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ST^ '653 East Main Slreet

S^S Rochester, New York 14609 USA

'-as {^'6) 482 - 0300 - Phone

^^ (716) 288 - 5989 - fan

••''---, 5- iTii'-f::!.--.-!^

rTV""^^^^*"

SHEIK-EL-BELAD.

Ancient Egyptian Wood Carving. (Circa 4000 B.C.)

»iv

.-^^ ~ ,. MiiiliiM^^iittXiii^i^

Easy Lessons in the Art of

Practical Wood Carving

SUITED TO THE WANTS OF CARPENTERS

JOINERS, AMATEURS AND PROFES-

SIONAL WOOD CARVERS

BEING A PRACTICAL MANUAL AND GUIDE TO ALL KINDS

OF WOOD CARVING. INCLUDING CHIP CARVING

FLAT CARVING, INCISED WORK AND FIGURE

CARVING, TOGETHER WITH AN ESSAY ON

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN FOR

CARVED WORK OF ALL KINDS

By
FRED T. HODGSON, M.O.A.A.

AUTHOR OF

"Pr.ctic.1 Tre.t..e on the U« of the Steel Square," "Modern C.rpentry," "Com-

mon.Sen,e Stair Building and Handrailing," "Drawing Self-Taught " "Hard-

wood nnUher," "Modern E.Umator and Contractor'. Guide" etc

Over Two Hundred Illustrations, Diagrams and Designs

CHICAGO, U.S.A.
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS

1905

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & COMPANY

CHICAGO, U. S. A.

TTPOORAPHT BT
IIABSH, AITKEN & CUKTI8 COMPANY, CHICAOO

OSttUIiHO

Ci.'i-'iL'X-T .i .

PREFACE

The author and compiler of this work prepared a

series of articles on Carving for "The National Builder"
a few years ago, and also a series on the same subject
for The Carpenter," the official organ of "The
Brotherhood of American Carpenters." Since these
articles were prepared, the writer has received many
requests asking that the articles be put in book form
and in compliance with these requests I have selected
from these articles what I consider to be the better
portions, have amended many of them, rewritten others
and added much new matter, for which I am indebted
to The Woodworker," "Wood Carving," by George
Jack, "Wood Carving for Amateurs," by David Den-
ning, also to several other standard works on wood
carving, so that the reader of this book -although he
may have read the articles referred to-will have an
almost entirely new phase of the subject placed before
him.

Besides culling the best from the articles referred
to and embodying it in the present work, I have
selected from many sources such matter, instructions
and illustrations as I thought would be suited to the
wants of the American workman who aspires to become
a carver of wood. The designs in the first portion of
the work are purposely made simple and easy to work
Ifforts^' *° '^^"^ '^^ workman steadily on to greater

I have gone to some length in describing the tools
required, the methods of using them, and the care they

'S.'fSnJHesfr

6 PREFACE

demand, giving such rules as long and successful
experience has taught as the best. This portion of the
work is, perhaps, the most important to the young
student, for without a thorough knowledge of the tools
and a complete mastery over them, no person can ever
become a good wood carver; indeed, a complete
control of all the tools necessary in this fascinating art
is in itself an education of a high order.

The section on "ChipCarving," with the illustrations
and designs given, is in a measure a complete treatise
m itself, and may be reckoned as such by the amateur
workman who does not care to follow up the art to a
higher plane.

In a work of this kind our province is to keep as
much as possible to things appertaining to architectural
work. Carved woodwork, as an accessory to archi-
tecture, is an ornamental and refined detail that
presents an infinite charm to the cultivated mind.

It is a mistake, and a serious one, to carve wood too
fragile, or indeed fragile at all. There is no real skill,
in point of fact, in too much undercutting. In figure
work, too, uplifted and extended hands or arms, and
especially pointing fingers, are a weakness and a
snare. Much anxious labor is spent in their creation,
and is simply thrown away, yea, and worse, for in a
few short years, maybe only weeks or days, those pro-
jecting parts, obtruding from niche or newel, will surely
be knocked off by some careless duster. Of course
the broken pieces maybe mended, stuck together with
glue, but is there anything more humiliating to an
ambitious craftsman than to see a statuette, the project
of days or weeks, thus mutilated? Yet whose is the
fault? Not altogether that of the careless one who
does the actual damage. Surely a much larger

PREFACE 7

amount of blame must belong to the unthinking and
unmindful workman who, forgetful of everything but
the fact that-in his own eyes-he is doing something
wonderful upon his bench, makes that which cannot
be expected to have a long life in the position for
which it is destined.

A boy— a girl for that matter— cannot begin to learn
the art of wood carving too early. Thirteen years
old IS a good age; fourteen quite late enough. It is
a great mistake to keep a youngster at schoof until he
begins to fancy he knows more than his father or any
one else. We never knew any one lo first went to
the trade, say at eighteen or nineteen, turn out really
well. A boy learning in a good shop (if an apt pupil)
by the lime he is of age feels compete.n to hold his
own with any ordinary workman. That is one of the
grandest and haj^piest feelings a young man can
possess when starting the battle of life on his own
account.

It is a curious but well-known practical fact that a
youth wh.j has served a time at wood carving (if he
possesses ordinary appli^-ation) can always learn to
carve stone or marble afterwards, and with a few
years' practice will be able to hold his own with pay
follower of either of the latter branches. On the
other hand, we never knew a stone or marble carver
who could carve wood properly. Some of them moy
think they can, but they really cannot do it. The
knack of treating the graix in wood must always be
acquired in youth, or it vill never be thoroughly
mastered later on. The stone or marble carver v/ho
tries his hand at wood tears rather than cuts the stuff,
and when he finds he cannot do it properlv, swears, and
there's an end of it! Some of the most successful

I r- -^i^

PREFACE

artists who ever lived commenced their brilliant careers
as wood carvers. *"«rcers

The good carpenter finds no trouble whatever in

cutt n5 "7 '"""P ^'""^^^^ '^'■^ knowledge of
cutting and manipulating woodwork in a hundred

iZ7L t H ''^'T'' '■""• '^'^^ ^^ ^^^ "-^ °f tool is
cale. ?' '''^' '"' ^'^^ ^*^'P ^^^"^ go^d joinery or
cabinet makmg to carving is comparatively an easy
one and we may say right here that this book is pre-
pared more especially for the carpenter, joiner and

tha^"f Tt" ^': '""^ ^^'"^^^•"' °^ woodworking
than for those who intend to follow wood carving

alone as a profession, though the work cont.: ,s much

that will interest and instruct the professional

'"lilt t^^b " ul """^^. ^^ '^^''^"^ -^ '•"--^-•
Ihat the book has its faults and shortcomings goes

without saying. What book has not? Buf if 1

thought to be as good as any other like book on the
sub ect 3„, .3 ^^^ , ^^^^p^^^ ^^^ .^ ^ e

partcu a,s ,s superior to other books of the kind.
Ihat It IS more suited to the wants of the ordinarv
woodworker the editor feels confident, knowt^ '
he does, just exactly what (heir wants are in this
direction and on this ground, along with its oth
good .juaht.es, the book is placed in the hands o is
readers with an assurance that it wi:i be welcomed bv
thousands who have -ead the writer's other works. "

Fred T. Hodgson.

COLLINGWOOD, ONTARIO, April 1st, 1905.

:.as:M'^''w M*!Sgpimi3nm.-\< -v-"^"-

Practical Wood Carving

INTRODUCTORY

JHarry Hems, the celebrated English carver, says:
No doubt, as a matter of pojition it is better to be a
good wood carver than a good joiner, but a poor carver
IS a long way down the scale below the handy carpen-
ter. It IS not every one that has the natural 'gift' to
become a really clever carver of wood. Parents should
ever be careful to give their sons several months'
probat.on ere the fate of the youngster is decided
upon. If a boy has no real talent for wood carving
he never ought to be apprenticed to the profession
for hard work and the most diligent app cation will
rarely make i:p for lack of natural ability. Of all the
many hundred businesses that go strictly hand 'in hand
with the bu.ld.ng trade, that of a figure carver in wood
or architectural purposes has its fewest representatives.

L!^ r?K """' '" '" ^"^'^"^ '' <he present

moment there are not forty men who can carve even
decent figures in wood. The position, therefore, of
tl^ese skilled craftsmen is an envied one; there is a
constant demand for their services; they command
good money, and their occupation, always varied and
never representing really hard manual labor, is one of
the most delightful pursuits a man can possibly follow
Ordinary wood carvers do not pretend to be masters
of the figure, and when at rare intervals they attempt
It the resu j are seldom successful. A great gulf

•i.f,v'«FVJi'»'-:raB

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

exists between figure and foliage work. For whilst
the fol.age carver is quite lost upon the human form
divine when he attempts to produce it in wood, so the
figure carver is almost equally at sea when he turns
h.s hand to ornament. If he tries ii. and he generally
does so hesitatingly, he is rarely successful "

He also gives some excellent advice to beginners.

which .s deemed worthy of being quoted at this point.

Always stand to your work, and don't lean over it

oo much. Too much leaning over tends to laziness.

I have seen small seats in the top of a spiked stick.

The latter steadies itself on the floor, and the carver

will s.t thereon, work, and swing his body round with

It as occasion requires. But it has not a good look

about It, and does not stamp a diligent and smart

"Although it is a good rule always to do work in the
solid. It often happens that patenx. etc.. are put into
hollows after the latter are run through. The best
way to carve them, under these circumstances, is to
have a hoi ow made the same size in pine, and glue
each individual rosette therei.. with paper between the
p.ne and the material carved. After the latter is
finished It can be lifted out by a chisel as easily as
sheUing peas as the paper splits at the slightest
purchase of the tool. It is. however, always a matter
of intense regret to me to see rosettes stuck on
Everything should be cut out of the solid wood li
•s this wholesome practice that makes our average
work so much better than the best produced in
Belgium and Germany. In the latter two countries
U seems to me. nothing is in the solid that can be
glued on. '

These hints and suggestions given out by a veteran

INTRODUCTORY

carver are worthy of the serious consideration of every

person who intends to try his or her hand at the arT

Carving .s an art in which various advantages are

combined, for not only is this art beautiful and excel-

light of a stepping stone to greater things. In proof
of this we need only glance at the history of some of
the most famous painters and sculptors, many of
whom, we read, rose to greatness from the practice of
the comparatively humble art of wood carving

It IS an employment which can be taken up at anv
time, and can be as easily relinquished; for the carver's
fingers when once facility has been learnt, do not
easily lose their cunning from disuse. Although con-
siderable practice, combined with natural a-, fude is
necessary to enable any one to become a re. .y skilled
carver, the time spent in cultivating this talent will be
by no means wasted, even should nothing beyond the
merest mediocrity be attained.

ordmar.ly skillful person to do simple carving, which
for the encouragement of beginners, it may be slid
.3 often as pleasing as n.ore pretentious efforts
especially when these are not accompanied by great'
manual dexterity. ^ ^

On the score of small cost much might be urged in
favor of wood carving as a recreative art, but. bfyond

"ect'arraTr '° ^'^ '''' '''' ' '^^^^ ^^'^^ ''-
here 7f. ^^^,^«"^'"f""'^ent. little need be said
here. A few dollars will procure all the tools that are
really requisite for a beginning, and as the carver lu
.f he be wise, only get others as he requires them, the
additional expenditure fs hardlv fHt

When discussing the neces'sary "plant." which

^ 1 -«ti*. » •

M PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

includes the tools, materials, and everything which is
required m setting up the workshop, various little
makeshifts and expedients by which much may be
contrived without any serious outlay will be suggested
Wood carving, which at first sight may seem to
resemble in some degrees the more mechanical
employment of carpentry, nevertheless differs from
It m this important particular that, unlike purely
manual pursuits which can be mastered by any one
possessing a fair a,..ount of intelligence and mechanical
skill. It demands ,n addition to these qualities a certain
lee ing, or in other words, talent; this "feeline "
or whatever we may choose to call it, it is obviously
.mposs.ble to teach; the germ must at least to some
degree be innate in the artist; much, however, may
be done in the way of fostering and encouraging it.

Although a knowledge of carpentry, as before stated,
will be an aid to the wood carver, it is not essential.
The skill Ml this line need be but rudimentary, though
the greater the acquaintance with it so much the easier
wiint be to become an adept in carving work of all

But it nnst be understood that a person may be
highly skilled ,n carpentry without having a particle
of the taste or talent requisite for artistic carving
However great the natural talent maybe, it is three
parts wasted if it be fettered by clumsy finge-s. and
therefore those who suffer from this defect should
make every effort to overcome and correct it It is
also well to acquire a knowledge of the different
woods employed, their nature and various qualities
and the purposes to which they are best adapted'
Also It would be advisable to learn the names and
purposes of the c(,mmon tools in use amongst carpen-

-i^'Fnrz^m^.

INTRO ')UCT(JRY

»!

ter» together with the ordinary technical term, such
as doveta.l.n,. nv.tisin,. rabhctin,. and suT ' "ke
Ey these means the carver will be enabled to .iv^
clear and mtcll.gible directions in refjardVoth.
materials, etc.. which will be required in the co se of
the work. --"ist- oi

Whik- on Ihh subject i( may be n, wdl (o say here

once for all , ,a. „ is no. th,- i n,i„„ ,„ ,h., ,„|,^J"

pages lo explam ,he nam. , and use of tools »-l, "[d^
not specially pertain .„ the carver's art. Those which
are used by other worker, in wood m.iy be a„,l
undoubtedly are useful to the carver esneciiL ?f
as many amateurs do, he wishes to ''mX '' hi^
own work. I, he cannot do so there Ts trcly any
difficulty ,n getting what i, required done by a cabinet
make,, „h„ ,, ,„ ^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ or L.^ll

as he „ more accustomed to small work. As m ny
ad.es now take up carving as an amusement hi^
book w,ll at any rate commend itself to them

A though ,t ,s impossible to acquire skill, or what
has been previously referred to as ■■feelin,.," rom his

h:.i;ed:':r.r-"'- n-^'^'"'' "•^ '-«'"n-w™ j

ra,L h ■ , ■ '" '^' ''''«<:"l"---=. or perhaps it should
rather be sa,d started on the right wav. If Ihe dh-ec
...onsa,e carefully attended to and put in practice - ere"
ta eV°Grea?'kn 't ""''""'" -'--inV'

:r;:i.rworna„.?abiiitv-daSi^'™-

sss^sxr

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

styles of carving. However, the. : are some tools
which are common to all kinds of work and it is these
I will deal with first, and take in the others as they
are required for the work undtr discussion.

In the last chapter of this work it is my intention
not only to deal with carvings alone, but to show a
number of examples of useful carved work put
together, and give instructions for putting it together.
This, while not perhaps of much use to the expert
joiner or cabinetmaker, will prove useful to the
amateur and the new beginner.

I have thought that these few preliminary remarks
might be necessary so that the text following may not
be padded with the explanations already given.

tfijV:

4*5

2?5!

f.A.

■■■tti

CHAPTER I

CAKVERS" TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

We will suppose that the student is anxious to make
a practical ccn-.mencement in his stui ies. The first
consideration will be to procure a set of tools, and we
propose in this place to describe those which will
answer the purpose of a beginner, as well as to look
generally at others in common use among craftsmen.
Ihe tools used by carvers consist for the most part
of chisels and gouges of different shapes and si^es.
rhe number of tools required by professional carvers
for one piece of work varies in propo-tion to the
elaborateness of the carving to be done. They may
use from half a dozen on simple wo.k up to twenty or
thirty for the more intricate carvings, this number
being a selection out of a larger stock renchin^: perhaps
as many as a hundred or more. Many of these tools
vary only in size and sweep of cutting edge. Thus,
chisels and gouges are to be had ran^in;,' f-om y, of an
inch to I inch wide, with curves or "sweeps" in each
size graduated between a semicircle to a curve almost
flat, l^ew carvers, however, possess such a complete
stock of tools as would be rt..resented bv one of each
size and shape manufactured; such a 'thing is not
required; an average number of. say, seventy tools,
will always give sufficient variety of size and sweep for
general purposes; few pieces of work will reo-ire the
use of more than half of these in its execution/
The beginner, however, need not possess more than

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

from twelve to twenty-four, and may even make a
start with fewer. It is a good plan to learn the uses
of a few tools before acquiring a complete set, as by
this means, when difficulties are felt in the execution
of work, a tool of known description is sought for and
purchased with a foreknowledge of its advantages.
This is the surest way to gain a distinct knowledge
of the varieties of each kind of tool and their appli-
cation to the different purposes of design.

It is not at all uncommon for those who have not
devoted any attention to practical carving to imagine
that the work is done with "some kind of a knife."
Let ihe beginner at once dismiss this notion from his
mind, for with the exception of a special one for chip
carving, to which a chapter is devoted, a knife is not
used.

The ordinary cutting tools are chisels and gouges of
many shapes and sizes. A complete set of them is not
in the least necessary for a beginner.

The various carving tools most needful, though few
in number, must be selected with great care and judg-
ment, the quality far outweighing the quantity; indeed,
a few, let us say twelve or eighteen, really good tools'
well cared for, and with which you are thoroughly
acquainted, will produce good work at first.

They are to be bought in "sets," but as these are
specially prepared for amateurs they cannot be
indiscrim'nately recommended. Some of them arc-
good, but many are such as no experienced carver
could use with satisfactory results. These words of
caution are deemed necessary, as it is by no means
uncommon for the amateur sets to be much more
pleasing in appearance than the more workmanlike
tools. These, in comparison, are often rough looking,

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 19

but the quality is generally better, and the original
cos htt e. .f any. greater. Good carving tools afe to
be had from any respectable tool dealer, if a fair price
IS paid for them. and. as a guide to price, tool dealers'
catalogues may be consulted with advantage
As before stated, two dozen tools are as many as

b7rfTun" ' u'"'"^ "P- ^''^^^'^ ' ^°-" would
be a far better number to begin with, as much work •

required "' ""'' ''''"' '"^ °*''" "" ^^ '^^'^ ^^

J' t k'^k"'' *° '^^ ""''^ "'■*^'"^y what the selection
should be. but as the most useful cools for ordinary
work are flat gouges, four of them. >^, i/. H and J
inch sizes, will be a fair proportion ' ^' ^'' ^ ^"^ "^
These tools are almost flat like chisels, but instead
of bemg quite so have a slight curve. Between the
flat gouge and that with the "quickest" curve there
are several with varying degrees of sweep, and two of
a medium quickness may be added in. say H inch
size, as well as one of the "quickest "

These latter, when of the smallest size, are known
as veiners. from their frequent use in carving the vebs
or small grooves in leaves. Till some measure o
facility has been gained with larger tools their employ-
ment will be found difficult.

Chisels are of two kinds, those with the ends ground
straight across and those with bevel ends. These latter
are known as skew or corner chisels, and next to the

cllT^n "■' r\^' '^' '"^^^ "^^f"' t°°l^ of the

(TinrU^ "^ t'^'J" ^'"^ °^ '^'''^ '■" ^he smallest
(tV inch) and % inch sizes will be useful, but in these

as indeed in other tools, the selection must chiefly de-
pend on the style of carving the worker prefers
A parting or. as it is commonly called, a V tool is

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

'%:*%

another useful one, and is almost irdispensable, but at
first it is difficult to use properly. The reason for its
familiar designation will be recognized. The J4 inch
size will be most useful to the beginner.

All the tools that will be required at first are what
are known as "straight," All varieties are, however,
made in both "bent" and "curved." Their object is
to allow of their edges cutting in places which could
not be reached with the straight tools. The curved
variety is of comparatively litJe use, as the beginner
will find that almost everything, he is likely to attempt
can be done with straight or bent tools.

If any bent tool is got with the first lot of tools it
should be a bent chisel of the smallest size, as it will
sometimes be useful in cutting away the ground in
places which could not well be reached by the other
tools.

In choosing these tools do not be too easily satisfied,
or inclined to think that the first that is seen will suit,
but rather take time and examine each separately until
those of the right sort are found; for, as in other
matters, there are tools and tools. Choose, then,
those that are long and slender, and of which the points
when pressed on the table feel somewhat springy; they
should also be slightly, almost imperceptibly, bent up
towards the end; this curve must not be exaggerated,
or it will weaken the tool.

Sets of tools for amateurs are generally sold
handled, but for ordinary carvers' tools the handles arc
supplied separately. They can be fitted on by the
tool dealer; if, however, the carver prefers to do this,
great care must be taken to set them in very straight,
as otherwise the tool will not work truly. The handle
itself should be small but long, about one-half of the

%' v'

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 21

whole length; this is especially necessary in those tools
with which a mallet is used, in order to have plenty of
room for the hand to grasp it without fear of being
hit. The length of handle for the smaller tools,
which are chiefly used without the mallet, must be
regulated by the size of the hand, the forefinger of
which should rest on or a little below the hilt, while
the butt end rests in and is push -d forward by the
hollow of the pa/m. The form of ready-made handles
is generally round, but an octagonal or hexagonal
shape, with the thickest part in the middle rather than
at .he end, is a very useful variety, as it thus affords
a firmer grasp for the fingers. Handles should be
made of some hard wood, such as ebony, rosewood or
box, or indeed any wood capable of being made very
smooth and highly polished; if otherwise, the palm of
the hand would be liable to be galled by the constant
friction and pressure. This is a point of great impor-
tance, and should always be borne in mind, for the
very best carver could hardly fail to turn out bad work
when wincing under a blistered hand, and nothing is
so certain to cause this as an ill-made or roufjh handle.
For this reason it is well to avoid using a tool the
handle for which has been beaten and frayed with
blou , from the mallet, without repolishing it with a
file or sandpaper.

If, instead of the modest number of tools I have
suggested, a greater quantity is purchased, it will be
found very convenient to have the handles of various
woods and colors, so that each may be known at a
glance; thus, for instance, the smaller gouges might
be of rosewood, the largest cherry wood, the chisel
ebony, and others of boxwnnd; also it is convenient
to have a number or any special mark branded on the

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

handle to denote the size; by this means no time is

which would certamly be the case were they all alike
without any means of distinguishing them. All these

jttle matters, trivial and hardly worth noticing though
.hey may seem, are nevertheless, as long experience
has taught, of very material assistance

In any but the lightest work a mallet of some kind
IS necessary for no tool should be pounded with a
hammer. The carver's mallet should have a round
head exactly like a stone mason's mallet, though an
ordinary mallet will serve the purpose, but the former
IS preferable.

Wood carving may be said to be of three kinds, the
simplest of which is Surface Carving; it might be called
engraving, and is appropriate for the adornment of
objects that are handled, such as caskets, book racks,
book covers, glove and other small boxes. This work
.s better known as Chip Carving, of which I wi'I have
nore to say later on. Surface carving is most effective
when done on a polished (shellacked) surface, where a
design, say of leaves and blossoms, is left bright, and
the background IS roughened or grained by stamping
and afterward darkened by oiling. Another method
of carving is called incised work. It is relief intaglio,
the design being outlined and modeled, leaving the re-
ma.ninr surface of the wood untouched. This method
.s sometimes, though incorrectly, called intaglio
carving But intaglio cutting or engraving is the re-
verse of relief, such as a cameo; it is an engraving or
carving which, when impressed on wax or plaster, gives
a raised or relief design. Incised carving"^ is modeled
m relief, but done without lowering or cutting away the
remaining surface. A more general and more artistic

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 23

method of carving is relief work, where the design
when completed appears wholly raised above the
uniform depth. The background may be smoothly
finished or it may be grained by stamping. The rough
background, absorbing the oil, appears to give a
heightened effect to the carving.

The tools shown in Fig. 1 are about all that will be
required for a tart. The shape of the tool is given,
also the cut it gives. An
expert workman may use a
larger number of tools, but
for the beginner the follow-
ing list is amply sufficient;
as he advances he can add
others, as the work in hand
may demand. The follow-
ing eleven tools will serve
for all kinds of carving ex-
cept perhaps modeling in
the round, yet they are used
in this kind of carving in
some cases. The first of the
illustrations, the carver's
chisels, are called by the
trade firmers, to distinguish
them from the chisel used by
carpenters. Of these useful
tools there are a great many
sizes, from ^\ of an inch to 2 inches in width. Thv.
smaller sizes are called picks; carvers generally make
them themselves. Of chisels select two sizes or three,
one ^\ of an inch and one >^ inch. The second lot are
very useful tools for cutting into corners, veining and
other purposes. Of the tools chooso two sizes, one %

- ^=^

ILICHTLT CUIVED BINT TOOU

=<!>

=4="

DIEPLT CUItVECi JIT TOOU.

l-ASTINC TOOL ; (B) VCINEI.

Fio. 1. Carving Tools.

24 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

one")"of '"^""k '^ 'f^- ^^Ihe gouges shown, select
one ^ nf an inch and one ^ of an inch. Gouges are

of a. I . n.tuaes of curves, from the slightest curve
tha. M- almost be taken for flat to the half of an

oval < these select one >^ and ore H 01 v. inch

When the tools are purchased they are not ground,
nether have they handles. The tools must first be sei

'" handles. To put the han-

t::^ j:^ t:~— 'J'^s on, the tool is held in

^ C •;;;— ^ •> ^'s^. the handle is pushed

onto the tongue of the tool
and twisted backward and
forward to make the hole in
the handle larger. This
should be continued until it
can be pushed within three-
quarters of an inch of the
..^ , . . , shoulder of the tool; it is

then driven r.ght home. This method prevents the
hand, f „ ,^,,^,.^^ j^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ J^^^ e

and make very good carvers' tools, but probably the

are V V h"; •" '?"^'^ '"^' "^^^^ '^^ ^^''^^ '^"^ ^hey
are \ery high priced. '

The cutting edges of a variety of tools are shown in

as he" y -"^ r'' ^^^ ^"^^"''■^^ "^y ^he workman

as he advances in the art.

fig. 3 shows a number of * fi

punch points which will come ^ -*■ Y ^

in for diapering or padding ° +

the background of the work '' '"""=""•

man u , 1 1 be able to make himself out of round and
square bars of steel of the proper s.-ction. Th. steH
can be sottened by heating and then let cool gradually,

QflCK TOOLS.

Fi<i. 2. CuTTiNc Edges or Toois.

^ >

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 25

after which the pattern on the end may be worked out
w.th a file cold chisel or drill, as the pattern may
demand; after which the steel must be heated to a
cherry red color and then plunged into oil or into a
stick of sealing wax. This process will make the tool
quite hard enough for ordinary purposes.

A very useful punch, and one that is easily made, is
shown in Fig. 4, also the impression it makes. This

•;••

style of padding is very often used. It is quite
effective. . ^

Every carver should provide himself with a bench
He may make one for himself according to the size
and construction shown in the illustration Fig r
The top should be made of two 11.2 inch bo'ards and
as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed ai .he
joints should have some care. Those in illustration
are shown to be formed by checking one piece of wood
over the other, with shoulders to resist the lateral
stram. Proper tenons would be better, but more
difficult to make. It must have a projecting edge at
the front and ends to receive the clamps. The bench
should have a joiner's "bench-screw" attached to the
back leg for holding work which is to be carved on its
edges or ends. The feet should be secured to the floor
by means of iron brackets, as considerable force is
applied tn carving hard wood, which mav movr^ th-
bench bodily unless it is secured or is very heavy
i-rofessional car^•ers use a bench which is composed of

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

beech planks three or four inches in thickness and of
such a length as can be accommodated by the room
available.

Another bench, somewhat more elaborate than that
shown m Fig. 5, is shown in Fig. 6. This has a top
36x36 mches. which is ly, inches in thickness; it
IS not necessary to be hard wood; red or white pine is
quite strong and suitable enough; it should be square

Fig. 5

edged and should project 3 inches clear of the legs
and rails. The legs and rails should be of fairly heavy
material, as regards si.e. to give the whole bench
sufficient weight. An open shelf and a drawer for the
tools should be provided. The dimensions of the
bench and its parts are given in the sketch. A bench
like this has many advantages; it is strong and heavy
It enables the learner to get to both the end and side
ot his work. It provides accommodation for his tools
the work IS easily fastened to it, and one of the
greatest advantages is that there is room enough ia

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 27

the center for a light to be placed, whether electric,
gas, or lamp light, without anything being able to
obstruct its free passage to the student's work.

rhe bench shown in Fig. 7 is quite different from
the previous ones, but is the one preferred by Harry
Hems, and is from an illustration of his making

Fig. 6.

Regarding it he has the following to say, which I
think worthy of production at this poinl:

"A wood carver dearly loves his bench, and is not
altogether quite at home without it. In this he differs
from the stone carver, who prefers to carve what he is
about tnsit». A carver's bench is quite different in
construction from a joiner's; the latter is portable and
may be put anywhere at will, the former is stationary
and should always be fixed under a window

as PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

•The carver's bench is also somewhat higher than
a joiner i, i.e., it must be 3 feet 2^ inches high. The
niain portion, that which is actually worked upon,
should be of well-seasoned beech, 4 inches thick and i
foot 8 mches wide, firmly planted upon framing of the
same material, with upright supports (4 x 3 inches)
about 3 feet apart. Behind this, i.e., farthest from the

Fig. 7.

worker, it should be widened out by a deal plank i
foot 4 inches wide or thereabouts, fixed so that its
surface is 3 inches below the actual working bench
This allows the tools to be spread upon it without their
handles projecting quite so high as the top of the
bench itself. Thus a large job may always be turned
about without in any way interfering with the tools

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 29

which lie upon the lower level. The height given is
an excellent and comfortable one for the average
wc -n, whilst a short one or boy can always suit
his own convenience, as necessary, by having a block
or iwo to stand upon. About I foot from the ground
there should be a shelf of 1^ inch pine. This is
always found most useful, not only to stow away odd
pieces of stuff that are sure to come in handy some
day, but also to put a foot upon now and again when
a change of position is desired. In one of my own
sUidios we have a continuous bench measuring 70 feet
long. It offers fairly ample accommodation for twenty
carvers, i. ., allowing 3 feet 6 inches for each crafts-
man.

"As it is essential for light that a carver's bench be
fixed under windows, it is also necessary that the latter
be provided with blinds. The head is bent forward
whilst its owner is at work, and in warm weather the
sun pours upon it inconveniently.

"It is only careless wood carvers who work upon the
actual bench itself. There should always be cutting
boards of i inch yellow pine between the bench and
the job in hand. The'se not only save the benches,
but if work has to be pared or cut through, the softer
material saves the under edges of the finished carvings
from breaking away. The benches may be bored in a
couple of places to take the hold-fast, and a couple of
smaller holes at convenient distances be made for the
bench-screw. For the latter, bored blocks are required
to pack up the screw under the bench board, and care
shoulc' be tak n never to fasten down the hold-fast
upon the work to be carved with hard wood. Use a
piece of deal, otherw-se the carving itself may be
bruised. Ofcouisj a slight dent of the kind in oak

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

may always be 'lifted- again by a few applications of
spittle, the moisture of the saliva swelling the dent up
"Most jobs can be best carried out on benchf-s. but
ex- on must be taken to figures and figure panels
These should never be laid on the flat, save for under
cuttmg. A plant may be fixed vertically from the
floor to the ceiling joists. Holes can be l)ored in this
at convenient heights, and by means of a bench-
screw— or more than one, if necessary-the statue or
panel can be securely fixed level with the eye. Then
the worker may bang away at it and see what he is
doing.

"It is only thoughtless carvers who put finished or
partly finished work down upon the floor, even for five
minutes. There is always more or less dust upon the
floor of even the best appointed shop, and soiled work
IS ever an abomination. Never let the glue pot touch
the floor either. Dirty glue, of all things, is disgrace-
tul. What looks worse than a black joint that sug-
gests that somebody has been lining it with a lead
pencil? Further, never use cheap glue. Tne u ore
costly is the best and cheapest in the long run The
benches should be fixed firmly against the wall
immediately under a continuous row of windows It is
well for the latter to be glazed with ribbed glass up to
a leve' ' -p the ordinary line of sight. This prevents
^"^' ^ ''"ff looked through either by workmen

or pass. 'Vork naturally suffers if attention is

diverted fro... ...

"It is a great mistake for a carver's bench to be
placed, like a joiner's, in the midst of a shop; the light
IS then all wrong. The greatest number of wood
carvers I ever saw at work together was M Pullman's
car works, a dozen miles or so out of Chicago. It was

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 31

in 1893, at the time of the World's Fair. There were
fully 3Q0 of them, all erriloyed on piece-work, and the
majority not earning more than they would have done
in England. In the different shops there were two
rows of continuous benches, one line of them arranged
directly under the windows, and the other running
parallel a few yards behind. I rt collect those working
m the rear complained bitterly how severely they were
handicapped in regard to light."

E.\perience tells us that in winter time and on dark
days It is always economi to keep plenty of arcificial
light burning in a carve. 's shop. At all times it
''pays" better to light up half an hour too soon than
five minutes too late. A man can always work better
and more readily utilize an "inspiration" when the
surroundings are cheerful. In dull weather it is well to
keep the gas burning all day. As a rule, in a carver's
studio when more light is required warmth is also
desired. Gas gives light and makes warmth, and
hence is better than electricity, for there is no warmth
in the latter. When at work the carver should always
wear a blouse
— white by
ch lice — and
"s, >ort"aclean
one every Mon-
day morning.
Blouses not on-
ly greatly save

the clothes, but are a pleasant distinction from the
joiner s apron.

As I stated on a former page, the ma' let made use

or by the carver should have 1 rnuru] f-.-^ -,- i

_.. ' ""-' "rt»t. a ruuiiu rd(.c, as shown in

tigs. 8 and 9. though this is not absolutely necessary,

Fig 8.

Fig.

;-•.-.",»)!

32 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

as will be shown later on. The mallet. Fig. 9, is shown

L7,T7: rJ''' ^°' "''^^ ^'- ''--' the proper
meth^^ of hold.ng the chisel or gouge when the mallet

Another shape of mallet is shown in Fig. u, where
some examples of tool holding are also ilfustrated L

which the proper po-
sition of the hands is
shown while at work.
Except when using
the mallet, hold the
tool with both hands;
in the right, the han-
dle, the first and sec-
ond fingers of the left
hand resting on and
guiding the tool an
inch or so from the
end. With both
hands above the
sharp edge, all dan-

v^nf«^ xxr. ger of accident is pre-

vented. When some force is required the mallet
should be used. The handle of the tool should then
be hdd firmly m the left hand, between the fingers and

If the mtnet"^"^' ^^^"^ ''' ^^ ''' ^^^^ ^'^ -^^^
The best carvers' mallets are turned and made of

pouldr^',^'^ ""^r ---^e weight istu-o

pounds A larger one may be rather cumbersome for
general work. Don't have too small a mallet; one
we.ghmg under a pound gives the impression of playing
w h work rather than doing it. Hence it is not sug
gest.ve of a d.l.gent journeyman. In the old days

Fig. 10.

^^S-Mr^

m^^'M

-*>'^

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 33

mallets were oblong, like those used by joiners,
although generally rounded off at the top. I remem-
ber when I went to the trade my first task was to make
my own mallet of iVi. :hape. This I managed fairly
well, the mort. ,.nf,' for the handle being the most
awkward part - ■ t^.e business to a mere novice; for

(TAHPINC Till aACKCROUND.

Fig. II.

OITTLININC rOK KLilF WO*N.

there were no mortising machines in those days, or
not at least in my own shop at Sheffield in the
forties.

Although a mallet is not so necessary a tool to a
wood carver as it is to the carver of stone, to whom it is
an actual essential, its use cannot be too systematically
cultivated. All rough-cut should be done with it, and

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

-* i

bosses, cornices, and other work intended to be fixed
at a height from the eye, should invariably be finished
with the mallet. When engaged on these classes of
work the mallet should never leave the carver's hand,
for the cut left by the chisel with the mallet behind it
is always the most effective when looked up at from
the ground. Further, by the free and continuous use o
the mallet the work is got over in half the time i
would otherwise take. In architectural carving the
great end to be attained is general good effect. If it is
to be successful, the lights and shadows, the outlines
and general grouping must be happy and effective when
seen from the real point of sight, i.e., the floor. Half
a dozen strokes judiciously administered may make a
really effective patera, whereas half a day's minute
work upon a bench may produce something which,
when placed in position upon the wall plate of a roof,
will not only be disappointing but practically invisible.
It is a very general practice of wood carvers to use
the half-closed palm of ine hand as a sort of human
mallet, and for light work this is a useful and whole-
some custom. All experienced wood carvers have a
large hoof in the middle of the palm as a result thereof.
It must not be ignored or overlooked, however, that
this practice, if carried too far, may have unpleasant
or even dangerous consequences. As it is, few mature
wood carvers can open their right hand quite straight.
In course of time the habit causes the fingers to
become rigidly bent inwards, although the flexor
tendons and joints arc unaffected. Subcutaneous
division of the contracted bands sets the fingers free,
but a relapse is nearly sure to occur. An eminent
surgeon says, "There are quite half a dozen different
operations in vogue for this deformity, but I never

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 35

knew one hich was really successful— that is to say,
which resulted in a permanent cure."

Carvers sharpen their chisels and gousiTes quite dif-
ferently from joiners and carpenters. These latter rub
all from one side and get a hard beveled edge; the
former get a thin, keen edge— on chisels and gouges
alike— in the middle of the steel, rubbing from back
and front. The best oilstones probably are known as
Washita, and most favorite "slips" are those from
Arkansas. The latter are, of course, for sharpening
the concave insides of gouges, and are ground to
various sweeps to fit them. After properly sharpen-
ing, the edges are "strapped" upon a buff leather— a
soldier's belt makes a capital strap, rubbed in with
crocus powder and tallow.

It is a singular but certain fact that soft wood
requires keener edged tools to finish work cleanly with
than hard wood. Thi's deal or cedar must be carved
with sharper tools than oak demands.

Besides hi? Met and chisels a carver practically
wants nothin, a hold-fast, screw, and a pair of

calipers. Thei .ic is set up, and can go anywhere,
and— if the ability is in him— do anything.

A good carver rarely carries a lead pencil. He
trusts to his eye. What will deceive a practical and
well-trained optic will readily deceive the whole
world. He never carries a rule under any circum-
stances. If by any chance he should require one for a
minute or two, he borrows it from a joiner.

One of the most important branches of the carver's
art is a knowledge of the proper methods employed in
sharpening the tools he or she has to make use of.
Sharp tools solve the mystery of clean cutting and
good work. Great care should be taken that the edges

i^^-^l

36 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

of the tools do not knock or rub against one another.
The good carver keei)s his tjols parallel with each
other when not in use, or better still, he rolls them up
in a slightly oiled cloth, havin^ one layer of cloth
between each tool.

Sharpening tools is to the wood carver what thread-
ing the needle is to the seamstress— a continual annoy-
ance, yet not without its advantage, as it breaks In on
a too long continued abstraction in work. Tools must
be of very good quality and very sharp. Many tools
which are brittle at first, at the edge, improve after
this has been worn away. It will be necessary, while
carvmg with one tool continuously, to touch it up on
the hone ai>out once in ten or fifteen minutes. It is
hardly necessary to describe how tools are ground, for
there is hardly a place in the world where there is not
a tool seller, a carpenter, a smith or tinker who can
shov you the method. A grindstone and an oilstone
are almost as necessary as tools. Carpenters' tools
are sharpened on only one side, carvers' tools on both.
The V tools and gouges are sharpened externally on
the wheel and stones as chisels are. But the grinding
on the inside is done with a bit of Arkansas oilstone
called a slip, ground or filed down so as to e.xactly fit
the edge. Remember that to do this with only the
stone and the tools is dangerous for the fingers. There-
fore set the slip in a piece of xvood, which may be
screwed into a vise or laid on the table and held fast
by nails.

After tools have been ground and had the first dull
or wire edge removed, they must be set on an oilstone
which gives them greater keenness. They should then
be stropped on a piece of leather. If there is no strop
at hand a substitute may be found in the smooth sur-

^^w

CAR\ r:R.S' TOOLS AND APPLIANXES 37

face of a planed pine board. It is difficult for a tyro
to grind and set the V tool or gouges. Those who
intend to carve should first of all learn to sharpen and
set tools. It IS by no means difficult to do this if they
will on y try. Gouges and chisels when p-rchased are
beveled at the cutting edge. This bevel should always
be preserved. When grinding th. tools the gouges
are held to the grinding stone at precisely the angle
indicated and are moved backward and forward bv the
motion of the wrist across the grindstone, and .' the
same time are twisted between the thumb and fore-
hnger. This action preserves the curves, which must
always be perfect. Little difficult^■ will be found in
sharpening the chisels, as they are held to the grind-
stone perfectly flat; yet they must be moved from one
side of the stone to the other or you will work a groove
in the stone in a very little time.

The oilstone is a tool that very few take proper care
ot. It IS indispensable and therefore should be treated
as carefully as the sharpest cutiing instrument Oil-
stones should never be allowed to get clogged up with
dirty, dried
oil. They
should be
kept free
from dust and
grit. The
best oilstone
is one in a

I'lbst'n 'ZV """'.V "^''^ "^■•'^•"- ^^^»<^n^a^ oil

oed d " "''' ''^ '" P""'^^''^ *he same way and

wiped dry every time they are used

Fi^ 77 T^ T '^ "'^""' '" "''^^^"^ '^ ^hown in
^>g. 12. It IS distressing to the trained mechanic to

Fig. 12.

38 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

saunter through a workshop and sec about half the
oilstones on the bench worn hollow in the center Hke
a sway-backed horse. This evil will be corrected if the
stone ,s set in a block, as illustrated in the sketch
with pieces of hard wood about i^ inches long at each
end and flush with the face of the stone, ^his ^ill
en bU. he workman ,n sharpening his tools to whet
mcr the ends of the stone as well as in the middle of
M thereby keeping ,t straight. Should the stone, after
long use, show any hollow places, take a piece of No.
2. sandpaper lay.ng it on a flat board, turn the stone
face down and a br.sk rubbing will soon put it in good

wh f n .'''"^f"^^'^'^ "P^" 't, the latter will not slip
whilst rubbing the stone. ^

When being honed, tools are held to the stone at the
saine angle or bevel as when being ground. The flat
tools are rubbed up and down the stone, as if you
were making a long figure 8. Hone on one side and

up and down the stone, twisting the tool between the
thumb and fingers. These tools should not be pressed
hard upon the stone. The action should be quk-k and
■ght or the tools will have ragged edges, v^hlch are
very hard to remove and very often destroy the curve
you are rriost anxious to preserve. A gouge properly
sharpened upon a flat stone should not want the sp
applied to the concave side. It should only be us d
when there is a feathery edge. The constant use of
the sip ,ns,de will spoil the curve, whether the stone
nts It exactly or not.

unlnZ '•'7"'''^ °.f ^ ^^^S<^ has been clearly rubbed
up to the edge, the inside is to be rubbed out with a
washita slip of the proper shape, as shown in Fig 13

tif

'm:''-3mm3Msss:

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANXES 39

to the extent of half as much as the outside The
handle of the tool should be graspea in the left hand
while Its blade rests on a block of wood, or on the
oilstone. Hold the slip between tne fingers and
thumb, slanting a little over the inner edge, and work
.t in a seri-3 of do^ nward strokes, beginning the

Fig. 13

strokes at one corner of the gouge and leaving off at
he other, as shown in Fig. 14. Strop the outside of
the tool and test for burr, then lay the leather strap
over the handle of another tool and strop the inside
repeating the operation until all burr has been
fTuse ' '" P^^^bably the tool will then be ready

The veiner requires the same kind of treatment, only

trai ^t ", " """? "^ ' ""'^ '" '^^ section-having
and ir • ^'^""^^'^-^-half must be done at a time!
and t ,s well to give the straight sides one stroke
o so ,n every half dozen, all to itself, to keep it

L^^\uf^ """'' ^^ '^'^'^^" ^^"'^h this tool, as it is
easily rubbed out of .shap*- ju^;^ -^^ ^„^, ^ c- ,
r^ff ,...fu .1- , , "^F- * ■■■- ■n--."e must be finisned
off with the Arkansas knife-edged slip, one side at a

■

f .->-■'

m338H

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

time, as it is impossible to sweep out the whole section
of these deep tools at one stroke. Stropping must
follow as before, but as this tool is so small that the

Fig. 14.

leather strop will not enter its hollow, the leather must
be laid down flat and the hollow of the tool drawn
along its edge until it makes a little ridge for itself

vCATwe

Fig. 15.

which fills the hollow and cleans off the burr; the
method being shown in Fig. i;. If any burr adheres
outside, a slight rub on the Arkansas stone will prob-

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 41

ably remove it. When the edges of the tools begin to
get dull, it often happens that they only require to be
stropped, which should be frequently done.

A strop suitable for the carver's use may be made
from a piece of good harness leather, or from an
ordinary razor strop. It is a good idea to glue a piece
of ^-ood, suitable leather on tl'c top or cover of the
oilstone, which may be used for stropping flat chisels
and many other tools. Of course, a loose strop should
always accompany a set of carving tools, whether the
set number many or few pieces.

As the treatment of all gouges is more or less like
what has been described, practice wi'l enable the
beginner to adapt it to the shape which requires his
attention. There remain only the V tools, the spoon
tools and the macaroni which will require special
attention. The point of the V tool is so acute that it
becomes diflficult to clear the inside. A knife-edged
slip is used for this purpose, and it is well also to put a
slip of wood to a thin edge, and after rubbing it with
paste and oil, pass it down frequently over the point
between the sides. Unless a very' sharp point is
obtamed, this too' is practically useless; the least
speck of burr or di-llness will stop its progress or tear
up the wood. In sharpening it, the sides should be
pressed firmly on the stone, watching it every now and
then to see what effect is being produced. If a gap
begins to appear on one side, as it often does, then
rub the other side until it disappears, taking care to
bear more heavily on the point of the tool than else-
where. If the sides get out of shape, pass the tool
along the stone, holding it at right angles to the side
of the stone, but at the proper angle of elevation; in
this case the tool is held near its end, between finders

ft »;-> —

4* PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

and thumb. Spoon tools must be held to the stone at
a much higher angle until the cutting edge is in the
right relation to the surface, or thev may be drawn
s.dewise along it, taking care that every part of the
edge comes ui contact ar d receives an equal amount of
rubbmg. These may be treated half at a time, or all
round, accorduig to the size and depth of the tool
However it is produced, the one thing essential is a
long straight-sectioned cutting bevel, not a rounded
or obtuse one. Strop the inside by folding up the
leather mto a little roll or ball until it fills the hollow
of the tool.

For a small set of tools one flat oilstone and two
slips will be found sufficient for a beginning, but as a
matter of fact, it will be advisable, as the number of
tools is enlarged, to obtain slips of curves correspond-
ing to the holl . of all gouges as nearly as possible.
Many professional carvers have sets of these slips for
the insides of tools, varying in curves which exactly fit
every hollow tool they possess, including a triangular
one for the inside of the V tool. The same rule some-
times applies to the sweeps of the outsides of gouges-
for these, corresponding channels are ground out in
flat stones, a process which is both difficult and
laborious. If the inside, are dealt with on fitting
slips, which may be easily adapted to the purpose bv
application to a grindstone, the outsides are not so
difficult to manage, so that grooved stones mav be
dispensed with.

It is well to impress upon the beginner the extreme
importance of keeping his tools ii. good order. When
a tool IS really sharp it whistles as it works; a dull tool
makes dull work, and the carver loses both time and
temper. There can be no doubt that the great tech-

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 43

nical skill shown in the works of Grinlinj,' Gibbons and
his followers could not have been arrived at without
the help of extraordinai.ly sharp tools— tools not
merely sharpened and then used until they became
dull, but tools that were always sharp and never
allowed to approach dullness. Sharpening tools is
indeed an art in itself, and like other arts has its
votaries who successfully conquer its difficulties with
apparent ease, while others are baffled at every point.
Impatience is the stumbling-bU ck in such operations!

** II I — I u 1

A . AhOUE. FGR ^OPTWOOO

- AJHCkue FOR HAf^OWOOO

Fig. 16.

Those most painstaking people, the Chinese and
Japanese, according to all accounts, put magic into
their sharpening stones; the keenness of their blades
being only equaled by that of their wits in all such
matters of delicate application. To make a good
beginning is a great point gained. To carefully
examine every too' ^nd at the expense cf time correct
faults of management, i. the only way to become
expert in sharpening tools.

When tools are to be us-d in soft woods their bevels
will require to be longer than when for use in the
harder woods. I show both angles in Fig. 16. which

im.,j»

'Ifc-

44 TRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

will give the reader some idea of the requirements in

both cases. Lay the flat of the tool on the stone at an

angle of about 15 degrees, with the handle in the

hollow of the right hand, and two fingers of the left

pressed upon the blade as near to the stone as possible.

Then begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the

stone, taking care lot to rock the right hand up and

down, but to keep it as level as possible on the blade

with the left hand, to keep it well in contact with the

stone. Rocking produces a rounded basil or bevel

edge, whii h is fatal to keenness.

Practice alone will familiarize the muscles of the
wrist with the proper motion, but it is important to
acquire this in order to form the correct habit early.
It should be practiced very slowly at first, until the
hands get accustomed to the movements. When one
side of the tool has been rubbed bright as far as the
cuttmg edge, turn it over and treat the other in the
same way. Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbed
on both sides, in the proportion of about two-thirds
outside to one-third inside. When a keen edge has
been formed, which can easily be tested by gently
applying the finger, it should be stropped on a piece
of stout leather. It will be found, if the finger is
passed down the tool and over its edge, that the
stoning has turned up a burr. This must be removed
by stropping on both sides alt.Tnately. A paste com-
posed of emery and crocus powders mixed with grease
IS used to smear the leather before stropping; this can
either be procured at the tooi shop or made by the
carver. When the tool has been suflficientlv stropped
and all burr removed, it is ready for use, 'but it is as
well to try it on a piece of wood f^rst and test it for
burr, and if necessary strop it again.

■i'S

^ -d--

CARVERS- TOOLS AND APl'LIANCES 45

Before wc leave this tool, however, wo shall antic-
ipate a little and look at it after it has been used for
some time and become blunt. Its cutting edf^'e and
the bivel above it are now polished to a hi{;h (le^jree,
owiny to friction with the wood. We lay it on the
stone, taking care to preserve the original angle (15
degrees). We find on looking at the tool after a little
rubbing that this time it presents a bright rim along
the edge, in contrast with the gray steel which has been
in contact with the stone. This bright rim is part of
the polished surf.»c« whole bevel had before we

began this second . jning, which proves that the

actual edge I .,ot yet touched the stone. We are
tempted to lift the right hand ever so little, and so
get rid of this bright rim (sometimes called the
"candle"); we shall thus rub away all the steel behind
it. We do this, and soon get our edge; the bright
rim has disappeared, but we have done an unwise thing
and have not ^nvcd much time, hecaus. we have begun
to make a rounded edge, which, if carried a little
further, will make the tool useless until it is reground.
There is no nelp for it, time must be spent and trouble
taken in sharpening tools; with method and care there
need be very little i^'rinding, unless tools are actually
broken.

A good way of testing the keenness of edge on a
tool is to try it on a piece of soft pine, cutting (7cross
the grain, when, if the tool is properly sharpened, a
clean cut, without any tearing of the grain, will be
the result.

Before commencing a piece of carving I should
recommend the student to spend an hour or so in
getting in order those tools likely to be required, and
unless the work is of an intricate character, a dozen or

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

eighteen will be sufficient When in use, the tools are
placed on the bench with the blades pointing towards
the worker, and owing to the slight difference in the
size and sweep of many of them, it is advisable to
know the tools by the handles, so as to be able to at
once pick up the tool required.

In case the beginner has unground tools supplied
him, and must rely on himself or the friendly aid of
a carpenter to do the grinding, the difference between
the edges of xn ordinary cutting tool, such as a chisel,
and of carvers' tools must be noted.

What might be a very good edge for ordinary joinery

would not suit the carver. Tools for carving must

aper much more gradually, so that they have a more

knl e-hke edge than a joiner's or cabinetmaker's

tools. Figs. 17 and 18 represent approximately the

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

I I

two kinds of edges, that required on carving tools
being the thinner of the two. If the tools are ground
by any one unaccustomed to the wants of the carver
this difference must be insisted on, for however keen
the actual cutting edge may be, satisfactory work can-
not be ^done unless the tools have a long-tapered edge.
It IS therefore at least as important to see that the
grinding or initial sharpening is correctly done as
the subsequent sharpening on the oilstone. Though
this, as well as the former, requires skill, there is less
risk of spoiling a tool by a novice, and if he cannot
get a carver to do what is necessary he need not hesi-
tate to do the sharpening himself. Indeed, the sooner
he learns to do so the better, as fools are constantly

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 47

requiring to be sharpened, and the practice of getting
an expert to do this whenever needed ; not always
convenient. Even if it is, it is far better that the
carver should be able to keep the tools in order for
himself. If the tools are new, even if they are said to
be sharp," it is often a tedious job to get really
satisfactory edges. A good deal of patience may be
necessary, but any trouble is justified by the result
When once the tools are right, it is a comparatively
easy matter to keep them so. To prevent misunder-
standing, It IS well that the beginner should know that
the edge should be as "sharp as a razor." An edee
that would do for even a sharp knife would not do for
carving. The tools must cut quite cleanly without
tearing or bruising the wood. The work should look
as If It had been cut, not as if it had been worried or
gnawed by rats."

K W^VJ''*''"''' ^" roughness left by grinding must
be rubbed down, and no sharp angle must be left where
the bevel and the straight part of the blade unite

Tools should be sharpened on both sides, as in Fie
i;, and not only as in Fig. 18. This especially applies

A Z \.f. '" ^°"^^' '^^ difference is hardly so
deeded. When sharpening chisels, care must be
taken to keep the bevel straight, and not to let the
edge get rounded off.

The sharpening of gouges presents greater difficulty
han in the case of flat tools, and the rule may be
ated as being that they should be ground on the out-
side and sharpened on the inside. It is, however
necessary to use the oilstone on the outside first, to
remove the roughness left from grinding, and occasion-
ally afterwards to keep the edges in condition. Great
care must be taken with gouges that the edge acros

•=!rtM

48 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

«ng or sharpening. ^""*^"

The best directions the beginner can have are that

the sharpening should be done evenly all nLJJT

edge being sharpened equally This \hhn h

what diffi.-i,U ;„ r. .• ■'^' ^"'^' '^'^hough some-

Tt one end of h ^^' '' "^''^ ^^ ^""^ ^y ^^Sln-'^S
at one end of the stone, against which a corner of the

drawn -:r'%r' ""'"^"-^ ^"^"'"^ ^he too s t i
aU he ; n?"^ •" T^"' ^" ^^^' ^^^er end, the tool being
all the time at right angles to the stone, as before stated
This applies to the outside of the troupe Th;
sharpening proper must be done on the TdT !

or this the smal- .ips alread/rrflrt^ lo"^ t.t
used. Many amateurs find a difficulty in usine these

page. In other word, toVLfn^^f °? " '""'°"'
the lool, and no, .„v '. °„ ' The ,^ "" '^"""

In the case- of or.linary cu.ling ,„ob the stone pro-

""T^^T^^^

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 49

duces a sufficiently keen edge, but not on carving
tools. They must be finished off by stropping, much
in the same way that a razor is stropped. Much has
been written at various times about preparing strops
for carvers, but they cannot do better than follow the
suggestions given.

Still, any piece of buff leather may be used It
should be prepared by rubbing in a little preparation
composed of grease and some very fine powder such
as emery flour, putty powder, the finest pumice
powder, or even dust. This latter, from its fineness,
is the best when the strop has been matured, but with
It alone some time is required to get the strop into
condition. Emery powder, even when -n its finest
form of flour, cuts away the tool rather too much if
freely used, and as a happy medium between the two
extremes there is nothing superior to jewelers' rouge
Whether this or anything else is used it is just rubbed
into the leather with a little grease of any kind At
most tool shops a "razor paste' is sold in small, col-
. lapsible tubes, and does well for the carver.

The strop must never be absent when the carver is
at work, for it is in constant requisition, and it is a bad
plan to neglect its use. The older it gets the more
•ghly ,t IS esteemed generally, and if the tools are
properly used an occasional rub with the strop will
eep (he.r edges in such condition that the oilstone
■ 111 seldom be required.

JTu "'T" ^^\'» the habit of letting the tools all
get dull and then having a general sharpening up- it

cZ7TX" ".^ '''' *''^ '^ "°* ^ ^^^^ °-' -d^he
TJ y. u^^^ " ^'^'''''' °^ ^^^P'"& his tools con-
stantly ,n the best possible condition.

Before concluding on this subject it may be well to

50 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

give the novice a reliable test by which it may be
ascertained whether the edges of the tools are
sufficiently sharp. It is very simple, and consists
merely m cutting across the grain of a piece of soft
wood, pine being generally used for the purpose. If
the tools cut the wood cleanly, leaving a smooth sur-
face, they are all right. If, however, there is any
appearance of roughness from the grain of the wood
havmg been torn through rather than cut, the edges of
the tools are not sharp enough, and the carver should
not be satisfied with them until they will stand the
above test.

It may be noted that an edge may be sharp enough
to cut a hard wood er,sily and yet not cut a soft one
clearly. Hence the lecommendation to test tools on
pine. If they cut it properly they may be used on any
knd of wood.

I do not know that I can add anything to the fore-
going in the way of sharpening the tools mentioned;
there will, however, be other cutting tools we will
meet before the volume is completed, the care and
sharpening of which wi!! be discussed when we reach
the proper place.

It will now be in order to consider the methods in
general use to hold the work in position while being
operated on. Those who cannot command a work-
room and regular bench may b- assured that excellent
work can be done on an ordinary table provided it is
substantial enough to be rigid, or can be fixed in some
way as already indicated. It can hardly be too
strongly insisted on that unless the table or' bench be
sufficiently firm to resist the thrusts against the tool
when carving, good work cannot be done. Therefore
those who have not a perfectly firm bench will do well

^^w

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 51

to confine themselves to small carving, such as can be
done without moving or shaking the bench or table.

It may be as well to say here that even a table with
a good top which one would not wish to injure, such
as a dining table, may be used by the carver.

The next important point to be considered is the
method to be adopted for holding the wood while it
IS being carved, for it must be known that both the
carver's hands are engaged with the cutting tool. It
is useless to attempt to hold the wood with one hand
and to carve with the other.

Although the wood must be rigidly held so that it
cann. t slip about on the bench top. it is also desirable
that It should be easily released and fixed in an altered
position, for it is often necessary to do so to get at
particular parts.

A good deal depends on the work itself as to what is
the most convenient way of securing it to the bench,
and it is impossible to give directions which shall
apply equally to each and evry case. The carver
must use his own discretion and consider what facilities
are available. To guide him, the following suggestions
will be sufficient. If an ordinary joiners" bench is
used. It will be provided with a bench vise, which may
be useful occasionally, but it is so rarely indispensable
to the carver that nothing more need be said about it
For flat work, i.e., incised or chip carving on
the flat, by far the most convenient appliance for
holding the wood is the "bench hold-fast," shown in
^'g- 19- It consists of a round bar of ir6n which
passes through a hole maae for the purpose in the
bench. The arm is hinged on to it and is raised
and depressed by means of a screw working on the top
of the bar, fixing the wood firmlv to the bench in the

Pig. 19.

52 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

required position. To use it, the long portion is passed
through the hole in the bench top, the panel is placed
under the end of the curved portion,
and the screw turned. To prevent
the panel being damaged by the iron,
a piece of waste wood can be in-
serted between them. The "wood
carvers' screw," shown in Fig. 20,
is another useful appliance of rec-
ognized merit for all kinds of car\'-
ing, and indispensable to the pro-
fessional carver.

It is very simple, consisting only
of a strong iron screw, which is
passed through a hole in the table,
into which it should fit somewhat
. . tightly; it is then screwed up into a

similar hole bored in the body of the

carving and secured by an iron nut

under the table which, when screwed

home, fixes it down to the table as firmly

as required; the iron may penet ate

into the wood as far as the nature of

the carving will permit, the farther the

better, as the greater hold it takes so

much the more firmness will be insured.

Great care must be taken on first bor-
ing the hole to guard against the carv-
ing and also to see that the boring is

straight.

It will often be convenient to have
a block of wood with a hole in it for ^'°" ^°-

the screw to pass through underneath the bench. This
block not only prevents the wood about the hole in

•«i.l "«!»"* "US^Bfe""-.

'^^ir-_^i.

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 53

the bench being worn away, but saves a good deal of
time and trouble otherwise.

The screw although it may be used for panel carv-
ing IS specially useful for work which cannot well be
kept in place by the "hold-fast "

Apart from the cost, the chief objection-from an
amateur s pomt of v.ew-to both hold-fast and screw is
the necessity of having a work bench or table used
exclusively for such, on account of the hole in the
top. ih.s, of course, cannot be allowed on a table
and other means must then be devised for holding the
work. That these are not altogether of a makeshift

Fio. 22.

character may be inferred from the fact of professional
carvers occasionally using them
As the protection of the table'top is often an object,

ZnAA^u l^'"^^^^' that this can be sufficiently
provided for by having what may be called a false top
The size of this piece must depend on that of the

cTrved P -i : -'^ '^ '"""^^ '^ ^ P--'. being
carved Provided it is larger, nothing more is wanted!

so that a piece of boarding i inch thick and a few

inches larger than the panel will do very well

To hold this board to the table the ordinary wooden

h^ndscrews, as m Fig. 22, may be used, and if the

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

K;Mn>ff„f>,„f'

carving is sufficiently far from the edge of the wood
they do well. The manner of its working is shown in
Fig. 23. There is, however, the objection that the

ends of the screws, being
above the table, may be in
the way of the carver. Un-

I ^ I rr* less the work is very large,

T=Y ^ small iron cramps, of which

I / there are many varieties, are

Fig. 23. preferable; one of them is

shown in Fig. 24, and it will
be seen that by having the screw downwards there
is very little projection above, and even this may be
done away with by cutting
a small space in the top
of the carving board. The
method of its application
is shown in Fig. 25. It is
seldom that one cramp
will hold this firmly, but
as they are very cheap it
is not a serious matter to
have two or three of them.
If possible, the board
should be placed at a
corner of the table, as it is
then so much easier to se-
cure it.

The work being carved
may be fastened to the
board or simply held to it
in any position that may suit the carver. In the former
case the position of the board must be altered,
and to do so is not always convenient. Which is

Fig. 24.

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 55

the better plan to pursue, the carver must decide for
himself.

If the panel is to be fixed to the board, it may be
managed by means of scre-'s or glue. The screws are
merely driven through from below the board into the
panel. This way does very well if the screw holes are
not a disfigurement, and if the panel is suflficiently
thick for the screw points to hold in it without there
being any risk of the carving
tool coming in contact with
them. If the screws are inad-
missible, glue must be used;
but if the two surfaces are di-
rectly glued together it will be
diflficult, if not impossible, to
get them apart again without
injury. The way to manage is
to glue them together with a
piece of paper between. Thus
a piece is stuck on the panel
and this is then glued to the
boards. When the work is
done, by inserting a knife blade
between the two pieces the
paper splits and they come
apart. Almost any kind of paper &.\y be used, but
none is better than newspaper. It is seldom necessary
to glue the entire surface, as a touch here and there, at
the discretion of the worker, is generally sufficient.

It may be as well to remind the beginner that it is
sometimes useful, even when the hold-fast or carvers'
screw is used, to have a piece of wood fastened on
behind the carving; for instance, when the former
might damage the carving if laid directly on its face,

Fig. 25.

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

or when the panel is so thin that the screw could not
be used with it.

.K^u*^" '^ '' '^"''■^'^ ^° ^^''^ ^^'^ carving movable on
the board, the devices that may be used are almost
endless in their modifications, and only a few can be
suggested.

Three or four screw nails may be driven into the
board, close to the edges of the panel, so as to prevent
Its movng. The heads of the nails clamp the panel
down sufficiently. This method seems more cumber-
some than it really is. for it is seldom necessary to
remove and refix more than one or two of the screws
whenever the position of the panel is altered.

A more fanciful method, and one which has some
advantages over the foregoing, is to bore a series of
holes ,n the lower board and cut pegs to fit them.
With a sufficiency of holes and a little management, it
will be found easy to fix the panel in any desired
position with four or five pegs. These should be of
sufficient stoutness to resist the thrusts of the carving
tools and must project over the board, so that the
panel is against them. A fresh hole can easily •■-
made whenever required.
A more workmanlike plan, and one that is wen

simpler than
the above, is
tohaveoneor
more wood-
en catches
shaped some-
what as Fig.
26. They can

sisp,,

P/ 86.

wood. The part cut away for the thickness of the

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 57

panel should be a trifle less than this, so that on
tightening the screw the carving is firmly held.

If loosening and tightening the screw each time the
panel has to be moved is objected to. the alternative
of having the opening deeper than the thickness of the
panel may be adopted. The panel then fits in quite
loosely, and can be easily fastened with a wedge or
two driven in above the panel. Putting in the wedge
below the panel would have the effect of tightening
up, but the panel might not lie firmly, i.^-., it might
give too much under the pressure of the tools It is
in just such instances that the discretion of the carver
will come into play. What may be the easiest and
best method in certain circumstances may be awkward
and unsatisfactory in others, and so much is this the
case that it may almost be said that an expert carver
has no hard and fast regulations for fixing work, but
varies his methods as occasion requires. All he
requires is that the work shall be held sufficiently firm
to allow of the tools being used efficiently, and that
alterations in position can be made easily and with-
out loss of time. If the learner will remember these
general principles he will be saved some perplexity in
knowing how to hold any piece of carving he may be
engaged on.

An exceedingly good device to fasten on a table or
bench IS shown in Fig. 2r. it has the advantage of
compactness and is made to use on any table without
injuring it; for this object the three rests on the table
and the top of the little movable square, C, are covered
with baize; when screwed up close to the table the
stand IS p^-rfectly secure and it is a plan which I can
recommend from my own experience; should it, how-
ever, be desirable not to go to this expense, any old

58 PRACTlC.vF. WOOD CARVING

tabic will answer th. purpose if it can be fixed so as to
be perfectly firm. , },! levice is a little costly, but is
well worth all that m..v : ■ paid for it

In addition to the abo..- tools, carvers occasionally
use one called a "r >„f t " or what the carpenter call^

Fig. 27.

an ''old hag's tooth." Fig. .8. This is a kind of plane
with a narrow, perpendicular blade. It is used for
d.ggmg or 'touting" out the wood in places where i
s to be sunk to form a ground. It is not a tool to be
recommended for the use of bcHnners -h 5 m

Uarnir^^^) ~ • . "^^r^'nUU^,, who should

learn to make suflfic.ently even backgrounds .vithout the

Flo. 38.

CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 59

aid of mrchanical contrivances. Carvers also use the
r.rier. wh.ch .s a bent file. This is useful for very
fine work u, hard wood, and also for roughly ao-
proxiniating to & / F

rounded forms
before finish-
ing with the
tools.

A fi vv join-
ers' tools are
very us( ful to
the carv< r and
should form part of h.s equ. .ment. A wide chisel

«ay al.,ut ,>^ i„, hes wide, a small ,.n "bull-nose''
piane^an. a keyhole saw will all be hdpful and save

a lot of unnecL sary la-
bor with the carving
tools, also one or two
Ftg. 29. ordinary - ivvs fo cut-

, ., _,. *'"? off and rmping

stutt. The regular carpenter, of cour e. u :!1 have al!

these tools, but as this work is prepared i ,r ail so.

ot people, many of whom mav not be . iri-nter

general instruc- ' '

tions must be |V~ S^ ^^^ — v^

given. \ V;^^r:= i^ff :^ ^
The "riflcr-' \ ^ %Zr^=r-^r .^=:^S^

or bent file is \

shown in F\

29. It is used

Fu;, 30.

for cleaning out or smoothing surfarts where the
flat tools cannot be used. These iiav be bou^h, a^ tb-
haruware store, or files may be .ottent .nd bent to
shape and then hardened again.

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

The bench hook is an indispensable article to the
wood carver whether amateur or professional, its pur-
pose being to hold the wood while the shoulders etc
are being cut. Fig. 30 shows a piece of wood marked

out ready for
shaping into
the "hook,"
the grained
portion having
to be cut away.

.cj.e., .H. o.„ 3.e, .e,„, . .c^es^iV.^

The complete hook is shown in Fi^ ,1 ^nA ;„
t s laiH ar-,,r>co ♦!, L i 7. '^ 's 3 ^ and m use

latter Jt A . I u ^"'^' '''PP'"& ^he sides of the
latter at A while the wood to be cut rests aeainst K
wh.ch receives the thrust of the saw. ^ ^'

Fig. 31.

CHAPTER II

WOODS

After tools, the materials on which to use them
stand next m importance. In the choice of these the
worker must be guided by the nature and style J
carvings he ch.efly affects; speaking generally, oak !s
the best wood for large subjects, and ebony or box!
wood for small, mmute work; but walnut, whitewood
chestnut (both horse and Spanish), mahogany and
basswood are all suited to the purpose, whife sandal-
wcod, apple, pear, holly, cypress, fig and lemon tree
bemg hard and fine grained, may all be used with good
effect, according to the style and size of the carving
and other circumstances. English oak is much to be
preferred to home-grown wood, which is of a hard and
tough nature, and liable to knots, wh.ch are a great
impediment to the carver and from which most fofeign
oak ,s comparatively free. These oaks may be known
by the close and smooth grain and somewhat gray
tinge, our wood be.ng coarser grained and of dingy
color. Oak .s especially suited to decorate work in a

^orZZ n'^"' '^^ -^'-•-^'-' P-poses and
tor imitation antique carving

nextatrnfk'f""* '"^ ""'^^^'"^ "^^ »^^ ^'^^^^d
next after oak for carvings which, though large, require

ITIT:V?''''''- ^' -^hogany the're ar ' wo
very d st.nct kinds, one of them being comparatively

Inv h '\k"T f .^^y-^'^^d or Honduras mahog-
any-the other kind ,s harder and darker and known

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

as Spanish; many of the works of the great Gibbons
are carved in this wood, though many of them are in
the softer and less durable whitewoods.

Black walnut is a wood always in favor. It is of
moderate hardness and cuts cleanly. Other walnut
wood is not so suitable, though occasionally used.

Sycamore, whitewood, holly and woods of that
nature, being white or cream colored, are only suited
to that special style of carving the beauty of which
depends on great purity of coloring — such, for instance,
as a minute basso-relievo after a picture, models of
figures in imitation of ivory, groups of birds, or delicate
foliage, such as we sometimes see exhibited in proof
of the artist's skill — but all these woods, unless pro-
tected by glass, soon lose their extreme whiteness and
with it their chief beauty; therefore they are little used,
excepting for the trifling purposes we have just
mentioned. The woods of the apple and pear trees
arc, from the hard texture and fine grain, exceedingly
pleasant to work, but their value as productive trees
renders them rare, and the occasional deep-colored
veinings sometimes interfere with the design. Box-
wood is equally hard and fiiie grained, and is far
superior in uniformity of color, which is a rich yellow.
The great bar to the free use of all these hard woods,
apart from any difficulty in carvinfj them, is the
difficulty of procuring them in pieces of any size, for
they are mostly of small growth, rarely attaining to
more than lo or 12 inches in diameter.

Ebony or black wood is very suitable for small
carvings of every description, whether for use or
ornament, the deep black color and the hardness and
fine texture of grain giving it, when polished, the
appearance of black marble. This wood is also some-

jj^^r^^v.r\:r-'m^-:['>rwiL*''T:^''mitmBS^mir^it

WOODS

what difficult to procure in large blocks, for it rarely
arrives here in logs of any size that are not more or
less riven and spoilt by cracks and flaws— "shakes,"
as they are termed in timber merchants' parlance.
There are two kinds of ebony, the green and the
black, but for carving purposes there is little or
nothing to choose between them, though the
black is capable of taking a finer polish, its only
drawback being an occasional white or red streak.
These are rare and can be easily obliterated by
applying a little ink to the spot after the carving is
finished.

Sandalwood, from the texture, beautiful color (a
rich yellow brown), and the delicious scent which is
familiar to everybody, is especially suited for small
carvings. The superabundance of oil, which emits so
delightful a fragrance, causes it also to take a beautiful
polish merely by rubbing it slightly with the hand.
The best sandalwood is brought from India and
Ceylon. It also, like ebony, is difficult to procure in
sound pieces. It is sold, as are the most valuable
woods, by weight. Small pieces are cheaper than
large ones in proportion, unless they are prepared and
squared to any given size, and then they are far more
expensive, as in the course of preparation two or three
logs may perhaps be cut up and spoilt before one can
be found without flaw, and of course this waste is taken
into account and charged for by the wood merchant.
Ebony and boxwood are sold in the same manner.
Each little piece is valued for the smell, even the
chips and sawdust being treasured by some people to
burn on the hearth to scent the room.

Ordinary woods— oak, walnut, mahogany, white-
wood, maple and others— are generally sold by

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

measur- ments and can be bought in quantities from a
timber Ticrthant, or if only a smalf piece be wanted,
from a carpenter or a cabinetmaker. The hard woods,*
if the carver live in the country, are more difficult
to procure. Occasionally a carpenter with a good
stock may be found, and he may be willing to sell
some, but this is often an expensive way; therefore
It would be wiser to buy from a regular dealer when
possible.

It is needless to say that the longer all kinds of
wood are kept before being used so much the better
seasoned they will be. We would, therefore, advise all
who can conveniently do so to lay in a stock of those
woods which they are in the habit of using. It must
however, be stored up with care, excessive heat and
all damp being avoided. If possible, saw out the piece
required a short time before the actual carving is com-
menced, as then any little defect which on first being
cut would be imperceptible will be detected. This is
a very wise p-ecaution, as nothing is more dishearten-
ing and provoking than to be obliged to cast aside
work commenced, and on which perhaps time and
labor have been expended, on account of the material
turning out worthless.

It will generally be found that wood got from a
dealer of repute is seasoned, but this is not always the
same as being dry; hence the necessity of the foreffoine
caution. ^

Pine is generally regarded as being too common for
carving purposes, but there is no -eason why it should
be altogether neglected. It is cheap and soft, so that
for the beginner it is perhaps the best wood that can
begot. If care be taken in selection, it can be got
free from knots in sufficiently large pieces. Red or

WOODS

yellow pine should be used, not spruce, which is very
knotty and unpleasant to work.

Whitewood is another good and cheap wood which
has come into co'isiderable use the last few years. It
cuts cleanly and is remarkably free from knots or flaws
of any kind. When suitably stained it is very like
walnut in appearance.

As ivory has a fascination for many amateurs, it
should be pointed out that this material is very costly,
and that the difficulty of carving it properly is so great
that It is quite unsuitable till considerable proficiency
has been acquired. Various imitations are made, but
the best of them is xylonite, which so far as appear-
ance IS concerned is not to be distinguished from the
real thing. To prevent disappointment, the variety
known as ivory grain should be got. It cuts fairly
easy, the only objection to it being that it very quickly
blunts the tools.

The following woods may be considered as having
nn intermediate place between soft and hard: syca-
more, beech and holly. They are light-colored woods,
and very useful for broad, shallow work.

Of the hard woods in common use the principal kinds
are oak, walnut, and occasionally mahogany. Of oak,
the English variety ii: by far the best for the carver',
being close in the gr in and very hard. It is beyond
all others the carver's wood, and was invariably used
by them in England during the robust period of
medic-Eval craftsmanship. It offers to the carver an
invigorating resistance to his tools, and its character
determines to a great extent that of the work put upon
It. It takes, in finishing, a very beautiful surface when
skillfully handled, and this tempts the carver to make
the most of his opportunities by ad.ipling his execution

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

to Its virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrian and
American, are often used, but they do not offer quite
the same tempting opportunity to the carver. They
are, by nature, quicker growing trees and are, con-
sequently, more open in the grain. They have tough,
sinewy fibers, alternating with softer material. They
rarely take the same degree of finish as the English
oak, but remain somewhat dull in texture. Good
pieces for carving maybe got, but they must be picked
out from a quantity of stuff. Chestnut is sometimes
used as a substitute for oak, but is better fitted for large
scaled work where fineness of detail is not of so much
importance.

Italian Walnut. This is a very fine-grained wood,
of even texture. The Italian variety is the best for
carving; it cuts with something of the firmness of
English oak and is capable of receiving even more
finish of surface in small details. It is admirably
suited for fine work in low relief. In choosing this
wood for carving, the hardest and closest in grain
should be picked, as it is by no means all of equal
quality. It should be free from sap, which may be
known by a light streak on the edges of the dark brown
wood.

European walnut has too much "figure" in the grain
to be suitable for carving. Our own walnut is best
fitted for sharply cut, shallow carving, as its fiber is
caney. If it is used, the design should be one in
which no fine modeling or detail is required, as this
wood allows of little finish to the surface.*

Mahogany, more especially the kind known as
Honduras, is very similar to our walnut in quality of
grain; it cuts in a sharp caney, manner. The "Spanish"
variety was closer in grain, but is now almost unpro-

WOODS

curable. Work carved in mahogany should, like that
in American walnut, be broad and simple in style,
without much rounded detail.

It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject of
woods beyond the few kinds mentioned. Woods
such as ebony, sandalwood, cherry, briar, box, pear-
tree, lancewood and many others are all good for the
carver, but are better fitted for special purposes and
small work. As this book is concerned more with the
art of carving than its application, it will save con-
fusion if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft
wood and good close-grained oak as representing hard
wood. It may be noted in passing that the woods of
all flowering and fruit-bearing trees are very liable to
the attack of worms and rot.

No carving, in whatever wood, should be polished.
I shall refer to this when we come to "texture and
finish."

-^"'^'^-•^"^■'""^^

CHAPTER III

SOMETHING ON THE GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER
IMPORTANT MATTERS

It Is curious to imagine what the inside of a young
enthusiast s head must be like when he makes his first
conscious step towards artistic expression. The
chaotic jumbles of half-formed ideas, whirling about
m Its recesses, produce kaleidoscopic effects, which to
h.m look l.ke the most lovely pictures. If he could
only learn to put them down! Let him but acquire the
echn.cal department of his art and what is easier than
to realize those most marvelous dreams? Later in his
progress It begins to dawn upon him that this same
technical department may not be so very obedient to
his wishes; it may have laws of its own which shall
change his fairy fancies into sober images not at all
unlike something which has often been done before by
others. But let the young soul continue to see visions;
the more the better, provided they be of the right
sort. We shall n, the meantime ask him to curb his
imagination and yield his faculties for the moment to
the apparently simple task of realizing a leaf or two
from one of the trees in his enchanted valley

With the student's kind permission we shall, while
these lessons continue, make believe that teacher and
pupil are together in a classroom, or better still, in a
country workshop, with chips flying in all directions
under busy hands.

I must tell you, then, that the first surprise which
awaits the beginner, and one which opens his eyes to

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 69

a whole series of restraints upon the freedom of his
operations, lies in the discovery that wood has a
decided grain or fiber. He will find that it sometimes
behaves m a very obstinate manner, refusing to cut
straight here, chipping off there, and altogether
seeming to take pleasure in thwarting his every effort.
liy and by he gets to know his piece of wood— where
the gram dips and where it comes up or wriggles— and
with practice he becomes its master. He finds in this
his first technical difficulty, a kind of blessing in
disguise, because it sets bounds to what would other-
wise be an infinitely vague choice of methods.

We -hall now take a piece of yellow pine, free from
knots, and planed clean all round. The size may be
about 12 inches long by 7 inches wide. We shall fix
this to the bench by means of two clamps, or one clamp
and a screwed block at opposite corners. Now we are
ready to begin work, but up to the present we have
not thought of the design we intend executing, being
so intent upon the tools and impatient for an attack
upon the silky wood with their sharp edges.

The illustration, Fig. 32, gives a clue to the sort of
design to begin with; it measures about ii inches long
by 7 inches wide, allowing a margin all round The
wood should be a little longer than the design, as the
ends get spoiled by the clamps. This little design
need not, and indeed should not, be copied Make
one for yourself entirely different, only bearing in mind
the points which are to be observed in arranging it
and which have for their object the avoidance of
difficulties likely to be too much for a first effort
Ihese points are somewhat to this effect: the design
should be of leaves, laid out flat on a background, with
no complication of perspective. They should have no

70 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

undulations of surface. That is to say. the margins of
all the features should be as nearly as possible the
ongmal surface of the wood, which may have just the
leas poss.ble b.t of finish in the manner I shall describe
later on. The articulation of the leaves and flower is
represented by simple gouge cuts. There should be
"oth.ng ,n the design requiring rounded surfaces.
The passage for tools in clearing out the ground
between the features must not be less than ^ inch;
this will allow the A inch corner grounder Vo pas

Fig. 32.

freely backwards and forwards. The ground is sup-
posed to be sunk about ^ of an inch

As you have not got your design made. I shall, for
convenience' sake explain how Fig. 32 should be
begun and finished. First having traced the full-size
design. It should be transferred to the wood by means
of a piece of blue carbon paper. Then with either the
ve.ner or V tool outline the whole of the leaves etc
about yi inch deep, keeping well on the outside of the
tlrawi.j^. ij^nore all minor detail for the present

4>i .-<;,

GIL\IN OF wool AND OTHER MATTERS 71

blocking out the design in masses. No outline need

be grooved ior the margin of the panel at present, as

It should be done with a larger tool. For this purpose

take gouge No. 6 }i inch wide (see Figs. 37 and 38),

and begin at the left-hand bottom corner of the panel',

cut a groove about ^j inch within the blue line, taking

care not to cut off parts of the leaves in the process;

begin a little above the corner at the bottom and leave

all a little below

that at the top.

The miters will

be formed later

on.

In this opeia-
tion, as in all
subsequent
ones, the grain
of the wood will
be more or less
in evidence.
You will by de-
grees g e t t o

know the piece of wood you are working upon, and
cut in such a way that yo^r tool runs wi^/i the grain
and not a^ains/ it; that is to say, you will cut as much
as possible on the up-hill direction of the fiber This
cannot always be done in deep hollows, but then you
will have had some practice before you attempt these.
Now take chisel No. 11 and with it stab into the
grooved outline, pressing the tool down perpendicularly
to what you think feels like the depth of the ground.
The mallet need not be used for this, as the wood is
soft enough to allow of the tools being pressed by the
hand alone as shown, but remember that the force

Fig. 33.

72 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVINCx

must be pro,,orti...u<l to tin,- depth dcsinvl and to the
I ecfon of the ,rain; „u.cl, less pressure . .anted ,
<in^c a tool mto the wood when its ,h\u. is „anlle
-th the ,,rain than when it lies in a crL diS „
smal tools penetrate „,ore easily than lar.^e one! .s'
a matter of course, but one must think of r! 'se th .'i^
or acc.dents happen. (See Fi,s. 33 and , ,,, ""^'
When you have been ail round the design in this
way w.th such gou.es as may be needed torthj^slow

and quick curves, get the
wood out nearly down to
the ground, Iciving a lit-
tle for finishing. Do this
with any tool 'hat fits the
spaces best; the larger the
l^etter. Cut across the
grain as much as possible,
not along it. The flat
k'ouge i\o. I will be found
useful for this purpose in
the larger spaces, and the
f'fii. 34. ^ grounders for the narrow

passages. This Ie,-iv«><j fh,.
gr«u,u, ,„ ..,„,„H s.a,e, whi.h „u,sf „e finisher ":':

f^us- ■0,11, li.anJwi.h them cut down Ihc outline as •
accuralely as possible to the depth of ,he Rroun T„d

r:r; r '• "^'^ '''"'' '"^■•'""" "-'-■ '"'^'s

bottom 1, "ih"'" ""'"•■ ? '""'•■ ""'••'"^"^ '"'^-"^ '"e

d es.'o.h "'^ K""8" ''" "•" <-nti rely adapt the,,,-

ea ■! th , , r '^'"■' "' ^""^ '""-■=• <'° "« ''""We, but

he. ^ • u '" ^^ ''""'^ ^"-.Twards with a svveeno

.he.ooKe,ther a fl,at gouge „. the corner chisel ,L:[

%^^^"

BSf^-x^yazBomi

■JSTTait

GRAIN OF WOOD AND O HER r \TTERS ,3

Now wc- have all the ..utiines ..t down to the depth

of the backjrroimd. and may proc. ed to clear ,, t the

wood hangin- abo.it between the design anc. the

ground all round it. We shall do thh with the

grounders," usiny the largest ,.ne when possible, and

only takuHi to the smallest uhcn absoluttiv nece..arv

on account of space. This done, w ■ shall nov. proceed

to finish the hollow side of .he panel and make the

nut'Ts. Ak m. take a,,. 6 go. -re and dri.e a clear

hollow touching the blue line at end of panel and reach-

i*'lG. 35.

ingthe bottom of the sinking, /, .. the act,: d ground
as finished, see .,. Fi^r. 36. To form the muer at top
of left-hand side of panel, carr> the hollow on until
the tool reaches the bottom of the hollow nmnin"
along the top; as soon as this point is gained, turn the
tool out and pitch it a little up in the wav shown at c
iMg. 36, in which the tool is shown at an angle which'
brings tne edge of the gouge exactly on the line of the
m.ter to be f rrned. Ikginuing as it does at fi, this
quick turn of the handle to the left takes out the little

m.-ji.Trs.v

%rMJLlL'

; tfi.r<d

74 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

bit of wood shown by clotted lines at b, and forms one-
half of the miter. The cross grain cut should be done
first, as in this way there is less risk of splintering
Now repeat the process on the long grain side of the
panel, and one miter is in a good way for beine
finished. ^

A word now about these sides of sunk panels
They always look better if they are hollowed with a
gouge instead of being cut square down. In the first
case they carry out the impression that the whole
thing IS cut from a solid piece of wood, whereas when
they are cut sharply down they always suggest
cab.netmaking. as if a piece had been glued on to
• form a margin.

We have now got the work L locked out and the
ground fairly level, and we are ready to da the little
carving we have allowed ourselves. Before we begin
this I shall take the opportunity of reminding you
that you must be very careful in handling vour tools-
it IS a matter of the greatest importance, if the con-
tingency of cut fingers or damaged work is to be
avoided. The left hand in carving has nearly as much
to do as the right, only in a different way. Grasp the
chisel or gouge in the left hand with the fingers some-
what e.xtended, that is, the little finger will come well
on to the blade and the thumb run up towards the top
of the handle; the wrist meanwhile resting on the
work. The right hand is used for pushing the tool
forward, and for turning it this way and that, in fact
does most of the guiding. Both hands may be de-
scribed as opposing each other in force, for the pres-
sure on the tool from the right hand should be resisted
by tie left until almost a balance is struck and just
enough force left to cut the wood gently, without

f^?a.

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 75

danger of slipping forward and damaging it or the
fingers. The tool is thus in complete command, and
the slightest change of pressure on either hand may
alter its direction or stop it altogether. Never drive a
tool forward with one hand without this counter
resistance, as there is no knowing what may happen if
it slips. Never wave tools about in the hand, and
generally reme-nber that they are dangerous imple-
ments, both
to the user
and the work.
Never put
too much
force on a
tool when in
the neighbor-
hood of a del-
icate p a s-
sage, but take
time and eat
the bit of
wood out
mouse- 1 i k e,
in small frag-
ments.

Now we

(a) SECTION or nARCIN
(^) FO^niNG MARGIN

(D) FOKMiNC ClRCkC

Fig. 36.

are ready to finish our panel. Take the grounders,
according to the size required, always using the
biggest possible. Keen the tool well pressed down,
and s/iave away the roughness of the ground, giv-
ing the tool a slight sidcway motion as well as a
forward one. Work right up to the leaves, etc.,
which, if cut deep enough, should al'ow chips to come
away freely, leaving a clear line of intersection; if it

ifa^Kisxj^-

■TSSI'SSP''

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

does not, then the upright sides must be cut down
until the ground is quite clear of chips. Grounder
tools are verj'^ prone to dig into the surface and make
work for themselves; sharp tools, practice, and a slight
sideway motion will prevent this. Tool No. 23 is use-
ful in this respect, its corners being slightly lifted
above the level of the ground as it passes along.
Corners that cannot be reached with the bent chisels
may be finished off with the corner chisel.

Now we come to the surface decorations, for the
carving in this design consists of little more. This is all
done with the gouges. Generally speaking, enter the
groove at its widest end and leave it at the narrowest,
lowering the handle of the tool gradually as you go
along, to lift the gouge out of the wood, producing the
drawing of the forms at the same time. A gouge cut
never looks so well as when done at one stroke;
patching it afterwards with amendments always pro-
duces a labored look. If this has to be done, the tool
should be passed finally over the whole groove to
remove the superfluous tool marks— a sideway gliding
motion of the edge, combined with its forward motion,
often succeeds in this operation. To form the circular
center of the flower, press down gouge No. 5 or 6
gently at first and perpendicular to the wood. When
a cut has been made all round the circle, work the
edge of the tool in it, circus-like, by turning the handle
in the fingers round and round until the edge cuts its
way down to the proper depth. (See Fig. 36, A.)

Carve the sides of the leaves where necessary with
flat gouges on the inside curves, and with chisels and
corner chisels on the outside ones. These should be
used in a sliding or knife-like fashion, and not merely
pushed forward. Finish the surface in the same

mm*

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS ^^

manner all over between the gouge grooves and the
edges of the leaves, producing a very slight bevel as

N^l

N«2 f

NO 3 i"

N»^

N^7

N? 5 \

N?fe *

I"
1

•A U VEINER

N?5 Tb

PART I NO "TOOU

I-
<
o
<

(A
uI

N? 10 "5, CHISEU

N? II 3^-

t4? 13 1^ COR^4ER

CHiseu

N?l^ W BENT
CHIS&L.

N» lb fc" ff

N* 17 4 OOU&E

Fig. 37.

iWM

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

in section a, Fig. 34, and this panel may be called
finished.

Fig. 35 is another suggestion for a design, upon
which I hope you will base one of your own as an
exercise at this stage of your progress.

The gouges, chisels and other tools referred to in
the foregoing are shown and numbered in Figs. 37 and
38. The sizes of each tool are also given, so that the
learner will have no difficulty whatever in picking out
the exact tool he may require to complete the work
as shown in Figs. 32 and 33. These two illustrations,
with the tools and their sections shown, will be of
great use to the learner in many ways

We now leave this subject and take up the question
of "chip" or "spot" carving, which I hope to be able
to explain and illustrate in such a manner as to satisfy
the learner in every particular.

"chip" or "spot" carving, and all about it

"Chip" or "spot," or "notch" carving as it is some-
times called, is by no means new as a rdcreation; no
doubt many readers are aware that highly ornamental
effects are to be got from it and that the work, though
simi)le, is extremely interesting. It is not, however,
generally known how much may be done with a
solitary tool made for the purpose. As a rule, the
learner is told to use carving tools of the ordinan-
kind. These are all very well in their way, but to use
them properly requires a bench or table of some kind
and a fair amount of practice. Even when done with
them, chip carving as compared with ordinary carving
is easy, but is simpler still when done with the tool
referred to. It is not a new one, but somehow or
other it has escaped proper recognition of its powers.

■»e^«Br"_T:.TI5t' ^ f H^ls^^U^iA Cl^eWRK

■ "t*JW . ^^K ^ ^' WrJ If ftt^

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 79

Those who have written on the subject of chip carving
have alluded to its existence, but as a rule that is all,

N4 20 i

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N» 2-*^ t

;PA06 FOiPiM
N?» 1 . 2. . 3 to II

IN THiS SH/K^t

MACCAROWl TOO".

Fio. 38.

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'J^i

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

although it is the tool for chip carving, and casv though
the work may be, a few directions will help the novice.
Perhaps it will be well to explain what chip, or notch
carving as it is often called, is as distinguished from
the ordinary kind. Briefly, it is a method of orna-
menting surfaces generally, but not rjcessarily, flat,
by cutting variously shaped notches or hollows in
them. These, being arranged in an orderly manner,
and mostly of a geometrical pattern, form the decora-
tion. The cuts, it sho^.ld be stated, are nearly always
made on the slant from opposite directions, so that the
bottom of each notch, instead of being flat, is merely

the angle
formed by
the two
sides. As we
proceed fur-
ther this will
Pig. 39. be mort easi-

ly seen; in
the meantime let the novice make with the point of a
penknife two cuts, say % inch or less apart, and of any
angle, though on the surface of one piece of wood and
sloping downwards towards each other. Whatever the
angle at which the cuts are made, thev must meet.
Now make two cuts at a similar slant of the ends of the
long one, and a rectangular notch will be the result.
This is the germ of all chip carving, the pattern
depending on the curves, size and general arrangement
of the notches.

The tool with which this carving may be done con-
sists of a hooked blade fitted in a handle, as shown in
tig. 39. the blade being about \y^ inches long. These
knives are not generally kept at tool shops, but may

'»i|

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 8i

Fig. 40.

be obtained from many dealers. In shape different
blades vary slightly, as in Fig. 40; the former, being
more rounded off and thinner towards the point, is to
be preferred to the latter.

The carver does not require to support the work on
a table or bench, though he may do so if desired.
Genera'') it is just as easy to hold the wood in one
hand aiul work the knife with the
other. Instead, therefore, of hav-
ing the work always lying flat on
the table, it can be moved about
to suit the kind of cut being
made. Herein lies the great con-
venience of the knife compared
with the ordinary carving tools.
To the majority of amateurs it
will feel more familiar in the
hand, from its resemblance to an ordinary knife.
One way of holding it is with the handle firmly
grasped in the right hand, and the first joint of the
forefinger curved over the back of the blade. This is
especially useful when the wood is being held in the
other hand, but unless the right hand is moved as the
cut proceeds, does not give much freedom of action
when the work is on a tabic. Another way of holding
it, and one by which both power and freedom of
action is gained, is to grasp the handle with all four
fingers, not resisting them in the work. The thumb
gives the necessary support to afford steadiness to the
cut, and allows of a cut of considerable length being
made. Great power may also be gained by resting
the thumb against the edge of the piece of wood being
carved, if this is not too large. The second and
third methods will be found exceedingly useful when

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

cutting curves, which are the most difficult notches
at first.

In order to make a curved notch easily, the knife
should be so held that the elbow is well away from the
carver's body, so that the full sweep can be given with
the blade.

Another method, requiring both hands, is to hold
the knife in the right and press against the back of the
blade with the left thumb. It is sometimes a relief to
have recourse to this plan, especially when cutting
straight lines, and it will be understood the work must
be on some support.

liiese are all typical methods of making the cuts;
but It must not be inferred that the knife may not be
held in any other way. Any in which the carver finds
he can get the most command over the tool will be the
right way, and after a very smaH amount of practice
no regard need be consciously paid to the way in
which the knife is held; it will be held naturally in
the best way to do the work intended.

As with other carving tools, the edge cannot be too
sharp, so that no amount of trouble should be spared
to get it into good condition and to keep it so. The
carver should always work with a strop at hand, and
give the blade a rub or two whenever its cutting
powers show the smalK t sign of giving way. An
ordinary razor strop does as well as anything, and it
will not be long before the novice discerns the
increased comfort to himself and benefit to the work
of keeping the knife well stropped. To save him
needless trouble, it may be well to say that nearly all
the cutting is done with the i^ inch or so of edge
nearest the point, .so that the chief attention should be
paid to this part. A blade with a back thick close up

,i*¥9'

'^^.^'''S'

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 83

to the point is not as easy to cut with as one which is
judiciously tapered.

With regard to the handle, all we would say about
it is that though its polished condition when new may
look very nice, the polish is rather an objection than
otherwise. A firmer grip is got on an unpolished sur-
face, and this will be found more noticeable when the
hands are moist with perspiration. Mere good looks
in this should give way to utility, and if desired the
polish can easily be removed by scraping or with
glasspaper. The novice may again he cautioned on
no account to use glasspaper on the wood to smooth
it before carving, or till the carving is finished; if he
does, it will be found that the blade gets dull "in no
time" from the small grits which hav,- worked into
the wood from the paper.

This style of carving is one of the simplest, but is by
no means of modern origin, as its development may
be traced to a source in the barbaric instinct for
decoration common to the ancient inhabitants of New
Zeiiland and other South Sea Islands. Techniciliy
and with modern tools it is a form of the art which
demands but little skill, save in the matter of precision
and patient repetition. As practiced by its savage
masters, the perfection of these two qualities elevates
their work to the dignity of a real art. It is difficult
to conceive the contradictory fact that this appar.-ntly
simple form of art was once the expo;ient of a strug-
gling desire for refinement on the part of fierce and
warlike men, and that it should, under the influence of
polite ^ society, become the all-too-easy task of
.X'sthetically minded school girls. In the hands of
those warrior artists, and with the tool« at their com-
mand, mostly fashioned from iharpen J fish bones and

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

such like rude materials, it was an art which rt-quired
the equivalent of many fine artistic (inalitit- as such
are understood b) more cultivated nations. The mar-
velous dexterity and determined purpose evinced in
the laborious decoration of canoe paddk- , ax handles,
and other weapons, is, untlersuch technical disabilities
as to tools, really very impressive. This bein}» so,
there is no inherent reason why such i rudimentary
form of the art as "chip" carving shf)iild not be
practiced in a way consistent with its triu- nature and
limitations. As its »kmental distinctions are so few
and its methods so simple, it follows that in recognizing
such limitations we shall make the most of our design.
Instead, then, of trusting to a forced variety, let us
seek for its strong point it, ,n opposite direction, and
by the monotonous repeti ion of basket-like patterns
win the not-to-be-despised praise which is due to
patience and perseverance. In this way only can such
a restricted form of artistic expression become in the
least degree interesting. The designs usually associated
with the "civilized" practice of this work are, generally
speaking, of the kind known as "geometric," that is
to say, composed of circles and stra!t,ht lines intersect-
ing each ot!u:r in com()licated pattern. Now the
"variety" obtained in this manner, as contrasted with
the dignified monotony of the savage's method, is the
note which marks a weak desire to attain great results
with little effort. The "variety" as such is wholly
mechanical; the technical difficulties, with modern
tools at command, are felt at a glance to be very
trifling; therefore such designs are quite unsuitable to
the kind of work, if human sympathies are to be
excited in a reasonable way.
An important fact in connection with this kinH of

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 85

design 15 that most of these geometric patterns are.
apart from their uncomfortable "variety," based on
too large a scale as to detail. All the laborious carv-
ing on paddles and clubs, such as may be seen in muse-
ums, is founded upon a scale of detail in which the
holes vary in size from ,V to something under ^ inch
their longest way, only in special places, such as bor-
ders, etc., attaining a larger size; such variety as the
artist has permitted himself being confined to the
occasional introduction of a subtle change in the pro-
portion of the holes, or an alternate emphasis upon
perpendicular or horizontal lines.

As a test of endurance and as an experimental effort
with carving tools, I set you this exercise. Fig. 41
you will find a pattern taken from one of those South
Sea carvings which we have been considering. Now
take one of the articles so often disfigured with child-
ish and hasty efforts to cover a surface with so-called
"art work," such as the side of a bellows or the sur-
face of a bread plate, and on it carve this pattern,
repeating the same shaped holes until you fill the
entire space. By the time you have completed it you
will begin to understand and appreciate one of the
fundamental qualities which must go towards the
making of a carver— namely, patience; and you will
have produced a thing which may give you pleasant
surprises in the unexpected but very natural admira-
tion it elicits from your friends.

Having drawn the pattern on your wood, ruling the
lines to measurement, and being careful to keep your
lines thin and clear as drawn with a somewhat hard
pencil, proceed to cut out the holes with the chisel
No. II on your list, % inch wide. It will serve the
purpose much better than the knife usually sold for

MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART

(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2)

■ 45

Ilia

Li
Hi

Ilia

u
1. ^

b£

ilM

1.8

^ ^PPUEDjyMGE

1653 Eo5l Main Street

Rochester. New rork U609 USA

(716) 482 - 0300 - Phone

(716) 288 - 5989 - Fox

.-■m-'w

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

;

this kind of work, and will be giving you useful
practice with a very necessary carving tool. The

. El>

^•^'^Sl

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 87

corner of the chisel will do most of the work, sloping
it to suit the different angles at the bottom of the
holes. Each chip should come out with a clean cut,
but to ensure this the downward cuts should be done
first, forming the raised diagonal lines.

When you have successfully performed this piece of
discipline, you may, if you care to do more of the
same kind of work, carry out a design based upon the
principles we have been discussing but introducing a
very moderate amount of
variety by using one or more
of the patterns which are
from the same dusky artists'
designs and cannot be im-
proved upon.

To satisfy the present re-
quirements of fashion, how-
ever, it is necessu.y that I
should show a number of the
prevailing styles of carving
in this kind of work, so I
offer as a start a simple de-
sign in which the notches are of a fair size and so do not
include too many small curves.

To any one who can use a pair of compasses and a
rule, or has any knowledge of geometry, the difficulty
of drawing the designs on wood will be so trifling as
not to be worth considering. As the designs I offer
show the shading, and consequently the inner or
bottom angles, and not merely the outlines on ihe
s.urface, it will be well for (he learner to know that he
need draw only the latter; the angles indicated by the
others form themselves naturally as the cuts are made.
Thus Fig. 42 represents a regular hexagon, containing

Fig. 42.

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

two triangles and a six corner star in the center as shown
in the design. The lines at the bottoms of the shaded
pockets or notches are clearly discernible, but need
not be drawn on the wood; it is merely the outline as
shown in Fig. 43. An examination of Fig. 43 will
clearly show how the various lines are set out, and,

Fig. 43.

supposing the design is now transferred to the wood
with carbon paper, fairly will represent the drawing
before carving is commenced.

In making the cuts the precise angle at which the
blade IS inclined to the wood is not of much conse-
quence, but It should be as uniform as possible The
hand will almost insensibly become accustomed to
cutting at the same slope, or so nearly the same that
the difference in depth of the same sized notches in
any piece of work is not noticeable. As far as
possible, the cuts should be made cleanly and to the
required depth at once. This, however, is often
impracticable, and it is necessary to make more than
one cut to get to the bottom. When this has to be
done, the utmost care should be taken that the second

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 89

and succeeding cuts are exactly at the same angle as
the first, for if not the notch, or rather that particular
side of it, will show a ridge wherever the cut has been
unequal, instead of being quite smooth. The irregular-
ity may be pared away afterwards, but to do this is a
waste of time and the work seldom looks so clean as
if done properly at first.
J Perhaps the novice may be inclined to think that it
would be easier to begin paring away a notch from the
center, gradually increasing the size till the outline is
reached. At first it may be so, but facility will not be
obtained in doing the work, and he should begin, as
indicated, boldly on the outline.

From the point of the knife penetrating further than
it need at the bottom of the notches, it will often be
observed that there is a kind of slight burr turned up.
This may easily be removed if the work is small and
for Close inspection, otherwise it may be disregarded.
The cuts themselves do not require any attention.

When the carving has been done, the work may be
cleaned off with glasspaper used in the ordinary way
over a cork block. It must be remembered that the
notches themselves cannot be worked on with the
paper, which only cleans up the surface of the wood.
The dust will work itself into the cuts referred to in
the previous paragraph so that they will be barely
distinguishable. To make the work as clean as
possible it should be finally brushed with a stiff brush,
and may then be regarded as complete.

As to the wood, very little need be said. At first it
is not advisable to use any hard kind, and none is more
suitable than a piece of good, sound, clean pine; it is
soft and cuts cleanly. Another good kind to begin
with is American vvhitewood, though pine is on the

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

ill

whole to be preferred. In the course of time it
assumes a pleasant, warm tone. It or any other wood
may be varnished, for French polishing is out of the
question; but it is a matter of opinion whether the
appearance is improved, as size causes the surface to
swell and roughen, and as there is i, means of rubbing
them down again it must not be used. The varnish
must be applied instc ad till it does not sink. Stains
are also objections' le for the same reason as size. If
any must be used, let them be mixed with spirits or

Fig. 44.

Fig. 45.

turps instead of water, though even then the result is
seldom pleasing, as more is absorbed by the end grain
than elsewhere, giving the work a dirty, patchy look.
A less objectionable way is to treat it with Aspinall's
or some similar enamel. Instead of painting all ovei
with one color,- the notches may be picked out with
various tints, and if these are judiciously chosen very
pleasing effects may be obtained. In the same way
bronze paints of different tints may be used, though at
some risk of the decoration tending rather to bar-
baric splendor than to artistic taste.

^^iM..

_,Vijj^yp

T« HOLS THE KNIPC

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 91

When sufficient progress
has been made to enable
it to be worked, there is
no wood better than oak.
Though hard, it is not un-
pleasant to cut if a nice
piece has been got It is
not, however, suitable for
very small work, for which
a fine, close-grained wood
should be chosen. Chip
carved oak looks remark-
ably well when darkened
either by oiling or by
fumigation, or by a com-
bination of both, and then
wax polished. Varnish
destroys its beauty and
gives it a coarse, common-
place appearance.

Some very fine effects
can be obtained by a di-
vision of the circle to the
designs shown in Fi^js, 44
and 45.

The various methods of
cutting these ornaments
with the knife shown in
;'"'gs. 39 and 40, are shown
in the illustrations given
in ViiTt 46, where the knife
IS seen at work and the
position of the hand dur-

;.,_ it. ,.. HOLD.no TMI fAHTIWC TOOU

ing the cuttmg process. pic, 46.

MAKINQ THI riMT CUT.

NOW TO HOLD THC KNIft rOR SECOND CUT

PRACTICAL VVUUD CARVING

In using this tool, first draw a few lines parallel with
the grain of the wood, following exactly one of
these lines with the parting tool, holding the tool in
the same position and exerting an equal amount of
strength throughout. When you have succeeded in
cutting a line clean, straight and uniform in width,
draw several across the grain in different directions.
The tool will meet with more resistance when cutting
across the grain, but a few trials will give confidence
and successful results. Curves should also be practiced
in this manner. First large ones, afterward the arcs
of very small circles may be attempted. Never
"wriggle" the tool in the wood.

Do not attempt to remove too much wood at a time.
Cut clean; whenever possible, with the grain. Never
break or pry off any pieces of wood. Work slowly
and carefully at first. Leave no rags, jags or frag-
ments. Clear out completely every corner. Get your
work as smooth as possible with whatever tool seems
best to use. Let every stroke of the chisel, gouge or
parting tool be made and regulated with purpose and
design.

The use of sandpaper is not recommended as the
best method of smoothing work. Sharp tools, careful
cutting, with the skill acquired from practice, will
soon render other aids unnecessary.

The wood to be carved must be smooth, close-
grained, firm, but not hard; well seasoned, not kiln
dried. Much practice renders the carver indifferent
to the hardness of the wood. But the amateur is
easily discouraged by wood that requires great strength
to cut, when a skillful use of the mallet has not been
acquired.
An ideal wood on which to chip carve is sweet gum,

«S!fe<-'^i

Trn'-m^

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 93

containing no streaks of wliite. Gum wood is beauti-
ful in grain, light brown in color. The path of the
tool through it is smooth and glossy. This wood must
be properly secured against warping when used in
cabinet work.

Sycamore is of a delicate cream tint, flecked with
brown. It has the same advantages as gum wood,
but must also be secured against warping. Black
walnut is dark brown in color, taking a beautiful finish.
Oak is very hard, and should only be used after the
beginner has had some practice upon other, woods.

Fig. 47

Whit maple is very even in grain, almost as white as
holly and as hard as oak. Poplar, pine, whitewood are
easy to work and take stain quite readily, and may be
used for small articles, but for large pieces or for
furniture woods less easily scratched should be used.
I show herewith a number of designs the learner may
try his hand upon, as they offer no particular difficulty
either of design or construction, being of the simplest
sort. In the ornament shown in Fig. 47 the whole
scheme is a semicircle, with a series of radial grooves
on its outer rim. The lines forming the boundary are

-c^■:^Jfe^■

Lime 'iP. «.if&/i?*'. '-"WPv.'

■■

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

simply Incised work, cut in the wood V-shaped, as are
also the radial lines and the inside boundary lines,
hence the fi},'ure so far is made ul simple V lines chased
in the wo6d with the V tool only. The lozenge-sha[)(cl
ornaments are marked off and left flush, and the
crescents are then worked to them, the center lines
as mark«.-d being left as a hollow ridge sunk below the
surface.

Another piece of chip carving is shown "n Fig. 4S.
In this case lines shov the raised ridge, while others

Fio. 48.

show hollow or sunk ridges. There is a depression on
the ends of the wings as deep as the sunken ridge.
The boundary lines show a raised portion of the work.
This is an extremely simple pattern.

Fig. 49 shows a circular ornament complete, made
on the same lines as Fig. 48, only more of it. The
two triangles are left flush, as shown, and are pebbled
with a punch made for the purpose.

Fig. 50 shows a corner of a picture frame or a border
for a glove box or lady's workbox; it is worked on

'^<ti^'

'^-'^'^mmM^m^

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 95

the same lines as Fig. 49, with the exception of the
pebbled or padded work, which is easily wrought and
as easily laid out.
These exarnpl* i ace presented, not because? they are

Fig. 49.

considered gc d carving or work that will likely be
called for, but becai-se they make good examples for
practice, and if spo.led do not mean much, but in
working them the operator will soon find the "use of
his hands," or, in other words, he will become accus-

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Chip carving offers an abundance of o

Pport unities to

a V

^-aluc of their own far above
n, 1 ^^^^ value commerce would tn'vH

hem. such as cuff boxes and collar boxes for hims' f
a glove and trinket box for his mofh.r u ■? !.'

Fi<;. 51.

P Jod turn and gettinn- Drirfir,> -,r.^

sv-iiiiij, jjraciice and exnerienrp Jn tu.^

manaRcmentof his tools and the me.hod' of "ork A
cont,nua.,o„of these examples will be proceeded with

jr.T.^(%^r^

GRAIN 01- WOOD AND OTHER MATTKRS „;

The ornamentation shown .a Im^j. 51 is a little more
complex than previous examples, but I do not think the
workn m will find it difficult to form or to .xecttc, as

tlie pattern is chiefly composed
of parts of circles and straight
lines. I would advise the beginner not to attempt
making his work too deep until he becomes well
accustomed to the patterns and has r good com-

FiG. 53.

mand of his tools. A low relief or a shallow pattern is
much easier to work and does not require so much
labor to execute; thouLjh, of course, it is not as effect-
ive .!■ would be a pattern work' J in deeper; never-

•'s^r'^fir^^^a

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

7^^

>N^

vW-ji^

^j^^^^^^^

VV ><

5^^C/

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^^^^

theless, work of this kind when well done has a very
pleasing effect. Another example of this kind and I
am done, as I think there r/ill be sufficient to enable

the young work-
man to both exr
ecute this work
and form his
own designs.
Fig. 52 exhibits
a couple of de-
signs suited for
Fig. 54. bordersof

boxes, sides of
tables, tabourets and similar pieces of furniture. In
almost all of the examples shown the cuts forming the
ornaments are beveled from the surface down to the
bottom of the work, so that the bottom lines are formed
by the two
sides or
slopes mak-
ing a junc-
tion at the
lowest point
of the work
where the
two sides
meet. This
is a peculiar
characteris-
tic of chip
carving.

The border shown in Fig. 53 looks complicated, but
is really very simple both to lay out and to make, and
when finished is quite striking.

Fig. 55.

':k ;

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 99

The two examples shown in Fig. 54 may be used for
corners of box lids or other similar work with good
results; the same maybe said in regard to the three-
sided ornament shown in Fig. 55,
which is well adapted for corners
of any kind. The circular, orna-
ment shown in Fig. 56 is sug-
gestive and can be made to suit
many situations.

The series of designs shown in
F'gs. 57, 58, 5Q, 60, 61, 62 and 63
may be found useful for many
purposes, and they offer sugges-
tions to the designer for other designs of a similar kind.
The borders 61, 62 and 63 will be made available for
the edges of lids, tabouret tops and like work.

In Fig. 64 I show eight simple examples of borders,
all in chip carving, that can be made to do service in
many situations. These borders are of a kind that
aie easily made and when made can readily be adapted
to a thousand and one purposes which are not
necessary to mention here.

With the six examples of finished work shown in
Fig. 65 I will close the chapter on "Chip Carving,"

Fig. 56.

Fig. 57.

but before doing so I must apologize to all my readers
for the length of time I have devoted to this subject,
as I am aware that most expert carvers look with con-
tempt on this branch of the art. My excuse, however,

100 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

for toying with this particular branch of the art so
long is, that this book is intended more for young
beginners than for the finished artist, and to these
young people chip carving has a sort of fascination,
because of its simplicity, that the more intricate work

does not possess, and offers an inducement to thein to
become carvers, an event that would not happen if
the more difficult branch was the onlv one thev could
commence with.

Of the six examples shown in Fig. 65, two of them
are circular, These should be roughed out in a lathe

GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS loi

and the renter cut out to receive a porcelain plate or
other china ornament. The jewel box may be obtained

Fig. 59.

all ready to carve from any wood turner. The plate
frame is really a picture .frame, the wooden rim being

Fig. 60.

102

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

turned with the center cut out to receive a valuable
plate or other china; the frame is then carved in any
design determined upon.

■I

Fig. 6i.

Fig. 62.

With this we leave this branch and start operations
on another and a similar oiie, namely, "Flat Carving."

CH/.PTER IV

FLAT CARVING

This Style of carving is something similar to chip
carving the only difference being that in flat carving
leaves fruit, foliaj-e and other objects, to which mav be
added lace or strap work in Celti.- style, are introduced.

This mode of carving is very . ,ch in vogue among
the Turks, the Persians and Afghans.

Fig. 6:1.

An example of Turl-ish work in this style is shown
'" t-.g. 66. This IS supposed to be the top of a
tabouret. The work is laid out i„ a similar manner to
c^iipcarvmg. the dark lines all being one uidth and
ine light portions being removed.

In this kind of work care must be taken not to have
one portion of the work deeper than another, as the

103

104 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

'■0^/<^ ""''5- '. 'v^ '. ^Sr^-^ ^ ■ ■ *•

-'Six-v-^c^r^i. ^^-/-l

Fig. 64.

"m^fM^Rym^w^\:'^

FLAT CARVING
eye will detect any inequality in tiie surface h

e raised ornaments. When finished, th

105
eneath

look as thoiitrh it had ^^rown th

e wcrk should

ere.

io6

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

A good pattern to practice on is shown in Fig. 67,
which may all be clone with the V tool and the narrow
chisel. In laying this out gn the wood the lines should
be formed with a good black pencil to the width

Fig. 66.

required. Then cut away all the black lines, the thin
lines being taken out with the V tool and the thicker
ones either with a gou.L,rc or narrow chisel.

Under this head, "flat carving" with . background
maybe considered, as the difference only consists in

■WW

FLAT CARVING

107

the fact that the groundwork is pebbled, padded or
stamped.

The three examples shown in I'igs. 68, 69 and 70
exhibit designs with simple scratched backgrounds.
This scratching is done with a tool which has a dia-
mond point, and which,
when used, is "drawn" to-
w a r d s the workman —
never pushed.

These examples will
give the young learner an
opportunity to learn to use
the left as well as the right
hand, an acquirement that
must be obtained before
the operator can become
an expert carver. The ac-
complishment is not diffi-
cult, and should be ac-
quired after a month or so
of practice. People who
are left-handed, when be-
ginning to carve, ex-
perience no difificulty
whatever when learning
the art in making use of
the right hand.

The two corner ornaments shown in Figs. 71 and 72
are very simple in outline and have punched back-
';rounds. They may be formed of thin pieces oT wood
and nailed or screwed in position where wanted. If
screwed in place the heads of the screws should be
plated or oxidized lo harnioni/e with the color of
fhe wood employed.

.-^■^■^^■M^^^^^^^^^^^^-^^^-"*^*
^

Fig. 67.

io8 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

The border Fijj. 73 is a very jjood example and one
that the learner can easily follow, as the curves, with
the exception of the little lu-aih, are of {,'ood sized
sweeps and can be easily wrought. The bottom or

Fig. 68,

background is padded with a small irregular-shaped
punch, and the work is made as irregular as can be,
but care should be taken not to have the punchings in
too close clusters; they should spread over the grounds
pretty evenly, ho far as markings are concerned. This

-jgy -'yaT.':T^:fSSP(?^^-J»IK

■<■:'•.'•• :

■Ir.'^^.^-' Vi

FL.vT CARVING

109

applies to all sorts of pacUlinj^ on backgrounds, unless
ornamented punches are used.

A simple leaf design is shown in Fig. 74, which may
all be executed in the flat with the exception of the
groove in the center
of the leaf, which
should be veined with
the V tool. The pa<l-
ding on the ground is
somewhat d i ff e r e n t
from that on some of
the previous examples,
as the closer punchings
near the base of the
leaves answer as a
shading and tend to
bring out the design in
greater apparent relief.

The design shown in
l''lf- 75 's a little more
pretentious than most
of those shown in this
chapter, and is de-
signed for a center-
piece suited to box
liub, drawer fronts,
tabourets, or any sim-
ilar work. While being
quite effective in its
own peculiar way, it
will not be found diffi-
cult to execute. The padding of the background may
be as shown, or ornamented punches may be used for
the work, according to the taste of the worker.

Fig. 69.

no PRACTICAL WOOL JARVING

'^.-M^MT^^IS^

FLAT CARVING

III

The initial letter shown in Fij;. 76 is somewhat more
elaborate than the pri-cedinj,' examples, more par-
ticularly in the paddinj,', where several kinds of punches
have been used. This trick is often resorted to in
fancy flat carvinff, and if the work is executed in oak,
walnut, teak or
other -lark wood
and then simply
oiled over with
raw linseed oil
it is very effec-
tive and rich

This is a fine exam
if made about t\

si/e as shown here

edges of the raised

veined as shown, it

comes a refined piece o

assuredly be admired.
I have before show

tions for punches and described the

manner of making them, but in or('

to give the student the widest range possible within the

Fig. 72.

i^OT

112

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

A./.' •• »•

K'i i<-z^\^ '.>\ '.•,:,':...:.

Fig. 73.

••.?•:■

^.••••..•.:n"

J^i'ir-'^l.

Fig. 74.

FLAT CARVING

limits assigned to this book I illustrate another series
of punches or stamps, most of which the learner may
be able to make himself. These are shown in Fig. "jf,
where twelve different shapes are illustrated.

Perhaps a few words regarding the use of these

Fit;. 75.

stamps may not he out of place at this juncture. It
should be horne in mind that results from the use of
these stamps are always better in hard wood than in soft
wood, owing to peculiarities of the grain. The pounil-
ing of the stamp should always be even. If hit hard
Ml some places and gentle in others, the stamping or

114

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fic. 76.

padclinj,' will show uneven on the background, moic
particularly in the softer woods. A regular and even

tap on the end of tlie pum. Ii

^^ or stamp can be given readily

▼ after a little practice. Hard

wood requires a heavier blow

J'^OE

V^ ^ >/ ^^ ^ ,„,t ^^.^^^^,^ .^,^^, j,^j^ ^^^^^ ^,

Fig.

//•

to make an impression than

•0(

be considered. It

v\-a)-:

IS a

FLAT CARVING 115

good plan to try one's hand on a piece of wood of the
sort we are workin},r before commencing to pad the
groundwork of the carving, and then the right depth of
impression may he regulated by the quality of the tap
given the punch.

Before 1 e a v i n g
this subject I deem
it necessary to sub-
mit a few elaborate
designs in this style
of carving which are
taken from existing
examples. I show
these in Figs. 78, 79
and 80, and, al-
though all classed
under the style Ja-
cobean, the exam-
ples represent three
distinct species of
decoration and may
therefore be con-
sidered separately.
Fig. 78 is in real-
ity four panels em-
bodied in one de-
sign, i.e., if each

Fig. 7S.

quarter is taken separately and repeated it will make a
distinct panel. Whilst thus differing in minoi points,
the designer intended that these panels should he used
together in the same article. This element in the
design brings out an important feature in ancient as
well as modern Jacobean, viz., general uniformity and
balance of parts, combined with pleasinj variety of

ii6

PR.^CTICAL WOOD CARVING

■

detail. It would have been easier for the designer to
have struck off one portion and to have written on the
corner, "Repeat four times," but such a multiplication
would not do for tlie author of these sketches. In

Fi^'. JS we, more-
over, find a l in-
ventional treat-
m e n t of plant
forms v.'hich has
been so much cul-
tivated since our
artist set the fash-
ion, an element
which is the dis-
tinguishing char-
acteristic of mod-
e r n Ja c o b e a n
car; Ing. It will
be seen that the
four ideas em-
bodied in this one
panel are equally
suitable for a per-
pendicular or hor-
i/OMtal p(Jsition.
In Fig. 79 we get
a more ancient
sijccimcn of carving in the same style. It is a little
study that servi's to mark the connecting link between
the Elizabethan and the later pluses of English
Renaissance. The inlluence of "strap work" originals
is most evident in h'ig. 79, anfl the design should be
useful as showing how essentially decorative such a
"motif" is when properly handled. The handsome

Fi(

FLAT CARVING

117

entablature set forth in FIlt.
So marks the period when
Jacobean was rich in char-
acteristic detail. In the cen-
ter panel, with its Tudor rose
and surroundinj,r strap work,
we arc reminded of Eliza-
beth n, while the ground-
work from which it stands
out is more Jacobean in treat-
ment. The presence of those
ever recurring enriched
bosses or pateras, the scroll
corner and egg and tongue
margin, all denote the source
of the design. In these ex-
amples the sections will be
found sufficiently indicated
to guide the carver in niakiu"-
a full-sized working drawing
from them to the desired
proportions. Of late wars
carving in relief has not been
so much cultivated as it 01 lit
to have been. To sa\
pense the decorative it

of Jacobean has been omitted,
and what was left of oh!
lines has been badly madcuip
and often dubbed "Early
English." In my opinioi,
the production of Jacobean
or Stuart work worthy of
such names is impossible

Ii8

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

1 I

without the aid of the chisel, and we are therefore glad
t" ' • able to place before our readers these carefully
c\ ted designs, showing the correct thing to cut

Fig. Si.

when they are called upon to enrich work produced
uiultn- such nomenclature.

It will be noticed that there is much "flat" or sur-
face carvin.i,^ in these examples, and thev may be easily
traced. Fi-. ;.S cff.Ts a fine example for the learner

FLAT CARVING

119

to practice on. The liti.s are easily followed and
little "roundin},' off" is reciuired.

I give three more examples of surface carving in
Fig. 81. These are Arabian carved panels, and are
very fine. They are shown here rather as e.xamples
of what can be done, than to be followed.

We now close this chapter and will take up carving
proper in the next.

CHAPTER V

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER

It will now be in order to take up work that is more
difficult and more artistic than any we have yet dealt
with, namely, rounded work and foliage.

Contour or rounding and modeling, of course cor-
respond to light and shade, but plain gouge and cavo-
cuttmg IS simple sketching. Any animal, or a human
figure, a vase, flowers or vines may be thus carved,
the only further condition being that the outlines shall
be broad and bold. Great care should be exercised
not to make too many lines, especially fine ones, and
m all cases to avoid detail and make the design as
simple as you can. When in thus outlining an animal
you have clearly indicated, with as few lines as pos-
sible, what it is meant to be. you have done enough, as
in all sketching the golden rule is to give as much
representation with as little work as possible (Fig. 82)
It may be observed that familiar and extensive
practice of the very easy gouge groove work and of
simple flat or cavo-cutting in hollows, if carried out on
a large scale, as for instance in wall and door patterns
gives the pupil far more energy and confidence and is
more conducive to free-hand carving and the sweep
cut than the usual method of devoting much time in
the beginning to chipping elaborate leaves and other
small work. Therefore it will be well for the pupil to
perfect himself in such simple groove and hollow work
This was the first step in mediaeval carving, and it

120

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 121

was the proper one for general decoration. It was in
this manner that the old carvers of England and their
masters, the Flemings, taught their pupils.

Compared with plant forms, examples of which we
will illustrate later on, the elements drawn from the
animal kingdom are few in number; his is very
probably due to the greater difficulty experienced in
adapting these forms for decorative purposes; it is

Fig. 82.

certainly not advisable to introduce the animal form
too frequently. With some nations, too, religious
difficulties stood in the way— the Mohammedan
religion forbidding the representation of any living
beings; and further, the restriction was applied to
vegetable forms, too, and this has resulted in the art
of the Mohammedan being based almost entirely upon
genmetrical principles.
It will be found that the same rules v>hich guided the

;i *

122 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

selection of plant forms apply to the selection of
animal forms, viz., (i) the ornamental possibilities of

Fig. 83.

the form, and (2) the symbolic nature of the fo ms.
These decided what particular members of either king-
dom should be used in decorative schemes principally.

dwr

ROUNDKD FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 123

Those animal forms most used in historic ornament
arc the lion, tif,'cr and |)anlher amongst the wild
animals, and the horse, ox, doj,' and ^joat amongst the
domesticated animals. The dolphin (Fig. 83) is the only
generally used representative of ocean life; but it has
been very largely used, partly because of its ornamental
possibilities and partly because of its symbolic sig-
nificance. Amongst birds the only form that has
largely entered into decorative design has been the
eagle. Olher birds have bct-n employeil, but mostly
in an auxiliary manner, chielly naturalistic, as in the
enriching of scroll ornament, in which birds, reptiles,
insects, as well as built-up artificial forms, cherubs and
similar elements, were used; but no other bird appears
to have been used as a principal ornament typical of
any artistic principle so much as the eagle.

Amongst animal forms we may class those mythical
animals which are known as dragons and griflfms (Fig.
84). Separate parts of animals, such as heads and wings,
are used as independent elements. Lions' heads and
the wings of doves, ducks, geese, as well as bats, are
used in this connection. Wings are attached to
mythical animal forms such as the dragon, also to
angels and to imps. In providing angels and cherubs
with wings, it may be n-marked that doves' and
pigeons' wings are most generally used; they are often
conventionalized and extended, but this particular
I'-rni of wing provided the general idea, whilst a bat's
\viiig forms the hiisis for the use of wings for Satanic
purpos's.

Other forms— such as that of the serpent, because,
principally, of its symbolic meaning and use, and the
shell, because of its ornamental possibilities- have
been largely used at different times. The lamb was

134 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

'1 *

>i ^i

Fig. 84.

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 125

somctim«» used in Christian ornamcnl, generally in
conjunction with the cross.

Grotesque heads ..t animals were used very largely
in buildings of the Gothic period, in addition to
^'rotes(jue human heads.

Ilutnan Ft^nms.— The representation of the human
form has, since man became sufficiently developed to
accurately portray it, been a favorite element of
decoration. It h • been used in a very larj^'e measure
as symbolical « seasons, hours and elements, as
virtues and vices, good and evil, stren{,'th and jjrace,
and many other attributes anil (lualities. both real and
abstract. The j,'ods have always been represented as
"tilorified men." and anj,'els and devils have partaken
of man's physical form.

The human form, too, has been represented very
often solely on account of its decorative value: as
beinjr the hi),'hcst possible expression of art and
beauty.

iiiere are some fine e.xamplcs in existence in Europe
and this country of chests and cabinets decorated with
human figures principally in full relief; that is. the
figures are complete in themselves.

This full use of the actual human figure is not, how-
ever, so common as the use of the conventionalized
figure; generally, this takes the shape of portions of
it, being used either separately or in conjunction with
other arbitrary and conventionalized forms, such as
occur in their use in satyrs, centaurs, Neptunes,
mermaids and sphinxes, or as grotesque masks, the
Medusa head, cherub heads, and cherubs and cupids,
and it is sometimes used to represent Death, as in the
skull and crossbones.
The use of the mask appears to have originated in

-mz^^ESL^^j

126

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

, ^1

■^'"i

' V) J

|i i

Greece, and to have been transferred for use in the
theaters. As they were used in this connection to
represent certain characters, the use of certain definite
forms of masks became attached to certain definite
characters, and gradually they became elements of
decoration and were used to represent certain artistic
principles. They were extensively used in the
Renaissance period, sometimes in conjunction with
other elements, as where the mask forms a center from
which spring flowers and fruit, and as where the mask
forms the terminal ornament of a scroll or stalk.

The mask was often employed in a grotesque form,
often being treated entirely as a caricature, leaver
being used as beard and hair, and other elements
often being employed to represent certain portions of
the face which the mask represented. These grotesque
masks were largely used by the artists of the Middle
Ages, both Gothic and Renaissance.

Enough has been said to indicate what the elements
of decoration are, and we will now give some of the
principles upon which these elements are built up into
designs suitable for wood carving purposes.

Having got a clear idea as to what elements may be
used, we are ready to build them together to form
designs for our work. We may decide to use either
geometrical forms, natural forms, artificial forms,
animals or the human figure, either separately or
combined, and the combination may consist of any of
the elements of decoration. Whatever we decide to
use will be built up or put together 10 form the design
according to the following principles:

1. Even distribution.

2. Order.

3. Balance.

■^S"^''-

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 127

4. Proportion.

5. Repetition.

6. Alt<-- ition.

7. ' ;, ■nmel! y.

8. K.T^I aliori.

9. Ninety.

10. Contrast.

11. Fitness.

12. Repose.

These are the main principles that govern the elabo-
ration of design. It should also be noted that ornament
should always be employed in such a manner as to
emphasize the member it is used to decorate; it should
never hide or destroy its outline and shape.

It should also be used with a definite regard for the
outlines of the member; that is, the boundary or
margin lines should contain the whole of the design.
There are exceptions to this rule which will be taken
into account at a later period, but it is as well to work
from this rule at the first until sufficient progress has
been made to warrant a departure from it.

Even Distribution. — This means that whatever space
we have at our disposal should be filled by the elements
we are using, duly observing a certain balance
between the elements and the groundwork. Fig. 85
gives illustrations showing good and bad methods of
distribution. In the sketch marked A it will be
noticed that a balance e.xists between the groundwork
and the design; there is not a big amount of space
followed by a close gathering or congregation of
elements. Notice, too, that the corners of the rectangle
are well and evenly filled. Sometimes it occurs that a
design is made for a rectangular shape that would
better fill a shape having a domed top margin, as

128

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

shown in the sketch marked B by the dotted lines. It
can without difficult)' be seen where the uneven dis-
tribution lies. The spaces marked X require filling:
but it should be remarked that judgment has to be
exercised in the filling; any element stuck in only for
the express purpose of filling up the space will not do.
It should be taken as a primary rule that all parts of
a design should be absolutely necessary in its building
up; all elements made use of should each fulfill a pur-

FlG. 85.

pose, having a definite reason for its use with regard
to the artistic necessities of the whole design, and not
merely because of its being required to "fill up." And
further, in a complete and well thought out design
any element which may be taken away would mar the
construction and effect of the design. A design
should be so well constructed that no portion can be
taken away without impoverishing its general con-
ception and completeness.

It is possible to fill up any unnecessary open spaces

^h.

.?^SF^M^-m:

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER ug

With elements that do not suggest that such was the
intentional object in so using them, because the design
may have, in its original conception, been deficient in
just these elements and at just that particular point,
so that their addition does not mar but actually com-
pletes the design. This does not often occur, however,
and when it does the student may consider himsell"
fortunate that such is the case. A design is at fault
respecting even distribution when it is complete so far
as the general conception and use of the elements are
concerned, that is, when the addition or subtraction of
another element would spoil its construction and effect,
and it does not then conform to the law of even distri-
bution; when, on the one hand, it is obvious that other
elements are required to fill out the spaces and that
this cannot be done without, on the other hand,
destroying the constructive value of the design.

Order.—K consideration of this principle leads us to
the r^^'-rrlusion that our designs should be well con-
side to the relations and proportions that should
exisL een their various parts; and that a certain
definite plan should be followed in the building up uf
the designs. Order should be observed both in the
selection and in the distribution of the elements.
This implies that a certain unity should exist between
all the parts of a design.

All the elements should be selected with a view to
their probable combination; and this combination of
elements should be well and carefully considered with
regard to the effect to be produced in connection with
the object the design is for. Further reference will
be made to "Order" in the next chapter.

Balance and Proportion.~T\\if=>^ principles are of the
very greatest importance. In the first place, in con-

t-:

=JS

s^L

W^t^

130

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

structing any design it should be well considered as to
the proportion that shal' exist between the various
parts of the article to be carved. It is a very com-
mon 'thing— much too con-.'on— to see the whole of
the exposed surfaces of an article carved, and that,
too often, in the most lavish manner and with not a
plain relieving surface of any description; often
enough, too, the defining edges of mouldings, which
should mean so much to the whole effect of the con-
ception, are rounded over or cut up by elements of the
design, and thus their distinctive value is destroyed
and the very reason for their existence is ignored.
There are at least two good reasons why furniture
should not be carved over its entire surface as a rule;
one is that the effect of each separate design is in
danger of being killed or destroyed by that of the
adjoining designs, and the other is that it produces a
sense of unrest and often irritation — the whole article
gives you the impression of being too "busy," too
much cut up; there is no place upon which the eye
can rest to obtain relief from the effect of the carved
work.

We do not say that objects should »e7'er be covered
with carving, because attention need only be called to
Indian and other Oriental carving to see that success
can be gained by such treatment; but it needs a very
great gift as a designer to so balance the various
designs for the different members, and to so arrange
them as regards proportion of mass and line, large and
important elements with smaller and less important,
and so forth, as to gain that repose that is necessary
to all good design ; and it does not appear that Western
artists have been as successful in this respect as the
Eastern ones.

x<OUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 131

We, generally, in thinking out any scheme of design
have some particular panel or element or feiture to
which we wish to give a special interest, and which,
therefore, requires to be so treated that more than
ordinary attention shall be dra-vn to it; and it is this,
it seems to me, that requires the use of plain mould'
ings or framework or oCher similar feature spoken of,
to so give it the necessary emphasis.

With regard to the application o{ these principles of
balance and proportion to the product ^ n of the actual
design, the same remarks substantially apply.

Regard should be had to the proportion existing
between the space to be ornamented and the elements
used, especially bearing in mind the distance from the
eye at which the ornamentation is to be placed
eventually; this consideration should enter very largely
into any scheme of decoration.

The relation that should exist between the size and
importance of the elements used in the design should
be well considered, so as to get a design that shall be
well balanced in all its parts.

A well-balanced and proportionate design should be
based upon natural laws, so that harmony of parts
results.

Repetition and Alteration. —The two principles may be
taken together; they have enough of what is common
to both to enable them to be considered together, and
there is sufficient difference between them to enable
them to be easily distinguished. Repetition consists
in the same element being used in a continuous
manner upon those members whose shape demands
such use. Instances of such a requirement occur upon
mouldings borders, narrow upright stiles, rails,
cornices, dado rails, picture mouldings, and other

^144:-:

132

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

places which will be noticed by the student when con-
sidering schemes of ornament. It occurs the i lObt
often, and its use is the more simple and unmeaning
elements, as geometrical forms and figures and natural
objects. Chip carving will readily suggest itself to
the student as affording an extensive manifestation of
the principle of repetition, in which the simplest of
all unmeaning forms are joined together to produce
the homogeneous effect intended. As we use more
developed forms — forms which have more meaning in

Repetition

Fk;. 86.

themselves, either because of their artistic capabilities
or from their symbolic meaning— we should use them
with less frequency until, when we reach the last of
the classes of elemexits, viz., the human figure, it
should be used the least of any element in this
connection.

A study of the elements emploj'ed in design and
their use throughout the historical periods of art, gives
us the key to the use of repetition and its place in
decorative design. It is that the less meaning, from

^«Sia

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 133

the points oi view of eith'jr beauty or symbolism, a
form possesses, the more legitimate is its use as a
repeated element; it not jnly does not offend our
perceptions, but it appears to be absolutely necessary
t'^ gain the jbjt'ct aimed at.

But the more meaning an element expresses, the
more should it be emphasized; anil it can only be
emr«hasized by being isolated, either by the absence of
other decoration, by being surrounded by either plain
ground, or the straight lines given by mouldings sur-
rounding, or by less developed and more unmeaning
elements.

And this means that the more beauty or symbolism
shown by an element, the less frequently should it be
employed. This question of the varying interest
possessed by various elements, and how they should
be arranged with regard to the wellbeing of the whole
design, will be further considered under the head of
Fitness.

Alteration is the alternate repetition ol .he same
element, the intervals being filled with other elements.

This is sometimes done when it is considered
necessary to use a certain element because of its
symbolic nature, which makes it appropriate to the
article to be decorated; but when such element being
repeated without other elements it would induce
monotony, or would have its full effect considerably
modified by repetition, it is in such cases introduced
at intervals only, the spaces between being filled by
elements of a lesser interest.

Symmetry. — This principle is very closely having the
leading lines upon which we build our elements, and
which form the "skeleton" of the design, equal on
both sides.

^'■-^x^,

134 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

In most desifrns it does not necessarily follow that
all the details of the design should be the same on
both sides, although that would follow if we carried
out this principle to its fullest extent. But the
principle of Variety suggests that such is not necessary.
If we apply it to the leading lines— the general
appearance only— it will be carrying the application
of the law quite as far as is necessary. This especially
applies to designs whose extent is fairly large and in
which the departure in detail from a symmetrical plan
would not be injurious to the general proportion and

Good
Radiation.

Fig. 87.

Bad

Radiation,
as shown bv
Dotted Lines A B

balance of the design, and where such departure vould
not be obtrusive in character. But it would be as well
to remark that beginners will be well advised if they
strictly adhere to the general rule of symmetry for a
considerable time, at any rate until they have made
suth progress that their artistic sense and judgment
have developed so far as to enable them to feel when
and where and to what extent the law of Variety
dictates or suggests a departure from the law of
Symmetry. Lei it be borne in mind that a very
definite and cogent reason must always exist to render

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 135

any departure from a gcncr.il principle advisable. It
should not be done for any fanciful reason; the reason
should be felt; in fact, it sh' uld follow almost as a
matter of course, from a consideration of the whole
design and the elements used.

Radiation. — This law is a very essential feature in
any system of decorative design. In most designs
points exist from which the leading lines apparently
proceed, and other subordinate points exist from
which minor elements, such as buds and flowers,
spring. These are the points of radiation.

Radiation is of three kinds:

(i) That which springs from a single point.

(2) That which springs from a vertical line.

(3) That which springs from a horizontal line.

An illustraHon of the first is a flower, such as the
daisy, in which all the petals spring or radiate from
the center. A well-formed anthemion illustrates the
second kind of radiation, and an example of the third
kind is afforded by a border consisting of a single
leaf repeated, every leaf springing from or radiating
from the lower line or margin of the border.

Many otherwise good designs are quite ruined by a
disregard of this vital principle. All good design
should have its elements radiating perfectly, in a good
curve, and with just that kind of curve which most
nearly fulfills the requirements demanded by Propor-
tion and Balance to make this curve natural, easy and
yet strong. Just what curve will meet these recjuire-
ments the student must find out by constant study,
observation and practice; by giving a certain definite
amount of time each day to drawing, the knowledge
of the conditions attending good radiation will
gradually unfold itself to the student.

rfci;a<

136 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

It IS. it may he remarked, not nccrssarv to continue
the elements .juitc up i,, tlu- point of radiaticm; a con-
siclerable distance may separate them, hut it should be
well understood that the element shoukl have its
appearinjr point so placed with relation to its K'cneral
direction and the curves of its outlines that it su^'^jests
(inile readily its source and ori^nn; and if it is joined
by a huht pencil line to its source, the line so produced
should be in exact correspondence with what we should
cxp.ct to be the case if the principle of radiation is
obs.-rved that is, it should be of a good curve and
direction, without any lameness or break in its contour;
It should be stron^r and vi^'orous, and the relation
between the curve and the weit,rht and extent of orna-
ment It has to bear should be kept well in mind.

I'^f ' 'v ^f//</ Cof,/n,s/.—Vimcty has been called "the
sal^ of lament that cures the insipidilv of repetition "
Monotony often results from the continued repetition
of any element; but if variety is introduced judiciously
with good taste, and with a sense of the fitness of
things, this monotony need never appear.

Variety can be introduced in so manv different ways
that each stage of designing can afford to the student
an interest it would not otherwise possess.

In building or planning the design it can be kept in
view by the arrangement of the leading lines, by
choosing the various elements to be used and' by
arranging them so that the necessary contrast is
obtained; and in the arrangement of the details
variety can be brought in by the use of different
elements in similar corresponding places so as to
avoid that monotony that is often induced by the too
regular occurrence of the same element. The treat-
ment it is proposed to give to the elements should also

.^■Ki^JE^AiKr/^^

ROUNDRD FORMS OR CARVING I'Rci'KR 137

be kept in mind; this has much to do in decidinj,' what
particular el' ment should be used in a given place, h
is not pKvays the she of the element that is the
important point, but its sur/tuc, whether smooth or
broken up.

Variety depends very lar^jely upon the elements
available for its full use. From a«o to age these have
varied, and the art of each period has gained or
suffered by the p ofusion or poverty that existed at
that particular tiiie. It reached its highest point in
the late Renaissance, when natural and artificial foli-
age, artificial objects, animals and the human figure
were very extravagantly employed. In chip carving,
perhaps, our use of elements is most strictly confined.
Few elements are used, and repetition has necessarily
to be very largely employed. In introducing variety
it should be the aim of the student to ilo so only when,
as already pointed out, a distinct necessity for such
use arises. If this is not kept well in view, a tendency
will arise and rapidly develop to introduce it in a very
lavish manner, and the result of this would be that
other principles would be utterly disregarded and the
design ruined. Flxercisc restraint in using your ma-
terial and remember that the success of the design
does not depend upon using one principle excessively
to the disregard of the others, and that success is much
. more likely to be gained by a due consideration of all
the principles of design and of all the requirements of
the a le to be ornamenteil.

Fitmss.~\Jndcv this head comes the consideration of
the material, the kind and quantity of the elements and
their subsequent arrangement and the style of article
to be decorated.

It will easily be understood by woodworkers in

-.-•iea*!— 5iiL.-!BfiL._. «l t^ ' W.

«38

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

gi-neral that certain kinds of wuod lend themselves
naturally to designs consistinj,' of Ing, strong;, "lumpy"
clenu-nts. Oak, ash and pine are examples; the grain
is witle anti unsuitable for fine work involving the
introduction of small elements. Oak can he obtained
of fine, clo^^e grain; but generally sp«;aking, broad
effects are more suitable to it and more easily obtained
in it than, /•..^., sycamore.

Other wooils, as, t-./^., boxwood and ebony, are,
because of tiieir si/e and texture, only suited to finer
work, and the designs suitable for working in either
of these woods should be fitted to their peculiarities ot
grain. In like manner, oil woods differ in their ability
U> give the best expression to any particular design,
and this should be well considered by the student in
evolving his designs. Wood also is weak in a direc-
tion "across the grain," and any design made should
be influenced by this consideration. With regard to
the kind and (juanlityof the elements, the selection of
these should be governed by the demands of the article
to be carved and the particular parts or members to be
ornamented.

And this applies also to the arrangement or general
plan employed in their building up. By a judicious
selection of elements and a well-judged and carefully
thought out plan, the design can be made to suit the
article so that the necessary emphasis is given to those
parts that need such attention being called to them.

Repose. — This is often sadly absent from designs.
So many are the elements introduced, and so little
care is exercised in their arrangement, that the effect
obtained is one of irritation; the whole design seems
worried to death by an attemj)! to give richness and
variety. Too much contrast is fatal to the wellbeing

ROL'XDKD FORMS OR CARVIN(, PUol'KR 139

should
Repose

of the tlesi^'ii Simplicity, not richness,
exercise the most influence with the student,
is induced by

(1) A suitable arrangement of the elements;

(2) A suitable method of treatment.

The latter is a very powerful a^'ent in Kettinfj that
rep«)se necessary.

The surface should not be cut up and scored across
by means of many gou{,'e cuts, without there beinj,' a
corres.,ot " amount of plain surface introduced in
such ma :hat it balances the many j^^ouj^fe cuts.

"' "M, i-.nooth surfaces have a very j^reat value as
decorative af,'ents, and should hv plentifully introdnc d.

We are now, having obtained some knowledge of
what elements are used in design and the principles
upon which they are arranged, in a position to build
up any design by using or arranging the elements in
accordance with the principles given.

The spaces and sizes of spaces to which design can
be applied are so varieci and numerous that it is impos-
sible, in a short series, to give examples illustrating
each and every shape possible. There is the parallef-
ogram, circle, ellipse, triangle, spandrel, column, pilas-
ter, octagon, hexagon and many other shapes both
of regular and irregular forms.

Varied though these forms and shapes are, however,
there is a similarity as regard their planning; there is
a certain principal course to adopt that is the same
throughout, varying only in the modification necessary
to adapt the general plan of the design to the
necessities of the shape.

This being so, we cannot do better thnn select the
parallelogram as the object of our present work, and
we will show how a design, or designs, should be built

140

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

up by the application of the principles described to a
rectangular shape, such as a square or an oblong,
these forms being easy of application as panels or
pilasters, bosses, etc.

It should, in the first place, be decided just what
particular kind of carving it is intended to adopt in
the scheme of decoration, because this has much to do
in deciding just how to build the design and what
elements to use in its composition.

If it is intended to execute the work in very high
relief, then the principal consideration should be that
of "mass."

The object of high relief vork is to produce deep,
black shadows, which, when contrasted with the light
reflected from the raised portions, produce a definite
effect in light and shade; and when the shadows are
well arranged, so that a good balance and a certain
specific proportion exist between them, then the work
may be considered good. It may be remarked here
that high relief should be decided upon from a con-
sideration of the above principles of balance and pro-
portion of light and shade. I am afraid it is often
introduced from a desire to "show off"— the desire to
show an admiring world how clever the artist is, both
in the design and execution. This is always bad and
should be avoided as you would avoid poison. In all
periods the degenerate in art has been and can be
identified by this tendency, and the result is extrav-
agance of ornament, both in conception and execution,
without any connection with, or consideration of, its
real decorative value.

In low relief work, on the other hand, the chief con-
sideration is that of "line"; that is to say, the decora-
tive value of the design depends upon the arrangement

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING l^ROPER 141

of the curves and principal lines. There is no attempt
to produce deep, black shado.^.-^- the whole effect is
produced by beauty of curve and the particular arrange-
ment of the outlines of the design.

Between these extremes lie many gradations, each
combining more or less the two principles of mass and
line. Most designs for ordinary amateur's work, or,
for that matter, any work, are built up upon a con-
sideration of both principles.

- -V-

dL i

/ .

• 1

-I ■ 5

v::

^T— -{—

! VX

Fig. . 87K.

The question will arise, naturally, as to what it is
that governs the use of either principle. Broadly
speaking, high relief should be used in any place
where it is obvious some ornament should be, but that
is too far removed from the eye to enable any detail
work to be seen or appreciated. It is in just such a
position as this that the broad effects of light and
shade produced by this method are most valuable.

Low relief can be used, and is the most suitable, in
places nearer to the eye, where the effect produced by
the beautiful curves, the close detail and the delicate
cutting can be most appreciated.

142

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

It can be seen that if high relief is desired, then the
design will be built up upon the arrangement of mass.
The position of the masses will be decided upon first;
then they will be joined by stalks or bands, etc., as
may be determined, and the character to be assumed
by the masses decided upon— that is, as to whether
they will be flowers, fruit or foliage, animals or birds,
or human figures. In Figs. 87}4 and 88 is shown a
square panel, and in the sketches comprising the series

Fig. 88.

are shown the various steps leading from an entirely
blank surface to the completed design.

In the first place we determine the position and
general arrangement of the masses, which in this case
consist of a central large mass surrounded by four
smaller masses.

The next step consists in joining the masses in a
decorative yet intelligent and natural manner. In
order to do this we must decide just what form and
character the masses are to partake of. It will be
obvious that the central mass should be of the greater
interest, since its position and size render it capable of

ifW'

r.iw^i'mi^swBa'jmr

TTT

■;-fci,iv-.

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 143

being invested with greater significance. This be ng
so, we can decide to make the central mass into a head,
either that of an animal, or, if we are very ambitious,
we could decide upon a human head. We will, how-
ever, not go quite so far as this just at present, and
will content ourselves with a mask. The four other
minor masses may be determined into flowers. It
will then be apparent how we can connect the various
masses together in a natural and decorative manner,
by causing the flowers to spring from the central mass
by means of stalks. These can be flanked by leaves,
or can have any suspicion of stiffness modified or
counterbalanced by the introduction of ribbon work or
strap work.

In deciding what details should be used in the com-
position of the masses, the distance of the panel from
the eye should always be kept in mind; if this be
effectually done, the mistake of putting in too much
detail will be avoided. In this connection it may be
as well to call the attention of students to the peculiar
ornament called the "mask," used byth j stone carvers
of the thirteenth century, sometimes as a hood mould;
sometimes also it .s found in corbel-tables. Seen at a
small distance, this appears to be merely a peculiarly
shaped terminal, but when placed in its proper
position, at least several feet from the eye, it assumes
the appearance of a human face, somewhat grotesque,
no doubt, but nevertheless reproducing faithfully the
lights and shadows that go towards the composition of
the face of a strongly marked individuality, as in Fig.
88. If this panel has been well designed, it should
answer to the tests which may be applied by means of
our knowledge of the principles described and set forth
previously. It should, for instance, be well and evenly

»» !i i<y '

144

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

distributed as regards the elements; it should be
symmetrical, so far as the masses are concerned,
although these masses may be differently treated in
respect of their detail, e.g., one of the four minor
masses may be a full flower, another a bud, and so
forth, always having a regard to their balance and
proportion. Likewise, these principles of balance and
proportion should be taken into account in the arrange-
ment of the strap work and ribbon work, etc., so that
all the miner parts should help to emphasize the more
important meinbcrs, rather than detract from their true
appearance and effect as masses.

All minor pats should be subordinate in character
(and this should be remembered in their treatment),
and should never be given such importance as will
cause them to obtrude themselves upon our notice to
the detriment of the more important members.

In such systematic manner should these principles
be applied to the finished. design, until the student
unconsciously begins to use them in the production of
his designs, unti' he has made their consideration a
part of his artistic self.

I should like at this stage to point out the great
importance of the due consideration of the principle
of restraint. When we have reached a certain stage in
our artistic evolution we feel ourselves apparently
capable of designing anything, even of reaching to the
heights attained by Grinling Gibbons, Michael Angelo,
or Niccola Pisano, and as a consequence we rush into
the commitment of the most absurd extravagances.
This is, no doubt, very interesting to the sociologist,
as showing how clearly and automatically even we
reflect in our actions our inner impulses; but it is quite
fatal to our ambitions to produce sound design that

^BP

\\\ ^ts.

^ i.*'fc._

-sww

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 145

will last through the succeeding centuries, as the works
of the above-mentioned artists have remained through
the intervening periods, and are still with us, undi-
minished in their excellence, undimmed in their glory
by the centuries that have passed.

A rcsumi'oi this article shows us that design should
be built up as follows:

(i) If in high relief, it should be arranged according

to mass.

(2) The elements to be used should be decided upon,
having due regard to their suitability for the purpose
intended.

(3) Plan the masses with due regard to proportion,
balance, symmetry, etc.

(4) Connect them by suitable elements into a unified
whole, applying the principle of subordination to the
minor and connecting elements.

(5) Fill in the details of the masses, having due
regard to the distance of the panel from the eye, and
the manner in wh'ch the carving will ultimately be
lighted.

We have here attempted, in a brief and concise
manner, to show how design is begun and to show in
as accurate a manner as possible how it is ultimately
built up. It would be as well for the student to now
practice upon these lines. Take a square and try to
arrange it in some other ivay than that above described.
And it would be as well here to mention what may be
termed "the personal element." This differs with
each one, and is the cause of the wide difference that
exists between our individual work. This personal
element is not made by, and is very little under the
control of, the principles spoken of in the last chapter.
It should be allowed to have comparatively free play.

146

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

so that the work produced by each student may be
stamped with that originality and individuality which
are very much lacking at the present time.

The student should now have advanced far enough,
providing practice has been obtained, to do some more
important work than we have hitherto undertaken. It
should be remembered and well borne in mind con-
tinually that it is not sufficient, by any means, to know
hoxv to do the work; it is very necessary to have
sufficient manual skill to be able to doit; and this can
only come by means of incessant practice. Without
wishing to discourage any student, it may be stated
that it is the opinion of the writer that perfect control
of the tools is obtainable only by years of practice.

The object of this lesson is to introduce a design
which presents greater difficulties than we have yet
encountered. This design, Fig. 89, possesses various
points of interest, although many of the elements used
in its composition will be familiar to those who have
closely followed this course. The particular points
of interest to which I wish to call special attention
are (i) the berries, and (2) the use of perspective.

The first-named are apt to be a stumbling-block to
many; in fact, to most beginners there is always a
difficulty in getting the berries proportionate with one
another, and as regards the general mass, and in getting
them a good "fat" shape, so that they may play their
full part in providing that amount of broken surface
essential to the wellbeing of the design.

In this design berries occur only in two places, but
they are sufficient for our purpose.

It should be noted that this class of ornament should
be sparingly used, as a rule. The object of including
berries in a design is. not to show the berries them-

'«|-^i^-:-! ./MTTl

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 147

selves, or to give utterance to the skill of the carver,
but to provide that amount of regular and organized
broken surface that the necessities of good design
demand.
This is a principle too often overlooked. The

designer should have in view the value of his scheme
of design, looked at from the standpoint of decorative
design; its value as a scheme ot decorative design
looked at as a zvhole should be more important to him
than the insertion of certain flowers, fruit or foliage as

148

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

being elements that possess in themselvts a certain
beauty or decorative value.

The disregard of this principle often results in a too

great abundance of this
class of element, be-
cause of the "effect" it
produces; notably in
cheap furniture, upon
which readers have
probably often seen V
cuts or flutings crossing
each other to produce
either an imitation of
Chippendale tracery or
an appearance of ber-
ries.

With regard to the
actual work in this
panel, which is that of
u clock door, readers
who have followed the
previous lessons will
have little difficulty in
preparing the ground-
work, by first taking the
V tool and cutting a
trench around the de-
sign to protect the cor-
ners and other delicate
parts, then setting in
and taking out the su-
perfluous wood. The ground should be about r\- to
>4 inch depth, and it should be quite smooth and
uniform; in the photo of this design the ground, it

Fig. 90.

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 149

will be noticed, is punched, but this is not necessary,
and it should be the aim of the students to get the
ground well enough done to dispense with this artificial
aid to effeci.

In "setting in" around the berries, it is better to
proceed as in Fig. 91, "setting in" along the lines a a;
this protects the berries from damage to their outlines
when taking out the ground. It should, however, be

pointed out that the tools should not be driven in too
far, else the cuts made by them show upon the ground
when we have cut the berries back to their ultimate
outline. Now cut the berries back; this can easily be
done now, and this treatment ensures a firm and clean
edge to their outline.

The next step in carving the berries is rather
important; beginners generally "set in" each separate

iiiiiita

lii

msmmm

ISO

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

borry now, and the xcsuU is that the whole mass oi
berries presents a /iaf, uniform and monotonous
appearance

The better way is to "set in" along the edge of the
calyx, marked ^^ in Fig, 91, and then model the sur-
f:i ,e of the berries as in Fig. 91, treating them as one
whole mass and giving it a section as in Fig. gi,

In this way the whole mass of the
berries partakes of the general shape
of the member or element they spring
from, and it effectually prevents them
being all in the same plane and thereby
inducing monotony. Of course, it will
be noticed that the pencil lines have
gone, and we can now redraw them,
or merely allow the tool to outline
them; the latter is better training for
the eye. In this connection it is main-
tained by some car /ers that every one
who aspires to be a credit to the pro-
fession should be able to ^pensewith
pencil lines; especially i: .lis the case
with solid work where tl original pen-
cil lines, if ever there, have all been
cut away. This may seem to be too
severe, and in many cases quite un-
necessary; but it has this great virtue, that if il is set
before the student as an ideal at which to aim, he
unconsciously strengthens his sense of proportion,
accurac of judgment of distance and curve.

It may bo pointed out here that the size of the berries
is an important consideration. They should be pro-
portionate to the size of the member they adjoin or
spring from, and ihey should never be too small; keep

Spctdc

Fig. 92.

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 151

them on the large side; if too small they appear to be
too insignificant and lose thereby in true effect.

The next step is to outline them with whatever tool
most nearly fits the curve; a "spade tool" is the best
to use for modeling berries, I'ig. 92; the particular
shape of these tools enables them to be worked into
corners an ordinary tool will not touch. The result
will appear as in Fig. 93.

Where the cuts join one another will appear tri-
angular spaces; these will be taken out and a ^mall
platform will be left; the spade tool by being tilted
will sink these triangular
platforms until all the cuts
meet at a point. It is
needless to say that clean,
accurate cutting is neces-
sary, and the tool points
or corners need to be quite
sharp and pointed. It will
be found of advantage
sometimes to have tools
ground for left and right
hand to better enable
the berries to be cut clean down to the lowest point.

The tool used to clean off the surface of the berries
should be as near the curve of the surface as it is
possible to be, so that the berries will be free from
unnecessary tool marks. It is sometimes thought
necessary to finally take a gouge, the exact curve of the
outline of the berries, and lightly "set in" around the
outline by hand; this gives a definiteness to the berries
which they often lack.

A common fault is to get the berries flat, too much
being taken off the sides, leaving th' hGrr'ms pottUed at

Fig. g3.

152

I'RACTICAL WOOD CARVING

the end , id with distinct ridges down the sides where
the two mirl meet. This can partially be avoided by
holdinj,' fh' ,- ige quite horizontal when beginning the
cut for joiiiidi. .J the berries, and then taking it slowly
over. 1 o n«;t lave the berries all one si/e; this
especi.'lK rrfer to largr clusters; it is evident that the
berries .n t; ^ ,. iter should be the largest those at Mie
sides b 1,^ th- sm?''<'r, because of the dem nd of
perspe« i ive.

This c(.v wr or. M iplc .>f perspective is in the flowers
in this p. rticu.ir design, and will now be considered.
When floAers ar* .^hown quite full face, each petal is
practically the same size, and it is treated in a similar
manner; but when they are tilted, some of the petals
are foreshortened; in fact, they all are affected by the
altered position, in proportion to the amount of tilt,
and each petal requires somewhat different individual
treatment to make it play its full and effective part in
the scheme of decoration.

As the design is sunk only }^ inch, it is obvious that
as the flowers here shown are, roughly speaking, i%
or 2 inches in diameter, and they are tilted, they would
have a portion of their width and depth lying behind
the plane of the ground as shown in Fig. 94, this hc'mg
a longitudinal section of that part of the pane and,
similarly, the front petal and part of the sid< petals
would be projecting in front of the surface of the panel.
This, of course, is an impossible way of treraing the
flowers, and so we arrange them so that it appears as
if the flower had been pressed up against the back-
ground and has its back or top petal forced f ^ward
and the front petal made to lie backwards and d(iwh-
wards, as at b, V\g. 94.
In this position we must make it appear that the

lifeMiai

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 153

flower is tilted iit an angle intended by the designer;
and it must be said that a great deal depends upon the
manner of treatment adfjpted.

It will be noticed in the photograph that the back
petals are hollowed, as |ht P*ig, 95, /?, whilst the front
petals are made /ul/ and to/oul, as at d. Fig. 05. The
side petals should iie carved s at f, Fig. 95; these
sections, it should be
borne in mind, are cross
sections at right angles
to the direjlion of the
petals. With regard uj
the centerpu ce re [re-
senting the stamens, etc.,
this should be inclined
at a suitable angle to the
plane of the ground. In
the photo it is shown
rounded; an alternative
is to hollow it, and then
sink a cut in it, as sht) vn
at c, Fig. 95. This ap-
parently throws the cen-
ter fnrther back and com-
plete th' llusion, if it
may be so termer, of
depth.

-Sometimes th* cei or .ortion of the flower is sunk
below the level of t; • ^^round, especially when the
grounti is taken t onlv }i inch or less; this is quite
lep^itimate, but ,hoi !d '^c ither sparingly adopted; it
has the best eff< t when only occasionally u -d.

It may be reniarked ' it a common error into which
beginners often fall .do certain aids to effect.

154

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

As in the case here illustrated, they are so struck by
the effect produced by a simple "trick" (it may be
truly so called) like this that they at once apply it to
every flower upon their work, and fhereby assist in the
failure of their work as a scheme of decoration.

An occasional element treated in the manner de-
scribed may be conducive to the general good, but a
whole series of elements so treated would be very much
open to question.

Most of the difficulties which are likely to be
^ , encountered by

^^ vs^fe.. the beginner

have now been
mentioned and
explained, and
the student
should be ready
for a really diffi-
cult piece of
work. This is provided by the panel, the design for
which is given in Fig. 96.

One or two new elements are introduced, the
principal being the dragon in the center. This
winged dragon is really the chief object of interest in
the panel, the other elements merely constituting a
"setting" for it; consequently it should receive a
special amount of care and attention.

It will also be noticed that the groundwork is not
punched and that it has no margin, but the ground is
taken quite to the edge of the panel. This latter fact
makes the carving stand out further than it would if it
possessed a margin, and this enhances the eftect. In
working the panel, proceed as in previous examples.
Trace the design from center or margin lines (center

Fig. 95

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 155

lines preferred) to ensure it being on the wood true
and square, then run the V tool round the elements to
relieve the pressure of the surrounding wood, then
"set in" and proceed to take out the ground. The
ground should be sunk to a depth of not more than jV
inch; % inch is sufficient, although beginners would
naturally imagine that a design containing an element
of the nature of the dragon, with its wide body and
various prominent peculiarities, should stand quite a

Pig. 96.

long way off the ground. Reference will be made to
this later.

The size of the panel, which should be in hard wood
(oak or walnut preferably), is 30 inches by 12 inches
and should be 54 inch or 3| inch in thickness. Gauge
the depth (^ inch) around the edge of the board with
cither a single prick gauge or a pencil, and proceed to
ground out as already described.

Get the ground uniformly level and as smooth as
possible; and it may be here remarked that a ground
finished off witn the carving tool and showing the
marks of the tool is of more value than a ground
leveled down with the "router" and taken absolutely

1 56

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

level and smooth. It has a greater educational value,
because of the really genuine ability it implies, and it
also, in our opinion, has a greater decorative value
because of the tool marks and the clean, crisp way in
which they are cut.

Take care that in the grounding, or rather in the pre-
liminary 'wasting away" of the wood, the quick gouge
is not taken too deeply, or the cuts will show after-
wards. It will be noticed in the panel illustrated that
this has occurred at the top about a foot from the
right-hand end. Make all cuts meet each other, and

H r

Fig. 97.

always cut ivWi the grain where possible; and where it
is necessary to cut againsjt the grain use the sweep cut
before described. In this way the carving partakes of
that shiny character of surface that has in itself the
greatest decorative value, and stamps the work as
being that of a carver who possesses more than an
elementary knowledge of the grain of wood and the
treatment that is due to it. Many a fine piece of wood
has been mutilated and utterly spoiled in the most
fearful manner by being hacked and torn with just as
fearfully blunt tools against the grain and across it,
and in any way but the right way.

ri^^s*^ii

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 157

All these remarks apply particularly to modeling.
Let the tool be perfectly sharp, so that it can have a
chance to show what it can do; don't be afraid to use
the strop from time to time, and whenever a tool
shows the least sign of dullness or has the tiniest
"gap" in it, attend to it at once.

All cuts, especially the finishing cuts, should be
clean, smooth and crisp. In modeling this design, it
may be as well for the student to turn and read again
the remarks given on the necessity for a due arrange-
ment of mass, how some parts, the least important,
should be subordinated to others, the most important;
some parts should be sunk to the ground or there-
abouts, while others should be kept raised the full
height. In so arranging the masses, always do so from
the collective standpoint of the welfare of the whole
design, so that all the parts shall be in harmony and
that one part shall not be given unduly prominent
effect at the obvious expense of another equally
important part. One tendency observable in the
evolution of the beginner is that of wishing to give
undue prominence to one particular portion of the
carving because of its great beauty, irsespective of any
possibility of thereby destroying the harmony of the
whole by so doing. E.xercise restraint in treating any
design, but especially do so when treating a design
that has any element or element-s that border upon the
ornate and extravagr.nt.

In this design the stalks can be kept low, swelling
out in height as they swell out in width; the flower and
the scroll at the right-hand end, the flower with the
berries or seeds, and the one large leaf on the left end
of the panel may be left full height; the other
members lowered to whatever depth may seem best to

158

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

the student, always keeping in mind the unity and
harmony of the whole design. With regard to the
treatment of the individual members themselves, after
they have been taken to their respective levels, the law
of variety, as applied to length and breadth and sur-
face, should be applied. Siak one side of a leaf, as,
e.g., the leaf at the left lower corner of the design.
This leaf is lowered at its top edge and kept raised at
its lower edge, as a leaf, turning in the manner it
does, naturally would appear. Other leaves should
be twisted by being lowered at opposite corners before
the surface by the ultimate and finishing cuts that give
the leaf its final shape.

All cuts should have a definite relationship to the
cun'c of the member or group of members, so that it
emphasizes the curves. A careless cut, here and there,
can very easily entirely spoil the character of the
member; and often by so doing to one member can
spoil the effect of the whole carving.

Notice in this panel how the ridges enable the eye
to follow the curve; how the tool marks even act in a
similar manner; how they all lead the eye in the
direction the designer intended they should lead it;
how beginning at the sources of the elements the eye
is easily carried to the most ultimate point of each leaf
and flower; and how, vice versa, beginning at the points
or endings of the members, the eye is carried easily
aiid obviously to the source of them all without break,
without distraction, and therefore without annoyance.
It is being able to do this that gives pleasure, that
makes one feel that all the possibilities of the design
have been realized, that the carver's powers of execu-
tion have been equal to his powers of conception.

In carving the berries, follow the instructions given,

i.-'i;ss*r^i?»-fPiE;5r;^'

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 159

and give special attention to the oiitiine of the berries
and the crevices between them.

With regard to the dragon, the photograph, Fig. 97,
shows the method of treatment. It is, of course, quite
an imaginative creation. No "dragon" as depicted in
this design was ever in existence, but although
imaginative in its present form, it is really based upon
a combination of natural animal forms.

The griflRn, an imaginative creature in use as an
element of design from the earliest times, is the chief
repres.entative of this kind of ornament. It is a com-
bination of the lion and the eagle, having a lion's body
and the head and wings of the eagle. Sometimes we
find the fore part of the griffin possessed of an eagle's
legs and feet, the hind quarters being those of the lion.
As men, in their eternal search after the new and
strange, the novel and the original, became tired of
existing elements and were limited in choice of entirely
new objects (either natural or artificial) from which to
draw new inspiration, they turned their attention to
existing elements, and by a process of pulling to pieces
and subsequent building up they produced the wonder-
fully varied grotesque forms found in Pompeian and
Roman ornament; and subsequently in the Renaissance
these forms were appropriated and developed The
present dragon possesses a head that migh. be a
development of either an eagle or a lion; an eagle's
wings, no feet or legs, and a fish's tail. The body is
scaled, the scales extending each in the form of an
entire ring around the neck and body. These scales
may be cut up into smaller scales, as in Fig. 96, if
thought necessary. It will be observed that the artificial
leaf, which has been a feature of the designs used in
this series, enters largely into the composition of the

i6o PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

dragon. Its breast is covered with these leaves

of thrbird'^th ""^ '''':'' ^°'"^''^"* ^''^ '^^ -""e
of the bird; they form .ts beard, also its ears and

e.r .nfluence is observable in the treatmen of the

that" „,Y V ''"'' '° '^" ^'"^'' '■' "'■" ^' ^''^^^^'^
ha naturalness, grace and lightness characterize both

the. concept.on and treatment. Often these wings
are too wooden" and stiff, unnatural and ungracefu
m both respects. Keep the feathers of varyinTnl
and w.dths. although it maybe pointed out^thaMhi
should not be overdone-there is a hapny mean tha
should be sought for.

The use of tool marks is evident here; if the seoa
rate feathers are cleaned off quite smoothly al the
edges cut neatly and so on, then it will be evidln
that the workman who carved the wing was able to
-t well and accurately; but it will not be evident thl'
the wmg has any suspicion of life beyond tha su^
gested by its particular shape ^"

is™;;;^^'-''" '""'^"^ and accurate cutting
s necessary, that inner perception of the true aim of
the designer, wh.ch alone enables the worker to Jive a
worthy interpretation of the design, is essent al tn.U
good work; and this inner perce'ption can b^g Ld

m'^^anTn^. A?'' ''"' ^^"'^■' '^>' ^^^'"^ '^ ^athom'he
meaning of the great works handed down to u. from
early times, and which are preserved in our mn
anrl nr«- r^-,ii« • . H'cacrvea in our museums

and ar galleries; and works, too, of recent years
should be studied, so that by a process ofcZl
thp BtiiH«r,* I ".y rt process ot comparison

he student can learn the lessons to be drawn from
these works. "'awu irom

thil d'estnl?'."^ instructions app.y to the treatment of

h. design If sunk only to the depth of ^ inch But

•f .t IS desired to use the panel in a position that is a

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER i6i

good distance from the eye, then the depth could be
much greater, so that the consideration of mass, which
is essential in such a case, shall receive the proper
emphasis.

In this event, the principal attention should be given
to the proportion of the masses, rather than to detail;
in fact, too much attention to detail is quite un-
necessary and would simply be labor thrown away.

At a distance all that is perceived of the design is
mass- and curve. Get the masses in proper proportion,
so that a good balance exists between all parts, and
pay attention to the cutting of the curves, and the
design will be a success. Get this well grasped first,
and let the details alone. The treatment of the indi-
vidual parts will be as before described, but the
differences in height and depth will be magnified. The
cutting should be clean, strong and bold.

We now come to the consideration of the building
up of a design, which is based upon the principle of
''line.'' Perhaps it would be as well to point out that
it is, in reality, almost impossible to separate mass
from line. In nearly all really satisfactory designs
both have to be considered to a greater or less extent.
But it is evident that in originating any design it is
attacked from either one or the other point of view-
that of mass or line— and it should be well evident in
the completed design from which point cf view the
artist started. If from that of mass, then the consider-
ation of line has been, and should easily be seen to be,
an auxiliary, a subordinate consideration. If from the
point of view of lines, the opposite, of course, is the
case. Surface carvings and all carvings in low relief
should be considered from this point of view, that of
"line." All these carvings are to be used in such a

titiiiMftiiiiii'mi fatiSiii''"

mmt

162

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

position that they are always comparatively close to
the eye, and therefore details can be easily seen and
appreciated— details such as clearness and sharpness of
outline, beauty of curve, arrangement of small fruit,
flowers and buds. It is not necessary to have any
great effect of light and shade, as in the case of
designs regulated by mass. Continuity and beauty of
line and curve are the principal consideration.

It will then be evident that the designer should
arrange the direction and distribution of the lines in
the first place. If any mass is introduced afterwards,
its size and position and character will be determined.

■Showing th« Formation or a DtiiisK.
Fig. 98.

necessarily, by the general arrangement of the lines of
the design. In this case they will be subordinate to
the "line" idea, as the latter was subordinate to the
idea of mass in our first example, described in the last
chapter.

The space at our disposal, then, is planned out by
the use of what may be termed "leading" •■ principal
lines. These lines determine the whole < laracter of
the :'.jsign. They may be always visible, or may be
quite obliterated by being covered with ornament; but
they are always obvious, and form, as it were, the
skeleton of the design. It is, therefore, of very great

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 163

importance that the "leading" lines should be planned
and arranged with great judgment ami care; judicious
and careful thought should be expended upon their
arrangement, so that the ultimate design built upon
them shall be strong, vigorous and graceful. Figs. 98

NO. I.

Fig. 99.

Xo 4-

and 99 give a series of illustrations showing the method
of filling in and arranging the "leading" lines. It will
be evident that their arrangement depends upon the
ultimate position of the panel; as to whether they
shall proceed from the side, or a corner, or an end, or

^^^^jy^TSBB

^SP

,64 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

the middle; also, whether they shall partake of a
radiating nature, or a horizontal, or a vertical posat.on
and. of course, much depends uiK>n the style we choose
from which to take our elements and our msp.ratton^
It can be said that designing from a consideration of
"line" limits us more as regards the arrangement of
the elements than designing from a consideration qf
-mass " We do not know what will be the size, or
shape.' or character of our masses until we have
arranged the "leading" lines.

In practice it will be found, as has already been
suggested, that unless we confine ourselves to designs
of the nature of Celtic, in which the ;n././ is entirely
that of line, it will be impossible to arrange our leading
lines without some consideration, however vague, of
mass. Our modern designs are based very largely upon
natural forms, and in nature the two ideas of mass
and "line" are always found together; any design,
therefore, which is true to nature should take into
account both idea. It should, however, be evident
as we have already said, from which Pos-Uon the
design was conceived and thought out. Therefore,
although we must consider to some extent what masses
II intend using-their size and character-the design
in this case must be approached from the point of view
of arrangement of leading lines.

In planning the panel, its ultimate position will
decide the character of the planning. We will con-
sider that it is to be used as an independent panel,
that is, it does not share with other panels or members
in the entire scheme, but is the entire schenrie in itse .
We can then treat it in various ways In the first
place, we can arrange the leading lines over the
whole of the space without reference to any cen-

E:7S£mm-wm<\''^^i^^'*.ML,^

ROUisDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 165

ter line or lines, as shown in the first set of sketches
in Fig. 98.

In this case, care should be exercised in arranging
the lines, because of the absence of an obviously
symmetrical arrangement, and the tendency which
naturally would follow this of falling into an arrange-
ment that is deficient in order, and the difficulty of
fretting the design well balanced and well propor-
tioned. It may be noted that designs built upon this
arrangement are
more suited to
schemes which
necessitate the
panels being
pairs, and in
which, there-
fore, an equal
balance can be
maintained
more naturally
and easily. This
a r r a n ^^ e ni c n t
can be used as
a single panel,
without another

with the same design reversed, when it is, for example,
used as an end door of a sideboard, as in sketch, Fig.
100. In this case the drawers help, in a partial manner,
to form the necessary balance required; it is more suit-
able used in this way than as a single panel forming a
complete, scheme. Take precautions to ensure the
proper filling out of the corners in accordance with
the principle of even disti-ibution. It will be noticed
throughout these sketches that both mass and line have

Fig. 100.

1 iA;.,.i"i

-. .;*.?r;S.

rsRVSik^i'iis^t'ii.

i66

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

been considered in planning; but it will also be noticed
that line has Ijeen the chief consideration, and is well
evident even in the finished sketi h.

In the second set of sketches, Fijf. r th«' arrange-
ment is that ot a desif/n ouilt upon two central lines,
one horizontal, one vertical; in this, as is obvious, the
whole of the design is contained in one quarter,
being repeated and reversed to make the full design.

Although this arrangement may appear to be com-
paratively easy, because of the smaller space, and
consequently fewer el< ments and a corresponding
simplicity of plan, yet it is, perhaps, mor>- difficult
than the two preceding methods; at any rate, it is
more difficult than the third method. This is so
because ol the fact that in arranging and considering
only a quarter of the design, the appearance of the
plan as a whole is not at once ai)parent, and it some-
times happens that what app-ared to be suitable in the
quarter drsign, is ill-balanced and badly arranged
when the quarters are joined into the complete whole.
It is, therefore, a better plan to consider the whole
space rather than a quarter of it, and fill in, roughly
perhaps, the leading lines in all four portions. This
method will at least ensure their symmetrical and
proportionate arrangement, and this is the principal
consideration; the details can be filled in pretty easily.

Let me here emphasize the necessity of building
designs upon a certain definite, organized plan; a plan
which is strong, without being clumsy; vigorous with-
out being ungraceful. To do this think out the lead-
ing lines with care; take time to consider their arrange-
ment; do not unduly hurry that part of the process,
and spend all the time in filling in detail work; a good,
well arranged set of leading lines is much more

ROUNDED FO. MS < )R CARVIN(i PROl'Kk iS;

important than the most < xquisitc detail that could br
introduced.

It should be particularly noted that the siudeu.' must
familiarize lijniself with the leading principles trcnt'd
of in prcx ious parts especially (I -se of Kvcn Distribu-
tion, Urtl r and Symmetry The consideration of
these is especiallv applicabl.- {<■, the arrauL'inc o'f the
It. ading lines.

When these are salisfartorily plan led, and the
m.isscb suitably placet! and decided upon, the U'tail
can be filled iu and its t-rneral disposal arran^^c-d.

F r alfhoUfrh wc ppt in the leading .ine^ first, yet
w^ h.4V; I hI sou j id.:., as to what the detail would be
like, and ,"s to wh-n it should be placed, and how; as,
for instani . some of the lines w have inunded to
indicate the ultimate position of stalks, other lines the
place of folia^if and so forth. A certain general idea
should be conceivol as to what the full design should
bebei.re it i planned on pap.-r. If this is not so,
the desijrnwili in all probability be p. ' ..-chan-
ical. 'r must be pointed out that all . : .angements
described in articles as to how to make designs, and
all methods formulated, are aids only; (he student
must dev loj) his own powers of conception by obser-
vation, practice and experiments; these rules and
principles here laid down and described are for his
guidance only; they show the manner of any experi-
ment, the way to practice, and to mould his concep-
tions, so that they may be in accordance with the
governing principles of design, and thereby express
them in the best manner.

The mode of procedure with regard to the arrange-
ment of "line" designs, is somewhat similar to that of
"mass." It can be summed up as follows:

tAmstii^

i68

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

1. Decide upon the style and the elements to be
adopted and used, havinjj regard to the requirements
of the space to be ornamented.

2. Decide upon the general arrangement of the
design, such as whether it is to be a whole design or
arranged upon a central line or lines,

3. Plan the space by means of leading lines,
arranged upon a symmetrical and proportionate basis,
and arrange what masses are to be used.

4. Build upon these leading lines the foliage and
fruit or other elements decided upon. These lines
may be entirely covered, but their existence will be
evident, and should be, to save the design from appear-
ing to be built u^on an unarranged and indefinite plan.

Here we offer various designs the intention of which
is to show how the prmciples of design may be applied.
It may be said at once that there is no rigid, unalter-
able rule about the application of these principles. If
that were so. all designs would bear a certain similarity
that would indicate lack of originality. Originality
or freshness of conception is only kept alive by inter-
preting the meaning and message of the elements from
a separate individual standpoint. To do this suc-
cessfully, we must not be bound too much by hard
and fast rules.

It must be understood, then, that whilst the observ-
ance of these principles is essential to the production
of good design, yet in their observance sufficient
latitude is allowed for any number of designers to place
their separate interpretation upon the elements and
their arrangements to ensure designs that are quite
different in meaning, character and treatment,
although based upon the same mod/and governed by
the same principles.

-vsrrrrss'mrTrm

■9

mm..

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 169

A few words as to the choice of elements may be
given here. As we have seen in previous pages, the
elements are grouped under six heads; and as under
each head we can find many varying forms, it would
seem a rather difficult task to exercise a choice that
would prove satisfactory. Personally, I have always
found artificial foliage and forms to be the easiest
elements to use in forming designs; there is a direct-
ness about them, an appearance that suggests the
"manufactured article," that makes them easier to put
into shape for wood carving purposes than using purely
natural forms. The explanation is that these artificial
forms have undergone a process of conventionalization
at the hands of other artists, and have been handed
down to us quite ready for immediate use. But this
is scarcely satisfactory to those whose ambitions soar
high, as should the ambitions of all designers. It
would seem to be much more creditable to take our
elements direct from nature, put our own construction
upon them by altering them for use in accordance with
our own artistic ideas and then build them up into
designs.

This procedure would, therefore, exclude from our
use artificial objects and foliage; and as animals and
the human figure should be only sparingly used, the
chief mass of elements would be drawn, therefore,
from natural foliage and geometrical forms.

In drawing upon natural forms it is advisable to
choose large fruit, such as applc-s, pears, oranges,
lemons and pomegranates; small fruit, such as black-
btiries, mountain ash, corn, etc., is extremely difficult
of expression in wood. Likewise, the larger flowers,
or rather those with suitable petals, such as the rose,
lily, daffodil, primrose, tulip— to mention a few — are

r^IP'WB'^^rff^i^^

170

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

more suitable for carving in wood than those with
smaller or a more complex arrangement of petals.
Remember that quite as truly great effects are obtained
by the use of simple forms as by the introduction of
very highly cultured and complex elements.

With regard to leaves, choose those whose shape
and size will most readily lend themselves to the
expression in wood of some principle of strength, or
vigoi", grace, or delicacy.

What is required is to take what appears to be the
principal characteristic of the leaf, flower or fruit,
and emphasize it by making it conform with our ideas
of the principles of regularity, symmetry, rhythm and
order.

Thus the thistle would be used to give expression
to vigor, ruggedness and severity. The acanthus has
been employed in all ages in giving expression to
ideas of beauty, proportion and grace. The straight
stalk, full sturdy flower and short twisting leaf of the
tulip suggest strength and self-reliance. The oak,
again, is expressive of strength, and can be used as its
indicating symbol.

Certain foliage has been associated with particular
ideas, and has been adopted because it visibly repre-
sents these ideas. Such symbolism has provided a
fruitful source of supply for designing purposes.

The olive, for instance, is the symbol of peace, and
is often used in the form of wreaths. The laurel has
been used as the symbol both of atonement and of
glory; the vine, too, will readily occur as being used
for symbolical reasons. The Egyptians used the lotus
as the symbol of immortality. Ivy, again, is used as
being symbolical of friendship.

Throughout the choice of all elements, the absolute

■\iii^, sxi,fK.^^ii' y^^'r:i:?r?f:^ui*^s;:sjsa^i^ii'aisiiasx,ma^-M.. famoiBamaaaBsidffiiss^i^si^sfsmmsBwxtsu^

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 171

suitability of the particular element cliosen for expression
in wood should be the designer's first care. It is of
no use employing elements in building up designs
that are not capable of being expressed by tJu cut oftlie tool,
or that have no relation to it. Take a gouge and with
it make a single cut in a piece of wood, then make a
series of such cuts, employing tools of varying shapes
and sizes, and make them an object of study. If an
intelligent use be made of the results of such study,
the designer will be able to use elements and make
designs that have a distinct and definite relation to
these cuts.

Some designs are conceived which are much more
suitable for expression in other material than wood,
and to secure the desired result the tools have to
execute, literally, a series of very surprising gym-
nastics, so unsuited is the design to the wood.

One point which beginners in design should particu-
larly note is that the principles of strength and vigor
should be well in evidence. These principles are well
marked in Egyptian ornament, so much so that they
give to the whole ornament of this style a severity
that is very characteristic. Gothic ornament may also
be instanced as giving full expression to these
principles or ideas; and the student is advised to
study, wherever possible, any work of these periods he
may happen to come across, either actual examples,
or drawings, or photograph; and if the study is carried
out intelligently, he will begin to understand and
appreciate to its full extent the reason that exists for
strength and vigor being considered as primary
necessities.

It may be asked what is meant when we speak of
these principles. They really mean this, that designs

172 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

should be built or constructed upon somewhat similar
lines or principles to those employed in the construc-
tion of buildings. The arrangement of the design
should be such that the whole of the parts of which it
is built should appear to be upholding one another
and should suggest a feeling of there being in the
arrangement a reserve of strength. The main lines,
for instance, should be capable of sustaining the weight
of any element, or group of elements, that may be
built upon them. All stalks should have a free, natural
curve that would suggest a capacity for holding with-
out any undue strain the fruit or flower they carry.
The fruit and flowers should be arranged so that they
do not violate any natural instinct, so that they appear
to be easily carried by the stalk.

In the construction of furniture it is a primary
principle that all weight and strain should be conducted
to a limited number of points arranged at suitable
places, so that the weights and strains should, as far
as possible, counteract one another and so assist in
strengthening the whole construction. In similar
manner should designs be arranged, so that the ele-
ments, or groups of elements, used may be so placed
that their weight appears to be easily carried by the
elements used as their supports.

In the designs illustrated. Fig. loi shows a design
intended as a panel for a small pulpit. It is based
upon the oak, and shows both the leaves and acorns;
it IS not intended to have much surface work in model-
ing the leaves, the elements or individual parts being
enough cut up by the broken outline; this makes it
possible to treat the surface quite simply. This may
be taken note of, that if the outline of any member be
much indented or broken, as in this example, the sur-

^l^>SFS

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 173

face work may be quite slight and can present a fairly
smooth surface. If, on Ihe other hand, the outline is
fairly continuous, as in most parts of Fig. 103, then the

Pio. 101.

MMMifHtii

-"^'^■^

174

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

surface may be cut up in inverse ratio; this, be it un-
derstood, is a general rule only and is not invariably
applicable to all cases.

Fig 102 shows a design based on the tulip, arranged
somewhat in modern style. It suggests how an
irregularly shaped space may be filled. In this case
the shape of the space partly suggests the general
arrangement of the design. Many designs of this kind
are s . grotesquely arranged as to be quite devoid of

Fig. I02.

strength. This is so with many designs sent over
from Europe, the sole aim of which appears to have
been to introduce as many fantastic and grotesque
curves and corners in the design as possible.
Restraint has been insisted upon in previous chapters,
but it may again be referred to here as being abso-
lutely necessary to good design. Without its influence
our work can easily degenerate into mere extravagant
absurdity.

wss^s^sa

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 175

Fig, 103 shows an arrangement of shamrock leaves,
used partly because of their natural beauty and partly
because of their national significance. The arrange-
ment of the stalks may
be pointed out in this
design. They are all
there for a definite pur-
pose, and not one is
introduced without ful-
filling some useful end.
It is sometimes a great
temptation to the be-
ginner to fill up a space
with an element that
does not bear a reason-
able relation to the rest
of the design. It is
merely used to "fill
up." This should be
guarded against.

Fig. 104 gives a pho-
tograph of a design
which has been carved.
The reason it is given
is to point out two de-
fects which should be
avoided.

The first and most
important defect is
that the whole of the

Fig. 103.

foliage, forming nearly the whole of each (juarter,
is borne upon a very inadequate support, giving
the impression of weakness' and insecurity. There
should have been some other arrangement v hereby

176 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fig. 104.

ROUNDKD FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 177

the foliage in question should h
and more substantial

in the radiation: th

ave had a stronger
support. Another defect is
<-' imperfect nature of this is
evident in several places, anti the attention of the
student is directed to this point. There are also two
elements introduced in this dcsij:n t.iat have no rela-

tion to the rest and have ob
"f^ll

vii.usly been introduced (■,

iin.

Another example of rounded work is shown in P

105, but which is onl\' giv

en .IS a suggestion for a
anietita!

design to be made by yourself. It i- a fund
principle- that both design and execution should be the

ame person, and I A-aiit you t)
I was indeed

work of one and the s

begin by strictly practicing this rule. I

one of the main conditions of production in the best

times of the past, and there is not

that it must as/a

a ahadow oi doubt

Ml come to be the i:niv'ersal rule if

wood carving,

real progress is to be made in th<- art uf
or in any other art, for that matte;. Just think for
moment how false must be the position of boih i»art
when one makes

anv

les

ii'-'smii

and

out. The "desi-

mother carries it

:ner" sets his head to work (we must

not count his hands at p'resent, a'< they

the result in a kinii of uriiing), a "d
and handed o\er to th

(Miiy note down
esign" IS produced

carver, sets his hands and {•>•<■.-: to wi
oJier man's idc-as, or at lc,i?,i

e carver to execute. He, the

to rarr,' ou

t th(

the same, his heatl meanwhile 1

further than transfer tl

interpret his notes for
laving vtr\' lilMe to do

very good reasons such

le said notes to his haiu

bound to come t<

Por

an arrangeiiKMit as this is

grit

f. O

in' is.

th.it

)iec(

carving can properly be s.u'd to be "designed" until it
is finished to the la.->t stroke. A dr
map of its gene al outlire, with

uvini; is f)nlv a

perhaps contours

I i

178 I'RACllCAL WOOD CARVING

appruximatcly indicated In' shading. In any case,
even if a full-size model were supplied bv the designer,

Fui. 1

ROUNDKD FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 179

the principle involved would suffer just the same degree
of violence, for it is in the actual carving of the wood
that the designer should find both his inspiration and
the discipline which keeps it within reasonal^Ie bounds..
He must be at full liberty to alter his original inten-
tion as the work develops under his hand.

Draw and trace your outline in the same manner as
before, and transfer it to the wood. You may make
it any convenient size, say on a board 18 inches long
by 9 inches wide, or what other shape you like, pro-
vided you observe one or two conditions which I am
going to point out. It shall have a fair amount of
background between the features, and the design,
whatever it is, shall form a traceable likeness to a
pattern of some description; it shall have a rudi-
mentary resemblance to nature, without going into
much detail; and last, it shall have a few w/W^v/
forms in it, rounded both in outline and on the sur-
face, as, for instance, plums.

In setting to work to carve this exercise, follow the
same procedure as in previous ones up to the point

Fig. 106.

when the surface decorations began. In the illustra-
tion there is a suggestion for a variety in the back-
ground which does not occur in the other. In this
case the little branches are supposed to lie along the
tops of gentle elevations and the plums to lie in the
hollows. It produces a section something like this,
Fig. 106. There is a sufficient excuse for this kind of
treatment in the fact that the branches do not require
much depth, and the plums will look all tlie better for

WFJ^

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MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART

(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2)

1.0

I.I

1.25

|4j

■ 30

■ 12

■ 3.6

2.5
2.2

2£
II 1.8

J ^IPPLIED IIVMGE Inc

Sr 1653 East Main Street

'JS Rochester. New York 14609 USA

= (716) 482 - 0300 - Ptione

as (716) 288 - 5989 - Fox

i8o PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

a little more. The depth of the background will thus
vary, say between ^f inch at the branches and | inch
at the plums. The branches are supposed to be per-
fectly level from end to end, that is, they lie parallel
to the surface of the wood, but of course curve about
in the other direction. The h aves, on the other hand,
are supposed to be somewhat rounded and falling
away towards their sides and points in places. The
vein in the center of the leaves may be done with a
parting tool, as well as th > serrations at the edge, or
the latter may perhaps be more surely nicked out with
a chisel after the leaves have received their shapes, the
leaves being made to appear as if one side was higher
than the other and as though their points, in some
cases, touched the background, while in others the
oase may be the lowest part. The twigs coming out
from the branches to support the plums should be
somewhat like this in section, and should lie along
the curve of the background and be in themselves
rounded, as in Fig. 107; see section aa. The bottom

of the panel shows a bevel instead of a hollow border;
this will serve to distinguish it as a starting point for
the little branches which appear to emerge from it like
trees out of the ground. The plums should be carved
by first cutting them down in outline to the back-
ground, as A, Fig. 108. Then the wood should be
removed from the edge all round, to form the rounded
surface. To do this, first take the large gouge and
with its hollow side to the wood cut off the top, from

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER i8i

<i . » -H^ ^^'^

Fig. io8.

about its middle to one end, and reversing the process

do the same with the other side. Then it will appear

someth i ng

like B, rig. ^

io8. The re-

maindermust

be shaped

with any tool

which will do

it best. There

is no royal road to the production of these rounded

forms, but probably gouge No. i will do the most

of it.

Here it may be observed that the fewer tools used
the better, as if many are used there is always a risk
of unpleasant facets at the places where the various
marks join each other. Before you try the plums, or
apples, or other rounded fruit which you may have in
your design, it would be as well to experiment with
one on a piece of spare wood, in order tr decide upon
the most suitable tools. The stems or branches may
be done with flat gouge No. i, or the flat or corner
chisel. A very delicate twist or spiral tendency in
their upward growth will greatly improve their appear-
ance; a mere faceting produced by a flat gouge or
chisel will do this; anything is better than a mere
round and bare surface, which has a tendency to look
doughy. The little circular mark on the end of the
plum (call it a plum, although that fruit has no such
thing) is done by pressing No. 7 into the wood first,
with the handle rather near the surface of the wood,
and afterwards at a higher inclination, this taking out
a tiny chip of a circular shape and leaving a V-shaped
groove.

182 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

The number of tools referred to in the foregoing are
those numbered and shown as Figs. 37 and 38.

Fig. 109.

ROUNDED roRMS OR CARVING PROPER 183

From a comparison of the
Byz: "inc capital, V\^. 109,
with the treatment shown in
Fig. no, it will be seen how
an increasing desire for imi-
tative resemblance takes the
place of a patterned founda-
tion, and how, in conse-
quence, the background is
no longer discernible as a
contrasting form. P'ig. no
is, of course, little more than
a pattern with sunk holes for
a background, and it is in
marble; but those holes are
arranged in a distinct and
orderly fashion. The other
is a highly realistic treatment
of foliage, the likeness to
nature being so fully devel-
oped that some of these
groups have veins on the
dace's of the leaves. The
question for the moment is
this, which of the two ex-
tremes gives the clearest ac-
count of itself at a distance?
We think there can be little
doubt that the more formal
arrangement bears tiiis test
better than the other, and
this, too, in face of the fact
that it has cost much less

labor to produce. Remember

.A.-.. "'Miifr'*^""

1 84

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

we are only now considering the question of visibility in
the design. You may like the undefined and suggestive
masses into which the leaves and shadows of the

Gothic one group them-

selves better than the un-
bending severity of the
lines in the other, but
that is not the point at
present. You cannot see
the actual work which
produced that mystery,
and we may point out to
y ' that what is here
■ ..i.intic and pleasing, on
account of its changeful
and infor.r.al shadows, is
on the verge of becoming
\ mere bewildering confu-
; sion; a tendency which
', always accompanies at-
tempts to imitate the ac-
cidental or informal
grouping of leaves so
common to their natural
state. The further this is
''If carried the less is it po.s-
sible to govern the forms
of ihe background pat-
tern; they become less
discernible as contrasting
forms, althou?;u they may
be very interesting as ele-
ments of mystery and
suggestive of things not

mw///;>pmm ,^//^7mm//r ^

FuJ. III.

^xswK:-^,z:^iii^^m^i^m^!m^- ^

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 185

actually seen. The consequence is a loss of power
in producing that instintaneous impression of harmony
which is one of the secrets of effectiveness in carving.
This is greatly owing to tne constant change of plane
demanded by an in^itative treatment, as well as the
want of formality in its background. The lack of
restful monotony in this r- sped creates confusion in
the lights, making a closer inspection necessary in
order to discern the beauty of the work. Now the
hi'nan imagination loves surprises and never wholly
forgives the artist who, failing to administer a pleasant
shock, invites it to come forward and examine the
details of his work in order to see how well they are
executed.

These examples, you will say, are from architectural
details whicn have nothing to do with wood carving.
On the contrary, the same laws govern all manner of
sculpturesque composition — scale or material making
no difference whatever. A sculptured marble frie/e or
a carved ivory snuffbox may be equally censurable as
being either so bare that they verge on baldness and
want of interest, or so elaborate that they look like
layers of fungus.

Do not imagine that we are urging any preference
for a Byzantine treatment in your work; to do so would
be as foolish as to ask you to don medi.eval costume
while at work, or assume the speech and manners of
the tenth century. It would be just as ridiculous on
your part to affect a bias which was not natural to you.
We are, however, strongly convinced that in the choice
of natural forms and their arrangement into orderly
masses (more particularly with regard to their appear-
ance in silhouette against the ground), and also in the
matter of an economical use of detail, we have much

' ^.''*ii^9rim?jf'immtmr%'mi^«iS'£i^mim3^if^ai^ms^&^^^.

i86

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

to learn from the carvers who preceded the fourteenth
century. They thoroughly understood and appreciated
the value of the light which fell upon their work, and
in designing it arranged every detail with the object
of reflecting as much of it as possible. To this end,
their work was always calculated for its best effects to
be seen at a fairly distant point of view; and to make
sure that it would be both visible and coherent, seen
from that point, they insisted upon some easily under-
stood pattern which gave the key to the whole at a
glance. To make a pattern of this kind is not such an
easy matter as it looks. The forms of the background
spaces are the complementary parts of the design, and
are just as important as those of the solid portions; it
takes them both to make a good design.

Now we believe you must have had enough of this
subject ior the present, more espf^rJally as you have
not yet begun to feel the extraoic nary difficulty of
making up your mind as to what is i.ad what is not ."it
for the carver's uses amongst the boundless examples
of beauty spread out for our choice by Dame Nature.

Meantime we do not want you to run away with the
impression that, when you have mastered the principles
of economy in detail and an orderly disposition of
background, you have therefore learned all that is
necessary in order to go on turning out design after
design with the ease of a cook making pancakes
according to a recipe. You will find by experience
that all such principles are good for is to enforce
clearness of utterance, so to speak, and to remind you
that it is light you are dealing with and upon which
you must depend for all effects; also that the power of
vision is limited. Acting upon them is quite another
matter, and one, we are afraid, in which no one can

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 187

help you much. You may be counseled as to the best
and most practical mode of expressing your ideas, but
those thoughts and inventions must come from your-
self if they are to be worth having.

We illustrate herewith two fragments of a kind of
running ornament. Fig. in is a part of the jamb
moulding of a church in Vicenza. If you observe
carefully you will find that it has a decidedly classical
appearance. The truth is that it was carved by a
Gothic artist late in tli< fourteenth century, just after
the Renaissance influence began to make itself felt.
It is an adaptation by him of what he remembered
having seen in his travels of the new style, grafted
upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand. It
suits our purpose all the better on that account, for
the reason that we are going to re-adapt his design to
an exercise and shall attempt to make it suitable to
our imiited ability in handling the tools, to the change
in material from stone to wood, and lastly, to our
different aim and motives in the treatment of archi-
tectural ornament. Now do all this for yourself in
another design, and look upon this suggestion merely
in the light of helping a lame dog over a stile.

In this exercise. Fig. 112, you will repeat all you
have already done with the others, until you come to
the shaping of the leaves, in which an undulating or
up and down motion has been attempted. This
involves a kind of double drawing in the curves, one
foi .he flat and one for the projections; so that they
may appear to glide evenly from one point to the
other, sweeping up and down, right and left, without
losing their true contours. Carvers call this process
"throwing about," i.e., making the leaves, etc., appear
to rise from the background and again fall towards it

■Y^ru:'!^- *«ffliHiw«»#s?^ - ^-vsrsr-^'j^^-^TV'Sv' y^ ■:ym-<v3-'^

188

I'RACTICAL WOOD CARVING

in all directions. Thr phrase is a v ly meager one
and but poorly expresses the necessity for intimate
jyn>pathy between each su.face so "thrown about."

It is precisely in th"
observance of this last
quality that effects of
richness are produced.
You can hardly have
too much monotony of
surface, but may easily
err by having too much
variety. Therefore,
whatever system of light
and shade you may
adopt, be careful to re-
peat its motive in some
sort of rhythmic ordei
all over your work; by
no other means can you
make it rich and effec-
tive at a distance.

It is well every nov
and then to put your
work up on a shelf or
ledge at a distance and
view it as a whole; you
will see which parts tell
and which do not, and
so gain exper-ence on
this point. Work should
also be turned about
frequently, sidewise and
upside down, in order
Fig. 112. to fii^d h<>w the lifh';

R( NDKI) KORMS OR CARVING PROPER i8g

affects it in different directions. Of course you must
not think that because your work may happen to look
well wh< n seen from a little way off, it does not matter
about the details, whether they be well or poorly carved.
On the contrary, unhss you satisfy the eye at both points
of view, your work is a partial failure. The one thin},' is

. important as th- other, only as thi; first glance at
carved work is {generally taken at some little distance,
it is the more immediately necessary to think of that
before we bef,'in to work for a closer inspection. First
impressions are generally lasting with regard fo carved
work, ar ., as we have said before, beauty of detail
seldom quite atones for failure in the arrangement of
masses.

The rounded forms in this tlesign may give you a
little trouble, but practice, and that alone, wilt enable
you to overcome this. Absolute smoothness is not
desirable. Sandpapered surfaces are e.\:remely ugly,
because they obtrude themselves on account of their
extreme smoothness, having lost all signs of handi-
work in the tool marks. Almost every beginner has
some vague impression that his first duty should be to
aim at originality. He hears eulogiums parsed upon
the individuality of some one or other, and tries hard
to invent new forms of expression or peculiarities of
styli , only resultiu' in most cases in new forms of
ugliness, which it cms is the only po sibility under
such coniscious eff ts after novelty. The fact is that
it takes many generations of ardent minds to accom-
plish what at first each thinks himself capable of doing
alone. True originality has somewhat the quality of
go< I wii »•, which becomes more delightful as time
mel.ows its flavor and imparts to it the aroma which
ca ,f long repute; like the new wine, too,

/■i^vrw

igo

PRAC ;ICAL WOOD CA' VING

originality should chyly hide itself in dark places until
maturity warrants its appearance in the light of day.
That kind of originality which is strikingly new does
not always stand th' test of time, and should be
regarded with cauti ,s skepticism until it has proved
itself to be more t' .\ the passing fashion or novelty
of a season. There is a kind of sham ar' i-rv ci)n-
spicuous at the present date, popularly b. i .'d to be
very original. It seems to have arisen out of some
>. :h impatient craving for novelty, and it has been
encouraged by an easy-going kind of suburban refine-
ment y/h'xch neither knows nor cares very much what
really goes to the making of a work of art. This new
art has filled our stores and e.xhibitions with an inverte-
brate kind of ornament which certainly has the doubt-
ful merit of "never having been seen before." It has
evidently taken its inspiration from the trailing and
supine forms of floating seaweed, and revels in the
e.xpression o.' -uch bone •'•^s structure. By way of
variety it presents us w. a kind o.' symbolic tree,
remarkable for mor.' thnn archaic flatness and rigidity.
Now this kind of ' v.ri^inality" is not only absolutely
valueless . 't <xce. ingly harmful; its only merit is
that, like . ideal seaweed, it has no backbone of its
own, and we may hope that it will soon betake itself
to its natural home — the slimy bottom of the ocean of
oblivion.

Meantime, the only thinj we are absolutely sure of
in connection with that much abused word "origi-
nality" is this, that no gift, original or otherwise, can
be developed without steady and continuous practice
with the tools of your craft.

An exceedingly good example for practice is the
panel shown in Fig. 113, which is drcwn on a larger

"ft,T*^mv«f':'

i^OUNDf-D loRMS UF< CARVING PROPER 19I

scale than most of t • preceding < x.iinpl.s. li uill
require considerable skill to dt* ihis pitc« ul .vork

Fiu. 113.

justice. Some very careful modeling will be necessary,
for on this, rather than on the depth of the work, the
beauty of the design will depend. The leaves must

,92 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

be accurately outlined and then sharpness emphasi/ed
t;l^derc.tW The stern shon^^^

ing it with the sharp corner of a chisel. If the panel
is to be carved in J^ m

a small size, box
or some other fine
wood which is
capable of taking
a high degree of
finish will be very
appropriate. If en-
larged, the panel
will look well in
oak.

It is usual to
give the novice
much advice as to
the way the tools
should be held,
but really very lit-
tle that is likely to
help him can be
told. The most
convenient way in
which to do so can
only be learnt by
practice, for the movements are constantly vary. ng^ As
a rule, very little can be done with one hand only.
Both hands must hold the tool; one, the r-ght suppb'-
ing the force, the other being mainly used to guide

and restrain. , • _

Having now a fair idea how to do general carving,

Fig. 1I4.

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 193

rounded examples requiring somewhat different treat-
ment and more experience may be given, merely
remarking that the object of the accompanying designs
is not so much to give detailed copies as to guide the
novice.

Fig. 114 represents a handle for a paper-knife.
Should the carver spoil it, neither the time nor the
outlay is sufficiently serious to make the loss of any
moment. The size of the wood required is 13 inches
long, I ?4 inches wide and ?4 inch thick. The effect
is extremely good carved either in ebony, sandalwood,
or box.

Having sawed the wood to the required size, examine
it carefully to make quite sure that it is sound; then,
being satisfied on that point, proceed to mark the
design on it as already explained. If ebony or any
dark wood be used, the outline is not easily perceived,
and it will therefore be necessary to draw the design
on thinnish paper, and gum or paste this upon the
wood itself, taking care that every part of the paper
adheres thoroughly. When the paper and wood are
both quite dry, fix the wood tightly into the vise and
begin to work on the blade of the knife with a spoke-
shave. It must be scraped down gradually and circum-
spectl}', first on one side and thtMi on the other, taking
great care not to shave it away too much in one place;
the edge of the blade should run in a perfectly straight
line with the handle, or it will not balance. To ensure
this it is well to mark three lines down the edge of the
blade before any wood is shaved off; one line shouLl
be exactly in the middle to represent the sharp cutting
edge when finished, and the two others one on each
side, rather less than an eighth of an inch from the
Center one; then, cither witli the saw or the spoke-

104

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

shavo, cut away the wood clown to those two outer lines
and rouijhly shape out the form of the blade; then
leave it until the time comes for finishin>r it off, which
will be when the handle is about three parts done,
when a rasp or coarse file may be used to Ret it into
shape, l-'iles are better than any tools for the purpose,
as with them the blade can be f,'radually reduced with-
out fear of spoiliu},' it by takint,' off too much. The
ed^e of broken glass will also be found very useful for
the same purpose. The blade of a large paper-knife,
such as this, ought, when finished, to be one-third of
an inch in thickness in the thickeiit part, that is, where
it joins the handle; from there it should slope gradually
and easily down to the point and cutting edges; these
latter should be perfectly free from notches in the
wood, or unevenness of any kind, nor should they be
over sharp or they will soon split and break off.

So to return to the handle, which has been left
untouched, saving the design gummed or traced upon
it. The first thing required is to cut away carefully all
the waste wood in between the coils of the snake on
the outside. Make the identations exactly at right
angles with the surface of the design, or you will get
into trouble when carving the reverse or under-side.
Having done this, take the drill and make one or
more holes, according to the space, in each part which
requires perforation, though :f preferred this part of
the work may be done with a fret saw. Then, with a
knife, or if the wood be fixed in a vise, with a chisel,
trim the edges away nearly, but not quite, up to the
inked edge of the design. When this has been done
roughly, go over it again, marking slightly but dis-
tinctly where the different parts of the snake cross each
other' When the general idea and shape have been

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 195

thus given, examine it carefully in detail and ask,
before proceedinj,' further, such questions as, "Is this
part ri^ht?" "Does that coil lie naturally?" "Am I
leaving too much here, or cutting away too much
there?" and so forth; do not dash and slash at it, but
think in this manner as tlu; work proceeds, and work
gradually and cautiously uj) to the desired end. A
good carver is always thinking in this manner, and
never does a stroke without a good reason, for carving
and sculpture are not like painting or even modeling,
where a false stroke can be obliterated; for, a little
splinter once nicked off, the snake is gone for good and
the reptile looks wrong and woodeny for the rest of its
days. Having fashioned it carefully but roughly in
the manner descri jed, take a coarsish file over it,
guarding particularly against cutting away too much
for fear of making it look attenuated, remembering
that the size of the body is very considerably r-^duced
by cutting and marking the scales, so that before this
process is commenced it should look unnaturally
plump and fat; and also bear in mind that in life the
coils of the snake in crossing yield equally the one to
the other, falling together and flattening each other, as
it were, with an undulating appearance, and not crossed
as so many sticks. Beginners are very apt to fail in
this point. To obtain at once a correct idea, which is
very essential for the execution of a lifelike car"iii,^.
we strongly advise the carver to copy from life. This
rule applies always when carving from nature, whether
animate or inanimate, but is especially necessary to
observe in regard to the former. Five minutes'
examination would be of more service to the carver
than a whole chapter of descriptions and directions.
When the form has been cut out with tolerable

,96 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

accuracy, go over it all with a file fine enough to
rende 'the surface smooth, but not polished. Ihe
scales must be mark..-d with a pencil or scratched w.th
a fine point, an inch or so of the body at a time if the
pencil be used, or the marks will rub out. tor cutting
them, use either the sharp point of a knife or gouges
of the right size. From the size and form of the scales
'arying in each turn, it is necessary if the gouges are
used to be c nstantly changing from one size to
■mother It i >f importance to recollect that not only
does each y^ inch of the reptile vary in size, increasing
from the head to the middle rind decreasing in like
manner towards the tail, but also that the size of the
scales increases and decreases in the same proportion.
Moreover, that on the inner parts of the curve they
are small and short, and in the outside exactly the
reverse, that is, large and elongated, strc.ched out as
it were When the scales have been roughly denoted,
rectify mistakes and irregularities; and agam -o over
the whole, this time more carefully, and tr; n and
shape the edges, obliterating tool ma:ks, and define
each separate scale so that they all lie equally and
Ijcrhtly the one over the other. This done, the paper-
knife may be considered as finished, and only requires
polishing. For thi<? purpose very fine glasspaper,
w'lich has been already well worn, ma- be used.

To carve Fig. 115, the same dirt ns as above
should be observed as regards the blaue and the snake
which is twisted round the branch. This design is
somewhat more difificult, but has an admirable effect
when well carved. In preparing the wood, allowance
must be made for the extra thxkness; in fact, the part
for the handle must be nearl" square: about ij^ inches
each way would not be too much, as it is always better

■ v^Se^ ° .

ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 197

.^^^'^fHp!^

to allow rather over than under the measurements
required. As regards the branch round which the
snake is coiled, there will he no difficulty in findinj? a
natural model (a little spray of oak or thorn is the
best for the purpose); the design will indi'-il^ where
the knots and branches shall spring fron^ the main
stem, but the natural model will teach the peculiar
angle and form they tike better
than can be giver in the drawings.
In so minute a piece of carving as
this the bark can be very success-
fully imitated by wriggling the
edge of a flattish gouge or chisel,
held nearly uprightly, along the
surface of a branch. This conveys
the idea of irregularity and rough-
ness.

Fig. 116 is another paper-knife
design, also very effective and not
a little quaint, which to some peo-
ple is no inconsiderable recom-
mendation. It should be carved
in ebony, as it looks better in
that wood than in any other. It
takes a very solid piece, from 12
to 13 inches long and 1 3^ inches
square, for tne hand'e. This is rather thicker than
absolutely necessary, but it is well to be on the
safe side. The principal point to bear in mind is
thit the bird be balanced well and r iturally on its
perch, and not appear to cling on to it by its tail.
The m ,e roughing out is very easily done. The
same care must be bestowed on the blade, which
shou'd, if anything, be somewhat thicker, to cor-

FiG. n6.

W!^m:

198 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

f ij

respond with the extra thick'^-ss of the handle. The
feathers are the only difficiilt ,)r.rts; the breast should
n:)t be smooth, ar, it is with some birds, but ruf-
fled
and
1 u ni
jiy here
and then-
O \v 1 s are
always u n-
tiily in this re-
spect. It nnist be
clothed with fluff,

which, being of an in-
det . lite substance, is best
given by the wrigg.ing mo-
tion of the tool described
above. This gives that dishev
eled appearance of the feathers
peculiar to the owl when disturbed
and awakened in daylight and obliged to
open its eyes. The latter must be set/ery
deeply in two saucers of fluffy feathers, which
set out from the eyes like fans, and shoiild be
done in the same manner as the breast feathers, with
the addition of a few touches of a knife here and there
to give decision. The eyes themselves should be left
prominent and round, like beads, and polished brightly.
The wings and tail feathers should be carefully drawn
and marked out with a very small gouge, and ought to
lie over each other lightly at the back; a model might
be bought and thus a faithful copy made from nature —
a stuffed one will answer the purpose quite as well as
if it were alive. The claws must be slightly exagger-

''ra»!IKiSl^f}'

ROUNDKI) I'ORMS OR CARVIN(J I'ROPKR kjq

atcil

Fig. 119.

well proportioned. There is both round and flat
carving in it. The animal portion is exceedingly
spirited, and the leaves, which take somewhat of
acanthus forms, are tastefidlv displayed.

^i,?»*ISS'^S2B ,

CHAPTKR VI

lUiUKlC CARVlNd

Our frontispiece reprcsiMts a fi^iuro that is supposed
t;) 1)0 the oldest carved wooden fi^nire in the world,
beinK' at least 6.000 years old. It measures 3 feet 8>4
inches high, and is carved in jyc.imore, and stands on
a base of the same material, and is preserved in the
Gizeh Museum. Cairo T^,'ypt. This famous wooden
statue is known as t... 'Sheik-el-Helad," that is, the
chief of the village, a name which the Arabs who
found it bestowed on it because its features closely
resembled those of their own particular Sheik. The
statue Is distinctly a portrait, and is generally sup-
posed to represent one of the overseers of workmen
and slaves, originally engaged in building the
pyramids which abound in the district where it was
discovered, and which recent "finds" have gone to
prove are the oldest of all the pyramids of Egypt.

Figure carving and figure carvers have always been
held in high esteem since history began, and this fact
has tended to make the carver have an exalted opinion
of himself, so much so that as a rule he has begun to
think himself something superior to other workmen
and usually turns up his nose in contempt when brought
in contact with the lower grades of craftsmanship.
Quoting from a recent contribution by Harry Hems,
we get the following on this subject:

"In my opinion there does not exist a more con-
ceited set of men than figure carvers. Here is a rough

200

MMt".

'tm-t

FIGURK CARVING

201

sketch of one taken (Tif,'. 120), I h(.licv«j, from nn old
illumination dated A.D. 1452, which seems to show
that in this respect tluy do not differ from the crafts-
men of four or five centuries aj^o.

Fig. 120.

"In the forty-fourth chapter of the liook of Isaiah,
the following account of the figure carver's work is
given: 'The carpenter stretchcth out his rule; he
marketh it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes, he

'i^Mdsii . . .^''■•:jLi

202 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

markoth it out with the compass, and maketh it after
the fij,'urc of a man, according to the heauty of a man;
that it mav remain ir the house. ..."

"If a carpenter of to-day were to assay to carve a
statue in wood, would he not work upon precisely the
same lines)' We can fancy him squaring up his stuff,
putting the rule over it— chalk-lining it, perhaps-
measuring it, and then making some sort of a halting
start. A real figure carver, of course, after carefully
modeling his proposed statue in clay, would simply
put a bench screw in the back or base of the block of
wood to be carved and, having secured it tightly in an
upright position, level with the eye, without the least
marking or measuring, would hammer away till fi;»-thcr
orders, trusting entirely to inspiration. 'What draw-
ing are you copying?' is the constant and perhaps
natural query asked by visitors to a wood carver's
studio of those busily engaged in modeling or carving
the figure. 'Copying nothing,' is the cool and perhaps
somewhat indignant reply. 'But surely,' the enquirer
will add, 'surely you are not making that lovely angel
out of your own head?' 'No,' he may retort, 'my head
is not a clump of wood, and that is.'

"Isaiah's carpenter cried to his statue after he made
it, and said pleadingly, 'Deliver me, for thou art my
god'; and to-day, although we do not actually worship,
in a superstitious sense, the creations of our own
brains, there is no doubt that our works oftentimes
make deep impressions upon the minds of others."

No doubt there is much truth in what Mr. Hems says
concerning the "conceit" of recognized figure carvers,
but then they have good reason to feel proud of them-
selves and -" '^ '*-eir work, for it is not stretching the
truth to s . among the eighty millions of people

mm m

FIGURE CARVING

20^

who own th» (• Unittcl Statt;s then- is not more than
one in every 1 Million who maybe considered a gotxl
figure carver; so, if in this broad land there arc! not
more than tij,'hty persons deserving the name of good
figure c rvers, these eighty immortals have some good
reason to feel pr >ikI.

I vervthin (!ls«; where greatness is attained, the

,urt c.r is born, not made. If thedi.inc

not n hi! no amount of training or practice
bly mak. famoi , fij.. ire carver, but ordinary
ma) n ad ' attain an ordinary expertness
ble -t) tun Hit ordinary work — the kind of
I i( su^sts the < . lin.iry world— which, after all,
ni' t appreLiaiid by the great mass of the

stt
cat
n^
an

is
P'

Figur viii,^ and tiu- representation of the human

I- rm, r'>- in frUef or in statues, is without doubt

t '- st Urani h of the wood carver's art, and we

^avc deferred any remarks respecting it

.ntil it 1

Th rt mar. difficulties to be mastered and

disapi "-"nt- lo be borne befoie the begintiers will

be ab i sent accurately in wood the "human

form <\\\ <ienerally speaking, it will be found

advisab i^«.th animal and figure carving to con-

vention.! '.e the (! sign to a certain extent. We find
frequent example- of this style of decoration in the
Greek style, whe- figures and animals are represented
with the'- extremities finished in leafage and scroll
work. There are numerous cases in wliich the human
form treated in a conventional manner may be
judiciously and effectively introduced among other
decorative features, either to give a symbolical meaning
or to enable the wood carver to obtain a more extended

rrrrr.

204

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

area for the exercise of his skill than can he ()l)taine<l
by the use of foliateil forms alone.

In the earliest aj;es of ornament we find tif,'iires and
aninials introduced to j,'ive variety to ornamentation,
hut they are in nearly all cases intermixed with foliaj^e
forms. In the G.cik style examples often occur of the
human fij;ure heinj; introduced in an ornanu-nted as
well as a "sculpturesque" manner in combination with

scroll f o I i aj.je, and
the Roman carried
the principle s t i 1 .
further by combining
the figure with the
foliage itself.

The practice of in-
troducing an i mal s,
birds and grotescjue
figures in order to
give life and variety
to ornamentation has
been a common one
with most designers,
both ancient and modern, and in the Renaissance
style such combinations occur frequently, examples
of vvi.;ch are given in Figs, i '9 and I2l Before
proceeding to describe the method to be adopted
in the carving of these designs, I wish to give a
few hints respecting the introduction by the amateur
of animal forms in his designs. There need be no
limit to th" formatior! and designing of either the con-
ventional animal forms or the grotesque, provided the
ordinary laws of good taste be not infringed. For
instance, if groiesijue or animal forms are introduced
into the design, either by combining the monsters in

Fig. 121.

f- \i

V %

FIGURE CARVING

205

the scrolls or by placing the animals u\><,n th«, tcndri!!.
of plantH, it is obviously necessary to prvjportion f'.ctn
accordingly. Htsidcs figures, a good many other
forms have from time to time Ijcen introduced as aids
to decorations; and in many examples of Grinliti^
Gibbons' work, not only dead K-'ime, but also the
implements of the chase have been introduced,
although, perhaps, this c n hardly be termed or con-
sidered a high-class method of ornamentation. In the
examples shown in Figs. 119 and 121 the human :.nd
other forms are in --ombination with f(jliage, etc. In
this description of work the san.e process is gone
through ai previously described, is traced on the sur-
face of the wood, then roughly "blocked" in with a
quick tool, taking particular care t. pre: erve a few
points to work by. In carving any piece of work,
however, which involves a great amount of labor and
is in high relief, we should most strongly advise the
beginner to model the design nrst of ail in clay, so ps
to get a general idea of the effect; or, if clay is not
available, cut in the design roughly in any soft wood,
such as pine. This advice may at first sight appear to
entail a great amount of additional labor, but in the
end the extra work will be amply repaid, as the work
will be facilitated in every way.

In carvi.ig figures of animals, birds, reptiles, it is
best, it possible, to have an actual figure or af^imal as a
model, as a dog's head or a dead robin suspended on
the slab by a ! ge-headed nail, of course an imitation
one carved out of the solid wood. There are few more
beautiful subjects for the carver than this of dead
birds, and it is one which can be used in a variety of
manners, either purely as an ornament to lay on a
slab, or to hang up against the wall, or as a panel for

206 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

a cabinet or sideboard. For tlie latter purpose half
relief will be sufficient; for the former, three-quarters,
or even entire relief, is desirable. It were useless for
us to attempt to give any design of this description,
for nothing short of a photograph or a most minute
engraving could delineate the description and texture
of the feathers; but this, however, is of little impor-
tance, as the natural bird is about the best model that
can be had, and this is within reach of every one; but
we would remind all those who intend to study from
models of this kind, that it is preferable to do so m
the winter, for not only will it longer retain its ongmal
pose, but the worker will not be tempted to hurry over
his work for unsavory reasons. All difficulties of this
kind, however, mav be avoided, and skill in carving
materially improved if a slight knowledge of modeling
in clay be attained. Of course, in speaking thus we
mean modeling in its simplest forms, merely enough
to enable us to retain forms in our memory for future
use, which either by nature or circumstances are fleet-
ing; such, for instance, as a specially beautiful group
of^'leaves or flowers, which, even could they be
gathered without destroying their pose, would wither
before they could be expressed in wood; or, again, to
return to the case in point, modeling is invaluable to
enable the artist to catch the general outline of a bird,
or a group of birds or animals, while they are still
fresh, before they become stark and stiff; the feather-
ing or fur, being a detail, can be copied from models
of^he same kind, placed as nearly as possible in the
same position. It may be argued that a slight pencil
sketch would answer the purpose as well as a clay
model, and with less expenditure of time and trouble,
but it is nut so, for a few skillful touches in clay will

FIGURE CARVING 207

convey an idea such as would be useful to the carver
far better than could be done with the pencil, unless
It were in very talented hands; moreover, as the
rudiments of carving and modeling are the same (which
IS not the case as regards drawing), it is probable that
to express an idea in clay would be easier to the
carver than to do so by means of the pencil.

A good quantity of modeling clay can be bought for
a mere trifle. It can usually be procured at any pot-
tery works, from pipe makers, or at cast shops; but in
this latter place it is generally more expensive. It is
sold in the form of powder mixed with rough lumps-
these must be thoroughly crushed, and the powder
worked up with water into a smooth dough, which
should be as stiff and dry as is compatible with its
bemg easily handled, for the moister it is so much the
greater will be the risk of its cracking when the water
evaporates. In many cases ordinary clav will answer
If properly managed. The mod.!, when you are not
at work on it. should be kept damp with a wet hand-
kerchief or rag thrown over it; if this precaution be
neglected, it will dry unevenly and fall to pieces
The same clay can be broken up and used over and
over again by taking care to grind it finely before
mixing it afresh. The few tools and instruments
required for modeling are very simple and inexpensive
merely little sticks of wood or ivorv with different-
shaped knobs at the end, others, again, being pointed
and curved. Half a dozen of the ordinary shapes
would do to start with, and with the aid of a knife and
some glasspaper a modeler could easily make as many
others as necessity or fancy suggested, the chief point
being to make them very smooth, that the clay may not
adhere to them. Plaster of Paris, though not so

208 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

artistic, is not a bad substitute for <^l-y; ;* ";;j^\ ^^^
ground and mixed in the same manner, ^ut -t must be
used with more water, as it sets quickly and soon dnes^
I can then be cut or scraped with a knjfe or tool, and
should . mistake occur it can be easdy remedied by

adding a fresh daub of the plaster.
^^e^ex.d«i,„,Ki..u.Ua„ea,^J^ora,e<.er„.

carving from
which this
drawing is taken
was executed
chiefly from na-
ture. It meas-
ures 4 feet
across the wings
and stands 4
feet 4 inches
high, irrespec-
tive of the stand
on which it is
placed. This is,
however, an
unusually large
size, it being
intended for a
cathedr.-,!; from 22 to ,0 inches across the wings a^e
,hc usual dimensions. Before commenc r^g th s or
=nv hrce worl< of a similar nature, it is advisable to
mJk a small working model of the subject; this
::,del should be made ,o scale, that s, it ^M^^
a certain proportion to the large work, as, """^"";^;
should it be proposerl to make the "«'<= ^'l nch«
across, then let the model be 8 inches, that ,s, 4 mchei.

Fig. 122.

FIGURE CARVING

209

to the I foot. It need not, of course, be highly
finished, the minor details of feathering, claws, etc.,
being of no account, as the sole object is to arrive at
a just idea of the general effect, and to satisfy yourself
that the pose and proportions are correct before com-
mencing on the wood itself; of course, should you
copy from a model the size of your own carving, these
preliminaries will not be necessary; it is only when
you are called upon either to greatly increase or reduce
its proportions that this extra work is advisable. A
very expert carver might even dispense with it
altogether, but it would be ex-
tremely rash in a novice to do
so, for, as we have elsewhere
remarked, carving cannot be
altered at will, not at least to
any extent; therefor-j the great-
er caution used, so much the
greater will be the chance of
success.

To make a rough m^odel,
such as described, of the eagle in Fig. 122, it will be
necessary, on account of the soft, yielding nature of
the clay, to form it on a kind of frame, a skeleton, so
to speak, which will give it strength to bear its own
weight Fig. 123 represents such a skeleton, which
consists of five strips of wood nailed or tied firmly
together and fixed into a square of wood so as to
form a solid base on which to stand; the two side
pieces are tied strongly, as shown, to the crosspiece
in front, while the middle piece passes in front
in a slanting position, to form the slope from
the breast to the extremity of the tail; the head,
from being thrown back in the act of looking upwards,

Fig. 123.

I I

,-r'

210 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVI.JG

balances and supports its own weight. Some carvers
prefer to make thjir models, as stated before, in soft
wood, such as pine or bassvvood, and this plan has
certainly the advantage in that it is more durable than
either clay or plaster, but it is not so satisfactory on
the whole, as in the latter materials the form can be
altered and re-altered until it is quite to the artist's
mind, which cannot be the case in wood.

Be very careful in superintending the preparation of
the wood, and the manner in which it is joined
together. This should be entrusted only to a very
skillful workman, and one who thoroughly understands
his business, for the beauty and success of the work
will mainly depend on the exactness and strength with
which the parts are put together. Much judgment
and care must be expended in the arrangement of the
joins, in order that they m ly interfere as little
as possible with the carving itself, as, for instance, the
head should be in one piece, that is, with a join on
either side, an^' not in the middle, and so on.

The wood should be cut out of the block and
expo to the air as long a time -s possible before it
;s b p; the longer the better, as the chance of

warpn , which would be fatal to the work, is greatl.N-
lessened by many months' exposure. Flaws and knots
in the wood itself, though by no means desirable, are
comparatively of little importance, as from the bold-
ness and freedom of the design much is left to the
artist's fancy, so that any little local flaw can be
worked in and concealed amongst the irregularities of
the plumage. There is yet one other point which
reauires attention before the wood is finally clamped
together, and tW^-- is to place those pieces side by side
which agree the best in color and grain. Th- shades

mmt

FIGIJRK CARVING

211

of the different blocks should blend together so as to
give the semblance as far as may be of the eagle being
carved out of one entire piece; carelessness in this
respect cannot be atoner' for by the finest carvings, for
all the artist's skill could not save the bird from appear-
in;r patchy ard woodeny if a stripe of lighter color
than the rest ran down the breast. his is a misfor-
tune which the most ignorant ..ovice can with a little
care and painstaking avoid.

In regard to the actual manual part of the subject, ii
is useless to lay down any rules ^or the carver's
guidance, as ic is better in these comparatively minor
details that he should work in accordance with his own
comfort and convenience. As a broad rule, however,
it is always well to "rough out" the subject uniformly
and to avoid entering into detail, so as to arrive as
soon as may be at a just idea of the general effect, and
afterwards to go over it again with a little more
exactitude, repeating this process until it stands com-
pleted as regards the pose and main features, but
devoid, in the case of the subjects in question, of
plumage and such like minutia. These should then
in their turn be roughly delineated and gradually be
worked up together into a perfect whole. It is only
by rigidly following out this plan that a uniform and
natural effect can be obtained by the inexperienced
workman; if, for instance, one wing were highly
finished in all its points before the other was begun,
the greater part would probably have to be altered, or,
as very likely this would be impossible, without cutting
away too much of the wood, the two wings would look
as if they did not belong to the same bird and the
effect ii th whole carving would be spoilt. Doubtless
this manner of working up the whole by slow degrees

212

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

is somewhat a trial of patic-nco, especially if it be a first
work of the kind, for it certainly is very temptui},' to
finish up a little l)it in order to see the effect. This,
though satisfactory for the moment, will spoil the
appearance oi the finished work, or at any rate is a
great risk on account of the danger of cutting away
too much of a particular part before it is possible to
judge of the whole.

The feet and head of the eagle will require great
care, especially the former. Procure, if possible, a
real foot as a model. If an eagle's cannot be obtained,
that of a similar bird of prey must do duty. Bestow
much pains on observing and imitating the roughness
of their texture and the manner in which the fluff falls
over and around them. The eagle may be designed
to stand on a ball of wood, or upon a rock, but be sure
that you do not carve or draw a fancy rock out of your
own 'head, for unless \ i are well practiced in such
matters it will assuredly be stiff and conventional;
but look about and find a real stone, to which, if too
large to move, take your modeling clay and copy it
faithfully on the spot, and afterwards at home model
your eagle upcMi it. If the worst comes to th< worst,
and you cannot light on either rock or stone which is
suitable, you might find a worse model for your pur-
pose than a piece of coal, which is in every one's reach.
Take care in placing the model on the rock that the
claws really clutch it, and that the bird is properly
poised and balanced upon it.

We will now pass on to the last and perhaps the
most difficult branch of the art— that of carving in
basso-relievo. For this a knowledge of drawing is
almost a necessity, as is also the rudiments of per-
spective; we say almost necessary, for in some rare

FIGURE CARVING

213

cases the artist's eye is so intuitively af^curate that he
can afford to dispense with such knowledge and may
trust solely to an acute feelinjf of proportion and form
to guide him aright; but this is very exceptional,
therefore it would be well for those who intend to
pursue this Ijranch to practice drawing from cases, if
obtainable, and to make the rules of perspective a pre-
liminary study. We would especially counsel ladies
to follow this particular line of art, which, while
necessitating skill of the highest order, involves the
expenditure of less actual strength than those carvings
which are in full relief.

The student in this style has an abundance of
beautiful and suitable subjects at his command, for
not only are casts of most of the best works of this
kind procurable, but there is also another field open
to him in the many pictures and parts of pictures which
are now placed within our reach by means of pho-
tography. We could not, however, counsel him to
attempt to carve from a flat object, such as a picture,
until he has first practiced both carving and drawing
from a cast, in order to educate the eye in the per-
spective of figures for this especial purpose. No
better models can be found than the casts from the
basso-relievos of Luca della Robbia. After having
w rked thus from casts, the r.ext step in advance is
.' do so from photographs of basso-relievo sculpture;
from thence you may, if you wish, pass on to carve
from photographs of pictures. Having arrived at this
point, you: choice of subjects is practically unlimited.
Choose, to begin with, a bold and somewhat severe
outline, such for instance as some of Ary Scheffcr's
figures; carved pictures of this kind are, when
artistically executed, \ cry beautiful; and the edge of

\ I

t '\

214

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

the wood, beveled and finished with a simple ogee,
is generally sufficient margin to set off the carving,
or engraving similar to the one shown in Fig. 124,
which shows birds, be' es, butterflies, insects and
foliage. They present, when finished, the appearance
of the picture of figure, beini; set in saucers or basins
of wood, varying in depth according to the taste of
the carver, and may be either round or oval, whichever
is most suitable to the subject. For small picture
carvings of this kind, a flat or slightly beveled rim or
velvet laid on the wall about I or 2 inches in width is
a great improvement and sets it off wonderfully.
This style of wood sculpture was much practiced in the
sixteenth century, especially in Spain, where there are
many specimens of the kind still preserved; these,
also, in many instances, bear marks of the background
having been gilded and even painted in color.
Whether the latter was an improvement is, we think,
questionable, but as regards the former, ihere is little
doubt that the gilding adds considerably to the effect
of the carving, as the reflection of the gold on the
convex background marks the outlines and throws it
into great relief. Any good single head set thus, as it
were, in a round dish or saucer of wood, would be an
excellent study and form also an extremely handsome
object in a room, hung picturewise on the wall; you
will find some very beautiful heads suited for this pur-
pose on the doors of the Baptistry at Florence.
Excellent photographs have been taken of the original,
from which a good carver could easily work.

To find good casts is a somewhat more difficult
matter, especially for those who live in the country.
The plaster of Paris images which arc offered for sale
in the streets would very probably mislead rather than

FIGURE CARVING

«5

Fig. 124.

2lC

TRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

guide and improve your taste, so that on the whole it
would be sater and better to trust to drawings and
photographs of reaiiy good works, which must be
correct.

The carver will, doubtless, in many instances, find it
necessary to enlarge or rctluce the dimensions of his
model or design, as it would be unlikely that he could
find a drawing or photograph of precisely the retjuisite
size. In this case we would advise him to adopt a
mechanical plan in vogue amongst copyisls, namely,
to cover the face of the design with a network of
horizontal and perpendicular lines by means of a light
pencil or chalk; or if you do not wish to make marks
on the design, stretch threads across from edge to
edge in the following manner: The picture or photo-
graph must first be fi.xed on a drawing-board, or, if
you have not one, any soft pine board which will not
warp will do as well; then mark out a square enclosing
it — let us say 12 inches in size; of course, this will
vary according to the dimensions of the photograph.
Each inch on both sides and at the top and bottom
must be exactly measured off and marked with a short
steel pin or tack; strain threads first horizontally and
then perpendicularly from pin to pin, then take a
sheet of drawing paper of the exact size you intend
your carving to be, and on it rule the same number of
lines as there are threads over the photograph. You
will thus have the same number of squares in each,
larger or smaller, as the case may be. In each square
on your drawing paper sketch in the figure, i-art of
figure, or whatever is the subject which is enclosed in
the corresponding sijuare of the photograph. By this
simple method even the most clumsy draughtsman is
enabled to make a sufficiently correct outline.

FIGURK CARVING

217

In order, however, to f,'ive a «:Irar idra of !iow t<»
enlarge a drawing wc submit the followinj; method:
Readers who arc

inexperienced in
theartof draut,'hts-
manship, and to
whom "drawing to
scale" is a term
with a deeply mys-
terious meaning,
naturally find it
very difficult to

mak(

use

sketch or design
which happens to
be many times
smaller than it is
intended to be car-
ried out. The en-
I a r g i n g from a
small sketch will
be found tiresome
and liable to lead
to error; and
again, where the
beauty of the de-
sign depends on
subtle curvatuics
and nice spacing,
the inexpert will
be apt to spoil the
whole by injudi-
cious touches. For
all that, there is

ACK^Cf^gj**^^

Fig. 125.

C ab c d e jg j)
Fig. 126.

:ti8

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fig. 127.

room left for the
exercise of the
clrauKhtsman's art, as
will presently ap-
pear.

There are four
ways of enlarKini^ a
clesifjn. One is the
method of enlargin^,'
by means of squarlnfj
over the design, and
another involves the
use of an instrument
known as the panto-
graph.

When speaking of
'designs" in this
connection, it should
be understood that
ornament rather than
construction is
meant.

We shall deal first
with that involving
only the use of paper
and pencil, drawing
board, T-square, etc.;
the method leaves
some little drawing
to the hand of the
operator, which the
pantograph does not,
but few will be found
unequal to the task,

FIGURE CARVING

.'19

more "life" in th trt-t-
liti- mcchanicallv clone

and there is jjener.illy a little
hand drawin^^' than in that <i
The example mentioned, a piece of carved ornament f«.'r
a mirror frame, will serve excellently for illustration,
hein},'boKl, free ami simple, yet admirable in its class.
It is here reproduced, l-'i;;. IJ5, as original, and by its
side will be seen the sami; desi;;n "sipiared over" to
show the principle of enlarj^dn;,' by this method. Fi^j.
127 shows the desi^Mi enlart,'ed to three times the ori;,'-
inal, and the way this is accomplished, while it may
be obvious to many, remains to be explained.

The first thing to be done is to ^et the outline of
the extreme outside of the panel. If the drawinjj is to
be made direct on the w"^-
be the edges of the fii
or other purely constn 1
posing the enlargement

IS outline wi

11. of

course

)ard (neglecting tenons
etaiis). We are sup-
to three times the
original; measuring this, wo . .id the outline to be 4j;^
inches (bare) by 1 inch. Multi[)lying each of these
dimensions by three gives us the size of the finished
board, 14%' inches (say) by 3 inche- (The whole
length '>f ?4 inches cannot, of course, be acco
mod.
is showi
explanation. ■>

1 1; one of these pages, so that only h.ilf
riiis will make no difference to the

e next process is the divisi

on o

f th

e original

drawing into a number of rectangular spaces. Any
mber of divisions will do, but the closer they are

the more exact will be the reproduction; but if too
close will prove troublesome. As the drawing is an
inch wide, it will be simplest to divide the width at
top and bottom into eight equal parts ( 's inch each)

and

join up as shown in I'lg. 12O. Piad the width
been, say, i^^ inches, eight divisions would still have

.r^:t'^»

IT"

220

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

]!^cn a very suitable amount, but the ordinary scale
or )■ lie would have been useless and a pair of com-
pr. scs or dividers would have to be used to space out
the divisions equally. The important point is to get
all the spaces accurately alike, as on this depends the
correctness of the copy.

The vertical height of the drawing has next to be
divided up. There is not the least necessity to make
these spaces the same as the others, so long as a con-
venient width can be found for them, but in the pres-
ent case }i inch spaces -u'i// be found convenient,
largely because this happens to be the most ordinary
spacing on a two-foot or other rule. Starting from the
top of the drawing at A, therefore, mark off }4 inch
spaces all the way down to C; and then do the same
from B towards D. Join the marks so made so as to
cover the whole drawing with a square network like
Fig. 126. Use a fine-pointed hardish pencil for the
purpose, and do not press too heavily; the page will
not be spoiled by the process, even if the lines are
not afterwards rubbed out.

It will be noticed that owing to the length of A B
(4I I inches) not being an amount exactly divisible into
eighths, a small space about ^s inch wide is left at the
bottom. Neglect this, as it will not in the least inter-
fere with subsequent operations.

Now turn to the outline already prepared for the
enlarged drawing (Al Bl, Ci Ui, Fig. 127). Al Bl
and Ci Dl have to be divided into the same number
of spaces as A B,C D in Fig. 126, viz., eight. Obviousiy
tnese spaces will be three times the size of the others,
and )4 inch x 3 = ^s inch. Mark off A I Bl, therefore,
at intervals of 3h mch and do the same at tne other
end of the pilaster, and join up. Had A B been

i^mm^i

i*,>^

Z^_^,

FIGURE CARVING

221

divided into eight parts with the dividers, owing to the
impossibility of using a definite division on an ordinary
rule, Al lU would likewise have to be divided with
compasses, by trial, in the same way.

Similar proceedings have to be taken in the case of
the height Ai Ci. It is all plain sailing in this instance,
as one has r ily to mark off intervals of -)4 inch all the
way down from Ai and Bi and join up. Note that at
the bottom a narrow space should occur, corresponding
with that at the bottom of the original. To simplify
matters, number the divisions on the original, and
copy in some such manner as here shown, where / in
Fig, 126 corresponds with i in Fig. 127, 2 with 2, a
with a, d with b, and so on.

We are now ready for transferring the drawing, the
process being similar to that one learns at school for
copying maps. Every point where a line in the
original crosses either a horizontal or vertical line, can
be located on the copy with absolute precision, and
when a number of such points have been found, can
be readily joined up by freehand drawing. Take the
case of the piint marked :; (near the bottom of Fig.
126). This point marks a place where the drawing
crosses both a vertical and horizontal line at their
intersection. Following the lines along, they will be
found to be No. 36 (horizontal) and c (vertical).
Turning to Fig. 127, the intersection of 36 and c is
easily found, and a dot should be made there, ::. The
next point on the curve of the leaf to which we are
paying attention is on line 35, at y; this is approxi-
mately half-way between vertical lines d and c, and a
similar position half-way between d and c on line 35 in
Fig. 127 can easily be found; it is marked j. In the
same way the points x, w, v, u are transferred to the

'n^m. - '•mmm^^m,J< "m^

222

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

larj^fiT drawing;;, where they are marked by correspond-
ing; letters, and so on, rijjht throiij^h the desi|;n.

It will be foiuul the best plan to sketch in each leaf
or similar small portion of the design as soon as the
points markinj; its position have been fixed. This will
avoid the confusion likely to occur if a larfje area is
covered with dots, which will tend to become meanins;-
less. Thus the leaf marked out may be sketched in
quite regardless of the other leaves, stalks, etc., sur-
rounding it. At the top of the drawing the finished
design IS given, and it will be seen how closely this
copies by the original, from which it was taken
precisely by this method.

It is not generally imperative that absolute accuracy
should be observed in copying; consequently the little
differences due to slight aberrations of the hand when
sketching in will by no means mar the work. The
unpracticed amateur will do well to follow the direc-
tions given implicitly, but he will find in time that it
is quite easy to do without marking any points on his
enlarged drawing, simply drawing freehand, watching
the original with one eye and the copy with the other,
as it were. In this way a copy can be made with a
very near approximation to accuracy and very quickly,
all that is necessary being close attention to three
lines— the drawing and the upright and horizontal
lines.

While all the above may be very clear in the com-
paratively simple instance given, a number of slight
variations may arise which are sure to puzzle a
beginner. Suppose, instead of an enlargement of
this simple kind, where the small drawing is to the
large m the proportion of one to three, that the larger
is no definite multiple of the other. To state a case,

^ssssiSm

:-i?L_ '■ ?a;

S^*«i4^ - ''lap*-^

FIGURE CARVLXG

223

we can imagine the worker to have a panel of suitahh-
proportions to take the design (Fig. 125). only that it
happens to be, say, 4,»« inches wide. All he has to
do IS to divide the width int. eight equal parts, by
means of the dividers, taking no notice of what the
actual widths are on a scale (4/'« -. 8 = ,Y., an amount
vhich could never be marked off with an ordinary rule
with accurac)'). In this case the best way to mark off
the vertical heights would be to stretch the legs of the
dividers accurately to the full width of the board (4i«,
inches) and mark off that amount all the way down
each side. Then close up the dividers to am- space
width and mark off each of the long divisions into
eight parts. If the small spacing is marked off with
the dividers right away down the side without the
larger spacings to guide one, errors are apt to creep
m and even to get multiplied as the marking proceeds
If the side A C (Fig. 126) has been divided up into
any given numbers of parts, so that these spaces are
nonhc same as those along A B, all that need be done
IS to divide up the sides of the board into a similar
number of equal parts, ignoring the spacing (A B)
altogether.

It has been tacitly assumed in the above that the
enlarged drawing was strictly proportionate to the
other, both in width and length. It may, however,
sometimes occur that the reader notes a design which
he particularly desires to employ in filling a given
space, which is a little too long or too wide for strict
proportion. He must, of course, decide whether the
disproportion is too violent, as it would never do to
enlarge a drawing like Fig. 125 to, sav, twice the
width and three times the length; vet it would h-
reasonable to enlarge it to 4 inches in width and 20^

SWSLH»W*/*l,

224

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

inches in length, and few would be able to discover
the discrepancy. To do this, it is necessary to divide
up the long side, A B in Fig. 126, not into eighths, but
into any equal parts, and then to divide the 20^4 inches
into the "ame number of parts. In the present case
those on A H will be slightly more than }4 inch each;
the subsequent marking oft will finish the design.

We have hitherto spf'';cn of carving in basso-relievo
merely from a secular point of view, as works of art
or embellishment of a room. But this style enter;
also largely into ecclesiastical ornamentation, and
there are few finer subjects for the carver's skill than
an altar piece, reredos, or panels of a like nature.
This, however, is not the place (nor, indeed, is it
within the limit we have given ourselves) to enter into
details as regards this speciil style of work. Those
of our readers who intend to turn their attention to
this branch of that art would do well before they
undertake any work of this kind to consult with an
architect, or some one well versed in such. matters
(unless he has studied the subject himself), and to pro-
cure a slight sketch of the style and proportions best
suited to the church which he proposes to decorate, in
order that his work may amalgamate with the age and
architecture of the edifice.

As this book is intended purely as a guide to begin-
ners, those designs have been chosen which we consider
as especially suited to this class, rather than to the
professional carver, and for this reason we have con-
fined ourselves to drawings and description of such
subjects as the amateur can execute without the inter-
vention of much professional help from the cabinet-
maker.

The main object of the beginners should be to pro-

S^^aiaSM

FIGURE CARVING

225

duce artistic work in which the mere expense is
secondary and kept in abeyance to pure art. With
this idea in view he will have a chance of excelling,
and possibly of designing and executing original work,
but this he cannot hope to do if he merely follow in
the foot^'eps and copies, however faithfully and skill-
fully, the works of professional furniture carvers, who,
with the advantage of constant practice, combined
with, perhaps, a long apprenticeshi[) in a large work-
shop, will be sure to surpass the amateur in the manu'i'
part of this work, however gifted the latter may be.
In all employments the professional must work in such
a manner and on such subjects as will ensure
good and certain wages, and not according to his own
special taste. The learner has probably ample time at
command and therefore should give full scope to his
own artistic fancies instead of reproducing other peo-
ple's ideas, for it is to him that we must look for
inventiveness and imagination. Let him then follow
his own special line, feeling assured that what of skill
may be wanting is more than compensated by natural
talent, exceeding probably by many degrees the pro-
fessional carver who pursues the calling not from any
special predilection, but solel\- through circumstances
or necessities.

We now come to the (]uest!on. what are we going to
do with all the pieces of carving which we propose to
undertake?

There is no more inexorable law relating to the use
of wood carving than the one which insists upon some
kind of passport for its introduction, wherever it
appears. It must come in good company and be
properly introduced. The slightest and mnst distant
connection with a recognized sponsor is often sufficient,

til

■iF^fPH

ifi

226

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

but it will not be received alone. We do not make
carvings to rang on a wall and be admired altogether
on their own account. They must decorate some
object. A church screen, a font, a piece of furniture,
or even the handle of a knife It is not always an easy
matter to find suitable objects upon which to exercise
our wood carving talents. Our furniture is all made
now in a wholesale manner which permits of no
interference with its construction, while at the 3ame
time, if we wish to put any carving upon it, it is
absolutely essential that both construction and decora-
tion should be considered together.

A very modest beginning may be made in adapting
ornament to a useful article, by carving the surface of
a bread plate. These are usually made of some hard
wood, such as sycamore. They may be made of oak,
but sycamore has the advantage in its lighter color,
which is more likely to be '<ept clean. A good sug-
gestion is given in Fig. 128 jT carving appropriate to
this purpose. The essentials are, that there should be
a well-defined pattern^ simple in construction and as
effective as possible with little labor; that there should
be little or no rounding of surface, the design con-
sisting of gouge cuts and incisions arranged to express
the pattern. The incisions may form a regular sunk
ground, but it should not be deep, or it will not be eas-
ily kept clean. Then, as in cutting bread the knife
comes in contact with the surface, no delicate work is
advisable; a large treatment with broad surfaces, and
some plam spaces left to protect the carved work, is
likely to prove satisfactory in every way. A piece
of sycamore should be procured ready for carving;
this may be got from a wood turner, but it will be
as well to give him a drawing, on which is shown the

■*M

'>*.

,iy

■\-%:^^'*^.

FIGURE CARVING

22;

section of edge and the position of all turned lines
required for confinin;,' the dra\vin^^ If the plate is to
be of any shape other than circular, then it must he
neatly made by yourself.

Many of you are, we have no doubt, handy joiners,
and may be able to put together some pieces of
furniture to serve at least as an excuse for the intro-

FiG. 128.

duction of your carving. Here are some suggestions
for corner cupboards, chosen as giving the largest area
for carved surface with the minimum of expense in
construction. The material should be oak, if possible,
or it may be walnut. The doors of Figs. 129 and 130
are in three narrow boards with shallow beads at the
joints, those of the others are each made of i single
board and should be /. to H inch thick; the doors

228

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

may l)e about ' feet 6 inches high, each having two
ledges, about 3 inches wide, screwed on behind lop

<tqQ.«<fc^«Qri

\/^\b^ ^^ >Si^ /gV>X:^

JBa/^

Fig. i2g.

Fig. 130.

FIGURK CARXING

229

and bottom to keep them from twistinfj. All mould-
ings, beads, etc., are to be carved by hand, no planes

Fig. 131

230

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

..cing used. lla\ inji traced the lines of your design
iipDii the board, you may be^in, if there are mould-
m^s, as in Fig. 13 1, In- using a joiner's marking gau.,'c
to groove out the deepest parts of the parallel lines .a
the mouldings along tiie edges, doing the same to the
curvetl ones with a \' tool or veiner. Then form the
mouldings with your chisels or gouges. Keep them
very ''at in section, as in Fig. 133.

The fret jiatterns in Figs. 131, 133 and 134, where not
pierced, should be done in low relief, not more than
}i inch ileep, and the sides of the. bands beveled as in
section a. Fig. 132. The widths of these bands ought
not to be less than ^ inch, and look better if they are
wider. Very narrow bands have a better appearance

<-CA«vinc

Figs. 132 a.nd 133.

if, instead of being cut straight down, they are
hollowed at sides like b in Fig. 1 32.

Fig. 136 is a detail of a kind of gouge work which
you must know very well. One perpendiculai cut of
a gouge driven in with the mallet, and one side cut,
should form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped
holes. They should not be too deep in proportion to
their size. Their combinations may be varied to a
great extent. Two or three common ones are shown
in the illustration. This form of ornament was in all
likelihood invented by some ingenious carpenter with
a turn lor art and a limited stock of tools for carving.
His humble contribution to the resources of the

FIGURE CARVING

r<r*«**

A^AVAVA^AV
VAVAVAVAWA

Fig. 134.

Fig. 135.

25^

PRACTICAI, \V{)(^r) CARVING

carver's art has rcccivid its tint- share of the flattery
which is iinpliiil by imitation. In all these patterns
it is Will to reini'ni!)er that tin- flat surface of the hoard
ii ft Ix'twi-en the cuts Is really the imp(>rtant thin^; to
cunsiilir. as all varirty is ohtainitl hy disposinj,' the

CL€l<L €L<L

Pattern

THIMBUE
PATTEf^M
ARAANOCD
TO Pf^ODUCE
WAVCD UINES

<3 cx €3; <x

^;^ ^;^ PATTERN

^"7^ ^^r" vs/avb" pattern

Fig. 136.

'i-i.

FIGUKK CA; [VG

233

holes in such a way as to prod . I'l-.- patt.rn r(."quirccl
by means of their outlines or ' f. in surface. Thu ,
waved lin. s are- produced as 'u I ^r. ,3^,, atid little
niches like mimic architecture ., . ,!, i-i^. 137, hy the
addition of the triantjular-shai)e,l holes at the top and
the splayed sills at th'' bottom. (It is (ibvious th r in
arran^'ement like the latier should never be turned
upside down.) If this attention to the surface pattern
IS nef,dected th<.' holts are apt to become nvre confusefl
and meaningless spots.

In small pieces of furniture like these, which are
made of comparatively thin wood, the carvinj^' need not
have much depth, say the ground is sunk >4: inch at
the deepest. As oak is more tenacious than pine, you
wil! find - i.Tter fr<edom in working it. although it is
so mud. h ir-ie-r to cut. Vou may find it nec':ssar\ to
use the mallet for the greater part of the blocking out,
but ''t need not be much used in finishing. A series
of fhort strokes driven by g<ntie tai)s of the mallet
will often make a better curve than if the same is
attempted without its aid.

It will be well now to procure the remainder of Lhe
set of twenty-four tools if you have not already got
them, as they will be required for the foliage we are
about to attempt. The deep gouges are especially
useful; having two different sweeps on each tool, they
adapt themielves to hollows which change in section
as they advance.

Fig. 131 contains very little foliage, such as there is
being disposed in small diamond shaped spaces, sunk
in the face of the doors, and a small piece on the
bracket below All this work should be of a very
simple character, definite in turm and broad in
treatment.

234

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fig. 138 is more elabornte, but on much the same
lines of design, varied by having a larger space filled
with groups of leaves. Fig. 137 gives the carving to a
larger scale; in it the oak leaves arc shown with raised
veins in the center, the others being merely indicated

SECTION «L SECTIOfM b

CARVINC IN PANELS

Fig. 137.

■■ir

■*

FIGURE CARVING

235

by the gouge hollows. There is some attempt in this
at a more natural mode of treating the foliage. While
3uch work is being carved, it is well to look now and
then at the natural forms themselves (oak and laurel
in this case), in order to note their characteristic
features, and as a wholesome check on the dangers of
mannerism.

It is a general axiom founded upon the evidence of
past work, and a respect for the laws of construction
in the carpenter's department, that when foliage
appears in panels divided by plain spaces it should
never be made to look as if \\. grciv from one panel into
the other, with the suggestion of boughs passing behind
the solid parts. This is a characteristic of Japanese
work and may, perhaps, be admirable when used in
delicate painted decorations on a screen or other light
furniture, but in carvings it disturbs the effect of
solidity in the materials, and serves no purpose which
cannot be attained in a much better way. Expedients
have been invented to overcome the difficulty of mak-
ing a fresh start in each panel, one of which is shown
in Fig. 137, where the beginning of the bough is hidden
under a .leaf. It is presumable that the bough 7nay go
on behind the uncarved portions of the board, to
reappear in another place, but we need not insist upon
the fanc)', which loses all its power when attention is
called to it, like riddles when the answer is known.

In Fig. 134, like the last, the treatment is somewhat
realistic. This is shown to a larger scale in Fig. 140.
Nevertheless, it has all been "arranged" to fit its
allotted space, and all accidental elements eliminated;
such, for instance, as leaves disappearing in violent
perspective, or even turned sidcwise, and ail minute
details which would not be likely to show con-

WMSm^KSTiiprr

236

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

spicuously if carved in wood. Pig. 141 is a detail
copied from nature, but which might stand without
alteration provided it formed part of a work delicate

Fig. 139,

-: wv. - aMB fl ajMJii y^'^nfa^a.K^gTBBgs---^ ^

FIGURE CARVING

237

enough to note such close elaboration in so small a
space. This, of course, would entirely depend upon
the purpose for which the carving was intended, and
\yhether it was meant for distant view or close inspec-
tion. As there is arrangement necessary in forming
the outline, so there is just as much required in
designing the articulation of the surfaces of the leaves.

I II . I'^wJifj t j^tWiv^f/i i j ^ jKi n

Fig. 140.

which should be so treated that their hollows fall into
a semblance of some kind of pattern.

Fig. 135 is a more formal design, or, to use a very
much abused word, more "conventional," in which
such leafage as there is only serves the purpose of
ornamental points, marking the divisions of the
general design. The gouge work upon the leaves
should be of the simplest description, but strict atten-

238 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

lion is necessary in drawing the grooves so that their
forms may be clear and emphatic, leaving no doubt as
to the pattern intended. Designs of this kind have

no interest whatever
except as pieces of
patterned work, to
which end every
other consideration
should be sacrificed.
It must not be cut
too deeply — say ^
inch at the deepest —
and the sides of the
panels should be very
gently hollowed out
with a flattish sweep
(see section on Fig.
139), in order to
avoid any appearance
of actual construc-
tion in what more or
less imitates the
stiles and rails of a
door. Fig. 139 shows
a portion of the leaf-
age to a larger scale,
and also a plan ex-
plaining the con-
struction of all these
cupboards.

Fig. 139 is designed upon the barest suggestion of
natural foliage, the wavy stem being quite flat, and
running out flush into the flat margins at the sides,
connecting them together. The leaves in this case

Fig. 141.

i.^..^'JMi,., IL i-«-

fi?i"^wfn»if!

FIGURE CARVING

239

Fig. 142.

should be carved, leaving the veins standing solid;
grooved veins would have a meager look upon such
rudimentary leaves. Of course a more natural treat-
ment may be
given to this kind
of design, but in
that case it would
require to be car-
ried all over the
door and replace
the formally or-
namental center
panel. The
pierced pattern
in cresting should
be done as al-
ready described.

Fig. 130 is a variant on the .ast design. In this case
a little more play of surface is attempted, making a
point of carving the side lobes of the leaves into little
rounded masses which will reflect points of light.
This is shown better in Fig. 142.

In carving foliage like that of the vine, where small,
dark holes or eyes occur, enough wood should be left

round them to form deep,

dark little pits. They are

very valuable as points of

shadow. In doing this, cut

the rim all round with a very

slight bevel, as in section.

Fig. 143. Whenever leaves

run out to a fine edge they should have a small bevel like

this, in order to avoid an appearance of weakness which .

acute edges always present. As a general rule, leave as

O&CTION

a. . a.

Fig. 143.

240 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

FIGURE CARVING

241

much wood as possible about the edges of leaves, as you
want shadow from them — dipping them only where
you are sure the variety will be effective. In the
execution of
bunches of
r o u n d e d
forms like
grapes there
is no special
mechanical
exp«'dient for
doing them
quickly and
easily; each
must be cut
out separate-
ly and carved
with what-
ever t o o Is
come h an-
diest to their
shape and
size. It is a
good way to
begin by cut-
ting triangu-
lar hjles be-
tween the
grapes with
t^e point of a

small chisel, after which the rough shapes left may grad-
ually be formed into ovals. When the work is very sim-
ple in character, and docs not require a realistic treat-
ment, the grapes may be done in a more methodical way.

Fig. 145.

Miili

242

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fig. 146,

A beautiful ex-
ample is shown in
Fig. 144 of a slip
of ivy, where the
three stages of
drawing, rough-
out and finishing
are exhibited. No.

1 shows the slip
sketched out, No.

2 the rough-out,
D D D D showing
the stems of the
leaves, and E E E
the berries. No.

3 shows the work
about complete.

What is consid-
ered by experts to
be one of the most
wonderful wood
carvings in the
world, and which is
in the possession
of an Italian living
in Baltimore, Md.,
is shown in Fig.
145. He brought it
to this country
from Italy, where
he secured it from a
second-hand deal-
who did not
know of its value.

FIGURE CARVING

=43

Fig. 146 shows a fine specimen of carving,', (he
original of which was brought from Switzerland by a
tourist. This is an excellent piece of work, and is quite
natural and forms a suitable finish for a walking
cane.

Another good specimen of work which came from
the same place is illustrated in Fig. 147. This little
bear, a few inches in size, is carved in a way which
shows long experience of the subject and great

Fig. 147.

familiarity with the animal's ways. The tooling of the
hair is done with the most extraordinary skill, and
without the waste of a single touch. Now a word or
two more on studies from the life before we leave this
subject. We have given examples of diagrams made
for this purpose, but much m.-^y be done without any
drawings further than a preliminary map of the
general masses. In the case of such an animal as the
horse, which can be seen in every street, it will

^^yiSiTivL^sr-tct

244

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fig. 148.

be found useful to
follow them in
their walks, taking
mental note of such
details as happen to
engage your atten-
tion, such as the lej]s
and joints, the heal
or neck; another day
confine your atten-
tion to eyes, ears,
mane, etc., always
with reference to the
work immediately in
hand, as that is the
time to get the best
results from life
study, because the
difficulties have pre-
s e n t e d themselves,
and one knows ex-
actly what to look
for. Five minutes
spent thus after the
work has been started
(provided the start
has been right and
involves no mistakes
in the general masses)
is more valuable than
hours of labor in
making preliminary
drawings.

The use of experi-

mfE

'rw

FIGURE CARVING

245

mental models in clay or wax has, of course, Ul advan-
tages, hut it will In- wtll to know just how far such an
aid is valuable and at what point its use becomes hurt-

Fic. 149.

^t;

i4f ' ♦

246

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Iff

ful to one's work. It is a common practice in large
carving shops for one man to design the figure or
animal subjects in clay, while another carves them
in stone or wood.

An excellent example for practice is shown in Fig.
148, which exhibits a portion of an oak branch showing

complete acorns,
leaves, stctn and
acorn cups. This
could be continued
fo' a border, or for
the face of a picture
ff ime, and the c« ner
. ouldbemadeso ihat
e design would be
continuous.

The full-page cie-
sii ^ of grape and
Vhic leaves. Fig. 149,
offers a fine chance
for expert li ss with
tools. The prapes
overlapping each
other will require
some skill ii wo'"k-
ing them out, and
the leaves wi ' also
require some di . icate
h;aidling. This is a
beautiful example
and ihmid not be attempted UiUil the young work-
man ha- e onfidence in his own ability to exo
cute it. \r .u.y lale, if (he workman does not make
a satisiav,^;. iob of it on the first attempt, he should

Ftw, 150.

Mil

IIGURE CARVING

?47

not be discouraged, hut try .igain and n^ain, and sue
ct,s will surely follow.

The ornament shown in '"ig. 150 is omposed of
mixed work, part of it being turn 'd in the lathe, part
of it being carved, and part plain. Moulded work of
this kind is often made very beautitul and is frequently
employed in architectural work.

H
I -it-

CHAPTER VII

INCISED, INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING

This is a style of carving sometimes called deep carv-
ing, and by workmen often called "scratch carving";
the proper name, however, is "incised work." A few
years ago it was very much employed on furniture, and

with very good

" effect; recently,

however, relief

work has in a

-? great measure

superseded i t ,

and very little of it is now

employed.

This style of work was
at one time extensively
used in Italy, and many
choice specimens have come down to us
in many forms. It is especially adapted
for very fine work, such as jewelry, book
covers and toilet sets, beautiful speci-
mens of which are often made of ebony,

Fig 151 ^^^ °^^' ^^^' ^"^ °^ *^^ harder woods,

ivory and bone, and even pearl.
This method of carving is very likely of Egyptian
origin, as it was used by the monument builders in
outlining their figures, which was done by cutting down
perpendicularly on the outside and leaving the inside
edges just rounded off only, while the inside pattern

248

MMMMirinaiKi

!»1:iM'

iMiiili

INCISED, INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING 249

was not cut away at all. This peculiar method of
cutting the groove straight on one side and rounding
it off on the other was quite effective and brought out
the work in prominent relief and shadow.

This kind of carving is sometimes painted in the
incisions and some-
times varnished or
gilded, which im-
proves the work
very much. White
and blue, or vermil-
ion, is sometimes
employed on this
kind of work and
when properly done
makes a very dainty
finish, but black or
dark brown is to be
preferred, and if
gilded in the grooves
the effect is quite
charming.

It is not intended
to say much on the
subject of incised
carving, but it may
not be out of place
to give a few illus-
trations and sugges-
tions on the subject,
showing what may be done and how to do it so that
the young workman may have something to work at by
his own fireside to give to his friends if he feels so
disposed.

SECTION

Fig. 152.

mmmm

250

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Figs. 151 and 152 arc suggestions for a book cover,
or for the backs of a blotting case, or any similar work.
The material is quite thin, not more than a quarter of
an inch thick at the most, and would be even better
thinner, and the carving is very shallow.

In making book covers, it is not necessary to make
the reverse side elaborate; so in this case the illustra-
tion shown in Fig. 151 may be considered the reverse
side, which only exhibits a few simple incised lines
which are cut with a parting or V tool principally.
The other cover, Fig. 152, represents a conventional
arrangement of ivy leaves surrounded by a carved
moulding, and with a shield in the center for mono-
gram or crest. It may be carved in either boxwood,
sycamore, or fine-grained walnut wood. Before com-
mencing the carving it will be necessary that the
corners are perfectly square; by this I mean that the
angles are right angles, and the object of this is to
allow the cover, when finished, to be properly bound.
The wood should be about % inch in thickness for the
front and about ^^ inch thick for the reverse side.
These carved covers are, in binding, inserted into a
sort of panel, and books or blotting pads suitable for
carved sides require to be specially made. The best
plan is to send the sides when carved to a practical
bookbinder to fit on the book when binding. This de-
f.ign, like many others, may easily be enlarged to suit
£ny sized book. -The general working and treatment
of this pattern will be in every respect similar to others
described in this book, and the groundwork may either
be punched or left plain at the discretion of the work-
man. We would, however, call attention to the
veining of the leaves. Of course, in natural ivy
leaves there are five principal veins with innumerable

wssf^mmm

KJ ^

INCISED, INTAGLO OR SUNK CARVING 251

smaller veins branchinjj out from th- rr bat in carving
it is sufficient to show the principal vtins onjy, and for
variety some of these juay be lefi raised— as in the
natural leaf— and the olhers cut in with a very small
veiner. The tendrils shown in the sketch are simply
intended to be incised lines only, rnd not carved in
relief like the rest of the design. Tiie moulding round
the outside of the cover is sufkiently defined in the
illustration and needs no further explanation.

We may now give a brief explanation as 10 the
methods ' -ployed and tools an.' materials required
for executing fine small work in art
articles or fancy jewelry, such as
earrings, bracelets, brooches and
similar work. These things may be
carved from ebony, bog oak, box-
wood, lancewood, or our own iron-
wood or hornbeam. These woods
may be procured in our large cities
from dealers in fret saw and ama-
teur goods generally.

The tools for t'^is kind of work require to be special
and may have to be home-mad»: if they cannot be pro-
cured fxL a dealer. It is much better to buy them
than to make :hem, when it is possible to do so. In
F'&- 153 I give a sketch of the sizes and sweeps of a
few of the tools that will be found most useful, but in
addition a very small parting or V tool and the small-
est obtainable veiner will be required. Great care
must be taken in having the tools sharp, for if not
sharp good work is impossible. Another very useful
tool is called a "macaroni," and is frequently used
for showing raised veins or foliage, etc. The cutting
edge is shown at C, Fig. 153, being three sides of a

U V

C ^ D

TOOLS FOREBONY WORK."
ACTUAL SIZE.

A, Straipht Tools ; B, Bent
Tool* J C, Maccaronij
P. Veiner; E, Partinj
Tool

Fig. 153.

bS^MM

252 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

square. This tool requires great care in sharpening,
but will be found a most useful tool when in proper
order. '

VVc give illustrations of a set of jewelry consisting
of a brooch and earrings, having for their decoration
motive the ivy leaf. The ebony or other material for
these designs should be planed to the thickness of
about a quarter of an inch, unless it is desired to make
the work appear in very bold relief, when an additional
^-.,^^_^ one-eighth of an inch

r^^*^ ^"»*^ would be required. A

piece of ihin white
paper should be pasted
on the work and the
outline to be fret cut,
as in Fig. 154, traced
upon it. After being
fret-cut, glue down the
ebony to a piece of
pine, taking care to in-
sert between the ebony ani the pine a piece of brown
paper. The outline of the whole design should now be
tra :ed on the face of the broo and the superfluous
wood cut away, and the backg. .und regulated with a
smaller router so as to be of uniform depth. In setting
in the outlines, care must be taken not to undercut the
leaves. When this is done, use a quick tool to rough
111 the leaves and to show the course of the stem, after-
wards regulating the outlines of the leaves, finishing
the twist of each leaf and giving a rough appearance to
the stem. Although it is impossible to exactly imitate
the natural leaf and stem, still the chief characteristics
should be preserved, and the amateur will find it con-
venient to have a few of the natural ivy leaves before

Ib4-

INCISED, INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING 253

Fig. 155.

him. The rough appearance is given to the stem by
means of the veiner, parting tool and a small flat tool.
The next thing to do is to punch the groundwork,
regulate the fret-cut
outlines of the design
and put in the neces-
sary veins of the leaves.
The brooch can now
be taken up and the
glue cleaned off the
back. The edges of the
leaves require to be
chamfered from the
back, and the stem
rounded off, when we may consider the brooch to be
finished, so far as the carving is considered. Ebony
should not, except in very few instances, be polished, as
it takes an excellent gloss if smartly brushed with a hard
brush which has been slightly moist-
ened with boiled linseed oil. The ear-
rings are carved in exactly the same
way, and both can be fret-cut at once
by gluing together and marking the
outline upon the upper one only. It
must be noticed, however, that they be
carved in pairs.

The fitting up of the brooch and ear-
rings. Figs. 155 and 156, had better be
left to a jeweler, although the amateur
can easily do what is necessary if he
feels so disposed. The brooch pins and
catches can be bought for a few cents (but they should
be of gold or silver) from any working jeweler, and
with the small veiner the amateur -an make the holes

Fig. 156.

-.^s-^,^...w=,..;'..:.„.,.

f-(

254

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

in the back of the brooch to admit the pins of the
catch. A little powdered shellac should be sprinkled
in the holes, and the pins heated in the gas and then
placed in position, when, owing to the melting of the
shellac, they will be firmly fixed.

Very little trouble will be experienced, we think, by
the amateur in making these brooches, etc., from
ebony; the only disadvantage is that the wood is rather

brittle, but it works firmly
under the tool. Often
ebony brooches, earrings,
crosses, etc., are sold for
bog oak or jet; boxwood
and other close-grained
woods are sometimes dyed
black and sold for ebony,
bog oak and jet.

In making bracelets the
same rules may, to a large
extent, be followed, only
in this case it is best to
prepare the wood in slips
of the requisite width both
for the centerpieces and
for the small blocks com-
posing the remainder of the bracelet. After cutting
these slips, they should be planed slightly hollow on
the inside, and the sides also planed so as to fit closely
together, and then cut into lengths rather longer than
the width of the bracelet.

These blocks can now be glued on a circular piece of
pine the size of the inside of the bracelet, and the
edges and outside regulated in a turning lathe until the
proper thickness and width is obtained; and if the

CARVED EBONY BRACELET:

A, Bnc«let complete. B, Centre.
C, Side piece.

Fig. 157.

INCISED, INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING 255

bracelet is to be carved in relief, the depth of the
background can also be indicated.

In the case cf the centerpieces, it is not of much use
to regulate the edges of these, as they will probably be
of an oval shape and must be cut with the saw and filed
true before being carved. The design can now be
carved on the small blocks, which, when finished, will
require two small holes bored through each piece, as
shown at a a. Fig,

157, and these
holes can easily be
bored in the lathe.
In the Case of the
centerpiece, these
holes should be
countersunk in or-
der to admit of the
knots 01 the small
round elastic on
which the blocks
are threaded and
which serve to
keep the bracelet
together. To en-
sure uniformity,
the holes should
all be bored at equal distances. After this has
been done the bracelet may be considered com-
plete.

The ornamentation may consist either of a relieved
design, or the centerpiece only may be in relief, and
the remainder of the pattern maybe incised, as in Fig.
157. It is a mistake to make these bracelets too
heavy, but the size must, of course, be left to the

Section along A A.
example of incised wobk.
Fig. 158.

Mm i

256

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

it-

individual fancy of the amateur, as the design here
given is only offered as a suggestion.

Other articles of personal ornament may be carved in
ebony, such as pins for the hair, buttons, etc., but in
every case it is better to leave the wood dull and not
brightly polished.

We will now give a few directions for the incised
work which will be of greater service to all amateur
wood carvers than the previous exam-
ples. This style of decoration consists
in the design being simply incised, or
in first incising the lines round the
object and then carving the surface
within to correspond with the various
parts of the design. The ground is
thus left standing and the object sunk
below the level of the
ground, although the
surface of the orna-
ment itself is
carved, an
example o f
which is seen
in Fig. 158,
the surface of
the design
being indi-
cated by the
section along
the line A A.
Incised work is suitable for a variety of articles used
in indoor decoration, and is often applied most
effectively to the ornamentation of piano fronts,
furniture of every description, brackets and picture

Fig. 159.

INCISED, INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING 257

IS easy
of the

to do, needing only a
tools, combined with

frames. The work
thorough command
delicacy of touch and
a good eye for grace-
ful lines, the manual
labor required being
absolutely nil, and
nearly any design is
applicable.

Incised work may
also be done in any
wood, the incised
portion being left of
the natural color of
the wood, or stained.
The first process is
to stain and polish
the wood; the design
is then marked on the
surface and the in-
cised portion cutout,
the work being again
polished to obliterate
any accidental
scratches, and the ex-
posed portions of the
design are gilded in
oil; when the surface
of the wood is black,
any mistake or acci-
dental slip of the tool
is easily rectified by

filling up the cut with glue and sawdust. There are sev-
eral methods adopted for transferring the design to the

Fig. 160.

258

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

i; :*

EI ■'.

••f

wood. We will describe two and allow our readers to
take their choice. One plan is to trace the design on
ordinary tracing paper and then to paste the tracing
thus obtained on to a piece of cardboaril, leaving here
and there a narrow strip of the cardboard to support
and keep the pattern together, as is done in stencil
plates. The patterns can be cut out very accurately

with the aid of the
carving tools, which
will be found better
suited to this pur-
pose than a penknife.
The cardboard is then
placed on the wood
and the pattern either
shown by being
dusted on with a
"pounce" composed
of whiting enclosed
in a piece of linen,
or marked off with a
needle point.

Another plan,
which, if not so
effective, certainly
entails far less work,
is to trace the design
on tracing paper and
then place the tracing paper on the wood and again
go over the design with a sharp point of ivory,
which leaves a slight indentation on the surface of
the polish. Designs consisting simpiv of lines with-
out broader ornament are incised i either of the
methods shown in Fig. 159, being cut with a veiner or

INCISED. INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING 259

a parting or \' tool. When, h« v(!ver, the dcsifjn is of
a more complicated nature, consisting of lines and
floral or other ornamentation, and it is desired to
curve the surface of the design, a different system of
working must be pursued. The lines should first be
cut with a parting tool, and then set in and regulated
with carving tools of the proper shape, after which
the ornament should be
treated in thC same way as
in the case of a panel.
We have in Figs. 159 and
160 given examples of
both kinds of incised or-
nament.

When there arc straight
lines in a design, the
"scratch" tool will prove
of great service, but care
must be taken in using it
not to scratch the surface
of the polish.

The round holes so often
seen in incised work are
made by first roughly cut-
ting with a quick tool and
then regulating with "roly-
polies" of various sizes.
This instrument is used

by being rapidly twirled round between the hands, and
is most serviceable.

As to the actual method to be adopted in working
these incised patterns, some carvers adopt one plan
and some another; one man, for instance, v/ill go
roughly over the whole design and then go carefully

Fig. 162.

11 1 I

hi'

I^Xi

I'KACTU AI. W(JOD CARVING

o\er it again to tmish c»ff, whilst another will finish
completely |)i«"cc bv piece of the dfsijfn. In workini;
scroll lines, it is advisabl toregi.i.ite the outlinei with
carving tools, as neither the parting tool nor veiner
will cut in every direction of the grain so clean is to

avoiH ■-tCuSfoi!-
ally tearing the
wnod. Where
the V shape is
preferred, all
the intricate
portions of the
design can be
cut and finished
with the tools
alone. In in-
cised work, it is
'Histomarytouse
arving tools of
the shape
known as
"spade" tools,
probably owing
to the shape
being somewhat
similar to that
useful imple-
ment.

Fig. 163.

We would strongly advise any of our readers who
may feel inclined to try the incised work, to avoid
doing it by gas or artificial light, as it is very trying to
the eyes, and the same remark holds good wifh
reference to ebony carving. As to the best kind of
designs for incising, we think it advisable to select

INCLSLI INTAGflO OR S NK C.\RVI\G -'61

those r n posed chiefly of scroll vr jlowtng lines. All
incised wor.; ' ^ses offset, unl' ss r it care be iak«n
to have the lu»e?i torrect, is )W'i.,}r to the coMtr.ist
between tht !j|.-n '; aivl \h .^oW 'c sn.alles' defect n
regularity is at uii r .ipjart ■.

The h st wi. >(|s are those :v iii>, n firm, close ^..lin.

ici- as syraniwre 1. lly or ar ir- c, all of wh i:h, m
..dditiun 'd b< ng rasily carv^ -i, .; » have the advvnii
tage ('*' takin- stain rca>lily; 1 arse .1 ml cross-griinod
woou to )e avoided, as being unfit for this class of

work.

CHAPTER VIII

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

In this, the closing chapter, wc have deemed it
proper to give a few examples of finished work of
various kinds in order to provide designs for work the
young carver may think proper to undertake, and

which, we feel, he can
execute now, after hav-
ing followed the in-
structions and direc-
tions given in the pre-
vious chapters.

The first designs pie-
sentcd are for crosses,
suitable for church serv-
ice; they may be made
large or small to suit
conditions, or they may
be made for covers of
prayer or hymn books,
or for a dozen other
purposes. The one
shown in Fig. i6i is
quite a plain one and
will not prove a severe
tax on the skill of the
workman. F"ig. 162 is
somewhat more elaborate, but simple in design withal
and not difficult to execute.

202

Fig. 164.

-SiH^Trs

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

263

Fig. 165.

264

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

The design shown in Fig. 163 is a very pretty one,
and if the arms of the cross are made of ebony, bog
oak or teak, and the bottom of ivory or pearl, it will
make a very showy and effective piece of work, but it

would not be in
the best of taste.

Another simple
design is shown
in Fig. 164. The
coils around it
may be formed by
silver or gold wire.
In either case the
complete work
would be chaste
and quite pretty.

The full- page
design shown in
Fig. 165 is a fine
piece of work and
would do admira-
bly for the cover
of a large prayer-
book or Bible, and
would not tax the
carver to any great
extent. The clover
leaves are not diffi-
cult to follow, and the lapping over would be found
an easy matter after what has gone before.

Another design for a book cover is shown in Fig.
166, and one which is sure to be appreciated. I. H. S.
is always in order on covers of books intended for
church service, and the design shown is really an

Fig. i66.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

266 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

I j

Pf
u

it-

excellent one for the purpose, and will, we are sure, be
made use of by many readers of this when preparing
Christmas presents.

1NTE«10« HtW or CAXVEU WOOOLS UOU»LE OL ri« BOORS.

Fir.. r6S.

These examples of crosses are quite sufficient for
the present, and if our readers desire other designs

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

267

they may be found among illustrations shown in our
current literature, and we would advise the young
carver to be always on the "lookout" for designs of

Fig. iCg.

all kinds that are likely to become useful for work he
may sometime have to undertake. It is a good way
to have a scrapbook kept purposely for designs of

268 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

FiG. 17').

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

269

carved work, and to paste in it anything the carver
may think will some day be of use to him.
The full-page designs of "Gothic" ornamentation

Fig. 171.

show almost ovory phase of Gothic carved work, with
the exception of figure carvin4,s but this has been well
set forth in the chapter devoted to that style of carv-
ing. The six examples shown in Fig. 167 are taken

270

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

from actual work, and were drawn from "The Art
Amateur." These will supply the carver with almost

every motive he
may ever require
in this peculiar
style.

Another full-
\i^^- design, for a
pair of doois, is
shown in Fig. 168.
This i;> in the Cin-
cinnati s ; y 1 e of
carving, a school
introduced some
years ago by Denn
Pitman, and which
w IS for a time
quite popular. It
u'ill be seen that
the architraves or
casings, head
mouldings, plinth
blocks and base
rue ca"ved, .is well
as tin,' doors. Somr
of the work done
by the pi'piis Oi
Bciiu pitman was
exceed in ITU-
good, but trie-
style, fror.i
some cause
)r other, (Jid
not seem to

A little Carved Coffee Table.

Fig. 172.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS 271

"catch on" firm enough to stay, though some of this
work IS still employed. The trouble with this style of

work seems to be a lack of robustness and vigor.

Apart from this lack, the style possesses many redeem-
ing qualities and much refinement, and it is a pity it is

not made more use

of than at present.
The d e s i g n

shown in Fig. i6y

is intended for a

small box that

may be used for

gloves, handker-
chiefs, jewelry or

trinkets of a 11 y

kind. The top fii^

nre shows the I ox

with half t Ii e

carx-cd front; the

lower d e s i {,Mi

shows the car\ing

on the lid or cover.

It will be seen that

t h c r e a r e four
flaws supporting
the box. These
may be dispensed
with if desired.

The two examples shown in V\g. 170 exhibit per-
forated carved work, and arc good cxami)lesof German
carving. They may be used for hat racvS or for key
boards, and may be made lar-cr or smaller to suit the
purpose for which they are intended. There is some
fine work on the low. r design. In Fig i;i we show

173-

272

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

• •'in

Fig. 174.

a small clock case
finished with simple
carvings. This
piece of work is well
within the reach of
every one who has
learned to use carv-
ers' tools.

The little coffee
table shown in I'ijj.
172 is one that may
be made at home
and carved by any
carpenter. The de-
sign is quite simple.
In Fig. 173 we
show a design for a
drawer front; this is
rather a handsome
piece of work.

The design shown
in Fig. 174 is for a
carved table leg and
is a vet"y fine piece
of work. We are
indebted to the
"Woodworker" for
this design and some
others v/ e have
made use of, and
for which we offer
our thanks.

The carved panel
shown in Fig. 175

Fig. 175.

!?f

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

273

offers suggestions to the carver which, no doubt, he
will make use of as opportunity occurs.
The two designs for borders shown in Fig. 176 may

Fio. 176.

be employed in many situations, and require little or
no explanation, as they speak for themselves.

It is quite "the thing" now to have drawer fronts

Fig. 177.

carved, and the two illustrations shown in Fig. 177
have been designed for that purpose. Bi)th aie admira-
bly adapted to the purpose and are so designed that

^uB\^^^^^

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S5«^

MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART

(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2)

1.0

I.I

15,0

2.8
3.2

136

14.0

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1.25

^ >1PPLIED IfVMGE Inc

^^ 1653 East Main Street

r.S Roctiester. Nck York 14609 USA

i^S (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone

^B (716) 288 - 5989 - fax

274 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

Fig. 178.

.«^,nV5-4r Si'

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

275

but a fair exercise of skill will be required in their
execution. We commend these to our readers as
being excellent examples for the puro'ise designed.

The corner cupboard shown in Fig. 178 exhibits
some elaborate carvings, and while it appears to be

Fig. 179.

rather overdone, it offers an opportunity for exercise
that few pieces of furniture can afford. The plain
cupboard in itself is a very simple affair, but the
carver's chisel has added much to its value and
appearance.

276

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

One of the first ambitions of a young carver is to be
able to carve a photo frame, and to satisfy this lauda-
ble ambition Wv: present a few designs for this purpose.
The one shown in Fig. 179 is a very simple affair, but

Fig. 180.

is quite effective when the work is neatly done. The
frame shown in Fig. 180 is a much more pretentious
one and requires a lot of labor to make it look well,
but it is so arranged that it can be made large enough
to take i'. pictures of any reasonable size. It would

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

277

answer very nicely ' ^ a mirror frame or for a fine
steel engraving or eiching. It is a very nice piece of
work and requires some fine handling to make it

-^^

Fig. i3i.

effective. The wheat ears in this example, shown in
Fig. 181, and the one following are worth carefully
attending to, as they are constantly introduced into
woodwork; and being solid, and forming good masses

278

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

FlG.'lS2.

^ ?^iV«!Vi> »yr-?--"%^t» ;.r;:«fcfi*.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

279

of light and shade, are very suitable tor relief to foli-
age. '• irst chisel out the shape of the whole ear, with-
out considering each separate grain; round it well and
see t;.at the relief is good; then draw on the wood with
a soft pencil the outline of the grains, or, if uncertain,
trace them on soft paper and paste it on the surface of
the ear (the carver, of course, does not usj th'- design
to work upon, but traces from it, so that he can always

Fig. 183.

refer to his model); then, when dry, chisel out each
grain carefully, giving it a good rounded surface with a
well-defined form, and you will be surprised with the
results.

The same remarks will answer for the working of the
design shown in Fig. 182.

The two pediments shown in Fig. 1S3 may be classed
as "architectural" carving, and are given here merely
to show what an immense field there is lying open

!iirSI*fi^ir: —

280 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING

for the younfr man who is determined to follow this
art as a business. Indeed, there is no limit to this
branch of decorative art, as there is nothing made of
wood or stone where the carver's chisel may not be

employed to en-
hance the value
and the beauty of
the work.

In conclusion,
we add two exam-
ples of carved
chair backs that
are simple in de-
sign and which
may be employed
in decorating
chairs now in u«e
(see Fig. 184).

In closing th j
volume, I think it
but fair to say that
I have drawn
largely from the
best authorities on

Figs. 184 and 185.

the subject, to which I have added the results of my own
experience, which is somewhat extended, and I think,
after looking over the book and carefully noting both
text and illustrations, my efforts to make a useful and
instructive book on the "Art of Wood Carving" have
not been altogether in vain, and I sincerely hope my
readers will derive as much benefit from it as will
enable them to not only carve in wood, but also give
them a fair knowledge of the art of designing subjects
suitable to any work in carving they may undertake.

INDEX

Acorn and oak leaves, 173.
Acorn Rroiip, 244.
Actual work, 74.
Alteration, 133.
American oak, 66.
Ancient capital, IH2.
Ancient figure-carver, 201.
Angle cupl)oard, 236.
Angle for cutting hard wood, 43.
Angle for cutting soft wood, 43.
Angular panel, 9S.
Animal figures, 124.
Antique carving, 11. 'j.
Antique panel, 116.
Apple branch panel 191.
Arabian carvings, 119.
Arcliitectural (!ir\iiig, 279.
Architectural ornament, 246.
Austrian oak, 66.

Backgrounds, 185.

Balance and proportion, 129.

Benches, 26.

Bench-hook, 59

Bent tools, 79.

Berry carvings, 17S.

Itook cover carvings, 257.

Book panel, 110.

Border and star designs, 102.

Border ornament, 99.

Borders, 273.

Boxwood, 64.

Bracelet, 254.

Brooches, carved, 253.

Bunch of berries, 151.

Bunch of grapes, 245.

Byzantine border, 1S3.

Byzantine carvings, 183.

Cabinet doors, 231.
Cabinet, for corner, 274.
Capital of column. 1,S2.

28i

Carpentei-s' oarving, 14.
Carved bracelets, 254, 268.
Carved box front, 1 17.
Carved brooches, 253.
Carved ca.sket, 267.
Carved clock case, 269.
Carved coffee table, 270,
Carved doorway, 2<i6.
Carvetl riionojiinni, 114.
Carved ornaincnis, 272.
Carved panel, 271.
Carved wreath, 1S8.
Carvers' appliances, IS.
Carvers' tools, 17.
Carving an apple tree panel,

Carving an eagle, 2().S.

Carving benches, 26.

Carving fruit, 2.3N.

Carving generally, 23.

Carving in panels, 234.

Carvitig phnns, 17.S.

Carving proper, 120.

Celtic carving, lis.

Ciiair larvings, 2S().

Chapter on carved cro.sses, 260.

Chip carving, 7S.

Chip carving design, 94.

Church work, 265.

Circular design, 95.

Circular panels, 113.

Clamps, 54.

Cleanliness in work, 30.

Clock ca.se, 269.

Contrast, 136.

Corner design, 98.

Cro.sses, 2.'>9.

Curious old carving, 241.

Curved notches, 82

Curves of tools, 24.

Cutting edges, 4fc.

Cutting knife, 80.

Deep gouges. 79.

w*t

r •/.«afr-aw?-a''WiE' '•acj'sr::s»>4-.-fiWT»

282

INDEX

DesTiption of PtilnrRinK de-

sijfti, 22(1.
DeNiffii !>>• I'asy -(tfps, 102.
Design, coriiof raiitft. 111.
DpsiRii for a h'ctcrn, 2()S.
DphIkii for liordcrM, il»>.
DcsiRii for Hvzaiitine work,

1S3.
Dt'siKii for carved l)ook cover,

24<).
De.sigii for chip carving. 90.
Design for circular oriiaiiicut,

9.5.
Design for crescent ornament,

93.
Design for flat carving, 109.
Design for mask, 122.
Design for picture frame, 275.
Design for tahle top, 107.
Designing figures, 142.
Design in intaglio, 24S.
Design of a l)ear, 243.
Designs for (al)inet doors, 231.
Designs for corners, 97.
Designs for door car\ings, 229.
D'signs for grapevine carving,

237.
Designs for small panel, 73.
'designs of borders and panel.s,

112.
.'^.agrains for carving, 149.
Directions for cutting, 89.
Directions for sharpening tools,

4H.
Dolphin design, 122.
Door carvings, 2.30.
Dragons and other figures, 124.
Dragon panel, l.'ifi.
Drawer fronts, 273.
Drawings for carvings, 223.

Eagle lecte' , 208.
Earrings, carving, 253.
Ebony, 62.

Elaborate panel, Ij j.
Emerv powder, 49.
Englisii oak, 65.
English Renais.sance, 126.
Enlarging designs, 218.
Even distribution, 167.

Figiire earver* genrrallv, 2f)2.

Figure curving in rchef, 200.

Figure carvings, r.'2.

Fi'.nire of an owl, 197.

Fine carving, 121.

Finished panel, 147.

Fitness, 137.

Flat .\ral ian carving, 118.

Flat carving, 103.

Foliage ca|iital, 1H2.

Foliage in panel, 163.

Foreign work, 183.

Forms of borders, 132.

Frame, 275.

Fruit carving, 2.38.

Furniture carving, 165.

Gothic designs, 103, 265.
Gothic Henaissance 126.
(Jouges and chisels, 21.
Grapevine pattern, 237.
(Jrotesque figures, 124.
Gum wood, 93.

Hag's tooth, .59.

Hand screws, ,53.

Hexagon work, 139.

Hold-fasts, 27.

How to i)uild up work, 145.

How to carve an eagle, 208.

How to cut for chip carvinz,

92.
How to liandh tool.s, 72.
Human figure c rving, 125.

Illustrated instructions in chip

carving, 91.
Improving taste, 216.
Incised work, 245.
Indian carving, 136.
Instructions for carving, 90.
Instructions in tool u.sing, 157.
Introduction, 9.
Italian walnut, 66.
Ivorv, 6,5.

Tvv le.if panel. 240.
Ivy leaves, U2.

INDEX

283

Leaf (In-dRn, 112.

L♦•Hve^^ axnl plants, 170.

Lt'tt.T, 111.

LiRht, J:*.

Mahogany, 67.

Mal.iv rarviiiK, Sfi.

Mullt't.x, :u.

Maii.'inf'itioiit of oilnUnip.s, .'57.

Mnrfriii><, 7r>.

MarkiiiK kiiifp, 80.

Mas-siiifi the work, H.3.

Method of desiijii, SS, |f,,3.

Metliod of holding: niidlft, 32.

Method of holding tools, 50.

Metluxl of rcdiKiiiR or enlarg-
ing design.s, 21S.

Method of >liarpening tools, .5.').

Methods of laving out work,
141.

Methods of proeedure, 16S.

Miscellaneous designs, 100.

Modeling, 207.

Monogram. 114. 204.

Monogram for hook cover, 240.

\afiirai forms, 169.
Natural 1« (ve«, 1S2.
\ Mir*' !i od guide, 100.

Oak, fi.5.
Oak I,. .
Oct.-iu'oi

Oilsluh

Old wo
Opera ti
Order ih
Oriental 1
Owl figur<"
Owl in wooi

itid arorn.i.

■ srs, 1 s

167.
, 130.

173.

'7.

Panel compiet
Panel for a-
Panel in renai-
Panel of leaves.
Panel of sea l.ar
Panel with drag..

47.

U.s

' is.

Panels for cahinets, 231.
Panels for doors, 221).
Paper knife liarulles, 102.
Picture frame dc ^igns, 270, 277.
Pine, 0-1.

Pl.ints and leaves, 170.
Plum tree branches, 17S.
Practical designs, 141.
Pr:iver l.o-A cover, 263.
I'reface. .I.
Punch faces, 25.
I'uiiclies, 24.

iiadiation, 1.34.

Heal work, 74.

Hcflucinj; (U-signs, 217.

Helicf carving, 200.

Hepctition and alteration. 131.

HeiKJsf. 13S.

I{il)l)on carving, 11,S.

Hi filer, .')!).

Rounded berries, 151.

Uoimded carvings, 120.

Hound carxing, 17.S.

Hound mallets, 33.

Hound panel, 113.

S
Sandalwood, 63.
Savage styles, S4.
Screw hold-fasts, .53.
Scriptural (piotation, 202.
Sea horse panel, 199.
Sections for berry carving, 180.
Sections for car\ ing, 239.
Sections for door panels, 2.30.
Sections for work. 1.53.
Sections of carved panels, 234.
Sections 1 larvings, 178.
.Sections cut work, 154.
.Section.- , tools. 77.
Sections of work. 75.
.Series of designs, 99
Serpent carving, 192.
Several desiens for borders, 97.
Shamrock carving, 109.
Shamrock panel, 175.
.Sharpening tools, 38.
.Simple design. 7.3.
Stnple panel. (74.
Siiiplicitv, 139.

284

INPEX

SpnfulrrI pittorn, lOS.
Nix wotliif l>or<l«T». 103.
Mix poiiitfd N»ar, M7.
Sizt'H of iiiall*'t>*, :i'2.
Slips, how to Hliarpoii. 10.
Siiiall tools for fiiH' tnr\iun,25\.
Soiiii' Arahiiiii work, lO.I.
SoiiH' oWl carviiijr, 204.
-'oiiu' old work, 1S4.
Siiiido tool, LV).

SpillU.sl) ciM'StlHlt, ()2.

Spot cnrvmg, 7H.
Souare II i:i lifts, '.V2.
Stfiii- of l>raii^'li«'s, 15.1.
Slra|) earxiii^.' . '7.
Strap panoliiiK. 174.
Stvifs in Hniai.ssanc*', 120.
StvU'.s of carving, 83.
Stvlps of tlu- civilized, 85.
Suitability, 171.
Sunflower design, 107
Surface carxinns, 101.
Swiss carvinc, 242.
Sycamore, 02.
Symmetry, 133.

Tabouret top, 106.
TeBtiiiK tools, 45.

Tbp evolution of n drtiiKn, 162.

Tlu« grain of \ww)d, t'H.

Tlif gntlin in .irt, 1.10.

The kind of ruts to innkc, 15R

Three sided panel, OS.

Two esigus for chip carving.

Variety and contrast, 136.
N'arious designs, 238.
Various tools, 23.
VeinitiR tools, 40.
V tools, 23.

Walking-eane head, 242.

VVa\e patt-rns, 232.

Whitewood, t>,5.

Wood benches, 26.

Wood carving, 22.

Woocl hold-down, .16.

Woods, 00.

Working the grain of the wood.

67.
Workmg yellow pine, 69.
Work in in iglio, 148.
Wreath ca ig, 188.

OTHSR UP-TO-DATE WORKS 1 Y FRL^ T. HODGSON

Practical Uses of the Steel Square, iwo Vols. Price . . $2.00

Common Sense Stair Bui' 1 ''q and H.. ilrailing. Price .... 1.00

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All of the above volumes are new and up to date, each having
been published since 1904 — each averaging .300 pages, beautifully
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FREDERICK J. DRAKE <b CO.. Publishers.

211 C MADISON ST.. CHICAGO, U. S. A,

Ht.MISE PLAN SUPPL^MENI

PERSPECTIVE VIEWS
AND FLOOR PLANS

of F i f t y ^v o \v and
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THE UKlJkK IS UBi klVklJ.

Other Plans

WR ILI.USTRATF. IN ALL bODKS IMiRK THF. AUTHnnOHlP OF FRED T.
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DLPLICATES ')F TIIUSH II.LIJSTK A TED IIERKIN.
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WITHOUT EXTRA COST to our
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by us the perspective view and floor
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The extremely low prices at which we will
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The regular price of these plans, when
ordered in the usual manner, is from $50.00
to $75.00 per set, while our charge is but
$5.00, at the same time furnishing them
to you more complete and better bound.

—^^.MTiiiiik '.

Ji'.-' . UMi

.V..'..S/,;:-ftrfillAHJ "

O/' What our Plans Consist

ALL OF OUR PLANS are accurately
drawn one-quarter inch scale to the
foot.

We use only the best quality heavy
Gallia Blue Print Paper No. loooX, taking every
precaution to have all the blue prints of even
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We furnish for a complete set of plans :

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Specifications consist of several pages of
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We guarantee all plans and specifications
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Our equipment is so complete that we can
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Our large sales of these plans demonstrates
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prices.

ADDRESS ALL ORDERS TO

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Architectural Department
211-213 East Madison Street CHICAGO

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NOTICE

To the many workmen who are purchasing the publications unde- the
authorship of Fred T. H<><. -son, and who we feel sure have been benefited
by his excel ,ut treatises n many Carpentry and Building subjects, we
desire to Inform them that the following list of books have been published
since 1903, thereby making them strictly up-to-date In every detail. All of
the newer books bearing the Imprint of Frederick J. Drake & Co. are modern
In every respect and of a purely self-educailonal character, expressly Issued
for Home Study .

PRACTICAL USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE, two volumes, over 800
pages, including 100 perspective views and floor plans of medium-
priced houses. Cloth, two volumes, price $2.00. Half leather,
price $3.00.

UODBRN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, 300 pages, including 50 house
plans, perspective views and floor plans of medium and low-cost
houses. Cloth, price $1.00. Half leather, price $1.60.

BUILDERS' ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINO SELF-TAUGHT, over »C
pages, Including 50 house plans. Cloth, price $3.00. Half leather,
price $3.00.

MODERN ESTIMATOR AND CONTRACTOh,S' OUIDE, for pricing build-
ers' work, 3,tO pages, including 60 house plans. Cloth, price $1.60.
Half leather, price $3.00.

MODERN LOW-COST AMERICAN HOMES, over 200 pages. Cloth, ice
$1.00. Half leather, price $1.60.

PRACTICAL UP-TO-DATE HARDWOOD FINISHER, over 300 pages.
Cloth, price $1,00. Half Leather, price $1.60.

COMMON SENSE STAIR BUILDINO AND HANDRAILINQ, over 2.50
pages, including perspective views and floor plans of .50 medium-priced
houses. Cloth, price $1.00. Half leather, price $1.60.

STONEMASONS' AND BRICKLAYERS' OUIDE, over 800 pages. Cloth,

price 91.60. Half leather, price $2.00.
PRACTICAL WOOD CARVINO, over 200 pages. Cloth, price $1.60. Half

leather, price $3.00.

Sold by booksellers generally, or sent, all charges paid, upon receipt of
price, to any address in the world

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

Publishers

2II-2I3 E. Madison St., Chicago, U. S. A.