, less than twenty 
 p<r cent returned to the farm. 
 
 This opinion is frank, hut it omits any reference to the 
 work of improving the f.irm conditions complained of, 
 which the graduates might reasonably be expected to do. 
 There is no doubt that the founders of these colleges had 
 tlic idea in mind that they would, among other things, 
 trim the youth of the country to enter upon farming and so 
 :isvi-it in the solving of the problems of the farm. 
 
 The mission of the college, however, is to train leaders, 
 niei) who can control, direct, and inspire. P:ngaged in work 
 of this kind, these men do much more to improve the con- 
 dition of agriculture than if they returned directly to the 
 farm. The colleges should not Ik- judged by the numbers 
 tliey return to the farm, but by the general improvement 
 Hiey have effec-ted in agricultural practice and methods. 
 
]jl 
 
 AC.UIcrLTTRAF- EDrCATIOX 
 
 Lmr Mnnihirdu of nilniission. — We nrr also t<)l(J that 
 tlirsc Iari(l-^;r;nit coIIc^ms liavc (Icinur.ili/fd ciliicalinii liy 
 tlic mainfciiaticc of Iciw staiidanls of admission. That 
 standards have Ixth low is f nir to some i-xtcnt, hut it iinist 
 h«' ri'tiu'iMlxred that diiriim tlic tarly y<'ars of the cxi^triico 
 of the collr^cs th«To were few secondary schools through- 
 out the country in whicli any propor education conhl he 
 olilaltu'd that would (pialify for a<hnission to the colhycs. 
 The older institutions had heen in I'xistcnce for a genera- 
 tion |)revi()us to tlie estahlishinent of the colleges and were 
 jM>pular enough to insist upon a fairly liigh standard of ad- 
 mission and yet ohtain a satisfactory nuinlwr of studt-nts. 
 Tlie standards had to he fixed according to the educational 
 conditions existing in the respective states. These stand- 
 ards, however, have heen continually raised. Conditiotisof 
 admission were made c;isy, not from a desire to establish 
 low stanilards hut simply from the necessity of meeting 
 existing conditions until those conditions should Ik* im- 
 prf)ved. The strongest of the colleges now require the eom- 
 j)letion of the regular four-year high-.school course, and the 
 tendeniy in all others is to fix this standard as rapidly as 
 conditions will j)ermit. 
 
 Tftr desire for numbcr.^i. — The desire for numbers is said 
 to he the reason for the low standard, and the desire for 
 numlxTs is said to he for the purjHKse of impressing the 
 legi.slatures. May it not l)e that the low standards were 
 adoj)ted, not for the rake of the institution it.self, but for 
 the purjMKse of affonling opi)ortunity to a larger number of 
 young men to get the training they had hitherto lacked.' 
 This as.suredly is the fact of the mattt-r. Mistakes have 
 been made in these institutions, and even now, with half 
 a centur5''s experience, conditions are far from ideal; but 
 this they share with every other educational institution in 
 the countrj'. 
 
 Lack of (Kjreevient among professors. — The Foundation 
 states that there is lack of agreement as to the scope, func- 
 
' 
 
 THE AGRirrLTIRAL TOLLEGK 
 
 155 
 
 tion, .and purpose of tlicso collcprs anion^; tlioso who arr in 
 cli.irL'r- This may liavr lircii lriu> of coiKlitioiis a^ tlicy r\- 
 i-tr<l a quarter of a century af:o; and any attoinpt iiiailr to 
 introduce unifonnity at tliat time would have wn-iked the 
 wlinle movement. Conditions in the several states were 
 dilFirent, and phiiis were wisely left to the local le^'i.>Ia- 
 tiirt'S. It must he admitted that for many years there was 
 no intimate relationshij) lM'twi>en the professors, hut they 
 cMdijiied an entirely new field and snITered all llie hard- 
 slii|)s (tf the pioni-er. They were without any or^ranization 
 to jtromote their interests. With the formation of the 
 ".\s>(Miati<Hi of American -V^'ricultural Colle^'es and Kx- 
 piTiment Stations," in 1887. this condition was rapidly 
 ( li.iMued. The a.s.soeiation entered into the freest dis<'us>ion 
 of all topics relating; to the collej^es and (juickly hrou^dit 
 order out of chaos. There are, of course, still {lifTerences, 
 hut there is also suhstantial a>:reoment on policy, aims, and 
 Jiielliods, and conditions are hcinp standardized as rapidly 
 lis the circumstances of each college warrant. 
 
 Ilan ogrirullure no rocational value? — The last assertion, 
 that agriculture and similar .studies introduced into the 
 .secondarj- .s<'h(K)ls must remain "studies for general tniin- 
 iiii:," and that they can have no vcwational value, strikes 
 ill the root of the whole que ion of industrial training for 
 Vocational puq)oses. On the contrarj-, it is the i)revalcnt 
 lielief to-day that these suhje* ts should l>e given the great- 
 e>t possihie utility or vwatioral value. The old «><lucation 
 was admittedly for the few who intended to enter the 
 < hurch or the professions. .\ man's .status was determined 
 l>y his rank in society. At Vale the practlec of arranging 
 the students in the annual catalogue according to the rank 
 of tlieir parents was not discontinued until 17(i7. and at 
 Harvard not until three years later. The alphabet is now 
 tin respecter of jMTsons. The new education represented hy 
 the laufl-grant colleges is for all who can avail themselves 
 of it. These colleges stand fur equal educational opi)crlu- 
 
l.-,fi 
 
 ACHIcn/IIKAI, i;i)l CATION 
 
 IP 
 
 riil.v, for ;i r.itir»ti:il foriiMri.ifion f»f tin- pr.ictical nnd t! 
 (•iillnriil. .111.1 a piicnil a-laptatimi lo tin- lurds and rv- 
 qiiirt'iiu-nts <if iinMlcm lift-. 
 
 TIIK H ri UK OF TIIK A(.K|i II.TI KM. < OI.I.KHF.S 
 
 If is iiuw iMTlinciil foc..ii,i.|..r «liat is t.. I,,. H,,. fu,,. Ii..n 
 an<l |)iiriM>.>r ..f llic.sc .ollcps in tlir fiitim-. UV arc all 
 ready to adiriil somrf liiii},' ,,f disaj.iK)ititiiiciif in »lic ronlls 
 tlial liavc I»<'«'n adiicv.-d l.y f lie (oil, -^..-s in t;i\ in^' dircd cd- 
 iicatinn alon^; a^'ririiltnra! lines f.> ||„- ^nui mass of farni- 
 «Ts. Tlic constant raisinj; of entrance re(|uirenients. to 
 make til,. in e.pial to I liuM- of the older institutions of lii^;|,cr 
 h-arnin^;. lias to a lar^'c extent n-ndored it inij)o>siMe for 
 Ihein to perf<.rni that service. The early discussions show 
 v<ry clearly that direct fmicfical instruction to the work- 
 ing farmer (and mechanic) was one of the emls in \ieu-. It 
 seems to have I.een a mistake to attem|)t to <]o this through 
 n four-year course. Neither tue farmer nor the mechanic, 
 in till- present economic condition of s<k icty. \viin)e al>le 
 to avail himself of provisions <.f this character, and other 
 nieth(.dsmustl»ef(.und. In view of the chanf^ed conditions, 
 
 it would seem that tlie collej^es >-| Id now direct their 
 
 work so that they may accomplish the following en<ls. each 
 one of which includes many subordinate lines of ,.tr,,rt : — 
 Coiir.-^rs uf roUniiatc (jradc. — The four-year courses lead- 
 in-; to a dej,Tee should he nuide of real collegiate jrrad;-. and 
 the requirements for admission nnisl W the successful com- 
 pletion r.f a four-year course at an ai)i)roved high s<h()ol. 
 This will mean that the preparatory courses, the r-our.se.s 
 of secondary grade, and the various short courses, must 
 he sharply dilferentiated from the collegiate courses. Hy 
 adopting this plan the numhers in attendance will pro!)ahly 
 he reduced, hut this may not prove a disadvantage, for the 
 smaller da.sMs will result in heiter work being done; and 
 many who would enter under easier conditions may he in- 
 duced to take courses better suited to their abilities. 'I'he 
 
THE AGIIICI LTIHAL ('()LLE(;E 
 
 l.>7 
 
 \v..rk of rii.'Uiy cullt ^.'c clasM's lias l>o(>ii rnalrri.illy liiii.|<T<«I 
 l.y tlic |)n's«'n<r in IIhiu of stiulmts who wen- itiMilIii i.iillv 
 tin pared ami wrrr tlitnfon- uiiaMc to <arry llic work 
 olFtTrd. Tilt' piiriMisr of llif collcp'-^'radc coiirMS slioiild 
 111' fo develop leaders ami feacliers of the lii^'lie>t <|iara(f<r. 
 1 In- <oiirs< s should l>e so arraii^'ed as to eiialde a person to 
 ..l.taiii u broad itlea of the whole farming proMiiu. on the 
 oiii' hand, and to ^rive him the fullest kiujwledp- of ,otne 
 s|>e(i,d hratieli. oji the other. 
 
 ( 'han^'es in eeoiioniic and .s<m iai coiMJitions have rendered 
 n.w suhjeets necessary, and many that an- now superfi- 
 cially dealt with, if at all, will reijuire much nion* attention. 
 The farm is not a se|)ar.ue entity. It is a (tart of the hody 
 jx.iitic. The economic and s(M-ial n-lation.s which it Ix-ars 
 to tlial !)ody are at presi-nf practiially untouched in the 
 c. II, jfe courses, although the terms "rural economic s"' and 
 "rural sociolo^ry" are lwinmis«-d in the |l^o^;^amsof stu.lies. 
 Duriri;,' the past twenty years a larp- l>o.iy of knowie'l^'c, 
 uliirhis larKely iinu.srd. Iia.s Urn develojM-d aloti^' these 
 lines, and this knowK-dge is more iiniMirtunt in .some 
 .-jHi ts than much of the infornuition on erop-pr<Mliieti( 
 t hat is now being imparted. Uurul ccxmoniic.s is as impor- 
 tant to tlie study of agriculture as chemistry or botany. The 
 MX iaI relations of the agricultural community will have to 
 be studied much more closely, and the college student must 
 Ik- taught how to discover for him.st-lf the e.\act social and 
 »-< ■>nomi(- status of the region in which he is to Ik- placed. 
 
 The collegiate course, if it is to do its work and fill an 
 ur;:enf need, will have to develop leaders and investigators. 
 As Hailey says, in sjieaking of the besi tyix- of (-oll<ge, 
 "it nuist stand broadly ft)r rural .servi(-e. It must include 
 uithin its activities such a range of subjects as will enable 
 it to de\(-Iop an entire philosophy of country life." 
 
 Sliiirt spcciul courses. — An important function at [)res- 
 ctit performed by the college is the giving of courses of 
 lower than college grade to jK-rsous who are unable or un- 
 
 i!' 
 
 I! 
 
I,»H 
 
 A(.1U( TF/n HAL I;DI CATION 
 
 williti« to take the lonpT roiirsrs. It is liuprd (Iiaf flu's 
 Jiiintioii is (.Illy a trmporary (.iir, aii<i that as sccmidary 
 «'<lii<ali(iM ill aL'riciiltiirc drvrlnps. it uill lucninc ulmlly 
 iiiitH«-.s,ary. Iliiis alluwirm tlic (..Hearts to (jrvotr lliciii- 
 srlvrsc iilircly to pal (oljc;;.- work. Tlu-sr sln.rt cniirsrs aro 
 «>f lu(. kinds: intcusivr coiirMs d«\<.t<-d to tin- sliidv of 
 siM'«iaIsiilij<'<ts,aMd^'«'rMTalroiirM-s. 'Ilu- former arc carrird 
 on for piriods of from two wcrk^ |,, thn-r montlis. and are 
 usually li.i<| dliriiij; tli«> winter. The latter are desi;;iied for 
 thoxe yoiin^r men and women who lia\«' dec ided to take np 
 farniin« as an o<< iipation. and they usually rontinue for 
 one or two years, (ireat care should Im- taken in i.lannin^' 
 these courses. As the majority of these students p. l.,wk to 
 the farm, the instruction sliouhl U' de>ipi«-d to he of im- 
 mediate practical u.se and to fit them for tli.- iKxsitions tluy 
 intend to <H(ui)y. 
 
 Tniinlmi Inichrrs. — Am.llier imiH.rtant function which 
 the collej,'es may perform is the training' of teachers. It has 
 •sometimes (.een conten<led that our educational system 
 .started at the wronj; end of the siale. an<l that undue stress 
 lias l.ei'n plaee<l u[)on the un v«'rsily and the colle^'e; hut 
 the history of education and civilization shows that now 
 methods and knowl«-df;e have originated in tlio higher in- 
 stitutions of learning and have then >,'radually permeated 
 the whole educational system. The teachers of the lower 
 .mIiooIs must receive their i)rofe.ssional training' and in- 
 tellectual stimulus in .schools of hif.'her >,'rade if proj^ress is 
 to l>e made. Thus in any movement for the hetferment 
 of rural and afrricultural conditions we must look to the 
 agricultural college and the university as our source of 
 know ledge and inspiration. The w hole sul.j(H-t of the train- 
 ing of teachers is of great importance and w ill be dealt with 
 .separately. 
 
 rxtrnsinn srrricr. — Since it is manifestly impossil.le for 
 the majority of working farmers to attend the college, and 
 as it is also evident that they could not be accommodated 
 
1 
 
 ': 
 
 4 
 
 THE A(;UKIITrRAL r()I.I.K(iK 
 
 ]:,o 
 
 if tli.y WfTc toaffrnd. it i«s«Irarly thrrliify i.f »Im-s«> itislilu- 
 ti..ri^ tn p. ti> (he f;irnirr. Most of tlu' colltxTN Iiii\,. i„,w 
 w. II ort.'aiiiz««| cxtfiisiun (Irpartiiu-nt.s wliich an- doin^; tli,. 
 unrk rlfn tivtiy. Hiil Ihrrr an- yrt a lar>:r niiiiilHT of 
 f.mii.rs who Fiiiv*' not Im-<'ii n ;h lir<i. aiui it i-, npoti llicMi 
 fliat ilFortsshoiiM now In- coiicmtratcd. 'I'Im- coll.ps |ij,v»> 
 li.iil mort' Micrrss in takitl^' tin- <olIr;.'r to the farmer llian 
 tli.y have had in p-llin^' thr farnirr to the (olj.u'c. All thr 
 (<.||<C(s an- now nc omiizin^ the iiii(>ortari(i- of the work. 
 and a s«parat»- chapter will Ix' nc«.ss;iry to d<M riln-. ivcii 
 partially, the various a;,'encic.s «Tni)|oy«'<|. 
 
 hiitMiijaliim ami nw/rr/i. — Another function of the 
 <ol!(-e is the •lis<-<)very of new and more prolilal.Ie inelh- 
 od- of jirodiietion, disfril)nfion, and transportation. The 
 <\periiii.-nt stations stand at the head <if any eonii)hte 
 N li.iiie of airri<ullnral edncalii.n. altliouj;h the rexareh 
 uork is not usually regarded as part of such a srhcnie. 
 S.i.iiliiic training and rescan h, how.-ver. coniliined with 
 Iira< li( ;d demonstration of the work done, are the sum and 
 siil.stance of any nal af,'ricultural pro^Tess. rrimarily, of 
 cniir>e. the experiment station is an organization for the 
 a. (juiMtion of knowledge rather than for its di.stril.ution; 
 I'lit uidess the knowhflge thus .seeure«l is pro|KTly dis- 
 .■ril.utcd great results cannot l>e ex|K-cted. The continu- 
 aiK f iiud pcTmanence of research is now assured, and it re- 
 iiiains to put its results into the hands of those who have 
 tilt aliility and the opixirtunity t.. u>e them. 
 
 Dissnnhintiim of rxistifuj hmuluhir. — Then" is in ex- 
 1-1' nee a large hody of simple, easily adaptal.je. scientific 
 kiinniclge which has not yet reached the jwople for whom 
 It 1- cvprcially suited. Researc-h is being made into every 
 iTaiich of agriculture, and it is an economic niH-esMty that 
 tlie knowledge which has heen accumuiufed and which is 
 '■ ing adde.l to daily shall he utilized to the fullest extent. 
 I rnrii a j)urely l>ii.>iness standix.inl. every agricultural 
 '"llcge sliould have a departmeut of pul.li( ily or informa- 
 
KiO 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 tion, not for tlic jjiirpose of advortisinj,' the collope, hut for 
 the i)iir[)OM- of sliowirig the farmer that hy the ai)i)neatioii 
 of the iiicthodN diseovered l)y the eollege he ean ex{)e<t to 
 senire (.Tcater returns from his lalxirs. 
 
 The pul)n<ity eoiiiinittee of the \ew York State A^ri- 
 eultural S(Kiety says in its last annual reix)rt: — 
 
 We would sucKfst that the rliaimian of thf i)uf)li<ity com- 
 mittee !)<■ a [)ai-l crnpluvce of tlic Stale, and in tlie Department 
 of Agrieiiitiire under the direet supervision of the Comnii.ssi<>ner; 
 that he devote his entire time to New York State aKricullnral 
 pul.lieity; that sii< li work inchid< the e<htinK ami s<Mnliiig uut to 
 newspapers of the state articles of interest on asrienlfural suh- 
 jeets in the form of plate matter for their eonvenient us*-; the 
 I)reparation of macazitie articles and advertisements; tlie suK>;est- 
 iii« of plans for New York State exliil.its in the ditrereiil states; 
 the.-oiiihictiriirof a l.ii,' land show ia New York City. dev.,t.i| rx'. 
 (•lusively to New ^'ork Slate and articles made from New York 
 State aK'ricnItnral pro<hicts. and illnstratinj; suKjects and matter 
 IHTtainiiif; to New York state airricnltnre.' 
 
 The extension d(>partnient of the A^rieultural College of 
 North Dakota supplies nearly tliree hundred newspapers, 
 magazines, and agrieultural journals, with literature aiuj 
 observations written with the express puriK)se of Ixing of 
 direct service to their rural c-onstiluents. Many other col- 
 leges are doing a similar kind of work. The matter prv- 
 pared for the press should he of two kinds: the technical, 
 and what may he cidled the s<x-ial, since it deals with rural 
 institutions and social relationships. Up to the present 
 the former has largely monopolized attention, hut it is now 
 being rea.gnized that the .smial asj)ects of country life 
 have large influence on both the character of the iK)pida- 
 lion and the agriculture j)ractised in the region. 
 
 More than five hu..,lred i)eriodicals are now devoted to 
 agriculture, and the amount of agricultural literature avail- 
 
 ' New York State A«ri(iilliiral S<Ki.ty; tVcwfr.lintrsof f licTSnt \nwnd 
 Alc'tini;. HuU.-tiu 47. New York State Departmeut of .Vgritulturc. 
 AIL-uDy. 
 
THE AGRICILTUR.VL COLLEGE 161 
 
 al)l'' for free distrihution has more than douhlccj within tlic 
 |)ast five years. It may Im' argued that suHi<-ient puliHcity 
 has l)een secured; hut t here are new fields in nt>ed of cultiva- 
 tion. The progressive farmer is well supplied and knows 
 h..\v to o!)tain information when he neefls it. It is the indif- 
 ferent farmer who must be reaelied, and new metho<ls of 
 nrniiation and advertisement must be devised to acct^m- 
 plish that end. 
 
 •Vuthoritative work of this charaeler will do much to 
 .in.iise the general |)ublie. What has been ealletl "the 
 rcportorial style of literature" must be avoided. Many 
 bri^'ht sj>ots and many exami)les of remarkable sueee.ss are 
 in be found .s«-atlered through theeountry, and lhe.se have 
 been exploited as though they were typical instead of ex- 
 ceptional; but this is imsleading. N„ business succxmIs 
 without proiM-r and judicious advertising, and the work of 
 the loUeges is not likely to prove an exception. 
 
 TIIF imO.\DEn PROnLEMS AW.XITIXO THE (•()1,LE(;E 
 
 The general accusation leveled against the majority of 
 educational instituti<.ns is that they have not nuxlified 
 their methods to meet modern re(|uirements. In .some de- 
 gre.' this is applicable to the agricultural colleges. The 
 cnlicges have done a great deal it) certain lines, but their 
 \\ ork has bwn largely restricted to methods of pnxluction. 
 ^Mllle production will always reipn're attention, owing to 
 the rapid increase of po[>ulaf ion. there are other .subjects 
 tliat should receive c<insiderably more attention than has 
 .\'t b,>en bestowed upon them. As a result of the rapid 
 •l.vclnpment of agricultural teaching in the ehinentary 
 >' hnols. high .schools, and s|.e<-ial .schools, it may be as- 
 >'nm-d that definite technical in.struction in agricultural 
 pHK-esses will become somewhat less nec-essar\- in the col- 
 l'u'<><. thus enabling theni to devote their atteiiticm to 
 other subjects which are of great e<.-onomie importance to 
 'lie fanner. 
 
 I 
 
 IIS 
 
IGi 
 
 AGRICULTIRAL EDUCATION 
 
 Prolili ni.s (if Iransjtortultdti. — Instruction relating to 
 ihcIIkmIs of transportation, inthiding railways, i-lcctric 
 roads, waf^on roads, and water-ways, sliould he j?ivcn. The 
 farnirr does not make liis profit prii irily at the j)oint of 
 production, hut at the j>oint of consumption; and the dif- 
 ference l>etween profit and loss often lies hetween these two 
 |)oints. No matter how good the railways may he, if the 
 fanner has difficulty in hauling his |)roduct to the point of 
 shipment he is not alile to lake fuM advantage of the rates 
 tlu'v offer. Considerations of f ransj)orlalion have heen 
 hirgely centered on railways, and to a less extent on water- 
 ways, and until recently wagon roads have heen wholly 
 ignored. A had road is a fa.\ on every ton of produce 
 hauled over it; it increases the lhree-mil«' haul to ten, the 
 time re<iuired for ilie trip Irom one hour to three; and it 
 shortens the life ot fh*- team and soon renders the wagon 
 a wreck. \Vithoul adecjuale tnuisporfjition facilities, agri- 
 cultural d.rvelopnient is impussihle; and for this rea.son 
 the colleges should deal with the prohlem in an eflecfive 
 manner. 
 
 Prohfcnis of distrthnlioii. — Another question not yet 
 satisfactorily dealt with is the prohlem of distrihution. 
 The hasic prohlem here is how to hring ahout a readjust- 
 ment that will give to the farmer a full and just proportion 
 of the amount the consumer pays for the {)roduce. Accord- 
 ing to the I'nited States Department of Agriculture, it 
 costs approximately fifty-five per cent of the price paid hy 
 the consumer to deliver the product of the farm to the con- 
 sumtT"> kitchen. Is th- re not .st)niewliere an unnecessary 
 leakage and waste in our system of dis(ril)uling and mar- 
 keting? The remedy for tfiis loss is one that has heen 
 often proposed, namely, coiiperation. 
 
 riie .\merican farmer is the only class of gn-al economic 
 imporlanee w ho is not effici«'nlly organized for his o»\u pro- 
 tection and progress. lie huys and sells and contlucts all 
 his husiness operations as an individual. He must accept 
 
THE AGRICCLTLILVL COLLEGE ig3 
 
 fur Lis ,,n,duct.s the price fixed by a well-organized IhmIv 
 of .■..nu.nss.on menhants. De.nnark has ,,oi„te<l the way 
 (.. remedy thi.s eon.lifioM. In eon.M.lering her example we 
 are foreed to the eoneiusion that the suece.s>ful ado,,tion of 
 tl... ,.nn(),,!e.s of cooiH-ration de,H<nds n,,o„ the spirit of the 
 I..<-I.l.«. 1 he s,„rit n-,,„in-.l has nut yet W^u develope<l in 
 the Amenean farmer. Herein lies one of the neglected on- 
 I.urt,m>t,es of the college. A consideration of this question 
 i'uu ves the tariff, the function of the nnM,lIen,an, an.! a 
 num her of other problems which the colleges have only 
 li^'htly touched. ^ 
 
 Application of correct bu.vnes.H methods to the farm — The 
 "■I .vrs slumld also devote attention to the application of 
 curr, rt business n^et hods and the development of sin,,,Ie 
 >y ins of bookkeeping for the farm. If the other indus- 
 In. , of the country were eon.lucted on the s.me basis that 
 "I'tains ,n agriculture, many of them would be bankrui.t 
 ^^•'Inn a month. The farmer has not received th-eonsider- 
 "ti"" in finam-ial circles that his business warrants He 
 < M-mut obtain money, either for ,>ermanent impn>vement, 
 "r fur temporary necessities, on the same terms as the 
 'Manufacturer or the merchant. The colleges shouhl fake 
 l'"l'l of this question of the farmer's credit and develop a 
 
 -s.vstem that will meet the peculiar conditions of fhecounfry 
 '"Id place the business of agriculture on a financial fm.f ing 
 '■'^•''""'"surate with its importance to the national welfare 
 Ilxira.ning of leaders. - So many courses are already 
 j-'ivrn ,„ the agricultural and mcvhanical colleges that one 
 iHMtates to recommend an ad.litional one; but the groun.l 
 'J "ut yet fully covered. It is now generally admitted that 
 '■ "'■'- purpose of the colleges is the training uf Ica.lcrs. 
 '-I" f...|d that most urgently requires leaders is. the general 
 " ' ..rrnent o countr>- life. The curse for training leaders 
 'n <ountry hfe should include the prindples of rural e<o- 
 -'".n.cs, rural education, rural church management, rural 
 r" rratiun, rural society and rural organizations generally. 
 
 t 
 
 itJ 
 
ir>4 
 
 AGUICl LTIUAL EDKATION 
 
 and should |)rcpare men to taki- a Iradiiij; part in solvin 
 tlu" proMcin "of dcveloi)uij,' and maintaining' on our farm 
 a civilization in full harmony with the best America! 
 ideals." 
 
 THE PLACE OF THE AGHKrLTIIlAL COLLEGE L\ THE 
 EUl CATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 In conclusion, let us consider the jjosition that the aj:ri 
 cultural tollege is to occupy in the educatioiud system o 
 the state and nation. So far a.s agriculture is concerned, th 
 collef,'e should take its place at the head. This implie 
 leadership; but just here a harmonious articulation mus 
 he \v(.rked out with the education «lepartnient of the state 
 Cases are not unknown in which the educational work ha 
 been nmch hindered by conflict and antagonism bctweei 
 these two deijartments. The college should be regarded a 
 an integral part of the system and not as a sej.arate enti; 
 Tliis imposes duties on both the schools and the colleg 
 It implies, on the one hand, that the .s<hools, while gi\ in| 
 an education ap|)Iicable to the immediate needs of thei 
 pupils, shall at the same time in sftme measure prepare fo 
 entrj' into the college; on the other hand, that the collegi 
 shall i)lace all its resources at the service of the schools, ii 
 order to give the a.ssistance required in technical matters 
 We have not yet considered definitely enough the relatioi 
 of the agricultural college and the university to the elemen 
 tiiry schools. In .some states they stand tcK) far apart. Ii 
 many states the condition of the law Ls such that, if th< 
 colleges take any ])art in the work of the elementary schools 
 it is erifircly owing to iheirown interest and initiative, anc 
 not to any right that has been given to them. 
 
 It will now be in order to consider how the college maj 
 assist the rural s( hools. The methcMls outlined are thos( 
 adojifed by the Ontario Agricultural Colleg". 
 
 1. For many \cars the college has been engaged in tlit 
 training of teachers, mainly by means of summer courses 
 
TIIE AGRiriLTl RAL COLLEGE icj 
 
 .■irid special courses ront inning' for fliroe n-onths. These are 
 <.r-;mized in c.Kiperatiori with (lie Kdueation Departrueiif. 
 -'. Kvery iiisprctorate in Uie province has its teachers' 
 .M>tit!ite of two days, and the cllep- sends speakers to 
 th.se institutes. In addition, the colh.p> offers its facili- 
 ties for these meetings, and will take full charge of then, 
 when requestwi. 
 
 ;}. Senior classes in the public schools are encouraged 
 to make agricultural excursions to the college. F<.r many 
 years the college has f.ffered to allow its p.ofcssors to take 
 < harge of these excursions, and conduct them tlirough the 
 ••-.llcgeg.-ound.iand buildings, giving simple explanations 
 while s(. domg; hut unfortunately the offer lias not yet 
 heen accepted. The annual excursions of farmers' insti- 
 tutes, attended hy about 50,0()0 farmers and their wives. 
 Ie.l to the idea that similar excursions might be organized 
 for the older children. 
 
 i. Rural sch(K)l trustees are encouraged to visit the 
 <-llci;.- and the C(.nsoli,lated scIkk)! connected with it. By 
 tliw means it is hoj.ed to ren<ler the trustees more svmpa- 
 th-lic toward the introduction of elementary agriculture 
 and s<h()ol gardens into their own .schools. 
 
 r>. Summer courses are organized for public school in- 
 sj.<<tors whose work lies in rural districts. There is no 
 iMlf'T place than the agricultural college for obtaining an 
 inM<:ht mto means and methcKls of improving rural eondi- 
 tinris and agricultural operations. It is nwcs-sarj- that the 
 inspectors shall be in entire .sympathy with the work that 
 many of their teachers will be called upon to do. 
 
 (!. Short courses are given to iwience teachers in the 
 liiL'li s(li(H)ls and continuation classes. The general adop- 
 tinri of this proc-edure would .S(K)n vitally influence the 
 rural schools, as most of the teachers in them ha v.- received 
 their academic training in the high .schools. The teaching 
 "f physics, chemistry, botany, and ge<.log>- , ,,uhl th.-n be 
 adapted somewhat to such practical considerations as the 
 
 
 
106 
 
 AGUICULTIRAL EDICATION 
 
 Krowinfr of i)Iant.s, soiI<Milturc, use of frrtili/crs, and tl 
 (IcsfriK'tion of injurious insects, an. I he none the less, l)i 
 rather more, pMxl science fea<hinji. 
 
 7. The i)iil)li(ations of tlie college are i>hieed in all tl 
 pul)Iic school lil)raries and the piijjils are instructed 
 their use as references. These i)ul)Iications consist of tl 
 colle^'e monthly, "the O. A. C. Review," the annual r 
 port, and many special bulletins. 
 
 8. The teachers are encoura<,'ed to use the college as 
 eorre.spon<lence school and to train the older pupils to d 
 the same. The atiswering of in(|uiries is a very extensi\ 
 phase of eolle-re service. Ever>' (i<'i)artment of the eollej; 
 is en>raK«'d in this service, and much help is given to teaci 
 ers and pupils. 
 
 The colleges have a very important part to play in th 
 direction of the work in the elementary schools, and unt 
 they enter into this field in an aggressive and effcetiv 
 manner the work will not be [jrojKTly done. 
 

 CHAPTER X 
 
 SO^^E FORMS OF KXTENSION SEIiVICE 
 
 TiiK three j)hases of work u[)on wliieh the eolIe>;es may 
 |>rn[KTly enter are investi^'ation, instruction. an<l exten- 
 sion service. " Invest ij^at ion may Iw called tlie search 
 f'.r truth 11^ nut a>,Ticultun' and rural affairs; instru<-tion, 
 flic incarnation of this truth in trairu'd leadership; exten- 
 sion service, the dissemination or dcnKK-ralization of this 
 truth — its distribution amonj,' all the people interestecl." 
 The most pressing need at present is that the trutli already 
 (lisccnered shall Ik' placed in the hands of farmers and 
 others who are to Ik? directly l)en«'fite<l hy it. 
 
 At the outset it will Ik; w«'11 to define exiictly what is 
 meant hy "extension" teaching. In the first reix)rt of the 
 committee on extension work of the AsstK-iation of Ameri- 
 raii Agricultural Colleges and KxiM-riment Stations, the 
 following definiticm was fornnilated: "Kxtension teaching 
 in agriculture embraces those forms of instruction in sub- 
 jects having to do with improved methods of agricultural 
 production and with the general welfare of the rural |h>i)»i- 
 lation that are offered to people not enrolled aa resident 
 i)iil)ils in e<lucationaI institutions." 
 
 THK SCOPE OF AGRICULTUR.\L COLLEGE EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 The colleges are canning forward the extension work in 
 tlie s|)irit of the foregoing definition and any attempt to 
 el.issify the different activities is .somewhat difficult. I'er- 
 liMps the best classification that has yet been made is the 
 one adopted tiy the committee above referral to. In gen- 
 eral it is as follows: — 
 
 A. Definite systematic instruction, or formal teaching: — 
 
 1. Tile k'<ture course: Given umler t!ie uuspiees of various 
 ciuljs aud organizations, one niglit a week for several 
 
I OH 
 
 AGHIfTF-TrRAL EDITATIOV 
 
 Wf-flcH. ThcS4' l<-<fiir(s should .leal vxilli .Icfinif,. |(,piV,. 
 nnil thf roiirs<- slionlil continue lon^ «iioii).;li to deal with 
 that topic completely. 
 i. 'I he rea<liii^; course: 'I'his shonld I.e drawn up l>y tliecol- 
 lc>?e in <<k(|><ration witii the slate e<lucalion <ie|mrtnieht. 
 It will he pursueil hy the student at home, rrovisjou 
 sliould l»e made for jjiviti^; help hy corres|.ondeiice. 
 S. The c«irresiM)n(lencf n.urso: Sui)jcct.s are pre.s<ril)ed and 
 (ju.'.stions set hy the college. The aii.swer.s are sent to the 
 college and roturne<l to the student w hen correctwl. 
 4. Th.' nioval.lesch(K>!: l^wtinR from onewt-ek to one month. 
 
 and conducU-d a.s a .s<h(«)l l.uf itinerant in character. 
 .'». I'ernianent (h-monstration j)lots or farm.s: The value of 
 certain methcxls of lultivafion or varieties of crops is dem- 
 onsfrafttl rijjht at the floor of the farmer. 
 fi. Stmly <lul,sof various kimls, such as hoys' corn cluhs. girls' 
 eaniiing elul.s. jK.ultry cluhs. and the like. 
 B. Teaching that is more or l«s.s informal. a<I visory. or suggestive: 
 
 1. C'onveutions: — 
 
 a. Farmers' instilutt-s: Th<>s«- are conducte*! hy the rol- 
 h-ges in many sUites. ^\^lere tliey are not conducted 
 dirtifly hy the college, they look to the college for a.s- 
 sistai.^-*-. 
 
 b. {'onference.s on s]M><ial agricultural topics, such an 
 clairyiug. |»oultry-raising, fruit-growing, and the like. 
 
 r. Teach, rs" iustitiit«'s for agricultural puri>ost's. 
 
 2. Itinerant lectures: — 
 
 a. Mis«vllan«-ous lectures on call, and under many aus- 
 |)ices. 
 
 b. Traveling advisers, or field agents. 
 
 c. The permanently located expert, or adviser, for a 
 county or other prescrilnxl distriet. 
 
 3. Literature-: — 
 
 a. Puhlications: monograplis. leaflets, circulars, bulletins, 
 and the like. 
 
 b. Correspondence. 
 
 c. Traveling libraries. 
 
 4. Object le.s,sons: — 
 
 a. Field and |)latfomi demonstrations: less formal tlmn 
 demonstration plot.s and more readily movable in char- 
 acter, such as .spraying demonstrations. 
 
 6. Educational exhibits at fairs: stock-judging, corn-test- 
 ing, and the like. 
 
SOME FORMS OF EXTENSION SEHVICE Ifif) 
 
 r. Ex.iirsions t<. Ihr ,„\\,f(v to stu<Jy .•xiMTinn-nts or to 
 
 .>*<■<• ili'iiionstratiuii'4. 
 d. Sp.i liil IrairiK. railnwul cars, or vatm <-arr\ injj BRriciiI- 
 fiiral iiiatcnal for tiliicatiorial jmrpoM'^. 
 ('. < 'ixinliiiatioii atiil ('o(i|h ration : - 
 
 I. IIi.Miiif: "cofifcr.rKivs nil rural |»ri>j,'rc<*.s," loliririK toK<'lhcr 
 all tlif (M-oplr iiit«r.st.-<l in rural lifv for (li.s<u>sinii.s of 
 the larger |)n»l>KTii.s of rural lH-tt«rm(iit. 
 •i. r<«)|M'ration with othc-r ajj.-ncits ami aftiviti<-s, smh as 
 chainlx-rs of f«)rmii(Tr'«-, lM)ar(i.i of trmio, nianufatturcrs' 
 assixiatioiis, labor urgunizations, and the like. 
 
 There is one grave danper to l)c puurde*! against in all 
 this work. In tlie jjust it has U^en looked u|K)n in too many 
 (.•ise> ;isa rneansof exploiting file college, and in some ea.s«'.s 
 .if advertising individual professors. It should not Me 
 looked uiM)n a.s a .s<lienie hy whicli students are attracted 
 t(. tlu' college. It is not even a plan to arouse the interest of 
 the Loy and girl in the college, alth(«igh that should follow 
 ii> a natural result. It is purely an edueiitional enteri)ri.se, 
 and its final pur[,osc is to reach every nmu and woman in 
 e\ery farm community. 
 
 *i| 
 
 THE QUESTION OF OrK;A.\IZ.\TION 
 
 Some of the above activities are taken up hy all the 
 rolleges, hut one notieeahle feature of most of the extension 
 u -rk hitherto wndueted is its indeiK-ndent character. This 
 is prohahly accounted for hy the fact that there have U-en 
 niany things in the field of agriculture in which exiK-rimen- 
 tafion must lie done before definite lines of coordination 
 eat) k' established. A point has now I>een reache<l when eo- 
 ordiiuition can Ihj undertaken with some ho[)e of success. 
 \N liile much is Inking done in this dire<.'tion, it is recognized 
 tliat much remains to l)e done. 
 
 In 1!K)!), .steps were taken to bring al)oiit clo.s r coordina- 
 tion of extension effort. In that year, at the twenty-tliird 
 •tniuial conference of the As.s(x.-iation of American Agri- 
 cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, •.'. section on 
 

 170 
 
 .\(;iii( ri/n UAL EniTATiox 
 
 rxft'tisiori work wjis organized. This was plaro.l on rqii 
 foofirij; with the two srctiotis of instruction and invcsli^' 
 troll then .Ai^litiu; ;iii(l throii^'h it tMW< h ha> Uvi\ doi 
 to orj.'aiii/c and unify the niclhods in iim>. Most of tl 
 collcijcs have now or^'anizcd extension divisions, or dcpar 
 nirnts, and th<' extension scrvici- is lar^jdy under the d 
 reition of the heads of those depjirttnents. sul)j«'<t, ( 
 (•ourse, to th<' general |)oliey of the president or dinx't* 
 «»f the eolle^'e. 
 
 It is scarcely j)ossil.lo to estimate the total sums thji 
 liav(> l)een sp«rit on the work of tlieeolh-ges. partieuhirly o 
 outside work, hut it is safe to say that. ^Teat as has iVe 
 the imj)r()vement in atrrieullural i)raetice, the returns hav 
 not iM'eri eommensurate with th«' money exp«-nded. Thi 
 may l»e attrihuted to lack (.f concentration. Sattere( 
 efforts, anil in some <'ases limited financial resources, hav 
 prevented this work from acliievitiK its fullest measure o 
 suoeess. 
 
 If is not always advisal*!*- for a eolle^e to concentrate it 
 exicn-ion efforts on a sin^'le issue for a particular year. Tin 
 method of (h'velopin;; gradually a lar^'c number of interest: 
 is the l)etter educafioiiid policy in the long nm. This jxilicj 
 is not, however, antagonistic to that of piiying large atten 
 lion to and concentrating .-frorts on a particular prohlen 
 when there is special ne<^l. On this point the following: 
 statement from the Iowa Agricultural College is illuminat- 
 ing:— 
 
 Tlie efforts of tile ni«^nil)crs of the staff are not t-onfinetl 
 to their r.'s|),H.tivf lines of work. Tli.r.' are times when t!u: 
 entire force of tlie department is .iireetol towards somt; 
 particular [>rol)lem. It may l)e llie scIkh)! question, the s«hh1 
 
 cum. or soiiK' other j.liase of county d.-monstration work, the 
 purpose l)einj; to create interest and secure some detinile ac- 
 tion un 111.' part of the peoi)!e. In fact, two or three imjx.r- 
 taiit lines of work are singled out for the vear. and every 
 m.nil.er of the staff will knd his aid to the movcincut o"ii 
 every wcasion. 
 
f, 
 
 Sf-ME FOIIMS OF EXTENSION SERVICE in 
 
 An.ifluT (liin^'cp »(. \>o jrnardeil npainst is thaj ,,f ^^^^U,^. 
 »..(» iriiKli liclp. If tlic assistance pvfti (l.ws not onaMr (lie 
 f.iriricr iilliiiiat.'ly (o ,-,laii.| iil.in,., it is tiiissin^r jj^ mark. 
 The si)irit of srlf-dciK'nchnce should Im> «|«'V(|oim-<| in null 
 (uiiiniiinity; the helj) needed shoiihl prow less ami less. It 
 is said that in some states the ix-ople clejM'nd ns larHy on 
 outside ai<l in or^rani/in^r and holdinf? farmers' instifntes as 
 they did fifteen or twenty years a^o; in others, on the ..tlier 
 h.irid. a lar^e projM.rf i<.n (.f the meetings are managed en- 
 tin ly l)y lotal authorities. 
 
 PnASE.1 OF EXTENSION SEKVICR 
 
 nrailing rourne.'i. — In tlie early stages of the movement 
 r.>r agricultural extension, reading courses occupied a pn)m- 
 inciit place; hut of nvent years they sn-m to have fallen 
 somewhat into disfavor. pn)lml.ly Ixvause it was found 
 that they were rarely taken except hy those who v.er.« 
 .1 In ady interested in a particular subject. The reading 
 courses have done good work, however, and if i)roperly 
 cuducted they still have a nnssion t«) fulfil. The courses 
 an- generally conductwl somewhat as follows: The college 
 l;iys out a certain course of reading on definite tojjics, — 
 fnr example, on dairjing, fruit-culture, F)oultry-raising. .)r 
 ((.rn-grf)wing, — presorilies lMM)ks or hulletins for n-ading. 
 and makes arrangements for suix-rvising the work an.l 
 Mil)|)lying the readers with examination questions. The 
 student is asked to r(>ad carefully the chosen topics. \N hen 
 the subject is read. i)rinte<I (piestions are sent to the stu- 
 <l<rit and answers requested without recourse to the book 
 •T l.uUetin used for the less<m. Tsually spcnially prejian-d 
 !• iflffs or pami)hlets will U- found more .satisfactc.ry. as 
 the average textbook contains considerable matter tliat is 
 ii'it applicable to the subject of the course. 
 
 In iNM^i. the president of the Ontario Agricultural C'ol- 
 li'^-'c outlined a rea.ling course for farmers, and certificates, 
 prizes, and scholarships were offered. The course was not 
 
 
 
r 
 
 A(ilM( JLTIRAL EF)r(.\TIOV 
 
 «..krn a.lvant.i-.- ..f ui,|,.|y .in.l fl,.- ,,ri/r. wrnt mainly f, 
 .A >lii.|.Ti»s ..f ,11..^-,.. ()„;n^r ,„ ,|,i. f..„.f ;„„| ,,;,|,, 
 
 «linii.i.'.-nr..llMMi,l. Hn . nhrpriM ua.^ .Ii.m untimir.l a.i.l ha 
 ii(\cp Item rrsiinird. 
 
 TIh- (irst \\\,\,\y s||(•(•^^sf||l r..iirsr of ||,is kind in (Ik 
 I nil.-d Sfafrs was r^lahlislirfl in <<.ntuTti,,ii with III.- I'.-nn 
 •sylvania Statr ( •..IIck'.' in July. \H<H. Tl,,. ,,,||t.^re pmvi.K 
 Ixx.ks. and ^nvc tlio rcadrrs examinations \vli«-n««v,T tlicj 
 were rrady to takr tlii-m. Many ..f flu- n-ad.-rs foutul .lilfi- 
 nilty in und.-rstandinK tlu' IxH.ks. for it was foun.i imiM.ssi- 
 I.I.- to provi.lr .siiital.h- texts; ami assistantf was jrivrri l.y 
 <(.rn-si»omlrnr,. in rU-Amu^ up diffiniltirs. At first these 
 eoiirseseov.red s.-ven Ixn.ks; the st-<ond winter the list was 
 increased in sixteen, and in a<ldition a sp«Hial set of less<.ns 
 was i)r.-pared on farm IxH-kkeepini;. In iSiW, the eharaeter 
 of the movement was somewhat mo<lilie«l and the name 
 ehanp'd to "("<)rr.-s,)omlenee Courses in Agriculture." the 
 title which it now hears. There are now thirty-six c-oursos, 
 and the mimher (.f slud«-nts enrolled is KtOd.i 
 
 A som«-what ditrerenl j)lan is followed at the New York 
 State (\)II<-^r,. „f AKriculture at Conu-ll rniv«-rsily. where 
 the main idea is t<. provide elem.-ntary rtvidiuK' f<>r those 
 not in the hahit of reading hooks or hulletins. The Cornell 
 Headin^'-Courses were connnencnl in iSM'! I t|„.y ■,;:.„ 
 now assumed lar^e pmiM)rtions. They are <livide<l into two 
 parts, each <lirtH-ted hy its own officer: the Lessons for the 
 Farm, and the Ix-ssons for the Farm Homo. 
 
 Heading courses will not succeed of their own mo- 
 mentum. Som.-lKxly must supply the motive jmwer and 
 keep up the interest hy propi-r organization. The farmers' 
 institutes miK'ht well consider the a<lvis;il)ilily of forminK' 
 small rt-adiuK '"luhs of ten to fifti-<.n memhers to supj)le- 
 nient the topi<-s discussed at the institute meeting's hy ..lore 
 intensive study. These small clubs could apjx.int'corre- 
 ' U.[)„rt of the I).-partm.-nt of Agriculture. Harrisljurg. IVnnsylvania. 
 
1 
 
 S^>Mi: lOUMS f)F EXTKNSION SKUVKE 173 
 
 siKin.lciifs wild wiuiM Im' al.h' to nhtaiti from tlir state 
 <nll.j.'f infuriiialioii rt-^janiiiij,' rxtcmli-.l rnuIiiiK on any 
 |>;irti( iilar topic . 
 
 Stintthlf KchiHih. — Mnvahlc s«h(K)Is urc a form of rxten- 
 sinii s«r\ i<«« from wliidi much k'mmI may Ih- t-xiHtlcd. In 
 many states tlio tii,>vcmcnt lias as.siimc<l coii^idrrahl.- pn*- 
 p..rlioiis. It arose IxHause it was f.lt tliat no instrurtion of 
 a >yslomatic character could l,e given at the regular farm- 
 ers' institute imvtings, whic h cimtinue for only o. ■ or t^vo 
 <lMys. The American AsscK-iation of Karm.rs' Institute 
 Workers adojited the following resolution in l!)(Ki: "'Ihat 
 tins asscK-iation. appre<-iating the imiM)rtance of pro\id. 
 inir more systematic instruction in agriiulture, herel.y ex- 
 pn NM-s its approval of the use of the movahh- m h.^.l of 
 a^'riculfure as an instniment for this i)urp«.,se." Hcfore a 
 tiioval)leseh(M»leanl»oorganize<l in any hn-ality there must 
 l>c a demami for it. and for this rt-ason it is not suitalih- for 
 piotiei-r work. The ground must Ih> i)repared. and this has 
 Ihtii done in nearly all cas<-s hy the n-gular meetings of 
 firniers' institutes. 
 
 In the organization of movalile scIkmiIs, rare nmst !« 
 taken to keep the class<vs small. The .s<h(M>ls nmst conf iniie 
 l.'iig enough to rover a suhjeei thoroughly, must jjrovide 
 I.lenty of individual work for the students, and must con- 
 c'litratc the work on one or tv.o t.>,)i<s r. ,,.es«nting the 
 predominant in<lustries of the locality. As students v.ho 
 iiltind these .s<-h<K)ls are not generally skilled in the art of 
 taking notes, a printed .syllabus of the hvture is cvsenlial. 
 'ilii- should always contain a list of references and other 
 ni.iliTial that <an he ohtained hy the student. 
 
 Ill the past tlH-re has l.een a tend.iicy to look u|M.n a large 
 attendance as conducive to efficiency and essential to 
 sii((css; hut every stu(h-nt in excess of fifteen or twenty 
 i' >-ens fh<' atiioiint of individual work that <iin he done l)y 
 ea< h; and it is the individual work that counts. If lari^e 
 inunlHTs are aUowed. the sch(M)l .should U- hroken into 
 
 m 
 
171 
 
 AGIUCI LTL HAL KIM CATION 
 
 N.'.fi<.ns for L.lM,n,t..r.v work an.l (!„• stafF In- large riu.iu'h 
 to supervise tins work jjroperly. 
 
 In many eases sue.rss has 1 „ Inst heeai-se of (l,e re- 
 
 'imreuunt of loo i„te..se appiiealio,.. Wl^.^ ,l.e sehool, 
 an- attemie,! I,y men and women uiUmul anv other oeeu- 
 
 P"'-", they .houhl t-.ke up the full ti,„e ,.f"the st.aienf 
 '•lit as a ruh- the p.xsons alten.hng do not I.elung l,, ,hi.s 
 Hass. I.or I us n-ason it would s.-^n tl.at .me s.-ssion a <lay 
 for two weeks would !,<• hett.-r than two session, a .lav for 
 
 «•■'<■ ;v-K-. This plan w.add have am-tluT a.lvantaKe; it 
 "";;'' '•";''•'•■ ;''^■ "'-^fwetor t., n.ake hin.M.lf a..,,uaint..d 
 
 w.lhloeai eon.l.t.ons, an.l with this kn..^^!,.dge he wonM he 
 nM..'h hett.T ahk- to adapt his in.truetiou t<, ,u.-et those 
 con.litDus. 
 
 The question of the n.etho.l of organization of these 
 srhouU IS of some uuimrtane.-. Jt is d.,iih>ful whether stu- 
 .l<'nts under eighteen or nin.t.-en years of age shouM he 
 a<hn.tt<-.|. J{,.f.,re a.l-nission, all stu.lents .houl.l have had 
 praet.<.aIex,»,-r...neeon a fann an.l suffi(i,.nt g..n.Tal edu- 
 
 ••■'t,,,nl,,n,aketh.>,n.-apal.le..fun.h.rstan,|ingth.-insfrue- 
 -" 'f I-yla,kthelalt,T.the,-ir..rtsofthetea<herwi!| 
 
 I..' Iarg.>ly wast,d an.l the f.rogres.s of the class hindered. 
 
 llKTe should he retiuired of the inen,l,ers a written agree- 
 
 inent that they will pay the fee, attend the lectures, and 
 iKTform all the nraetical work re.,uire,l. The l<,eality 
 .^-li-.u d provide suitahle rooms, properly lighted an.l heated 
 an.l furnish materia! for illustrative pur,,os. . It should 
 "l-o I.rovi.le eon.f..rtal.le lo.lgin^-s for the inslruet..rs I„ 
 c.nler that the w.,rk may l»e most elfeetiN e. it shoul.l n.'.t he 
 d.seontimi.-,! imme.liafely after the selu.oi is closed The 
 ■s u.l.nt shouM he re.juir.-.l to pursue his slu.lies through 
 tiK- year. pen.,d,cally rep(,rting ,,rogre.s.s and receiving ad- 
 vice l)y eorresi)on.lence or oth. rwise. 
 
 Among farmers- institute workers there is a general 
 opnuon in fav.,r of niovahle s<.ho..|,. An investigation 
 conducted hy tie. OQice of Experiment StaUons of the 
 
SOME FORMS OF EXTENSION SEUVICE 17^ 
 
 I'liitcd Statt's Dciiarfiiicnt of A<,'ri(ultiir»'. s!ious tliat 
 lil'ly-fnur iHT tviit of till' rfi)li»s rt-ci-ivt-.l fmni IIiom- 
 uc,rk«'r.s \v«'rr in favor, nini'tccn jht cvui wen- not decidnl, 
 ;i 111 twenty-five ptT trnt were against the fstahlishmont of 
 iiiii\al>lt' schools. 
 
 Siicci'ss (lc[M'n(ls firv.t on loral sfjirit.and si-coiul on the 
 jil.ility of the instructor. Considering flic ini|)ortaiice of 
 the work, the colleges tiiiglit well devote xome time to the 
 training of men specially for it. This could be done in jmst- 
 ^'raiiiialc courses after the .student has had sonic actual cx- 
 |.. rieiice on the farm; for the ideal te;i( her for thi,-, work 
 iiiii>l have scientific knowledge, pedagogi<' training, and 
 practical farin-e.\i)erience. 
 
 ( iiinitij tj-perts. — One of the most far-reaching efTorts 
 to carry definite agricultural instruction to the farmer is 
 tliclucationof an exi)ert permanently in I he county. In the 
 I'ruviiice of Ontario this official is known as the County 
 li. presentative. In that province there are more than 
 thirty of these men, with as many assistants, permanently 
 1 <aled in as ma.iy counties. The majority of them are 
 prnvidctl with stenographers, and in some cases it has I«-en 
 t-iind necessary to appoint two a.ssistants during the busy 
 M'a-on. 
 
 in the Province of Ontario, these representatives were 
 mtruduced into the comities by a cooperative arrangement 
 l'< tween the Departments of .Vgriculfure and Educaf ion. 
 Ih.ir work has been of tiie most varied character, and it 
 li;i> reached many districts not previously Joik lied. Repn-- 
 Mutativesof adjoining counties fre(iuen(!y hold combined 
 incctings. and everj- eirort is made to join forces when the 
 IToiikin in hand requires such a.s.-,isfance. It may al.-.o be 
 ii'Med that there is now a friendly rivalry between counties, 
 •iihI that all the counties that are without representatives 
 :irc making urgent apjjlications for them. That the work 
 'if these men is aj){)reciated is well shown by the fact that 
 the council in one county voluntarily added $7J0 to the 
 
 m 
 
176 
 
 AGRICl LTIILU. EDICATIOX 
 
 S<1'200 pai 1 to tlio roj>rcscntativc l>y the department; and i 
 is well known that these Ixxlies are not in the hahit of goinj 
 down into their pockets and giving out money exeejjt fo 
 value reeeiveij. 
 
 Farinrr.i' niiiprratlre demnn.stration trnrk. — Another ex 
 ample of the work of ajTrieultural experts on the ground v. 
 cooperative demonstration. In the I nited States this worJ 
 was eallecJ forth }>y a crisis. In VM>, the Mexican cotton- 
 l)oll wee\il ai)i)eared in Central Texas and practically de- 
 .siroyed the crop over large areas. This meant niin for tht 
 region, as both large and small planters de{)end on cotton 
 for their income. Entomologists had already studied the 
 iriseet and had shown how cotton might \h- grown in s{)itc 
 of it. Hut this involved new methods of cultivation and 
 the farmer wanted a "remedy" which would destroy the 
 I)est. 
 
 .Vs this was impracticahle. the Bun>au of Plant Industry 
 appointed Dr. Seaman A. Kiiai)p fo show the p<'ople how 
 they ( ould grow cotton in sjjite of the weevil. He ajipointed 
 a successful farmer as county agent in each county. These 
 agents visited the farmers and induced a certain number 
 to plant a small area of iheir crop according to the method 
 advised by the Deji 'tment of .Vgriculture. Th(>y were to 
 be known as demonstrators, and their work was given fre- 
 <|uenl and careful su{h rvision. Other farmers were encour- 
 aged to try the .same methods, but were visited only «)nce 
 or twice during the sea.son. These were called cooiK>rati»rs. 
 The methods adopted were simi)lc, and it is not nece.s.sary 
 to recite them here. The diversification of crops was al.so 
 encouraged, .so that in future the jlaiiters .sliouhl not be 
 entirely dependent ujh)!! cotton. 
 
 The results of the movement from an economic point of 
 view were colossal. 
 
 IStftiri' loiin till' planters of I.nuisiatui. Texas, aii<i Arkan- 
 sas, where the ixill weevil existed, not only "made" eotton, 
 Init liei,'an lu raise loru aud vegotaLilcs and Logs uud chick- 
 
SOME FORMS OF EXTENSION SEUMCE 177 
 
 ens an.l rattl,-. In 1!)0*. at a little railway station in T.-xas 
 th.rc wius sliipiM-.! „nr carlua.! of ii,,^;s. In l!)(),-,. tl.n.nKh" 
 tlM- iniJu.-,rof Dr. Knapj.'s t.a<hin«. tvv,-nlv-.s<-v,'n <ar- 
 -.a.lswiT .Inpp,-,!. In I^„n.siai,a in J!>OH. tlu- fannrrs «,r,- 
 l'iiy<n« c.rn. In 1!MU. in a.l.lition to .sup[,lvin« tlu- corn 
 II. .'I.-.! at lu.nif. tht-y were ah!,- to sc-ll oO.OOO husluls in the 
 open niarkft. 
 
 Ill KKK). the Southom states produced approximately 
 "tM- fifth of the corn of thv Tnited States. In ]\)}0 they 
 ).n..lueed one thini of it. The fact tliat the work was not 
 . .irncd on for the purfx.ses of investJKation made it difficult 
 to secure accurate fi-ures; but (lata were coll.vted from 
 al.out 1'2,0(K) demonstrators, repri-senting an acrea>«. in 
 '-Iton of ;iI,out S.-;.()(M) acres. The t<.la! numlMT of farm- 
 .r. instructed in liHl was H!).7(it. of whom ^2(i/,'^7 were 
 ' l.<vs,>d as demonstrators an«l w.-re visite«l at h-ast once 
 c\ en- thirty days; 6.'J,-5;}7 were classed as cooperators. and 
 tlKir farms were visited occa-sionally or not at all. but 
 tli.y consulted the agent i)ersouaUy and received priuted 
 instructions.' 
 
 liullctin senice. — Another branch of extension work, 
 'It hough not always so regarded, is the bulletin servic-e of 
 t!ic diifereni state and fe<leral departments. According to 
 n (ierman authority, the Initeii States Governmrnt is the 
 greatest publisher of e<lucational literature in the world. 
 K is a well-known fact that the investigator in any line of 
 educational effort is af)le to obtain greater a.ssistance from 
 these government i)ub:ications than from any other source. 
 It is estimated that more than 24,00(),000 copies of bul- 
 i'tins and circulars are issue<l annually by the ex{>oriment 
 stations and the Unit«Hl States Department of Agriculture. 
 The IJureau of Education also issues many bulletins, and 
 iM 1!>H al)out one quarter of these were on topics directly 
 cnnne<led with agricultural e<lucation. 
 
 ' I Vmonsf ration Work on S<,ufh-rn Farms. Farmers' Bulletin 4«. 
 I iiitril SUlia Dtpurtuient ut Agriculture. 
 
178 
 
 AGUK LLTLH.VL EDIXATIOX 
 
 Tlirrc is, of coiirsc. a \\'u\v (WiJcrviuv Ixtwccii issuing, 
 liullcliiis and K<'tti"^' tlu'm read, and m-ncral si tlfjcs an 
 not availahlf to >\i(>\\ the fxlciil to wliirli l! r usrd 
 
 In a siirvcN ronipri.^iim part> of Missouri, A .ami, ari< 
 (icor^'ia, 1()((1 farmers wtrc infrrvii-wed, and it \va> fouiui 
 that HT, or U.7 por cfiit, received Itullctins. Of tlies« 
 y;Jl, or 79. i per (('iit, read them; and of tliesf a^'ain. 148, 
 or 44.7 per eent, made practical application of tlie infor- 
 mation ol)tained from them. Of the 1001 farmers visited, 
 4.i4, or 45.4 per cent, t(M)k farm papers. 
 
 As a rule, these hull lins are written in simple lan- 
 guage, hut it is a (juestiou whether for many agricultural 
 districts .sonu'thing simpler still is not recpiired. Tlain 
 dire<!tions a.s to what to do and how to do it M'em to Ikj 
 needed. The " why*" may Ik' left to a later st;ige. If direc- 
 tions were given in a series of mnnliered [)aragraphs and 
 not in the form of a eoimectt-d n.irrative. they would he 
 moH" easily follmved hy a Iar;,'.T iiuihImt. 
 
 Dnnonniration /n/j'w.v. — 'l"he only other fitrm of exten- 
 sion work that s|)ace will allow us lo deal with is the 
 demonstratii)n train. When first intnMlue«'d. tlies«» trains 
 were believed Iiy numy ti> Ik- an ahsurd fad, and it wiis 
 freely predicted that they would not hust. It is found, how- 
 ever, in states in which trains have heen o[)oratiHi for ten 
 years, that when the second, third, and fourth trains go 
 over the road they are met each time hy larger and more 
 intcrest»'d audiences, and, so far as can Ik; judgetl, they 
 accomplish greater results than the first train. These 
 trains have successfully arour^ni the interest of the iKH)ple. 
 While it cannot he their mis-ion to give formal instruction 
 or to convey newly distovered facts, exccj)t in a vcrj- lim- 
 ited way, they can show how the old facts may be applied 
 so as to incTca.st' production. 
 
 IVrhai)S one of the must unique and elaborate trains 
 that have ever been titievi up was made possible through 
 the ctKJperation of the Norllicrn i'acilic Railway C'umpauy 
 
\ 
 
 SOME FORMS OF EXTENSION SEIIVICE I7y 
 
 •> 1 tho AKrirultural ColK',. „f \„rth J)ak„ta. Tlu. (r .in 
 -nM>lnl .,f Uvl. . ,,,..,. It ..arn...l fiv,. ,y,K.s of Ino 
 M,K-k a ,„o,l. p„ullry-|..M,.. with all a.r,.»..ri,.s. ..„,. 
 .-.arhl.il,.. u,lh lal,or->avn.K .levi... ami sar.itarv appli- 
 a.HT. for the- farm Un,nv. .narluMcry for .Tain.h.anin, a,„l 
 < .rN-ray.n,-, and ..tlu-r .•,,„ip,.,ent. "I,, short, it was ,h.- 
 a...Kn,lt.,ral,..li,.^H-on uh,v|. for thro.- w.vks. with tu<.,.tv- 
 -■vr,. pr.,frs>ors an.l in>tn„.t„rs in attcn.la.u.. to rxph.in 
 '■ '-'-'unKaiKl pnrposoof the .xhil.its. as th. .nor. than 
 ""•"•• I-I'l*' pass,..! thrnn^h tlu- train uhil. on its jour- 
 -y through tho Stat..- This train was ac.-on.panied l.y 
 t^v.lve new.s,.a,HT corrospon.i,>nt.s so that the iM-nefits of 
 - ms,n.ct,on were spread ov.r a nuu-h wider area than 
 "I't a.tnally travers,'d |,y lh,. train. 
 
 Tf'.- .Marylan.i .V^rienllnral Colh.^e was prohal.Iv the 
 ir>t to pnrehase a ear of its own for this work. This ear 
 I.a. heen htte,l up with livin,. ..narters for the instrnetional 
 > alf, and has a i.-ctnre-roon. fitte<l with a l.laekhoard, 
 M-reoptuon and other apj.aratns. A tri,, is taken eaeh 
 y-ar dnrH,K the month of May, with sto,,s of alx.ut thr.v 
 •lays n> c.a<h pla<-e. an<l foren.H.n and evening session.s of 
 a ...ut two hours eaeh are held. This prohaJ.ly aecom- 
 ph>!H-s more toward the definite improven.ent of aKrieuI- 
 tural method:, than some of the more si>ectaculur elfort.s. 
 
 THK OUTU)OK FOR KITrHK DKNKI.OI'MK.vt 
 
 The Snnth-U-ver l.iH. passed hy tiu- Congre.ss of the 
 
 • ".ted Mates „. l!,! ^. „,ay reasonal.ly he e.vpeetcHl to pve 
 
 a ^reat impetus to all kinds of extension .s<.r .i.e. This hill 
 
 ^M has previously l>,^.„ referred t,>. provide., iurge sup-' 
 
 H-'-'Mtary funds fro,n the federal treasury to er.eourai^ 
 
 <""I.erative extension work in the several states ' 
 
 '■'"ally. It may l>e sai.l that the most urgent need is the 
 
 "r.arnzation and systenuitization of extension methmJ.s. 
 
 iare should he general agree.nent us to the work that 
 
 "le several agencies can do and ' 
 
 ! 
 
 •VI 
 
 ■ h 
 
 luethuds of doing it; 
 
180 
 
 AGIlICl'LTrU.VL EDI CATION 
 
 ari<l new i)laris will nvvd to Jk- devise*! to reaeh the larjj 
 nuriilMT of farmers wlio have not yet heen informed < 
 th(> im|)roved methods of farming that are being raj)idl 
 develo|H'd. 
 
f 
 
 4 
 
 CILVPTER XI 
 
 IN-STITUTSS AND OTHKR HELPS FOR THE ADULT 
 
 FARMER 
 
 The furinerV institute, as we know it to-<lay. is the pnMl- 
 n<t „f the lust twenty-five or thirty years. It is an ex- 
 an.ph. of an or«ani2ation bcKnnning Kk^-uIIv and in a small 
 way. and gradually si)readin« throiiKho.it the country It 
 was not planned; it ^rew. I„ several states the aKriculUiral 
 .s.Hi(.t.es first promoted the farmers' institute, and later the 
 a^Tuultural colleges adopted it as a form of extension serv- 
 >n-. In the earliest agricultural Six-ieties the pronu.tera 
 .M-.IP to have had the idea of traveling l,H-turers. In 1S4« 
 or 184.3. such lectures were organize*! l)y the New York 
 Mate Agncultural Society, and it is probable that from 
 these and similar lectures the organization of farmers' 
 nistitutes g-ew. 
 
 THE RISE OF THE INSTITUTE MOVEiajNT 
 
 The first legal warrant for carrying instruction to farm- 
 or. outs.de of any eriucational institution was pmhal>ly the 
 M.higan law of 1861. which said: "The State Hoard of 
 AKnculture may institute winter cours^-s of lec-tures for 
 "t hers than students of the institution .„der necessary 
 
 ru.s and regulations." In 186&-70. itinerant meetings were 
 JhM m Iowa In 1871. an account of farmers' institutes 
 vus imbhshed m the report of the Iowa Agricultural ('ol- 
 .«.•. m vv-hich ,t was said that "the exiH^riment of holding 
 arrners institutes in different IcK-alities in the state, for 
 tl.r purpose of giving farm lectures on prominent topics 
 was tm-d last winter unth ver>' gratifying success. Insti- 
 tutes lasting three days were held at Cedar Falls, CouncU 
 
182 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION* 
 
 IJIiifTs, Wasliin^'f.iti, and Miiscjulinc. at each of whiili point' 
 uc foniid an (•ntliii>ia>tic -atlirrin^' of fanners." 
 
 The nio\ einenf rapid'y spread to other states. The [)lari 
 of having' an institnte in ea<ii c-oiinty ori^'inated in Ohio. 
 IVactieally «'very slate and i.rovinc- in Nditli Aineriea 
 is now provide<l with well-or^'anized fanners' institutes, 
 i)arlly under K<>vennnent direction and control and partly 
 under l(Kal auspices. 
 
 In CaiKKhi. the movement started at the a^'ricuitural 
 colle^'e at (;uelj)h. Mend)ers of tlie staff were sent out J)y 
 twos, and hiter two practical farmers were added. Later, 
 one professor and one farmer were .sent together. The work 
 grew to such proportions that a special sujM-rintendent wa.s 
 ai)p<)inted under the I)ej)artment of Af,'riculfure hy the 
 Provincial (ioveniment. and the work has since renu'iined 
 und<T his char>,'e. The Ontario department makes an 
 annual grant of ><v>.i to ea.h institute, and supplies .siK<akers 
 for at least one series of meetings. 
 
 TIIK KXTKVT OK TIIK INSTITl TK MOVKMKNT 
 
 The institute movement is now wi<lely spread through- 
 out North .Vmeriea, and the nuniLer of persons who attend 
 the m.vtings is large; l.ut great as it is. the attendanc-e is 
 only a small proportion of what it might l)e. 
 
 Tlurc are tens u{ tliousands <.f farmers who do not take 
 agninlturaj pap.rs; pn.l.ai.ly not oik- farnur in twrnty-five 
 ev.T attends a furni.TS- institnt.- mf.-ti.iK. Tlu-rc is a'e.,.n- 
 I)arativ<-ly small amount of eonsi-cutiv.- sfu.iv of agricultu- 
 ral lit.-ratiir,. among farmers. Tli.T.- is n.-t-d'of more ,-ff(H-- 
 tiy.ly reacliing tli,- young farmc-r at home and in the rural 
 srl.u„ls. As a i.lam matter of fa<-t. w,- are not to-<lav. .-illu-r 
 <lir<-ctiy or ui.nn-rtly. reaching the gr.-at mass of tlu- tillers 
 <.r the soil with e.lu(at..,nal pr^K-esses tliat may be regarded 
 as even fairly etlieieat.' 
 
 .• ' ^TY!"" "', ^""'''''"" ■^>f"'"'f"nil Calh^r^ an.l V.xporum'ni Sta- 
 ooMs. U,u\ A.w.uaK ..nvention. HulKtiniW. Init.-,! States Depart.ueut 
 III .Affrieulture. '^ 
 
FARMERS' IXSTITITES m 
 
 The work of an instifnfion ran nrv.-r }>o jikI^vmJ by 
 riti,nl..Ts alMM,.. Tlir .,„|y a.lr(,,ial.. I.^l is ll„. „„mlK r «if 
 f;irm.Ts who put into a.tiial pra.li..- iinprov.-.l iMrflio<ls of 
 f.inninc as a result of tli.ir atfoiulan.r at the nuftiii^'s. 
 A l.ir-.- inin.lKT may ullcn.l a m.H-tin« to listm to an ontcr- 
 t..nimK sjM-ak»T. an.l yet tlu- rrsultin,,. vhiiunv i„ afrricul- 
 twral pra.tur U- v.-ry small. A small m.ml.cr of ,kts„„s 
 prriiianrntly Ix-ncfif.-.l in a lar^c numhor of places is l.».tter 
 lli.ii a large nuinlK-r of jH-rsons in a few I.K-alities. fHxause 
 »li- larger nurnlx-r of Nnaiities enables the improvement 
 tn \k' sjjread over a wider area. 
 
 THK N.VTIHK AM> (»K(;.\MZ.ATION OK K.Mt.MKlw' 
 INSTITI TKS 
 
 TarnKTs- institutes have <l.)ne a large work, particularly 
 in developing int.-rest in agricultural affairs. 'J'heir work 
 lias iKvn chiefly of an inspirational order. It may Ik; said 
 !•> include the following objects: — 
 
 1. To give informati..n by calling attention to the 
 1.1 us of nature, in uccordanco with which the farmer must 
 Work. 
 
 '.'. To kindle the desire for more systematic knowledge 
 than the institute can afford, and to |K)int out the sources 
 of such knowledge. 
 
 .'{. To give inspiration l)y citing examples of good 
 methods, by .setting forth true i.ieals and projK-r goals. 
 and by emphasizii! the possibilities of life in the open 
 Kiuntry. 
 
 t. To l>egin the training of men and women for l(K>a! 
 leadership and greater |)ublic .service. 
 
 "'. To inaugurate movements for the imi)rovement of 
 farming and country life, for l)etter seed, In-lter live-stock. 
 I"l ter homes, better .schools, and better churches. 
 
 (■>■ To pave the way fur eflective, intelligent cooperation 
 l',\- hreakmg down the narrow inch'vidualism of the farmer 
 :"id by bringing him into contact with his fellows. 
 
 11; 
 
 ■Ir 
 
 
184 
 
 AGRirri/nRAi, f.dc vno.v 
 
 The farnwrs' instiliitr is a mohilr ari.l trmi)orary in 
 stiliili.m. It i„i,y !«•, and ,.n»-ii is. curivni.-,! in j, ,lay anc 
 lasts as Umu- NotwitlistancIiriK its it.ii)n)mptii and cpht-ni 
 eral chanutcr. liowmcr. il is pn.hal.it- that it will ••oritinu. 
 t(» Ik- an iiiiporlani aKcnty in Hit- ixlucation of the adull 
 farmer. 
 
 THK FAKMKKS' INSTITt TK IJXTfHKK 
 
 Much dis<iissi(,n lias Invn Kivcn to the prol.Icni of thf 
 ty{X' of sjH'aker Ik-sI fitted for institute work. It is an 
 open question whether the term "K^turer" should l)c 
 ai)plied to this speaker, for the farmer n-cpiires teaching? 
 rather than l«>eturinK. The teacher of the farmers' institute 
 has ^rn-af res|KUisil,ilities, arising' Inith fronj the nature of 
 the [)rol)l(>ms with which he .leals. and fn.m the character 
 of the audience he addresses. His audience is of a difFicult 
 km.l. It is compoM'(j of men and women of maturity who 
 are experienced farmers, and many «>f them know as'much 
 of the subject on which he i.s si)eakin« as he diRvs himself. 
 They are reserv( d, con,scr\ative. and loath to change longi 
 estal)lished method.s. 
 
 Whatever other education the speaker mav liave had, 
 he nmst have ha.l the i)ractical management of a farm,' 
 mcluding the paying of the hills. T\w ol.l tyi)eof si)eaker 
 had to teach the farmer what the latter di.l not know. \ow 
 he has to influence the farmer to do what in manv case.s 
 the farmer knows he ought to do. and indicate why and 
 how it should lu' done. Hailey s;iys: — 
 
 We must develop a new kind of institute man, unlike 
 Oie college prnf,-.ss,.r on tlie one hand and the s<M-aIle.l 
 praetieai farmer on the other. This man nuist he train«-«J 
 for this kni.l of work a.s carefully a.s other men are traimnl 
 to hr ehemKsLs or enpn.HTs. He sliould liv,- for at lea.st F)art 
 of the year on the land, and he should also hv eonm>et»><l with 
 an mstitiition that can k.H>p him in touch with the Ix.st and 
 the laf.st information. In other words, he should he a farmer 
 as Will as a student, and a student as well as a farmer. 
 
FARMEKS- INSTITITES ih.-. 
 
 Tlic qiialifi(ati..n.s (lrriian<lr(l ,.f the instit.itr sprak.r 
 ar- prol,al.ly ...orr rxa. tir,;; U.a,. tlu.v rr.,uirf.| fr.„n otl.rr 
 |Hil.lKs|H>akrr.s. H,. „,„,.| U- both in.lru.tivr an.] ....t.-r- 
 laminjr. On this rcnk many .s,H>ak<T.s hav,- split 'J|,e 
 f.inn.rs insl.tuh- nuist not U- turnrd int.. a vau.l.ville 
 >linw. nnth.-r must it U- jjivcn u chapter fr„n. a s< i.-i.titir 
 tr. MliM-. 1 hr institiito in its inception was infcn.h.l lar^'cly 
 <" <"tcrta.n the fanner. The program ha.l to c.ntain s.,m,:. 
 I.H,.,' that wo.ihl hrin^' him out, even if fn.m curiositv o„lv 
 I'l't ll.at time .s rapi.lly passing, an.l the farmer who n..\v' 
 .■inci..|s d.K's so quite generally for the puriK).sc of getting 
 N.iutthing to ai)p!y on his own farm. 
 
 Some of the qualiiications neede.1 in the institute sj)eaker 
 are ;ui follows: — 
 
 "t RtpnUitinn in his tncn rommnrnt,,. — So s,H-aker 
 vWinse standing at home will not h,-ar the most rigid in- 
 V. ^ti^'uimn should ever be allowed on the institute plM- 
 f.Tm. I „le,s.s he is » su.-<-,.ssful farm.T. his work un the 
 I'latform will not Ik- ein^tive. In the State of Michigan 
 |HTs„„s suggested as s,K-akers are visitcl l.y one of the 
 |.n,f,.ss.,rs of the Jigric-ultural .-ollege. and' unless their 
 u..rk and farms are found to Ik- m.,re than ordinar^• they 
 an- not uivitc-d. UTien the s,K-aker is known to U-'a su.- 
 << ->ful farmer, he is listened to with n-s,Kvt an.l (-onfuh-rn-e 
 (/') Snenhfi, training. - \n individual with a thorough 
 •^ initifi(- trammg in agri(-ulture has a dcM-ided advantage 
 "v.r f lu- man not .so trained, and. other things U-ing equal. 
 •^iK'uld always be chosen. 
 
 (r}_ Ahility to teach. — \ man may r)os.ses3 the two 
 previously mentionetl qualifications and yet lack this es- 
 •S'Mtud. It is but a truism to s^iy that many men have 
 kriowicMlge which they are unable to impart, .\bility to 
 t-ach. not hx-ture. in a forceful manner Lj one of the main 
 
 ■-.'Uti; 
 
 tis in the institute s'K>aker. 
 
 lia\'i' 
 
 /i 7W/. — Ever>'bo<Jy ki.ows what tact is, but few 
 liad the courage to define it. The institute sjK-aker. 
 
 
 1 
 
 !»l 
 
I hi; 
 
 .\(iin( ii.n i{\F. K?)rr\Tio\ 
 
 unlike llir r-i.!I.yc profi-ssor. has fur hi-; audiniro mm n 
 iinalrcady hall liii- w ill, llir prnM.M.^ ..f I.f,-. aii.l in tna 
 
 ins|aiirTsl|,.-yliavrakriuw|,-,|^',nf|.H;,|,„ii(|ili,,(,s,,f wlii 
 llic s|M>ak<T is (jiiilr i.n.l.al.ly iuMiorant. In.lf-r flirs«. ,• 
 «unist;,ii, r, I he iMi|>iI> may U- Ik-II.t al>l.> to tcarli than I 
 tra.li.T. 'riic s|,,-ak.r. if li.- [...s>.>m.s farf. will |„. „1,|,. 
 <lra\v this .•xiMTinuv from his au.Ji.Muv iiii<i thus make 
 ha|.|.y tomhinalioii „f his Mi.iitific kn<)\vlr<l^'«. and th. 
 ItMid «'xiM'ri('ii(('. 
 
 ('•) (inirml ,/Nnlitir.t. \ pleasing' |HTs«.nality. a r<M 
 v..i<<.. an attractive platform ajiiK-arance. and ton^'.iiiali 
 arc also dcsiraliK*. 
 
 MKTllol* OK (1I()(»SIN(; INSTITI IK I.KfTIHKHS 
 
 l'oliti<al <()iisi,irrations should nrv.r influence f| 
 
 < hni.e of a sj.eaker. nor should the institute platform I 
 
 availal.le to those who have a pro<hi<t t,, aiivertise or sol 
 
 Farmers in the past, in too many instances, have he 
 
 loaded uj> with sul..s<rij>tiou IxM.ks they did not want an 
 
 nia.hines for which they lia<l no economic use. In sotii 
 
 of the .ountries of Kuro|M- the speakers arechoM-n hy ron 
 
 jxlllive examination; and it has Ixt-n prr.posed to' ado] 
 
 the mctli.Ml ill this country. While this plan mij^ht w.,r 
 
 su<cessfully. ther.> are many tliin^is that cannot be teste, 
 
 l)y an examimition. The following amusing account i 
 
 ^'ivcn of a method once tried in New York State to .sckt 
 
 sjn'akers for the institutes: ' - 
 
 The pr.'Nsiin- for jx-sitinns was sourKcrit that thcdirtvto 
 cncnved tlirplan of havinj- th.- applicants meet at our sUf 
 expcrnuciit station on a ^ivt-n day. and tiu-re deliver the! 
 addn-ssrs l.efore the .i.'a.i of the aKri.witural eoll.>;e. the di 
 reciors of fanners' iii>tilut.'s. and oM.t lecturers on the force 
 .VLout eijjht vi.'tiins.'aiiieout to the >laii^'lit( r. Kach in hi. 
 tnni delivcretj his a.idress and afterwards wa.s duly ques 
 
 ' A,i.,ri,a„ \,<,„.uiti„n ,,f rartn.Ts' In.titut.- Wnrkrrs. Pn^.v.lin.M ,. 
 I. .1. Annual Mfcl.ng. Hulk tin iiSS. I ait^d States l^rpurfuicnt of \«ri 
 
•"•"-.I l,v thus., in «H.„,lan.--. Tl,.- la.J s,...ak Mr..v...| ,„ 
 "■a«..,.,u. .f,,.,,a,,,.H|farm.T. ml I,. ,.|,.,| |,„., \\. 
 
 '■;•;''-•'.• «H.. u.lnn.M. .lay of ,p...t. l.a.l m^.,..y:::^^^^^ 
 
 .'flu, ,ul...r.|,na.,.s ,..u„„..,,a.on,,M l...,u...„ s..„....,f , 
 n-.n, >.l.,..,. an,l «H,ll.,.aM.. Af,..r.l..,,..,a,,.r/u^ 
 
 •■ .Mtl,..,r«.ats.na...,.r.-,K..s,ti.,„,h..s..t.m>«..r..|.r..n«| 
 
 I- a.i.lr..ss. wlu.l. was as i,,,...,.,..,,. as tl..- n./r.-ln.t„.„ 
 
 It... iH.ar.Ts u.T- ...nv.ils,.! «ith lauK'l.t.r .lurin,- fl.,- 
 p ,r,. ...... I,.. «as sp..akn„. n.....,h>,an.l.nK ll..i p. 1 ■ 
 
 'I" ■ r-,|.,r ,..,uM appnv.a... tlu- l«s, >p,.ak,.r n.-.r.- thai, 
 
 .."y.....r..f ,sl,,.ar..rsf I.-M in his .Lk.. a. th.- " 
 
 " • t.rfr..„. |...fan,H.r-s..f.. ,„ ,vl.i..|, sh.. pp.,..,,.s| v,,..,. 
 
 '■ 1 r.r sa.Mn« I.,- «as a n„s,.ral.l,. faiiur.. us a fann.T a„.| 
 'I- r.-,lf.,f tlust.Muastl.at n.,t .,„.• ..f tl... appl,,., ,ts 
 
 The institute leeturesl.i,, must Ik- rais,,! to the .li.M.itv 
 
 - a permanent profession, an.l the s,H.akers should U- ,,,;. 
 [''••y.-l .lunuK the greater part of the year. Thev shoul.i 
 l-|.a.-l for the.r s<.rviees the e,,uivalent of what is pai.f 
 '" -.IleKes and universities for work requiring tah-nt an.l 
 
 raunn« o a si„.ih»r kind. Only l,y these- means will n>en 
 
 - "Hluee<l adequately to ,,repare the„,s«.lves. S«, Ion« a, 
 <t- praet.ee is to employ institute speakers for only a few 
 ^-;«ks „, the year. .s<. |o„« will their work hv larp-lv in- 
 "••< no Hn.l fad to ae<.on.,>lish much radical improve- 
 
 "'•'iit in farming oi)erations. 
 
 LOCALIZATION- OK INSTITITK WOHK 
 
 'n-r.' is a marked tenden.-y to centralize institute 
 ^-"■k One or two large meetings a year may 1k> ne.,.^ 
 -> to -enthuse-- the people, hut for puroosc-s of d.-fini.. 
 
 I4t 
 
188 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 instruc!,.,,, thoy arc useless. When those conventions are 
 li<-l<l 111 nntrul |)la,es. tluy are most lik«'Iy to attract tlu.se 
 ul.o are already progressive. The proJ.le.n to-<lav is the 
 apathetic and (he indifferent farmer, the ninety-"^six jht 
 cent uho do not at present attend institute meetings. The 
 purpose should Ix- to take information direct to the doors 
 of the men svho have not yet V(,luntarily come under the 
 "'f.ucnce of the institutes. The only wav to reach these 
 J>cople IS t(, take the institute to them. The aim must he 
 to rea<Ji the man who is in most need of assistance, and for 
 this puriK.se a series of small mt>etings should l>e held in 
 out-of-the-way places. 
 
 ^ The institutes should Ik; mana^-ed lar^^ely by the people 
 m the locality. In the past there has prol.ahlv been too 
 nuich slate control. As a rule, the lM^st results are oh- 
 tamed l>y loc^l cooperation, local enthusiasm, and loc-al 
 nKina^cment. Owing to the im,.ortance of the farmer's 
 work to the welfare of the nation, the State has largelv 
 assumed the financial responsibility for the institutes and 
 the farmer has In-en getting something for nothing The 
 thing most valued is that which comes through conscious 
 effort. I eoj.le take pride in an institution whi(-li is an ex- 
 pression. ,n part at least, of their own work. In all kinds 
 of activity f'.r agricultural betterment it is found that local 
 and mdividual work is most effective; that at least one 
 person who knows the community conditions and needs 
 must act as loc;il agent; that this agent must be. whenever 
 possible, a trained agriculturist; and that community in- 
 vestment IS desirable. 
 
 In the Province of Ontario, where the organization of 
 farmers institutes has received much attention, each local 
 assonat.on ,s ,'mpow(T«-d to charge twenty-five cents for 
 vMh .Member who wishes to afliliate. In return for this 
 ;"""'i'l I>aymcnt. the institute guarantees at least .ix meet- 
 n.f^s m f lu> electoral district during the year. In some c^.ses 
 there arc as many as twelve or fifteen meetings. In ad<Ii- 
 
FARMERS' IXSTITITES 
 
 189 
 
 tioii to this, the contributors rpct'ive hy mail thv report 
 of the s.iperintendent of fiiriners' institutes, coritainin-; tlie 
 iulilresses of the .si)e:iker.s (iuriiij,' the |)rece(linj,' year. They 
 also receive the various rei)orts of the Department of A^ri- 
 < iilture. sucli as the reports of the dairymen's association, 
 tlir fruit-^'rowers" association, the good-roads ass(x,-iation, 
 and the hkc. 
 
 THE CHARAtTFJl OF THE pnofillAM 
 
 Practically every farmers' institute lias attempted to do 
 too much in the time at its disitosal. T«k) many subjects 
 liavc lK>en treated, and coris<'(pienily no single one has 
 been dealt with comi)n hensively. The answer to this criti- 
 cism has Ihhti tliat tlie mission of the institute is not so 
 nm<h the systematic leaching of agriculture as the arous- 
 nig of interest in agriculture and tlie inspiring of men and 
 women with a desire for country life and counfrj' occui)a- 
 tions. But the purpose of public institutions changes with 
 the lapse of years, and though this nuiy have In-en the 
 nccrssary purpose in years gone by, that purpose should 
 no longer l)e considered primary. The primary pur|)ose 
 should now l>e to give definite information along certain 
 sijecified lines — information which can at once be put to 
 practical ai)i)lication on the farm. This cannot i>e d«me 
 with the multiplicity of subjects that now occupy the 
 average institute program. 
 
 It is gratifying to note a growing tendency on the j)art 
 of those who have the direction of the institutes to limit the 
 \M)rk of any one sessicm, or any one day, to some definite 
 toi)ic. It is far more profitable, and will result in nun h 
 lictter practice, to deal intensively with some on? topic of 
 iriip<trtance to the locality than to sjHnid the time in a 
 superficial manner on several topics. It is largely owing 
 to this superficiality that the work of the institutes has 
 not had results comm-Misurale with the ellorls that have 
 1m»'ii i)ut forth. 
 
I'M 
 
 AGRICl'LTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 There is a deciiled tendeiu-y in many iii.slitutes to lay too 
 niiuh stress on ainusenieiits or enterlainineiits. Li every 
 institute eontinuin^' for more than one day, it is an excel- 
 lent feature to close the procetnlin^^'s with a concert when 
 one of hij,'h order can Ix- iirran^ed. It should he made the 
 means of ac(juainting the j/cople witii the In-st music, the 
 liest literature, and the hest pictincs, and the ordinary 
 vaudeville features should he rij,ndly excluded. The pos- 
 siliilities of raising; the ideals of country life through work 
 of this character are almost unlimited and should he 
 utilized to their fullest ext"nt. 
 
 The orijanization of tlw fnrci's. — The jjeneral organiza- 
 tion of the institute forces should Ik* perfected. Even in 
 Ontario, where t!ic institutes have heen lar^'cly dev<'loped, 
 the promoters are not satisfied with the results and are 
 constantly striving' foi Ix-tter thing's. This i)rovince is di- 
 vided ii'.to ninety-four districts, corresijondin;; somewhat 
 to tiie electoral di>lricts of ihc liiited States. In each dis- 
 trict there is a iKTuianent farmers' ir.stitute, with regular 
 ollieers and a hoard of directors, one at ieast re|)resenting 
 each township of the district. If proper care is exercistHi 
 in the choice of the directors, each municipality will thus 
 liave an active jment whose services can he called upon to 
 promote the institute in his particular hx'ality. 
 
 Each institute, according to the Ontario system, ruist 
 hold at least six meetings during the year. The place of 
 meeting is left to the directors. The i!ieetings may he held 
 in oiw center, if desired, or the jjlace of meeting may he 
 change<l as fretpicntly as is thought advisahle. From the 
 fir.^t to the twentieth of June, each of the s(,cieties holds its 
 animal meeting. This is generally of a business character, 
 although in many instances a speaker is sent from the De- 
 partment of .Vgriculture. At this time the husiness of the 
 year is transactt-d and the reports are sent to the sui)er- 
 intendent of institutes. These reports must show the offi- 
 cers and director.^, a list of the meetings held during the 
 
FARMERS' INSTITUTES 
 
 191 
 
 year, a list of the meetings it is desired to arrange for the 
 iK\t fall, winter, and spring, and the moneys received and 
 ( \l)ended. Each local scK-iety receives twenty-five dollars 
 from the government, contingent upon a like amount Ix-ing 
 idiitrihuted by the local county council. In addition, each 
 iiu'iiiUt pays twenty-five cents. The crntral department 
 iii>i^ls upon proper advertisement. A prngram must l>e 
 I printed at least one week before the mtH'titig. un«l (•o|)ies 
 must be sent to every sch(K)l-teaclier and lie well distributed 
 throughout the neighborhood. 
 
 During the month of .June, each institute, or .sometimes 
 three or four acting in conjunction, runs an excursion to 
 tlie agricultural college, and every year more than 50,0(K) 
 fanners thus take the opi)ortunity of seeing the best live- 
 >to(k. agricultural appliances, and metlKnls of cultivation 
 about which they may ha\e heard at the in>titute meetings, 
 'liie farmers are guidtnl through the buililings and grounds 
 by the professors of the coUi'ge, ami full explanations of 
 the various features and enterprises are given. The On- 
 tario i)lan of organization seems to meet the needs of the 
 >it nation. I^nal control aad initiative are s«'cured, ami 
 the whole work is under the direction of an ofhcer of the 
 >tate. 
 
 The lenyth of the in.'<litnle session. — In the rnite<l 
 States, the length of the institute sessi(ms varies from one 
 in three days in the following projKirtion: 70.1 per cent 
 la>t one day, '-iG.5 per cent last two days, ami SA |H»r cent 
 < niitinue three or mon* days. The average numlK-r of ses- 
 sions held at each institute is 4.6. In districts where the 
 farms are widely s<attered and where the people are un- 
 at( ii^tomed to attend, the (me-<lay meetings are nei-essary. 
 They are, however, wasteful of time and money. They 
 incur the exj^enditure of nuich time for the mininuim 
 of results. They are probably necessary' as a preliminary 
 >tep to the establishment of the two-<lay in>tilutes, wliii h 
 an- relatively much more economical. The three-day in- 
 
 J 
 
192 
 
 AGRICULTl'RAL EDUCATION 
 
 stitutc is the one in which the teacher can ^ive the highest 
 prude of instruction ami do the most real g<Kj<J. It does 
 not necessitate any more travel than the one-day institute. 
 The instruction is more definite, and while it readies fewer 
 fariiKTs, this is probably more than ctniiiiensated for hy 
 the fact that the |)ersons who make the necessary sacrifice 
 of lime and money to attend during; the three days are 
 more likely to put in practice what is tauj^ht. 
 
 In arranging,' a program for a three-days institute the 
 subjects slioiild be connected so that the instruction for 
 the thriHi days will be complete as far as it goes; hut each 
 day's work should be complete in itself, so that those who 
 are able to attend only one day will 1k' able to acqTiire some 
 delinile knowledge. The gradual departure of the farme.s 
 will leave in attendance on the third day those who are 
 capable of undertaking further study, and these should 
 not be lost sight of during the time between the mef>tings. 
 Particular care should \w taken to supply them w ith bul- 
 letins fron> the college and ex|)eriment stations. These 
 are the peo|)le, also, who may be induced to attend a mov- 
 able scluH)l, or to take short courses at the college or high 
 school. 
 
 It seems i)robable that the three tyix's of institutes will 
 continue to be held. The n(H>ds and economic comlitions of 
 the districts and the character of the farmers inhabiting 
 them will determine which of the tyi^es is lx;st in any par- 
 ticular community. 
 
 The 77ielh(Klj< nf teaching to be adopted. — Evcrj' address 
 delivered from the institute platform should 1)0 carefully 
 j)roparetl. T(m) often the atldresses show that little effort 
 has bet>u male in this direction. Those who attend should 
 be encouraged to take notes. In the State of Michigan 
 note-books are distributed, and every one is urged to take 
 note.> of the proceedings. IVrhaps a better meth«xl would 
 be the <listribution of a printed synopsis of the lectures in 
 note form, with space iu the margins for additional notes. 
 
F.VRMERS' INSTITUTES 
 
 103 
 
 If these were printed on curds and proix?rly punched, they 
 could Ik' filed together, and would soon l)ecoiiie a valuable 
 collection of agricultural information. Charts, models, 
 experiments, and blackl)oard illustrations should Ije em- 
 l)loye<l when possible. The States of Ixiuisiana, Okla- 
 homa, antl Minnesota rejxjrt the successful use of motion 
 pictures. In the case of jiicturcs of all kinds, the " before" 
 and "after" method .should be used. 
 
 No other institution has yet l)een devised that could 
 have done the work that has l)een accomplislied by the 
 dinners' institute, and with reorganization along the lines 
 suggested it will continue to reach tho.se in need of instruc- 
 tion and to exert a beneficial influence on the practice of 
 farming. 
 
 
 ' j 
 
 « 
 
 FARMERS CLCBS 
 
 In addition to the fcjimal institute, small clubs, con- 
 sisting of from eight to twelve families joined together for 
 sixial, educational, and business purposes, might be or- 
 ganized. Such clubs would render it i>ossible to make a 
 closer study of any one topic, to carr>- out practical farm 
 ex[)eriments, to unite for such purposes as buying and sell- 
 ing, to meet for stx-ial enjoyment, and in general to exert 
 a l)eneficial influence throughout the neighborhood. These 
 clubs should be affiUated with one another and with the 
 institute organization. 
 
 Such a system wouUl render it fmssible to reach most of 
 the farming people of a state, and agricultural information 
 could l)e disseminated regularly and topics of importance 
 suggested for discussion sinmltaneously at all the institutes 
 and clubs held throughout the state. Care should lie taken 
 that these clubs do not Ix'cvme vehicles for gossip, the 
 dist^ussion of party politics, or the accentuation of rural 
 prejudices. Th^y should undertake some definite work, 
 such as breeding and care of horses and stf)ck, and :«ed- 
 judgiug, advocacy of good roads, or better schools. Twenty 
 
 1 
 
 I i'i 
 
104 
 
 AGRICULTIRAL EDUCATION 
 
 men orj^jinizcd in a hxality for these jirid other purposes 
 mi>,'ht in a short time revohitionize the loeality, and ac- 
 complish more than the large formal institute meetings 
 from which they sj)ring. 
 
 TIIK CIHANGE 
 
 Ahnost from the iM-ginning of agriculture in this coun- 
 try there hu\c IxH-n farmers' organizations of one kind or 
 another, but prior to 1870 there did not exist in the United 
 States, a single farmers' organization in the sense in which 
 the term is now uridersttMnl. The farmers thems«'lve>' have 
 always l>een the last to see the necessity for combination, 
 and many do not see it yet. The first MK-ieties were formed 
 as a result of the far-sighte«l vision of statesmen who saw 
 that agriculture was to be the economic basis of the new 
 nation, rather than from any expression of opinion from 
 the farmers themselves as to the need for such organiza- 
 tion. 
 
 The early history of the grange. — Probably the best 
 known farmers' organization and the one that has had the 
 widest influence is the Grange, or the Patrons of Hus- 
 bandry. Although this organizjition has. with |)eriods of 
 depression, been in operation since 18<)7. and it stands in 
 the forefront to-day as the representative of agricultural 
 interests in the United States, thousands of farmers as yet 
 know nothing of it. 
 
 In ISC.G, Oliver Kelly, a native of Boston who had settled 
 in Minnesota, was apjM)inted by the national government 
 to make a tour of inspection through the devastated South 
 for the puriHjse of .swuring adequate knowledge of the 
 conditions then existing and the resources available for re- 
 construction and iK'tterment. As a result of this tour, he 
 was convinced that the only means by which harmony 
 could be re lored was by agricultural coojK-ration. With 
 six other |)ersons whom he had inlereste<l. he drew up the 
 grange organization. It was intended to advance the cause 
 
FAIlMEllS- IXSTITITES 195 
 
 (.f cdiication among fanners and to niltivate a spirit of 
 iwacc and hrotherluxMi k'twcon tlu> North and tho Sxitli. 
 There is now no need for the second j)urpose, hut the 
 hrst IS still the basis on nhich the grange conducts its 
 work. 
 
 Early in the histor>- of the order, a "Declaration of In- 
 defwndence" was drawn up, which is still in force. Not- 
 withstanding the great amount of material on agricultural 
 iiiucaiion and rural uplift that has In-en i)ul.lished in recent 
 years, this dcxument has not U>en surpass<'d in its dear 
 and forceful enunciation of vital |)rin(iples. and it might 
 NM'II Ik- adopted as th.- <harter and guide of all workers in 
 the rural field. The first grange was organized in lK<i8. at 
 Fredonia. < 'hautauc,ua County. New York, and it is still in 
 active o|)eration. Hy 1873, more than ^27,00() granges had 
 heen <'stablishetl, with a memlK-rship of more than half a 
 million. 
 
 This mushroom-like growth wa.s nearly fatal to the 
 future ust>fulness of the organization. A large number of 
 those who joined entirely misconceived the purposes for 
 which the organization had l>een formed. 'I'hey sought for 
 iinme«liate Hnancial gain and joined for "what there was 
 m it." Others ex()ected to make it a L-ulder by which fhey 
 •otild climb to political office and distuiction. The ord(T 
 was unable to assimilate the rapid increase in membership, 
 to educate its memlK-rs as to its true purjK.se, and to train' 
 them in patience and self-c-oritrol in their efforts to achieve 
 that f)uq>o.se. As a result, hundreds of the granges es- 
 tablished at this time failed, and the influence of tlics<. 
 failures c-ontinues to the i)resent day. Many persons are 
 under the impression that the grange is dead. Hut the 
 grange survived the set-back, and now has an established 
 J.oMtion among farmers' s«,cieties and educational agencies. 
 The organization of the grange. ~ The unit of organiza- 
 tion is the local grange, which is supposed to include one 
 t'wn-hip. Eaoh local grange meets at least twice a month. 
 
 f i 
 
 H 
 
 ' i 
 
196 
 
 AGRICULTUILVL EDUCATION 
 
 These local granges often organize into a larger unit known 
 as the "l'orn«)na grange," whicli must meet at least quar- 
 terly. These I'oinniia granges, in turn, are affiliated with 
 the state grange, an<l this, again, with the national grange, 
 which is the official head of the whole organization. The 
 annual sessions t)f the naticmal grange generally last ahout 
 t«'ii days. There has l)een organized a juvenile grange, 
 which has great promise. The grange, like other .secret 
 orders, has a ritual which is said to Ix; "a l)eautiful and im- 
 pressive ceremony, permeated throughout by an exalted 
 religious .spirit and a strong love of nature." 
 
 The work of the (jrniuje. — Dy its local units and affilia- 
 tions, the grat' 'c can easily cover the whole state, and it 
 has successfully established intimate relationships among 
 its branches. "To enumerate the achievements of the 
 grange would be to recall the progress of agriculture during 
 the last third of a (rntury." Some of the measures that 
 owe their origin and development, at lea.st in jwrt, to 
 grange iiiffuence are. the National Dejiartment of Agri- 
 culture, the State agricultural colleges and e.\iH<riment 
 stations, pure-food laws, rural free delivery, and the In- 
 terstate Coi'imerce Commission. The grange exerts a cer- 
 tain amount of politic.d inffuence, but of the Ix^tter sort. 
 Probably the most important function of the grange to- 
 day is its educational and social work, and in this agri- 
 culture is particularly emi)hasized. Most state granges 
 have standing committws on education which study the 
 educ^itional conditions of the state. 
 
 One of the distinctive features of the organization is that 
 it \\.l^ the first of the fraternal orders to give woman her 
 full and i)roi).T recognition. Many of the chief officers are 
 women. Every delegate to both the state and the national 
 granges is a double delegate, as it were, a man and his wife 
 or a woman and her husband constituting a delegate. 
 
 Meetings are usually hcKl on alternate Saturday after- 
 noons in the grange halls, which most granges possess. 
 
FARMERS' INSTITUTES 
 
 197 
 
 Many of tljcse halls ar«^ simply and artislirully furnishrd 
 with chairs, tables, riij,'s, iKKikcascs, and an «)rgan. A 
 dinin«-r<)<>ni and a Wfil-f(|uip|H'd kitchen are sometimes 
 added. At every meeting, in addition to |)aiMTs, debates, 
 nmsi<'al numl)ers, and the reading of tiie ritual, a period is 
 allotted to open discussion. 
 
 the dangers to be crakded against in bur.\l 
 oiu;amzatu)Ns 
 All rural organizations are jjoculiarly liable to two 
 dangers. The first is allowing those not interested in agri- 
 niltiire and rural i)roblenis to join and. in some cases, to 
 take an active part in the management of the organization. 
 This dcjes not mean that meiiilK'rship shall l)e restricted to 
 those already engaged in farming oi)erations, but that none 
 shall bo allowed to join who are not vitally conc-erned in 
 the solution of rural problems. The second danger is al- 
 lowing these ass<M-iations to Ix.- controlled l)y small cliques 
 for their s{)ecial benefit. Ass«K-iations and clubs in rural 
 <listricts must never lx> allowed to lx»come the means by 
 which locid feuds and prejudici's are |KTiK>tuated. It is 
 true that the improvement of agricultural mcth(Mls and the 
 renovation of rural life will have to come largely through 
 the exertions of the rural dwellers themst>lves. No more 
 imj)ortant agencies can Iw devised to .•ici-omplish these 
 ends than the farmers' institutes, farmers' clubs, granges, 
 and organizations of a similar kind. 
 
 THE VEDERATION OF FORCES 
 
 In addition to the organizations that have l)oen men- 
 tioned, there are many others, all having for their object 
 the general improvement of rural conditions. The year- 
 book of the United States Department of .Vgriculture 
 devotes twenty-four jiages to the enumeration of the vari- 
 ous agencies that have Ijeen established for the i)romotion 
 of agriculture. This hst is admittedly incomplete, and it 
 
108 
 
 AfJRICn.TniAL EDICATION 
 
 <l<»os not include n much Iarf,'or nunilnT of local nssocia- 
 lioiis; neither <l(K's if iiicliidc a lar^je nurnl>er that have l)een 
 recently t-stahli^lK-il to promote p-nerai country-life move- 
 ments, such as home improvement, (nuntry church, sch(M)l 
 improvenu'ut, lihrary or^'anizations, and the like. In every 
 state and pr<)vince we have the agricultural «)lle^'e, the 
 <h'j)artment of education, and the departmenl of a^Ticul- 
 ture all taking' a hand, sometimes in c<K)pcrati(»n. hut more 
 often indciK'ndenlly. Many i)rivate and semi-privule cor- 
 l>orations are also taking' un active |)art. 
 
 The mrd fur fcdcnidon. — There is ur^'cnt need for the 
 federation of all rural forces. On this point the Country Life 
 Commission made a recommendation for "the hohlinK of 
 local, state, and even nafi< ,d conferences on rural prog- 
 ress, <h-si^'ned to unite the interests of educational orpmi- 
 zalions into one forward movement for the rehuilding of 
 country life. Rural teachers, lihrarians. cler^n-men, editors, 
 physicians, and others may w»l| unite with farmers in 
 studying,' and disciissiii;,' rural (|Ucstions in all their as|)ects. 
 We must in some way unite ail interests, all or^'anizafions, 
 all individuals having any interest in c-ountry life in one 
 great cam|>aign for rural progress." 
 
 Agricultural organization is nuich more diflicult than 
 organization in other industries. The farmer has to per- 
 form many fiuictions which iti the industrial world are 
 performed l>y several men. He is lM)th em|)loycr and em- 
 ployee. His training has heen along individualistic lines. 
 It is difficult for him to regard himself as a cooperator; he 
 still regards him,s«'lf as a competitor. Notwithstanding 
 all the difliculties that lie in the i)ath. there is urgent ne- 
 cessity for the cffc<'tive federation of all rural forces. 
 
 Thr form l/ial fidrrnfion ma;/ take. — .Vgricultural inter- 
 ests are too numerous and tiiverse to allow of any one 
 single ol.jecl heing made the hasis of a national organiza- 
 tion. 'I he farmers of the country camiot he organized into 
 a homogeneous natiou-widc association. When a number 
 
FARMERS" IN'STITrTES 
 
 109 
 
 (if fiirtiiors in a (rrtaiii n'striclfMj locality liavp a definite 
 ol.jot, ; • view, they usually have no difficulty in orpan- 
 izinj; ad association for the ucc«ini|)lishnient of that object. 
 Hut this does not necvssarily mean that these associations 
 nee<l remain i.solate<l. In the industiiid world there is a 
 multitude of trades, and this conditi«m may Ik* aimpared 
 with the different hranchc of ain'icnlture. It has not Ijcen 
 found imjiossihlc to complete a perfect fctleration of the 
 workers in the industries, and it should not Ix; iui[)ossil)le 
 to do the same f«jr apiculture. 
 
 The American Fe<leration of l^hor has shown the way 
 in which this can Im? done. Kach trade in each locality has 
 its separate union, and these unions are fcderate<l into a 
 complete whole. Each locality has the jKjwer of self-gov- 
 ernment and is independent so far as its local interests 
 and objects are concerned. But when the necessity for any 
 combined movement, either state, national, or interna- 
 tional, arises, the orj^anization is reiuly and in many ca.ses 
 has Iwjen alile to do the work retjuired. If this plan of 
 orj,'anization Ix* followed, it is not necessary, nor i)erhap8 
 <lesirable, that the objects of the Federation of I^bor be 
 too closely followe<l. 
 
 .\nother |H)int to In? considered is that the fe<leration 
 shall have for its object the Iwncfit of the whole country 
 and not 1)C for the purjKise of establishing monojKilies. 
 This does not ruean that the organization must Ik> altrui.<»- 
 tic or philanthropic: it nuist be decidedly self-interested or 
 it will fail to accomplish its purjM)se; but in the prosecu- 
 tion of this puriK>se, ecxinomic mcthtKis. rather than un- 
 economic, should l>e adoi)ted so that the whole country 
 may be l)enefitiMl. 
 
 A .stale plan of federation. — At a meeting of the New 
 ■^'ork State Agricultural S4x-iety, Dean Hailey suggested 
 ttiat the State legislature should define the iH)li(y of the 
 State in referenw to agricultural e<lu(!ation and rural af- 
 fairs, in order that the whole of the work might Im? ctjor- 
 
 H 
 
800 
 
 A(iIU( rLTlRAL EDICATION 
 
 ilinute.l aiul a definite plan |.n.jectc«l. He laid (|.,wn the 
 following principles: — 
 
 1. The State shculd «lefine its [nAUy in the development 
 of country life. 
 
 i. It shoiiM name the dasst^ of in.stitijti..ns that it i)r(>- 
 poso.H to utili/x- in the execution of this policy. 
 
 .'J, It should define the funcliorKs of the different clus.ses 
 of in.stitiitioti.s. 
 
 4. it .should state the organic rclation-ship that .should 
 exist lietwtH'n them. 
 
 Although these sugjif^stions wer<- made having,' largely 
 in mind wlucational institutions, they cuti l>e appliwl with 
 great benefit to general rural organization. 
 
 IN (.J. iAlAL 
 This dis<'ussion may Ix- sunim«H| uj) hy sjiying that with 
 fhecxisten«'of somany in(lej)cndent and unrelate<l orpini- 
 /ations there is thegn>atest danger of wiistof money, time, 
 and «-fTort; hut owing to the many »lifTerenl phases of the 
 j)rol)lem. it is imj)o.ssil)le to accomplish the work without 
 many organizations. In order to achieve the lK\st results, 
 an agniMuent and division of lal>or among the various 
 organizations is n(ve.s,sjiry. ^^^len this has Iktu l.rought 
 about they c-an \>c federated, first into state ;nid then into 
 national btKlies. thus combining unity of action and con- 
 centration of jjower with local iudeiwndeuce, autonomy, 
 and direction. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE WOMAN O.V THK FARM 
 
 Thk work of the woman on thr farm is much m.)rc im- 
 port, .at than our systoms of wlucation have generally ad- 
 rnitte«l. The part |)hiye<l hy the farmer*, wifr in the de- 
 velopment of Jigriculture is nmch ^""iter than the part 
 played hy the mechanic's wife in the indiistrj- in which her 
 liiishand is en>;a>;e,l. In other industries the workinjjman 
 does his work in the factor% or the shop. He (hn-s not take 
 it to his home, and his wife takes no part in it. The farmer, 
 on the contrary, carries on his work at his home, which is 
 the headcjiiarters of his l.usiness. His wife not only ct)n- 
 ducts the household, hut is generally exi)ected t(. take some 
 part, also, in the husiness. On th- way she conducts the 
 househohl and the influence .she exerts de|)end not only 
 the comfort of the home and the health and morals of its 
 inmates, hut in a large measure the sucwss of the agricul- 
 tural oi)erations al.so. For thest; and nuiny (.ther reasons, 
 the education of the farmer's wife and daughter should re- 
 ceive as serious attention as that of his son; for "if you 
 educate a hoy you educate a man. hut if you educate a girl 
 you educate a whole family." 
 
 Perhaps the sorest sjKjf in the rural pr()»)lem is the lot of 
 the negl»MU-d fami wife and mother. Eve?i where agricul- 
 tural prt>sjHTity is in<heat<>«l hy great harns fill,^| with plenty, 
 often a dilapidate.! farmhous*- nearly devoid. .f Iwauty. cora- 
 forl. or (..nveiiiin.-e. niea.siires the utt-r disregard" of the 
 housi-wifi's l..t. Men. y is fn-ely siw-nt wh.n n.w rnaehinery 
 18 n.>e<U-.l on the farm. <.r an..fluT fift y-a< re pi.t-,. is a.ldeil 
 after a prosperous s.a.s..n, hut s«l<lom a thought of the nwis 
 of the kitchen. Wliile the men of the farm ride the sulky 
 I)lough .,r the riding ham.w of the tweuti.-th eenturv, the 
 women liave neither a washing-machine nor an indoor pump, 
 
90i AGRICILTIRAL EDI CATION 
 
 li» say iiolhitiK of ninniiiR wali-r. sanitary pIiiriihinR, or a 
 I>iilli-liil). Siinctiriu's the ilrinlKcrv of tin- farm is ciKlurofl 
 liy III"' miitli.T iiiHomplaitiiiiKly, or fvcii coiitciitcflly ; lnit 
 the <laiif;iil«T ri-(uii> from it witli a growing (iis<'onlint.' 
 
 If ii person is to he c<lucute<l toward vocational efficiency, 
 the start must lie made when youn^, that is. when lie or slic 
 is in the elementary s<h<M)l. The ^'reat prohlenu how to 
 keep the l)oy on the farm, is trouhlin^ many, hut it would 
 IxH'ome much less a jirohlem if we could devise ways and 
 means of keeping the girl on the farm. The fjirls are even 
 more tlissatisfied with farm life than the hoys, and are 
 leaving in greater numlMTS. The lessened proportion of 
 women in the country homes of Canada was one of the 
 startling surprises of the last census. 
 
 THE KIND OF KULCATIO.N IlKtillHED DY THE RUn.\L 
 
 GIUL 
 
 The Tenth International Congress of Agriculture, meet- 
 ing at (Jhenf in. June. l!>l;J,took into consideration the rural 
 exodus, and came to the conclusion that one of the hcst 
 means of ciiecking migration would l>e to offer to young 
 women an education fitting them to l)eeome comi>etent 
 housewives, capuhle of intelligently and affectionately a.s- 
 .sisting their hushands. A resolution was pjv.ssed to the ef- 
 fect that "the farm woman must l)e conscious of the mis- 
 sion entrusted to her in the education of robust children 
 healthy in mind and body, provided with a sound educa- 
 tion, animated with .sentiments giving a serious idea of life; 
 children, finally, who understand the l)eauty of ct)untry 
 life and consider the cultivation of the soil the noblest 
 jjrofession of a free man." 
 
 The rigiit education of the woman is all-imi)ortant from 
 
 anotlicr point of view. l{»'ference has already been made to 
 
 tlie extent to which women are becoming the educators of 
 
 youth. If tlicir education be not of the right kind, and if a 
 
 ' l''i.skc, (i. Walter, '^he ClidUugi- uj the L'uuniry. 
 
THE WOMAN ON THE FARM 
 
 eos 
 
 lar^'o nuinlKT of tlit'in cannot ho trained to U- niral-mind.'.l. 
 tlicii the education tjiven in tiie rural sc-ho(»l.s will continue 
 to direct the thoughts of the pupils toward the city. If any 
 ^•irl leaves tlu> common school or the rural high sch<K)l 
 without rural liias. she will never accjuire it later. From no 
 matter what angle tlie (juestion is viewed, it all comes 
 hack to the rural .sch<M)l. It is therefore in order to incjuire 
 h.iw the necessary training can he given in that in.stitution. 
 
 THK wouK yon thk faum riri, in the klkal 
 
 KLE.MENT.VHY S< II»X)L 
 
 The elementary tiousehold occupations should Ik' used, 
 as is nature-study, to train the faculty of ohservation. In 
 many schools, owing to the altsence of equipment, it is not 
 I)ossihle to give formal instruction in c-ookcry. even if the 
 girls were old enough to take it; hut they can 1)C taught 
 ahout their homes and their home activities. Lessons can 
 he given on neatness, cleanliness, and tidiness. Elementary 
 conce})tions of the nee 'or ventilation and pure air and 
 plenty of sunlight maj ..e given and he illustrated with 
 simi)le experiments that every chil.' vill }«> ahle to under- 
 stand. The girls can l)e (juestioned ahout what to do to heljj 
 mother, and schooU'redit can he given for many forms of 
 light work around the home and in the garden and poultry- 
 house. They may al.so he taught in the scho<)lr(K)m how to 
 sew and knit, how to make doll's clothes, which are their 
 own in miniature, and small work-l»ags, tea-towels, or 
 <lustcloths, simple patching and darning, curtiiins for the 
 .schoolroom windows, and the like. Instruction may i)ro- 
 ceed along these lines, with practically no e(juii)ment he- 
 yond that which every girl can hring from her own home. 
 The enthusiastic rural teacher will not stop here, nor will 
 she allow the lack of t'(iuipmeiit to prove an insuperahle 
 harrier. In some schools the older girls conduct cooking 
 cxjKTiments on the top of the stove. .\ti cx])eiiditun' of 
 ii\e dollars will cover the cost of the utensils needed. A 
 
 . k 
 
 n 
 
204 
 
 AGRICl'LTIRAL EDIXATION 
 
 lar^c (Irj'-poods l>ox tnay l.e fitted with a shelf l)y the (.hler 
 hoys, and this may }>e made to serve hoth as a tahle and as 
 a (iiphoard. A coiil-oil or alcohol .-love may he jjlarod on 
 tli<- lop, an<l with a small j)orlahIeoven it will he siifiicient 
 for the rookiiif: of many foods. A <lrop-down slielf hinged to 
 the wall will provide additional tahle-rooni, or hoards ma" 
 he placed on the desk-tops and stored away when not in 
 use. Of course, all these devices are makeshifts. l>ut with 
 them valual)le Ics.sons may he tau^'hl; and in Ihoii.sands of 
 ca.ses it is either such equipment or nothing. The ideal to 
 he aimed at is a .sj»eciai rcM)m for this work; liut how many 
 rural scIkmjIs luive, or ever will have, such conveniences.^' 
 ^Vilh the simple e(|!ii])ment altove outlined, hot cocoa may 
 Ije made for the children who hring tlieir lunches to school, 
 or hV'ht refreshments may \>v .served to i)arents when they 
 visit the school. 
 
 iiorsKiioLD s(iK\( i; i\ Tin: home 
 Another metluxl that has hceii adopted with much suc- 
 cess is the use of the home for jjractical work. This j)Iau 
 has the additional advanlage tif ))ringing the .scIkk)! and 
 tlie home into much clo.ser contact, Wlien a trained rural- 
 school suj)ervi.sor is emjjloyed hy the state or the county, 
 she will naturally undertake the orj^'anizalion of this work 
 and the teacher will carry it on imder her direction; hut it 
 can he handled <piite satisfactorily hy the regular teacher. 
 The j)lan is as follows: every Friday afternoon, or at .some 
 other convenient period, the teacher assigns the work to })e 
 done at home. In the cas(« of cooking, clear and concise 
 instructions should l)e given concerning materials, quan- 
 tities, method, and measurements. The directions on the 
 hiacklioard should he i)laced in the nole-l>ooks. A lesson is 
 taken in the .s<-hoolroom and full explanations given. In 
 some cases these directions have hecn })rinted on ])roi)erly 
 I»unclied cards, so that at the end of the year each girl has a 
 useful collection of recipes and plans ever>- one of which 
 
THE WOM-VN 0\ THE FARM f05 
 
 she has workocl out aru! uncJorstarids. Ik'foro conimonciiig 
 work of this character, the U-achcr should visit the homes, 
 explain the phm to tlie parents, and seek their earnest co- 
 operation. The parents should Ik.- asked to fill up a pre- 
 viously i)repared form and certify to the work done at 
 lionie each week. 
 
 The success of this home-work depends, first, on the will- 
 ingness of the pupil to accei)t resiMjnsii)ility, and, second, 
 on the honest and hearty cooperation of the parent. No' 
 credit should he jjiven for work that is not don.- re^nilarlv. 
 Kadi kind of work should Ik- rei)eated a sufficient nunil>er 
 of times to give skill an<l facility in its performanc.. The 
 girls may also take an active part in the scIkk)! gardening, 
 and if a vegetaMe i)lot forms i)art of the garden the vege-' 
 tables grown should Imj used for cooking lessons. 
 
 In the consolidated scliool, the plans al)ove outlined will 
 not be necessary, although it is always advisable to keej) the 
 home connection as close as i)ossil)le. Every cons<,Iidated 
 school worthy of its name will have its proi)erly e(iuii)iK?d 
 household science room, and there the work will l>e taken 
 under proper instruction and in a much more satisfactory 
 manner. Home nursing and laundr>- work may also lie 
 taken. Such - school should have on it.s staiT a fully trained 
 and wc!!-qualified household science teacher, who will Ik; 
 able to help and advise the older girls in many matters not 
 open to a younger and less experienced teacher. 
 
 nOME nELI>S FOn the GIIIL-S not ATTEXDING HCnfK)L 
 
 For girls not in attendance at high schools, some of the 
 various clubs afford a most useful form of training. These, 
 however, in many cases leave the girls tcM) much to their 
 own devices and do not give the amount of instruction that 
 is desirable. I'n.bably one <.f the best methods of doing 
 this work is an organization similar to that of the NV 
 braska State Education Department. This is known as the 
 'Home Experiment Dei)artment," and has enrolled in it 
 
 ; t;i 
 
206 
 
 A(i U I ( L L'l' I HAL E D I CATION 
 
 over ;{()0() ^'irls. The phin f)r()vi(los for cjrfinite work, in 
 wliich iiistnicliori is jjivcri and on wliicli reports are made 
 nioritlily. Kacli inoiitli from Ai)ril to NovemlKT every 
 nieml)er reeeives re(ii)cs and definite instruetions. The 
 work includes some of the liest methods in ccokinf: and 
 serving,' nutritious foods, and tlier(M)kinK.eatmin^', and pre- 
 serviuf,' of fruits in season. Instruction is j,'iven in liutter- 
 making, and directions are sent out concerning,' the care of 
 milk and cream, «!iurning cream, and finishing and jjacking 
 butter. Blanks an- sent for reporting the dilfercnt branches 
 included in the work. The work in sewing is practical, 
 and the articles made such as are ne«'essary an<l useful. 
 The <lepartment furnishes patterns ami instructions for 
 hemming towels, making a sewing ai)ron, a garden hat, 
 household linen, and the like. Flower-culture al.so rec-eives 
 attetition. 
 
 I'his work is now conducted under the direction of the 
 State Agricultural College. The present State Suix-rin- 
 tendent of Education for Nebra.ska, says: — 
 
 Tli.-s«- <liil)s will, witlmi a d.-cade. have s<> chariged the 
 id.al .f family life in Ncl.raska lliaf the Ix.ys ami girls will 
 hail wWh .h'light llic tiriif wluii the prci)aralurv -tayc of 
 .s<liiN)l life is over, and a uico farm and farm licmc is tji,. rc- 
 \vard fur the jirt paratioii made nnd<r the clul. movement in 
 \el-raska. We will lli.n have belter sclKxils, more happy 
 farm homes, and the id.-als of farm life uill l.e of >neb hi^jh 
 standard that N'ehraska will ri-v np and <'all IVnfessor K. C. 
 Hisliop [the man who inunguralitl the clubs] "u man who was 
 \M)rlh while." 
 
 One of the functions of the agricultural high school may 
 well be the initiation of work of thi.> character for girls in 
 the neighborhood who are not able to take regular liigh- 
 .school courses. In a<ldition. a <-ourse of lessons on some 
 d<'finite topic of household management can be given on 
 one half-day a week, for ten or more weeks. These «-our.ses 
 should be inlen>-ive and detiniteiy vocatiuual in character. 
 
THE WOJLVN ON THE FAllM 
 
 SOT 
 
 SPECIAL HIGH-SCHOOL WORK FOR FARM (ilRLS 
 
 Every hijjh sfhool that has an agricultural course and 
 every agricultural liigh sduxil should provide a course for 
 iris as extensive in character as that offered for liovs. 
 Fur more than eighty percent of the girls, home-makiiig 
 will l)e the principal vwation. There is no other voi-ation 
 in which so large a proportion of the female poi)ulation 
 will Ik' engaged. 
 
 In the schools thus far established, there is one subject 
 of vital imjMjrtance to the future of the nation that has 
 liitl to l>et'n neglect.-d. namely, the care and nurture of 
 (iii) en. This, the most imjx-rtant oliligation in the world, 
 is left to unskilled and ignorant lahor. One .-„xth of the 
 children horn die within one year of their hirth. and one 
 third of them within fi'.e years. A large {HTcentage of this 
 death-rate is due to the ignorance of the mother. 
 
 T<n> often it is foiin.l that the life of the first-horn is saeri- 
 fieetl durinR the «arly n'onths of its lif«' by reason of the lack 
 of kii(>wl.<lg<- on til.' pari of the parents in the care neressary 
 in the feeding,' of this vuiualfle jwrtion of oiir jHtpuiation, anil 
 a lack ftf kn(>wU-<lfjf as to the care in toilet ami personal hy- 
 giene of these dear lit lie infants. The same att»-ntion given 
 by the pan-nts to bringing up the bal)y as is given by them 
 to the rearing of yonng «hiek»iis or die lhorough-bre«l calf, 
 particularly as reganis feeding, wouiil be followed by e<iiially' 
 g<H)(l resnils. 
 
 The p<>oplp have yet to realize the imTwirtane*' of this 
 branch of education, and that no false m.Mlesty must lie per- 
 miltetl Ui exi.st in reganl to \t. Tlie stu.jy of the infant life 
 is of more im()orlance than the animal ami vegetable life, 
 or the nuiking of butter, the baking of breail. ami the all- 
 devotzretl American pie. Tiie young women of th, country 
 must be tauglit how to mirse. fee<l, an<l clothe the baby, and 
 be shown how much more itnjMirtant U, liie stale is this ••deli- 
 cate subject" than the ftv.jing, fondling, and toilet of the jH't 
 dog or cat. cr the fascination a.-s(K-iate<l with l)rif)ge whist or 
 other .social lads.* 
 
 ' Dr. UudgclU. Uejxjrt of Ontario IJoar.l of IK-aHh. Toronto. 
 
208 
 
 AGRICULTrR.VL EDUCATION 
 
 (■(hAjKck coritsKs for women 
 The h]^}wT educatiun of women along the h'nes of lioine 
 economics has not made so much process as se<(jndary 
 education, or even elementary education. The reason for 
 this is that until comparatively recently it was not generally 
 recognized that women needed higher education; and even 
 when recognized, it was not conceded that higher educa- 
 tion was to he found in or culture derived from subjects 
 that pertain to the management of a household. \ woman 
 who holds a professorshij> in a classical institution uses 
 these startling words in an article written recently for the 
 Atlantic Monthly: — 
 
 Tliere is al)S<)!iitily notfiiiig in domestic duties themselves, 
 or in any form of manual lalM)r, wliieli develops the mind or 
 broadens or elevates the chara<ter. The idea that every 
 woman ne< ds practical instnietioii in housektx'i)ing as a part 
 of her eiliication is as absurd as woul<l Ik- the claim tluit every 
 man ne^iis to be Umuhl in the s<-hool to plant corn or milk a 
 cow. If tliere aeenies to women as much mental and j)hysieal 
 and si)iritual development from learning to do well all things 
 connwte<l with <lomestie life as fndn the study of iHwks, why 
 I ask (Kh's not the fanatic on industrial e«iucation entrust the 
 entire rearing of his cliildren to his Irish nurse-girl. Wliy 
 does he not marry lus (XKjk.' 
 
 What instruction there is of college grade in home eco- 
 nomics has been largely directed toward the training of 
 teachers; and while the students trained in these colleges 
 may eventually find their way into homes of their own, yet 
 the primary i»uri>ose of their course is their equipment as 
 teachers and not as home-makers. In many schools the 
 emphasis is i)laced on the retjuirements of the town and 
 city and not on those of tlie country. Of course the basic 
 j)riiiciples are the same in both cases, but the application 
 of these principles often differs in the two classes of homes. 
 
 While it is desirable that the wife of the man who lives 
 iti the city should know something of her husband's busi- 
 
'#^- 
 
 
 ^'?^'*/>-'t>*''''J-"'': 
 
 
 ttM 
 
 IHp 
 
 TUE \VO\LVN ON THE FAIIM 
 
 200 
 
 rioss, the absence of such knowledfje docs not seriously hand- 
 icap him in the i)erfonnanee of his duties. On the other 
 haiiil, the wife of the farmer cannot manage her end of the 
 Iiusiness successfully without a somewhat intinjate knowl- 
 (■(lj,'eof farming oiK-rat ions, and inadditi«m to the |)erform- 
 ariceof her own s|x>cial duties she is gent rally retjuireti to 
 take some part in the actual management of the farm. 
 
 One of the best courses, although not, i)erha{)s, of strictly 
 college grade, is that given at the Stout Institute, Menom- 
 inee. Wisconsin. The following particulars are adapted 
 from the prosiKftus of the s<'hool and other sources. In 
 1907, after four years' work in the training of teachers, it 
 was found that many young women did not wish to take 
 the professional training that would fit them for the voca- 
 tion of teaching, but tliat they did wish to be given an oj)- 
 l)ortunity to acquire a practical training for the vocation of 
 h( )iue-making, which a school of the highest grade for home- 
 makers could offer. Out of this ex])erience grew the course 
 referred to. No attempt was made to secure a large attend- 
 ance, owing to the fact that the work was new and the ac- 
 commodations limited. In the organization of the course of 
 study, much attention was paid to woman's chief economic 
 function — the spending of money. Women's relation to 
 the community as the chief purchaser of the world's goods is 
 of the utmost importance, not only to her immediate fam- 
 ily but to the world at large, since she establishes the .stand- 
 ards of life and determines in no small degree the quality of 
 commercial production in the industrial world. 
 
 The study made of this subject is a comprehensive one, 
 and leads to the consideration of many questions of social 
 and economic importance not usually included in the typi- 
 cal household science program. The course pays full atten- 
 tion to all the economic, scientific, artistic, and ethical 
 factors which are involved in making a home, the term 
 Innng used in the widest sense and including modem social 
 Ijroblems and community interests. The activities around 
 
«10 
 
 AGRICILTIRAL EDLCATION 
 
 whifh the (-(Hirsv centers are those eonneefed with the pro- 
 vision of a suital)Ie shelter for the family, the nutrition of the 
 family, and suilaMe clothinj,' for the comfort of the family; 
 those that have to do with the <are of dependent nieml)ers 
 of the family — children, invalids, and a^'cd i)ersons; and 
 those that have to do with the s<Hial, industrial, and eth- 
 ical relations of the memlK>rs of the family to each other 
 and to other meml)ors of society. Such a course is broadly 
 cultural JUS well as intensely practical, and proves the argu- 
 ment that household .science has no cultural value to l>e 
 fallacious. 
 
 Speaking of a college course in household science, Dr. 
 Ballict has .said : — 
 
 Tlie work mappcii out has as high a cultural value aa the 
 Ih-sI ctjurses now given in college, if we must ke«'p on t-on- 
 trastiiig the ciiltunil and the practical as if they were mu- 
 tually hostile to eacii other. S>nic <ia\. some thousands of 
 yt-ars to come, when s|K'<ta(le<l profexMirs shall stuily Anieri- 
 «-an anli(|uities. itil tlie.se commou practical prtK-os-st-s. the 
 ctM>king of meat, the manufacture of clotliing, eto.. will t)e 
 cultural .suhjc<Ls on whicii learne<i courses of kxtures will he 
 given, and they will Ik' accept*-*! as pro|MT suhjects for theses 
 for the (legn-e of dcK-tor of philosophy. Somi-how, according 
 to college students. knowie<ige must have a certain age l>efore 
 it h«-omes culture. Wlien it is so far heliind tlie times that it 
 ceases to Ije practical, then it iH-comes cultural. 
 
 women's INSTlTLTt-S 
 
 When the .schools have done their l)est. there will still be 
 a large number of women who will have to be reached by 
 other means. When farmers' institutes were first estab- 
 lished, no jirovision was made for the .special etlucation of 
 women. They often attendetl the meetings and gathered 
 what they could from the instructic . given to the men. 
 Later, .spc« ial sessions were organized for the consideration 
 of problems in which women were particularly conc**rned; 
 and now a njovement for separate women's institutes has 
 become active. 
 
THE WOMAN ON THE FARM 
 
 '.Ml 
 
 MviTy farmtr>' in-litiit.- nIiouM Iiavo soim- sessions open 
 to woiiifii, unci cvrry uoiiifn'^ institute sliuul.i liavr m.hu- 
 M•^^i^Ils open to iiifii. A sharp line of .li\ i>ioii can nrvcr Ik> 
 ilrawn hftwofn tlu- work of llic man ami llii- woman on tli.> 
 l.irm. liut till' timr lia> now arrivt-d when wonim >lioiiI,| 
 n-riMVi' sfparato and spt-cial considi-ration in tin,- plans ar- 
 ran^jfd for farmers' institutes. Indonhtedly it is of decided 
 advantaj,'e to have at least part of tlie meeting for mixed 
 M'ssions. when women may listen to tlic discussion of ^vw- 
 cral farm problems; it is of ^'reat value to the men, and 
 |.roi)aI)ly in the end is helpful to the women, to have dis- 
 cussions of home economies, sanitation, and farm-home 
 conveniences open to the men. There are, however, many 
 l.hascs of the life of farm women that are most etfectively 
 <liscussed in separate meetings; and generally women will 
 enter into discussion more freely when the meetings are 
 scj)arate. 
 
 The man and the woman in the farm home are not iK'ing 
 ccpially develo])ed. Agricultural jiractice has heen radi- 
 ( ally changed hy .scientific and mechanical discoverv. hut 
 the farm home and the work of the woman have not been 
 given the oi>i)ortunity to respond to as imixirUmt discover- 
 ies in the science of home-making. Many facts might he 
 cited to prove this. The location of the home is not .selected 
 with so great care as to soil, drainage, and exposure as the 
 l)arns are. There is generally a cement fliK)r in the dairy, 
 water in the haru.s, and imjjroved machinery in the fields, 
 before any improvement takes place in the homes. More 
 intelligent efforts are being made to feed the cows, sheej), 
 and pigs properly than are being directed to the food- 
 values of the meals .served to the children of the family. 
 These facts are now being recognized in the women's insti- 
 tutes that are gradually being established throughout the 
 country. 
 
 U'nnxfrs iriMitiifcs in Ontaria. — The Province of On- 
 l.trio ha-; developeil women's instituti's to :; ijnich irrr—ts'^ 
 
!2I« 
 
 .\(;HI([ LTI UAL KDICATION 
 
 i'\tfiit than any (illicr sl;iti> or province. Tlir n'|M)rf «>f llu; 
 Work for 1!M I pivcs tlic following: |tarti<iilars; [n»'nilMT.>.lii|), 
 '^:{,()S!»; niiinlMT of iiiirtiti;,'^ ImI.I. h:,(H. total atti'iKlancc, 
 's;n,.»..jU'», tiuinl.;-r of pajHTs read or a<l«lrrss«'.s (idivcrt'd, 
 '0,7!K{; (•,i>li ill hand acconhn;; to last report, •'<IS,:;'21; merii- 
 Imt.s' fees. sti.i7!»; ;;raiits from the ^'overninent. county 
 councils, etc., .s70i)»; mis<cllaneons reci-ipts. ."!<:{:{, -29!); «'x- 
 jxiiscs for nieetincs. !?(..':{:{(;; officers' sjil.iries aii<l (>x{M'nses, 
 JS'Ull.; jMista^'e and stationery. ><1 1<>(); printing' and aclvcr- 
 tisiii^'. !i<\il!>l; Iciliirers' expenses and fei s. ><1H,">7; IxMtks 
 and periodicals, $1;;T;5. The total re<eipfs were 8C.J,018, 
 and the total cxi)en<litnre ;i<J';J.l.S.>, I .. :.•!>,' a balance in 
 hand of .s..'v>,H(i;J. 
 
 Ti'ti dollars ,i ye.ir is allowed liy the ^^overnnient to each 
 women's institute, on the condition that at least an e<)uu| 
 sum shall l)e ^'raiiti-d liy the county council or the munici- 
 I)alify in wliicfi the institute is or;,'anizcd. or liy the hn-al 
 farmers' iiislitule. There arc Hi;\ institutes in active ojier- 
 ation throughout the province. The work is rapi<lly In-ing 
 extende<l to other provinces of th«' Dominion, larj^'oly as a 
 nvsult of the work in Ontario. Tlio work of each year is 
 closed with an annual convention held in the city of To- 
 r«)nto, to which each institute sends two or more delegates. 
 
 The f unci ion. s of u-omenK in,sti(utcs. — Women's institutes 
 are concerned, first, with woman's place in the home, and 
 then with her place in the coiiimnnity. The institutes 
 have HH-ognized that the .salvation of our country life lies 
 in the home, and so have concentrated their work there. 
 They realiz<' that many a young man has forsaken the i)ro- 
 fession of his father and gone into town to iMH-ome a trades- 
 man or day lal)orer, iMx-au.se he dcK-s not wish to subject 
 his wife to the hardships and drudgery he has seen his 
 mother and sisters endure. 
 
 In th«' <lioice of sf)eakers. as much care should h.^ exer- 
 cised as has been advi.s«"d in the ca.se of institutes for men. 
 The sjx'akers should have definite and exact information 
 
TUK WOMAN OX TIIi: FAILM «is 
 
 fo (•«»nvey, witli «'(|uall> .h-fiiiitc plari-< m I., how that infor- 
 mation may Ix- pnKli.all.v applinl. 'l"l • lUH-es.sify for im- 
 provfim-iil alon^; all liiirs in aii<i around th<- honic.sli.tuld Ik. 
 a>Minie(J. and vctv little time n»H-d l)e sjn-nt in .st-rmom/- 
 iii^;oti that iic<T.s>ify. Vrarsa^o. wlu-n these institutes were 
 first forme*! in Ontario, eookirij,' deinoii,frations and the 
 exehanKO of re<i[)es formed the greater part of the projjram. 
 i'heM' <Jem(mstrations still have an im|M,rtant j)laee. hut 
 the institute to-(hiy stands for niueh wider s«Tvi{-e. 
 
 The first problem to l.e met m the ii; rovemenf of home 
 conditions is the work of the woman herself. Most women 
 on the farm work too hard, and a i)art of their w»,rk would 
 not Ik- niH-essjiry if it were syslmiatizetl an.l the proi;er 
 eonveniences su|)plied. Ha<lly planned houses mean m:iiiy 
 steps, and the lack of modern t.-nveniences adds mu( h to 
 the daily tasks. In the country overloaded tal.les, with an 
 overabundance of pi. s. «akes, proerves. and the like, are 
 common, and this excessi\ e (•<M)kinK ad<ls nmch to the daily 
 routine. The institutes luive a f;reat field in teaching' the 
 simjjlification of work and of diet. The farm woman needs 
 to l>e taught the difTereiice iM-tween essentials and nfin- 
 essentials, what must he done, wliat may be partially done, 
 and what may l)e left undone. 
 
 The institutes have not confintnl them.selves to home 
 Fjroblems. but have entered the wider held of Mnial service. 
 They have been instrumental in establishiiifr libraries, in- 
 stalling pianos in public halls, furnishing and maintaining 
 rest-rooms where women may Ix- refreslied and leave their 
 small children while shopping, investigating tlie sanitary 
 conditions of rural sch(M)ls. agitating and educating for a 
 pure milk-supply, for the stamping out of tuberculosi-. for 
 the extermination of the liouse fly, and for a more elevated 
 tone in the current literature of the day, especially in the 
 so-called humorous pages of the newspapcf^. 
 
 Specific iniitructum giren by icomen'.s in.^titutrs. — Much 
 that has been said concerning insiitn'e- for nun aj>j>!ie-3 
 
214 
 
 AGIUCrLTlRAL EDrCATION 
 
 uitli r<|iial funr In woiiu-n's iiistitiilcs, jiartiiiilnrly with 
 nfcn-iKT to the lack of clnsc sIikIv. With a view to rciiir- 
 •Iviii),' this ililli(ult\ . several coiirso of slu<iy have hccn or- 
 ^'ani/.<«l ill uhi< h ^'nattr atfrnf ion can U- paid to <lctail and 
 iiiclhod. 'I'hc iiixlitiitc liraiK li of the Ontario l)c|)artiiiciit 
 of A^iriciiiliirf has c>lal>h>hci| courses in "fiMxIs and c<K>k- 
 • TV," "'.scwin^'," and "hoinc-niirsiii^'." The iiicctiii>;s of 
 the irisliliift's \vhi< h formerly had considered siihjects in a 
 desultory way, showed the ineiiil»«'r.s clearly that soinethin^j 
 more dcfiniU' was iie<-«\s,sary. They a.sked the departnient 
 to form special classes and courses for the systematic stmly 
 of the ahove to|»ics. Kach course as now orptni/ed consists 
 of ten or more lectures, and within the ntx-essary limits 
 co\ers the subject (jiiite thoroughly. 
 
 The work is so arran^'ed that th«> instructor may travel 
 readily from place to pla<«'. hohlin^r a course at a diff«Tent 
 jioinl each day from Monday to Friday, inclusive, eover- 
 mn the same route each week. The clas.ses are ^renerally 
 held in the afternoons, hut in special ea.ses arran^iements 
 are made for lioldiiij; classes in the evenings. During; the 
 past winter, ei;,'ht«-cn courses of fifte<'n les.soiis each on 
 foods and eookin;; were f,'iven at ei^'hteen ditFerent centers; 
 fifteen courses of ten les.sons each on .stnvinj; were given at 
 fifteen dilferent places; and nin<' general courses of ten le.s- 
 soiis each at nine different centers. The complete courses 
 wiTe taken hy HitiT persons, and in addition many others 
 took (K'casional le.s.sons. 
 
 These demonstration courses are proving most effec- 
 tive in giving country women .systematic instruction. 
 There is no reason why similar courses should not Ik- estab- 
 lished to cover most rural districts. Institutes desiring to 
 tak(> advantage of the courses offered hy the tleijartment. 
 send in ai)plieations and enter into actual <'ontracts to do 
 their part of the work. A tyi)ical contract for the course in 
 food and cooking is given below. The contracts for the 
 other courses are similar to the one shown, except that the 
 
THE WOMAN ON TIIK FAH.M 
 
 tl5 
 
 s«-wifi>jroiirsr rails for classes i»f twenty, and each |MTs<»n is 
 ri'«|iiire<l to pay two dollars for the coiirs** and tweiify-tive 
 < ttils for a single levsuii In all ^iil)j«'<t.s. the full enrollment 
 fnr the entire course must be guaranteed. 
 
 'ni'ICAL CONTiaCT 
 
 Betw«vn the Institnti^*' Branch <.f the Department of 
 AKricuiturc and th.- Institute 
 
 i.Vam/ '»/» 
 
 Dem«)\htration-Le<t(he Coi'KMi: is 
 HK)1>S and ( IKJKING 
 
 Tin- Department of A>jriciiifnri' agre«"s to: 
 
 1. I'mvide all jiorLuhic f<iinpiii.nt. except the necessary 
 
 t«hIv--<. chairs, and one cookstove. 
 'i. Provide a tea<her who will: 
 
 (a) Give ten I>tniunstration-I>xture» in IXinieslic 
 S<ienc<' (FiKxIs and Cookinj;). one ea<h week, at 
 i-ach of the pla<-es in<hided in the itinerarj-. 
 {h) Furnish such [mtsou as the Institute nuiy appoint 
 with written dire<tioiis for any l(Hal marketing or 
 sjMxial preparations at least one week before U»ey 
 are nee<le<l. 
 
 Each local Institute agrees tu: 
 
 1. .Vdvertis*' the conrs«- and s<ili(it members for the class 
 with a view of seeurin>{ a.s lar>?e c!a.ss<'s as iH>ssil>le. 
 
 i. Pn)vide a r;M)ni or hall suitjiMe for the hitures and 
 •lemonstrations, e<juipp«sl with the necessary clmirs, 
 tables, cookstove, etc.; also to s.-.- that the hall is pro|»- 
 crly clcane«|, lighte<l, heat.sl, ami ventilattsl. 
 
 S. Provide all materials htr demonstration work. 
 
 4. Provide an assistant who will be<'oMie res|)onsible for the 
 ojX'ninf? of the rootu. do the necessary hxal marketing, 
 and clear up and clean the demonstration tables, dishes, 
 etc. (It is usually iM)ssible to find some girl willing to 
 pay for her atfen<lance on the cours*' in this way.) 
 
 5. Guarante*' the sale of twenty -five {io} course tickets at 
 $li5 |K'r ticket. 
 
 6. Appoint some jH-rson who will be reeuired to keep an 
 exact record of Llie attendance of those holding course 
 
m. 
 
 i\r, AGRICrLTrRAL EDICATIOX 
 
 ticki'Ls as well as orcasionals. ut cacli .s«'ssif)n and rejiort 
 the .sjuiir to t'lc t'-aclnT at the (lost- of Iht- idiirst'. 
 
 7. I'ay tli«' 84.5.00 ( tinr^.fl for the t-oursc within ;< wc«k.s of 
 tin- (•oiiiiiicrictiiurit of the tours*', aixl oiiu half of the 
 n><»ij)t.s aho\ (■ $J,>.(M). whitluT payments \>c on ac<ount 
 of course t ickcts >r single aihni.s.sion.s, either iliiritiK or at 
 the <ori( lusion of the eoiirse. I'aynKtits are to he made 
 to till' iustnietor and n-eeipLs setiired at time of pay- 
 ment. 
 
 8. The Institute concerneti is at hherty to sell fonrse tick- 
 ets in miflitioti to the tvventy-five re(inire<l and also to 
 admit niemh«Ts at 13 cenU [kt hs.son. 
 
 Signe<l by 
 
 representing the Department of .\crieiiilure. 
 
 repre.s«-nting Institute. 
 
 teacher. 
 
 l^alLtl at this (lay of 1913, 
 
 In cookery, s{KHiiil omphasis is placed on f«)od-vaIues, 
 and on the conipurison of money-values with ffMxl-values. 
 The aim tliroujjhout is not to teach fancy (•<M)kery, hiit 
 plain .ser\ iceahle dishe.s. Hasic recipes which are caj)al>le 
 of adaptation are «iven. Kffort is also made to brinj,' about 
 a realization of llie importance of pn)per cookery and its 
 inflnenc*' on the welfare of the family. 
 
 In home-nursinj,', the first le.s.son is one on the sick room. 
 Tlien foll«)w lessons on l>ed-makinfi. the Itath. .sevenl kinds 
 of enierf,'ency work, external applications, itandaging. dis- 
 infection, olwervation of .symptoms of various di.sea.ses, ad- 
 ministration of f(MKl and medicine, and a lesson or two 
 on l)al)\ hygiene. These cla.s.ses are sometimes held in the 
 homes of the memlKTs. 
 
 In the .sewing classes, elementary le.s.sons arc given on 
 the various stitch forms and their suitability and adapta- 
 bility tofliffcrent kinds of work. At thecloseof one typical 
 course, each sludiiit had a shirt-waist, a skirt, a one-i)ie<-e 
 dress, and pcrf»'ct fitting pattern.- of each of these for fur- 
 ther US)'. 
 

THE WOALVN ON THE FARM 
 
 ^IV 
 
 Many of the women drive fmm one to seven miles to at- 
 tend these classes, and ahsenees are ahn.>st luiiaiown amoii^ 
 those who have entered for the full course. Objection has 
 been taken in some quarters to the fee char^'Cfl; hut, in the 
 first place, the fee d(x*s not U'^'iii to cover the total expense, 
 leaving,' a large balance to l)e made up by the «lcpartment; 
 and, in the seconu place, it has Ixn-n found that owing to 
 the imfKisition of the fee the classes are much In-ttcr at- 
 tended than if they were free. The fe<h'ral government hiis 
 recently made a lil)eral grant to the I*rovincial Department 
 of Agriculture, ami a generous approprianon from this has 
 been set apart for the further development of the- courses. 
 
 The work of the women's in.stitutes in connection with 
 these c-ourses has In-en twofold: they have created the de- 
 sire, and they have assimietl the local rcsiKtnsibility for the 
 organization. Without the sj)irit engendered by the |)re- 
 vious work of the institutes, these courses would be im- 
 possible. 
 
 DOMESTIC-Sf'IENCE TRAIN'S 
 
 Much useful work has l)een done among farmers by 
 the agricultural trains previously referrtn] to. In several 
 states, domestic-science trains are Ix'ing run to accomplish 
 similar results among the women on the farm. In North 
 Cart)liiia, for example, the farmers' institutes are running 
 cars of this description. They are fitted simply v ith a gaso- 
 line stove and a few utensils, together with illustrat've 
 charts hung on the sides of the car. The cars are run 
 tlmnigh the rural sections, and qualified teachers give sim- 
 ple lectures on various pluuses of household management. 
 S|)ecial emphasis is laid on sanitation, hygiene, an<l * he <arc 
 of children. 
 
 There are. of c-ourse, many regions that cannot \ye 
 reached by trains. To reach communities of this charac- 
 ter, the T-iskegee Institute has fitted up what is krH)W7i 
 as the "Jessijp" agricultural wagon, drawn by two mules. 
 
iJ18 
 
 AGUICrLTlRAL EDITATION 
 
 Tills wagon is rhiffly ilosipnod to \^ of int«Trst to farmers, 
 hut the lioiis<'h()l(l side is not entirely nei,'leffe<l. There 
 would st^»ni to 1m- large j)ossil»ililie.s of uM'fuInes.s for such 
 wagons in isolated rural districts. 
 
 A careful review of the whole situation in the open coun- 
 try leads to the conclusion that it is the duty of the state 
 and federal governments t«) devote as nnich attention to 
 the education of the farm woman as is now given to the 
 education of the farmer and the economic raising of crops. 
 While this work cannot l)o exix-ctwl ever to yield as great 
 financial returns as hel|) given to farmers, it will give an 
 e(|ually impf)rtant return in fuller and richer lives iu the 
 farm homes of our country. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE THAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Fou many years attention lias l)een paid to the training 
 of teachers, hut it is only re<H>ntly that spe<-ial thought has 
 iMH'n given to prepari; ' teaci -ts of agriculture, and still 
 inure recently to preparuig teacli"-^ who vvuuld Ijo able to 
 give agricultural instruction in ru al sc1i>k)1s. 
 
 In order that agricultural education shall 1> come wide- 
 spread and efftvtivc. teacl^-rs of st>veral grades are re- 
 (liiired: teachers for rur 1 scIi<m->1s, for high sch(M)ls, for s|)e- 
 cia! scli(M)ls. for agricuiiural colleg s aid for the various 
 forms of extension service. Some of these we shall con- 
 sider. 
 
 THE TIl.\INING OF TEACHERS FOR RURAL STIUOTUS 
 
 The problem of training teachers f(jr the rural schools 
 presents the gre:i'est difhculties. and partly for this rea- 
 st)n and partly owing to the fact that the methods of teach- 
 ing agriculture in the rural scIkkiIs have not In-en generally 
 agre<Hl upon, the whole matter has lieen largely neglected. 
 
 The c«insensus of opinion now seems to be that no satis- 
 factory scheme of agricultural education can be built up 
 unless it is approached from the rural sch(K)l. Before at- 
 tempting to discuss this question, it must be said that until 
 rural-school conditions are improve<l. all the efforts tt)ward 
 training teachers for rural schools will not result in placing 
 those teachers in the schools for wiii<h they are trained. 
 Teachers must not only be trained but satisfactorj- places 
 must be prei)are<l for them. Fortunately there are now 
 signs that public opinion is awakening to the urgent neces- 
 sity of establishing such conditions in tin- rural schools us 
 will attract and keep well-trained teacher.^ 
 
no 
 
 ACIUCrLTlIlAL EDICATION 
 
 The (lc>,'rcc of a toutlirr's proparation will Ik' ^ovorncd l>y 
 tlif salary paitl, and liie sinial aii<l oIluT coiiditions that 
 fxi.sl ill the euiiimiiiiily in wliicli hi- i.s to work. The sala- 
 ries paid in rural districts have not warranted teachers in 
 spending either time or money in training'. Another con- 
 sideration that has i)revented the training,' of rural scluMtl- 
 teachers has l)<><'n the too jirevalent belief that siM'cial train- 
 ing' is not reciuired. A^'<M>d teacher, it is said, will t<'aehsvell 
 any when', and it is <-ontend<'d that tin- training? >,'iven in 
 the onlinary normal scIkmiI will ajyply e(|ually well to both 
 town and country seh(M)ls. The general training? is, of 
 course, of service to any teacher, hut the cours*' and the 
 practice in the average iu)rinal school are spixially designed 
 to meet the needs of ( ity teachers, ami the metluxls ^'iven 
 are in many cases such as can he applied only to city 
 .schools. It is admitted that teachers for the higher branches 
 of at;ricultural teaching need special training. Wliy not 
 admit it in the case of rural school-teachers? 
 
 TlIK NEED OF SPECIAL TR.\IM.N(; FOK ULIIAL SCHOOL- 
 
 TKA< I1F:I{S 
 
 The management, administration, and teaching of an 
 ungraded school present many features which are never 
 found in a town or city school. It is :i comi)aratively easy 
 matter to draw up a time-table for a town schrM)l, in which 
 every cla.ss is separate, hut it is a different proposition to 
 arrange so that effective work will be securo<i in an un- 
 grade<l school. A lesson drawn up to meet all logical and 
 psychological re(iuirements nuiy be well suitcJ to a class 
 of thirty or forty pupils in a graded sch(K)l, hut the .same 
 lesson might {)rove a failure if given to a cla.ss of two or 
 three pupils in an ungraded .school. .V teacher trained in a 
 stale normal school graduates with a collection of lesson- 
 plans tirawn up in accordance with all t!ie rwognized rulc-J 
 of logic, psychology, school-management, histtsry of edu- 
 cation, etc.; but if slic ever finds herself in an ungraded 
 
 . i 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACIIEUS 
 
 HI 
 
 scIkx)! of, say, six or s<nen classes, ouch one i»f whicli must 
 Ih' kept l)usy, she finds that these phiiis "will i»>l work." 
 The suhjt'it-mattcr of the (liiTerent studies retjuires s|h-- 
 eial adaptation to the luvds of eountry chililren. bKal 
 environnitiit and conditions must l)e used for punxtses of 
 illustration, and the work should have a direct relati(»n to 
 everyday experience. This exix-rieiuv is <|uite forei^u to 
 the teacher unles.s she has l)een led to mak»' a s|)ecial study 
 of it during the course of her training. 
 
 THE CHAl^VCTKU OK TllK TKAININO NEEDKD 
 
 The training n.-eded is hoth general and s|)ecial. The 
 general training is that re<iuired hy all teachers. The s|)e- 
 cial training iK'eded is that which is closely related to. an<l 
 springs out of. the |M<iiliar prohleins of ungratlcd scIhh)! 
 management and the spec ial con<litiuns of the districts in 
 which these schools are |)laced. This training will inclu<le 
 nature-study, directly leading to agriculture, household sci- 
 ence, manual training, and the c-orrelation of all suhjcH-U 
 with farm and country life. Hut this is not sufficient. The 
 problem is much more than merely providing the future 
 teacher with subject-matter. If this were the only thing to 
 be done, the problem would soon cease to l)e a probleiu. It 
 is more a question of method than of matter. 
 
 Instruction of a s(K-ial and economic nature is needed to 
 prepare the future teacher to act as a leader in the eonunu- 
 nity. This should give some insight into the scn-ial asptn ts 
 of c>ountr>^ life. It should teach how to discover the actual 
 conditions of the community. During their training the 
 students, of course, will not l)e able to study the actual dis- 
 tricts in which their schools may be placed, hut they can lie 
 taught the meth(Kls to a{)|)ly so that the facts may 1m- «lis- 
 covcred in any locality. They should Ix- instructed Low 
 best to discover certain facts alnnit the po|)iilation. sucii as 
 increase or decrease in numbers and wliy. number of illit- 
 erates, and so on. Facts which should be learned about 
 
 M 
 
i£^ 
 
 2ii A(.UI(ULTriUL EDICATION 
 
 economic coiuliticiis arc, the natural resources, the nuniher 
 of st.K-k. natural prr..lu«ts, cliicf crops. cliara<fcr of soils, 
 size ami nuniLer <.f farms iiiimlxTs of o\vmr> and tenants, 
 the ciTect of IciiaiKV ..n liif life of the coiniiiunity, av<-raj;c 
 wa^ics, land-values, ami the like. 
 
 'ihe WM-ial comlitioiis which reipiire investigation are the 
 forms of recreation, organizations— their purpose and con- 
 dition, character of the roads, telephones, rural-mail df- 
 livery, moral and sanitary conditions. Teachers should 
 Ik- ahlc to make themselves actjuainted with the p-neral 
 etlucutional conditions in the iiei^;hl>orhood. They .should 
 make imjuiry into the inimher of chihiren leaving heforc 
 the com|)letion of the cl<-inentary scIukiI course and the 
 reasons therefor, the amount of schooling' received l>y the 
 adults in the district, and the lil»raries, with the new.spapcrs 
 and magaziiK's generally read. 
 
 Intil recently, such sut.jc.ts were considered as being 
 entirely outside the scoix- ..f the teacher's function. It is 
 now .swn that the teacher's usefulness is .seriously h-ssened 
 unless he is able to di.scover and use such facts as the 
 nhove. In the rural districts the functitm of the teacher 
 has a larger MM-ial hearing than it has in towns and cities, 
 and it is largely through the influence exerted in the homes 
 that the teaching can he related to the dominant interests 
 of the people. 
 
 THAININO FOR I'KKSONS PUEI'.\RING TO TEACH 
 
 The vu'th(Hl.'< in Ontario. — Now let us consider types of 
 courses that have Imhmi develo|)etl for the si)ecial puri.ose 
 of training rural school-teachers. In the IVovince of On- 
 tario, teachers' certificates are of three grades: third <lass, 
 valid for two years; second class, (|ualifying to teach in any 
 public school; and first < las.s, (pialifying t.. teach in high 
 schools. A tirst -class teacher may obtain a specialist certifi- 
 cate by taking a degree co\irse in the university. The poorer 
 rural schools arc i.. ucrally tilled by the third-cla>s teaihcrs. 
 
THE TILUNING OF TEA( HERS 
 
 iiS 
 
 while many of the second class take rural s<'h(K)ls until Hicy 
 can oldain appointments in town s<1i(h)!s. 
 
 For tin- special training' of rural school-lcaclicrs llu-n-an-. 
 in the provin<'c, a nuniU'r of s<h<H)ls terine<i "ino<lel 
 M'hools." These are nf'^Tally estal»lishe«l in connection 
 with a public sc-hool in a small town, usually situat«-<l in 
 the midst of an agricultural re^'ion. The scIkk)! term lasts 
 four months, and all of the lime is sjM-nt on professional 
 subjects, with a brief review of the previous aca<lemic 
 training of the pupils. Candidates are admitted to these 
 sch(X)ls on passing an examination held at the end of the 
 first two years of high-sch(K)l work, so that all have reached 
 a fair standard of academic attainment. No teacher is 
 employed in any rural scIukjI who has not had at least tw(j 
 years in the high scIkh)! except in siwcial cases in the poorer 
 hxuilities. The mmlel schools are situated so that the ma- 
 jority of the i)Upils are able to live at home while in attend- 
 ance. Throughout the whole of the model school cours<\ the 
 |)roblemsof the rural sch(H)l receive the greatest attention. 
 Many of the graduates of these scIuhjIs, after having 
 taught one or two years in an ungraded .sch<H)l on a incMlel- 
 school certilicate, take the examination for entrance into 
 one of the normal scho<jls, of which there are s<'ven in the 
 province. The length of the term in the normal sc-hools is 
 from SeptemlR'r to June, but those students who have had 
 previous teaching exi)erience take the final examination at 
 Easter time. For the students thus graduating there wiis 
 held at the Ontario .\gricultural College for several years a 
 spring course of alx)ut three months. The lH)ard, lodging, 
 and traveling expenses were paid by the Department of 
 Ktlucation. The o!)ject of this course was to train teachers 
 of rural .schcx)ls in subjwts diri'ctly Iwaring on the problems 
 of agri<-ulture and rural life. For the purjiose of instruction 
 and .)i>servation. the entire college e<|uipment was at the 
 service of the stu<lciils. KrH-ourageineiit has been given 
 bv the fact that a teacher who introduces the subject of 
 
tn ACiUU ILTniAL EDUCATION 
 
 i-I.Mii.iitary u^rirultuiv into lier sclwx.l receives a j,Tant of 
 
 if'.\() aiiiiiially. 
 
 riiis coiirst- has now Ixn-n disioMliminl and its place 
 takiii !»v MiJiimtT Mh'M.U, l.y atlmdini; Isvo <>f wliicli. aii.l 
 c<)iii|.l<liiiK a pn-MTilK-d cMirM- uf rt-adiiiK'. in a<lditiuii. the 
 U-acher is It'^^ally (iiuiliii«'<l l<» tcacli elniu'iitary aKricul- 
 turt-. Kacli sliidi'iil is mniimi lo n-ad and synopsi/e at 
 least tl.nf Ikm.Ls in tin- intt-rval Ixtw.fu the two suinnier 
 courses. These lM)uks must deal with uKTicultural or rural 
 
 prohleins. 
 
 The alK)ve course of training, it will Iw seen, provides a 
 two-years lii^;li-s«-luH)l cours*-. a four-months in(Klel-school 
 ctnirse.aiid an ei^:ht-t>r nine-months normal-seh.K.I course, 
 in all of which aKricullure is ^'iven a itrominent part. At the 
 c..n.hi.>ion ..f a courM- of this character, tiic tea< lier should 
 Im- al.le so to correlate the j;eneral scIkm)! work with aKricnl- 
 ture as to j;ive it the agricultural treml re<|uired in rurvl 
 schools. .V thr(H'-nionths course in household science is 
 fjiven at the I'niversity of Toronto on the same ternus as 
 the agricultural cours««. For the year 1914-15, there are 
 «?() sclu>ols in the province registered with the Department 
 of Education as teaching a^'riculture. 
 
 Rural tau'hera' coiifrrnire.t. — The al)Ove plan is unique, 
 and has within it jjreat possihilities for the training of 
 teachers for elementary agriculture. These spring and 
 summer courses were followe«l by a rural-teachers' con- 
 ference lasting one wwk. Kach county teachers' asswia- 
 tion in the province was asked to send two delcfjates, 
 .selected from the rural and village schools. When i.ossil)le, 
 one of these was to Ik- a teacher who had received special 
 training' in a^'riculture at the c«)lleKe, an<l the other a 
 teacher without this siM-cial training. In l)oth cases they 
 were to he representative teachers who were conducting 
 s<h(K.l fiardens or teaching agrictiUure. They were also to 
 1k' teachers who were not chan^'in;,' s<hools. I'nder certiun 
 rondiliuns the travclin-, hoard, and lodging exiK-nses were 
 
TIIK TUAININd OF TKA( lU^ltS ^ii 
 
 ,,,i,l l,y ihv IVi.arlin.'„t uf K.luratiun. A .......U,'. .ours*. 
 
 fur i„s,K-<t..rs of i.ul.lir ..h.H.l. i> now U-m^; arniu^.-.l ..„ 
 ,1^. .a.nr plan. TUr wl.ol,. mImm,..- is uiuI.t IIm- i.mm- 
 mniuMit aii.l dim linn uf tl.r • Dimt-.r ..f Klniuntary 
 A.'ri.ullural K.lii<aliot..- an ..lli.«r..f tlio IVovmna! D.- 
 iKirtiiu'iit of Ktliualioii. 
 
 Mrth^h in l/u- r,„t,d StiUe^.-Thv \u\ivi\ Slatfs has 
 alta. kfti llie i)rol.lfm in st-veral .lilTi-rtMit ways. Us .-(hica- 
 liofial institutions are so many an.l .S4. vari.-d. and th.-r.- is so 
 imicli ovrrlappinK' and dM|.li<ation of HTort. that it is al- 
 ways diOirult, if not itniM.ssil.lc. to iMiunuTati- tlit- .litTorent 
 atomies that art« engaKfd in any i)artirular liiu- <.f work. 
 With rcfori-nce to the training of tracht-rs (.f a^'ricultiirc. a 
 rarcful studv of the dilTtTent kin.ls of s<1uk.1s mtiiis to 
 result in the dis' overy of the foUowing six ty|M-.s: (1) A^rn- 
 <ultural collenes; (4) siH-iial detiu-hed and j.rivale foun.ia- 
 tions; CD educational dejuirtnients of universities and 
 colleK'es; ( \) state normal s«Imm)1s; (..) hx-al or county nor- 
 mal s<-hools; and KJ) hiiih sch(H)ls. 
 
 TeachcT-tTitlnimj in hUjh >„hH,U.- The plan of train- 
 ing rural-school teachers in hi>.'h s.Ihh.1s has In-en lar^'ely 
 a.lopted within recent years. There are two plans in use. 
 and the dillerenc-e l)etween the two systems is very marked. 
 In New York. Micliinan. and Minnesota, while the cla.s.sc3 
 are organized in eonmntion with high sch(H)ls. they form 
 entirely M-parate departments, quite .li.stinct from the 
 hi^'h school. Ordinary hinh-sch.H)! subjects are not given, 
 and the coursi-s are not credited t<.ward the high-sch.H.l 
 diploma. Some of the suhjec-ts are taught l.y the high- 
 sch.K.l teachers, hut as a general rule the class is taught 
 ciitirelv hy its own teachers. 
 
 In other states the course forms part of tlie regular high- 
 scho«)l course, the professional subjects In-ing usually <on- 
 fuied to the third and fourth years, or to the fourth year 
 only. Candidates for admission to thes«« courses are gen- 
 erally re(iuired to lx> seventeen years of age. The c«jur.s«- 
 
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART 
 
 ANSI and '^i TEST CHART No 2 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 ^' 11— 
 
 I- 
 
 i 1.8 
 
 '.25 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 ^ APPLIED iM^GE Ir 
 
220 
 
 AGIUCl LTl'RAL EDUCATION 
 
 coiiUmics for lliirty-six to forty weeks. In most rases, every 
 ciroii is made to atlui)t the work, to the re<iiiireiiieiits of the 
 <oiiiitry seliools. If tliis u<laplatioii ean l)e secured, these 
 aj^er.ciea seem to oifer the most immediately availahle 
 means for giviti}^ to rural teachers at least a partial train- 
 ing. 
 
 Although these sch(H»ls have been widely cstahlished, 
 there is nothing like unanimity of ojjinion regarding their 
 usefulness. The conclusion of the whole matter seems to Iw 
 that these courses, like so many other of our educational 
 exi)edients, are simply temporary devices until we are able 
 to evolve something better. That they supply a present 
 need cannot l>e doiilited. 
 
 County normal .whooln. — The (Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion reports that the gra<luates of the state normal schools 
 are able to sr.pply less than twenty-five per cent of the de- 
 mand for new teachers in the eleinentar\' schools of the 
 country. Teachers train«-d in these institutions are nearly 
 till absorlKnl by the town and city schools; for this reason 
 it hits been found necessarj' to establish another tyjx; of 
 sch(X)l which shall definitely prejjare for rural work. Prob- 
 ably the l)est school yet developed for this puri>ose is the 
 local or county normal school. 
 
 Such -schools have been developed in Wisconsin and 
 Michigan, and have so established themselves in the good 
 opinion of tiie educational authorities that it is difficult for 
 any teacher to get a position in those states without having 
 had this training. The first of the Wisconsin schools was 
 opened in 181)9, and such schools are now in o])eration in 
 many difTerent counties in the state. By law one of these 
 .s(luH)ls may be established in any county where there is 
 not already a state normal school. The county pro\-ides 
 the building and eipiipment and one third of the cost of 
 maintenance, aiul if the school is apjiroved by the State 
 Education Department and carries out the regulations of 
 that botly, the State pays the other two thirds of the cost 
 
THE TILVIXING OF TEACHERS 
 
 «7 
 
 of raaintenanoe. la some counlies, special huildiiiKs have 
 hot-n erected; iu others, rented (luarters are useil; and in 
 still others, u part of llie liMal hi^h-sehool huildin^.' is used. 
 No ci. . da^e can be admitted to these schools wlu) has not 
 at lea.>L the qualitications reciuired to enter a standard high 
 .sch(Kjl. 
 
 The course for these students takes two years for com- 
 pletion. High-school graduates are allowed to complete the 
 course in one year. For these, there is arranged a spe< ial 
 course, the academic work of the two-years course lR>ing 
 omitted and only the professional work included. The 
 courses of study are not uniform in all the scIkh)1s. hut are 
 nearly so, as they nmst receive the approval of the State 
 Superintendent of tMucation. In none of them is any 
 attemi)t inade to teach the usual high-scluxtl su!>jects. 
 Much work is done in nature-study, agriculture, and do- 
 mestic science, all with s])ecial reference to the requirements 
 of the rural schools. From ten to twenty weeks of practice- 
 teaching and observation in the small rural schools of the 
 neighlwrhood is reciuire*! for graduation. IIa\'ing l)een in 
 existence since 1H99, these schools have had time to demon- 
 strate their usefulness. The county sujxTintendents who 
 are employing their graduates are at one in saying that 
 their work is far suiierior to that of other countrj'-school 
 teachers. These scliools, l)eing local, take students from 
 the locality and with the preparation of the district scIkjoIs, 
 and annually return a large trnmU'r to the schools from 
 which they came. 
 
 State mmnal .ichnols. — The next step in the develop- 
 ment of teacher-training is the state normal school. No 
 matter how gocnl the work is in the lower institutions, the 
 state schot)ls will never l)e relieved of the duty they owe 
 to the rural communities. The state normals have taken 
 many years to rid themselves of the idea that teacher* for 
 rural schools needed no preparation different from that 
 t)f teachers who intended to enter urban schools. Their 
 
 4 
 
228 AGUirrLTI'RAL EDUCATION 
 
 ^radualos \v«t<- al.sdrlx'd by tlio towns and cities, so what 
 was till- use of attcinj. tiller to train for a kin.l of xTvicc u]um 
 wlii<'li the ^'raduatc-. never enti-red. lint the serious condi- 
 tion of tlie rural schools has at last aroused national con- 
 cern, and many of the state schools are now aware that 
 their function cannot he properly ])erfornu'd unless they 
 lake definite part in the prei)aration of rural-school teach- 
 ers. Many of tin- schools, however, even yet oiler no profes- 
 sional course specially athipted for rural schools, hut they 
 do ofTer courses in auriculture, household science, and simi- 
 lar subjects of special vali-e to rural teachers. 
 
 The w«)rk to he done l>y any normal school depends 
 largely "P<»" *^^^" IhinK-''- lirst- *•'«" •^'■"^ "^ schools in which 
 the jiraduates expect to work, an<l. second, the subjects 
 re(|uired to be tauf^'ht in the i)ublic schools ol the state. If a 
 .stale has a small rural population, as in Massachusetts, 
 New Jersey, and Rhode Island, it would be a duplication 
 of effort for all to offer special work fr)r rural teacliers. If 
 the i)0])ulatioii is chiefly rural, as it is in stales like North 
 Dakota, (ieor^ia. Alabama, and vS)utli Carolinu. then it 
 hcconies the manifest duty of most, if not all, of the schools 
 to offer courses which will fit their j,'raduates for the work 
 they are likely to meet. When' the state course of study 
 re(iuires nature-study, agriculture, manual training, and 
 household science to be taught, the normal school must 
 of necessity teach not only these subje<'ts, but also the 
 methods of teaching them in the elementary .schools. 
 
 .\mong the normal schools for negroes, many are giving 
 special courses, but only two an' making any attempt to 
 train teachers especially for rural schools. These two are 
 Tuskegee Institute and IIami)loD Institute. The normal 
 deitartments of these two schools concentrate their effort." 
 on the training of rural teachers. They both give work in 
 agriculture and other rural industries, in rural sociology, 
 and rural-school methods and management. Hampton has 
 un ungraded school as part of the institute, and supple- 
 
THE TU.UNING OF TEACHERS 
 
 4-29 
 
 tm'uts its normal work u itli ohservution in selected schools 
 in the neiKlil><>rl't>"d. 
 
 The following agricultural suUjects. among others, are 
 necessary for the ade<iuate training of teachers for rural 
 schools: nature-study, elementary principles of agriculture, 
 elementary s;initation and hygiene, household scienc-e, 
 manual training, and practical principles and prohlcins 
 in elementary physics and chemistry applied to these 
 
 sul>jects. 
 
 Some states are making special efforta to interest l)oy3 
 and girls in nornial-scho«jl training. In Illinois, for example, 
 a law called the "Normal S<h(K)l Scholarship Law," was 
 passed in 1905, which provides that one pupil from eadi 
 township in the state, selected by examination, may Ik; 
 given free tuition in one of the normal sc1uk>Is. These lM)y3 
 and girls are from the common schools, and alxjut ninety- 
 Hve i)er cent of tliem come from the country districts. 
 Most of them have l)een born and bred on the farm, and 
 thus have had exi)erience in farm conditions. With this 
 knowledge as a basis, it may be ex])ected that the agricul- 
 tural training of the normal school will furnish them the 
 ability to give a rural l>ent to their leaching when they 
 return to the rural 3(;hool. 
 
 In many states agriculture is now a required subject for 
 teachers' certiticates, and some states recjuire the subject to 
 l)e taught in the elementxiry seho Is. This has forced the 
 work into the curricula of the normal schiK)ls. Many nor- 
 mal schools offer courses in cgriculture, school-gardening, 
 and nature-study. The majority of these courst>s extend 
 over four to twelve weeks, but a considerable number oiTer 
 a full-year course. The North Adams (Massachusetts) 
 State Normal School gives a three-years course. The Mate 
 Teachers' College of Colorado maintains a dci)artment 
 of agricultural education and offers nine courses. Each 
 course is arranged es{)ecially for rural schcMjl-teachers, and 
 a special diploma is given. Each course takes sixty hours, 
 
230 
 
 AGRICULTUR.VL EDUCATION 
 
 and the courses are as follows: nat ^re-study, elementary 
 a^'riculture. scliool ^iirdens, soils and croi)s of the farm, 
 farm animals, dairy industry, i)Oultry husbandry, horticul- 
 ture on the farm, the farm home, rural sociolo^'y, and the 
 rural school. 
 
 It is from the three sources. — the hi^h schools, county 
 normal schools, and state normal schools, — that the 
 trained elementary teachers must come; and it is the first 
 and second of these that will j)rei)are the majority of the 
 rural teachers. Upon these teachers, probably more than 
 on any other class, will dei>eud the attitude of the country 
 child toward agriculture. 
 
 TRAINING TKACUERS ALREADY IN SERVICE 
 
 In addition to tlie teachers iM'ing trained for future 
 service, there are a large numlnir of teachers now employed 
 who have had little or no training either in the subject of 
 agriculture or in methods of teaching. It will take many 
 years to supi)ly all the .s<hcK)ls with proi)erly trained teach- 
 ers. Many agencies are now l)eing employed to give the 
 teachers already in service some knowledge of the newer 
 subjects and the methods that may l>e used to teach them 
 elfeetively. These agencies have arisen mainly for the 
 following reasons: — 
 
 1. Many teachers enter the profession with little train- 
 ing, and therefore need to be trained while in service. 
 
 '2. Complete training is impossible before service l)egins, 
 as the student has not the necessary experience or back- 
 ground to make it etieetive. 
 
 :>. Teaching should l)e a progressive calling, — there is 
 no standing still; and the teacher who does not keep 
 abreast of the times (piiekly Ix'comes ineOicient. For 
 economic efficiency and educational progress, the teaching 
 staff in our schools must be kept to its highest state of 
 perfection. 
 
 ISummer nchwln. — Summer and vacation schools have 
 
THE TILUNING OF TEACHERS 
 
 231 
 
 [onK' l>een considered a vital function of educational insti- 
 tutions and form one of the most efTective nietlunls of 
 training teachers while in service, particularly when the 
 suhjects are treatc<l intensively. If s*) arranged that the 
 work may 1)6 continued through two or three summer 
 sessions, the summer school can really ho made in effect a 
 normal course. It has long l>een the practice in many uni- 
 versities U) give a year's credit for intensive work in mathe- 
 matics, languages, science, and other suhjects pursued in 
 an ai)proved summer schwl of six- weeks duration. The 
 siimc can l)c and is being done in agriculture. A typical 
 live-weeks course in connection with one of the universities 
 in the United States devotes one week to soils, one to 
 plants, one to animals, one to birds and insects, and one to 
 agricultural economics. It is particularly imiwrtant that 
 the instruction given in summer schools for teachers shall 
 be concrete. 
 
 Teachers' inntitittes. — In most states and provinces, the 
 teachers' associations are required to hold one- or two-day 
 institute meetings during the year. These are for the pur- 
 jwse of bringing the teachers into contact with each other 
 and making them actjuainted with recent developments in 
 the work of the schools. The country teacher probably suf- 
 fers from the isolation of country life more than the farmer. 
 Frequent meetings with other teachers is one means o£ 
 relieving this isolation. These meetings are, of course, too 
 short for any systr «atic instruction in agriculture. Their 
 main purpose is to bring to the notice of the teachers the 
 most recent progress, the new methods, new books, bulle- 
 tins, and other publications on the subjwt of agriculture 
 and the various sources of information that are open to 
 teachers. 
 
 A study of the program offered in recent years at insti- 
 tute meetings, reveals the fact that agricultural subjects 
 are receiving much greater attention than ever Iwfore. As 
 the teachmg of agriculture depends very much on the atti- 
 
 i il 
 
£K 
 
 AGIIK [LTIILVL EDIXATION 
 
 liide of the tfachcr, aiiytliiriK that can infliunre this atti- 
 tude favorably is a (iecidcd ^-aii;. At the elo.M- of every in- 
 stitute meeting, auuouneenieiit shouM Ik' made regarding 
 any summer courses, lecture courses, or other means o|>en 
 to teachers for obtaining furtfier information or training. 
 In n.a!iy caM's, speakers are ohiained from farmers' insti- 
 tutes or agricultural colleges to a<ldress the teaclu-rs on 
 agricultural suhjwts. In some states the superinten<lents 
 of pulilic instruction regard the farmers' institutes as one 
 of the most powerful agencies they can enlist in the work of 
 introducing agriculture into the elementary schools. 
 
 ('i)rr«!<iH))(d<ti(r coarsen. — The correspondence method 
 of instruction has also achieved marked success in this con- 
 nection. Such courses have now almost [)asse<l tJie period 
 of hostile criticism, and they are accomplishing nmch in the 
 field of industrial training. Why should the corresj)ond- 
 ence method not he ap|)lied to agriculture? Corresp^md- 
 ence courses specially adapted for teachers who are re- 
 quired to give instruction in nature-study and elementary 
 agriculture, but who have received no specific training 
 thiTcfor, may reasonably be expected to do much good. 
 Until recently the work of ci>rn"sj)ondence instruction was 
 left almost entirely to private and commercial enteri)ri.se, 
 but it is now being adopted somewhat generally by the uni- 
 versities, colleges, and schools. In the training of teachers 
 in service, the corresp(»ndence methwl, if pro|X'rly carried 
 out, has great po.ssibilities. 
 
 There is a mass of material available for general reading 
 on the subject of agriculture, but not nnich of it will directly 
 aid the rural teacher. It will not Im» of much use to direct 
 the average teacher to bulletins and books, however gmnl 
 they may be. ( 'our.ses nnist be organized on «lefinite to|)ics, 
 and must not be ctmfined to the jiurpose of giving informa- 
 tion. They must contain methods, plans, and devices that 
 can be a|)|)lied to tlie average rural school under ordinary 
 conditions. They nmst be conducted by jK'rsons who are 
 
:1 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TK.U lIEliS 
 
 itiS 
 
 sympathetic toward rural rr<|iiir»'iii«'nts. .\rniti|:«'tiu'nts 
 should \h' rnadf for an.swfring (jucslioiis and snK ing ditli- 
 cultios promptly. Provision iniKlit also Ik" mado for a 
 traveling instructor in c«)nncction with tln'sc courses. 
 Whert! a numlx-r of students in one IcH-alify an- pursuing 
 the same ctmrse, the (Kcasional visit of such an instructor 
 would act as a d<>cided stinmlus. 
 
 After the courses have In-en organized, tlie next (piestion 
 that aris«'s is how students are to he ol)laine<l. Every state 
 department of education should have its corresjMtndence 
 branch, and correspondence court's might Ik* contlucte«l by 
 the colleges or high s<h(K)ls. Could not the taking of such 
 a course Ije made mandatory for all who have not received 
 a certain amount of training? If this should ln' considered 
 inadvisable, why should we not slu-d some of our sui)iK)sed 
 dignity and adopt the nietluKls that have l)een so successful 
 in the ca.se of the commercial schcnds, utilizing advertise- 
 ment and publicity. These schools go after business, and 
 hundreds of young men and women previously unaware of 
 the existence of such .schools are induced to take courses. 
 The public sch(X)ls might l>e etjually as successful by the 
 expenditure of even less effort. 
 
 Itinerant teachers. — Another very effective means of 
 enabling the rural teacher to teach agriculture is by means 
 of the peripatetic, or itinerant, teacher. This methfKl has 
 the advantage of combining supervision with training. 
 City .schools have visiting teachers and su[)ervisors for cer- 
 tain subjects, and .some states have adopted a similar plan 
 for agriculture in rural schools. One teacher can visit .sev- 
 eral .schools during a week. In commencing this work, it is 
 generally necessary for the visiting teacher to give the in- 
 struction himself; but he should .so arrange matters that the 
 teacher will be able eventually to carry the work under his 
 sui)ervision. This plan, pro{)erly carried out, imi)rf)ves the 
 instruction in the school while at the siime time the teacher 
 is being trained. In some districts it should be possible for 
 
 i 1 
 
834 
 
 AGRICrLTlRAL EDITATION 
 
 the tonrhpr in tho lii^'li .v}km)I to suiktvIsc the teaching of 
 uj;rirultur«' in tlic t-K'tiK'ntary school.s of tin- lu-ighhorluMMi. 
 Some nH'tlmd sliouM l)o «lcvi.so<J by which the students 
 leaving the various training institutions may l»e kei)t in 
 touch with ih*- parent institutioi:, and no in-tter plan could 
 he arrange*! tlian a series of visits by the teacliers of those 
 institutions to the schools in which their graduates are en- 
 gaged. Kven willi the Ix-st training in the scho<jls, tliere 
 will always Ih" n«tMl for further training, advice, and en- 
 couragement, such as could be given during visits of this 
 character. 
 
 THE TUAIMXO OK TEAniEItS FOR HIGHER HCHOOLS 
 
 The institutions previously descrilx'd arc concerned 
 mainly with the preparation of teachers for the elementary 
 s<h(M)ls. Teachers for secondary and higher s<h«K)ls are 
 also re(juired. For these we must l(H)k to the universities, 
 either sei)arately or in combination with the colleges of 
 agriculture. Many graduates of the colleges of agriculture 
 are now teaching in secondary schools. I'nfortunately, 
 however, in many cases these students have had no si)ecial 
 training in |K*dagogical method, and as a consequence their 
 w< k has not In^en so efrective as it otherwise would have 
 been. It may lie laid down as a general i)rinci|)le that 
 neither an agricultural college that does not devote ade- 
 quate attention to the professional side of teaching, nor 
 a university that has not sufficient equipment for agricul- 
 ture, can alone effectively train s|)ecialists for teaching 
 agriculture in seeondarj- s<^'hools. 
 
 The colleges are recognizing that agricultural exj)erience 
 and pedagogical training are both necessarv. In accordanc-e 
 w il'.i this belief. Teachers C'ollege at Columbia University 
 gives credit for certain courses in the New York State Col- 
 lege of Agriculture at Cornell I'niversity. Another arrange- 
 ment of this type is tliat in effwt between the University of 
 Toronto and the Ontario Agricultural College. A course 
 
THK TR.UNING OF TILVCIlEllS 
 
 «S3 
 
 four years in hnRth has Int-n t)r^»anizrd. two of whi<li arc to 
 Im< spout in the univorsily and two at tlu« a^TicuItural col- 
 lege. The surfpssful completion of this coursf entitles the 
 student to the dej;ree of Baehelor of Science, and (juaUfiea 
 him to teach agriculture or general science, or both when 
 needed. 
 
 THE OUADTATK SfMIOClL OF AORKTLTfRE 
 
 Sin<t' the siunnier of ld(H, a (iraduate School of Xgri- 
 culture has l)een held at selected colleges and universitit-s 
 in the United States. This is intended to furnish opjior- 
 tunity for extended tiiscussion of topics relate*! to agricul- 
 ture and the nieth(Kis of teaching it. The reiiuirernents for 
 admission are as follows: "Only i>ersons who have com- 
 plete<l a college course and taken a bachelor's degree will l)e 
 admitted to the privileges of the .sclux)l. except that |)er- 
 niission may \^e granted to non-graduates who are recom- 
 mended l)y the faculty of the college with which they are 
 connected, as persons properly qualified to profit by ad- 
 vanceil instruction in agriculture." The school is open on 
 etjual terms to l)oth sexes, and it continues for four weeks. 
 Most of the agricultural colleges offer postgraduate work 
 in agriculture. Many offer courses leading to the master's 
 degree, and a few give the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 
 The Graduate School of Agriculture, the various post- 
 graduate courses, and the stations for experiment and 
 research, crown the rather motley edifice that ha.s been 
 erected to provide for the training of teachers of agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
("HAITKIl XIV 
 
 THK KXAMI'LK OK DKVMAKK 
 
 A sTiDV of !i;;ri<iiltiiral ('(liicatioii could not Ih' c-on- 
 hidrn-d as cvfii |)arlially fomplric without som«' itnisid- 
 fratirni U-iii^; \:\\vn to tlir rcmarkalil*' sii(<'<'ss tliat luis 
 attended the elForts of educators in c«T(ain forei^;n ct>iin- 
 tries, notaldy iti Denmark. NotwitlistaiHlin^' the pro^Tess 
 that Canada and the I'nited States have made, tliey have 
 yet much to do, and in the doinj: of it they may learn n 
 fireat deal from a study of the •iietlxHls emi)loyed in coun- 
 tries that lm\e aclii«'V«'d notul»le agricultural prosiR-rity. 
 
 TIIK AfanciLTlKAL HITrATION IN DKNMAUK 
 
 The <'ontin('nt of KurojM' has many striking examples of 
 rogeiieration through agri<-ultunil education, but, by uni- 
 versal consent, Denmark is admitted to ]>c the country 
 that has accomplished the greatest results in agricultural 
 betterment. In lH^'>^, she ranked very low e<t)n()mically in 
 the list of nations. She was faced by national ruin as the 
 result of a disastrous war; she was <leprived of .some of her 
 fairest provinces; she was forced to pay a heavy war in- 
 demnity; and her chief market was closed by a high tariff. 
 This combination of difficulties and di.sasters arou.sed the 
 people to acti\ity. Agents were sent out by the government 
 to investigate what other eoimtries were doing agricultur- 
 ally, and to study the re<juirements of the Knglish markets. 
 The results of this activity soon became evident. 
 
 The area of Denmark is about 1.'), .>()() s'juare miles, which 
 is about one lliird as large as the State of Mississippi. Its 
 pojiulation in 1!)11 was '2,7.")7.()7n, almost wholly Sand'"- 
 navian, onlv three jwr cent Iwing foreign-born. Eight mil- 
 liuu (8,177,1(59) acres are iu farms. Outside the city of 
 
THE KXAMI'LE OF UKNMAHK 
 
 iM 
 
 (•..|>«-nli:it:<-ri. wliidi .oiitains tiUmt one fifth of the ih)|)u1u- 
 linii. Ilinr Jiftlisc.f the ixM.pIr liv«' ill th«' coiiiitry it.sdf and 
 ..ric fiflli in thr <<.iiiilrv towns. I)atii>h i-onditions <ii)T«T 
 iiiatt'riiilly, in >*,.mr rrsi.<-.tv fmni thnv ohtainin^' in North 
 Atnrrica.and it will In- wril f.. cun^iiliT .sonic of these ditTor- 
 .n.fs Inforc l.H.kin^.' at the provision made for a^'rirultural 
 r(in<afion and organization. 
 
 Only alK.ut twenty five |mt cent <.f the p«-ople .lepend 
 upon mannfaetnrinj,' and IdiildiiiK' industries. Tin- Danish 
 fanner d<K>s not consider u Iar^;e area of land necessary in 
 onler to enahlo him to make a (Unnl living, (hit of more 
 than •2.')<).n<M» rural pro|)rietors. tlM-n- are more than 7<».<MM) 
 with holdings under one and one third a<Tes, and .small 
 farm.s are the nile throughout the country. The gr)vern- 
 ment makes it a part of its policy to a.ssisl small farmers 
 and lal>orers. who have previously worked for other farm- 
 ers, to estahlish tln-ir own farms, huild their own homes, 
 and iHH-ome indeiM-ndent proprietors.' 
 
 The small size of the fa-nis nniders intensive farming 
 neees.siiry. The homogeneity of the population iinikes or- 
 ganization of all kind.s easy. The whole |)eop!e live prac- 
 tically untler the .same climatic conditions. Through the 
 influence of their rural high schools and their agricultural 
 schools, tlie people have l>een trained t«) coojieratc. 
 
 The alKive outstanding differences between the Danish 
 and American farmers an' such that the application of Dan- 
 ish meth(Mls to American conditions is rendered somewhat 
 difficult, and perhaps in many ca.ses undesirable. 
 
 THK f<K)PERATIVE MOVUMF.NT 
 
 It will now repay us to consider some of the achieve- 
 ments of Danish agricult\iral organization. In IHtiO. the 
 British vice-consul at Copenhagen reiM)rted to his govern- 
 ment that "butter, or what is sold under that name, is 
 execrably bad." To-day Danish butter. Danish bacon, and 
 ' Mormiu^ James B. Principle* oj Rural Credih. 
 
 It 
 
238 
 
 AGRICULTUR.\X EDUCATION' 
 
 Danish cfi^s rank in price and fjuality at the top of the 
 Knglish market. The following? tahle ' shows the prowth in 
 the sales of these products through organized effort: — 
 
 1S.>1 1!)10 
 
 Exports f.f liiittrr $!).iiKI.(M»0 $.->0,.-,{M»,(K)0 
 
 Kxix)rt.s of l)ii<on ^(XMI.IMH) »4.0«XI,(M)() 
 
 Kxiyirts of <->;),'3 3(M),(MK) T.fKKI.fMK) 
 
 ToUl $ll,j(M),000 $U1,5()*MMK) 
 
 In 1912, there were marketed, throuph the eoof>erative 
 system, ejrps, butter, bacon, and meats to the value of 
 $121,000,000. 
 
 How was all this brought about? Enj,Iand's opportuni- 
 ties were as great as Denmark's for tlie production of but- 
 ter, yet Denmark has captured the English butter market. 
 The imi)rovement of the butter commenced with the es- 
 tablishment of the dairy sch(X)l at Coi)enhagen, where an 
 army of butter-makers was trained. Exj)erts were sent 
 fro'u city to city throughout the whole of the British Isles 
 to study the British markets, and these agents sent home 
 weekly reports as to what those markets demanded. But- 
 tr^^f-scoring contests were inaugurated by the Danish Gov- 
 ernment, so that each maker could comjjare his product 
 with that of his fellows. 
 
 The large growth in the production of butter was made 
 possible by the increase in the productive capacity of the 
 individual cow rather than by increasing the number of 
 cows. This is shown by the following table: — 
 
 Number of milking cvu» Value of exported butter 
 1893 1.011,980 $lH.7iO,<KM) 
 
 1903 1.089,073 $Kt,;{i(»,(HH) 
 
 1910 l,!d80.000 $oO,5(K),000 
 
 Thus, the number of milking cows had been increased by 
 twenty-six per cent, while the value of the butter had been 
 increased by more than one hundred and sixty-nine per 
 cent. One Danish authority states that the average yield 
 
 ' Hoyal romiuivsion on Imliistrial Eilueatinn. Part 3, vul. 1. 
 
THE EXAMPLE OF DEN'>LVRK 
 
 «9» 
 
 of milk of the Danish cow in 1890 was 6170 pounds. In 
 the Isle of Fyen, wliich c<intains some of the In-st land 
 in the c-ountry, '20.000 cows gave an average yield of 
 8100 {Miunds in 1010.' 
 
 After the capture of the butter market, the Danes con- 
 centrated their attention on the pnKluction of high-grade 
 I)ork. Agents were sent, as Infore. to England. These 
 agents discovered that England obtainiMl her choicest iK)rk 
 products from Ireland, and representatives were sent to 
 that country to study how Irish bacon was pnxluced. A 
 large sum was six-nt in studying the food-combinations 
 necessary to prrxluce the highest quality of product. The 
 results are shown by the exin.rt of $^2,000,000 worth of 
 bacon in 1881, more than $^2^2,000,000 in 1901, and more 
 than $34,000,000 in 1910. 
 
 Some years ago, a trust was formed in I^ndon to control 
 the bacon industry. It fixed the price to the farmer and the 
 price to the con.sumer. This meant disaster to the Danish 
 farmer. But he met this danger, as he had met his former 
 difficulties, by coiiperation. He formed a selling agency of 
 his own. The Danish Bacon Company of Ix)ndon not only 
 destroyed the trust, but it insured to the Danish farmer a 
 sure market for his product whereby the farmer should get 
 all that his labor produces. He is not despoiled by ware- 
 housemen, or by railway or other monopoly charges.* 
 
 In the year 1910, the total value of all iK)rk products ex- 
 ported tnm the I'nitetl States was $13,5.9.59.373. It will 
 thus be seen that little Denmark, less than one fourth ;us 
 large as Wisconsin, and alx)ut one third as large as New 
 York State, exported more than one fourth as much jmrk 
 as the whole of the United States, which considers pork as 
 one of its very important protlucts. 
 
 » Report of Royal Commission on Industrial and Tochnical Educa- 
 tion. Ottawa. 
 
 « Sp«ial Report on .\griculture. State Board of llogcnlA Lharkstou, 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 m 
 
240 
 
 AGRICILTI'RAL EDUCATION 
 
 Tho same i)ro;,Tos.sivrnrss has beon rvi(lonr<'(l all throiiph 
 Danish afrriciilturc. Tlu' itiarvchms proj^Tcss of tho coun- 
 try has hoen attributed to many causes, the chief of which 
 
 are: 
 
 1, The extent to whidi the coo^M^rative movement has 
 grown. 
 
 2. The cliaraeter of the [)eo|)le, which makes cobpcra- 
 tion possible and practicable. 
 
 ;}. The j^'eneral education of the [KMiple in the "people's 
 hi^ii sc1kk)1s." 
 
 4. The efficient state of education in the rural districts. 
 
 .'). The efforts of the ajiricultural schools, and the gen- 
 eral agricultural organization. 
 
 THE KINDS OK (•OOI'F;nATIVE ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 The cooperative organizations may be divided into three 
 main classes: — 
 
 1. l'roductiv<> cor(j)erative associations, such as cream- 
 eries (begun in ISSO). meat-packing plants (18S7), and 
 cooperative s(K-ieties for the exportation of eggs (1890). 
 
 2. roiiperative societies for the analysis, investigation, 
 and improvement of the different branches of produce- 
 breeding live-stock. 
 
 3. Cooperative societies for purchase and distribution 
 of seeds, fertilizers, machines, implements, etc. The first 
 of these was established in 1886. The capitiil for most of 
 these undertakings is rai.sed on the collective credit of the 
 members. 
 
 In these associations, the hns'mand (small farmer) has 
 one vote, and the large fanner, with many times the value 
 of land, is also allowed only one vote. The small farmer is 
 put on an ecpial footing with tlie large producer and does 
 ('((ually well in jjrojuirtion to the cajjital he has invested. 
 The farmer is relieved from the risks of marketing, and is 
 saved (lie waste of time involved. His business is done by 
 trained men, and he is not at the mercy of commission 
 
TllE EX.V-MPIE OF DENMARK 
 
 i\l 
 
 a>,'<Mil.s or otluTs. Hy Loin- r. u-vi-.l of those dutios. hv is 
 al)le to devote the wiiole of his time to the prodiutive end 
 of his business. All the I.mmI associations have joine.l 
 themselves int.. centra' ass.,.iations. and there is thus i-o- 
 ordination of effort throughout tlic land. 
 
 These societies are or^'ani/.d for doing the i.usmess and 
 not for doing the work of the farm, although a numU-r of 
 them emph»y exi)ert advis.-rs to assist the fiirmer in hruig- 
 ing his product up to the standard required hy the ass«Kia- 
 tion. The individualism of the farmer seems to have heeii 
 swallowed up in a highly developed community si)irit. The 
 Danes obtain high prices, and these prices are the result of 
 ..niclent business management. They lake out of the llnt- 
 i.h Isles over eight million dollars annually; more than 
 any other nation obtains for an e.iual .luantity of the same 
 pnulucts. Many slat.-, in the Tni-.n are probably .lomg 
 a. much in the way of ,^v^tcmatic agri.ultural e.lu.ation as 
 Demnark is .loing, but in the application of business meth- 
 od, to the dispo.sal of j.roducts they have not y.-t In-gun to 
 learn the les.son which was mastered by the Danes more 
 than a quarter of a centurj- ago. The Danes might have 
 taken Uoosevelfs phrase. " better farming, better busi- 
 ness, better living." for their m.)tt.); but they \Aaced better 
 business first, an.l the results have justiti.-.i th.-ir judgment. 
 
 TiiK pk.>i'Lk's iii«;n s<iicmjl..s 
 The leaders among the Danish pe..ple attribute a large 
 measure of the success to the people's high scho<»ls. Vari- 
 ous other names have been given to these schools. "i)eas- 
 a-ifs high .s.-hools." "folk high .schools." an.l "poi.ular 
 high schools": but they are known generally by the name 
 nrst given. These schools are uni.iue. an.l thus far have not 
 been adopted by any other country. Th.- ( •om»nssi..ner of 
 K.lucation of the Vnitd States is so convinced .)f " tlie part 
 these schools have played in th- remarkable and rapi-ily 
 increasing prosperity of the Danish pople," thai in ttie 
 
242 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 winter of IDl^i he detailed three special investipatcrs to 
 prcH-ml to Denumrk to make a close study of Ua.u.h e.luea- 
 tio,.al eondili.>n.s. One of these- investigators was uistruc- ed 
 to concentrate his attention on the people s lugh sc1kk,1s 
 
 II is difheult to descrilK' the^.- scho<,ls. Ihey are not 
 schools in the generally accepted sense of the term. Ihere 
 are no examinations, no diplomas, no con.pulsory attend- 
 ance They are not schools for any special type of educa- 
 tion."l.ut scH..n to have Inx-n eslahUshed for the pun.osc> o 
 crealhig a spirit of nationalism a.id nmty. winch would 
 enal.le the people to work together for the common g.HK^. 
 They were the ccmception of Bishop Grundvig. H.s dta 
 was to develop the man by clucation, Imt he said ha 
 "cducati(.n should not be rendered in such a manner hat 
 it breeds despondency and contempt for ^v-'•k l.ut so 
 that it ennobles a man's work and heightens his abilitj to 
 
 ^"iCir origiti dates back to the middle of the last century 
 The first plan was thai of a great school at so.ne central 
 ,,,i,.l; hut owing to the death of the King, who ha.l given 
 t support, this plan was never carrie.l out home years later 
 a nu Jilied plan was adopted. The i<lea of one great schoo 
 gave wav to a number of small schools, and the movemen 
 became 'one of the people. The first senool ^-^;^^f^^ 
 at U Iding in 1845, in the northeastern part of fcK'li e.. yg. 
 w' -c-h at that time was Danish territory. This and other 
 schools established during the early years did not prosper 
 and for nearly thirty years the movement failed to appea 
 to the people. .\s one of their leaders says. > The movement 
 was at first UH>ked upon as a fantastic dreani of imi,racti- 
 cal .ninds, imp.Kssible to realise, or, when perhaps realized, 
 producing ilay -dreamers." 
 
 \f ter the war with Prussia in 18G 1, when the people re- 
 covered fn.m the first effects of the staggering blow, the 
 U-aders saw that the best way to restore the national pres- 
 lige lay in awakening the intelligence of people and in de- 
 
THE EXAMPLE OF DEN\LVRK 
 
 ll.*) 
 
 vclopinp the resources of the hind, rather than in tnakin^; 
 u futile attempt to re^'aiii what tliey had h)>{ liy force of 
 amis. The tliouyhts of the jK-ople were once more turned 
 towards Bishop Grundvij,''s i)hin. To-tlay the total enroll- 
 ment in these schools is almost ten thousand, antl the nuni- 
 l>er of sch(K)ls is al)out eighty. Over ten i)er cent of the peo- 
 ple i)ass throuf,'h them. They are not state institutions, hut 
 are the result of j)rivate initiative. Some are owned and 
 controlled by hi;,'li-s<.h(M)! societies, others hy i)rivate indi- 
 viduals. They are insi)ected hy the government, and wlu-n 
 they reach a certain standard they receive :$()()() kroner 
 ($810) annually. There is a government fund to assist stu- 
 dents who are unahlo to pay their own exi)en.s<'s. The max- 
 imum assistance so given is sJo kroner (!?f).7.>) i)€r month. 
 Students j)ay 35 kroner (•"?!>. 4.')) j)er month in winter, and 
 S^i kroner ($8.61) i)er month in summer, for board, lodging, 
 an<l tuition.' 
 
 These schools are intended primarily for the sons and 
 <laughters of farmers, and are always located in the coun- 
 try. The ages of the students range from eighteen to 
 twenty-five years. Mr. A. I'oulsen, one of the leaders of 
 the movement, says: — 
 
 Tliey are all schools for grown-up iHH)pIe. Gnmdvig held 
 to the opinion, which experii-iuf has shown to he right, that 
 it is at tlio age of eiglitc«'n to twtiily-five tliat tlie inteliictual 
 faculties are most siis<-fptihU' to influence. Before that age 
 the niiiui is not siifh<ieiitly develope*! and nie<litation canntit 
 be awakerie<l. Later on, in more advanccfi age, most iniiids 
 will be (X'cuijiwl willi the pra<tical diilies of life; hiil llio 
 uge of strong emotions, feelings, and arduous longings, the 
 " niurm-uiul-ilraiKj" |)eri<Ml nalnral to \outli, is tlie l)esl lime 
 for sowing the see<l of knowli-dge, and for exercising tlie per- 
 .soi»al influence of tlie teacher. For on the latter all depends. 
 
 The young men meet Utr five months in the winter, an<l 
 the young women for three months in the summer. Of the 
 eighty high schools, thirty have an agi-icultural side; and 
 ' I'uitid Stales I'ureau iif Kiliuutiiiii. HulletiD 5. I!)U. 
 
•iU 
 
 AGIllCl LTl UAL KDIC ATION 
 
 fh<T<' .in>. ill aiMitioii. ahoul twenty a^'riculluriil scIkkiIs 
 aii<l tliirl<'<ii fiotisckccpiiif^ scIkkjIs, all >iniilar in tlicir 
 nicllnxl i)f orf.'aiiizali(»n and niana^cniont.' The agricul- 
 tural schools fijrcw out of the high schools as a branch from 
 tli«' |>arcnt stem, and afterwards as sei)aritc institutions 
 followed similar methods except that agriculture and the 
 related sciences formed the main part of the subject -mat- 
 ter of the curriculum. These si)ecial agricultural and house- 
 ke<|»iMg schools are generally l(Kalc<l in the neiglil)orho<Kl 
 of lh<> ix'ojile's high schools, and in some cases the same 
 teachers lecture in both classes of sc1km)Is. The courses in 
 the two types of schools oocujiy alK)ut the same length of 
 time. 
 
 Allowing for those who attend an agricultural school af- 
 ter at tending a |)eople's higii school, and those who attend 
 twice, about one [)erson in every five of the rural popula- 
 tion who annually comes to the age of eighteen attends a 
 high school. It i.- estimatetl that there are l.)(),(MK) men and 
 women who have attended these schools. In IflOl, thirty 
 I)er cent of the members of the uj)per and lower houses of 
 Parliament hail been high-seliool j»iii)ils. '{"he high-school 
 jjujiils exert a marked influence u|>on the social and intel- 
 lectual life of the people by the sjiirit t)f comradeship which 
 is maintained after their attendance at the high school 
 ceases. Scattered throughout Denmark, in thirty or forty 
 towns, "High-School Homes" have been established and 
 maintained. These are simple hotels, with plain living ac- 
 commodations, v.ith rooms for meetings and social inter- 
 course, and they <'ontain useful libraries and other ac<-oni- 
 niodations. When the si idenls of the high .schools visit the 
 towns, they make these homes their headquarters. 
 
 The high schools j)roper concern themselves with the de- 
 velopment of i)atriotism through history, literature, .song, 
 and story; and even the schools that have been established 
 
 ' It'pi.rt nf |{..y;il Cdniiiussion on Industrial Education. Ottawa, 
 
 Cau.-iiiii. 
 
THE EX-VMPLE OF DENMARK 
 
 H5 
 
 
 for the express purpose of ^'ivinj,' afrricultural instruction 
 spend uiucli time in lliis way. Tlie influence of tliex- schools 
 is well shown hy the following quotation from Mr. Alfred 
 I'oul.sen: — 
 
 Then arose as if by magic the larf;e coiipcrative dairies 
 whieli gel their milk from large district:*, usually from a 
 whole jiarish. . . . The (tuickiie.s> and pre<ision with wliich 
 tiiis change was earrie<l out is due j.artly to the leiuliiig agri- 
 culturists of our country ami partly t4> the high .scIum.Is. IJy 
 their help a set of energetic young men were brought up to 
 understand the imjjortance of the new ideiis, aud to se<-ure 
 the -succe.ss of the new principle of cix.iMTative manufacture. 
 S<»me of them after a short course of instruction were ahh- U) 
 undertake the res|)onsil)le work ju* managers. . . .The greater 
 part of the men and women who manufiMture this butter 
 are pui)ils of the high .s<1iim.Is. I mislit. if lime allow(«<l. (lunle 
 many sayings of men who in ditferent branches of industry 
 luivi" made themselves prominent. They all agri-e in thi.s, 
 tlial the young [K-ople who have frequent«'<l the high schools 
 are much more to be relic-*! upon, more inilustri(jus. than 
 their eomrailes who never Imd the o[)p<)rtunity of attending 
 them. To be brief. T shall content mys«-lf with stating a 
 remark nn-ently maiie at the congress in .Vntwerp by Mr. 
 Peschke Koedt. tme of our most influential menliants. Ht; 
 said. " The jjopular high s<h(M>l is one of the most prominent 
 factors in the economic life of the country." 
 
 I 
 
 « » 
 
 THE ROY.\L AGRirrLTlRAI- .VND VKTERI.NAIIY INSTITfTE 
 
 At the head of all the institutions established to ^'ive 
 agricultural training, is the Royal Agrirultural and Veter- 
 inary Institute at Copenhagen. This is the sujjreme teacli- 
 ing body. It trains veterinary surgeons, teachers of agri- 
 cultural science, agricultural ex])erts, land stewards, and 
 the sons of the larger farmers who desire to add to their 
 knowledge of })ractical farming a complete course of train- 
 ing in the sciences relating to it. In ll)l'-2. the Institute %vas 
 attended by three hundred students. The course of study 
 extends over two years, but a sujjplementary third-year 
 cour.se is given. No courses shorter than two years are 
 
S46 AGRICILTURAL EDCCATION 
 
 nrranRed. The foiirst^ for votcrinary students extends over 
 four years, and soinc'liincs ov<t five years, and the full 
 course is »al<en l.y all students. No farm is attached t(. this 
 college, nor is any at Icinpt made to train the student in any 
 branch of practical farming. The staff includes twenty- 
 two professors and lecturers, besides twelve assistants 
 .•-nd tutors. Attached to the collej;e are lar^e research 
 lal)oratori<-s. which receive an annual subsidy from the 
 state in a.idition to the annual grant of $7(),(>40 given to 
 the college. 
 
 niRAL ORGANIZATION IN DENMARK 
 
 It now remains to consider briefly what may be con- 
 sidered the chief factor in Danish a^'ricultural F)rogress — 
 the organization. The corner-stone is the Danish Agricul- 
 tural Societv, established in 17(;!). The government looks 
 uiM.n this society almost as its ofHcial a<lviser, and has dele- 
 gated the administration of many measures to it. Amongst 
 these are the services of consulting experts in the several 
 divisions of agriculture. su]>plementary training of cream- 
 ery butter-makers, official tests of agricultural machines 
 ami implements, and various lines of field experiments 
 which are placed under the immediate supervision of 
 specialists app..inted by the society for the pun)ose. 
 
 The State Department of Agriculture (hx-s not directly 
 employ agricultural experts (as in France. England. Nor- 
 way and Sweden), nor any specially qualified agricultural 
 coum-il (as in Prussia ami Ik-lgium), but uses as its ad- 
 visers the Royal Danish Agricultural S<K-iety, the Central 
 Cooperative Association, the Veterinary Board of Health, 
 aii.l oth.-r bodies. The president an.l one half of the thirty- 
 six directors of the Danish Agricultural Society are elected 
 by the members of the society, the other half being chosen 
 by the farmers' associations, one member for each county. 
 In this wav. everv section of the country has an oi)por- 
 tunity to hell) direct the policy of the society, which thus 
 
TIIE EX^VMrLE OF DEN^LVUK 
 
 *47 
 
 becomes the nationni representative of Danisli a>n"ieiilture. 
 The metnhership is Ijctween seven and ei^'lit hundred, and 
 the annual fee is twenty kroner. 
 
 After the intrtxhiclion of the a«ricultural n'fornis in the 
 latter part of the eightei'nth eentury, certain orKani/.ati()n3 
 were estahlislied "for the promotion of morality and ability 
 atnoHK' the rural jKipiilation." These have develojMHl into 
 what arc known as "farmers asMK-iations, ' through which 
 elfeet is given to the general development |K>liey. The first 
 l(Mal association wasestal)lishe<i in ISO... These ass<Kiations 
 grew to twenty-five in number in 1850, forty in IHOO. while 
 at the present time there are one hundred and sixteen, with 
 a meml)ershii) of more than 8(5,000. paying in annual 
 fees al)ove '•21)1,000 kroner (.$5i,'-270).' In order to prevent 
 dui)lication of effort and tt) enable them to undertake larger 
 work than could be handled by the limited means of the 
 local associations, they have formed themselves into five 
 provincial ass(K-iations. Many of the problems considered 
 iHMng common to all parts of the country, the five provin- 
 cial organizations organized in 18ir3 a national executive 
 body of thirtiH^n meml)ers. 
 
 In 1901. "small-holders' associations" were organized 
 to deal with the problems of the very small farmer. These 
 agriin. like the farmers' associations, formed fi\ provincial 
 associations in 190^; and in 1903 a national executive lK)dy 
 of eleven meml)ers was established. There is now a total of 
 7^23 local asstxiations with :W.9.>0 iaeml)ers; and adding the 
 IIG farmers' associations with 80,000 members, there are 
 839 associations with 124.950 members. 
 
 In addition to these bo«lies. a large numlxT of sj)ecial 
 organizations have develoi)ed out of the farmers' as.socia- 
 tions. for the purpose of solving .si)ecial problems. There 
 are now about ■270 horse-breeding, l'2«iO cattle-brmling. 
 •i.y.i swine-breeding, and 10'2 sheej)-bree<Jing asscK-iations. 
 most of which have formed provincial as well as IcK-al 
 » Iloyul Comiuiisiou on Industrial and Ttxlmical Education. OtUwa. 
 
818 AGUin-LTlUAL EDICATION 
 
 asMKiations. TlK-rr an- als.. ,,..ultry-kcH-|,inu' asMKialinn.s, 
 btf-kci-pinj: a>>..« ialion.. dairy-murds u:i*<.. lation.s. and a 
 
 milIll)CT of (jUuts. . 
 
 'll.r aK'ricMiUiiral credifs aH.siMiati(,ns wi-rc fnrmcd in 
 18i)S, Willi llie ol.ji'cl of advaiuiii^ Uinporary leans for 
 curn-nl working; .<x,M-nM-s. rnd.-r tlu-sc asMM-.alw.ns. tl.c 
 inaxinnin. l..an is :{()(K) kroner Oi^SlO), tl.r inax.nu.ni lnn«- 
 fur wl.i( 1. a loan is >:rantc<l is nin.- nionlhs in a year, and the 
 inaxinuun rate of interest is three and one half per eent^ 
 The state has placed r,,(Um,(t(l() kroner at the disp..sal of 
 these asscK-iations. ,.f which there are at present 16S.' 
 
 There are manv <<her societies an<l organizations whitli 
 rannol now Ik- dealt with, l.ut enou^^h has l.een said to show 
 that the Danes rely in lar-e measure ui.on ornani/ation 
 and coo,>erative activity for tlu' d.-velopn.cnt ..f their a^ri- 
 cullurc; and it is pre<-isely in this dire. tion. ,.rol.al.ly more 
 than in .lefmite agri.ultural instruction, that the North 
 American farmer lacks. 
 
 What may he considered as the es.sentials of agncultiirai 
 
 proj;ress are here shown to he: 
 
 1 Highly trained enten)rise and resourcefulness. 
 
 2. The power that comes to farmers through organiza- 
 tion. . , 
 
 3. The efTectivcncss with which the povernnienl is al)lo, 
 chiefly thr. .<gh these organizations, to aid the indi- 
 vidual farmer with expert advice, technical instruc- 
 tion, and material support. 
 
 . Royal Commiision oq iDdustrial and Ttxhukal Education. OlU«a. 
 
 TUB END 
 
i 
 
 APPKXDIX 
 
APPFADIX 
 
 1 1 
 
 LIST OF AITMORITIES CONSlI.TF.n 
 
 /. ItiHiIci riLttIng tn tfw .Tuhjrrt grneralht 
 
 Baii.f.v. I.. 11. The UuUuok to Sature. Mmniillaii Company. 
 New York, iHiTt. 
 
 A *Tifs <>( four li-<-tiir»-i >m "'I'Ih- Knilm of thr <'iiiniiiiin|iliM-<'"; 
 "<"oiintry an'l < ity"; "Tin- S« li-iol of tin- Fulurf"; " E- ululion: 
 the (iu. St of TruMi." 
 Tfw Training of Farmers. r«'ntiiry Conipany. Now York. 
 
 $1. 
 
 n.'aU with the n-av)n» for boys and tfirls l.ii\ inn '"• staying on 
 th«- fiiriii; oilK'Ki-s n{ iiKTiiiiltiirc; fnll.-^;.' mm iw fanu nianajjcrs; 
 llif oilIcK''" of auriiMiltiiri- anil ttu- State. 
 
 Ci/rLfpedia of Annrlran Agriculture. Matinillan Company, 
 
 New York, i vols. $-»0. 
 
 Particularly voliimi- *. Thr Farm nml the Cnmmunitij. A stand- 
 ard work dcalinK with all |)li.i.s.'s of the .sulijc< t. 
 
 BrrTH, (1. 11. AVw Idinh in Rural SrItooLi. Houghton Mifflin 
 Company, Boston. $().(!(>. 
 
 Contains ohapti-rs on " Thi- Unml <th»»\ and it<- ProM.-ms"; 
 "NK-ial Organization of the llural NhiK.l". " Curriculiini of the 
 Rural SthiMil"'; "The Ti-achcr of the llural School." 
 BiTTTKiiFiEi.i). K. L. CltapU-rx in Rural Progress. University of 
 Chicago Prcs-s, Chicago. <(1. 
 
 At analysis of rural srx-ial oonflilions an<l progress. 
 Carlton, F. J. Kihu-aiion and tfu- InduMrial Evolution. Mac- 
 millan Company, New York. $\.-L't. 
 
 The chapters include: "Kducational F-iKK-hs in the I'nited 
 States"; "Uelation Iwlwei-n K<lucati.inal Advancement and In- 
 dustrial Progress"; "New .\ims. Ideals, and MethiKls '; "Women 
 and Indu.stry"; "Agricultural K.lucation"; ".New KducationiJ 
 I'rojeiU"; "The S< h(X)l of the Kuttm-." 
 C.^itNFY, M.\HFX. Country Life and the Country School. Row. 
 Peterson ^ Company. Chicago, i^l.'i.j. 
 
 .V comprehensive stu'ly. with many practical iletails, of the 
 agencies for rural progn-ss, and the ^x-ial relationship of the s<h(Hi| 
 to the ctjuntry community. Contains an extensive bibliography. 
 
2.V2 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 f'MivKH, T. \. Prinri plc.1 of Rural F.ronnmirs. Ginn & Cdnipany, 
 Boston. !«!!..'!(». 
 
 Urals iutiTcstinL'Iy with tin- causi-s rif thi- movornPnt of the rural 
 [xipiilatii'ii towarii tlir city, aii<l tlir jwissiliilitics (if tlii' farm ami 
 niiintry of llic future. trrati-'<i mainly from an t-conouiir jniint of 
 view. 
 
 CfnnEBLEV. E. P. Rural Life and Education. Iloughlon Mifflin 
 Company, Boston. $1.jO. 
 
 A c-omprchtnsivf stuily of riiral life ami the rural scIkmiI, an<l 
 their relation to. and (leix'inleiiee u[xin. eaili oilier. 
 
 — Tfif Imprrnrmcnt oj Rural Schools. Iloujjliton Mifflin 
 
 Coni[jaii\'. Boston. $0.3j. 
 
 Treats the prohleni under the following; headings; "Ttie I'nil)- 
 lem"; "More Money"; " IJetter Or^'anization "; "Hettir ."suixt- 
 vision " 
 
 Daveni'oht. E. I-lt!uratlon for Effirienrij. D. C. Ilwith & Com- 
 I)aiiy, Boston. $1. 
 
 Includes chapters on "The ( iiltun' Aim in F,ducalion ': "Airri- 
 eullure in the lli^h. Normal, and S|x-cial nIicmiIs"; "The l)e\clo(>- 
 ment of American A>;ricullure: What It Li and Wh.it It Means. ' 
 
 Df.XTEH, E. G. Ili-'ftori/ of Education in the Unittd States, 
 Macniilian Coinpany. New ^<l^k. i*-2.(M). 
 
 Outlines the f,'ro\vth of tin- peoples schools in each stale, ileal? 
 with higher and siwsial iilucalioti. educ.itional extension, technical 
 and iijrricultural education, anil pn-par.ition of teachers. 
 
 Fi.sKE. G. W. The Challenge of the Country. Association Press, 
 New York. $0.7,5. 
 
 .\ l)iK)k on the rural pniblem in seneral, and the country church 
 in particular. 
 
 For.iiT, II. W. The .imirican Rural School. Macniilian Com- 
 pany, New York, ^l.'ij. 
 
 Deal.s with orciinization, administration, maintenance, super- 
 vision, .salaries, huildings, naturi'-study, sch(X)l gardens, agricul- 
 tural cluhs, consolidation, etc. 
 
 n.vG(J.\Kn, R. Rural Denmark and its Lessons. L<jngman.s, Green 
 & Company, New York, .^si.'ij. 
 
 Descrilx's the rural regeneration hrouf^ht alwiut l>y agrici Itural 
 education and orj^anization anions farmers. 
 
 Ki'.iiv, O. J. .Among Country SchiMth. Ginn & Comj)any, Boston, 
 JiSl.'i,5. 
 
 Tre:its of thecountry .schiiil.aiid the melliods of vitalizing itscur- 
 riculuni and changing its outlook so tts tu relate it to country life. 
 
AITENDIX 
 
 •2J3 
 
 Lrvkk. Alheut II. TmliiMrlal Eilurn!i<m : Itx Mdfuxl.i, I'rohb-m.i, 
 and Oaiigrm. Ili.ugliloii MitHin Company. Boston. l!(l.-.'.j. 
 
 Dr:il> lark"'ly with lli" .1. iii.ntary .sihixils. iiiid lli.ir rcvitali/^i- 
 I'mn alon^! V(K-atiu.uil lims. 
 Le-vvitt, F. M. ExampUn nj Industrial Education. Ginn & Com- 
 pany, B«xston. $l.'io. 
 
 ChiipUT 18. "('c)nc<Tnin« .\K'ri<ultiiral KilucitKin." 
 
 M.<rD()rG.\iJ.. J. Rural Life in Caruula. WV.stminsU-r Puhli.sliiiig 
 Company, Toronto. $1. 
 
 Di.viiaxs th«- ilcplctiuti i.f till- rural i)<>[)iilatinn ami its .Mi.iK.iiiic 
 raiii<'s, and proposfs .v.luli.iu.s. The c-ouulry .liurdi w iltall with 
 in clrtail. 
 
 M( Keevku. W. A. Farm lioi/.^ amt CirU. Macmillau Company, 
 New ^'ork. $1.jO. 
 
 I).-alswil!llli>-»tiiil'' l>n.M,-ni(.f r..iinlr\ lif.- as it atl.^ t, tin- In.y 
 ami the Kirl. IaIciisis. r.f.T.iic.-s at lli-' <'ti<l ..f ••ach nf th.- t\%fiit y 
 chapters. 
 MoRMAN, J. B. Prinriph-s of Rural CridiLi. Mattuillan Com- 
 pany, New York. $1.50. 
 
 Exi ; ins till' nn'thiHls c,f financing farni-Ts in r.iirnp.'an coun- 
 tries. u.kI otr.rs suni.'c>ti<>ns for their a.laplalii>n l.i the I niteil 
 States i.ii.l Canada. The lHK)k is l)H>e<l ..n the Report of th.- I nited 
 States ( 'oinnii.s>inn on Rural Cnilits. 
 
 rn-NKETT, Sin II. Thr Ihirtd I.lff I'rohli-m in thr VniUd States. 
 Macmillan Coinpatiy, New ^ork. i?l. -.;,). 
 
 The ol)Ner\atioiis of a well-known Irish afrieiiltural ref..rnier on 
 thepn.hU-nis that <onfr..nl the .\m.riean farmer. «ith suKt'istions 
 (or their solntiiiii 
 
 2. Publicationn of thf I'nital StaUs liiinau of Education 
 Any of thr following puhlirations can h<- ohtaiiKni free from the 
 T'nit.Hl Slates Commissioner of F<<ln(atioii. or at a small charge 
 frr)m the Siiix-rintendenl of l)(M'iiments. Washington, D.C.: — 
 Country Life Commission. Riixirt. 
 
 The Report of President Roosevelt's rommi.s.sion on Country 
 Life, oulliiiine the country -life prol.l.rn and -^uKKesting reme<iieit. 
 
 C<,mmissioner of Education. Annual It»'ports. particularly — 
 1901. Chapter 13. "Education in the S<iuth."' 
 1903. Chapter 8. "The Educational Movement in the 
 South." 
 
'^jl 
 
 APrENDIX 
 
 190J. Chapter 5. "Tlic Tea( liinp of AKri'ultnr.- in the 
 
 SliiM'U of Frarici' ami IJilf^iiiui." 
 I!t(»7. ('ha[)t<T 7. "Eiliicalioii in Canada."" 
 lUO'J. CliapltT 11. "AKrioiltural Kcliicaliou."' 
 13. "Horm- Kcuiioiiiics."" 
 
 1910. Chapter i. 'W^riciillural Kdiicalion." 
 
 1911. Chapter 1. "Eilmatioiial l'rogrc.s.s from 1900 to 1910." 
 
 9. ".V^^riciiltiiral Kdiicatioii."" 
 10. "Kiiral IVIi'l in Foffigii Countrit-s." 
 1 9 H. Chapter .j. " Rural EdiKalion." 
 
 9. "A Ucvifw of Agricullural Education in 
 1911-li." 
 1913. Chapter 8. "Rural Education." 
 
 9. " rnigrt-ss of Agricultural Education in 
 191i 13." 
 
 Bulletins 
 1907. No. 
 
 2. .ijriritltuml FJncatinn, i ■ liiding Suture Study 
 and SrIuMil (Uirditix. 
 Deals al>i) with tlie agricultural cullcf?-. and the prael: ai iidvan- 
 ta^'cs (if iii'^tnictiiiii in aj,'riculture. ('(iritains a kikmI liililici^rrapliy. 
 190S. No. 1. The Tminin'j iif I'rr.ioiui t,) Tcurh A(jriruUure in 
 tlw Public SrhooU. 
 I)iscii>scs tin' nature of llic pr.ilplein in cnnneclioii with elemen- 
 tary. scioniLiry. and ^i»-<Mal ^cIumiU. Methods of training teas hers 
 in service us well its new teachers are ci)nsideri-<l. 
 
 1914. No. 1. A Coiir.ie i>f Stmhf for Uw Prcparaiion of Rural 
 
 School Tcarh-ra. 
 "ireiit.s of the need for sjx'cial traulin^,^ and outlines preparatory 
 ar.d elementury eoursi-s in nature-study, a^ncullure, sanitary sci- 
 ence, and practical cheniistry applied to rural life. 
 
 No. 0. Agricultural ^duration in Secondary Schools. 
 TaiHTS read at the se<i>nd annual nie<-lins; of the American .\s,sf>- 
 ciation for the .\dvanceiiieiit of Virricultriral TeachinR. 
 
 No. 10. liihlioiimphi; if Education in Ajriciilturc and 
 
 Home luiiiiomic.i. 
 .\n extensive cliussihi d li>t dealing with all phases of instruction 
 in l)oth sul)je<'tr. 
 
 No. 18. Teaching huujnaiie through Agriculture and 
 
 Domf><tic Science. 
 \ su^liiesteil scIk ine for llw rorrelation of apriculture and dom-s- 
 tic science with the ulber rulijivls of the rural sihooi curriculum. 
 
.VTPENDIX 
 
 '2)5 
 
 No. 20. Tlie R'-adju.ttmfTd of a Rural High Scfu)ol U) the 
 
 Seeds of tfw Community. 
 Shows how ('.>lel)rcK)k Aiadcniy, which wius ii typi( al ii.untry 
 hi^h schitol, hiks iKtn ri-orkMiiizcd so as t" lucct the nit^Ls <if the 
 i-oniiu unity. 
 1913. No. i. Training Cour/irs for Rural Teachers. 
 
 (iivcs ;i .letiiile<l account of the nu-thods uiloi>tc(l in the Initccl 
 States for training rural schiM>l-tcuchcrs. with suummrics of tlie 
 courses and statistics of the s( h(H)ls. 
 
 No. C. Agricultural InxtruHion in High Schools. 
 
 Contaias a hrief liistorical sketch, and deals with the whole ques- 
 tion of secondary ntrricullural instruction. - salaries of teachers, 
 relation of agriculture to tlie general scIkh.I program, difiicuilies of 
 instruction, etc. Three typical schools are descriU'd. 
 
 No. 8. The S*<itus of Rural Education in the United 
 
 Sta*c-. 
 Compares ui .n and niral .schools, and discusses the onc- 
 tejwher school, the lack of essentials for efhciency, the status of the 
 teaching force, training courses, tlie supervision, organization, and 
 management of rural seh(«)ls. 
 
 No. 1-1. Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools. 
 Papers re.id at the third annual meeting of the American .Vsso- 
 ciation for the Advancement of .\gricultural Teaching. 
 
 No. 20. Illiteracy in the United States and an Experiment 
 
 for its Elimination. 
 Describes the organization, management, and influence of the 
 "moonlight" .schools of Rowan County, Kentucky. 
 
 No. 23. The Georgia Club at the State Sormal School, 
 Atherui, Georgia, for the Study of Rural Sociology. 
 
 Gives an account of the activities of a club formed for the study 
 of the social, economic, and educational conditions existing in the 
 different ct)untie8 of the state. 
 
 No. 30. Education in the South. 
 
 PajK-rs read at the Si\te<'nth Conference for FMucalion in the 
 South, hchl at Richmond. Virginia, April. !'.)1:«. 
 
 No. 32. -In Educational Surrey of a Suhurhan and Rural 
 County. 
 
 An investigation into the conditions existing in Montgomery 
 County, Maryland, hy the Department of Church and < ounlry 
 Life of the Board of Home Missions of the Presl ytcrian Church. 
 
2J0 AIM'KXDIX 
 
 X... a. in I'.jjHrinurtUd Rural Sclu»,l at U'iiitlin,,, 
 ( ulUgc. ' 
 
 A prucliciil il<-,cri(.ti..n uf an .-xiMrim.nt to .li.s(f>v.T a m.tlKxI 
 whicli «,, 1,1.1 .iial,!.- til,- t.ach.r „f tlu- ..no-r....tn mIi.h.I t,, ,uakc> 
 bt-r sfh(«j| u fuilor in the .l.v.liipm.Tit ..f Ibc life arf.uti.l it. 
 
 No. 49. Tfu' i'nrragul Sclujol : A Tmmssie Country Life 
 High Scliutd. 
 
 DrscriU-.s thp .s.'!!.)..!, wlii<l, is .sitiiat.-.! n.-ar the villaR.- of r.,n- 
 cor.1. Knox County. Contain.s a list of ihr .-quiprm-nl for t^ching 
 agriculture, fiiriR-nlry, si'winK. and (■(K>kinK. 
 
 No, 58. The Educational S,,dcm of Rural Denmark. 
 
 I).-als witl. th- history of rural .i.vviopm.nt in Denmark. an.I 
 R.V...S a .Ivtai l.;.! a.,-ount of ihr srho.,! sy.stem. with 8<,ine applica- 
 lion.s to the ( iutr.1 States. Hil.lioKraphy. 
 
 1914. No. 5. T/u- Folk- High Srfumh of Denmark. 
 
 <iivesanareouul of ll riK'in. or,raiii/.atioM. work, an.! influ- 
 ent- of th.- «'h.H,l,. with suKge.slion., a.s to ,«..s.,il,le applications in 
 .vnierjca. 
 
 No. 8. Thf Manxwhu.s-ith Home- Project Plan of .igri- 
 
 cultiiral Education. 
 ("ontain.s .hapl.rs on v.Katioual ayri.ult wr.il .Mliicalion. agri- 
 cultural project stu.ly. proj.-ef .study outline for vegetat.le grow- 
 ing, am) a gixMl hihliogr.iphy. 
 
 No. I'i. Rural Schoolliou.tcn and GroUTuis. 
 Deiils with health coMililioiis au.l op|M,rtiinities in rural life, and 
 otTer-* many pl.ins au.l >ugg,>ti.iiis for .-ouutry .sch<Hjlh..use!i. ' 
 
 No. ',>J. The Danish Folic High Schools. 
 
 A .^.mprehensive treatment. coUMsting <if ten chapters. 
 
 No. '24. Danish Elementary Rural ScluxAs. 
 
 IVals with (he organization, n.lministrafion. and management 
 of th<- srh<Kils. sohor)l architeeture, ,«;ilaries, [x-nsions, etc.. an<i the 
 applicati.)n of Danish m.-th.Mis to the ,sch.K)ls of the Tnitcl .States. 
 
 No. •i5. Important Features in Rural School Improre- 
 ment. 
 
 A (vimpilation from sp«-cial reports of rural school superintend- 
 ents to fh.- Huri'au of K.lucation. 
 
 No. «r. Agricultural Teaching. 
 
 PaiHTs presentefl at the fourth annual meeting of the American 
 Aisoeiation for th. Advancement r.f Agricultural Teaching. 
 
AIM'KNDIX 
 
 ^.-.7 
 
 Ni). .'{(). ('<irh*i)liilati'>" "f Srh(n>l.*. and Trdtispoiintinn oj 
 Piipil.i (U I'lihlii- Hrjxri.if. 
 
 OulliiH's th>' lii>tnry ami cxtiiit I'f lli-- rimvonirnt, >lali' li i;i>l.»- 
 ti'iii. cost (if t'iin-.f)iirtiiti<in, f(lu(uti()ii:il ailvjiiitiik''.'*. itu'l "li-scriln-s 
 siiinr lypiiNil •.iliiHil>, 
 
 Nos. ;{(»-;}!). FAluriUi'iii for thf Home. 
 
 Thiscfiiiir Imllrtins >;ivca (i.inpn h.tiMv.-iimmnt of llir orK'nni- 
 zation i)f lious<-h<)l(l *u-ucf instru; timi in dilfi rent l\ (ws c.f s. Ikm.Is. 
 
 No. 49. Ejfflrienc!/ and Prriiaratiim of Rural ScIuhjI 
 
 Tcarhrrs. 
 
 D.iiIh with tlif I'fficii'iK y of ttu- ttach.T.s now in tlic sthixil.t. out- 
 lini-s s<)in-' of the tliiniis nc.'.li.l to pn.f.s.-ioniilizf rural ti-aching, 
 and di'sorilH's what is Ix'in'- doin- 'or rural tcaihi-r pn'fiaration. 
 
 Monographs on Eilnration in tin- I'niti'd Stales. No. H. Ajririd- 
 
 tural Education. Pnhlishcd for Un- St. l.^tui-s ExjMisition, UHH. 
 
 Di-.il-i with tin- history of at'riiullural siM'irtifs and fairs, the 
 
 Initid Stati's Di-p.irtnviit of Akrricullurf, th>- land-irranf <-oli.-«<'s, 
 
 coursfs of study, extension work, and a^'ricultup' in tin- loniniou 
 
 3. , ..Uwations oj the I'nitrd Xtatr.i Drpartninit of .\(iriculture 
 
 To !)«• ohtaincil fr<'<' from tlic S<-<Ti"tiiry of .V^jricuiturc. or. at a 
 small charge from tlie SujHTinlendent of DcH-iirnenl-s. Washing- 
 ton, !).('. 
 As.s<H-iution of .\.meriean .V^rieultnral Colleges and Experiment 
 
 Stations. 
 American .V.s.scx'iation of Farmers' Institute Workers. 
 
 The prooiMMlintts it thf annual nu-f'tings of these a.s.so<-iat ions are 
 pul)lishi'il a-s huUetins, containiiiK a<ldres.'«'S deliven-*! and the dis- 
 cussions ihertHin. 
 
 Bulletin IfiS. AgrimUural InMnwtion for Adults in Foreign 
 Countries. 
 
 Describes the provi.sion made for inslruilion in eleven Kuroi)ean 
 countries. 
 
 Bulletin iiQ. Secondary Agricultural Education in .ilahama. 
 
 Descriljcs in detail the wi.rk of the congressional district agri- 
 cultural s<-h(Kils. 
 
 Bulletin '231. College Extension in Agriculture. 
 
 Discussions In'fore the jrraduate s<-h(jol of aK'riculture at the 
 Iowa .\gricultural CoIKkc, .July. I'JIO. 
 
■2.iS 
 
 AIMT.NDIX 
 
 Bull.-lin -i.S-,'. Cm^nVuhiti-tl Rural Srhix>h (v»! tlif Orjiru'yttinn of a 
 Ciiitutij Sijxtrm. 
 
 A very .(impnliirisiv.- In:itmc>nt of t' siil)ji-<t. 
 
 IJnllrt in -i \i. ( nunln Sclnmh «J A'jririilliirf ami IhmfMir ilnmnm:/ 
 ill U'l.icorisiii. 
 
 Tn-.iN 'if till- (iri:^iti i.f tti.-- -Ii'"'!-. ..utlln.-^ tlnir work, ami .lij*- 
 ciissrs 111.- Wiiyt in wliirh lli.y can !i. i|i tlif fanu'T. 
 
 FiiriMi is' Biilli'lins 
 
 No. !».». (IoikI lUiaihJar Farmrrn. 
 
 A.lvaiilaK'> "f i" I rn,i(U, f)riii<il)l'S wliich should Ko\,Tn lot-a- 
 tion and Ircatimiil. ' !<•. 
 \o. 10!). Fanm-r.t' ILailiiuj ('iiiir.ir.i. 
 
 Dials wilii tliiir ori:;in, iiiir|io.s<>, and dcvclopnvnt in several 
 stales. 
 
 No. '218. Tlu- Sriuxil danlrii. 
 
 Treats of til.' \.du.- of mIhx.I ^aniens, the in.lividiial seh.H.l 
 >;ar.len, lali.iratory 1 \i rriv., win.liw Imixc^. d. coratiou of M'ho-'l 
 f:roiinds. 
 N(J. ^H.'). liiii/.i' awl dirh' Aijrirultural dnha. 
 
 DeseriU-s the work of th.' ehil)S. and the a^^i-tanee jriven hy the 
 Deimrtment of A^'ri.nllure; sut-'k'est- a tyiM- ..f or>.Mni/.ation. and 
 ri'ioinnii'nds lxH>ks of rifi'r.nee. 
 No. \11. Dimnn.itratiori ll'iirl: dii Southern Farnm. 
 
 I'laii of orfr.inization. sroi«- of the demonstrations, melhiKis and 
 practical results acconipli>hcd. 
 
 Cimilars 
 
 No. 'it. The Man ]Vho ll'orh irith his Hands. 
 
 \n a.ldress of e\-Presiil.nt Roosevelt at the srmi-rrnt.nnial 
 r'lel)ration of the founding of agricultural colleges in the Luited 
 
 States. 
 
 No. 1!>. Sceonilari/ Cour.'^e.i in AgricuUurr. 
 
 K.'p.il of a cuuiMitti-.- i>f till- .\ssociation of AmiTioan .\L'rieuI- 
 tural t'oll..|.;cs and Kxp.-riniint Stations, on methoils of teaching 
 aL'ri.'ullnr.v 
 No. ()(►. Thr Trarhinfj of Agriculture in tlw Rural Common 
 
 Srhix'l. 
 No. 7;{. ( nil ntri) Life F.iluration. 
 
 \n a.ldr.>s liy W. M. lla\s before ihe Pennsylvania State Board 
 i)f .\i;ri'ji.ilture 
 
AIM'KN'DIX 
 
 2.-.9 
 
 N'i>. Vii. Fiirm «J Orijttn'i-.'itinn for Morahlr Srhimh "/ Ayririil- 
 tiirr. 
 
 Di'sir.iliillty .f -.ik h xIumjU, fnrm-t <if cir>,Miilz,ition, iiiiiiN4-!i, 
 •■(|\ii|)riiitit. iintliMiis, aii'i n'Milt-.. 
 
 No. 8J. Farmer/ I-ixtitutrK for li'onu-ri. 
 
 Nf<-<1 iif fxtrrii'ril kriowli'il^'i'. relation of Wdiiicn ti> ninil i<liix.K. 
 fiirin 'if organization ami coiiittitution, kind of instruction n<-<-<li-<l. 
 
 No. JM). yiitrmal Srluxil IruHriirtion in Agriculture. 
 
 l'l;ice of ap-iniltun- in thf ciirriculuni. cmrsos, and c<irrcliition. 
 
 No. 91. Sernndarij Education in Agrindture in the United 
 
 SlaU's. 
 
 \ rt'ixirt of the Association of American ARricultural Collijfcs 
 and Kxpcrimcnt Stations. 
 
 No. 98. Progress in Agricultural Extension. 
 
 Orfianization of tlii' work of tlic {•olji-grs and f.irmcrs' institutes; 
 extension orj;iini/ation in various stales; a partial solution of the 
 extension problem. 
 
 No. 99. Farmers' Institutes for Voung People. 
 
 Di'.iis with different forms of tlie work, methods of organization, 
 and directions for contests of variou.s kincLs. 
 
 No. 100. The .imeriran Si/Hi'm of Agricultural Education. 
 
 Commences with the departnieiits for res<'arch and graduate 
 study, and concludes with tlie elementary .school. 
 
 No. \\i. The Transj»)rtation Companiea a» Factors in Agricul- 
 tural Extension. 
 
 Mainly a de.scription of demunatration trains and their method 
 of operation. 
 
 4- Publications of State Unirersities. Departments of Education, 
 and Departments of .Agriculture 
 
 Alahaiua. Dcparlnient of Ediicalioti. MoiitgoimTv. 
 
 Bullclin Xo. ;{;{. Alabama's Country Seh/Hits and their Relations 
 to Country Life. 
 
 ("lives a detiiiled description of eonditi<ms. and suggests remedial 
 measures. 
 
 Bulletin Xo. 43. An Educational .S'wnvy of Three Counties in 
 Alaljama. 
 
 .\ valuable pamphlet dealing with population, literacy, farming, 
 economic conditions, ailministration, teachers, buildings, gnjunds, 
 etiuipmcnt, and vitalizing ai,'encie.s. 
 
im 
 
 AITENDIX 
 
 Arkiirisas. I)c[)artnirnt of K'liiralinii, Little Rot-k. 
 T/ic Jiijuii niilnin nj tlw Rural Cinnmunitu. 
 
 All iicMr.,^ I,) (lir Si.iir Sii|M rililiii.li 111 nf I'lililic Instruction. 
 
 ( 'ip|i>raili>. riiliira'lo .\j,'rii ultiiral ( 'nllc^'i-, T'ort Collins. 
 Tht lliiral and I'lUajf ScluxiU of dtliirmlo. 
 
 All ri^'lit-ycjir siirviy of ciich wIkmJ lii^trict. 
 
 Georgia. Slati- Normal S<'1i(m>I. Atlu-ns. 
 
 <ic<)r>,'ia < 111!) Hiillrlins. 'I'lifsc luilli'liiis iirc issue*! pcriiMlirally, 
 Bllii (li-)il with sihIi siil)jc<-ls aM rilucutiotiiil siirvi-ys of ditfcnTit 
 rountifs, fiirin-llff <-'iniiiti()ns in llic Nuitli, tin- itjuntry smIumiI of 
 jHTmiint'iit inti'iiiii I-, ilc. 
 
 Illinois. State Dcpartiiicnt of M.iucation. Sjiriiigfivhl. 
 
 lit port of Illinois Educational Commi.s.fion. 
 
 Makes reoomiiieniiations and sii>;ni-slioiis for ajrrieulliiral traio- 
 in^ ami ilniuestic scii-nce courses in ditfereiil t\ |hs ''f selicjoU. 
 
 The One-Room and Village Sefu>i.>Li in Illinoi.f. 
 
 Deiils p'nerally witii tlie iin|»roveiuent of rural schools. 
 
 Iowa. State Kducation Department. i)es Moines. 
 
 Condition.^ and Scrdu of Iowa Rural SrfuHils. 
 
 Deals uitii the selii«ils iincjiT the foliowinn heads: "fnuntry 
 Siiool Slatisties"; "The ('oiiiitry S<Iiih)1 I'rohlem"; "Present 
 StatiLs of Consolidation"; "HuiKlinKs and (irounds." 
 
 Kansa.s. Statt- Board of A(?riniltiire, Topeka. 
 
 Agrirultural Education o.» a Factor in Derehping Useful Men. 
 
 In the Report for li>0». Contains, in addition, addr<-ss«>s on a>rri- 
 cultural leadership; puhlie education; the s<K'ial center of the 
 coiintr.v nei^hl)orhiM>d; country life. 
 
 Western State Xormal. Hays. 
 
 Educational Agriculture. 
 
 \ useful discussion of the principles and motives underlying 
 a^'riciiltural iiliuatioii. witii a practical chapter on agricultural lit- 
 erature anil its u.se in the .school. 
 
 State .\j^ri<ultiiral College, Manhattan. 
 
 Manual Training in Village and Rural Schools. 
 
 \ i)rac!ical application of manual training to the ntt'ds of the 
 rural school. 
 
AI'I'ENDIX 
 
 i6l 
 
 KcntiK ky. Dtpartimnt of I'lihlic Iiislniction. Friiiikfort. 
 Cormulidatiun and Traii.ifxirUUinn. 
 
 DiNiis with ronditioDs in Kfiitm ky. Ailvatilaps nf und cilijtc- 
 tii)iis to <-<)n»iliiliiti<in. Ontiinis iihIIkmLs tliut Imvr Ui n utldptfil 
 tu briliK ulx>iit ciiliMiliiLitiDU. 
 
 Demonsirutiun Schools. 
 
 ()ulllin-N till' succrs-i of the (Icnmnsf riitinn s<Iiihp1 in rural <«ho<)| 
 iniprovfiiiciit. uml ■>u>,'Kc,-.t.t a .-kiirt- lurtl (or (^Tiuling rural scliuoU. 
 
 Home Economics U'<rrk. 
 
 Di-wriU-s work that mn In' done in every rural .s<h<)<)l and home. 
 
 Scho(A League and Imprincment Work. 
 
 SuKWsts a constitution, and outlines inc IIumI-. of itnprovrnient 
 in regard to sanitiitioii, material t-onditions in th<- x li.~ilr.-.Mi. 
 jK-hool ^;arden> and ^'rounils, and the estuMisiitnenl of x h.H.j fairs, 
 rluiis, etc. 
 
 Massachusftb*. SlaU- Board of Education, Hostoa. 
 
 Ayricidtural Projects for Kleriuntary .SrluxiLi. 
 
 (Jives methods that can Ik' adopted hy the untraincti teacher in 
 carrying out fourtct-n different agricultural proji-cts. 
 
 Superri.'n'on of Teaching in Elenumtarif .'^chnoU. 
 
 A hulletin issued fo help the superintendent, e<<pe<-ially af the 
 l)<'(?innin>; of liis service. 
 
 Report on Agricultural Education, 1011. 
 
 .\n invest illation into the (h-sirahiiity of estahlishinp a system of 
 a^!riiultural .s<h(M>Is ihrou>;hout the state. 
 
 Michigan. State Supf'rintcndcnl of Puhlir In.stnirtion, I^n.sing. 
 190<i. Bulletin No. 19. Con.tolidaiion of Schtxd Districts. 
 
 States the Liw and gives the method of prtK-edure to Ix' followed. 
 
 1912. Bulletin No. 44. Agriculture in Rural Sc!u>oLi. 
 Outlines the work ihaf can Ix- done in the average niral schoo!. 
 
 1913. Bulletin No. 11. .-1 Course of Agriculture for the Uigh 
 Schools of Michigan. 
 
 Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing. 
 
 Suggestions and sylhihi for the ditferent sulijects to \»- taught. 
 
 Minnc sota. State Superintendent of Puhlic Instruction, St. Paul. 
 Consolidation of Rural Schools in Minnesota. 
 
 Deals with the problems to 1m' solved. compaH-s the old an<l the 
 new, and outlinesthe metbods to U.- adopted to eflitt const^lidation. 
 
i&i 
 
 Al'l'EMUX 
 
 Bulletin N'ti. .'{H. SiTonilari/ Cnursrs in AgriruUure. 
 
 OlItlllHH «llll MllK h liilail llTliI I lrarilr«s lllr ii.lirsc fll 1m' fill- 
 
 liiwid ( mil liiiicH with ii ■.i(tiii[i i>ii rural v liii.il iiLTiitiltiirr. 
 Misxmri. Slutr I )i'|)artiiiiiil nf 10<liiiati(iii. .Iitrir-uii Cily. 
 .1 ( (lur.^l^<lf Stiuli/ III Ajriiiiltiiri Jiir lli'jii ■'^ilumU. 
 
 (iivi> iniir^i' iif -.tiiilv. Ii>t iif i(cii|iiiiriil. tivtlHH.k-. til- , anil in- 
 htrm liiilis fur (arr^iii^ out Ikhim- |iriijirt.H uiiil fur kit'piii^ iiotp- 
 IwHiks. 
 
 I'"ir^l I)i-.lrict Nurmal S'IiihiI, Kirksvillo. 
 
 Itiiral l,ifc ( 'iiiifcriiici-i, Ri inirtx. 
 
 Iliilli'tins iiri' iiiililislii'il iinniialls liy the m'1i<m>I, ^'ivin^ tlic a<l- 
 clri'sst's ilrlivincl. 
 
 Nfl)r.'i.>ka. Dcpartiiicut of Kfiiicatiufi, l.iiicohi. 
 
 .1 l,fHir Jritiii the Slutr Siiprrinli'ndcrit. S«-|>1('Ii)Ii<t 'i.'). li)l-i. 
 
 I)cs( rilx-^ llic |>laii M(|ii|>tiil ill the State uf Ori>.'iiii for >.'iviri>; 
 s«hiH)l ( Tiiiit for liiiiiir wnrk. 
 
 Donustir SrIcriiT — Cnir Plan. 
 
 Itulliiiis a plan f'lr k.'i\iiii; il.'Mn-tir si iitwi' iiistnictiiin in the 
 liiMiif, .siiid-il til Miiali tiiNMiN. vilkiL.'!^. ami rural v'hiMi|<i. 
 
 Xfw ^'llrk. Dfpartmiiit i>f Kilucaliuii. Alliany. 
 
 Our CliiUrcn. our SrluxiU, ami our InduMries. 
 
 All arj;\iiiiriil fur the nvilali/.ation nf nur mIumiIs in thi' ilirc<tii>n 
 iif rraftMuan-liip. 
 
 AgriruUiirf and itjt Ednralional Seeds. 
 
 An aililros bifiin- the Stall' Tiailurs" Ass<«iatiim. An arfju- 
 nii'iit fill real a>,'ri<ultural I'llucatioii. atnl ralliiT ili priHatin^; its 
 iulriitliiiliiiii inti) tlic clrincntary mIuhiI. 
 
 I'roeeedinij.i of tlu- I'nivtT.sity (\)ii\(K'alion Annual Meetings. 
 I'uhlislu'il annually lus bullitiiis. Oficn runtain M-hularly ail- 
 (iri'ssrs nlatiiig tu a^fricultunil i-iluiatinn. 
 
 Proceed itiij.t of tlic New York SUite Agriculttiral S<K'it'ty. 
 
 l'iil>li>lii il annually a.s liulli'tins liy the Stall- Drpartniont of 
 Afjnculturc, Albany. 
 
 North Carolina. Df|)artrn('nt of Putilic Instruction, Ilaltigli. 
 
 Cuiinolidatton (if SrluH)b. and Public Traiisixntaiion of Pupils. 
 
 An invest ij.'ati( in iiniliTtak. n to (liscuvir the cost anil efficiency 
 iif the one-teacher schiH'l, the extent iinii results uf oinsi^liilation, 
 ftnil an attempt to reach a valid conclusion as to whether efficiency 
 and economy do not demand the displae 'ment of the one-teacher 
 school bv the consolidated sehiK)!. 
 
Arri:\i)ix 
 
 <fl:i 
 
 Niirlli I).ikiilii. l'niviT>ilv nf Nurlli Dakota, (iratid I'l.rks. 
 l{> jxirl of lln' Rural S<lioiil ('oiiiini .^ioti. l!M.. 
 
 .\il\iH ;it's |iirn;iT tiTtn-" iiinl iH'tiiT iittfriil.inr.'. U-ttcr tirmn'M.il 
 >.ii|)|Kirt. Ix'lliT >irk;iiiiiziilii>ii, iimsoliiliition of •« liools. U'tli-r Ini' li- 
 in>!. iinpr'iviil >ii()i-r\ isimi. iiinl a camiiiii;;!! f'lr rural uplift. 
 
 The Coiiioliilatiim nj liural Sihx>U in .\'(>rth Dnkota. 
 
 l)ivi<ir<i intii four srclimis: ".\orlli Dakolii Unral S«1iii.i|h at 
 TtifV An-"; "Wli.it Is 11. intr Don.' .VlH.iit It"; "< «>!i*iliilatiMii 
 I'nil.lriii, ( iitiHiili-P-il"; "Talil' •< and StaliHtirs " 
 
 Soiitli Carolina. \Viiilliro|i Normal uiul Iinliistrial roll«'j;r. U<K'k 
 llill. 
 t.U'mrntarif A'jriiiilturr ami Siluxil Cutriliiniiij. 
 
 ()utliIl.■^ a iri.tli...! uf pnM-.iliin; th.it i all Ix- f.il|..w.il liy 111-- un- 
 Iraini'il traclur 
 
 Hiind Life lhdltiiii.1. 
 
 .V.l.lrrsscsil.liviTfdat tin- liural Lifc-('(inf.Ttiii-.-> luld aiinually. 
 
 T.'iiricss.f. Depart iiit'iit of PuMic Iiistnx'tioii, .\a.shvillf. 
 Tlu- Rural School Situation in Trnncisre. 
 
 Drain with consoliilatiori anil tniii-i|><>rtatiiin. 
 \'ir;;iiiia. I'nivorsity of Virginia, Cliarlottfs villi*. 
 
 rr'xrnlinii-i of Rural Lift- Coiifcrriucs, luM annually at the 
 I'uivfrsity. 
 
 Wfst Virginia. Statr H(<aril of Ilcgt-nt-i. ('liarUston. 
 Spirial ILfxtrt on A'jriralturr. 
 
 Chapters oti " .\>;ri(ulturc our (ireatost Asset"; "llow shall W'c 
 Improve Our Atiriculfiin- ami Rural I.ifi'"; "Mi-thixls of Rraching 
 the I'eopU-"; "Ur-.ults in Other Countries and States." 
 
 Wisconsin. State E<lucation Departiuenl, Madison. 
 
 Plans Jor the Kxtrnaion of AjrinMural aiul Indiudrial Training. 
 Ke[xirt of a coiuiiiission. Deals with several forms fif iniiustriij 
 and agricultural education, and the introduction thereof into dif- 
 fi'rent tyjx's of sehcKils. 
 
 Social and Civic IIVAr in Country Communities. 
 
 Report of a (s)mini>sion appointed to investlRat** conditions in 
 the rural schools. Deals with the s<hiKil and the home as s<K'iaI and 
 civic centers, and advocates eoiipcration hetwcen the two. 
 
 Consolidation of Srh/xil Di.itrirt.i. 
 
 Contains ehaptiTs on " Wli.it is ConsMlidation"; "Purposes and 
 .Vdvantagei"; "Consolidation and Trau.nportation in AVi.scousiu"; 
 
iOl Ari'KNDIX 
 
 "(nn-w'li'l.itinn in Otlur Sf.it' i", " l.imltaHons ;inil ( .iiiliuiM" ; 
 ■■ Ml IIhhU ..f rr...t iliir. 
 
 .1. ('aniulian I'lihral ittul I'ruiiiiriiil I'ulillralinrt.'i 
 
 I^l^ltl ( '<iiiiiiii>->iiin on liii|ii<>trial ainl 'I'li liiiniil tMucation, 
 Hijxirt. I vuli. Km^;'-« l''iiil<T, Otl.iwa. 
 
 Till- rr|Hprl of ii c iiiiiiiii'i^i'in if «i \iri iiiiimIm r-, »lii. »rrr ihcu- 
 |)ii'i| fiir t»" >i MPS III iiiviilit,Mtirnj iiiilii-.tri.ll .unl :iK'rii iillural niu- 
 raliiiiiiii KiiL'l.iiiil. Si' itliml. Iri I.iihI. I )i iiiiiiirk. FraiKi', (it'riuiiiiy, 
 Svs it/irliiinl, llir I iiiliil Slalii. iiml ( aii.iilii. 
 
 Depart iiH'iit I'f Ai^riiiilliirr. <Mta»a. 
 
 Iliilli tins iif l''i>riiKii A>;rniillural liitclliKitici-. I.ssiKil rnniillily. 
 Tfu- AgriiidturaL (IdZtiU'. 
 
 Drviiti I riiii>iiliTal>li- span' to uiri I'ultiiral iiliicatlntl. 
 
 OnUirio Dcparliiii'iil uf .Vjirirulliin-, Torniilu. 
 
 .Viiiitial npnrLs uf l'',iriiii'rs' Institiilcs. Wniiirii's Iii>.tifiit<'<, aii<l 
 tlir Oiituiriii .\^ririiiliiral ami Kxprririii'iituI I'liinii. 
 
 DcpnrliiH'tit of Kiliicatiuii, Turoiitn. 
 
 Hhiiii iitiini A'jririiltHrr. /[ortiriilliirr. ttrul Srhnnl Cnrilrn.'i. 
 Unjidatiitn.i Ittltilinj to Elcmrntarn AijricuJiurf. Unrticultiirc, and 
 
 Srh/xd (Inrilfun. 
 liiilhtin.i on .iiirifidtiiriil Kiliualiini. Nos. 1 |u 10. 
 F^liiiatlon for liidiiytritd l'urix>.'<i:i, lis' Dr. J. Svalh. Siiporin- 
 tciiilt'iit iif Kdiiculioii. 
 
 .\ nixirl to till- Miiiislcr i«f Kiluiiition .\ vitv valualili' ilocu- 
 imiit. 
 
 ^i". Piihlirdtiori.i of I'ariowi Sorirtif.t 
 
 Natiouiil Sixittv for tht- Study i>f Eiliicalion. Yt-arlxMik.s. liii- 
 vcrsify of Cliicaf'o I'rt-s.s. CliicaKo. EsiKt-ially — 
 
 Fifth. 10().>. The Phtrc of Vocalioual Suhjfdjt in tlw Ui<jh 
 School ('iirn'culiim. 
 Tfnth. 1!)11. Thr Citii Sr/mol a.» a f'omminiiti/ Crnti-r. 
 Tht Rural School an a Commitnitif Cnitcr. 
 Elcvenlh. l!>l-2. Aiirii-idlural F.diication in Srctmdary Schools. 
 Twelfth, 1!)1:{. Siiiirn-i.tiori rf Kiiral Schi>ol.<i. 
 'riiirtciiilh. 1!H i. I'lans for Organizing School Surreys. 
 
 National Education .Vs.stK'iation. 
 .1 nn ual Procinting.i. 
 Reiwrt of Coinrnittcc of Twelve vn Rural Schools. 
 
APrENDIX 
 
 «5 
 
 InduMhal F.iinratinn fi>r lliinil ('(•nmunifirs. 11«);». 
 Th. I'lwr nj ImluMrn.i in I'uhin- t:,lw(Ui>,n. I'MO. 
 
 ('i>iif<ri-ii4r for Ivliiraliuii in tin- Siiitli .{unual I'n-.n < .limji. 
 
 SK-ii-ty for flu- I'roiiiolioM >'f A^ri' ullurul Si : cf. Am, mil 
 I'riM'i'filinij.i. 
 
 Aini'ricaii Acii'lfiny of I'olitiral ami S<Hial S< ii'ticr. .(umi/.f. 
 Various issues, liut •■>iM'<ially th'it of Munli. lUl-t. wIik li coii- 
 taiiis twfiil\-«i>;lil \alualilf articles \>\ mcII known autliorities. 
 ainl tifiils Willi almost rvi-ry plia^- of tlic rural-lift- |>roM»-rii. 
 
 7. PubliratiDM of tlw liourd of Education, hmdon, t'.ngland 
 S|Mt-ial re|><>rLs oii (■tliicalioiial sul>j<'<'fs; |iarti<Milarly — 
 \\)\. 7. Thf Uiiral Srhool.t of .Xniih Hint Frame. 
 
 liiiral F.dwatiou in Fninrr. 
 \i>\. 8. .1 I'Ua for a (ircat .iijrindtural SrfuxA. 
 \*ol. 0. SrfuHtl (iardcns in (IrruKini^. 
 \i>\. 10. Saturr S7m(/// in tfw I'tiitrd StaU-'^. 
 Vol. 1j. Srfuxd Training for thr Ilomi- Pulir.i if ll'(»m<^. 
 ^ <il. l(i. Srfuxd Training for thr Home Diiliea of Women. 
 
 Eflucatiorial paiiipliit-ts, N<>. 1.1. The I'robUm if Rural SchooU 
 and Teacher a in Sorth Aiiurica. 
 
■ft: 
 
\. r^ 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Adnn.'. Daniel. M.D.. 10. 
 
 A.l^iiM. Act, 1.'). 
 
 Adult fiirntcrs. institutes and other 
 
 helps fur. isl. 
 A>,'rc<'ini*nt aiUDiifjst professors, lu<-k 
 
 of. (.')». 
 
 Af^riciiiiiiriil collcni's. first in (':in- 
 iid.i, H; iinpnivfinciit nf ii>;ri- 
 cultiirc l>y. ^i. 1hi\ s cntt-riiiL'. •!">; 
 purpose of. IK!, ir ; oppositiciri 
 
 of tlilli JllorS to. lV!t; np|Ki»ilioll 
 
 of fiiniHTs to. 1 I'.), is (•nL'ini-<riii;' 
 tin' iinmin;int factor in. X.'ii, l.").'J; 
 mission of. l.'i.i: admission to, 
 l.')t; future of. 1.5(1; exier.sion 
 service in. l.»H; problems iiwait- 
 in^; the. 1(11; place in educational 
 syMeni. If>l. 
 
 .\>,'ricultural department, duties of, 
 l.V 
 
 Agricultural education, a phase of 
 industri.il education. x\ i; liistori- 
 <'al review nf, 1; first t,Tant for in 
 the I uitcd Stales, i>; pro^'r<'ss in, 
 liS; stH'ondary, 119; niomtary 
 value of, 11!». liO; vcxatioual 
 value of, Mi.'i. 
 
 .■Vfrricultural fairs at ("amhrid^'e. 0. 
 
 A(,'ri( ullur.il hi^h. schcMiN. advan- 
 tat;es()f separate, M'A, \t.'>; eours«> 
 of studv in. IH: nee<ie<l. li(i; 
 .special,' l;H; county. VM, 1.S.5; 
 purpose of. IMi; conjcressiunal 
 district. i;«;. 
 
 .'\f,'ricultural instruction, demand 
 for. tit). 
 
 Agricultural perio<licals. Kil. 
 
 A^ricultur.il pni'.perity. a fiictor ir 
 tinaiK'ial stalulity. xvii. 
 
 .Ajrricultural readers. H. tiH. 
 
 Ajrricultural .schiH)l. first in .\nierica, 
 9. 
 
 Afrricultural societies in America. .5. 
 
 Afiriculture. has held a suhordinate 
 plaiv. xvi; influence of tradition 
 on. xvi; itsdevelopmeiit a national 
 question, xvii; economic value of 
 
 pro<luctsnf, Tviii; nrimhorof per- 
 sons eiit'avred in. x\ iii; the tiasie 
 industry, xii; the part of educa- 
 tion in, sx; many rtmiplicatei! 
 (x-cupation.s, xxi; prn^jress of 
 French -ch<>ols in, -I; its ttirrela- 
 tion with iither p.trtsof etlucation, 
 f>: prizes for, \i: ohlijj.-itory ia 
 pulilic s<h(X)ls, H. first appr<v 
 priation for, 1.1; eslahli^hmenl of 
 I'niteii States l)e[)artiucnt of, 
 11: as atrectini; the rhiirch, i\; 
 tejuhinu in the rural schools, (>5; 
 applied to the teaihiii^; of V.tiit- 
 iish, tu, CH; to arithmetic, 68; U> 
 ^eo^rraphy, C9; on the proKTaiU 
 of every rural s<hool, ti9; diffi- 
 cult to separate from nature 
 study. 7I(; how time may l>e ob- 
 taine<l for teaching;. 76, 77; hin- 
 drances to the taichinK of, 77; 
 tea' hal)le facts of. 80; benefits ..f 
 te.k hill),', Hi: short courses in, 
 IH, ll.'{; in hij;h schools. li(i; in 
 State .Normal .Sth.^ds. W9, ifcJO; 
 jrraduate sihool of, t.'lS. 
 
 Alahama, results of clul> work in, 
 \(H. con^Tessionul ilistrict high 
 s<1mkiIs in, 13<). 
 
 American Fi-deration of Ijifxir. 199. 
 
 .Vmuseiiients and recreatiou, lack of 
 opportunities for, iW. 
 
 Aristotle, 1. 
 
 Arithuietic, rural seh<K)l, 60; exam- 
 ination paper in. <>H. not appli- 
 <al)le to priictical life. 6H; garden- 
 inn correlated with. 73. 
 
 .Vrkans^is. I>'n>;th of s< IhmiI session 
 in. 4:^; scoring rural s<hiMi|sin,<H(. 
 
 .\rts collcfjes. influence of. 151, \!H. 
 
 .\s.siKiation of .American .\trricul- 
 tural ('olle>;es and Kxperiment 
 Stations, ItiO. 170. 
 
 .\ss>i<iation of American Farmers' 
 Iri-litufe Woriiers, 17.S. 
 
 .\syluiiis. farmers' wives and 
 daughters in, 'tS. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
«r,s 
 
 INT)EX 
 
 Attrti(i;inf«". irrr'ciil.ir Ir.nK t'l rru- 
 
 ii'Miiii w;i-l''. .'."^ 
 Ant.'M-lii-' ' Hniriari i miimt.t . 17. 
 Aulli'Tilii-s louMiltiil, li>t of, tM 
 
 if,:,. 
 Ayn-s. Dr. l^-miinl 1'., «S. 
 
 |{;illi.-t, Dr. 'Hi..in;i.s M.. i\0. 
 ILilliitinri- < Miiiilv AuricuKur.il 
 
 Hi-li Slin.,1. l:(7. l.is. 
 Hrrkli'v, <ii)\i-r!ior of \ iri.'iiii.i. H. 
 lirik^lurc A^'rii-ullural Sm Icty, 7. 
 llnl.Ml. Joliii IVaiikl- -, '.H. 
 It.Miks, Lick iif aici'S.H tr., <l. 
 Hotaiiy, IrxtUH.k in, l^s 
 l!oy oil ttic f.irni, iis an unpaid 
 
 haii.l, ii,, i~. 
 Hoys' (Mil aiMpriuvits, 110. 
 Hill iiaiiaii, l'ri-.lilriit, I'i. 
 Hullitlii scrviif in tlie I'liit'-d 
 
 Stall's, 177, 17H. 
 Hurraii of I'lanI Iiiiliistry, 17fl. 
 Hii'iufs.s uitllioiLs ou the fariii, xxii, 
 
 1(;.1. 
 
 C'(irii[p.iitni, noopssity for a nation- 
 
 wiili- icliir.atioliai, .W. 
 Caiiipi', I. 
 Caiiaiia. ^Towth of otlucational 
 
 ai,'ririiitiire in, 11; cliili coiitrsts 
 
 in, UH; s»H'ii st-liflion in, 10;i; 
 
 fariniTs' institutes in, IHi. 
 Carillon county iMitato-fjrowinf! 
 
 contest, VH. Tii;!. 
 Carni-irii' Fouiulation for llic .\(1- 
 
 vauictiicnt of reaching, report of, 
 
 [■i:": l.".i», l.M. 
 (liciiiistry, textl«Kik for, \iH. 
 
 < liililrcn, care of, i(l7. 
 
 < Ininliis, pa^torli'ss in Maine, IH; 
 
 alianiloneil in Hlinois, 1!»: Oliio, 
 ■iO. witness of llie country, tO; 
 as alfciiod hy agriculture, il. 
 
 < icero, 17. 
 Claxton, Dr. r. I'., C'oinuii.s.sii)ner 
 
 of Kiliication. ~r>. 
 t Jul IS, lioys' anii f,'irls' ii^rricultural, 
 
 KKt, lo'l; results of, lOi. 
 Colclirook acaiieuiy, VM, 131, ISi. 
 
 l:!.t. 
 <'ollei,'es, model for, 8. 
 
 < onieniu-. 3. 
 t'oiuiuunity, arran^'enu'nt of liuil.l- 
 
 JLUJs, JH; social ailivitits of, "JO. 
 
 ( 'onferencp for Fduration in tlie 
 
 S.ulh. Ml. 
 < 'olilin til lit, lcllj,'lll of SI li.Mil ,cs- 
 
 !<ion ill, yi 
 (.'ousoliil.iti il wliiM.ls, notalile ex- 
 llIM|i|is of. H7; the .foliu >waiii>, 
 S!», tlie Mays I.ii k. !M). 111. -latf 
 of. S!»; course of study in, Hll, '.Hi; 
 expense and elliciency of, !«; 
 ^re.iter cost of, ".I."!. 
 Convijidation of schools, the ^rnat 
 pauiweik, IS; people nuist vote 
 on, H.'>; ])res«Mit status of luiive- 
 inent for, Xi. H(i. S7; contract for 
 tran-imrtation of pupils. S!»; dif- 
 ticiilties in lirin>;in>,' .'ilioiit, ill, 
 0."). properly not deprecialed liy, 
 9J; objections to, '.Mi; how it may 
 be accoinplislied, !l(i, !>7, i)H. 
 Consumption overtaking priKluc- 
 
 tion, xi\. 
 <^«»)l.erati"n between home and 
 
 sihi.il, !H), IW, U.'J. 
 < ooperative demonstration work, 
 
 17(;. 
 Co()perative movenient in Den- 
 j mark, i.!7, fMs, •i:i:>. -iVl 
 I Corn, producfiou of, 177. 
 Corn ( oiiLTcss, ilt7, 1;)H. 
 ('orncll I ni\ersilv, Nature-Study 
 l^-,lllets of, Kll.' 
 1 Corre-poMilciice courses for feach- 
 I ers, -i.H, iMS (.Sec (il.io Reading 
 I Courses.) 
 
 I Cotton boll weevil, rava»,'e.s of, 17(1. 
 Country boys and girls in the 
 I liiited States, JS. 
 i Country life, realization of, xxiii; 
 I ilepeiident on town life, xvi; at- 
 tractive side of presented, (iti. 
 Country Life Conunission of the 
 
 I nited States, M. 
 Comitry youth, vocational train- 
 ing of, iiw. 
 County, as the administrative unit. 
 Hi, .").'!; study of sclnml situ.ition, 
 iMI, !I7; representative of depart- 
 ment of agriculture in the. MMl, 
 17."); aL'riciilliiral hiuh schoi.ls, 
 \M, l:ij, ILiO; normal .si.hool.s. 
 
 Course of study, vitalization of, 60; 
 overcrowded", till. t)7. 7H, 79; re- 
 , udjUblmciit of, \i~i. lis. Ua. 
 
INDEX 
 
 «69 
 
 Cniirsrs of ofillcciafo rt.iiIc, I.v;. 
 
 i:.7. 
 ("rcilit, rural, -iy^. 
 Cultural Viiliif nf school siihjt-i f>, 
 
 70 
 (iilliirc, new intfrprolatiun of, xvi 
 (yrij.-), 1. 
 
 Dcfcr-ts, ohjwt of piiintinn "lit, 47. 
 
 Df Lav.ii, Fraii'.ois, tir-^t Idshoj) nf 
 <'lllliic|.l. 11. , 
 
 I)>'iiii)M^lr:iticiii s<li(KiIs, 51. , 
 
 Dcniciii-.triili()n traius, 178, 179, • 
 ■i\-, t\H. I 
 
 Dfimiark, .stnliilify of nir.il popu- i 
 liitioii Iti. IS; rural proptrtifs in, i 
 id!); per lapitii wcallli of, iU; r<".-i- ' 
 dinci' for to.'uhcrs in, .y.i, rural 
 whiHil.s in, ti.'J; illiteracy in, ti:<. 
 lenfjth of mIiooI year in, <>.'}; ajnn- 
 cultural situation in, iM, i,'t7; 
 rtMipcrativc movement in, i.'{7. 
 !i;iH, if.i'.t, ■HI): cauM'.s of proere« 
 in, tMt, peoples' hi^;li s<hiMils, 
 IdU-."). Koyal .Vin-ieultural an.L 
 Wterinary Institute, il.j; rural 
 organization in, iMi. 
 
 Dep.irtment of .\^,'riiulture. t'ounty 
 reprcM-ntative of, 175. 
 
 District of (olumhia, ii; Agricul- 
 tural Sx'iety of, 7. 
 
 District system of mIiihiIs, t.'i, 40. 
 
 Districts, condict.s iK-tueen. HH. 
 
 Domestic .science trains, il7, ilS. 
 
 Draper, Dr. .\nilre,* S., 71, 7t>. 
 
 F2urninc and learning, combination 
 of, U.5. 
 
 Ecoiioniic and s<Kial conditions, 
 changes in, 1.57. j 
 
 Etlucation, the most imfK)rtiint ' 
 question in country life, xv; in- , 
 U'r[)retationof imlustrial. xvi; the i 
 part of agriculture in, xx, xxvi; ' 
 suited to l(K-ul conditions, xxii; ] 
 separated from politics, o'.i: his- 
 tory of, 70; long thought unno- 
 ct'.s,sjiry for the farmer, 1 U). 
 
 Eilucational conditions in Siuthern 
 Slates, 40, 41. 
 
 Educational opportunities, lack of, 
 <4. 
 
 Ellsworth. TIenry L., 13. 
 
 Eucanipuicuts, boys', 110. 
 
 r.ti.'lish. .iLTi' ulture applied to tlie 
 teaching of, 07. (is 
 
 i;(|iilprMeMt, prolii.Tii- of. ;i!l, im- 
 provement in rural s<ho. i|. U. 
 
 Kvening scIkkiIs. rur.d. ll:i; neeilecl 
 in evi-ry village. 111. wliai -hould 
 Iw t.iiight in, lit;. 117. IIS. 
 
 KxiH-rinient stations, Olilce of, I."); 
 acts, 1,V 
 
 Kvperimental farn.s, (irsf proposal 
 of. r,. 
 
 Kxperiments on the home farm, 
 110. 
 
 l!\tension, rural schiM.I. !KI. 
 
 Kvtetision service. ( htssitication of, 
 U!7, KiH, lt;!»; detinition of. lt)7. 
 
 Farm l-oys, wages for, H. 
 
 Farm t:irls, wages for, il; hik'h 
 school work for, i(l7. 
 
 I'arm home, conditions of, xxii; .self 
 contained, iS. 
 
 Farmer, should \te jiMe to liM>k after 
 hiinsilf, xvii; strongly conserva- 
 tive. x\i; training of t lie adult, xxii. 
 
 Farmers, removal to the ( ity. 10, 
 H. popular estimate of, io; stage, 
 i(i; < lul>s f.,r. I'Xi. 
 
 Farmers' .Alliance, 7. 
 
 Farmers' institutes, for young p«'o- 
 ple. 107, lo.H; dirirtion of. lOS; 
 teachers for, IK; ort',ini/.;i,tion 
 of, lS;t, 1!M); Icturers for, IHl; 
 qualifications of le<tures for, I.H5, 
 IHti; nieth(Mi of (hixisiu^f lec- 
 turers for, lH(i, 1S7; in Ontario, 
 ISM, ISO; program (.f, ISO, 100; 
 lenglli of sessiiin df, IDI ; rni-th(Mls 
 to Ik> ad<ipted in, \'H. lO.f. 
 
 p'armers' National Congress, 7. 
 
 F'arraers' (nion, 7. 
 
 Farms, i.s<jlated, i:i; size of Danish, 
 ■i'J. 
 
 Farragut sch<K.|, the, IH.'J, 134. 
 
 Fe<l<Talion of forces, xs, l'J7; state 
 plan of, 100. iW. 
 
 Fellenhcrg. 4. 
 
 Fertility, loss of, 10. iO. 
 
 Florida, length of scIkkiI session 
 in, ii. 
 
 France, national society of agri- 
 culture in. 4; residence for teach- 
 ers in, j.<. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 5. 8, 
 
270 INDIA 
 
 KiiinN, tlif <iilP.stii'n (if. .')(), ax. 
 
 ('..i\>\ CriiTtir W.isliiii/' ti. 111. 
 (iiinl.-iis. wli.M.I. .■!. i: (..iiimnii 
 
 plots ill, 'i. iii'livi'lual plots in. 
 
 7:t; linlida^ r;irr of, 7;l, 71, in 
 
 f(.«ns iiiid .-ilii's. 1 i, 7.5. 
 (iiir.llii.r l.ycciini. !t. 
 (ico^'nipliy,' iit;riciiltiirc applittl tn 
 
 till' tcK liiii;,' of. ti!t. 
 (icori-'i.i. (■on^'rl■s■-ioTl.ll ilislrict lii^'li 
 
 s.li.-.ls ..f. imi. 
 (i<s,r;.'iii (lull for llic sludy of ninil 
 
 .s,..io|ni;y, IS. V.t. 
 (iirN. in-litiit>s fnr. 1 li». Ill; oiit- 
 
 si.i.- scIkh.I hrlps f,,r. j!(».-,, ■iUC. 
 (iriiilii.itc Si.Ltx)l of Agritultun-, 
 
 ■i:;:,. 
 
 Iiarri~on, I'rosiilcnt, 11. 
 
 Ilartlili. Sainufl. i. 
 
 Ilat.li Ac ts. l.V 
 
 lii),'li Siliools, 'ippoiictifs of. ll!l; 
 Ivpr Ir) l)C <l«v.lop<-.l, \-i\. ild- 
 vaiita^TS of fxi-till;^. HI, 1^^. 
 \i:l. in small towns ami rural 
 <li-tri(ts, Ii7;<oininrnialioiirs(S 
 in, H!l; rc'iru'ani/.alion of, ISO. 
 
 Ilonir fjarilrns, 7.'», 7(i. 
 
 Home opinion, inllmnce of, i<). 
 
 Ilonu- |>roJivts, !»!», IH. Massa- 
 chusflts plan of, IW, \H. 
 
 Horse, sliuiy of, 71. 
 
 liousiliol.l siicncr. in tin- rural clf- 
 in.'Mlary S(iio< 1. ■iii:<, itU; fcaih- 
 inj,' through tin' home, idot, iO.") 
 
 Uliiiol-., s( ii(M)I hniMiuK'^ in, 40; work 
 <if co.inty supiTinti-niionf in, !:'•. 
 4V;nuinriiTof tru-ti'csin, Ki; nor- 
 mal school s(hol:irship hiw, •i^i'.i. 
 
 Illil.Tati's, in Un- I nilfti States, ii; 
 in Ui'ninark, 'i'J. 
 
 Industrial eduiation, interi)reta- 
 tion of, xvi. 
 
 Indu-~trial supervisors in rural 
 seli..ols. Vl. 
 
 Industries, deeay of villajje, i8. 
 
 Infiirniation, (MiUeetion of not an 
 en. I in itM-lf. 4S. 
 
 Inslilut National .Xgrononiiciue, 4. 
 
 ln-.tilntc'>^, f(.r voun^' poiple, 107; 
 f..r ''iris, U(t, 111; ri.M.- of. IHl, 
 
 extent of, IHi: small allendune*" 
 at, IH;^. jud^rment of wiirk at, 
 lH:t. for woni.'ii, ilO, yil. mi On- 
 tario, ill, i\i. instruition ^:iven 
 at, t\:i.i\i, ■t\.'>, <!'•• for lea< h- 
 ers, iM, i'M. 
 
 Instrueti.in in .itrririiltiirr, de- 
 niunil for, <i(>. 
 
 Interest in education, principle of, 
 
 i. 
 
 Invesfi^ation and instru<'tion, IC". 
 
 lowii. |(Kal M-hiHil tav in. ^t\ : rural 
 sihiM.ls in. .lit, 00; state agricul- 
 tural e(ille>;e, 170; itinerant uieet- 
 in>;s in, IHl. 
 
 Isiihition, <\ ds of, ii. 
 
 Itinerant tcitehers, iSi, 434. 
 
 •lesuits, i. 
 
 JohnSwancy ( 'onsoliJated School, 
 
 87. 
 
 Kansas, local s<Iiimi1 t;.x in, .ll. 
 Kelly. Oliver. I'.ll. I!»7. 
 Kentucky, demonstration schools 
 
 in, '>\. 
 Kin;j^' College (.Columbia Uni- 
 
 i.crsity ', !>. 
 Knapp, Dr. Seaman \-, 17(3. 
 
 Labor, required on the farm, ii; 
 
 saving in lost of, -ii. 
 Liind, use of, in e»nnei'tiou with 
 
 schools, Ut. 
 
 Land-grant, ohjeet of, 11; colleges, 
 purpose of, 1 lr<i, 1 47; .struggles of, 
 UH. 
 
 Land holdings, small, W. 
 
 Latin and llreek, acquisition of a 
 kiiou ledge of. XV. 
 
 Learning and earning, 145. 
 
 lyi'ctiires f.ir farmers, evening, ISS. 
 
 Legislative enactments in the 
 I liiited State.s, 1:1. 
 
 I>»s.ser S<niinary ((Juel>ee), 11. 
 ; Lincoln, President, 14. 
 
 Literary wH'icties, 140. 
 
 Live stiK'k, decrease of, XX. 
 ( Living, high <'osl of, xvii. 
 
 I.,ord Klgin, 11- 
 
 Los .\ngeles, school gardens in, 74. 
 
 Macdonald movement, in ("anadii, 
 54, HG; sehiMil gardens of, 73. 
 
iM)i:\ 
 
 ni 
 
 Macliiiiory, iiso nf ini,.ri)vr(i, ii. 
 
 Miirliir.-, Willi.itu, !) 
 
 Mill.' t.;irliiTs 111-.'.! of in niriil 
 
 srli....ls :,:(. 
 Midi. mil N l.\t ImmiU i.n, US. 
 Mciii|)lii>. riiiiir'xr, ,s<liiM)l j;ar- 
 
 ilrii-. in. 7 1. 
 Mm rii|iiiriMl on luml, iiiiinlifr Icvs 
 
 til. in forinirly, ^i. 
 Mirlii(,Mn Stiile .Vtrriciillunil Col- 
 
 If^'f. foiiniiiilion of. III 
 Mirlii>riiii .^'^tiite Buanl of Af,'rii-ul- 
 
 ''"■'■• •"'• 
 Milton's "Triwtiite nf Iviuiiition," 
 
 :!. 
 
 Min'ifai>'ili^. srhiM)! jjiinli-ns in, 7.5. 
 
 Minn.'iitii, ilivi-.ion of time in a^Ti- 
 
 nilliiral .hiIi.miIs of. lUd. Iniil 
 
 mIiooI t.ix in. ."il. 
 
 Mi>>i^^i|)I)i. illitcraiy in, 5-i. re- 
 sults of ihili-uork in, \Ui. 
 
 Missouri, ciiiiiational -iirvcy in, 40; 
 loial s< 111 Mil t.i\ in, .'il. 
 
 Mitrlifll, S.irniifl I>iitliani, '.). 
 
 MikIcI v IiooI, ,)t; iti ciinnorlion 
 with nnnnal s<lii><ils, 't.'t: at Kirks- 
 villo, Missiniri. .'>' , at .New York 
 Stat<" ( olIiT'i' "f .Xk'rii'iilliirc. ,>7. 
 
 MiM'<kiTn, fxiK-riniunt slulion at, 
 H. 
 
 Monatian, A. C. S7. 
 
 M.Hinliglit s<liiMils. IH, 115. 116. 
 
 Morrill, Senator, 140; acts, IS. 14. 
 
 Morrison, State Stii>erinteni!ent 
 
 (N. n.i, i;»i. 
 
 Movable si'liiK)K, organization of, 
 17:*, 17 4; cuuditions of success in, 
 175 
 
 Miillmll. 5. 
 
 "National IntelliKPnoer," 4. 
 
 Nature stuily. 7(1, 7i: how time 
 may l)eol)laiiifi! for, 70, 77; bene- 
 fits' of tcaihing. Hi. 
 
 Nebraska, liK-al school tax in, 51; 
 state aj.'rieultural society, iOti. 
 
 Neef, .Joseph, !>. 
 
 Neufiliiiteau, Fran^-ois de, 4. 
 
 New Hampshire, ministers" salaries 
 in, 'i^. 
 
 New Harmony, scIhhiIs at, 9. 
 
 New Mexiro, len)^th of .school ses- 
 sion in, H. 
 
 New York Society for the I'romo- 
 
 fion of .\(;riciiltural .\rts ami 
 Manufactures, «. 
 Ni'w ^ ork Stale .\^,T"iiult\iral Si>- 
 
 iietv. n;o. u.i. 
 
 Niw \iirk State College of .\nri- 
 
 cullure. \'i. 
 N..1.U..1. .John. .M. 
 Normal mIiooIs. ^railuates in. M7. 
 
 county. ii!(l. H~ : State. rt7. ii>i. 
 
 «!); aV-riculture in. •iiu, *«). 
 North Carolina, lenj^th of scIukiI 
 
 .session in, 4<. 
 North Dakota, ajrrieultural <s)l!e).'e 
 
 of, KK). 
 NunilKTs in aKriculluraJ ajlleges, 
 
 desire for, 154. 
 
 Ohio, rural life survey, iO; liK-al 
 .mIiooI tav in, 51, county iusli- 
 tuti - ill. \Si. 
 
 Onciila Manual l^iilnir Institute, 
 10. 
 
 One-lc.iihir scliiHils in the I riited 
 Stales. .">. 7. :U. 
 
 Ontario .Vfjricultural Colli^'e, Kit, 
 lt;."i. l«(i. 
 
 Ontario. conMilidalionin, S(!;.s< Imol 
 fairs in, UK!, Kll, Ul.1; county 
 representatives in, 17,">; farmers' 
 institutes in, ISH, 18!»; trainini,' 
 rural schiMil teai hers in. Hi. ii.'i, 
 m. rural teachers" conferences 
 in, m. director of eliincntary 
 agricultural educ.ition in, ^■^5. 
 
 Patent office, distrii)ulion of seeds 
 liy, l;5. 
 
 I'atrons of Industry, 7. 
 
 Pennsylvania ."^tate (loUege, read- 
 ing ciiurs«'s at, 17i. 
 
 r.stalozzi, », 10. 
 
 I'hiladelphia Academy (ruiversity 
 of Pennsylvania), !). 
 
 Philadelphia Siciefy for Pronu)- 
 ti.iin of Agriculture, 5, tl. 
 
 Phvsiis, textbiHik in, liS. 
 
 Plutarch, 7. 
 
 Population, rural, (hnline in. 17. 
 
 18; increas«- in urban, 17, tit; 
 
 stability of Danish, IK; shift iti, 
 
 li>; (auses of decline in, H. 
 
 ; Problems awaiting; the collek;e, Ifil. 
 
 ; Prixlucts of uf;riculliire, economic 
 
 i value of, xviii. 
 
«7« 
 
 I\I)KX 
 
 PriifcsH<irs)ii[i:«, cnilnwriirnt of, fi. 
 
 I'riljcilM. I.S'rC llrlllC |)r<lj('< ts.) I 
 
 I'rinxTt), iiNM-s-.riii-nt nf in the I 
 < iiiint), .'il. I 
 
 I'ulilic >i<ti(Mi| system, u.s<' of, 6; be- 
 ;:uiniM>; of, 10. 
 
 riil.liiity. l(i<» 
 
 I'upils, iiiiiiiutiirily of, 79. 
 
 HfiiiliTs, a^rric ultural. \i, V>H. 
 I{(•illliIl^r ciiiirHcs, ,it Ontario ARri- 
 
 • ulturiil ( 'ollrjtc 171; iit I'rnii- i 
 svlvaniii Statr <'ollrj;p, 1 Ti; at 
 New \ork Stato ( 'ollcjjf of .\>;ri- I 
 
 • iiltiirc, n-i, for tcacluTs, iM, 
 
 Rfircation, (Icvclopnicrit of rural, 
 
 Hi'^lilciico for rural scliooliiiaslcr. 
 Vt, K!». 
 
 Rlioiii' Island, Icnjj'h of s<-!i<kiI ses- 
 sion in, a. 
 
 Roails, ai;iouul of money $i>ont on, [ 
 .«». :ti. 
 
 R(>\isse.iu. 3. 
 
 Royal \i ademy of Agriculture,! 
 Herlin. .1. 
 
 Rozier, vdIk', 4. 
 
 Rural ( re.lit. tS. 
 
 Rur.il evetiing whooln, 113, 114; 
 wliat shall 1m- laii^rhl in, IKi. 
 
 Rural M'liools, 'M: attendance at, 
 ;U, .'{.■>; toilet fariliiics in, 41; ad- 
 niini tritinn i.f. t.'i; supi-rvision 
 of, 4.), advantages of, 47; iiu- 
 
 f)r.>ven)ent of, ^H, Mi. 57, .V.i, 04; 
 ack of financial sup[xirt of, 51; 
 slate aid for, :>•£: ailaph-d to rural 
 conditions, j;i; nio<lc!led on city 
 .sc!i(M)ls, .'li: p.irents' day in. ^.'>: 
 .scoring! in Arkansjis, tio, (il, »ii; 
 in Derunark, <>U; extension serv- 
 ice of, !>!), KMt; changes in, iH>; 
 monthly nu-etin^ts for teachers of, 
 l.'JS; training; teachers for, 41!), 
 •iii). -in. ■i'it, •i'i:>: or^'anization 
 of Danish, i46, i47, HH. 
 
 Salaries of te.-u'hers in Denmark, 
 (i.i, (>4. (.u-c al.io Teachers.) 
 
 Salitnian, 3 
 
 Shool liuildine'). evolution of, .i!>; 
 nuKlels of, 41; new kind required, 
 55, 50, 57 
 
 S< hool fairs in Ontario, lOi- or 
 pinizalion of, 104; rnanat'ctneril 
 of, 10,1, to he kept strictly edu- 
 cational, llMi. 
 
 SiIkn.I >;ardeas. {See (iardens, 
 
 srhool ) 
 
 SctiiHil s«-ssion. lenjrth of, 4i; hroken 
 
 into fra^'incnts, H. 
 S<hoo|s, one-teacher. .'5, 7, .'{t; s\ini- 
 
 nier, \i. changes in, l*!l; niinin- 
 
 liyhl, 114. 11.'); nioval.le, I7.S. 
 
 l>'«r al.io Rural schools.) 
 Smith-Lever Hill. 15, 10, 179. 
 Siloinon'.s ^'ardcns, 1. 
 ."soule. Dr. .\ndrew, 71. 
 St.ite ajjpropriation.s, slitiing scale 
 
 of. 5i. 
 Stewart, Mrs. Cora Wilson, 114, 
 
 11.5. 
 Sulisiitute teachers, 5.5. 
 Superintendents, (pialilieations of, 
 
 4:t, 14. 
 Supervision, 43. 
 Surveys, 4(», 4H. 
 
 Teachers, sex of. 30; preparation of, 
 .S(i; uithiMit training. ;i7; no de- 
 mand for well trained, ."{H; remu- 
 neration of, .'i.S, ;t9; residenie for, 
 5:i, Sll; substitute, 55; sjdaries in 
 Di-nmark, (l.S, (U; influence of, 
 <i(l; ntt'il for sfMiially trained, 
 111; as representatives of depart- 
 ments of airriculture, 141, \H; 
 f raining of, 15S, 41i), i.'JO, tiil; 
 institutes for, i'Jl, i:ii: corre- 
 spondence eours<vs for, i^i, i.'lS; 
 itinerant, i.'t.'t. i:n, higher train- 
 ing of, i:M. iX"). 
 
 Tenancy, increase of, iS, iO. 
 
 Textl>ooks, HH, earliest agricul- 
 tural, 10. 
 
 Thaer, AII)ro<-ht. 5. 
 
 Toronto, first normal sehool at, 
 11. 
 
 Township unit system, 46. 
 
 Trains, demonstration. 178, 179; 
 domestic siience, i\7, ilH. 
 
 Trans|Mirtation, <lif{icultie.s over- 
 come, S9; lack of facilities for. 
 
 United Statct,, one-feacher .sch<K)ls 
 in, 5,7, 34; legislative enactments 
 
INDEX 
 
 ■iTS 
 
 of, 13; CdTTinii'isionf'r of AltI- ' Waxhiniftnn. CtertTf'P. H. 
 
 rultiirr. 14. |)f|mrtrnrnf <if Acri- Wal^in, KIkiinah. 7. 
 
 lultiirr <-.|jil.li-li>i|. U, St n-- \\ hfiit. r\|H.rts cf. <(). 
 
 tary nf Aifii ulhirr. 1."); ('uiiiitry Wmiuii. ciiiiiliiymi'nt i)f as frai tiiT'*, 
 
 I. iff ( iimiiii^^i'ii <if. ill. 
 
 V{. "!'.>. K<). iiidiitlily liKt'tinjK'^ fi'f. 
 
 I iiiviTsiliiN, ^anliii-- of Muni- l.'lll. uii tlif farm, 'i^ll, mlUxt- 
 I tilitarian valiK' nf mIuhiI siil>- 
 
 jtils, 70 
 
 Villat'f induct ri("<. ilccay nf, i4H. 
 N'lM atiiinal value of agrkultural 
 c<iu<ation, 1J5. 
 
 c'(>iir>«'s for. <()H. 
 
 Yale, prtiffssorship of agriculture, 
 
 Id. 
 Vifl.l [M-r a<rc ilHli), xx. 
 
 Zooloiry, lextb<'<)k for. liH. 
 
Cbf RilirraiBr prr»# 
 
 C A\ll;|(ll>l.i; . MAs>Al III SKTTS 
 I' . S . A