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1 2 3

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Series of National 0tl|ool Booko.

FIFTH BOOK

LESSONS.

FOR

^i)t MBt of 0(t)OOl0*

AUTHORIZED BY THE COUNCIL OF PUBLIC INSTRUC
TION FOR UPPER CANADA.

TORONTO:
PUBLISHED BY BREWER, McPHAlL, & Co.,'

PRIMTBR8, STATI0NBB8, AND BOOKBUfDBB%

46, KING STREET EAST.
1861.

Mi-:-

1^ *■

mi i :.

^ *

1 i..< 1^ \

-» i

PREFACE.

i*^

TTh^s Fifth Book of Lessons has hcen compiled
as a portion of the plan of progressive Lessons,
partially developed in the preceding ^ooks. Its
ohject is to carry forward the Instruction of the
more advanced Pupils, into suhjects which had
been but briefly n.oti£ed, or altogether omitted
in the former Numbers of the Series.

-Vb^"' ■

■•'^'wl

I \

*'■"

CONTENTS.

iS--

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGi .

Rotundity of the Earth,

General View of the Globe,

Mountains, . . .

The Ocean,

Springs— -Hiyers— Lakes, .

Changes in the surface of tlie Earth, .

The Atmosphere, ......

The Winds, . .

Aqueous Vapour — Clouds and Mists, Rain, Dew,
Snow, Hai|, . « . ". , >
On the Deluge,'. ......

Mineral Kingdom, No. 1, — Mines in Great Britain,

— . —. No. 2, .

:- — -— No. 3, .

No. 4, .

No. 5, .

No. 6, .

No. 7, — Organic Remains

■ No. 8, .

No. 9, . . . .

— — 7— No. 10, .

P8g»

1 '

32
35
39
42
47
53
59
62
67

, ': '

HISTORY.

IflSTOUY AND ChUONOLOUY.

1 t

Puge

i^NciKNT History. — Kirst kru,

Secoiul Km,

•

Third V)n\,

81)

Foil 1*1 h ICni,

•

Firth I'lra,

Sixth ICrn,

0(1

Sevnith ICru, .

104

Eighth Ern,

•

135

Modern History, .

• •

•■-

166

* First Era iiftor Christ,

I6fl

Second Era,

185

Third Ern,

193

Fourth Era,

197

Fifth Era,

201

Sixth Era,

200

PHYSIOLOGY, VB?GETABLE

AND ANIMAL.

Vbgetable Physiology

, Introduction to

212

Roots,

• •

216

Stems,

• •

210

Functions of Loaves,

232

The Sap, .
The Flower, .

• •

225
228

The Seed,

• •

230

4mmal Physiology. —

■Animal Life,

232

The Integuments,
The Bones,

• •

•
•

234
235

Marks of design in
The Muscles, .
The Teeth,

the Human Body,

• • •

• « •

238
241
244

The Digestion, .

• •

•

248

The Heart,

• •

•

251

Respiration,

• •

H7
ftH
81)
«()

00
104

NATURAL PHILOSOPHf.

Natural Philosophy, Introduction to
Goneral Properties of Bodies, .
Laws of Motion and the Centre of Gravity,
The Mechanical Powers, . . '.,

AsTnoNOMY.— Th^ Earth's Annual Motion,
Planets, ...
Fixed Stars,
The Terrestrial Globe,
The Seasons, .
The Mooii aiid Eclipses,
The Tides, . .

238
268!
274

290
203
20T
aOfli
803
80€(
808

Hydrostatics.— Mechanical Properties of Fluids, 811
Specific Gravity, . . . . 815
Springs, Fountains, &o 818i

I ?

Pneumatics. — Mectianical Properties of Air, . 822

Optics, ....
Refraction and Colours,
Structure of the Eye,

Electricity, .
Galvanism,
Magnetism, diio..
Caloric, .

Chemistry. — ^Introduction to
Chemical Affinity,
Simple Bodies, .
Simple Bodies continued,
Carbon, . .

826^
88^»
847

«52
a»4

865
866.
^8
870
SiTl

v||i

POETICAL PIECES.

^rue Liberty, .... Pollock,

371V

The Coral Insect, • . . Sigoumey, .

.*W<1

8now, ..... Thomsonf

377

benefits of affliction, . . . Cowper,

378

Procrastination, . * . . . Youngy

380

^Tastc, . . , . . Akenside,

381

Blethished Pieces, . . . Shakspeart, .
Qn Milton's Blindness, . . Milton, •

382

aso

. Captain Bobadil's method of defeating

an Arifty, . . . . Ben Jonson, .

387

a The Post arrives in the Village, . Cowper^ v

388

1 Report of an Adjudged Case, not to

« t

I ' be found in any of the Books, . Coujper,

a9Q

1 The deserted Wife, ' . " . . Anonymmu, .

391

i Gertrude of Wyoming, . ". Campbell,

392

1 Lines written in a severe Frost and

1 strong Haze on Sunday Morning, Anonymous, .

394>

1 On the Effects of Time and Change, Beattie,

395

1 Mutual Forbearance necessary to

the Happiness of the Married

State, Cotoper,

396

i The Convict Ship, . . . T. K. Hervey,

39d

|. , Christian Benevolence, . . Wilcosy

399

W' llie Last Minstrel, . . . Seott, .

400

i The Moral Change anticipated by

1 Hope, . . . . . Camphftll,

402

1 The Snow Flake, . i^ '"^'^GouM, .

409"

H To a Waterfowl, . . 'I Bryant,

404

K The Blind Mother, . > • Anon. .

405

ff Song for May Day, . . . Anon. ...

406

m The Silent Glen, . . , H. Neele,

408

B Who is my Neighbour, . . Anon. .

409

■Miii

I^IFTH BOOK

SECTION I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLQGY.

ROTUNDITY OF THE EARTH

A GREAT variety of appcarapces, bqth on the surface
of ihe earth, and in the heavens, prove conclusively,
(hat the earth is s^ spherical or round body. — l. When
we stand on the sea-shore, v^hile ^he sea ia, perfectly
calm, we perceive that tho surface of the water is not
•juite plaiie, but 'convex or rounded; and if we are on
Ihe si'ip of an arm of the se'*, and, with our eyes near
the wut :r, cok tpwardi tli^ opposite coast* we' plainly
see the water elev(?tcd bet\\'een our ey^? a^id the sjhore,
so as to prevent our seeinj? tise lan(^ nsar the edge o\
the water. — ■2. When an object is seen at a distance
^iXMi tjie surface of the earth, a part of its baM is hid

...»afe4«><ttii.«MUlM.l«»lWuU(>l»..J<^'^ *.

from the view. As the distance is Icsssened, a greater
portion of the objoct becomes visible, and when brought
sufficiently near, the whole of it is seen. If, on the other
hand, the dif;tance is increased, the visible part of the
body is continually diminished, and at last the object
entirely disappears. Every person >vho has paid the
slightest attention to tho manner in which mountains,
towers, and ships begin to appear and disappear, must
be familiar wiih these flicts. — 3. Magellan, Drake,
Anson, and other nuvifjators, by holding an easterly
or westerly cours", ut last arrived at the point of
their departure. They, thus sailed upon a line, which,
in one revolution, returned into itself, ending where it
began; and, therefore", tiie surface on which it was
described, must be a sphere, or must resemble W sjlh^re.
Tliis was further confirmed by the voyages of Captain
Cook, towards the south pole, from which it appeared
that the course round the earth gradually diminished
as it approached the pole. — 4. When we travel a con-
siderable distance from north to south, or from south to
north, a number of new stars successively appear in the
heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing,
and many of those in the opposite quarter gradually
disappear, which would not happen if the earth were a
plane in that direction. — 5. All these proofs are con-
lirmed and illustrated by eclipses of the moon, which
present an ocular demonstration of the earth's rotundity.
An eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of
the body of tlie earth between the sun and the moon ;
in which case, the shadow of tho earth falls upon the
moon. This shadow is found in all cases, and ifi' eyery
position of tho earth, to be of a circular figure; which
incontrovertibly proves, that the whole mass of land
and water, of which the earth is composed, is nearly
of a globular form.

It may be objected that the earth cannot be of &
spherical form, as its surface presents the most irregulai
aj)pea ranees, being in innumerable places elevated intv
mountains, or depressed into valleys. But thesr*
irrcjTularities bear no greater proportion to its whol«
bulk than a few grains of sand to a common terrestrial

l,MS*.at»KMiSM^atiJt»-^ ■

the

globe, the highest mountains on its surface being Utllo
more than the two thouvsandlh part of its diameter.
Some of the mountains on the surface of the moon are
higher than those on the earth, and yet that body
appears, both to the naked eye, and through a telescope,
of a bpherical figure. Equally futile is the objection,
which has been improperly and ignorantly drawn from
the expressions occasionally to bo be met with in the
Bible. The object of the inspired writers who used
these expressions, was not to advance a true system of
natural philosophy, or to cortect the popular errors of
the day, in matters of mere science, but to illustrate or
enforce some precept or doctrine, or to record the
occurrence of some remarkable event, v/hich could not
have been done intelligibly but by adopting expressions
in agreement with the opinions of the age.

On the knowledge of the spherical figure of the earth,
the ah 6f navigation in a great measure depends ; and
all tho voyages of discovery, which have been made in
later years, were undertaken in consequence of the
knowledge of this fact. Had mankind remained unac-
quainted with this discovery, the circumnavigation of
the globe would never have been attempted — vast por-
tions of the world would have remained unknown and
unexplored — no regular intercourse would have been
maintained between the various tribes of the human
race — ond, consequently, the bl63sings of tivine Reve-
lation fould never have been dohimunicated to th^
greater wv^ of the Gentile world. '

t^^ ^

GE.\^?IAL VIEW OF. THE GLOBE.

ntw
est*

toltt

riai

In looking over a map of the world, it is seen *•
once that the surface consists of various spaces of land,
surrounded by an extensive field of water called the
sea or ocean. Of these spaces of land, two are of vast
extent, and on this account are termed pontinents.
The larger of these continents inpludes the thre^

divisions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is dis-
tinguished by the title of the Old World, from ita
having, till the discovery of America by Colunnbus, in
the year 1492, been the only part of the globe witli
the existence of which Europeans were acquainted.
The other, which include* North and South America,
is named the New World. , '

The general direction of the land in the two con-
tinents is entirely different. In America, it is from
pole to pole : in the Old World, it is from south-west
to north-east ; and if we k«cp Africa out of view, it is
almost parallel to the equator. The longest straight
line that can be drawn on the old continent commences
on the western coast of Africa, from about Cape Verd,
and extends to Behring's Strait in the north-east of Asia.
It is about 11,000 miles in length. A similar line,
traced along the new continent, passes from the strait
-^f Terra del j^uego to the northern shore of North
America, and is nearly 9,000 miles long. In both
continents the direction of the large peninsulas is
similar, almost all of them running towards the south.
This is the case with South America, California,
Florida, Alaska, and Greenland in the New World ;
and, in the Old, with Scandinavia, Spain, Italy, Greece,
Africa, Arabia, Hindoslaii, Malaya, Cambodia, Corea,
and Kamtschatka. The only exceptions to this remark
are the peninsula of Yucatan in Mexico, and that of
Jutland in the north-west of Europe. Both of these are
Jirectcd towards the north ; but they consist of plains
and alluvial land, whereas the other peninsulas are
more or less of a mountainous character. There is a
further resemblance between the two continents, from
each being divided into two parts by an isthmus. But
m the character of their outlines they differ very much ;
for while the coast of the Old World (excepting Africa)
IS broken equally on all sides by gulfs, bays, and
inland seas,- the New World has a series of openings on
'Ab eastern shore only. On its western side, the only
mlet of any magnitude is the gulf of California.

Besides the two continents, many extensive portions
of land are dispersed through the ocean, particulwly

»\

fW.

nss

i5»iw,Lrtb^*ai* »j*#$*w«k).«»>iy '-^:

ily

•lY

the immense regions of New Holland, wliich occupy a
space nearly as large as the whole of Europe. There
are also the islands of New Guinea, Borneo, Mada-
gascar, Sumatra, J pan, Great Britain, New 2ealandj
Ceylon, Iceland, Cuba, Java, and tliousands of others,
of different dimensions, scattered through the Pacific,
the Indian, and the Atlantic Oceans, and which form a
very considerable poition of tlie liabltable regions of thxi
globe. '^ - :;v.v

The ocean surrounds the earth on all sides, iiiid
penetrates into the interior parts of mafiy countries,
sometimes by large openings, and ft-equeritly by small
straits. Though it is, strictly speaking, b>it one im-
mense body of water, extending in various directions,
yet different names have been appropriated to different
portions of it. The Pacific Ocean, divided by the
equator into North and South, is inclosed betM'een
America on the East, and New Holland, the islands of
Java and Sumatra, and the continent of Asia, on the
west ; on the north, it terminates at Bohring's Strait.
The seas of China, Japan, Okhotsk, &o. form parts of
this ocean. The Indian Ocean lies between Africa oii
the west, and the peninsula of Malaya, with the islands
of Sumatra, Java, &c. and New Holland, on the east,
and is bounded by Persia and Hindostan on the north.
The Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the Persian Gulf, and
the Bay of Bengal, are all parts of this ocenn. The
Southern or Antarctic Ocean is bounded on the north,
by a line drawn from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good
Hope, thence to Van Dieman's Land, and again by the
south of New Zealand to Cape Horn. Those three
oceans form what may be called the great South-Eastern
Basin, the waters of which cover nearly half the globe.
The Atlantic Ocean commences, in the south, from a
line drawn from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hop'',
and is terminated on the north by the Arctic Circle.
It is divided into North and South by the equator, and
its branches are the Mediterranean, the North Sea or
German Ocean, the Baltic, Bafiln's Bay> Hudson's
Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea.
The Arctic or Northern Ocean surrounds the North

i, . ■ J*

Pole, and ia. bounded, on the south, by the Artie
Circle, and the northern ishores of the two continents.
The Atlantic and Artie Oceans may be called the
Westefn Basin, which forms a channel between the Old
aid New Worlds.

The Ocean, which is thus subdivided, is spread over
nealrly seven-tenths of the globe ; but it is remarkable
now unequally th^ land and water are dislVibuted. If
we compare the northern and southern hemispheres,
tba^ is^ the two equal parts into which the globe is
divided by the equator, we shall find, that, if the quan-
tity of land ii^ the northern hcJmisphere be represented
by 16, the quantity in the southern will be scarcely
equal to 5. Bii^bn, and some other philosophers, therc-^
jfore, asserted, that a great contioent must exist towarc'i
the South Pole, in order to counterbalance the mass or
|and in the northern hemisphere ; but the high southern
latitudes have as yet been found to contain only a fe\v
islands. This fact, however, does not prove that there
^8 a less mass of weight of land in the southern than in
the northern hemisphere ; for it is possible that the land
may be only rather depressed in the 'south, and
quently covered by the se^.

couse-

mou:ntains.

Mountains are distributed in various forms and sizes
tl^PfUgh every region of the globe, and serve as a sort
ojT oonnecting-band to the other portions of the earth's
surface.' The larger mountains are generally arranged
in immense chains, which extend, in nearly the same
direction, for several hundreds, and even thousands of
miles. The highest in the world are the Himalayas, in
the north of liengal, on the borders of Tibet. The
loftiest mountain in this range, is stated to be about
27,000 feet, or a little more than five miles, in perpen-
dicular height, and is visible at the distance of 230
miles. Next to the ITimalayas, are the Andes, in
South America, which extend more than 4,000 n^iles

.'. I

.-■■ .,. .^ ^.^u^^t.-, ., -^ ■■....■■ - .,iiiiii>nMi»»m-^.

in length, from the province of Quito to the straits of
Magellan. The liighcst summit of the Andes is
Chimborazo, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or nearly
four miles above the level of th& sea. The highest
mountains in Europe are the Alps, which run through
Switzerland and the north of Itnl)' ; the Pyrennees,
which separate France from Spain ;" ond the Dofrafeld,
Whi6h divide Norway fron Sweden. Tlio most elevated
ridges in Asia, are tlie Himalaya, Taurus, Imaus,
Caucasus, Ararat, with the Uralian, Altaian, and
Japanese mountains ; in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the
Mountains of the Moon.

' In order to 'obtain a connected view of the loftiest
and'most Extensive system of mountains upon the globe,
we must suppose ourselves placed in New Holland,
with our face turned towards the north ; America will
then be on the right, Asia and Africa on the left.
From CaptJ Hoi*n to Behring's Stra it, along the western
coast of America, there is an almost uninterrupted
range of the highest mountains. From Behring's Strait
again succeeds an enormous line passing in a south-
westerly direction through Asia, leaving China and
Hindostan to the south, somewhat interrupted as it
approaches Africa, but still to be looked upon as con-
tinuing its course in the mountains of Persia and Arabia
Felix. From Gape Guardafui in Africa to the Cape of
Good Hope, there appears to be a chain which completes
the view. The series of mountains which we have thus
followed, is in the form of an imfticnso irregular curve,
which comprises within it the Pacilic and Indian Oc6ans,
with their innumerable islands, besides a portion of
Asia, including China, the Birnian dominions, and the
Indian peninsula. It presents a steep face towards
these oceans; while, on the other side, the land very
generally slopes towards the Atlantic and Arctic
Oceans.

But, though the ijiost considerable elevations of the
surface of the earth are thus formed into chains, some
mountains are completely insulated, that is, are quite
remote from any chain or group. Volcanos are more
particularly of this kind. The term volcano is derived

from Vulcan, the name whicii the Romans gave 1q
iheir imaginary god of (ire, and is upjilied to those
mountains which sand firth, from their summit or
sides, flame, smoke, ashes, and streams of melted
hiatter called lava. Upon ascending to the top of a
mountain of this kind, therj is found to he an immense
and deep hollow, which is denominated the crater or
cup. From most of the volcanos which are not extinct,
there is a smoke more or less frequently arising ; hut
ithe' eruptions, which are discharges of stones, asjies,
lava, &c. accompanied with lofty columns of fire,
violent explosions, and concussions of the earth, happen
at irregular and sometim'^s very long intervals. It
seems to be a very general rule that the greater the
mass and the elevation of the mountain, the less frequent

. and more tremendous are .the eruptions. Stromboli,
the small volcano on one of the Lipari islands, is almost
always burning ; Vesuvius has more frequent eruptions
than Etna; while the immonse summits of the Andes,
Cotopaxi and Tungurahua, havo an eruption hardly

■ 'spnce in a century. The volcanos of Am'^rica, besides
4;he common lava and rocks, &c., east out scorified clay,
carbon, sulphur, and wator, acconipaniod, in some
instances, by fishes. The mountain of Maccaluba in
^icily, some hills near tho town of Zaman in the
Crimea, and a volcano whicli is situnt?d towards the
mid lie of the island of Java, in a plain abounding with
suit springs, send firth eruptions of mud.

it is remarkable that, in the Old Continent, the
prmcipal chains of mountains contains no volcanos, and
that islands and the extremeties of peninsulas are alaic^
the seats of these convulsions ; while in the New
World, the immense range which runs along tho shore
of the Pacific Ocean, possesses more volcanos than
are to be met with in the whole of the Old Continent
and its adjacent islands. No volcano has yet been
discovered on the continent of Africa, but most of its
groups of Islands are distinguished by them. A line
drawn round the great Pacific Ocean, so as to include
the long range of mountains on the west of America,
the Asiatic peninsula of Kamtschatka, and the islands

-» i.viariM««i>i»i...i

of Sumatra and Java, will have within it by far the
greatest and most extensive volcanic system on the
globe. From Terra del Fucgo (t/ie land of fire) to the
peninsula of Alaska, a completo scries of volcanos
may be traced. The Aleutian islands, which stretch
from that peninsula to the opposite poninsula of Kamt-
schatka, possess several. On Kamtschatka, there are
some of great violence. The islands of Japan and
Formosa have several ; and, beginning with Sumatra
and Java, they are scattered over all that immense
archi^lago, which forms so remarkable a feature of
the Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean, the islands
of St. Paul, Amsterdam, and Bourbon, have volcanos
in action. The most formidable volcanos of the
Mediterranean, are Etna in Sicily, and Vesuvius near
the coast of Naples. Between these two mountains
are the Lipari islands, all of volcanic character. The
Atlantic Ocean contains several groups of this kind ;
Iceland has suiTercd frequently from the terrific erup*
lions of its volcanos ; tha Azores and the Canaries,
and some of the West Ind'a islands, also experience
the eftects of subterranean fire. In some places parts
of the land which are covered by t!ie waters of the
ocean, are the seats of volcanos ; and it lias sometimes
happened that new island? have be?n farmed during
submarine eruptions. S ivoral mount lins baar evident
marks of having, at some veiy distant psriod, been the
outlets <5f fires, and on this account, 1h;'y are called
extinct volcanos. Altogether about 205 volcanos are
known, including only those which have been active
within a period to which history or tradition reaches.

THE OCEA.N.

The vast body of water wliich surrounds the conti-
nents, and is the common receptacle of their running
waters, is indispensably necessary to the support of
animal and vegetable existence upon the earth. Its
perpetual agitations purify the air; and the vapours
which the atmosphere draws from its surface, being

condensed and dispersed through the upper regions
forra clouds, which are the source of a constant supply
of rain and moisture to the land. The ocean, also, by
the facilities for communication which it offers, is the
means of uniting the most distant nations, while it
enables them to interchange, with mutual advantage,
the productions of their several climates.

The bottom of the sea appears to have inequalities
similar to those on the surface of the continents ; the
depth of the ^vater is therefore extremely various.
There are vast spaces where no bottom has been found ;
but this does not prove that the sea is bottomless, be-
cause the line is able to reach to but a comparatively
small depth. If we were to found our opinion upon
analogy, we might-conclude tiiat the greatest depth of
the ocean is, at least, equal to tlie height of the loftiest
mountains, that is, between 20,000 and .30,000 foot.
Along the coast, its depth* has always been found pro-
portioned to the height of the shore. When the coast
is high and mountainous, tlie sea that washes it is deep ;
but when the coast is low, the water is shallow. If we
reckon its average depth at two miles, tlie ocean will
contain 296 millions of cubical miles of water. We
shall have a more specific idea of this enormous mass
of water, if we consider that it is siifliciont to cover the
whole globe to the height of more than eight thousand
feet ; and if this water were reduced to one spherical
mass, it would form a globe of more than 800 miles in
diameter.

The general colour of the sea is a deep bluish green,
which becomes clearer towards the coasts. This colour
is thought, by some, to arise from tiio same cause as the
azjure of the sky ; it is probable that the former is due
to the rays of blue light being reflected in tlie greatest
quantity from the water, and the latter to their being
reflected in the greatest quantity from the particles of
the air. The other colours exhibited in parts of the sea,
depend on causes which are local, and sometimes decep-
tivo. The Mediterranean in its upper part is said- to
have at times a purple tint. In the gulf of Guinea the
tea is white ; around the Maldive islands it is black ;

'•Iff

i i>i»Bj i ji,.i.wj i . »ii im i . < n i nj g I

••*»»

and in some places it has Uoon observed to be red.
These appearances are probably occasioned by vast
numbers of minute marine insects, by the nature of the
soil, or by the infusion of certain earthly substances in
the water. The green and yellow shades of the sea
proceed frequently from the existence of marine vege-
tables at or near the surface.

The water of the sou contains several extraneous sub-
stances, in proportions varying in ditFerent places. The
component parts, in addition to pure water, are com-
monly sulphate of soda ; chloride of sodium, (common
salt) ; chlorides of calcium, magnesium, and potassium ;
with some organic matter. Common salt, which for
salting meat is preferred to the salt of springs, is
obtained by boiling the sea water so as to evaporate
It. The saltncss of the sea appears, with some local
exceptions, to be less towards the poles than near
the tropics J and, in particular places, it varies from
temporary causes. The violent tropical rains have an
effect in diminishing it, especially near coasts, where an
increased volume of fresh water is brought down by the
rivers. The Baltic is at all times less salt than the
ocean, and when a strong east wind keeps out the North
Sea, its waters are said to become almost fit for domestic
uses. The most curious phenomenon of all, is that of
springs of fresh water rising up in the midst of the sea.
In the bay of Xagua, on the southern coast of Cuba,
springs of this kind gush up with great force at the
distance of t\vo or three miles from the land ; and other»
occur near Goa, on the western coast of Hindostan, and
in the Mediterranean Sea, not far from Mai'seilles.
Various theories have been advanced to account for the
saltness of the ocean. Some assort the existence of vast
beds of salt at its bottom. Others have supposed that
the sea may have originally received all its saline par-
ticles from those existing on the surface of the earth,
which were dissolved and carried down to the ocean by
the action of the rivers. The most probable solution
of the matter is, that it is an essential and absolute
quality impressed upon it from the creation of the
world by the Great Author of nature. Its presenco,

uuitcd to tho action of tho tides and waves, preserves
(jhe vast masa of waters from corruption, and at the same
time gives it u specific gravity which enables it more
easily to (ioat tho large bodies vrhich move in it, or upon
its surface. The Ijittcrncas which exists in sea-water,
but apparently not beyond a certain depth, is with
much probability considered to be owing partly to the
vegetable and animal matter held there in a state of de-
composition ; and partly to some of the salts it contains.
From the former cause some account for the luminouai
nppearancp which the sea often presents at night, par-
ticularly in summer and autumn, while others ascribe
it to electricity, or to innumerable minute animaU
moving rapidly through the water in all directions. - ^

Water being a bad conductor of heat, the temperature
of the sea changes mucli less suddenly than that of the
atmosphere, and is by no means subject to such ex-
tremes as tlie latter. It is also modified by currents,
which mingle together the waters of different depths
and regions, and by the neighborhood of shallows and
banks. Thus bays, inland seas, and the spaces among-
clusters of islands, where the action of the waves ia
more coufmed, and the water usually of less depth than
at a distance from land, are the most favourable placei^
for the production and accumulation of marine ice. It
is on this account that the navigation of the Baltic is
annually stopped by the ice in a latitude not . more
northerly than that of tracts which, in the main ocean
are always open to the passage of ships. In like manner,
ice extends from five to eight degrees farther from the.,
south than from the north pole, owing, it is probable,
to the almost entire absence of land near the Antarctic
Circle ; while tho north pole is so nearly surrounded by
land, that the ice of the Arctic Ocean is shut up, and,
cannot be carried forward to such a distance by the
current, which sets towards the equator.

The ocean has three kinds of motion. The first ia;
that undulation which is produced by the wind, an4"
which is entirely confined to its surface. The second^
niotion is that continual tendency which the whole-
water in the sea has towards the west, which is greatel

•.18

rtear the equator thaii towards the poles. It begins oil
the west side of America, when it is moderate ; but as the
waters advance westward, tlieir motion is accelerated ;
and after iiaving traversed tlio globe, they strike with
great violnncc on the (;nstcrn shore of America. Being
stopped by that contliieut, they rush, in the form of ah
impetuous current called by navigators the Gulf-stream,
into the Gulf of I\fexioo, and thence proceed along the
coast of North America, till they come to the south
side of the great bank of Newfoundland, when they turn
suddenly otF and run down through the Azores, or
Western Isles. This motion is most probably owing to
the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, which is
in a direction contrary to tlio current of the sea. The
third motion is the tide, which is^a r^ular swell of thq
ocean every 12i hours. This motion is now ascertained
to be owing to the attractive in/luence of the moon, and
also partly to that of the sun. There is always a flux
and reflux at the same time, in two parts of the globe,,
and these are opposite to each other ; so that when our
antipodes have iiigh water, we have the same. When
the attractive powers of the sun and moon act in the
same direction, which happens at the time of new and
full moon, we have the highest or spring tides; but
when their attraction is opposed to each other, which
happens at the quarters, we have the lowest or neap
tides.

SPRINGS— RIVERS— LAKES.

The origin of the numerous springs that break forth,
froiu beneath the earth's surface cannot be referred to
one exclusive cause. The internal reservoirs by which
they are supplied are, in many cases, derived from the
water which the earth absorbs from rain and melted
snow and from these reservoirs, wherever there is
uneven or mountainous ground, the water flows out
by minute fissui'es in the sides of the hills. But when
we see springs rising up in plains, it is evident tha.t
ihey must have ascended, that is, travelled, in a direc-

- u,.ixia,i-«tt^.., -^.....- -.-..«A^:Viyj'^.^ig-^:j , ., , .. ,

■Illjj1-r"'~' ^w.^Vi^^.w,«i;.^ii^y^P|t.lr,

tion cobtrary to that produced bv tho force of gravity,
in order to roach the nurfucc. This, no doubt, is some-
times to bo attributed to water flowing under ground,
from distant elevations, and to the natural tendency of
a liquid to fiud its level. IJut soiuo persons believe
that the rihiug up of s])ring.s in pluins cannot always be
accounted for iu tbis nmnuer ; and have, therefore, de-
vised other modes of explanation. Springs which suffer
no diminution, even from the longest continued dry
weather, would appear to bo derived from a source
quite independent of rains and other external mcana
of supply. They have been attributed to some vast
body of water within the earth ; and it has been
concluded, though without sufilcicnt reason, that many
springs arise froni^e ocean, filtering through the porea
of the earth, the salt particles being lost in the piassage.
Springs which have their waters combined with
mineral substances, and are, &om that circumstance,
called mincralj are vciy numerous, and of various
kinds. Warm and hot springs are also common, espe-
cially in volcanic countries, where they are sometimeei
distinguished by violent ebullitions. Iceland is noted
for these curious phenomena : its celebrated boiling
fountain, the great Geyser, frequently throws out its
contents to the height of more than a hundred feet—
sometimes to twice that elevation.

Kivers are to be traced to springs, or to tho gradual
meltings of the ice and snow, which perpetually cover
the summits of all the most elevated ranges of moun-
taijis upon the globe. The union of various springs, or
of these meltings, forms rivulets ; these last follow the
declivity of the ground, and commonly fall, at different
stages, into one great channel, called a river, which at
last discharges its waters into the sea, or some great
inland lake. The declivities along which descend the
various streams that flow into one particular river are
called its lasin ; a terra, therefore, which includes the
whole extent of country from which the waters of the
river are drawn. As mountainous regions abound iu
springs, we find that most rivers, more especially thoso
of the fiist class, commenoe from a chain of mountains ;

li-.l

each side of a clmin also )ias its uprmgs, and /he riverf
which originate on one side flow in thn o(?nosite direction
to those whicli rise on the other. As it m the property
of water to follow the most rapid dr.scf^nt that comes in
its way, the courses of streams natunUly point out the
various declivities of the earth's surface, and the line
from which large rivers How in contrary directions will
generally mark out the most elevated parts of the earth.
When rivers proceed through a mountainous and rugged
country, they frequently fall over precipices and form
cataracts, in some cases several hundred feet in depth.
The most celebrated falls in the world are those of
Niagara, in North America. In the tropical regions,
most of the rivers are subject to periodical overflowings
of their banks, in consoquonce of the rains which annu-
ally fall in such abundance in these countries during
Ae wet season. The overflow of the Nile was considered
»y the ancients, who were ignorant of its cause, as one
of the greatest mysteries in nature, because in Egypt,
where the overflo^v takes place, no rain ever falls. The
apparent mystery is easily explained from the circum-
stance of the rai»s descending and the snow melting
upon the mountains in the interior of Africa where the
Nile rises. Tlie consequent accumulation of the waters
among the high grounds gradually swell the river
along its whole extent, and in about two months froni
the commencement of liie rains, occasions those yearly
inundations, witliout which Egypt would be a desert.
Rivers, in their j miction with the sea, present several
appearances worthy of notice. Tlie opposition whicii
takes place between the tide and their own currents
nccasions, in many instances, the collection at their
mouths of banks of suncf or mud, called Mrs, on account
"jf the obstruction which thoy oUbr to navigation. Some
streams rush with such force^ into the sea, that it is
Possible to distinguish for a considerable distance their
Waters from those of tlie sea. Many of the largest
rivers, as the St. Lawrence and tlie Rio do la Plata,
mingle with the ocean by means of a singb outlet, wliile
others, as the Nile, the Ganges, tlie Volga, the Rhine,
and the Orinoco before their termination, divide Mo

gevoral bmnchca. In some of th« sanchf plains of tb«
torrid zone, the rivers divide into branches, and, from
the nature of the soil and the heat of the climate, are
absorbed and evaporated, and thus never reach the sea.
Lakes may be classed into four distinct kinds. The
first class includes those which have no outlet, and
which do not receive any running water. They are
usually very small ; and some appear to be the craters
of extinct volcanoes. The seco»id class are those which
have an outlet, but vvliich receive no running water.
T}»ey }\ave been formed by sprinos fknsing into some
large hollow : upon the water rishig up to the top of the"
hollow, it would, of course, run over the lowest part of
the edge, and thus find an outlet ; and these outlets are,
in some cases, the beginning of very large river",. The
third class, which embraces all those which both receive
and dischareo streams of \\-u.tcr, is much more numerous
than any. Though they are the receptacles of many
streams from the neighbouring country, they usually
Lave each but one outlet, which often takes its name from
the principal river that runs into the lake. The larges*
lakes of this claps ai'e the immense bodies of water in
North America, between Canada and the United States.
There are five, (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and
Ontario,) almost all like soas in extent, connected
together, and having their purity maintained by means
of the continual ihw of water which is kept up from
one to another. Their iin;d outlet to the Atlantic Ocean
is the great river St. Lav.-rence. Lake Baikal, in
Asiatic llu^sia, is al«o remarkable f()r its size ; it sends
forth a large stream which joins the Yenisei. The fourth
class of lakes comprises a very small number, but they
are the most sifpgular of all in their character. They
are tiiose which roceivo streams of water, and often
great rivers, but have no visIMo outh't. The most celo-
hrated are tlie Caspian iTea, Lake Aral, and the Dead
Sea, all situated in the west of Asia. The Caspian is
between GDI) and 701) mils long, and, in one part, be-
tween 300 and 400 miles in width. It receives some
very larj^e rivers, the chief of which are the Volga, the
Ural or Yaik, and the Kur. Lake Aral is much smallei

than the Cafipiftn, but possossoa the eaine peculiarities ;
wul, fi'om tlio cluiriict'T of fac istliraur, which separate*
jhorn, it is supposed lh.it th-y f'jJMvrly c-nnposed ono
'vjcly of wiittr. Til -y r.ro h 't.h s dt hdc^s, aiid'ure dis-
tin<(uishcd hy inariiiff productions; iroin which it has
been conjectured tli;it they must, iit a very rennote
period, have been connected with the Black Sea. The
Dead Sea is still sinulUr than the Lake Aral, it is also
salt and exceedingly bitter.

Library of Useful Knowledge.

CHANGES IN THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.

From the quiet and regular succession of natural
events to whicii we are accustomed, and the repug-
nance we feel to the idea tliat it is possible for the course
of nature to suffer interruption, we migiit, without due
investigation, almnst p-'rsuade ourselves that the phy-
sical features and condition of the globe potisess an
unchangeable character. So fiir, however, is this from
being the case, tliat there is no country wherein trace*
are not discoverable of the violent revolutions of which
the earth has fiormerly been the theatre : and even yet
it is experiencing clianges of a very perceptible kind.
Of the several agents which contribute to these changes
water has the widett sphere of activity. Streams which
descend along the Hanks of elevated grounds carry
along with them some portion of the materials of their
respective slopes, especially when swelled into violence
by rains or the melting of snows ; and such as come frora
mountains sweep down with them even some of the
fragments of rock that have been collected in the high
valleys. In proportion, however, as these streams reach
the more level country, and their channels become more
expanded, they deposit the fragments and stones, till at
last their waters convey along only particles of mud of
the minutest kind. If, therefore, these waters do not

.■*r^

fim too mpidly into the sea, or the particlea in question
do not proviously sotl.lo in somo Inkn through which the ,
Tiv(M's [)!i.ss, \\w mild is deposited on tho sidos of their
mouths, l()rinlii;jj low <ir muds, l)y which tlie shores are
prolonged and encM'oiich upon the scni ; and when the
waves, hy casling up sand upon tiiom, assist in their
increase, whole provinces nro created, capable, from
their rich soil, of yielding, in the highest degree, to the
support of man, and of l)eing made the seats of wealth
and civilization. It iinfl been concli^ded, with reason, that
the greater part of Lower Egypt owes its formation to
the alluvial matter hrougiit down by the Nile, aided by
the sand cast up by the sea. The Delta of the Rhone is
undergoing a similar augmentation, and it would appear
that the arlns of that riviu* iuivi^ in the course of 1800
years, become longer by three leagues ; and that many
places which were once situated on tlie brink of the sea,
or of largo pools, are now several miles distant froWi the
Water. In Holland and Italy, the Rhine and the Po, since
they have been banked up by dykes, raise their beds
and push forward their mouths into the sea with great
rapidity. Such, indeed, lias been the increase of new
land formed by the latter, that the city of Adria, which
there is no doubt was, at a very remote date, situated oL
tho coast of the Adriatic, is how more than fifteen miles
distant from the nearest part of it. At the same time,
the river has, in consequeuco of embankments made to'
confine it, been so much raised in the level of its bottom
that the surface of its waters is higher than the roofs of
the houses in Ferrara ; and the Adigo and the Po ariB
higher than the whole tract of country lying between
them. Tlie same cause produces the alterations per-
ceived to bo takiufr place in niauy of those lakes which
are traversed by rivers. Tho matter brought down by
the rivers easily seniles in tho still waters of the lakes,
and the necessary result is, that the basins of the latter
Are gradually undergoing a diminution. Lake Erie, one
of the vast bodies of water in North America, is every
year becoming shallower from the influx of pebbles
and earth, and the constant accumulation of reeds and
•hells; and the diminution of the beautiful lake of

n question

which the

s of their

shores are

when the

t in their

ible, from

reo, to the

of wealth

>ason, that

mation to

, aided by

) Rhone is

lid appear

i of 1800

hat many

)f the sea,

; frowi the

! Po, since

heir beds

ith great

Q of new

ia, which

tuated dL

sen miles

imo time,

made id

ts bottom

roofs of

Po are

between

ions per-

cs which

down by

lie lake^,

he latter

blrie, one

is every

pebbles

eeds and

lake of

Geneva is also said to have been considerable withik he
memory of man.

The f(>rrnation of new islands constitutos tinothor Jis-
tinct and interostin-r oliiss amoni^ tlio chari<T<>s to wKicb
the surface of Iho ^loho is siibjccit. Tlioso wliiclj have
been raised up by volcanic aL!;oticy arc comparatively
few ; but those of coral, wliich owe their origin to
marine insects, (of iho class of zoophytes or phm
anhnals,) are iununierahlo. Of tlie dillerent coral tribes,
the most abundant is that named tlio niadrapore. It ia
most common in the tropical seas, iind decreases in
number and variety towards the poles ; it surrounds, in
vast rocks and reefs, many of the islands of the South
Sea and Indian Ocean, and increases tiieir size by its
daily growth. The coasts of the islands of the West
Indies, of those of the east of Africa, and the siiores and
shoals of the Red Sea, are encircled with rocks of coral.
Several navigators have furnished us with accounts of
the curious manner in which these formations take
place ; the following is extracted from Capt. Basil Hall's
narrative of his voyage to the Loo-Clioo islands : —

" The examination of a coral reef, during the different
stages of one tide, is particularly interesting. When the
tide has left it for some time, it becomes dry, and
appears to be a compact rock exceedingly hard and
rugged ; but as the tide rises, and the waves begin to
wash over it, the coral worms protrude themselves from
holes which were before invisible. These animals are of
a great variety of shapes and sizes, and in such prodi-
gious numbers, that, in a short time, the whole surface of
the rock appears to bo alive and In motion. The most
common of the worms at Loo-Choo is in the form of a
star, with arms from four to six inches long, which
are moved about with a raj) id motion, in all directions,
probably to catch food. Others are so sluggish, that
'.hey may be mistaken for pieces of tlie rock, and are
generally of a dark colour, and from four to five inches
iong, and two to three round. When the coral is
broken, about high-water, it is a solid hard stone ; but if
any part of it be detached at a spot wliich the tide
reaches every day, it is found to be full of worms of

f (

different length and colours ; some being as hne ae a
thread, and several feet long, of a brigiit yellow, and
fiomctinjcs of a blue colour ; others rcsoinblc snails, and
some arc not uiilikc lobsters in ;;b;ipe, but soft, and not
above two iucbes long. T!io grewrh of tbo coral ap-
pears to ct'Uiic wlien tlio wu'in is no longer exposed to
the washii)!^ of tlio sea. Thus, a reef rises in the form
of a caulillowcr, till its top has gained the level of the
highest tides, above whicb the worm has no power to
advance, and the reef, of course, no longer extends
itself upwards. Tlie otlier parts, in succession, reach
the surface, and thci-c stop, f )rnung, in time, a level
field with steep sides all round. The reef, however,
continually increases, and being prevented from going
higher, extends itself laterally in all directions. But this
growth being as rapid at tbo upp;'r edge as it is lower
down, the steepness of tbe face of the reef is still pre-
served. These arc the circumstances which render
coral reef so dangerous in navigation ; for, in the first
place, they are seldom seen above water ; and in the
next, their sides are so steep, that a ship's bows may
strike against tbe roclc, before any change of soundings
has given warning of the danger."

Another navigator gives the following succinct ac-
count of the manner in which, after being raised up, the
coral islands gradually acquire a soil and vegetation : — ;
** To be constantly covered with water seems necessary
to the existence of the animalcules, for they do not
work, except in holes upon the reef, beyond low- water
mark; but the coral, sand, and other broken remnants
thrown up by the ^ea, adhere to the rock, and form a
solid mass with it, as high as the common tides I'each,-
That elevation surpassed, the future remnants, being
rare»y covered, lose their adhesive property, aad remain-
ing in a loose state, form what is usually called a Key,
upon the top of the reef. The new bank is not long
in being visited by sea-birds ; salt plants take root upon
»t, and a soil begins to be formed ; a cocoa-nut, or the
drupe of a pandanus, h thrown on shore ; land birds
visit it, and deposit the seeds of shrubs and trees ; every
high tide, and still more every gale, adds somethiog to

reach
level

Q\& hank. ; tho form of an island is gradually assumed ;
and last of all comes man to take possession."

The other cliiel" ugciits in chaiigiug tho surfiicc of the
farth lire volcauos a)id eartli-iuiikcs. The chung-es
occasioned hy th'^ eruptions of the foniT^r are very con-
siderahle near the neat of action, hut they operate
over a less extensive Held tlian cither of those which
have heen already mentioned. The principal effect of
the issue of suhterranean fires is the elevation of the
surface of the surrounding country ; and the size of the
mountains themselves must have heen prodigiously
increased by the matter thrown up during successive
eruptions. Earthquakes appear to ho brought about
by the same causes as volcanic eriiplions ; but their
action is much more tremendous than that of the latter.
They are frequently accompanied by loud subterraneous
Ijoises, and are sometimes so violent, that the ground
heaves up, and undufates like an agitated sea. They
are felt, almost at the same instant, over a mos"
astonishing extent; tliough happily, compared witi
this extent, their destructive ravages are confined
within a small range. In those parts, which appear to
be near the centre of their action, the most calamitous
effects sometimes occur : whole cities are destroyed,
and their inhabitants buried beneath tho ruins ; springs
are stopped, and others gush out in new places ; fissures
are made in the eai'th ; and enormous masses of rock
and other materials sink down, or are detached from
the mountains.

Such are the principal changes, which the surface of
the globe is now undergoin<j[. But great as they are,
they could not have brought about those grand revo-
lutions, which formerly visited the earth, and in which
such multitudes of the animal race wore consigned to
destruction. Tne whole of them are insufficient to
alter, in any perceptible degree, the level of the sea,
still less to have occasioned an overwhelming of the
land by that element. Some philosophers have endea-
voured to prove that a gradual and general lowering of
the level of the sea takes place, and have appealed to
certain observations, which, if correct, tend to establish

■»'7

the fact (A^ n (ttinimitiou of the watocfc! nlon/,' tho norlhoni
ciiorcH of thcf ]5:iU,iu. But it must not ho Ibrirotton,
that Ihouuli iu some |)lac(^s tlii> (.can has retired, or
fiuiik in Jcvc), in ollirrs it has isioroauiu'il upon tho
lan.l ; wliilo it is kiii.",, n tuit many luirbors of the
M'jiliterruiican haw r.irs "rved exaetly ili<' same level
biiice tlie lime el' ihe r.^u-!. iils. It is plain, thcrefure,
tliat all vai'ialious up.»n the cDu^fi.s of l!io ocean are
merely of a local kin;l, aiid ihat if the diif 'rent accounts
are balanced, we mu^l arrive at the conclusion, that the
general volu.nc of t!m ocean, and i)erhaps even its su-
perficial extent, sulK-r ndihi r increase nor ditn/nution.

Librarij of Useful Knowledge.

TlIK ATMOSriltlllE.

•|

The atmospheric is one of the most essential appen-
dages to the globe we inhabit, and exhibits a most
striking proof of Divine sUiU and omnipotence. It is
now ascertained to i)e a c: impound substance, formed
chiefly of two very different ingredients, termed oxygen
and nUrogen gas. Of l()i» measures of atmospheric air,
'21 are oxygen, and 70 nitrogen. The one, namely,
oxygen, is tlio principle of combustion. It is absolutely
necessary for the support of animal life, and is one of
the most important substances in nature. The other
{nitrogen) is altogether incapable of supporting either
flame or animal lite. But the term atmosphere is also
applied to the ^s'hole mass of lluids, consisting of air,
vapours, electric llaid, and otiier matters which sur-
round the eartli to a coitain heiglit. This mass of iiuid
matter gravitates to the earth, revolves with it in its
diurnal rotation, and is carried along with it in its
course round the sun every year. It has been con-
puted to extend about 4o miles a.bove the earth's sur-
face, and it presses on the earth with a force propor-
Itioned to its height anvl density. From experiments
inade with the baromet'jr it has been ascertained, that

2:j

it presses with a weight of about 15 pounds on every
square inch of the earth's surface ; and, therefore, ita
pressure on the body of a middle-sized man, is equal to
about 33,000 pounds, or 14 tons avoirdupois, a prest
sure which would be insupportable, and eyen fatal,
were it not equal on every part, and counterbalanced
by the spring of the air within us. The pressure of
the whole atmosphere upon the earth is computed to
be equivalent to that of a globe of lead, 66 miles ii^
diameter ; in other words, the whole mass of \he airj,
which surrounds the globe, compress^es the earth witl\
a force or power equal to that of five thousand million^
of millions of tons. This amazing pressure is, however^
essentially necessary for the preservation of the present
ponstitution of our globe, and of the animated beings
\vhich dwell on its surface. It prevents the heat of the
sun from converting water, and all other fluids intQ
vapour; and preserves the vessels of all organized
beings in due tone and vigour. Were the atmos-
pherical pressure entirely removed, the elastic fluids
contained in the finer vessels of men and other animals
would inevitably burst them, and life would become
extinct ; and most of the substances on the face of the
earth, particularly liquids, would bo dissipated into
vapour.

Besides these, the atmosphere possesses a great
variety of other admirable properties, of which the fol-
lowing may bo mentioned. It# the vehicle of smells,
by which we become acquainted with the qualities of
the food which is set before ua, jand learn to avoid
those places, which are damp, unwholesome, and
dangerous. It is the medium of sounds, by means of
which knowledge is conveyed to our minds. Its undu.
lations, like so many couriers, run for ever backwards
and forwards, to convey our thoughts to others, and
theirs to us, and to bring news of transactions which
frequently occur at a considerable distance. A few
strokes on a large bell, through the ministration of the
air, will convey signals of distress, or of joy, in a
quarter of a minute, to the population of a city con-
taining a hundred thousand inhabitants. It troosmltg

}

to our ears all tlie harmonies of music, and expressog
every passion of the soul : it swells the notes of th&
nightingale, and distributes alike to every ear the
pleasures, which ariso from the harmonious sounds of
a concert. It produces the blue colour of the slcy, and
is the cause of the morning and evening twilight, by
its property of bending the rays of light, and reflecting
<hem in all directions. It forms an essential requisite
for carrying on all the processes of the vegetable king-
dom, and serves for the production of clouds, rain, and
Jew, which nourish and fertilize the earth. In short, it
vould be impossible to enumerate all the advantages
we derive from this noble appendage to our world.
Were the earth divested of its atmosphere, or were only
iwo or threo of its properties changed or destroyed,
it would be left altogether unfit for the habitation of
sentient beings. Were it divested of its undulating
quality, we should be deprived of all the advantages of
speech and conversation, of all the melody of the
feathered songsters, and of all the pleasures of music,
and, like the deaf and dumb, we could have no power
of communicating our thoughts but by visible signs.
Were it deprived of its reflective powers, the sun would
appear in one part of the sky of a dazzling brightness,
while all around would appear as dark as midnight,
and the stars would be visible at noon-day. Were it
deprived of its refractive powers, instead of the gradual
approach of the day 4|d the night, which we now
experience, at sun-rise we should be transported, all at
once, from midnight darkness to the splendour of noon-
day ; and, at sun-set, should make a sudden transition
from the splendours of day to all the horrors of mid-
night, which would bewilder the traveller in his
journey, and strike the creation with amazement. In
fine, were the Dxygen of the atmosphere completely
extracted, destruction would seize on all tribes of the
living world, throughout every region of earth, air,
find sea.

Dick.

' THE WINDS

A cliange in the temperature of a portion of air ; an
increase or a diminution of the quantity of water,
which it holds in a state of vapour ; in short, any
circumstance which ^causra it either to contract or
expand, destroys the equilibrium among the different
paits of the atmosphere, and occasions a rush of air,
that is, a wind, towards the spot where the balance hag
been destroyed. Winds may be divided into three
classes: those, which blow constantly in the samo
direction ; those, which are periodical ; and tliose,
which are variable. The permanent winds are those
which blow constantly between, and a few degrees
beyond, the tropics, and are called ti'ade ivind.s. On
the north of the equator, their direction is from the
north-east, varying at times a point or two of the
compucis each way : on the south of tlie equator, they
proceed from the south-oMst.- The origin of them is
this: — ithe powerful heat of tiic torrid zone rarefies, or
makes lighter, the air of tliat regioa ; the air, in con-
sequtsnce of this rarefaction, rises, and to supply its
place, a colder atnio.-pji-^rc from cac;\ of" the temperate
zontiS moves towanls the cquaior. But these nortli and
soutn winds pass from regions, where tlje rotatory mo-
tion of the earth's surface is less, to those v/here it is
greater. Unable at once to acquire tliis new velocity,
they are left behind, and instead of being north and
south winds, as tlicy would be, if tlio earth's surface
did not turn round, they become north-east and south-
east winds.

The moonsoons belong to the class of psroidical winds.
They blow half the year from one quarter, and the
other half from the opposiLo direction : when they shift,
variable winds and violent storms prevail for a time,
which render it dangerous to put to sea. The monsoonn
of course suffer partial changes in particular places,
owing to the form and position of tlie lands, and to
other circumstanc'-'s ; Ijut it will be sufficient to give
their general directions. From April to October, a
|Oijth-ef,st wind prevuiL^ north of the equator, south*

rfmn

»Q

ivard of this a south-cast wind ; from October to April,
a north-east wind north of the equator, and a north-west
|)ctween the equator and 10° of south latitude.

The Ja.id and sea-breezes, wliich are common on the
coasts aad ishinds situated between the tropics, are
.another kind of periodical winds. During the day, the
.rtir,' ovf-r tht^ land, is strongly heated by the sun, and a
cool i<reeze seU in from the sea ; but in the night, the
atrnosphore over the land gets cooled, while the sea, and
consequently the air over it, retains a temperature
nearly even at all times ; accordingly, after si^nset, a
land-breeze blows oil' the shore. The spa-breeze gene-
rally sets in about ten in the forenoon, and Idsts'till six
in the evening ; at seven the land breeze begins, and
continues till eight in the morning, when it dies away.
These alternate breezes are, perhaps, felt more power-
fully on the coast of Malabar than any where ; their
e/Fect tliere, extends to a distanpe pf twenty leagues
from the land. , •

Thus, tvithin the limits of from twenty-eight to thirty
degrees oh each side of the equator, the movements of
ihe atmosphere are carried on with great regularity ;
but beyond these limits, the winds are extreaiely varia-
ble and uncertain, and the observations made, have not
yet led to any satisfactory theory, by which to explain
them. It appears, however, that beyond the region of
the ti'ade-winds, the most frequent movements of the
atmosphere are from the south-west, in the north tem-
perate zone. This remark must be limited to winds
Wowing over the ocean, and in maritime countries ; be-
cause those in the interior of continents are influence^
by a variety of circumstances, among which the height
and position of chains of mountains are not the least
important. The south-west and north-west winds of
the temperate zones, are most likely occasioned in the
following manner : — In the torrid zone there is a con-,
tinual ascent of air, which, after rising, must spread
itself to the north and south in an opposite direction to
(he trade-winds below : these upper currents, becoming
cooled above, at last descend and mix themselves with
ihe lower air ^ part of them may perhaps fall again into
;'■ # ^ " , .;V

^t,'

the trade-winds, and the remainder, pursuing its course
towards the poles, may occasion the nortK-west and
south-west W'lids, of wliich we have beon speaking.
This interchange between the heated air ox* the Tropics,
and the cold air of the Polar regions, ^^icatly tends to
moderate the climate of each. Bosidt.^3 the air from the
Tropics being richer in oxygen, on U'Xsount of the more
luxuriant vegetation decomposii)g a larger quantity. of
carbonic acid, is well calculated to supply any deficiency
in the amount of this most iinporiunt substance, which
might occur from the barrcnne^i of a less favoured
climate. — (See page 22^.)

Hurricanes have been supposed to be of electric ori-
gin. A large vacuum is suuotjnly created in the at-
mosphere, into which the suriounding air rushes with
immense rapidity, sometinie'i from opposite points of
the compass, spreading the most frightful tlevastatioi^
along its track, rooting up trees, and levelling house?!

Sith the ground. They aie seldom experienced beyond
e tropics, or nearer the equator tliau the 9th or 10th
ftarallels of latitude ; and they rage with the greatest
ury near the tropics, in the vicinity of land or islands,
while far out in the open ocean they rarely occur.
They are most common among the V^^est India islands,
near the east coast of iMadagascat, in the islands of Mau-
iptius and Bourbon, in the Bay ot i5engal, at the changing
of the monsoons, and on the coasts of China.

Whirlwinds sometimes arise from winds blowing
among lofty and precipitous mountains, the form of
which influences their direction, and occasions gusts to
descend with a spiral or whirling motion. They are
frequently, however, caused by two winds meeting each
other, at an angle, and then turning upon a centre.
When two winds thus encounter one another, any cloud
which happens to be between them, is of course con-
densed, and turned rapidly round ; and all substances
sufficiently light, are carried up into the air by the
^hiding motion which ensues. The action of a
yifhirlwind at sea, occasions the curious phenomenon
called a water-spovt.
^'■* Library of Useful Knowledge,

AQUEOUS VAPOUR— CLOUDS AND MISTS, ^
RAIN, DEW, SNOW, HAIL.

When the water is exposed to the air, it is gradually
converted into vapour, which, on uocount of its specific
cvity, ascends iritt) the atn)osphere. This vapour pre*
Bents itself in various forms. When the air hold« it in
solution, it is invisible, just as salt dissolved in water is
invisible ; but \vhen the air becomes incapable of re,
taining it in solution, tlie watery particles become visible,
either in the form of clouds and mists suspended in the
fitmospiiere, or in that of ruin, dew, snow, and hail falling
to the ground.

Clouds and Mists dilfer only in this, that tlie former
float in the air, wiiereas the latter extend along the
ground. Water, dissolved in the atmosphere, is first,
by the agency of cold, witlidrawn from it in very minute
particles, which being very light, remain suspended at
a greater or less distance from the earth, and are kept
asunder by the electrical rej)ulsion developed during
llieir sejiaratioti iVoin tiu'- air. When the electricity is
removed gradually, by pointed rocks, trees, d«£C., or
suddenly, during thunder .storms, the vain falls. Thus
we perciuv(! nnothcr adnurublc means by which climates
are rendered more suitable to man. The cnormousi
evaporation which occurs in hot countries cools them
by abstracting vast quantities ot" heat, which is imparted
to colder regions when the clouds are formed, and again,
when the rain descends. The height of clouds is very
various. In ascending to the summits of mountains, the
traveller frequently passes through a zone of clouds, and
beholds the vesicular vapours of which it is composed,
stretched under his feet like a vast plain covered with
snow ; and even on Chimborazo, the loftiest peak of the
Andes, there are always to be seen, at an immense height,
certain whitish clouds resembling flakes of wool. These
clouds, which are perhaps many miles from the surface
pf the earth, have been supposed to owe their elevation to
ftfgati'jre el/sctricity repelling them from the ground, in

the same way nn niUU aro Bupposcd to owe their depres*
sion to positive olectricily attruotlng tliem towards it.

Rain fall iVom the < louds, when tlio vesicular vupour,
of which they arc oinposod, unites into drops. The
full of the dro[rs of ruin, afti.'r tiipy aro formed, is easily
accountod foi" from the attraction of gravity; but the
cause of the conversion of vesicular vapour into rain-
drops is not hcti' r understood, than the cause of the
conversion of vapour into vesicles ; though it is highly
probable, that eleciricity is an agent in the one case, as
well i.s in the otiier. If the change be owing to the di-
iniimtion of this fluid, we have a ready explanation of
the well-known fact, that mountainous are the most
rainy countries; mountains constituting so many pointa
for (li-awini: oil" the electric Ihiid. This supposition is
further reuuered very piobablo by the fact, that no
rain falls tn those regions where thunder is unknown,
as in the environs of Limi*. and on the coast of Peru.
The qu8i)lity of rain that falls in dilForent regions of
the globe, is very dilicrena It is most abundant within
the tornd zone, and decr'*ses in proportion to the dis-
tance irom the equator. The annual fall at Grenada,
in IZ-' N. lat. is l'2(f uio'v^s ; at Calcutta, in 22^ N. lat, ^
. it is 81 inches ; at iiou-e in 41° 54", it is 39 inches ; in
Ji'iglund, [12 inches; 4iy\ at Petersburg, in lat. 59'^ 16",
it is only IG inches. >iiven in different places in the
same country, the ot.tfutity that falls is difRjrent. But
the most curious ia*if of all, in the natural history of
rain, is the diiTcre^^c^ of quantity, which ia collected at
di He rent hoigncs at the same phvce. In one year, q,
rain-guage on tfla top of Westminster Abbey, received
12 inches ; an'/n^sr on the top of a house in the vicinity
received iS iw^-lies ; and a third on the surface of the
ground received 22 inches.

Dew, or Ine moisture insensibly deposited frpm the
atmospner<v on the surface of the ground, is a well-
known phenomenon. It was long supposed, that i,ts
precipiuition was owing to tlie cooling of the atmosphere
towaids evening, which prevented it from retaining so
^re«»t a quantity of wotcr)'^ vapjur in solution, as during
the heat of the day. But it has been recently proved^
^fct the deposition of dew is produced by the cooling o£

the surface of the earth, which takes place previously
to the cooling of the atmosphere. The earth is an ex-
cellent radiator of caloric, whilst the atmosphere does
not possess that property in any- sensible degree. To-
wards evening, therefore, when the solar heat declines,
and after sunset, when it entirely ceases, the earth
rapidly cools by radiating heat towards the skies ;
^hilst the air has no means of parting with its heat, but
by coming in contact with the cooled surface of the
earth, tt> yrhich it communicates its caloric. Its solvent
power being thus reduced, it is unal)le to retain so large

8P(]l2tiQ,fi 01 watery vapour, and deposits those pearly
tops failed dew. This view of the matter explains the
^e«aon 'Vi^hy (^ew falls more copiously in calm than in
(rtonpy weather, and in a plear than in a cloudy atmos-
phere. Accumulations of moisture in the atmosphere
not only prevent the free radiation of the earth towards
|he upper fegions, but th^^$ielves radiate towards the
earth; whe^s^i^^ in p^ear nights, the radiation of the
fiarth passes without obstacle through the atmosphere
\o the distant regions of space, whence it receives no
caloric in eijichange. The same principle enables us
toi ej|p)ain the reason, why a bottle of wine taken fresh
ifrom the cellar, (in summer particularly,) will soon be
poveaed with dew. The bottle, being colder than the
^^rrounding air, ahsorbs calorip froni it ; the moisture
therefore, which that air contained, becomes visible,

f,nd forms the dew, which is deposited on the bottle.
n like manner, in a warm room, or in a clo^e carriage,
the inside of the windows is covered with vapouif, be-
cause the windows being colder than the breath, de-
privcGi Jt of part of its caloric, and by this means convert
it into watery vapour. Bodies attract dew in propor-
tion as they are good radiators of caloric, as it is this!
qualHy which reduces their temperature below that of
the atmosphere. Hence we find, that little or no dew
;s deposited on rocks, sands, or water ; while grass and
living vegetables, to which it is so highly beneficial,
attract it in abundance ; a remarkable instance of the
wise and bountiful dispensations of Providence. The
■ame benevolent design we may observe, also in the
^bi^ic(a,noe ef dew in summer and in hot elimatesi in

ce previously
irth is an ex-
losphere does
degree. To-
leaX declines,
es, the earth
s the skies;
1 its heat, but
urface of the
!. Its solvent
etain so large

those pearly
1* explains the
calm than in
iloudy atmoss-
3 atmosphere
larth towards

towards the
iation of the
i atmosphere

receives no
3 enables us

taken fresh
will soon be

er than the

le moisture
mes visible,
the bottle.

which its cooli '^ effects arc so much required. Th»
more caloric the earth receives during the day, the
more it will radiate afterwards ; and consequently, the
more rapidly its tetiiperature will be reduced in the
eyeninjr, in comparison with that of the atmosphere.
In the West Indies, accordingly, where the intense heat
of the day is strongly contrasted with the coolness of
the evening, the dew is prodigiously abundant. When
dew is frozen the moment it iklls, it gets the n£!.me of
hoar-frost.

Snoto is another of the forms which the vapours of
the atmosphere assume. It consists of aqueous vapour,
congealed either while falling, or when in the air pre-
vious to falling. The first crystals, produced at a great
■height in the atmosphere, determine, as they descend,
the crystallization of aqueous paiticles, which, without
their presence, the surrounding air would retain in a
state of solution. The result is the formation of hexa>
gonal darts, or stars of six rays, when the weather is
sufficiently calm, and the temperature not too high to
deform the crystals by melting off their angles ; but
when tie atmosphere is agitated, and the snow falls
from a great height, the crystals clash together, unite in
groups, aid form irregular flakes.

Hail, according to all app.arance, is a species of
snow, or of snowy rain, which has undergone a variety
of congelations and superficial meltings in its passage
through different zones of tlie atmosphere, of different
temperatures. Its foinnation evidently depends on
electricity. It is by an electrical apparatus, that we
pan produce artificial hail ; and it is well known, that
volcanic eruptions are often follo^ved by the fr.il cf hail-
stones of enorm^s size.

Such are the principal circumstances which are sup-
posed to concur in the formation of aqueous meteors.
Their beneficial influence upon tiie eartli is a point more
easy to determine. We observe all nature languish,
when the atmosphere retains, for too long a time, the
moisture arising from the earth. Plants fade and
iroop; animals feel their strength failing them; man
himself, breathing nothing but dust, can with difficulty

FT'

|rooure elielter \tom the sultry heat, by which his frame
i« parched and ovcrpoworcd. But scarcely have the
waters of heaven flesc( nded from the clouds, when all
living beings begin to revive ; tl.e fields resume their
green attire ; the flowers their lively tints, animals the
sportive freedoin of thi. ir motions, and the elements of
ihe air their healthful equilibrium. Snow itself, whose
very name alarms the natives of the tropics, is produc*
live of real advantages in the economy of nature ; it se-
cures tlie roots of plants against the effects of Intense
cold: it serves to moisten gently those lands, from
which, owing to their local situation, the rain is too
8oon carried off; and it pave for the inhabitant of the
north, commodious and agreeable roads, along which
he gaily skims in his light and nimble sledge. Hail
alone, of all the aqueous meteors, never appears but as
a harbinger of distress. Birds and quadrupeds in»
Btinctively conceal themselves, as soon as they have any
presentiment of its coming. Man can neither foresee
its approach, nor arrest its ravages ; he has been able
to ward off the thunderbolts of the sky, but he sees the
nail destroy his corn, break his f"iuit trees, and shatter
the very house where he dwells, without being able to
prevent it.

M'Cullloch's Course of ReadiTtg.

ON THE DELUGE.

It stands on record in Scripture, that this globe was
twice enveloped in water ; once, when God by his work
of SIX days, described in the first chapter of the book of
Genesis, raised it up from what is uj?Ually called its
chaotic state ; and a second time in the days of Noah.
Now, the effects of these two immersions of the earth in
water are -distinctly marked in the present form of it.

In regard to the first, it is a vulgar error, to which
the Scripture gives no countenance, that the earth was
first brought into existence when God commenced his
six days' work. A more careful reading of the narra-
iiff9 will convince you, that this work was merely

ly^fWl^

)utting it in order, and fitting it for being the habyatlon
)f man.

The words of Scnpture oro, "In the boginning God
jrcatod liie lieavoa aivj the cartli." This is a general
linnounconient of what \vhs d'lne in the beginning ; but
^ow long atitecodont to tJio Fubsequcnt history that be-
|[inning was, we are not inf jrmcd. Tlie narrative pro-
reeds, " And the earth was without form and void ; and
larkness was upon tlie fane of tho deep, and the Spirit
if God moved upon the face of the waters." This
jescribes tho condition in whieli the earth was, when
rod commenced his worlc of six days. How long it had
3en in that condition is not said. There are indica-
|ons, however, in tlie formation of the crust of thp
irth itself, that it had been for a long period in that
mdition, and that its then chaotic state was the result
some former revolution or revolutions. Now, in
^rfect conformity with this history, there are evidences
the present dry land having been immersed in water,
)r a much longer period than its transient immersion
the deluge. For example, there are immense masses
solid rock, some at great heights in the mountains,
|)me deep in the bowels of the earth, entirely formed of
pells and other marine remains cemented together,
^any of the most beautiful marbles are thus formed,
digging mines, after piercing through many strata of
jks of various descriptions, and arriving at great
bpths below the surface of the earth, miners come to
kmains of plants and of animals, that must have been
Irmed in waters of the sea.

These, and many other phenomena, not only prove,
^at the globe was immersed in water, but that it must
ive continued in that condition, for a much longer
tried than the waters of the deluge remained upon it.
But there are other phei:iomena, that indicate, that
ler the earth was brought into its present form, its
iountains and valleys, and rivers and seas, nearly as
fe now sec them, it was suddenly immersed in water,
mich also suddenly receded. The phenomena to which
now allude, are such as fossil shells, marine plants,
)nes, ^c. which &re found in eartli, or gravel, or ^and,

f '

and in other situations, which indicate a much movt
recenf deposit, than the shells and other marine sub.
stances formed into solid rocks, already alluded to. In
every part of the world, tlicre are found indications of a
submersion of the dry ground in water, much later than
the formation of the mountains and valleys, and affecting
the condition of the globe much more superficially.
Caves, for example, have been found in countries tne
most distant from outj another, in Europe and in New
Holland, containing large quantities of bones of animals,
mixed with earth or gravel, and in many cases, covered
with a substance called stalagmite. In many cases, the
bones belong to species of animals, that no longer exist
in the countries in which they are found. Bones of
elephants, hyenas, rhinoceroses, &c. have been found
in Britain, and in many parts of Europe.

It seems now to be generally admitted by scientifio
men, that there are means of ascertaining at what dis
tance of time a deluge covered the earth, and that the
calculations founded upon them point uniformly to the
time marked in the Scriptures. The following passage
is from Baron Cuvier : —

" Thus, while the traditions of all nations have pre-
served the reraen»brance of a great catastrophe, the deluge^
which changed the earth's surfapc, and destroyed nearly
the whole of the human species, geology apprizes us,
Jjiat of the various revolutions, which have agitated our
globe, the last evidently corresponds to the period, which
is assigned to the deluge,

" \ye say that, by means of geological considerations
alone, it is possible to determine the date of this great
event with some degree of precision.

f* There are certain formations, which must have
commenced immediat«ily after the last catastrophe, and
which, from that pwiiod, have been continued up to the
present day with greai regularity. Such are the de-
Dosits of detritus observed at the mouths of rivers, the
inasses of rubbish which exist at the foot of mountains,
and are formed of the fragments, that fall from their
summits and sides. These deposits receive a yearly in.
creasei which it is possible to measure. Nothing, tiiere-

fcrt^ w more easy, than to calculate the time, which it
has taken them tr» acquire tbfiir present dimensions.
This calculation has betin made with reference to the
debi-is of mountains ; and, in all cases, has indicated a
period of about four thousand years. The same result
has been obtained from the otlier alluvial deposits. In
short, whatever has been tlie natural phenomenon, that
has been interrogated, it has always been found to give
evidence in accordance with that of tradition. The
traditions themselves exhibit the most astonishing Con-
formity. The Hebrew text of Geneeis places the de-
luge in the year 2349 before Christ. The Indians make
the fourth age of the world, that in which we now live,
to commence in the year 3012. The Chinese place it
(about the year 2384. Confucius, in fact, represents the
I first King Yeo as occupied in drawing off the waters of
the ocean, which had risen to the tops of the mountainsj
and in repairing the damage which they had occa-
sioned." — Carlile on the Divine Origin of the Holy
Scriptures.

ations have pre-

I.-~MINERAL KINGDOM.

There is perhaps no portion of the earth's surface, of
the same extent, which contains so great a variety of
(hose mineral substances which minister to the neces-
sities and comforts of life, as the island of Great Bri-
tain ; and it would almost seem, from its internal struc-
ture, as if Providence had pre-ordained that it should
'be the seat of an opulent and powerful people, ana
I one of his chief instruments for the civilization and
advancement of the human race. That this is no extra-
vagant, overstrained expression of national vanity, may,
v^e think, be very easily made apparent, by a few
reflections on the vast advantages, which the British
empire itself, and, through it, the civilized world, have
deriyed, from the circumstance of our possessing Kit

abnndftnoe of one peirticular mineral under the surfao*
of dur soil. The almost inoxhau.stiblo mines of coal,
which are foiuvl in hd luuiiy dtiliuTnt parts of our
island, have unquostionably been one of the chief
sources of our vvoallh, and of our influence among the
other nations of Europe. All our great manufacturing
towns, — Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Manchester,
Glasgow, Paisley, are not only situated in the imme-^
diate vicinity of coal, but never would have existed with-
out it. If we had had no coal, we should have lost the
greater part of the wealth we derive from our me-
tallic ores ; for they could neither have been drawn
from the depths, where they lie concealed, nor, if found
near the surface, could they have been profitably re-
fined. Without coal, the steam-engine would probably
have remained among the apparatus of the natural
philosopher. Not only did the fuel supply the means
of working the machine, but the demand for artificial
power, ill order to raise tliat same fuel from the bowels
of the earth, more immediately led to the practical ap-
plication of the great discovery made by Walt, while
repairing the philosophical instrument of Dr. Black.
Before the invention of the steam-engine, the power
required to move machinery was confined to the im-
pelling force of running water, of wind, of animal &nA
human strength, — all too weak, unsteady, irregular, and
costly, to admit of the possibility of their extensive ap-
plication. But the steam-engine gave a giant power to
the human race, capable of being applied to every pur-
pose, and in every situation where fuel can be found*
Thus, manufactures arose, and from the cheapness with
which labour could be commanded, and the prodigious
increase of work done in the same space of time, their
produce was so reduced in price, as to bring luxuries
and comforts within the reach of thousands, who never
tasted them before. New tastes thus excited, and in-
creasing consumption, multiplied manufacturing estab-
lishments ; and their demands led to great manufactures
of machinery ; competition led to improvement in the
steam-engine itself, and thus, by the reciprocal action of
improvement and demand, our machinery and manu*

or the surfao*
lines of coal,
p'dvts of our
of the chief
ce among the
manufacturing
, Manchester,
in the imme-
'c existed with-
[1 have lost the
from our me-
^e been drawn
[1, nor, if found
I profitably re-
would probably
of the natural
pply the means
id for artificial
Tom the bowels
le practical ap-
by Walt, while
of Dr. Black.
ine, the power
iicd to the im-
of animal and
, irregular, and
lir extensive ap-
giant power to
id to every pur-
can be found*
cheapness with
the prodigious
of time, their
bring luxuries
lids, who never
[xcited, and in-
iicturing estab-
,t manufactures
jvement in the
Iprocal action of
ry and manu«

fectures graduftUy acquired Aftt high degree of perfedi
tion, to which they are now arrived. With the im-
provement of the stoam-engine, came the wonderful ap-
plication of it to navigation, which has already, in a fevir
years, produced such extraordinary results ; and which,
when combined with its farther application to wheel
carriages, must, at no great distance of time, occasion a
revolution in the whole state of society.

Next to coal, our iron is the most important of out
mineral treasures ; and it is a remarkable circumstance,
Ihat the ore of that metal, which is so essential to the
wants of man, that civilization has never been known
to exist without it, should in Great Britaii oe placed in
greatest abundance, not only in the vicinity of, but ac-
tually associated with, the ccgil necessary to separate
the metal from the impurities of the ore, so as to render
it fit for use. In Sweden, and most other countries,
where iron mines exist, the ore is refined by means of
wood ; .but no space on the surface of our island could
have been spared to grow timber for such a purpose ;
and thus, without coal, in place of being, as we are now,
great exporters of wrought and unwrought iron to dis-
tant nations, we must have depended on other countries
for this metal ; to the vast detriment of many of our
manufactures, which mainly owe their improvement and
extension to the abundance and consequent cheapness
of iron.

There are extensive mines of uEAD in Derbyshire,
Yorkshire, Northumberland, Lanarkshire, Dumfries-
shire, and several other places in Great Britain, suffi-
cient not only for the internal demand for that metal,
but yielding a considerable amount for exportation.
Copper is produced in large quantities in Cornwall j
and the same county has been celebrated for its tin
mines, for nearly two thousand years.

Coal, iron, lead, copper, and tin, are the principal
minerals of our country, which, in common language,
are usually associated with the idea of the produce of
mines. Silver and Gold we have none, with the excep-
tion of a little of the former contained in some of thf
ores of lead, which is separated by refining, when ii

•■A(Hent quantity to yield a pro(h. beyond the expense
of the process ; out we have some other metals, highly
useful in the arts, such as zinc, antimony, and man-*
ganese.

Besides the substances above mentioned, we Have
many other mineral treasures of great importance still
to be noticed. Of these the most valuable perhaps is
limestone, from its use in agriculture, to meliorate the
soil and increase its fertility, and from its being an in,
dispensable ingredient in mortar for building; and
there are not many parts of the island far distant from a
supply of this material. Building stone is found in
most parts of the country ; and although we must go to
Italy for the material for the art of sculpture to be em-
ployed upon, we have fgee-stone applicable to all the
purposes of ornamental architecture, and we have many
marbles df great beauty. If stones be far off, clay is
never wanting to supply a substitute ; and the most dis-
tant nations have their daily food served up in vessels,
the materials of which, dug from our clay-pits, have
given occupation to thousands of our industrious popu-
lation, in our potteries and ciiina manufactures. For
our supply of salt, that essential part of the daily sus-
tenance of almost every human being, we are not de-
pendent on the brine which encircles our island ; for we
have, in the mines and salt-springs of Cheshire and
Worcestershire, almost inexhaustible stores of the purest
quality, unmixed with those earthy and other ingredi-
ents, which must be separated by an expensive process,
before a culinary salt can be obtained from the water of
the sea. ♦

Familiar as is almost every one of the mineral sub-
stances We have named, in the common business of life,
there are many persons who have but a very imperfect
idea whence they are derived, and M^hat previous pro-
cesses they undergo, before they can be made applicable
to our use. In the formation of organized bodies, that
is, in the structure of animals and plants, the most su-
perficial observer cannot fail to discover a beautiful and
refined mechanism ; but if we cast our eyes upon the
ground, and look at heaps of gravel, sand, clay, aiAd

-Aft

nd the expense

metals, highly

ony,

and man-

ned, we Have
mportance still
ble perhaps is
meliorate the
ts being an in,
building ; and
distant from a
le is found in
we must go to
iture to be em-
ible to all the
we have many
far off, clay is
d the most dis-
i up in vessels,
b1 ay-pits, have
ustrious popu-
factujes. For
' the daily sus-
ve are not de-
island ; for we
Cheshire and
es of the purest
other ingredi-
ensive process,
rn the water of

le mineral sub-
nisiness of life,
very imperfect

previous pro-
lade applicable
;ed bodies, that
the most su-
a beautiful and

eyes upon the
and, clay, atd

stone, k eeems as if ch'ance only had brought tnNii io'«
gether, and that neither symmetry nor order can be dis^
Covered in their nature. But a closer examination sooii
convinces us of that, which reasoning from the wisdoni
and design manifested by other parts of creation, we
might beforehand have very naturally been led to ex-
pect, viz. that in all the varieties of form, and structure,
arid change, which the study of the mineral kingdom
displays, Itiws as fixed and immutable prevail, as in thei
most complicated mechanism of the human frame, or in
the motions of the heavenly bodies : and if astronomy
has discovered how beautifully "the heavens declare
the glory of God," as certainly do we feel assured by;
the investigations of geology, that the earth "showeth
his handy work." — Penny Magazine.

II.— MINERAL KINGDOM.

, The land rises from the surface of the sea in the forni
of islands, and of great continuous masses called conti-^
nents, without any regularity of outline, either where
it comes in contact with the water, or in vertical eleva-
iion, its surface being diversified by plains, valleys, hills,'
9^nd mountains, which sometimes rise to the height of
twenty-sijc thousand feet above the level of the sea.'
Numerous soundings in different parts of the world have
shown, that the bottom of the ocean is as diversified by?
inequalities as the surface of the land ; a great part of
it is unfathomable to us, and the islands and continents,'
>Vhich rise above its surface, are the summits of moun.t'
tains, the intervening valleys lying in the deepest
abysses.

Different climates produce different races of animals/
and different families of plants ; but the mineral king-
dom, as far as the nature of stone is concerned, is in-
dependent of the influence of climate, the same rocks
being found in the polar and in the equatorial repfjoris.'

4(r

Although there h considerable diversity in the structnr*
of the earth, it is not in any degree connected with
particular zones, as far as relates to circumstances^
which are external to it ; nor can we say, that the
wonderful action which burning mountains tell us is
going on in its interior, is confined to any part of the
Rj)here, fof the volcanic fires of Iceland bum as fiercely
as those that burst forth under the line. From all the
observations hitherto made, there is na reason to sup-
pose, that any unexplored country contains mineral
bodies, with which we are not already acquainted; and
although we cannot say beforehand of what rocks an
unej^mined land is likely to be composed, it is ex-
tremely improbable, that any extensive series of rocks
should be found, constituting a class different from- any
which have been already met with in other parts of the
globe.

When we dig through the vegetable soil, we usually
come to clay, sand, or gravel, or to a mixture of these
unconsolidated materials; and, in some countries, we*
shall probably fitid nothing else, at the greatest depths
to which we are able to penetrate. But in most places,-
after getting through the clay and gravel, we shouTcf
come upon a hard stone, lying in layers or beds parallel
to each other, either of one kind or of different kinds,
according to the depth. This stone would vary in
different countries, and in different places in the same
country, as well in its constituent parts, £is in the thick-
ness alternation, and position of its beds or layersv
It has beeflf ascertained by the observations of geologists,
in various parts* of the world, that the crust of the earth
is composed of a series of such layers, distinguishable
from each other by vei*y marked characters in their
internal strueturer The elements, of which they are
composed, are not very numerous, being for the most
part the hard substance called quartz by minerak)gistSy.
of which gun flints may be cited as a familiar example,
these being wholly composed of it, and the well-known
substances, clay and limestone; but these elements are
aggregated or mixed up together in so many propor-
tiofis and forms^ as to produce a considerable vuriety of

s tell us is

Tookfl. Bcsidoo tliis elemontary composition, or what
may be termed their si/iipi'c structure, the greatest
proporti'on of the rocks, tliut are so arranged in layers,
contain tijnign bodies, such as IVagniciits of o*her rocks,
•shells, bones of land and amphibious animals, and of
fishes, antT portions of trees and plants. It has furtlier
been found, that tiiese dill'erent layers or strata lie
upon each other in a certain determinate order, which
is never, in any degree, inverted. Suppose the series of
strata to be represented by the letters of the alphabet,
,\ being the stratum nearest the surface, and Z the
lowest : A is never found be/ow Z, nor under any other
of the intervening letters ; nor is Z ever found above any
of the letters that stand before it in the alphabet : and
so it is with all the strata represented by the other
letters. It must not, however, be imagined, although
this regularity in the order of superposition exists, that
all the diHcrent members of the series always occur
together; on ive contrary, there is no instance where
they have all been f()und in one place. It possibly may
happen, tliat vviiere C is found in a horizontal position,
by going deeper all the rest would follow in succession ;
but this we can never know, as the thickness would be
infinitely beyond our means of penetrating : and there
are reasons, which render the existence of such an un^
interrupted series extremely improbable. It very sel-
dom happens, that more than three or four members of
ihe series can be seen together ; — we say of the serieSf
because each member is composed of an almost infinite
number of subordinate layers. This order of succession,
established by geologists, has been determined by the
combination of many observations made in different
countries at distant points. The order of three or four
members was ascertained in one place ; the upper
stratum in that place was found to be the lowest mem-
ber of a second series in another place, and the lowest
stratum at the first station was observed to be the
uppermost at a third point; and, in like manner, the
order of superposition was discovered throughout the
whole range. Neither is it to be supposed that the
■trata, which lie next each other, are always so in

nature ; m, for mstanoe, that, wherever G k fbnnd a«-
■ociated with another member, it is always either with
F above it, or H below it : it very often hapiifens that
F lies upon H, G being nltogether absent ; arid C may
even be seen lying on R, the whole of the interven-
ing members of the sories being wanting. * Very fre-
quently one of the lowest members of the sefies appears
at the surface. Every one mny have seen sometimef>
chalk, sometimes slate, lying immediately beneath the
vegetable soil, or even at the surface witliout that scanty
covering. But if a lower member of the series be seen
at the surface, however deep we might go, we shoulc
never find any one of those rocks, that belong to the
higher members of that sories. The immense practical
advantage of this knowledge of the determined order of
succession will be seen at once ; for if O were found to
occupy the surface of the country, it would be at once
known, that all search for coal in that spot would be
fruitless^ lUd.

Ill— MINERAL KINGDOM.

The means, by which geologists have been enabled
to fix the order of superposition in the strata composing
the crust of the globe, have been partly the fhineral
Composition of each member of the series, partly their
Containing fragments of other rocks, but chiefly the
remains of animals and plants, that are imbedded in
them. They observed, that there was a class of rocks
distinguished by a considerable degree of hardness, by
closeness of texture, by .their arrnngement in slaty beds,
and by possessing, •**!*:« m thick masses, a glistening
structure, called b'- K''rr.eralngists crystalline, of which
statuary marble or lojif sugar may be quoted as familiar
examples ; and these were, even when associated with
rocks of another sort, always lowest. — Above, and in
contact with them, another group of strata was ob-

been enabled

served, which, in minerul composition, had a good deal
of resemblance to those below them, but contained
rounded fragments of other rocks : and, when these
fragments were examined, they were found to be iden-
tical with the rocks composing the lower strata. This
second scri«'s was observed lo be covered by another
group of strata, which contained shells and corals,
bodies that had never been seen in any of the lower
strata. Thus it was clear, as the including substance
must necessarily be formed subsequently to the pebble
or shell it contains, that, previous to the formation of
this third group, there had existed rocks to supply the
imbedded fragments, and to contain the waters of tho
ocean, in which the animals that once inhabited tho
shells must have lived. Ascending still higher, that is,
observing the strata as they lay one above another
towards the surface, it was found, that many were
entirely composed of the fragments of pre-existing
rocks, either in the form of pebbles, or of sand cemented
together : that there was a vast increase in the number
and variety of the imbedded shells, the latter forming
very often entire beds of rock, many feet in thickness ;
and that the remains of plants began to appear.

In this manner certain great divisions of the strata
were established, by very clear and infallible distinctive
characters. But it was reserved for an English prac-
tical mineral surveyor to make a discovery, which gave
a new direction to geological inquiries, and v;hich, in
the course of a few years, introduced into the science a
degree of precision and certainty, that was formerly
unknown. About thirty-five years ago, Mr. William
Smith, of Churchill in Oxfordshire, by an extensive
series of observations in different parts of England, as-
certained that particular strata were characterized by
the presence of certain fossil or petrified shells, which
were either confined to tljpn exclusively, or in pre-
dominating quantity, or were of rai'c occurrence in
other strata : and he was thu ; enabled to identify two
rocks at distant points as belonging to one stratum,
wh^n mere mineral characters would either have left

- 44.^

f^im m uncertainty, or have entirely failed in decidtr^
the question. When this (liscoveiy became known to
i;eologists, nun *ous observations v.erc made in other
«;ountries, wl:ic»- completely proved, that the principle
was not only applicul)le in those places, which Mr,
Smitn had had an opportunity of observing, but that it
held good generally, and throughout tlie whole series
of strata, from the lowcat, in ^vhieh organic remains are
found, to those nearest the surfuee. Under the direc-
tion of this guide, geologists have been enabled to dis-
cover lines of separatioi^in the great divisions, which,
as already mentioned, had been established by prior
observations, pointing out distinct epochs of deposition,
and revealing a succession of changes in the organic
find inorganic creation, in a determinate chronological
order. This more accurate knowledge of the structure
of the crust pf the globe is of the highest interest and
importance ; not only as a matter of speculative science,
]but as regards the practical advantages in common life,
that have been derived from it.

An examination of the phenomena, exhibited by the
internal structure of this series of superimposed rocks,
has established this farther principle — that all the strata
must have been deposited on a level foundation — ^that
is, on pre-existing ground, that was either horizontal
pr nearly so, at the bottom of a fluid holding their
materials either in suspension, or in solution, or partly
both. Now, as we know of no fluid in which this could
have taken place except water, geologists have come to
the conclusion, that the chief part of all the strata, how-
ever elevated they may now be above the level of the
sea, were gradually deposited at the bottom of the
ocean ; and the remainder of them at the bottom of
inland seas, or lakes. But if this be so, what mighty
revolutions must have taken place to cause rocks
formed in the depths of thi*»ocetin, to occupy the sum-
mits of the highest mountains ! By what known agenc)
can so extraordinary a change <>i position have beeu
effected ! That the fact of elevation is indisputable, ia
proved by the shells embedded in stratified rocks at the

4f>

greatest elevations ; and geologists, irho have ^ndca-
iroured to discover by what cause this change in th0
relative position of the rock and the sea has been
brought about, have, by an c**entive observation of the
phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos^ and tl*« re-
sembla-nce between the products of the latter and cer-
tain parts of the earth's structure, which we have yet
to notice, arrived at a very prebable solution of the
problem.

Although the strata were originally deposited in a
horizontal position, and are often found so, especially
as regards the inferior members of the series,,they are
not uniformly so, but are frequently inclined, more or
less ; and they have been seen, not only at cvp'y angle
of inclination, but very often in a vertical position.
When a vertical section of a mountain is exposed, as is
often the case m valleys or the deep bed of a river,
fluch an appearance as that represented here is not m>-

(a) (J)

common ', and if the stratum a be composed of rounded
blocks of stone surrounded by fine sand or clay, and if
the stratum b contain a layer of shells lying parallel to
the sides of the stratum, and if they be unbroken,
although of the most delicate texture, it is manifest, that
these strata could not have been deposited in their pre-
sent vertical position, but upon a level ground. Some,
times they are not only disturbed from their horizon-
tality, but are bent and contorted in the most extra-
ordinary way, as if they had been acted upon by soma
powerful force while they were yet ii) a soft flexible

i!:!i|

ftate. This appearance, very common in the slate rocks
of the north coast of of DevoHj is shown in the diagram.

This seeiiUKg (ILsordur and confusion is evidently a part
of the order and harmony of the universe, a proof of
design in the structure of liie globe, and one of the pro-
giissive steps, by which the eartli seems to have been
pj'epared as a fit habitation for man. For if all the
strata had remained horizontal, that is, parallel to the
surface of the globe, if ti)ey had enveloped it like a
shell, or to use a familiar example, had they surrounded
it like the coats of an onion, it is clear that we should
never have become acquainted with any other than the
upper members of the series ; and that tl e beds of coal
and salt, and the ores of the metals, all of which are
confined to tlie inferior strata, could never have been
imade available for the puiposes of man. Without this
elevation of the strata, tlio earth would have presented
a monotonous:; plain, unbroken by the beautiful forms
of hill and valley, or the nuijestic scenery of mountains.
With these inequalities of the surface are intimately
connected all the varieties of climates, and the divci'si-
fied products of animal and vegetable liff? dependent
thereon ; as well as the whole of what may be termed
the aqueous machinery of the land — the fertilizing and
refreshing rains, the sources of springs, inland lakes,
and the courses of rivers and brooks in their endless
iramifications. Throughout all this there reigns such a
harmony of purpose, that the conclusion is irresistible,
that the breaking up of the earth's crust is not an ir-
regular disturbance, but a work of design, in perfect
accordance with the whole economy of nature.
■ We have said, that if we dig through the superficial
covering of sand and clay, we usually come upon atone

1 the slate rocks
n the diagram.

idently a part
se, a proof of
me of the pro-

to have been
For if all the
>arallel to the
)ped it like a
ley surrounded
lat we should
other than the
e beds of coal
of which are
';er have been

Without this
lave presented
bautiful forms
of mountains,
ire intimately
id the divei*si-
ife dependent
ay be termed
rertilizing and
inland lakes,

their endless
reigns such a
s irresistible,

is not an ir.
^n, in perfect
iure.

he superficial
ne upon atond

■■»

disposed in layers; but there are many places, wheid
we should find a rock without any such arrangement,
which could continue of the same uniform texture, and
without any parallel rents dividing it into beds, however
deeply we might penetrate into it. Such unstrat'Jied
rocks, although of limited extent in proportion to the
stratified rocks, constitute a considerable portion of the
crust of the earth, and in all parts of it they generally
rise above the surface in huge unshapen masses, sur-
rounded by the stratified rocks ; and sometimes they
Dccupy districts of great extent, where none of thia
iitter rocks can be seen. In mineral composition they
are essentially difierent from the other class; never
consisting of limestone, or sandstone, or clay, and never
containing rounded pebbles, shells, or the remains of
any oth^r . nd of organized matter. Their elementary
constituc ' , t are simple mineral substances, which,
although , P , t Ties found in the stratified rocks, are
always, in the rocks we now speak of, in difierent com-
binations : they are always in that particular state
called crystalline ; and when the parts are large enough
to be distinguished, they are seen to interlace each other,
and by this arrangement they form a very hard toughi
stone, very difficult to break into regular squared forms,
or to work with the chisel, and they are very often ca-
■Qable of receiving a high polish. The substances mos^
fe^miliar to us in common life, which belong to this clas^
-Jjf rocks, are granite, whinstone and basalt. Ibid*

IV.— MINERAL KINGDOM.

We have shown, that the crust of the globe is conri.
posed of two great classes of rocks, one of which con-
sists of a series of beds of stone of difierent kinds,
iying upon one another in a certain determinate order
pf succession, called the Stratified Rocks, or th«

Strata ; the other of a class of stones distinguisha]ble
from the strata by peculiar mineral composition, by
never containing pebbles or the remains of animals an4
plants, and by never being arranged in parallel
layers, from vk^hich lust character they have been
denominated the Unstratijied Rocks. We shall now
proceed to show in what manner these two classes of
rocks are associated together. It is quite evident, that
^he mode of formation of the two must have been
totally different. \Vhile the strata, by their parallel
arrangement, by the pebbles of pre-existing rocks, and
\>y the remains of living bodies which they contain,
Remonstrate that they must have been formed nndei^
^ater, by deposition from the surface downwards, — ;
^e whole qharacters of the unstratified rocks equally

grove, that they mt^st have come to the surface fron^
le interipr of the earth, after the deposition of the
strata ; that is, that they have been ejected among the
strata from below in a rnelted condition, either fluid or
in a soft yielding state. Geologists have come to this,
conclusion, from a careful examination and comparison
of the unstratifled rocks with the products of existing
volcanos, or those burning mountains, that have
thrown out streams of melted stone or lava, both in past
ages, as recorded in history, and in our own time. By
this comparison they have discovered a great similarity,
often an identity, of composition, between the unstrati-
fied rocks and lava, and the closest analogy in the
phenomena exhibited by the masses of both kinds, and
in their relations to the stratified rocks, with which they
come in contact.

In every case the unstratified rocks lie under the
stratified. This order has never been reversed, except
in cases, which have been afterwards discovered to be
deceptive appearances, and where they have been pro-
truded between strata. But it may be said, that this
fact of inferiority of position is no proof of ejection
from below, far less of posteriority of formation : for
they might have been the foundation on which the
ftfata are deposited. But their eruption from the

■ 4D

jiterior, and that that eruption took place after tho
irtrata were formed, are proved by other evidencea, as
we shall presently show.

A section of the crust of the earth, where the stratified
and unstratified rocks have been found associated
together, has of m exhibited the appearance represented
by the diagiam, . r vr,^

A and B are mountains of granite or of whinstone,
with strata of limestone lying upon it. From A
branches or shoots connected with the principal mass
are seen to penetrate into the superincumbent strata ;
M and in the mountain B, the granite overlies the lime-
,E stone for a considerable way near tho top, as if it had
^ flowed over at that place, and lower down it has forced
its way between two strata, end' \g like a wedge.
Now, as the penetrating substance must necessarily ba
of subsequent formation to tlie body that it penetrates,
it is evident, that the gi'anile must have been formed
after the limestone, although the latter rests upon it.
But if any doubt romained, it would bo removed by
the additional fact, that the granite veins in the moun-
tain A, contain angular fragments of limestone, identical
with the strata above 5 and the fractured ends are seen
to fit the places of the continuous stratum, from which
they have been broken off.

The posteriority of the formation of the unstratified
rocks to the strata is thus made evident from their
relative positions ; their forcible ejection from below is
equally proved by the penetration of their veins or
shoots from the superincumbent strata in an upward
direction, often witli tho most slender ramifications to
a great distance, and by tho portions broken from the
strata and enveloped in the substance of the vein.
That they were ejected iii a soft melted state, produced

by l)ie action of heat, is shown hy the close resorn-
plance, in mineral composition, of tlie unstratified
i'ocks to llio products of existing volcanos, and by.
remarkable changes often observed to have taken
place in the strata, wliere they come in contact with
granite and whinstone. Soft chalk is converted into
a hard crystalline limestone like statuary marble; clay
and sandstOiii:! are changed into a substance as hard
and compact us fiint, and coal is turned into coke;
all of them chaug's which are antibigous to what takes
place, ~\vhon the substances are subjected to a strong
aitificial heat under great pressure. In the case of
coal, it is very remarkable ; for when a bed of that
substance, and a stratum of clay lying next to it, come
in contact v.'ith whinstone, the tar of the coal is often
driven intp the clay, nnd the coal loses all property of
giving flame, although, at a distance from the whin-*
stone, it is of a rich caking quality.

We ha'i'e shown, that we are enabled to fix a chro.
nological order of succ'ssion of the strata with a

3Ucci'ssion of
of precision ;

the strata
and

order of
considerable degree oi precision ; ana aitnougft we
have not the same accurate means of -determining the
relative ages of fho unstratified rocks, there are yet
very decisive proofs, that certain classes of them are
older than others, that ditfcrent members of the same
class have been ejected at distinct periods, and that
the same substances have been thrown up at different
times Inr distant from each other. Granite, in veins,
has never been seen to penetrate beyond the lower
strata ; but whinstone and the lavas of existing vol-
canos protrude in masses, and send out veins through
all the strata : veins of one sort of granite traverse
masses of another kind, and whinstone and basalt veins
are not only found crossing masses and other veins of
similar rocks, but even of granite. Upon the principle,
therefore, before stated, that the penetrating substance
must necessarily have been formed subsequently to the
body penetrated, the above phenomena demonstrate
successive formations or eruptions of the unstratified
irocks.
'' As the highly elevateds broken, and contorted

'M'

close resein< m

» unstratified |b

irios, and by "M

» have taken m

coniact with 'M

onverted into M

marble ; clay 'M

xnce as hard M

d into coke; ^

to what takes 'Wi

i to a strong \^

the case o? ^M

I bed of that ^

xt to it, come 4

coal is often |

1 property of ^
>m the whin" J^

o fix a chro. [-M

trata with a y

although we |

terinining the

here are yet

of them are |^

of the same ^M

ods, and that W^

p at different ^j

lite, in veins, ^B|

nd the lower aH

existing vol. ]^|

'eins through oH

ni'te traverse j^|

1 basalt veins WM

her vems of ^M

the principle^ ^^B

ng substance «H

}uently to the nH

demonstrate ^H

3 unstratified ^K

id contorted ]^h

positions of the strata are only cxplicabre on the
supposition of a powerful force acting upon them from
below, and as they are seen so elevated and contorted
in the neighbourliood of the unstratified rocks, it is a
veiy legitimate inft;rence, that the mountain chains
and other inequalities on the earth's surface have been
occasioned by tiie horizontally deposited strata having
been heaved up by the eruption of tliese rocks,
although the latter may not always appear, but be
only oceasioiially protruded to the surface, through
the rents produced by the eruptive ibrce. The
phenoaieua of earthquakes are connected with the
same internal action, and these have often been ac-
companied by permanent elevations of entire portions
of a country. This theory of the elevation of moun-
tains by a hvce acting from the interior of tlie earth is
not a mere inference from appearances presented by
rocks, but is supported by numerous events, which
have occurred repeatedly within the period of history
down to our own time. In the middle of a gulf in the
island of Santorino, in the Grecian Arciiipelago, an
island rose froui the sea 144 years before the Christian
era ; in 1427, it was raised in height, and increased
in dimensions ; in 1573, another island arose in the
same gulf; and in 1707, a third. These islands are
composed of hard rock ; and in that lust formed, thero
are beds of limestone and of other rocks containing
shells. In tiie year 1822, Chili was visited by a violent
earthquake, which raised the whole line of coast, for
the distance of above one hundred miles, to tiie height
of three or four feet above itS former level. Valparaiso
is situated about the middle of the tract thus per-
manently elevated. A portion of Cutch, near the
mouth of the Indus, underwent a similar revolution in
the year 1819, when a district, nearly sixty miles in
length by sixteen in broadih, was raised by an earth-
quake about ten feet above its original level. A vol-
canic eruption burst out in an adjoining part of India
at Bhooi, at the exact period when the shocks of this
earthquake terminated. These cases must not be con,
Jo^anded with the production of new mountains, sucU

il 1 r

at that of Jorullo, in Mexico, in the year 1759, whtch
was raised to the height of 1600 feet above the table
land of Mai pais by eruptions of scoriae and the out-
pouring of lava. The appearance of a new island
off the coast of Sicily, in the year 1881, is another
phenomenon of the latter class. It rose from a part of
the sea, which was known by soundings a few years
before to have been 600 feet deep, to the height of 107
feet above the water, and formed a circumference of
nearly two-thirds of a mile. It was composed of loose
cinders, and the part that rose above the level of the
sea, was washed away in the winter of the aanne year j
but an extensive shoal remains.

It must not be supposed, that these internal movfr.
ments only took place after the whole series of strata
had bee^ deposited i Ther« must have been lone
intervals between the termmation of the deposition of
pne member of the series and the commencement of
that of the stratum immediately above it ; and internal
piovements, accompanied with disturbance of the
already deposited strata, after they had come to consoli-
date into stone, appear to have taken place during the
whole period, that the strata, from tlie lowest to the
uppermost in the series, were deposited. The clearest
evidence of this is atlijrded by certain appearances
exhibited by the strata, in all parts of the globe, that
have yet been examined. The diagram that follows
yepresents a case of very common occurrence, and will
explain our meanhig. It must be borno in mind, that
it is an acknowl'jdged principle in geology, that all
stratified rocks, in whatever position they are now found,
must have been originally deposited liorizontally.

There ai'e here five different series of strata, a, J, c,
«f, e. Now, it is evident that the series a must have
been first disturbed ; that after its change of position.

r 1759, which

30ve the table
and the out-
a new island
81, is another
from a part of
I a few years
height of 107
mmference of
posed of loose
3 level of the
he same year j

nternal move^

eries of strati^

ire been Ion?

deposition of

menpement of

; and internal

)ance of the

)me to consoli-

oe during the

lowest to the

The clearest

appearances

he globe, tha|

that follows

nee, and will

in mind, that

ogy, that all

re now foundj

ontaUy.

Esae

the series b and c were deposited, coveriiiu' t?ie ends of
the strata of the series a. But c appears to have been
acted upon by two forces at distant points, when
thrown out of its liorizontal position ; for the strata
din in opposite directions, fonnin<^ a basin-shaped
cavity, in which the series d was deposited. In like
manner, after the disturbance of c, the series e wua
deposited, covering the ends of c; but the internal
force, which raised the beds e from the depths of the
sea to the summit of the mountain where they are now
seen, appears to have acted in such a direction, as to
have carried up the whole mass without disturbing the
original horizontality of the structure. It is obvious,
that all the interior strata must have partaken of this
last disturbance. There are, besides, numerous proofs,
th^^ there have been not only frequent elevations of
the strata, but also depressions; that the same strata
which had been at one time raised above the surface
of the sea, had again sunk down, preserving an inclined
position ; that they had formed the ground, upon which
new sediment was deposited, and had again been
raised up, carrying along with them the more recently
formed strata. - Ibid,

strata, a, b, c,

a must have

e of position.

v.— MINERAL KINGDOM.

The subjects, which it is the province of the
geologist to investigate, are by no means confined to
questions concerning mineral substances, but embrace
a wider field, involving many considerations intimately
connected with the history of several tribes of animals
and plants. It is not possible to give even a brief out-
line of the doctrines of geology without referring to
the great orders and classes, into which naturalists
have divided the animal kingdom. It will bo neces-
sary, therefore, before prococdin^ij to describe the
•divisions of the stratified rocks, vvhicli geologists have
^ablished, and which are founded mainly upon Xh^

distinctivo characters afforJed by tlie romaiiis of
organized bodies contained in tlie different strata, to
say a few words upon the chissification of animals, iff
order to render the terms we nust employ more
intelligible to those who are unacquainted with th«
subject.

Animals arc divided into f^:)ur great bra~^ ^hes, dis-
tinguished by the terms Verlehrated, Mc'JuscouSy
Articulated, and Radiated. The first ^ division
includes all those animals which are provided with a
l^^ckbone ; and because the similar bones, or joints, of
which it is composed, are called by anatomists vertebra,
(from a Latin word signifying to turn,) the indi-
viduals that belong to this division are called VertC'
hrated Animals. It is subdivided into four classes;
1. Mammalia, comprehending man, land quadrupeds,
and the whale tribe ; that is, all animals which give
suck to their young ; the term being derived from
mamma, the Latin name of that part of the body, from
which the milk is drawn. 2. ^irds of all kinds. 3.
All those animals called Reptiles by naturalists: the
word means nothing more than that they creep, but i^
has in common language a far more extended sense
than that to which it is restricted in natural history.
Frogs, serpents, lizards, crocodiles, alligators, tortoises,
and turtles, are reptiles, in the sense of the word as
used by naturalists. 4. Fishes, of all kinds, except
the whale tribe, which belong to the class mammalia.

The SECOND DIVISION includes tribes of animals,
which have no bones ; and because their bodies contain
no hard parts, they are called Molluscous Animals,
from a Latin word signifying soft. But with a few
exceptions, they have all a hard covering, or shell, to
which they are either attached, or in which they caj
inclose themselves, and be preserved from injuries, t«
which, from their soft nature, they would otherwise ba
constantly exposed. There are six classes in this
division, founded on certain peculiarities of anatomical
structure in the animal, but tliese we shall not notice
for, without a much longer description than we can
^ter upon, it would be a useless enumeration of har^

remains of

rent strata, to

of animals, iv

employ more

ited withi th«

brc ^hes, dis-
, ilic •luscous,

liST ^ DIVISION

ovided with a
s, or joints, of
mists verlehrcBf
n,) the indi.
called Verte-
four classes;
d quadrupeds,
lis which give
derived from
the body, from
all kinds. 3.
aturalists : the
y creep, but i^
extended sense
atural history,
ators, tortoises,
' the word as
kinds, except
s 7nammaKa.
s of animals,
bodies contain
cous Animals,
it with a few
g, or shell, to
hich they cai
3m injuries, t«
d otherwise ba
lasses in this
of anatomical
all not notice
than we can
ration of hard!

names. It will answer our present purpose much
l)etter to say, that the animals belonging to this
division may be classified according to differences in
the forms of their hard covering or shells, for it is the
hard parts of animals which furnish th«^ records of
their Ibimor existence ; these only are preserved
imbedded in the strata, all traces of the flesh or other
soft parts, as far as form is concerned, having entirely
disappeared. Molluscous Animals, therefore, are
divisible into, 1. TJnivahe.s, that is, animals armed with
a shell or valve forming one continuous piece, such
as snails and whelks. 2. Bivalve-t, or those having two
shells uniteil l)y a hhigo, such as oyylcrs, cockles, &c.
3. Muhivakes, or those having more than two shells,
of which the common ])arnaclo is an example.

The THIRD DIVISION is assigned to what are called
Articulated Animals, these having a peculiar anatomical
structure, called articulations, from arliculus, Latin for
a little joint. It is subdivided into four classes; 1.
Annelides, or those having a ringed structure, from
annulits, Latin for ring : leeches and earth-worms are
examples. 2. Crustacea, or those which havp theii?
soft bodies and limhs protected by a hard coating or
crust, which in common language we also call shell,
such as lobsters, crabs, and prawns. 3. Spiders, which
form a class by themselves. 4. Insects, such as fiiesij
beetles, bees, and butterflies.

The FOURTH DIVISION comprehends a great variety
of animals, which have an anatomical structure like an
assemblage of rays diverging from a common point,
and from which they are called Radiated Anitnals,
radius being Latin for ray. It coiitains five classes,
but as three of these are animiUs witliout hard parts,
we may pass them over : of the remaining two, the
one contains the echini or sea urchins ; the other, the
very numerous tribe called zouphites, from two Greek
words signifying animal and plant, because the animal
is fixed to the ground, and builds its strong habitation
in the form of a shrub, or branch, or leafy plant.
Corals and sporges belong to this class ; and among all
the different animal remains, that are found in tho

strata, there is no class, which bears any proportion, in
point either of frequency of occurrence, or in quantity^

to this hist.

The great divisions of nnlinals, so far as the re-
mains of species found the stratii are concerned,
or, as it is termed, in a fonsil state, are thereby briefly
Jhese : —

I. Vertcbratcd Animals ; Classes — Mammalia, Birds,
Reptiles, Fishrs.

II. Molluscous Animals; Classes — Univalve, Bivalve,
Multivalve Shells.

III. Articulated Animals; Classes — Crustacea, In-
sects.

IV. Radiated Animals; Classes — Ecliini, Zoophites.
Each class is farther divisible into several ^am/ic* /

each faqtiily into several genera; each genus into
several species, according as greater or minor points of
resemblance and difference bring individuals near to
each other. There are certain other great distinctions,
which it is necessary to mention, viz. that some
animals eat animal food, the Carnivorous; others
vegetable food, the Graminivorous; some can live
both in the air and in water, the Amphibious.
Among fishes, molluscae, and Crustacea, some live in
the sea, some in fresh water, some in both ; and of
those inhabiting fresh water, some are peculiar to
rivers, others to Jakes. There are also land-shells, such
as the Gomnjon garden-snail. It is scarcely necessary
to remind our readers, that certain species are peculiar
to particular regions of the earth, being adapted by
their nature to the different temperature and othei
peculiarities, that exist in different countries.

The number of distinguishable genera and species of
fossil plants bears but a small proportion to that of
fossil animal remains.

The lowest members in the order, in which the
stratified rocks are placed one above another, are dis-
tiBguished by the great predominance of hard slaty
rocks, having a crystalline or compact texture, but
chiefly by this circumstance, that they have not been
^und to contain an^ fragments of pre-existing rockS|

ftt

fur as the re-
are concerned,
thereby briefly

[immalia, Birdn,

ivalve, Bivalve,

-Crustacea, In-

hini, Zoophites.
iveral families ;
,ch genus into
minor points of
^iduals near to
eat distinctions,
fiT.. that some
vorous ; others
iome can live
le Amphibious.
some live in

both ; and of
re peculiar to
md-shells, such

cely necessary
es are peculiar
ng adapted bv
uro and othei
ries.

and species of

ion to that of

in which the
tiother, are dis-

of liard slaty
it texture, but
have not been
existing rockS)

lor the remains of ornr.iniz'^d b otVi 'S. On this acoount
Ithoy lidvo born cull'^d the puimahy strata, as if
[fisiiiKMl |)ri"i' to till' (xistriico of iiiiinml life, and as
'mt:iiiiing no cvid: i)(;o of other rocks having existed
>cf()ro th''in. That we o'tnnot now discover animal
^emiiins in tlipso strata is, howovpr, no proof that they
»!id not pr(>viously oxistfd, because we meet with
^ocks containin'j or<j;anic rcnuiins, which are so altered
^y tlic action of lioat in tho-te parts, where they happen
have conio in contact witli a mass of granite or
•hinstonc, that all traces of the organic remains arc ob-
iterated, those parts of the rocks acquiring a crys-
illine character analogous to what prevails in the
Irimary strata. These last may have contained the
smains of animals ; but being nearest to the action of
jlcanic heat, they may have been so changed as to
)literate the shells and corals, by their being melted,
it were, into the substance of the crystalline roqk,
!'he absence of the fragments of pre-existing rock is c^
Bss questionable ground of distinction. From whence
ie materials composing those primary strata were
5rived, is a question, that it is not very likely any
sological researches will enable us to solve ; that they
kere in a state of minute division, were suspended in,
id gradually deposited from, a fluid in a horizontal
^rangement, and that they were subsequently ele,
Ited, broken, and contorted by some powerful force,
rior to the deposition of the strata that lie over them, '9
jyond all doubt. There may also be beds of rock
great thickness, in which neither fragment nor
jrganic remain has been fourjd throughout a great
ttent of country, wliich nevertheless may rut, be
rimary; for if in any pnrt of the same mass 2 single
^bble or a single shell should afterwards be dis?
^vered, indubitably imbedded in it, one such occur,
jnce would be as conclusive as a thousand, that a
rior state of things had existed. It follows, therefore,
lat until the whole of an extensive district of such
)cks were carefully examined, we could never be
ire, that they might not one d ly be discovered to be
[f secondary origin; there is nothing in the minerq^

i-;

Mniotiiro of ony odm Ntniiilif<il riKih, tliiit rntitlnn \w
nItMolnlrly to Hiiy« llii*^l dIIkm' rurhH ttiiil living liodirn

<«<

MiM

not liMVt' rxiNlol |ii'iiir In Mm IimiiiiiIiuii

Milt.

llnM'«< (IIP lingo inirlM of nmiiiry 3ii|tir(| l»y hIihIh, in
>vl»i«'h iM'illtPi' lVii|';m<'iilH nl" |M'(>-p\iMliii|r mrltH nor
oi'j^funic rrmniiiM Imvo yd Ihm'ii iliMcovot'od, ^ooIo^iHlN
nro juNlilK'tl in ilrMif.nnling llii'in llic /'/v//;///*// hIihIu ; 'o
«'nll iIkmo i>riiiiHiv(\ MM llipy iihciI to Im<, nnd indopd nUII
lU'c ralN'd l>y noiiip ji.'iil(if>;i:ilN, is |o cniplny ii Irl'in,

whirli r\|>irNtH'H nunih nioro (liun wo uio •'iilillcd lo

Tlio niiNlfiilirnM| I'lioK. iummI iiNMidly iiNSojdHlod wilJi
\\\o piiiuaiy sir.'ilii. in i',i'iuMlt\ ol' dilU'i'cnt vnridicH ol'
oouinoNition, iiMntdly lyiiif^ iindci- llimi in fi;i'oul inusH(>H,
niid iMii'Nling tlii'onsrh. iniinini* loOy pinntirh'H, iih in (ho
Alps, (jind Noini'linioM s<'ndin}.i; I'oilh sIiooIm «n" voinw,
wliioli p<M)otntto tlii^ su|)i>riiuMindi(<nt slnitii in nil
lUmMions.

luuno«li!il('Iy idtovo llio |)iinmiy Nlnifii ihoro ooni-
nu'niM'N nnolhor srrios, vi'cy liko Miuiiy ol' llio rockn
Ixdow llwMU, in rosptM't of iniin'iid conipoNilion, hnt
(MHttiiining tlio ronitiins nl' slxdls, nnd soini> pidddoM, iind
iiitoi'slralilipd \\illi tliii'lv Ix^ds of linirNtono, iiu!ln<!in^
phidKs imtl t'onds. TIipmo rorkw uro prnolrulrd idso l»y
granili', tind, in oomnion willi llio priiniiry nIi'iiIm, ionn
tho j;ronl d<>p(»sitory of \\\o u\('\n\\\r on\s. 'I'lu'y «in»,
lor wjint ol' M Im>II( r tcitn l>y wliioli tlio rliiss ciiii \m
dislinjk!;iiish(<d, iisnidly ciillcd (lie Irtinsilion stnilii, u muiio
givrn l»y tlio oldtT j;t>o)ogi,slN, hcciuisM lln'y were hii[i.
|K\sod to I'orni n sti p or irjuisiliDn {'roin tlin priinitivo
Ptivto ol' tlio j.vIol»> to \\\o condition in wliiidi it l)(';j;iin to
be inhidnlt'd l»y livini;' Imdirs ; in strictness tla-y lorni
tho lowest mcnil)crs ol' the nc\t <ircnt division of the
Btruta, >vhi<'h is distinjfnishcd hy the iminc of t/ii'
Secono\irtf liorhs. 'rhi>s(» will be trealed of in oiii
noxt stolion. — lliid.

Hi'-

tlint (Mitillnn v\n
mil living UmWvH

I'lMllliiHI Hilt, UN

l»it<(l hy Mtnitii, in
Hliii|jr I'nrKM noi'

• Vt'l'Cll, >|;tMt|(»|^iHlH

ii'iudii'ij Ml ruin ; 'o

. 1111(1 illlltMMl Nlill

«'ni|»lny II li<nn,
n nm riilillril l<>

V iiNSorialril will)
i«r(<iil, vnrii'lii'M ol'

I ill jiriTUl mUMHOH,

lintirlrH, IIH ill (lio

sIkmiIm ol" vriiiN,

III Nlriitii ill 111!

si rata IIhm'o <m»ih.

any <>l <!>•' i'<»cl<n

iM>iii|H)silii)n, but

NOIIIC |ll<llltl(!H, mill

iD^oiio, iiK^liiiliiifj;
Im'IIoIi'hIimI also l»y
maiy strata, I'onn
oi(>H. Tiicy an»,
tliii rlasM run l>i»
(ion strut a, u niiino

lO tliry WIM'O Niip-
oiu tlin priniitivo
wiiich it l)rji[mi lo
ii'tiKss tliry t'onn
It (livisii)ii of tin-
h(> Maine of the
rcatfil of in ow

i'l.— MINKU/Vr. KIN(ilK)]VI.

Thn Hi'.t'oN!tAi(Y RocKM (lompif'liriHl i» ^.^rent varlitfy
of «liirnrrnt ImiIm <•!' hImiic, cxI' iMliiif/ IVom llm pririmry
Htmtii to til" ckialli, wliirli Hiiiiim tlir upper or rnoHt
rmnnit intiriilinr of tlm iliviHion.

'riicHP ror,ks (junslMt ol' an «'xt»'nNiv(! w rirM of Htnitn,
of linirHtotH'H, Han<lst(»m'M, nii<l <ilayH, all of wliicli
ooritiiiii oitluM* roiindrd riaioii'MilH of pni-oxistin^ rockrt,
or oi'gaiiio rrnmins, or Ixith ; iiimI oaoli f^roiip, iirul all
Iho Hubordiniitn incnilMTH of liin frroiips, aro (listln-
giiiHliuhlo hy ohanuirfM of jjitiit, <;onHlan(;y nnd cor-
tiiinly, ilorivcil from tin' pcoiiliar natiiro of tlio inoludod
foHsilH. Tlioy rnuHt all liav<f Immii (IfpoHJtcd in u
horiy.ontiil poHilion ; i)ut llioro aro partH of tlicni, which
havo undorfTomi ^roator or Ichh (listiirlMiiKU', hcing oftnn
thrown into a vortioal posilion niid hroki-n, twisted, and
disturhcd in tho most ««xtru(n(linary muiinor. Many of
tho disturhanooH of tho lowor {.groups took plaoo prior
to tho (Icposition of tho upper ; IJir tho latlor aro found
lying hi unf.onformahio siratifiontion on tho cndH of the
forinor, aw ri'prosentcd in tli(* diaj^rain, in pafror»'2. Thoy
nro traversed by veins, nr dykes, us they aro often
termed, of whinslone aii<l other iiMstrMliiied ro(jks ; and
thoro is usually f^reatMlisliirhanco of the strata, when
these o(M!ur. The dykes an* ol'ieii of i^reat iiia/.niitiido,
and tho rock is fre(|ueiiliy lliriist in hii;^(! wed/^o-
Hhuped musses, of miles in siiperHciul dimensions and
Horno hundred feel thi(;k, between the regular strata.
After tho deposit of the secondary rocks, a riMJiarkahle
change took place; f()r all tho strata that lie above the
chalk, havo a totally dilferent cliaractcir j'roin that rock,
and all below it.

These havo boon classed t.oirethnr in ono groat divi.
aion, and have been designated tho 'J'khtiary Rocks.
Thus tho whole series of strata, of which the crust of
tlio globe is composed, is divided into tho Primary,
the Secondary, and tho Tertiary. It is evident, that at
the time the secondary rocks were deposited, a great

part of the present continent of Europe must havei
been considerably lower than the present level of the
■sea ; that when the oldest or lowc nt mc mhers of the
series were forming, tlie summits of tlio mountain
ridges of primary rocks rose as islands of diiferent
magnitudes from the bosom of the deep; that at
feeveral successive periods these islands were mofe
elevated, and attained consequently a greater super-
ficial extent, the newer formed strata occupying the
lower levels. In the progress of this series of changes
of the surface of the globe, when there were evidently
occasional depressions of the land ns well as elevations,
there appear to have been formed basin-shaped cavities
or troughs, not entirely cut off from communication
with the sea, and vast estuaries, in which the tertiary
strata were deposited. While the secondary strata
stretch continuously for hundreds of leagues, the teif-
tiary are found only in detached insulated spots of
comparatively limited extent. In this state of the
earth's surface there must have been vast inland fresh-
water lakes ; for we find regularly stratified deposits of
great thickness full of organic remains, which exclu-
sively belong to animals, that lived in fresh water, and
to terrestrial animals and plants. Like the secondary,
the tertiary rocks consist of a great variety of strata of
limestones, sandstones, clays, and sands which have
distinct characters, and have been united in severa?
groups. In them we first discover the remains of land
quadrupeds and birds ; and bones of mammalia are
most abundant in the beds nearest to the surface.
Among all the various remains of animals and plants,
that are found in the secondary rocks, from the chalk
downwards, not one has been found, which is identical
Vvith any living species. Although they have characters
agreeing with those, by which existing animals have
been grouped together in their greater divisions of
genera, families and classes ; the living individuals of
the same divisions have forms of structure distinct from
any found in a fossil state in the secondary rocks. —
But, with the tertiary strata, a new order of things
Commences ; for, in the lowest of these, a small propor-

amoil
than I
tertie

conta
and p
marin
Th<
led to
rularl

'- n

3gre(

ddel;
3lon<

I owe',

<?1

^ must have

it level of \hn
in hers of the
1:1)0 mountain
s of ditferent
eep; that at
9 were mo^e
•reater super-
ccupying the
es of changes
'^ere evidently
as elevations,
laped cavities
ammunication
h the tertiary
sndary strata
^ues, the iet.
ated spots' of
state of the
; inland fresh-
ed deposits of
which exclu-
sh water, and
secondary,
of strata of
which have
in severa?
nains of land
ammalia are
the surface,
and plants,
m the chalk
is identical
ve characters
nimals have
divisions of
idividuals of
distinct from
iry rocks. —
3r of things
mall propor:.

^n,-— about three and a half per cent, of the tbaoA

shells cannot be distinguished fron. species that now

exist: as we approach the higher beds the proportion

always increases; and in the most recent stratum, it

amounts to nine-tenths of the whole. It is not mord

than twenty-one years since the great division of the

tertiary rocks was established. Prior to that time the

peculiar characters, which separate them from the

secondary strata, had been entirely overlooked, — a cir.

cumstance which marks very strongly that geology is

the youngest of the sciences. The discovery was made

by the celebrated Cuvier and his associate M. Brongniart^

I who found that the city of Paris was built in a hollow

jbasin of chalk, that had been subsequently partially

*lfilled by vast deposits of clays, limestones, sands, and

sandstones, and that there were alternations of beds,

Containing remains of fresh-water and terrestrial animals

" md plants, with others containing only the remains of

larine animals.

The publication of the work of the French naturalists

|ed to a similar discovery in our own island, and sin-

plarly enough in the valley of the Thames ; so that

le capitals of France and England are both built upon

lese strata, so strangely neglected for so long a time,

Ithough occurring in the very spots, where the greatest

lumbers of scientific men are collected together in both

)untries. A series of tertiary strata was discovered

iy Mr. Webster in the Isle of Wight, having strong

hints of resemblance with that of the environs of

raris; and tliese, with some partial deposits on the

)a8ts of Suffolk and Lancashire, constitute the whole of

le tertiary rocks found in Great Britain. It was for some

|me supposed, that these newer strata, which were

Dn found not to be confined to the neighbourhood of

laris and London, extended like the secondary rocks

Ver great tracts of country ; and that there was such a

3gree of uniformity in their characters, that deposits

widely distant from each otlier could be recognised as

jlonging to the same period in the chronological order

\i succession of the strata. Later observations,

•»wever, have shown, that, although possessing a

general ohisiraoter of resemblance, they ha/e been so
niiieh rtiddified in their formation by Idea circumstances,
that no two tertiary deposits, even of the same era, are
alike. The discoveries of the last few years have led
geologists to establish distinct subordinate groups, as
in the case of the secondary rocks; and the upper
stratum of the Paris basin, which was at one time
considered the most recent of stratified rocks, has been
found to be inferior in the order of successicMQ to manv
others, some thousand feet thick. J^' '

Vll.— MINERAL KINGDOM.

OEOANIC REMAINS.

We have already stated, that the stratified rocks
contain the remains of animals and pilants: and that
beds of stone, situated many miles distant from each
other, may be proved to belong to the same place, in
the order of succession of the strata, by remains of
organized bodies, or fossils, of identical species, being
found in the stone at both places. The word Fossil,
which means anything that may be dug out of the
earth, used to be applied to all minerals ; but modern
geologists! have conveniently restricted its application to
organized bodies contained in the loose or solid beds
composing the crust of the globe, and for the most
part petrified ; that is, converted into stone. Fossils
are now always understood to bo petrified remains of
animals or plants, and we say, fossil shells, Jossil bones,
fossil trees, &c. We are enabled to make out, by the
aid of those bodies, that a bed of limestone on the coast of
Dorsetshire, another on the coast of Yorkshire, a third
in the western islands of Scotland, and a fourth in the
interior of Germany, although diflering perhaps in
appearance, as far as the mere limestone is concerned.

,t. -• ■■" it**

belong to the same age or period of formation in the
chronological order of the strata. t

fossils reveal to us the important and wonderful,
fact, that the Author of Nature had created different
species of animals and plants, at sncoessive and widel;^
distant intervals of time, and that many of those, that
existed in the earlier agea of our globe, had become
-otally extinct, before the creation of others in later
oeriods : that, prior to man being called into existence,
mnumerable species of living beings had covered the
(Surface of the earth, for a series of ages, to which we
•ire unable, and probably shall ever remain unable, tp
fix any definite limits. We further learn, that a very
large proportion of those creatures, of the later periods,
had beConie extinct, and had been replaced by the
animals which now exist, before the creation of our.
first parents. When that great event took placie, the
crust of the earth had already undergone numerous
changes, and we have already said, in alluding to those
changes, that they appear to us to afford indisputable
proofs of design ; to be evidences most clear of th«J
establishment of an order of things adapted to the pre-
determined nature of that more perfect creature, about
to be sent as an .inhabitant of the globe, to whom waai
to be given "dominion over the lish of the sea, and
over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and ovec
all the earth." We arc also tauglit by the stud^ oi^
fossils, that, prior to the creation of rnan, there had
existed a totally diiturent condition of our planet, in so
far as regards the distribution of land and water, from'
that which now exists ; that where there arc now vast
contments, there must have been deep seas, and that
extensive tracts o£ land must have occupied those parts'
of the globe, which arc now covered b} the ocean. In
manj^ i)arts of the interior of our continents, there
must have been vast lakei*sof fresh water, whicsh ^era
drained by subsequent changes in the form of tb^c land
which bounded them, and were replaced by wide
valleys, long antecedent to the existence of man.'
Thus, in the very heart of France, in a district alon^

the banks of tho fi\'o» Allier, of which the town of
Vichy may be taken as the centre, vast strata, full of
frejrti-water shells, prove, that there must liave existed,
for many ages, a lake nearly a hundred miles long, and
twenty miles in average breadth. It is proved, more-
over, by the nature of organic reiiKiins, that changes of
CLIMATE, no less remarkable, have taken place ; and
that a hen* eqftial to that now existing in the equatorial
regions must have formerly prevailed in latitudes far
north of our islands.

All this, so far from contradicting the Scriptures,
eonfirms the Mosaic account of what is usually called
the Creation. Moses saysj In the beginning God
created the htfavens and the earth. How long that
beginning was before the time that he wrote, he does
not furnish us with the means of ascertaining ; but he
goes on to say, that the earth was without form and
empty. AH living beings, that might have been upon
it previously, had been destroyed : it was in darknesi^
and covered with water. When it was in this con-
dition, which is usually culled cliaos, God said, Let
tbeFe be light ;■ and thsTe was light ; and thus the crea-
tion was commenced ; for it is immediately adcTed, that
the morning and the evening were the first day.

The organized bodies which are found in a fossil
atate, belong to classes of animals and plants that exfst
on the liEtnd', or in lakes and rivers, and to those also,
which are inhabitants of the sea. The latter are by far
riic raoet numerous, as might be expected would be the
cas^, wfieiy it ie- consklered, that the greater proportion
of the strata nrast have been deposited at the bottom of
the ocean. Of marine prodHetioas,. shells and corals
constitute the chief part, and for -this reason^, thaV
being ahmosfr wholly composed of mineral substance,
they are not liable to decay. In all cases of petrified re-
mains of animals, it is tiio hafd parts only that we find j
the whole of the flesh and softer parts have disappeared,
so much so, that, with the exceptions of some instances of
fishes and amphibious animals, no trace of the external
form- of the living animal can be discovered ; and

tvhere bonos arc found, it is very rarely that an entire
skeleton is met with. There arc fossil remains of

It \.

Icriptures,
illy called
ning God
long that
B, he does
y\ but he
form and
3een upon
darknesi^
this con-
said, Let
3 the crea-
d(Ied, that

n a fossil
that exist
hose also,
are by far
lid be the
proportion
bottom of
md corals
ason^, thatf
substance,

trifled re-
t we find J
mppcared,
stances of
e external

red ; and

Among

bodies

belonging to

the Sea.

Among

bodies

^longing to

the Land.

Shells. ...

Corals mid Spoiiffes.
liiidiattid uuinials, suca as Star Fish.
Reptiles, resembling Crocodiles.
Fishes.

Cetacea, or the Whale tribe. -•>

Crustacea, such as Lobsters and Crabs.
. Plants.

Fresh -water shells, found in lakes and riveri
Land shells, such as the Garden Suail
Quadrupeds.
Reptiles.
Birds.
Insects.

Stems of trees and woods. , ,;

.Smaller plants and loaves. ~

These several bodies are not found indiscriminately
throughout the whole series of the secondary and ter-
tiary strata ; some are peculiar to the lowest beds, some
to the intermediate, and some to the superior. But
allf of whatever description they may be, which occur
in the secondary strata, belong to species now wholly
extinct. By far the greatest proportion of those fbnnd
in the tertiary strata, belong likewise to extinct species.
It is only in the uppermost beds that there is any very
considerable number of individuals, which are identical
'vith animals now in existence ; and there they prepon-
derate over the others.

The bones of man are not more liable to decay than
lihtJSe of other animal^ ; but in no part of the earth, to
which the researches of geologists have extended, has
there been found a single fragment of bone, belonging
to the human species, incased in stone, or in any of
those accumulations of gravel and loose materials
which form the upper part of the series of strata.
Human bones have been occasionally itiet with in
ftones formed by petrifying processes now going on,
and in oaves, associated with the bones of other animals ;

but these are deposits possessing clmracters which prove
them to have bbcn of recent origin, as compared with
even the most modern of the tertiary strata.

The geologist may bo considered as the historian of
events relating to the animate and inanimate creation,
previous to tluit period when sacred liistory begins, or
the history of man, in relation to his highest destiny.
Although it belongs to tlie geologist to study the events
that have occurred within his province during the moro
modern ages of the world, as well as those which are in
progress in our own day, his special object is to unfold
the history of those revolutions, by which the crust of
the globe acquired its present form and structure. The
solid earth, with its stores of organic remains, which
how rises above the surface of the sea, may be com<
pared tO; a vast collection of authentic records, which
will reveal to man, as soon as he is capable of rightly
interpreting them, an unbroken narrative of events,
Cominencing from a period indefinitely remote, and
which, in all probability, succeeded each other after
intervals of vast duration. Unlike the records of human
transactions, they are liable to no suspicion that they may
have been falsified through intention or ignorance. In
them, Ate have to fear neither dishonesty nor the
blunders of unlettered and wearied transcribers. The
mummies of Egypt do not more certainly record the
existence of a civilized people in remoje ages on the
banks of the Nile, than do the shells, entombed in solid
stone at the summit of the Alps, and Pyrenees, attest
that there was a tin^e, when the rocks of those moun-
tains occupied the bottom of a sea, whose waters were
as warm as those within the tropics, and were peopled
by numerous species of animals, of which there does
iiot now exist one single descendant.

Some scattered observations, and some fanciful
theories founded upon them, show that a few of the
philosophers of antiquity, and a few among the learned
since the revival of letters, were not altogether una^afe
of the existence of these archives; but it is little more
than half a century since tlteir true value began- to bo

understood. The cause of lliis i.^ rnsMy oxplained.
Geology has grown out of the advanced state of other
branches of knowlodgc. Until chrmistry, minera]ogy,
botany, and above all, zoology, or tlie natural history
and comparative anatomy of animals, had arrived at
a considerable degree of perfection, it was impossible
to comprehend the language in which these records aro
written. Many of the early geologists, and some even
in the present day, appear indeed to find no difficulty
in reading them ; and when they moot wilh a passage
which is obscure, they cut the knot, and reason upon
some bold interpretation, which they arrive at by conr
ferring upon Nature, powers wliich she herself has
never revealed to us that sl^e has employed. But §ince
the discovery, in recent times, by Cuvior and others,
of a key to the language of these precious documents,
many have been unrolled ; the errors of former inter-
pretations have been discovered; and we i>iay now
entertain a well-grounded hope, lliat if we cease to
guess at meanings, and patiently search and compare
the materials that are accessible to us, we shall arrive
at such sound conclusions, that geology will be placed
on as secure a basic; as the most exact of the sciences.

Ihi4,

VIIL— MINERAL KINGDOM.

OKGANIC REMAINS.

We find in the lowest beds of the series of the
ksecondary strata, that the organic remains consist chiefly
[of corals and shells, that is, of animals having a com-
fparatively simple anatomical structure; and that as we
ftscend in the series, the proportion of animals of more
complicated forms increases, the bones of land qua-
drupeds being almost entirely confined to the mora

recent menibors of tlio trrtinry strata. From these
circumstances, it is a reeoived opinion, among certain
geologists, that the animals wliich were first created
were ofnn exceed in <i;ly simple structure, and that they
gradually b-^camn more complex in their frame.

Although it bo true, tliat in the lower strata there
is a largo proportion of the remains of animals wliich
possess an apparently simple structure, nothing can be
more unsound than to fouiul upon such observations a
doctrine such as \vc have befru'c stated. What wo have
at one time called simple, has again and again been
afterwards found to be exc!cedin:'-|v the reverse, so that
the term is really nctliing more than an expression of
our ignorance, a statement of the limit beyond which
we have not yet been able to advance. The animalculte
called Infusoria, arc living creatures, found in stagnant
waters, so wonderfully minute, that they are invisible
to the naked eye, — a collection of many thousand
individuals occupying no greater space than the tenth
part of an inch. For a long time after they were dis-
covered by means of the microscope, they were thought
to be little more than specks of animal matter endowed
with locomotive powers, but the ingenious researches
of Ehrenberg, a pliilosopher ofTBerlin, who employed a
very powerful instrument, laid open to our wondering
sight a new creation. That distinguished naturalist
lias shown, that these animalculae arc provided with
limbs and organs, and with a system of vessels and
nerves ; and even figures of their teeth accompany his
curio^js memoir. Thus, the lowest member in the sup-

})osed ^ aduated scale of animal structure, in place of
)tmj^ V simple body, is probably a very complicated
piece of mechanism. Besides, corals and shells, iho.ugh
of most frequent occurrence, are not the only animal
remains found in the lower strata, for recent observa-
tions have discovered in these rocks, the vertebrae or
joints of the backbone of fishes, as well as other parts
belonging to them, and even impressions of entire fish
have been met with. Now, one single undoubted spe-
pimen of an animal of that description, found in such a

situation, is us conclusive us ten tliousand would be in
overthrowing tho whole doctrine, tliat there has been a
gradual dovelo^Mnont of structure in animal life, as we
tiHCond from tho lovyost to the u|)|>ernu«Kt strjita.

A niw.'^t cuiious cii'ciiM).-;liUicu lonnec ^-d with fossils,
JH, the unequivocal evidence they ullbrd ^f there having
h.jcn llinnerly a coinplelely ditlercnt state of our planet
wi)h regard to cliniiites, from that which now exists.
Throughout all the strata, from the lowest member of
the secondary series, up to tiic last luycjr lying imme-
diutoly bentalh that wiiich, in geological language, is
termed a formation of the recent period, we find, in our
northern latitudes, numerous remains of animals and
plants belonging to genera, which are now . known
to exist oidy in tropical climates. In the most
northern part of J\siatic Siberia, at the mouth of the
Hiver Lena, which flows into the Arctic Ocean, in the
70th degree of latitude, there are vast accumulations of
the bones of an extinct species of elephant, and these
in such a state of preservation, that a great part of the
ivory used in fc5t. Petersburg, is brought from thenoe.
Indeed the quantity is so great, that a Russian natural-
ist has stated it as his belief, that tho number of
elephants now living on the globe, must be greatly
'( inferior to those which occur in a fossil state in
those parts of Siberia. Tne entire carcase of one of
those animals was found enclosed in a mass of ice,
where it must have remained incased for thousands of
years ; and yet, from the preservative quality of the
ice, the flesh was in such a state, that, when it was
disentombed by the accidental breaking up of the
mass, it was devoured by the wolves and other wild
jinimals. Moreover, it was thickly covered with hair,
of which the existing species of elephants are nearly
destitute ; thus proving that it was of a species adapted
to a cold climate. Then, as to plants, specimens cf
rocks have been brought from Melville Island, t/ie
remote northern land discovered in our late polar expv
ditions, some of which contain, imbedded in the ston j,
portions of plants belonging to an order now krvoim Iq

7i)

pxi.st only iiitiK' \V!rnn<\«!l [kuLs nl lln- 1 (|iiiii,<Miiil rfglous.

^VUii ^rciilosf, (I j^i't'o til' ht\'»t scciiis t<i liiivo c.xistrfl

the deposition of the inflrivH' \hh\h

(JUt'lii^

of tlm
acconiiiiry stralii ; juirl it jipprurs uls<), from th«j niituro
of t!)o fossil planus found in these slruta, that there
must have oxisto.l, at tiio same time, a very oonsider-
alilo degree of moisture in the atmosphere. The heat
sconis to have j^riulua'ly (liininiKh* d, so that at last,
during the dt po.,ilion (ij llio most reoejU of the tertiary
strata, the climate of ihe noi diein hr!ni,-;p!u>re does nr,t
appear to have hen very dill*- rent froni what it is now.
To endeavour to account f >r this wonderful change
in the temperature of tlie north- rn latiludes, is one of
the most dilHcult prohlems in the physical history of
the globe, Wc!'.u;>e it involves sucU a variety of con-
siderations ; and we know iJiat tlui most important and
extensive changes in the iorms of organized botlies, are
brought about by very nice shades of difference in the
circumstances of climate and soil under which they are
placed. In the early stages of geology, many theories
were started : the earth was said to have been originally
in a highly heated state, and to have gradually cooled ;
and it was maintained that during the progress of cooling,
the various changes in climate took place: according to
another theory, the position of the axis of the earth
\vas at one time diit'erent from ^yhat ^t is no,w, and was
80 directed, that tTie polar regions \yero exposed to a
inuch more direct action of the solar rays. But the
inventors of these theories did not trouble themselves
much with inquiring, whether they were in harmony
With the laws which regulate the motions of the
heavenly bodies ; and when they were subjected to the
examination of the astronomer, they could not stand
the test of his severe investigations. An ingenious
theory has been lately proposed by IVtr. Lyell. His
theory is, that all the indications of the former preva-
lence of warmer climates, may be accounted for by a
different distribution of land and water ; and we know
irom geological appearances, that a very different pro-
Dortion of superficial land and water must formerly

navo cxistrd in ili"' I'^itlicrri lumispiUT;' fiini that
wliiclMvc now riml. It is not vory fusy to i-fiite llio
irmuuils of liiis ihcory in an abridged fonn ; but the
mllosving explanation will p'-rliaps convey an intrliigibla
idea of it. Wherever tli'-vc is a gnat expanse of wiiter,
lilic tiio sea, there is always a more uniform tcmpfra.
ture in the adjoinmg countries throughout the year,
less extremes of heat and cold. On the contrary,
extensive tracts of land are liable to considerabh*
vicissitudes ; and hence the dilTcrcnce of an insular and
continental climate in the same parallel of latitude.
Moscow and Edinburgh arc very nearly in the sumo
Altitude ; but while ut the latter place, there is neither
extreme cold nor excessive heat, at Moscow, the cold
m winter is sometimes so intense as to freeze quick-
silver, and there are often days in summer as hot as at
Naples. In like manner, the higlicr you ascend, tho
air becomes colder; and tims in lofiy mountains,
such as iEUia, the sugar-cane grows at the foot, and the
lichen, or moss of Ireland, at tlie summit. In the Ijfty
mountains of South America there are regions of
eternal snow under an ccjuaturial sun. If we suppose,
therefore, extensive continents, lofiy mountains, and
numerous islands to have cxiskd in southern hititudes,
where there is now a wide expanse of sea, and an ocean
to have occupied the place of mn-thcrn Europe unS,
Asia, it will be readily conceived, from the principles
above stated, that very different climates would exist in
the northern hemisphere from what now prevail.

All the solid strata, most abundant in animal remains,
are either limestones, or contain a large proportion of
lime in their composition. JMany thick beds of clay
also abound in them ; but in that case, limestone, in
some form or other, is generally associated with tlie
clay. From this it has been inferred, and not Avithout
a strong semblance of probability, that anuaals have
mainly contributed to the forniatioa of many limc.stone
strata, in the same way as wo see them now at work
forming vast limestone rocks in the coral reefs of the
Pacific ocean. A rocf of this sort extends for three

hundred and fifty miks along the east coaHt of Ne.v
HoHand ; and between that country and New Guinet^
the coral formations have been found to O'tend, with
very short intervals, tlirou/fliout a distance of seven
hundred miles. Of all the forms of organized bodies,
which are found in a fc^ssil state, from the lowest stratum
m which they occur, to those of most modern date,
shells and corals constitute by for tlie greatest propor-
tion. All the stiata must have been deposited in soas
pr lakes; and it is therefore natural, that animals living
hi water should be most abundant. Besides, as shells
and corals are not liable to decay, they remain, while
the soft boneless animals, which inhabit them, perish
entirely; and fish-])ones, being more perishable than
shells, are comparatively rare. lUd.

IX.— MINERAL KINGDOM.

We have said that shells are by far the most nume-
rous class of fossils : tlioy are found in all formations,
from the lowest stratum in which animal rcnjains bave
been seen, to the most recent doposits now in progress.
To a person who has made couchology a special object
of SLudy, there appear many sirikUig diiferences be-
tween those found in a fossil siutc, and such as now
exist in our seas, lakes and rivers ; but wei'e we to
describe, or give ropn s' Jitations, of even remarkable
fossil shells, a general rcrul-r would discover, in most of
them, nothing so pociiliar as to arrnst his attention.
There is, however, one_, vv'hicli is so diilerent from nny
thing now living, and of such conunon occurrence, tliat
we are induced to give it as a good example of an
extinct genus. It is called the Ammonite, or Cornu
Ammonis, that is, Horn of Amnion, from its resemblance
rfo those horns which are adixcd to the head of the
statues of Jupiter Amnion.

.■■■■'}-h,:.

Here is a representation of tho extori'or of one of the
Iftmerous species, of which this genus is composed.

These shells are found of all sizes, from that of a fe^y
lines to nearly four feet in diameter ; and ahove three
hundred diireront species are said to have been ob-
served.

The diagram here given represents the two sides of
a species of cruslaceoua marine animal, which has

been wholly extinct from an early period in the forma-
tion of the crust of the globe ; many ages may have
elapsed since it ccr.s'^d to exist. There are ses^eral
species of the animal, which has been cjilled TriloUte,
from the body being composed of longitudinal divisions
or lobes. It is found in the British i^les, in Germany,
and Sweden : and specimens have been brought from
North America. In some, parts of Wales the slate is »9
full of fragments of the animal, that millions must h^'?
i^warmed on the snot. ^

j^nothor fossil iuihiml u liich i.-; vciy peciiiiar in its
ibrni is liiis called the Lliy Eacriiuto. Il resembles

\hat flower upon its stalk, arid still more so when the
several parts of which the flower-like extremity is conii-
Jwsed, are 'separated and spread out ; specimens of it
in this state are not unfreqiiently met with. That
stalk is not a single piece, but consists of a number of
distinct joints like those of the backbone, or like a
iiecklace of beads, on which account the fossil has
been sometimes called the Necklace-form Encrinite.
The stalk is peiforated through its whole length, and
the joints, when separated, have figured surfaces such
as are represented above in the circular bodies, the
figure being diflerent at dilFerent parts of the stalk.
Thisy«w«7^ of radiated animals, which consists of many
■extinct genera and species, has not wholly disappeared,
like the trilobite and uiumonilo ; living representatives
of it are still found in the seas of the West Indies, and
a very perfect spcciiuen may bo seen in the JMuseuii? of
the Geological Society ; but the lily encrinite, that
branch of the family, is not only M'hoUy extinct, biU
has been so ever since tlie period when the New Red
Sandstone was deposited. It appears to have had
comparatively a short exist enco, for it has only been
found in a limestone which occurs assooiutcd witli thj
New Red Sandstone. It is met with abundantly in
that particular limesto)ie wliiclj occupies a great extent
of country in Germany ; but the fo.ssil has never been
seen in England, and that kind of limestone is not found
in our if'land.
t" ■

The remains of fishes ocour in .ilmo.vt c^vciy stratum,
from the Old Jlcl Simdstono ii[) to tlio most recent de-
posits of frcnh-water lakes. Fosisil fi.sli have been less
accurately made out, as to the goncr.i to which they
belong, than any otlier kind of animal remains ; be-
cause the natural history of fisiies is not so far advanced
as that of most other departments of zoology. The
great French naturalit^t, Cuvier, brgan an extensive
work on the subject; and, had he lived, much would
have been done, for his masttr-<vonius throw lijjht on
every tiling he touched. Osie of the most celebrated
places for fossil lish is a hill near Verona in Italy,
called Monte Bolca. Immense quantities have been
found there in a very perfect state of preservation, as
far as the form is ponceruod, but, as in most other cases,
quite flattened and tiiin, so that they are like a painting,
or engraving of a fish. These impressions are of rare
occurrence, in comparison with the quantity of sepa-
rate bones that are fouud in most strata : teeth of the
shark are frequently met with, and sometimes of a size
which shows them to have belonged to individuals of
giant dimensions, such as are not now seen in any
seas. Ibid. '

X.— MINERAL KINGDOM,

ORGANIC REMAINS.

In our last lesson, wo gave some examples of re-
markable species of fossil-sholls, corals and Crustacea ;
two of these, the triloi)ito and the lilly encrinite, be-
longing to genera wiiicli became extinct after the
deposit of the oldest secondary strata. In tlu; extensive
series of sand-stones, lime-stones, and clays of the
secondary rocks, from tlio coal measures up to, and
including the chalk, the fjssil remains of animals con-
sist of a vast variety of shells, corals, sponges, and
•,->Jher marine productions of a similar description — of q

few kinds of ci'ustacea, that i;.-. animals having a crust
or shell like that of tlio lobster or crab, a few kinds of
fish, some groat reptiles, and a few insects. No remains
of land quadrupetli-', or of l!io niarinf^ mammalia, or of
birds, have yet been met with in clialk or any stratum
under the cluilk, except one supposed instance. Among
the numerous animal remains tliat occur in tiie secon-
dary strn'n, there is rsot a sinj.do ?'ii'?ci( 'i v,'!ii.?h has not
been for many ages (xtinej ; rnd tvtn wliole genera
have totally ceased to exist.

Tiie exiinction of species is so importaiit a fact in all
tliut ndatos to the geological liistory of the earth, that
we will, even at the risk of some repetition, endeavour,
by a little popular cxplauiition. to make clear what is
meant by the term. Eacli particular kind or genus of
animal usually consjsis of several individuals, which,
while they possoss a convinon characler or class of
characters, have particular forms wliioii dis inguish them
from each other ; and such individuals constitute the
species of a genus-. I'ho chtiAacters, by which geolo-
gists distinguish the rchitivo ag s of strata, in so far as
animal remains i;ro concerned, depend, not upon genus,
hut on ihc sijccii'-s J lor wli':].; sp cios have become ex-
tinct, one after the ot'u-r in sueer !;.-ion, the genera to
which they belong hr<vo c '.atinued lo exist from tlie period
of the deposition of the oldest of tlio secondary strata to
the present time, For exauiple, the gctiiis osti'ea, or
oyster, is found in tlie lime-stones wliich lie beneath the
coal-measures ; l>ut, not one of i he many species of oyster,
which are met wit'i in almost id! the stj'ata from that
lime-stone up to tiic chalk, is identical with any species
pf oyster inhabiiing our present seas.

It is unnecessary ibr us to jrive the names of the
marine remains, wliicli arc most abundant in the sccon-
dary strata, becau.so even with the assistance of figures,
they would convey to tlie general reader no clear idea
of their peculiar forms, as distinguished from those of
piarine sliells, corals, sponges, &c. now existing ; but
gome of the marinf^ reptiles are so extraordinary in
point of form and ^17,0 as to deserve a more particular
notice. Of the^e monsters of the ancient seas, nine

i <

different j:;;enern have already been foiiiKJ enlombed in
the secondaiy strata, and of some of ihe genera there
are several species. They have been called saurians
by geologists, from the resemblance t!iey bear to ihe
lizard tribe, saura being tiie (Jrcfk nunio for a lizard.
A common green lizard is a tolerably good minialuie
representation of tl]o general form of these reptiles ,
but a crocodile or ullig;itor gives a still better idea of
them, h must he f'>!fi( ni1)ercd, hovvevci', t!iat in speidc-,
iiig of the fossil lemains of those animals, we mean
only their skeletons or bones ; the flosli is never con-
verted into a fjssil state. It very seloom happens,
also, that llio entire skeleton of any large animal
is found, particularly in the strata that Vv'cre deposited
at the bottom of a sea, and for this reason — the bones
in the living body are kept together by a cartilaginous
substance or gristh^, which after death putrefies, and
then the several monjhers fall asunder. Very often,
too, we find only dLt'iclicd bones; and this may be
accounted for by another circumstance attending the
process of putrefaction. When that connnenoes in a
dead animal, a couhadorahle quantity of gas is gene-
rated, which .s^\•e)ls up the body, and, if that bo in
water, makes it ho mucii lighter that it lloats. In pro-
cess of time the skin bursts, and the gradually loosened
bones are scattered far apail. Sucli detiielied bones
frequently cotruute all tiie data, by vvhieh we are
ejiabled to decide upon tlie nature of the animal ; and
the general reader may perhaps think :hat they arc
ButTiciently scanty materirds, considerl* u' the important
conclusions which gx'ohtgists soivn.iii.ies di;i.w from
them. But the discoveries of philosopi:!')s, v. ho have
occupied themselves in comparing the unati/mical struc-
ture of the lower animals wilJi that of th' '.lumr.n
frame, and liave created tiie interesting and oeautif d
department of science called Comparative Anatomy,
liave enabled them to establish certain fixed and inva-
riable principles f)r our guidance intliis curious bi-anch
of geological inquiry. This field of investigation has
only been entered upon within u ft w years; but it lias
already yielded so rich a harvest, tlii,t it has establishetl

I'moiii*'

some of the mr>si iniportaal Iruths coimccted with the
past history, of our planet. — Tho groat discoverer of
those general laws of the aiiiimil kiugildin was the illus-
trious French naturalist, the Baron Cuvier. He has
shown, that there reigns such a liarnionv throuohout
all the parts of which the skeleton is coniposed, so nice
an adaptation of the forms to the wants and huhits of
the animal, and such a degree of mutual suhordination
between one part and another in portions of the struc-
ture apparently quite unconnecled, that we are enabled,
by the inspection of a single bone, to say with cer-
tainty that it must have belonged to a particular kind
of animal and could not have formed a part of tho
skeleton of any other. Thus, if we present to a skilful
comparative anatomist a small bone of the loot of a
quadruped; ho will not only pronounce Avith certainty
as to the size of the aniurd, to which it belonged,
but v/ill say what sort of teeth it must have had —
whether it had horns, and wJieiher it fed upon the flesli
of other animals, or on vegetable substances. If many
detached bones belonging to the same kind of animal
be collected, the rskill of the comparative anatomist
enables him to put them together in their true places;
and thus a complete skeleton has been constructed of
separate fossil bones, which liad belonged to several
individuals of the same species. In tliis application of
anatomy to geology we have a beautiful illustration of
the intimate connexion of the sciences A\'ith each other.
The discovery, in one of our stone quarries, of a few
mutilated fragments of bone, imbedded in the solid
rock, reveals to is the Kind of animals that must have
inhabited this region of the earth it the remote period
when the rock was in the act of being deposited at tho
bottom of the sea, and tells us also that the climate was
not that of the temperate zone, but of the tropics.

The most remarkable of the fcssil saurians, which
are found in the secondary strata, are those which have
been called ichthyosaurus, plcsiosaurus, mcgalosaurus,
and iguanodon. The first of these is so called from
the characters of the animal, partaking at the same
time of the nature of a fish and of the lizard tribe;

'■-is

^Tl

ichthyis and saums bcinjj; two Cicok words signifying
iish and lizard. Its head rcsoinblos that of a crocodile,
only it is much larger and sharper, its snout ending in
a point, almost as acute as the beak of a bird : it has a
most formidable supply of shiup conical teeth, no
less than sixty in each jaw. Its head was of an enor-
rnous size, for jaws measuring eigiit feet in length have
been found ; and it was furnished with a pair of eyes
of still more extraordinary proportion, for the oval
lioUo\ys for that organ, in a skull in the possession of a
gentleman at Bristol, measure ft)urteen and a half
inches in their largest diameter, llie size of a dish on
which a tolerably good-sized turkey could be served
up. The head was about a t()urili of the whole
length of the animal, and was joined to tije body by a
very short neck : the back-bone was composed of joints
or vertebra dillerent from those of land animals, and
similar to tlioso of fishes ; it was supplied with four
paddles like those of a turlle, in the ?ower part of the
body, and by means of these, and its very powerful
tail, it must have darted very swiftly through the
water. It was a most singular combination of forms,
for it had the snout of a dolphin, the teeth of a croco-
dile, the head and breast bone of a lizard, extremities
like the marine mammalia, and vertebras like a fish.

We can, however, form no idea of the appearance of
the animal when alive, except such as is conveyed to
us by the sight of the skeleton ; a very imperfect one,
no doubt, as we know by the diirorenee between any
animal and its skeleton placed beside it. The foregoing
representation of the complete skeleton of the ichthyo-
saurus, as restored in the way we have alluded to]i is
given by the Rev. W. Conybeare, the eminent geolo.
gist, to whom we are indebted for the most complete
Bpcount of these fossil suuriana.

;.-: ' &0 -.. ". . ■

Remains of the ichthyosaurus liave heen found in all
ihe secondary strata, between the red sand-stone and
the chalk, in many parts of England ; but they are most
frequently met with in the lias lime-stone, and in great-
est abundance at Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire. They
have also been found in SL;vcral places on the continent,
especially in Wurtemberg.

The plesiosaurus is so called from its near approach to
the lizard tribe, plcsion being Greek for near. It has a
considerable resemblance in the body to the ichthyo-
saurus, but the head is much smaller, and is altogether
©f a different structure ; but its most remarkable cha-
racter is the great length of its neok. In man, all
quadrupeds, and other mammalia, there are exactly
seven joints or vertebrce in the neck ; and so strict is
the adherence to this rule, that there is precisely the
same number in the short, stiff neck of the whale, and
the long, flexible neck of the giraffe. Reptiles have
from three to eight joints — birds many more ; the swan,
which has the most, is enabled to make the graceful
oujpves of its neck by being provided with twenty-three
of those separate vertebrae ; but the plesiosaurus had np
less than forty-one.

Mr. Conybeare, to whom we are indebted for the
first description and name of the plesiosaurus, has given
the following representation of this extraordinary long-
necked reptile, in a restored state, in the same way aa
he hiis given us a figure of the ichthyosaurus.

•^!sm^.

Some fragments of the bones of a saurian of gigantic
size were discovered by Dr. Buckland, a few years ago,
in the quarry of Stonesfield, near Wooclstock, in
Oxfordshire. According to the opinion of Cuvier, who
examined them, they must have belonged to an indiyi-
4ijal of the lizard tribe, measuring forty feet in length

and ImviPg a bulk rqiir.l to tli;i.t ni^ an rlfpliant setren
foot high. This fossil nnii))al was distinguished by Dr.
Buckland with the niinio megafosauras, oii account of its
great size, mcgale being Grct k for great.

A most curious discovery was made a few years ago
by Dr. Buckland at Lyme llogis.

He had often remarked a number of long rounded
stony bodies, like oblong prbblrs or kidney potatoes,
scattered on the shore, and frequently lying beside the
bones of the saurians when these were discovered in the
rock. He was induced to make a closer examination
of them, and they turned out to be the dung of the
saurian reptiles in a fossil state. When found along
with the bones they are always under or among the
ribs. Many specimens of them contained scales, teeth,
and bones of iishes that seemed to have passed undi-
gested through the body of the animal ; just as the
enamel of teeth and fragments of bones are found
undigested in the dung of the ravenous hyena. Jt was
thus shown, that these great monsters of the deep Ted
not only on their weaker neighbours, but sometimes
even on the smaller defenceless individuals of their own
species ; for Dr. Buckland found in one of these stones
a joint of the back-bone of an ichthyosaurus, that must
have been at least four feet in length. He has called
the stones cropolUes, from kopros, Greek for dung, an4
litlios, a stone. Since his attention was directed to the
subject, he has found similar bodies in many other
strata, and belonging to different animals. "In all
these various formations," he says, " the cropolites form
records of warfare waged by successive generations of
inhabitants of our planet on one another ; and the gene-
ral law of nature, which bids all to eat and to be eaten
in their turn, is shown to have been co-extensive with
finimal existence upon our globe ; the carnivora in each
period of the world's history fulfilling their destined
office to check excess in the progress of life, and main-
tain the balance of creation." lUd,

SECTION II.

HISTORY AND CIIRONOLOGV.

History is tlvc rcooid of puMic events that hay©
occurred in the difrorent ngos and nations. Chronology
treats of the proeiso dates at w liicJj these events took
place. Our knowledge of hhlorical events is derived
chiefly 0*on» the writings of individuiils; but these are
aided by puhlic records, inscriptions, coins, and other
documents of a similar nature. Our knowledge of the
chronology of these events is drawn from similar
sources. History and Chronology therefore are inti-
mately connected ; yet they are so distinct as to suggest
very diflia'ont trains of investigation. History treats r""
the characters of the persons engaged in the events which
it records, the motives which influenced them, the cir.
p^n^btances M^high le4 to the eyents, the incidents which
accompanied them, the effects which resulted from
them, involving considerations of the state of the na-
tions that were engaged in them, their advancement in
civilization and useful arts, and their relative position
with respect to one another. The study of chronology,
pn the Qt^er j^and, loac]s to the examination of the divi-
sions of tinje that have prevailed in ditierent nations ;
their modes of reckoning l\ours, days, weeks, months,
years ; difierent epochs that have been used in ditferent
ages and nations ; cycles and other periodical revolu-
tions of years; the deciphering of the devices and
legends of coins and medals, the calculating of the
eclipses that are mentioned in connexion with historical
events ; and, in short, the investigating and estimating
of any notices of time that may be discovered either in
natural objects, or in any record kept by men of the tran-
sactions in which they have been engaged.

The Ile])rows were the o;ily nation of antiquity, who
hull among thoin a rrn;u1iir chronological history. In
the Sacred Scriptures, there is a chain of such history
from the crontion of the world till profane history
assumes an authentic form. In tho early portion
of this history, tho chronology is determined hy a suc-
cession of first born sons, ucconipanicd by a statement
of the ace of each indivichial, at the time when his
eldest son was horn. In the later portion ot ibi* 'ustory,
the chronology is determined by the time ji nd tor
the continuance of tho authority of a succession of
judges, and afterwards of kings. There are some
difficulties in adjusting this chronology, chiefly arining
from variations introduced into manuscripts and trans«
lations of the Scriptures, during a long course of ages;
but still, tho best, perhaps tlie only guide, to a general
view of ancient chronology, is the history contained in
the Sacred Scriptures. As the land in which the
Israelites were placed, was in the very centre of the
World's population, in tlie neighbourhood of the great
empires that successively arose, and as it became an
integral part of these empires, the history of that
people is intermingled with almost all that is important
in the history of our species. In reading the sacred
history, there is brought before us in regular succession
the sovereignties established on the banks of the Tigris
and the Euphrates, and the states that arose to eminence
on the eastern shore of tho Mediterranean sea ; the
kingdoms of Egypt, Ethiopia, Syria, Assyria, Babyjon
and Persia, and the influence which they possessed in
the affairs of men in diflerent ages of the world. The
regular chain of Jewish hislbry and chronology is
broken off at the building of the second temple, after
the return from the captivity of Babylon, when tho
Persian monarchy was at its height ; but a general
view of the subsequent history of the world, marking
the rise of the Grecian empire on the ruins of the
Persian,' its separation into several kingdoms, the
advance of the Roman empire in its gigantic strides to
universal sovereignty, its strength and character, itj

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decay and overthrow, is given in the prophetic visions
of a Hebrew prophet, so graphically, and in a manner
80 perfectly conformable to the truth of history, that
when we lose the aid of Jewish history, we cannot
follow a better guide than the bold characteristic
sketch of subsequent events furnished by the Jewish
prophecies.

The history of the world naturally divides itself into
two great periods, namely, that which elapsed before
the coming of the Saviour Jesus Christ into the world ;
and that which has elapsed since that event. The
appearance (Jf that illustrious personage on our planet
was the commencement of that great revolution of
mind, which has already produced such stupendous
6fi^cts, and which is every day extending and strength-
ening its influence. It was then that those sublime
views of the Deity, and that pure morality, which the
nation of the Jews had received from the Scriptures,
began to be diffused over the world, a process which
soon changed the aspect of the Roman empire, and
laid the foundation of that superior illumination and
humanity, and those just conceptions of the rights and
liberties of men, which distinguish Europeans from
the rest of mankind, "as well as all who are of their
kindred in other regions of the globe. The commence-
ment of this mighty movement is happily marked
among the nations professing Christianity, by their
adopting it as the fixed era, from which they date all
other events either before or afler it ; stating the time
of their occurrence by the number of years before
Christ, or afler Christ. We shall regard the birth of
the Saviour Jesus Christ, as the great turning, or
hinging point of the world's history and view the chro-
nology of all other events with reference to it.

Our attention, therefore, is, in the first place, to Be
directed to those events which took place before the
birth of Jesus Christ.

The various dates and periods noted in the Hebrew
Scriptures, as examined and compared by many
learned men, make the duration of the world, from the

oretition recorded in the book of Genesis, till the birth
of Christ, 4004 years. For aiding the memory, this
period may be conveniently divided, as follows : . At
the middle of this period, or two thousand years before
Christ, and two thousand after the creation of the
world, Abraham was born ; and the call of Abraham
was the commencement of that important dispensation
of Providence, by which one family were separated
from the rest of the world, increased to a nation, planted
in a central place of the earth, that they might presertd
among them the knowledge of the name, and character,
and law of the true Grod, and ultimately diffuse it
among the rest of mankind. In the middle of the
period between the creation of the world and the birth
of Abraham, or about the year B. C. 3017, Enoch was
translated to heaven, as a token of the favour and
approbation with which Grod regarded his devout and
holy character. In the middle of the period between
the birth of Abraham and the birth of Christ, or about
the year, B. C. 1004, Solomon's temple was finished.
This period marked the fulfilment of the promises
made to Abraham in their literal sense ; for then, and
not till then, did his seed reign in peace and prosperity,
from the great river Euphrates to the shores of the
Mediterranean sea. Thus the whole period of four
thousand years is divided into four parts of a thousand
years each, every successive period commencing witb
a remarkable event, namely, the creation — ^the transla.
tion of Enoch — the birth of Abraham — and the comple-
ting of Solomon's temple.

These four periods, thus distinctly marked, may be
further conveniently divided into eight, each of 500
years. So little is recorded respecting the first two
periods of a thousand years, that it is of less importance
to divide them into half thousands. We remark,
however, that the first thousand years, namely, from
the creation of the world to Enoch, is divided nearly
equally, by the birth of Jared, the fifth descendant
from Adam, which, was according to the common
chronology, in the year B. C. 3544. The second
thousand years, namely, from Enoch to Abraham, is

8 •

divided nearly equally, by the denunciation of the deluge
and the commencement of the building of the aHc.

The divisions of the latter two periods' of a thbuiliand
years are marked by very important eras. That which
intervened between Abraham and Solomon, is divided
by the mission of Moses to the Israelites, their deli,
verance from Egypt, and the giving of the law at Mount
8inai, which is determined to the year 1491, or nearly
1500, years B. C. The last period of a thousand years,
or that which intervened between Solomon and the
birth of Christ, is equally divded by the building of
the second temple, after the return of the Jews from the
captivity of Babylon, which event is determined to the
year B. C. 615. Thus the whole period from the crea-
tion of, the world to the birth of Christ is divided by
liemarkable eras, into eight periods, of about 500 feank
each, as in, the following table. '

if 6.

ERAS.

Years after Yean beli»n
the Creatioii. Chrisf.

A.M. i.C.

CREATION.

4000

II.

Jaked.

800

3M0

, III

Erogh.

1000

3000

IV.

Noah.

isoo

aAOO

ABRAHAM.

sitaD

' 306b

i ^'*

Moses.

two IfiOO

vn.

SoLOMon.

8000

1000

vin.

fezEA.

flioo

IX.

JESUS CHRIST.

4000

A.D.

•T

■ I ■ '*

n of the delugo
the bHc. ., .1
of ath6uli«uiia
. That which
ion, is divided
3s, their deli,
law at Mount
191, or nearly
bousand years,
9mon and the
e building of
Jews from the
irmincd to the
from the crea-
is divided by
•out 500 feaxk

YMnbefen
Chriif.

t C.

4oee

' 3M0

8000

asoo

SMMO

IMW

1000

«00

A.D.

In tihe flbllowing ohapleni a tyooioct view of Ui<i
otate of the world at eaoh of these ei^ eraiWill be
giveta.

FIRST ERA.

Thi Creaiion,
A. M. 1.— B. C. 4004.

'^hen man was created, he was placed in the garden
of Eden, some delightful spot in the neighbourhood of
the rivei^ Tigris and Euphrates ; and a command was
given to him, enforced by the penalty of death, by
which command he was given to know his subjection
and responsibility to the Almighty Creator. Eve was
then made and brought to him, to be his wife. The
fall of Adam and Eve into .sin, soon follows, and their
expulsioii from the garden of Eden, to earn their bread
by the sweat of their face ; and then, in puisuance of
the penalty of death which they had incitrredj to return
to the 'dust whence they were taken. ^

This era is also distinguished by th6< annunciation
of a great^deliverance and victory which God purposed
to jiccijixiplish for man, " The seed of the woman,''i
said he, "shall bruise the head of the .serpent.'' This
era is also marked by the sudden and awful develop-;
ment of that corruption, with which human nature is,
tainted. Cain, the first-born son of Adam, became the^
first murderer, imbruing his hands in the blood of his
own brother, Abel. ^ . •

Cain was then banished from his father's home, and;
in process of time, built a city. His descendants^
apparently living without God, betook themselvea
to various worldly avocations and amusementef, t(|
fill up that sad vacuity in their bosoms, which (Iw

J'S<i

lurant of love to 6rod had created there. In the mean
While, aHOther son was born to Adam, whom he called
Seth, and who occupied the station of Abel whom Cain
slew.

Thus mankind were early separated into two classes,
namely, the descendants of Cain, and the descendants of
Seth*

«RGOND ERA

Jared,

A. M. 500.— 'B. C. 3500.

At this era the families of Cain and Seth were still
living separate from one another. During the period
that followed, there were born Enoch, Methuselah, and
Lamech, the father of Noah. Adam died at the age of
990 yearsi During the antediluvian periods, human
life bore nearly the same proportion to a thousand,
which it now does to a hundred years. It is now but
about the one-tenth of what it then was.

THIRD ERA.

Enoch.

A. M. 1000.— B. C. 3000.

This era is marked by that extraordinary testimony
which God bore to the holiness of Enoch's character^

ivhen be removed him to he a von, without subjecting
him to the universal sentence of death. This distinc-
tion conferred on Enocli, indicates that corruption was
making rapid strides among men. And accordingly, in
a prophecy of Enoch, recorded by the apostle Jude, he
denounces the judgments of God upon the wicked : say-
ing, " Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thoiisand of his
saints, to execute judgment upon all, to convict all the
impious among them, of all their deeds of impiety which
they have impiously perpetrated, and of all the hard
things which impious sinners have spoken against him."
In this prophecy, there is the first intimation on record
of a final day of retribution.

Towards the conclusion of the period of 500 ydlars
which followed this era, the progress of corruption was
accelerated by inter-marriages formed between the
descendants of Cain ajid the descendants of Seth. " The
sons of God," it is written, " saw the daughters of meri
that they were fair, and they took them wives of all that
they chose." By this statement is probably meant that
the professing worshippers of God, the family of Sethy
began to intermarry with the votaries of the world, the
family of Cain. The consequence of this intermixture;
of the two families, was the rapid and universal spread
of wickedness. The children of these marriages be-
came mighty men, men of renown. There were giants
(literally fellers,) on the earth in these days ; ,and the
earth was filled with violence. Thus the crime of
murder, which had been specially marked by the high
lispleasure of God, was the very crime into which men
rushed headlong, doubtless glorying in it, as it is known
hey did after the deluge. ♦

" And God saw that the wickedness of man was very
great upon the earth, and that every imagination of the
thoughts of his heart was only evil, and that conti-
nually ;" and he declared his purpose of sweeping away
the godless race by the waters of a deluge ; and com-
manded Noah to build an ark, for the preservation of
himselfand his family.

FOURTH ERA.

The building oftJit Ark,

A. M. 1500.— B. C. 2500.

This era finds the whole world one scene of violence
and corruption. Only Noah was found upright before
God. And God, proposing to sweep away the whole
race of the wicked, commanded Noah to build an ark
for the preservation of himself and his family. Noah
believed that God would do as he had declared, and,
*' moved with fear," began to build the ark according
to the directions that were given to him, proclaiming,
in th6 mean time, the catastrophe that was approach-
ing, and warning men to repent of their sin : — for he
was " a preacher of righteousness." They, however,
were too intent on their own pursuits and pleasures to
attend to him. " They were eating and drinking, mar*
rying and giving in marriage, and knew not till the
flood came, and took them all away." The ark being
finished, Noah was directed to collect in it, pairs of all
those animals that were to be preserved, and then to
enter it himself and his family, — in all, eight persons.
The windows of heaven were then opened, and the
fountains of t)te great deep broken up, and the watpt
rose, till it reached the tops of the loftiest mountains, d©'
stroymg every living thing that could not subsist in
the water. It then again gradually retired. This
whole operation occupied only about a year ; namely,
the year B. C. 2347.

The first remarkable event after the deluge, ti^as the
promise of preservation from any future deluge, and
the law given to Noah, in which was pointedly pro-
hibited the shedding of blood. At this time also,

»1

liberty was given to men to eai animal food. Then
followed the division of the earth among the three sons
of Noah, which seems to have been done nccording to
some rule or system. The descendants of Shem spread
themselves from Mount Ararat, where the ark rested,
towards the South and East ; the descendants of Ham
went towards the South and West, particularly occu-
pying Africa ; and to Japheth and his posterity were
assigned the North and West.

Towards the latter part of this period, or about 2250
years B. C, cities began to be built, which afterwards
rose to great eminence. Ashur, one of the descendants
of Shem, built Nineveh on the Tigris ; and Nimrod,
who had addicted himself to hunting, erected a kingdom
in the land of Shinar, on the banks of tlie Euphrates.
Babel seems to have been the capital of his kingdom.
On the plain of Shinar, the tower of Babel was com-
menced; but its completion was prevented by the
interposition of God, who introduced confusion among
those who were employed in building it ; yet it seems
to have formed the germ of thp city of Babylon,
that, many ages afterwards, arose to great power and
splendour.

Thus, the conduct of men very soon proved, that,
although the deluge had giver> a temporary check to
their wickedness, it had done nothing towards purify,
ing the human heart, from its proud, ambitious pai|sions.
That very crime against which Almighty God had
repeatedly pointed his indignation, which had brought
destruction on the old world — violence and the sheddini;
of human blood, soon began to appear in all its ferocity,
and scenes of carnage commenced, tvhich have dis-
graced and consumed mankind, and kept whole regions
of the earth in desolation and wretchedness, till the
present day.

FIFTH ERA.

Abraham.
A. M. 2000.— B. C. 2000.

At this era idolatry had made some progress. Even
the family of Shem was corrnptod by it. Tera, the
father of Abraham and of Naclior, wlion he lived on
the other side of the E^iphrtitos, we are told, "served
other gods." But instead of cIi! eking this evil by some
awful infliction similar to the deluge, God selected a
family with whom he might dcj) osito the knowledge of
himself and his will, and to wiioui lie might give so con-
spicuous a station among tiic nations of the world, as
would tend to preserve that knowledge in the world,
and diffuse it among the rest of mankind. This measure
he commenced by calling Abraham to leave his native
country, Mesopotamia, and to reside as a stranger and
a wanderer in the land of the Canaanites ; a land which
lay between the rivtr Jordan and the Mediterranean
sea. To Abraham, wlio was fulling into the contagion
of idolatry, he revealed himself, and maintained an in-
tercourse with him from time to time, promising to give
hini a numerous posterity, while yet he had no child ;
to give the land in wiiich he had come to sojourn to his
posterity ; and to make of them a great nation,, and to
give them dominion from the Eujihrates to the shore of
the Mediterranean sea.

Abraham obeyed the call of God, and came from
Mesopotamia to llie land of Canaan. This land was
occupied by diflerent families descended from Canaan,
the son of Ham, but to a great extent open and un-
cultivated, yet with some towns or cities scattered oyer
it. The sea-coast to the southward, was in possession
of the Philistines, from whom the whole country after-
wards derived the name of Palestine. The valley of
the Jordan, which river seems to have then flowed to
the Red Sea, especially that part of the valley which
lies between the mountains in the south of Palestine

and a mountninous district .mx the eastorn side of it,
sroms to huvo hnon more tliickly peopled, having in h
several cities in the midst of a luxuriant country, of
which Sodom and Gomorrah were the chief. The in-
iiabitants of thosp cities had hccome profligate in the
oxtrt'iuo. They were jroverncd hy kings, each city
haying its own king. But these kings were tributary
to an empire, tlie centre of which was on the eastern
hank of the 'J'igris. It is probabfe that the kingdom
erected hy Nimrod had, by this time, extended itself to
the Jordan. The kings of the cities of the plain of
Jordan had, about tlie time of the call of Abraham,
rebelled against the king of Elam or Persia. And the
next year, Cliedorlaomer, with four confederate kings,
one of whom was the king of Shinar, came upon them
with an army, defeated them, and plundered Sodom and
Gomorrah. They were, however, ovortaken, in return-
ing home, l)y Abraham, with his servants, and some of
the neighbouring chiefs, and the booty recovered from
them.

Egypt was then governed by a king, and seems
to have retained some knowledge of the true God.
Damascus was built in a beautiful valley, watered by
two rivors, on the edge of the wilderness. It is called
by the inhabitants? of that country Sham, which renders
it not improbable that it was built by Shem, the son of
Noah.

Abraham had brought with him Lot, his nephew, who
went down to live in the vale of the Jordan, near the
city of Goinonah. While he was there, the wicked-
nrss of that and the neighbouring cities became so in-
tolerable, that God rained fire and brimstone upon them,
and destroyed them ; and, at the same time, the ground
feeems to have sunk, so that the Jordan, instead of flow-
ing through the valley to the Red Sea, was arrested in
its course, and formed that salt lake which is called the
Dead Sea.

After this, Lot, who had been warned of the impend.
ing fate of the cities, and fled with his family, lived
among the mountains, to the east of the Dead Sea,
where he had two sons, Moab and Animpn, by whose

(IcsRonclHiifi timt diatrict of country was aAorwards

peopled.

• Abraham had a ron by Tlngar, an Egyptian wonnan—

Jshmael, whom he sent away from him, and who took

iip his residence in the wilderneas, between the south of

Palestine and Egypt.

' In his old age, Abraham had his son Isaac, who fva«

to inhisrit the pronuses that had been made to him on

leaving'his own country. Isaac, before the death of his

father, married his near relative Rebekah, by whom he

Jiad two sons, Esau and .Tacob. Esau, or Edom, became

a man of the field, and frequented Mount Seir, to the

k>uth-ea8t of Palestine. His descendants, for many

ages, occupied that district. Under tlie ilame of £domitee(,

and more recently Idumieans.

^' Jacob weiit to Mesopotamia and married two of his

near relatives Rachel and Leah, and by them, and two

other wives, he had tAvelve sons, who became the heads

•of the twelve tribes of Israel.

Abraham had also children by Keturah, another wife,
whom he sent away from Isaac towards the eastward.
Among these was Midian, who' became the head of ti
nation, which is frequently noticed in the subsequent
history.

Jacob remained in the land of Mesopotamia for 21
years, arid then returned to Canaaii, where he found
Isaac still living. Esau, his brother, who had addicted
himself to the chase, and probably also to warfare, was
at the head of 400 arrhed men," and resided chiefly in
Mount Seir. Jacob had iele'ven sons at the tiMe of his
return to Canaan, and one was born to him after his
return. The two youngest were sons of his favoured
%ife, Rachel, and were distinguished by him from his
other children by particular tokens of aUTection. This
occasioned discontent and envy in the others, which
iieing increased, with TesJ>eot to Joseph, the elder of
Rachel's sons, by his fidelity in reporting their vices,
and by certain dreams, which he related, that seemed
to indicate an ambition of ruling over them, they
seized an opportunity of his being at a distance from his
fether, to sell him tp a company of merchants passing

18 a Ac r wards

through the country. These morchnnts, who were
Ishmaelitcs and Midianitcs, brought him to Egypt, and
sold him there as a slave. *

While he was there, the king of Egypt had a re-
markable dream, which gave him unoasinoss, and Joseph
being informed of it, felt himself warranted, by a divine
impulse, to propose to interpret it. He was accordingly
brought before Pharaoh, and intcrprotod the dream, to
signify that it indicated that there would be seven years
of plenty in the land of Egypt, followed by seven years
of extreme scarcity. Joseph was immediately laised
to the highest rank in the kingdom of Egypt, being
intrusted, during the years of plenty, with the collecting
of grain for supplying the deficiency of the approaching
years of famine. While ho was engaged in the exe-
cution of this office, during the years of scarcity, the
famine having reached to Canaan, brought down his
brethren to Egypt to purchase corn. Joseph immedi-
ately recognised them, although they did not recognise
him ; and after a variety of measures, the purport of
which seems to have been to bring them to a sense of
their guilt, he at length made himself known to them.
The result was, that, on the invitation of Joseph, and
also of the king of Egypt, Jacob and his whole family
removed to Egypt, where he lived about seventeen
years, and died.

The Israelites, being placed in a fruitful part of the
country, increased, under the blessing of God^ with
^mazing rapidity.

Egypt. — Egypt had now become a powerful kingdom.
That king, who reigned in the time of Joseph, in con-
sequence of his having obtained the command of the
supply of food during seven years of extraordinary
scarcity, had been enabled to make his own terms with
the people. And the arrangement which he had made
was, that the people should pay to him a fifth part of
the produce of the land, in lieu of rent as proprietor of
the land, and of taxes as head of the government. This
arrangement enabled the king to maintain a powerful
and well-appointed army, with abundance of horsemen

'».

vad war chariots. It enabled him also to engage in
those stupendous works of architecture, the remains of
whfch are still the astonishment of the world. Egypt
had also commenced the practice of embalming the
bodies of the dead, by which it has been rendered so
remarkable. Forty days were employed in this- opera*
^od in t\^e time of Joseph,

SIXTH ERA.

Moses.

A. M. 2500.— B. C. l;500. ;

The Israelites. — The rapid increase of the Israel-
ites rendered them in process of time objects of alarm
to the Egyptians ; " a king arising who knew not Joseph,"
}ie began to adopt the most rigorous and unscrupulous
measures to diminish their number. He reduced them
^o the most abject slavery, employed them in building
cities, exacting of them exhausting and overpowering
labour. But finding that they still continued to increase,
he commanded that all their male cliildren should be
thrown into the river as soon as they wore born, and
only females preserved alive. At this time Moses was
born and was preserved from the eilects oi' tliis edict
in consequence of having been taken under the protec-
tion of the king's daughter. • His parents Iiad placed him
in a chest of bulruslics, and laid him amon;]^ the lla.'iT,,
by the brink of the river, and Pharaoh's daugliter
finding him, adopted him as her own son. Thus Moses
received an education which fitted him for the impor-
tant office to which he was destined, as leader and
governor of the Israelites. When Moses came of age,
however, having been made acquainted with his de:scent
from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and having been' in-
structed by his parents in the privileges bestowed upon
their nation by the God of heaven, he relinquished his
fair hopes and prospects, as an Egyptian of high, even
of Xoyol rank, and claimed his connection with the d^*

•pised and persecuted Israelites. He chose " rather to
suffer affliction with the people of God, than to enjoy
the pleasures of sin for a season." He saw an Egyptian
smiting, probably putting to death, an Israelite, and
taking the part of the Israelite, he killed the Egyptian.
This being discovered, he fled acruss the Red Sea, to
the mountains which lie between the gulfs into which
the Red Sea divides itself at its northern extremity,
which was then called the land of Midian, doubtless in
consequence of Midian, the son of Abraham, fixing his
residence there. He thus obtained an opportunity of
becoming acquainted with tliut district of country, and
with the whole of the desert that lies between it and
the land of Canaan. While Moses was in Midian, the
Lord appeared to him and commissioned him to return
to Egypt, there to call together the heads of the Israel-
ites, and then to go to Piiaraoh and demand liberty tor
the people to leave the land of Egypt. Moses did so.
The demand was, of course, refusctl; but, by a series
of plagues, which Moses was commissioned to inflict on
the land of Egypt, the last of which was the destruc-
tion, in one night, of all the first-born sons in Egypt,
Pharaoh was compelled to yield to tlie demand, and to
let the people go. Moses accordingly led them towards
the Red Sea, as if he intended going round the northern
extremity of liie vvc.si.e.]-n gul f of it ; but by direction
of God, he turned, and encamped close by the gulf, on
the western side. Pharaoh seeing tlio immense body of
the Israelites, consisting of 600,000 men, with their
wives and children, entangled in the land, and appa-
rently within his reach, pursued them with his whole
army, and came up with them as they lay encamped,
unable to go forward, lor the sea was iu their front,
or to turn either to the north or the south. In
this extremity, the Lord caused Xhe sea to divide, and
directed Moses to lead the people through the bed of
it. The Israelites thus passed in safety into the Ara-
bian desert ; while the Egyptian army, in attempting to
follow them, were caught by the return of the sea to itf
usual bed, and drowned.

^oses then conducted the people to the mountainous
disfiict, where he himself had found refuge ; and thero
ihe law was given to them, and their civil and ecclesi-
-ftstical polity arranged. They then marched nortl).
wards towards Caneian, and were directed to enter it,
but, being afraid, and refusing to go, they were con-
qemned to wander forty years in the desert, till all th«
j^enerat'iott that came out of Egypt had died, with the
fexception of two persons. During their wanderings,
they met with many vicissitudes, fell into many sins,
suffered severe corrections; but, at length, they were
led round by the south of Edom, and, after defeating
two kings who attempted to withstand them, they found
themselves encamped on the east side of the river .Tor-
dan, opposite to Jericho.

About this time Moses died, and Joshua succeeded to
the comraahdv He led them across the Jordan, which
-was mii'atiiilclusly divided to afford them a passage. He
first took and destroyed the city of Jericho, and after-
wards passed through the greater part of the land, took
the cities wherever he went, extirpating, or driving out
the Canaanites, and setting the Israelites in their
room. ' ,'■

Joshua did not complete the conquest of the land,
many of the tiati vies retaining their footing in it. After
•his death, the people fell from time to time into idolatry,
and the Canaanites, who were in the land, or the neigh-
bouring nations, particularly the Moabites, Midianited,
and Philistines, obtained power to oppress them.

During this period the Israelites we^e governed by
judges, who sudceeded Joshua ; and these led them in
war, and administered justice to them in peace.
■ In the first century, after the death of Joshua,
Cushan-rishathaihi, king of Mesopotamia, oppressed
ihem for eight years, when, on their repentance, 0th-
neil was raised up to deliver them, B. C. 1405.

The pesople enjoyed rest for forty years, but returning
to idolatry, they were invaded and oppressed for 18
•years by the king of Moab, aided by the kings of
Ammon and Amalek, and on their repentanqe were de=

/-■

livered by Ehud, who slew the kin^; of Motib, B. C.
1325.

In about 20 years afterwards, the Israelites, having
returned to their idolatry, were invaded and oppressed
by Jabin, king%of Canaan, for 20 years. Ou their re-
pentance, Barak, and Deborah, a prophstcKS, under the
direction of God, assembled an army near Mount Tabor,
on the banks of the stream Kishon, and, on their being
attacked by the army of Jiibin, totally defeated it, B. C.
1285. This victory gave occasion to the celebrated
ode, composed by Deborah.

Another relapse into idolatry brought upon them an
oppressive invasion of the Midianites, who tyrannized
over them for seven years : and, when they repented,
and cried to God for deliverance, Gideon routed the
army of the Midianites, with 300 chosen men, B. C. 1245.

On the death of Grideon, idolatry again began to
appear, and on this occasion the people were chas-
tised by internal warfare. Abimelech, a son of Gideon
by his concubine, slew all the rest of Gideon's chil-
dren, and was proclaimed king by the Shechemiies,
but his adherents afterwards quarrelling, destroyed one
another.

On a subsequent relapse into idolatry, the Philistines
and Ammonites obtained power over the Israelites, and
oppressed them for eighteen years. Jephtha waj?, on
this occasionj raised up to deliver the people, tie de-
feated the children of Ammqn in a battle fought on the
east side of the river Jordan, B. C. 1187. The Ephraim-
ites quarrelled, on this occasion, with him, for not taking
them to the war along with him ; and he intercepted
them at the fords of the Jordan, and slew of them
42,000 men.

About 33 years after this, Eli, the high priest, was
judge ; and during his weak governn^ent the people fell
into their besetting sin. The Philistines then came
upon them, overran the country, and miserably op-
pressed them for forty years. It was during the go-
yernment of Eli that Samson performed his feats of
piraculous strength. At length the Israelites wero

100

roused to resist the Philistines, and the sons of EH
brought the ark out of the tabernacle, for the purpose of
Inspiring the people with courage, and of terrifying the
enemy ; doubtless, also, with some expectation that
Grod would not permit that sacred synlbol of the cove-
nant to be taken by the Philistines. But they were
totally defeated, and the ark taken, B. C. 1116. Eli re.
ceived so great a shock by this event, that he fell back-
wards and died.

Samuel, who had been brought up in the temple with
Eli, then became judge of Israel. He was the last of
the judges. His sons, being entrusted by him with the
government of the kingdom, conducted themselves in
the most profligate manner, so that the people demanded
a king, that thoy might be like the nations around them.
Samuel was directed by God to comply with this de.
mand, and Saul was chosen the first king of Israel. He,
however, proving unfaithful, the Lord rejected him, and
chose David to be khig. This choice came to the ears
of Saul, who from that time pursued David with the
most deadly malignity. At length, Saul and his son
Jonathan, a youn,?; man of the noblest and most amiable
character, were siaiii in haitlc liy tiie Philistines, and
David ascended the thi'one of Judah, B. C 1055, and
became king of all Isi'uel, B. C. 1048.

David was a warlike prince, and subdued the Syrians,
the Philistines, the Moabites, and Edomites, and brought
that whole district of country that lies between the
river Euphrates and the Mediterranean sea under tribute,
A-fter an eventful life, David died, leaving his dominions
to the undisturbed possession of his son Solomon, who
gucceeded him, B. C. 1015,

Palestine. — This country had in the days of Moses
become more densely peopled than it was in the days of
Abraham. It was occupied by several tribes, descended
from the same stock, namely, the family of Canaan, aa tho
Hittites, Hivites, Amorites, and Jebusites, These tribes
had built many strongly fortified cities, and had brought
the ground into general cultivation* The cities on the

101

tea-coast had commenced that commercial career whioh^
for many ages, gave them much influence in the poli«
tioal revolutions, which mark the general history of the
world.

But, in their prosperity, they had cast off all fear of
the God of heaven, and had rushed, with one consent,
into the most debasing idolatry. They occupied that
land which Grod had destined for the seat of his own
people ; and, by the time that the Israelites had become
sufficiently numerous to occupy the country, they were,
by their wickedness, ripe for the fate that awaited them.

They had abundant warning given to them of the^
purpose of God to expel them. After the Israelites had
been separated from the Egyptians by their passage
through the Red Sea, they hung on the borders of
Canaan for about forty years, wandering in a desert, in
which no such body of people could have existed with-
out a miracle. But the Canaanites, so far from taking
warning and retiring from the country, seem to have
been at the more pains to fortify themselves in it ; so
that when they were attacked by Joshua, they seem to
have regarded thtmisclves quite prepared by their for-
tresses, their armaments, and tlieir leagues for mutual
defence, to repel him.

They were, however, subdued, with amazing rapidity,
but not wholly expelled nor extirpated. Considerable
numbers of them remained in the land, and for many
ages greatly harassed the Israelites.

In the time of David these original inhabitants of
the holy land were either extirpated, or thoroughly
subdued. Tlie empire of Jabin, king of Canaan, the
capital of which was Hazor, towards the north of
Palestine, and which rose to its height about 300
years before the time of Solom'on, scorns never to have
recovered the blow that it received from Deborah and
Barak. The Philistines also were tlioroughly and per,
manentjy subdued by David. Of the states on the

coast, Tyre rose to

great

eminence ; and the inhabi-

tants of Tyre became celebrated for their skill in navi..
gation and commerce. Hiram was king of Tyre in
the days of Solomon, and the two monarchs seem tQ

102

have lived on terms of undistured friendship. Hiram
gave Solomon mucii assistance in the building of the
temple, and they sent out fleets together from Ezion-
Geber, on the Red Sea, for commercial purposes. The
places which these fleets visited, are not exactly
Icnown.

The nations immediately surrounding Palestine, as
Syriq, Moab, Amnion, Edoin, and Midian, were, in the
days of Dayid, brought into subjection to his empire.
Moab and Midic^n had, at different times, invaded and
oppressed the Israelites ; but they as well as Eclom, were
subdued by David, and did not dare to molest Solomon.

Of the more distant nations, Mesopotamia at ono
time attained to great power under Cushan-rishathaim.
They invaded, and greatly oppressed Israel, for a time;
|)ut were defeated by Othneil, the son of Caleb.
This seems to indicate, that the kings of those eastern
countries still continued to aim at the extension of
their dpminion towards the westward, as they had done
so early as the days of Abraham.

Of those descendants of Abraham who settled in the
neighbourhood of Palestine, chiefly in what is now the
penmsula of Arabia, the Ishmaelites, Midianites, and
Edomites, had increased and become nations, governed
by kings of their own. The Moabitcs and Ammonites
also had become independent kingdoms. These several
kingdoms formed a kind of cordon of kingdoms of tha
kindred of the Israelites, on the eastern and southern
boundaries of the land that was allotted to them, whose
language was totally different from that of the Canaan>
|tes, and also from that of Egypt.

Egypt. — Egypt was at this time the chief seat of arts
and sciences. If the book of Job was written by Moses,
as is generally believed, astronomy, mineralogy, and
natural history, had been cultivated to a considerable
extent, and the \yritings of Moses manifest the most ppr-
feet simplicity, purity, and sublimity of diction. Much
pf these beauties of composition, doubtless, must be at-
tributed to inspiration. Yet, observing how the natural
gifts, and the acquirements of the apostles of our Lord,

103

were wrought up with inspiration in the compositloi of
their writings, there can be no dou|)t that, \q the know-
ledge which Moses exhibits of a vast variety of subjects,
which were not likely to be communicated by revela-
tion, we have some indication of the advancement of
the Egyptians of that age, in science and art.

Greece. — The kingdom of Athens is supposed to
have been founded about the time of the birth of Moses,
by Cecrops ; and Deucalion's flood, in Thessaly, is sup-
posed to have taken place about the time of the mission
of Moses to Pharaoh. Others think that this flood was
a mere tradition of the universal deluge, and that Deu-
calioft was Noah.

The people, who settled in Greece appear to have

been refugees from many nations ; and isociety among
them seems at this time to have been in its elements.
Their most ancient traditions, chiefly respect marauding
"Expeditions, and the destruction of cities. About 260
years before Solomon, when the Israelites were governed
by Judges, an expedition was undertaken by Jason, in
^ ship called the Argus, having on board 50 followers,
who entered the Euxine sea, and coasted along till they
came to Colchis. Here Jason carried away with him
Medea, the daughter of the king of Colchis. This e:^-
pedition seems to have been very much like what we
might expect to have taken place among the New
Zealanders, or the inhabitants of Tahiti, previously
to the introduction of Christianity among them. About
70 years afterwards, Paris, the son of the king of Troy,
in a similar piratical expedition, carried off Helen, the
wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Menelaus prevailed
on the Grecian states to espouse his cause ; and thi^
gave rise to the celebrated siege of Troy, whicli ended
jn the total destruction of that city. It is supposed to
have been in the time of David, that Cadmus intro-
duced letters into Greece from Phoenicia ; and Homer,
who celebrated the siege of Troy in his poem called
the Iliad, is supposed to have flourished about the time
of Solomon.

104

SEVENTH ERA.

Solomon,

A. M. 3000.— B. C. 1000.

Thf Kingdom of Judah. — Solomon, on his coming to
the kingdom, was in possession of every tiling that could
contribute to the greatness and happiness of a mighty

f)rince. His possession of tlie throne was undisputed —
lis dominions at perfect peace — his government re-
spected by the surrounding nations, and abundance of
wealth flowed into his kingdom through the means of
an extensive commerce. He himself was a master of all
the learning of the age, and possessed much knowledge,
in which the rest of mankind did not participate. He
wrote treatises, which arc not nov/ extant, on plants aila
on animals. He wrote many proverbs, or moral say-
ings, and also many poems, some of which are extant,
having been embodied in the book of inspiration. He
lived in the utmost magnificence, and was energetic and
able as a judge and a statesman. His great work was
the erecting of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem,
which, for many ages, was, as the tabernacle previously
had been, the centre of divine wovsliip.

Arts and sciences must have made considerable
progress in the days of Solomon. The temple, which
he built at Jonisalem, seems to have furnished the
modi'l for tlic most chnsto and simple of the Greek
temples, being, like the Gri ok temples, an oblong
house, divided into nn outer and inner apartment, the
inner the most s;icred ; a portico also, supported by two
pillars, with tlieir bases, shafts, and capitals, and
probably also, with, an entablature and pediment, being
placed in front of tlie principal entrance. This temple
was built of stone, hewn and polished in Mount Le-
banon, the wood part of it also being of timber cut in
that mountain j and the whole materials for the erection
^f the temple were prepared there, brought by sea to

105

Joppa, ani thence conflucted ov ;• tlio niouiitains to
Jerusfilern ; so th;it, when ihoy came to be erected, no
sound of any tool was heard. T'lis, of itself, exhibits
Iiigh udvanccmcint in the incc'aanical uris. In the art of
composition, nothing can (\\C( 1, fji* sublimity and ten-
(lerncss, the Psnlnis of David ; fjr terseness and force,
the Proverbs of Solomon ; or, for beauty and sim-
plicity of narrative, the history of the reigns of David
and Solomon. And this a<lvancement of literature
was not confined to Judea ; Ibr, if Homer flourislied at
this time, the Greek poetry also of tliat age still coni,
mands the admiration of tho world, for its combined
simplicity, sublimity and elegance. Navigation also, and

commerce, were cultivated to a great extent.

Some

have supposed, that the combined fl^ ets of Solomon and
Hiram even went round the peninsula of Africa, passing
down the Red Sea, doubling the Cape, now called the
Cupe of Good Hope, and returnii^g by the Mediter-
raiiean. Although none of the woiks of Solomon,
expressly on natural history, are extant ; yet from the
allusions made by him, and by David his father, to
natural objects, much accurate knowledge, it is obvious,
must have been collected on these subjects.

The Jewish monarchy reached its highest elevation
in the reign of Solomon, and it immediately began to
decline. The promise made to Abraham, that a seed
should be raised up to him, which should reign from
the river Euphrates to the shores of the Mediterranean
sea, was literally fulfilled. But no sooner had the nation
attained this elevation, than it began to decline. Solo-
men himself, enticed by idolatrous wives, the daiigh-
ters of the neighbouring princes, fell into idolatry.
The Ephraimitcs, a powerful tribe, never seem to
have been thoroughly reconciled to the reign of the
house of David, which was of th(* tribe of Judah ; and
on tho succession of Rchoboam, the son of Solomon,
a demand was made for some relaxation in tho irovern-
ment. This demand was answered roughly b}'' Rcho-
beam, and instantly ten of the twelve tribes revolted,
under the auspices of Jeroboam. Thus the Israelites
were divided into two kingdoms .; tlie one, consisting of

106

ten tribes, called the kingdom of Israel ; tho other, potv
sisting of tho tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with tho
JiCyites, called the kingdom of Judah. The conse<
quence of this division was an almost Qontinual rivalship
and wafare between the two kingdoms.

Rehohoam was the first monarch of the kingdom of
Judah, as distinguished from that of Israel. He was a
weak prince, and in his rclgn Shishach, (supposed to bq
the same with Sesostris,) king of Egypt, lAvaded hlsf
kingdom, and plundered Jerusalem and the temple.
He reigned 17 years.

Abi/jah succeeded him, and reigned three years. In
his reign, a battle was fouglit between him and Jero-
beam, king of Israel, in which the latter was defeated
with the loss of 500,000 men.

Asa succeeded Abijnh, and reign od 41 years. He
was, on the whole, a good prince. \a his reign the
Ethiopians, or Cushites, a people occupying the south-
ern parts of Arabia, cume up against his kingdom,
with an immense army. Asa coiumittcd himself and
his people to God, and then going out against the
Ethiopians, totally defeated them. After this, Baaslia,
king of Israel, came up against him, aiid began to build
a fortress at Riimah, on tlie borders of his kingdom.
Asa, instead of again betaking himself to God, Ijired
Benhadad, lying of Syria, to send an army against
Israel. This expedient succeeded for the time • the
army of Israel withdrew, mid the fortress was levelled
to the ground. But God was displeased with him, and
sent a prophet to rebuke him ; on which he was angry,
and put the prophet in prison. Soon after he became
diseased in his feet. In his disease, he sought not to
God, but to the physicians, and died of his disease.
To Asa succeeded —

Jehoshaphat, his son, who reigned 25 years. Je-
hoshaphat adopted vigorous measures for purging the
land from idolatry, and for instructing the people.
Towards the beginning of his reign, Elijah the prophet
wa9 raised up to contend against the progress of idola*
try and wickedness in Israel. Jehoshaphat joined

107

Ahab> the wicked king of Israel, in ah enterprise
against Raoioth Gilead, whicli was in possession of tlie
Syrians. In this enterprise, Ahab was killed, and Je-
hoshaphat escaped to his own kingdom. Jehoshaphat
engaged in another military expedition along with
Jehorami now king of Israel, against the Moabites J
and the two kings, after being in imminent danger of
losing their armies and their lives from wimt of water,
were, by applying to Elisha the prophet for directions,
not only delivered, but enabled ,to defeat the Moabites;
Jehoi^haphat died in 889, B. C, and was succeeded by
his son —

Jehoram.-^This prince had married Athaliah, daugh-
ter of Ahab and Jezebel. On his accession, he mur-
dered his brethren and introduced idolatry into his
kingdom. Another Jehoram, son of Ahab, was, at the^
same time, king of Israel. In this reign the Edomites
revolted from under the dominion of Judah, and never
were again subdued. Jehoram was warned, by a letter
from the prophet Elijah, of the judgments of God about
to fall upon hipi ; but in vain. God then brought the
Philistines and Arabians against him, who broke into
Judah; plundered the king's house, and took away his
wives and hid ^ons, so that he had rio sdti left him but
Jehoahaz and Ahaziah.* Still remaining incorrigible,
he was smitterf with violent disease, and died miserably,
in the 8th year of his reign, B. G. 885:

Ahaxiahf .his younger sSftn, succeeded him. He was
the son of Athaliahj the daughter of Ahab, who seems
to have been absent when the Philistines pame and
took away the other wives and children of Jehoram.
Under the advice of his mother, he followed the ex-
ample of the house of Ahab in all manner of wicked,
ness. Having entered into an alliance with Jorara,
king of Israel, to make war upon Hazael, king of Syria,
Joram was wounded, and Ahaziah went down to

* Ahaziah and Jehoahaz are Bubstantialfy the same name, the
Hebrei^ letlen being the same, but transposed. Azariah wai
another name by which he was known.

108

Jczreel to visit him. There he wns Involved in ono
common destruction with Jornm. Joliu, wlio had risen
up against his master, finding tlie two kin^fs together,
slew them both, B. C. 884.

Athaliah, his detestable mother, then murdered all
his children, with tl»e exception of Joash, who was saved
by Jehoshabeah, a daughter of King Jehoram, the
father of Ahazioh ond husband of Athaliah. Jehosha<
beah, wlio had been married to Jelioiada, the priest,
concealed Joash in the temple till he M'as seven years
old, during which time Athalial), the queen mother,
reigned over Judah. But, in the seventh year, Jehoiada
brought forward joash to the people, who received hira
with joy, and Athaliah was put to death.

Joash thus began his reign, in the 7th year of his age,
and reigned 40 years. Ho acted well during the life
of Jehoiada the priest. He repaired the temple, and
renewed the worship of. God, which had been sus-
pended under the influence of Athaliah and her sons.
On the death of Jehoiada the priest, Joash, listening
to the suggestions of the princes of Judah, left the
house of God and worshipped idols. Prophets were
sent to remonstrate with him ; but in vain. Among
these prophets was Zacharias, the son of the venerable
Jehoiada, to whom he owed his life and his kingdom.
He stood forward, and declared to the people, that, as
they had forsaken the Lord, so he had forsaken them ;
on which Josiah was so incensed, that he commanded
him to be stoned to death, which barbarous command
was executed in the court of the temple. Zacharias,
when he was dying, said, " the Lord will look on it and
require il ;" and, accordingly, before the end of the
year, the Syrians came up, destroyed all the princes,
and left Joash himself dangerously ill, probably from
wounds which he had received. When he was in this
helpless condition, two of his own servants, an Ammo-
nite and a Moabite, conspired against him, and murdered
him on the bed on which he lay.

Amaziah succeeded Joash, and reigned 29 years.
Amaziah raised a great army to make war on the

100

lldomttes, and recover them to his kingdom. In thif
irmy he had embodied 100,000 men of the king-
dom of Israel, whom he had hired for 100 talents of
silver. But a prophet remonstrating with him on the
sin and danger of accepting the assistance of a people
whom God had forsaken, he sent back the Israelites to
their own country. Amaziah then went on his expe-
dition against the Edomites, defeated them, and treated
them with great cruelty, as rebels. On his return,
however, he brought their idols with him, and set them
up and worshipped them. In the mean while, the
troops thai ho had hired from Israel, enraged at being
dismissed, came up when he was absent in Edom, ana
committed great ravages in Judah. This induced
Amaziah to challenge the' king of Israel to meet hiin
in battle, and the challenge being accepted, a battle
was fought, in which Amaziah was defeated, and taken
prisoner. The king of Israel then brought him back
to Jerusalem, h-roke down 400 cubits of the wall of the
city, seized all the gold and silver that he found, and
taking hostages with him, returned to Samaria. Afler
this a conspiracy was formed against Amaziah, on which
he fled to Lachish ; but was overtaken and slain there,
B. C. 810. To Amaziah succeeded his son —

Uzziah, in the 16th year of his age, who reigned 52
years. He was a warlike prince, and seems to have
reduced war more to system than it ever had been
before. He had a standing army of 307,500 men,
well arrtied by himself, that went out to war by bands,
according to an enrolment made of them. He fortified
the city, and placed engines upon the walls to hurl
darts and great stones upon any assailants. He at-
tacked the Philistines and dismantled their principal
fortified cities. He also succeeded in an expedition
against the Arabians, and brought the Ammonites under
tribute, and became celebrated for his military talents
and success.

But Uzziah's prosperity proved his destruction. He
became proud and self-willed, and insisted on entering
into the temple to burn incense according to the custom
of the monarehs of other countries, but in direct opposi-

-: 110

lltdfa to the law of God. He was resolutely withstood by
a body of priests ; and, becoming angry, he was struck
with leprosy, and instantly hurried out of the temple to
retire to a separate house, in which he lived till his
death, B. C. 758.

Joiham, his son, succeeded him, and reigned well for
16 years. He followed up the defensive preparations
begun by his father, by erecting forts and fortified cities
in the mountains of Judah. He defeated the Am-
monites, and brought them under tribute. On his death,
B. C. 742—

Ahazt one. of the most profligate princes that evei
reigned in Judah, succeeded, and reigned 16 years.
He rah headlong into idolatry, with ^I its accompa-
nying abominations. His dominions were invaded by
the king of Syria, who topic away a multitude of cap.
tives to ' Damascus. Afterwards Pekah, who had
usurped the throne of Israel, defeated him with immense
loss; 120,000 men being killed and 200,000 taken
prisoners. The prisoners were conducted to Samaria,
where it was proposed to make them slaves ; but on the
remonstrance of the prophet Oded, they were not only
set at liberty, but clothed, treated kindly, and sent back
to Judah.

After this, Aha:^ being distressed by incursions of
the Edomites on one side, and Philistines on the other,
and also threatened by the king of Syria, applied for
help to Tiglathpileser, king of Assyria. This was
readily given, as Tiglathpileser, was now meditating
conquest, and he grasped at the opportunity of inter-
meddling with the western kingdoms of Asia. He
invaded Syria, took Damascus, and killed Rezin the
king: J&ut he only harassed Ahaz by exacting gold
and silver for his army. Ahaz stripped the temple and
the palace of their gold and silver to pay the demand
made tDn him. He even took the vessels out of the
temple, shut it up, suspended the worship of God, and
raised idolatrous altars in every corner of Jerusalem.
At length, after a mischievous and disastrous reign of
16 years, he died, B. C. 726.

. Ill

Ihxckiah, LAs sor^ succeeded him, and reigned 20
years. Ho was an exemplary prince. He restored the
worship of God, and made strenuous efforts to reform
his kingdom. In his reign Samaria was taken by ShaU
rnaneser, king of Assyria, and Hczekiaii endeavoure4
to collect the remnant of the people, and bring them up
to Jerusalem, there to worship God in his appointed
way. Afterwards Sennacherib, who had succeeded to
the throne of Assyria, came up against him with an
overpowering army, demanding unconditional submis-
sion. Hezekiah having laid the matter before the Lord,
the whole army of Sennacherib died in one night.
Sennacherib fled, and was afterwards murdered by his
own sons.

; and sent back

We shall here pause in the history of the kingdom of
Judah, and look back to the history of other countries
during the same period. One reason for this pause isj
that several of the great eras in the history of the most
famous nations of antiquity, belong to this century^
and several of the most important, to the time of
Hezekiah. Thus, the era of the building of the city
of Rome, A. U. C. was the year B. C. 753. The era of
Nabonassarj or rise of the Babylonian empire^ was B. C.
747. The dissolution of the kingdom of Israel was
B. C. 721. The first Olympiad, from which the Greeks.,
were accustomed to compute their history, was a littliB
earlier in this century, namely, 776 B. C. and the found-
ing of the kingdom of Lydia still earlier, namely, B. C,
797. Besides these more remarkable eras, it may ho^
noticsd, that the first Messonian war was begun bjr
Sparta, when Hezekiah was about geven years old, B. C,
743. To all this, it may be added, that about the
close of the preceding century, the kingdom of Media,
and also that of Macedonin, were foundt^d ; the former,'
B. C. 820, the latter, B. C. 814. The young student of
history, therefore, should fix in his memory the eighth-
century B. C. as that in which the great kingdoms of
antiquity began to be organized, and to lay the founda-
tion of their iiitwj'e cminor?r>."

112

Israel. — Wo havo already observed, that ten of tho
twelve tribes of which the whole nation of the Hebrews
consisted, revolted at the cniTim':)ncornent of the reign of
Rehoboatn, son of Solomon, fi'oin the fiunily of David,
and elected Jeroboam thoii" king.

Jerohoam, finding liiin.self olovaLol to the sovereign
power over the larger pro|)')rtion of the nation, began
to f'iir that his newly acquir..;d subjects miglit, if they
went up to JorusiilfMn to woriliip at the temple, be
induced to return to their allegiance to the family of
David, and therefore erected two idols, one in Bethel,
and the otiier in Dan. Before these idblis he com-
manded the people to assombie, instead of going up to
Jerusalem. This was tlie introduction of a corruption
into that kingdom, from wliich it never recovered. He
was in coi^tinual warfare with the Kingdom of Judah,
and suffered that defeat from Abijah, which has already
been mentioned. He reigned 22 years, and rfied to»
wards the beginning of the reign of Asa, king of Judah.
He was sjccoedcd by his son—

Nadab. Baasha conspired against Nadab, and mur.
do rod hiin.

Baasha then usurped the kingdom, destroyed the
whole family of Joroboam, and reigned 24 years.
There was a war between him and Asa all his life, and
his kingdom was invaded at the instigation of Asa, by
Benhadad, king of Syria. B:*asha dying, was succeeded
by- _ .: . _ -^^

Elah, w}) ) reigned two years, when his servant^
Zimri, conspired against him, and killed him,

Z/'wjn succeeded him, but reigned only seven days;
for the people did not approve of him, and called Omri,
commander of tlie army to the kingdom. Zimri, how-
ever, in his short reign, destroyed the whole family of
Baasha. Then, Oniri came against him to Tirzah,
and he, seeing no hope of success or of escape, retired
to the palace, set it on fire, and perished in it.

Omri succeeded ; but lie had a rival, called Tibni,
who was followed by half of the people. Omri's party,
however, prevailed; so Tibni died, and Omri reigned

113

iab, and muF-

j his servant,

alone. Little im recorded of Omri, but his wickednyei^
In his reign, Suinaria was built, which afterwards be.
caine tho capital of the kingdom. He reigned 13
years, and diod towards the latter end of the reign of
Asa, king of Judah, leaving his crown to his son.

Aliab. — This prince is still more distinguished than
his father, for his audacious wickedness. He married sL
heathen woman, Jezebel, daughter of the king of
Zidon. He then set up the worship of Baal openly,
in Samaria. It was to stem the flood of iniquity let in
upon the nation by this wicked prince and his queen,
that the prophet Elijah was raised up; — but nothing
could arrest them in their career of wickedness. His
kingdom was inVaded by Bcnhadad, who still reigned,
at Damascus, over Syria, and who seems to have sub-i
ducd the neighbouring tribes, for he had thirty-twol
kings with him in his army. Ahab, under the directioii
of a prophet, was enabled to defeat this host. Next
year the Syrians returned, and were again totalljF
routed, and Benhadad forced to sue for mercy.

Ahab and his wife Jezebel, in their career of wicked.
ncss, persecuted the prophets of God, and established
prophets of Baal in their stead. Ahab wished to pui*-
ciiase the vineyard of Naboth, one of his subjects.
Naboth refused to sell it, because it was the inheritance
of his father. Jezebel then contrived the murder of
Naboth, which was executed, and Ahab took possession
of his vineyard. For this Elijah denounced on him,
his wife, and his kingdom, the terrible judgments of
God. Ahab, after this, persuaded Jehoshaphat, king
of Judah, to join him in a war against the Syrians, and
was slain in battle, B. C. 897, haying reigned 22 years.

Ahaziah, who had been associated with his father
in the throne for some time before his death, lioW
succeeded to the entire government of Israel, and
reigned two years. His death was occasioned by a fall
from a lattice in the upper part of his house. He \lra»
succeeded by —

Jehoram. lie came to the throne, during the reignf
of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, who had a son named^

10*

114

lehoram associated with him In the kingdom. The
king of Moab having, on the death of Ahab, withheld
a certain tribute which he was accustomed to pay to
the kings of Israel, Jehoram invited Jehoshaj)hat, king
of Judah, to assist him in subduing the king of Moab.
Jehoshaphat consented ; and the two kings had well
nigh perished with their armies by want of water, but
were delivei'ed, as has been noticed under the reign of
Jehoshaphat. The king of Moab, in his extremity, offer-
cd up his eldest son as a sacrifice, to obtain deliverance
from his God. It was to Jehoram that the king of
' Syria sent Naaman, the commander of his army, with
an insolent letter to be cured of his leprosy. After
this, he went to war with Hazael, king of Syria, and
was wounded. He retired to Jezrcel to be cured of
his wounds ; and while he lay there, Jehu, one of the
commanders of his army, formed a conspiracy against
him, and put him to death. Ahaziah, king of Judah,
was slain at the same time.

Jehu succeeded, and reigned 28 years. He put to
death Jezebel, and the wliole family of Ahab,, and
massacred all the priests of Baal ; but he himself con-'
tinned to worship the idols which Jeroboam had set up.
In his reign, Hazael king of Syria, encroached upon
the territory of Israel, taking possession of that part of
it which lay to the east of the river Jordan. On the
death of Jehu,

Jehoahaz, his son, succeeded him, and reigned 17
years. The Israelites persisting in their idolatry,
Hazael, king of Syria, was permitted to invade the
land, and to succeed in oppressing it during the whole
reign of Jehoahaz. This prince dying, was succeed-
ed by

Joashy or Jehoash, his son, while Joash, the son of
Ahaziah, reigned in Judah. He reigned 16 years;
and, though he persevered in the hereditary idolatry of
the kingdom, yet manifesting respect and attachment to
Elijah the prophet, God gave him three victories over
the Syrians, and enabled him to recover the cities
which had fallen into their hands. Joash also defeated

115

Aniaziah, king of Jiidah, and broke down part of the
wall of Jerusalem, as has already been noticed under
the reign of that prince. Joash died, and was suc-
ceeded by

Jeroboam, the second of that name. He reigned 41
years in Samaria. In this reign, the Israelites were
still further secured from the oppression of tiie Syrians,
and even obtained possession of Damascus and Hamatli,
which David had subdued. He died 784 B. C. upon
which followed an interregnum of eleven years.

Jonah the prophet lived during his reign. Jeroboam
was succeeded by

Zacliariahy his son, who reigned wickedly six months.

Shallum conspired against him, and slew him, and
usurped the throne, but reigned only one month, for

Menahem attacked him and slew him, and reigned
ten years over Israel. His reign was, like those of tho
other kings of Israel, idolatrous, and wicked. Tho
Assyrian kings, who had hitherto boen restrained from
intermeddling with Israel and Juduh, now began to
harass Menahem ; and he, to purchase peace, gave to
Pul, king of Assyria, 1000 talents of silver, equal to
about £340,000. ' Menahem having died,

Pckahiah succeeded, and reigned ill two yeiars.

Pekq,h, the son of Remaliah, an officer in his army,
conspired against him, put him to death, usurped his
throne B. C. 759, and reigned twenty years. PektUi
made a league with Rezin, king of Assyria, against
Judah ; but it did not succeed. He invaded Judah in
the reign of Ahaz, and gained tliat great victory which
has already been noticed. In his roign, Tiglathpileser
invaded Israel, and took posse^ssion of the country east-
' ward of Jordan.

Hoshcq, formed a conspiracy against Pekah, put him
to death, and usurped the throne B. C. 730, in tlio
reign of Ahaz, king of Judah. Iloshea reigned wick-
edly, like the other kings of Israel. His dominions
were invaded by Shalmancsor, king of Assyria. Hosea
submitted to him, and paid him tribute ; but after
>vards Shalmaneser discovering that Hosliea was giving

116

himself into the hands of So, king of Egypt, and with,
holding tribute from him, went up and besieged
Samaria, took it, and carried the people captive to his
QY^n land, and thus put on end to the monarchy of
Israel, in the year 721, B. C. after it had continued
from the reign of Jeroboam I. 254 years.

We now bring down the accounts of the heathen
nations to the time cf Hezekiah.

Of the original inhabitants of Palestine, tlie
inhabitants of Tysk, wliom wo found advanced in
civilization, skilful in muvltiine alfairs and commerce,
still continued to rise in riches and power. The
Philistines also continued to bo an independent
people. In the reign of Jfirnni, king of Juduh, B. C.
888, theyi made an inroad into Judah, and carried
away the wives and sons of Joram. Tiiey were, how-
ever, rapidly falling under permanent subjection to the
great monarchies that were rising up around them.

Similar observations are equally npplicable- to the
other small states around Judah. The Moabites and
Edomites, at an early period of the nintli century,
B. C. threw off the yoke of the Jews, by whom they
were never again subdued. The Edomites, or Idu-
means, elected a king, and were afterwards governed
by their own kings.

Of Egypt, little is known, from the time that elapsed
between the departure of the Israelites out of it till
Solomon. In the days of Solomon it was still a great
kingdom and seems to have carried on a considerable
trade ; for it is recorded, that Solomon imported, from
Egypt, horses and chariots, and linen yarn, not only
for himself, but for the kings of the Hittites, and for
the kings of Syria. And soon after the days of
Solomon, we find Egypt performing a distinguished
part in the history of the world. In tlie reign of
Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, Shishach, supposed
by some to be Sesostris, invaded Judah, laid it
under tribute, and carried away the shields of gold

117

>. ich Solomon had made, and jilso much treasure,
I'». C 971. At a latrr period, during the roign of
Jlrzckiah, Sabacus, or So, an Kthiopian, was king of
Egypt, B. C. 725. He ench-uvourod to persuade
Hoshea, king of Israel, to forsake his alliance with the
king of Assyria., nnd enter into an alliance with himvself.
This indicates that Egypt, in the d;iys of Hezekiab,
was attempting to rival the power and influonce of the
Assyrian king.

Syria, towards tlie middle and end of the first
century after the age of Solomon, was making con-
quests. Benhadad, king of Syria, or Damascus, re-
peatedly invaded laracl, hut was ultimately defeated by
Ahab. Afterwards, r( covering himself, Benhadad in-
vaded Israel and bcsi(>gi d Samaria ; but Ids army fled
in a panic, which God sent upon thiin. In a subse-
quent war, Ahab was slain by him iii battle. In the
same year, 885 B. C. Ilazael, a servant of Benhadad,
murdered hit=n, usurped tlie tlirone, and raised Syria to
the greatest height of power which it ever reached,
lie invaded Israel in the reign of Jehu, defeated him.
arid ravaged the kingdom. He afterwards invader.
Judah, but was induced by presents, to withdraw Ids
fliwy. He, however, returned, and in the reign of
Jehoash, sacked Jerusfdem, putting to death the p'-in-
ees, and canying oil" much plunder. Hazael died in
839 B. C. leaving the kingdom to his son Benhadad,
who was the third king of that name. He was de-
f.-ated by Jehoash king of Israel, and his kingdom
again brought under tribute. At a later period, in
the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, of Pekah, tiie son
of Remaliah, king of Israel, and of Rezin, its own king,
Syria, was attacked by Tiglathpileser, king of Assyria,
and brought into a bondage from which it iias never
»" covered till the present day. ■ , -

Assyria was now iiidulging ambitious projects.
Pul, apparently the first who rendered Nineveh th^
mistress of an extensive empire, brought Israel undei*

Tig.

tribute in the roigh of Mcnahom, B. C. 771.
Jiithpilcscr, who succeeded Pul, reigned 19 years at
Kineveh, invaded and conquered Syria, and exacted
tribute from Judnh. After him Slutlmaneser, in the
reign of Hoshca, invade d Israel, tooli Samaria, and put
nn end to that monarchy, B. C. 721. He also made
war upon Tyre, ond besieged it five years, without
success. Scnnacliorib succeeded Slialmaneser, and in-
vaded Judah in the reign of Ilczekiah, and took several
towns, lie was pncificd for a time by the payment of
a tribute, and went rgainst Egypt. He, however, re-
turned to besiege Jerusnlem ; but. Ilezekiah, having
jaid his letter and his blasphemy before the Lord, in
prayer, the wliole of his army were destroyed in one
night. He himself fled lo Nineveh, and was there
purdered by two of his sons.
■ { ■■ ■ '

Babylon, having hitherto been dependent on Nine-
veh or Assyria, became an independent state, a short
time before the reign of Hi zckiah. Nabotiassar, from
whom the rise of the Babylonian or Chaldean monar-
chy is dated came to the throne, B. C. 747, which
year is called the era of Nabonassar. Merodach Ba-
ladan, one of his successors, was he who sent the in-
sidious message to Hezcklah, for the purpose of ascer-
taining the state of his kingdom.

Media, also, had sometime before this, thrown ofl'
the yoke of Assyria, and become an independent king,
dom under Arbaces, who reigned over it 28 years.
^he reigns of this prince and his successors, however,
for upwards of a century, are by many considered as
little better than fabulous ; and the rise of the Median
monarchy is dated from B. C. 700, during the life of
Hezekiah, when Dejoces was elected king.

In Greece, Lycurgus, while Athaliah was in pos-
session of the throne in Jerusalem, B. C. 884, intro-
duced his system of laws into Lacedaemon, And in
he reign of Hezekiah, the Spartans were engagecl in

their first ferocious and deadly struggle to enslave th#
Messenians, having begun it B. C. 743.

During the reign of Joash, king of Judah,- and
while Jehoiada the priest was yet living, B. C. 869,
Ci.RTHA6E^ is said to have been founded by Elisa
or Dido, sister of the king of Tyre ; she having, m
consequence of the murder of her husband, fled to
Africa.

In Italy, Rome was built by Romulus, B. C. 753,
which year is the era of the building of that city,
marked by the Initials, A. U. C. Anno Urhis Conditce.
This was in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah. In
Hezekiah's ' reign, the infant city was yet engaged in
its contests with the neighbouring states. The rape of
the Sabine virgins was in 750 B. C.

FROM HEZEKIAH TO EZRA.

The Kingdom of Judah. — On the death of Hezckiah|
he was succeeded by his son,

Mana,sseh. — The beginning of the reign of Manasseh
was marked by extraordihary wickedness. He entered,
with his whole heart, into the practices of the heathen ;
built idolatrous altars in the courts of the temple ;
made his children pass through the fire in honour of
Moloch; used enchantments; dealt with a familiar
spirit, and made the streets of Jerusalem flow with
innocent blood. His subjects seem to have entered
with him heartily into all the wickedness ; so that
the Lord finally denounced upon his kingdom that
doom, which about half a century afterwards was
executed.

Manasseh was visited with severe chastisement.
The king of Assyria sent an army, which took him
prisoner, and brought him to Babylon in fetters.
There, in his affliction, he remembered the Lord Go4

120

of his fathers, repented of his sin, and besought tlie
Lord to pardon him ; and the Lord heard him, and
restored him to his itingdom. He then set himself to
qndo, as far as possible, the miscliief that he had done
in the former part of his reign ; but the pacple do not
seem to have entered so heartily with him into his
measures of reformation, as they did into his apostacy.
Although he himself was pardoned, the sentence against
the nation still remained unrepealed. He died, after
a reign of 55 years, B. C. 643. ,He was succeeded by
his son,

Afnon. — He followed the wicked example of the early
part of his father's reign ; but did not follow him in his
repentance. After a reign of two years, his servants
yfConspired against him, and murdered him. The people
resented this conspiracy, put to death the pons^irators,
and raised tp the throne his son,

Josiah, in the eighth year of his age. His character
is one of the most beautiful m the whole sacred
volume and his efforts to reform the nation were the
last that were made to retrieve the downward course
of the kingdom. It Avas in the eighth year of-his reign,
or the 16th of his age, that he began seriously to
?eek the Lord God of his flithers ; and in the 20th
year of his age, he had begun his measures for purging
his kingdom from the gross and open wickedness that
had overrun it. Having banished idolatry from the
land, he revived the worship of the God of Heaven in
the temple at Jerusalem. In the course of purifying
the temple, the book of the law was fbunH, which
seems to have been concealed from him bj- a sycophant
priesthood ; and, when he read the commands of tlie
law, and the denunciations annexed to them, he was in
deep distress, and sent immediately to inquire of th.e
Lord respecting the book. The reply justified his
apprehensions, that destruction was hanging over his
kingdom ; which, however, he was informed, sliould not
come upon it in his day. The poopJe, although to a
certain extent, externally rcfjrmed, retained all their
predilection for idolatry, which accordingly broke out
4new on the removal of .Tosiah.

12X

The occasion of liiii death wtis this. Pharaoh Necho,
who reigned in Egypt, waa a powerrul monarch ; and
Babylonia, having fallen under tho government of a bold
ambitions prince, these two moiiarchs were soon in-
volved in war with one another, Pharaoh seems to
have been the assaihuit, for he led his army as far as
the Euphrates, to bf\sicge Cnrchemish. Having in his
march to pass near to Jivlah, Josiah went out to inter-
cept i)im, and M'ould not be dissuadf.d from thus em-
broiling himself in the quarrel. The result was, that
in a battle botween the arn>y of Egypt and that of
Judah, Josiah was kilh il, ufler having reigned 31
years.

^rsmodiatoly on lii.s death, the people raised his
younger son Ska//ui/i, or JcJioahaz, to the throne ; but
the king of Egypt, having, by iiis victory, acquired an
ascendancy over the kingdom of Judah, set aside .j"
election, carried Jeiioahiiz to Egypt, and placed tj
elder brother Eliakim, whose nuine he changed^
Jehoiakim, on the throne. He then proceeded on his
expedition against Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon,
but was defeated. Nebuchadnezzar, thus obtaining the
ascendancy in Judah, d.'posed Jehoiakim, and put him
in fetters, for the purpose of carrying him to Babylon ;
Dut on his promising to hold the kingdom under him,
he restored him to it. It was at this time that Daniel
and his three friends, Shadruch, Mcshiicii, and Abed-
nego, were carried captives to Babylon ; and it is from
this first incursion of Nebuchadnezzar into Judah, that
the 70 years' captivity of the Jews, to the first decree
for their restoration, are computed.

Jehoiakim, having mainta;acd his allegiance to
Nebuchadnezzar for three years, at the end of that
time revolted. The consequence was, that Nebuchad-
nezzar sent an army against him, which hiid waste
the country, took Jehoiakim prisoner, and put him
to death in the year B. C. 599. On the death of
Jehoiakim —

Jelioiachin, (named also Ccniiah and Jeconiah,) his
eon, ascended the throne ; but not having obtained the
QQi^sent of Nebuchadnezzar, he. after reigning thro*

122

months, was set aside, and carried to Babylon. Along
fWith him, Ihoro were taken nil the gold and silver
"Vessels, and treastiros of the tempi'*, also all tho able
fnen, and men of influence in Jerusalem, to the nuni-
|)er of 10,000, and 8,000 artiilcors from the country ;
ihe poorest of tho people only being left. It was in
this captivity, that Mordecni and Ezekiel were taken ;
iind Ezekiel reckons tho tiniR, in his prophecy, from
this captivity, which took place in the reign of
Jfehoiachin.
• Zedekfah, brothei' of the fijrmer king, Jchoiakim,
was theii placed on the throne by Nebuchadnezzar.
Meanwhile, tho king of Egyj»t bore, with impatience,
the increasing power of Babylon, and watched for an
opportunity of curtailing it. In the 8th year of tho
reign of Zedekiah, ho made a feeble elTort to revive tho
power and , influence of his kingdom, and persuaded
Zedekiah to break faith with Nebuchadnezzar, and join
in alliance with Egypt to resist him. On the revolt
of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar camn against him ^ and,
having laid waste the country, besieged Jerusalem. Tho
king of Egypt came up for tho purpose of relieving
the city. Nebuchadnezzar raised the siege, and
marched against him ; but he retreated within his
own territory, leaving Jerusalem to its fate. Nebuchad-
nezzar then returned to the siege. The city was
exceedingly strong, and well calculated, from its position
tind fortifications, to resist the implements of warfare
then in use, so that Nebuchadnezzar had no resource
but to reduce it by famine. He surmunded tho city
with his army, to prevent all ingress or egress, and,
After holding this position for about two years and a
half, the distress within tlie city was so great, that the
people were devouring one another, ana women were
discovered cooking and eating their own infants. Al
length Zedekiah made an attempt to pass through the
Chaldean army, but was discovered, overtaken, and
brought to Nebuchadnezzar, who treated him . as a
febel, made his children be put to death before hia
eyes, and then caused his eyes to be put out- In the
inean while the Chaldean army burst into the city

123

made a dreadful ctiruuge uiiiuii;^ the |> 'oplo, buracd the
temple and all the principnl edUicf s, iiuil umdo slaves of
all whom tliey did not put to the awun'. Zudckiah was
curried to Babylon, wluro he died. ' 'Ims was dissolved
the kingdom of Juduh, in the your B. C. 588 ; and it is
from this captivity that iho 70 years aro to bo reckoned
to the decree of Darius Ilystu.'r.pe.s, king of Persia, to
restore tho city and tenii)le.

DA'oYL.ON.-r-Tho era of Nabonassar, who may bo
considered tho first king of B;il)vlon, has bot^n de-
termined to correspond to tho year B. 0. 747, or three
years after the birth of Hezokiali. For somo time,
Ihe history is obscure, tho kings of Assyria and
Babylon sometimes scemiuij to bo the same, and some-
times dillercnt. Tho general current of the history
seems to have been, that tho kings of Babylon were
at first govcnors for the kings of Assyria ; but that,
ufler various struggles, they rendered tliomselves indo-
j)endent. To Nabonassar succeeded several kings,
little or nothing of whom is known, and whoso names
it is not necessary hero to record. After the death of
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, who Invadi^ Judah in
the reign of Ilczekiah, Assarharddon, t^ucceeded him ;
and, during the latter part of his reign, had Babylon, as
well as Nineveh, under his dominion, lie came to tho
throne during the reign of Hezekiah, and died in that
ofManasseh. lie was succeeded by

Saoadiichinus, of whom nothing is known. It was
probably in his reign that Manasseh was restored to hia
kingdom. To him succeeded

Chyniladan, who is supposed, on good grounds, to havo
been the Nabuchadonosor of the book of Judith. If so,
he occupied Palestine with his army, prob-ably during
the reign of Josiah, when tliat prince was yet too young
to resist him. To Chyniladan succeeded

Sarac, or Sardanapalus, — lie committed his forces
in Chaldea to Nabopolassar, who rebelled against him ;
and, to strengthen his rebellion, invited the Modes, who
had always borne the sway of the Assyrian empire
^yith impatience, to uaite wi''^ ^Mm. They did so.

124

and the two armies besieged Nineveii. Sardanapalus,
dreading the calamities that seemed to be coming upon
him, retired to his palace with his wives, and, having
set it on fire, was there destroyed, with his whole family
and property. The allied army of Medes and Babylo-
nians, some time afterwards, took Ninuveh, and destroyed
it. Nobopolnssar associated his son, Nebuchadnezzar,
with him on the throjie, two years before he died ; and,
on his death, was suc<^eeded by

Nebuchadnezzar, when Jehoiakim was on the throne
of Judah. His troutment of the Jews has already been
noticed. Under him the Babylonian empire, or the
first of the four great monai'chies; d(iscribcd in the pro-
phecies of Danic-l, readied its greatest lieight. Having
established his government in the cast, he attacked
Pharaoh Necho, and drove him within the boundaries
of his own kingdom. He then set himself to strengthen
and ornament the city of Babylon. He enclosed an
immense space of ground witiiin an enormous wall,
and erected hanging gardens, or gardens on elevated
terraces, which have been the wonder of the world.
He seems to have rcpaii'cd the tower of Babel, and
fitted it to be a leiapie iur jiis god ; und there probably
he set up that golden initige Vv'iiich the tin'ee Hebrew
captives refused to worship. While these events were
passing in Babylon, the nations to the west of the
Euphrates were seeking an opportunity to revolt
against him. I'he leading pov, ers in tins confederacy
seem to have been Tyie and Egypt. Tyre had then
become the greatest conunercial city in tlic world, and
possessed the greatest nmritinie power then known.
Nebuchadnezzar laid sie^re to Tvre, f)ut met with a
most resolute and forinidabie cnfMuy. For 13 years ho
carried on his operations against it, till the Tyrians,
eeeing that they were not-^iktdy to bo able to holdout
much longer, l)!jiit o city on an island, a lilLlo way from
the shore. Thither they removed all their wealth, aud
left to Nebuchadnezzar merely the walls and empty
houses of the old city. Having thus done what ho
ould towards chastising Tyre, he turned his army
against Egypt, speedily overran it, laid it desolate, au(i

125

loftded himseir with its booty He then returned to
Habylon, where becoming intoxicuted with pride and
vanity, he was struck with insanity, and, for a time, set
aside from governing tlie kingdom. Ho was, however,
restored, resumed tiie reins of government ; and then
he proclaimed to all his subjects the character of the
one living and true God. Al'ter his restoration he liveel
but one year, and concluded an eventful reign of 43
years by dying, B. C. 5G7.

Evil Merodach succeeded him ; a weak prince of
profligate habits. Ho is supposed to have wantonly
invaded Media, and laid the foundation of that hostility
between the Medes and Babylonians, which proved
the destruction of his kingdom. His relatives conspired
against him, and put him to death.

After a struggle for the throne, in which two princes
became nominally kings, and perished,

Belshazzar succeeded, who is supposed to have be<,n
the son of Evil Merodach, and the grandson of Nebu-
chadnezzar. He also was a weak and profligate prince.
In his reign, Cyrus, the Persian commander of the
Median and Persian army, took the city of Babylon.
Belshazzar had made a feast for his nobiCs, and brought
hi the sacred vessels of the temple at Jerusalem, to be
used in the entertainment ; when, in the midst of hi.^
riot, four fingers of a man's hand appeared, writing
mysterious characters on the wall opposite to him.
The king and his nobles were thrown into the utmost
consternation, and sought for some one to interpret the
writing, but no one could be found. At length the
queen came in to him, and informed liim of the prophet
Daniel. Daniel was immediately called, and interpreted
the writing to signify, that the kingdom was divided
and given to the Modes and Persians. On that night
the prediction was fulfilled. At the vcj-y time ihce-io
things were proceeding in the palace, Cyrus had
entered the city by the bed of the riv. r ; and ■ his
soldiers, assailing the palace, slow Belshazzar ; and
Darius, the Median, took possession of tho empire.

Thus, the ftrst of the four gieat monarchies, d(>scribed
by Daniel the prophet, fell, in the year B. C. 538, after

■- 1*26

it had existed sfparute from tlie Assyrian etnpirc about
^8 years.

The Medo-Persian Empire. — The Medos and
Persians were originally two monarchies, of which the
Median first rose to eminence. Previous to the time
of Hezekiah, the Modes were subject to the Assyrian
monarchy. On the reverse which Sennacherib met
with in Judah, during that reign, it is believed that the
Medes revolted, and after a time of anarchy, elected
Dejoices king. He reigned 53 years, and seems to
have devoted himself entirely to the internal regulation
and improvement of his kingdom. He was succeeded
by his son,

Phaortes, who, being a warlike and ambitious
prince, attacked tl)o Assyrian empire, under Chy-
niladan, or' Nabuchodnosor ; but was defeated, his
capital city taken und destroyed, and afterwards he
himself taken and slain. He was succeeded by

Cyaxeres, his son. — Cyaxeres recovered from the
Assyrians what his father had lost. Not, however,
contented with, this, he was eager to revenge the
death of his father, and the destruction of Ectaban
by the Assyrians. He accordingly attacked and de.
feated the Assyrian army, and laid siege to Nineveh ;
but was obliged to raise the siege, in qonsequcnce
of an invasion of the Scythians. Being unable to
yepel the Scythians by open force, he had recourse to
treachery, and succeeded in having the greater part of
ihem massacred in one night. Having freed the
country of the Scythians, he resumed the siege of
Nineveh, and to strengthen his hands in this enter-
prise he obtained the ca-operation of Nabopolassor,
king of Babylon. These two confc derate kings took
that great city, and utterly destroyed it, about 612
years B. C. After this success, the two kings directed
their forces against Pharaoh Necho, and defeated him.
They then separated, and Nebuchadnezzar advanced
upon those western provinces of the Assyrian empire
that lay to the southward, as Syria, Edom, and Pales-
tine; while Cyaxeres attacked those that lay to thtf

• •

137

northward, as Armonia, Ponfu?!, nnd Cnppadocia, which
he subdued, with great slau<5hter of the inhabitants.
Cyaxcres is also supposed to have added Persia to his
empire ; ahhougli that acquisition is, by some, ascribed
to his predecessor. He died in the 40tli year of his
reign, leaving his throne to

Astyages, liis son. — Astyagf s married a Lydian
princess, to cement the })caco that had .been made
between that kingdom and IMcdia ; and from that
marriage was born Dariu.s, called in Scripture Dariui
tlie Mcde ; but called by the (jret-k writers, Gyaxeres.
Astyages, during the same year in which Darius was
born, gave his daughter Ma;id;mo to Cambyses, a
Persian nobleman, or, as olhcrs say, t!ie Persian king,
in marriage, and of that marria^re, was born the cele
brated Cyrus. Cyrus was tin reforo the nephew of
Darius, and was only about one year younger than he.
Astyagcs reignod 35 years. The only incidents men-
tioned in his history, worthy of record, is, his repelling
the unprovoked invasion of th"; Babylonians under Evil
Merodach. In this war, Cyrus, then a young man,
greatly distinguished hims^'lf. On the death of
Astyages, he was succecdvd by his son,

Darius, or, Cyaxeres II ; but Cyrus, his nephew held
the command of \h<^ army u;i(br him, and conducted
the military operations of his reign. It was during the
reign of Darius, that Cyrus took Ba])yIo:i, as already
noticed ; after which event Darius came to Babylon,
and there, in concert with Gyrur^, settled the govern-
ment of his new empire. They divided it into 120
provinces, over each of which a governor was ap-
pointed. Over these governors th^rt! were three pre-
sidents, and the chief of these presidents, was the
prophet Daniel, who might, therefor.', be regarded as
the prime minister of that vast empire. It was in this
reign, when Daniel was about 80 years of age, that ho
was cast into the den of lions, for persevering in
the worship of God, in defiance of a foolish decree
which Darius had been persuaded by his courtiers to
make. In about two years after the capture of
Babylon, Darius died^ leaving Cyrus solo monarch of

r^«

lb* 'impire, B. C. 586. Tiic Persian rmpire now ex-
tended from the river Inrlns to the shore of tlio
Archipelago, and frojn the Caspian and Euxine seas,
to the seas of Arahia.

Cyrus, on comiiiij to the tlirono, issued a decree for
the restoration of tho Jews ; in consequence of which,
that people assembled from various parts of his empire,
to the number of 42,300, oxclusivc of servants, amount-
ing to 7,337, mukinjr a total of nearly 50,000 persons,
And proceeded to Jerusalem. Tiie rirst care of these
restored captives was, to rebuild the city and temple of
Jerusalem. The jealousy of the surrounding nations,
especially the Samaritans, greatly retarded their opera-
tions. They could not op'.'uly oppose them, because
Cyrus was avowedly their friend, and Daniel was at the
seat of govprnment to protect them. But, from the
distance of the capital, thes" nations had it in their
power to throw many obstacles in their way. Soon
after this, Daniel died, at Ihe nge of 90 years ; Cyrus
also, soon aftervvards diful, i)\ tlie 7!h year from tiie
restoration, and 70th of his age. He is one of the
greatest men of antiquity, not in regard of his exten-
sive conquests ; but in regard to the nobleness of his
character. There is, indeed soine groimd to hope, that
he was a convert from heathenism to the worship of the
true God ; and the neaceful and beneficent character of
the latter part of his r'^igii, gives addilional countenance
to this opinion. O;'. tlic death of (Jyrus,

Cninhi/ses, his son, succeeded to the empire, a weak
and profligate prince. Karly in his r; ign. he invaded
and oI)!iun(Ml possesiwon of Egypt, u l;ieh had furiuirly
been subdued hr Nebuehadu* /zar. lie had a brother
named Smerdis, whom, in a tit ol' ji'alousy, he caused to
be killed. But, wliilc he vas absent in Egyi>t, a
pretender to the throne appeared, v/ho personated
Smordis, the brother ofCambyscs. Cambyses marched
from Egypt against him; but eta mounting his horse,
his own sword fell from its scabbard and wounded him
on the thigh, of which M'ound he di( d.

Stnerdis, the usurper, who is usually called Smerdis
the magian, because he belonged to the priesthood,

199

.finch, in Persia, vvns ciillcd lli- Mi:gi, I'l ij^iicd for a
eliort time, till Ixnng drtt etcd ajid c.\{>)scfl, l>y a lady
of liigli rank, whom ho liiid inarrud, .seven of tho
nobles conspired against him, and alcw him. The
family of Cyrus being now extinct, these noblcy agreed
that one of theme); Ives should b.:- elevated to the throne.
To deterniine which it should he, they agreed that he
whoso horso on a cei-tEsin d:iy should first neigh, after
the rising of tiie sun, siiould be- king. This seenia to
have been an act of adoration to the sun, which the
Persians worshipped. The horso of Darius, tho son of
Ilystaapes, one of tho generals who had served under
Cyrus, having first neighed, ho was immediately elected
king, and is known by the name of

Darius Hytaspcs, and is ciin fully to be distinguished
fi'om Darius the Median, and also IVom two other jwinces
of the name Darius, who afterwards attained to the
empire. During the reign of Cambyses, and Smerdis
the magian, the enemies of the Jews contiivcd to pre-
vent them from proceeding with the temple, having
poisoned the minds of tiiese princes against them.
But on the accession of Darius, he, having married
two of the daughters of Cyrus, and allectiug to reign
as hijj successor, was disposed to fulfil all his intentions.
He, therefore, issued a new decree for the rebuilding of
the city and temple of Jerusalem ; and, in the 6th year
of his reign, the second temple v/as finished, and dedi-
cated, exactly 70 years after it had been destroyed by
Nebuchadnezzar.

In the 5th year of Darius, Babylon revolted, and
was besieged by him. As in the form' r siege by Cyrus,
he was constrained to attempt to reduce it by famine ;
and at lengih became master of it by the devotedness
of one of his officersk This person having cut and
maimed himself, fled to Babylon, pretending that he
had been so treated by Darius. He thus obtained the
confidence of the Babylonians, and found an opportu-
nity of betraying the city to Darius. Darius then
began to think of extending his empire towards the
West. He already possessed Egypt on the south, and
Asia Minor on tho north of tlie Mediterranean : but he

130

'proposed to himself an expedition against the Scythians
who inhabited tlie country between the Danube and
the Don, under pretence of avenging the Scythian
invasion of Media, 130 years before, lie accordingly
crossed the Hellespont by a bridge of boats, marched
through Thrace, and crossed the Danube by another
bridge of boats. The Scythians retreated before him,
till, finding no sustenance for his troops, he was com-
pelled to return, having lost one-half of his army. He
then purposed to extend his empire eastward. In this
he succeeded better, and laid India, or at least that part
of it which borders on the Indus, under tribute.

In the 18th year of his reign, commenced the war
between the Persians and Greeks, which brought so
many calamities on both nations. A sedition, in some
of the Greek Islands, of the people against their
governors, led to an application to the Persian governor
of Asia, from one of the parties, for assistance. This was
granted, and that interference led to a hostile expe-
dition into the Persian province of Asia Minor, the
capital of which was Sardis, in which the Athenians
took part. The Greeks proceeded to Sardis, which
they plundered and burnt; but were compelled to
retreat, and were defeated before they could reach their
ships. Darius could never forget tliis insult on the part
of Athens, and determined on an invasion of Greece.
^e sent an army across the Hellespont, round by
Macedonia, a fleet being appointed to follow and co-
operate with it. The fleet, in doubling the Cape of
Mount Athos, was overtaken by a storm, and totally
disabled, having lost 300 ships and 20,000 men ; and
the army having encamped without sufficient precau-
tion, was attacked by the Thracians, and so roughly
handled, that it was forced to return to Asia. Darius,
however, was not to be diverted from his project of re-
venge, but fitted out another army. Tliis he sent directly
across the Archipelago to Attica. There it was met
on the plain oi Marathon by a small army of Athenians,
under Miltiadcs, and totally defeated. The remains of
the army escaped to the ships, and returned to vVsia.
Still determined upon his scheme of revenge, Dariua

131

fitted oilt another army, wliicli lie deteraiined to leaS
in his own person ; but b?iiig now an old man, he first
took the precaution of settling the succession. Having
ddnfe this, he died, in the 36th year of his reign, leaving
his dominions, but leaving also his quarrel with the
Greeks, to his son Xnrxos, B. C. 480. During the
reign of Darius, Ezra, the Jewish scribn, was born ; but
his public operations belong to a sub'5ec(uent reign.

The conclusion of the reign of Darius Hystaspea
brings the Persian history down to the end of the 7th
period of 500 years from the creation. We now, there-
fore, pause, and take a brief view of the other nations of
the world during the same period.

Egypt having fallen under the dominion of th'
Babylonian empire, and soon after under that of Persia,
from this time held the rank only of a tributary state.
All the countries round Palestine were in the same cir-
tumstances. . ,

Greece. — It has been already mentioned, that, so far
back as 884 B. C. while Athalia reigned in Judah,
JjycurguG had settled the constitution of Lacedaemon,
as a monarchy, with great powers conferred on the
aristocracy.

Athens was then governed by Archons, a kind of
hereditary magistrates. These about 754 B. C. while
Jotham, son of Uzziah, was king of Judah, about the
time of the building of the city of Rome, were ex-
changed for elective Archons, who enjoyed this office
only 10 years. After about 60 years' experience of this
mode of government, a further change was made, and
the government placed in the hands of nine Archons,
who were elected annually.

But although the legislative authority was nominally
in the hands of the people, the executive was in the
hands of the nobles. This gave rise to continual con-
tests between ruling families. Some remedy was
required, and Draco was called to form a code of laws,
624 B. C. His laws were so absurdly severe and san-
guinary, that they could not be executed. A ^- "

133

timo of confusion ensued, when Solon was invited to
reform the constitution. Ho executed his task with
great succf'ss, and constructed a coile of laws, which
forms the basis of the hiws now existing in most of the
kingdoms of Europe. The Romans founded their laws
upon those of Solon ; and, through the Romans, they
havo boon dilfusod over the civilized world. Solon
flourished 594 B. 0. when Zodekiali was kingof Judah,
tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, and about the time of the
birth of Cyrus, afterwards king of Poraia.

The constitution of Sparta was highly aristocratical ;
that of Athens was continually becoming more demo-
cratical. In nearly all the Greek republics, there was
a perpetual struggle betAveen the nobles and the people,
the former looking to Laccdtemon as th^ir protector, the
latter to Athens. Athens itself was agitated by similar
conflicts between the nobles and the people. In the
course of these strngglcs, Pisistratus, a popular leader,
seized the Acropolis, and reigned over the city as a
king, for 33 years, although his reign was twice inter-
rupted, lie was succeeded by his sons Hipparehus find
Hippias ; but they bpcoming tyrannical, first orie was
killed, and then the other wus forced to retire from tha
city. He fled to Darius Hystaspes, who now reigned
in Persia. After the expulsion of Hippias, the old dis-
putes between the aristocracy and democracy were
renewed. Isagoras was banished, and applied to Sparta
for aid, which readily granted it. The Athenians were
thus threatened with a war with Sparta, and applied to
Persia for help; but they xcceived a haughty reply,
requiring them to subject themselves to Darius. In the
mean while^ Hippias had prevailed on the Peijsian
governor of Asia Minor to espouse his cause, and to
insist on his being reinstated in the government of
Athens. This the Athenians peremptorily refused to
comply with, and thenceforward regarded themselves as
at war with Persia.

Soon after this, Darius sent heralds into Greece, de-
manding earth and water, as tokens of subjection;
which demand was indignantly rejected by Sparta and
Athens. While matters were in this precarious state

133

iuse, and to

lx!tween Persia and Greece, the Athenians were led to
take part in that expedition into Asia Minor, which haa
been already noticed, in which Sardia was burned^
Then followed the invasion of Greece by Darius, in
which his artuy was defeated, at Marathon, by Miltiades,
the Athenian general.

Rome. — According to ancient traditions, which are
the only authority extant for the history of Rome, at its
commencement, Rome was founded, B. C. 757. It was
for the two first centuries of its existence, a monarchy,
and the chief occupation of its kings and citizens, was
fighting, and gradually subduing the neighbouring states,
or incorporating them into their body politic by treaties.
The first king was

Romulus, the founder of the city, who reigned 30
years. Having collected a number of loose persons
together, all males, he procured wives for them, by
inviting the neighbouring tribe, called Sabines, to a
religious festival, and there directing his men to seize
upon the women. This created a war, which ended in
the two nations being incorporated in one. Having
subdued several of the other tribes, he was killed by his
senators, B. C. 717. After an interregnum, he was
succeeded by ' " -

Numa Pompilius, who was of a pacific disposition,
and gave his attention chiefly to the internal regulation
of his kingdom. To him succeeded

Tullus Hostilius, B. C. 660, who reigned 32 years,
while Manasseh was king of Judah. In his reign was
the celebrated battle between the Horatii and the
Curiatii. The Albans and the Romans were at war for
superiority, when it ^as agreed to leave the matter to
the event of a battle, to be fought between thr^e chosen
men on each side. Three brothers, on each side, were
chosen, when the Roman champions proved victorious.
Tullus Hostilius is said by some to have been killed by
lightning, with his whole family ; by others, he is said
to have been murdered by Ancus Martins, who suc-
ceeded him.

Ancus Martius came to the throne, B. C. 633, during

134

(be r^gn of Jostah In Judah. He was a warlike prince,
and subdued the Latins, and several other neighbouring
tribes. He died, leaving two sons, the eldest only
fifteen years of age j he left them to the care of Tarquin,
the son of a merchant of Corinth. Tarquin took advan.
tage of the youth and inexperience of his pupils to obtain
the throne for himself.

Tarquin came to the throne, B. C. 609, about the
time that Josiah was killed by Pharaoh Necho. His
reign was occupied in repelling the invasions of the
neighbouring states, and subduing them. He greatly
Btren'gthened and beautified the city, and constructed
those celebrated aqueducts, for draining and cleansing
it, that were accounted among the wonders of the world.
Tarquin reigned 88 years, and was assassinated in his
palace by ihe sons of Ancus Martins, whom he had
originally deprived of the kingdom. He was succeeded
by

Servius TulliuSy his son-in-law, B. C. 672, dunng the
reign of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. He
reigned 44 years. He was a politic prince, and, with
much sagacity, introduced important changes into the
constitution. Till his reign all Roman citizens, rich
or poor, had contributed equally to the funds of the
city. Servius proposed to ease the poor, by laying the
burden chiefly on the rich. This he accomplished by
a dexterous distribution of the people into classes and
centuries. Servius had under his care two sons of
Tarquin, the former king. One of them, Tarquin, to
whom he had given his daughter in marriage, formed a
conspiracy to obtain the throne, in which he was at first
disappointed, but was aflerwards successful. Servius
was murdered, it is stiid, at the instigation of his own
daughter.

Tatqtdn II. surnamed the Proud, succeeded him,
B. C. 529, and reigned 25 years. He proved a most
despotic and cruel tyrant. .At length, in consequence
of an outreige committed by him upon Lucretia, a
Roman Lady, he was deposed, and Rome became, frow

that time, a republic, B. C. 505. This was in the roigil
of Darius Ilystaspes.

CAttTHAGE had been founded by the Phcenicians, <Hi

the coast of Africa, about the time of the fjundation
of the city of Rome, or a little before tliat era. Like the
people from whom they sprang, the Carthaginians were a
maritime people, and early became acquainted with the
gold mines in Spain, from which their city acquired
great wealth. Little is known of their ancient history,
It appears that they were formidable by sea in the time
of Cyrus and Cambyses, kings of Persia. In the year

B. C. 503, which v/as during the

reign

of Darius

Hystaspes, they entered into treaty with the Romans^
The treaty related chiefly to matters of navigation and
commerce ; but from it, we learn, that the whole island
of Sardinia, and part of Sicily were then subject to
Carthage, and that a spirit of jealousy had already
begun to manifest itself between the two republics.
Till this time, the Carthagin ans had paid tribute to thq
original African tribes for the ground on which theii;
pity stood. They now attempted to free themselvea
from this tribute ; but, notwithstanding their powefi^
they did not succeed. They were obliged to conclude
9, peace, one of the articles of which was, that thl
tribute should be continued.

EIGHTH ERA.

Ezra.

A. M. 3500.— B. C. 500.

■i?

This era finds the whole western part of Asia, firor^
the Indus to the shores of the Archipelago, and also
%ypt> under the domiiiicn of the kings of Persia.'

136

Profand Motory has now begun to assume a prcoise and
authentic form ; nnd many documents are still extant,
besides the Sacrrd Scriptures, which shed a clear and
steady light on the utfairs of men at this era.

JuDEA was now a tribut!\ry kingdom, the history of
Which is involved in that of Persia, and the monarchies
Hrhich succeeded the Persian. We^ therefore^, conw
aenee this period with

f*B)tsii;. — -At the eonclusidn of the foi'mer era, B. C^
000, Darius Hystaspes was on the throne of Persia,
and we noticed his history till his preparation for a
fecond invasion of Greece, which, however, he did not
Uve to aocoinplisb. H« died, leaving

Xerxes, his son, as his successor. The first care of
Xerxes was to prosecute the invasion of Greeca, for
Which preparations were made by his father. To prei
vent the Greeks from receiving assistance from their
colonic* in the west, he entered into a treaty with tlitf
Carthaginians', liy which they tindcrtook to attack the
Greek settlements in Sicily. Ho then proceeded with
his army to Greece. He took the same routie which
D'ailus had taken on his invasion of Scythia, crossing
tho Hellespont, as he did, by a bridge of boats into'
Thrace, and passing along the head of the Archipelago
througii the southern part of Macedonia. He then
fumed southward towards Attica, but was withstood a^
the straits of Thermopylae, (a narrow pass in the;
southern part of Thessaly, between the mountains and
the sea,) by Leonidas, with 300 Spartans, and as many
other Greeks as made up the whole number to 4000.-
This little company, aided by the natul*e of the ground,
arrested the progress of the whole Persian army hf
two days, till a Greek betrayed it, by leading a Persian'
detachment across the mountains. The Greeks seeing
tiien)ji»lveB menaced with an attack on their rear,-

1»7

retired, with the exception of Leonidas, and the remain*
of his 800 Spartans, who kept their ground till they
were overpowered and cut to pieces. The Persian army
then proceeded southward to Athens. The Athenians
retired to their ships, and phiced their wives and chil-
dren, for protection, in cities on the opposite side of the
Peloponnesus. Meanwhile the Persian and Greek
fleets were assembled near to one another. The Persian
occupied the Athenian port of Plmlerus, and the Greek
fleet under the command of Themistocles, the . neigh*
bouriiig straits of Sulamis. There the Persians deter-
mined to attack them ; but the narrowness of the straits
rendering it impossible for their huge armament to act
in concert, the Greeks contrived to throw it into con-
fusion, and utterly d( stroyed it. The shattered remains
of this fleet retired to the opposite shore of Asia.

Xerxes, seeing his fleet destroyed, and fearing that
the Greeks would sail for the Hellespont, and interrupt
his return to Asia, fled thither ; and finding his bridge
of boats broken by storms, was under the necessity of
crossing the strait in a small fishing boat.

While Xerxes was suffering thesT disasters in Greece
his confederates in the west were equally unsuccessfuL
Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general, was surprised and
slain in his camp by Gelo, the Sicilian king, and his fleet
and army totally destroyed.

After the departure of Xerxes for Greece, Mardonius
retired with the army to Thessaly, and then returning
next year, and finding the Athenians still determinea
not to submit, burned whatever remained of the city,
and committed all manner of excesses. But the
Greeks of the Peloponnesus had collected an army, and
were marching towards the Isthmus of Corinth, by
which they threatened his communication with Thrace
and Asia, and he retired to Boeotia. There the Greek
army, commanded by Pausanias, king of Lacedaemon,
and Aristides, the Athenian general, followed him, and
came up with him near the city of Platsea ; ■'vhere the
Persian army was totally routed, and cut to pit ces, with
the exception of 40,000 men, whom Artabazus, a
Persian general, foreseeing how the battle was likely to

12*

laB

isano, withdrew curly from the fiolcl, and brought to
Jiyzantium, where Ihcy ro-cro.s.sod tlio Ilcllcspant into
Asia.

On tlio same day with tlio batlln of PhihRa, the com.
bincd Greek fleet attaeked unn deslroyod llio Persina
fleet at Mycah^, a promontory on the coast of Asia.
Tlie Persian sliips were drawn* np oii tlio shore, sur-
rounded by a raiiij)art, iuul defindcd l)y a land army:
but the G rooks forced the rampart, a.id burned the
ships. Thus ended the celebrivted exprdilioii of Xerxes
against Greece ; and in consequence of tho;;e victories,
the Greeks were dolivorod from any further invasions
from Persia, or the east. - v/' - . r ■

Xerxes, on the defeat of his armies, retired from
Asia, and took refuge in Susa, ♦he Persian capital,
triierc he gave himself up to the greatest licentiousness.
in the meanwhile, the Greeks were prosecuting the war
against him with vigour and success, and depriving him
of his possessions. Ciinon, the Athenian commander,
In one day destroyed a fleet, said to bo equal to that
Which had been destroyed at Sulamis, and defeated an
iirmy equal to that which w as defeated at Plataja. At
Jcngth Artabancs, the captain of his guanl, formed
a conspiracy against him, and put him to deatli.
B.C. 465. ?^-

Artaxerxes, surnamed Longlmanus, who is believed
to have been the Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther, suc-
ceeded him. lie secui'cd himself on the throne by putting
to death Artabanes, and defeating his partizans. He
ihen celebrated a great feast, on which occasion it was,
that Vashti, the queen, was repudiated ; and Esther, a
Jewess, made queen in her stead. Towards the begin-
ning of his reign, the Egyptians revolted from him,
being aided by a fleet and army of Athenians.
Artaxerxes sent an army against it ; but it was defeated
with great slaughter, and the remnant of it shut up and
besieged in Memphis. Artaxerxes sent another army
to raise the siege, in which he succeeded, having de-
feated the revolters. ■ .-.;'

In the 17th year of Artaxerxes and 458 B. C. Ezra,
the Jewish priest and proj)liet, now in captivity, obtained,

IBU

j>robiiMy ihroi!<^'!i the intorposilioii of Esllinr, an aniplo
coninii\:^^io!i lo rolnrn to Jcriisalojii, with asinuny Jews ns
choyo to accompany liliu. l']/.ra hniiiodiatoly {iddrcssod
himself to thG worlv of Liin<i;iii<!^ iiiio urdi r the littlo
couununily over which lie prosidfil. ],Io revived the rites
iiiid ueroiuoni'S cn'' iho Jo'Ai,',!j church, acconliiig to the
p*xrici*ibed ord. r; he stttlcd and arranoed the canon of
kicripUire, and tr;in,scribed the Old Testanieni fron» the
old Hebrew character, which had I'alleii into disuse, into
the present Hebrew, or Ciialdec character. This did
not change in iuiy re.specl the words of llovclation, It
was not a greater ulleratioa thiui writing or printing the
Bible in the present 11 )nian ciiaracter instead of the
black letter, wliich wan in use when our present trans-
lation was made. He also arnmged, or as some think,
established \\v'. synagogue service. Whilst K/ra was
engaged in these imporlant works, Nehemiah was
serving as cup-bearer to Artaxerxes ; and intelligence
having, reached him, that t!ie walls and gates of
Jerusalem were still iii ruins, la; was deeply allected,
and procured, probably through the influence of Esther
also, liberty to npair to Jerusalem and to do what-,
ever was necessary for completing the defences of the
city. Ho arrived about cloven years after" Ezra.
Having made considerable progress in restorin^r the
city and polity of tho Jews, he returned at the
appointed time to Porcia ; but almost immediately
came back to Jerusalem u second time, when he found
that abuses had again begun to appear. The sabbath
was opeidy violated, a-tjd many of ih(! leaders of the peo-
ple had married heathen wives: and ho set himself, with
renewed vigour, to correct these abuses. While these
important opm'ations were in progress at Jerusalem,
under the directi(jn of E/ra and Nehemiah, the qele-
brated Peleponui sian war commenced between tho
Spartans and Allionians. Arlaxc r\os, althougli he was
solicited by both parties hv aid, seems to have declined
taking either side. He sent an ambassador to Sparta ;
but before his retaiai, Axtaxerxes himself had died,
B. C. 42'i. Oa his death, his succession to the kingdon^
Was contested. Xerxes, his son, mounted the throne, but

140

rdgned only forty-five days, being murdered by hl«
brother Sogdianus. Sogdianus attempted to get
another of his brothers into his power, whose name was
Ochus, whom his father had madf governor of Hyrcania;
but Ochus suspecting his brother's intention, raised an
army, came against him, dol'eated and slew him,
after he had reigned only six months and fifteen days.
Thus he established himself on the throne, and took
the name of Darius. He is that prince whom historians
call

Darius Nailius. — In his reign, Egypt revolted from
Persia, and successfully deft nded itself during the life
of Darius and the lives of some of his successors. In
his reign also the temple of Samaria was built to rival
that at Jerusalem, which increased the enmity between
the two nations. Darius Nothus sent his son Cyrus as
governor to' Asia Minor, and he gave such assistance to
the Lacedaemonians in their war with Athens, as enabled
them to defeat tiie Athenian ileet, and to put an end to
the war. Darius Nothus died about the time of the
conclusion of the Peloponnesian war, B. C. 405.

Artaxerxesy surnanied by the Greeks, Mnemon, suc-
ceeded him ; but Cyrus, his brother, who commanded
in Asia Minor, instignatcd by an ambitious and unprin-
cipled mother, laid a plot to wrest :ho empire from him.
The plot was discovered, but by the influence of his
niother, he was pardoned, and sent back to his govern-
ment. But here again he employed the opportunity
v^hich he enjoyed of having intercourse with the
Greeks, to form another conspiracy against his brother.
He hired a mercenary Greek army, and with it, and
such other troops as he could raise in Asia, he marched
against Artaxerxes. The two brothers met with their
armies, at Cunaxa, in the province of Babylon, where
Cyrus was defeated and slain. The Geeek troops had
remained unbroken, and now had no resource but to
attempt: a retreat to their own country, in the face of a
victorious enemy. Their general, Clearchus, fell by
treachery into the hands of the Persians, and was
slain : and the command devolved on the celebrated
Xenophon, whose history of the xetreat of the 10,OOQ

141

Gredcs to the shores of the Euxine, and thence to
(ivocce, is one of tlic most instnictive and interesting
military histories extant.

A n<nv war hroaking out wiih Sparla, which since the
conclusion of the Pvl ipumif h'.iva wftr, hafl ruled Greece
Willi a rod of iron, tho fSparlaiis invaded Asia Minor,
and t!iy Persian iorces being unable to arrest their
progress, Conon, nn Athenian cxih^, a<l vised Artaxerxes
ti) place a fleet at his dispos;il. This advice was
adopted, and Conon, having organized a powerful con-
epiraoy .igainst tho Spartans, came up with their fleet
at Cnidus, and totally defeated it. IJe then obtained
liberty to repair to Athens, and restore the fortifications
of the city, which soon became as ibrniidablo as ever.
The Spartans were thus reduced to the necessity of
niaking peace with the Persians. " . • '

The latter years oi' ii • life of Ai'taxerxes were em-
bittered by disscnsioi} - '^ own fanjily. He died in
the 94th year of his > ^ , ad tlie 4C3th of his reign,
B. C. 359. On his death,

Oclms, hjis son succeeded him, having cleared hijs
way to tjic throne by the murder of those of his
brothers who rivalled hiai in the succession. These
murders he soon followed ^p by an indiscriminate
massacre of all the royal family, without distinction of
sex, age, or character. On his accession, tlie western
provinces revolted, but returned to their allegiance.
Egypt had never beeij thoroughly subdued since tl^e
last revolt. Nectanebus was now king of that country..
Oohus marching into Egypt, lost a large proportion of
his army irj the quicksands of Ijake Sorbonis. He,
however, succeeded in driving Nectanebus out of the
kingdom. Nectanebus was the' last native king of
Egypt ; that fine country having, from that day tjill the
present, been under the dominion of foreigners. But
>ihile Qchus was in the midst of his success, he was
laying the foundation for his own destruction. He had
A ftivourite servant named Bagoas, an Egyptian, who
accompanied him ; and Ochus, not satisfied with sub-
duing Egypt, insulted its religion, kilted the sacred bql|,
pnd ^ave his flesh to his attendapts, Bagoas deterniine4

ll'J

u> rcveri 7'3 :his ij:sult, and nt" loiijjfth siiCcocdcU in poj.
Zoning Ouhus.

■Arses, tlio youngest of the kingV* scnis, was raised to
(ho tliiono by ij;;jj:o;is ; but not finilinj^ him sufticiontly
compliant, ni<;roaH poisoned hiin also, IJ. C. 3'}H. Ho
ih'jn hro;i.uht I'lrwni-d a ili^scendant of Darius Nothus,
a.uncd Coiioniaiinns, a;;d [)hiued liinj on the throne.
Codon'Ka:.iUS tool: liie uauio of

Darius Cuduntannus. — Fearing th.at ho might ^^
treated by B-.iooi.fi, as Oclius and Arses liad been, he
put Bagoas to ilc.ith, and tlius secured himself on the
tin'one. IJiit the Persian cmj)iro was now hastening to
its ruin. Thg afiairs of C^irit ';e had by this time fallen
under the undisputed direction of the lung of Macedon,
and Alexander, the son of Philip, had combined the
whole strength of its various triix-s, in a long threatened
enterprise against tliat great, but ill compacted empire.
The events that led to the downfall and death of Darius,
belong rather lo the liistory of Greece than of Persia.
We merely »nentii;n here, that Alexander passed over
to Asia at the head of the Greek army, and defeated
^he forces of tlie Penuans in several battles, the last of
which was near Arbeia. Darius, after thi^ defeat, fled
to Ecbatana, Ihe capital"* of Media. On Alexander's
approach, hu retired to Jlactria, and was there murdererj
by Bessus, the govenor of that province. Thus fell
Darius Codomannus, and with him the Persian empire,
B. C 3J30, after it had existed, from the taking of Baby-
lon, 209 years. ?• t^ \

We shall here pause, as we did at the reign of
Hezekiah, and bring down the histoy of the other
nations ',o the time jaf Alexander ; when the whole
political aspect of the world underwent a mighty revo-
iution.

Greece. — It has already been noticed, under the
Jiistory of Persia, that Xerxes succeeding Darius, at-
tempted to carry into eflect his father's schemes of
|§veiige, and invaded Greece with an immense armament

( \

11^3

which was totally dcwtroyod in the diirerent battles ot
Salamis, Plataea, and JMycale. After these victories,
the Greeks continued still to carry on tiic war with
Persia, chiefly by descents on their coasts, till peace
was concluded, in the reign of Artaxerxes, the son of
Xerxes.

The Spartans were at C iS time, the acknowledged
leaders of the Greek confederacy, but their king, Pau-
sanias, carrying himself proudly and contemptuously to
the allies, they put themselves under the patronage of
Athens. From this time the Athenians held the
decided ascendancy at sea, and over those Gfe(ii< states
and colonies which were approached by sea. At first,
they used their influence with equity and moderation '^
but gradually feeling their strength, they became mora
haughty in their cojiduct, and more dictatorial in ex-
acting the service of their allies. The result wasj
that the allies of the Athenians eventually became
subjects, from whom the Athenians regularly exacted
tribute : but they were impatient subjects, and ready
to avail themselves of any opportunity to emancipate
themselves.

The Spartans eyed the growing power of Athens
with jealousy, and xevo prepared to ernl)race the first
plausible occasion of going to war with it. Such an
occasion was not lon<j wantinjj;. Tiie government of
Athens was yearly booming more democratical, and
the manaT-ement of the afl'tirs of the sUxto faHin<T under
the nifluencc of demagogues ; those, to obtain influence,
or retain it, were under the necessity of proposing
popular measures. Cimon, the son of the celebrated
Miltiades, himself a great military leader, attained to
the chief influence in Athens ; and being a man of
immense property, he secured his popularity by spend-
ing it freely among the people. Others, who followed
him, had not the same means of bribing them; but
they, to supply this defect, proposed to the peoj'de to
take for themselves, the same induljvences out of the
public treasury. They voted to tliemsclves money for
attending on the great councils of tiie nation. This
naturally threw the power over public ailairs into th«

144

hands of the most -worthless of the people, whose ear
was always open to whatever proposals their orators
might make, for the purpose of pampering their idle-
1 1 ?s, or feeding their vanity; and that orator, who
flattered them most, was sure to ho the most popular,
and to have most pnvcr. In these circumstances,
nothinjT could cxcoc(l tlio follv, or the fla<ritiousness of
many of the measures adopted by the Athenians. Thus
corrupted, tlicy brcamo idle and dissolute ; and were
under the necessity of supporiinjf tliomsolves by exac
lions made on oilier st'itcs. This roused the impatience
and enmity of tlieir allies; and tlic Lacedaemonians, on
the watch for an excuse to attack tliem, soon found one
in tlie discontent of iho Athenian subjects.
• These were the circumstimci's tiiat led to the cele-
brated Peloponnesian war, which, for nearly thirty
years, raged .in Greece, with an animosity, a reckless
barbarity, and rcgardlcssui ss of public faith, scarcely
to bo paralleled in the history of any other country.
On the one side were ranged all tlse states of .Pelopon-
nesus, except Argos and Achaia, wliioli were neutral ;
and all the states of northern Greece, except Tliessaly
and Acarnania. Oa the other, t'lc Athenians Iiad with
them the islands and maritime tov/ns. At the head of
the Peloponnesi^m party, %v;as Lnccd.Tmon, v.diich was
one of the most oligarclilcal slates in Grorce ; yet, such
Jiad been the oppressive conduct of republican Athens
to all those states that were under its power, tliat tho
Lacedasmonians were enabled to represent the war as
one waged by them for the liberties of Greeee. Tho
war was carried on, at first, by inroads of tho Pelopon-
nesians into Attica, Vvhich tho Athrniian.^, unable to
resist, retaliated, by descents on the coast of Pelopon-
nesus. Pericles, an able statesman and general, v.'as at
the head of the Athenian alfairs at the commejicemont
of the war ; but, in the second year of it, ho died, and
then the government fell into the hands of men of an
inferior descriptir/u. This v/ar between tho great
patron of oligarchy on tiie one 'Ado, and of democracy
on the other, kindled strife and civil v.-ar in many of
those states of Greece, in which the parties were nearly

145

balanced. The oligarchial parties maiia'uvred to bring
their states into connexion with liacedtiimon, that they
might govern through means of their influence ; and
the democratic parlies wislied, for a similar reason, to
be coimectod with Athens. In sonic of these civil
contests, purtionlarly in tliat wliich took place in
Corcyrn, the scenes of Irciiclicry and cold deliberate
cruelty wore hideous beyonl deocriplion.

Several times, Avhen one of tlie parties was reduced
to straits, overtures of peace were made, but rejected
by the opposite party ; till, in tlie tenth year of the war,
a temporary peace was concluded. It was, however,
only a breathing time ; and the struggle soon recom-
pienccd. At this timo, the nflairs of Athens were con-
siderably under the inlluenco of a young man, one of
the most remarkable cliaract'M's of G^recian History—
Alcibiades. He wns of noble birtli, of great wealth,
great talents, most accomplished address; but artful,
ambitious, profligate, and utterly drstituto of principle.
He was a pupil of liie celebrated philosoplier, Socrates,
who flourished at this time. Alcibiades, impatient of
the narrow sphere of warfare in which the Athenians
were engaged, prcvaibnl on them to tvitempt a foreign
oonquest in Sicily, b'jhling out to them many plausible
reasons for the enterprise. He was put in chief com*
mand ; but the people were j'-al<jucj of him. He ha(i
enemies at home, wlio plotted against him in hia
absence. One result was, that be was removed from
the head of the armament, and forced iuto exile ; the
next result wns, that the expedition totally failed, ana
its failure involved tlie ruin of the Athenian fleet and
army. The Athenians made powerful ellbrls for the
maintenance of their iniluence and their liberty, and
might probably have succeeded in recovering their
prospoity, had not the commander of their fleet per-
mitted himself to be surprised in the harbou-' of ^Egos-
potamos, in the Hellespont, by the Lacedajmonian fleet,
under Lysander ; when the Athenian fleet was totally
destroyed. This sealed the fate of Athens. The
Jjreek fleet sailed to the unhappy city, blockaded ii,
^i^d ftt length, compelled the Athenians to surrendejf*

14(3

iMicy then proceed, d to {I'Mnolish \ho walls, wliich
operation was condiiclfd tn tlio sound of musical instru-
ihents — as if cclobtuting iho recovery of the liberties
of Greecr^. They .iIjo clmii.;;e(l the ceiistitution, and,
instead of a republic, put it under the con-iinand of thirty
6f the nristoerncy ; \\Uo arc usually known by the
designation of the ihirty tyrants. . These thirty oli-
garcliists soon abu.std their p,)wer so much, that they
forced into exile a largo proporlion of the influential
citizens'; and the people submitting witli roluctani^e to
their oppressors, the exiles under Tlu'asybulus, sc^cretly
.ftasembled, obtained possession first of the port, and
.{ifterwards the city, and priiclaimed anew the demo-
crfitical constitutioii, L>. C. 401. In the fidlowing year,
Conon obtained a ileet frot.n Artaxerxeti Mn;Mnon, tho
Persian monarch, with wliich he defeated the Laee-
dsBOionian (Ibet ; and, afterward.s sailing f!)r Athens, ho
rebuilt the walls, and thus raised Athens to nearly hn
fofmer greatness. It. was at this time that the Greek
mercenaries engaged themselves in tho service of Cyrus,
the brotlier of Artaxerxes, to dethrone that monarch ;
in which expedition Cyriis was killed, and the Greeks,
tinder Xcnophon, performed their celebrated retreat.
Meanwhile, the contests betwetn the oligarchies and
the democracies of the Greek" state5" were proceeding
With their uaial violence. In the midst of one of those
Struggles in Thebes, two men of singular talents attained
to the chief iniluciice ; placed their city, for a time,
at the head of the afiairs ofGreeco; and permanently
changed the relative position of its diflcrent parties.
These Avere I'ipamiaondas, and I'elopid.is. The demo-
cratic party being predominant in Thelies', a war broke
Out betvy'ee!! them and Lacediemon, in which Epami-
nondas, by a change in the usuaj mode of conducting
•battles, totally defeated the Spartan army wilii inferior
force. This first of iliose 'jattlcs, which broke thn
power of Sparta, was fmght at Leuctra, B. C. 371.
Epaminonclas afterwards invaded the Laconian territory,
ravaged the country, and built a city in the neighbour-
liood of Sparta, which he called Messinl, and gave it to
ihe Messenians, .>vhoni the Spartans had kept for several

117

centuries in the most vigoious Ixtrulngp. Thl- nrov«>«
nn elFectual cuib on tlio power <iii;l prnspeiity r* f.act^
(Itemon. Tlie war still O'liiLhiuiii'.;-. [''.p.-uninoiidr^'. i:ii;ai«

entered the Peloponnesus,

and

a^ain

(leieat^«l tl^o

Lacedaemonians, near Mantineti, B. C. 861. Tl'us tho
Spartans wore deprived of that pre ponderutiiif^ influ-
ence, which they had exerted over the aifairs of Crreece,
for nearly 500 years ; hut Epanunonu;iS Wiis himself
killed at that battle ; and, with him, vaniished iho power
of Thebes.

Meanwhile, Maccdon, hithfrio scarcely known in
Grecian history, was rising to pmver a:id eminence.
Philip came to the tiirotio, B, C. *3G0. The situation
of parties in Greece f'uriiisliod him with a favourable
opportunity of interferini'; witli i(s affair,'?. By a series
of able manccuvres, partly military, tuid pi illy iliplo-
riiatical, ho gradually extended his influence, till ho wa.s
elec'ed general of the combined Greek army. It was
to resist his growing influence, that the celebrated
Demosthenes exerted his unexampled eloquence. At
length Athens and ]\Iacedon camo into direct conflict
with one another ; and the result was, that the Athenian
army was defeated at Chtrronea. This biitth', which
annihilated for ever the independence of the Greek
fetates, was fought, B. C. 'S'^S.

Philip was now trie first potciitale of Greece, and
began almost immediately to make pre^/ti rations for in-
vading Persia with the united (ircek army. But, in tho
midst of his preparations, he was assar'.sinated by a young
Macedonian of rank, leaving his crown ;uid his enter-
prise to his son Alexander.

On Alexander\s coming to tho throne, his first care
was to establish his authority in Greece. Some
symptoms of resistance to hirn v.orc manifested in
Athens and Thebes ; but he su Idenly ar)poared in tho
heart of Greece with aii army, and cruKlicd all opposi-
tion. Thebes held out against him; but a skirmish
taking place between his troops and tho Thebans,
before the walls of the city, which brought on a general
engagement, the Th(d>ans were defeated and fled. Tho
troops of Alexander follow in^j. closely, entered the city

148

along with thcni ; and tlic soldiers, finding tliemselves
within the city without any control, and many of them
brloru;iiij<T to citios o\fM* whicli llio Thebana had do-
niinpor( d with tho ulinost prido jind insoloner' bpjran
un IiKliscriiiiiiiati' iu;is'>;t('r<>, iuid iilli'iiiitcly jovoilod tlm
city to the jimund — murd'.'fiii'j;. or Mi;d;in.'j!; f'.hivos of mU
tLio in!);d)it;Mits. 'J^iii.s (.'xccuii')!! slriif !< .t'Tror into tlui
rest of'Clrcoc; and onivh' >d Alo\;ind"r to carry for-
Avard his suhoino ot" tho iiiva.d'ui oC IN^i'sia, without in-
tcrniptiou.

Ahwnndcr thru ^•|■o^;spd tiic [I('rii'sj>ont, B. C. .^34,
into Asi;i Minor. There lie VvMS mot by tho Persian
troops, whom lie drfoatt^l at the passage of tho Grani-
cus ; and lluis eli-iircd his way to tlio posscsRion of the
whole of Asiii Minor. After air:m.ij;injT the aflhirs of
Atjia Miiuu',. iif procooil^d towavd:^ iSyria, and crossing
Mount Tau'rus, encountered the Persian army, under
Darius Codomnnnus, at Lssus, and totally defeated it.
He thru proer(<d(Ml alon<x t!ie soa-coast of Syria, pos-
scssin_!x l)imself ot the vaiious towns on his route. ITo
was n^sisiod by Tyre, hut after a sioj^re of ivvo years,
took it by stor)n, and destroyed it. lie then proceeded
to KL'.}pt, v.diieh IMI easily iiiio his frauds ; and there
he fijuiided i!ie city oi' Al.'xandria. llaviui:; sf^ttled the
atlairs of Syria and lC.<.',ypt, he proceeded eastward
towards Ptnv ia, where the Persian king had been pre-
paring an army to rrsi-it him. T!ie two armies met at
Gaugamahi, near Ai'hila, on the east of the Tigris;
where the INrsi.ui army was again defeated, and thus
the fate of vVsi-a was decided. Darius tied to Ecba-
tana, and at\erwards to Bactria, where he way a^Jsas-
sinated.

Alexander then took possession of Babylon. Ho
afterwards occupied himsdf in subduing some of the
neiffhbouriuir tribes. He crossed the Indus, and gained
gome victories over the people that inhabited these
regions. But here his soldiers mutinied, refusing to ac-
company him further, so that he was under the neces-
sity of returning westward. He camo to Babylon,
where he died of fe\er, supposed by some to have beep
ppcasioned by poison, B. C. 323.

140

Rome. — From the time tlint Rome hcciimc a repuh-
i'lQ, its liistory, lor sovorul coiUurios, is ocoupiod cliinfly
by (lissensit'tis, situilnr to llioso in ilrooc<^, hftweon ,tlie
palriciiins or iiol>l(>s, aiifl the plchrinns or [)(Y)pl<', and by
Witrs ibr suprcmacv, witli ibo nrM"lil)oiiiiiM>; states. Tho
goneriil toiulfiuiy ol' tlie movomfnt.s tli:it wen^ tMlvIn;^
plaoc if till' city, was towards u (b-inotracy. Tho j>a.
tricians bad assuuiccl to ibfMiisrlves tho excdusivo 5.fov-
crrmKMJt of tho pcf^plo ; but ihti poople, as thr^y came to
understand thoir iii;portance and wci'^ht, grachj illy vin-
dicated their owji ri;ihls. In one ot' these contests, nn
anny in liu; lidd deserted the consuls, and oncainped in
the vicinity of Rome; and the pntrieiah.s were reduced
to tlic humiliating nece^ ty of proposing terms to the
plebeians.

Tiie ciiief incident of importance, in this part of Ro-
nian history, is tiie invasion of tli(^ Gauls, lirennus had
attacked one of tho northern states, that were in treaty
with the RomanH. The Romans intirjiosed f(jr the
assistance of their allies. The Gauls nisd Romans came
to a battle, near thf> eily of Rome. Tho Roinan army
was entirely deflated, ihe city taken and bunied, and
the Capiiol, or citadel, closely besieged. The Romans
were constrained to purchase tho retreiit of tiie Gauls,
(B. C. asri ) by giving tiani 1000 pounds of gold. This
was during the reign cd" Artaxerxos Mnem«)n, king of
Persia. It was Jiot till the year 200, B. C. that the Ro-
mans were masters of all Italy.

Cautiiage. — This city was still growing in opulence
and power. It was busily engaged m attempting to
make conquests — the chief ol\ject oT iis military opera-
tions being Sicily. The object of the Cartliagiiiians
was to obtain possession of that Island ; but in that they
never succeeded. The sea coasts of Sicily were colo-
nized by Greeks ; and they, partly by their superior
military tactics, and partly by obtaining aid from Greece,
frustrated every attempt of Carthage, powerful as she
was, to enslave them.

■ 13*

lAO

FROM THE DEATH OF AIJO:\:A.NDEil, li. C. J:2:J,
. TO THE BIRTH OF CHlilriT.

Ahxamler, lidviiiu; ilicd ii young man, loft no clilMrer.
qupable of a.s>miMiii;jr the govi'i'iiiTUMit f»f his cmpii'o,
This circumstance imniediately linl to v. il)alj and in-
trigues ai.iong his principal ()Hi(^crs — tho object of which
was, to secure, cajii for iiiui.-;o]f, as great a ;-i'i:.rc of tho
empire as possible. At iirst, an attempt was luad;^ to
erect a governniont in the inimo of one of Alexander y
cliildrcn, with one of tho Macedonian generals for hi.i
J>r6tcctor ; the provinces being ilistributed among olher
generals, as governors. Tlie centrid government, how-
ever, wanted strength to keep the governors in subor-
dination. Every one soon sought not only to make
himself an indepondent piince, but to seize on his neigli-
hour's territory. Thon f )llo\ved a scene of confusion, of
treachery, and of bloodshed, such as the world has
scarcely ever witnessed. One of tho first results was,
that the whole family of Alexander were successively
murdered. Olympias, his mother, tho wife of Philip,
perished by the hand of thy executioner. At length,
after nearly all of tho generals of Alexander had fallen
in battle, or had b(!en mui'dered, the result of tho
struggle was the partition of tho en^pire into four
kingdoms, as predicted by Daniel the prophet. To
Ptolemy Lagus were allotted Egypt, Lybia, Arabia,
Ccelo-Syria, and Palestine. To Ca.ssandcr, tiie son of
Antipater, (whom Alexancer had left in Greece, to
watch over his interests there,) were allotted Mace-
donia and Greece. To f^ysimachus, Thrace, Blthynia,
and some other Asiatic provinces ; and to Soleucus, all
the other parts of Asia, as far as India. I>ut, although
these four kingdoms were thus formed out of Alex-
ander's empire, there was no cessation of hostilities.
Pn the contrary, there were alniost perpetual wars
among them, till they were all swallowed up by the
Roman empire.

151

Syuia. — Tl.c llrr;•'•^l of ►'■'x Icucus at l^ahylon, B. G*
yi'2, to tiiko [>n:;sfy"I',)ij of il'.t> oa.jtoiii provinces of
Alcxaudcr'y tjupirr. .vUir liaviiii^ bei ii obliged by
Atiligonus, to fly Jo I''(;\ pi, is call »1 IIk! era of tho
S.'liHiciila.', which y'\}u) iin-nris the (Icscoiidaiity of
SoKiuciis ; aii.l wa:'* jIim (■•••i whicii was long in use in
tlio cast, for CMni}>ut.i.u_M; Imi ".

Sc/ciicus WHH a iifiAict? of n-rcat talent, and niucl^
hilovud by I:is sulfj'v.ts, I'm' Jii.-; <.^rcat clemency, llo
was at war with AiitJrro,*"'^, us .soon us lie canio to the
tlirono; and sit I'ln.^ih tau^cfodril in defeating and
shiyitifj; him in battle, rt I'^^ii;-!. 1!<' luid ivysimacbus
were now tho only tairviviHu f!;ener.i!.s of Alexander.
When both wen; abnit ht:v' uty ytars of aj^e, they
wont to war with oue nhoLhcr, : iid liVsimachus was»
slain. Soon afierwards. S. lii:c,us hin.sclf was treacher-
%usly miirdert'd. SeU lu us UviiU many cities, 10 of
which he named Antiooiu. ul'tcv tho name of iiiy son, tho
laost celt'hrated of \\ hiidj wu** Antioch in Jsyriu on tho
Orontes ; several he niimed tSch ucia, fit)m his own
name, and several A()aii);a. tVoiu the name of his wile.
Si'leueus was succeeded by

Anllochus ^'olvr, who ri;',.n(d 19 years, and was
succeeded, 1>. C. 201, hy hi.-, .son,

Auliochiis II. or Tluo.<. — I'avino divorced his wife,"
Laodice, for Berenice, dan\.dit( r of Ptolemy, kisjg of
Ejfypt; and on the dealh of I'tob my, having pnt
away Berenice, and talvoi Uack Laexllce; the latter,
to secure herself from I'lurher dis;>raee, poisoned him,
uiul rai-scd her son, Stl. ucus» to tlie thron;^, B. C 246.

Seieucu.ii II. or Ciilintcas, vvitb iiis wicked motlier,
then put Berenice and her son to de.ith ; which bo
enraged her brother, Ptolemy, Umt ho invaded .the
dominions of Seleucus, and ^>i;ttiu,(4- T...ijLodico into his
hands, put her to death. Scleneus e>»barkcd in i-v<
expedition into Pailhia, where bo ws^.s Jnfeated, taken
prisoner, and after four years' eactiviw, 4W. He was
succeeded by

Seleucus III. or Ceraunus, who af^e** reigning ono
year, was poisoned by two of his olV»o°'>»

Anliochus, surnarued the Gre»t;. wnTwde^ 'nrn.

152

His reign was a continued sorifs of wars with the
noiglibouring princes, particularly Ptolemy Philopator,
king of Egypt, and A.r.sncrs, king of Parlhia, which led
to no inipovtant or j)orniancnt result. His reign is
remarkable for liiiviji;.-; first given occasion to the
Romans to interfiro in llio affairs of tlio east. Ptole-
my, king of Egyi)t, dying and leaving a son only five
vears old, to succeed him, Antiochus formed a con-
spiracy with Philip, king of Macedon, to seize on his
dominions. Upon this, the Alexandrians sent to Rome
for protection, which was readily granted ; and Anti-
ochus was required, on the authority of the Roman
republic, to desist from his attempt on Egypt. Anti.
ochus, afterwards, on the advice of Hannibal, the cele-
brated Carthaginian general, made war with the Ro-
mans : but was ultimately defeated, and was oblige^
to purchase peace on the most ignominious termsr
Antiochus was afterwards slain, when he was attempt-
ing to rob the temple of Jupiter at Elymais.

Seleucns IV. surnnmed Philopator, succeeded him,
B. C. 187. After a reign of twelve years, he died,
leaving his throne to

Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphavcs, one of the most
blood-thirsty and barbarous tyrants, that ever dis,.
graced any throne. The Romans, now in effect, gave
Jiiws to Syria, so that when Antiochus hesitated about
obeying some of the commands of the Senate, the
Roman ambassador drew a circle around him, and
insisted on receiving an answer before he should leave
that spot. It was this prince, who, by his outrageous
persecution of the Jews, drove them to exasperation ;
and stirred up that successful resistance of his authority,
which is recorded in the two books of Maccabees. In
the midst of this Jewish war, he went on an expedition
to the east. In his absence, his generals were de-
feated by the Jews ; on which, he hastened back to
revenge himself upon them ; but died miserably on
his journey. v_

After his death, the Syrian throne fell a prey to a
Buccession of usurpers and impostors, who rapidly
followed one anpther, and whose names it is no^

15a

necefipnry to record. The last of thnm wns Anliockua
Asialkus. In his roign, Pon)pry, the Roman general,
overran his doniiiiion.s and r<!(lucf'<l Syria to a Roman
province, 0. C. Oo. v * '^ ' "

EaypT. — Ptolemy Ln^iis', aflcrw.inls Soler, who ob-
tained as his share of yVlcxandor's empire, Egypt and
the ncighhouring cfjuntrics, reigned 39 years. He
greatly end)ellished the city of Alexandria, which he
made the capital of his dominions. He was, like
Selcucns I. the best of his race. He died about 284
years B. C. and was succeeded by

Ftokmy Philadelphus. — The most important events
of the reign of this prince were, his founding the
celebrated Alexandrian library ; his causing the Sacred
Scriptures of the Jews to be translated into Greek,
which translation is still extant, under liie name of the
3eptuagint Version, from the tradition that seventy
persons were employed in executing it ; and his
opening a port on the western side of the Red Sea,
by which he drew the commerce of the east from
Tyre, to Alexandria, his capital. He was the first
JEgyptian king, who entered into an alliance with the
Romans.

Ptolemy Euergetes. —rThis name, which signifies
benefactor, was given to him by the Egyptians, be-
cause ho restored to them the idols, which had been
parried away by Cambys(js into Pcn^sia. In a war with
Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, he proved successful ;}
and greatly enlarged his dominions towards the east.
He also extended his kingdom southward, on both
sides of the Red Sea, even to the straits of Babelman-
del. He died in the 27th year of his reign, B. C. 221,
During these reigns, the Jews enjoyed, at Alexandria.,
the same privileges with the Macedonians ; and this
induced great multitudes of that nation to settle there.
Ptolemy Euergetes was succeeded by

Ptolemy Philopator, who began his reign by the
murder of his brother Magas ; and then gave himself
up to universal licentiousness. His kingdom fell into
confusion, and cpnt|riued so until ins death, B. C. 204,

154

Tlie Jewg were threatened in this rcinn with extirpation,
lor refusing to worship tho Egyptian idols ; but were,
ns their historians say, miraculously preserved, and
restored to their privileges.

PLoIemy Epiii/iaiics succoodcd hhn, when ho was an
infant, of live years old. Scipio had ju.st defeated iho
Carthaginians, and lorccd them to humiliating terms of
peace ; and tho young king v/as, as hivs already been
mentioned, threatened by the kingy of Syria and
Macedon ; but tho Alexandrians {)laced him under the
protection of the Romans. Ptolemy, on coming of
Jige, by his mal-administration, drove the Egyptians
into rebellion. He, however, crushed the rebellion ;
and ' after having granted terms of peace to tho
revolted nobles, put them nil to death. lie was
soon after poisoned, !>. C. 181, and thus left his
dominions tjo . '' ;-'•-. > -<v-

Ptolemy Phi/omcicr, a cliild of six years old, under the
tuition of his mother CKopatra. In a war, v.hich he
had with the kin^s of Syria, towards tlio beoitjninu of
his reign, he was made prisoner; and this induced tho
Alexandrians to raise his brother,

Ptolemy PhyscQii to the throne. — Ptolemy Philometer,
however, recovered his liberty ', and the two brothei-j
flit first united in opj)usilion to Antioohus Epij)hanes,
who was seeking an i>pi)ortunity of availing himself of
the distracted state of tiie kingdom, to obtain possession
of it. Antiochus then proposed to invade Egypt; but
was* prevented from doing no, by the intervention of
tho Romans. Philometer was one of the best of that
race; and Physcon, one of the very worst. Under
the sanction of the Romans, Philometer reigned in
Egypt, and Piiyscon in I ibya and Cyrene. Philometer
was slain in battle with Demetrius king of Syifa, and
Cleopatra, his queen, attempted to secure the kingdom
for her son : but Physcon making pretensions to it, ho
married her, and then nuirdered her son in her arms.
Tho remainder of his reign was a continual series of
the most revolting crimes. He died, B. C. 117, and
was succeeded by

Ptolemy Latkyruti —Cleopatra, mother of Lathyru^,

155

attempted to govern liim nrid tlio kingdom ut the samo
time; but finding liiin not '.■ud'u-'i'-'Wt]:/ tr; clr.blc, sho
instigated tlio Aloxnndria)^.^ to drive him A'om the
throne, and to piano hjs yonngnr iTrotlier Alexander,
upon it. lie, finding li!« nioiher's dict;i1ion insup-
portable, caused linr to he mnrdercd. He was then
driven from the tiimne by the ps-opl^^, av1-o would not
have a matricide for tlioir king ; and Latliyrus was
recalled . Thebes Avas one of the cities wiiich had
rebelled against Latliyrus, an.d it continued to resist
him; but, after a tiiren years' Mi<ge, lie took it, and
gave it up to plunder and devastation : so that it
never afterwards recovered its former influence and
splendour. On the death of Lathyrus, he was suc-
ceeded by

Alexander II. under the protection of the Romans,
among whom he had lived. The Alexandrians had, in
the mean time, chosen Cleopatra for their sovereign ;
arid oh {he arrival of Alexander, it was agreed that he
should marry her. This was done, but nineteen daya
afterwards, he murdered her ; and afterwards con-
tinuing to perpetrate the most horrildo crimes, the
people rose up against him, and obliged him to flee for
protection to Pompey, the cclr'brated Roman general.
He soon afterwards diedj leaving all his rights to the
Roman people, declaring them to be the heirs of his
kingdom.

Ptolemy Auleles was heir to the throne ; and en-
deavoured to obtain possession of the kingdom, by tho
consent of the Roman Senate, among whom he ex-
pended largo sums of money. After many disappoint-
ments, he at length obtained the crown, and held if
for four years. On his death, he left a son and two
daughters under the tuition of the Roman people. One
of these daughters was the celebrated Cleopatra, who
makes" so conspicuous a figure in the civil wars of Rome.
With Cleopatra ended the race of the Ptolemies,
who had reigned over Egypt, for the space of 294
years. Egy pt then became a province of the Roman
empire. , '

156

In the other two kingdoms, namely, Thuacb (uf
Mackdon, into which Aloxundor's cinpiro was divide^,
no events uHectiiig the jjenorul liistxjry of the wo. id,
took phice, cxcf^pt mich us wero coiuioctod with the
history of" Roiu(>, till thoy wore botlj swallowed up in
that ull-abyorhing empire. We, tliorefore, j)rocecd to
give a brief view of liio history of

Rome, from the nj;e of Alexander, till the advent
of tho Saviour of tlio World. The last and most
formidablo enemy, that tho Romans met with, in their
wars to obtain ll»o sovereignty of Itnly, was Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus. Ho was brouglit into Italy by the
Samnitcs and Tarentines, to assist thorn against the
Romans ; and it was not till after n six years' war, that
tho Romans were able to expel them. Pyrrhus waa
killed at thd siege of Argos, B. C. 272f; after which,
the unsubdued states of Italy submitted to Rome.

Soon after thi.s, tlie Romans were engaged in the
first war with the Carthaginians ; usually called the
first Punic War, from the Carthaginian name, PoBni, ot
Phojni, which they had, as being descended from the
Phoenicians. This war was occasioned Uy the Car.
thaginians having possession of part of Sicily, and
grasping at possession of the rest. The Mamertines,
having been defeated by Hiero, king of Syracuse, and
reduced to great distress, had resolved to surrender the
city of Messina to him j when Hannibal, the Cartha-
ginian general, obtained possession of it by gtratagem.
The Mamertines called in tho assistance of the Romans ;
and thus brought Rome and Carthage into direct colli-
sion. The war continued 24 years ; and ended in the
Romans obtaining possession of Sicily, and forcing the
Carthaginians to conclude a peace on very disadvan-
tageous terms.

The interval between the first and second Punic
Wars, was occupied in subduing some tribes of Italy
that had revolted; and also in taking possession of
Corsica, Sardinia, and Malta. The second Punic War
was purposely provoked by the younger Hannibal, novl"
general of the Carthaginian army. He found a pre.

167

text ibr oflaoktng Sognntum, a city In alllanoe with
Rome.- The Romans remonstrated, but in vain ; and
war was tlie consequence. Hannibal, having takoa
measures for securing Africa and Spain, crossed th»
Pyrenees, and then contirjucd liis march to the Rhone.
This he passed, in the face of some opposition from tha
Gauls ; and tiicn^ scaling the Alps with his army, h«
descended into the plains of Italy. There, by a seriett
of able measures, military and diplomatic, he main<<
tained himself for 10 years ; defeated the Romans id
Beveral pitched battles, — namely, at Ticinium, at
Trebiaf at Thrasymene, and at CanncB ; and brought
Rome itself into the most imminent danger. Had he
been supported by liis country, as its interests required|
1m probably might have turned the scale permanently
in its favour. But an envious faction at honre ref<ised
him the necessary supplies ; and, for a consideTlAbld
time, he eould do Httle nrare in Italy, than maintaiil
Ms ground. At length Scipio, the Roman general,
after defeating the Carthaginian forces in Spain,
passed over to Africa, and threatened Carthage itself.
Hannibal was then recalled to defend his native city<
He left Italy with regret, and contrary to his own
judgment. He encountered Scipio at Zama ; but his
army, consisting chiefly of mercenaries, was unequal to
the army which Scipio commanded, and was defeated,
B. C. 196. Peace was then made on terms for Car-
thage still more humiliating.

The Romans, however, were not satisfied with
Immbling this rival republic. It was a favourite maxim
with some of their statesmen, that Carthage should be
overturned. An opportunity soon occurred of re-
newing hostilities. The Carthaginians were anxious
to avoid war, and made many extraordinary conces-
sions; but nothing would satisfy the Rnmans. They
proposed .hat Carthage should be destroyed, and a
city, to accommodate the inhabitants, buiit 10 miles
inland. This proposal drove the Carthaginians to
despair, and they determined to resist to the utter-
most. The city was besieged ; the peopfle defended
themselves with the greatest resolution; but, being
'.V 14

158

l!>etrayed . by one of their own ilizeiis, the city was
taken Jby storm, and destrnycd B. i'. I4tr,

The manner in which the Roiwnns wc/o led to inter,
fero ill the affairs of Eg3-pt, on the ncccssion of Ptolemy
Philometcr, has already hrrn related.

Similar causes led to llicir iiiicrference in the affairs
of Greece. After the deatli of Pyrrlius, king of Epirus,
the Macedonian kings resumed their authority over
Greece. An effort was made by a confederacy among
the Gre9k states, called tiie Acha?an league, to assert
their h*^rties ; but, in consequence of their mutual
jealousies, and want of good faitli, they never shook
off the shackles, in which Philip, the father of Alex-
ander, had bound them. At length, the ambition of
tho Macedonian king, induced him first to enter into
a league with Hannibal, and afterwards to engage
in an enterprise against Egypt, which was under the
protection of the Romans. These aggressions, toigether
with an application for protection from Athens, induced
the Senate to declare war against Maccdon, B. C. 200.
This contest lasted four years, when Philip, having
been defeated by tho Consul Flaminius, agreed to
peace. Philip died B. C. 179, being in the interval
between the second and third Punic Wars, and dur-
ing the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria.
Perseus, his son, succeeded him, iind immediately be-
gan to make preparation for war with Rome. The
Romans, anticipating him, sent an army against Ma-
cedon. Perseus at first defeated the Romans ; but was
tiltimately defeated by the Consul, Paulus ^Emilius.
When the Romans first defeated Philip, they pro-
claimed freedom to Greece ; and the infatuated Greeks
exulted as if they were really free. They seefri to
have forgotten that, by receiving tlieir freedom from
Rome, they put it in the power of Rome to take it
away. Accordingly, in the same year that the Romans
destroyed Carthage, their Consul Mummius destroyed
Corinth ; and reduced Greece to the rank of a Roman
province, B. C. 14t).

Not long after this, a contest commenced between
the patricians and plebeiauM, which ended not, till i'

150

fwd oiftsfcted the ruin of the ropublic, Tlboriii^
Gracchus, a tribune, proposed to revive the Agruriaii
or Sempronian law, by which no citizen was peiiriitted
to hold above 500 acres of conquered lands. This
attempt so irritated the senators, that during the
tumult of an election, they assassinated Gmcchus, and
300 of his partizans. His brother Cains (Iracchus,
when tribune, made a similar attempt ; and on his
return to a private station, was porsccutf d to death.
Thus was begun, by the senators^ that system of
persecution, wliich very soon fell most heavily u]M>n
themselves. In the meanwhile, however, the repiibliq
continued to be successful in its foreign wars ; and
country after country was annexed to tlie empire by
bonqile^, or by treaties, or by the bequests of sovercigtl
princes.

The next important transaction, in which the Romania
were engaged, was the war against Jugurtha, king of
Numidia; He had come to the tlirone l)y the murder
of his uncle's sons, Hicmpsal and Adherbtil. An ap-
peal was made to the Romans against the treacliery
and oppressions of .Tugurtha ; and they made war on
him, and ultimately took him prisoner, and brought
him to Rome ; where he was strangled in the prison.
In thiis war, the celebrated Marius fiist distinguished
himself.

The Cimbri and Teutoncs, threatening to cover Italy
with desolation, Marius was sent against tliem, and de-
bated them with immense slaughter.

But the ambition and revengeful spirit of Marius"
brought innumerable calamities upon the republic. Ho
proposed again the execution of the Agnirian law,
relative to the lands recently recovenjd from their
enemies. This produced the social war, — so called
because it was a war of the Italian states upon Rome,
provoked by the operation of the Agrarian law. It
lasted three years ; and, after a slaughter of more tlian
300,000 men, the-Senate succeeded in pulting a stop to
it, by granting, in part, the demands of the allies,
B.C. 87. j-r^^.K^-y^r

The next importaiit war in which the Romans wet©

160

cngffge(T, TTOB tho( with Mithridates, king of Pontm
This prince ohtaincd possession of Phrygia, by bribing
one of the Roman generals. He was driven out of it,
by Sylla j ami tiii;* oipiilsion laid the foundation of
determined enmity to the Romaics. He proved one
of the most fonnidiihlo rnomifs llioy ever had. He
was, however, subdued, and ibrued to sue for peace.
But this war was the oeeasion of more disastrous conse>
quences to the state, than the resistance of Mithridates.
Sylla and Marius contended for the privilege of con-
ducting the war, which was likely to prove Lucrative.
Marius gained the popular inter* st, an(I was appomtedf
to the command ; but Sylla marched to Rome, with six
legions, proscribed Marius, and eleven of his adherents,
who fled. Sylla, now deeming himself secure, returned
to prosecute the war with Mithrnl'ates; but Marius
returned to Rome, massacred great numbers of citizens
and distinguished senators, and abrogated the laws of
Sylla. Marius then caused himself to be elected
consul with Cinna : b»t survived his election only six-
teen days.

Italv, on Svlla's return, became the theatre of civil
war; in which Carbo the Consul, and the younger
Marius were slain. Sylla, every where victorious,
entered Rome its triumph, trampled on the laws, pro-
srribed' 80 senators, and several thousands of citizens,
»mf gave up his enemies to military execution. Julius
Cesar, who was nephew of Marius, narrowly escaped
the carnage, whil^j Pompey was a zealous pai'tizan- of
Sylla.. Sylk died, B. C. 78. - . : .. , it • >r 1

The eivil wai- still cmitinived ; and also a servile war
against about 40,000 rebel slaves raged. Pompey so
much distinguished himself in these wars, that he was
vested with the supremo command of the Roman army^
and sent against Mithridates, king of Pontus, whonr he
subdued ; and canyinj^ tho war boyund Pontus, he
subdued Armenia, Syria, and Palestine. From these
conquests, he returned to Rome, B. C. 63.

Meanwhile, Julius Cesar waa signalizing himself i*
the west. Returning in triumph from Spain, he found
Rome divided into two factions j the one attached to

161

t*omp«y, the other to Crftssns, who was the richest of
the citizens. Those men, Ci-sar had the address to
unite and to bring to an agrocmeut to form a tri-
umvirate with hini, the object of which was, to divide
Jhe government amonj^ themselves. They accordingly
partitioned the provinces among them : Pompey taking
Spain ; Crassus, Syria ; and Cesar, Gaul.

Crassus, on entering on his province, made war on
Parthia ; and was defeated, and slain. This broke up
the triumvirate; for Pompey and Cesar, coming into
direct collision, a contest immediately arose, whc
should be at the head of the state. Pompey ha4 chief
influence in the senate ; Cesar among the soldiers.
Cesar marched to Rome, and forced Pompey to retii'e.
Pompey went to Greece, where he raised an army
Jo withstand Cesar. Thither Cesar followed him : and
encountering him at Pharsalia, totally defeated him
Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherouslj
murdered. Cesar, after this battle, overran Egypt,
Syria, and Pontus, and then returned to Rome.
Pompey's party was not yet extinct : one portion of »
was in Africa. Thither Cesar went, and defeated it*
Another part of it, was in Spain : thither he next led
his army, and overthrew it. He then returned to»
Rome, where he was greeted by the acclamations of
the citizens ; but, almost immediately afterwards, was
assassinated in the senate-house, at the foot of Pom-
pey's statue.

His death rekindled the flames of war. The senate
had its interests to promote ; Antony, master of the
horse, had his ; and Octavius, Cesar's sister's grandson,
then only 18 years of age, had views and interests
different from both. After a series of intrigues and
treacheries, a second triumvirate was formed, consisting
of Octavius, who had assumed the name of Cesar
Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus. The temporary
alliance between these three, was founded upon a
proscription of the enemies of each : and 300 senators
and 2000 knights being included in this proscription, it
soon filled Rome with bloodshed and terror. The
triumvirate then proceeded to subdue the conspirators

14*

1G2

ngainst Cesar. Tho contest wns (kcided in Greece }
flio last decisive battle bring foiigbt at Pbilippi. After
the death of tho conspinitors, tho triumvirs divided the
Roman empire among thorn. Antony, by this par-
tition, Went to Egypt, to govern the eastern kingdoms.
'I'herc he met with the notorious Cleopatra, and was
so fascinated by her, that he censed from that time to
attend to his own interests with energy. Meanwhile
Octavianus, whose unceasing aim w.-is to centre tho
supreme power in his own person, easily found means
to undermine Lepidus, to deprive him of all authority,
and force him into banishment, where he died in
obscurity. He then contrived to quarrel with Antony.
The pretence was the insult which Antony had offered
to his sister, whom he had married, and then deserted
for Cleopatra. The war was decided by a naval
engagement at Actium, in which Antony was defeated.
He fled to Egypt, whither Octavianus followed him;
and, finding it impossible to retrieve his affairs, he put
himself to death. Cleopatra, also, after a fruitless
attempt to gain Octavianus, caused herself to be bitten
by an asp, and died. Octavianus thus became sole
monarch of the Roman empire, B. C. 27, — and received
from the senate, the title, Augustus, by which title he
is usually known. Augustus, having firmly fixed him.
self in the sovereign authority, his ferocious character
Beems greatly to have softened ; and he employed
himself sedulously in promoting the welfare of his
empire. It was in the 23rd year of the reign of Augustus
Cesar, when the empire was in profound peace, that
the Saviour of the World was born at Bethlehem.
The Christian era began four years later. The reason
of this was, that the birth of the Saviour was not used
as an era for the computation of time, till some cen-
turies afterwards; and, in computing the time back-
wards, a mistake was made of four years ; so that his
birth really took place in the year of the world, 4000 ;
although, in consequence of this error, the Christian
era corresponds to the year of the world 4004.

JuDEA.— The only country besides Rome, whose

163

nffairs,- during this poriod, it is nrcossnry to notioo> is
Judpn. Aftor tho doatli ol" Alexander, tlio Jews fell
under the dominion ulte'niately ol" the K^vptian nnd
Syrian kings, as the one or the other wore uhlc to tuko
possession of Palestine. Judeu was, con.'fqueiitly,
during this period, almost constantly the the it re of
war. Antiochus Epiphanes, on his accession to th<
throne of Syria, B. C. 175, heing much in want of
money, received an ofler of n.")() talents from Jason, thd
brother of the high priest, on condition that he shoul<\
be made high priest instead of Onias, and that Onias
should be confined for life at Antioch, This contract
was completed. Jason entered on the oflice, and
being a zealous aduiirer of Greek customs, ho sus.
ponded the worship of Clod in tiie temjile, and gave
himself up to Paganism. Jason was afterwards sup-
planted, in the same manner, by Menelaus, another
brother, who otferod 300 talents more, for the high-
priesthood. A report afterwards, reached Jerusalem,
that Antiochus was dead. The people could not
refrain from expressing their joy, which coming to the
ears of Antiochus, he entered the city, and put to
death, it is said, 40,000 of the inhabitants, and sold-
as many more for slaves. Sonie years afterwards,
Antiochus having been mortified by the Romans,
resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews, antl sent
his general with the moc;t sanguinary orders to put an
end to their religion. Ji. scene of carnage then com-
menced that has hardly any parallel in history, till the
people were driv«Mi to des])erati()n ; when a priest
named Mattatiiias collects d a small body of resoluto
men, and, after many struggles, succeeded in driving
the Syrian army beyond the boi'ders of the kingdom.
He was succeeded by his son, the rcinowned Judas
Maccabaius, who defeated the Syrians in five pitched
battles, and baffled all their attemj)ts to recover Pales-
tine. Antiochus was in Persia, wiiilst this revolutior
was taking place in Judea. Mad with rage, he hastenec
back, breathing out slaughter and destruction agains.
tl)e Jews, when he was seized with h mortaJ di>i»ease,

164

and died at Tabji>, a town on the frontiers of Persia
and Babylonia. Tiie Syrian generals renewed the war,
and were defeated rcj)eMt»'(lly by Judas, who was at
length slain in battle, li. C. 161, and was succeeded by
Jonathan, his brother. Jonathan conducted the affairs
of the nation with the same prudence and success, till
he was treacherously murdered. He was succeeded
in the command by his brother, Simon ; who, after
governing wisely, for some years, was murdered by
Ptolemy, who had married his daugiiter. Simon was
pucceeded by his son,

John Hyrcanns, wlio took the title of king. He was
the first king after the caj)tivity ; and in his reign, the
nation rose to greater prosperity than it had enjoyed at
any period since tlic restoration. On his death, B. C.
107, he was, succeeded by

Arislohuhts, his eldest son, who proved a tyrant
and a murderer. After a short reign, he was sue-
ceeded by

Alexander JanncBiis, B. C. lO.'j, who made some con-
quests to the eastward of Jordan. Returning from his
conquests and triumphs, he gave himself up to luxury
lEmd dissipation ; and brought upon hirnaelf diseasiss, of
which he died. He was succeeded by

Alexandra, his wife, B. C. 78, during the contests of
Mithridates, king of Pontus, against the Roman power.
In her reign, the Pharisees having obtained her ear,
rose to influence, and persecuted the party that was op,
posed to them. She died B. C. 70, and was sue.
ceeded by

Hyrcanus, her eldest son ; who, in three months, was
driven from the kingdom by

AristohuluSi -his younger brother. It was in the con-
test between these two brothers, that Antipater, an
Idumaean proselyte, and the father of Herod, the first
of that name, came into notice. Under pretence of
supporting the cause of Hyrcanus, he contrived to ingra-
tiate himself with the Romans, and, after Jerusalem was
taken by Pompy, B. C. 63, in the war that ensued be^
tween Csesar and Pompey, Antipater found an oppor.

165

tdnity of obtaining the fuvor of the former, and the re-
suit was, that

Herod, his son, was made lun^r of Judea, hy Mark
Antony, n. C 40. 11«' hoeam • oiv. of tlif; luoA l'iii'if)us
blooil-lhirsty tyiMufs, whose nanins sliiin iho p-'iS'^ of
history. He hud iiinrried the diuightcr uf llyrcuuiis,
through whom his fiuuily en)r)yc'(l all its dignity and in-
fluonce. Becoming joalous of" the rank which she pos-
ficssod independently of him, he caused hor and all her
family to be put to dtnitli. After he was fanily .settled
on the throne, he set hhiwclf to beautify his dominions.
He rebuilt Samaria ; culling it Sebiiste, in honour of
Augustus Cosar. He built a stutfly palace on Mount
Zion : he also built the city of Ccsiiroa ; which name
ivas given to it also in honour of Augustus. But his
most celebrated work was the rebuilding of the temple
at Jerusalem, on a scale of great magnilicence. It was
towards the close of his reign, that the Lord Jesus
Christ was born at Bethlehem ; on v.hicli occasion he
caused all the infants in Bethlehem, under the age of
two years, to be m;issacred in cold blood, in the hope
that itiie new-born MessiiUi would poriyh ai«ong thom.
He soon aftci' died himself, in extreme torture, leaving
his dominions divided among his four sons; who, from
their iaheriting a fourth part of the kingdom, were called
Tctrarchs. , One of these sons was that Herod, tetrarch
of Galilee, who put to death John the Baptist, and who
derided our blesac^i Lord, when he was sent to him by
Piiate the Roman governor. Archelaus had Judea for
his province ; hut iiicurring the enmity of his subjects,
they accused him at Rome, and ultimately procured his
banishment. Judea was then made a Roman province,
and continued to be so- till the destruction of Jerusa-
1cm ; except for a few years, during which by the fa-
vour of Caligula and Claudius, that Herod reigned, who
put to death the apostle James, and imprisoned Peter ;
and who, after a vain-glorious speech, was smitten with
the diseases of which he died. Agrippa and Bernice,
befpi^e whom Paul pleaded his cause, while Festus was

IGO

Roman govorfior, wore alsoof llie same family. Agrip.
5>n, reigned howcvfM-, not over Judea, but over some of

he neiffhoouriniT districts.

MODb^N ITISTORY.

That portion of the history of the worh,^, which fol
lowed the birth of the [jord Jesus Clirist, may fitly ht
v;alled Modern llistvxy ; Ix'cnuso the institutions of the
pmpire of Rome, uiiich tiicii liad reached its height,
still continue (o iuihionco tiie western world; and par-
ticularly, Ijocauso that groat revolution of religion, and
generally of tlie human mind, which then commenced,
has continued to advance ; and, in the present day. U
proceeding with unabuti <1, or rather renewed, vigor^r.

This portion of iiistory, like that which preceded it,
froui the creation of the world, might also be regarded
as distributed into periods of 5t)U years, by romarkable
eras. The iirst period of 500 years, after the Ciirislian
era, is marked pretty nearly by the reign of Justinian,
and the fall of the western empire. The second period
is marked by the reign of William the Conqueror, and
the settlement of the (jotiiic nations. The third ia
marked by tha discovery of America, the fall of the
eastern emj>ire, and the Reformation. These divisions,
aowever, do not suggest the leading revolutions in the
history of the world, since the birth of Christ. We
rather, therefore, adopt the following eras, as our rest-
ing points. The dates are given in round numbers.
I. The era of Constantino, marked by the toleration of
Christianity, and tlie division of the Roman territory
into the Eastern and Western empires, A. D. 300. II.
The rise of Mahomet, A. D. 600. III. The Qrusades,
A. D. 1100. IV. Charles V. of Germany, and the dis-
covery of America, A. D. 1500. And V. Bonaparte
^nd the French Revolution, A. D. 1800.

i.D.

^RAS.

io
100

it:.iiVS CiiU

101
to

300

,)U1

400

eONSTANl

401

500

"m
to
600

601
to

MAHOME

701
to

800

801

900

001
to'
1000

1001
to
1100

CRUSAD]

1101

1200

1301
to
1300

i30l"

MOO

;. ; ■-

1401

1500

IMl 1 CHARLi:g

to ,
1600

1601
to
1700

1701
to
1300

BONAPAR

107

i.D.

^RAS.

Ccn-
tiiry

TRINfJll'AL PKUSONS OR EVENTS IN
KACIl CENTURY.

io
ino

Ji!:bUS CHRIST.

1st

Jesus Ci uiilied under Tiberius, Emperor, A.D. 33.
Jeius.liin (icsliojedby Titus, A.D. 70.
Persecution of Christians.

101
to

2nd

Tiajan, 1 inperor.
Antoniaus Pius, Emperor,
lei secution of Christians.

to , .. j-v \\.
300

3rd

Pertinax, Emperor.

Dioclesian, Emperor. , ;, . ;

Persecution of Christians.

to
400

GONSTANTINK

4th

Persecution ceases, A. D. 313.
Constantinople built, and Empire divided.

^01

500

"m
to
600

6th

Rome plundered by Alaric the Goth, A. D. 410.

Attila, king of the Huns.

Western empire overturned by Odoacer,A.D.47tt.

- .,.-^,V---v,-;-..-

6th

Justinian, Emperor of the East Belisarius.
Narses defeats the Goths in Italy.

601
to

MAHOMET.

7th

Mahomet's flight, or Hegira, A. D. 622.
Caliphate established. : , -
Saracenic conquests. -•

701
to

800

8th

Saracens defeated, and their progress stopped hy
Pepin, king of France. [Charles Martel.
Charlemagne. "Western Empire revived.

801

to . -

900

9th

England united in one Monarchy.

Danes invade England. 1 -

Alfred.

901
to'
1000

10th

Normans establish themselves in France.
Hugh Capet, king of Fnince.

1001
to
1100

CRUSADES.

11th

Canute, first Danish king of l-jigland.
William tin; Conqueror, king of England, 1066.
Crusades coninience, A.D. l(J9o.

1101

1200

•• - -

Hcnij- 11 ()f Kiigkii.tl, receives tlie submission of
12th the"ln,8h Kings.

Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, A.D. 1193.

1301
to
1300

isoi"

to
MOO

■ ' \ ' *

13th

Magna t:liiirta, signed by King John, 1216.

Zciigis Ivhaii overru.iS Asia. -

Rise of Ottoman Kmidre. • * ' ■_

14th

Battle of Bannockburn, 1314.

Tamerlane ovcrrun.s Asia.

Henry IV. uFuri)s the English throne.

1401

1500

15th

Printing invented, A.D. 1440.

Constantinople taken by the Turks, A.D. 1453.

America (li.';rovered, A.D 1102.

IMl 1 CHARLES V.

to . , -
1600

Henry VI il. king of Kugland.
16th Rpformntiou.

J'',li/.abeth. Defeat of Spanish Armada.

1601
to
1700

FiOuis XIV. king of France.
17th rharlos I. king of Kn.-^land, beheaded, A.n. 1619.
AVilliiim and Marv, kinof and qiieou of tit. Britain.

1701
to
1300

BONAPARTE.

ISth

Peter the (iieat, of llussia.

U. ^it.iii:s of Atiipricii acknowledged, A.D 17?3

I.ouis W'l. kiiii,' of Kr.inco, beheaded, A.D. 1703

10th

Union of (irctil IJritain luid Ireland.

Soutli Amciiciin Hcpublicsi separate from Spain

Abol. of Slave Trade, A.D. l&Ofi.of Slavery, 1834.

168

At the birth of Je?;us Clirist, nonrly the whole* of
that territory that had been siiccossively occupied by
the Babyloiiian, the Persian, and Grecian monarchies,
Was under the dominion of tlic city of Rome, now itself
governed by a despotic monarch, retaining, indeed, the
forms of a republic, but really under the absolute
government of a military chief. And besides tbe
territory of the former monarchies, this great empire
now included under its sway those western countries,
Spain, France, Holland, or Batavia, as far as Britain,
which were scarcely known to history, even at the
latest of the former eras. It was, with the single ex-
ception of Palestine, pagan. That country was inha-
bited by the Jews ; who derived their religion with
more or less purity, from the Scriptures of the Old
Testament. ; ' ' * ^

FIRST ERA.

Birlh of Jesus Christ.

-- , ; • FIRST CENTURY. T " -

After the birth of the Saviour of the world, Augustus
continued to govern the empire with muclt good judg-
ment aiid clemency, attonding to ils iii'ernal order and
prosperity, and to lis proieotitui iVom foreign invasion.
Towards the end of his rdgii li'; adopted his step-son,
Tiberius, and appointed him his successor in liie eni{)ire;
lie died, A. D. 14, in the scvenl.y-sixth year of his ;igr^,
and the foi'tv-iirst of jiis reian.

Tiberhis snccooAcd him, a man naturally t)f a dr:r!<
suspicious temper — a disposition which was fostered by

oc-

the circumstances in w iiieh he was placed — lill he
p-'inie a torment to himself, and a scourge to all who
fell .vithin his reach. In ihe 121 h year of his reign, he
retired to the island of Capreie, oj)posile to Naples,
which he luis ren<l(red infamous by his erm^llies, and
his abominable d'haue-heries. In this n Lnat he re-
gained issuing- hlo murderous edicts, till die 23d year

169

of his roign, and 78tli of his ago ; when ho was seized
with illness, and in tluit state, was put to death by one
of iiis attendants. Previous to his death, he had ap-
pointed Caligula his successor, who seems to have re-
commended hijusclf to him chiefly hy his profligacy.
It was in tlic IHth year of the rejfrn of Tiberius, that
the Lord Jesus Chrint was crui,'iricfi.

Cfi''i<.riil(i succeeded him, but was remarkable for
iiofhitig but ids extravag-ml vices. His cruelty, his
mpiu'ify, his profligiu-y, nu'l his I'centiousncss, were
witliuut hoiiuil-:. till tlie iniu!'i<-s which he inflicted on
the citiztnis oi' n\ery mnU, became intolerable. A con-
spiracy was f')rm( d t ) inunicr him, w liicli proved suc-
ct'ssful, in the lih y(af of his reign, and t!ie 29lIi of his
ase. Wlieu (.'ali.ijuhi was slain, no successor had been
named; the S^Miate ml, and some of the senators pro-
p(Dsed to avail tivuss' lv( s oi" the op})orlnnit,y of re-esta-
ilishing the lil>crly oi' lii^- city and enipiro ; Ijutthey were
opposed by Uie poj)u]ace atv] the s'.Micry, wiio preferred
to the u-ovfrnint n^ <.'f a siu !!f\ l!ii' Jara'csses and the
si'.ows bv wliieh the en-jo.-roi-s sought to secure their
favor. The soldi'Ts aad the popidae*^, tlierefore, were
resolved to iiav(i an t?mperor ; and some of tlurm pass-
ing round the paltieo. {'m\)<\ (.'Jaudiu'-, the made of
Caliguiii, a man about 50 years of ny:<\ who had been
known chiefly by his iiubccility : — him they took upon
^heir slionhJHrs, and proclaimed emperor.

Claudius began, as most of the emperors did, to
veign well. Me p.dd great attention to the making of
\lciuiBducts, roads, bridges, JKuivours, a!;i] (Hla-r works of
public utility ; but i)artly luider the iidluenee of aa
infnni us wt-iunn, his >vi!(>, iitid partly ihnaiuii suspicions
and fears to which liis < .\aited rank exposed him, he bo-
enme jealous and cruel, .oal a nudtltude ol' p: rsons of the
fn-st (anilli; s in Rome li II ;i sacriHoe to his uj)|)rd\ensions.
At length his wife, bpcomiiia. apprehonsive fiir her own
safely, caused hi>r\ 1o be poisoned, after ho had reigned
13 years, A. D. 54. In the reign of Claudius, Britain
Was invaded a second time by the R imaus. They wore
I'ejsi.sted by Bu.ulicia, a iii.iUfth Qutu'n ; but her army
Was totally defeat J, and liie Briion'j deprived of lh<

170

\pwcr, and, as it would appear, the inclination to resist,
jle was succrrdcd by

Nero, son of Agrippina, the sccfnid wife of Claudius.
Jle, too, began to reign well, but afterwards rushca
with such headlong fury into every species of wicked
jievss, as to eclipse the enormities even of Tiberius,
Cajigula, and Claudius. The first indication which hfl
gave of the nalive cruelly of his heart, was the order-
ing his mother Agrippina to be executed, and coolly
observing, when he saw her di-ad body, that he never
had thoviglit hU uiother was so handsome a woman.
The whole of his nilure life was divided between the
most frivolous occupations, and the perpetration of
cruelties — the recitals of which make the soul to shud-
der. Chariot-diiviuf" Mas hi.s favourite auuisement. He
also valued himself upon liis skill in music, and even
condescended to appear as a public pcrffirmer. But on
the other hand, his thirst for blood was insatiable. •

During his reign, a great part of Rome was burned ;
and most historians attribute to him the contlagration.
To remove the odium of it from hinvself, he attributed
it to the Christians, who were then beginning to attract
attention ; and upon that pretence comm<^nced an in-
human perseeutioji against tliem. Sonje of them wore
covered with tlic skins of wild beasts, and in this dis-
guise, devoured by dogs ; some were crucified, and
others burned alive. It was in this persecution that
Paul was imprijionrd the s(v'ond time, as mentioned in
his vsecond epistle to Timothy, and in all probability
suftered death. Peter also, it is generally believed,
suifcred about the same time.

Seneca, the celebrated philosopher, had been \m
tutor; and Nero, having taken up some suspicion that
he was accessary to a conspiracy against him, sent hiiu
an order to die ; which order Seneca obeyed. Lucian,
the poet also, the nephew of fe<'neca. received a similar
order, for the same cause, and obeyel it. Nero mui'-
dered his wife. Octavia, tliat he might marry an in-
famous woman, named Poppnja, and her he afterwards
killed by a kick, while she was in a state of pregnancy.
' For thirteen years was he permitted thus to outrage

171

human nature, till at longth the ompii-o was roused to
rill itself of such u monster. Sevvius (lalba, who waii
at that time governor of 81)111 n, ami mnoh revered
both by the soldiery and tlie citizens, accepted an in-
yitation that was given to ])Im to march an army
towards Rome. When Nero heard tliat Galba had de-
clared against him, he gave himself up (or lost. He mado
one or two etlorts to put liimself to death, l^ut hi<)
courage always failed him. iia at length fled o,ut bt
the city to the country iiouse of out; of his freedmen.
There again he purj)nsnd to put himself to death, but
dared noi, till he heard that the senate had decreed that
he should be put in the j)illory, and scourged to death,
and that the sokliejs were actually in piiisuit of hinj
for that purpose. Then, by the assisianee of an utr
tendant, he n-ave himseii a moj'ial wound svith a daffjier,
and expired, just as the soldiers who pursued him burst
into his apartment.

Galha succeeded him, and soon found that, being
raised to the throne by the army, it required more stea.
diness of purpose and of conduct than he-could com-
inand to keep the soldiers in subordination. In his
attempts to do so he rendered himself unpopulnr, and
furnished an opportunity for Otho who had boon a
favourite of his, and who expected to succeed him, to
attempt to undermine and depose iiim. In this Otho
succeeded: — the soldi. iS bore him on tlieir shoulders
to the Forum, where they found Gulba, and put him
to death. ■ --

Qlho, accordingly, succeeded to the throne, but did
not possess long Ids newly acquired diu,nit/;, CHhe;
commanders of armies, fniding that the thronr; ^v;-.:- xi
die disposal of the sohliery, began to aspire t > that
dangerous elevation. Vitellius, wIk) eommaiMlcd the
army in Germany, persuaded ids S!)ldi<"-s to prejlauii
him emperor, and inmiediatcly marohed towards Home.
Otho went to meet hinj ; and, after a desperate conflict
pf several days, in which the two armies f 'It that they
were contendingw for the disposal of the whole Roman
world, fought with great obstinacy and fur} . At length

172

Ptho was defeated, and soon afterwards killed Himself,
having reigned three months and five days.

Vitellius was then declared emperor by the Senate,
He entered Rome as a town that he had taken by con-
quest, and immediately crave iiimself up to the indul-
gence of all kiiids of luxury and pi-ofuyion, and ren-
dered himself proverbial hv his jrluttony. By these
degrading practices, as well as by his cruelties, he too
eoon became unpopular; iuid the legions "f tlie east
availffl ihemsclves of tlio o]>jX)ftunity of declaring their
j^jf ucral Vesparijin emperor. When the first army from
the enpt entered lta!y, Vifr^llius sent one of his generals
;.o meet it, but he being defeated, ViL'llias j)roposed to
resi!4U the empire to Vespasian, on condition of his life
IX ing spared, and a suilicient revenue allotted for his
S'upport. Other circuiustancesj however, occurred to
indues him to attempt to dr-fcnd himself in the city.
Vespusian's commander laid siege to the city, forced
his way into it, slaughtered a large proportion of the
army of Vitellius, ajid at ]en</th some of the soldiersj
finding Vitellius liijoself liifl in i\u obscure corner, put
fi halter round his neck, kilbd him by blows, and then
dragged his body tbvongh the strecls and cast it into
the Tiber. " " .

Vespasian Avns now declared Euiporor by the Senate,
A. D. 70. He was a man of rather low extraction, his
father having been a collector of taxes. His name
being Flavins Vespasian, liis accession to the empire
is sometimes regarded as tlio comie.encemnt of a new
dynasty called tlie Flaviiui, as distiu<i;ui ilied from the
Julian, which preceded it VVi'' ') tiie way t<»the empire
opened to him, he was ensrngeil in suLdu'ng tlie Jews
who had revoltc.l ; and ii'-ing uji;ler the ncecssity of
coming to Jlomo, iie left hib son, Titus, to conduct the
Jewish war.

Vespasian was not tainted uith ilie vices of the pro-
ceding emperor. Tie w.is a man of rather austere
manners. He set himself steii'Hh^ to reform the profli-
gacy of both the citizens and the aj'my, and was re
Bpected by bolh

His o'overnment is not char«jjed witii

173

any public vico except avarico, and oven tbat, perhaps,
on not very sufRcient ground.s.

The most remnrkablo event of his reiirn was the des-
truction of the city of Jerusah'ni, and (h'spersion of the
Jews. This event took phice A. D. 69. Tiie open
country and provincial towns had brcn subdued l-y
Vcspasinn, and the Jews made tlieir last stand in the
city of Jerusalem. That city was stronrrly fortified nnd
defended with the utmost obstinacy. The Jews in the
city were divided into two factions tliat were in deadly
hostility with one another. The two factions, however,
one. keeping possession of the city, and the otb.er of the
temple, united in the defence pgainst l})p Romans; nnd
the city was so strong that Tifns felt liinisrlf under the
necessity of e;dlii\g a council of Iri'i (^illcers, when it
was dcti I'luiiiud to s.irround it with a trci.ch, and
thus reduce it by ftiDine. In the mpi.nwhile, how-
ever, the operatioiis for assaulting tbf^ city wrnt on
without relaxation ; and nt lengtli tlie I)r,sirg( vs forcfd
their way into It, when a scene of unrxaniph d carnage
ensued. Titus attempted to save the ti-TujjU', but, in
vain. The city and temple were burned li) t!;e ground,
every wall tiirown doM-.i'i, iind tho ground (>',] v* Inch it
stood plowed up find sown with salt as ibr^ miblfm of
perpetual dpsoL-itior.. Thus was tho prrd'cti.DU of our
Lord fulfilled, iluit not one stone of tb.c temple should
he left on another.

Vespasian and Titus tlien entered PiMiuo in triumph.
A triumphivl areh was erected for tiio occasion, wbieli
still stands almost entire. On this arch are sculptured
some oi'the sceius of th(^ Jewisri war, ;.i;d among others
the Rointui sol'li^rs bearing in the ciliiuiph, the tabh" of
show bread, the silver trujiipets, and the golden candle-
sticks with seven ]>ranches. Vesp.-.sia:! also l>uilt a pi'o-
(lij,dous amphiiiientre, capat)le of boldiag SO.OGO spec-
tii tors seated, and 20.000 standing, wh.ich siiil remains
ahnost entire, and is known by tJie iiame of tb.e Coli-
SRuni. Twelve thousand Jeul.sli captives were em-
pinycd in its erection. Ves[ui„i;:n v< igned in all ten
years, and died of natural disease, leaving hiiSon TiLus
lo succeed to the empire. .-- .

15^=

Titus ascended liio tlirone A. D. 79, and litis hrcn licld
up to nil ages as a priiuro possessing nlmost every vir-
tue. It is to be observed, however, that he reiifuod
only two years and two nionlius, and that most of tlio
Roman emperors began their reigns well. Had Nero
himself reigned so short a time, he too v.ould have been
set forth as an example of every thing amialjlo and
great. In the first year of his reign, A. ]). 80, eruptions
of Mount Vesuvius took place, by wiiich the city of
Herculaneum was overwhelmed in a torrent of lava,
and Pompeii buried under nn immrns;^ mass of ashes.
These towns were discovered in the beginning of ibo
last century, Herculaneum in 1713, and Pouipeii 40
years afterwards; and IVom their ruins have been
collected some of llic most iiiteresiing remains of an-
tiquity.

Towards the latter end of tlio reign of Vespasian,
Agricola had been sent to Britain ; and, in the reign of
Titus he succeeded in bringing the southern part of the
island under the dominion of the empire. After a reign
of two years and two months, Titus was seized with a
violent fever, of which he died, not without the suspi-.
cion of having been poisoned hy jiis In'otlier Domitian.

Domitian succeeded him, A. D. 81, and, at first, he,
too, reigned well, but soon became one of the most de-
graded and detestable of the Roman emperors, ilis
character was a compound of arrogance, cruelty, and
licentiousness. Agricola's success in Britain filled him
with envy ; he recalled him, and that general dying
soon after, it is suspected that Domitian procured Ins
death by poison. Men were daily put to deatli for the
most trivial causes. In his roign, the second persecu-
tion of the Chri,3tians took place, when the Apostle
John was banished to tl;e island of Patmos, and tlior^
wrote his Apocalypse, or book of Revelations. The
governor of Upper Germany revolted from him ; but
prematurely : — he was defeated and slain. At length his
wife Domitia, having discovered that her name was in-
serted in his tablets to be destroyed, and also the names
of several officers about the palace, headed a con-
spiracy against him, by which he was put to death.

175

His death was rogrotted only by the soldiery, whose
favour he had taken care to secure, by frequent and
large distributions of money among them. The senate
immediately began to load his memory with reproach,
and proceeded, before the soldiers had an opportunity of
making an appointment of their own, to name his sue
ccssor, so tiiat on the very day of his death, Nerva was
chosen to the empire A. D. 96.

Nerva was an amiable but somewhat imbecile man.
The people, however, had been so much accustomed to
be governed by the most furious tyrants, that they re-
garded his gentle reign with rapture. Nerva recalled
all the Christians who had been banished from Rome
during the fornier reign. Finding the soldiery disposed
to dictation and tumult, and his own slrength decaying,
for he was about 65 years of age wlicn he was called
to the throne, he wisely, overlooking his own family,
chose Ulpius Trajjin to succeed him ; and, about three
months after this, he died, having rcignfd only one year
and four months. Nerva was the first foreigner that
ever reigned in Rome.

Trajan accordingly succeeded him, A. D. 98. Ho
was a Spaniard by birth, and at the time of iiis adoption
by Nerva, was governor of Upper Germany. He had
been the pupil of the celebrated Plutarch the biographer.
He was a man of great vigour, both of body and mind,
and proved a warlike and energetic prince. The bar-
barous nations that lay upon the outskirts of the em-
pire were now becoming troublesome and dangerous.
The Dacians that inhabited the country to the north of
the Danube, invaded the empire. Trajtm marched
against them, defeated tiiem, erected a bridge across the
Danube which consisted of 22 arches, the ruins of which
remain till the present day, and reduced Dacia to the
condition of a province of the Roman empire.

Trajan, however, led away by the prejudices that
existed against the Christians, permitted them, about
the ninth year of his reign, to be furiously persecuted ;
and many of them were put to deatli by popular tu-
mults, and by judicial proceedings. After some time,
however, being satisfied that they were an unoffeiiding

176

people, he put n stop to the persecution. In his reign,
the Jews made a fiuiatical insurn ction against the go.
vernment of Rome, in nil parts of the empire, expecting
that some sijrnal (lollverancc would be sent to them from
God. They tocik udvaofnjrf; of tiio absence of Trajan,
in an expedition to the east, t(i massacre all the Gi'eeks
and Romans whom they could get into their power, per.

Eetrating tiie most revolting cruelties. Their crimes,
owever, only recoiled upon themselves, and brought
upon them a terrible retribution from the enraged army
and populace of the empire.

In the east, Trajan extended the limits of his empire ;
but, on returning towards Rome, he was seized in the
city of Selucia with apoplexy, of which disease he died
after a reign of 19 years, A. D. 117. A splendid columR
was erected to his memory during the reign of his suc-
cessor, wiiich still continues to be one of the most inte-
resting ornamfnts of modern Rome, j'

SECOND CENTURY.

Adrian, his nephew,*Svas chosen to succeed him— —
The character of his government was totally different
from that of Trajan. He was a man of peace, and
adopted every mitliod to promote and maintain peace.
He was one of the most remarkable of tiie Roman em-
perors for the variety of his endowments : and, although
his private clMracter was stained with many faults, his
public acts seem to have been dictati^d by sound policy.
The barbarians still continuing thiir irruptions into the
empire, had adopted the method of watching the ab-
sence of the Roman armies to make their incursions,
and retiring before them when they came to drive them
back. Adrian, tindim; that accordino; to this mode of
warfare, the bridge which Trajan built was at least as
convenient for his enemies as for himself, destroyed it.
His mode of obtaining peace in the eastern part of the
empire, was an act of more questionable policy. He

177

pnrchns! c1 the bnrbarinns ofT by Ini'jrp gums oi inoney ;
u'liich could only encourii^e thiu) to meditate new
iuvii.sions.

lit! giive fM'dors for the rcbuiMiDg of Jcrusalenj,
which work was pcrfonncd with j^roat, expedition, by
die assistimc!^ of the Jews ; but lliut infatuated people
heing enraged by'tiie privileges which were granted
to the Pagan worshippers in their renovated city, fell
upon the Iloniiins and Christians that were dispersed
through Judea, and mercilessly put them to the sword.
Adrian sent a powerful army against them, which
subdued them, but not till after two years of warfai
during which 1000 towns were demolished, and nearly
600,000 men killed in buttle. Adrian banished all
Jews from Judea, and forbade them, on pain of death,
to come within view of it.

Adrian spent a considerable part of his time in tra-
velling through the empire. Among other places, he
visited Britain ; ' and, ibr the better security of the
southern parts of this province, he built a wall of earth
and stone across the island, between the river Eden, in
Cumberland, and the Tyne, in Northumberland, some
portions of w])ich can still be traced. After 13 years,

spent m

strivmg

to regulate the empire, and reform

abuses in it, he returned to Rome, with the intention of
ending his days there : and while there, he introduced
many wise regulations into the city, particularly the
restraining of masters from putting to death their slaves
without trial, and preventing slaves from being tortured
to discover the murder of their masters.

As he advanced in age, he became subject to great
bodily pain, so that he ardently desired to die, and
requested those around him to dispatch him ; none how-
ever could be found to engage in so dangerous a service,
and he was permitted to die naturally, after a reign of
nearly 22 years, A. D. 138. He was succeeded by

Antonius, who, partly from his attachment to the idol-
worship of the empire, and partly from his tenderness
to Adrian whjle he was dying, has obtained the name
of Pius. His character stands high for justice and mo»
deration, and generally for primitive strictness of morals.

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178

No regular account of the transactions of his reign hns
come down to us ; but his general policy was rather to
preserve the bounds of the empire, than to extend them.
He was wont to say, after Scipio, that he would rather
save one citizen, than kill a thousand enemies. He
died of fever at the age of 75, having reigned 23 years,
On his death-bed he confirmed an adoption of Marcus
Aurelius, which he had previously made, and nominated
him as his successor.

Marcus Aurelius, who also took the na'me of Anto-
mnus, accordingly succeeded to the empire ; but asso-
elated with him Lucius Verus. Marcus Aurelius is
frequently called Antoninus Pkilosophus; and is thus
distinguished from his predecessor, Antoninus Pius.
He is justly regarded as one of the best of the Rotnan
emperors. Verus was almost a contrast to him in all
the features of his character, being dissojute and igno-
rant ; yet they seem to have conducted the affairs of
the empire in uninterrupted amity. '

When Antoninus came to the throne, he was urged
by the pagan priests and others to persecute the
Christians; but he received that proposal with indig-
nation ; and, on the contrary, interposed his authority
for their protection. During his reign the empire was
visited with several heavy calamities. An inundation
of the Tiber destroyed a vast multitude of cattle, and
caused a famine in Rome. This famine was followed
by an invasion of the Parthians, and about the same
time the Celti made an. irruption into Gaul and Rhoetia.
Verus went against the Parthians, defeated the^i and
drovp them out of Mesopotamia. About the same
time a pestilence ran over the ejiipire, making dreadflil
havoc of the inhabitants. The Marcomanni, anothey
German tribe, began to take up arms against the
Romans. The two emperors marched to meet them,
but Verus died by the way. In the conflict that
ensued, the Romans were defeated with great slaughter.
The emperor made vigorous preparations for renewing
the war ; but his army being blocked up by the Quadi.
a German tribe, an incident happened which has givei^
rise to many contradictory statements. The Roman

179

armj were In dangct of perishing with thirsty arid the
enemy assailed them in that condition, when Sbddehly
a copious rain fell, which refreshed the Romans, whii6,
at the same time, a storm of thunder and hail beat ih
the faces of the assailants, and enabled the Romans to
overcome them. The pagan writers ascribe this thtel'-
position to magicians : the Christians ascribe it to the
prayer^ of a body of Christians who were in the army,
chiefly in the 12th legion, from which that legion ob-
tained the name of the thundering legion. Soon after
this Aridius Cassius revolted, but was killed by a Ceti-
turion. In A. D. 179, the Marcomanni again invaded
the empire. Antoninus went against them and obtained
a victory over them ; but died before he had completed
tlie war, A. D. 180. During his reign, the Roman
rampart which ran between the Forth and the Clyde in
Scotland, known vulgarly by the name of Graham's
Dyke, was built. Antoninus was succeeded by

Comtnodus, his son, a weak and dissolute prince, who
has made himself remarkable only for his licentiousness,
cruelty and'-injustice. After a rcigfi of 13 years, he
was assassinated by d conspiracy of the members of his
household. He was succeeded by

Peftinax, A. D. 192, who had been previously nomi-
nated to the empire.^ He was of loW birth, and had
risen to eminence by his military virtues and talents.
He reigned but thfee months ; after which, he was mur-
dered by the soldiery. The praetorian soldiers then
set Up the empire for sale ; and it was purchased by a
weak but rich man, named

Didius JuUanus. Didius had amassed his money by
avarice; and, continuing to manifest an avaricious
disposition, he soon became unpopular With the sol-
diers ; and Severus, an African by birth, induced the
army, which he commanded, to proclaim hirti em-
peror. Severus immediately marched towards Rome,
and Didius was slaiet.

Severus succeeded him, A. D. 194, having overcfomd
two other competitors for the throne. His reigri was
energetic, but cruel. He went against the Pamiians,
who were then invading the frontiers of the empire, and

180

overoame them,— oompelled the submission of the
King pf Armenia, and destroyed several cities in
Arabia ^elix. He entered Rome in triumph ; a splen>
did triumphal arch having been erected to receive hira,
which is still in good preservati'^n. The Roman sub.
jeqts in Britain being harassed uiQ u. 'langer of being
destroyed by the northern inhabitants, he jvent thither,
drove back the Caledonians, and built a wall across the
island between the Solway Frith and the Grerman
Ocean. He did not long survive his successes in
Britain, but died at York^ after an active though cruel
reign of about 18 years. ,

■V'

TBIRI) CENTUST.

Caracdtla and Getat the sons of Severus, being
acknowledged as emperors by the army, A. D. 211,
began to manifest their hatred of one ai^other even
before their arrival at Rome. Caracalla,, at length,
resolving to govern alone, rushed into Geta's apartment,
followed by a troop of ruffians, and murdered Geta in
his mother's arms. He then became one of the most
execrable tyrants that ever disgraced the empire. He
even outdid Nero and Domitian in his barbarities ] till
Macrinus, the commander of the forces in Mesopotamia,
was roused to get rid of him, and employed a person
to assassinate him, after he had reigned six years. The
soldiers then fixed upon

Macrinus as emperor, not knowing the part which
he had taken in the assassination of Carapalla. He
was permitted to reign little more than one year, when,
having been defeated by some seditious legions of his
own army, he was pursued and killed.

Heligobaluaf a boy of about 14 years of age, was
then called to the throne by the army. ^His whole
reign was a compound of effeminacy, prodigality and
cruelty. At length, after four years, thei^^ldiers be-
eame, 4ired of lum, mutmied, pursved ^^ into his

181

palaoe, cfragged him out, murdered him, aiid threw hi*
body into the Tiber. Heliogabalus was succeeded by

Alexander^ his cousin german. He was a prince of
great energy, strict justice, and great humanity. Al-
though but 16 years of age when he was called to the
empire, he was one of the most accomplished and able
of the emperors. In his reign, the Germans began to
pour, in immense swarms, into the empire. They pass-
ed the Rhine and the Danube, and threw Italy itself
into extreme consternation. The emperor resisted them
in person, and drove them back ; he was, however, cut
off by a mutiny among his own soldiers, after a reign
of 13 years.

Maximin, who had been the chief promoter of the
sedition against Alexander, was then chosen emperor^
He was a man of great stature, strength and courage.
He had, by his extraordinary personal .qualifications^
attracted the notice of the emperor Severus, who intro-
duced him into his bodyguard; and from that station
he rose to the throne itself. The leading feature of hit
character was brutal ferocity, which his elevation gave
him ample means of indulging. He, howevv<«r, carried
on his military operations with great vigour, and defeat-
ed the Grermans in several battles. His cruelties pro-
voked several attempts to destroy him, none of which
succeeded, till the soldiers, having gained over Ms
guards, entered his tent while he was asleep, and c^w
both him and his son, after a reign of three years.
After him

Pvpienus and Balbienus reigned A. D, 238, but dis-
agreeing between themselves, they were both slain by
the soldiers. After the murder, the soldiers passing
along the street, met

Gordian^ whom they declared emperor on the spot,
A. D. 238. He was a youth of 16 years of age, and of
good dispositions and abilities. The army, however,
soon began to be dissatisfied, and their complaints were
artificially fomented by one Philip an Arabian. Philip
succeeded in having himself associated in the empire
with Gordian ; and when he found his authority suffi-
ciently strong, he ordered Gordian to be slain.

182

PM^ then became emperor, and associated his son
With himi A. D. 248, a boy of six years of agCi Th^
army; however^ scion revolted iii favor of Decius Ju-
lianus, his general, when Philip was put to dfeath, and'D,

Dediu« became emperor A. D. 248. He was a maiii
of talent and moderation, and seemed for a time to re^.
tard the fall of the empire. He was killed, after a reigd
^f two years and a half, by an ambuscade of the enemy.
He was a furious persecutor of the Christians.

Chltust who had betrayed the Roman army, had
sufficient address to get himself proclaimed emperor,
A. D. 251. He was the first that agreed to pay an
annual tribute to the Groths to induce them to cease
from disturbing the empire. Giilliis wished for relief
from foreign enemies, that he might give himself up t6
indulgence. Meanwhile, however, he permitted the
Pagans to wreak their malice on the Christians, who
were becoming very numerous. A pestilence raged
throughout the empire with great fury in his reign;
At length his general jEmilianus revolted from hinf,
and Gallus and hii^ son were slain in the battle that
ensued. The senate refused to acknowledge iGmilianu?,
and an army that was stationed near the Alps chose

Valeriany their commander, to succeed to the throne
A* D. 253. He seemed to set about reforming the
State with vigour, but the Persians invading Syria,
Valerian was taken prisoner, and suffered an imprison'
ment of seven years, in whiclh he was treated with ever^
indignity. When Valerian was taken prisoner^
. GaUienus his son proposed to revenge the insult,
and was chosen emperor, A. D. 259. But it soon
> ppeared that he was more intent on the indulgences
rnan the labours of royalty ; and set himself down to a
life of ease and luxury. At this time, there were no
less than 30 competitors for the throne, who are some-
times absurdly called the 30 tyrants, in reference to the
Athenian rulers after the Pelopbnnesian war.- One of
these aspirants to the throne had taken possession of
Milan. Gallienus was obliged to march against him, but
was slain during the expedition, by his own soldiers.

Flavius Ctat^uSf wais named to succeed him, A, Df

183

203, a man of energy and talent, liaving done excellou(
service against the Gotlis; but afler a great victory
pvcr these unwearied enemies, he was seized with A
fever, of which he died. Upon his death

Aurelian was acknowledged by all the states of the
empire. He was a man of great courage and personal
strength) and rapid in his military movements. One o^
the most noted events of his reign Ivas his subduing
and taking prisoner Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra.
Longinus, the celebrated author of the treatise on the
Sublime, was secretary to Zenobia, and he was by
Aurelian's orders put to death. This emperor's sovc-
rities were at length the cause of his destruction. His
own secretary having been threatened by him, formed
a conspiracy against him, which succeeded, and he
was slain, having reigned five years. After some time,
the senate chose

'tacituSy a man of 75 years of age, to succeed hira,'
A. D. 275. He was a man of great merit; no way
ambitious of the honors that were olPjred to him. He
began with moderation ; but after reigning six months,^
he Was seized with fever and died. After his death hi^
half brother attempted to succeed, but being defeated
by Probus, he killed himself.

Prohus was then declared emperor ; he was bred a
soldier, and was noted for his determined bravery.
During his reign, every year produced neVv calamities
to the empire, by the incursions of enemies. These he
repelled with great energy, being every where victori-
ous, till, as he was marching to Greece, he was slain by
his mutinous soldiers. He was succeeded by

CaruSy A. D. 282, who associated with him his twd
sons Carinus and Numerian. Several nations in the
west having revolted, he sent his son Carinus against
them, and advanced himself against his eastern ene-
mies. He defeated them, but was struck dead by light-
ning, after having reigned about 16 months. In the
midst of the tumult and the attempts of Numerian and
Carinus to secure the empire that was occasioned by
the death of the emperor,

Diochsian, one ^f the ablest generals of his. day;

184

was chpsGiv, A. D. 284. In his time, the northern
barbarians having discovered tl)e want of discipline and
energy in the Roman If^gions, poured down in swarms
on the devoted territory. Tlie Scythians, Goths, Sar-
matians, Alani, Cursii, and Quadi, assailed it along
the whole northern i'rontier. Di(jcleaian had chosen
Maximian as his colleague, and afterwards took two
other colleagues, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius, with
the title of Caesars. 1'hese emperors gained many
victories over the barbarians, but without the slightest
ffiect in putting a stop to their incuri^ions.

Dioclesian has rendered himself notorious by the
most furious and periievf ring persecution of the Chri^
tians, which they were ever called to endure; but, ia
kis etibrt to crush them, he was as much disappointed,
as iti his attempts to subdue and restrain the barbarians.
At length, being threatened with a civil war, Dioclesian
and Maximian resigned the empire, and on the same
day, both retired into private stations. Dioclesian lived
in his palace near Salona, amusing himself in the cul-
tivation of his garden till he died, either by poison or
insanity. After the resignation of Dioclesian and
Maximian,

C&nstantius Chlorus and Galerius, the two Csesars,
were universally acknowledged as their successors.
Galerius immediately began to take measures for ulti.
matcly centering the sole government in himself;
but his arrangements were rendered abortive by the
elevation of Constantino, the son of Constantius Chlorus.
Constantius died at York, A; J). 300, having appointed
his son Constantino as his successor. Galerius died
soon- afterwards^ and his government was distributed
between Licinius and Maximian. There were now,
therefore, four emperors, Maxcntius and Maximian,
.vho had entered into a secret treaty with one another,
Constantino and Licinius, who were naturally led to
associate for mutual defence against their rivals.

Maxentius was in possession of Rome, and a stedfast
supporter of Paganism. Constantino marched against
him, and during his inarch he made a public profession
•f Cluristianity. Most of liis army, it is said> were

185

Christians; and his profession of Christianity, not
merely attached thcin tiio mora to him, but procured
for him many adlicrcatS in all parts of the empire.
Maxentius was defeated, and drowned in his flighti
while attempting to cross the Tiber. Maximian, who
governed in the east, marched against Licinius, but
was also defeated, and soon afterwards died. >

SECOND ERA.

Constantine.

At this era, the -Roman empire still retained itf
ascendancy ; but its armies had lost much of their
energy. They had been pampered and rtiined by
success, and had taken into their own hands the
appointment of tiie emperors. Constantine haying
built Constantinople, constituted it the capital oi
the eastern portion of the empire, and thus rent the
empire into two parts. He also became professedly
a Christian; and his accession drew multitudes into
the church, many of whom, in all probability, knew
little of Christianity, beyond the name.

FOURTH CENTTIET.

Constantine atid Licinius thus remained undisturbed
possessors of the Roman world. It was not, however,
likely that both would be satisfied with only a share of
sovereignty, and accordingly, a contest soon arose,
which terminated in favor of Constantine.

Constantine thus having become sole monarch,
adopted measures for establishing Christianity as the
religion of the empire, which was effected, as it would
appear, without much difficulty. The battle had already
been fought in the diffusion of the truth ; so that »

16*

186

lai^e portion of his subjects were already professing
Christians.

Another important change introduced by this emperor
was his building Constantinople, and constituting that
city the capital of the empire, and removing thither
with his whole court. This measure ultimately caused
a division of the empire into the western and eastern ;
the capital of the one being Rome, and that of the
other Constantinople. This result was hastened by his
dividing his empire among his three sons. Constantino
died, A. D. 337, and was succeeded by his three sons,

Constnntine, Constanlius, and Constans. The weakness
produced by this division encouraged the enemies of
the empire, who had been restrained by the power and
vigour of Constantino, to take up arms. The most
remarkable and dangerous of these enemies was Sapor,
king o^ Persia. He was vigorously opposed by Con-
Btantius, but with various success, till both parties being
wearied with the struggle, and new enemies to each
appearing, they concluded a peace.

In the mean while, Constantino attempted to dis.
possess his brother Constans of his dominions, but
perished in the attempt. Constans governed so tyranni-
cally, that he provoked an insurrection, headed by
Magnentius, who commanded the western troops of the
west. Constans was unprepared for this insurrection,
and fled, but was overtaken and put to death. Mag-
nentius had now to contend with Constantius, the othef
brother. A decisive battle was fought near the town
of Mursa, on the river Drave, and the army of Mag^
nentius defeated, and almost extirpated. This battle
Wais diBCisive, not only of the fate of Magnentius, who
afterwards put himself to death, but of the empire itself.
So many well disciplined veterans, as were lost on that
fatal day, could never be replaced ; and never again
did an emperor command an army such as that which
fell on the plains of Mursa.

Constantius thus became monarch of the whole
Roman empire. But the emergencies of the state
compelled him to nominate an associate. Gallus and
Julian his cousins, nephews of Constantino the Great,

187

Imd been kept in confinement from their chiMhood.
Gallus was now called forth to bo associated witii Con-
stantius; but conducting himsolf indiscreetly, he
alarmed the jeiuousy of Constantius, ond was put to
death. His brother Julian was then chosen, who con-
ducted the affairs of the western empire with much
ability. Constantius became jealous of him also, and
demanded some of his troops, under pretence that rein-
forcements were required in the east. The troops re-
fused to march, and Julian, after some delay, sanctioned
their disobedience. A civil war was averted by the
death of Constantius, when

Julian became emperor A. D. 361. He had been
educated in Christianity, but had a strong bias towawJs
the Pagan religion and philosophy. Wliile he was a
subject, he continued to profess Christianity, or at
least not openly to deny it ; but when he attained to
supreme power, he openly embraced Paganism. From
this circumstance he has acquired the name of the
apostate. He did not, however, persecute the Christians.
He had observed that persecution only increased their
numbers. He therefore attacked them by more subtle
means, — by fomenting quarrels among them, by dis-
countenancing them, by encouraging and favouring
Pagans, and by reviving the Pagan worship, wliich had
fallen into disuse, in all its splendour ; also by argu-
ing against Christianity in his writings and conversa-
tions. For the purpose of providing such an argu-
ment, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusa-
lem; but could not succeed. The most respect-
able writers of his age attribute the defeat of this
attempt to a miraculous interposition, which inter-
rupted the workmen, so that they did not dare to
proceed with the work. But whether the interposition
lyag njiraculous or not, it is agreed on all hands, that
the attempt was made by Julian, a monarch of the
Roman empire, and that it failed.

The Persians were at this time carrying on wa?
against the Romans with vigour, and Julian marched
to oppose them. On hi^ way, he revived the Pagan
worship wherever he went, consulted the ancient ,,

•raoles xcspocting tho event of his cnterprifw, and was
uniformly nQsurod of buccoss. Full of hopo and con-
fidence, inspired by llioso nrssti rimer's, ho marched
towards Persia, crossctl thn l']u|tliriites oiid Tigris,
and penetrated sorrm way into \\w enrmy's territory.
But the Persians had laid wnpto tlin country on his
line of march, and ho was at length compolled to re-
treat. The Persian horso now harassed him con-
tinually. It was in vnin thatttho lloinans were victo.
rious in every encounter, the r noniy only retired to
renew the assault, till, at length, Julian, in his eager-
ness to repulse one of these attacks, was mortally
wounded, and diod the snine ovenin^jj, having reigned
only twenty months. The army, reduced to great
straits, chose

Jovian, an able commander, to succeed him, A. D.
863. When Jovian was thus raisod to the tirrone, he and
his army were in imminnnt danger of perishing by
fkmine. Unexpectedly the Persians sent proposals of
peace, upon the condition that the Romans should
restore five provinces which had been taken from
them in the reign of Dioclesian. To these condi-
tions Jovian agreed, and tiiis was the -first permanent
dismemberment of the empire. Jovian did not live to
return to Rome, or even to Constantinople ; but was
found dead in his bed on his way thither. At Antioch,
however, he had revoked all the laws that Julian had
made against Christianity.

Valentinian was chosen emperor, and then named
his brother Valens as his colleague. The empire being
assailed on all sides by the barbarians, the two em-
perors divided the empire between them, Valentinian
receiving, as his share, the western, and Valens the
eastern part of it. The Goths, in the reign of Valens,
advanced up^to the very suburbs of Constantinople,
defeated and killed the emperor, and then laid siege to
Adrianople, but were repulsed with great slaughter.
After their repulse, great numbers of them were
cut to pieces by the Saracens, who had come to the
aid of the Romans. Valentinian continued to make
thead against the barbarians who invaded his part of

199

the empire, till A. D. 87^, when he died in the lUth
year of his reign. At his death ho was succeeded in

the west by

Gmlixn, and the wostorn ( inpliv being Bt this time
willioiit niiy fMiiperor, lie ohluiiir.d tlio si»vtMii<^nfy of
*lhnt iilso. ITo w.-iH linui«"Iiittcly <'iiga<!i;( d in coiillwt
V, 1th tiio barbarinnsj w ho thiTulcii-'d thn cnipirc; with
d.'struction. Finding himself pressed on all sides, ho
chose Theodosius as his pr.rtner, and committed the
cast to his care. Thoodosius was an able general, and
of generons dispositions. He was a decided favourer
of Christianity, and did much towards the abolition of
idolatry, destroying the idols and temples of the
heathens. While Theodosius was employed in com-
bating the barbarians in the east, Gratian was attacked
by a usurper in tho west named Maximns. Gratian
had previously given his brother Valeniinian (known as
Valentinian II.) a portion of his dominions. Maximua
succeeded in putting (.Jratiun to do ith, and then at-
tacked Valentiiiian. Valentinian flod to Theodosius,
who espoused his qiiarrrl, attacked and defeated Max-
imus, took him pri;soner, and put him to death. Va-*
lentinian II. was afterwards murdered by a general of
his army, and Eugonius raised to the throne. Theo-
dosius attacked and defeated him, and ho was afterwards
beheaded by his own soldiers. Theodosius, who is
Bometimcs c;:lled the Great, divided his empire between
his two sons, Ilonorius and Arcadlus, allotting the west
to Honorius, and tho east to Arcadius. He died soon
afterwards of dropsy.

Honorius and Arcadius succeeded him, A. D. 395.
Honorius was a weak prince, utterly incapable of con-
tending with the hordes of furious barbarians that were
pouring in on the empire. He had, however, an able
general named Stilicho. Tho celebrated Alaric was at
this time king of the Goths. He ravaged Greece and
invaded Italy, whero he was defeated by Stilicho, who
was hailed as tho deliverer of Italy. Honorius retired
to the inacccsiiible fastnesses of Ravena, to be secure
from the assaults of the barbarians, and the efTorts of
bis genera] were confined to the defence of Italy j it

100

^ping utterly imposible to protect tlic more distant pro.
yiiices. A most formidable inva&ion now tlireatenod Ronift
by Ilodogaisus or Rodoj^ast, at the head of an immense
host of Germans of dillcrent tribes. They laid siej.'je to
Florence, which was reduced to the last extremity,
when Stilicho appeared for its deliverance. He Intro-*
duced supplies into the city, surrounded the besieging
army with a trench and rampart, and reduced it by
famine to a fragment of what it originally was. Tiie
>vretched remnant of it was ff)rcpd to surrender at dig-
prction, and sold for slaves. Stilicho was thus hailed u
second time as the deliverer of Italy.

ITonorius, however, was exposed to a worse enemy
than the barbarians, namely, iiis own jealousy and
weakness. Stilicho, after all his services, was accused
pf corrupt niotives, and put to death. This opened
Italy to the Goths, and Alaric, a Gothic king professing
Christianity, descended upon Rome itself. He was at
lirgt induced to spare the city i)y a large ransom, but
afterwards, he assailed it, took and plundered it^ mas^
pacreing many of the inhabitants.
* In the eastern empire, nothing worthy of being
noticed in this brief narrative is recorded, from the
reign of Coustantine, till the end of this century.

;,;•(-.

FIFTH CENTURY.

Alaric had taken and plundered Rome, A. D. 410,
and Honorius died, A. D. 428. It is not necessary to
give the names of the ditferent nominal emperors of
the west, who assumed that title, during the early part
pf this century. None of them ever possessed the real
covernnient of the empire, almost every province of it
Being now in full possession of the barbarian tribes
that had invaded it. At length, when a youth, called
|n derision, Augustulus, who had bee<> raised to the
pominal rank of emperor by his father Orestes, a
general of the Roman army, was in possession of the

101

title of emperor, Italy was invaded by Odoacer, a Gotht
Odoacer defeated, took, and slew Orestes, went to
Ravenna and took Augustulus ; but spared his life in
consideration of his youth, and appointed him a liberal
maintenance. He then went to Rome, which readily
submitted to him, and he ?ramediatcly caused himself
to be proclaimed king of Italy. Thus the very name
of the empire of the west was obliterated. Britain
had long been abandoned by the Romans. Spain wag
held by the Goths and Suevans. Africa by the Van-
dals. The Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Alans,
had erected several governments in Gaul, and at length
Italy itself, as we have just seen, was enslaved by a
barbarian, whose family, country and nation can
scarcely be traced.

In the east the empire was attacked by the most
formidable enemy it had yet encountered ; Attila, king
of the Huns, a Tartar race who had come from the
great wall of China, spreading blood and desolation over
their track. Attila called himself the scourge of God,
and boasted that grass never grew where his horse had
trodden. He afterwards advanced westwards to Gaul.
His empire is supposed to have been the most extensive
ever acquired in one reign ; his authority being acknow-
ledged over the north of Asia and Europe, from the
shores of the Pacific nearly to the shores of the Atlantic.
It was, however, greater in territorial extent than in
population and importance. Aoetius, the Roman pre^
feet of Gaul, who had induced the kings of the Goths
and Franks to make common cause with the empire
against Attila, met him near Chtilons-sur-Marne, and
defeated him with the loss of 200,000 men. But Attila
though defeated was not subdued ; he sent
ing message to the emperor, and received
defiance. He then resolved to raise all
and invade Italy, and actually penetrated

a threaten-

in reply a

his forces

far

Milan, which he took. Such was the terror that his

approach occasioned, that many of the inliabitants took
refuge among the canals and inarshes that wei-e at the
extremity of the Adriatic Gulf, and there gave origin
to the city of Venice. Attila was dissuaded by the

Ida

Pope from advancing upon Rome. Acctlus compelled
him to pass into Gaul, and there Thorismond, king of
the Goths, gave him as signal a defeat as he had
formerly received from Aoetius.

In 476 a great conflagration took place in Constan-
tinople in which 120,000 books were consumed. To-
wards the end of this centuiy, the Ostro Goths, or
Eastern Goths, erected a kingdom within the limits of
the eastern empire, as the Visi Goths, or Western
Goths, had done in the West.

SIXTH CENTURY,

The western empire is now at an end. In the eastern
empire the chief object worthy of attention during this
century is the reign of Justinian. He came to the
throne, A. D. 527. The first enemy that he had to
encounter, was the Persian monarch. This monarch,
although successful in one battle, was routed afterwards
by the celebrated Belisarius. The war, however, was con-
tinued, with various success for many years. During
this war, one of the greatest civil tumults, recorded in
history, took place at Constantinople. It began with
different factions in the Circus, but ended in open
rebelion. One party went so far as to proclaim a new
emperor, and seemed to carry every thing before them,
till Belisarius, who had been recalled from the Persian
war, came upon the rebels when they were assoml)lc(l
in the Circus, attacked and slew 30,000 of them, and
effectually quelled the rebellion.

Justinian now turned his arms against the Vandals
in Africa, and the Goths in Italy, both of which pro-
vinces his able generals Belisarius and Narses recovered
out of the hands of these barbarians. In A. D. 558, Jus-
tinian purchased peace with the Persians by paying a
lurge sum of money. The same year a body of Huns
having passed the Danube, marched towards Constan-
tioople, and came within 18 miles of the city. The

193

indefutigabLe and faithful Belisarius went out against
them with comparatively a handful of men, and put
tliem to flight. This was his last exploit. On his
return to Constantinople, he was digraced, stripped of
his employments, and confined to his hou^e, on pre-
tence of being paity to a conspiracy against the
emperor.

Justinian thus, by the talent and bravery of his
generals, seemed to revive the ancient grandeur of
tlie Roman empire. But he is scarcely less celebrated
for the difToront digests of the laws which were exe-
cuted under his auspicies, and which have been of the
most essential use in arranging the jurisprudence of
the difierent kingdoms of Europe. He also founded
the Cliurch of Saint Sophia at Constantinople, which
has been converted by the Turks into a Mahometan
mosque, and is still regarded as a master-picce of
architecture. Justinian died, A. D. 565, in the 83d
year of his age, and the 39th of his reign.

THIRD ERA.

Mahomet.

At this era the Wostern division of the empire was
no more. Barbarian tribes, from the north and east,
had burst in upon it, and were in possession of much of
its territory : and Homo itself was governed by a lieu-
tenant, sent hy the emperor of Constantinople. In
A. D. 600, Mahomet was preparing to propagate that
celebrated imposture, which has obtained possession of
so large a portion of the human race.

SEVENTH CENTURY.

This century is remarkable for the rise of the >4»^ %
inetan imposture, which produced important rew.-U ll

194

jhe history of tho world, during this and the succeeding
period. Mahomet was Ixirti townrds the close of the
brevious century ; but di<l not co»nn)onco his system of
imposition till about A. D. «20. In A. D. 023, his eflbrts
to disseminate his docrine began to attract the attention
of the magistrates of Mecca, and they conceived that he
should be punished with death, as a disturber of the
pubdic peace. Mahomet Hed to Medina, and from that
pircumstance his followers have adopted this year as the
era from which they date all events, which is known by
the name of the licgira, or flight. Mahomet first estah-
fished his doctrine in Arabia. His countrymen were
previously Pagans, but had received .sufficient knowledge
of Christianity to render nianifost to tliem the alisurdities
of Paganism. Mahomet artfully made such modifications
pn the Jewish and Christian doctrines and fijrms of
worship, ,a9 to accommodate them to the habits and
propensities of the Arabs, and also to establish his own
personal sanctity and authority. After persuacling some
of his countrymen, and, through them, compelling
pthers, to receive him as tlie prophet of God, he entered
upon a regular system of conquest, which was followed
UP \^y his successors under the name of Caliphs. They
pyerran Syria, Persia, Egypt, and Asia Minor, and ra-
vaged the Greek empire ; besieged Constantinople, but
(^id not succeed in taking it. They spread themselves
^long the whole southern shore of the Mediterranean,
prossed over to Spain, and entered Gaul, but were de-
feated aqd driven back by Charles Martel. They,
however, established a splendid kingdom in Xhe south
of Spain, and maintained their ground there till near the
time of the Reformation, when they were finally driven
out by Ferdinand and Isabella, in tho fifteenth century.
After the Christian era, towards the beginning of tho
BBventh century, the Saxon heptarchy was established
in England, and the various barbarian tribes that hau
settled themselves in the Roman empire began to assume
the form of regular states and kingdoms.

100

EIGHTH CENTURY.

Towards the beginning of this century, Pepin, mayoi
of the palace of the French kings, became possessed qf
the royal authority, and dying, was succeeded by his
§on, Charles Martel.

This century is remarkable chiefly for the effectual
check that the Saracens received from Charles Martel
in France, which has already been mentioned by anti-
cipation. In the great battle whicli was fought between
Tours and Poitiers, historians state that 875,000 men
were slain, among whom was the Saracen general.

Pepin, son of Charles Martel, assumed, alter his death,
not only the authority, l)ut the title and prerogatives of
sovereignty. Pepin was sucoeoded by his son Charles,
usually called Charlemagne, or Charles the Groat, who
makes the most conspicuous figure in the history of
Purope towards the end of this, and the beginning of
the following century. His dominions extended over
France, Germany, and the northern parts^ of Italy ; and
he was invested by the Pope with imperial dignity, and
crowned as the founder of a new empire of the west.
Put his chief honor consisted in the encouragement
which he gave to literature and learned men throughout
his dominions. He founded the university of Paris,
and various other seminaries ; and his attention to go-
vernment, and the general improvement of his subjects,
would have done honour to any monarch in the most
enlightened ages of the world.

NINTH CENTURY,

Charlemagne dying, A. D. 814, was succeeded by his
son Louis, surnamed Lc Debonnaire,

This century is noted in English history by the inva-
sions of the Danes, and the reign of Alfred, who, whe-
ther he be considered in his public or private character,
deserves to be ranked among the greatest and best of

Ic'

106

monarchs. The early part of his reign was most cala
mitous, in consequence of the incessant invasions and
ravages of the Danes. He himself was reduced to
the necessity of wandering about in disguise. He,
however, succeeded in defeating them repeatedly, and
cheeking for a time their incursions. Like Charlemagne,
he gave every encouragement to learning that his means
enabled him. He founded the university of Oxford,
and composed more books than most men have done
whose whole time has been devoted to study. In A. D,
890, he promulgated a code of laws, which are justly
considered as the foundation of the common law of
JEngland. He died at the age of 51, A. D. 900.

. TENTH CENTURY.

This century is chiefly remarkable for the almost
total extinction of literature and civilization throughout
Europe. The light of antiquity had perished amidst
the violent agitations that followed the breaking up of
the Roman empire, and the light of modern science
and literature had not yet been kindled. The world
presents over its whole surface one field of contention
and bloodshed, with scarcely any object sufficiently pro-
minent to deserve attention, or to excite interest. It
is the very midnight of the dark ages. •

ELEVENTH CENTURY.

This century is nearly as barren of important events
as the preceding. It is, however, interesting in the
history of England and Scotland. During the early part
of this century, the Danes, still continuing their inva-
sions, at length succeeded in placing their king, Canute,
on the throne of England'; and the Norwegian king
having, in the absence of Canute, attacked Denmark,
C?inute returned to his native country, invaded Norway,

197

conquered and deposed the king, placed himself on (He
throne, and thus became the sole monarch of the three
kingdoms, Denmark, England and Norway. Canute,
pn his death, was succeeded in the throne of England
by his two sons, the one following the other; after
whom the Saxon line resumed the sovereignty.

But another enemy, destined to supersede both of
these dynasties, was now advancing to power, namely,
the Normans, who had settled themselves on the west
coast of France. Towards the middle Of the century,
William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeat-
ed Harold, king of England, at Hastings, ascended the
English throne, and originated a dynasty of Norman
kings, that for many ag(!S reigned in England.

In the west, the Turks were rising into power. They
were of Tartar descent, and having been called in by
the king of Persia to assist him in liis wars, they soon,
under Tangrolipix, their leader, made themselves masters
of Persia. Although they were Mahometans, they scru-
pled not to attack the caliphate, and overthrow it. They
also invaded the Greek empire, ravaged its territories,
but did not, till a period considerably later, make them-
selves masters of Constantinople.

FOURTH ERA.

The Crusades.

At this era, the empire of the Saracens, or the
Caliphate, which had arisen out of the imposture of
Mahomet, had been broken up into many independent
kingdoms, all professing the Mahometan religion. A
new power, namely, tiio Turkish, iiad also sprung up
in the bosom of the Caliphate ; and was now in posses-
sion of Asia Minor, Syria, and some provinces to the
eastward. The Turks also wcic Mahometans. Pales-
tine and Jerusalem were thus in possession of th©
enemies of Christianity. •

17*

198

TWELFTH CENTURY.

Ever since the rise and rapi<l extension of Mahometun-
ism, Jerusalem and Palestine, localities that were endeared
to Christians by so many interesting associations, were in
the hands of enemies of Christianity. Towards the end of
the previous century, the western church liad been aroused
by the preaching of Peter the Hermit, to the disgrace of
permitting infidels to retain possession of the holy city
and holy sepulchre, and all the other sacred localities.
And already an army, called a orusado, from its march-
ing under the banner of the cross, had advanced into
Syria, l^he first of the armies that went upon tiiis ex-
pedition, being without arrangement, or generals pos-
sessed of military skill, and necessarily plundering the
country 'on their route, were massacred, or perished,
with the exception of about 20,000 men, before they
reached Constantinople ; and these, crossing into Asia,
were met by the Turkish army, and totally defeated,
f hat army was followed by one better organized, under
the command of Godfrey of Bouillon, who defeated the
Turks in several battles, and at length succeeded in
taking Jerusalem, which the crusaders held for nearly a
qentuiy. Godfrey was elected king of Jerusalem A. D.
1098. These crusades were repeated from time to time
for about 150 years, till seven armies had found theiy
graves in the plains and mountains of the east. But
although these expeditions proved abortive in regard to
the immediate object of them, namely, the rescuing of
Jerusalem from the power of the infidels, they produced
a beneficial effect on the state of Europe. They carried
ofTmany of the more turbulent spirits, and left a breath-
ing time to the various kinjrdoms of tlie wcwt : durinj?
which many towns rose to eminence and power, and the
supreme civil authorities were strengthened. They
also introduced into Europe a taste for elegance and
refinement. Many of tlie crusaders returnini: from tlie
east, where some remains of the civilization and polish
of the Greeks,^nd of the Roman empire, still lingered,
with them a relish for more polished

brought

alonff

190

manners than thoso lo whteh tlioy had been accustoiped
At home. Hence it is, that almost immediately after
the crusades, ancient literature and the fine arts began
to be pultiyated sedulously in Europe.

The connexion also of warlike operations with Chris-
tianity, however incongruous the admixture may appear,
had the eHect of infusing more of humanity and upright
generous principle into the operations of war, than the
ancient Pagan empires and states had any conception
of. It was probably from this cause that tiio institution
of chivalry arose, by which a race of warriors was reared
who cultivated the highest principles of honor, and
^ho!5ie aim and pride it was to relieve the oppressed,
particularly women, and even children, who might be in
paptivity, or exposed to insult or injury. It is thus that
we seldom or never hear, in modern times, of such scenes
of unmingled atrocity, such deadly treachery, such ex-
tensive and cold-blooded massacres, as wo read of in
every page of ancient history.

It was towards the end of this century that Henry II.
of England first invaded Ireland, ancj. obtained thp
homage of the Irish kings.

THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

The crusades still continued till the middle of this
century ; the last, which totally failed, having been
undertaken by Louis IX. king of France, called Saint
Liojii^ in A. D. 1270. This centyry is chiefly remarkable
lor the conquests of Gengis Khan^ a chief of the Mogul,
or Mongul Tartars, in the east. lie overran the empire
of the Saracens, took Bagdad, and put an end to that
empire. Towards the end of this century the Moguls
subdued China, and then established a Tartar govern-
ment, which has continued till the present day. Othman,
also, at the head of Turks, founded the Ottoman em-
ipire. Edward I. of England, about the close of this
cenutry, attempted to bring the Scottish monarchy
under his authority.

200

*»

FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

The commcnccmpiit of lliis cfiitnry is marked hy llio
Scotch achieving tlu'^ir indcpeinflcnce at the battle of
Bannockhurn, uliich was I'lwxhl A. D. 181 1. Towards
the middle of tlio contury l^Mvvard ill. of England
invaded France, and j'^ainod several victories, which
led to no permanent result. Towards the end of the
century, another Tartar leader, Timour Beg, known
usually by the name Tamerlane, overran tlie middle
and west of Asia, carrying desolation nnd destruction
wherever he went. He laid the foundation of the Mogul
empire in Hindostan. Delhi was taken by him A. D.
1398. In this century the dawn of literature becomes
manifestijn Europe. Petrarch, Boccacio, and Froissarl,
on the continent ; GeolFry Chaucer in England ;
and Abulfeda, an Arabian geographer and historian,
flourished.

FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

In this century coiTwnenced that conflict, known in
history by the name of the Reformniion, which resulted
in many of the kingdoms of Europe separating from the
church of Rome. John Muss in Bohemia , Jerome of
Prague, and WicklifFe in England, took the lead in dis-
seminating the doctrines of the Reibrmation.

In the history of England, the early part of this century
is marked by the attempt of Henry V. to obtain posses-
sion of the crown of Frimce, by availing himself of the
distracted state of tliis country. For a time he seemed
to succeed in his enterprise ; but the Finglish were
ultimately repulsed and driven back by the enthusiasm
of a peasant girl, named Joan of Arc, who believed that
she was called by heaven to achieve the deliverance of
her country, and who infused into the armies of France
a portion of her owp enthusiasm. She was taken, and
basely condemned and executed by the English general*

201

Put that act of inil)ocile rcvrncro rntlior hnstennd the
expulsion of tlio l'Jii;;lish from 1' runco than retarded it.
In tiie succeediiif,' reign coinnionccd tlio wars between
the houses of York and Jiunoastt r, in which a large
portion of the English nobility worn extirpated.

In the east tlie Tuilcs, undor Mahomet II. besieged
Constantinoj)le, and, after an ohstinute siege, succeeded
in Taking it, A. D. 145.3, the (Jreek emperor being
slain, fighting sword in liand in tiic broach. This put
an end to the eastern empire.

The latter part of the century will ever be celebrated
over the whole world by the discovery of America by
Christopher Columbus, A. D. 1492.

■j''-\"

FIFTH ERA.
Charles V.

This era finds the Greek or Byzantine empire extinct,
and the Turks in possession of Constantinople and of
Greece, to the shores of the Adriatic, with the most
considerable islands. Further to the eastward, a great
empire had been established by the Mogul Tartars;
which had, particularly under two chiefs, Zcngis Khan
and Timour Beg, or Tamerlane, embraced a larger
extent of territory, than any of the great empires of
antiquity ; but which, at this era, was broken up into a
number of independent sovereignties. China was under
the dominion of a Tartar dynasty.

The kingdoms of Europe were assuming that form,
which, with the exception of late modifications, they
still retain. Spain was then one of the most warlike
countries in Europe.

Literature had begun to advance, with a steady and
rapid pace, over Europe. The art of printing had been
discovered about the year 1440, and was now beginning
to assume that influence over human affiiirs, which has
been so wonderfully developed in the present day.
Statuary, painting, and architecture, had reached their

202

hiehest excellence in Italy, under Leonardo da Vinci
Michael Angelo, Raplmol, Titian, Corregio, and others.

But the most remarkable, as well as the most impor.
tant feature in this era, was the discovery of America,
by Columbus ; by which discovery a new world, that
had been hid from tlie inhabitants of that portion of
the globe, which wo have hitlierto boon contemplating,
was unfolded to their wondering gaze, and opened to
their spirit of discovery and enterprise — opened, also,
ajas ! to their cupidity and cruelty. This event took
place in 1492.

This age, so fertile in great events, was also the age
of the Reformation ; in which the Protestant churches
separated from the church of Rome ; an event which
jBtill continues to influence the political atlairs of Europe.

SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

In the beginning of this century the eyes of all Europe
were turned towards the newly discovered continent of
America and its islands, till their attention was called
off by a new object of a different discription, namolVi
the dissemination of the docli'ines of the Reformation,
followed by the struggle for civil liberty that immediately
ensued. The crowned heads of Europe regarded the
intf'oduction of any political or religious doctrines into
iheif dominions, without their consent, as a dangerous!
{Bnoroachment on their power and prerogative; and,
aided by many of the clergy and aristocracy of the
day, attempted to crush every such tendency to inno-
vation. Hence arose wars, persecutions, proscriptions,
and massacres, scarcely less revolting than those whiph
stain the pages of ancient pagan history.

Towards the commencement of this century, Charles,
|ting of Spain, was elected emperor of Germany, and
being an able an ambitious prince, he^made use of his
great power to attain to supreme influence in Europe.
He was steadily resisted by Francis I. of France. After
jin aptive entei*prising reign, in the latter part of which

203

he met with mnny diHappointinrnts, ho at length reslgnrrf
his crown, and retired into privuto life.

This century is ctdchrated in Enjrlish history, cniofly
hy the reign of Elizabeth, the attempt of Philip of
Spain to subdue England, and the total destruction of
his fleet, which he had boastingly called the Invincible
Armuda.

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

I'his century is marked by tlio struggle for civil liberty
in England with the kings of the Stuart family. Charles
I. had imbibed higher ideas of royal prerogative thlan
the people were disposed to submit to j and after various
attempts on his part to establish an independent unde-
fined right of taxation, which was steadily resisted, the
contest broke out into a civil war, and the result was,
tliat Charles was defeated and beheaded, and a kind of
republic established, with a protector, who, in fact, pos-
sessed all the authority of royalty. On the death of
Cromwell, the protector, the people of England were dis-
posed to return to their former monarchical government,
and Charles II. the son of the former Charles, was restored
to his hereditary dominions. On his death, James, his
brother, succeeded him ; but manifesting a disposition to
exercise the absolute authority which had been claimed
by the first Charles, he was forced to abdicate the throne ;
and William, Prince of Orange, who had married the
eldest daughter of James and was also his nephew, was
called to it. This revolution led the way to those
struggles for liberty which have since taken place in
America and Europe, and which have not yet subsided.

On the Continent of Europe, this century is celebratect
for the wars waged by Gustavus Adolphus, the Swedish
monarch, against the emperor of Germany. Gustavus
baffled the ablest generals of the empire, gained several
battles, till, at the battle of Lutzen, A. D. 1632, he
was slain, although his troops gained the victory. This
century is also celebrated for the reign of Louis XIV.

204

of Franco, which may be regarded as tho Augustan
ago of French literature.

In the east of Eiiro])e, tho Turks were pressing upon
the Christian slates. Their armies hcid advanced to the
neighbourhood of Vioniia, where they were defeated
t>y John Sobicski, king of Poland.

While the southern parts of Europe were thus
occupied, a power was rising in tlie north, which was
destined to produce important changes in its social
state. Russia, whicli had scarcely been felt or even
heard of, in European politics, till towards the beginning
of the eighteenth century, now began to emerge from its
obscurity. This empire may be said to owe its exis-
tence, under Divine Providence, to the extraordinary
enterprise of Peter, more justly called the Great, than
many of those who have obtained that title, and who
ascended the throne of Russia A. D. 1682. The
measures which ho adopted for raising his country to
eminence, were not conquest ; but the introduction
into his dominions of civilization, and of the arts and
sciences. By these means he rendered available the
resources of his vast territory ; and his successors,
following up his plans, with the addition of direct eflbrts
to enlarge their territory, the Russian empire has
assumed a more commanding and formidable position,
than any single state now in Europe.

In Asia, the Tartars again overran China, and com-
menced a new Tartar dynasty on the throne of that vast
empire. ,. ... ■ . -

^' ' ». » ■» '

EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY.

The commencement of this century finds England
and several of the states of Europe combined to resist
the ambitious projects of Louis Fourteenth. And the
Duke of Marlborough, general of the forces of the
allies, gained several great victories over the armies of
France, which ultimately led to the peace of Utrecht*
The attention of Europe was also directed to th« war

205

of Fredeiiok Third, king of Prussia, with the German
emperor, for the possession of Silesia : and the rise of
llie Prussian kiiigclotn to influence. Also to the wars of
Chci.rles Twell'ih, kin,<T of Sweden against Russia,
which ended in his defeat and death. Towards the
middle of tlie century, Britain was disturbed by a
rebellion which arose in the highlands of Scotland, the
object of wliich was to replace the family of Stuart on
the throne, but which was frustrated by the total defeat
of the rebel army at Culloden, A. D. 1746. '

While Europe was thus occupied with her own
internal causes of jealousy and dissension, a new power
was rising on the other side of the Atlantic, destined
to produce the most important effects on the political
condition of the world. Amidst the agitation and con-
tentions on the subject of religion in England, during
the reign of Charles I. and II., many of the EnglisK
emigrated, carrying with them high ideas of religious
and political liberty. To these were added a colony a
little to the southward, consisting partly of persons
convicted of crimes, and sentenced to transportation.
Under favourable circumstances for increasing, the
colonists did increase with unexampled rapidity, and
Boon began to feel that they were able to support them-
selves without aid from the parent country. The con-
sequence was, that they became impatient of the right
claimed by the Britisii legislature to tax them without
their consent. This was the very claim on account of
which their forefathers had resisted Charles, and for
the establislmient of which they had been driven from
l!icir native country. The British government most un-
wisely pressed tlieir claims, till they drove the settlers
ill 'America into open rev.olt. A war ensued, in which
the Americans were aided by tlie French, and the
result was, that they achieved their independence, the
northern and southron states uniting together in one
federal republic.

The European nations wore not inattentive spectators
of the struggle between Britain and her colonies.
The French soldiers who had been employed in as-
sisting the American '-evolters, returned to France^

206

ttfofigly imibued with thfe principles of bivil liberty,
and much predisposed to resist the despotic authority
of their own monarchs. Accordingly, almost imme.
diately after the termination of the Anp;lo- American
war, a revolution began in France, which did not end,
till the reigning family of France^ like that of England
in the former century, was driven front thfe thi'ofte.-
France, for a short season, became a republic, and
commenced a system of encroachment on the neigh,
bouring states, the results of which belong to the history
of the following century.

In Asia, the most important, and to Europeans, the
most interesting object during this century, is the
gradual rise of the British empire in India. In conse-
quence of the superiority of the British navy, when
any war broke out betweeti Britain and any of the'
other pbwers of Europe, she was immediately able to'
take possession of their foreign colonies or settlements.
She thus gradually superseded the Danes, the Dutch,-
the Portuguese, and the French, in India and the adja-
cent islands; and, partly by a train of events ovef
which she had no control, and partly by able measures,
niilitary and diplomatical, she gradually extended her
authority and influence over a vast territory in Indiat
and the Asiatic islands.

era, name

SIXTH ERA.

French Revolution.

This era finds Bonaparte, a military adventurer from
Corsica, wielding the government of France, as the
head of a triumvirate, with the title of First Consul ;
and, in consequence of a series of victories, possessing
the chief influence in Europe. Britain, his great op-
ponent, is mistress of the sea, and possesses a large
empire in India, the West Indies, and Canada, with
many important colonics, and military stations in

207

farioue parts of the world. Spain and Portugal are lii
nossession of extensive empires in South Americal
Three new important states have arisen since the formef
era, namely, the United States of America, formed of
British settlers ; Holland, which had formerly belonged
to the crown of Spain ; and Russia, which has arisen,
froni a state of barbarism to a place among the civilized
nations of Europe. Prussia, also, from being an
electorate of the German empire, has become an inde-
pendent kingdom ; and Austria has acquired extensive
territories. On the other hand, Poland has been par-
titioned between, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, by a
series of acts of the basest treachery and violence.
Further to the east, the Turkisli empire still exists, but
weak and obviously sinking to its dissolution. Still
further to the east, Russia is encroaching on the more
southern states of Asia, and is now conterminous witU
China and Persia. In Hindoostan, the Mogul empire
exists but in name ; its territory being nearly all in thd
hands of the British, or under British influence.

, ,1 . i ' • NINETEENTH CENTURY.

The French republicans had, at the close of the former
century, entered on a career of conquest and aggran^
dizement, and having taught the people to regarq
military exploits as the glory of France, laid open thdiif
republic to be subverted^ by any military leader of
sufficient talent to command the admiration of ^ thei
nation. Such a leader soon appeai'ed in Bonaparte, a
Corsican, and a subaltern officer in the French army;
He entered with all Irs natural enthusiasm into the"
revolutionary sentiments of the day ; and, by his mili-
tary skill, soon rose to eminence, and so dazzled the
people by what they were taught to regard as the glory
of his exploits, that he attained to the chief power in the
republic, which he soon overturned, and was crowned
emperor.

As he rose by his military talent, he could maititaiKii

208

hig ground only by the same means. He carried fb».
wara the system of French nixi^randizoment which the
republic had commfMiood, till the jrrnator part of Europe
was, directly or ini!ir«ctly, under li is control. Menn-
while Bingland offered to him a del. imined resistance,
and, by her command at sea, at oncn confined him to the
continent of Europe, and ohlained possession of a large
proportion of the cornmorce of the world. The powers
of Europe had been repeatedly roused to resist the en-
•roachmcnts of Bonaparte, but in vain ; till he broke
the power of his own arm, by a mad attempt to conquer
Russia. The llussians retired before him. He ad*
f anced as far as Moscow, which the Russians evacuated
•nd burned. The winter was approaching; he could
neither maintain himself in Moscow, nor advance fur-
ther. He was at Icnjrth compelled to retreat, surrounds
ed and harassed by the unbroken armies of Russia, and
an inveterately hostile population. Winter assailed hiiD
hi all its rigour, and the consequence was, that of nearly
half a million of men, whom he had led into Russia,
but a few thousands found their way back to their owja
country.

The European powers saw this to be a fit opportunity
for regaining their own authority and influence, and
assailed Bonaparte on every side. He continued to oflfer
a vigorous and dexterous resistance, till, overpowered
by numbers, he was subdued, and forced to resign the
cvown. He was permitted to retire to the island of
Elba, in the Mediterranean. From that island he very
soon issued, marched to Piaris, was hailed by the French
soldiery, and reinstated in the empire. The other
powers of Europe were again leagued against him, and
began to assemble their armies on the northern frontier
of France. lie marched against them, defeated the
Prussians, but was almost immediately afterwards met
hy the British army at Waterloo, and there totally
:outed, A.. D. 1815. The result was, that he again ro-
signed the crown, surrendered Jiimsclf to a British ship
of war, .was sent to confinement to St. Helena, where he
remained till he died, A.U. 1821. Ti)e Bourbons wera
Ihen recalled to the throne of France.

209

This century hiia alrouily also been tlistingufshod by
iho rise oCsovorul inclcpeiKleiit Htates ia South America.
The cohniioa of Spain und Portugal, which had long
been impatient ol' tho rigorous control exercised over
them, finding that the convulsions of Europe opened a
favorable opportunity of attaining to independence,
promptly availed themselves of it, and successfully re-
sisted all attempts of the parent countries to maintain
authority over them. ;,,;,.,

There are three features of this period, which must
not be overlooked. .. ,, , .,

The first is the rapid advancement of science, and
of the useful arts. Mathematics have been car-
ried to an oxtcnt, and have attained to a power and
facility of investigation, of whifch the ancients formed
no conception. Astronomy, by tlie aid of Mathematics
and of Optics, has opened up the system of the uni-
verse ; subjected the various heavenly bodies to weight
and measurement ; and accounted with mathematical
precision, not only for all the phenomena known to the
ancients, but for ten thousand other phenomena, that
have been discovered by the more powerful instruments
which Optics have placed at her disposal. Mental
phenomena, also, and all departments of knowledge^
that relate to the direction and cultivation of the
understanding, have been investigated on the principles
of sound philosophy ; and many important practical
truths have been established. Natural History, in all its
branches, has been cultivated with a zeal and success
altogether unprecedented. New subjects of investiga-
tion have been opened and pursued to a surprising
extent. The sciences of Political Economy and of Che*
mistry may be regarded as the creations of this period j
and Geology is only yet attahiing to the form and con-
sistency of a science. Geography, also, has explored
the surface of our planet in almost every direction.
And along with the increase of knowledge, have come
increase of human power, and addition to human com-
fort and convenience. Machinery, in every departmeat

210

of labour, has been carried to great perfection. Tho
Invention of tho steam-on<]rine 1ms placed a power, to
which it would be diflicult to assign limits, at the dig.
posal of men ; and this mighty instrument has been
applied to manufactures, and latterly to water and land
carriage, with the most gratifying results. The more
delicate rnacliincs, too, such as clocks and watches,
although not the invention of tiiia last period, have been
brought to high perfection in it ; and the recent dis-
covery of gas-light has added mucli to the comfort and
safety of cities and towns. Tho power of intellect, that
is still employed in improvements in every department
of art, is unexampled in the history of mankind.

Tiie second feature of this period, to which we have
alluded, is the great progress that has been made in
translating the Sacred Scriptures into the various lam
guages of the world. Tho Scriptures had been pre-
viously translated at dillerent tinles, into most of thfe
languages of Europe, and had existed from a very early
period in Syriao, Arabic, and Coptic ; but a great
addition to such translations, chiefly into eastern lan-
guages and dialects, belongs to the present period.
Men of diflerent nations have thiis been furnished with
opportunities of becoming acquainted with each other's
languages ; and of learning to act on similar principles,
to a greater extent than has ever before been witnessed.
And when this fact is connected with the amazing faci-
lities for communication among the ditferentjiations of
the world that are now in progress, it is impossible to
form any conception of what may be the result.

The third remarkable feature of this period, is the
abolition, first of the slave trade, and afterwards of
slavery in the British colonies. A traffic in human
beings, from the west coast of Africa, to the American
continent and islands, early commenced. The cupidity
of the European settler.; in the New World, impelled
them to seek for labourers to cultivate the land, to work
the mines, and otherwise to render their new acquisitions
profitable, before a sufficient population had grown up
on the soil for these purposes. With this intent, they
sent their ships to the coast of Africa, to get* as they

211

conM, men, women, or children, and convey tliem across
the Atlantic, to the European seUh^nients. The prose-
cution of this nefarious traffic (ure^ited a mass of human
misery, partly in Africa, parli[piurinj:j the middle pas-
sage, and partly in America, suci» as scarcely hnd at
any 4'ormer period been knonyi : and it is humiliating to
think, that the aji^ents and abettors of this traflic were
natives of countries professing to liave ado])tod tho
benign principles of Christianity.

The zeal of a few benevolent individuals was chjefly
instrumental in opening the eyes of the British public

to the enormous

crimes.

to which thev were rendorini»

themselves parties, by sanctioning tho slave trade, and
by the condition of the slaves in tho British West India
islands. The result was, that the nation was roused to
indignation at the fearful recitals, and became dt^tcr-
mined to wash its hands of the foul stain. And, after a
uetern)ined struggle against tiie parties interested, hu-
manity triumphed, and first tiie slave trade, and
{ifterwards slavery itself was abolished. The manner,
in which this last act of justice was effected, is, perhaps,
unique in the history of the world. Tho British nation
purchased the freedom of the slaves from their masters,
subjects of the empire, and has actually agreed to ad-
vance to them twenty millions of pounds, sterlings to sef
the wretched captives at liberty.

? ^ ^,

'■'^. •■*■•/''"/

i .

212

SECrtON III.

NTRODUCTION TO VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

The first distinction to bo attended to between minerals,
and beings endowed with life is, tliat the latter are
formed with organs adapted to fulfil the several func-
tions for whichi they were destined by nnturo. These
organs differ, not only in form and structure, but more
or less,' in the materials of which they are composed ;
organized beings are generally of a smooth surface,
rounded, and inegular ; whilst^ minerals are rough,
angular, and, in their chrystalline state, of geometrical
regularity. ' . -h- -f

One of the principal functions these organs have to
perform, is nutrition. Unorganized matter may be en-
larged or diminished, either by mechanical or chemical
changes ; minerals may be augmented by the addition
of similar particles, or by chemical combinations with
substances which are dissiniihir; but they have no
power to convert them into their own nature. Orga-
nized bodies, on the contrary, are increased in size, by
receiving internally, particles of matter, of a nature
different from their own, which tliey assimilate to their
own substance.

Let us now proceed to enquire , what is the principal
distinction between the two classes of organized beings
—the animal and the vegetable creation.

Animals are provided with a cavity, called a stomach,
in which they deposit a store of food, whence they are
continually deriving nourishment. This organ is essen-
tial to animals, as they are not constantly supplied with
food : they find it not always beneath their feet ; they
iTHist wander in search of it ; and were they not pro-

218

vided with stich a storo-honsc, in which to lay it uj^
they would l)e frequently in danger of perishing.

Vegetables havo no stomaoli ; they do not require
such u rnar!,ii/.ino, sinco tlioy find u rcgnlar supply of
nourishnirnl jit lh<f extremity ol" tlieir r(W)1s. The food
of plonts is not of u complicated mil are, liko that of
animals: but consists of the simplest materials — water,
and the gol'd and f^aseous matter contained within it.

Tiie second distinction between the animal and vege-
table creation is, that the latter are not endowed with
sensibility.

Some ingenious experiments have, however, been
recently made, which tend to favor the opinion that
plants may be endowed with a sprcieH of sensibility;
and seem to render it not improbable, that there maj
exist in plants something corresponding with the
nervous system in animals. Then; i\ro certain vege-
table poisons, which are known to destroy life in
animals, not by affecting the stomach, but merely by
acting on tlie nervous system. These poisons were
administered to different plants, either by watering
them with, or stoe})ing the roots in, infusions of thes©
poisonous plants. The universal effect was, to produce
a sort of spasmodic action in the leaves, which either
shrunk, or curled themselves up ; and, after exhibiting
various symptoms of irritability, during a short time
became flacci<l, and the plant, in tho course of a few
hours, died. When we see plants thus acted upon by
vegetable poisons, which are known to be incapable oi
destroying the animal fibre, or of iii^uring the frames
but through the medium of the ne,ves, we may be lea
to suppose, that certain organs may exist in plants, with
which we are totally unacquainted, and which bear
some anjilogy to the nervous system in animals.

It is certain that some plants possess a power of
irritability or contractihility. There arc some flowers,
such as those of tho barberrv, whose stamens will bend
and fold over tlie pistil, if the latter be pricked whh a
needle ; and there is one instance of a plant the leaves
of which move without any assignable cause : this is
the hedifsaruin gyrans^ which grows only on the banks

214

^f the Ganges. It luis three huiflets on each footstalk,
all of which arc in con>!t;uit irregular motion. Tho
leaves of the sun-dow, near the root, are covered with
bristles, hedewed with a sticky juice. If u fly settles
on the upper surface of the leaf, it iy at first detained
by this clarnujy liquid, and tluju the leaf closes, and
jiolds it fast, till it dies. Plants in general, turn their
leaves towards the light ; and, when growing in a room,
they spread out tlxMr branches towards the windows, ns
if they were sensible <>^i' the benefits they derive from
Jight and air.

Plants appear albo to bo susceptible of contracting
pabit^. The mimosa, or sensitive plant, if conveyed in
ji carriage, closes its leaves, as soon as the carriage i.s
put in motion ; but after some time, it becomes
Accustomed to it, the contraction ceases, and the leaves
expand.

Plants, which arc brought from tho southern hemis-
phere, faithful to the seasons of their native country,
make vain attempts to bud and blossom, during our
frosty winter ; and seem to expect their sultry summer'
at Christmas.

These, and many other phenomena, exhibited by
plants, do not permit us positively to say, that plants
are wholly devoid of sensibility ; but the evidence
against that opinion is so strong, as to amount almost to
proof. Had Providence endowed plants with the sen-
sations of pleasure and of pain, it would, at the samtf
lime, have aftbrded the means of seeking the one, and
of avoiding the o^ier. Instinct is given lo ani^nals for
that express pwrpose, and reason to man ; but a plant
rooted in the earth, is a poor, patient, passive being:
its habits, its irritability, and its contractibility, all de-
pending on mere physical causes.

The properties of plants may be separated into two
classes: first, those which relate to their structure;
such as their elasticity, their hygrometic |)ower : these
iproperties may continue after death. • Secondly, those
Which relate to their vitality ; such as contractibility j
which, consequently, can exist only in the. living state.

The elementary organs of vogetablec arc of thre«

21{i

kinds, ipirst, tlie cellular system ; consisting of minute
colls, of an hexagonal fi)rn», apparently closed and
separated by their partitions, somewhat similar to tho
construction of a honeycomb. These cells in plants
are marked by small spots, which have been conjec-
tured to be apertures, through which fluids are trans,
mitted from one cell to another ; but these marks are sq
minute, as to render it hazardous to venture on deciding-
for what purpose they are designed.

The vascular system forms the second set of elemen-
tary organs. It consists of tubes, open at both ends :
they are always situated internally. The organs of
plants are so extronicly small, that, though aided by
th.^ most powerful microscope, it is frequently difficult
tu examine the structure of their parts, with a sufficient
degree of accuracy, to be able to ascertain their func-
tions. It has long been a disputed point, whether the
sap ascends through the vascular or the cellular system
of organs ; the latest opinion is, that it passes through
neither ; but that it rises through the insterstices which
separate the different cells.

The third system of elementary organs, is the
trachaaa; so called from their conveying air both to
and from the plant ; they are composed of very minute
elastic spiral tubes. Air is so essential nn agent, in
promoting the nourishment and growth of plants, that
it is scarcely less necessary to their existence, than to
that of animals.

The whole of the vegetable kingdom consists of
masses of these several elementary organs with th?^
exception of fungi, mosses, ond lichens, whose vessels
are all of a cellular form : they have no vascula^
system whatever ; and this affords a strong argumeni
against the passage of the sap through the vascular
system.

The layers of wood, which are seen in the stem or
branch of a tree cut transversely, consist of different
zones of fibres, each the product of one year's growth.

The bark consists of three distinct coats, the cuticle,
the cortex, and the liber or inner bark ; of these, the
cuticle is that which is external. It covers the leaver

2ie

and flowers, with tho exception of the pistils and an«
thers, as well as the stem and branches. The cuticle
of a young shoot, af\er it has been fbr some time exposed
to the atmosphere, becomes opaque, dries, and being
distended by the lateral growth of the branches, splitSi
and after a year or two, falls off. A second membrane
is then formed, by the desiccation of the external part of
the cellular integument ; but it differs from the former,
in being thicker, and of a coarser texture. This en-
velope is distinguished froni \he former by the name of
epidermis,

\ ROOTS.

The root not only supports the plant by fixing it in
the soil, but affords a channel for- the conveyance of
nourishment. At the extremity of each fibre of a
root, there is an expansion of the cellular integument,
called spongiole, from its resemblance to a small
sponge ; being full of pores, it absorbs the water from
the soil. There are pores in every part of a plant,
above ground, but they are almost wholly for the pur-
pose of exhalation. The roots have no pores, except in
the spongioles at the extremities. It would be useless
for them to be furnished with evaporating pores, since
they are not exposed to the atmosphere, where alone
evaporation could take place.

The tendrils of vines, and of other climbing' plants,
which serve to fix them against a wall, or the trunk of
a tree, cannot be considered as roots ; since, thnuf^h
they answer the purpose of sustaining the plant, tlioy
are unable to supply it with nourishment. But there
ire some parasitical plants, such as the misletoe, which,
Aaving no immediate communication with the earth,
atrike their fibres into tlje stems or branches of a tree,
and derive their nourishment from this richly prepared
soil : yet, as the absorption in this case is not carried on

217

by the regular mode of spongioles, the tibres are not
denominated roots.

The spongioles act only by cnpillf^ry attraction, and
8uck up moisture, just as u lump o* sugar absorbs tho
water into which it is dipped. As a proof of this it hai
been shown, that il roots, saturated with moisture, be
transplanted into vory dry earth, the latter will absorb
the moisture from the roots.

Absorption docs not immediately cease upon the
death of u phuit, as the blood coascs to circulate upon
the expiration of unimnl life ; but when tho vessels,
through which tho fluid should pass, have lost their
vital energy, that susceptibility of irritation and con-
traction, wljich tnidjlcd thein to propel the fluid
upward, couscs, nii<l it can no I()ng(»r ascend into the
roots, but remuins sta^^nant in ihe sponj^iolos, which
soon become yaturiUd. Disease; and pulrcfaction
follow ; and thit iiourlHhincnt, wliieh wns designed to
sustain life, now servos only to accelerate disorga-
nization. Tlie fluid is, however, still performing tho
part assigned to it by the Creator ; for if it be necessary
to supply living plants with food, it is also necessary to
destroy those which have ceased to live, in order that
the earlh may not be encumbered with bodies
become useless, and that their disorgani'/ctl particles
muy contribute lo tho growth of living plants. Thus,
the putrefaction of leaves, straw, Asc. which reduces
the bodies to their simple elements, [)repnres them
to become onee more component parts of living
plants.

Botanists distinguish several kinds of root. The
radix fibrosa, or fibrous root, is the most common in.j^-
its form : it consists of a collection or bundle of fibres.
The roots of many grasses, and most annual herbs,
are of this description. Tiie couch grass is an ex-
ample of the radix repens, or creeping-root. If an
attempt be made to eradicate such roots, a succession
of bunches of fibres are met with, springing from an
apparent root which grows horizontally, and appears
to be endless. This long horizontal fibre is, however,
QttH a root, but a subtt v aneous branch, for it has HA

til 8

apongiolos : tho real lootrt nve th(^ small bundle of fibre*
Wliich spring from it. yiich ii root is very tcnncious of
life, as any jmriion, in whiob lUvvc is an articulation,
will grow. Tbe ox-oyo, wlioso strong ponotrating roots
strike deep into tho oarth, furnishes un oxaniplo of the
radix fuslfhrmis, or spincllc shapt-d. It is also called tho
tap-root, from its tapering so considerably towards X\\fi
end. The radix halbona, or bulbous-root, such as thai
of the lily, the hyacinth, or the onion, is improperly so
called, for tho tufts oiTibrcs, pendant from tho bulb, are
the roots. The bulb coii.-!titui*\s the stem of the plant.
The potato btlong.-; to tho i:lass of tuberous, or knotted
roots, which are of various kinds, comprehending all
such as have iK .-shy knobs, or tumours. In all cases
they are to be considcrotl as reservoirs of nourishment,
which enable the plant to sustain the casual privations
of a bavj'eii or dry soil.

Tho root of the orchis is deserving of notice, from its
singularity. It consists of two lobes, somewhat similar
to the two parts into which a bean is divided. One of
these perishes every year, and another shoots up on tho
opposite side of tho remaining lobe. The stem rises
pvery spring from between the two lobes, and since the
new lobe does not occupy the same place as its predc-
cessor, the orcius every year moves a little onwards.

The duration of roots is either ainuial, biennial, or
perennial. To tho first belong plants the existence of
tvhich is limited to one season, such as barley, and a
vast number of garden and iield flowers. The biennial
root produces, the f^rst season, only herbage, and tho
following summer, flowers and fruits, or seed ; after
which it perishes. To the perennial belong p'ants
which live to an indefinite period, such as trees and
shrubs.

319

STEMS.

Kvery plant has a sioin tlirouj;h which the sap
circulates, and from which the leaves and (lowers
spring. This stem is not always apparent : it is some-
times conceal(>d under ground, souu-timcs disguised
iindc^r an extraordinary form: the stem of the tulip,
for instance, is contained within tl\e hulb, which is
commonly, but impropcily, ciillcd its root ; that of the
forn is suhtcrraneons. The functions of the root and
stL'm aro totally dill«:^rf jil : tho former, merely sucks up
nourishment from the soil, and transmits it to the
leaves; the latter is supplied with organs to distribute
it, variously modified, to the several parts of the plant,
the leaves, the flowrrs, ikc.

The stems of plants are divided into two classes ;
those which grow internally, hence called endogenous ;
they aro also called immocolyledons, fiom thgir seed
having only one cotyledon, or loho ; and those which
grow exteriially, called exogenous, or dicolyli'dons, from
their seed having two Icbes.

There is a third class, denominated acotylcdonny
which have no cotyledons, and no vascular s3^stiMn, such
as fungi, lichens, &c.

The date, the palm, and the cocoa-nut tree, tho
sugar cane, and most of tho trees of tropical climutds,
bnlong to the monocotyledons, or endogenous plants.
Their stems are cylindrical, being of the same thick-
ncss from the top to the bottom. Their mode of
growth is this : a hollow stem shoots up to a certain
height, and there stops ; layer after layer grows in the
interior of, this hollow stem, till at length a period
arrives when the outer coats are so hardened and dis-
fended, as to yield no longer, the stem has then
attained its full growth in horizontal dimensions, and
offers a broad, flat circular surface to view, which has
scarcely risen in height above the level of the ground.
In this stage it resembles tho stump of tho trunk of a
tree, which has been cut down. Tho following spring,
^here being no room for a now laver of wood to extend

220

itself horizontally, it shoots up from the centre of the
stem vertically ; fresh layers every year successively
perforate this central shoot, till it becomes hard, com,
pact, and of the same horizontal dimensions as the base ;
the second period of growth is then complete.

The leaves and fruit of this class of plants grow from
the centre of the last shoot, and form a sort of cabbage
at the top of the tree, on cutting off which, the tree
perishes.

Endogenous plants have no real bark, the external
coats of wood are so much hardened as to render such
a preservation unnecessary. When an European wood-
cutter begins to fell a tree of this description, he is

auite astonished at its hardness. "If I have so much
ifficulty with the outside," says he, " how shall I ever
get through the heart of the wood ?" But as he pro-
ceeds, he finds, that, contrary to what he lias been ac-
customed to, it gets softer. This circumstance renders
it very ea&y to perforate them, and makes them pecu-
liarly appropriate for pipes, for the conveyance of water,
and such like purposes.

These plants liave usually no branches; Corn, and
all gramineous plants, the lilaceous tribe of flowers, and
bulbous roots, are all endogenous. Some of these send
forth shoots, but they are not from the stem, but from a
knot or ring upon the stem. The sugar-cane, which
grows in this manner, is the largest of the gramineous
plants.

The structure of the exogenous plants, or dicotyle-
dons, to which the trees of our temperate climes belong,
is much more complicated.

The stem is composed of two separate parts : the one
ligneous, the other cortical, in other words, it is formed
of wood and bark.

The wood consists, in the iirst place, of the pith, a
soft medullary substance, which occupies the centre of
the stem, and is almost always of a cylindrical form.
This soft, pulpy body, does not grow or increase in
size with the tree, but retains the same dimensions it
l^riginally had in the young stem.

221

The first layer, surrounding the central pith, grows
freely during a twelvemonth, but the following year it
is enclosed by a new layer ; being, by the pressure of
this layer, prevented from extending laterally, it makes
its way where there is no pressure ; that is to say,
vertically. When during the third year, a third layer
surrounds and compresses the second, this, in its turn,
escapes from the bondage by rising vertically. This
process goes on year after year, so that the stem grows
in height, at the same time that it increases in thick-
ness. This mode of growing renders the form of the
stem conical, the number of layers diminishing as the
stem rises.

These layers of wood attain a state of maturity,
when they bfxjome so hard by continued pressure, as
to be no lonn;er susceptible of yielding to it. Previous
to this period, the layers bear the name of alburnum,
signifying white wood, for wood is always white, until
it reaches this degree of consistency. . The length of
time requisite to convert the alburnum into perfect
wood, varies from five to fifty years, according to the
nature of the tree.

The vegetation of the bark is precisely tiie inverse
of tlmt of the wood ; that is to say, it is endogenous, its
layers growing internally : the new soft coat of bark,
therefore, lies immediately in contact with tiie new soft
layer of wood. The outer coats of bark, when they
become too hard to be further distended Ijy the pressure
of the internal layers, crack, and becoming thus ex-
pased to the injury of the weather, fall olf in pieces : it
is this whicli produces the ru(i,gc(hiess of the bark in
some trees. The other layers, us they become exlornal,
and exposed to the same sources of injury, experience
the same fate.

It has long been a disputed point, what part of the
stem the sap rises tiirough : some have maintained the
opinion, that it ascended through tlie pith : otliors, that
it rose through tlie bark ; but they iiave both been
proved to be wrong. By colouring tlie water, witl\
>vhich the plant was watered, it has been traced withini

19* .

222

the stem, and found to ascend almost wholly in tho
alhurnutn, or young wood, and particularly in tho
latest layers.

THE FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.

If the leaves of a tree be stripped ofi*, the fruit comes
to nothing, which is exemplified every year in goose.
berry bushes, the leaves of which have been devoured
by caterpillars ; and though the fruit-trees of warm
climates, jmrlly naturalized witii us, grapes and
peaches, for instance, ripen their fruit sooner, perhaps,
if partially deprived of tiieir loaves; yet if that practice
be carried too far, the fruit perishes. The white mul-
berry, indeed, cultivated in the south of Europe, for
the food of silkworms only, bears wonderfully the loss
of its foliage three or four times a year.

These facts have led some to think, that leaves were
merely a clothing, or a protection against cold and heat.
Though this is undoubtedly true, still it is a very small
part of the use of leaves.

That leaves give out moisture, or are organs of
insensible perspiration, is proved, by the simple ex-
periment of gathering the leally branch of a tree, and
immediately stopping tho wound at its base, with wax,
or any other tit substance, to prevent tho eHusion of
moisture in that direction. In a very short time, the
leaves droop, wither, and are dried up. If the same
branch, partly faded, thougli not dead, bo placed in a
very damp cellar, or immersed in water, the leaves
revive, by which their power of absorption is also
proved.

The great annual sun-flower is said to have lost by
perspiration, 1 lb. 14 oz. weight, in the course of
twelve hours, in a hot dry day. In a dry night, it lost
about three ounces ; in a moist night, scarcely any
alteration was observable ; but in a rainy night it gained

223

two or lliree ounces. The cornelian clierry is most
remarkable in lliis respect : the quantity of fluid which
evaporates froiii its leaves, in the course of twenty-fouir
liours, is said to be nearly equal to twice the weight of
the whole shrub.

The perspiration of aquatic plants seems to be re-
markably copious. Of these some j^row constantly
immersed in water. Their leaves are peculiarly
vascular, and dry very quickly in the air, withering in
a few minutes after exposure to it. Other aquatics
iloat with only tl>e upper surface of their leaves ex-
posed to the air, which siirfaise is so contrived, that
water will scarcely remain upon it. These leaves,
though extremely juicy, dry with great rapidity, as
does every part of the plant, when gathered. It id
probable that they imbibe copiously by their under
ijidcs, and perspire by their upper.

Light has a very powerful elfeet upon plants. The
green colour of the leaves is owing to it, so that plants
raised in the dark, are of a sickly wiiite ; and it is well
known that the blanching of celery is eftccted by
covering the plant, so as to exclude the light.

Light acts beneficially upon the upper surface of
leaves, and hurtfully upon the under side ; hence, the
Ibrmer is always turned towards the light, in whatever
situation the plant may haj)pen to be placed. IMants,
ill a hot-house, present tln^ fronts of their leaves to the
bide where there is most light, not to the (juarter where
most air is admitted, or to the Hue in search o* heat.
It has been found, that vine leaves turn to the light,
even when separated from the stem, if suspended by a
thread.

Nor is this effect of light peculiar to leaves alone.
Many flowers are equally sensible to it, especially the
compound radiated ones, as the daisy, sun-flower,
marigold, &c. In their forms, Nature seems to have
delighted to imitate the radiant luminary, in the ab.
sence of whose beams, many of them do not expand
their blossoms at all. The stately annual sun-flower
displays this phenomenon more conspicuously, on
Recount of its size ; the flower follows the sun all day,

and returns, aftov sunset, to tho cast, to meet his sun-
beams in the morning. A great number of leaves,
likewise, follow the sun in its course. A clover field is
a familiur instuuce oClliLs. f:^ ei

The chuuilcal actions ol' liglit, lieul, unJ the com-
ponent parts of tho atmospheric air, upon leaves, are
now tolerably well understood. It is agreed, that in
the day time, plants imbibe, from the atmosphere,
carbonic acid gas, (which is a compound of oxygen
and carbon,) that they decompose it, absorb the carbon,
as matter of nourishment, which is added to the sap,
and emit the oxygen. The burning of a candle, or
the breathing of animals, in a confined space, produces
so much of this gas, that neither of these operations
can go on beyond a certain time ; but the air so con.
taminafed, serves as food for vegetables, the leaves of
which, assisted by light, soon restore the oxygen, or,
in other words, purify the air again. This beautiful
discovery shows a mutual dependence of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, and adds another to the many
proofs we have of the wisdom, and wonder-working
power of the Creator of all things.

In the dark, plants give out carbonic acid, and absorb
oxygen ; but the proportion of the latter is small, com-
pared to what they cxiuile by day, as must likewise be
the proportion of carbonic acid given out ; else the
quantity of carbon added to their substance, would bo
but trifling, especially in those climates, in which the
proportion of day to night is nearly equal, and which,
notwithstanding,*we know to be excessively luxuriant
in vegeiation.

There can bo no queRtion of tho general purpose,
answered to the vegeiable constitution by these
functions of leaves. But when we attempt to con-
sider, how the peculiar secretions of different species,
and tribes of plants are formed ; how the same soil,
the same atmosphere, should, in a leaf of the vine, or
sorrel, produce a wholesome acid, and in that of a
spurge, or manchineel, a most virulent poison ; — how
«weet, and nutritious, herbage should grow, among the
tcrid craw-foot, and aconite : — we find ourselves

strato a c

225

totally unable to eomprehoiirl \ho rxistonco of such
wonderful powers in so stnall, jukI, soeniingly, Bimple
an organ, as the leaf of a plant. The agency of the
vital principle alone can uccDtint for these wonders,
though it cannot, to our understandings, explain them.
The thickest veil covers the whole of these processes;
and so far have philosophers hitherto been from re-
moving this veil, that they iiavc not even been able
to approach it. All those operations, indeed, are
evidently chemical decompositions and combinations :
but we neither know what these decompositions and
combinations are, nor the instruments in which they
take place, nor the agents by which they are regulated.
The vain-glorious Buflbn caused his own statue to
be inscribed, " a genius equal to the majesty of nature ;"
but a blade of grass was sufficient to ^'oiifound his
pretensions. Sir J. E, Smith,

- THE SAP.

The sap of trees may be obtained, by wounding a
branch, or stem, in spring, just before the buds open:
or in the end of autumn, though less copiously, after
a slight. frost, yet not during the frost. It ha'^ always
been observed to flow from the young wood, or
alburnum, of our trees ; not from the bark. A branch
of the vine, cut through, will yield about a pint of tftis
fluid, in the course of twenty-four hours. The birch
also affords much sap. It fljws equally upward and
downward, from a wound.

This great motion, called the floiving of the sap,
which is to be detected principally in the spring, and
slightly in the autumn, is, therefore, totally distinct
from that constant propulsion of it going on in every
growing plant.

This flowing of the sap has been thought to demon-
strate a circulation ; because, there being no leaves

220

at the time to carry it oflT by perspiration, it is evident
that, if it wcro at these periods running up the sap
vessels, it must run down again by other channcla.
But as soon as the leaves expand, its motion is no
longer to be detected. The effusion of sap from
plants, when cut or wounded, is, during the greater
part of the year, comparatively very small. It is
thought, therefore, tiiat this f owing of the sap, is
nething more than a facility of the sap to run, owing
to the peculiar irritability of the vegetable body, at
that period; and that it runs only when a wound is
made — being naturally at rest till the leaves open, and
admit of its proper and regular conveyance.

As soon as the leavea expand, insensible perspiration
takes place, very copiously, chiefly from tho^e organs ;
but also, in some degree, from the bark of tl 3 young
stem and branches. The perspiration of some plants
is very great. The large annual sun-flower is said to
perspire about seventeen times as fast as the ordinary
perspiration of the human skin.

The sap, in its passage through the leaves and bark,
becomes quite a new fluid, possessing the peculiar
flavour and qualities of the plant ; and not only yield.
mg woody matter for the increase of the vegotal)lc
body, but furnishing various secreted substances more
or less numerous and different among themselves.
These, accordingly, are chiefly found in the bark. In
herbaceous plants, the stems of which are only of
annual duration, the perennial roots frequently contain
these fluids, in the niost perfect state ; nor are they, in
su«h, confine_d to tlie bark, but deposited throughout
the substance, or wood, of the root, as in rhubarb and
gentian.

Gum, or mucilage, a viscid substance, of little
flavour or smell, and soluble in water, is a very com-
mon secretion. When superabundant, it exudes from
many tree^, in the form of large drops, as in the plum,
cherry, and peach trees, and different species of the
mimosa, or sensitive plants, one of which yields the gum
arable, others the gum Senegal, &c.

Resin is a substanqe soluble in spirits, as tlie

227

turpentine of tlie fir and juniper. Most vegetable
exudations partake of a nature between resin and
mucilage, being partly soluble in water, partly in
spirits; and are therefore called gum-resins. The
more refined and volatile secretions, of a rei^inotis
nature, are called cssnntial oils ; and arc ol'ten highly
aromatic and odiferous. One of the most exquisite
of these is afforded by the cinnamon bark. They
exist, in the highest perfection, in the pcrfunled effluvia
of flowers, some of which, capable of combination with
spirituous fluids, are obtainable by distillation, as those
of the lavender and rose.

Acid secretions are well known to 1)e very general in
plants. The astringent principle is a species of acid ; it
may be derived from various sources^ — for instance the
tanning from the oak^ willow, &c. An acid is found
united with even the silgar, in the sugar cane.

Sugar, more or less pure, is very generally found in
plants. It abounds in various roots, as the carrot, beet,
and parsnip ; and in many plants of the grass or cane
kind, besides the famous sugar cane.

It is curious to observe not only the various
Secretions of different plants, by which they differ
from each other in taste, smell, qualities, and medical
virtues, but also their great number, and striking
difference, frequently in the same plant. Of this, the
peach tree affords a familiar example. The gum of
this tree is mild and mucilaginous : the bark, leaves,
and flowers abound with a bitter secretion, than which,
nothing tan be more distinct from the gum. The fruit
is replete, not only with acid, mucilage, and sugar,
but with its own peculiar aromatic and highly volatile
secretion, on which its fine flavour depends. How
far are we yet from understanding the vegetable body,
which can form, and keep separate, such distinct and
discordant substances !

The odour of plants is, unquestionably, a volatile,
essential oil. Its general nature is evinced by its
ready union with spirits or oil, not with water.

To all the foregoing secretions of vegetaWes, may be
added those, on which their various colours depend.

228

Wo cun but inji)ojicctly accnuru ibr the groort, go
universal in their hevboOT ; but wo may gratefully
acknowledge the bcjieficcnco of the Creator, in clothing
the earth with a colour the most pleasing, and the least
fatiguing to the eye. Wo may bo dazzled with the
brilliancy of a flower garden, but our eyes repose at
leisure on the verdure of a grove or nioadnw.

Abridged from Sir J. E. Smith.

THE FLOWER. : ^

■ ^ .' . ' . ' ,

The flower consists of several parts.

The calyxy or flower cup, forms the external integiN
ment which protects the bud, before it expands; it
consists of several parts, called sepales, resembling
ismall leaves, both in form and colour. These sepales
are, in general, more or less soldered together ; some-
times so completely, as to form a cup apparently of one
piece.

Above and within the calyx, rises the corolla, which
is the coloured part of the flower. It is composed of
several petals, either separate or cohering, so as to
form a corolla of one single piece : in the latter case,
the flower is called monapetalous. When the petals
first burst from the calyx, and expand in all their
beauty, they still serve to protect the central parts of
the flower. They are at first curved inwards, forming
a concavity around the delicate organs which occupy
the centre. This not only shelters them from ex-
ternal injury, but reflects the sun's rays upon thenii
like a concave mirror ; thus rearing them, as it were,
in a hot-house. When these parts are full grown, the
artificial heat being no longer necessary, and the
admission of light and air, being not only safe but
advantageous, the petals expand ; leaving the internal
organs exposed to tho free agency of these elements.

At the base of the petals is generally situated an

one, situii

229

organ

organs

cftUed the noclary. This is the store whenofl
tho bcc derivGH lionoy.

Tlic most importiint parts of the flower are those
wliich occupy tho contic. It is liere that tlie
seed wliich iy to propagate tho pUmt, is lodj^ed, in a
vessel called the ovary, or seed-vessel. From its
summit rises a little threadlike stalk, called a style ;
which, at its oxtreniity, supports a small, spongy sub-
stance, denominated the stigma. These three parts
form a whole, which bears the name of carpel.

Immediately surrounding the pistils, are situated the
itamcTis ; each of which consists of a slender fdament,
lupporting a little bag, or case, colled an anther, filled
with pollen, which is a species of dust or powder. The
anthers, when ripe, burst ; and, being more elevated
(han the stigma, shed their pollen upon it; without
Irhioh no seed can be perfected.

In some vegetables the stamens are in one flower,
and the pistils in another; ^'n others, the stamens and
pistils are upon separate plants. In these cases the
pollen is conveyed from the one to the other, by means
of the wind, or by winged insects, which, in penetrating,
t>y means of their long and pliant proboscis, "^vithin the
recesses of the corolla, in order to obtain the nectar,
cover their downy wings with the pollen. This un-
heeded burden they convey to the next flower on which
they alight ; and in working their way to the nectary,
It is rubbed off" and falls on the stigma. Every insect,
however ephemeral, every weed, however insignificant,
has its part assigned in the great system of the
universe.

In Persia, very few of the palm and date trees, under
cultivation, have stamens, those having pistils being
preferred, as alone yielding fruit. In the season of
flowering the peasants gather branches of the wild
palm trees, whose blossoms contain stamins, and spread
them over those which are cultivated, so that the pollen
comes in contact with the ^>istils, and fertilizes the
flower.

There were two remarkable palm-trees in Italy. The
one, situated at Otranto, had no stamens j the other,

330

Qt Brindisi, which is about forty miles distant, hftd no
pistils ; consequently, neither of those trees boro seed
But when, after the growth of many years, tliey not
only rose superior to all the trees of the neighbouring
forests, but overtopped all the buildings which inter,
vened, the pollen of the palm-trco at Brindisi was
wafted by the wind, to the pistils of that of Otranto ;
and, to the astonishment of every^ oncj the latter bore
fruit. ■'^

THE SEED.

The seed, from which the future plant proceeds, is
the sole end and aim of all the parts of fructification.
It consists of several parts, the most essential of which
is the embryo, or germen, called by Linnceus, corculum,
whence the life and organization of the future plant,
originate.

The dbiyled&ns, or seed lobes, are immediately
attached to the embryo, of which they form, properly
speaking, a part. They are commonly two in number,
and, when the seed has sufficiently established its root,
generally rise out of the ground, and form a kind of
leaves. Hihim, the scar, is. the point by which the
seed is attached to its seed-vessel, or receptacle, and
through which alone nourishment is imparted for the
perfecting of its internal parts; it is also the print
through which the radical is protruded in the first stage
of germination.

There is no part of the vegetable kingdom, which
offers so many striking proofs of admirable contrivance
as the seed. The care, which Providence has bestowed
upon it, is astonishing.

Independently of the innumerable means which are
adopted for maturing and protecting the organs, on
which the production of the seed depends, and which
form part of the system of provision for perfecting it—

201

hidoponiknUy, too, of the coQntlcss^contrfvancca, sbnio
higlily artificiul, for tho iinmccUato purpose of perfecting
It, — tlio mode in which this organ is -prcnerved after it ia
matured, evinces consummate care and wisdom. Some,
times it is packed up in a capsule, a vessel composed of
tough and stronf» coats ; sometimes, as in stone-fruits
and nuts, it is closed in u t^lrong shell, which again is
enclosed in a pulp ; sometimes, as in grapes and berries,
it is plumped overhead in a glutinous syrup, contained
within a skin or bladder: at other times, as in apples
and pears, it is embedded in the heart of a firm fleshy
substance ; or as in strawberries, pricked into the sur.
face of a soft pulp. These, and many other varieties;
exist in what are called fruits. In pulse, and grain, and
grasses ; — in trees, and shrubs, and [lowers, — the variety^
of the seed-vessel is incomputable. We have tho
seeds, as in the pea-tribe, regularly disposed in parch,
ment pods, which completely exclude the wet; the pod
also, not seldom, as in tho bean, lined with a fine down
distended like a blown bladder ; or wo have the seed
enveloped in wool, as in the cotton plant ; lodged, as in
pines, between the hard and compact scales of a cone ^
or barricadoed, as in the artichoke and thistle, with
epikes and prickles ; in mushrooms, placed under A
penthouse ; in ferns, within slits in the back part of thi^
leaf; or, which is the most general organization of all.
we find them covered by a strong close, tunicle, and
attached to the stem, according to an, order appropriated
to each plant, as is seen in several kinds of grain and
of grasses.

Equally numerous and admirable are the contrivances
/or dispbrsing seeds. Who has not listened, in a Cahn
and sunny day, to the crackling of furze-bushes, causc4
fty the explosion of their little elastic pods, or watched
»'he down of innumerable seeds floating on the summer
6reeze, till they are overtaken by a shower, which
moistening their wings, stops their fuj tlier flight, and
at the same lime accomplishes its final purpi se, by im-
mediately promoting tiie germination of each seed iii
the moist earth ? " . -h. ■

How little are children aware, as they blow away tllf'

239

seeds of the dandejion, or stick burs in sport on eaoli
other's clothes, that they are fulfilling one of the great
ends of nature.

The awns of grasses answer the same purpose.

Pulpy fruits serve quadrupeds and birds as food,
while their seeds, often small, hard and indigestible
pass uninjured through the intestines, and are depositeti
far from their original place of growth, in a conditio!
perfectly fit for vegetation.

Even such seeds as are thdimselves eaten, like the
▼ariotts sorts of nuts, are hoarded up in the ground, and
occasionally forgotten, or carried to a distance, and in
part only devoured.

The ocean itself serves to waft the larger kind of
aed9 firom their native soil to far distant shores.

M'Cullocb's Course of Beading,

ANIMAL LIFE.

Living bodies are usually divided into the animal and
vegetable kingdoms. It may seem at first suffixjiently
easy to make the distinction between an animal and a
plant; and, as long as we confine our views to the
higher orders of animated beings, there is no room for
doubt. But when we descend in the scale to the ra-
diated animals, which present no distinct nervous systenF,
no organs of sensation, no observable mode of commu-
nication with the external world ; it then becomes
necessary to enquire more accurately into the peculiar
points, which should decide us to arrange them under
the one class, or the other. Perhaps the most certain
of these, is the presence of a digestive organ. Cuvier
mentions three other marks of distinction, which, however,
are by no means so general. They are, the presence of
nitrogen, as one of the chemical components of all
animal bodies ; the existence of a circulation ; and
respiration. Nitrogen, it is true, exists in all animal bodies.

233

but all vegetables, likowiso, contain it, and some in cdW»
sidcrable quantities, aa the extensive classes of fungi and
cruciformia ; in ca/cin, a principle extracted from coiTee,
there is actually a greater amount of it, than in most
animal substances. Circulation is not found to exist in
the lowest class of animals. As for respiration, the
leaves of plants so exactly resemble, in their action, the
lungs of animals, that they are now familiarly spoken of
by vegetable physiologists as respiratory organs.

•What life is, we know not ; what life does, we knaW
well, hifo counteracts tJie laws of gravity. If the fluidi^
of our bodies followed the natural tendency of fluids,
they would descend to our feet, when we stood, or to oui"
backs, when we lay. The cause, why they do not, may
be referred immediately to the action of the heart and
vessels ; but it is evident, that they derive that power
from life.

Life resists the effects of mechanical powers. -~-Fnction%
which will thin and wear away a dead body, actually is
the cause of thickening a living one. The skin on A
labourer's hand is thickened and hardened, to save it
from the effects of constant contact with rough and
hard substances. The feet of the African, who, without
any defence, walks over the burning sands, exhibit
always a thickened covering ; and a layer of fat, a bad
conductor of heat, is found deposited between it, and
the sentient extremities of the nerves.— --Pressure, which
thins inorganic matter, thickens living matter. A tight
shoe produces a corn, which is nothing more than a
thickened cuticle. The same muscle, that with ease
raised a hundred pounds when alive, is torn through by
ten when dead.

Life prevents chemical agency. ' The body, when left
to itself, soon begins to putrefy j the several parts of
which it is composed, no longer under the influence of
a higher controlling power, yield to their * chemical
affinities ; new combinations are formed ; ammonia,
sulphuretted, with carburetted hydrogen, and other gases
are given off, and nothing remains but dust. This never
happens during life.
Life modifea il\e power of heat. Beneath a tropical

20*

234

sun^ Of wtthtti the arctio olrolo, tho temperature of thti
human body is found unaltered, when examined by the
thermometer. Some have exposed themselves to air,
heated above the point at which water boils; yet a
therhiometer, placed under the tongue, stood at the usual
height of about 98° ; and the sailors, who, under Cap.
tain Parry, wintered so near the north-pole, when
examined in the same way, constantly afforded the same
results.

Finally, life is the cause of the constant changes that
are going forward in our bodies. From the moment that
our being commences, none of the materials, of which
we are composed, continue stationary; Foreign matter
is taken in, aiid by the action of what are termed the
assimilating functions, becomes part of our composition ;
while, on the other hand, the" materials, of which our
frame' had been built up, being now unfit any longer for
the performance of the nece«8ary duties, are dissolved,
as it; were, into a liquid or gaseous form, conveyed by
the absorbents from the place which the new matter
isomes to occupy, and finally expelled from the system^

PeHCIVAL B. LoRDii

THE INTEGUMENTS.

The integuments form that substance, which covers
«/ery part of the surface of the body. They constitute
what is termed the hide, in various animals, and consist
of three parts ; the scarf-skin, a mucous net work below,
and the true skin.

The scarf-skin, or cuticle, which is intended to pro-
tect the pfirts beneath, arid to preserve their sensibility,
is itself insensible. A blister will raise the cuticle, and
render it apparent. Strong work will harden it, as in
tho hands of labouring people ; and, afler many severe
complaints, the scarf-skin peels off, just as it does in
some animals, as serpents, which cast their skin at car
tGiin periods.

add

The scarf-skin has in it numerous minute holes or
pores, by means of which perspiration is cffeeted, and
through which the hair issues.

The colour of the scarf-skin varies very little in the
different races of mankind : even in the negro it is very
little darker than in the European. The seat of colour
is, in fact, a very thin layer of soft substance, which is
interposed between the scarf-skin and the cutis, or true-
skin, and is termed the mucous net- work. In the negro
it is of a very dark colour : and the colouring matter is
capable of being communicated to water. The true
gkin, and the parts belovv, are of the same colour, both
in whites and blacks. €•*

There are five principal varieties of colour in the
human species, and all of them dependent on the dif-
ferent shades of the n'-our coat: the first is the Euro-
pean, or white ; the s:^' i is the Mangolian yellow, or
olive ; the third is the . ■^i ,can red, or copper colour •
the fourth is the Ethioj.iaii, or black ; the fifth is the
Malay brown, or tawny.

The true skin constitutes the organ of touch. This
power exists in the greatest degree at the ends of the
fingers, in slight elevations of tjie skin, called papilla).
The immediate organs of sensations are, however, small
white threads, called nerves, which are more or less
immediately derived from the brain, and these are dif-
fused very plentifully over the ends of the fingers, and
particularly over the papillae, which, by this means are
calculated to communicate minute impressions with
great accuracy.

Most animals have, independently of the general dif-
fusion of- sensibility over the surface, some particular
part which possesses the sense of touch in a pre-eminent
degree. The nose or snout is a very common organ for
this purpose, in many animals ; and in tlie elephant,
arge anil unwieldy as it appears, the extremity of the
trunk is provided witli an organ, as small and delicate
as the human finger, and capable of taking hold of very
small objects, as neeJlcs or pins, with great facility.

Some animals h ive an exceedingly thick epidermis or
ccarf-iikin, as the elephant and hippopotamus. I'hoss

236

that live in the air, have thoir cuticle dry and horny j
fish, on the contrary, have it mucous or oily, so as to
prevent injury by the action of tlie water upon it. Some
Animals, as has already been observed with regard to
serpents, cast their cuticle onco a year, and this in so
perfect a way, that even the'roiundity of the eye is dig.
fjoverable in the exuviaj. The greater part of silk-
worms, and of the caterpillars of butterflies, cast ofl:'
their cuticles seven times, and some insects even ten
times, before they pass into the state of chrysalis.

There is a peculiarity in the attaclnnent of the skin
of the frog and toad to the body, which is not found in
other animals. «il is only adherent at a few points;
being in other respects a loose bag inclosing the body ;
whereas, in most animals, it is closely adherent to the
muscu}ar surface beneath.

THE BONES.

^'f

The bones form, as it were, the foundation of the
body ; and, besides being a basis or ground-work for
the soft parts, are intended to enclose and support some
organs, which are of the first importance in the animal
frame.

The skull or cranium, which contains the brain, is
fixed at the top of the vertebral column, or bones of the
back : In the centre of these bones, is a hollow space,
destined for the reception of the spinal marrow, a sub-
stance which is a prolongation of the brain, and resem-
blea it a good deal in nature and function.

At a little distance from the skull commence the ribs,
which are all fixed behind to the bones of the back, and
the greater number to the breast'bone before. Their
curvature forms a cavity, which is called the chest, and
contains the heart and lungs.

At the lower part of the vertebral column is placed
a ^ni| thick, strong, and irregular, bony structure^

synovia, as

237

called tlie hips, which encircle a sort of hollow space
termed the pelvis or bason.

At the upper part of the ribs, are the fihouldor blades,
into which the upper extremities are articulated or
jointed ; and at the lower part of the pelvis are articu-
lated the lower extremities.

The form, magnitude, and 'node of junction of bones,
vary, according to the design which they are intended
to serve. Where strength is required, with flexibility at
particular parts, we have bones, like those of the arm
and leg, of firm texture, with joints at certain intervals.
In the hand and foot, there is, by means of the nume-
rous joints of the fingers and toes, and the mechanism
of the wrist and ancle, a facility given to the various
important actions of the hand, and to the more limited
motions of the foot.

In the back, great solidity is required, and the mo-
tion in any one part of it is very small. In some of the
joints, the power of motion is in all directions, as in the
shoulder and hip ; while in the elbow and knee, there
is only the power of bending or extending them.

The joints which compose the shoulder and hip are
of the description which is called, in mechari.cs, the
ball and socket. The bone of the arm is attached to
the shoulder blade, which is connected with the breast
bone, by the intervention of the collar bone, or
clavicle.

The ends of bones are covered with a gristly sub-
stance, called cartilage^ which, together with the oil, or
synovia, as it is called, which is secreted in every joint,
prevents them being injured by the constant friction to
which they are exposed.

The bones, hard and substantial as they appear, were
originally nothing more than soft pulp, contained within
a membraneous covering, which gradually became
harder, and, at the proper period, acquired solidity suffi-
cient for all the purposes of life. The younger a person
is, the greater is the quantity of jelly ; and in old people
there is a much larger proportion of ossified matter.
jSome fish have their bones composed entirely of car*
tilage, as the shark) skate, sturgeon.

238

In some aniinui.s tho bony structure is on tho outsitftj
of the body, as in all the tostnceous tribes, wbioi» aro
enclased in one or more sb.ells ; us tiie oyster, snail,

"bilk, &^ii. ; and alst) in ibe crustacca, \ybiQh comprise

.e crab, lobster, sbriinp, &c.
In tbc crust.-ccous, as well as in the testaceous, there
is a powcv of renewing tlu shell in ease of injury, which
in tho former, not only c^xtt^nds to the shell, but likewl <e
{o the iimb itself. Lobsters and crabs, are sometimes,
after thundt^r-storms, fjund to bo entirciy without their
clavvs, which require some time for reproduction. The
jar communicated to the watiM", and perhaps terror on
the part of the animal, have the singular elFect of making
these animals throw off their claws. The effect seems
to be voluntary, for some of tho younger o.f these ani-
mals will drop their claws, on an attempt to take them,
fven though they have not been touched. In these
animalk^ the blood-vessels have the power of secreting
the matter of the shell. Crabs and lobsters lose their
shell annually, and seek retirement till the new shell is
sufficiently consolidated ; behig aware of their defence-
less state at such times.

* i ■

^ARKS OF DESIGN IN THE HUMAN BODY.

I challenge any man to produce, in the joints and
pivots of the most complicated, or the most flexible
machine that was ever contrived, a construction more
artificial, or more evidently artificial, than that which
IS seen in the vertebroe of the human neck. Two things.^
^ere to be done. The head was to have the power of
bending forward and backward ; and, at the same time
of turning itself round upon the body to a certain
extent. For these purposes, two distinct contrivances
are employed. First, tlie head rests immediately upon
the uppermost part of the vertebrce, and is united to it
fcy a hin^e-jointj upon which joint, the head playji

339

freely forward and backward. Bui thon fhe rotatory
motion is unprovided for : thoreforo, secondly, to mal^
the head capable of this, a farther mechanism is intro-
duced ; not between the lioud and the uppermost bono
of the neck, where the hinge is, but between that bone
and the next underneath it. Tliis second, or uppermost
bone but one, has what anatomists call a process, via.
a projection, somewhat similar in size and shape to a
tooth ; which tooth enterinjr n corresponding hole or
socket in the bone above it, ibrms a pivot or axle upon
which that upper bone, together with the head which it
supports, turns freely in a circle. Thus are both motions
perfect without interfering with each other. When wo
nod the head, wo use the hinge-joint, which lies between
the head and the tirst bone of the neck : when we turn
the head round, we use the tennon and mortice, which
runs between the first bone of the neck and the second.
No one can here doubt of the existence of counsel and
design.

The spine, or back-bone, is a chain of joints of very
wonderful construction* It was to be firm, yet flexible ;
jirm,y to support the erect position of the body ; Jlexible,
to allow of the bendinj^ of the trunk in all deo;rees of
curvature. • It was further also to be a pipe for the safe
conveyance from the bnun, oi" llio spinal marrow ; a
substance not only of tlie lirut necessity to action, if
not to life, but of a nature so dolicatc and tender, so
susceptible of injury, as that any unusual pressure upon
it is followed by paralysis, or death. Now the spine
was not only to furnish the main trunk for the passage
of the medullary substance from the brain, but to give
out, in the course of its progre?;s, small Ijranches, which
being afterwards indofinitoly subdivided, might, under
the name of nerves, give, to every part of the body,
the power of feeling and motion. The same spine was
also to sorve another purpose, not les;-3 v/anted than the
preceding, viz. to aflbrd u ba::)is for the insertion of tho
muscles, which are spretul over the trunk of the body ;
in which trunk there are not, as in the liml>s, cylindrical
bones to which they can bo fastened. The spine- had
likewise to furnish a support for the ends of the ribs ta
rest upon.

240

How admirably is all this accomplished ! The spine
ia cbmposed of a great number of bones, (in man, of
twenty-four,) joined- to one another, and compacted by
broad bases. The breadth of the bases upon which
the parts severally rest, and the closeness of the junc-
tion, give to the chain its firmness and stability ; the
number of parts, and consequent frequency of joints,
its flexibility. This flexibility varies in different parts
of the chain ; is least in the back, where strength more
than flexure is wanted ; greater in the loins, which it
was necessary should be more supple than the back ;
?ind greatest of all in the neck, for the free motion of
the head. In order to afford a passage for the descent
pf the spinal marrow, each of these bones is bored
through \n the middle in such a manner, as that, when
put together, the hole in one bone falls into a line, and
corresponds with the holes in the two bones contiguous
to it. By which means, the perforated pieces, when
joined, form an entire, close, uninterrupted channel ;
at least, while the spine is upright, and at rest. But as
a settled posture is inconsistent with its use, a great
difficulty still remained, which was, to prevent the
vertebraB shifting upon one another, so as to break the
line of the canal as often as the body moves or twists.
But the vertebra), by means of their processes and
projections, and of the articulations wliich some of thorn
form with one another at their extremities, are so
locked in and confined as to maintain, in the surfaces of
the bones, the relative position nearly unaltered ; and
^o throw the change and pressure produced by flexion,
almost entirely upon the intervening cartilages, or
gristle, the springiness and yielding nature of whoso
substance admits of all the motion which is necessary,
without any chasm being produced by a separation of
the parts. For the medullary canal giving out in its
course a supply of nerves to different parts of the body,
notches are made on the upper and lower edge of each
vertebrae ; two on each edge. When the vertebra) are
put together, these notches, exactly fitting, foj'in small
holes through which the nerves issue out in pairs, in
order to send their branches through every part of the.

241

body, and witli an equal bounty to both sides of the
bodv.

The structure of the spine is not in general different,
in different nnimalR. In the serj nt tribe, however, ft
is considorubly vari« d ; but vviih slrict reference to the
convenience of the aniuiul. For, wJioreas in quadrupeds
the number of vertebra) is from thirty to forty, in the
serpent, it is nearly one liuii(hed and hfly : whereas, in
men and quadrupctls the surfiiecs of the bones are flat,
and tlicse flat surfaces laid one against the other, and
h'^und tight by sinews ; in the serpent, the bones play
one within tiie other, like u ball and socket, so that they
have a free motion upon one another in every direction j
that is to say, in men and quadrupeds, firmness is more
jconsulted ; in serpents, pliancy.

Pale^'s Nat. Theology. -

THE MUSCLES.

The muscles are dirjtinct portions of flesh, capable of
contraction and relaxation. They are composed of
fibres of two kinds; the one soft and irritable, of a *red
colour, from the blood that is in them : these generally
constitute the body of tlio muscle ; whilst the other
sort are found, for the most part, in the cxtronnties, and
are of a harder texture, and of a white glistening
colour : if these are formed into a round, slender cord,
they are called tendons. What we commonly term
flesh, as the lean of meat, is the substance of the mus-
cles. The fibres of which they are composed are ex-
quisitely fine. ,

The muscles are generally attached to the bones, by
means of tendons, and are so artfully situated, that
whatever motion the joint annexed is capable of per-
forming, the muscle is adapted to produce it. The
knee, and the elbow, furnish examples of this agree-
ment. Both being hinge joints, formed to move back-
wards or forwards, the muscles belonging to them
ai'e placed parallel tq the bone, so as, by their contrao

213

xion or relaxation, to ellJ'Ct that motion, and no other.
The shoulder and tho hip jolntH, hy their construction,
admit a sort ol" swet^jiiiio- or cireulur action, and aro
ipicoordln^ly ^u|)pli(?d with mtisclcs ;idit|)ted to it.

A joint ujifurnisiied with suitnhlo miitscles would
bo fnotionloss ; jiiusule^ deprived oi' tlio joint, would ho
unavailin^f. Thoy aro necessary to each other ; and their
unioti disj)lii ys the hii.diest iiiiukH of wisdom and goodness.

Tho rerl ei>lour of the niuscular or Mesliy parts of
aniinals is» owin;^ to innumerable blood vessels, that aro
dispersed through their sul>stanee. When we soak tho
fibres of a nn^sclo in water, it becomes white. The
blood vessels are acconipanii-d by nerves; and they aro
(>6th (iistributed so abuiidantly in the fleshy parts, that
in etaleavourinjjT to trace tlie course of the blood vessels
in a muscle, the imiseh^ would appear to ho tbrmed
alto<fet1ier 1;y their rumiiicalions ; and in an attempt to
follow tiie branches oi' its nerves, they would be foinid
to be equally numer<nis.

Wiicn a niustie is in action, l.'ie (ibres bcconio
shorter, and tlio l)ody swells. lO.sperimcnt" siiow llint
the nerves, and a regular supply of blood, arc essential
to \hiH contraction ; and that it is regulated by tho
mind, at least in the voluntary muscles, viz. those mus-
cles that move tho Ifnibs, or any other i)art dependently
upon our v,'ill : but tlnTe are oiiiers, called tiio involun-
tary mu^jcles, vviii(!li operate witiiout even our conscions-
nejjis of tlie action that is continually going on witliiw
us; such is the heart, which is itself a nmsclc : and the
muscular fibres that occasion the necessary motions of
tho stomach and the intestines.

Most nmscles have ollicrs opposed to them, which
act in a contrary direction, and are culled antagonists
Some of these act in succession, us when one muscle,
or one set of musics, beads a limb, another extends
it ; one elevates a pari, an.other tk'.presses it ; one draws
it to the right, another to the left. V»j theso opposite
powers the part may be kept in a middle direction,
ready to obey when called to act.

Four hundred and forty-six muscles have been
described, and their uses ascertained. It has been aaiJ

213

that not less than a liunrlrod uro eniplnyed ever^ iiine
we breathe: yet we draw our hronlh every moment,
without considering, or even Ixiug snisihle of the vast
and complicated apparatus ihat>ia necessary to eUrct it.
The least impediment to our Ijreathiin; throws u>? into
the greatest distress ; I>ut how litlki do wo value the
inestimable blessing, till disease or accident makes us
sensible of its enjoyment.

The exquisite autl delicate meehnnism of different
parts of the frame claims our highest admiration ; but
our wonder is greatly increased, when we consider, that
it performs its different functions for fifty or sixty years
together, with very little diminution of its power.
VVhat hinge could the m t skilful workman contrive,
that might bo used as often as our elbow-joiiit is, for so
lonjj a term, without briuif disordered or worn out ?
flave we not here a strong proof of the vast superi.
ority of the works of God, to the most ingenious con-
trivances of man.

Those important faculties of sight and hearing,
which are of so much use, and which procure us so
many enjoyments, depend upon muscles so extrcMuely
small, that they nuist bo niagnilied to be visilsje. In
the tongue the nmseles arc very numerous, and so im-
plicated wi"li one another, tiiat the nicest dissectors
cannot trace them; yet they are so arranged,- that they
never interfere wiih each other, nor interrupt the
various oflices of speaking and swallowing, in the
other parts of the body, the same adnural)lo economy
is preserved. The muscles are every where did'used ;
they lie close to each other, in layers, as it were, over
one another, after crossing, sometimes passing through,
and even imbedded in one another, yet each at perfect
liberty to perform its peculiar oJlice, without inter-
rupting the power of its neighbour.

The action of nmseles is often required where their
situation would be inconvenient. In such a case,
the body of the muscle is placed in some coinniodious
position at a distance, and comnmnicatcs with the point
of action by means of slender tendons, or strings, rc-
s.e|nbling wires. If the muscles, which move the lingers),

244

had been placed in ihe palm or back of the hand, they
would have enlarged it to a clumsy and very incon.
venient thickness. They are, therefore, disposed in the
arm, and even up to the el how ; from this position they
act by Ion<^ tendons, strapped down ut the wrist by
ligaments, beneath wliich they pass to the fingers. The
same artful arrangement is observed in the muscles thiit
give motion to the toes, and many of the joints of the
foot. Instead of swelling and distorting the foot, they
form a graceful enlargement of the calf of the leg. The
variety in tlie figure of the muscles, according to
their situution and oHioo, is likewise beautifully con-
trived ; some have double, some triple tendons ; others
none : in some places, one tendon belongs to several
muscles ; in otlicr places, one muscle to several tendons.

One set of muscles enables us to move a certain pai*
one 'way, and a different set enables us to move it
another way. Tliat we have the power to frown, smile,
cough, breathe, to lift up or close our eye-lids, raise or
bend our heads, stoop, incline to one side or the other,
move our fingers or toes, raise or depress our limbs,
walk or sit down, spc-»ak, or sing, swallow, open or shut
our months, or perform any action whatever, we owe
to particular muscles, which are aj)pointcd to set that
part in motion.

Surely no one can be acquainted with the art and
wisdom so wonderfully displayed in the structure of the
human body, without acknowledging that there is a
God, and that the work is his : for nothing short of inli.
nite intelligence, could have produced any thing so
oomplicated and so perfect.

THE TEETH.

The functions of circulation and of respiration are
carried on by means of organs situated in a cavity,
which is called the chest, or thorax. The organs which
are concerned in the preparation of the food, and in
nutrition, lie in a cavity beneath, called the cavity of

245

ti abdomen. The chest is occupied chiefly by the
heart and the lungs; the abdomen by the stomach, the
intestines, tlie livor, the splren, and the pancreas or
sweet-bread. Those two cavities are sf pariitrd by a
partition, calK'd th«} diiiphraj^in, or nicdiiir, wliich is
partly of a. fleshy, and partly of a nifnibram-ous nature,
and readily gives way, by its laxity, to the altoniato
expansion and contraction of tlie chest in the action of
breathing, to whicli its muscular power eminently con-
tributes. The stomach is connected with the mouth, by
means of a long tube, which is called the ccsophagus, or
gullft, by means of which, it receives the food from the
jnouth.

The first action, to which the food is subjected, is
mastication, or chewing, and for this pujpose, most ani-
mals are provided with teeth. VVhc n tii; re are no
teeth, other resources are provided in the .stomach itself,
for that sort of preparation which it is ni^ccssary that the
food should undergo, previous to digestion, liirds have
no teeth ; and with various other animals, as fish, and
serpents, the teeth seem to be adapted oidy to prevent
the escape of that prey which is swallowed whole.

The nature of the teeth depends on the nature of the
food which the animal is designed to use ; namely,
whether it is animal, vegetable, or of a mixcnl nature.
By the inspection of the teeth, therefore, we are able to
form an opinion as to some of the most material habits
of an animal. The teeth whicli first exhibit themselves,
are called milk, deciduous, or temporary teeth, from
their being intended to continue only a few years.
Those which supply their places wiicn they are shed,
are, from their never being shed, called p'n-maneut.

The teeth in man are composed of two parts ; a
liony, which constitutes the body of the tooth, and is
very similar to real bone, and a bright, smooth, tlun
external covering, called the enamel. The part which
is out of the jaw, is called the crown and nee if : while
the fangs, or roots, are planted deep in the jaw.
There is a small cavity in the body of tiie tooth, which
descends in the form of a sm.dl tube into tlie fangs, and
cojitains the vessels and nerves, which were employee!

21*

240

in the originjil ionuation, and subso<]iiontly in tl»o nu-
trition of the tooth. This is the structure of the teeth
in the omnivorous and carnivorous animals ; but in the
graminivorous, the enamel descends into the l)o<ly of
the tooth, and by forming several perp Midicular laycis,
enables the tooth to resist the attrition noceissary in mas-
tication ; if there were only one layer of enamel, it
would be soon wore otf. Between the teeth of the orn-
nivorous, and carnivorous animals there is also a
difference. In the carnivorous, the teeth fit into each
other very nicely; whereas in the omnivorous, there is
a certain latitude of motion permitted, for the operation
of grinding the food.

The temporary teeth, in the human race, are twenty
in number, and are divided into three kinds ; the front,
calle^ also incisors, or cutting teeth, of which there aw
eight, namely, four in each jaw ; the canine teeth, called
dog teeth, or cuspidate, whicli are four in number, one
on each side of the iacisors, and are of a pointed or
conical form ; and the grinders, or molares, which
amount to eight, being two back teeth, above and
below, on each side. The jiermancnt teeth are thirty,
two in number. These are, as in the temporary, eight
incisors, and four cuspidate ; two bicuspidate, or two.
pointed, next to the ciispidat(; on each side, ainountiim
to eight; and three molares on each side, above ami
below, making twelve, of which the four hindermost aro
denominated denies sapieiUicc, or teeth of wisdom, from
their not appearing till adult age. The cause of this
increase of teeth, is, that tliero is a very great dispro.
portion between the ina.oiiitude of the jav/, in the yoaii!^
and adult ; and as the tooth, from their nature and niodo
of growth, do not admit of ;iny increase of siz.c, it Wiis
necessary, when the jaw became larger, that not only a
supply of larger teeth, but additional teeth should be
given.

Many of the carnivorous animals aro beasts of prey,
and their teeth aro part of their natural weapon^? of
attack. The tur?k3, or canine teeth, are, in such ani-
mals, and indeed in some others, iis the hog, very for-
midable instruments of offence.

:/'~>

247

Cattle and sheep, whose front tocth are conAned to
biting the grass, have them sharp, and the enamel of
these teeth covers their outside only, as in man ; but
neither cattle nor sheep have incisors, in the upper jaw.
In horses, where both the front teeth and the molarea
are employed as grinders, the enamel is distributed
through the body of the tooth, in both descriptions of
teeth, in the same way as in graminivorous animals.

There is a very curious dillbrence in the disposition
of the enamel in the African and Asiatic elephant,
which is worth notice. In the African, it is always in
the form of transverse lozenges, wiiich touch each other
in the middle of the tooth ; in the Asiiitic, it is in the
form of transverse flattened ovals ; and this difference
is so constant, that it may be always known, by a slight
inspection, whether the tooth has belonged to the one or
the other of the species.

In the shark, whose teeth are spear-shaped, and very
sharp, notched at the edges, and covered with enamel,
several ranges of them are formed and continually
forming in the jaw, to supply such as are broken or
torn away. The same is the case in a species of skate,
which has teeth of a similar kind, and is apt to have
them injured, by breaking the shells of lobsters, crabs,
&c. which are its chief food. There is also, a singular
power of renewal in the teeth of venomous serpents.
These animals arc distinguished by having a sharp,
hollow tooth, or fang, in the .upper jaw, on each side,
the base of which communicates with a poison gland
situated below the eye. This tooth, in ordinary cir-
cumstances, lies flat ; but it is capable of being erected ;
and then, either on biting, or by the action of the same
muscles which erect it, the poison gland is pressed
upon, and a minute portion of the poison forced tlirough
the hole of the tooth into the wound. The poison fang
is very apt to get entangled and broken ; but there is a
provision for its supply, in the germs of future fangs,
which exist as pulp, in little bags in the jaw : the new
fangs become ossified, and assume the office of the old
ones.

248

THE DIGESTION.

During the action of chewing, the food is mixed
with the saliva or spittle. The food is then carried
backwards into the pharynx, which is a sort of pouch
at the back part of the mouth, from which it immedi-
ately descends, into the cesophagus, or gullet, at the
extremity of which is the stomach, into which the food
is deposited.

We may here mark a wonderful contrivance. The
passage from the mouth to the windpipe, lies imme.
diately before the passage to the stomach: we might
suppose that the food would pass into the first opening,
viz. the passage to the windpipe, before it reached its
own proper passage. — And this would be the case were
it not that there is a little valve standing erect before
the passage to the windpipe, which the food in its way
to the gullet, presses down, and thus closes the anterior
opening of the gullet. Were this passage left open, we
would be in danger of being choked by every morsel we
endeavoured to swallow.

The stomach is a kind of membraneous bag, not
very unlike the bag of a bag-pipe, lying across the
body, and having two openings : the upper, towards
the left side, by which it receives food from the gullet,
called the cardia ; and the lower, on the left side,
called the pylorus or janitor, by which the food passes
into the intestuies. Its inner surface consists of a soil
membrane, called the mucous, or villous coat, which is
carried through tiio whole alimentary canal j its middle
coat is muscular, and, by means of this coat, the sto-
mach has the power ol' emptying its contents ; its outer
is a membraneous covering, common to the stomach,
intestines, and all the other organs contained in the
cavity of the abdomen. At the pylorus is a contrac'
tion, which prevents the too ready passage of the food
downwards. Between its coats are several small glands
which secrete, and pour into the stomach, a fluid called
the gastric juice, which dissolves the substances taken
$nto the stomach, converts them into a uniform, greyish.

249

pulpy mass, called chyme, and lima fits them for becom-
ing nourishment. Digestion is totally indeperident of
any pressure which is exercised by the coats of the
Btomach, for it has been found tliat if portions of food
were placed in silver bnlls, and these swallowed, such
portions would be dissolved.

When food has undergone the change which it ia
meant to suffer in the stoinach, it passes through the
pylorus or lower orifice, into the intestines. When the
food has passed into the intestines, it receives the hihy
which is a secretion from the liver ; and the pancreatic
mice, which is the secretion of the pancreas, or sweet,
bread. By the mixture of these substances, the food
is so far altered in its nature as to be capable of afford-
ing chyle, which is a fluid like milk. This fluid is taken
up by small vessels, called lacfeals, spread upon the sur-
face of the intestines. These licteals, uniting together,
convey their contents into one of the large blood-vessels
of the body, and thus supply the means of nourishment
to the whole system. That part of the food which
cannot afford nourishment, is carried off as excrementi^
tious matter. ''

All carnivorous animals have stomachs of the same
kind : and in them the digestive organs are of the nwre
simple kind, as animal food is more easily converted
into chyle. Many birds not only take in portions
of gravel to assist their digestion ; but, as they have
no teeth, and can divide their food in but a very
imperfect manner with their bills, the gizzard is given
them for the purpose of doing so. The gizzard is a
muscle in the stomach with two bodies, called there-,
fore the digastric, calculated to press any substance
very strongly between the two parts of which it con-
sists. But as the gizzard could not perform the whole
of the duty at once, there is a bag, or enlargement of
he gullet given to many birds, called the crop, which
B situated in the front of the chest, at some distance
from the gizzard. In this the hard and dry food is
macerated ; it is then let into the gizzard, where it ia
fcruised and divided, and mixed with the gastric juice,
which is secreted bv p-lands near the entrance of tho

250

gizzard ; and thus the changes are produced upon the
food, which fit it for nourishment.

The crop, in such birds as have it, is principally to
be viewed as a repositoiy, in which the food is first
softened, and then transferred to the gizzard. But in
all birds of the dove kind, and it is supposed in parrots,
macaws, and cocatoos, the crop, both in the male and
female, is endowed with the power of secreting a fluid
which coagulates into a whitish curd, and is employed
to feed the young for two or three days after hatching.
It is then found to be mixed witli some of the common
food ; and as the pigeon grows older, the proportion of
common food is increased ; so that by the time it i%
eight or nine days old, and able to digest common food,
the secretion of the food in the old bird ceases.

Jn some of the crustaceous animals, as the lobstei
and crab, the division of the food is accomplished by
Aieans of teoth placed in the stomach. These teeth
are of the molaris or grinding shape, and are one on
each side. Immediately behind them, is a single pro-
jecting tooth, which answers the purpose of preventing
the food fronri passing on till it is sufTiciently divided.
The stomaoh of these animals is also lined with a hard
substance, similar to the external coat, so that it is
never collapsed : and it is a curious circumstance, that
this coat, as well as the hard covering of the teeth, artu
parted with, when the animals cast their shells. The
tooth-like processes at the entrance of the mouth, which
are sometimes represented as teeth, are nothing more
tJian a kind of pincers, to grasp the food, and convey it
into the mouth.

Teeth are likewise met with in some of the worm
tribe ; and such is also the case with various insects,
particularly the Cape grasshopper, and mole cricket.

The most curious apparatus for the conversion of
vegetable food into nourishment, is that which belongs
to the cow, the sheep, the deer, tlie camel, and other
animals which usually chew their cud. In these
animals there are four stomachs, which are concerned
in digestion. The first stomach receives the food af^ei
a slight mastication ; thence it goes into the second,

251

calfed the h&ney-ccnih ; and when it has been maoerate8
(or some time, it is curried ud into the mouth. It is
then chewed, and passes into the third stomach, or
many-plies, whence it goes into the fourth, or read,
the proper digesting stomach, where its conversion intb
chyme is completed. The animal seems to have the
power of sending the food at once into the second,
third, or fourth; and this they do according to the
facility with which the dilFcrent kinds of food may
be digepted. For instance, cows in the north of
Scotland, and the Hebrides, are occasionally fed oh
fish, which does not require a second mastication, and
is therefore received at once into the third stomat:h ;
and calves, when fed on milk, receive it into the fourth
stomach; In the camel, the second stomach consists
of cells, and is solely appropriated to the reception of
water. By means of a curious muscular structure the
orifices of these cells are closed, and the water pre-
served from being mixed with the food. It is this
tieculiar structure, which in the camel, dromedary, and
ama, fits them to live in sandy deserts, where the
supplies of water are so precarious. Bruce mentions
ihat four gallons were taken out of the stomach of a
wmel, daring one of his journeys in the desert, when
here was much distress for want of water.

THE HEART.

f .-•

The heart is the grand reservoir of the blood,'
rhence it flows through the arteries to the utmost
atremities of the body, and is conveyed back again by
ihe veins. This organ is situated in the thorax, or
chest, between the two lobes of the lungs. In man it
is placed dmost cross-wise. — The base, or broad pr.rt,
is directed towards the right side, and the point
towards the left. It is securely enclosed in a mem-
braneous sac, or pouch, which contains a fluid that
gives smoothness to its surface, and ease to its motions.
The substance of the heart is entirely fleshy or

252

inueouIaF. Its basis from which the great blood
vessels originate, is covered with fat, and it has two
hollow appendages, called auricles. Within, it is di.
Vided into two cavities, or ventricles, separated from
each other by a flesliy partition. The use of these
ventricles and auricles is to circulate the blood througn
the whole body, by means of the, power of contraction
end enlargement which the heart possesses from its
numerous fibres, that surround it in a spiral direction.
When these fibres are contracted, the sides of the
muscular cavities are necessarily squeezed together, so
as to force out of them any fluid which they may
contain. By the relaxation of the same fibres, the
cavities become dilated, and of course prepared to
admit any fluid which may be poured into them. The
great trunks, both of the arteries, which carry out the
bloiod, and of the veins, which bring it back, are
inserted in these cavities. By dilating the fibres,
which anatomists call diastole, the cavity of the ven*
tricles is opened to receive the blood from the auricles i
on the contrary, when the ventricles are contracted,
which is called systole, the auricles are expanded ; and
by this alternate action, they carry on the wonderful
operation of supplying with blood the most distant
parts of the body.

The blood, which has been ejected from tiie auricles
and ventricles, is prevented from returning, by valves,
or little doors, placed between the auricles and ven-
tricles, and at the mouths of. the great arteries. These
valves open inwards, but not in the contrary direction j
of course when the blood has passed through them the
valves close, and a return is thus rendered impossible.

You may perceive, by this account, that there is a
continual exchange of the blood that fills the heart.
It is no sooner emptied into the arteries, than it is filled
again from the veins ; and this constraction and dilata-
tion succeed each other with great rapidity ; and by its
re-action causes that beating at the wrist, and other
parts, that is called the pulse.

It is supposed that the quantity of blood contained
in the body amounts to between 25 and 35 pounds;

2d8

and that about two ounces paes on from the heart at
each pulsation. In this way, at 70 pulsations in a
ininute, 140 ounces will pass through the heart in a
minute, or 8400 ounces in an hour. Hence the whole
quantity of blood contained in the body, supposing it
to be 25 pounds, will pass through the circulation in
about three minutes, or about 20 times in an hour, or
480 times in a day. When we consider the same
process in the larger species of animals, it strikes the
mind still more forcibly. Dr. Hunter dissected a
whale ; and he relates that the aorta, which is the
principal artery of the body, measured a foot in di-
ameter. Ten or fifteen gallons of blood are thrown out
of the heart at a stroke ; what then must be the quan<
tity of blood circulating through the whale in a day !

The structure of the heart, and the circulation of
the blood, seem to be conducted on the same principlefl
in man and in quadrupeds. We have just seen thai
in the whale it is similar; and probably in fishes ia
general. The circulation of the blood, as it appears in
Die newt, a species of lizard, when seen through a
good microscope, will illustrate what we have said on
this subject. The bodies of these animals, when very
young, are so transparent, that the blood may be seen
to flow briskly through every part, even into the toes,
and to return from them. The newt has three small
fins, near the head, which are divided like the leaves
of a polybody or fern ; .and in every one of these
branches, the blood may be traced, running to the end
through the artery, oind conveyed back again, by a vein
of the same size with the artery, and laid in the same
direction. In this' part may be seen above thirty
channels of blood running at once, like the divided
streams of a great river, diffusing life and vigour.

Some insects have several hearts. If silk worms be
examined, when full grown, there will be perceived a
chain of hearts, running the whole length of their
bodies ; whilst many amphibious animals, frogs for ex-
ample, have but one ventricle to the heart.

The chief distinction between the arteries and veins
lies in this, that the arteries convey the blood from tho

904

fti^jUl; the veins carry it book agtlin. In order to
ettect this purpose, the veins are continued from the
extremities of the arteries, and, in general, every artery
is accompanied by its corresponding vein.

That we may clearly understand the subject before
us, let us suppose two trees, united to each otlier by
the extremities of their branches at the top, and their
trunks terminating at the same point at the bottom ;
each being hollow from the roots to the tips of the
omallest twigs, and filled with a fluid which circulates
incessantly from one through the other. Let us
imagine this, and we shall have a tolerably correct
idea of the circulation of the blood through the vessels
of the human body. Four large vessels, from which
all of the rest proceed, pass out from the base of the
hedrt j two of these are arterieis, and the other two
veins. The aorta is the principal artery, that dig",
tributes the main stredm of tTie blood through in-
numerable ramifications, to all parts of the body ; it
arises from the left ventricle of the heart. The pul.
monary artery originates from the right ventricle, and
enters the lungs, where its branches are spread out
on the air-vessels: by this means the blood is acted
upon by the air which we inhale, and undergoes a
certain change which is essential to our well-being.
All the veins, which bring the blood from the upper
extremities, and from the head and heart, pass into &
large vein called the descending vena cava ; those veinsj
which bring the blood from the lower extremities, pass
into another large vein, called tho ascending veim cava.
These two large veins unite as they approach the
heart, and open by one common orifice into the right
auricle. The return of the blood is promoted by the
action of the muscles, the pulsation of the arteries, and
the valves which are formed in the veins. Theses
valves are so nicely adapted to their design, that they
admit the blood to flow from the extremities, but oppose
its returning back towards them.

The circulation of the blood was first ascertained by
Harvey, A.D.. 1628 ; by the aid of the microscope it may
be very plainly observed in the web of a frog^s foot.

ii&ft

RESPIII/VTION.

in forming tho organs of respiration In the higher
orders of animals, the Creator has had two great ohjecta
in view : the, one, that of forming llie voice ; tl>o other,
that of comph^tiiig the charges which are requisite fjr
adapting tho bh)od to the functions, wliich it is intended
to perform in the animal economy.

Tho orguns of respiration consist of tlie larynx, the
trachea, or windpipe, and tho lungs. The larynx is tho
projecting part, which you can sec and fool at the upper
part of the throat. It is tho comuii ucomcnt of the
windpipe, and is tho organ in which tlic voice is forincil.
The windpipe is tiie tube which is cuniicctcd with iln.-.;,
and is dividid first into two, and tlicn into .smaller
branches, called bronchia, which at hist terminate jji
small cells, that form the minute structure of the lun<.>s.
These organs can only be considered as subservient to
tho more innnediate functions of rc-piration. Thera
are other parts, which are necessary for carrying on
the mechanical process of admitting and ejecting the air
from the lungs, and these in man and quadrupeds are
principally a very large and strong muscle, called the
diaphragm, which separates the cavity of the abdomen
from the thorax ; and various small muscles which lie
between, the ribs.

The rheclmnism employed in dilatation and expansion,
is exceedingly simple. The contraction of the diaphragm
forces down the abdominal viscera, and thus enlarges
the cavity of the chest downwards, while tlie action of.
tho muscles between the ribs raises lliem, and produces
an expansion in another direction. The necessary ellect
of this increase of size is, that the air rushes into the
windpipe, to supply the void which would otlicrwise
occur; and when the diaphragm and intcrcos.tal i|Lus-
cles cease to act, and become relaxed, tlxo elasticity of
the cartilaginous parts of tlie chest, but uvn\) particularly,
the tendency of tho nuiscles of the abdomen to recover
themselves, have the e/Tect of diminisliing the cavity of.
the chest; and of thits forcing out Irum the lungs, tho

250

fttr tfrhich has been received by inRpiration. The alter,
nate dilatation and contraction of the chest, which thu8
takes placip, constitutes the act of respiration, which is
partly dependent on the will, and partly independent of
it. The lungs are of a light, spnuiry texture, one in
each cavity of the chrst, ciipable oC swimming in water,
separable into sub-divisions called lo1>es, and covered
with a membfnne cidled the pkurcty wiiich cloubles back,
and lines the cavity of the chest, as the peritoneum does
the cavity of the abdomen. The lungs are very largely
supplied witli blood- vessel.s, of which some appear to be
destined for the nourishment of the organ ; but by hi
the principal part convey the blood from the I'ight side
of the heart, in order that it may, after minute division,
and diffusion over the air-col k, be exposed to the influx
encte of the external air, and be carried back to the heart
in* a proper state for nourishing the body.

The blood which pusses from the right side of the'
heart into the lungs, is of a dark red colour. Aftefcir--
CUiating thron'gh the lungs, it becomes of a florid red*,-
and has then been rcnderwl fit for nutrition. In this'
progression through the lungs, it has been freely exposed
to the air of the atmosphere, which is continually i*-
ceived' and thrown out, by the alternate actions of inspi-
ration and expiration.

Atmospheric air is composed of about twenty-ond
parts by measure of oxygen, or the respirable part; ana
severity-nine parts of azote, called also nitrogen, or the"
Ulirespirable part. With a shkiII portion, not exceeding
two per cent, of carbonic acid gas. When an animal is
confined in a certain quantity of atmospheric air, a part
of the oxygon disappears, and an augmented quantity of
carbonic acid gas is f()und to have been produced. Now,
it is supposed by physiologists, that {)art of the oxygen
is absorbed by the blood, ijivinnr it its florid red colour,
a(p is carried through the body, that by its union with
other elements it may form a species of diffused combus-
tion. Tbis preserves a more uniform temperature than
if the animal heat were produced on/y in the lungs,
which are at a considerable distance from the extremities,
and are not united with them by substances well calcu^

257

lated to tranfiiTilt lioat. The remainder changes the
venous blood in the lungs, by ubstracting carbon, aift
forming carbnnio uoid ; this may bo easily shown by
passing the air from the lungs through lime water, which
will become turbid by the tbnnation of carbonate o^
lime.

Physiologists have di flu red very much as to the quan-
tity of air taken in at each inspiration. It would
appear, however, t!mt about 40 cubic inches of air afe
taken in at an ordinary inspiration ; and if we suppose
ihat we respire sixteen time's in a minute, we shall respire,
riuring the twenty-four hours, 9*21, (JOO cubic inches, o^
533 cubic feet of air. This is an innncnso consumption
of oxygen; and it may seem extraordinary, that, consi-
• do ring the prodigious demands on the atmosphere, by
tlie many millions of human beings who inhabit the
earth, and the countless numbers of animals which re-
quire a constant supply of air, the oxygen should not be
consumed, and the air itself contaminated. God, how-
ever, has wisely provided for the removal of wh.u it»
noxious, from air, and for the supply of what is whole-
some. Carbonic acid gas, which animals produQAi inf
respiration, and which likewise originates from fermen-
tation and combustion, is capable of being absorbed by
water. It is also, in certain circumstances, taken in by
plants, of which it forms a part of the food, so that there
is no danger of any deleterious superabundance. Plants,
likewise, when exposed to the rays of the sun, exhale
oxygen, which seems to arise from the decomposition of

the absorbed carbonic acid

gas,

the carbon

forming

part of the substance of the plant, and the oxygen, which'
had been united with it, being thrown out.

The influence, exercised by respiration, in the animal
economy, is pretty much the same in all animals ; but
the mode, which we have described, principally applies
to man and quadrupeds. In birds, there are some im-
portant modifications ; in fish the air is applied to the
blood in the gills, through the medium of the water ; in
amphibious animals, the principal characteristic is, thai
the whole of the blood does not circulate through the
lungs, and that they can bear the interrui^tion of fe^i-

22*

258

•^Tj:

rattbn without Injury ; but in tho insect tribes aw\ most
(S* tho inferior animals, tiicro are vnrioua tubes, or tra-
chcsD, which ramify over tho body, and open externally
by apertures, or stigmata, as thoy arc called, by means
of which tho air is received and expelled : so that we
witness over tho whole creation, an admirable accord,
ance to the modes, for tho support of life and health
which God has thought fit to adopt.

The peculiarities, in the funationft of respiration in
birds, are exceedingly curious. In this class of animals,
their lungs are small, flattened, and lie close to the breast,
but there is no diaphragm, and there is no alternate
expansion of the lungs, as in mammalia. In them, tho
lungs have several openings, by'means of which they
conrununicate with various air-bags, or cells, which fill
the ^hole of the cavity of tho body from the neck
downwards. These cells are filled by air which passes
into, and out of them, through tho lungs, and which, in
its passage, produces those changes on the blood circu-
lating through tho lungs, which are necessary for the
health of tho animal. 13y admitting frequent quantities
of|l|dr into these cells, and also into tiie bones, which
ilir^hollow, for the purpose of admitting air into them
from the lungs, birds have the power of increasing or
dimii^shing their specific gravity, so that they can, not
only walk on the earth, but soar in tho heavens, in all
the varieties of density of atmosphere, which a greater
or smaller proximity to tho earth necessarily occasions.
No strength of wing could poise a terrestrial animal in
air, unless there wore the power of admitting air into the
inmost recesses of the body, as happens in birds ; and
this has been so carefully attended to in them,, that the
cells extend even among the muscles of the body, whore
they are particularly large in the soaring animals, as tho
eagle, hawk, stork, and lark. Those birds that pounce
and those that dive, arc enabled to do so with great
velocity, by suddenly compressing their body, which
drives air out, and increases their specific gravity. The
barrels of the quills in birds, too, are hollow, and contain
air ; and it is said, that it is in some measure owing to
the power of diminishing or increasing the contained

2&0

qunntlty, that tho turkoy, bulfinch, (k.c. arc ablo to pro-
(iuco tho quick and voluntary erection of thoir pliinmgc.
Wo rnay mention lujre, that the i)ower which birds havo
of admitting a hirgo quantity of air into their bodies,
enables them to keep up a much etrougrr, and moro
continued current of ajr through tho larynx, than any
other animnl can do; and gives them, tht^refiire, a
volume of voice, which is very great, compared with
their small dimensions.

In fishes, as already stated, the air is applied to the
gills through the medium of the water. 'IMie gills aro
covered with a large flap, or operculum, which is edged
with a fringe which can he accurately applied to thq
part benpath, so as entirtly to shut up t!ie slit, or opening
into the gills. When the animal breath(^s, tliat is, \\\\e\\
it wishes water to be api)riod to the gills, it acts w ith the
muscles of this (lap so as to render it convex ; this can»
not be done, it is clear, without, producing a vacuum
under the flap ; and as the aniujiil is; in water, aijd there
is an opening in tho mouth which communicates with
the gills, tho water rushes ia among the gills, filling up
the space made by tho changed form of the flap, and
thus applying itself to the minuter ramlilcatioris of blood-
vessels ditrused over the gills. When the air contained
in this %vater is no longer equal to its purpose, the water
passes away tlirough an nir-opcuing at the edge of tho
operc.ulum, which tho animal bus the powi-r of making ;
and by a repetition of tho process, a fresii sui)ply of
water is obtained, and the fuuutiou of respiration kept
up. Fish could not live in w;iter from which the air
has been exp -lli'd by boiling ; and when a small pond is
frozen over, the fish die unless an opening is made to
admit the air.

There is, in fish, a part of structure somewhat ana-
logous to tho air-cells in birds, namely, the air-hladders^
or siuimming-bladder,s, wliicli are given to them, as the
colls are to birds, for tho purpose of increasing, or dimi-
nishing their buoyancy. These bladders are placed
close to the back-bono ; they vary in size, shape, and
number ; and are wanting, or very small, in such fish
as are generally confined to the lowest depths. They

260

form what is called tho Bound of fish : a part which
gourmands prize iiighly. Wlion the air-bladder is rup-
tured, the animal loses the power of raising itself, and
lies on its back, from the additional weight given to that
par*' of the body, by the removal of the air. The air, in
the air-bladders of fisli, cannot be admitted and thrown
but at pleasure, as in the case of birds. The air is pro-
cured from the vessels ci^'culating in the membrane
which composes the air-bhuldcrs ; these vessels having
the power of secreting the air. The air-bladdi^r is ordi-
nar'ly full, and is then capable of being acted upon, and
compress-d, either by the abdominal muscles, or by a
muscular structure peculiar to this organ ; and thus the
air is .condensed pursuant to the will of tiie animal, and
an alteration made in the specifiQ gravity accordingly.

It is a curious fact that the nature of the air variety
very much, according to the depth which i^sh generally
inhabit. Those which" live in shallow water, have azote,
with a very small proportion of oxygen. As the depth
increases so does the oxygen ; and after the d( pth of
150 feet, the average proponion is as much as 70 pef
cent, while the mean ^result aiibrded by fish caught at
less depth, is only 20 per cent. Pike, carp, roaches,
and perch, which are frcfiih-water, and therefore shallow-
water fish, have only from 3 to 5 per cent, of oxygen.

There is a curious mode of respiration employed by
frogs, toads, ca iieleons, and some others of the amphibia
ous tribe, which is, that the animal, instead of breathing
through its mouth, keeps its mouth shut, receives air
through its nose, and by means of the muscles of the
jaws forces it into the lungs, from which it is Veturned,
through the nostrils, by thu action of the muscles of the
abdomen — there being no diaphragm. With this con-
formation, those animals would be suffocated if their
mouths were kept open. V '

INTRODU

-- f.-A

261

SECTION IV.

f . /

«. ',, " y

INTRODUCTION TO NAIURAL PHILOSOPHY

Natural Philosophy, in its most extensive sense, hoa
for its province tiie investigation of the laws of matter,
that is, the properties of mutter ; and it may be divided
into two great branches. The first and most important
(which is sometimes called Natural riu/osophy, by way
of distinction, but more properly Mechanical P/ulosophy)
investigates the sensible motions of bodies. The
second investigates the constitution and qualities of all
bodies, and has various names, according to its different
lobjocts. It is called chemislry, if it teaches the pro-
pertios of bodies with respect to heat, combination with
one another, weight, taste, appearunco, and so-forthj
AnatQmy and Animal Physiology^ if it teaches the
structure and functions of living bodies, especially the
human ; — for, when it treats of the functions of other
animals, we term it Comparative Anatomy. It is called
Medicine, if it teaches the nature of diseases, and the
means of preventing them, and of restoring health ;
Zno/ogy, if it teaclies the arrangement or classification,
and the habits of the different lower animals : Botany,
including Vegetable Physiology, if it teaches the
arrangement or classification, the structure and habits
of plants : Mineralogy, including Geology, if it teaches
the arrangement of numerals, the structure of masses
in which they are found, and of the earth composed of
these masses. The term natural history is given to the
three last branches tak(^n together ; but chiefly, as far,
as they teach the classification of different things, oi
Ih© observation of the resemblances and differences gf

ilio various ; nimuls. plants, ami ungrov.kng siibstancca
ill Hill lire.

'' Here wo niiiy m.iko two ol)sorvation.s. The firaf. i.',
that every su-ih distrilxiiion (){' tlio r.cit noes is nocrs-
i»<irily impovfec;!. ; for dine runs unuvoirliiMy into another.
Thus, C1iC!uisti-y shr.'.v.s the qualities of phuils wilh
relation to other ,sui)stanoes, and to each other: and
I'otiiny do'-s not overlook tjiosi; same qualities, tiiouiih
its chief ohjoct he n)-ran;.'!'inei)t. So Mineralogy, thonj^h
prineipally conver.saal wilh (^la,ssi[yin<j; metals and earth,
yet rrgtirds also t!\eir qualities in respect of heat and
moisture. Ko ^ooj:)o;v too, beside arrauiiiu"; animals,
describes their structures like oomparative anatomy.
Ill truth, all arran;j;(Mnent and classilication depend upon
noting the thinjr-s in which the objects agree and diller;
u'.id.atnoniT tho.-e thirig!^ in whicli animals, plants, and
■- minerals agree or dialer, nnist be considered the ana-
tomical struct urc of the one, and the chemical qualities
of the other. Il< iiee, in a great measure, follows the
second observatiori, nanicdy, tlint the sciences mutua,lly
assist each oIIum". Thus, arilhmLi^tic and algebra aid
geometry, and the j)urely mathematical sciences aid
mechanical philosophy ; mechanical philosophy, in lik^
manner, assisis c!»emistry and auiltomy, especially the
latter: and chemistry very greatly assists physiology,"
incdicine, nnd all the branehes of natural history.
' The first great head, then, of natural science, is
mechanical philosophy; and it consi.sts of various sub-
divisions, eacli forming a science of great importance.
The most essential of these, which is indeed •funda-
mental, and applicai)lo to all the rest, is called dynamics,
from the CIreek Avord signifying poiver or force. It
teaches the laws of motion in all its varieties. The ap-
plication of dynamics to the calculation, production,
and direction of motion, ibrms the science of mechanics,
RomefitTies called prncilcal mechanics, to distinguish it
from the more general use of the word, which compre-
hends every thing that relates to motion and force.
• The application of dynamics to the pressure and
motion of fluids, constitutes a science, which receivea
flilFcrent appellations according as the fluids are heavy

263

and liquid, like water, or lijjrlil and invi.sil)lo lilie air.
lu tlio Ibrnier case it is called hydrodynamics, from the
Greek words signityiiig- wwter and jmwer ; in the latter
pieumatics, from the Greek words signifyinjj; bredlli oi
air. And hydrodynamics, is divided into hydrostatics ,
which treats of the weight and pressure of liquids,
from the Greelc \vords for halancing of nmter, and
hydraulics, whicli treats of llieir uiotion ; from the
Greek word for several musical instruments played
with water in pipes.

'. ■:■ '"' Library of Useful Knowledge.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BODIES-

There are certain properties, which appear to be
common to all bodies, and are lience called the essential
properties of bodies : These are, LnpenelraUlify, Ex-
tension, Figure, Divisibility, Inertia, and Attraction.

Impenelrahi/ily is the pr(i]iL'rty which hoiiics have of
occupying a certain space, so that, wiiere one body is,
another cannot be,'withoiit displacing the former; — for
two bodies cannot exist in the same place at tiie same
time. A liquid may be more easily moved tlum a
solid body ; yet it is not the less substantial, since it is
impossible for a liquid and a solid to occupy the same
space at the same time. For instance, if a spoon be
put into a glass full of water, tlie water will flow over
to maLo room for the spoon.

Air is a fluid diflering in its nature from liquids, but
no less impcnetrnble. If we endeavour to fill a phial
by plunging it into a basin of water, the air will rush
out of the phial in bubbles, in order to make way foi
the water.

If a nail be driven into a piece of wood, the nail
penetrates between the partic'lcs of the wood, by fbrcino
them to make way for it; f)r not a single atom of the
wood remai)is in the space which the nail occupies.

204

Extension. A body which occnpirs a certain space,
Kiust necessarily have extension ; Ihat is to say, length,
preadth, and depth : these are callr'd the dimensions of
extension, and they vary extremely, in diiferent Ijodies.
The length, breadth and depth of a box, or of a
thimble, are very difierent from those of a walking.
stick or of a hair.

Height and depth are the same dimensions ; if you
measure a body, or a space, from the top to the bottom,
it is called the depth, if from the bottom upwards, it is
palled height. Breadth and width are also the same,
dimensions.

The limits of extension constitute figure or shape ;
a. body cannot be without form, either symme,trical or
ib'egular..

Divisibility is a susceptibility of being divided into
an indefinite number of parts. Take any small quan-
tity of matter, a grain of sand, for instance, and cut it
into two parts ; these two parts might be again divided,
had we instruments sufficiently fine for the purpose;
and if, by pounding, grinding, or any other method, wo
carry this division to the gi'oat.est possible extent, yet
not one of the particles will bo destroyed, find t!ie
body will continue to exist, tiiough in this alt<^red. state.
A single pound of wool rnay be spun so fine as to ex-
tend to nearly a liundred miles in length.

The melting of a solid body in a liquifl, nlso afliords
a very striking example of the (\\trenie divisibility of
matter; when you sweeten a cup of tea, lor instance,
with what minuteness tlie sugar n)ust be divided to be
difPjsed throughout the whole of the liquid. Odoiifc-
fous bodies allord an example of the same thiug. Tlw
odour or smell of a body is part of tlie body itsojf, aiKi
is produced by very minute particles or exhalatioiii^,
which escape from odoriferous bodies, and come in
actual contact with tht nose.

' When a body is burnt to aslies, part of it appears to
be destroyed; the residue of aslics, I'or iiistance, is very
small compared to the coals which have been consumed.
In this case, that part of the coals, which one would
suppose to be destroyed, goes oil" in the form of snioke,

tinue near to

265

which, when diHused in the air, becomes invisible. Bu<
we must not imagine that what we no lonjror see no
longer exists. The particles of smoke continue still to
he particles of matter, as much so as when more closely
united in the form of otials. No particle of matter is
ever destroyed ; this is a fact which must constantly be
reijienibcred. Every tiling in nature decays and cor-
rupts in the lapse of time. We (lie, and our bodies
moulder to dust ; but not a sinjj^le atom of them is lost.

It should be observed, that wht'ii a body is divided,
its surfiice or exterior part is nuj^mcnted. If an apple
be cut in two, in addition to the round surfiico, there-
will be two i^-di surfnoes ; divide tho hnlvcs of the apple
into quarter^?, and two more surfaces will be p"^o.
duced.

Though divisibility ia very often included a.monjtr the
essential properties of maiter, chemistry teaches us that
the ultimate elements of ImxUcs are incaj)able of further
(jivision ; yet tliey are innteriiil siil>siaii(!(\s.

Inertia exprcssico the risistiuico wiiitdi inactive matr
ter makes to a ciumf^e of f>tJit(\ Hodirs appear to be
not only incapable .of cluin<iin<: tlieir actual h\:\U\ vrher
ther it be of motion or n^st ; but U> b',- endowed with a
yower of resisting such a chai.nT'. It requires force to
put a body which in at rpst in motif)!i ; an exertion of
"*rength is also r( quisite lo s^op a body which is alroadv
in Uiotion. The resistances of a bcjdy to a chai!;^e of
state is, in either case, enjird its inertia. In playing at
cricket, for inslancp, considerable strenolh is nqnirrd
to give A rapid n)otion to tho ball ; and in eatebinfr it
we feel the resistancr' it mak»\s to l)i-.iii': stopj^cd. Inert
matter is as incapal)lo of sloppinfj; of its-.df, as it is of
putting itvself in motion. When the ball ceases to jitt.vo
therefore, it must be stopjH'd by some other ca-ise or
power, which you will uiidci'stand bettvM" after we h-ive
treated of the next and last general property of bodies.

AUracfion is the general name under wiiich we may
include all the properties by vvhioli atoms of matter act
on (;ach other, so as to make th«^.ni approach or con-
tinue near to one another. Iiodiej»«consist of inhnit.tHJ.y
^\\sd\ particles of matter, each of whioli Liu;,dosf«g ttii

2G0

jiower of attrantin.'O; or druwing towards it, and unitin"
fvith any other particle siilliciently near to bo within
the inlluenco of its atlr;ictii)!i. This power cannot be
Vceo«>nized in niiitiUc j>arlioh\s, cxc^ept when they arc
in contact, or at least a|)p.i^ir to' be so: it then piakes
fhcm stick or adl.ere toocther, urid is hence called the
Utiraclion of cohesion. Without this power solid Ixxlios
vvDvild ilill to pieces, or rather crmnblo to atom«.

' Tbr- nttraction of colusioii exists also in liquids; it
is this power which holds a drop of water susj)endcd at
jl'.f* end of the finj^er, iind keeps the nnnuto watery
]>;}tticles, of which it is composed, united. But as \\m
[)^A^^'''Y is stronfrer in ])r<>portii)n as the particles of bodies
are mure e^ostdy united, the cohesive attractions of solid
|v.;!ies is niuch jxreater than that of fluids. It is owinp
to the diderent de^^rees of attraction of different sub-
fitajjces, that tiiey arc hard or soft; and that liquids are
ihick or thin. Tl>e tehq density denotes the degree of
tloseness and compactness of the particles of a body";
the stronjjrer th.e coiiesive. attraction, the greater is tlie
density of the body, whether' it be solid or liquid. In
philosopliical langujige, liowever, density is said to Be
that property of bodies, by whicli they contain a
certain ((uantity of matter, under a certain bulk or
magnitude. Harifi/ implies a diminution of d<^nsity,
thus wo should say, that mercury or quicksilver wasu
very dense (hiid ; ether, a very rare one. We judge of
the density of a body, by t!)e weight of it ; thus \vq
say, that nietals are cknoe bodies, wood, comparatively
a rare one. ;' ■ . ■

Capiilary atiracUon i:-; an interesting variety of tlin
attraction of cohesion. ]x\ t.ilios of sm «U bore, liquids
rise a certain height within them, from t le cohesive at-
traction between the pactie-les of the liquid and tho
interior surface of the tube. The smaller the boro,
the higher will the liquid rise. All porous substances,
such as sponge, bread, linen, &c. may l)e considered iis
collections of capillary tul)es. If you dip one end of a
lump of sugar into water, the water will rise in it, amJ
wet it considerably above the surface of that into which
you dip it. Capillary attraction probably contributes to

2o7

.lie rise and circulation of the sap in tlVo bark ami wolj?
of vegetables.

Altraclion of sj^rav/ldlion (IjII'th tVom Uiist of cohesion,
nuisiriuch a.s the latter hiflui iiccs the parlic/ra of bodies
at iinpcrccpUhlc disstuner'S, whereas the li)riner acts upon
masses, and at any distance, howevi.'r great. Let U8
take for exarnj)Ie, a very large body, and observe
whether it does not nltraet oth(U' holies. What is il
that occasions the fall of a book whr-n it is no loni;ei
supporte<l ? You will say that bodies have a natural
tendency to fall. That is true ; but that tendency is
produced by the attraction of the earth. The (larth
being much larger than any body on its surface, d.raws
io it eveiy other, which is not supportiMl.

Attraction being mutual betue* n two iKxiies, when a
(jtone falls to the carlh, the earth shouhl ris^^ part of
ihe way to meet it. Hut when, on the other hand, yon
consider that attract ion is in proportion to tiie mass of
ihe attracted and attracting bodies, you will no longej
expect to see the eanh lising to meet the stctne. Tlure
are, however, some instances, in whi(;h the attraction of
a large body has sensibly count'M'acted that of the earth.
If a man, standing on tlie edge of a p^Tpondieultr side ^
of a mountain, \ui\d a plumb line in his hand, the
weight will not fall perpendicularly to the earth, bd'.
incline a little towards the uiouncain.

If the air (iid not impede ttie fall of bodies, attrac-
tion would make them all descend with equal velocity.
It may be objected, that since attractioii is proportioned
to the (juantity of matter which a body contains, the
earth must necessarily attract a heavy body more
strongly, and consequently bring it to the ground more
rapidly than a light one. In answer to this, it must be
observed that bodies have no natural tendency tf) fall any
more than to rise, so that tlie force which brings them
down, must be in proportion to the quantity of matter
It has to move. Thus a body consisting of a thousand
particles of matter, requires ten times the force of at-
traction to bring it to the ground, in the same space of
lime, that a body consisting only of a hundred particles

268

I*hei>e a^e some bodies which do not appear (o gravU
fate : smoke and steam, for instance, rise instead of fall,
but it is still gravity which produces their ascent. Thfe
air nearer the earth being heavier than smoke, steam, or
pther vapours, not only supports these light bodies, but,
by its own tendency to sink below them, forces them
to rise. The principle is just the same as that by which
a cork, if forced to the bottom of a vessel of water,
rises to the top as soon as it is set at liberty. Balloons
ascend upon the same principle, the materials of which
(hey are made, arc heavier than the air, but the air
with which they are filled is considerably lighter ; so
(hat, on the whole, the balloon is lighter than the air
which is near the earth, and consequently rises.

PN THj; LAWS OF MOTION, ANP THE; CENTRE;

OF GRAVITY.

\Phe science of mechanics is founded on the laws of
motion ; it will therefore be necessary to explain these
laws before we examine the mechanical powers. Mo-
tion consists in a change of place. A body is in motion
whenever it is chanL-ing ite situation wilii regard to a
Oxed point. Now, as one of the gonoral properties of
bodies is inertia, it follows that a body cannot move
without being pw./ into motion. The power which puts
a body into rriotion is called force ; the stroke of the
hammer is the force wiiioh drives the nail ; the exertion
of the horse in pulling, that which draws the carriage.
Gravitation is the force which occawions the fall of
bodies, cohesion that whicii binds thn particles of bodies
together, and heat, a force which drives them asunder.
When a body is acted on by a single force, the motion
M always in a straight line, and in the direction in which
\\ received the impulse. ■•

The rate at which a body moves is called its veJocifi/ ;
and it is one of the laws of motion, that the velocity of
the moving body is proportional to tiie force, by wiiicli
^t is put in motion. The velocity of a body is called
absolute, if we consider its motions, without any regard
to that of other bodies. When, for instance, a horse

269

goes fifty inilf « in ten hours, liis velocity ii^ five milc^
an hour. It is termed relative when con»pared witl^
that of another body vvliich is itself in motion. Thua
a man asleep in a ship under sail, remains at rest rela-
tively to the vessel, though he partakes of its ahsolqtQ
jnotion. If two carriages go along the same road, their
relative velocity will be the difference of their absolute
velocities.

The motion of a body is said to be uniform, when it
passes over equal spaces in equal times. It is produced
by a flirce having acted on a body once, and having
ceased to apt, sucli as the stroke of a bat on a cricket-
ball. It may be said, that the niotion of the ball is
neither uniform nor in a straight line. In answer to
this objection, you must observe ibat the ball is inert,
having no more power to stop than to put itself in mo-
tion ; if it fall, therefore, it must be stopped by some
force superior to that by which it was projected ; and
this force is gravity, which counteracts and finally over-
comes that of projection. If neither gravity nor any-
other force opposed its motion, the criokot-ball, or even
a stone thrown by tlio liand, would continue to proceed
onwards in a right line and with a uniform velocity.
We have no example of perpetual motion on the sur-
flice of the earth ; because gravity, the rosiiitancc of
the air or friction, ultimately destroys all motion.
When we study the celestial bodies, we fiiid that nature
abounds with examples of perpetual motion, and that it
conduces as much to the harmony of the system of the
universe, as the prevalence of it wcnild be destructive
of all stability on the suriiice of the globe.

Retarded motion is jjroduced l>y somo lorce acting
on a body in a direction opposed to tiiat wliicii first
put it in motion, and thus gradually diminishing its
velocity.

Accelerated motion is produced, when the force,

vvhich puts a body in motion, continues to act upon.

it during its motion, so that its velocity is continually

increased. Lot us sujjposc, that the itistiint a stone

is let fall from a high tower, the flirtu' ui^ gravity were

annihilated : the atone would nevcrlhoLss descend \ for a

23* .. .

270

f/cxly, huviiii^ diioo rt'C('iv<Ml an iiiipul.s*', will umI sl'\\,
but movo oil Willi a ui!i(')i'ui vclocitv. H", tlicii, tlio
forco of gruvif.y bo not drstroycd, aUoi- liuviiig i^'iMu
ihe first inipiils( to iIk; sloiio, but coiitinuc to acL u[ivii
it (lurinjr the whole of ils closcmf, it is ciisy to undor
stand that its motion will he (Ik rohy acctdcratcd. [i
has boon ascortaiiiod, both by oxpcriiu^iit and calciila
tions, that bodi(!s dcscondinj; i'lVun a h(i';l:t by tho (oi'co
of gravity, fall about yixt rii i^ccl in (ho first socond ot
time, throo times that dislanco in tho next, fivo times
in 'the third second, seven limes in ihe limrth, and so
on, rptrularly increasing accordin*.' to the .nuni!); r of
seconds durih<( whicdi tho body has boon falling;-. Tliiis
tlie hei<;ht of a buildin<j;, or the depth of a well may be
iiuown, !)y observing tho length of time whieli a storio
tak^s in falling from the toj) to the bolloin. If a stone
be thrown upwards, it takes tho same length of tijne,
ascondinj; that it does in desceiuling. In tho first case,
the velocity is diminished by llie Ibrce ol gravity ; in
the second, it is accolecatocl by it.

The momenlHvl of bodies is tho force ov power, with
which one body would strike anotlicr. The momentum
of a body is measured by the product of its weight and
velocity. The quicker a body moves, the greater will
be the force with wiiich it will strike against anorher
body; and we know- also, that the heavier a body is,
the greater is its force ; therefore the whole power oi
momentum of a body is composed of these two proper-
ties. It is found by experiment, that if the weight of a
body be represented by tho number 3, and its velocity
also by 3, its momentum will bo nine.

The reaction of bodies is the next law of motion to
be explained. When a body in motion strikes anotlicr
body, it meets with resistance; the resistance of the
body at rest will be equal to the blow strutdv by tho
body in motion ; or in philosoj>hical langu ige, action
and reaction will be equal and in opposite" directions.
Birds, in flying, strike the air with their wings, and it
is the reaction of the air which enables them to rise or
advance forwards.

If we throw a ball against a wall, it rebounds ; tins

D ; and if tht
c, the ball v

271

rctuFn of tlie ball In owiri<r to the rcnction of the
wall nguinst wliich it struck, mid ii qulled rejlecfeii
motion.

Oomj)ound vio/ion- is thnt profluccd by the action of
two forces. If a body b^ strnclv by two equal forces,
in opposito directions, it will not inovo. IJut if the
f{)rces, instead of actinif on the body in oj)posilion,
strike it in two directions iiiclinctl to each other, iit an
an<j;lc of 90 deureps, it will m')ve in the diagonal of
a square; thus [l^'if,'. 1,J if the hull a be struck by
equal forces at .r ami at y, the force; x would sbiid ii
towards n, and the force
y towards c ; and since
these forces are equal,
the body cannot ohey
one impulse rather than
the other, yet as th(^y are
not in direct opposition,
they cannot entirely de-
stroy tlie c.lYocA of each
other ; the body will there-
fore move, but, {()llowinjjf
the direction of neither,
it will move in a line
between ■ them, and reach n in the saine space of
time that the force x would have sent it to b, and tlie
force y would have sent it to c. Now, if two lines
be drawn from u to join h and r, a square will be
produced, and the oblique line e, which the body
describes, is t!ie diagonal of a square. Supposing the
two forces to be unequal no

[Fig. 2] that X, for in- ^'S'^'

stance, is twice as great
as y; then a; will drive
the ball twice as far as y,
consequently the line a
B will be twice as long
as the line a c ; the body
will in this case move to
D; and if the lines be drawn from that point to b ftnd
c, the ball will move in the diagonal of a rectangle

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272

^et us now suppose the two forces to be unequal, and
not to act on the ball in the direction of a right angle,
but in that of an acute angle. The' ball will move

Fig. 3. y [F;g- 8] fir

^ A to D in the

diagonal of a
parallelogram,
A B D c. For-
ces acting in
the direction
of lines form,
ing an obtif^e
angle will also
produce motion in the diagonal of a paralellogram. For
{instance, if the body set out from b instead of w^, and be
impelled by the forces m and n, it will move jij the
.dotted diagonal b c.

Oircular motion is produced by the action of two
forces on a body, by one of which it is projeote4
forward in a right line, whilst by the other it is con-
tinually directed towards a fixed point. For instance,
if I whirl a ball fastened to my hand with a string, it
js acted on by two forces, and has a circular motion j
one of the forces is that which I give it, which repre-
sents the force of projection," the other force is the
string which confines it to my hand. If during its
motion the string were suddenly to break, Jhe ba}}
would fly off in a straight line, and this, because it would
then be acted on by only one force ; for, as we have
said, motion produced by one force is always in a right
line. The point or line, to which the motion of a body
is confined, is called the centre or axis of motion. This
centre or axis remains at rest, whilst all the other
pai'ts of the body move round it : when a top is spun,
the axis is stationary, whilst eyery other part is in
inotion round it. There is one circumstance in
circular motion, which must be carefully attended to ;
which is, that the further any part of a body is from
the axis of motion, the greater is the velocity. The
force, which confines a body to a centre, round which
\i movesj is called the centriiJetal force j; and the force,

273 •

# ich impels a body to fly from the centre, is called
l)t centrifugal force. In circular motion these two
foices balance each other.

If a ball- be thrown in a horizontal direction, it i?
acted upon by three forces, viz. the force of projection ;
the resistance of the air tlirough which it passes ;
and the force of gravity which finally brings it to
the ground. Bodies thus projected describe a curve
line in their descent. If the forces of projection and
of gravity both produced uniform motion, the ball
would move in the diagonal of a parallelogram : but
the motion produced by the force of projection alone
is uniform, that produced by gravity is accelerated ;
and it is this acceleration which makes it fall in a
purve instead of a straight line. The curve line
which a ball describes, if the resistance of the air
be not taken into consideration, is called in geometry
a parabola.

The middle point of a body is called its centre of
magnitude, that is, the centre of its mass or bulk.

The centre of gravity is the point about which all
the parts of a body exactly balance each other, in
every position of the body ; if therefore this point i&i
supported, the body will not fall. When a boat is in
danger of bejng upset, it is dangerons for the passen-
gers to rise suddenly ; this is owing to their raising the
centre of gravity. When a man stands upright, the
centre of gravity of his body is supported by the feet.
If he lean to one side he will no longer stand firm. A
rope-dancer performs all his feats of agility, by dexter-
ously supporting his centre of gravity ; whenever he
finds himself in danger of losing his balance, he shids
the heavy pole which he holds in his hands, in order to
throw the weight towards the side that is deficient;
and thus by changing the situation of the centre of
gravity, restores his equilibrium. A person carries ^
single pail of water with great difficulty, owing to the
centre of gravity being thrown on one side : but two
pails, one hanging on each arm, are carried with much
greater facility, because they balance each other.

•M

/■

• 274

When two bodies are fastened together, they «»•« to
bo considered as forming but one body. If the twa

bodies be of equal weight,
the centre of gravity will be
in the middle of the line
which unites them; but if
one be heavier than the
other, the centre of gravity
will be proportionably hearer-
the heavy body thao ihfi ligb'
one.

« ON THE MECHANICAL POVV]BI^S.

There are six mechanical powers, viz. the leve,', t}'*
j^lley, the wheel and axle, tlie inclined plane, the wedge
and the screw. Que or more of these enters into the
composition of every machine.

In order to understand the power of a machhie, tliei'o
are four things to be considered. Firstly, the powei
that acts ; this consists in the ellbrt of men or liorscs,
of weights, springs, steam, &c. Secondly, the rcsiat-
ance which is to be overcome by the power. The
effect of the power must always be superior to the
resistance, otherwise the machine could not be put in
motion. For instance, were the resistance of a car-
riage equal to the strength of the horses employed to
draw it, they would not be able to draw it. Thirdly,
we are to consider the centre of motion, or, as it is
termed in mechanics, the fulcrum, which means a prop.
And lastly, the respective velocities of the power, and
of |he resistance.

THE LEVER.

The lever is an inflexible rod or beam, that is to say
one which is not supposed to bend in any direction. Foi

275

instance^ the Bteel rod, to which a pair of scales is 8us<
peiided, is a lever, and tlie point by wliich.it is sus-
pended, called the prop or fulcrum, is also^ the centre
of motion. The two parts of a, lever, divided by the
fulcrum, are called its arms. Now, both scales ueing
empty, they are of the
same weight, and con-
sequently . balanbe each
other. We have stated
that if two bodies of
equal weight are fastened
together, the centre of
gravity will be in the
middle of the line that
connects them ; the centre

of gravity of the scales must, therefore, bo in the middle
between them, as the fulcrum is, and, this being sup-
ported, the scales balance each.othcr.

You recollect, that if a ,body be suspended by that
point in which the centre of gravity is situated, it will
remain at rest in any position indifferently ; which is
not the case with this pair of scales, for when we hold
them inclined, they instantly regain their equilibrium.
The reason of this is, that the centre of suspension,
instead . of exactly coinciding with that of gravity, is a
little above it. If, therefore, the equilibrium of the
scales be "disturbed, the centre of gravity moves in a
small circle round the point of suspension, and is there-
fore forced to rise ; and the instant it is restored to
liberty, it descends and resumes its situation im-
mediately below the point of suspension, when the
equilibrium is restored. It is this- property which
renders the balance so accurate an instrument for
weighing goods. If the scales contain different
weights, the centre of gravity will be removed towards
the scale which is heavier, and being no longer sup-
ported, the heaviest scale will descend. If the lever
be taken off the prop, and fastened on in another point,
that other point then becomes the fulcmm. In
this case the equilibrium is destroyed; the loiig^x

276

arm of the lever ig
heaviest, and descends.
The centre of gravity is
not supported, because it
is no longer immediately
below the point of sus-
pension. But if we can
bring the centre of gra.
vity immediately below
that point, as it is now
situated, the scales will
again balance each other.
Thus if a heavy weight
be placed in the scale suspended to the shorter arm
of the lever, and a lighter one into that suspended to

the longer arm, the
equilibrium will be re-
stored. It is not, there-
fore, impracticable to
make a heavy body ba**
lance a light one; and
by this m)eans an hn>
position in the weight of
goods is sometimes ef-
fected. An ingenious
balance, called a steel-
yard, has been invented, on the principle that a weight
increases in effect in proportion to its distance from the
fulcrum. ^. V ■:•.. ' -:.

When a lever is put in motion, the longer arm, or
acting part of the lever, must move with greater
velocity than the shorter arm, or resisting part of the
lever, because it is further from the centre of motion.
When two boys ride on a plank drawn over a log of
Wood, the plank becomes a lever, the log which sup-
ports it the fulcrum, and the two boys, the power and
the resistance at each end of the lever. When the
boys are of equal weight, the plank must be supported
in the middle to make the two arms equal ; if they
differ in weight, the plank must be drawn over the
prop, so as to make the arms unequal, and the lightei^

ijoy must be placed at the extremity of' the longer arnb^
In order that the greater velocity of his motion may
bompensate for the superior gravity of his companion,
so as to render their momenlums equal. But we know
that the action of the power must be greater than the
resistance in order to put a machine in motion. For
this purpose each .boy at his descent touches the'
ground with his feet ; and the support he receives from
it diminishes his weight, and enables his companion
to raise him ; thus each boy alternately represents the
power and the weight, and tlie two arms alternately
perform the function of the acting and the resisting part
of the lever.

A lever in moving, describes the arc of a circle, fof
k can move only aroulid the fulcrum or centre of rao-'

tlon. It would be impossible for one child to risf ^tp^
l^ndicularly to the point a, or for the other to di* «eiM
Bi a straight line to b ; they each describe arcs of theii
respective circles ; and it may be judged from the dif-
^rent dimensions of the circle how much greater the

278

Trtnclty ^. ^^^ 11^^^ child must be than that of the bigger
(biQ. Endrnious weights may bo raised by lerers of
this description, for the longer the acting part of the
levor is in comparison to the resisting part, the greater
is the effept produced by it ;. because the greater is the
velocity of the p5\ver compared |o that of the weights.
We have all seen a heavy barrel or tun rolled over

by thrusting the end of a
strong stick beneath it and
resting it against a log of
wood, or any other object
which can give it support,
near the end in contact
with \})fi barrel. Tlic stick, in this case, is a lever, the
RupiK)rt, the prop or fulcrum ; and the nearer the latter
is to Ihe resistance, the more easily will the power be
ublo to move it.

Thore are three different kinds of levers; in the
^rsU which comprehends the several levers we have de-
Rcriliei, the fulcrum is between the power and the
ireight. When the fulcrum is situated equally be-
tween Ihe power and.thfe weight,- as in the balance, the
]K)wor Must be something greater than the weighty in order
to move it ; for nothing can in this case bo gained by
velocity. The two arms of the lever being eqtial, the
velocity of their extremities must be so likewiseJ The
balance is therefore of no assistance as a mechanical
pt)wer, but it is extremely useful to estimate the res-
pective weights of bodies. But when the fulcrum, f,
of a le^er is not equally distant from the power and the

weight, and that the power,
p, acts at the extremity of
the longer arm, the power
may then be less than the
weight, w, its deficiency
being compensated by its
greater velocity ; as we oh-
seesaw. Therefore, when a
raised, it must be fastened tp
of a lever, and tlie power applied to

served ii\

§ieat weight is
It) di(M'l«r arm

describing the
to be

279

•, /

tttn longer arm. But, if the case will admit of putting
tlie enci of the lever under the weight, no fastening will
bo required, as you may perceive by stirring the fire.^
The poker Is a lover of the first kind : the point, where
it rests against the bars of the grate, whilst stirring the
fire, is the fulcrum ; the short arm, or resisting part of
the lever, is employed in lifting the weight, which is
the coals j and the hand is the power, applied to the
longer arm, or acting part of the lever. A pair of scis.
sors is an instrument composed of two levers, united in
one common fulcrum ; the point at which the two loverr,
are scrowed together, is the fulcrum.; the handles to
which the power of the fingers is applied, arc the ex-
tremities of the acting part of the levers ; and the
cutting part of the scissors are the resisting parts of
the levers: therefore, the longer the handles, and the
shorter the points of the scissors, the more easily will
they cut. Thus, when pasteboard, or any hard sub-
stance is to be cut, that part of the scissors nearest the
screw or rivet is used. SnuflTers, and most kinds of
pincers, are levers of a similar description, the great
force of which consists in the resisting part of the lever
being very short i :i comparison of the acting part.

in levers of the second kind, the weight, instead of
being at one end, is situated between the power and
the fulcrum. In moving it,

the power

be greater
than that of the weight, as
it is more distant from the
centre of motion. We may
sometimes see a barrel moved
by means of a lever of the second kind, as well as byE
one of the first. The end of the stick that is thrust
under the barrel rests on
the ground, which be-
comes the fulcrum ; the
barrel is the weiglit to be
moved, and the power the ^
hands applied to the other "*

the velocity of
must necessai'ily

BB9

ehd of the lever. In this instance there la an {mmenie
difference in the length of the arms of the lever, the
weight hciflg almost close to the fulcrum, and the advan.
tage gained is proportional. The most common example
that we have of levers of the second kind is in the doors
of our apartments ; In these the hinges represent the ful-
crum; the hand, the power applied to the other end of
the lever ; and the door, or rather its inertia, is the weight
which occupies the whole of the space be!ween the
power and the fulcrum. Another very common in-
stance is found in an oar ; the blade is kept in the same
place by the resistance of the water, and becomes the
fulcrum, the resistance is applied where the oar passes
Over the si<le of the boat: and the hands at the handle
■re the power. Nut-craclters are double levers of this
kidd : the hinge is the fulcrum ; the nut*crackers the
iesistance, and the hands the power.

In levers of the tfUrd kind, the fulcrum Is al^ at
one of the extremities, the weight or resistance at the
fShevaad the power is applied between the fulcrunor

and the resistance. Thus
the fulcrum, the weight,
and the power, each in its
tutn,. occupies some part
of the lever between its
extremities. Biit in this
th'rd kind of lever, the
weight being further from
"^v* the centre of motion than
the power, the difficulty of raising it, instead of being
diminished is increased. Levers of this description arb
used when the object is to produce great velocity. The
aim of mechanics, in general, is to gain force by ex-
changing it for time ; but it is sometimes desirable to
produce great velocity by an expenditure of force. The
treddle of the common turning lathe affords an ejfample
of a lever of the third kind employed in gaining time, or
velocity, at the expense of force. A man, in raising a
long ladder perpendicularly against a wall, cannot place
his hands on the upper part of the ladder ; the power

«81

thercfbre, is ncct^ssarily plaocd noarer the Ailonim thaa
flio weight, for the hands aro tho power, the ground|
tho fulcrum, and the ladder, the weight, which, m this,
OS well as in the door, may be considered as collected
in the centre of gravity of tho ladder, about half
way up it, and coiisoquently beyond the point where
tho hands are applied. This kind of lever is em-
ployed in the structure of the human frame. In
lifting a weight with tho hand, the lower part of the
arm becomes a lever of the third kind; the elbow. is
the fulcrum; the muscles which move the arm, the
power; and as these are nearer to the elbow, than the
hand is, it is necessary that their power should exceed
the weight to be raised. It is of more consequence
that we should be able to move our limbs nimbly, than
that we should be able to overcome great resistance ;
for it is comparatively seldom that we meet with great
obstacles, and when we do, they can be overcome hy
artk

THE PULLEY.

M — iH IC

Vr>

The pulley, which is the second mechanical power we

are to examine, is a circular flat piece

of wood or metal, with a- string running
in a groove round it, by means of Which
a weight may be pulled up. Thus pul-
leys are used for drawing up curtains,
^vr the sails of a ship, &c. When the pul-
ley is fixed, it gives no mechanical
advantage. If p represent the power to raise the
weight w, it is evident that the pbwer must be
something greater than the weight in order to move.
it. A fixed pulley is useful, therefore, only in alter-
ing the direction of the power and its most frequent
practical application is to enable us to draw up a weight
by drawing down the string, connected with the pulley.
But a moveable pulley affords mechanical assistietnce.
The hand which sustains the cask by means of the

24*

282

cord D B, passing round the moveable pulley a c,
does it more easily than if it held the cask suspended
to a cord without a pulley; for the fixed hook h, to
which one end of the cord is fastened, bearing one half
of the weight of the cask, the hand has only the other
half td sustain.

Now, it is evident, that the hook affords the same
assistance in raising, as in sustaining the cask, so that
the hand will have only one-half of the weight to raise.
But observe, that the velocity of the hand must bo
double that of the cask ; for in order
to raise the latter one inch, the hand
must draw the two strings (or rather
the two parts, d and e, into which the
string is divided by the pulley,^ one
inch each ; the whole string being
shortened two inches, while the cask
is raised only one. Thus the advan-
tage of a moveable pulley consists in
dividing the difficulty. Twice the
length of string, it is true, must be
drawn, but one-half the strength is
required which would be necessary tor
raise the weight without such assist-
ance; so that the difficulty is over-
come in the same iiianner as it would
be by dividing the weight into two equal parts, and
raising them successively. The pulley, therefore, a'jts
on the same principle as the lever, the deficiency of
strength of the power being compensated by superior
velocity ; and it is on this principle that all mechanical
powei is founded. In the fixed pulley, [p. 281.] the
line A c may be considered as a lever, and b the ful-
crum : then the two arms a b and b c being equal^ the
lever will afford no aid as a mechanical power ; since the
power must be equal to the weight in order to balanc6
it, and superior to the weight in order to raise it. In
the moveable pulley you must consider the point a as
the fulcrum ; a b, or half the diameter of the pulley, as
the shorter arm ; and a c, or the whole diameter, as the

283

if it require
you must be

a sacrifice of* time to
sensible how very ad-
for power.

longer arm. It may, perhaps, be objected to pulleys,
tiiat a longer time is required to raise a weight with
their aid than wilJiout it. That in true, for it is a fun»
damental law in mechanics, that what is gained in
power is lost in time ; tliis applies not only to the pulley,
but to the lever and all the other mechanical powers.
It would be wrong, however, to suppose that the loss
was equivalent to the gain, and that AVe dcriycd no ad-
vantage from the mechanical powers ; for since we are
incapable of augmenting our strength, that science is
of wonderful utility which enables us to reduce the re-
sistance or weight of any body to the level of our
strength. This we accomplish, by dividing the resis-
tanpe of a body into parts, which we can successively
overcome ; and
attain this end,
vantageously it is exchanged
The greater the number of pulleys con
nected by a string, the more easily the
weight is raised ; as the difficulty is divided
amongst the number of strings, of father
of parts, into which the string is divided
by the pulleys. Several pulleys thus con-
nected, form what is called a system, or
tackle of pulleys. You may have seen
them suspended from cranes to raise goods
into warehouses, and in ships to draw up
sails. Here both the advantages of an iii-
crease of power and change of direction
are united ; for the sails are raised up the
masts by the sailors on deck, from the
change of direction which the pulleys ef-
feet ; and the labour is facilitated by the
mechanical power of a combination of pul-
leys. Pulleys are frequently connected, as
described, both for nautical and a variety of other
purposes; but, in whatever manner pulleys are con-
nected by a single string, the mechanical power is the
same in its principle. When there are two, three, &c.,
strings the effect is greater ; but the apparatus is more
Qomplicated, and its applicability is more limited.

, ,,

2<?4

THE WHEEL AND AXLE.

The third mechanical power is the ivheel and axle.
Lot us suppose the vvoight w to bo a bucket of water
in a well, which is to be raised l>y winding the rope, tp
which it is attached, round
the axle; if this bo done
)vithout a wheel to turn the
axle, no mechanical assist-
ance is received. The nxlo
without a wheel is as ini-

{>otent as a single fixed piil-
ejr, or lever, whose fulcrum
jis in the centre ; but add
the wheel to tho axle, and
you will immediately fuid llie
bucket is raised with much
less difficulty. The axle acts

tho part of the shorter arm of the lever, the wheel that
jof the longer arm. The velocity of the circumference
of the wheel is as much greater than that of tho axle,
as it is further from the centre of motion ; for the
wheel describes a large circle in the same space of timq
that the axle describes a small one, therefore the power
is increased in the same proportion as the circumference
of tho wheel is greater than that of the axle. If the
velocity of the wheel were twelve times greater than
that of the axle, a power nearly twelve time less than
tb« weight of the bucket would be able to raise it.

THE INCLINED PLANE.

The fourth mechanical power is the inclined plane.
This is nothing more than a slope, or declivity, fre-

?iuently used to facilitate the drawing up of weights.
t is not difficult to understand, that a weight may with
inuch greater ease be drawn up a slope than it con b^

285

raised the same height perpendicularly. But in this, at
well as the other mechanical powers, the facility is pur-
chased by a loss of timo ; lor the weight, instcaa of
moving directly from a to c, must move from b to c,
and as the height of the piano in to it^ hmgth, so is the

power to the weight which it is intended to raise. Thus,
if a pully be fixed at f, so tliat the string from f to w may
be parallel to b c, and a string iixrd to the weight w
were connected witlj unollier weight p: then if p bear
the same prnporiioii to w thiit Iho line a c does to the
Jine B c, the two weiglits will balance each other, a
considerable portion of the weight w being supported
by the plane b c, and only the residue by the power p.

THE WEDGE.

The wedge, which is the next mechanical power, ii
composed of two inclined planes. Woodcutters some-

times use it to cleave wood. The resistance consists io
the cohesive attraction of the wood, or any other body
which the wedge is employed to separate; and th^

286

a,«i vantage gained by this power is in tlic proportion of
Juilf its width to its length. The wodgo, however, acts
principally by being struck, and not hy inero pressure ;
[he proportion stated, is that wiiich expresses its power
when acting by pres.sure only.

•' All cutting instruments are constructed upon the
principle of the inclined plane, or the wedge. Those
(hat have one edge sloped, like the chisel, may be
referred to the inclined plane ; whilst the axe, the
hatchet; and the knife, (\\hen used to chop or split
fisunder,) act on the principle of the wedge. But a
knife cuts Ixjst when drawn across the substance it is to
divide, as it is used in cutting meat ; for the edge of a
|[nife is really a vpry fine saw, and therefore acts best
^hen used like that instrument.

THE SCREW.

The screiv, which is the last eiechanical power, is
more complicated than the others. It is composed of
two parts, the screw and the nut. The screw s is a
pylinder, with a spiral protuberance coiled round it,

called the thread; the nut n is
perforated to contain the screw ;
and the inside of the nut has a
spiral groove, made to fit the
spiral thread of the screw ; just
^ like the lid of a box which screws
oh. The handle which projcicts

.___ ^.^^^ ^ from the nut is a lever, without

/ ""^#*^. \ which, or something equivalent,

L. \ the screw is never used as a

L I mechanical power. The nut,

with a lever l attached to it, is
commonly called a winch. The power of the screw,
complicated as it appears, is referable to one of the
most simple of the mechanical powers, the inclined
plane. If a slip of paper be cut in the form of an

88t

inclined plane, and wound round
pencil, which will represent the cylin.
der, it will describe a spiral line corr, s-
ponding to the spiral protuberance of
the screw, ^he nut then ascends an
inclined plane, but ascends it in a spiral
instead of a straight line. The closer
the thread of the screw, the more easy
is the ascent ; but the greater are the number of revo,
lutions the winch must make ; so that we return to the
old principle, what is saved in power is lost in time.
'the power of the screw may be increased, also, by
lengthening the lever attached to the nut ; it is employe^
either for compression or to raise heavy weights. It is
used in cider and wine presses, in coining, in book-
binding, and for a variety of other purposes.

All machines are composed of one or more of the
six mechanical powers we have examined. One more
remark must be made relative to them, which is, tha^
friction in a considerable degree diminishes their effect."
Friction is the resistance which bodies meet with in
rubbing against each other. There is no such thing as
perfect smoothness or evenness in nature. Polished
inetals, though they wear that appearance, more than
any other bodies, are far from really possessing it ; and
their inequalities may frequently be perceived through
a good magnifying glass. When, therefore, the sur-
faces of two bodies come in contact, the prominent
parts of the one will often fall into the hollow parts' of
the other, and occasion more or less resistance to
motion. In proportion as the surfaces of bodies are
well polished, the friction is diminished ; but it is
always considerable, and it is usually computed to de-
stroy one-third of the power of a machine. Oil or
grease is used to lessen friction ; it acts as a polish by
filling up the cavities of the rubbing surfaces, and also
prevents them from being so immediately in contact,
which makes them slide more easily over each other.
It is for this reason that wheels are greased, and the
locks and hinges of doors oiled. In these instances, the
contact of the rubbing surfaces is so close, and the rub-

286

bfog so continual, that, notwithstanding their boing
polished and oiled, a considerable degree of friction is
produced. It is a remarkable circumstance, that there
js generally less friction between two bodies of different
substances than of the same. It is on this account that
the holes in which the spindles of watches work, are
frequently made of jewels ; and that when two cog.
wheels work in one another, the cogs of the one are often
4iiade of wood, and the other of metal.

There are two modes of friction ; the one occasioned
oy the sliding of the flat surface of a body, the other
Dy the rolling of a circular body. The friction resulting
from the first is much the more considerable ; for great
force is required to enable the sliding body to overcome
the resistance which the asperities of the surfaces in
contact oppose to its motion, and it must be either lifted
over, or break through them ; whilst, in the other kind,
the friction is transferred to a smaller surface, and the
rough parts, roll over each ot'ier with compMrative
facility. Hence it is, that wlieels are often used for the
sole purpose of diminishing the resistance of friction.
When, in descending a stoop hill in a carriage, we fasten
one of the wheels, we decrease the velocity of the
carriage, by increaslnfj; the friction, that is to say, by
converting the rolling tViction of one of tho wheels into
the dragging friction ; and when castors aro put to liio
legs of a table, the dragging is converted uito tho rolliiig
friction.

A fly-wheel, whicli is a \?.v<.h) lioavy whool attached to
the axis of one of tiic princlpui wheels of tho muchiiiGry
In steam-engines and otiier .lar^'-e niachinos, acts in the
first instance as a heavy v/ei,o;ht to impede thtnr Ireo
and uncontrolled )notioii. However paradoxical this
mode of improving macliinery may appear, it is, never-
theless, of great advantage. The motion of a maehine
is always more or less variable. VVIictlier tlie jiower
consists in wind, water, steam, or the strength of
animals, it cannot be made to act with perloct regularity)
nor can the work which tho nuicliiiic has to perlorih be
always uniform. Yet in manufactures, and most cases
in which machinery is employed, uniformity cf action is

289

essentially requisite, both in order to prevent injury to
jfhe macliiiie and imperfection in the work pertormed,^
The fly-wheel answers this purpose, by regulating the
action of the machine : by its inert/a it diminishes the
eflect of increased action, and carries on the machine
with unifonn velofuty when the power transiently
slackens ; Llum, by wiLher clieckiiig or impelling' the action
of the machine, it r(!>f',j]atrs its motion so«as to render it
tolerabry uiiifornj. U is not (liiTicult to understand the
tnannei' in which a ily-vvh.fM 1 iicts. — The vast number
of p;ir!icles of whicli ii c )n;-!i.v.i3 may lose, or gain, taken
;is ii whole, a ooiismI' riiblo (ju.iiiti'.y of motion, witiiout
llieir hr\{)fr, intHci'LuiUf;) inii'.;!t itlfcl'd; that is, without
tlie fly-whri !, ov — by c('n.seq!!MiC(! — UiO maciiiaery with
which it is coiuv cSf.l i/( !!!:• ■seii;U)!u retarded* or accele-
rated. Thu^ il I.s in iv-r-lity a liiiiguziiio in wliich motion
is hoarded up, and when it is not waritini];, oris injurious
— rea«]y, houevi i", to be givon out Mgain precisely at th©
moment it i;; r((|uiic(J.

There is imoLiier r,ircuin;.tancr: whicli diminishes the
motion of bodies, aiul which jfreatly ailbcls the power of
machines ; this la the rcaisi,.inco of the uildium in which
a machine is woiLi <l.

All lluida, whtliiv;!' of tli^i iiatiira of ai)', or of water,
are callud Oitdiuio.^ : aad liuvir jvsi;,f.atice i.> generally
proportioned to their ('cnsiiy ; lor t!ie more inatler u
body contains, the greater t!ie rcslstatico it will oppose
to the motion of auoiher body stiikitig against it. It is,
therefore, more diuicuk to work a niacliiao under water
than in the air. If a tOHcliia.' coul.l be woikudin vacuo,
and vviiliout fjielioii, it would bo perfect; but this is
uiuvttalnable. A considerable reduction of power must,
therefore, bj allov/od fov tho resistance of tlie air,

ASTRONOMY.

THE E.MM'ii'.S ANNUAL MOTION.

In attempting to give sdioo general notions on astro-
RQtny, we shall not begin oy entciiit^ into an expUna*

290

jipn of the system of the celestial bodies, but select
that portion which is most interesting to us, the earth,
aad when we have formed a distinct idea of the part
Vhich it performs in the general system, we shall be
able to form some conception of the grandeur and
immensity of the UHivorse. Let i^s suppose the earth
lit its cretition tp have been projected forwards. We
know, from the laws of motion, that if no obstaclft
impeded its course it would proceed interminably in the
^anie direction and - ' ' ■ '

with a uniform ve-
locity. Let A re-
present the earth,
$nd s the sun. VVc
shall suppose tlie
earth arrived at the
pomt in which it
is represented in
the figure, having
a velocity wliich
Would carry it on
to B in the* space
of one month ; whilst the sun's attraction would bring
it to c in the same space of time. Reasoning upon the
laws of uniform motion we might hastily conclude that
the earth would move in the diagonal a d of the paral*
lelogram add c, as a ball struck by two forces will do.
But the force of att,r,Tction is continually acting upon
our terrestrial ball, and producing an incessant deviation
from a course in a straight line, and thus converts it
into a course in a curve line.

Let us detain the eartn a moment at the point d, and
consider how it will be affected by the combined action
of the two forces in its new situation. It still retains
its tendency to fly off in a straight line ; but a straight
line would now carry it away to f, whilst the sun woul(\
attract it in the direction d s. In order to know
exactly what course the earth will follow, another paral-
lelogram must be drawn in the same maner as th«
first ; the line d f describing the force of projection*
and the line d s that of attraction ; and it will be found

281

that the earth will proceed in the curve line d o dirawq
in thA parallelogram d f a e ; and if we go on through-
out the whole of the circle, drawing a line from the
earth to the sun, to represent the force of attraction,
and another at a right angle to it, to describe that of
projection, vy^e ^hall find that the earth will proceed in tv
curve line passing through similar parallelograms till i^
Jias pompleted the whole of the circle. The attractiori
of tfiie siin is the centripetal force, whiolV connnes the
earth to a centre ; and the impulse of projection, or the
force which impels the earth to quit the sun and fly off,
is the centrifugal force.

We have described the earth as moving in a clrc\e,
merfely to rendfeir the ekplaiiatiori . more simple, for hi
reality the centripetal and centrifugal forces are not so
proportioned as to produce circular motion ; and the
earth's orbit or path round the sun is not circular, bidt
elliptical or oyal. * ^

|Let us suppose that when the earth is at a, its pro-
jectile force does not give it a velocity sufficient to
counterbalance that of gravity, so as to enable these
powers conjointly to carry it round the sun in a circle ;
the earth instead of describing the line a c, as in the for-
mer figure, will approach
nearer the sUn in the line
A B. Under these circum-
stances it will be asked,
what is to prevent our
approaching nearer and
nearer the sun till we fall
into it ; for its attractioiv
iticreases as we advance
towards it. There also
seems to be another dan-
ger. As the earth ap-
proaches the sun, the direc-
tion of its motion is no longer perpendicular to that of
attraction, but inclines more nearly to it. When the
earth reaches that part of its orbit at b, the force of
projection would carry it to d, which brings it nearer
the sun, instead of bearing it away from it : so that

I' '
I)

202

bmng driven, by ouo power, and drawn by the otiier
towards this coiitro of destruction, it would Bconj
Impossible for us to escape. Hut with God nothing i&
impossible. Th«^ eivrth oonlinnes npproaching the huu
with nn accelerated motion till it renches the point r;
when the projectile fortie impels it in the dinidion i-j k.
Hero then the two l<)rces net [icrpi ndi«Miliuly to eiiolj
other, and the eavih is ,sitii;\fiMl us iii ihn preceding
ligure, yet it will not revolve rotmd \]v' son in a ciicU"
for the li)llowin{.'; renf^<')ns. Tito centrifn'rul f()r(!o in-
creases will) ihe v( locily of tjie body ; or, in olii' r
words, I lie (|iiit :iv<u' il moves the sironjrer is its tendency
to flv oil' ill a rii'ht li?ie. AVheii tlic earth iinives jil i-
its aeceicraled inotif»n will have so far iiuireased lis
velociity and consequently ils cenlrifiij^al r)rce, that llie
latter will prev;iil over Ih" I'lree rtf altraetioii, and (lra;f
the earth away from tli:" sun til! it reaches a. U is tliiis
that wo esca|ie (Vom llie daiiiijeroiis viriiiily of the sun ;
and as wo recede fVoin il, IjoIIi the loic(; of it.; attnic-
tion, and tlie velooity of the earth's motion diminish.
From <i, tlu" dii"(HMion of proj<^ction is towards n, that
of attraction towards s, and lia^ (^ulli pi'oe(.'«-'ds between
thoni with a retarded moi.ion, ttli it law completctl its
revolution. Tims the earili iruvels ruutid tiie'sun, uit
in a circle, but an ellipsis, of whi(.;h the suti occupies
one of the loci ; aud ia lis course- the eartls rdterualely
aj)proaches and receilos IVom it. 8o thui what at first
appeared a dangerous irreg-uUuiiy, is the means by
wlii^'h the most purfecl order and harmony are pioduccd.
The earth, then, travels on at a very UJir(piul rale, ils
velocity being aeceicraled an it approaches the sun, aiul
retarded as it recedes from it.

That part of the eartlrs orbit nearest the sun is called
its peri he/ion, that part most distant iVom the sun its
aphelion. The earth is about time million of miles
pearer the sun at its perilielion than at its aphelion.
Some are surprised to learn that during llie heighth of
our summer, the earth is in that part of its orbit whicb
'js most distant from the sun, and that it is during the,
severity of winter that we are neare^it to il. The
ditference, however, of the earth's distance from thy

208

sun in Rummnr mv\ winter, wlinn ooinparcd witli Ata
total distance from the Hun, is luit iiicon.siflerable, for
three millioDH of iniloa Hink into inHif^iiinoiinco in com-
parison of 05 milliona of tnilrs, wliicili is our moan
distance from the sun. Tiio cliaii/:];n of tonipnruturc,
arising from this dilHironco, \v(jul(l in ilsc If scunMOy he
Rnnsiblo, and it \h cornplrtdy ovnrpoworcd .by other
causes which produce the variations of the seusoriH ;
but the exphumtiori of these must bo dnfi^rred, till we
liavo made some furtlif;r observations on the heavenly
bodies.

PLANETH.

Tlie planets an' celestial l/odics wbicli rcVolve round
the sun, on tiie same princuple as the eiirtl;. They
are divided into pritruiry iiiid s( coiidiuy. Tlioso, which
revolve immediately roiiiid the sun, va-o called primmy,
Miiuy of these are attended in their course by snaaller
planets, which revolve round thrin : these arc called
secondary planets, fiatoUlLes, or inonns; sucir is our
moon, which accoiup iilies the cariii, and is carried with
it round the sun. IMie i,\m is the poncrtd centre of
attraction to our system of planets ; but the satellites
Vevolve round the priiiiiuy planets, on account of their

g5*

394

greater proximity. The force of ottrnction is not only
proportional to the quantity of matter, but to tli0
degree of proxinjity of the attracting body. The
power of attraction diminishes as the squares of the
distance increase ; so that a planet, situated at twico
tjie distance at which we are from the sun, would
gravitate 'lour times less thari vye do. The more dis-
tant planets, therefore, move slower in their ovbils, for
|heir projectile force must he proportioned to that of
Mtraction. This diminution of attraction, by tho
increase of distance, also accounts for the motion 6f
the secondary round the primary planets, in proferoiice
to the sun; for the vicinity of the primary planets
renders their attraction strojiger than that of the sun.
But since attraction between bodies is mutual, the
primary planets are also attracted by their satellites.
The moon attracts the earth, as well as the earth the
moon ; but as the latter is tiie smaller body, her at-
tfaction is proportionally less. The result is, that
neither does the earth revolve round the moon, nor
the moon round the earth ; but they both revolve round
a point, which is their common centre of gravity, and
which is as much nearer the earth's centre of gravity
than that of the moon, as the weight of the former ex
ceeds that of the latter.

The earth then has three different motions ; it re
volves round the sun, — it revolves upon its axis, — and
it revolves round the point towards which the moon
Attracts it ; and this is the case with every planet which
is attended by satellites. The planets act on the sun
in the same manner as they are themselves acted on
by their .satellites ; but the gravity of the planets
(even when taken collectively) is so trifling, compared
with that of the sun, that they do not cause it to move
so much as one-half of its diameter. The planets
therefore, do not revolve round the centre of the sun,
but round a point at a small distance from its centre,
about which the sun also revolves. The sun likewise
revolves on its axis. This motion is ascertained by
observing certain spots which disappear and reappear
regularly at stated times.

295

Mercury is tlie planet nearest the sun ; his orbit is
consequently contained within ours; but his vicinity to
the sun occasions liis being nonrly lost in the brilliancy
of his rays ; and when we do see this planet, the sun is
so dazzling, that very accurate oljsorvations cannot be
made upon him. He performs his revolution round
the sun in about eighty-seven days, which is conse-
quently the length oi his year ; the time of his rotation
on his axis is not accurately known ; his distanpe frori^
the sun is computed to be 37 millions of miles, and his
diameter 3,224 miles.

Venus, the next in the order of the planets, is 69
millions of miles from the sun ; she revolves about her
axis in 23 hours and 21 minutes, and goes round the
sun in 224 days 17 hours. The diameter of Venus is
7,687 miles. The orbit of Venus is within ours;
4ui'ing nearly one-half of her course we see her before
sun-rise, when she is called the morning star; in the
corresponding part of her orbit, on the other side, she
rises later than the sun. We cannot then see her
rising, as she rises in the day time ; but she also sets
later; so that we perceive her approaching the horizon
after sun-set; she is then called Hesperus, or thio
evening star.

The Earth is next to Venus. At present we shall
only observe that we are 95 millions of miles distant
from the sun — that we perform our annual revolution in
365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, — and are attended
in our course by a single moon.

Mars comes next. He can never be between us
and the sun, like Mercury and Venus. His distance

2»6

from tho sun in 144 millions of niilos, he turns on his
axis in 24 hours and 30 minutes ; and ho performs his
annual revolution in about 087 of our days : his
diameter is 4,189 miUs. Then follow four very small
planets — Juno, Ceres; Val/ns and Veula, which havo
been recently disuovercd, but whoso (limi-iisions and
distances from tho sun have not been very accurately
ascertained.

Jupiter is next in order. This is the largest of all
the planets; he is about 4i)0 millions ot' miles distant
from the sun, and completes his annual period in nearly
twelve of our years, he revolves on his axis in about
ten hours; he is above 1,400 times as large as our
(earth, his diameter being 89,170 miles. lie is attended
by four moons.

i iSa/ur7( comes next, whose distance from the sim is
about 900 millions of miles. His diurnal rotation is
performed in ten hours and a quarter ; hia annual revo-
iution in nearly thirty of our years; his diameter is
79,000 miles. This planet is surrounded by a luminous
ring, the nature of which astronomers arc much at a loss
to conjecture ; he has seven moons.

Georgium Sidus, or Uranus, or IlerscJiel (for nil
these names have been given to this phuiet) is the last.
Jt Wfis discovered by Dr. Herschel in 1791. It is at-
tended by six moons. It is the most distant planet
from the sun that has yet been discovered ; being at a
distance of no less than 1800 millions of miles from that
Juminary. Its diameter is about 35,000 miles. Ii
takes about 83 years and a lialf to complete its revolu-
tion round tho sun.

Comets are supposed to be planets. The reappear.
aiice of some of them at stated times proves that they
revolve round the sun ; but in orbits so eccentric, and
running to such a distance from the sun, that they
disappear for a great number of years. They are
distinguished from the other celestial bodies, by their
jruddy appearance, and by a long train of light called
the tail. The length of these tails is often many
^llions of miles. Sonie comets have been ascertained
Jo move in long narrow ellipses or ovals, round the

system, since

207

lun, from which it hiiH horn iiif* rrod, nrrlmps hastily,
timt they all do so. ^Tho numbt^r of con "ta which
liuve Qccasionally been fircn within the lirnita of our
system, suice the cominenccirient of the Christian era,
18 about 600, of which the paths of 08 have been cal-
culated^

nXED STARS.

The ancients, in order to recognize the fixed stars^
formed them into groups, to which they gave particulai
names. In order to show their proper situations in tlie
heavens, they should be painted on the internal surface
of a hollow sphere, from the coiitro of which they
might be viewed. We should then see tlicm as they
appear to be situated in the heavens. The twelve con-
stellations, called the Signs of the Zodiac, are those
which are so situated, that the earth, in its annual
revolution, passes directly between them and the sun.
They occupy a complete circle, or broad belt, in the
heavens. Hence, a right line, drawn from the earth,
and passing through the sun, would reach one of these
constellations ; and the sun is said to be in that con-
stellation in which such a line would terminate. The
circle in which the sun appears to move, and which
passes through the middle of the Zodiac, is called the
Ecliptic.

We have no means of ascertaining the distance of
the fixed stars. When therefore they are said to be
in the Zodiac, it is merely implied that they are situ-
ated in that direction, and that they shine upon us
through that portion of the heavens which we call the
Zodiac. Whether the apparent difference of the size
and brilliancy of the stars proceeds from various de-
grees of remoteness or of dimension, is a point which
astronomers are not able to ascertain. Considering
them as suns, we know no reason why they shoula
not vary in size, as well as the planets belonging tft
them.

29$

It may pcrhRi>s be objpctccl to this system of the
universe, that it is 4i>*ecUy in opposition to theevidonco
of our senses, to which, it is pUTin und obvious, that
the oartli is motionless, uud that tho sun und stars
revolve round it. IJut our senses sometimes deceive
us. When sailing on the wnlnr witii u very steady
breeze, tho housos, trees, and every object appear to
move, whilst ue arc insensible ol' the motion of the
vessel in which we sail. It is only when some obstacle
impedes our motion, that we are conscious of njoving;
and were you to close your eyes while sailing on calm
water, with a steady wind, you would not be sensible
of your motion ; for you could not feel it, and you
could see it only by observing (he change of place of
objects on shore. So it is with the motion of tho eardi:
every thing on its surface, and the air that surrounds
It, (accompanies it in its revolution — it meets with no
resistance, therefore we are insensible of motion.
The apparent motion of the sun and stars affords us
the same proof of the earth's motion, that the crew of a
vessel have of their motion, from the apparent motiou
of the objects on shore. Imagine the earth to be sai}-
ing round its axis, and successively passitig by every
fetar, which, like objects on land, we suppose to be
moving, instead of ourselves. Persons who have
ascended in balloons, toll us that tho earth appears to
sink beneath the balloon, instead of the balloon rising
above the earth. What an innnense circuit the suri
and stars would make daily, wore their apparent nio-
tions real ! Why should these enormous globes traverse
such an immensity of space, merely to prevent the
necessity of our earth revolving on its axis? The
motion produced by the revolution of the earth on itji
axis is about thirteen miles and a half in a minute to
an inhabitant of London. A person at the equator
moves much quicker, and one situated near the poles
much slower, since they each perform a revolution in
twenty-four hours. But in performing its revolution
round the sun, every part of the earth moves with an
equal velocity ; and this velocity is no less than a thou-
sand miles a minute.

290

, In ancient times, tlio cnrtii was supposed to occupy
the centre of tlio universe; and the sun, moon, and
stars to revolve round it. 'J'liis was tlie system of
Ptolemy ; !)ut since llic beginninj; of the sixteenlH
century, tlmt system lias been discarded, and the solar
system, sucli as we liave deserihed, was established
by the celebrated astronomer Cloperniciis, and bis fol-
lowers, and is tlience callcfl the Cop«!rnican system.
But tlie theory of gravitation, the discovery of the
source whence this beautiful and harmotiious arrange-
ment flows, we owe to the genius of Newton, who lived
at a much later period.

During the prevalence of the plague, in the year
1605, Newton retired into tlio coimtry to avoid the con-
tagion. When sitting one day in his orchard, ho
observed an apple fall from a tree, which it is said led
to that train of thought, whence his grand theory of
Universal gravitation was ultimately developed. Hia
first reflection was, whether the apple would fall to the
^arth if removed to a great distance from it ; then how
far it would require to be removed from the earth,
before it would cease to be attracted ; would it retain
its tendency to fall at the distance of a thousand miles,
or ten thousand, or at the distance of the moon — and
here the idea occurred to him, that it was not im-
possible that the moon herself might have a similar
tendency, and gravitate to the earth in the same man-
ner as the bodies on or near its surface, and that this
gravity might possibly be the power which balanced
the centrifugal force implied in her motion in her orbit.
It was then natural to extend this idea to the other
planets, and he considered them as gravitating towards
the sun, in the same manner as the moon gravitates
towards the earth. Who woidd imagine that the
simple circumstance of the full of an apple would
have led to such magnificent results ? It is the mark
of superior genius to find matter for observation and
research in circumstances wliich, to ordinary minds,
appear trivial, because they are conmion, and with
which they are satisfied, because they are natural,
without reflecting that nature is our errand field of

observation— that within it ie. contained onr whole
store of Icnowledge : in a word, that to study the works
of nature, is to learn to appreciate and admire the
wisdom of God. ^

ideas ; for tl

THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE.

.vl

As the earth is the planet in which we are most
particularly interested, we shall explain the effects
resultin^r from its annual and diurnal motions ; but for
this purpose it will first be necessary to make you ac-
quainted with the artificial terrestrial globe. This
globe, or sphere,
represents the
earth. The line
A B which passes
through its cen-
tre, and on which
it turns, is called
its axis ; and the
two extremities
of the axis are
the poles, distin-
guished by the
names of the
north and the
south pole. The
circle c d, which
divides the globe
into two equal parts between the poles, is called the
equator, or equinoxial line ; that part of the globe to the
north of the equator is the northern hemisphere ; that
part to the soufh of the equator, the southern hemisphere.
The small circle ef which surrounds the north pole, is
called the arctic circle ; gh, surrounding the south pole,
the antarctic circle. There are two intermediate circles,
between the polar circles and the equator, that to the north,
w, called the tropic of Cancer ; that to the south, tn,

301

called the tropio of Capricorn. Lastly, the circle lk,
which divides tho globe into two equal parts, crossing
the equator, and extending northward as far as the
tropic of Cancer, and southward as far as the tropio of
Capricorn, is called the Ecliptic. The delineation of
the ecliptic on the terrestrial globe may convey false
ideas ; for the ecliptic is an imaginary circle in the
heavens, passing through the middle of the Zodiac,
and situated in the plane of the earth's orbit. In order
to understand the meaning of the earth's orbit, let us
suppose a smooth, thin, solid plane cutting the sun
through the centre, extending out as far as the fixed
stars, and terminating in a circle which passes through
the middle of the zodiac. In this plane the earth
moves in its revolution round the sun ; it is therefore
Called the plane of the earth's orbit ; and the circle in
which this plane outs the signs of the zodiac is the
ecliptio.

The spaces between the several parallel circles on
Ihe terrestrial globe are called zones; that which is
Comprehended between the tropics is distinguished by
the name of the torrid zone ; the spaces, which extend
from the tropics to the polar circles, the north and south
temperate zones ; and the spaces, contained within the
polar circles, the frigid zones.

The several lines which are drawn from one pole to
the other, cutting the equator at right angles, are called
meridians. When any one of the^e meridians is exactly
opposite the sun, it is mid-day, with all places situated
on that meridian ; and with the places situated on the
opposite meridian, it is consequently midnight. To
places situated equally distant from these two meridians^
it is six o'clock. If they are to the east of the sun's
meridian, it is six o'clock in the afternoon, because the
sun will have previously passed over them ; if to the
west, it is six o'clock in the morning, and the sun will
be proceeding towards that meridian. ,

Those circles which divide the globe into two equal

parts, such as the equator and the ecliptic, are called

great circles — to distinguish them from those which

divide it into two unequal parts, as the tropic and polar

... 20

302

plroles, which are called small circles. All circles twe
divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; and these
degrees into 60 equal parts, called minutes. The diame-
ter of a circle is a right lino drawn across it, and passing
through the centre ; the diameter is equal to a little less
than one-third of the circumference, and consequently
contains a length equal to nearly 120 degrees. A. uie-
ridian, reaching from one pole to the other, is half a
circle, and therefore contains 180 degrees ; and the
distance from the equator to the pole is half of a me-
ridian, or a quarter of the circumference of a circle, and
contains 90 degrees.

Besides the usual division of circles into degrees, the
ecliptic is divided into twelve equal parts, called signs,
which bear the names of the constellations through
which this circle passes in the heavens. The degrees,
measured on the meridians from north to south, or from
south to north, are called degrees of latitude ; those
measured from east to west on the equator, or any of the
lesser circles parallel to it, are called degrees of longi-
tude. These lesser circles are called parallels of
latitude ; because being every where at the same dis-
tance from the equator, the latitude of every point
contained in any one of them is the same.

The degrees of longitude must necessarily vary in
length according to the dimensions of the circle on
which they are reckoned : those, for instance, at the
polar circle, will be considerably smaller than those at
the equator. The degrees of latitude, on the contrary,
never vary in length ; the meridians, on which they
are reckoned, being all of the same dimensions. Tiie
length of a degree of latitude is 60 geographical miles,
which is equal to 69i Englisli statute miles. The
degrees of longitude at the equator would be of the
same dimensions as the degrees of latitude, were the
earth a perfect sphere ; but its form is not exactly
spherical, being somewhat protuberant about the
equator, and flattened towards the poles. This form
proceeds from the superior action of the oentrifugul
power at the equator. The revolution of the earth on
its axis gives every particle a tendency to fly ofl' froni

303

the oentro. This tendency is etrortgor or weaker, in
proi)ortion to the velocity with which the particle moves.
Now, a particle situated near one of the polar circles
makes a rotation in the same space of time as a particle
of the equator ; the latter, therefore, having a much
larger circle to descrihe, travels proportionably faster,
so that the centrifugal force is much stronger at the
equator than at the polar circle : it gradually decreases
as we leave the equator and approach the poles, wjiore,
as there is no rotatory motion, it entirely ceases. Even
at the equator, however, there is no danger of our beinnj
thrown from the earth, the force of gravity being thcr »
288 times greater than the ccritrifugal force;

Bodies weigh less at the equator than at tho poles.
There are two onuses for this, — the diminution ofgravity
at the equator, it being at a greater distance from th(^
earth's centre than the poles, — and the increase of tho
centrifugal force ; whicjh, as it tends to drive bodies
from the centre, niiibt necessarily decrease tho power of
gravity*'.

" . THE SEASONS.

We shall now explain the variation of the seasons,'
and the difference of the length of the days and nights
in those seasons — both effects resulting from the same
cause. In moving round the sun, the axis of the eartl^
is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit ; in other
words, its axis does not move round the sun in an
upright position, but slanting or ol)lique. This you
will understand more clearly, if you carry a small
globe round a candle which is to represent the sun.—'
You must consider the ecliptic drawri orl the small
globe as representing the plane of the earth's orbit J
and the equator, which crosses tho ecliptic in two
places, shows the degree of obliquity of the axis of the
earth in that orbit, which is nearly *J3i degrees. Th"e

304

points in which the ecliptic intersccti the equator ore
called nodes. The globe at a is situated an it is iu

tfii^ midst of summer, or wlint is called the summer
solstice, which is oii the twenty-fi»*st of June. The
north pole is then inclined towards the sun, and the
northern hemisphere enjoys much more of his rays
tlian the southern. The sun now shines over the whole
of the north frigid zone, and notwithstanding the
earth's diurnal revolution, it will cnntuiue to shino
upon it as long as it remains in this '^■luation, whilst
the south frigid zone is at the same time comoletely in
obscority.

I>et the earth now set off from its pni^iiion in the
summer solstice, and carry it round the sj,n • observe,
that the axis must be always inclined in the samo
direction, and the north pole point to the sanve snot in
the heavens. There is a fixed star situated u»vir that
spot, which is hence called tlie North Polar star. The
earth at b has gone through one quarter of its orbit.
and is arrived at that point at which the eclipti<i cuts
or crosses the equator, and which is callrxi the
autumnal equinox. The sun now shines from one role
t!0 the other. At tliis period of tlie year, the days
and nights are equal in every part of the earth : but
the next step she takes in hor orbit involves the nortb
pole in total darkness, whilst it illuminos that of the
south. This change was irradually proparing as the

305

earth moved from summer to autumn. Tlic iiistant the
earth passes the autunmal equinox, the long night of
the north pole commences, and the south pole beghis to
enjoy the light of the sun. As the earth proceeds in
her orT)it, the days shorten and the nights lengthen
throughout the northern henni.sphf;re, until it arrives at
the winter solstice, on the 21st of December, when the
north frigid zone is entirely in darkness, and the south-
ern enjctys uninterrupted diiy-light. Exactly half of
the equator, it will be observed, is enlightened in every
position, and consequently the day is there always equal
to the night.

Observe, that the inhabitants of the torrid zone have
have much more heat than we have, as the sun's rays
fall perpendicularly on them, while they shine obliquely
on the temperate, and almost horizontally on the frigid
zone; for during their long day, the sun moves round
at no great elevation above their horizon, without either
rising or setting.

To a person placed in the temperate zone, the sun's
rays will shine neither so obliquely as at the poles, nor
so vertically as at the equator ; but v*'ill fall upon him
more obliquely in autumn and in winter than in
summer. Therefore, the inhabitants of the earth
between the polar circles and the equator will not have
merely one day and one night in the year, as happens
at the pole ; nor will they have equal days and equal
nights, as at the equator, but their days and nights will
vary in length at different times of the year, according
as their respective poles incline towards or from the
sun, and the difference will be greater in proportion to
their distance from the equator. — During the other
half of her orbit, the same effect takes place in the
Southern hemisphere, as what we haye just remarked
in the Northern. When the earth arrives at the vernal
equinox, d, where the ecliptic again cuts the equator,
on the 22d of March, she is situated with respect to the
sun, exactly in the same position as in the autumnal
equinox; excepting that it is now autumn in the

26*

i-.':

•..-H

SOd

Southern hemisphere, while it is spring time tirith us ,
for the half of the glohe, which is enlightened, extends
exactly from one pole to the other. On the two days
of the equinox the sun is visible at Iwth poles ; but only
half of it is seen from either, the other half being con.
cealed by the horizon;

ON THE MOON AND ECLIPSES.

Let us now turn our attention to tne moon. This
Satellite revolves round the earth in tlie space of twenty-
seven days eight hours, in an orbit nearly coinciding
with the plane of the earth's orhit, and accompanied ua
in our revolution round the sun. Her motion, therefore,
is of a complicated nature ; for, as the earth advances
in her orbit, whilst the moon goes round her, the moon
firocieeds in a sort of progressive circle.

The moon always presents the same face to us, by
which it is evident that She turns but once upon he^
Axis, while she performs a revolution round the earth ;
so that the inhabitants of the moon have but one day
and one night in the course of a lunar month. Since
^e always see the same hemisphere of the moon, the
inhabitants of that hemisphere alone can see the earth.
One half of the moon, therefore, enjoys our light every
night, while the other half has constantly nights of dark-
ness; and we appear to the inhabitants of the moon
under all the changes, or phases, which the moon ex-
hibits to us.

When the moon is in the same direction from us as
the sun, we cannot see her, as her dark side is towards
us; but her disappearance is of very short duration,
and as she advances in her orbit we perceive her under
the form of a new moon. When she has gone through
one-sixth of her orbit, one quarter of her enlightened
hemisphere will be turned towards the earth, and she

807

will then appear horned. When she has performed
one quarter of her orbit, she shows us one half of her
enlightened side. She next appears gibbous ; and aftei
that full. As she proceeds in her orbi1*she becomes
again gjbboue, and her enlightened hemisphere turns
gradually away from us, till she completes her orbit
and disappears ; and then again resumes her form of
a new moon.

When the moon is full, she is always in opposition
to the sun — when a new moon, in conjunction with it.
At eaph of these times, the sun, the moon, and the
earth are in the same right lino ; but in the first case, "
the earth is between the sun and the moon :^ in the
second, the moon is between the sun and the earth.
An eclipse can only take place when the sun, moon,
and earth are in a straight lino, or nearly so. When
the moon passes between the sun and the earth, she
intercepts his rays, or in other words, casts a shadow
pn the earth : this is an eclipse of t!ie sun, and it con.
tinues whilst the shadow is passing -ovt-r us. When, on
the contrary, the earth is between the sun and the
moon, it is we, who intercept the sun's rays, and cast a
sha4o\y on the moon : she then disappears from our view,
and is eclipsed.

Why, it may be asked, have we not a solar and a
lunar eclipse every month ? Because the planes of
the orbits of the earth and moon do not extictly co-
incide, but cross or intersect each other ; and the
moon generally passes either on one side or the other,
when she is in conjunction with, or in opposition to,
the sun ; and therefore docs not intercept the sun's rays,
or produce an eclipse : for this can only take place,
when the earth and moon arc in conjunction near those
parts of their orbits which cross each other (called the
nodes of their orbits), because it is then only that they
are both in the same plane, and in a right line with tiw
sun. A partial eclipse takes place when the moon, ii
passing by the earth, does not entirely escape he)
shadow. When tlie eclipse happens precisely at th«

808 •

nodes, they are not only total, but last for some length
of time.

When the sun is eclipsed, the total darkness is con-
fined to one particular spot of the earth, as the moon's

shadow is not large enougji to cover the earth. Tiio
lunar eclipses, on the contrary, are visible from every

»-™--«"aaiia||

part of the earth, where the moon is above the horizon,

t -"'

THE TIDES.

The tides are produced by the attraction of the moon,
The cohesion of fluids being much less than that of
solid bodies, they more easily yield to the power of
gravity, in consequence of which, the waters immedir
ately below the moon are drawn up in a protuberance,
producing a full tide, or what is commonly called high-
water, at the spot where it happens. According to this
theory, you would imagine we should have full tide
only once in twenty-four hours — ^that is, every tinie
that we were below the moon— while we find tjiat
we have two tides in the course of twenty-four hours,
and that it is high water with us and with our antipodes
at the same time.

I ^'

3U0

This opposite tido is rather more difficult to explain
than that whicii in drawn up beneath the moon. In*
order to render the explanation more simple, let us sup-
pose the euilli to Ijo evciywhuro <:o\crcd by ihe ocean.
IM is the monii, aucd, the earth. Now, the waters
^ . ., . . on the surface

of the earth
about A, being
more strongly
attracted than
in any other
part, will bo
• eUvated, the at-
traction of the moon at b and c, being loss ; but still it
will be .frroiiter there than at d, which is the part most
dist'jnt from the moon. The body of the earth will
thoref(ire he drawn away fmm tlie waters at D, leaving
a protuljeranco siniilar to that at a; so thut the tide A
is prodticod by tho watei's rr^ccding from the earth, and
the tide d by the oavth receding from the waters.

The itjnucncc of tho sun on the tides is less than that
of the moon ; for observe, that the tides rise in •conse-
quence of the moon attracting one part of the watea-s
more forcibly than another part ; it is this inequality of
attraction which produces full and ebb tides. Now the
distance of the sun is so great, that the whole globe of
the cartli is comparatively but as a point, and the dif-
ference of its attraction for that part of the waters moait
under its inlluence, and that part least 8uJ)ject to it is
but trifling ; and no part of the ^vaters will be much
elevated above, or mi jh depressed below their general
surface by its action. The sun has, however, a con-
siderable elFoct on the tides, and increases or diminishes
them as it acts in conjunction with, or in opposition to,
the moon. y. ,j^;

. The moon is a month in going round the earth ; twice
during that time, therefore, at full and at change, she
is in the same direction as the sun. Both then act
conjointly on the eartli, and produce very great
tides, called spring-tides, as represented at a and bj

310

but when the moon is at the intermediate parts of tit-t

P-

orbit, the sun, instead of afTording assistance, weakons
per power by acting in oj)position to it; and smaller
tides are produced, calU'<l noap-tides.

• i

Since attraction is mutual between the moooa and ^^le
^arth, we produce tides in the moon ; and tliese are
niore considerable, in proportion as our planet is larger.
Neither the moon nor the earth in roality assume an
oval form, for the land which interpepts the water de-
stroys the regularity of the effect. ' The orbit of the
moon being nearly parallel to that of the earth, she is
never vertical but to the inhabitants of the torrid zone ;
in that climate, therefore, the tides are greatest, and
ihey diminish as you recede from it and approach the
poles ; but in no part of the globe is the moon immedi<
fttely above the spot where it is high tide. All matter,
by its inertia, offers some resistance to a change of
state ; the waters, therefore, do not readily yield to the
attraction of the moon, and the effect of her influence
18 not complete until some time after she has passed
the meridiaV^. ' " r' '

811

The earth revolves on its axis in about twenty-four
hours : if the moon were stationary, therefore, the samo
part of our globe would, every twenty-four hours, re-
turn beneath the moon ; but as dur ng our daily revolu-
tion the moon advances in her orbit, the earth mits^
make more than a complete rotation in order to bring
trie same meridian opposite the moon : we are about
three-quarters of an hour in overtaking her. The tides,
therefore, are retarded, for the stime reason that tliei
moon rises latey, by three-quarters of an hour every
day. This, however, is only the average amount of the
retardation. The time of the highest tide is modifieq
by the sun's attraction, and is between those of the tides
\vnich would be produced by the separate aption of the
two luminaries. The action of the sun, therefore,
makes the interval diiferent on different days, but leaves^
the average amount unaffected.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS.

The science of the mechanical properties of fluids ib
called Hydrostatics. A fluid is a substance which
yields to the slightest pressure.

Fluids are divided into two classes, distinguished by
the names of liquids, and elastic fluids or gases, which
latter comprehends the air of the atmosphere, and all
the various kinds of air with which chemistry makes us
acquainted. We shall confine our attention at present
to the mechanical properties of liquids or non-elastic
fluids.

Water, and liquids in general, are little susceptible
of being compressed, or squeezed into a smaller space
than that which they naturally occupy. This is due
to the mutual repulsions of their particles, which,
rather than submit to compression, force their way
through the pores of the substance which confines
them, as was shown by a celebrated experiment, made

312

at Florence many years ago. A hollow globe of goicj
was filled with water, and on its being submitted to
great pressure, the water was seen to exude through the
pores of the gold, which it covered with a fine dew.
But more recent experiments, in which water has been
confined in strong iron tubes, &c., prove that it is sus-
ceptible of compression.

Liquids have spaces between the particles, like solid
bodies, but they are too minute to be discovered by the
most powerful microscope. The existence of spaces in
liquids can be ascertained by dissolving solid bodies in
them. If we melt some salt in a glass full of water, the
water will not overflow, and the reason probably is, that
the particles of salt will lodge themselves between, the
particles of the liquid, so that the salt and water together
v/il) not occupy more space than the water did alone.
If we. attempt to melt more salt than can find room
within these pores, the remainder will subside to the
l^ottom, and, occupying the space which the water filled
before, oblige the latter to overflow. A certain propor-
tion of spirit of wine may also be poured into water
without adding to the bulk, as the. spirit will introduce
itself between the particles of water.

Fluids show the etFects of gravitation in a more per-
fect manner than solid bodies ; the strong cohesive at-
traction of thp particles of the latter in some measure
counteracting* the effect of gravity. In a table, for
instance, the strong cohesion of the pailicles of wood
enables four slender legs to support a considerable
weight. Were the cohesion so fur destroyed ns to con;
vert the wood into a fluid, no support could be aiibrdcd by
the legs ; for the particles no longer cohering together,
each would press separately and independently, and
would be brought to a level with the surface of the earth.

This deficiency of cohesion is the reason why fluids
can never be formed into figures or maintained in heaps ;
for though it is true the wind raises water into waves,
they are immediately afterwards destroyed by gravity.
Thus liquids always find their level. The definition of
the equilibrium of a fluid is, that every part of the sur-

313

face ia equany distant from tl»e point to whioh gravity
tends; that is to say, from the centre of the earth.
Hence the surface of all fluids must partake of the sphe-
rical form of the globe, and bulge outwards. This is
evident in large bodies of water, such as the ocean ; but
tiie sphericity of small bodies of water is so trifling as to
render their surfaces apparently flat.

The equilibrium of fluids is the natural result of their
nartioirs gravitating mdcpendent/.j/ of each other; for
when any pariiele of a fluid accidentally finds itself
elevated above the rest, it is attracted down to the level
of the surface of'tJie iluid, and ll»e readiness with which
fluids yield to tho slightest pressure, will enable the
partieh.^ hy its \veiri:ht to penetrate the surface of the
fluid and mix with it. lint this is the case only with
fluids of cqunl density, for a liglit fltud will float on the
surface of a heavy one, as oil on water ; and air will
jise to tho surf;ioo of any liquid whatever, being forced
up by the sup!^ri>)r gravity of the li([uid. The figure
here represents an instjument called a level ; which

^ ^ i« constructed upon the principle

" of the eciuilibrium of fluids. It

consists of a s'iort tube, A' k, closed at both ends,
and containing a Ijuid and a biiljble of air; when tho
tube is not perfectly h jri/onlal tho fluid runs to the lower
end, which makes t!ie bubble of air rise to the upper
end, and it remains in the cc^ntre only when the tube
does not incline on either side. It is by this means that
the level of any situation, to which we apply the instru-
ment, is ascertained.

Solid br)dies, therefore, gravitate in masses, the strong
cohesion of their particles mrddng them weigh altogether,
while every particle of a fluid maybe considered as a
separate mass, gravitating indep.vndently. Hence the
resistance of a fluid is cnn;udorably less than that of a
solid body. The particles of fluids acting thus indo-
pendentlj', press against each other in every direction,
not only downwards luit np^viv Is, and laterally or sde.-
ways; and in conse-jiuiico (jftlns equality of press, »'e,
every particle renKuiis ;tt iv.^t in the fluid. If du

^ffUate the fluid, you disturb this equality, and the fluid
(vill hot' rest tiH its equilibrium be restored.
■ Were there no lateral pressure, water would not f^ow
from an opening on the side of a vessel ; sand will not
run out of such an opening, because there is scarcely
any lateral pressure among the particles. Were the
particles of fluids arranged in regular columns,
there would be no lateral pressure, for when one
pailicle is perpendicularly above the other, it
c^H only -press it downwaixis; but as it must
continually happen that a particle passes between twq
particles beneath, these last sulfer a lateral pressure
tjust, aa( a >Yed^o driyen into a piece of wood separates
QQ the parts laterally. The lateral piressure is the
^O' result therefore of the pressure downwards, or the
weight of the liqui(i| above ; and consequently the lo>Y.e^
the oi'ifice is made in the vessel, the greater will be
the velocity of the water rushing out of it. The

annexed figure represents tljie
dfflerent degrees of velocity
Witli 'which a liquid flows from
a vessel furnished with three
stopcocks at dilTeiont heights..
Since the lateral pressure is
entirely owing to the pressure
downwards, it is not affiioted ■. by the horizontal di-
mension, of. the vessel, which contains the liquid, but
merely by its depth ; for as evepy particle apts inde-
pendently of the rest, it is only the column' of particiyi
immediately above the orifice that can weigh upon and
press out the liquid.

The pressure of fluids upwards, though it seems in
direct opposition to gravity, is also a consequence of
their pressure downwards. When, for example, watei
is poured into a tea-pot, the water rises in the spout td
a level with that in the pot. The particles of water ai
the bottom of the pot are pressed upon by the particles
above them ; to this pressure they will yield, if there is
imy mode of making way for the superior particles, anc}

as they cannot descend, they will change their direction
and rise in the spout.

Suppose the tea-pot to be filled with columns of
pailiclcs of water similar to those described in the
figure annexed, the particle 1
at the bottom will be pressed
laterally by the particle 2, and
by thiis pressure be forced into
the spout, where, meeting with
the particle 3, it presses it up-
\yards, and this pressure will be continued fiorn 3. to 4
from 4 to 5, f^nd so on, till the water in the sj^out has
risen to a leyel with that in the i^^.

i I

• SPECIFIC GRAVITY. .1

The specific gravity of a body means simply its
weight compared with that of another body of the same
size. When we say that substances, s^v^ph ns lead an4
stones, are heavy, and that others, such as paper and
feathers, are light, we speak comparatively ; that is to
say, that the first are heavy, and the latter light, in
comparison with the generality of the substances in
nature. Mahogany is a heavy body when compared to
many other kinds of wood, but light when compared to
§tone. Chalk is a heavy body compared to coal, but
light if compared to metal. Thus our notions of light
and heavy are vague and undefined, and some standard
of coniparison is required, to which the weiglit of all
other bodies may be referred. The body which has
been adopted as a standard of reference is distilled
water. When the specific gravity of bodies is to be
estimated, it is necessary simply to weigh the body
iinder trial in water. If a piece of gold be weighed in
a glass of water, the gold will displace just as much
Water as is equal to its own bulk ; a cubic inch of
water must make way for a cubic inch of gold. The
^Ik alone is to be considered, the weight having

810

nothing to do with the quantity of water displaced ; for
a cubic inch of gold does not occupy more space, and
therefore will not displace more water, than a cubic inch
of ivory, or any other substance that will sink in
water.

The gold will weigh less in water than it did out
of it, on account of the upward pressure of the parti-
cles of water, which in some measure supports the gold,
and, by so doing, diminishes its weight. If the body
under trial bo of the same weii-ht as the water in which
it is immersed, it will be wholly supported by it ; if it
be heavier, the water will offer some resistance to its
descent ; and tliis resistance will in all cases bo the
same to bodies of equal bulk, whatever be their
weight. All bodies of the same size, therefore, lose
the same quantity of their weiglit when completely
jmmei'sed in watnr. A body weighed in water loses as
much of its weight as is equal to that of the water
it displaces ; so that were ihis water put into the scale
to which the body is suspended, it would restore the
balance.

When a body is weiglied in water," in order to
ascertain its specific gravity, it may either be sus-
pended to a hook at the bottom of the basin of the
balance, or, taking off the basin, suspended to the

arm of the balance. Now,
supposing that a cubic inch
of cfold weiffhed nineteen
ounces out of water, and lost
one ounce by being weighed
in water, the cubic inch of
water it displaces must weigh
that one ounce ; consequently gold would be nineteen
times as heavy as water.

The specific gravity of a body lighter than water
cannot bo ascertained in the same manner. If a body
were absolutely light, it would float on the surface,
without displacing a drop of water ; but bodies have nil
aome weiglit, and will, therefore, displace some quantify
pf water. A body lighter than water will not sink tQ t>

317

level with the surface of the water, and therefore will
not displatfe so much water as is equal to its bulk, but a
quantity equal to its weight. A ship sinks to some
depth in water, and the heavier it is laden the deeper it
sinks, the quantity of water it displaces being always
equal to its weight. This quantity cannot, however*
alibrd a convenient test of its specific gravity, from the
difficulty of collecting tha whole quantity of water dis-
placed, and of measuring the exact bulk of the body
immersed.

In order practically to obtain tlie specific gravity of
a body vvliich is lighter than water, a heavy one, whose
apogific gravity is known, must be attached to it, and
they must be immersed together : the specific gravity
of the lighter body may then be easily calculated.

Bodies which have exactly the same specific gravity
as water, will remain at rest in whatever situation they
are placed in water. If a piece of wood, by' being
Impregnated with a little sand, be rendered precisely ot
the weight of an equal bulk of water, it will remain
stationary in whatever part of a vessel of water it ba
placed. If a few drops of water be poured into the
Vessel (so gently as not to increase their momentum by
giving them velocity,) they would mix with the water
^t the surface, and not sink lower.

The specific gravity of fluids is found by means of an
instrument called an hydrometer. It con-
sists of a thin glass ball, a, with a graduated
tube, B, and the specific gravity of the liquid
is estimated by the depth to which the
instrument sinks in it ; for the less the
specific gravity of the fluid, the further will
the instrument sink in it. — There is a
smaller ball, c, attached to the instrurhent
below, which contains a little mercury ; but
this is merely for the purpose of equiposing
the instrument, that it may remain upright in the liquid
under trial.

The weight of a substance, when not compared to
»hat of any other, is perfectly arbitrary ; and when vyateij'

3id

J8 adopted as a stantlard, we may denonniiato its wpijrht
Dy any numhor we pleuso ; but then the weight of all
bodies tried by this standard must bo signified by pro.
portional numbers. If we call the weight of water, for
example, 1, then that of gold would be 19 ; or, if we
Call the weight of water 1000, that of gold would be
19,000. In short, the' specific gravity indicates how
much niore or less a body weighs than an equal bulk
pf watec.

SPRINGS, FOUNTAINS, &.C.

The watev belpngip j to our globe exists in various
states^ It is the same water which successively forms
seas, rivers, springs, clouds, rain^ ai^d sometimes h^\\^
snow, and ice. When the' first rays of the sun warm
the surface of the earth, the heat, by separating the
particles of water, transforms them into vapour, which,
being lighter than 'the air, a^oe'ncls into the atn^osphere.
The atmosphere diminishing in density as it is more
di3tant from the earth, the vapour which the sun causey
to exhale, not only from seas, rivers, and lakes, but
likewise from the moisture on the land, rises till it
reaches a region of iair of. its own specific gravity, and
there it remains stationary. By the frequent accession
of fresh vapour, it gradually accunmlates, so as to form
those large bodies of vapour which we call clouds ; and
these at length becoming too heavy for \^ie air tc
suppoit, fall to the earth in the form of rain. If the
watery particles retained the state qf vapour, they
would descpini only till they reached a stratum of air
of their own specific gravity ; but during their fall,
several of the watery particles come within the sphere
of each other's attraction, and unite in the form of a,
drop of water. The vapour, thus transformed into a
shower, is heavier than any part of the atmosphere,
and consequently descends to the earth. Observe, that
if the waters were never drawn out of the earth,

3id

vegetation would be destroyed by the excess of moisturti ;
if, on the other hand, the plants were not nourished and
refreshed by occasional showers, the drought would be
equally fatal to them. Were the clouds constantly in a
state of vapour, they could never fall to the gropnd ; or
were the power of attraction more than sufficient to
convert the vapour into drops, it ^yould transform the
cloud into a mass of water, which, instead of nourishing,
would destroy the produce of the earth. We cannot
consider any part of Nature attentively without being
struck with admiration at the wisdom it displays; we
cannot contemplate these wonders without feeling our
hearts glow with admiration and grutiludo towards tl> ir
liounteous Author.

Water, then, ascends in the form of vapour, and
descends in that of rain, snow, or hail, v\l of whiph
ultimately become water. Some of this falls into the
various bodies of water on tlie surface of the globe, tlie
remainder upon the land. — Of the latter, part re-ascends
in the form of vapour, part is absorbed by the rq^yts of
vegetables, and part descends ir.to the bowels of the
earth, where it forms springs. The only difference
between rain and spring water consists in the foreign
particles which the letter^ meets with and dissolves in
its passage through the various soils it traverses. Spring
water being more pleasant to the taste, and more
transparent, is coinjipnly supposed to be more pure
th«|J^ r^ip water. Excepting distilled water, howevev,
rain water is really the most pure we can obtain; it
is this which renders it insipid, whilst the various salts
and different ingredients dissolved in. spring water, giyo
it a species of flavour, without in any degree affecting
its transparency ; and the filtration it undergoes through
gravel and sand in the bowels of the eartli cleanses it
from all foreign matter which it has not the power ftf
?lissolying.

When irain falls on the surface of .the earth, it con.
tii)ue§ mak|hg it? way downwards through the pore*
and crevices' in the ground. Several drops meet in
their subterraneous passage, unite, and form a little^

320

rivulet ; this, in its progress, moRts with other rivulets
of a similar description, and they pursuo their course
together in the interior of the earth, till they are stopped
by some sul>stuneo which thoy cannot penetrate ; for
though ,we haye said llvu v/nter under strong comprcs-
sioii ppnetrat(^a the pores of gold, when acted upon by
no other force than gravity, it cannot rnalce its way
even tlu'ough a stratum of clay. This species of earth,
though not remark ably dense, being of great tenacity,
will not admit the par-sage of water. Wlien, therefore,
it encounters any substance of this nature, its progrcs.j
ia stopped, and the pressure of the accumulating waters
form a bed, or reservoir.

The next figure represents a section of the interior of
a hill or mountain, a is a body of water such as has
been'described, which, when filled up as lii^h as b (by
the continual accession of waters it receives from tlie
ducts or rivulets a, a, a, a,) finds a passage out of tho

r.^-,.:

i\^

^ ^W> \ ,*! '^^'^ - ^— ^ ^

ll^Ol^.

(VK*^.

^wMkw^^^il^

cavity; and, impelled by gravity, runs on, till it mak^s
its way out of the ground at the side of the hill, and
there forms e. spring, c. The spring, during its passage
from B to c, rises occasionally upon the same principle
that water rises in the spout of a tea-pot, but it cannot
mount above the level of the reservoir, whence it
i-^sues ; it must therefore find a passage to some part of
the surface of the earth that is lower or nearer the
centre than the reservoir. — Water may thus be con-
veyed to every part of a town, and even to the upper
stories of the houses, provided that it be originally
brought from a height superior to any to which it is
conveyed. * .

321

Reservoirs of water aro Reldoin fornifHl near
«ummit of a hill, for in such elevuled situations there
can scarcely bo a sufficionl ninnl^er of rills to supply
otie ; and without a resorvoir there can bo no spring.
In such situations, therefore, it is necosr-.i-y to dig deep
wells, in order to meet with a spring ; and then it can
rise in the well only as high as the reservoir whence it
flows.

When reservoirs of water are formed in very elevated
situations, the springs which feed them descend from
higher hills in the vicinity. There is a lake on the very
summit of Mount Cenis which is supplied by the spring
of the higher Alps surrounding it.

A syphon is an instrument commonly used to draw
off liquids from large casks or other vessels which
cannot be easily moved. It consists simply of a bended
tube. If its two legs are of equal length, and filled
with liquid, if held perfectly level though turned down-
wards, the liquid will not flow out, but remain sus-
pended in the tube ; for there is no pressure of the
atmosphere above the liquid, while there is a pressure
from below upon the open ends of the tube ; and /P=\ .
so long as this pressure is equal on both ends, the
liquid cannot flow out ; but if the smallest in-
clination be given to the syphon, so as to destroy
the equilibrium of the water, it will immediately
flow from the lower leg. When syphons are used
to draw oft' liquids, the legs are made of unequal
lengths, in order to render the pressure of the liqAid
unequal ; the shorter leg is immersed in the casks, and
the liquid flows out through the longer. To accomplish
this, it is however necessary to make the liquor rise in
the shorter leg, and pass over the bended part of the
tube, which is higher than the level of the liquor in the
cask. There are two modes of doing this : one is, after
imnjersing the shorter leg in the liquor to be drawn off,
to suck out the air of the tube from the orifice of thq
longer leg ; then the liquor in the cask, which is ex-
posed to the pressure of the atmosphere, will be forced
by it into the tube which is relieved from pressure. Aa

322

long as the tube continues full, no air can gain admit,
t^nce ; the liquor will therefore flow on till the cask ia
emptied. The other mode is to fill the syphon with the
liquor, then stopping the two ends with the fingers,
immerse the shorter leg in the vessel, and the same
effect will follow. In either case, the water in tho
highest part of the syphon must npt be more than aboui
32 feet above the reservoir ; for the pressure of the at
mosphere will not support a greater height of water.

The phenomena of springs which flow occasionally
apd oocasiofially cease, may often be explained by the
principle of the syphon. The reservoir of water which
. supplies a spring may be considered as the vessel of
liquor to be drawn off, and the duct tlie syphon, having
Its shorter leg opening in the reservoir, and its longer at
^he s'urface of the earth whence the spring flows ; but
as the water cannot be made to rise in the syphon by
-eithef of the artificial modes which we have mentioned,
the spring will not begin to flow till the water in the
reservoir has risen above the level of the highest part
of the syphon : it will then commence flowing upon tlie
principle of the equilibrium of fluids ; but it will con-
tinue upon the principle of the syphon ; for, instead of
ceasing as soon as the equilibrium is restored, it will
eonthiue flowing as long as the opening of the duct is
in contact with the water in the reservoir. Springs
^yhjch do not constantly flow are called intermitting,
and are oppasioned by the reservoir being imperfectly
supplied.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR. .

We shall now examine the second class of fluids,
distinguished by the name of aeiiform, or elastic fluids,
the principal of which is the air we breathe, which sur-
rounds the earth, and is called the atmosphere. Thero
f§ a great ytiriety of elastip fluids, but they difler only in
their chemical, not in their mechanical properties ; and

323

it is tlio latter wo are to examine. There is no attrac-
tion of cohesion between tlio particles of elastic fluids,
so that the expansive power of iieat has no adversary to
contend with but gravity ; any increase of temperature,
therefore, expands elastic fluids prodigiously, and a
diminution proportionally condenses them. The most
essential point in which air didbrs from other fluids is
by its spring or elasticity : that is to say, its power of
increasing or diminishing in bulk, according as it is less
or more compressed — a power of which liquids are al-
most wholly deprived.

The atmosphere is thought to extend to about the dis-
tance of 45 miles from the earth ; and its gravity is
such, that a man of middling stature is computed to
sustain the weight of about 14 tons. Such a weight
would brush him to atoms, were it not that air is also
contained within our bodies, the spring or elasticity of
which counterbalances the weight of the external air,
and renders us insensible of its pressure. Besides this,
the equality of pressure on every part of the body en-
ables us more easily to support it ; when thus diflused,
we can bear even a much greater weight, without any
considerable inconvenience. In bathing we support the
weight and pressure of the water, in acidition to that of
the atmosphere ; but this pressure being equally distri-
buted over the body, we are scarcely sensible of it :
whilst if the shoulders^ the head, or any particular part
of the frame were loaded with the additional weight of
a hundred pounds, we should feel severfe fatigue. On
the other hand, if the air within a man met With no ex-
ternal pressure to restrain its elasticity, it would distend
his body, and at length bursting the parts which confine
it, put a period to his existence. The weight of the at-
mosphere, therefore, so far from being an evil, is essen-
tial to our existence. When a pcison is cupped, the
Swelling of the part under the cup is produced by taking
away the pressure of the otmosphere j in corisequence
of which the internal air distends the part.

A column of air reaching to the top of the atmos-
phere, and whose base is a square inch, weighs 15 lbs.

324

when tho air la heaviest. The rule tlmt fluids press
equally in all directions applies to elastic fluid.s aa well
as to liquids : therefore, every square incli of our bodies
sustains u pressure of 15 lbs. and the weight of the
whole atmosphere may be computed by calculating the
number of square inches on the surface of the earth,
and multiply them by 15.

The weight of a sma:ll quantity of air may be asccr.
taincd by exhausting the air from a bottle, and weighing
the bottle thus empited. Suppose that a bottle six cubic
inches in dimension, weighs two ounces; if the air be
then introduced, and tho bottle re-weighed, it will be
found heavier by nearly two grains, showing that six
Cubic inches of air (at ;i moderate temperature) weigh
about two grains. In estimating the weight of air, the
temperature must always be considered, because heat,
by rarefying air, renders it lighter. The same principle
indeed applies, almost without exception, to all bodies.
In order to ascertain the specific gravity of air, the
same bottle may be filled with water, and the weight of
six cubic inches of water will be nearly 16G7 grains : so
that the weight of water to that of air, is about 833 to 1.
A barometer is an instrument which indicates the
state of the weather, by showing the weight of the at-
mosphere. It is extremely simple in its con-
struction, and consists of a glass tube, a b,
about three feet in length, and open only at
one end. This tube must first be filled with
mercury, then stopping the open end with tho
finger, it is immersed in a cup, c, which con-
tains a little mercury. Part of the mercury
which was in the tube now falls down into the
cup, leaving a vacant space in the upper part
of the tube, to which the air cannot gain
access. This space is therefore a perfect
vacuum ; and consequently the mercury in the tube is
relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere, whilst
that in the cup remains exposed to it; therefore the
pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup supports
that in the tube, and prevents it from falling ; thus the

825

equilibrium of tho mercury is dostroyed only to progerve
the general equilibriuni ol'lUiids. Tiiis rfiniple apparatus
is ail that is cssonliul to a barometer. The tube anrftho
cup or vase are fixed on a board, lor the convenience of
8uspendij)g it ; tiie board is grachiated for tlie purpose of
ascertainiiij^ the height at whicli llie mercury stands in
the tube ; and the small moveable metal plate serves to
show that height with great accuracy. Tho weight of
the atmosphere sustains the mercury at tho height of, on
an average, about 29i inches ; but the exact height de-
pends upon tho weight of the atmosphere, which varies
much according to the state of the v/eathor. Tho greatef
the pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup, the
higher it will ascend in tho tube. The air, therefore,
generally is hea\ lest in dry weather^ for then the mer-
cury rises in the tube, and consequently that in the cuj^
sustains the greatest pressure ; and thus we estimate the
dryness and fairness of tiie weather by the height of the
mercury. We are apt to think the air feels heavy in
bad weather, because it is less salubrious when impreg-
nated with damp. The lungs, under these circumstan-
ces, do not play so freely, nor does the blood circulate
so well : thus obstructions are frequently occasioned in
the smaller vessels, from which arise colds, asthmas,
agues, fevers, &c.

As the atmosphere diminishes in density in the upper
regions, the air nmst be more rare upon a hill than
in a plain ; and this diiference may be ascertained by the
barometer. This instrument is so exact in its indications,
that it is used for the purpose of measuring the height of
mountains, and of estimating the elevation of balloons.
Considerable inconvenience is often experienced from
the thinness of the air in such elevated situations. It
is sometimes oppressive, from being insufficient for res-
piration ; and the expansion which takes place in the
more dense air contained within the body is often
painful : it occasions distension, and sometimes causes
the bursting of the smaller blood-vessels ii' the nose and
ears. Besides, in such situations, the uody is more

;->,

320

exposed both to heat and cold ; for though the atmoe.
phere is itself transparent^ its lowfer regions abound with
va^^rs and exhalations from the earth, which float in
it, and act in some degree as a covering, which pre-
serves us equally from the intensity of the sun's rays
and from the severity of the cold.

Now, since the weight of the atmosphere supports
mercury in the tube of a barometer, it will support a
column of any other fluid in the same manner ; but as
mercury is the heaviest of all fluids, it will support a
higher column of any other fluid ; for two fluids are in
equilibrium, when their heights vary inversely as their
densities : as, for instance, if a cubic foot of one fluid
weighs twice as much as a cubic foot of the other, a
column of the first ten feet in height will weigh as much
as a, column of the other twenty feet in height. — Thus
the pressure of the atmosphere, which will sustain a
column of mercury of thirty inches, is equal to sustain-
ing a column of water about thirty-four feet in height.'
The weight of the atmosphere is therefore as great as
that of a body of itater siirrdunding the globe of tlie
depth of thirty-four feet ; for a column of air of the
height of the atmosphere is equal to a column of water of
thirty-four feet, or one of mercury of tt^enty-nine inches,'
each having the same base.

The comnion pump is cori^tfubted on this principle.
By the act of pumping, the pressure of the atmosphere
is taken off" one part of the surface of the water ; this
part therefore rises, being forced up by the pressure
communiOated to it by that paft of the water on the sur-
face of which the weight of the atmosphere continues to
act. The body of a pump consists of a large tube or
pipe, whoso lower end is immersed in the water which
it is designed, to raise. A kind of stopper, called a
piston, is fitted to this tube, and is made to slide up and
down it, by means of a metallic rod fastened to the
crntre of the piston.

The various parts of a pump are here delineated.
A B is the pipe or body of the pump ; f the piston ; v

997

of Ulf!

of tlu^'

j)iisse(i

Thus

i •aive, or little door In the piston,
\«wich, opening upwards, admits the
water to'irise through it, but prevents
tt& returning ; and y a similar valve in
the body of the pamp.> When the
pump is in a state of inaction, the two
valves* are closed by theirown weight ;
but when, by drawing down the handle
of the pumpj the piston r ascends, it
raises a column of air which rested
upon it, and produces a vacuum be-
tween the pistflri and the lower valve,
y>; the air beiieath. this valve, which
is immediately over the sui'face of tire
water consequeiitly expandsj and forces its way throuf^)
it'; the water then, relieved from the pressure of the
ftir,' /ascends intO" the pump. A few strokes
handi« totally; exclude the air from the body
pinnp, and fill it with water, whitehj h^viug
through both the valves, flows out at the s{)out.-
the air and the Water successively ris,e in the pump on
the same principle that thcMncrcury rises in the baro-
meter» ' Water is said to he. drawn up into a pump by
suction ;• but the power of tlie suction is no other than
that of producing a< vacuum over one part of the liquid,
into which vacuum the liquid- is fcn-ccd by .the pressure
of the . atmosphere- on anotljef part; The action of'
sucking 1 tkiroiigh . a straw consists' in drawing in and
confining the breath, so as to produce a vacuuih, or at
least to lessen m^iterially the quantity of »ii% iw the
mouth; in consequence of which,- the air within the
straw rushes unto tij© mouth, and is followed by the
liquid, into which the lower end of the straw is ini-
mersed. The principle is the same ; and the only oif-
ference consists in the mode of producing a vacuunj.
In suction, the muscular powers answer the purpose of
the piston and valves. The distance from tht) Icvrl of
tlie water in the well to the valve in the piston ought
not to exceed thirty-two feet, otherwise the water
would not be sure to rise through that valve, for the

32S

weight of the air is sometimes not sufficient to raise a
column of mercury more than twenty-eight inches, or
a column of water much more than thirty-two feet;
but when once it her, passed that opening, it is no longer
the pressure of air on t!)e roservoii- which makes ii
ascend — it is raised by lifting it up, ris you would raise
it in a bucket, of which the piston formed tiie bottom.
This common pump is, therofbre, called the sucking and
lifting pump, as it is constructed on both these principles.
The forcing pump consists of a forcing power added
to the sucking part of the pvmip. This additional
power is exactly on the principle of the syringe j by
raising the piston, the water is drawn up into the pump;
and by making it descend, it is forced out. The large

pipo, A P, represents the sucking
p'lrt of the pump, whicb differs
from the lifting pump only in its
piston, r, being unfurnished with a
valve, in consecjuence of whicli the
water cxnnot rise above it. "W hen
there lore, tlie piston descends, it
shuts ' the vidvo y, and forces
the water (which has no other
vent) into the pipe, d ; this is
likewise furnished with a valve,
V, which, opening outwards, ad-
mits the water, but prevents its
return. Tiie water is thus first
raised in the pump, and then
forced into the pipe, by the alternate ascending and de-
scending motion of the piston, after a few strokes of
thq handle to fill the pipe, from whence the water issues
at the spout.

ON OPTICS.

Optics is one of tho most interesting branches of
Natural Philosophy ; it is the science of vision, and
toachcs us how we see objects. In this science, bodies

329

ffre' divided into him/nmis, opaque, and transparent.
A. luminous body is oiio that sliines by its own light — as
;he sun, the firo, a candle, &c. But all bodies that
shine are not luminous ; polished metal, for instance,
when it shines with so much brilliancy, is not a lumi-
nous body, for it would bo dnrk if it did not receive
light from a luminous body ; it belongs, therefore, to
the class of opaque, or dark bodies, which comprehend
all such as are neither luminous nor will admit the light
to pass through them ; and transparent bodies are those
which aHmit the light to paf^s through them, such as
glass 'and water. Transparent or pellucid bodies are
frequently crdled mediums ; and the rays of light which
pnss through them are sr'.id to bo transmitted by them.
Liglit, when emitted from the sun, or any other lumi-
nous body, is proje 'ti ' forwards, in straight lines, in
every possible directi that the 'uminousd^ody is,-

not only the general c :; whence all the rays proceed,
but every point of it may bo considered as a centre
which radiates light in every direction. A ray of light
is a single liiie of light pro-
jected from a luminous body ; --
and a pencil of rays is a collec; ^
tion of rays proceeding from
any one point of a luminous body.

Philosophers are not agreed as to the nature of light.
Some maintain the opinion that it is a body consisting
of detached particles, which are emitted by luminous
bodies, in which case the particles of light must be in-
conceivably minute ; since, even when they cross each
other in every direction, they do not interfere with
each other. Others suppose it to be produced like
sound, by the undulations of a subtle fluid diffused
throughout all known space. In some respects, light is
obedient to the laws which govern bodies ; in others, it
appears to be independent of them. Thus, though its
course corresponds v/ith the laws of motion, it does not
seem to be influenced by those of gravity ; for it has
never been discovered to have weight, though a variety
of experiments have been made with a view of ascer^

28*

880

(titling thftt potnt. We are, bowerer, m ignomnt of
the intimate nature of light, that we shall oftnfine our
attention to such of its properties as are well ascer.
tained.

To return then to the examination of the effects of
the radiation of light from a luminous body ; — since the
rays are projected in straight linos, when they meet with
an opaque. body througii which they arc unable to pass,
they are stopped short in their course ; for they cannot
move in a curve line round the body. The interryption
of the rays of light by the opaque body produces there-
fore darkness on the opp(isite side of it; and if this
darkness fall upon a wall, a siiect of paper, or any
object whatever, it forms a shadow ; for shadow is
nothing more than darkness produced by the interven-
tioniof an opaque body, which prevents the rays of ligiit
from reaching an object behind it.

B If the luminous body, a, be

larger than the opaque body, b,
the shadow will gradually dimi-
nish in size till it terminates in a
point; if smaller, the shadow will continually increase
ill size, as it is more distant from tlio object which pro.

jects it. The sha-
dow of a figure, a,
varies in size, ac-
cording to the dis-
tance of the several

iip;fcifi-P»-— 1 ^i siirlaces,^ b, c, d, e, on

■ o c » ^^ which It IS described.

I'iow what becomes of the rays of liglit which opaque

bodies arrest in their course, and the interruption of

which is the occiisioii of slindows ? This leads to a very

iniportiint property of light, i?<n//c.c^/o/i.

When rays of light encounter an opacjuo body, which
they cannot traverse, part of them are ahsorb> d by it,
and part are reflected, and rebound as an elastic bull
whicli is struck againnt a wall. Liiiht, in its roflectioii,
is governed by the same laws as solid pM'Cctly elastic
bodies. If a ray of light fall perpendicularly on an

381

direction.

opaque body, it is nflreted back in the samo line towarii
tlie point whence it proceeded ; if it fall obliquely, it is
reflected obliquely, but in the opposite direction, the
angle of incidence bcinpf equal to the angle of reflection.
If the shutters be closed, and a ray of the sun's liyht
admitted tlirough a very small aperture, and reflected by
a mirror, on v/hich the ray falls perpcndlcu/ar/y, but
one ray is seen, for the ray of incidence and that of
reflection are both in the same line, though in opposite
directions, and thus are confounded together. The ray,
there fore, which appears single, is in fact double, benjg
composed of the incident ray proceeding to the mirror,
and the reflected ray returning from the mirror. These
may be separated by holding the mirror, m,
in sucn a manner that the incident ray,
A B, shall. fall obliquely upon it ; then the
reflected ray, b c, will go oflf in another
If a line be drawn from the point of inci-
dence, B, perpendicularly to the mirror, it will divide
the angle of incidence from the angle of reflection, and
these angles will be equal.

It is by reflected rays only that we see opa' ue objects.
Luminous bodies send rays of light immediately to out
eyes ; but the rays which they send to other bodies aijd
invisible to us, and are seen only when reflected or
transmitted by those bodies to our eyes. ' '

Let us now examine by what means the rays of light
produce vision. They enter at the pupil of the eye. and
proceeding to the retina, an expansion of the optic nerve,
which is situated at the back of the eye-ball, iWre describe
the figure, colour, and (with the exception of size) form a
complete representation of the object from which they
proceed. If the shutters be closed, and a ray of light
admitted through a small aperture, a picture may bo
seen on the opposite wall similar to that which is deli,
neated on the retina of the eye ; it exhibits a picture in
miniature of the garden, and the landscape would bo
perfect were it not reversed. This picture is producer'
by the rays of light reflected from the various objects
in the garden, and which are admitted through the hole

933

in the window shutter. It is called a camera obscura,
[dark chamber,) from the necessity of darkening the
X)m in order to exiiibit it.
The Irays from the glittering weathercock at the top

•^;sC^

of the (building a, represent it at.a ; for the weathercock
being much higher than the aporture in the shutter, only
a few of the rays, which are reflected by it in an
obliquely descending direction can find entrance there.
The rays of light moving always in straight lines, those
which enter the room in a descending direction will
continue their course, in the siimo direqtion, and will
consequently, fall upon the lower part of the wall op-
posite the aperture, and represent the weathercock
reversed in that spot, instead of erect in the upper-
most part ol the landscape ; and the rays of light from
the steps^ h, of the building, in entering the aperture,
ascend, and describe them in the highest instead of the
lowe&r part of the landscape ; whilst the rays proceeding
from the JfRrt which is to the left, describe it on the
wall to the rights Those which are reflected by the
walnut-tree, c d, to the right, delineate its figure in the
picture to the left, c d. Thus tlie rays, coming in
different directions, and proceeding always in straight
lines, cross each other at tlieir entrance thiough the
apertures ; those from above proceed below, those from
the right go to the left, those from the left towards the
right ; thus every object is represented in the picture as
occupying a situation the very reverse of that which it
does in nature, excepting the flower-pot, e f, which,
though its position is reversed^ does not change its

a33

s. nation in the landticape, foe being immediately in front
ot the aperture, its rays fall perpiMidicularly upon it,
and consequently proceed perpondiculurly to the wall,
where they delineate the object. It u thus that the
picture of objrcts i.? paintcl on fh'"> rofhjii of the oyr>.
Tha pupil of the eyo, through which the rays of light
enter, represents Iho aporiura in the window-siuitter ;
and the image delineated on tho retina is exactly similar
to tiie picture on the wall.

The diifcrent appiront dimensions of objects at dif-
ferent diotanccs proceed from our seting, not the objects
themselves, but merely their image on the retina. Here
is represented a row of trees, as viewed in tho camera

obscura ; the direction of the rays from tho objects to
the image is expressed by lines. Observe that the ray
which comes from the top of the nearest tree, and tliat
which comes from the foot of the same tree, tneet at
the aperture, farming an angle of about twenty-five
degrees ; this is called tho angle of vision, being
that under which we see tho tree. These rays
cross each other at the aperture, and represent the tree
inverted in the camera obscura. • The dimensions of the
image are considerably smaller than those of the object,
but the proportions are perfectly preserved; The upper
and lower ray from the most distant tree, form an angle
of not more than t\^ielve or fifteen degrees, and an image
of proportional dimensions. Thus two objects of tho
same size, as the two trees of the avenue, fonn figures
of different sizes in the camera ob^icura, according to
their distance, or, in other words, according to the angle
of vision under wliich they are seen.

In sculpture we copy Nature as she really exists ; in
painting we represent her as she appears to us — that is
to say, we do not copy the objects, but the image they
form on the retina of the eye,

331

We cannot ju<lgo of the velocity of a body in inoiion
unless we know its distance ; for, supposing two men to
feet off* at the sume moment from a and b, to walk each
to the end of their respeclive lines c and d, if they per.
form their walk in the sirhe space of time, they must
I ,. l'-'-. ■■. -have proceeded at a very different

rate 5 and yet to an eye situated at
E, they will appear to have moved
with equal velocity, because they
will, bq^h have gone* through aift
equal number of degrees, though
over a very unequal length of
ground. — Sight cannot be implicitly
J relied on; it deceives: \ia both in
^^ " ^ rogaiti to the size and ^th«« distance

i of objects— -indeed our* senses would

be very liable to lead u? i^iQeitar, if experience did
not set us right. Nothing liiore convincingly shows!
how requisite experience is to correct the errors of sights
than the case of a vOun? man who was blind from his
infancy, and who recovered his sight at the age of fbrfr-
t(^en, by the operation of couching. At firat he had no
iilea either of the size or distance of objjectSjlbut.ima-'
gined that everything he saw, touched his eyes'; trndit
ivas not till after having repeatedly felt them, and
walked from one object to another, that he acquired an
i'lea of their respective dimensipns> theirs relative • situa^
lions, anf^. their distances. ■ '•'

' Since an image is formed on the retina of each of our
eyes, it would seem that we ought to see objects double.
In fact, however, we do not; and' perhaps the best so-
lution which has been offered of the difficulty is. this^
that the action of the rays on the optip nerve of eAch
eye is so perfectly sinji)ar,.th*at they produce but a single
sensation ; the mind, therefore, receives the same idea
from the retina of Both eyes, and conceives the object
to be single. Besides, each ey^ refers the.' bbjedt ta
exactly the same place, from which we. unconsciously
conclude that there can be but oHe object. Persons
^fliicted with a disease in one eye, which provent? thi

335

rays of light from affecting it in the same maimer as ih^
other, frequently see double.

The image of an object in a 1 joking-glass is pot in-
verted, because the rays do not enter the mirrc Dy p
small aperture, and cross each other, as they do ^t thf»
orifioe of a camera obscura, or the pupil of the eye.

When a man views himself in a mirror, the ray*
from his eyes fall perpendicularly upon it, and are re
fleeted in the same line ; they proceed therefore, as i»
they had come from a point beliind the glass, an*
the same effect is produced as if they proceeded fror»
an image of the oDJcct described behind the glass, an^
situated there in tiie same manner as the object before
it. This is not the cJf^ only with respect to rays
falling perpendicularly on the glass, but with all others.
--Thus, a ray proc*^ediiig from the point c to D is
reflected to a, and arrives
there in the same manner as
if it had proceeded from ir,
a point behind the glass, ai
the same distance from it as
c is in front of it.

A man cannot see himself in

mirror if

he stand tc

the right or to the left of it, because the incident rays
falling obliquely on the mirror will be reflected obliquely
in the opposite direction, the angles of incidence antf
reflection being equal.

There are three kinds of mirrors used in optics ; the
plane or flat, which are the common mirrors, convex?
mirrors, and concave mirrors. The reflection of the
two latter is very different from that of the former.

The plane mirroij which, as we have seen, does no»
alter the direction of the reflected rays, forms an imag^
behind the glass exactly similar to the object before it ;
for it forms an image of each point of the object at
the same distance behind the mirror, that the point
is before it ; and these images of the different points
together make up one image of the whole object. A
convex mirror has the property of making the reflected
rays diverge, by which means it diminishes the image ;
and a concave mirror makes the rays coDverge, anc^

396

Vinder certain circumstances, magnifies the image. Let
us begin by examining the reflection of a concave mirror,
when this is formed by a portion of tiie exicrio,' surface
of a sphere. If several pitrullL'l rays full upon it, that
ray only which, if prolonged, would pa.ss through the
centre, or axis of the mirror, is perpendicular to it. In
order to avoid confusion, we have drawn only three
^)arallol lines, ab, cd, ef, to represent rays failiiig on

the convex mirror, mn ;
the middle ray, you will
observe, is perpendicu-
lar to the mirror, the
others fall on it ohli<pi(>.
ly. — The thi-co rays
being parallel would all
be perpendicular to a
flat mirror ; but no ray
can fall perpendicularly
on a spherical mirror,
which is not directed towards the centre of t'le sphere, just
eis a weight falls perpendicularly to the earth when gravity
attracts it towards the centre. In order, therefore, that
rays may fall perpendicularly to the mirror at b and f,
tlie rays must be in the direction of the dotted lines
which meet at the centre, c, of the sphere, of which the
mirror forms a portion.

Now let us observe in what direction the three rays
AB, CD, EF, will be reflected. The middle ray falling
perpendicularly on the mirror will be reflected in the
same line ; the two others falling obliquely, will be re-
flected obliquely to g and n, for the dotted lines are perpen-
diculars, which divide their angles of incidence and re-
flection, or they will proceed as ifthey came from the point
L ; and since we see objeets in tlie direction of the reflect-
ed ray, wo shall see an image, answering to that which
would be produced by a body jilaced at l, which is the
point at which the reflected rays, if continued through
the mirror, would unite and form an imago. This point
is equally distant from the surface and centre of the
sphere, and is called the imaginary f jcus of the mirror.
A, fbcus is a point at which rays unite : — the focus to

»37

wliich parulk'l rays converge is called the prinapal
focus. In the present case the focus is called an inta-
jinary focxia, because the rays only appear to unite there,
or rather proceed after reflection in the same dir^^ction as if
they came from behind iho mirror, from that point ; for they
do not pass through l!ie mirror, since ihoy are reflected
by it. •

A coacavo mirror ifs formed of a portion of the internal
iurfcico of a hoUow sphere, &c., and its peculiar property
!;■ to mniip the rays of liglu converge. If three parallel
rays, a ];, c i), r, f, f.ill oa the concavo
mirror, m n, the middle ruy will bo re-
flected ill the SUM;) li '', being in the
direciion of the axis of ho mirror, and
the two othtirs will be reii^'cted (jbliquoly
as they fall uljl:.iu<.'ly on the mirror.
The two doUod |).;rp.ndiculav.s divide their angles of
incidence and rcilecli ju ; and in ordtr that these angles
jnay be equal, tho two oblique rays must be reflected to
L, where they will uuile to the middle ray. Thus,
when any number of purallel rays iliil on a concave
mirror, thsy are all roll'.-vj^ed to u focus; fn* in propor-
tion as the rays ar^.- muro di.siaui: fs'om tne axis of the
mirror, they fall moi- ohliq.i' ly upon it, and are more
obliqu.'ly roOucU-d ; in cons^'qiu ijco of wliieh thry come
to a focus in the dirLClion of the axis of t!ie mirror ;
and this paint is not an imaginary focus, (as with the
convex mirror,) but tiio true fooiis at which the rays
unite. If lays fall convergent on a
concave mirror, they are sooner brought
to a focus, L, than parallel rays ; their
tbcus is therefore nearer to the inirror
M N. Divergent rays are brt)Ught to a
more distant focus than parallel rays,
where the focus is at h ; but the principal focus of
mirrors, either convex or concavo, is

equally distant from tlio ce)i*ro and

the surface of the sph' mo. If a "lo-
tallio concave rairro>' of polisljed tin
\'e exposed to the sun, the rays \\ill
i» collected into a very brilliant locus; and a piecj

:);)S

fif paper held in this focius \v ill take lire ; for rays of
ight cannot bo concent ratfil without accumulating a
jproportional quantity of heat ; honco concave mirrors
; iiaye obtained thu name of burn.

ing mirrors. If a burning taper
bo phicrd in the focus, the ray
which fulls in the direction of
llie axis of tlie mirror will bo
roneet<'d back in the same line ;
but two ollxir rays, drawn from
the fiit'us, and falling on the mirrur
at B and f, will be reflpctcd to a and e. — Therefore the
rays which proceed from a li.^lu plac(-d in the focus of
a concave mirror fall divergent upon it, and are reflected
parallel ; it is e:;aetly the reverse of the former figure,
in which the rays fell parallel on the mirror, and were
reflected to a focun. In other words, when the incident
rays are parallel', the rellected rays converge to a
focus ; when the incident mys proceed from the focus,
they are reflected parallel ; this is a very important law
of optics.

ON REFRACTION AND COLOURS;.

Refraction is the ellect which transparent mediums
produce on light in its passage through them. Opaque
bodies reflect the rays, and transparent bodies transmit
them ; but it is found that if a ray, in passing from one
medium into another of dilferont density, fall obliquely,
it is turned out of its course. The power which causes
the deviation of the ray is not fully understood ; but
the appearances are the same as if the ray (supposing it
to be a succession of moving particles, which is for this
purpose the most convenient way of considering it)
were attracted by the denser medium more strongly than
by the rarer. Let us suppose the two mediums to be
air and water : when a ray of light passes from aif into
water, it appears to be more strongly attracted by the
latter. If then a ray, ab, fall perpendicularly on water,

331)

z^:j,:.r,y^iM.

jt p

■"^-'

.-'.^ ,t».,'i,r^Jfci

the attraction of wjitcr ncls in the sainn tlircction ii?
the course of the ray; it will not tlicreforo cause a
iloviation, and the r^iv will prnoiiud slcaifilit on to e:
but if it fall obliquely as tlu; ray c b,
the water will attract it out of its
course. Let us suppo.so the ri\y to
have reached the surface of u denser
medium, a>id that it is th(ii*e aflcutcd
by its attraction. If not couutcrack d
by some other power, this attiaclioii
would draw it por{)i'Mdicular]y to the
water at b, towards e ; hut it is also inij)elled hy its pro-
jectile force, which the attraction of the denser medium
cannot overcome ; the ray, thoref^jrc?, acted on hy both
these powers, moves in a direeiion between ihem, and
instead of pursuing its oi'iginul course to u, or being im-
plicitly guided by the water to e, proceeds towards F,
so that the rays appear bent or broken.

If 'a shilling be placed at the
bottom of an empty teacup, fuid
the teacup at such a distance
from the eye that the rim shall
hide the shilling, it will become
yisible by filling the cup with
water. In the first instance, the
rays reflected by the shilling are
directed higher than the eye, but
when the cup is filled with water, they are refracted by
its attraction, and bent downwards at quitting it, so as
to enter the eye. When the shilling becomes visible by
the refraction of the ray, you do not see it iu the situa-
tion which it really occupies, but an image of it higher
in the cup; for as objects always appear to be situatd
in the direction of the rays which enter the eye, tiie
shilling will be seen in tlie direction of the refracted
ray at b. The manner in which an oar appears bent
in water is a similar cficct of refraction. When we
see the bottom of a clear stream, the rays which it re-
fleets, being refracted in their passage fiom tiie water
into the air, will make tlie bottom appear more elevated
tUan it really is, and the water will consequently appear

■ ;i«rfTOii*JW»5jaw

340

inore shallow. Accidents have frequently been ocoa»
BJoned by this circumstance ; and boys who are in the
habit of bathing should be cautioned not to trust to ^bo
fipparent shallowness of water, as it will always prove
(ieeper than it appears.

The refraction of light prevc-nts our seeing the hea,
venly bodies in their real situation. The light they
send to us being refracted "in passing into the atmos-
pheie, we see the sun and stars in the direction of the
refraeti^d rn}'^. If tlie sun were innnodiutcly over our
heads, its rays falling perpendicularly on the atmos-
phere woulil no! h(! r(>(Vacted, and we should then see it
in its true situation. To the inhabiiiMits uf the torrid
zone, where the sun is sometimes vertical, its rays are
then not refracted. There is, however, another obstacle
to sed the lieavenly bodies in their true situation, winch
affects them in the torrid /one as well as elsewhere.
Light is about eight miiuites and a hnlf in its passage
from the sun to the earth ; therelbre, when the rays
yeach us, the sun has quitted the spot ho occupied on
their departure ; yet we sre him in the direction of
those rays, and consequently iii a situation Avhich he
had abandoned eight uiiuulia and a iudf beibre. lu
speaking of the .sun's motion, we uk a)i Ills iippareiU
motion, produotd by the diuiiuil rotuiiun of the earth,
fi)r tlL2 elFeet h;.ing the same, vs'lictiier it be our earth
or the hea\enly bodies which move, it is more easy to
represent things as they appear to be, than as they
really are. 'i'he retraclion of the sun's, rays -by tiie
atmosphere rendori; iho days longer, as it occasions, our
seeing an image of the sun, both beibre he rises. HJxd
after he sets; for btlow the horizon he still shines upon
the atmosphere, and his rays are thence refra.QtQd to, tlie
earth. So likewise we see an image of tho s.un before.
he rises, the rays that previously fajl upon th.^ iitcUxos-
phere being reflected to the earth..

If light radiating from a luminons body continue?- to
pass tiirough a mcdiuii) of the same dcu;sity its, direction,
remains unchang( d ; but if it jiiisses froni, one. iraedlum
Ip another of a dijercnt, its, d.ii:eQ.tip,tt lieQonxQ.!idm^5ettt,^
%n4 the ang^le, formM by lines^ ?Qy.i:ei?pr<.ti.t,»^ ^& M'mJi'

341

and latter direclioii« niukes what is culled the angle of
refraction.

When rays of light full perpendicularly on a surfiuco
they are not at all rcfructod — the fxooptions to this rule,
if any, a*'-^ -o rare that they nofdiiot i;e noticed. But
when they fall obliquely on the surface of the second
medium, if they pass from a less to a more dense me-
dium they are tui-r^ed Loimtrd-i, if fiom a more to. a less
dense nif diuiii llioy an^ turne<l from, a jtcrpendieular to
that surface, [f, howcn'er, they fall \'Hiy obliquely they
are rcHcclcd, uistciid of being refracferl. if the density
of the medium gradually increase they \\\\\ describe ^
curve ; as, for inslauco, when they p;is.s through the
atmosphere. Wiien tlie two oi)posite surl'ices of a mo-
dium are piirallel, tiio direction of the ray is changed,
but after pas!;ing the modiuin it becomes parallel to its
ibrmer path. Tims in ])assing throuyh a pane of glass;
the rays suller two rcfractir)ns, which being in contrary
directions, produce nearly the same cilcct as if no re-
Iraction had taken place.

A A represents a tliick pane of glass seen edgeways.
When the ray b approaches the glass

at c it is refracted by it ; and, instead
of continuing its course in the same
direction, at passes through tiie pane
ton; at that i)oint, returning into the
air, it is again re IVaeled by the ulass, ^
but in the contrary direction, uud in consequence pro-
ceeds to e. INow the lay li c and the ray d e being
parallel, the light docs noi appear to li.tve ;-;uiTered any
refraction; for if a ray of light passes fiom one medium
into another, and through that into the fiist again, tlie
two refractions being equal and in ojiposito directions,
no sensible elFeet is p.-oduced ; for the uiioction is the
same, and the little space by Avhioh the ray is thrown
to one side, is necess:aily less than t;;o t'.iickncss of th..-
medium, and the thickness of a pane of glass is too littly
to be woi'th consideriiig. But tins is tiie case only when
the two surfaces of t'.ie ri fr.ie»iug m: (uum are parallel
to each other: if they are not, tiie two nTiaciions may
be made in the same direction, and may cause the
^'ays to come to a focus r' ;i point beyond the medium,^

342

doublo concave,

Lenses are of various forms as here rej) resented
is called a plano-convex, from
having one side flat, arid the
other rounded ; b is a plano-
concave, having one side hol-
low ; c is a double-convex,
and has both sides rounded ; d is a
with both sides hollow; e is a meniscus (so called
from its moon shape,) and has one side convex, and
the other concave. The property of those which have
a convex surface is to collect rays of ll^dit to a focus ;
and those which have a concave surface to disperse
them.

The following diagram will give some idea of the
manner in which light is affected by being transmitted
through media of greater density and bounded by plane,
convex, or concave surfaces :

The following will show how parallel, 6cc., rays are
brought to a focus by convex, or made to diverge by
concave lenses :

'm-

It is evident that convergent rays become more con-
vergent with convex lenses, and divergent rays more
divergent with concave lenses.

We shall next explain the refractions of a triangular
piece of glass called a prism. The sides ai-e flat; it

'■*

:m3

cannot thorrforo bring tho rays to a fb-

fe - ^W7 *^"*'' "*^'' ^'*" '^^ rofVacticn be similar to
"~~~-^-^l^-^ that of a Hill pane of g^ass, because
it hits not two sidrs parallel. Tho rc-
fVactions of the light, on rntt ring and on quitting tho
pri«m, are both in tlio Siimc clircction.* On entering
the prism p, the ray i* refr.icted from b to c, and on
quitting it, from c to p. If the Avindow-^hutters be
closed, and a ray of lifjht, ndmittfd through 'a' small
aperture, fall upon a prism, it will ho refracted, and a
spectrum, a b, n-prosentiiig all the colon ri<! of the ra»n-

I how will bo fbfmed

I ^<^rm '^"' the opposite wall.
It IS nmjcult to con-
ceive how a piece of
white glass can pro-
duce such a variety of
brilliant colours; but the fact is, that the colours apfe
hot formed by the prism, hut existed in the ray' p#6vioi!l9
to its refraction ; for the white rays' of tlie sun are com--
posed of coloured rays, which when' blended together,
appear colourless or white.

Sir Isaac Newton, to w horn we are indebted for the
most important discoveries respeeting light and colours^
was the first who divided a ^vhite ray of light, and
found it to consist of an nsveiliblage of coloured rays,
which formed an image upon tlie wall, such as is ex-
hibited, in which are displayed the following series of
colours^-red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
yiolet. Now a prism separates these coloured rays by
refraction. It appears that the coloured rays havo
different degrees of refrangibility ; in passing »th rough
the prism, therefore, they take diflerent directions,
according to their susceptibility of refraction. Tho
yiolet rays deviate most from their original course ,
they appear at one end of the spectrum, a b. Con-
tiguous to the violet are the indigo rays, being those
which have somewhat less refrangibility ; then follow, in

* This will at once appear, as in the case of the lens, by drawing
|>erpendicuiar8 to the surface of tho prism where the Ay enters
•aa^itnit.

344

succession, the blue, green, yellow, orange, and lastly,
the red, which are the least reCrangible of the colo"red
rays. The union of these colours, in the proportions in
.which they appear in the spectrum, produces in us the
idea of whiteness. If a e ivd bo painied in compart-
ments vviiii thcso seven colours, ajid whirled rapidly on
a pin, it will appear white. But a more decisive proof
of the composition of a wliite ray is alTorded by re-
unitini^ these coloured rays, and forming with them a
ray of white light. This can be done by letting the
coloured rays, which have been separated by a prism,
fall upon a lens, which will make them 'converge to a
focus ; and wh^n thus re-united, they will appear white,
as they did beibre refraction. The prism, r, separates
a ray of white light

into , seven coloured fA *

rays ;' and the lens, ll,
brings them to a focus
at F, where tlicy again
appear white. Thus by

means of a prism and a lens, we can take aTay of white
light to pieces, and put it togrtlKM* again.

This division of a ray of wldto light into different
colours, being caused by the uncqutd r^frangibility of .
the diffeiont coloured rays, must take |)lace, more or
less, whenever the ray suilcrs \\ fri'-ction. Thus the
rainbow, which exhiljits a. series of colours so analogous
to those of the spectrum, is formed by the refraction of
the sun's rays in their passage through a shower of rain,
every drop of which acts as a prism, in separating the
colouied rr>ys ns they paps through it.

A body appears to bo of the colojjr which it reflects;
as we see it only by reflected rnys, it enn appear but of
(he colour of those rays. Thus grass is green, because
it absorbs all except the green rays ; it is, therefore,
these only which the grass and trees reflect to our eyes,
and which make them appear green. The sky and
flowers, in the same manner, reflect the various colours
of which they appear to us: the rt se, the red j-ays ; the
violet, blue ; the jonquil, the yellow, &c. If any one
should imagine that these are the permanent colours of

colours ; an

845

the grass and flowers, he would !)'^ mistaken. When-
ever we see llic'so colours tiio oI)jocts must be
illuminated ; and light, from whatnyrr source it pro-
ceeds, is of the s lino naturt', compv-^od of the various
coloured rays, which paint tho i;!M,ss, tlie flowers, and
every coloured object in ntituro. Ol^jocts in tho dark
have no colour, or arr hlack, which is the same thing.
We can never see objects without light. Light is com-
posed of colours, tliereforo there cnn b3 no light witliout
colours ; and though every object, is hlack, or without
colour in the dark, it becomes coloured as soon as it
becomes visible.

Bodies which reflect all the rays are white ; those
which absorb them all are black. Between these ex-
tremes they appear lighter or darker, in proportion to
the quantity of rays they reflect or absorb. A rose is
of a pale red ; it approaches nearer to wb.ite than black,
it therefore reflects rays more abund uitly than it absorbs
them. Pale-coloured bodies reflect all the coloured
rays to a certain degree, which produces their paleness,
approaching to whiteness ; but one colour they reflect
more than the rest ; this predominates over tho white,
and determines the colour of tlie body. Since, then,
bodies of a pale colour in some degree reflect all the rays
of light, in passing through the various colours of the
spectrum, they will reflect them all with tolerable
brilliancy, but will appear most vivid in the ray of
their natural colour. The green leaves, on the contrary,
arts of a dark colour, bearing a stronger resemblance to
black than to white : they have, therefore, a greater
tendency to absorb than to reflect rays. Blue often ap-
pears green by candle-liglit, because this light is less
puie than that of the sun ; and when refracted by a prism,
the yellow rays predominate : and as the admixture of
blue and yellow forms green, the superabundance of
yellov gives to blue bodies a greonisli hue.

The sun appears red through a fog, owing to the
red rays having a greater momenta ai, which gives
them power to traverse so dense an atmosphere. For
the same reason the sun generally appears red at rising
and setting : as tho increased quaniity of atmosphere

346

Nvluch tho obliquo rays miiat tniTcriio, loaUcil with the
mists and vapours which aro usually formed at those
times, prevents a larger proportion of the other rays
from reaching u$3. The colour of the atmosphere,
coiTimonly called the sky, is blue ; — now since all the
rays traverse it in their passage to the earth, it would
be natural to infer that it should be white ; but we must
not forget that wo son none of the rays which pass
from tho sun to the earth, excepting those which meet
our eyes ; and this happens only if we look at the sun,
and thus intercept tho rays, in which case, we know it
appears white. The atmosphere is a transparent medium,
through which the sun's rays pass freely to the earth ;
but when reflected back into the atmosphei'e, their mo-
mentum is considerably diminished, and they have not
all pf them power to' traverse it a second time. Tho
momentum of tho blue rays is least ; these, there^
fore, are the most impeded in their return, and are
chiefly reflected by the atmosphere ; or it may be that,
without any question of momentum, the colour which
the particles of air must readily reflect is blue— just ua
grass reflects the green, or a rose the" rc^ rays. This
reflection is performed in every possible direction ; so
that wherever we look at the atmosplicre, some of these
rays fulls Upon out eyes ; hence we see thenfrof a blue
colour. If the atmosphere did not reflect any rays,
though the objects on the surface of the earth would be
illumined, the skies would appear perfectly blaqk. This
would not only be very melancholy, but it would be
pernicious to the sight, to be constantly viewing bright
objects against a black sky.

When bqdies' change their colour, as leaves which
wither in autumn, or a spot of ink which produces an
iron-mould on linen, it arises from some chemical
change, which takes place in the internal arrangemen»
of the parts, by wliich they lose their tendency to
reflect certain colours, and acquire the power of re-
fleeting others. A withered leaf thus no longer reflects
tho blue rays: it appears, therefore, yellow, or has a
slight tendency to reflect several rays which produce a
dingy brown colour. An ink-spot on linen at flrat

3i7

nf^Rorbs. all the rays ; but exposed lo the air, U under-
poes a chemical clinngf, and tli? spnt partially regains
Us. tendency to reflect the yellow rays ; and such is the
colour of the iron mould.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE.

■ The body of the eye is of a spliericul fjrui. It has
two membraneous covetings ; the extcnuil one, aaa, is

called I ho ;-ch rotica : this has a
projection in that pjirt of the oyo
whicli i*^ f xpijscd to viow, bh, which
is c:iI1;m1 tlie cornoa, because, when
dried, it has nearly tlio coiisi.stenco
of very due Iiorn, and is suiliciently
Iransp.uvnt f:)r tjjo light. to obtain
, fidp p.iKsafiJe through it. The sec-
ond memhrimn whicli lines the coriK a, and envelopes
the eye, is called the choroid, cc : tins has an op. ning

in front, just beneath the cornea,
which (brms the piipil, rf(Z, through
which the rays of light pass into .
tlie eye. The pupil is surrounded
by a coloured border of fibres, called
the iris, ec, which by its motion
always preserves the pupil of a circular form, whether it
be expanded in the dark, or contracted by a strong light.
The construction of tlie eye is so admirable, that it is
capable of adapting itsf If, more or less, to the circum-
stances in which it is placed.; In a faint light the pupil
dilates so as to receive an additional quantity of rays;
and in a stron>r Hglit it contracts, in order to prevent the
intensity of the light from injurinp; llie optic nerve.
The eyes sufler pain, when, from darkness, they
suddenly come into a strong light ; for the pupil being
dilated, a quantity of rays rush in before it has time to
contract. And when we go from a strong light into
obscurity we at first imagine ourselves in total durk-
nest-! ; for a sufficient number of rays cannot gain
adniittance into the contracted pupil to enable us to
distinguish objects; but in a few minr'^^r It dil'-.tes, and

«*

34 S

we clearly perceive what was before invisible. The cho-
roid, cc, is covered with a black substance, wliich serves
to absorb all the rays that arc irregularly reflected, and
to convert the body of the eye into a more perfect
camera obscuni. When the pupil is expanded to its
utmost extent, it is capable of admitting ton times the
quantity of lij^ht that it does when most contracted. In
cats, and animals, which are "said to see in the dark,
the power of dilatation and contraction of the pupil is still
greater; it is computed that their pupils may receive
one hundred times more light at one tune than at
another. — Witliin these coverinijs of the eye-ball are
contained three transparent substances, called humours.
The first occupies the space immediately behind the
cornea, and is called the aqueous humour,/)^, from its
liquidity and its resemblance to water. Beyond this is
situated the cr3.stalline humour, gg, which derives its
name from its clearness and transparency: it has the
form of a lens, and refracts the rays of light in a greater
degree of perfection than any that have been constructed
by art : it is attached by fii^ros, m m, to each side of the
choroid. The back part of the eye, between the
crystalline humour and the retina, is filled by the
vitreous humour, h h, which derives its name from a
resemblance it is supposed to bear to glass or vitrified
substances. The membraneous coverings of the eye
are intended chiefly for the preservation of the retina,
i i, which is by far the most important part of the eye, as
it is that which receives the impression of the objects of
sight. The retina consists of an expansion of the optic
nerve, of perfect whiteness ; it proceeds from the brain,
enters the eye at n on the side next the nose, and is
finally spread over the interior surface of the choroid.
The rays of light which enter the eye by the pupil, are
refracted by the several humours in their passage
throuffh them, and unite in a focus on the retina.

Rays proceed from bodies in all possible directions.
We must, therefore, consider every part of an object
which sends rays to our eyes as points from which the
rays diver^;;^, as from a centre. Divergent rays, on
entering the pupil, do not cross each other ; the pupil,
however, is sufficiently large to admit a small pencil of

349

them ; and these, if not refracted to a focus by thcf
humours, would continue diverging after they had
passed the pupil, would fall dispersed upon the retina,
and thus the iina^ro of a single point would be expanded
over a large portion of the retina. The divergent rays
from every other point of the objr'ct would be spread
over a similar extcait of space, and would interfere and
be confounded with the first, so that no distinct image
could bo formed on the retina. The refraction of the
several humours unites the whole of a pencil of rays,
proceeding from any one point of an object, in a corres-
ponding point on tiie retina, and the image is thus ren-
dered distinct and strong.

That imperfoclion of sight which arises from the eyes
being too prominent, is owing to the crystalline humour
being too convex ; in consequence of which it refracts
the rays too much, and collects them into a focus, before
they reach the retina. From thia focus, the rays pro-
ceed diverging, and consequently form a very confused
image on the retina. This is the defect of short-sighted
people ; and it is remedied by bringing the object nearer
to the eye ; for the nearer an object is brought to the
eye the more divergent the rays fall upon the crystalline
humour, and consequently do not so soon converge to a
focus. This focus, therefore, either falls upon the retina,
or at least approaches nearer to it, and the object is pro-
portionally distinct. The nearer, tiicreforc, an object is
brought to the crystalline or to a lens, the further the
image recedes behind it. But short-sighted persons
have another resource for objects which they cannot
permit to approach their eyes. This is to place a con-
cave lens before the eye, in order to increase the diver-
gence of the rays, the effect of a concave lens, being
exactly the rovers? of a convex one. By the assistance
of such glasses, therefore, the rays from a distant object
fall on the pupil as divergent as those from a less distant
object; and with short-sighted people, they throw the
image of a distant object b-ick as far as the retina.
Those who suffer from the crystalline humour being too
flat, apply an opposite remedy ; that is to say, a convex
lens to make up for the deficiency of convexity of the

30 *

800

CP7^^^^^^^ humour. Thus elderly people, the hHmouri
of whose eyes are decayed by age, are under the
necesaity of using convex spectacles ; and when deprived
of that resource, they liold the objects at a distance
from tlieir eyes, for the n.oro distant the object is from
the crystalline, the nearer the image will be to it. Tiiese
two opposite defocls are easily compreiiended ; but the
greatest diflficulty remains, namely, how any sight can be
perfect ; for, if the crystalline humour be of a proper
degree of convexity to bring the imago of distant objects
to a focus on the retina, it will not represent near
objects distinctly j and if, on tiie contrary, it be adapted
to give a clear image of near objects, it will produce a
very imperfect one of distant objects. Now. to obviate
this difficulty, and adapt the eye either to near ortodis-
tant'objects, power is given to us to increase or diminish
in some degree the convexity of the crystalline humourv
and also to project it towards, or draw it back from the
object, as circumstances require. In a young, well con^
structed eye, the fibres to \yhich the crystalline humour
is attacheij, have so perfect a command over it, that the
focus of the rays constantly falls on the I'etina, and an
image is formed equally distinct both of distant objects
and of those which are near. VYe cannot, however, see
an object distinctly if we bring it very near to the cye>
because the rays full on the crystalline humour too
divergent to be refracted to a focus on the retina. The
confusion, therefore, arising from viewing an object too
near the eye, is similar to that wiiich proceeds from a
flattened crystalline humour ; the rays reach the retina
before they are collected to a focus.

We conclude this subject with the following beautiful
observations on the eye, from the pen of Addison :

Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of
all our senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety
of ideas ; converses with its object at the greatest distance,
and continues the longest in action witnout being tired,
or satiated witn its proper enjoyments. The sense of
feeling can indeed give us a notion of extension, shape,
and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours.;
but at the same time it is very much straitened and

351

eonfinod in its operation, to the number, bulk, and dis-
tance of its partlculur objects. Our sight socms de.
signed to sUpply all those defects, and niay be considered
as a more delicate and ditfusivo kind of touch, that
spreads itself over an infinite multitude of holies, com-
prehends the largest figures, and brings wiiJdn our
reach some of the most remote purls of the univt rse.

It is this sense which furnishes the fmnginution witli
'ts ideas. We c;innot, indeed, have a single image in
the fancy that*dkid not make its first entrance through tho
sight ; but we nave the power of retaining, ulteriug, and
compounding those images, vviiich we have once re^
ceived, into all the varieties of ]iicture and vision th'it
are most agreeable to the imagiiKition ; for by this
faculty a man in a dungoon is capable of enUM-taiiiing
himself with scenes and landscapes more beautiful than
can be found in the whole coni[»ass of nature.

A beautiful prospect dt'liglits the soul, as much as a
demonstration; and a description in Homer hasduirmed
tnore readers than a chapter of Aristoile. Besides, tho
pleasures of the imagination have this advanlago, above
those of the understaiiding, that they are more obvious,
and more easy to bo acquired. It is but opening the
eye, and the scene enters. The colours paint themselves
on the fancy with very little attenlion of thought or
application of mind in the beholder. We are struck, wo
know not how, with tho symmetry of any thing we sec,
and immediately assent to tiio beauty of an object, with-
out inquiring into the particular causes and occasions of it.

A man of polite imagination is let into a great many
pleasures, that (ho vulgar are not capal>le of receiving.
He can converse with a pictm'c, and find an iigreeable
companion in a statue^ tie moc-ts with a secret refresh-
»nent in a description, and often feels a greater satisfac-
tion in tho prospect of lields and meadows'.'itl'Tu'i anolher
cloes in ihe possession. It gives him, indocf)., a kind of
property in every thing ho sees, and makc^:-} the inoi>t
uncultivated parts of nature administer to his pleasures;
so that he looks upon the world, as it were, in another,
light, and discovers in it a iiiiiltituuc of churins, that
conceal themselves from the; fut-raiiiy of maiikind.

353

SECTION V,

ON ELECTRICITY.

If he word Electricity donotca a peculiar state, 0/
Which all bodies are susncptiblo, and wiiiich is supposed
to depend upon the presence of a subsTaiice called the
electric fluid. Some of its phenomena were known to
the ancients, particularly tlioso attractions and repul-
sions which a piece of amber, after being rubbed,
exhibits, with regard to feathers, hairs, and otber light
bodfcs ; and it was from its power of drawing light
jJubstanccs to it when rubbed, that the Greeks gave
ambei' the name ehktr'on, which is the origin of the word
Electricity. Thales, who lived six centuries before the
Christian era, was the first who observed the electrioa}
properties of amber : and he was so struck with the ap-
pearances, that he supposed it to be animated. Mr.
Boyle is supposed to have been one of the first persons
who got a glimpse of the clc ctrical light, or who seems
to have noticed it, by rubbing a diamond in the dark.
Sir Isaac Newton was the first who observed that excited
glass attracted light bodies on the side opposite to that
6n which it is rubbed.

An electric is any substance, which being excite J
or rubbed by the hand, or by a woollen cloth, or other
means, has the power of attracting light bodies. If
A piece of sealing-wax be rubbed briskly with the sleeve
(Jf 'your cbat, a silk handkcrohipf, &c., for some time,
and then held near hair, feathers, bits of paper, or
dther light bodies, they will l>e attracted ; that is, they
Will jump up and some of them will adhere to the wax.
If a tube of glass, or small phial, bo rubbed in a similai
manner, it will answer much better. If this operation
be performed in the dark, something luminous will be
tfeen, which is called the electric mailer or fluid ; and
all bodies that we are actiuainted with have more or

353

less of it in tliem ; lliough it seems to Vm dormant till it
be put into ncti(jn by rubbiii'i;. The nir, and every
thing, is full of this lliii;l, which iippjuvs in the -ihapo
of sparks ; tlio rubbing of flie glass with tho liand
collects it from tho hand, and tho glass, having now more
than its natural share, piiits w ilh it to any body tiiat
may be near enough to receive it. Tlie substanco
rubbed and that with which it is rubbed are always
found to be oppositely electrified — tho one body having
more and the other kss than its natural share; indeed
one kind of Electricity Is never obtained without, at tho
same time, the productions of tlie other. Tiioso bodies
whicli iiave been called I'llcetricr-!, will not convey elec-
tricity from one body to anoLJivr, and iherelbre they are
termed Non-Conouctous. The most remarkable are-
glass, and all vitreous substances, precious stones, resins,
amber, sulj)hur, baked wood, wax, silk, cotton, wool,
hair, leathers, paper, white sugar, tiir, oils, metallic ox-
ides, all d\'y vegetable subsl;inees, and all hard stonenj.
Those bodies, which, when rubbed evcv so much, do
not exhibit electricity^re called Non-Electrics. They
convey electricity from one body to another, and tiiei'e-
tbre are denominated Co.n'uuctoks ; they as are capable
of having electricity developed upon them by friction as
those bodies wiiich have been called " electrics," but it
is conducted away as fast as it is producud. Some of
them conduct electricity much better than otliers. Tho
principal ci^nduciors are the m -tals, charcoal, all fluids
except dry airs aiid oils, most saline substances, and
stony substances. Woollen and silk, when wet, will,
by means of the water, conduct electricity.

VVlien a body has more than its natural quantity of
this (luid, it is said to be electrified positively, or plus ;
and when it has less than its natural (juantity, it is said
to be electrified negatively, or minus. When bodies
are electrified either of these ways, tiiey repel each
other; but if some be electi'ified p/u.Sf and others luinusy
they mutually attract ; or if one body be electrified jjIus,
and the other not electrified in either way, they also ut-
tract each otiier.

30* '

■1/

S54

Tlicre are some fislics which possess the extraordinary
'acuity of being able, at pleasure, to communicate
«iho'jks, like those of an electric battery or galvanic pile,
to nny animal that comos in contact with them. They
are called the torpedo, the gymnotus electricus, and the
nlurus Indicus. Tiie most ren.arkable of these is the
Gy. motus Electricus or Electric Eel, which is frequently
found in the marslios and stagnant pools of Guiana,
and other countries of South America. The shocks they
give are exceedingly severe ; and Humboldt mentions a
road which has been totally abandoned, because the
mules, in crossing a wide ford, were, by these violent
attr.cks, often paralysed and drowned. Even the angler
on the bank \/as not exempt from danger, the shock
being conveyed along his wetted rod and fishing line.
The Electric Eel is sometimes twenty feet long. The
electricity of all those fishes is exerted by them only
when they please, and of course only while they are
alive. vVftcr the animal has discharged its electrical
matter, the next shock is weaker ; and when the animal
is exhausted, it has lost all the power of producing any
elieot for some time.

There is no longer any doubt that the cause of thun-
dor is the same with that which produces the ordinary
phenomena of electricity. Tiie resemblance between
(firm is indeed so great, that we cannot believe thunder
itself to be any other than a grander species of elec-
tricity.

GALVANISrvi.

(mlvanism is so iiitiinatrly connected with electricity,
that it may bo coiisiderod as a branch of tliat science,
ft was first acciilentally (iiscovercd in the cliemieal
laboratory of M. Lew is (J.ilviuii, professor of anatomy
in tlio university of ]> )l(iii;!ia, u[)on the following
oceasion. The ladv of [\\v professor \)c\t\<!; of a delicatr;
habit, was occasionally liiuppurtcd by soup made from

355

frogs as a restorative. Soino of tlsoso iviiaials, ,ski:in,*d
for that purpose, wore lying upon a tublo in tho
laboratory of the profeysor, in vvliioh .stood an rlcctriciil
hiachinc. One of the assistiUits, in rxpi-riineut, by
accident brought the point of tho sculp!'! near the crura)
nerves of a frog recently kiHed, lying not fir from
the conductor ; the muscles of tiic limb were instantly
set ^n motion, being agitated with strong convulsionr;..
By a long series of new experiments, tho law of nature
as far as respects the influence of this principle, was
investigated, of wivich more accident had at first
afforded him a glimpse only. Galvani published a
treatise on the subject, addressed to tho institute of
Bologna, in the year 1791. On the appearance of this
M'ork, the universal attention of the pliilosophcrs of
Rurope was arrested. Tins discovery was made at a
time when something more than hypothesis was
necessary to satisfy the mind of the inquisitive inquirer
after scientific truth. To this desire may be reierred
the almost innumerable expcrimetnts which were made
in every district of Europe, in consequence of this pub-
lication; by which means the science became considera-
bly enriched by the addition of a great variety of new
facts, by contemporaries and successors, insomuch tliat
it is said, the labours of Galvani, the original discoverer
bear but a comparatively small proportion to what have
been since adduced for its illustration.

Galvani found that, by the mere agency of a metallic
substance, where he had no reason to' suspect the
presence of electricity, the limbs of a recently killed
frog were convulsed ; and having ascertamed the fact
by a number of experiments, he in the course of his
enquii'ies found, that the convulsions or contractions
were produced only when dissimilar metals were em-
jiloyed. It was now inferred that electrioity is not
only produced by the friction of bodies, but even by
the mere contact of certain substances. At the same
time it was admitted, that these substances must have
some chemical agency or action upon each other,
and that the effect produced seems to be proportio*^"'*

356

»o the degree of cliemical notion. The following, well
known facts were no^v supposed to be explained by this
science. Porter taken fi'Din a pewter pot has always
been held by coiinoi: s'-iirs in that liquor to be better
than when taken from china or glass : this was now
said to arise from a certain decomposition effected by
means of the liquor in the vessel — the porter, and the
saliva on tlio under lip coming in contact with the
metal. Pure mercury retains its metallic splendour a
long time, but - its amalgam with tin, &c. is almost
immediately oxydatcd or tarnished. Inscriptions of
very ancient date, on pure lead, have been found in a
perfect state, while others of modern times, made on
compound metals, are corroded and scarcely legible.
V/orks of metal, whose parts arc soldered together by
moans (if other metallic substances, soon tarnish, or
are oxydated about the places in which the different
metals are johied. So likewise is the copper on ships,
which is fastened on by means of iron nails. Zinc
also may bo kept a long time under water, with
•Fcarcely any change; but if a piece of silver touch the
zinc v/hile under water, there will be very soon a
Sfnsible oxydation. Take a piece of zinc and place it
under the tongue, and lay a piece of silver as 'big as
half a crown on the tonguo, and no particular taste
will be observed ; but bring the outer edges of the
metals together, and a very disagreeable taste will bo
perceived, which is said to arise from the decomposition
of the saliva, a watery fluid. The same thing may be
noticed with a guinea and a piece of charcoal. These
facts have been thus explained, and. the theory generally
admitted : — The conductors of electricity, however they
may differ from each other in their conducting powers,
may bo divided into two classes. The /irs/ class, which
are denomtnated the dry ana more perfect conauctors,
consist of metallic substances and charcoal : the second
class, called also imperfect conductors, are water, acids,
&c. From these, or some of them, all Galvanic Circles,
as they are named, are formed.

857

Hitherto this influence or agent had been chiefly
investigated with reference to its operation on animal
substances. Hence its popuhir name was for a long
t'\me, anhnal elcciricily : but it being soon found that
its agency was more extensive, that it possessed powers
not indicated by this denomination, and that of course
tlie retention of this name would lead to error, the
word Galvanism was' adopted in its stead. This ex-
tension of the Galvanic principle was connected with
new discoveries, and improvements from various quar,
tors ; these, however, for a considerable time, were
generally small, and unimportant in their nature. But
among all the recent discoveries in Galvanisfii, that
ma^le by Professor Volta, in 1800, is most remarkable
iu its nature,, and most interesting in its relations.
Volta sei out with the idea, contrary to that of Galvani,
that the electricity did not belong to the animal, but ta
the different metals employed. Galvani was not likely
to produco any greater eiFect than what could be ob-
tained by two pieces, of tnetal, because \\e believed the
electricity to l>e in the animal. Volta was led to the
discovery of the battery, by combining a number of
pieces of metal together, because he was persuaded that
the electricity was in the metals or fluids employed.
These repeated combinations obtained the name of Gal-
vanic, or more properly, Voltaic batteries : and the
science itself is usually denominated, from the dia?
coveries resulting from these batteries, VoUaism.

The simplest galvanic apparatus consists of a set of
tumblers, oontaiuing water slightly mixed with nitric of^
sulphuric acid, which are connected by bent wires with
a piece of zinc at one end, and a piece of copper at the
other; connect the tumblers by placing these in them
all in the same order— one metal in the first and last,
and both metals, in each intermediate one— rtouching
the first copper and the last zinc with the fingers, will*
occasion a shock.

The pile is made thus ; take twenty or thirty pieces
of zunc, each {A large as a penny. Get as many pieces
uf popper about the same size, and also as many pieoea

353

»)f popcr or clolli, which arc to ho dipped in a solution
of salt ami water. In building up tlio pile place zinc,
paper, coppr r, &;c. oust uitly in ilie same order until
the ujjole l>o rmishrd. 'i'iic sides of the pile may be
supported v/'.tli rods of ^litdP, or varnished wood, fixed in
the board cii w liich it stands. The following experi-
ments may ih:;M be perfitriatd ; —

Havinj^ wot boi'i h.imls, touch the lower part of the
pile with cne hjUKi, and ilie upper part with the other;
n slight shock of fhclfieity will be felt as often nh
one hand is reiu;),\.d. If tlje hand be brought back,
a siinilar shock w ill bo iMt. Put a basin of water
near the pile, ai.d put the h ft hand into it, holding
a wire, the one end of w hich touches the 4op of the
battery or pile; thcni put the end of a silver spoon
betwcc)^ thc! lip ai:d the gum, and with the other end of
the spoon touch the lower part of the pile ; a strong
shock is felt in the gum and in the hand. Take the
lijft hand from the water, but still keep hold of the wire,
and then perform the Irt.st experiment in the same man-
ncr, and a shock will be felt in the gum only. Hold a
silver spoon in one hand, and touch with it the batteiy
ut the lower part, then touch the upper part with the
tongue, the bitter taste is extreme. In performing the
above experiments, if, instead of the two ends of the
pile, the one end and the middle of it be touched, the
iiensations will not be ne\u'ly so strong.

The Galvanic trough is a very powerful appjivatus ;
it is composed of zinc and copper plates placed in pairs,
so that all those of one metal lie toward the same end.
The end j)latLS have connecting wires; and when the
trough is filled with water, impregnated with liitric or
muriatic acid, and the points of the wires brought -toge^
thcr, the action is reniaikably powerful ; any numbey
of troughs may be united and made to act at once. In
this way substances have been decomposed on which the
strongest fires had no elfect.

Modern research has considerably "augmented our
knowledge of Galvanism. It was, after %ome time, dis.
povered that the efficiency of a Galvanie Circle dei

zmc,

359

on its being formed of three bodies, two of which have
a powerful effect on each other, but neither of them, if
possible any, on the third. Hence perfectly pure zinc,
or (what answers extremely well) zinc amalgamated
with mercury, platina, and dilute acid; or charcoal,'
zinc, and acid, form batteries which are very effective,
and which from their long continued actions are called
constant batteries ; indeed the zinc in them is not at all'
acted upon by the acid in which it is immersed, unless'
when connected with the platina, &c., by means of a'
wire or some other coriductor ; and then only. to an ex-
tent ptoportioned to the goodness of the conductor which'
connects ti.em. *

' Galvanic action is now applied to a very interesting
and useful purpose, which is called the Electrotype pro-^
cess. This enables us with great facility, and the most
perfect exactness to copy medals, engraved copper
plates, &c., and to cover almost any substance with
gold, silver, copper, &c. In its simplest form it may'
be illustrated by a small Galvanic battery, consisting of
a vessel of unglazed procelain, within which is a piece
of zinc immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and outside
of it a plate of copper immersed in a solution of blue
vitriol (sulphate of copper) ; when the zinc and copper'
are connected together by a wire, &c., the former will^
be gradually dissolved, and the latter covered with fine
copper deposited from the blue vitriol.

The experiment wiii be more perfect, when a gene-
rating cell (a constant battery) and a decomposing cell
are used. Let us suppose the generating cell to consist'
of amalgamated zinc, platina, and dilute sulj>hitrlc acid ;
and the generating cell to be a vessel contaii,>ir;«; a so^u*
tion of blue vitriol, in which a pliite of copper an i tiie
medal intended to be copied are immerse<;, Wuhout
being in contact. When the zinc of the geiiaratiog
cell is connected with the medal, and i*s platina w ith
the plate of copper, the medal will in a few hours be
covered with a plate of pure copper, whose thickness
will depend on the time used in forming it, dtc, and
which being removed from the medal, and placed instead
of it in the generating cell, will couRtiiute a matrix,

300

and be covered with copper, thus afibrding a copy of
the medal, than which nothing can bo more exact. The
dame matrix will, it is evident, be sufficient for the
production of an indefinite number of copies.

MAGNETISM, &c.

The production of mngnetism by electricity is ano-
;her of tli( inportont results which have arisen from our
increased kuowledged of Galvanism.
' A'i.i">pt every one knows that property of the magnet
whicb causes it to attract iron and a few other sub-
stances. This attractive power may be communicatea
tr-trporuriiy to .' jft iron, and permanently to steel, either
yy the j.iitarul magnet (the loadstone) or the artificial
(a ni.iirr.i^tjzed bar of steel). If a magnet be suspended
ireely ii will arrange itself wor^A and south; that is, one
pole or extremity will point almost north, and the other
in the opposite direction. This directive power, as it
is called, is what makes the mariner's compass so use-
ful to the navicrator. By its aid he may traverse the
pathless ocean daring the darkest night in the utmost
security ; and yet it consists merely of a needle, (a small
bar of steel magnetized,) balanced on a fine point, so
that it can move. in every direction over a circular card,
marked with 32 divisions (called points), in its circum-
ference.

If a bar of steel is carefully balanced on a point, and
then magnetized by rubling it to a magnet, or by any
other means — except in a part of the earth just midway
between the magnetic poles- -it wi'i no longer remain
in equilibrio, but will form an angle witli the horizon,
which is called the angle of dip. Hence to make tho
needle of the mariner's compass assume and preserve a
horizontal position, we are oblii!:ed to render one end
of it heavier than the other. We have already said
that the needle does not when left to itself, point due
north and south ; the angle it makes with a horizontal
line lymg m the meridian of the place is called the angle
of variation of that place. It is to be remarked that this

same

861

^ngle is not always the same even at the same plxtoe.
Both "dip" and "variation" arise from that cause
which makes the needle point to the magnetic pole's,
namely, the earth being a great magnet and acting as
such on the needle. We may illustrate both dip and
variation by placing a magnetized har of steel under
the needle, in such u ti'ay as that it will occupy thtj
same positions with reference to it, as the magnetic
axis, (a line passing through the magnetic poles,)
Qccupies.

it only remains to show why the earth acts towards
the needle as if it wore a great magnet. The earth is
what is called anelectro-mugnet; that is one formed by
the circulation of electrical currents around it, The
connection between electricity and inaguetism was long
known; but that electricity circuluting around the
needle will cause it to be doflectcd from its. ordinary
position, and tliut the snnie current passing round a bar
qf irpii would nKtfrneti/e it, are facts vviiich constitute a
recent and very iuiportiint discovery.

The currents which produce the magnetism of the
earth are due to the enormous evaporation from its
surface, and to the constant change of temperature
caused* by revolution on its nxis, which exposes uiiTorent
parts, of it in succession to the sun's niys. — Electricity
developed during change of temperature has been de-
signated thermo-elcctnciUj .

We are not to suppose tliat only ferruginous sub-
stances, (although the best for tlie purjwsc) or even
metals alone, are capable of being magnetized by means
of electricity.

We may illustrate the most interesting facts in electro-
magnetism by covering- copper wire with vvorsted, cotton,
or some other bad conductor of electricity, and theri.
coiling it round a bar, of iron. On connecting the ex-
tremities of the wire-coil ox. helix, as it is termed, re-
spectively, with the plates of a Galvania circle, tho
iron bar will be found to be highly megnetic. It is
necessary to cover tho wire with some non-conducting
substance, or the electricity instead of traversing the
length of it, and so passing romul the iron, would pass

862

vlirectly from one part of the wire to another, selecting.
ak electricity alway does, the shortest path.
• The helix is capaWe jiot only of profJ«jcing magnetism
in iron, but also electricity in another helix placed
around or intertwined with it ; and it is found, whether
used by itself, or in combination with another, to give
to the electricity derived from a single Galvanic.circle
an intensity which could scarcely be obtained from the
combiiuitiou of a very great number of circles— the zinc
of one being connected with the copper or platina of the
next ; whicii is the mode of arrangement required,
when we desire to give to Galvanic electricity a gxeate;
or less degree of intensity ; that is a capability of pro.
ducing mechanical or physiological effects, and the
power of traversing bad, or imperfect conductors.

CALORIC.

''■--. . ■ ■ ' ' ■ ■ ..«)'"

Meat, strictly speaking, is the name, of a sensation.,
though it is customary to speak of the heat of the sun,
or the heat of the fire, just as readily as of the heat
which these b(jdies are capable of exciting. It was
with a view of avoiding t4ie confusion which. arose frora
tlius confounding the cause and effect, that modern
<;hemists adopted the new word caloric, to denote the
principle which produce heat.

The nature of caloric is not yet well understood, it
being still doubtful whether it be a material substance,
or a mere property of matter. It is generally regarded,
however, as a fluid of great tenuity which pervades the
whole system of nature. ;

Caloric is produced, in various ways ; by combustion
— by friction, — by penussion, — by the mixture of two or
more substances, as when sulphuric acid is poured upon
water or magnesia — by electricity and galvanism. But
the principal source of caloric is the sun.

Caloric is either latent or free. All bodies are sup-
posed to contain cloric, but when it is neither percep-

0C3

tible by the senses, nor affects the lliermometer, it is
termed latent heat ; if by any means we can ascertain
its presence, it gets the name o^ free coloric. FreO'
palorioal^^ays tends to diffuse itself equally ; in other
wordis, when two bodies are of (^iflbrent temperatures,
the warmer gradually parts with its caloric to the
colder, till they ai*e both brought to the same tem-
perature. Thus, when a thermometer is applied to a
hot body it receives caloric, when to a cold one it gives
to it part of its own caloric ; and tliis giving and
receiving goes on until the therniometer and the body
arrive at the same temperatui*e. Cold is merely a
diminution of heat. When you lay your hand on a
marble table you indeed feel it cold, but the cold you
experience consists merely in the loss of caloric that
your hand sustains whilst its 'temporatiire is being
prought to an equilibrium with the table. • If you lay
a piece df ice upoA the same table, you will fmd that a
contrary effect will take place, the ice will be ifnelted
by the caloric which it abstracts from the marble.

The facility with which caloric enters or leaves
bodies, depends much on the nature of the body ; some
species permitting the passage of caloric through them
with ease, and others, with niuch difficulty. Those
substances which permit caloric to pasd readily through
them are called good conductors; thus metals and
liquids are good conductors; but silk, cotton, wool,
wood, &c., are bad conductors. For ' example, if we
put one end of a poker into the fire, the othe^ end will
soon become hot, but this will' not happen with a piece
of wood of the same length, and under the same cir-
cumstances. A person may stand so near the fire,
as to make the metal buttons on his coat too hot to.
touch, whilst the temperature of the cloth will be
apparently scarcely altered. When there is occasion
to hold any metallic instrument, we take care that the
part by which it is to be held shall not be made of metal,
but of wood or bone. Good conductors of heat would
evidently form bad clothing. The object of clothing
19 to intercept the heat, and preserve the body as much

864

9ifi , flpsible at a uniform temperature. In cold weathfir,
the icmperature of the atmosphere being lower than thai
of liie body, clothing formed of non-conductors prevent
the two rapid escape of boat from the body to tlie 8ur-
rounrrrng air; and, in very hot weather, it answers a
contrary purposo, — preventing the l>j() rapid communicn-
tir»n of heat to the body. Animals are ch>lhed in fur,
wool, feathers, &c. all non-conductors ; and man bor-
rows his clothing, in a great degree, from them.

One of the most remarkable properties of- caloric is
the Impulsion which exists among its particles. Hence
It happens, that when this principle enters into a body.
Its fust effect is to remove the integrant molecules of the
Bubstanco to a greater distance from one another. The
body, therefore, bepomes less compact than before,
occupies a greater space, or, ip other words, ej^pands.
Now this eflect of caloric is maTiifestly in opposition to
cohesion — that force which tends to make the particles
of matter approximate, and which must be overcome
before any expansion can ensue. It may be expected,
therefore, that a small addition of caloric will occasiop
a small expansion, and a greater addition of caloric, a
greater expansion : bocausw in the latter case, the cohe-
sion will be more o^'orcome t'lan in the foR'mor. It may
be anticipated, also, that wp.onever caloric passes out of
a body, the cohesion being then left to act freely, a con-
traction will necessarily follow ; so that expansion is
only a transient etFect, occasioned solely by the accumu-
lation of caloric. It follo\ys, niorcoyer, from this view,
that caloric must produce the greatest exptmsion in those
bodies, the cohesive power of which is least; and the
inference is fully justified by observation. Thus the
force of cohesion is greatest in solids, less in liquids,
and least of all in aeriform substances ; while the expan-
sion of solids is trifling, that of liquids much more
considerable, and that of elastic fluids far greater, ft
may be laid down as a rule, the reason of which is now
obvious, that all bodies are expanded by heat, and that
the expansion of the same body increases with tl\Q..
fluantity of caloric which enters it. ""

3<i5

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY.

Chemistry is tlio soioncn which nifikos known to us.
the nature and prop^rtits of nil hodics, whether thesn
bodies bo shnple or compound^ — solid, liijuid, or
aeriform.

The importance of the science of chemistry is evident
from the followin,? considerations, in acquiring a know-
ledjre of the constitution of tlio ntmospiiero, in iiive.sti-
fjatinn; the changes to which it is subject, the variation*!
of temperature, the hiws of winds, (low, rain, hail, an
snow, chemistry is our principal, our only satisfactory
ffuide. These remarkable chanii-es — chanires, which,
because fnmiliar, do not produce any emotion in the
mind, though in themselves truly wonderl'ul — are che-
mical operations on a miignilic'jnt scale, and can only
be explained on chemical law;s.

In examining the VHrious objects which compose the
mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, chejuistry is
essentially requisite for the successful prosecution of
our inquiries.

In the art of extracting metals from their ores, in
purifying and combining them with each other, almost
all the processes are purely chemical. The arts of glass
aiid porcelain-making— <3f tanning, son|>making, dying,
and bleaching — dojiend entirely upon chemistry ; and aW
the processes of baking, brewing and distilling, and
most of the culinary arts, are chemical operations.

The translormations of chemistry, by which we arc
enabled to convert materials apparently useless into
important objects of the arts, are op^-ning up every day
sources of wealth and convenience unknown to former
ages. Who, for instance, would have conceived that
linen rags were qapable' of producing more than their
own weight of sugar, by the agency of one of the
cheapest and most abundant acids — the sulphuric ! — that
dry bones could be a magazine ot' nutriment, capable of
preservation for many years, and re.ady to yield u{i
their sustenance in the form best adapted to tiio support

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360

of life, on the application of steam, or of an acid at
once cheap and durable ? — ^that sawdust itself is sus-
ceptible of conversion into a subtance bearing no
remote analogy to bread ; And though certainly less
palatable than that of flour, yet no way disagreeable
and at once wholesome, digestible, and highly nu>
tritive?

Chemistry makes us acquainted with many facts, of
which, Withbut it, we must have remained in ignorance.
How wonderful that the diamond should be made of
the same rnaterial \Vith coal; that the most part, by
bulk, of water should be an inflammable substance ; that
acids should be almost all formed of diflerent kinds of
air ; and that one of those acids, the strength of which
Can dissolve almost any of the' metals, should be made
of the same ingredients with the common air that >y^
breathe. ; "' ' '

If we consider chemistry purely as a science, we
shall find no study which presents more interesting
subjects of research, and none which affords more
striking proofs of the wisdom and beneficence of the
Creator of the universe. In all the singular and sur,
prising changes which every where present themselves,
tlie more closely we examine them, the more we shall
lidmire the simple means by which they are accom<
plished, and the intelligent design and perfect wisdom
displayed in them.

CHEMICAL AFFINITY.

That property of matter which occasions the combi-
nation of heterogeneous bodies, is the cause of the
principal phenomena of chemistry, and is therefore call-
ed chemical affinity or attraction. It is also sometimes
termed electric attraction, and the attraction of compo-
sition, to distinguish it from cohesive or aggi'egative
attraction.

Chemical attraction may be defined to be that energy
in consequence of which different kinds of matter unitf

• *■

to form conipotiiids, having properties oAen dissimilar
from those of their component pans; so that the resuTt
of chemical combination (ban only be ascertained, at
least in the first instance, by experiment. Thus, if iron
filings be dissolved in sulphuric acid, or as it is com^nonly
called, oil of vitriol, a substance will be produced whifch
^eiars no kind of resemblance to either of its compq-
hent" parts, it is "called by chemists sulphate of iron',
and vulgarly, copperas, or greeti yilr^ol — a greenish,
fsemi-transparent crystallized substance, having nothi^i^
bf the appearance of the metal, nor of the sour tastfe''d|
the acid. Acetic acid, or the dcid of vinrgair', in the same
manner dissolves copper, and constitutes willi it the blue
efflorescent salt called verdigris. Caustic vegetable alkali
(caustic potash) is a deliquescent substance, vvliich, as ita
pan](&' implies, corrodes .flesh ; and sulphuric acid is a
liquid which, when concentrated, acts riiuch in the same
in^nner on flesh ; but from the union of these bodies, so
liiestructive to anm^al niatter, results the chemical com-;
pouiid; stilphate of potash, a salt which, whether solid
or dissolved in water, docs not apt on the skin, and may
be swalJowetl with safety. Sometimes two liquids or
gaseous bodi^s,r by their >inipn form at solid coiippound.
Thus, the gas that rises from spirif'of hartshtirh; caileld
by chemists ammonia, and muriatic acid gas, if mixed
together in an empty jar, become condensed into a
white saline solid, called muriate of ammonia, or sal
fifl[ii|()Qj*iac. .,

: The phenomena of chemical attraction are regulated
by the following laws:

1; This attf active force is exerted in different de-
grees fey difffereht bodies. ' ^ ■■*' '■■.> . i
- ' S). . It operates only on very minute particles of bodies ;
and hence chemical action is promoted by previous so.
lution, trituration, or other mechanical methods of divi*
||ion and intermixture. - ,. > ; .,

3. When bodies combine, an alteration of temjjera-
lure generally takes place, sometimes with the exhibi-
tion of light.

4. Bodies which have an attraction for each other are
^Iways found p display opposite states of electricity.

369

5. All bodies are composed of certain atoms oi\ mole-
cules, and chemical combination consists of the union
of one or more al<jms of one of the uniting bodies,
with some determinate number of atoms of the other
uniting body.

6. Chemical attraction takes place in three diffei^ent
modes: — 1. When one simple body is presented to
another for which it has an affinity, a union takes place,
and a compound is formed. 2. If a simple body, Ai
be presented to a compound, B C, and if A have a
stronger affinity for B^ than C has, the, compound B C
will be decomposed, and a new compound A B, will
be formed. 3. If a compound A B be presented to
another compound, C D, though neither A nor B would
alone decompose C D, yet a m.utual decornposition
may take place bet ^y eon the two compounds, and oc-
casion the forhiation of two now compounds A D and
CB. The first and second modes of attraction are
styled instances of simple affinity, or simple elective
attraction; and the last mode is styled^ compound
affinity, or compound elective attraction.

7. All compounds, when they enter into union withs
other bodies without boing decomposed, act in tlie. same
manner as simple bodies.

3ook of Science.

i'iW

ON SIMPLE BODIES.

According to the ancient philosophers, the simple
bodies or elementary principles from which all the va-
rieties of matter are composed, were but four, namely,
fire, air, earth, and water. This noti')n, after having
for ages formed a part of the creed of the learned, has
been completely exploded by the light of modern
science.

Some of the alleged elements of the older chemists
are now known to have existed only in imagination, and
others are ascertained to be by no means simple substances:
ibus air is found to consist principally of two different
elastic fluids or gaseous bodies, which may be separated

ivn

ty vnrions processes, iind cxMbltcd apart from each
otliPi'. Wat'-r also has b.-'cn r.scrrtaiiiod to be a compound
^vl)icll may bo an;'.lyz(l or (l.'C()m[)os."d, so as to produce
t'vo disitinct ki'.uls of gas, which miy bo separately col-
l-?Gtcd, and wlicii n^^'aiu mixed together in proper propor-
tions, may bo made to form water b}^ their union.

Oth^r bodies formerly esteemed suiiple, have yielded
to the analytical processes of mo.lern chemistry ; but
laoro is a certain number of substances, which have
hifherto resisted all attempts at furLher decomposition,
and which, therefore, in the present state of the science,
must be ranked as simple substances. Their number is
not very great, amounting to about fifty-five, and it is
not unlikely that the future researches of chemists may
demqj^strate some of these bodies to be compounds. At
the same time, it is probable that additions may be made
to the class of elementary sub^:tances, in consequence
of future discoveries — several of those now admitted
into this class having become known to us but very
recently.

Some of these elementary bodies are widely and
abundantly dispersed throughou' the three kingdoms of
nature, either alone or in a state of composition, while
others appear to be of very rare occurrence, or at least
have hitherto been m':>t with only in small quantities, and
in few situations. The whole of the elementary suj)-
stanccs may be arranged in two divisions ; the first conn
prehending those which are'not of a metallic nature, th.e
. entire number of which, now known, amounts to only
thirteen ; the remaining forty-two elementary bodies are
all regarded as metals, tiiough some of them exhibit,
properties dilPiring consiiierably from those which cha.
racterize gold, silver, mercury, lead, iron, and other
bodies, to which the designation of metals was origi-
nally applied.

The following are the thirteen non-metallic elemen-
tary substances : oxygen, chlorine, iodine, bromine,
fluorine, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, boron, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur, selenium.

• Book of Sceince,

370

ON SIMPLE BODIES, CONTINUED.

Qxygen is one of the most important of the elcnentary
bodies. In a simple stateyit is obtained only in the form
of gas. It is an exceedingly abundant body; the air of the
atmosphere contains one-iifth, and water is resolvuLle
Into a mixed gas, one-third of which, by bulk, is
oxygen, and the remainder hydrogen. It also exists in
jnost natural products — animal, vegetable, and mineral.
Oxygen gas is, like common air, colourless, invisible,
tastelesis, inodorous, and clastic. But it is iieavier than
common air, in the proportion of Hi to 10. It is a
powerful supporter of combustion ; that is to say,' ^hen
any inflamed body, as a lighted candle, is put into it,
it burns very vigorously — much more so than when in
common air ; indeed it is owing to the oxygon it con-i
tains that commbn air supports combustion at all. Its
presence is also necessary for the continuance of animal
life. We cannot breathe air which Ijais been deprive^
of its oxygen. *' -fi'^h. ' ' i- .<^

Hydrogen is known only in the state of ga?, and is
sometimes called indammable air. It is the lightest
of all bodies that can be weighecj. Jt is one of the
ingredients which forms xVate'r — -from which it can
be easily procured. Hydrogen gas, when pure, pos-
sesses all the mechanical "properties of common 4iir.
It does not support combustion, though it is "itself -
one of the mosj. combustible of all' bodies; for if ^^
lighted candle be put into a vessel containing hydrogen,
the candle 'will be instantly extinguished, while the gas
itsejf will be inflamed. It ianot fit for respiration, foi?
animals which breathe it die almost instantaneously. If
pure oxygen and hydrogen be mixed together, and the
mixture set fire to, it explodes with great violencejand
forms water. Hence we see the origin ' of the term
hydfogen, which literally signifies the water-former.
Hydrogen gas is, on account of its greater levity, em?
ployed to fill balloons.

Nftnigen, called also azote, is a gaseous body, rather

I >

lighter than common air ; of which it forms four-fifth
parts, the remaining onc-fiflh being oxygen. It has
neither colour, smell, nor taste. It does not support
combustion, nor is it combustible itself, for if a lighted
candle be put into a vessel contnining nitrogen, it is in-
stantly extinguished, and the gas itself does not take
fire, as is the case with hydrogen. Nitjrogen Js, fatal
also to animal life ; any animal put into it oFes in a ver^
short time.

ON SIMPLE BODIES, CONTINUED.

CARBON.

When wood is heated to a certain degree in the opert
air, it takes fire, and forms, whilst burning, water and
carbonic acid gas, till the whole of it is consumed. A
small portion of ashes i« flie sol(? residue. But if the
wood be heutod to redness in clos^ vessels, so that the
atmospheric air cannot have free access to it, a large
quantity of g aoous and other volatile matters is expelled,'
and a black, hard, porous substance is left, called
charcoal/.

Charcoal may be produced from other sources. When
the volatile matters are driven off froiTi coal, as in. the
procpi^g for makuifj coal gas, a peculiar kind of charcoal,
called coA,r, remains in the retort. Most animal and
vegetable substanftes. yield it, when ignited in close
vessels. ThiTs a very pure charcoal may be procured
from fslarch or su.gar, and from the oil of turpentine or
spirit of wine, by passing their vapour through tubes
heati'd to redness. When bones are made red hot in a
cov^ored, crucible, a black mass remains, which consists
of charcoal mixed with the earthy matters of the bone.
It is called ivory black, or animal charcoal.

Carbon is the name given to the pure inflammable
part of charcoal, of which substance the diamond is only
a variety in a pure chrystallized state ; for pure charcoal
and diamond, when treated in the same manner, pro-

872

4uco precisely the same results. Carlxjn is insoluble In
water, and infusible by the most intense lif^ut, providec<
air bo excluded. Animal and vegetable oils are com
posed almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen. Tlu
same may be observed of gum, .sug:vr, and starch
Theso bodies, however, contain oxygen.

Ciiarcoal absorbs the odoriferous and colouring prin
ciples of most animal and vegetable substances. VVhen
coloured ijifusions of this kind am digested with a duo
qur\ntity of charcoal, a solution "is ohtnined, which is
nearly, if not quite colourless.' Tiiinted flesh may be
rendered sweet and eatable by this means, and foul
water may be purified by lllering throug'i charcoal.

Sulphur occurs as a mineral production in some parts
of the earth, particularly in the neighbouriiood of volca-
nos, as in Italy and Sicily. It is connnonly found in a
massive state ; but is sometimes met with in a crys-
tallized form. It is procured abundantly in combination
with several metals, sucii as silver, copper, antimony.
lead, and iron. It is obtained in large quantities by
exposing the common iron pyrites to a read heat in close
vessels.

Sulphur is well known under the name of brimstone.
It is a brittle solid body, of a greenisli yellow colour,
emits a peculiar odour when rubbed, and has little
taste. It is insoluble in water ; but if poured into it
when liquified it retains its softness, and is in this
state employed for taking impressions from seals and
medals.

. Phosphorus was discovered about the year 1609, by
Brandt, an alchemist of Hamburgh. It is a semitrans.
parent yellowish matter, of* the consistence of wax.
ft is procured, in general, by the decomposition of
tones. It is exceedingly inflammable. Exposed to the
^ir at common temperatures, it undergoes a slow com-
bustion ; it emits a dense white smoke, which has the
smell of garlic, appears luminous in the dark, and is
gradually consumed. On this account, phosphorus
should always be kept under water. On account of its
very combustible nature, it requires to be handled with

Bii

j^Tefii caution ; gentio pressure between the fingers is
sufficient to kindle it. It burns rapidly, emitting a
splendid white light, and causing an intense heat.

Chlorine was discovered in 1770. It is a substance
bf much importance, being, in combination with other
siibstances, extensively used in the arts. Chlorine is a
yellowish-green coloured gas, which has an astringent
taste, and a disagreeable odour. It is one of the most
suffocating of the gases, exciting great irritability in tlie
wiud-pipe, even when considerably diluted with air.
when strongly and suddenly compressed, it emits both
heat and light — a character which it possesses in
common With oxygen gas. Under considerable pressure
it assumes the form of a limpid liquor of a bright
yellow colour. Chlorine is a supporter of combustion.
If a lighted taper be plunged into chlorine gas, it burns
with A small red flame, and emits a large quantity of
smoke.. Phosphorus takes fire in it spfontaneously.
Several of the metals, such as tin, copper, arsenic,
antimony, and zinc, when introduced into chlorine in
the state of powder, or in fine leaves, are suddenly
inflamed. Chlorine, though formerly called an acid^
Jiossesses no acid properties. It has not a sour taste, nor
does it redden the blue colour of plants, which nearly
all acids do. One of the most important properties of
fchlorine is its bleaching power. All animal and vege-
table colours are speedily removed by chlorine ; and
when the colour is once discharged, it can never be
Restored. Chlorine, however, cannot bleach unless
water b6 present. Chlorine is useful also for the pur-
poses of fumigation, and is used to purify the air in fever
hospitals. The infection of the small-pox is also de-
stroyed by this gas, and matter that has been submitted
to its influence will no longer generate that disease.

Iodine is a substance much resembling chlorine in
Some of its properties. It may be procured by drying
and powdering common sea weed, and heating it with
sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese : a violet
coloured vapour rises, which, if received in a cool
Vesife), vrill condense on its sides, and will form scalt

374

^rjstala, ot a somewhat metallic lustre. These crys,
ta*s are the substance : from the violet colour of its
Vapour it is oaUed iodine. It has the property of form,
ing a beautiful btue colour, when mixed with a little
powderecf str^ch, cfiAused through cold water; hence
jo^ine .and starch are used as tesds of the presence of
each other. lodme stams the fingers yellow, but not
permanently. Like chlorine, it destroys vegetable co-
leurs, though not so powerluil) . Iodine is used in me-
dicine : in small doses it mcrea^ies the appetite ; but in
Ipirge dolses, or continued too loh^ it produces a remark-
able emaciation.

; To these simple non-metallic boiiies we might add
brome, selenium, boron, fluorine (tne base of fluor spar),
^nd silicon (the base of flint.) But u^ they are of less
ipriportande, and as the nature of some oi them iS still a
iubject of dispute with chemists, we shall not omit the
consideration of them for the present.

^ '■

: \

CT'

875

SECTION VI.

TilUE LIBERTY.

\'v

True Liberty was Christian, sanctified,

Baptized, and found in Christian hearts alone.

First-born of Virtue ! diiughtor of the skies !

Nursling of Truth divine ! sister of all

The Graces, Meekness, Holinrss, and Love :

Giving to God, and man, and all below,

That symptom show'd of sensible existence,

Their due unask'd ; fear to whom fear was due ;

To all, respect, benevolence, and love.

Companion of Religion; where she came, '

There Freedom camej where dwelt, there Freedom

dwelt;
Ruled whore vshe ruled, expired where she expired.
" He was the freeman whom the truth made free ;"
VVho first of all the bands of Satan broke ;
Who broke the bands of Sin ; and for his soul,
In spite of fools, consulted seriously ;
[n spite of fashion, persevered in good ;
[n spite of wealth or poverty, upright ;
Who did as Reason, not as Fancy bade ;
Who heard Temptation sing, and yet turned not
Aside ; saw Sin bedeck her flowery bed,
And yet would not go up ; felt at his heart,
The sword unsheathed, yet would not sell the truth
Who, having power, had not the will to hurt ;
Who blush 'd alike to be, or have a slave ; ;

Who blush 'd at nought but sin, feared louglit but God ;
Who, finally, in strong integrity
Of sQul, 'midfit want, or riches, or disgraco,
Uplifted calmly sal, and heard the waves
Of stormy folly breaking at his feet;

'^,:

'i^^

919

Now shrill with prai§e, now hoarse witli foul reproaolli

And both deapised sincerely ; seeking this

Alone— 4he approbation of his God,

Which still with conscience witncse'd to his peaOe^

This, this iS freedom, such as angels usey
And kindred fcr the liberty of God.
First-bofn df Virtue ! daughter of the skies f
iThe man, the state in whom she ruled, was free j
Ail else were slaves of Sutan, Sin, and Death.

Pot/Locc;

tllE CORAL INSECT.

Toil on ! toil on ! ye ephomeVal train.

Who build in the tossing and treacherous main,

Toll on — for the wisdom of man ye mock/

With your sand-based structures- and domes of rock jf

Your columns the fathomless fountains lave,

And your arches spring up ta the crested wave j

Ite'te a pun^ race, thus boldly to rear

A fabric so vast m a rcft^nfi so dre^r^

Ye bind the deep with your secret zone,-
The qpean is seal'd, and the surge a stone f
Fresh wreaths from the coral pavement springs
bike the terraced pi-ide of Assyria's king ;
The turf looks green where the breakers roU'd j
O'er the whirl^oolripens the rind of gokl;-
The sea snatcl^d isle is the home of taen.
And n)oimt»ins- exult where the wave hath been.-

fiut why do yoit plant, 't>eath the billoWs dark
The wrecldng reef for the gallaift bark ?
There are snares enough on the tented field,
*Mid the blossomed sweets tJiat the valleys yield ^
There are serpentsto coil, ere th€ fDwers are up J
TtieroV a poison-drop in man's purest eupp

-m,

377

There are foes that watch for his cradle-breath,
And why need yo sow the floo<ls with death ?

Ye build — -ye build — but ye enter not in,

Like the trilx;s whom the desert devour'd in their sin |

From the hind of promise ye fade and die,

Ere its verdure gloums forth on your weary eye

As the kings of the cloud-crown'd pyramid

Their noteless bones in oblivion hid ;

Ye slumber unmark'd 'mid the desolate main.

While the wonder and pride of your works remain.

SlOOURNBI*

SNOW.

The keener tempests rise ; and fuming dun,
From all the livid east or piercing north
Thick clouds ascend, in whose capacious womb
A vap'ry deluge lies, to snow conceal'd.
Heavy they roll their fleecy world along, .,
And the sky saddens with the gather'd storm.
As thus the snows arise, and foul and fierce
All winter drives along the darken'd air, ,
In his own loose-revolving fields the swain
Disaater'd stands; sees other hills ascend,.. .
Of unknown joyless brow, and other sceneS)
Of horrid prospect, shag the trackless plain ;
Nor finds the river nor the forest, hid
Beneath the formless wild, but wanders on ,
From hill to dale, still more and more astray,
Impatient, flouncing through the drifted heaps, '.-.

Stung with'the thoughts. of home ; the thoughts of home
Rush on his nerves, and call their vigour forth
In many a vain attempt. How sinks his soul !
What black despair, what horror fills his heart I
When, for the- dusky spot which fancy ieign'd
Ills tuifled cottage, rising through the snow,

32*

378

He meets the roughness of the middle waste,

Far from the track and bless'd abode of man ;

While round him night resistless closes fast,

And ev'ry tempest, howling o'er his head,

Renders the savage wilderness more wild :

Then throng the busy shapes into his mind,

Of cover'd pits, unfathomably deep,

A dire descent ! beyond the pow'r of frost ;

Of faithless bogs; of precipices high,

Smooth 'd up with snow ; and what is land unknown,

What water of the still unfrozen spring.

In the loose marsh or solitary lake,

Where the fresh fountain from the bottom boils.

These check his fearful steps, and down he sinks

Beneath the shelter of the shapeless drift.

Thinking o'er all the bitterness of uoath,

Mix'd with the tender anguish nature shoots

Through the wrung bosom of tlie dying man.

His wife, his children, and liis friends unseen.

In vain for him th' officious wife prepares

The fire fair blazing, and the vestment warm,

In vain his little children, peeping out .

Into the mingling storm demand their sire,

With tears of artless innocence. Alas !

Nor wife, nor children, more shall he behold.

Nor friend, nor sacred home. On ev'ry nerve '.

The deadly winter seizes, shuts up sense.

And o'er his inmost vitals creeping cold,

Lays him along the snows, a stiffen'd corse,

fitretch'd out, and bleaching in the northern. blast.

Thomson.

^i^l

BENEFITS OF AFFLICTION.

■!i^.

The path of sorrow, and that path alone,
Leads to the land where sorrow is unknown ;
J^fo traveller ever reached that blessed abode,
Who foui\d not thorns and briers in his road.

379

The world may dance along the flowery plain, '

Cheered .as they go by many a sprightly strain ;

^here nature has her mossy velvet spread,

With unshod feet tliey y< t sreunly tread :

Admonished, scorn the caution and the friend,

Bent nil on pleasure, hccrllcss of its end.

But He, wlio knew what human h>'^;irts woulJ v^'^^^e,

flow islow to loarn the iJictatos of His love,

That hard by nature, and of J^tul>i)()rn will,

A life of ease would make thcin liMrdi. r still.

In pity to the souls his grace designed

To rescue from the ruin of mankind,

Called for a cloud to darken all their years.

And said, " Go spend them in a vale of tears.*

O balmy gales of soul-reviving air!
skfutary streams that murmur there !
These, flowing from the fount of grace above j
Those breathed from lips of everlasting love :

The flinty soil, indeed, their feet annoys,
Chill blasts of trouble nip their springing joya
An envious world will interpose its frown,
To mar delights superior to its own ;
And many a pang, experienqed still within,
Reminds them of their hated inmate. Sin.
But ills of every shape, and every name.
Transformed to blessings, miss their cruel aim ;
And every moment's calm that soothes the breast
Is given in earnest of eternal rest.'

Ah, be not sad, although thy lot be cast
Far from the flock, and in a houndless waste !
No shepherds' tents williin thy view appear,
But the chief Shepherd even there is near.
Thy tender sorrows and thy plaintive strain,
Flow in a foreign land, but not in vain ;
Thy tears all issue from a source divine.
And every drop bespeaks a Saviour thine —
So once in Gideon's fleece the dews were found,
And drought on all the drooping herbs around.

CowrE?

880

PROCRASTINATION.

Be wise to-day ; 'tis madness to defer ;

N'exl day the fatal precedent will plead,

Thn»on, till wisdom is pushed out oMifej

Procrastination is the thief of time ;

Year after year it steals, till all are fled,

And to the mercies of a moment leaves

The vast concerns' of an eternal scene.

If not so frequent, would not this be strange f

That 'tis so frequent, this is stranger still, ; ' *

Of man'i^ miraculous mistakes tills b.^ars '

The palm, "That all men are about to live,"

For ever on the brink on being born :

All pay thfyniselves the compliment to think

They one day shall not drivel, and their pride

On this reversion takes up ready praise ;

At least their own ; their future selves applaud,

How excellent that life they ne'er will lead !

Time lodged in their own hands is Folly's vails ^

Tpime lodged in Fate's, to wisdom they consign ; ■

The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone.

'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool ; •

And scarce in human wisdom to domore.

All promise is poor dilatory man, ' "

And that through every stage. When young, indeed,

In full content we sometimes nobly rest, •

Unanxious for ourselves, and only wishj

As duteous sons, our fathers were more wise,

At thirty, man suspects himself a fool ;

Knows it ^t forty, and refcrms his plan ;

At fifty chides his infamous delay, '; -a*, v j 'J,;

Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve;

In all the magnanimity of thought

Resolves and re-solves ; then dies the same.

And why ? Because he thinks himself in^morta]|.
AIJ menthink all men mortal but themselves ;
Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate
Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread..

•81

But their hearts wounded, like tlie ivounded ait,
iSoon .olose ; where, past the shafl, no trape is fqu94ii
Ah from the wing no sea/* the aky retains,
The parted wayc no furrow from the keel— r
^o dies in hurnan hearts the thought of death.:
Even when the tender tear which nature sheds
Q'e]^ thpse we love, wje drop it in their grave.

TASTB.

What tlien is laste, but these internal .powen,

Active, and strong, and feelingly alive

To each fine impulse ? A discerning sense

Of decent and sublin^e, with (^uick disgust

From things defprm'd, pr disarrjanged, ojp gross

In species ? Thiig, nqr gen)3, nor stores of gold,

Nor purple ^tate, nor culture, can bestow j

But God B.\ojxe, yhen 0rst his SvCtiye h&v4

Imprints the secret bias of the soul.

He, mighty Parent ! wise and just in all,

t'ree as the vital breeze, or light of heaven,

Heyeals the cjiarms of nature, Ask the swaiq

Who journpys homeward ffona a i^ummer day'g

jLong labour, why, forgetful of iris toil?

And dije repose, he loiters to behold

The sunshine gleaming as through amber cloudS|

P'er all the western sky ; full soorj, I ween,

flis rude expression and untutor'd airs.

Beyond the power of language, will unfold

The form of beauty smiling at hi^ heart.

How lovely ! how commanding | ^ui tKougji He<>VOi|

In every breast hath sown these early seed^

Pf love and admiration, yet in yain,

VVithout fair culture's kind parental aid,

Without enlivening suns, and genial showers,

And shelter from the blast, in vain wa hdpe

^he Render plant should rear its blooming hei^f),

392

Or yield tho harvest promised in its spring.

Nor yet will every soil with equal stores

llepay tho tiller's labour ; or attend

His will obsequious, wliether to produce

Tlio oKvo or ti»e laurel. Diir.rent minds

iDclino to different objects : one pursues

Tha vast ulcus the \voi;^j( rful, the wild ;

/ !iother siji;hs for liiraii'MV, aiul ^rrace,

And <^.>ntkst btinUy. Ilenec, win n lightning fires

IlK nrch ol' luiiven, atul thunilcrs rock liio ground,

Vv^Ikii i'urlous whirhviiiLis rend the howling uir,

And oceun, gruaijinj; i'roin its h)wept lujd,

Hei;\cs liis tenr,)) :,<liious billows to tlio slvy ; '

AiT.'l tlie mighty npi^xir, while below

Tho nations trtinbh^ Sliak^jpearo l(.x)ks abroad

l''ro:n some iii'jli cliiF superior, and enjoys

'1 he ekinentulnar. But Waller longs,

.Ml on ilie margin of sonic ilowery stream,

'I'o spread his careless limbs amid the cool

Of plantain slmdes, and to tlie listening deer

Tho titlo of slighted vows and loves disdain

Hcsaund soft warbling all the live-long day :

C'lnsenting Zephyr sighs ; tho weeping rill

Joins in his plaint, melodious ; mute the groves ;

And liill and dale with all their echoes mourn,

Such aud so various are the tastes of men.

Akensidi.

DETACHED PIECES.

Now, my co-mates*, and brothers in exile,
flath not old custom made this life more sweet
7 tian that of painted pomp ? Are not these woods
More free from peril than the envious court ?
Here feci we but the penalty of Adam,
The season's jdifFerence ; as the icy fang
And churlish chiding of the winter's wind,
"VVhich, when it bites and blows upon my body,

383

Even till I shrink with cold, 1 smile, and say—

This is no flattery ; thfiso am counsellors,

That foclinj^ly persuade rne what I am.

Swoot are the uses of adversity ;

Which, like the tojul, ujj;ly and venomous,

Wears yet a preciouH jiuvel in its head ;

And, this our life, exempt from puhlic haunts.

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks^

Sermons in stones, and good in every thing.

kSiiakspkare.

What you do
Still betters what is done. When you speak sweet,
I'd have you do it ever : wlien you sing,
I'd have you buy and sell so, so give alms,
Pray so ; arid for the ordering your affairs, »

To sing them too. Wlu !i you do dance, I wish you
A wave o' the sea, that you jnigiit ever do
Nothing hut that ; more still — still so.
And own no other function : each your doing
So singular in each particular,
Crowns what you arc doing in the present deeds,
That all your acts arc queens.

SUAKSPEARX*

Let me play the fool

With mirth and laughter ; so let wrinkles come,

And let my liver rather heat with wine,

Than my heart cool with mortifying groans.

Why should a man, whose blood is warm within.

Sit like his grandsirc cut in alabaster ?

Sleep when he wakes, and creep into the jaundice

By being peevish ? I tell thee what, Antonio,

(I love thee, and it is my love that speaks,)

There are a sort of men whose visages

Do cream and mantle like a standing pond,

884

And do a wilful stillness entertain,

With purpose to be dressed in an opinion

Of wisdom, gravity, profound conceit,

iVs who should say, I am Sir Oracle.

And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark I

I'll tell thee more of this another time ;

3ut fish not with this melancholy bait

For this fool's gudgeon, this opinion.

Come, good Lorenzo, fare you well a while ;

t'll end my exhortation after dinner.

^ Shaesfearb.

A fool, — a fool ! — I met a fool i' th' forest —

A motley fool ; — a miserable varlet ! —

As I do live by food, I met a fool, —

Who laid him down and basked him in the sun,

And railed on Lady Fortune in jjood terms,

In good set terms, and yet a motley fool.

Good-morrow, fool, quoth I : No, sir, quoth he,

Call me not fool, till heaven hath sent me fortune :

And then he drew a dial from his poke ;

And looking on it with lack-lustre eye^

Says, very wisely. It is tf n o'clock :

Thus may we see, quoth he, how the world wags :

And after one hour more 'twill be eleven ;

And so from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe,

And then from hour to hour, we rot and rot,

And thereby hangs a tale. When I did hear

The motley fool thus moral on the time.

My lungs began to crow like chanticleer,

That fools should be so deep-contemplative ;

And I did laugh, sans intermission.

An hour by his dial. O noble fool !

A worthy fool ! Motley's the only wear.

Shaksfeare'.

885

'»ipem3, madam! nay, it is: I know not seema.
Tis not alone my inky cloak, good mother,
Nor customary suits of solemn black.
Nor windy guspiration of forced breath ;
}^o, nor the fruitful riyer in the eye,
Nor the dejected 'haviour of the visage,
Together with all forms, modes, shows of grief,
That can denote me truly : tjie^e indeed seem,
For tney are actions that a man might play j
But I have that within which passeth show,
"^l^ese but the trappings and the suits of woe,

Shaksfxarb.

"^hy get thee gojie ! horror and night go with thee^
Sisters of Acheron, go hand in hand,
Go dance around the bower, and close them in ;
And tell them that I sent you to salute them.
Profane the ground, and for the ambrosial rose
J^nd breath of jessamine, let hemlock blackeiii^
And deadly nightshade poison nil the air:
For the sweet nightingale, may ravens croalc,
Toads pant, and udders rustle through the leaver;
May serpents winding up the trees let fall
Their hissing necks upon them from above,
And rpingle kisses — -such as I would give them.

<Vhy have those banished and forbidden legs
)ared once to touch a dust of England's ground ?
3ut more than why-;— why have they dared to mftrcl!
So many miles upon her peaceful bosom ;
Frightening her pale-faced villagers, with war^
And ostentatiou of despised arms ?
pomest thou because the anointed king f s henc^ '
VVhy, ^lish bov, the king is left behind ;
jl^^d in my loyal bosom lies his power.

38rt

Wero T but now the lonl of such hot youth,
48 wht'ii bravo Gaunt, thy Ikthfr, and myself,
Rescund the Hlnck Princo, thut young Mara of men
l^'roni forth the rardvs of miiny thousand French ;
Oh, then, liow quickly should this arm of mine,
Now prisoner to the pnlsy, chastise thee,
And minister correction to thy fault.

Shakspeare.

Many are the sayings of the wise,

Tu ancient and in modern books enrolled, '

Extolling putienco as the truest fortitude ;

And to the bearing well of all calamities,

AU chances incident to man's frail life,

Consolatries writ

liVith studied argument, and much persuasion sought,

Lenient of grief and anxious thought ;

But with the afflicted in his pangs their sound

Little prevails, or rather seems a time

Harsh aud of dissonant mood from his complaint ;

Unless he feels within

Some source of consolation from above.

Secret refreshings that repair his strength,

And fainting spirits uphold.

Milton.

ON MILTON'S BLINDNESS.

When I consider how my light is spent.

Ere half my days in this dark world, and wide,
And that one talent which is death to hide,
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more benf

To serve therewith my Maker and, present
My true account, lest he returning chide ;

" Doth God exact day-labour, light denied V*
I fondly ask ; but Patience, to prevent

387

That murmur soon replies, God jlotli not ne>ed
flither man's work, or hia own ^\{'\a ; who best
^ar liis mild yoke, they serve him best ; his state

Is kingly, thousands ut his bidding speed,
And pass o'er land and ocean without rest,
They also serve who only stand and wait

Milton.

CAPTAIN BOBADIL'S METHOD OF DEFEATING
,, AN AiiMV.

I will toll you, sir, by way of private and under seal,
I am a gentleman, and live here obscure and tornyself j
but were I known to his Mujosty and the Lords, ob.
serve me, I» would undertake, upon this poor head and
life, for the- public benefit of the state, not only to spare
the entire lives of his subjects in general, but to save
the one-half, nay three- fourths of his yearly charge in
holding war, and against what enemy soever. And hoM
would I do it think you? — Why thus, sir: — I would
select nineteen more to myself, throughout the land:
gentlemen they should be; of good spirit,' strong and
able constitution. I would choose them by an instinct
that I have. And I would teach these nineteen the
special rules ; as, your Punto, your Reverso, your Stoc-
cata, your Imbroccata, your Passada, your Montonto,
till they could all play very near, or altogether^ as wdll
as myself. This done, say the enemy were forty thou-
sand strong. We twenty would come into the field, the
tenth of March, or thereabout, and we would challenge
twenty of the enemy ; they could not in their honour
refuse us. Well — we would kill tiiem : challenge
twenty more — kill them : twenty more — kill them :
twenty more — kill them tno. And thus would we
kill every man his? ten a dsiv — ten a day, that's ten
score : ten score — ^that's two TTundred : two hundred a
day — ^five days a thousand — forty thousand — forty times

388^

five — Ave times forty — two hundred days, kill them all
by computation. And this I will venture my poor
gentleman-like carcass to perform (provided there be no
(treason practised upon us) by fair an4 discreet msR.
hood ; that is, civilly — by the sword.

Ben JoNSoif.

Til

AH
111
Ar

THE POST ARRIVES IN TlIE VILLAGE.

Hark ! 'tis the twanging horn ! o'er yoncjcr brittge,

That with its wearisome but needful length

Bestrides the wintry flood, in which the moon

Sees her unwrinkl'd face reflected bright.

He comes, the herald of a noisy world,

AVith spatter'd boots, strapi)'d waist and frozen locks,

News from all nations lumb'ring at his back.

True to his charge the close packed load behind,

Yet careless what he brings, his one concern

Ts to conduct it to the destined inn ;

And having dropp'd th' expected btig, pass on.

He whistles as he goes, light-hoartcd wretch,

Co'd, and yet cheerful ; nK^sscnger of grief

Pf rhaps to thousands, and of joy to some ;

T« him indifT'rent whether grief or joy.

Huuses in ashes, and the fall of stocks,

Births, deaths, marriages, epistles wet

With tears that trickled down the >yriter's cheeksi

Fast as the periods from his fluent quill,

Or charg'd with am'rous sighs of absent swains,

Or nymphs responsive, equally affect

tlis horse and him, unconscious of them all.

But oh, th' important budget ! ushered in

With such heart-shaking music, who can say

What are its tidings • have our troops awak'd f

Dr do they still as if with opium drugg'd,

Snore to the murmurs of th' Atlantic wave ?

^ I«dia free ? and does she wear her plum'4

i^tid joweU'd turban with a smile of peace ;

380

til

Or do we grind her still ? The ^rnnd debate,

The popular haruiiguc, lliu turt reply,

The logic, and iho wisdom, iind the wit,

And llio loud laugh — I long to know them all ;

[ hum to sf t 111' iniprison'd wriuigh is free,

And give thorn voico and uttonuujo onco ngain.

Now stir the fire, und close tho Hhuttors lust.

Let fall the curtains, wlu-rl the sofa round ;

And while the buhhling and loud hissing urn

Throws up a steamy ci)liaun, and the cups

That cluujr not to inohriato, wait on nach,

So let us wf'lcomo poaceful cv'ning in.

Not such his ev'iiiiig, who with shining face,

Sweats in tho crowded thcatro, and squeez'd

And bor'd with (dljow points through both his sides

Outscolds tho rantintr actor on tiic stajfe.

Nor his who patient stands till his feet throb

And his head thumps, to fucd upon the breath

Of patriots, bursting with lioroic rage.

Or placeman, all tranquillity and smiles,

This folio of four pages, happy work!

Which not e'en critics criticise, that holds

Inquisitive attention, wliilo I read,

Fast bound in chains of sih^nce, which the fair,

Though eloquent themselves, yot fear to break.

What is it but a map of busy lii'o,

Its fluctuations, and its vast concerns ?

Here runs the mountainous and craggy ridge

That tempts ambition. On the summit, see

The seals of office glitter in his eye ;

He climbs, he pants, he grasps them. At his

Close at his heels a demagogue ascends.

And with a dext'rous jirk soon twists him down

And wins them, but to lose them in his turn.

Here rills of oi'y -loquencc in soft

Meanders lubricate the course they take.

The modest speaker is asham'd and griev'd

T' engross a moment's notice : and yet

Begs a propitious ear for his poor thoughts,

ffowever trivial all that he conceives.

390

Sweet bashfulness! it chiims at last this prniso :

The dearth of iiiformalioii iind good sense

That it foretells us, always comes to pass.

Cataracts of dcclainutioii tliundcr Ix ro ;

The forests of no-ineaning spread the page

111 which all coniprelieiisioii wanders lotit ;

While fields of pleasantry amuse us there

With merry descants on a ualion's woes.

The rest Jippcars a wilderness of slrftnge

But gay confusion — roses fiir the cheeks

And lilies f()r the brow of faded ngc^

Teeth for the toothless, ringlets for the bald,

Heaven, earth, and ocean plunder'd of the sweets,

Nectareous essences, Olympian dewsj

Sermons and city feasts, and f'av'rile airs,

Ethereal journeys, submarine exploits

And Katerfelto,* with his iiair on end

At his own wonders, Wond'ring for his bread.

COWPER.

REPORT OF AN ADJUDGED CASE, NOT TO BE
FOUND IN ANY OF THE BOOKS.

Between No and Eyes a strange contest arose,
The spectacles set them unlmppily wrong ;
The point in dispute was, tv.-. all tlic world knows.
To which the said spectac'cs ought to belong.
So the tongue was the lawyer, and argued the cause.
With a great deal of skill, and a wig full of learning,
While chief baron Ear sat to balance the laws, ,

So famed for his talent in nicely discerning.
In behalf of the Nose, it will quickly appear,
And your lordship, he said, will undoubtedly find
That the Nose has had spectacles always in wear.
Which amounts to possession, time out of mind.
Then holding the spectacles up to the court —

» Katerfelto, a celebrated juggler.

301

Your lordship observes they are made with a strftddl*!
As wide as the ridge of the nosf* is ; in short
Designed to sit to it, just liice a suddlc.
Again would your lordship a momeht suppose
TTis a case that has happened and may be again)
That the visage or countenance had not a Nose,
Pray who would or who could wear spectacles then 7
On the whole it appears, and my argument shows,
With a reasoning the court will never condemn
That the spectacles plainly Were nifule for the Nose,
And the Nose was as plainly intended for them.
Then shifting his side, as the lawyer knows how, '
He pleaded again in behalf of the Eyes ;
But what were his arguments few people know,
For the world did not think they were equally wise
So his lordship decreed, with a grave solemn tone.
Decisive and clear, without one if or hut —
That whenever the Nose put his spectacles on,
By day-light or candle-light — Eyes should be shut.

CoWPEH

THE DESERTED WIFE.

He comes not^— I have watched the moon go down,

But yet he comes not. — Once it was not so :

He thinks not how these bitter tears do flow,

The while he holds his riot in thai; town.

Yet he will come and chide, and I shall weep.

And he will wake my infant from its sleep,

To blend its feeble wailings with my tears!

Oh how I love a mother's watch to keep,

O'er those sleeping eyes, that smile which cheenB

My heart, though sunk in sorrow fix'd and deep,

1 had a husband once who loved me — now,

He ever wears a frown upon his brow,

And feeds his passion on a wanton's life,

As bees from laurel flower a poison sip !

Put yet I cannot hate — O ^ there were hours,

303

When I would hang for ever on his eye,

And Time, who stole with silent sadness by,

Strew'd, as he hurried on, his path with flowers,

I loved him then, he loved nie too — my heart

Still finds its fondness kindle if he smile.

*rhe memory of our loves will ne'er depart !

And though he often sting me with a dart,

Venom'd and barb'd, and waste upon the vile

Caresses, whiph his babe and mine should share ;

Though he should spurn me, I will calmly bear

His madness — and should sickness come, and lay

Its paralysing hand upon him, then

I would, with kindness, all my wrongs repay,

Until the penitent should weep and say '.">;*

How injured and how faithful I bad been.

Anonymous.

">u.

GERTRUDE OF WYOMING.

On Susqueha^a's side, fair XVyoming !

Although the wild flower on thy ruin'd wall.
And roofless hoqfie^, a sad remembranoe bring

Of what thy gentle people did befall ;

Ye^ t|iou wert once the loveliest land of all
'rhat see the Atlantic wave th^ir morn restore. .

Sweet land ! may I thy lost delights recall.
And paint thy Gertrude in her bowers of yore
Whose beq,uty was the love of Pennsylvania's shore.

Delightful Wyoming! beneath thy skies,

The happy shepherd swains had nought to do,

But feed their flocks on green declivities,

Or skini perchance thy lake with light canoe,
From morn till evening's sweeter pastin^e grew, '

With timbrel, when beneath the forest'^ brown, * .
Thy lovely maidens would the dance renew.

And aye those sunny mountains half way down,

^ould echo flageolet from soipe rornantic to>yn.

r'^-^

(■.

393

Then whore of Indian Inlls, tlie dayliglit takes

IJis leave, how might you the flamingo see,
Disporting, like a meteor on the lakes,

And playful squirrel on his nut-grown tree;

And every sound of life was full of glee,
From merry mock- bird '^^ng, or hum of men.

While hearkening, fe^Wig nought their revelry,
The wild deer arch'd his neck from grades, and then,
Unhunted, sought his woods and wilderness agnin.

And scarce had Wyoming of war or crintie

Heard, but in trans-atlantic story rung,
For here the exile met from every clime,
' And spoke in frieijdship every distant ^ongue.

Men from the blood of warring Europe sprung.
Where but divided by the running brook;

And happy where no Hhenish trumpet sung.
On plains, no sieging niine's volcano shook,
The blue-eyed German changed his sword to pruning-
hook.

Here was not rningled in the city's pomp

Of life's extremes, the grandeur and the gloom,

Judgment awoke not fiere her dismal tromp,
Nor seal'd in blood a fellow-creature's doom.
Nor mourned the captive in a living tomb.

One venerajjle man beloved of all.

Sufficed, where innocence was yet in bloorp,
To sway the strife that seldom might befall ;

^nd Albert was their judge in patriarchal hall;*'

How reverend was the look, serenely aged.

He bore, this aged Pennsylvanian sire,
When all but kindly fervours were assuaged,

Undimm'd by weakness' shade or turbid ire |

And though, amidst the calm of thought entire,
Some high and haughty features might betray

A soul impetuous once, 'twas eartiily fire.
That fled composure's intellectual ray,
As iEtna' fires grow dim before the rising day.
■ Campbell.

394

LmBS WRITTEN IN A SEVERE FROST AND STRONG HAZB,
ON SUNDAY MORNING.

How drear and awful is this- solitude !

Nature herself' is surely defdj^nd o'er

Her cold and stiffened corse a Winding sheet,

Of bright unsullied purity, is thrown.

How still she lies ! she smiles, she breathes no more !

Yon drooping elm, whose pule and leafless boughs

O'erhang the stream, hath wept itself to death.

The stream that once did gaily dance and sing

The live-long day, now, stiff and silent, lies

Immoveable — congeal'd to glittering sli ingles,

'Tis beautiful in death ! That grove, which late

Did woo the merry stream with ceaseless music,

From morn till eve, with notes of thousand songsters.

And all the night with those melodi-ous strains^ .

With which lone Philomela tells her love,

Now silent stands a bleached skeleton.

The sky itself is shrouded ; now no more

The rosy blush of. health, the glow of rapture,

Or cheerful smile of peace her face illuiT[]ines ;

One sickly vivid hue 'is spread o*er all.

The veil of air wont not to hide, but show .;.

With mild and softening azure tint more sweet

The beauteous aspect of the varying heaven,

Is now become a foul and dense disguise.

The sun, that glorious source of warmth and light,

Arrested in his course, flares through thb dlih

And turbid atmosphere, as if expiring.

Nought else appears — it seems as though this spot .

"Were all creation, and myself the sole :.

Survivor. Oh! how awful thus to find ' . j

Myself alone with God— to know and feel

That his all-seeing, his all-searching eye,

Surveys my inmost thoughts ! How little, now.

Appear the mighty joys, the hopes and fears,

Pursuits and pleasures of a transient world !

A world wherein, till now, like other men,

^-^

895

I've toiled and grieved, with many anxious oares,
But where I too have loved and been beloved,
With more of happiness than oft is found
In this probationary state. With Him
Who gave me all, and day by day, hath still.
With kind parental care my life preserved.
To stand alone is awful, but not dreadful.
Nay, sure, 'tis more than earthly bliss, here, thus
To hold communion with my heavenly Father.
Witness this heart, with gratitude o'ercharged.
Which pleads and presses to present its thanks :
Witness these tears which thus uncall'd obtrude,
And half congeal M, fall to the frozen earth.
An humble offering at the throne of grace :
Witness this sweet, serene, and holy calm.
At once bespeaking and befitting for
The presence of my Maker ; semblance faint
Of happiness to come, when bliss supreme
Shall be the portion of these ransom 'd saints,
Who through eternity shall join to raise
Loud hallelujahs to their heavenly King.

Anonymous.

ON THE EFFECTS OF TIME AND CHANGE.

Of chance or change O let not man complain,

Else shall he never,, never cease to wail ;

For, from the imperial dome, to where the swain

Rears the lone cottage in the silent dale.

All feel the 'assault of Fortune's fickle gale ,

Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed ;

Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale,

And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entombed,

And where the Atlantic rolls, wide continents have

bloomed.
But sure to foreign climes we need not range.
Nor search the ancient records of our race.
To learn the dire effects of time and change,
Which in ourselves alas ! we daily trace.

396

Yet at the darkened eye, the withered face,
Or hoary hair I never will repine :
But spare, oh time, whate'er of mental grace,
Of candour, love, or sympathy divine,
Whate'er of fancy's ray or friendship's flame is mine.

Beattie.

MUTUAL FORBEARANCE, NECESSARY TO THE
OF THE MARRIED STATE.

HAPPINESS

The Lady thus address'd her spouse^
What a mere dungeon is this house !
By no means large enough ; and was it
Yet this dull room, and that dark closet,
Those hangings, with their worn out graceSi
Long beards, long noses, and pale faces,'
Are such an antiquated scene.
They overwhelm me with the spleen.

. Sir Humphrey, shooting in the dark,
Makes answer quite beside the mark ;
No doubt, my dear ; I bade him come,
Engag'd myself to be at home.
And shall expect iiini at the door.
Precisely when the clock strikes four.

, You are so deaf, the lady cried,
(And rais'd her voice, and frown'd beside,)
"You are so sadly deaf, my dear,
What shall I do to make you hear !
Dismiss poor Harry ! he replies,
Some people are more nice than wise ;
For one. slight trespass all this stir !
What if he did ride, whip, and spur?
'Twas but a mile — ^your fav'rite horse
Will never look one hair the worse.—
Well I protest, 'tis past all bearing !
dhild, I am rather hard of hearing !

Yes truly— one must scream and bawl,*^
1 tell you, you can't hear at all.

S9T

Tiien with a voice exceeding low,
No matter if, you hear or no. ,
Alas ! and is domestic strife,
That sorest ill of human life,
A plague so little to be fear'd,
As to be wantonly incurr'd ;
To gratify a fretful passion,
On every trivial provocation ?
The kindest and the happiest pair
Will find occasion to forbear.
And something every day they li?6
To pity, and perhaps forgive.
But if infirmities that fall
In common to the lot of all;,
A blemish, or a sense impair'd,
Are crimes so little to be spar'd.
Then farewell all that must create
The comfort of the wedded state.
Instead of harmony, 'tis jar
And tumult, and intestine war,
The love that cheers life's latest stage^
{*roof against sickness and old age,
Preserv'd by virtue from declension,
Becomes not weary of attention ;
But lives when that exterior grace,
Whiteh first inspired the flame decays.
*Tis gentle, delicate, and kind,
To faults compassionate or blind,
And will with sympathy endure
Those evils it would gladly cure :
But angry, coarse, and harsh expression.
Shows love to be a mere profession,
Proves that the heart is none of his,
Or soon expels him if it is.

g^/ COWMt

39S

THE CONVICT SHIP.

Morn on the waters ! and purple and bright

Bursts on the billows the flashing of light ;

O'er the glad waves, like a child of the sun,

See the tall vessel goes gallantly on ;

Full to the breeze she unbossoms her sail,

And her pennon streams onward like hope in the gale ;

The v/ind come around her, in murmur and song,

And the surges rejoice as they bear her along.

See she looks up to the golden edged clouds,

And the sailor sings gaily aloft in her shrouds.

Onwards she glides amicl ripple and spray,

Over the waters, away and away! ' ":' ■

Bright as the visions of youth ere they part

Passing away, like a dream of the heart ! '.;,

Who, as the beautiful pageant sweeps by, '. ' '

Music around her, and sunshine on high, '

Pauses to think amid glitter and show, . •

Oh ! there be hearts that are breaking below !

Night on the waves ! and the morn is on high.
Hung like a gem on the brow of the sky.
Treading its depths in the power of her might.
And turning the clouds, as they pass her, to light ;
Look to the waters ! asleep on her breast.
Seems not the ship like an island of rest ? *

Bright and alone on the shadowy main,
Like a heart-cherished home on some desolate plainj
Who, as she smiles in the silvery light,
Spreading her wings on the bosom of night.
Alone on the deep, as the moon in the sky,
A phantom of beauty, could deem with a sigh,
That so lovely a thing is the mansion of sin,
And souls that are smitten, lie bursting within ?
Who, as he watches her silently gliding.
Remembers that wave after wave is dividing
Bosoms that sorrow and guilt could not sever,
Hearts that are parted and broken for ever ?

■ MW |i| .| II J I

•«ikM««(M<

399

Or dreams that he watches, afloat on the ware,
The death-bed of hope, or the young spirit's grave I .

'Tis thus with our life, as it passes dong,
Like a vessel at sea, amid sunshine snd song,
Gaily We- glide in the gaze of the world.
With streamers afloat, and with canvas unftirled ;
All gladness and glory to wondering eyes,
Yet chartered by sorrow and freighted with Sighs:
Fading and false is the aspect it wears,
As the smiles we put on, just to cover our iears,
And the withering thoughts that the world cannbt know,
Like heart-broken exiles lie bumins below ;
Whilst the vessel drives on to that desolate shore.
Where the dreams of our childhodd are vanished and o'er.

T. K. Hbrybt.

CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENCE.

Wouldst thou from sorrow find a sweet relief?

Or is thy heart oppressed With woes untold ?

Balm wouldst thou eather for corroding grief;

Pour blessings round thee like a shower of gold.

'Tis when the rose is wrapt in many a fold

Close to its heart the worm is wasting there

It6 life and beauty ;. not when, all unroU'd

Leaf after leaf, its bosom, rich and fair,

Breathes freely its perfumes throughout the ambient air.

Some hiffh or humble enterprise of good,
Contemplate till it shall possess thy mind.
Become thy study, pastime, rest, and food,
And kindle in thy heart a flame refined.
Pray Heaven for firmness thy whole soul to bind
To this thy purpose — ^to be^in, pursue.
With thoughts all fixed, and feelings purely kind,
Strength to complete, and with delight review.
And grace to give the praise where all is due.

^f-

..^. /

wi -im w il

400

No ^pod of worth sublime will Heaven permit

To light on man as from the passing air ;

The lamp of genius, though by nature lit,

If not protected, pruned, and fed with care

Soon dies, or runs to waste with fitful glare ;

And learning is a plant that spreads and towera

Slow as Columbia's aloe, proudly rare.

That 'mid gay thousands, with the suns and showeii

Of half a century, grows alone before it flowers.

Beware lest thou from sloth that would appear

But lowliness of mind, with joy proclaim

Thy want of worth ; a charge thou could'st not bear,

From other lips without a blush of shame.

Or pride indignant ; then be thine the blame,

And make thyself of worth ; and thus enlist

The smiles of all the good, the dear to fame;

'Tis infamy to die and not be miss'd.

Or let all soon forget that iJiou didst e'er exist.

Rouse to some work of high and holy love,
And thou an angel's happiness shall know-
Shall bless the earth while in the world above,
The good begun by thee shall onward flow,
In many a branching stream, and wider grow,
The seed that in these few and fleeting hours,
Thy hands unsparing and unwearied sow.
Shall deck thy gr^ve with amaranthine flowers,
And yield thee fruit divine in heaven's immortal boweni.

WlLC^ :

THE LAST MINSTREL.

The way was long, the wind was cold,
The Minstrel was infirm and old ;
Etis withered cheek, and tresses gray,
Seemed to have known a better day ;
The harp, his sole remaining, joy.
Was cftrried'by an orphan poj ;

I^M-

■^r*
^

40 i

The last of uU the Bards was lie,

Who sung of Border chivalry.

For well a day ! their date was fled,

His 'tuneful brethren all were dead ;

And he .neglected and oppress'd,

Wished to be with them and at rest.

No more on prancing palfrey borne,

He carolled, light as lark at morn;

No longer courted and caressed,

High placed in hall, a welcome guest,

He poured, to lord and lady gay.

The unpremeditated lay ;

Old times were changed, old maimers goM^

A. stranger filled the Stuart's throne,

The bigots of the iron time

Mad called the harmless art a crime.

A. wandering Harper, scorned and poor,

tie begged his bread from door to door,

knd tuned, to please a peasant's ear,

l*he harp, a king had loved to hear.

He passed where Newark's stately tower
Cooks out from Yarrow's birchen Tjower ;
riie minstrel gazed with wishful eye.
No humbler resting place was nigh ;
With hesitating step, at last, '

The embattled portal afch he passed.
Whose pond'rous grate, and massy bar
Had oft rolled back the tide of war,
But never closed the iron door
Against the desolate and poor.
, The ducness marked liis weary pace.
His timid mien, and reverend face,
And bade her page the menials tell.
That they should tend the old man Well :
For she had known adversity.
Though born in such a high dfegree ;
In pride of power and beauty's bloom.
Had wept o'er Monmouth's bloody tomb !

' ' 34* Scott.

•

#^^■

408

IHE MORAL CHANGE ANTICIPATED BY HOPE

Hope, when I mourn with sympathising mind,
The wrongs of fate, the woes of human kind, ,
Thy blissful omens bid my spirit see
The boundless fields of rapture yet to be ;
I watch ths wheels of Nature's mazy plan,
And learn the future by the past of man.
Come bright improvement ! on the car of Time,
And rule the spacious world from clime to clime.
Thy handmaid arts shall every wild explore,
Trace every wave, and culture every shore.
On Erie's banks where tigers steal alone.
And the dread Indian chants a dismal song,
Where human fiends on midnight errands walk,
And bathe in brains the murderous tomahawk.
There shall the f^ocHs on thy my pastures stray >
And shepherd's dance at summer's opening day ;
Each wandering genius of the lonely glen.
Shall start to view the glittering haunts of men.
And silent watch, on woodland heights around,
The village curfew as it tolls profound.
Where barbarous hordes on Scythian mountains roam
Truth, Mercy, Freedom, yet shall find a home ;
Where'er degraded nature bleeds and pines.
From Guinea's coast to Sabir's dreary mines.
Truth shall pervade the unfathomed darkness there,
And light the dreadful features of despair-
Hark ! the stem captive spurns his heavy load,
And asks the image back that heaven bestowed ;
Fierce in his eye, the fire of valour bums.
And as the slave departs, the man returns.

Campbbll.

•

■w

4f)t

THE SNOW FLAK13.

•* Now, if I fa 1, will it be my lot

To be cast in some low and lonely spot,

To melt, and to sink unseen or Ibrgot ?

And then will my course bo ended V
'Tvvas thus u feathery snow-flake said,
As down througli the measureless space it strayed,
Or, as half by dalliance, half afraid.

It seemed in mid air suspended.

" O, no," said the Earth, " thou shalt not lie,
Neglected and alone, on my lap to die,
Thou pure and delicate child of the sky ;

For thou wilt be safe in my keeping :
But, then, I must give tnee a lovelier form ;
Thou'lt not be a part of the wintry storm.
But revive when the sun-beams are yellow and warm,

And the flowers from my bosom are peeping.

"And then thou shalt have thy choice to be
RestorW in the lily that decks the lea,
In the jessamine blossom, the anemone.

Or aught of thy spotless whiteness j
To melt and be cast in a glittering bead,
With pearls that the night scatters over the mead,
In the cup where the bee and the firefly feed.

Regaining thy dazzling brightness.

"Or wouldst thou return to a home in the skies,
To shine in the Iris, I'll let thee arise,
And appear in the many and glorious dyt s

A pencil of sunbeams is blending.
But true fair thing, as my name is JEarth,
I'll give thee a new and vernal birth.
When thou shalt recover thy primal worth,

And never regret descending !"

404

" Then I will drop," saiil the trusting fluke ;
" But boar in mind that tho choice I make
Is not in the flowers, on the dew to awake,

Nor the mist that shall pass with tho morning ;
For things of thyself they expire with thee ;
But those that are lent from on high, like me,
They rise and will live, from thy dust set free,

To the regions above returning.

" And if true to thy word, and just thou art.
Like the spirit that dwells in tho holiest heart,
Unsullied by thee, thou will let me depart.

And return to my^native heaven;
For I would be placed in the beautiful bow.
From time to time, in thy sight to glow.
So thou mayfst remember the flake of snow,

By the promise that God hath given."

GOVLO*

TO A WATERFOWL.

Whither midst fallipg dew.
While glow the heavens with the last steps of day
Far through their rosy depths dost thou pursue ^

Thy solitary way ?

Vainly the fowler's eye
Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong,
As darkly painted on the crimson sky.

Thy figure floats along.

Seek'st thou the plashy brink
Of weedy lake or margin of river wide.
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink

On the chafed ocean side.

There is a power whose care
Teaches thy way along that pathless coast—
The desert and illimitable air —

Lone wandering, but not lost.

4()r>

All day thy wiiign liavo faiiiuHi,
At timt far hoi^^ht, the cold, thin atmOHplicre :
fet, stoop not, weary, to the weloomo land

Tliough tho dark night is near.

And soon that toil shall end ;
60 shalt thou And a summor home, and rest,
And scream among thy fellows ; reeds shall bend

Soon o*er thy sheltered nest.

Thou'rt gone, the abyss of heaver^
Hath swallowed up thy form ; yet on my heart
Deeply hath sunk the lesison thou hust given

And shall not soon depail.

He who from zonQ to zone
Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,
In the long way that I must tread alone,
^ Will lead my steps aright.

BUYANT.

THE BLIND MOTHER.

Gently, deur motI>er, here
The bridge is broken near thee, and below
The waters with a rapid current flow —

Gently, and do not fear j
Lean on me, mother — plant thy staflf before thee,
For she who loves thee most is watching o'er thee.

The green leaves as we pass
Lay their light fingers on thee unaware,
And by thy side the hazel clusters fair,

And the low forest grass
Grows green and lovely, where the wood paths wind, w
Alas, for thee, dear mother, thou art blind.

»*'i

4l)«

. Aiul nature iw all biij;lit ;
And tite faint gray and crinuson of llic duwn,
Like folded curtains from the day are drawn ;

And evening's dewy light
Quivers in tremulous softness on the sUy —
Alas, dear mother, for thy clouded oyo i

And the kind look of friends
Peruse the sad expression in ihy face, '
And the child stops umid his bounding race,

And the tall stripling bends
Low to thine ear with duly uuforgot —
klas, dear mother, that thou seo'st them not !

But tiiou canst hear — and lovo
•lay richly on a human tongue be poured,
And the slight cadence of a whispered word

And daughter's love may prove ;
And while I speak thou knowost it'l smile
Albeit thou dost not see niy face ti\e while.

Yes — thou canst hear — and IJe
Who on thy sightless eye its darkness hung,
To the attentive ear like harps haih strung

Heaven, and earth, and sea !
And 'tis" a lesson in our hearts to know,
With but one sense the soul may overflow !

Anonymous.

U
A

B
A

SONG FOR MAY-DAY.

It is May ! it is May !
And all earth is gay,
For at last old Winter is quite away !
He linger'd awhile in his cloak of snow,
^To we the delicate primrose blow ;
^ He saw it, and made no longer stay—

And now it is May ! it is May !-

4OT

It is May ! it is May
And we bless the day
When we first delightfully so can say,
April had beams amid her showers,
Yet bare were her gardens, and cold her bowers ;

And her frown would blight, and her smile
betray —
But flow it is) IVIay ! it is ^ay !

.»

It is May ! it is May ?
And the slenderest spray
Holds up a few leaves to the ripening ray :
And the birds sing fearlessly out on high
For there is not a cloud in the calm blue sky,

And the villc^ers join in their roundelay— >
For, O ! itf is Ma^ ! it is IVf ay ! /

It is May ! it is May !
And the flowers obey
The beams which alone are more bright than
they:
Up they spring at the touch of the sun.
And opening their sweet eyes, one by one,

In a language of beauty they seem all to say-
Ana otpcrfumes ! — 'tis May ! it is May I

It is May ! it is May !
And delights that lay
Chill'd and enchained beneath Winter's sway,
Break forth again o'er the kindling soul ;
And soften and sooth it, and bless it whole ;

■ Oh thoughts more tender than words convey
Sigh out — It is May ! it is May !

ANONYMOUt.

.')

408

yaE SILENT GLEN.

This silent i(\en, this silent glen,

Oh how 1 love its solitude !
Far from those busy haunts of men,

Far from the heartlegs multitude ;
No eye save nature's sovereign beam ;
No breath, but heaven's, to break the dream |
No voice, but yonder babbling stream.

Dares on the ear intrude.

The peace — the peace of graves is here ;

O that it would but last !
But man lives like the waning year.

Till joy's last leaf is past :
His bliss, like autumn plants, of power
To flourish for a transient hour.
Ere the bud ripens to a flower.

Dies on the wintry blast.

Yon alder tree — see how she courts

The zephyrs as they stray ;
Yet every breeze with vhich she sports

Scatters a leaf away :
So man will wreaths of pleasure crave,
Though with each flower a thorn she gave»
And the last leaves him in the grave,
' To coldness and decay :

How fearfully that hollow blast

Raved round the mountains hoar ;
Rufiled the wave, in fury pass'd
The heath — and was no more !
Such is the fame of mortal man-
In pride and fury it began.
Yet sooner even than life's brief spaq,
The empty noise was o'er.

And even to those for whom is spread

Joy's, banquet richly crown'd.
This world is but a gorgeous bed,

Where in fast slumber bound,

400

Pomp s gaudy trappings spread beneath,
They dream away life's fleeting breath,
Till night comes closing in, and death
Draws his dark drapery round.

Henet Nbeli

■■I

WHO IS MY NEIGHBOUR T

Thy neighbour ? It is he whom thou

Hast power to aid and bless.
Whose aching heart or burning brow
Thy soothing hand may press.

Thy neighbour ? Tis the fainting poor,

Whose eye with want is dim.
Whom hunger sends from door to door ;

Gro thou and succour him.

Thy neighbour ? *Tis that weary man,

Whose years are at their brim.
Bent low with sickness, cares, and pain ;

Go thou and comfort him. ^

Thv neighbour ? 'Tis the heart bereft
, Of every earthly gem ;
Widow and orphan, helpless left :—
Go thou and shelter them.

Thy neighbour 1 Yonder toiling slayoi

Fettered in thought and limb,
Whose hopes are all beyond the grave :

Go thou and ransom him.

Oh, pass not, pass not heedless by ; ,

Perhaps thou canst redeem
The breaking heart from misery :

Oh share Siy lot with him.

AifoKfirooii*

TAB BNM.