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Les diagrammes suivants illustront la mAthode. f errata «i to It le pelure, pon A ■ n 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 " ■wr ': »' j w* — . 'WW if*< ife/ ^ i^-^-:' (f 1^' m S«P y THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANT S, ooeanioa'. '^ .0) "0 d 1^ BY fiLISfiE REOLUS. EDITED BT A. H. KEANE. B. A., rirm-^n,^ anthbop. ik8t,tc«; cok. m.mb. mu^^ ^„ w.shinoton ^thbop soc • hbo^ho. „. " *• N.? ILLUSTRATED BY mJliEJiOUS ENOSAVINOS AND MAPS. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 8, AND B BOND STREET. 1890. I •^^''^■•^^•''^■'■'•* «*^ ^ '' f*t*is^ C^\\ l^^^.v V, 1^ tmmSBt 1 I - i .J^ ^ .r "" "■ ^B^J'Tf^l^F^- :i;.vi,>j|fc. "I • ii w i i ii m ii i i ri ii m iH*imiMiM i^ m — ^->r-^Tiii Ss^m^S^mm M i mummaa ^^f^ 1 1 ■^»^9Bl9k JjvM^|liwH^M^^^9n .^.-..INinllllUlll!.], i J ■j^ V COl^TENTS. PAOB 1—39 40—63 CBAr. I. The Oceanic Hekisfrebb .* Extent and Formation of the Oceanic Basins, p. 1. The Antarctic Lands, p. 4. Oceanic Exploration, p. 6. Cook's Voyages, p. 10. Exploration of the Antarctic Waters, p. 12. Bathymetric Researches, p. 16. Atmospheric Currents, p. 20. Marine Currents, p. 23. Drift Ice, Icebergs, and Floes, p. 25. Volcanic Agencies, p. 28. Coralline Formations, Atolls, p. 30. Oceanic Flora, p. 34. Inhabitants of the Oceanic Regrions, p. 37. • . 'f-«- II. The Maboabenbas — R^uinoN, Maubitius, Rodbioues Flora and Fauna, p. 41. Inhabitants,' ;|k;,42 a Mauritius, p. 43. Reunion, p. 46. Rodrigues, p. 52. The Keeling Islands, p."64. Christmas, Amsterdam, and St. ■ ,"" Paul, p. 66. The Austral Islands, p. 69. Marion, Prince Edward, the Crozets, and Eerguelen, p 60. Macdonald and Heard, p. 63. In. Insonebia. (The Eastebn Abohipeia.(K)) 64 — 242 GteneralSurvey, p. 64. Historic Retrospect, p. 67. Progress of Exploration, p. 69. Climate, p. 70. Flora, p. 71. Fauna, p. 73. Inhabitants, p. 76. Sumatra and Neighbouring Islands, p. 79. Physical Features of Sumatra, p. 80. Erakatau, p. 87. Rivers of Sumatra, p. 90. The West and East Sumatran Islands, p. 92. Flora and Fauna, p. 94. Inhabitants, p. 96. The Battas, p. 96. The Menangkabaos and other Sumatran Malays, p. 101. The Nias and Mentawey Islands, p. 103. Topog^phy of Sumatra, p. 106. Administration, p. 116. Sunda Islands between Sumatra and Borneo, p. 116. Bangka, p. 117. BiUiton, p. 119. Borneo, p. 120. Exploration, Political Divisions, p. 121. Physical Features, p. 123. Rivers, p. 126. Climate, p. 130. Flora, p. 131. Fauna, Inhabitants, p. 132. Dutch Borneo, p. 137. Brunei and British Borneo, p. 142. Labuan, Sarawak, p. 144. North Borneo, p. 146. Java and Madura, p. 149 Volcanoes, p. 160. Rivers, p. 162. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 164-5. Inhabitants, p. 166. Topography, p. 182. Administration, p. 193. Bali, p. 196. Lombok, p. 201. Sambawa, p. 203. Flores, Solor, Allor, p. 206. Sumba, p. 208. Tunor and Rotti, p 209. Serwatty, p. 215. Tenimber and Eei, p. 216. Celebes and Adjacent Islands, p. 219. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 224. Inhabitants, p. 224. The Southern Moluccas : Buru, Ceram, Amboyna, Bauda, p. 229. The Northern Moluccas : Obi, Batjan, Tidor, Temate, Halmahera, Morotai, p. 236. IV. The Fhiuppineb aot) Sulu 243—273 Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 262. Inhabitants, p. 263. Topography, p. 261. Administration, p. 270. V. MiOBONEsiA 274—292 The Mariana (Ladrone) Islands, p. 274. Pelew (Falaos), p. 277. The Caroline Islands, p. 280. "w . ' t 'i sy^'iyi.J i'"- ^ !>: r?::- iv CONTENTS. CBAF. ,A01 VI. New Guisea and Adjacent Islands (Patuasia) 293 — 317 ProgreHS of Discovery, p. 293. Physical Features, p. 297. Rivers and Islands, p. 300. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 301. Inhabitants, p. 303. Topography, p. 306. British Now Guinea, p. 311. German Fossessions in New Guinea, p. 31d. VII. Mbianesia 318 — 361 Admiralty Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, p. 318. Physical Features, p. 319. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 323. Inhabitants, p. 324. Santa Oruz and the New Hebrides, p. 330. Inhabitants, p. 333. New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, p. 337. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 341. Inhabitants, p. 343. Topography, p. 347. VIII. ArsTiiAUA AND Tashania 352 — 420 General Survey, p. 352. Progress of Discovery, p. 363. Physical Features, p. 358. Rivers and Lakes, p. 366. Climate, p. 368. Flora, p. 371. Fauna, p. 374. Inhabitants, p. 375. Eoonomio Condition, p. 387. Western Australia, p. 396. South Australia, p. 398. Queensland, p. 403. New South Wales, p. 407. Victoria, p. 414. Tasmania, p. 418. IX. New /eaulnd and Neiouboubino Islasds 421 456 Physical Features of South Island, p. 424. Physical Features of North Island, p. 430. Climate, p. 437. Flora, p 438. Fauna, p. 439. Inhabitants, p. 440. Topography, p. 448. X. The Fiji Islands 457 455 General Survey, p. 467. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 469. Inhabitants, p. 460. Topography and Administration, p. 464. XI. EaUATOBIAL POLTNESIA . . . _ 466 — 488 General Survey, p. 466. Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 473. Inhabitants, p. 474. Tonga, p. 483. Samoc, p. 483. Tahiti, p. 485. Tuamotu, the Marquesas, p. 487. XII. Hawaii (The Sandwich Islamds) 489 — 497 General Survey, p. 489. Mauna-Loa, p. 490. Maui, p. 492. Flora, Fauna, p. 494-6. Inhabitants, p. 496. Topography, p. 497. Appendix 498 Index 606 yy^.M' r-^'^i ip VII II i :if > i ii ll ii iiW i» i«ii i ,fi i ji i "i iii iw i WMut LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. M ^ MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS. PAUR Equatorial Africa 1 Sunda Strait 184 Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand . . 352 Moa Sydney and Environs 408 New Zealand and the Smaller Polynesian Groups 456 PLATES. Group of Natives, North Queensland FrmtiUpieee View taken at Tasman Peninsula To face page 8 Port Moresby, South Coast of New Guinea . 20 Louis-Philippe Land, Antarctic Ocean . . 34 Port Louis — Statue of Bourdonnais . . 44 Piton D'Enohein, Reunion .... 48 Saint-Denis, Reunion 50 Island of St. Paul — ^View taken from the North-East 68 Dayak Dwellings on the Rejang, West Borneo 64 Falembang — ^View taken near the Elraton in the Sacred Grove 112 Dayak Women, Borneo . . . . .136 The Bromo Volcano, Dasar District, J«va . 160 Street View in Batavia .182 Village of Tjimatjan, near Tjanjnr, Java 186 View taken from the Genting Bridge, Surabaya 192 General View of Menado .... 228 Amboyna 232 Banda-Niera and Great Banda . . 234 Greneral View of Mount Mayon . . 246 Pueblo of Civilised Natives, Manilla District . 262 Port of Manilla — General View . 262 Village of Saypan — Mariana Islands . . 276 South-Eaat New To face page .Santa-Ana Natives, taken from the Ar- Group of Koyari Chiefs, Guinea Tambu and Group " Solomon Archipe^ . ;> General View of Nonme- tillery Barracks ... View taken in the Blue Mountains, Australia . View taken at Middle - Harbour, Sydney Bay Victoria Scenery — Forest near Femshawe, North-East of Melbourne General View of Sandhurst (Bendig^), Vic- toria General View of Hobart, Tasmania . General View of Laimoeston, Tasmania . Sources of the Waimakariri, New Zealand The Pink Terrace of Roto-Mahana before the Eruption of 1886 Queenstown and Lake Wakatipu . General View of Levuka, Fiji Archipelago Landscape in the Tuamotu Archipelago . View taken at Moorea, under Mount Rutui, Tahiti View of Waimea, Kauai Island, Hawaii . 304 324 346 360 408 414 416 418 420 426 434 462 464 473 486 496 I vi l^wt^^-rtf-'f "-^T- ^ i [ifAlm j mH l Cfii\mi^^. y.j^jj i ^. inff' **> .! ■ » »> . . LIST OF ILLUHTIIATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ■-.'• 48. 49. _ r t "': "■ . ■ .*■ s ' ' '^4iMHbn no. FAuc no. 1 . Tlic (Jnuit Ocpaiiio Hominphoro (Wontom 50. Sci^tion) 2 61. 2. Tlio Uroiit Ocoiinio Homiitphcre (Eautom 62. H<«ti(m) 3 63. .3. ExplorutioiiH of the Pnoiflc ... 7 64. 4. F'THt Circiuiiniivi^atioii of th« Olobo from 66. WcHt t<) EiiHt utul Ewtt to Wpitt . . 10 66. 6. DjiteH of tho Cliief DiitooverieH in Oceania . 1 1 67. 0. ExplorationH in tho South Polar Watem . 13 68.' 7. Northern I'romontory of tho Antarctic 69. Mainland 16 00. 8. DepthH of the AuHtral .ScaH . . . 17 61. 9. I(!o Field traced by Duinont D'Urville . 26 62. 10. Vol(janoo« of tho Pacific .... 29 63. 11. Zone of the Coralline IwlandM . .31 64. 12. MauritiiiB 44 66. 13. Port LouiH 46 66. 14. The Grand BrOlo 47 67. 16. The Throe Cirques . . . . 49 68. 10. The Mabika of St. Denis ... 60 17. St. Pierre 61 69. 18. R<)drijfue8 63 70. 19. Keeling iHlands . . . ,66 20. Amsterdam 67 71. 21. St. Paul 68 72. 22. Kerguelen 61 73. 23. Indonesian Submarine Plateau . .66 74. 24. Comparative Areas of Holland and tho 75. Dutch East Indies 68 76. 26. Parting Line of the Indonesian Faunas . 74 77. 26. Inhabitants of Indonesia . . .77 78. 27. PuLo Bbass Liohthouse, Sumatra . . 81 79. 28. The Merapi Volcanic Range ... 83 80. 29. Krakatau and Neighbouring Islets before 81. the Eruption . . . .86 82. 30. Krakatau and Neighbouring Islets after 83. the Eruption 87 84. 31. Range of Dispersion of the Krakatau Ashes 88 86. 32. Stbameb bobne on the Keakatac Wavb 86. INLAND to Telokh-Betono ... 89 87. 33. Alluvial Plains of the Musi Basin . . 92 88. 34. A SuMATBAN JuNOLE— View taken in the 89. State of Deli 93 90. 35. Obano Batta 96 91. 36. Obano Atjeh . . . . . .97 92. 37. Lake Toba and the Batta Country . .98 93. 38. Inhabitants of Sumatra . . . .100 94. 39. Kota-Kaja and Oleh-leh . . . .107 96. 40. Padang and Environments . . .100 96. 41. Highlands East of Padang . . .110 97. 42. Palembang ill 98. 43. Deli 114 99. 44. Riouw Archipelago 116 100*. 45. Bangka -118 101. 46. Kira-Balu 124 102. 47. Barito Delta 128 103. Scene in BoBifEO, neab, Sarawak . . 129 104. Navigable Streams and Chief Routes of I Explorers in Borneo .... 131 I 106. Dayak Tyi'es, Borneo . . . . Banjennassin ...... On the River Ajcandit, Dnron Borneo Ijower Course of the Mahakkam Brunei Sarawak Saiidakan Chief Volcanoes in Java .... Oede Volcano ...... Javanese Landscape — Mount Gede . Diong ....... Ounong Sewu South- West Slopes of Kelut . Tongger and Someru .... Lemongan Nusa Kembangan . . , . Inhabitants of Java Emfebor and Empress of Surakarta Comparative Increase of Population in Java and Holland Coffee Plantation; Java Zones of AVet and Dry Rice Fields and Coffee Plantations on Mount Sumbing . Teak Forests, Semarang and Surabaya . Railways in Java Steamship Lines in Indonesia . Bataviain 1028 Batavia and Port of Tanjong Priok . Semarang Magelang and Buru-Budhur . Merapi and Jokjokarta .... Patjitan Surabaya and Madura Strait . Administrative Divisions of Java Bali Palaob of the Sultan of Bitlelano, Bau Lombok Strait Central Part of Sumbawa Larantuka Strait Timor and Neighbouring Islands View in a Foeest near Kufano, Timor Kupang Tenimber Explored Regions of Celebes . Saleyer Minahassa ...... The Tondano Cascade, Minabasba Macassar and South -west Region of Celebes Administrative Divisions of Celebes Bum Port of Amboyna Kilwaru Banda Oroup Empires of Temate and Tidor . Temate, Tidor, and Dadinga Isthmus View taken at Ternate Density of the Population in Dutch Indonesia Political Divisions of Indonesia rAoa 133 l.'iH 130 141 143 146 147 160 162 163 166 167 168 100 161 163 167 169 171 176 178 179 181 182 183 184 187 188 189 190 192 194 197 199 201 204 207 210 212 I 214 217 220 221 222 223 226 228 230 233 234 236 237 238 239 240 241 Hwm*' ii iMii{ i iy i!i j, i f iw< m t m e mwioi mc '»»'>'i'm)mmmmmtmtsm LIST OF ILLUSTUATIONS. vii FtO. rAoa nu. l(l(i Tho thoH) iHthniumjH of Indoiu'nia and the 103. rhilippint-H 244 101. 107 HouthKni I'nrt of Luzon . . , . 247 106. 108 Central Part of Luzon .... 248 100. 109 Lako HomlHHi ...... 240 167. 110. Karthquake of 1*80 251 lOH. HI. Oboup of Nimjiutom .... 264 109. 112. Cliief InhabitantH of the Philippines 265 170. 11.1 Ifuoao Indian 257 171. 114. Manilla 2U2 172. 115. EnvironH of Manilla .... 204 173. 110. Sainar and Leyto 266 174. 117. Ilo-Ilo and Strait of GuimoraH 267 176. 118. Sulu Archip«laKo 209 170. 110. Donoity of Population of the PhilippinoH . 271 177. 120. Provincial Diviwonn of the PhilippinoH . 272 178. 121. Mariana Archipelago .... 275 179. 122. Pelew iHlundM 278 180. 123. Genbbai, View of Ualan 281 181. 124. Ruk lHland« 283 182. 126. Yap . . 286 183. 12G. Ponapo 287 184. 127. Arhno 289 185. 128. Manthall Archipelago .... 290 180. 129. Chief Explorationn on the CoaHts and in the 187. Interior of Now Guinea 294 188. 130. Laoustrink Village of Tdpuselki, Motu 189. Tbbbitoby, New OtJiifEA 295 190. 131. Mountains of New Guinea 298 191. 132. MaoCluer Inlet and Onin Peninsula 299 192. 133. Waigeu, Batanta, and Salwaty 307 193. 134. Dorei 308 194. 135. Port Moresby 312 196. 136. KOYARI DWELUNO, NEAB PoBT MOBESBY, 196. New Guinea 313 197. 137. Astrolabe Bay 316 198. 138. White Bay 321 199. 139. San Cristobal 325 200. 140. Neu-Lauenbnrg (York) Island 329 201. 141. Vanikoro 331 202, 142. New Hebrides 332 203. U3. Geoup OF New Hebbides Natives 334 204. 144. New Caledonia 339 206. 145. Natxvb of MABfi, Loyalty Isles . 342 206. 146. Nativb of MAHfi, Loyalty Islks . 343 207. 147. New Caledonian Man . . . 344 208. 148. New Caledonian Woman . . 345 200. 149. Noumea 348 210. 150. Dwelling or a Native Chief, New 211. Caledonia 349 212. 151. Isle of Pines 350 213. 152. Comparative Areas of Australia and the 214. British Isles 364 216. 153. Chief Routes of Australian Explorers 365 216. 154. MaoDouall's Itineraries .... 357 217. 155. Australian Alps 369 218. 156. Bass Strait 363 219. 157. Torres Strait 364 220. 158. The Great Barrier Reef .... 367 221. 169. Isothermals of Australia .... 369 222. 160. Rainfall of East AustraUa 370 223. 161. lnhabitant.0, and Langfuag^ of Australia 224. about 1850 380 226. 162. Lalla Rookh, the Last TASHAinAir 384 226. Density of tho Australian Population . :I8(( IncrettMu of tho Auntralian Population . 387 KnCAMI'MENT ok AuSTUALIA.V HutTATlEUS . 380 Gold Miiuw of Houth-KuNt AuNtnilia . 390 Australian Railways at tho End of 1887 . 392 Australian Colonies 393 King George Sound 394 Perth and its Environs .... 390 Adelaide 400 Adelaide, Spencer and St. Vincent Gulfs . 401 Port Darwin 402 Brisbane and Moreton Bay . . 405 Botany Bay 408 Sydney in 1802 400 Newcastle . . . , .411 Norfolk Island 41,i Melboubne, View in Bourke Stbeet . 416 Melbourne and Hobson's Bay . . .417 Hobart and tho Derwent River . . 420 View taken at Antipodes Island . . 423 Tasman Glacier 420 Fiords of South- West New Zealond . 428 Broaksoa and Dusky Sounds . . , 429 (JiM)k Strait 431 Lake Taupo 433 Lake Tarawera 436 Tattooed Maori Chief .... 442 King's Country ..... 444 Railways of Now Zealand . . .447 A Shieiep Pen, New Zealand . 448 Auckland 440 Kaipara 450 Christchurch and Akaroa Peninsula . 462 Port Chalmers 463 Chatham Island 464 Provinces of New Zealand . .466 Fiji Islands 468 The Royal Family, Fiji . . .461 Suva and Levuka 166 Trend of the Pol3mesian Islands . . 467 Volcanic Islands of Eastern Polynesia . 468 Tonga- Tabu ... . . . 469 Samoa 470 Gambier Archipelago . . . .471 The Marquesas 472 Easter Island 476 '•"^^ttooed Native, Mabouesas Islands . 476 Samoan Women 477 Religions of Oceania .... 479 Inhabitants of Oceania .... 480 Equatorial Polynesia, by Tnpaia . .481 Movements of the Oceanic Populations . 482 Apia 484 Tahiti and Moorea . . . ... 486 Papeete 486 Nuka-Hiva 487 Political Divisions of Oceania . . . 488 Hawaiian Islands 490 Craters of Mauna-Loa and Kilauea . 491 Lava Streams of Kilauea . . 492 Cbateb of Kilauea, Hawau . . . 493 Hawaii is^ Honolulu 496 General View op Honolulu . . 497 I i ii.n ii n i i ii 'i » H>^ i. i -»►.«.■•.>",.'« V . T "". I' li t f ■■ I i i 1 ( 11 m m i j 1 1 |iti j< i iip»i ' piiij»ji..|iii<||ii^p^yy»y,.. !'> U t^ I '-j# .■v' I ^? ,v v^ a>ui ••MMMtMMMMMM ti m '1,^ W i Pi! ...v.-^ " . ^^i r^ , v,i . ' -'■n: i ogs> yr y^tfi ^^ : ,,«>,, u ;;"; j^;-^ EQ U ATO RIAL A F f r i Ti i - w i i fi iiiiiiiiii -Til II i ij ii rii w iikii r i..mmi^int*im» mmimmmmit>mmimmm^ iJjii.,U.I.,..««.^?WJBMtolBW^^ NEW -rORK. D APPLETON 8 .l^.iliS^!,^^^ i/iu' V, "1)^^' TMf«-Ti»-T6T('T.T»;w5-;3irrw'wvw"«.-«K,-»-'«»--=»-» i. ( ' !',?. ' -'jj„ J..U..JIL II ■imJUj.uHmnRM ■■■■■HHi^MSSS^SSKSiS ..„....^i^.™^ , ■H -^i^-- Mi* tmmmm 4«HH" THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS. AUSTRALASIA. CHAPTER I. THE OCEANIC HEMISPHERE. OMPARED with the collective body of marine waters, the Atlantic Ocean may be regarded as a mere " Mediterranean," or Inland Sea. As the " boundless " expanse on which the Greek mariners first timidly ventured was found to be a " closed sea," or si&jfTe landlocked basin, according as seafarers gradually explored its contracted seaboard between Europe and Africa, in the same way the more for- midable Atlantic itself, only four centuries ago still held to be limitless, has in its turn proved to b« a mere winding valley between the two halves of the con- tinental lands constituting the Old and the New Worlds. Northwards this deep trough is separated by Greenland and Iceland from the cavities of the polar waters ; east and west the shores of Europe and North America, as well as those of Africa and South America, roughly correspond in the contours and indentations of their coastline, which at the narrowest point, between Carabanc and Cape St. Roque, are separated only by an interval of 1,800 miles. But southwards the Atlantic spreads out broadly, here merging in the greater oceanic basin which encompasses the whole periphery of the globe. :Q : *" ' ' ■-""■." :^- ' ,;;"■ \, :-"■ '■ ■■ .\ ' •', \ Extent and Formation of the Oceanic Basin. ■' ' " ' Excluding the Atlantic with its lateral inlets and the island-studded and ice- obstructed Arctic waters encircled by the Asiatic and American seaboards, the 1—0 .3SU«sa;,,iJ*«S»^'fS^1^ 2 AU8TRALA8IA. 14 great oceanic depression covers about one half of the surface of the earth.* South of the three continental extremities — Cape Horn, Cape of Good Hope, and Tasmania— the belt of waters stretches uninterruptedly in a circuit of 15,000 to 16,000 miles. Moreover, the marine depression extends far to the north beyond the equator, developing to the east of Africa the vast basin of the Indian Ocean, and east of Australia and Asia the still more extensive basin of the Pacific Ocean, If the continental masses, taken collectively, be compared to a half crater, whose contour, beginning at the Cape of Good Hope and terminating atr Cape Horn, comprises the Ethiopian highlands, the Himalayas, and the Andes, the " Great Fig. 1. — The Giieat Oceanic Hemispheee (Western Section). Ocean," as Fleurieu calls the united Indian and Pacific waters, will be found to completely flood this immense semicircle. The total sweep of this semicircle of inner shores exceeds 24,000 miles, that is to say, the length of the terrestrial circum- ference at the equator. Edward Suess has brought into full relief the striking contrast presented by the Atlantic and Pacific, the former presenting no lofty coast range round its periphery, while the latter washes with its abysmal waters the very foot of the encircling escarpments. But is this writer not mistaken in * Total oc:»nic area, according to Kiiiminel Great ocean, with Atlantic and Arctic Seas , Area of dry lands 148,000,000 square mileB. 112,000,000 „ „ 67,000,000 „ ,, vsm. THE OCEANIC BASIN. 8 th ad to id n, n. se n, at comparing the formation of the Atlantic with that of the Indian Ocean, with its elevated coastlines of Java and Sumatra, of the Arrakan highlands, the submerged chain of the Maldives and Laccadives, the Ghats, the Persian and Madagascar uplands ? The vast oceanic basin is by no means a boundless expanse destitute of reefs, islands, and insular groups. Like the Atlantic it has its upheaved lands, not only such as, lying in the vicinity of the continents, might be regarded as detached fragments of the African, Asiatic, and American mainlands, but also archipelagoes of all sizes strewn over the wide expanse of waters at great distances from the Fig. 2. — The Great Oceanic Hkmihphrbe (Eastebn Section). surrounding coastlines. Some of the islands scattered over the oceanic hemi- sphere of the globe are even so extensive that they have been regarded either as the remains of a past or else the first corner-stones of a future continent. Mada- gascar, the Comoros, and the Seychelles have been treated by many naturalists as the surviving fragments of a vanished world, which from a typical branch of its noTsr dispersed fauna has received the name of " Lemuria." In the great Pacific Ocean farther east, thousands of islands, cone-shaped or disposed in circular groups, seem to form part either of a submerged continent or of a new world in process of formation. The insular region which stretches south-east of Indo-Ohina from - . i (W i iitn|rrwi>p,wrn! i i-,/-fMWiiWwfr .. .. 16 •*' AUSTRALASIA. ■I always within sight of land, they nevertheless advanced far towards the east. But before the first century of the vulgar era, tradition makes no reference to the great discovery of the regularly alternating movement of the trade winds and monsoons, by means of which mariners were first enabled boldly to venture on the high seas, running fearlessly before the wind from the African and Arabian seaboard to that of the Indian peninsula. There can, however, be little doubt that these alternating aerial currents were already well known to the Arab and Phoenician navigators and utilised by them in their distant expeditions to the far east. But the merit of the discovery was attributed to Hippalos, the Greco- ^gyP^^i*" pilot, whose name was even given to the two regular easterly and westerly winds. During the Roman epoch the islands and the Asiatic peninsulas of the Indian Ocetvn were better known than twelve centuries later, that is, on the eve of Vasco de Gama's expedition. The Western traders were well acquainted with Taprobana (Ceylon), and the Golden Chersonese (Malay peninsula), as well as the island of •' Barley," the present Java. Their commercial relations reached as far as the Moluccas, for the clove had already made its appearance on the tables of wealthy Romans. During the night watch mariners beguiled the hours with narratives of marvellous adventures, in which the flights of fancy became intermingled with more or less truthful descriptions of peoples, animals, and plants actually seen by the reiaters on their travels. From the seafarers of diverse nations, who traded in the service of Rome, these tales passed in a more or less modified form to the Arab mariners of mediaeval times, and from this source, with its germ of truth were developed many of the marvellous stories embodied in the Thousand and One Nights. The modern era of exploration for the oceanic regions coincides with that of the New World. In 1498, Vasco de Gama, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, crossed the Indian Ocean straight to Calicut on the Malabar coast. Two years afterwards Diego Dias, brother of the other Dias who had first doubled the same cape, discovered S. Louren90 (Madagascar), while others, pushing still eastwards, reached the shores of Further India. In 1509 Malacca had already become a centre of Portuguese dominion, and henceforth all the Asiatic vessels calling at that emporium were obliged to accept the services of a Portuguese pilot. , ; ., The Eastern Archipelago, which had already been visited by the Italian, Bartema, was soon embraced by the commercial empire of Lisbon ; but once masters of the valuable Spice Islands, the Portuguese uiaiiuers beldom ventured into the unknown waters farther east. To another nation, represented, however, by the Portuguese, Magellan, fell the glory of first completing the circumnaviga- tion of the globe, across the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Following the western route round South America, instead of the eastern taken by Vasco de Gama, Magellan traversed in 1520 the strait that bears his name, and first of Europeans penetrated into the South Pacific, sailing in search of the easternmost Portuguese factories. By a strange accident his ships traversed an open space of OCEANIC EXI'LOHATION. 7 no "iC^ti than ten thousand miles, touching only at two uninhabited iHlets to the east of the yet undiscovered Low Archipelago, thus avoiding all the innumerable clusters strewn over the South Seas. The first group met by them was that of the Ladrones, or Muriunnas, in l/i^l, after which, continuing his westerly course, Magellan reached the Philippines, and perished in an encounter with the natives on the island of Mactan, a small member of that archipelago. The lands discovered by him for a long time justly bore the name of Magellania. Fig. 3.— EXFLORATIOm OF THB PaOIFIO. Soalel :2W>U0O,n00. 100* 180" Meridian of Greenvvich , 8,000 Milea The companions of the Portuguese navigator continued their voyage, at first towards Borneo, then to the MoMccas, beyond which, on the homeward journey across the Indian Ocean, the Basque, Sebastian el Cano, in commaTrd of the only surviving vessel, discovered an islet by him named San-Pablo, but at present known as Amsterdam. Of the two hundred and thirty-seven men who had started from Seville, eighteen only returned, amongst them Pigafetta, historian of the memorable voyage of circumnavigation. ' ' I do not think," ha rt-ioto, " that anyone will in future undertake a similar journey." Nevertheless, within six mionths of Magellan's expedition, another Spanish squadron, commanded by Loyasa, also penetrated through Tierra del Fuego into the Southern Ocean, and iiitti nanMC 8 AUSTRALASIA, on tho long route to the Ladroncs Archipelago met only u single iHliuul of insig- nificant size. One of the HhipH, driven by ii storm to the coust of Mexico, was the first to circumnuvigute South America. ' ■ ' " Many generations puHsed before the Pacific was traversed in the opposite direction, so as to achieve the circumnavigation of the globe in the reverse way, from west to east. Navigators had in vain attempted to beat up against the trade winds which set regularly in the Pacific, although their efforts were attended by numerous discoveries of islands and archipelagoes, such as New Guinea, the Carolines, the MurshuU, Pelew, and Bonin groups. But after dtvuggllng for weeks and months against the marine and aerial currents, the explorers one after the other confessed themselves baffled, and put back to the Philippines or the Moluccas. At last the Augustinian friar, Andres de Urdafieta, found, or rather guessed, the eastward route across the Pacific. Reasoning by analogy, he con- cluded that the atmospheric laws must be the same in the Atlantic and Pacific basins ; colisequently, that the south-west winds of West Eurojie must be balanced by currents setting in the same direction in the temperate latitudes comprised between Japan and California. The meteorological anticipation was completely justified in lOGG, when Urdafieta himself, nearly half a century after Magellan's voyage, sailed from the Philippines and Ladrones northwards as far as the forty- third degree of latitude in the Japanese waters, then turning to the south-east, at last gained the Mexican port of Acapuico. The voyage lasted altogether one hundred and twenty-five days. Henceforth, regular communicatioii' was established across the Pacific between Mexico and the Philippines. The route was carefully determined by pilots, and for two hundred years was strictly followed by the Spanish galleons. After leaving Acapuico, skippers were able to spread sail and run before the wind without tacking all the way to the Philippine s. But on the return voyage they first made for the Japanese waters about 35° north latitude, keeping under this parallel till within sight of the California coast, and then following the seaboard to the starting-point. So closely was this beaten track adhered to, that scarely any discoveries were made to the right or the left. Nevertheless, indications of land are figured on the Spanish charts in the region occupied by the Sandwich Islands. The very stillness of the atmosphere, combined with the infrequency of storms, may perhaps have been one of the causes of the long- prevailing ignorance regarding the oceanic lands of the northern hemisphere. The great ocean well deserves the name of " Pacific " given to it by Magellan. The expression " South Sea," applied in a more general way to all the waters comprised between Asia and America, was at first restricted to the regions lying to the south-west of Mexico and Central America. In this sense it was used bv wav of contrast with the "North Sea," whence the Spanish explorers had penetrated southwards. The now forgotten term, " Sea of Our Lady of Loretto," was adopted by the Franciscan missionaries, in the belief that the vast ocean bathed lands which were all destined one day to be peopled only by Christian neophytes. tMMNb ■^f'i' "••''•"'^ifftTiMii i ^ ■>" j K 1 e ■ '-^ ■ '::«-"; f:'i n ■ V/.. • I H A t( • t • u a r b t 1 r --- '1 t • r , , n '■1 \ r I si . 11 e V il t t M a C 8 e 1< c t a 8 t V a 8 ■^gr^^tjjg^ WKAMC EXI'I.OHATKW. --.^MiiV Hoyond the Kone of nuvigiilinn utilinud by thu Acitpuloo galiooiin, ntuirly all the oquiitoriul archipolit^ooH of tho South Sou wtTo ut leust nighted by the KpuiUHh inurinurH dtiritig tho Hixtoetith wni M)V(Uit««>nth (■(•nturiefl. In 16(17 Mmidanu de Noyrn nnw tho prnupH ut pms^ont known by tho niiino of tho Kllioo und SoloiiKtii TslundH; in IT)!)') Hurtudo de Mend"'ii discovor \ the MunjucnuM ; in KiOfI (iin-iros BuiU'd through the Low Ai' hinndugo, visited the New II('l)ridt>K, und Hkirted tho AuHtrulian waboard, which ho . liinrd Ui hav<' first obsorvod, although hiw voyage tu thoHe HhorcH hud ))eon anticipated bv tho I'ortugueM* pih)t (IcMlinho do Krodiu, und in 16!U even by tho I'rovom;ul Oiiilluumn lo Tostu.* Lastly, TorrrB, who hud accompanied tho (^ueiros expedition, »ucceH8fully nuvigati>d the dangorouM laby- rinth of reefs and isletH separating AuHtruliu from Ni'w Guinou. His nume has been justly given to tho struit which, with rare Imldness und seumanship, he traversed from sou to sea in the spuco of two months. But Spuniards and Portuguese had no longer the monopoly of these oceanic regions, which had been shared between them by the famous Hull of Alexander VI. The illustrious Knglish seafarer, Francis Drake, repeuted fifty-sovon years later the exploit of Magellan, first circumnavigator of the globe, and after him the routcH of the Pacific were further surveyed by Cavendish and some Dutch mariners. By the close of the sixteenth century Dutch traders had oven already founded factories in Java, whence their power gradually spread from island to island, everywhere displacing that of the Portuguese. In their turn tho Dutch sailors took up the work of discovery in the southeiTi waters, Tusmun especially enlarging our knowledge of the Austral 'ands. Thus wore revealed to the western world the west coast of Australia as far as Torres Struit, Tusmauia with its basalt headland. New Zealand and its active volcanoes. But such was at that time the intensity of international rivalries between the chief trading peoples, that the discoveries already made by the Spanish or Portuguese pioneers remained unknown to or overlooked by the Netherlandish explorers. Although Torres had actually demonstrated the existence of a passage separating Australia from New Guinea, Tasman maintained forty years later that both lands belonged to the same continent. The second holf of the ei^ifhteenth century was the decisive epoch in the scientific exploration of the South Sea Islands. Henceforth exploring expeditions were no longer undertaken in the interests of a single nation, or of some powerful trading compp,ny, but rather for the benefit of the whole of the civilised world. At the same time the more accurate observations now made imparted far greater authority to the reports of the explorers themselves. The longitudes in the southern waters were for the first time determined by the method of lunar dis- tances by AVallis in 1766. Thenceforth the enormous errors of the early seafarers, with discrepancies of from one thousand to two thousand miles, became impossible, and mariners were no longer doomed to beat about for weeks and months together in search of large archipelagoes already reported by their predecessors. Owing to this uncertainty, numerous explorers had to abandon the attempt to sight the Solomon * 'iia^or. Journal of the Royal Oeograpkical Society, \9,T1. mmmm ^ ^ »0^' / i!i VIMS • _ .,.,..'V.lM3 Md 1967 >M.I33l .SIM9' Mdl367 M.ime V . "Bajrea Md i39» Qjfeoe \C./J7V ,Na.l8IO " .Wk.1811 60- 100' Meridienof Greenwich 180' 180' H. 1621. Magellan, GvaKm, PhUvpfinM. He. 1A26. Meneie% ^Vw Outixa. 8. 1B88. A. de Baayedra, Oarolinu. 8. 1529. A. de Saairedra, UarskaU. 0. 1S31. QaiUaome Ic Testa, Juttralia. V. 1M.S. Villaloboe, Carolinet, Prltw. Hd. Ifi67. Hendana, EUiee, SoUmton, Satulwich. Hd. 1696. Mendana, Marqutuu, Sta. Orut. Q. :C06. Qneiioa, Lnto ItUindt, Fohaofo, Stv Btbriitt. T. 1006. Tome, Torret Strain, Louiaiadei. L. M. 1616. Lemaire, Xivo/u, Aew Irtland. E. 1616. Hartoff, EndraehUland. E. 1619. Gd«l, SdttHand. li. 1632. Leeuwini, Leevtatniland. N. 1627. Nuyto, XuyMand. W. 1628. WittB, ICitutoNd. T. 1642. Tasman, Ttanutnia, Xew itaUmd. T. 1643. Tasmnn, Tonga, Fifi, .Vew Brilttin. T. 1644. Tasman, Tmrnanla-'U, Carpentaria, v. 1699. Dampier, Nev Quinia. B. 1786. Byron, Gmert /««M>k, Atw Z'.alanti, Atulralia. C. 1773. Cook, Httvuy lalandt. C. 1774. Cook, Awa^e /ttand, Hem Caltdonta, La. 1787. lAp^roiue, Snicaii. Br, 1791. Bronghton, CAotAum Itland. Ba. 1798. Baas, Bom's Strait- Ha. 1810. Hazelbarg, Macquarie. Wk. 1811. Walker, CampbeU. D. U. 1827, Dumont D'Urville, *'i/i. by all previous circumnavigators. He was thus the first to make the circuit of the globe from west to east, according to the rotation round its axis. This event took place over two hundred and fifty years after Magellan's circmnnavigation from east to west, following the regular course of the trade winds. Cook's third expedition was directed towards the northern waters, where he penetrated through the strait separating the two continents of Asia and America. He then rediscovered the Sandwich Islands, where he was first received |if — wwwfiiy m m^^yttfn0mmm»im 12 AU8TBALASIA. as a god, but soon after murdered under circumstances that have never been satisfactorily explained. Cook's researches had the effect of once for all exploding the theoretic fancy- that on the surface of the globe the dry land should occupy exactly the same space as the oceanic basins. Since the time of Hipparchus the most eminent geo- graphers accepted as an established dogma the perfect equilibrium between land and water ; and it was under the influence of this idea that Ptolemy had traced across the southern part of the Indian Ocean a continental coastline connecting Africa with India. This shadowy seaboard, continually receding from the eager eye of navigators, was successively identified by them with New Guinea, New Holland, and New Zealand; and later, every island sighted in more southern latitudes was supposed to be some headland of the long-sought-for continent. Cook, who himself firmly believed in the existence of this Austral world, placed its shores far to the south of the waters reached by his predecessors ; but in any case we now know that the Antarctic continent, or insular group, must be of slight extent compared with the boundless waste of circumpolar waters. When at last convinced of the absence of continental lands in the regions traversed by Cook, his companion Forster advanced the hypothesis that nature had readjusted the equilibrium between the two hemispheres of the planetory orb by depositing on the bed of the Antarctic Ocean rocky masses of greater density than elsewhere. •>•1^ Exploration of thk Antauotk; Waters. Although in the pride of his immense triumphs. Cook placed limits to the genius of man, declaring that no future navigator would penetrate farther south- wards, his record has already been beaten, and since his time the known surface of the ocean has been enlarged in the direction of the South Pole. The lands discovered in some places are sufliciently contiguous to each other to be regarded as very probably forming a continuous seaboard. They would thus collectively constitute one of the largest islands on the surface of the globe. The most extensive mass of dry land in the Antarctic Zone occurs to the south of Australia. In 1839, Balleny had already discovered an archipelago of volcanoes in the immediate neighbourhood of the polar circle. According to his estimate the insular cone of Young Island, which is completely snowclad, would appear to attain an elevation of at least 12,000 feet. Another much lower island was seen to eject two columns of vapour. But the valleys and ravines between the peaks are everywhere filled with ice or glaciers, so that the bare rock is visible only where the action of the waves has revealed the black lavas of the cliffs and headlands surmounted by a covering of white snow. No creeks occur, nor even any strand, except here and there a narrow beach strewn with ashes and shingly scoria). Sailing to the west of this archipelago, mainly about the sixty-fifth degree south latitude, Balleny thought he sighted land in two places, and even gave the name of Sabrina Land to some high ground dimly seen from a distance. The following year the French navigator, Dumout d'Urville, and the Amerioaa mmm ...Miiift'' ANTAECTIC EXPLORATION. 18 Wilkes, were attracted to these waters in the hope of here fixing the exact position of the south magnetic pole. They again visited the seas explored by Balleny, and both unhesitatingly asserted that they sighted true land, and not merely continuous bands of floating ice. D'Urville gave the name of Adelia to the rugged coast from 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, which he observed to the south and followed westwards across some ten degrees of the meridian, without, however, lauding at any point. Farther west Wilkes also sighted land in four places, and Fig. 6.- EXPI/>RATI0N8 IN THE SoUTH PoLAR WaTKES. Scale X : 100,000,000. . , iitaai >il Suppoted Continent. 1,200 Miles. all the elevated ground, whether scattered islands or continuous land, has received the general designation of Wilkes Land. Nevertheless James Boss, who followed a different track, threw some doubts on the reports of the three navigators who had followed each other in this oceanic region. Nothing, in fact, is more deceptive than the hazy horizons of these southern waters, where the rays of a low sun are refracted on the ice, and where the most practised eye is needed to distinguish between a real rocky crag and a " crystalline mountain detached from eome distant glacier." Except at one point, 14 AUSTRALASIA. i\ where he came close to the black rocks of a line of cliffs, Wilkes kept everywhere at a distance of about twelve miles from the ice-fringed land, which appeared to be everywhere covered with hoar-frost. East of the Balleny Islands, he also reported a mountain mass on the very spot where James Ross, sailing in an open sea, afterwards failed to touch the bottom with a sounding-line 1,000 fathoms long. But whatever view be taken of the true character of Wilkes Land, it is certain that oust of the Balleny Archipelago the sea extends much farther southwards. James Ross explored these waters in 1841 and 1842, each time penetrating nearer to the South Pole than any previous or subsequent navigator. In 1842, the expedition specially equipped for piercing the ice floes reached 78° 9' 30", which, however, is still over 800 miles in a bee-line from the South Pole, or nearly 400 miles short of the corresponding point reached in the Arctic Zone. During his first voyage, Ross followed southwards the east coast of a region which he named Victoria Land, and which is lined by imposing mountains such as the glittering ice-capped peak of Sabrina (10,000 feet), and the still loftier Melbourne, rising to an altitude of considerably over 13,000 feet. At the point where the expedition was compelled to turn back, there towered above the ice-bound waters the twin volcanoes of Erebus (12,000 feet) and Terror (11,000 feet), the former of which emitted volumes of smoke, murky during the day and ruddy at night. The navigators, who had succeeded in getting ashore at two places on this Austral continent, were prevented from landing near the volcanoes by a wall of ice nearly 350 feet high, which formed the escarpment of a vast plain at least 300 miles broad. East of Victoria Land the expeditions of Cook and Bellingshausen have revealed the existence of no Antarctic mainland south of the East Pacific waters, or of any land at all, except a doubtful islet reported by Cook, and by him named Stone Island. But in the region south of America, facing Cape Horn and the neigh- bouring archipelagoes, th^ islands or perhaps the coasts of a great Antarctic land have been seen at several points in the neighbourhood of the polar circle. Here Bellingshausen discovered Alexander Land, which is probably continuous with the hilly coast of Graham's I^and observed by Biscoe in 1832, and more carefully indicated by Dallman in 1874. Then to the north-east of this elevated ground stretch parallel chains of numerous islands, comprising Louis- Philippe and de Join- ville Lands, discovered by Dumont d'Urville, the Shetland Isles and Southern Orkneys, already sighted by the English and American whalers, and perhaps even by the Dutch vessel Van Gceritz in 1598. All these are mountainous masses encircled by deep waters where the sounding-line records hundreds of fathoms within a few cable-lengths of the shore. ' But immediately to the east of these archipelagoes. Captain Weddell, in command of a whaler, forced a passage in 1823 through the floating ice and entered a perfectly open sea, where he penetrated southwards beyond the seventy- fourth degree of latitude. This is the southernmost point yet reached in the waters stretching south of the Atlantic. Farther east — that is, in the direction of Wilkes Land — the only dry land yet seen are the coasts of Enderby and Eerap, extending 1 ANTARCTIC EXPIiORATION. IS to the south of the polar circle. Biscoe, who discovered Enderby in 1831, in vain attempted to land on the island, being everywhere prevented by the masses of ice at ft distance of 18 or 20 miles from the shore. Nevertheless, a whaler subse- quently succeeded in reaching this point. The Victoria and Louis- Philippe mountains, which of all the Antarctic regions advance farthest northwards, are situated, the w,, Fig. 7. — NoBTUBBN Fbokontory ov thk Amtabotio Mainland. Scale 1 : 3,800,000. Oeptba. otoiSO Fatbomi 2fiO to 1,000 Fathoms. 1.000 Fnthonu and upwards. 60 Miles. former over against New Zealand, the latter opposite the southern extremity of America. Thus mountain ranges and volcanic chains face each other on either side of the Antarctic waters. Since the voyages of Ross— that is to say, for nearly half a century— no scientific expedition has penetrated beyond the polar circle. In 1874 the Challenger approached without crossing it. It is surprising that in these days of daring 16 AU8TRAJA8IA. enterprise the serious prosecution of the work of exploration should have been suspended for so many years, more especially as research has been greatly facilitated by the progress of maritime enterprise and the thousand resources offered by modern appliances. Hence it is with a certain feeling of shame that geographers have to record the enormous gaps still occurring along the line of antarctic navigation, and well may ask for volunteers to resume the work of Cook, Ross, d'Urville and other illustrious navigators. At one time it was hoped that the next expedition might have been fitted out in Australia, which lies nearest to the south polar lands, and whose inhabitants are most interested in investigating the meteorological and glacial phenomena of those frigid regions. Between the southernmost point of Tasmania and the coast of Wilkes Land the distance is not more than 1,600 miles. But a scheme advocated in 1888 came to nothing owing to the parsimony of the British Government, which refused to grant the modest sum of £5,000 required to meet the preliminary expenses. The question, however, has now been taken up by the Qermans, and there are some prospects that the influence of Dr. Neumayer may induce the Reichstag to grant a sufficient sum to defray the expenses of a Gentian antarctic expedition. Bathymetric Reskarches. v V, In the part of the ocean whose surface has already been surveyed, the exploration of ivs depths has long been begun, and the density of the marine waters may even be said to be ascertained, at least in a general way. The Indian Ocean presents as a whole a tolerably regular bed, with a somewhat uniform depth of over 2,000 fathoms. As revealed by the soundings of the Challenger and other more recent expeditions, the submarine escarpments of the continent and large islands enclosing this basin on three sides fall rapidly down to the oceanic abysses, so that almost everywhere a depth of 1,000 fathoms occurs within 120 miles of the coasts. Towards 40° south latitude a body of equal depth floods the sill which forms the southern limit of the Indian Ocean, properly so called. • Within this normal bathymetric curve of 1,000 fathoms, which is disposed nearly parallel with the continental seaboards, the line of 2,000 fathoms describes a large number of sinuosities, at least to the west and north round about Madagascar, the Mascarenhas, the Seychelles, and the Laccadives. The Chagos archipelago also rises in the midst of abysses flooded by from 2,000 to 2,500 fathoms of water. The mean for the whole Indian Ocean is estimated by John Murray at about 2,100 fathoms, or 450 more than Otto Xriimmel's calculation. ; '' The greatest cavities hitherto revealed by the sounding line in this basin o^^nv in the regions lying between the north-west coast of Australia and the islands of Java and Sumatra. Here the vessels engaged in laying the submarine cable have recorded depths of from 2,600 to 2,800 fathoms, and to this abyss Kriimmel proposes to give the name of the " Lemurian Depression." It is a remarkable fact that the deepest chasms in the Indian Ocean have been found at relatively short distances «« OCEANIC SOUNDINGS. 17 from the shore, and in the vicinity of the most active volcanic area in the Sunda Islands, Along nearly the whole coastline of the Antarctic lauds south of the Indian and Pacific Oceans the waters appear to be much shallower, judging at least from the results of the few soundings that have hitherto been taken. It would almost seem as if the greater cavities had been gradually filled in by the ice-borne debris from the austral regions. Nevertheless, an enormous abyss does apparently occur under the Antarctic polar circle to the south-east of the Southern 1%. H. — Depths of this Austbal Skas. Bosl« 1 : 100,000,000. 1^ to 1,000 Fathonia. 1,000 to 8,000 Fathoms. 'Deptha. 8.000 to s.noo Fatbonu. 3,000 to 4,000 Fathom*. 4,000 Fathom* and upwards. 1,800 Mile*. Orkneys, where James Ross failed to touch the bottom with a sounding line over 4,200 fathoms long. This solitary record, however, will have to be verified by fresh observations. Compared with the Indian Ocean, which is destitute of islands in its more central parts, the Pacific, everywhere studded with archipelagoes, presents an extremely irregular bed. In many places occur elevated submarine banks, which would be transformed to islands or peninsulas were the sea-level to be lowered a 2—0 I fiwmmriiiilmiiimm^ ■ ■ -iMwnwrorwu^^JiP* 18 AUSTRALASIA. ^b- few hundred fathoms. The three great Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, together with the Alalay peninsula, all rest on a vast flooded plateau,, where the water is scarcely anywhere more than forty fathoms deep. Ihe two- great oceanic basins are here separutt^d by a sill some 900 miles broad. Australia and New Guinea may in the same way be regarded as forming upheaved portions, of a common submarine bunk, which also comprises Tasmania in the south, and ia the north several insular groups contiguous to Papuasia. Hut the two regions of the Eastern Archipelago and Australia are separated by a trough over 500 fathoms deep skirting the east side of Timor, while depths of over 2,000 fathoms have l)een recorded to the south of Ceram. In the Pacific properly so called most cf the archipelagoes with their dependent chains of reefs also rest on elevated banks, which like that of Central America are nearly all disposed in the direction from north-west to south-east. lu the vast semicircle of continental lands sweeping round from the Cape of Good Hope to (/ape Horn, the archipelagoes of the Pacific would thus appear to be the scattered frag- ments of a circle resting eastwards on the American seaboard. The disposition of these outer and inner curves may be compared to that of many large breached craters, within which have been developed regular craters of smaller dimensions. The deep cavities limited on either side by the elevated banks have received from the English and American explorers names which recall either the vessels employed in the hydrographic surveys of the South Seas, or else the naturalists who have laboured with the greatest zeal in these bathymetric operations. Thus the circular cavity to the west of Tasmania over 2,000 fathoms deep has been named " Jeffrey's Trough." Here the line recorded at one spot a depth of no less than 2,600 fathoms. On the east side of Tasmania in the direction of New Zealand occurs another chasm of larger size and equal depth (Thomson's), which is con- tinued in the north towards Queensland by that of Patterson, thirty or forty fathoms deeper. Those of the Qazelle, running parallel with the general axia of the oceanic islands, that is, in the direction from the north-west to south-east, are somewhat shallower, nowhere exceeding 2,300 fathoms. At their western extremity they are couuecled with those of Carpenter, which begin at Torres Strait and Papuasia, and terminate between New Caledonia and the New Hebrides. At the deepest point the plummet here recorded 2,630 fathoms, or about three miles, and an equal depth occurs in the Nares pit to the north of Jfew Guinea and New Britain. The cavities are still deeper towards the east, where those of Hildgard and Miller have 13,080 and 3,305 fathoms respectively. North of the Carolines the Pacific waters are far less obstructed bv insular groups, and, as might have been expected, are proportionately deeper than those of Polynesia properly so called. The cavities named from the Challenger, to which we are indebted for so many important researches in oceanic physiography, offer the enormous depth of 4,575 fathoms between the Carolines and the Marianne group, while farther east in the direction of the Marshall Islands other chasms have disclosed depths of considerably over 3,000 fathoms. Lastly, the whole of the North Pacific region between Japan and California presents a vast elliptical '3l-,-, L:m mjgi >r OCEANIC SOUNDINGS. 19 trough encircling a shullowor central area, whose axis is formed by the Sandwich Islands and the reefs continuing them towards the nortb-went. The pits named from Wyman (3,300), cost of Hawaii, as well as those of lielknap (3,!00) and Amman (3,094), south and west of the same group, belong to this circular depres- sion, which farther west towards Japan takes the name of the scarora, the American ship which here revealed the greatest depth yet recorded in any oceanic basin. This chasm of 4,(}o0 fathoms, sinking nearly as low us the highest moun- tain rises above sea-level, is situated about 240 miles to the east of the southern extremity of the Eurile Archipelago. As in the Indian Ocean, the greatest depths would thus seem to occur also in the Pacific in the neighbourhood of igneous areas, that i.s, along the line of active volcanoes which curves round from Japan to the peninsula of Alaska. These . chains of burning mountains may thus be said to represent the true coastline of the North Pacific basin. Beyond them the waters are comparatively very shallow, except in one part of the Bering Sea, where depths of GOO and even 1,000 fathoms have been recorded. The projecting mainlands of North-east Asia and North-west America rest on a common submarine base, which approaches very near to the surface. In Bering Strait itself the mean depth is little over 20 fathoms, and nowhere exceeds 30 fathoms. Between these shallows, here scarcely . separating the two continents, and the profound abysses of the North Pacific the transition is very sudden. At some point the soundings have revealed precipitous inclines which would be regarded as steep slopes even in Continental Alpine regions. Except in the neighbourhood of California the Eastern Pacific waters have been less carefully surveyed than the Australasian seas. The whole space, some 12,000,000 square miles in extent, comprised between the Polynesian archi- pelagoes and the American seaboard from Mexico to Chili, was still unsounded before the expedition of the Italian vessel, the Vettar Pimni, in 1886. Now, however, we possess a series of thirteen soundings between the coast of New Grenada and the Sandwich Islands, where 3,140 fathoms was the greatest depth recorded by this expedition. Allowing for the irregularity of the intervals between these souuJiugs, ihe meuu depth of the marine bed in this part of the East Pacific Ocean would appear to be about 2,300 fathoms. Before the Vettor Pimni expedition the velocity of the waves caused by great seaquakes was the only available means for determining the depth of the waters in this section of the oceanic basin. The specimens brought to the surface during the various exploring expeditions present on the whole a remarkable uniformity. In the vicinity of the land, and especially about the great fluvial estuaries, the mud and clays of the marine bed are formed by deposits of terrestrial origin mingled with fragments of shells and corals. Farther seaward, in depths ranging from 500 to 1,500 fathoms, the sedi- mentary matter consists of triturated shells and the calcareous remains of animal- cuIbb. The mud dredged in these waters contains from ninety to ninety-five per cent, of carbonate of lime. But according as the depths increase this proportion diminishes, and in abysses of 2,000 to 2,600 fathoms the prevailing formation is 20 AUSTK\LA8IA. everywhere a cluy foniied of foraminifera, rudioluriu, diatoniB, und other remainn of minute orgunisma mixed with purticlfs of pumice and various decomposed products of volcanic origin. Neither gravel nor the bare rock has anywhere been discovered on the deep bed of the Indian Ocean. . • ,, " ,, The slight proportion of carbonate of lime in clays lying at great depths is due to the carbonic acid present in the water. The countless calcareous organisms falling as dust from the upper marine waters become completely dissolved before reaching the bottom. But sharks' teeth and the skeletons of cetaceans occur abundantly in the argillaceous deposits, from which the remains of extinct and living animals are often fished up together. Nodules of iron of cosmic origin are also found intersixirsed in the same clays. . . . , . T^ Atmospherk' Currents. --^ , , - . As attested by the very name of " Pacific," given to the great ocean by its first discoverers, storms are less frequent in this basin than in the Atlantic, at least in the tropical latitudes with low tides. This is due to the vast uniform surface presented by an immense extent of the South Sea far from the neighbourhood of continental sealx)ards, which owing to the great differences in their reliefs gi\a rise to abrupt changes in the climate and the course of the winds. The waters are usually the least rufHod and navigation safest in the Eastern Pacific regions, where vessels sail for thousands of miles without meeting a single island. Here also the trade winds blow with the greatest uniformity. Those from the north- cast prevail with great constancy in the tropical zone some 7,000 miles broad comprised between the Revilla-Gigedo and the Marianne groups. The south- eastern trades have a less extensive range of about 3,000 miles between the Galapagos and the Marquesas. But the course of the atmospheric currents is interrupted and frequently turned backwards by the thousand independent centres of attraction formed by the insular groups, some mountainous, others scarcely rising above the surface, which are scattered over the "West Pacific equatorial waters. The normal trades are here often replaced by the alternating winds, which follow in the track of the sun. During the winter of the southern hemisphere the south-east trades are most regular; but in summer their ascendency is contested by northern and north- eastern breezes. Frequently also dead calms set in, while occasionally the con- flicting currents give rise to cyclonic movements. A remarkably mild temperature usually prevails in the oceanic archipelagoes, surrounded by waters which are subject to less vicissitudes of heat and cold even than the atmosphere itself. Between the hottest and coldest month on either side of the equator within the tropics the mean temperature of 72° to 77° F. has an extreme range limited to from four to eight degrees. Nevertheless, the oscilla- tions for the whole year range from twenty-eight to thirty-six degrees according to the position of the insular groups. The rainfall also shows discrepancies ol as much as tenfold and upwards, accord- J ' ''-'M- ■ ■• '-"^f'"-' '--^mmmm wmiai """""k\ OTEANIO AKHIAI, CURHKNTS. |} ing an ihu nlupcM uf tliu ittluiulM unt f xpiiHuil lu ihe inuiHl ur dry wiiultt. TIiiih while certain vall«»y« enjoy » ropjoiiH and evon an exceMivc unnuul supply of mointure, certain low-lyin^!; inlaiidM in the neighbourhood of the e(|Uutor receive Mcarcely a single Hhower ex this equable regime the Eastern Archipelago has been called the ** hothouse " of the great terrestrial botanical garden. jAifi'fmm' as AUSlTlAIiASIA. Wfcst of Borneo and the Philippines the meteorological conditions are again modified by the differences in the outlines and elevations of the great insular masses. Here mariners no longer speak of trade winds, and recognise the monsoons alone. That of the south-west, sweeping over the Sunda Strait and Sumatra, prevails somewhat regularly from the middle of April to the middle of October, in the more open waters stretubiug away to Formosa. But it is occasion- ally interrupted by the south-f astern winds, and on the insular and continental seaboards its course is fringed by lateral breezes, eddies, and back-currents, which enable sailing craft to beat up against the monsoon. This south-west \\ ind which prevails in summer is followed in winter by the north -east monsoon, which is in fact the normal polar current. Like the south- west monsoon it blows throughout half the year, although most intensely in December and January. Both seasons are accompanied by rains, as well as by sudden gales and storms. But the terrific cyclonic movements of the China Sea, here known as typhoons, that is, tat fang, or " great winds," occur chiefly during the south-west monsoon in June or July, or c^ j towards the September equinox when the normal annual currents are reversed. These fierce whirlwinds, which are generally developed in the east, move with spiral action in the direction of the west or north-west. They are usually more intense in the vicinity of the land than oa the high seas, and fall off rapidly towards the south. Hence the typhoons rare'y extend their range towards the equatorial regions in the waters stretching south of Lucon, largest of the Philippine Islands. v^ ^ .: ^'i Beyond the Sunda Archipelago, that is, in the open space presented by the Indian Ocean as far as the Mascarenhas and Madagascar, the winds are less influenced by insular or continental seaboards, and consequently here acquire a far more regular course. The zone of the south-east trades, which occupies the section of the ocean comprised between Australia, Madagascar, and the equator, is uniformly displaced northwards and southwards according to the alternation of the seasons themselves. Thus it is shifted to the north of the equator with the nioveraeut of the sun towards the northern hemisphere, while at other times its range seldom extends much beyond the 5° of south latitude. But round about the central part of the ocean, dominated by the regular system of the south-east trades, there stretches the vast semicircle of lands between South Airica and Australia, which are fringed by a zone of alternating monsoons setting landwards during the hot and seawards during the cold season. In no region of the globe have the monsoons a more regular course than in the northern section of the Indian Ocean between Somaliland and Sumatra. The south-west monsoon with its escort of thunderstorms and rains prevails from the middle of April to tho middle of September throughout the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. It is followed by that of the north-east, that is, the polar current, which lasts from the middle of October to the middle of March. But in the southern hemisphere the atmospheric system is less regular on the coasts of Australia, Madagascar, and the African mainland; nor is the contrast between land and water so sharply marked in this region. Here also, as in the China Sea, the clash "V/ MARINE CURRENTS. 28 of the conflicting winds at times gives rise to tremendous hnrricnnes, especially at the change of the monsoons and during the summer heats. These disturhances are most disastrous in the neighbourhood of the Mascarenhas, although they also occasionally spread havoc over the waters of the Gulf of Aden and the Bay of Bengal. On their outer borders in the direction of the poles the region of the trade winds is skirted by zones of variable currents, the mean result of which generally takes the direction from west to east. Joeing enclosed towards the north, the Indian Ocean has naturally one only of these zones comprised mainly between 28° and 60° south latitude. But the Pacific, as well as the Atlantic, has its two systems of variable winds, one in the northern the other in the southern hemi- sphere, the latter merging westwards in that of the Indian Ocean, eastwards in that of the Atlantic, and thus completing the circuit of the globe. The discovery of these oceanic regions dominated by the western currents, that is by the counter trade winds, has been of paramount importance in the history of maritime research. Ouided by his knowledge of the Atlantic winds, tlrdaneta was thus enabled to direct vessels across the Pacific towards the shores of the New World, while by fol- lowing the corresponding zone of variable winds in the southern hemisphere Cook successfully accomplished the circumnavigation of the planet in the contrary direction to that followed by Magellan. '. " , ,. :,-;■'-■''■■ ■'./ '^'^--i^ '.^■'' Marine Currents. ,/! ■-■..- '"■, The movement of the marine corresponds to that of the aerial currents in the great oceanic basin, but the former, belonging to a more stable element, are naturally of a more constant character than the latter. They represent, so to say, the fly-wheel of the great terrestrial mechanism. Hence the rythmical displace- ments of the waters across the boundless oceanic spaces have been of even greater moment than those of the atmosphere in the history of human progress. If the trades and counter-trades have enabled European navigators the more easily to traverse the ocean between the Old and the New "World, and thus hastened the work of exploration amongst the oceanic islands and austral lands, to the marine currents was largely due the dispersion of mankind and gradual peopling of half the globe. The prominent feature in the vast system of oceanic movements is the graat stream which in the equatorial seas sets in the same direction as the apparent course of the sun between the shores of the New World and those of New Guinea and the Philippines. The liquid volume which thus trends from east to west has a mean breadth of probably over .3,000 miles, for it is occasionally observed ranging from 26° south to 24° north latitude, but with a reflux or a zone of calm waters in its central parts. The whole body of equatorial seas moves with a velocity varying from 20 to 40 miles a day according to the seasons and the surroundings, and to a depth which certainly exceeds 750 fathoms in the axis of the stream. And this prodigious moving mass traverses neurly one-half of the 24 AUSTRALASIA. m»im circumference of the planet. Compared with such an oceanic current all the rivers flowing from the continental regions seawards sink into insignificance. The discharge is at least 70,000 millions of cubic feet per second. This vast central current, main branch of the system of secondary streams developed in the rest of the ocean, gives rise to two great lateral backwaters, one in the North Pacific, the other in the Southern Ocean. Taking the same course as the monsoons of the Caroline Archipelago, the waters of the equatorial stream are deflected towards the north-west in the direction of Japan ; then on approaching the Chinese seaboard they follow the coast towards the north-east, and under the name of Kuro-Sivo, or " Black Stream," expand into a vast curve across the North Pacific. Although gradually losing the character of a current in the strict sense .of the term, it sets slowly along the coasts of British North America, the United States, and Lower California, ultimately rejoining the equatorial current. To this great stream in the northern corresponds another in the southern hemisphere. South of the equatorial seas a liquid mass passing east and west of New Zealand turns south to the a i^iial waters, and by a curve symmetrical with that of the Kuro-Sivo merges west of Chili in a littoral current, which skirts the American coast till it becomes again absorbed in the equatorial stream. An analogous movemer*^^ takes place in the Indian Ocean, whore the waters of the hot zone also set slowly in the direction of the west. At Madagascar they ramify into two branches, which flow southwards, and in the Antarctic regions form a junction T.Ivh u rcla.u jui'ient, »vhlcli aflor cauetiag tLe TYeGt Australian seaboard rejoin the equatorial waters. I3u, although analogous in their main features these three great movements present many striking differences in their details according as they are affected by the course of the winds, the depths of the seas, the form and disposition of the neighbouring lands. In many places the more sluggish waters quicken their speed, and in the very heart of the sea is thus developed a sort of river, whose water is distinguished from that on either side both by its colour and velocity. The friction against its liquid banks causes it to oscillate in short waves like those of a fluvial rapid, while the conflict of waters of varying temperature gives rise to fogs spreading over vast spaces. Such phenomena are observed chiefly about tho Kuro-Sivo of Japan and its eastern extension across the North Pacific. Each counter current has also its lateral streams, which penetrate into the straits and inlets, as well as its tributaries of cold water flowing from the polar seas. An incessant interchange goes on between the tepid floods of the equatorial regions and those of low temperature coming from the frigid zone. These polar waters move bodily in the direction of the equator, in order to replace the losses caused by evaporation under the tropicnl latitudes. According to the course of the winds, the form of the marine bed and of the seaboards, this collective displacement becomes decomposed in secondary and more rapid streams, some of which flow by the side of those setting in the contrary direction from the equator, while others passing underneath them continue their course at lower depths. At first sight it might be supposed that all the polar streams, being colder and Jh i MARINE CURRENTS. M oonsequeutly relatively denser *han the equatorial, should in all cases plunge beneath the more tepid waters \s < tb which they come in contact. But some, being less saline, owing either to their slighter evaporation or to their mingling with the fresh water of the melting icebergs, are in fact lighter than the surroimding warmer masses, and consequently rise to the surface. Naturalists engaged in exploring the oceanic depths endeavour to detect the course of these super- imposed currents setting in opposite directions by ascertaining the temperature at certain intervals along the line of soundings. This is one of the most delicate of marine operations, the full significance of the recorded phenomena being itself at times very difficult to appreciate. But by carefully comparing the results of observations taken iu different places they are able gradually to arrive at trust- worthy conclusions. -f:, v ^ ;v i- ii ^:^ x;v^.,;/ . " , The normal sequence of temperatures from the surface to the bottom has already been determined. The upper layer being in contact with the atmosphere, its tem- perature coincides with that of the local isothermals, while the deeper waters are scarcely above freezing-point, the intermediate spaces showing a regular transition between the two extremes. All anomalies in this gradual transition, all abrupt changes are assumed to indicate the presence of disturbing currents. Thus in the austral seas, between 34° and 06° south latitude, the gradation of temperature is modified by the neighbourhood of floating ice. At from 500 to 1,100 feet below the surface a cold layer intervenes between the upper strata heated by the summer a'uus aua iho lc*Vdi watera ■fthosc tcmperr.tiiro d'^crcarer nf>nn?lly dowDwnrd". This cold layer, which oscillates about the freezing point, is evidently due to the melting of the enormous icebergs always present in these latitudes. Of the special cold currents either setting from the poles or rising from the lower depths, the most remarkable for its influence on the climate of the coastlands is the stream named from Humboldt, and knoMm also as the Peruvian Current, which skirts the western shores of South America, and which is from 20° to 22° F. colder than the neighbouring waters. The North American seaboard is also washed by a frigid stream, which flows southward to the equatorial seas. A small part of this stream may perhaps in Bering Strait intersect a branch of the tepid water setting towards the Arctic Ocean ; but the great mass of the cold water trending southwards comes from the Alaska seas and other inlets of the North Pacific. The marine waters are thus being everywhere constantly displaced, and in this way the southern floods with their corresponding flora and fauna are carried northwards, while the regions of the torrid zone are tempered by contact with the polar currents. The climates of the two different zones blend in a new climate, thanks to the intermingling streams, or else flow side by side in opposite directions, since to every displacement corresponds an opposite movement. Even the great equatorial stream has its counter-stream, which answers to the atmo- spheric zone of calmc, and which, especially from June to October, sets in the direction from west to east, that is, from New Guinea to Equador. It is precisely in the axis of the equatorial stream, and especially south of the line, that this mm 26 AUSTRALASIA. general backward movement of the oceanic waters makes itself felt. It has an estimated mean breadth of three hundred miles ; but it follows a somewhat irregular course, and in many places merges in lateral backwaters. The Indian Ocean has also its counter equatorial stream skirting the north side of the current which sets towards the west. Students of historical migrations attach the greatest importanco to these parallel currents flowing in opposite direc- tions, and thus facilitating the movement of peoples from continent to continent. Drift Ice — Icebeugs and Floes. Bound about the Antarctic ice-cap the approach to the islands and mainland is obstructed by continuous streams of drift ice and floes, which are constantly drifting Fig. 9. — loE Field tbaced by Dumont D'lJEViUiE. Scale 1 : 1,330,000. L«Bt of Greenwich 21 about, in one place grouped together in the form of gulfs or marine inlets, in another disposed like projecting headlands, elsewhere developing long narrow passages into which navigators cannot venture to penetrate without extreme cau- tion. Ranging in height from 10 to 14 feet, but here and there iul«rspersed with irregular groups or " bunches," resembling erratic boulders, these masses no longer present an insurmountable obstacle to mariners provided with the powerful appli- ances of modem mechanics, and with vessels specially constructed to resist the impact or pressure of floating ice. Beyond these shifting barriers stretch comparatively open spaces which are occupied only by great icebergs, either isolated or accompanied by a cortege of lesser blocks. Explorers who have penetrated into these Antarctic seas about the polar circle, or even beyond 70° south latitude, have observed that these icebergs =2= ;>^v DRIFT ICE. w drifting nort.- varda with the current differ both in their form and origin. Some, which break away from steep upland valleys, present a great diversity of outline and appearance. According to the lines of fracture or the tilt of the glaciers shooting them seawards, they rise above the surface in the form of domes, peaks, or needles. Others again, which are usually of vast sixe, take the shape of rect- angular blocks with almost level upper surface. These are not of glacier origin, but have been detached from the icy barrier skirting the flat coastlands at varying distances. They do not melt even in summer. During the fine seasons of 1841, 1842, and 1843, Ross found that only on eighteen days the temperature rose three or four degrees above freezing point. Some were fringed with transparent stalac- tites, which this explorer was unable to explain, as he had never observed the ice ' melting. As far as can be judged from the few observations hitherto made, the frozen l\ masses,, 160 to 180 feet high, are simply the land ice gradually impelled seawards by the pressure of the more or less inclined masses covering the interior of the :V- continent. Owing to their specific gravity they project for distances of even 10 or 20 miles beyond the coastline, while still adhering to the rocky bed. In the its'^. neighbourhood of the barrier Ross found a depth of 250 fathoms, which is precisely ; ' the depth at which icebergs rising 180 or 200 feet above the surface must, so to -! say, " lose their footing," and float away freely. The weight of the icebergs being about nine-tenths of that of marine water, nine-tenths of their volume must neces- sarily remain submerged ; but the mass being generally broader at the base than the summit, the depth of the submerged walls must be estimated at seven or eight times the height of the exposed cliffs. Once detached from the continental sheet of ice by some rectilinear form of breakage, the huge flotsam sets out on its long journey towards the equatorial seas. Some of the blocks present a regular wall 5 or 6 miles long with arched openings at the base. They look almost like some street frontage gone adrift, at times sparkling in the sun, but more frequently wrapped in vapour, like some misty phantom of the brain. A nearer view reveals a frowning stronghold faced by mighty bastions ; embattled ramparts or gloomy recesses where the angry waters disappear amid the flunking towers ; overhanging cornices with snowy draperies pendent from the summit. The icy cliffs, standing out at a distance with even surface of uniform dull colour, are now resolved into an endless variety of tints and outlines. Throughout the whole thickness of the walls follow the parallel parting lines of the successive snowy layers crystallized by pressure and the weather, drawing continu- ally closer with the superincumbent weight, here and there warped to serpentine curves or else fractured with sharp fissures. The prominent parts are of a dazzling whiteness, others shaded in blue, each slope, each crystal aperture the loveliest azure, &u. at night the floating mass is all aglow with an opal phosphorescence. It drifts slowly with the current, incessantly lashed by the waves breaking against it, as against some rocky shoal. The crews of passing vessels often hear the continuous thunder of the waters rushing through its cavernous recesses and dashing against the inner walls. Then the sustaining pillars at last give way, the arched vaults i mi S8 AUSTRALASIA. break with a crash, and the scattered fragraentd of the crystalline mountains lose that tabular form which is so characteristic of the southern as compared with the northern icebergs. Gradually bi'eaking into smaller pieces, the debris floats away in long convoys, where it is no longer possible to distinguish those of marine from those of glacier origin. According to the quantity of the drifting ice and the velocity of the currents the fragments advance to a greater or lesser distance northwards, as a rule, however, seldom penetrating much beyond the 56° of south latitude. Yet they have not unfrequently been met much nearer the oquato', especially to the west of New Zealand and in the South Atlantic, where they have been seen as far north as Tristfto da Cunha, and off the Cape of Good Hope under the thirty- fourth parallel. On an average the austral advance 240 miles nearer to the equator than the northern icebergs. The largest observed by the Challenger was about 250 feet high ; but Cook recorded one over 330 feet, while several f'llly one-third higher were measured by Wilkes. They range as a rule from 1,500 to 3,000 feet in breadth, yet none of those seen bj' the naturalists of the Challenger carried any fragments detached from the rocky mountain slopes, although such cases were frequently observed by Ross, Dumont d'Urville, and other explorers. A sketch by John MacNab, who accompanied Balleny's ex- pedition of 1839, represents an iceberg bearing a black rock embedded between two cry stal nippers. -Ahother huge mass seen by Weddell was so covered with blackitiU ciay that at a distance it would certainly have been taken for a cliff. Volcaxk; Agencies. Drift ice thus contributes in some measure to modify the form of the continents by transporting debris of all kinds to the islands scattered for thousands of miles over the ocean, or depositing them on the marine bed and in this way perhaps laying the foundation for future barrier reefs. But other agencies are also at work, in one place enlarging, in another diminishing the contours of the oceanic lands. The researches of naturalists have shown that during the course of long ages these agencies have accomplished considerable changes in the geography of the Pacific islands. In the work of modification the chief part has been played by the submarine igneous forces, and the coralline " island builders," which strew the seas with their marvellous structures. Volcanoes are far more numerous and energetic in the Pacific basin and sur- rounding continental seaboards than on the opposite shores of the Old and New World washed by the Atlantic. The fires of Iceland, the Azores, the Canaries, the Cape Verd Islands and West Indies, pale before those which follow at intervals aroimd the vast semicircle formed by the coasts of the mainlands sweeping round from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope. The craters are reckoned by hundreds in this "fiery circle " some 20,000 miles in extent, which reaches from the northern island of New Zealand to the southern shores of Chili. Here the chain of burn- ing mountains, occasionally interrupted by wide intervals, especially north of New .■A VOLCANIC AGENCIES. W Zealand, comprises the active cones of the New Hebrides, the Santa-Cruz and Solo- mon groups, the chain of the Philippines, and of Japan, where Milne reckons 129, of which thirty-five are active, the Kurile Archipelago with sixteen, the Aleutian Islands with thirty-four, of which ten are active. Through the Alaskan peninsula' the series is connected with those of the west coast of America, which are continued southwards to the Bridgeman and other cones and westwards to the New Shet- land Islands. Here rises the breached crater of Deception Island with its circular haven 18 or 20 miles round and 500 feet deep, whose flanks consisting of alternate ,-■---;■■' . ' Mg. to. — ^VOTXJAKOES OP THIS PaOIWO. Scale 1 : 200.000,000. \ i &000 Miles. strata of ice and ashes discharge rivulets of thermal waters. Lastly, this focus of activity is connected by the arc of a circle passing by the couth pole with the three lofty cones of Erebus, Terror, and Melbourne, the first of which still casts a lurid light over the dreary waste of snow. Between these giants and New Zealand the vast circuit is completed by a succession of islands and headlands, partly at least composed of lavas. Within the circuit itself occur the lines of faults, through which have been vomited mountains of scorisB or ashes, and most of these cones run in parallel lines -J 80 AUSTRALASIA. or are tliupoHed in curves. The Muriuunus, the Touga and Samoan arehipelagoe* have all their volcanoes, and towards the centre of the circuit of North Pacific burning mountains rises the group of stupendous Hawaiian craters. Beyond the circuit towards the Indian Ocean, a formidable igneous chain, beginning to the west of New Guinea, comprises a line of islands west of Timor, Flores, Sumbawo, Sombok, and Bali, together with Java with its forty-five cones, of which twenty-eight are still active. West of Java the volcanic chain no longer runs westwards, but is intersected at a sharp angle by another line of fracture traversing Sumatra with its sixty- seven cones, of which five are still active. On the opposite side of the Indian Ocean rise the insular cones of the Mascarenhas and Comoro group, while Madagascar itself is studded with hundreds of extinct craters. Others, such as those of St. Paul and Amsterdam, follow in the austral waters, here rising amid the surrounding ice floes. New Zealand, the Sunda Islands, Japan, the Kuriles and Hawaii are amongst the regions that have been most profoundly modified by igneous agencies, at least during the historic period. But the most active centre on the surface of the globe is probably the Sunda Strait, which marks the precise spot where the two volcanic axes of Java and Sumatra intersect each other on the edge of the submarine bank separating the Sunda plateau from the deep abysses of the Indian Ocean. Here is situated the famous island of Erakatau, which lost two-thirds of its area during the eniption ov 1883, when othur {Blanc's nso to the snrfare, and the atmosphero became charged with volcanic dust wafted by the winds round the periphery of' the globe. » Coralline Formations. — Atolls. The changes caused by the coral builders, although accomplished at a much slower rate and without any sudden convulsion of nature, are none the less even more important than those due to igneous agency. In the Pacific alone Dana enumerates two hundred and ninety coralline islands, which with the inner lagoons cover a total area of no less than 20,000 square miles.* If to these be added surfaces large enough to afford space for a village or clump of cocoanut palms, the islands and islets must be reckoned by many thousands which have been constructed by the polypi in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and especially in the central and western parts of the South Sea. These organisms are unable to carry on their operations in waters whose winter temperature is less than 68° or 70° F. But the zone where they find the necessary thermal conditions offers on either side of the equator a variable breadth, in some places exceeding 3,500- miles. ^ Everywhere within these wide limits, living colonies are able to establish them- selves on the shores and shallows flooded to depths of 130 to 150, and under certain conditions of from 300 to 320 feet. But they are unable to live in waters too highly charged with sedimentary or alluvial matter, and the barrier reefs are con- • Untied Stale* Exploring Expedition, vol. x. •-jg^ COEALLINE FORMATIONS. 81 sequently interrupted by large fluviul efltuaries. Nor can they secure a footing on too rapidly shelving rocks. Hence certain coasts which we should expect to be formed of " living " coral are found to consist only of " dead " matter. The work is also hindered or arrested altogether in certain storm-tossed seas, where the deeper and colder waters are churned up and driven landwards. Thus may perhaps be explained the absence uf corals along a great part of the arid and parched seaboard of Somaiiland. But apart from these few interruptions, the shores and islands of the equatorial zone are everywhere fringed or encircled by coral reefs. Besides the polypi, or true coral builders, of which there are numerous species, other organisms also secrete calcareous matter, and thus contribute towards the enlargement of the dry land. Account must also be taken of the seaweeds, algse, nullipores, and the like, " , Fig. 1 1 .—Zone of the Coballine Islands. -' SoiUel: 120.000,000. 30' ••. . 30- • ■■11- / ■■'-•-.. •-. * ■^, >«tr*// /. <. • , 0". • c 0- so; A ^' • X «.■■' %■ -x JO* 130* Meridianof IBO° Greenwich 130* Atadb. Barrier Reelk. TTpbesTed I^ndi. 1,800 Ullea. some of which develop a solid crust on the rocky surfaces, like the lichens in northern latitudes, while others accumulate in thick deposits on the beach. Being thus gradually raised by the petrification of successive generations, the reefs con- tinue to grow with the new life destined to disappear and become fossilised in its turn. This growth of the living rock proceeds as a rule at an extremely slow rate, not more than 38 or 40 inches in two hundred or three hundred years ; but the field of operation is limited only by the boundless extent of the marine waters, and the yearly result consequently represents hundreds of millions of cubic yards added by all these zoophytes to the solid crust of the globe. Even islands situated in an area of depression and slowly subsiding when com- pared with the surroimding sea-level may be fringed by a band of reefs growing at a more rapid rate, and thuR gradually rising above the surface of the water. The I » 8t AUSTRALAaiA. polypi flourish best an a rule on the outer nni of the reefs, where they are exposed to the fresh currents and wush of the tides, and here their buildings most rapidly rise to high-water level. Then their furlLer growth above the surface and trann- formation to islands or (continental senliourds is the work of storms. Hugo blocks detached from the encircling reef are thrown together in rude heaps, and gradually consolidated by fresh additions. Then the dry surface is weathered and prepared for the reception of the seeds brought by wind and water. Here the seafowl build their nests, the germs strike root, grasses and shrubs spring up on the new laud thus born of the tempest. The form and appearance of the upheaved coral structures differ greatly occord- ing to the regions wt.ere they have been constructed. The least noteworthy are the barrier reefs which fringe the insular and continental shore lines, and which rest on a foundation oi shelving rocks. ])ut in many places the reefs are not in contact with the coasts around which they have grown up, but are developed at some distance seaward**, leaving here and there a navigable passage, or at least a flooded channel between their inner edge and the mainland. Some of these formations extend for hundreds, and in the case of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia for over 1,000 miles along the coast. Others, such as the annular reef of New Caledonia, completely encircle the island, which remains as a central nucleus to the system. A slight upheaval would change to dry lond the inter- mediate space between the i«quontly alw> a great diversity of animal and vegetable life. In the noigblmurhood of the contiiK'nts the oceanic i«laudH partake more or less of the adjacent floras and faunas. NeverthelesH the Kaatern Archipelago is the only insular group which can be regarded as forming part of the Old World from the standpoint of its natural history. The Indian Hora, scarcely arrestert(>(l oIbuwIuto by tlu> opening of the Suez Cunal. NevcrthelcHS, tho > xchunges still uvoruge considerttbly over £5,500,000 yearly ; the port is always crowded with shipjjing, and connected by regalar steam service with Europe through the Suez Canal, as well as with Madagaecar and Reunion. Pifr !-• — Mauhittos. Saale 1 : TSO.OUO. 57° 30 57°45' Deptiis. to 80 Feet. 80 to 640 Feet. 640 to 3.a00 Feet. 8.200 Feet and apwiirds. 18 Hilffl. The staple produce and exports are sugar and rum, the island possessing over two hundred and fifty sugar mills, and forty distilleries, yielding on an average from fifty to eighty thousand tons of sugar, and five thousand gallons of rum, worth altogether from £160,000 to £200,000. Other articles of export are vanilla. ■ ■— l| l I I 1 «! MAUBITIU8. 46 aloo fibre, uiid cocoanut oil, the imports Iwjjiig Kuropdun wiiroH, ric« from Bombdv, mui/.o und cuttlo from Mudugufk'ur. The whole iHliiad is intorHectorl by mil ways connecting the cnpitul with tlio chief grouprt of plantations und roHJdcnctm of the woultliy cltiNHOH. On the north- oast line, six miles from tho capital, lie the sugar works of Painph'tnomHO, and closf by tho famous garden, founded in 17GH by Poivre, for the (;ultivutiou of tropical plants. Hero are some of the finest avenues in the world, und the place is still l>ettor ::.V FIk- n. Ponr LouM. Dtipthn Baods and re«fa ezpoaed at low water. Otosa Feot. ' MjMa 640 ('eat and upward*. ,3 Miles. known as the scene of Bemardin de '^^aiut-Pierre's " Paul and Virginia." To the north-east lies the reef -fringed isle of Amber, where was wrecked the Saint- GSran, as related by this charmir ^ writer. Such also is the power of the popular imagina- tion, that travellers are shown the very graves of the two lovers. The railway running from Saint-Louis towards the south-east traverses the Wilhelm's Plains, where Curepipe, lying about the geometrical centre of the island and 1,800 feet above the sea, has become the chief health resort in Mauritius. The experimental tea plantation of this district contained in 1887 over twelve IMH 46 AUSTRALASIA. thousand plants in good condition. The south-east line tenninates on the east coast at Mah^bourg, marking the site of one of the earliest Dutch settlements. Mauritius is a crown colony, whose governor, as well as the five members of the executive council, is named by the Queen. According to the modified constitution of 1884-5, eight of the twenty-seven members of the legislative council are ex-offi^io members, nine are appointed by the governor, and ten elected by citizens enjoying a certain income. The defensive forces consisted in 1887 of four hundred and forty-three men, and half of the military expenditure is defrayed by the home Government. The legislation, partly French and partly English, is extremely complicated, affording ample scope for endless litigation, to the great benefit of the lawyers. Although there is no State religion, both the Catholic and Anglican Churches receive State aid, the latter out of proportion to its numbers. Grants are also given to a certain number of schools, which, however, are scarcely numerous enough to afford primary instruction to one-fourth of the children. Mauritius possesses several scientific and literary institutions, and a considerable number of periodicals, as many as six daily papers appearing in the capital. The revenue, although exceeding £700,000, scarcely covers the expenditure, and there is a public debt of over £800,000. The official currency is the Indian rupee of ten to the pound sterling, and the metrical system is obligatory since 1878. With the exception of Sokotra, all the English islands in the Indian Ocean, including even the Chagos and other groups belonging geographically to India^ depend administratively on Mauritius. REUNION. ''\ " • The largest of the Mascarenhas, officially desigULHtju as "Tie de la Reunion," but also still known by its old name of Bourbon, presents a smaller extent of arable land and is consequently less densely peopled than Mauritius. The surface consists chiefly of hills and steeply escarped plateaux, fringed by a narrow belt of plains and gently inclined slopes. Hence most of the central parts are nearly uninhabited, the population being confined mainly to a restricted zone of coast- lands. But although it has preserved its romantic aspect. Reunion, like Mauritius, has lost its primeval woodlands, which formerly descended to the water's edge, and earned for the island the title of " Eden." The main axis is disposed, not north-east and south-west like that of Mauritius, but north-west and south-east, and in this direction are disposed all the higher crests. At the entrance of the gorges occur a few narrow alluvial or shingly plains, but elsewhere the escarpments rise everywhere abruptly from the water's edge to the plateaux occupying the interior of the island. In the central parts, where the land has been eroded by the running waters, the upland plains exceed 5,000 feet in mean height, the parting line between the two slopes rising in some places even to an altitude of over 6,600 feet, and culminating in the Piton des Neiges, about 10,000 feet. Mount Cimandef ("Bonnet Pointu"), a regular pyramid forming a northern shoulder of this piton, although only 7,300 feet, seems to be the •safe REUNfON. 47 highest point of the island when oeen from the north-west between St. Deuis and St. Paul. ! Towards the eastern extremity the eruptiA'e lavas have developed two masses, whose crests exceed 7,600 and 8,000 feet. Here is situated the semicircidar Grand Enclos, whose two outer ramparts stretching seawards completely enclose the Grand Brule volcano. The cirque, averaging from 800 to 1,000 feet, is perhaps the most regular formation of this kind in the whole world. It encloses a space of about 40 square miles in extent, the encircling walls having a total length of 28 or 30 miles. Farther west occur similar formations, and in recent V--.-''-^f-^v't';''v ■''■••■•■", ■'■' Pig. 14.— The Gband BBftiis. ''-,,: '^:,.':y ,.,,. • Soale 1 : 190,000. SS'^o Easb oP G reenwich 55* so- . 6 MUM. years a second " enclosure " has been developed mthin the first round about the central crater. Here eruptions are still frequent ;, towards the end of the last century they occurred at least twice a year, and between 1800 and 1860 as many as twenty copious discharges were recorded by M. Maillard. The outbursts are at times accompanied by showers of ashes and other igneous matter, such as those slender threads of obsidian which the Hawaii islanders call the " hair of the goddess Pele." In many parts of the Grand BrMe roofs of hardened scoriae conceal the hollow passages through which the Liquid lava streams were formerly discharged, and these incrustations, which easily give way, are a source of great danger to unguarded wayfarers on the flanks of the volcano. Indications of upheaval to a height of 250 feet have been observed on the 48 AUSTRAI.ASIA. south-west side of Reunion, where old coralline beaches are seen rising above the present coastline. But owing to the great depth of the surrounding waters, coral reefs, such as those that completely encircle Mauritius, are somewhat rare on the shores of the sister island. Besides its symmetrical volcanic formations, Reunion is also remarkable for the wonderful cirques formed by the erosive action of the tropical rains. On the west side occur three of these vast funnel-shaped basins with intervening narrow ridges radiating from the central muss of the Gros Morne, the whole being thus disposed " like a three-leaved shamrock." These deep chasms — Cilaos, Mafate, and Salazie — sources respectively of the rivers St. Etienne, Galets, and M&t, have each their thermal waters, of which the most efficacious is that of Mafate, which abounds in sulphur. In the neighbourhood rises the isolated mountain mass of the Piton d'Enchein, with a romantic lakelet at its foot. ■ la-i; In tbeir general disposition the insular streams present the character of Alpine torrents, destructive in their upper courses, and farther down depositing the debris produced by their erosive action. The vastness of these erosions may be judged from the fact that the Salazie cirque alone has been excavated to the extent of no less than 3,000,000 cubic feet. The process of denudation is still going on, and oven increasing, owing to the destruction of the forests on the mountain slopes, the hand of man thus tending to transform a naturally fertile island into a barren rock. The dwarf bamboo {bambum alpina), locally known by the name of "calumet," forms on the hillsides a sharply defined vegetable zone between the altitudes of 4,500 and 5,000 feet. Farther up the plateaux and higher summits are partly clothed with the Imbertia, a large shrub with gnarled twisted stem, which throws off numerous smooth branches bearing large clusters of yellow blossom. As in Mauritius, the chief industry is the cultivation of the sugar-cane, combined with sugar refining and the distillation of rum. Since the wars of the Empire the sugar plantations have gradually supplanted all other cultivated plants on the coastland up to an altitude of from 2,800 to over 3,000 feet, yielding an average yearly crop of thirty thousand to forty thousand tons. Formerly the annual crop was estimated at sixty thousand tons, but this industry has suffered much from various forms of blight as well as from the competition of beetroot sugar. During the last century coffee was the staple product in ] urbon, where a native variety (cojfea Mauriciann) had been dif-'covered, but at present the only important coffee plantat'ons are those of St. i-eu and St. Pierre. The clove, which formerly contributed to enrich the island, has ceased to be grown, but on the other hand vanilla has become one of the chief articles of export, the yield amounting in 1887 to about a hundred and fifty thousand pounds more than that of any other colony, and alone sufficient to supply the whole of Europe. Neither tea, the vine, nor cotton are grown, but cinchona has lately been acclimatised, and in 1888 as many as 2H,700 of this valuable plant were already flourishing in the island. But, as in Mauritius, the development of these plantations has been attendea by a corresponding reduction in the growth of alimentary plants, and notwith- ^0^' iw" ^ -i.H.' ■' ■" /: ■, '• ; "■ ^ ir- BHWBMB aT'n i H i rmBu i imr a c BEUNION. 49 standing its fertility, the soil no longer yields sufficient com, vegetables, or fruits for the local demand. Consequently these provisions, as well as cattle and other live stock, have now to be imported, chiefly from Madagascar, and rice for the ?oolies from Bengal. The extension of the plantations, owned by a few great proprietors, has also had the effect of driving the old settlers from their small holdings, which can no longer be worked profitably, and compelling them to swell the number of idle hands in the large tovms. The great landowners have thus Fig. 15.— Trb Thbee Cibques. BoOe 1 : iieo,ooa Catl oPGraanwich 55' »5 551SS- > S Milea. gradually absorbed everything except a few Ikftes or isolated plots in the upland valleys. The competition of European wares has hitherto prevented the development of any local manufacturing industries. iNo attempt has even been made tn utilise the inexhaustible deposits of titanic iron thrown up by the waves on the beach at St. Leu, although these sands contain a mean proportion of over fifty per cent, of pure metal. Reunion has a small commercial fleet, but nearly all the foreign 4-0 itai>iBWHWBg*<^'Wrii 5Hte TIfcJi i i»Bi i i !3 Bg^w-'H ■■ • ^wj ^^ B H^ . _) jMy 1 ) * ( t MWi «fa ■^ 'mwmimwm~r 80 AUSrEALASIA. trade is carried on under the French flag, and especially by the steamers plyingf regularly between the Mascareuhas and Madagascar. Topography of Reunion. v',-'* '-La-..-'' ■ St. Denis, present capital of the island, is not the oldest French settlement^ having been preceded by St. Paul, founded by pioneers from Fort Dauphin (Madagascar), on the north-west coast. It occupies the northern extremity of the island between two small rivers, and is a fine European city of some forty thousand inliabitants, well laid out with regular streets and some handsome public buildings- Fig. 16. — The Mabima or St. Dsins. ■^:^■ such as the governor's palace, town hall, barracks, hospital, lyceum, and museum. A large space in the very heart of the town is occupied by a beautiful botanic garden. But St. Denis, lying on the windward side of the island, is exposed to the full fury of the cyclonic gales, and as it possesses no large sheltered harbour, the shipping, on the approach of these hurricanes, is obliged to quit the open road- stead and take refuge on the high seas. Nevertheless a brisk trade is carried on, especially in sugar, of which nearly twenty thousand tons were exported in 1886. Till recently the safest, or rather the least dreaded, seaport on the west side of the island was St. Paul, lying " under the wind " some 28 miles from the capital, on a semicircular bay protected on the north by the triangular peniiiBula I I uM. ' iy ' i 'tt ' i M ' ini 'jfffl r ' mmm ■mmim ' " - i.H ' "" ' ' "» ' REUNION. 61 of Pointe de» Onletn. But this place offers few facilities for trade, and is moreover frequently exposed to the so-called " vent de St. Gilles," a sort of back-current from the regular monsoon, sweeping round from the east to the west side of the island. A harbour of refuge, however, has lately been constructed at a cost of no less than £2,700,000, to the north of 8t. Paul, under the shelter of the Pointe des Galets. The basin, which is accessible to the largest vessels frequenting these waters, has an extent of over forty acres, with a depth of 26 feet. This port is -^i-.i-it^ . iv ,1^ ,,.,-'--■' -^ rig. 17.-8T. PiBBBB. .bOBlel ; 18,000. i ' . 5^*»9- Cnftt op Gr«e".v.ch SS'as'so' Ueptlw. 0to82 Feet. 32 Feet and npwaidi. 9S0 Varda. conveniently situated towards the centre of gravity of the productive parts of the island, where it is least exposed to the violence of the cyclones. Some of the blocks used in constructing the sea-walls weigh as much as a hundred and twenty tons. South of St. Paul follow the half-deserted towns of St. Leu and St. Louis, and beyond them the prosperous seaport of St. Pierre, with a well-constructed harbour and solid breakwater enclosing an outer basin 30 to 50 feet deep. Here is the terminal station of the coast railway, which describes a curve of 75 miles round half the periphery of the island through St. Paul, the Pointe des '' ^-i.biinffl"n' '■'■ •?V- :-J§if 0t AUSTRALASIA. QaletH, St. Denis, to St. Bmolf. This line is a romarkablo piece of engineering work, abounding in (loop cuttings, bridges, cnibunknicnts, and tunnels. Iteyond the villiigos of St. Joneph iind St. Philippe on the south coast, the zone of inhabitable and fertile lands is interrupted by the eruptive rocks discharged from the Grand Hrftlo and several secondary craters. But after passing St. liote the nmin highway round the coast loads to St. Benoit, which may claim the title of a town, and Avhich is approached by a handsome bridge here crossing the River des Marsouins. The railway from St. Benoit to St. Denis passes by Bras-Penon, one of the few places in the island which is not under the protection of some patron saint. Administration. K< union is represented in France by a senator and two deputies, while the local a;- ,'* Fi-oceedings of the Soyal Geographical Society, IM9. RODBIOUES. by RwlrigucB, which is adminiaterod by a coinmissionor depondont on tho governor of Miiuritius, had in 188(5 a popuhition of less than two thousand, a ninnbur rehitively ten times less than that of tho noighbouring island. Forniot. 100 to 820 Fe»t. i 3} Hile«. 330 Fret and upward*. clumps oi pandanus vakoa. But although it no longer deserves the name of the " earthly paradise " given to it by Le Guat in the seventeenth century, Rodrigues might easily support large numbers of settlers. It even still exports considerable quantities of maize, haricot beans, fruits, fish, and cattle to Mauritius. The outlet for this trade is the little town of Port Mathurin, on the north coast. The turtles which down to the beginning of the eighteenth century swarmed ►.itf'>c«- ■• ■ ^^v?*. .■.,v';-'ii-5-;-n— -"r^- 64 AUSTRALASIA ! on the bunks of Uodriguna, hiivo complotoly disuppuured, driven away or exter- winutecl by tho rockluHn wuy the iiahery wuh conducted. About the yoar !''' ■ sa many ii8 thirty thouHund were convoyed in eighteen months to Mauritir^. Although visited from time to time by the Portuguese and Dutch, R '.ji..;* was not pormunently occupied till 10!)1, when the I'rotostant refugee, Lo Guat, resided here for over two years with seven companions. Before the abolition of slavery, a considerable Negro population was employed on the plantations ; but since then large numbers of the emancipated hands have withdrawn to Mauritius, distant ab(mt ''WO miles. In 1H4.'{ the jwpulation hod thus fallen to about two hundred and fifty souls, but since then it has again increased, mainly by the arrival of blacks, who find employment in clearing and reclaiming the land on the slopi 's of the hills. There are (mly two small centres of population, Port Mathurin on the coast, and Gabriel in the interior, near Mount Kimon (1,320 feet), culminating point of tho islatid. On the southern slope are seen, at various elevations, old coroUine beaches pierced with caves. In' one of these grottoes were discovered the remains of the pezophas, or " solitary," and of other birds belonging to extinct species. During the Napoleonic wars, Rodrigues enjoyed considerable strategic import- ance. After its seizure by the English, it was made the rallying- point of the expeditions organised in India against Mauritius, and thus contributed to tho reduction of all the Muscarenhas Islands. ' . The Kekung Islands. Beyond Rodrigues no lands are met in the direction of the Eastern Archipelago for a distance of some 2,300 miles, the expanse of waters being first broken by the small circular group of the Keeling Islands, so named from the English navigator who discovered them in 16U9. They are also known as the Cocos Islands, from the cocoanut palms lending a fringe of bright verdure to these low-lying islets. Although lying about 600 miles from the Sunda Strait, the Keeling Archi- pelago had its origin, probably, in the same terrestrial movements that gave rise to the Asiatic islands, for it exactly faces the fissure now separating Java from Sumatra, and is disposed in a line with the volcanic islets in the middle of the strait. Hence it may be assumed that the Keelings rest on an igneous foundation upheaved from the bed of the ocean. At little over a mile from the entrance to the atoll, Fitzroy failed to touch the bottom with a line over 1,000 fathoms long, so that the submerged slopes of the plateau must be inclined at an angle of little less than forty-five degrees. This atoll, visited by Darwin during the voyage of the Beagle, in 1836, has become in geographical literature one of the most frequently quoted examples in favour of the great naturalist's ingenious theory of subsidence and upheaval of the marine bed. According to this view, the circular group of islets may be regarded as the embattlements of the lofty -■■■v» ^Sfea^jt cter- uat, >u of but tius, two TIIK KKKLINQ IHLANDS. 65 coralline tower, slowly built up by the polypo hh the Imse of the ftnu-turc slowly •ubsided. Hince the prepuratiou of the Hrnt chart of thr L'-rmip, indicationN of upheaval have beou olworved The l)euch huH beta raimid aud eulurgud, some of Fig. It). KlBLmO iBLAMSa. Boale 1 : IW.MIO. Depth*. fiandi nnd leeb az- powd Bt low water. OtoM Feet. 64 to 6,400 Feet. 6,400 Feet and upwarda. 3 Miles. the channels have been closed, and lagoons formerly communicating with the open sea are now inaccessible to shipping. The atoll, which is interrupted by numerous breaches, and which opens out broadly towards the north, consists of some twenty elongated islets occupying at high water a total space of about six square miles. The only spontaneous growths ^f<^!. , ■ ■■:••.■,■« ^V -.. • 66 AUSTiJALASIA. are the cocoanut palms and about thirty other species, the germs of which have drifted with the current from Java, sweeping round by Australia. But numerous alimentary plants, as well as domestic animals and rats, now a formidable scourge, have been introduced by man. Hare, the first colonist, settled on the islands with about a hundred slaves. But at present the archipelago has become one large plantation, whose owner, who is also the governor, employs some five hundred Malays in working his vast palm-groves. All the inhabitants — men, pigs, poultry, and the very crabs — live mainly on cocoanuts. Water, of pluvial origin, is procured from wells, v/hich are sunk in the sands and which rise and fall with the tides. Formerly the group was considered a Dutch possession ; but it was occupied by the English in 1856, and attached to the government of Ceylon. Since 1886, however, it depends on Singapore. Christmas Island. The triangular island of Christmas, lying 240 miles south of the coast of Java, appears also to have risen like Keeling from the marine bed. Depths of over 3,000 fathoms have been recorded in the waters flowing between it and Java. But although also covered with cocoanut palms, Christraae is not an atoll. Almost completely encircled by fringing reefs, it is entirely of calcareous coralline origin. Three distinct shore lines at the respective elevations of 40, 140, and 170 feet above the present sea-level seem to indicate three succes- sive periods of upheaval. Amsterdam and St. Paul. Both of these islets, lying in the southern region of the Indian Ocean, about midway between the Cape of Good Hope and Adelaide in South Australia, are masses of eruptive rocks ejected from the abysmal depths and unconnected with any other lands. Neither plants, animals, nor fossils indicate any f<>rmer connection with the Mascarenhas or Madagascar. Within five miles of St. Paul depths have been recorded of 1,200 fathoms, so precipitous are the sub- marine escarpments. Although only forty-six miles apart, the two islands themselves present great differences in their geological constitution, so that they most probably never at any time formed continuous land. They are cons'dered to belong politically to Great Britain ; nevertheless fishermen from Reunion have often endeavoured to make them French territory, and in 1843 a trading company landed some troops to take possession of these waifs in the name of France. On his return voyage after the deai-h of Magellun, El Cano passed not far from " a very high island, situated under the thirty-seventh degree of latitude, which seemed uninhabited, without any trees and with a circumference of about six leagues," a description answering very well to the island afterwards named New Amsterdam, or simply Amsterdam. «?. N ■■.;V;;. — ■' "•f" > y.,fj AMSTERDAM AND ST. PAUL. 57 The discoverer of St. Paul is unknown, although the name already ocurs in a geographical document of the sixteenth century. At the beginning of the following century both islands were well known to the Dutch navigators, and Van Vlaming was the Hrst to land on them in the year 1696. Since that time they have been frequently visited, too often unwillingly, by shipwrecked crews, and since 1841 St. Paul has been permanently occupied by a community engaged in '' *'l. : ,v.;':;j\''';^ Fig. 20. — Amsteedak. i.'''-:^ J :■'/'■. .■^■'.'.■■:'. !''>",....^.,":V-;,;-''-'- '•''■^.:-.'S.''^': .^. Soato 1 : 90,000. '■ ' i''-r'^::'y' ■ ^1 Depths. to 124 Feet. 1S!4 Feet and upwards. aUiles. fishing and otter-hunting. Recently, also, they have been the object of scientific expeditions, notably in 1874, when the French naturalists stationed at St. Paul to observe the transit of Venus utilised the occasion to study the geological structure and prepare charts of both volcanic masses. It has often been proposed to establish a port of call at St. Paul on the route to Australia. But under this latitude, although corresponding to that of Palermo '^iJ:^>:' .>■, 68 AUSTRALASIA, and Athens in the northern hemisphere, the climate is so inclement, the west winds blow at times with such fury, and the islands offer so few resources beyond fish, that a residence on them is always regarded as a painful exile. Amsterdam, which is much the larger of the two, attains an altitude of 3,000 feet in its highest summit, which is nearly always wrapped in fogs. It has the Fig. 21.— St. Paui.. Soale 1 : 4S.O0O. Otoie Feet. Oepthi. letoldO Feet. 160 Feet and npwardr. 3,200 Yards. forro of a somewoat regular rectangle, whose longest axis is disposed in the direction from south-east to north-west. On the west side have occurr|hi extensive landslips resulting in precipitous cliffs over 2,600 feet high, against which the waves beat with great fury, so that it is seldom possible to land on this side. The sumiuit, which has rarely been ascended, presents a boggy surface dotted "^'?^j!!™?P»g'i^^ >■"""■ ' 'W~ rest ond 000 the the rive the I'de. ;ted yj'-jCTy'jtt^aSJg^.'^^*^"''''^''''^""'"""'^ ».r»- . ..'i tk »«» I'm •^knain '■stTtn AMSTEEDAM AND ST. PAUL. w over with cones from •which lavas have been discharged. In 1792, at the time of d'Entrecueteaux's visit, the island was in flames, caused either by the burning of the dense mass of reeds growing on the plateaux, or by the craters, possibly at that time in full activity. At present they are perfectly quiescent. St. Paul, which is five or six times smaller than Amsterdam, presents a typical instance of a breached marine volcano of perfectly regular form. The circular crater, now flooded by the sea, opens towards the north-east, and is enclosed by escarpments and taluses from 760 to 900 feet high. Thus is formed an extensive harbour of refuge completely sheltered and 240 feet deep, but barred at the entrance by two projecting peninsulas of debris, which shift their form with the waves, and which have at times been joined in a continuous rampart, preventing all access to shipping. Thermal springs abound on the margin of this basin, where by merely brushing aside the surface sands enough hot water may be collected to boil the fish captured close by. A comparison of the early descriptions with those of modern explorers would seem to show that the underground energies have greatly diminished since the discovery of the island. The thermal springs are apparently cooler, the gas jets less abundant, the hot spaces less extensive. Moreover the island is itself diminishing through the rapid destruction of its shores. Everywhere the coast is carved into cMSb, and on both sides of the entrance to the flooded crater huge fragments have broken away frora the flanks of the volcano. Towards the north- east the coast is fringed by several rocky islets, of which the most striking are La Quille, a horizontally stratified pyramidal mass, and North Island, a basaltic colonnade afEecting the form of a circular temple. The flora comprises from thirty-five to forty species of mosses and lichens, and about fifteen of herbaceous growths. The trees planted by the fishermen and the botanists of various expeditions have not succeeded, while the vegetables, such as potatoes, sorrel, And carrots, ha-^e much degenerated. The cabbage alone thrives to a surprising degree, ten^'ing even to acquire arborescent proportions. A few butterflies, fud even a bee, nave beon found, but no land-shells. The pigs let loose «.j the island survived only a few years, but the cats, mice, and rats have become aoclimatised. " Thrown together by a comicon fate, they dwell peacefully in the same retreats." Amsterdam, less studied because less accessible than St. Paul, appears to have a richer flora and fauna. It is even said to possess one or more small quadrupeds, including a weasel. Here the French expedition of 1874 discovered about fifty plants, of which as many as twenty-three were indigenous species. Amongst the larger growths is the phylica arborea, a shrub which had not previously been met beyond the Atlantic basin. Several insular grouy*' strewn with floating ice. The Austral Islands. follow eastwards in the regions of the Indian Ocean But these cold lands, girdled round by breakers and i^ .'"5 J^ 00 AUSTRALASIA. buffeted by fierce gales, are too inhospitable to afford a permanent home to man. Here shipwrecked mariners have often passed an anxious time daily sweeping the horizon in search of a friendly sail. Whalers have alsD established more or less permanent stations in the neighbourhood of the fishing- grounds. Lying on the ocean highway between Great Britain and Australia, in the track of the western trade winds, these islands are fortunately well known, and have even been carefully studied, especially by the naturalists of the Challenger expedition of 1874. All are of volcanic origin, rising above the surface of waters over 1,500 fathoms deep. , . Marion, Prince Edward, and the Crozets. Marion, so named from the navigator who discovered it in 1771, is the highest of the western group, lying over 720 miles to the south-east of the Cape of Good Hope. It JH exclusively of igneous formation, its central cone rising to a, height of over 4,000 'ect, and even in summer covered with a snowy mangle down to 1,000 fe,i laove sea-level. The periphery of this central cone la studded with B^'-ondaiv (• :)ters presenting the appearance of excrescences on its flanks, while ' ^\.s of red S'iorise, here and there moss-grown, descend to the water's edge. P. i .00 Kiward, so named by Cook, attains an altitude of 2,000 feet. The ( = li'ct., ,Jmj discovered by Marion, form an archipelago of several inlands, one of v.-ch, Po^'s .-fasxon Tfilaud, exceeds 5,000 feet. Hog Island takes its name from the animals hore let loose by an English captain to su^jply the whalers and shipwrecked crews ; but Rabbit Island would now be a more appropriate name, for the swine have been replaced by thousands of coneys, which make their burrows in the heaps of scoriae. ' Kerguklen. Kerguelen, by far the largest of all these groups, was discovered in 1772 by the French captain whose naino it bears, and who again visited it the next year, when he found it to be axt island, and not a peninjula of the great southern continent sought for by -.ii navigators in the Austral seat;. It was again explored in 1776 by Cook, w'/j proposed to call it Desolation Land, a name which it certainly merits, to judge from the reports of the whalers, the naturalists of the Challenger expedir.on, and of those sci:* the following year from England, America, and the United StateR to observe the traasit of Venus. Kerguelen, M'hich lies near the f ftieth degree of south latitude, and which is surrounded by some three hundred ialets, rocks, and • reefs of all sizes, was formerly almost inaccessible to sailing vessels. Nevertheless it offers, especially on its east side, a large number of deep bays, creeks, and islets, affording shelter to ships that have succeeded in threading the maze of outer channels and passages. These indentations on the seaboard present the same fjord-like formations as those observed on the shores of the north polar regions, which were at one time coaipktely covered by an ice-cap. KEROUELEN. »1 The Kerguelen mountains, all of igneous origin and either of columnar or terrace formation, are not disposed in any regular system, although the main axis runs on the whole in the direction from north-west to south-east. i\ccording to the reports of the whalers, the underground forces are still active, and a mountain in the south-west is said to emit vapours. Mount Ross, the highest summit hitherto measured (6,100 feet), lies near the souths 'i extremity of the island, while the eastern and south-eastern peninsulas are respectively occupied by Mounts Crozier (3,300 feet) and Wyville Thomson (3,200 feet). Glaciers .< . , . Fig. 22.— Keeoxtelen. > >. ,•._■','.,.,.,/.; ; Soale 1 : 1.600,000. :r:. ,m> - . r • ," . ' ' ^ . Ensfc oPGreenwich 69 to 160 Feet. Deptb*. leo to 820 Feet. 320 Feet and upwards. ■ 80 Miles. descend from the upper valleys of these highlands, and at least at one point on the West side reach the seacoast. Towards the west the snows and ice covering the interior, and easily confused at a distance with the overhanging banks of wnite clouds, render an accurate survey of the craters, crevasses, and lava streams almost impossible. But near the seaboard are seen numerous volcanoes, whose craters are now filled with snow or water, The east side, where fair weather prevails, receives less moisture, and here the snow line is iirrested at a mean elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea. ^ 62 AUSTRALASIA. Formerly the island enjoyed a very different and much milder climate, for in the valleys the argillaceous schists here and there overlie fossil wood at every stage of transformation, in one place almost still fresh, in another half petrified, or even changed to pure silica. In the cavities of the basalt rocks are also found layers of coal varying from a few inches to over a yard in thickness, and overlying more recent eruptive rocks. So numerous are these deposits that it has been proposed to convert Eerguelen into a coaling station on the ocean highway between England and Australia. Were the project realised, this now useless French possession might acquire a certain commercial value. There can be no doubt that cattle might also be reared on the island, where the sheep landed by the expedition under Captain Ross throve well. Sheep-farming has succeeded excellently on the Falkland Islands, which have the same climate as Eerguelen, and an analogous fauna and flora. - The present cUmate of Kerguelen is very equable, varying little from winter to summer. According to Studer, the difference of temperature throughout the year is only 18° F., ranging from 32° in winter to 50° in summer, with a mean of 39° or 40°. But there is an excess of moisture, and high gales are always blowing either from the north or west, and are often accompanied by hail, snow, or rain, though at times also by clear, bright skies. Sometimes these gales are displaced by north-easterly winds bearing copious rains, fogs, and a higher temperature ; but the normal direction of the atmospheric currents is from the north-west. To these, incessant storms the naturalist, Studer, attributes the fact that the local insects, especially the flies and butterflies, are destitute of wings, which could lead only to their destruction, by exposing them to the risk of being blown seawards with no hope of return. Even the strong -winged albatross never builds on the north-west side of the island, which bears the brunt of the tempest and is wrapped in eternal fogs. His home is on the shores facing the clear blue akies. The Eerguelen flora is extremely poor, resembling that rather of an antarctic land than of an island situated in the temperate zone and corresponding in latitude to the valley of the Somme in the northern hemisphere. Hooker, who spent a winter on the island, failed to discover more than eighteen flowering plants, to which further researches have only added three, making twenty-one altogether in a total of about a hundred and fifty species. Nearly two-thirds of the vegetation consists in fact of algee and mosses, and even of the phanerogams about one-third are monocotyledons, a proportion occurring nowhere else in the whole world. After traversing the zone of large algae {macrocyatis pyrifera), some of whose rope- like stalks are 200 feet long, the observer comes upon a narrow zone of grass, followed by plants of the saxifrage type, mosses, and a few graminaceae sprouting in the cavities of the rocks. On the slopes of the hills azorella selago develops extensive beds saturated with water, where the explorer sinks to his knees at every step. The only plant producing any effect on the landscape is a gigantic species of cabbage, whose botanical name (pringlea antiscorbutica) sufficiently indicates its value to seafarers condemned to long periods of a coarse salt meat diet This species is peculiar to Kerguelen, being found nowhere else in the. I "■■'■.'':, '■.J,*- KERGUELEN.— HEABD. 68 Indian Ocean. Tte lyellia, another flowering plant, resembles an Andean growth, and three species also supposed to be indigenous in Kerguelen are so like their congeners in Tierra del Fuego, that botanists are inclined to regard them as simple varieties ; lastly, one of the local growths is of Australian origin. But on the whole, the Kerguelen flora is most akin to the Fuegian, a fact doubtless due to the marine currents setting steadily eastwards. ' = The only bird peculiar to Kerguelen and the Marion and Crozot groups is the chionia minor, about the size of a pigeon, and not unlike an allied species common to the Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego. There are no land mammals, reptiles, or batruchians, and the fur-bearing seals and other cetaceans still swarm- ing in the Kerguelen waters at the beginning of the century have already become rare. In 1843 over five hundred whalers found occupation in these seas, but in 1874 not more than five or six were employed in the capture of whales. The otters are also threatened with extermination, and have already become so scarce that they are no longer regularly hunted. But a number of vessels are still engaged in the capture of the huge sea-lions, one of whom yields as much as a ton of oil. These and other seals still find some shelter from their human enemies in the bays klong the west coast, whither the fury of the elements prevents the fishers from following them. Some of these fishers, who had collected a vast quantity of oil on the south-west point of Kerguelen, had to wait for years before a single ship ventured through the breakers to take in a cargo, and growing impatient they at last set fire to their whole stock, whence the name of Bonfire Beach given to this part of the coast. The most frequented haven is Christmas Harbour, at the north-west extremity of the island, the position of which is indicated at a distance by a basalt rock assuming the appearance of an imposing triumphal arch. '""'il MacDonald and Heard Islands. MacDonald, lying to the south-east of Kerguelen, is a mere rock fringed by breakers and inaccessible to fishers. But Heard is visited both by whalers and seal-hunters. Except at the black lava headlands, this island is entirely covered by a white mantle, two vast snow-fields concealing the hills round about Big Ben, the chief summit, which is said to be loftier than Mount Ross in Kerguelen. But although supposed to be over 6,000 feet high it was completely invisible at the time of the Challenger expedition, all the heights above 1,000 feet being wrapped in dense fog. The climate of Heard is even more inclement and stormy than that of Kerguelen. The fierce south-east polar winds prevail very generally in these southern latitudes, and are much dreaded by mariners. v*»/ ; V^^ CHAPTER III. THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO (INDONESIA). ' \i( General Survey. ' ' • " " ' NDONESIA or Insulindia, that is, " Insular India," as the Dutch have rightly named this region, is better known to English readers as the Eastern, Asiatic, Malay, or East Indian Archipelago, and Roraetimes by the simpler and somewhat more convenient expression, Malaysia. It constitutes, if not a jwlitical, certainly a well-defined geographical area. The submarine bank on which stand the two great islands of Java and Siimatra terminates abruptly towards the Indian Ocean in steep escarp- ments plunging into the very deepest abysses of the whole basin. Java is continued eaptwards by a chain of smaller islands extending to the north-east of Timor, and evidently forinitig part of the same region ; the volcanoes traversing this long line of islands attest the action of the same geological forces. South of Papuasia the nurrow igneous zone is deflected northwards, as if to mark the eastern limits of Indonesia proper. .■/■ "•^H <.\-'.\ :;*c? mme -It U<»l|l'W^ >.^^^M^ii>^^^ ^ jlo >■;?/»'' «': CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. C«iM*«iMniMiiiiiNiiMi i i iiliiij'li ''""'-'-■■'■■"'■■ I. ...I.I.I. .1,1 19 I INDONESIA. 66 Indo-Malaya and Austro-Malava. But Malaysia itself, as has long been shown by Wallace,* forms two perfectly distinct physical regions, the Indo-Malayan, comprising the three great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, connected by a shallow marine bed, and the Austro- Malayan, the twot chief members of which are Celebes and Jilolo, both rising above oceanic waters of great depth. Striking contrasts of climate, floras and faunas, as well as of human populations, are presented by these two main divisions of the Eastern Archipelago. Nevertheless both are characterised by certain common features, in virtue of which they may be regarded as collectively forming Fig. 23.— Indonesian Subharinx Fi.atei.17. *- ' . Scale 1 : 48,000,000. Lasb oP b< Depths. 0to2& Fathom*. 26toa00 Fathoms, 600 to 8,000 Fathomi. 2,000 Fatlioma and upwards. . 600 Miles. an oceanic world distinct from Asia, of which they constitute a south-eastern continuation. All these Indonesian lands have a total estimated extent of nearly 700,000 square miles, or nearly six times the superficial area of the British Isles. But the oceanic region over which these lands are scattered is far more extensive. From the northernmost extremity of Sumatra to the last of the Tenimber islets, the distance across the Indian Ocean is no less than 2,800 miles ; while between Lombok and the north point of Borneo, Indonesia develops an extreme breadth of about 700 miles. Within this vast expanse are compiised one island larger than * The MaUty Archipelago, the first edition of which appeared in 1868. t Excluding New Quinea, which is not here considered. 6—0 ■am F .j^f< ' iiii;gH"^ " w? y-' y .{" " - ' ' ""i. ' 66 AUSTRALASIA. France, another exceeding Great Britain in size, two surpassing Ireland, seven more extensive than Corsica, and dozens bigger than Malta. The seas are every- where studded with countless tanahn, puloa, or misas, as the smaller islands and islets are variously called, some settled, others uncultivated, or thinly if at all inhabited. To the traveller lost in the maze of these innumerable insular groups, Indonesia seems a boundless oceanic world. Coasting the larger islands for days and weeks together in some native prau, he is bewildered by the constantly shifting tropical scenes, the endless variety of lands and of peoples at all stages of culture, and whose very names are unknown to him. Headlands with extinct or still smoking volcanoes, coral banks, or insular forests, which seem to spring from the surface of the water, are landmarks that indicate his progress through these inter- minable island-studded seas. As a region of transition between the Asiatic and Australian continents, Malaysia presents a strange contrast with the corresponding transitional region of the arid Arabian peninsula between Asia and Africa. In the richness of its insular development, the infinite variety of its landscapes, its brilliant vegetation, the number of its animal species, the diversity of its populations and abun- dant resources, the East Indian surpasses even the West Indian insular world itself. The Central American archipelago yields also to the Asiatic in historic importance, as well as in the economic value of the relations that have been developed between these two regions and the rest of the W'.rld. The relatively small island of Java alone has a larger jwpulation and more abundant products than the whole of Central America and the Antilles ; while numerous straits between the islands offer to interoceanic traffic more extensive and commodious highways than the future Panama and Nicaraguan Canals can ever hope to become. ,^- ' ' ' Traversed in its entire length by the equinoxial line, Indonesia might well be called the garden of the world, not only, like the interior of Africa, because of its high annual temperature, but also and especially thanks to its fertile and copiously watered soil, its exuberant vegetation, and the costly and varied nature of its products. The very energy displayed by the igneous forces under the Sunda Islands and adjacent lands contributes to make this region one of the centres of terrestrial activity. Here the land quakes and is rent asunder even more frequently than in the Central American and West Indian areas of volcanic disturbance. Java, the most densely peopled and one of the best cultivated and most productive islands in the world, is also the most violently agitated by under- ground convulsions as well as the scene of the most numerous active craters. These remarkable lands are not inhabited by independent native populations. A few unreduced tribes still find a refuge on the Sumatran plateaux, in the forests of Borneo and other islands ; but numerically they represent but a very small fraction of the Indonesian peoples. The more or less civilised Malayan populations, who have commercially exercised so much influence throughout the oceanic domain, and whose colonies have spread over an enormous expanse from Madagascar to Polynesia, have never been fused into a compact national body,^ ii--c-f,Mii*c.-.-.-'j-„... 46- ett ■y- nd all ps, INDONESIA. «7 and their conquests have been the work of one or another isolated group. Numerous petty Malay states have thus been founded, but the race has created no great empires. The diversity presented by their domain, divided into a thousand little insular mother countries, is thus reflected in their historic evo- lution. But the political unity, which has failed to be spontaneously developed, is being accomplished under foreign supremacy. The Europeans, who have occu- pied the whole of America, two-thirds of Asia, and one-half of Africa, have also made themselves masters of the Eastern Archipelago. A single European power, and one of the least importance in a military sense, dominates almost exclusively in this vast insular world comprised between Indo-China and Aus- tralia. Historic Retkospect. Under the guidance of Arab pilots, the Portuguese navigators and Italian travellers appeared early in the sixteenth century in the Sunda waters, and in 1511, Albuquerque, already master of the great city of Malacca, secured for his nation the political preponderance in the Malay world. The very next year the first consignment of nutmegs was shipped, in the Banda group, direct for Lisbon. In order more rapidly to explore every part of their new domain, the Portuguese resolved that all vessels, whether Malay, Chinese, or Javanese, trading with Malacca, should henceforth be commanded by a European captain. In this way the European mariners in a few years became familiar with the labyrinth of Indonesian maritime routes, thus securing for themselves the monopoly of the spice trade between the Moluccas and Lisbon. Doubtless the Spaniards, led by Magellan, soon appeared on the scene, in their turn claiming the exclusive right to the possession of the coveted " Spice Islands." In virtue of Alexander VI.'s famous bull, dividing the world recently dis- covered, or yet to be discovered, between the two Iberian powers, to Portugal fell all the lands situated in the far East. But Spain on her part claimed these same lands, as lying in the far West beyond the New World, and to put an end to these conflicts the Portuguese were fain to redeem by purchase the islands in dispute. Of these they remained peaceful possessors for nearly a century ; but in 1596 the Dutch flag, which had been excluded by Philip II. from the direct trade with Lisbon, had already discovered the road to the East. The broad-beamed Dutch vessels made their appearance before Malacca and helped themselves to the spices of the native factories. Such was the commercial enterprise inspired by the two brothers Houtman, who bore the Portuguese a grudge for their imprisonment in Lisbon, that within seven years the Amsterdam and Antwerp shippers had equipped fifteen fleets for the Eastern Archipelago, comprising altogether sixty- five vessels. In 1600 the new arrivals secured a strip of territory in Sumatra, and in 1610 they obtained a footing in Java, where they erected a fort, afterwards ^mm 68 ATJSTBALASIA. I:- W m s%& replaced, despite the English, by that of Batavia, the central point of their future conquests. At this period the Portuguese had become too enfeebled to continue the struggle with Holland, which in 1609 had already wrested the Moluccas from them. At present, of their former vast empire in the Eastern seas, there remains nothing but the eastern half of Timor with a contiguous islet. Holland thus became a great political and military state, ruling over many kingdoms, disposing of considerable forces, with redoubtable admirals and brave captains at her service. Nevertheless, the trading company, to which the Nether- lands Government had in 1602 grunted a monopoly of the commerce with Indonesia, found itself powerless to defend its vast possessions when its English rivals had become masters of the sea. At the end of the eighteenth century the Spice Islands, regarded as the most valuable of all colonial possessions, had fallen into the hands of England, and in order to prevent her from seizing the whole of the Malay Archipelago, the privileges of the company were purchased by the Dutch l ;■■' -' ,:w ' -■ ' " '"■ ■ -^ _. Fig. 24.— COMPABATIVE AeEAS OF HOLLAND AND THE DUTOH EaBT ImDIBS. Scale 1 : 48,000,000. ' t ; ' ^ ^ ' V" ^■^.^twGuinat 10* .95° Last or Vjreef^v^ich 130' mouiiM. States, then known as the Batavian Bepublic. But Java and its dependencies passed, none the less, into the power of the English, by whom they were not restored till 1816, after the Napoleonic wars. Since that time Holland, notwithstanding her insignificant size compared with ^ its Eastern possessions, has remained undisputed mistress of all the insular groups which she had acquired at the close of the last century. She has even extended her sway over several islands not previously claimed by her, while her effective control has been enlarged and strengthened in the interior of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes. \;, ., The northern part of Borneo alone had hitherto remained beyond the influence of the Dutch, and this circumstance has enabled a British company recently to acquire a considerable portion of the great island. This new English domain, with the neighbouring principality of Sarawak, acquired by a British soldier of »•«• «>''r«'wi<'i. > The Sunda Islands have their peculiar species of palms, amongst others, two varieties of the sago {metroxylon Rumphii or aagm) and the corypha (gebang), which grows in a narrow zone at an elevation of about 450 feet, immediately above the coast forests. The liana-palms {rattan or rotang) twine round the other trees, hanging in festoons from top to top sometimes for a space of three or four hundred feet, and thus binding together whole forests in a compact mass into which it is impossible to penetrate without the aid of the axe or fire. Some species of bamboo also acquire the trailing habits of the lianas, occasionally growing to a length of 130 feet ; others are armed with thorns and form dense thickets shunned even by the wild beasts themselves. The marvellous development of the parasitic plants in the Sunda Islands is well seen in the blossom of Rafflesia, which grows on the roots and branches of a species of cisstia. In Sumatra one variety bears enormous flowers over seven feet round. On the slopes of the mountains the various growths are disposed vertically according to the climate, ranging from the tropical zone of the coastlands to the temperate region of the topmost crests. Nevertheless, curious associations are sometimes observed amongst plants belonging naturally to different areas. Thus in Sumatra, the oak is found in company with the camphor-tree. On the same seaboard there are also met certain teaks, which in Java occur only at considerable altitudes on the flanks of the moimtains. On the northern uplands of Sumatra are found certain pines intermingled with casuarinas. Here is the southern limit of those conifers, whose true home are the Himalayas. Amid this endless variety of forms each island of the archipelago has it§ own share of endemic growths. Thus in the Sumatran flora, comprising over two thousand six hundred known phanerogams, Miguel enumerates a thousand and forty-nine which are not met in Java, although separated from the larger island only by a narrow strait. Even the western and eastern divisions of Java itself, differing but slightly in their climates, present considerable contrasts in their local floras. Not only the Moluccas, long famous for their valuable spices, but all iilMi> » hho88 pliintH which occur nowhere v\m on the surface of the glohe. In three yeiirH the botuniHt Bcccuri discovered over two hundred uhHolutely new species in the single district of Huriiwiik, on the north- west uou^c of Borneo. In the sumo ishwid the summits of the niountuins form so muny secondary islands, with independent growths recalling the types of remote lands in more temperate climates. At an elevation of H.oOO feet, on the flanks of Kina-Balu, in North Borneo, are met certain forms belonging to genera which elsewhere occur only iu New Zealand. Fauna. Going eastwards the flora is gradually modified with the changing climatic conditions, whereas the transition from fauna to fauna are for the most part of an abrupt character. While the species in the western islands as far as Bali are of the Indian type, those of the eastern regions, beginning with Lomhok, present the characteristics of Australian zoological life. Two worlds as different as Europe and America here lie side by side, separated only by a strait less than 20 miles broad. But the two islands of Bali and Lombok, composed largely of igneous rocks, are probably for the most part of comparatively recent origin. Hence what is now a narrow channel was formerly a wide branch of the seo. Nevertheless the striking contrast between two faunas on the same chain of islands presenting such great uniformity in their physical constitutions must still be regarded as a most remarkable phenomenon. One of the salient features of the terrestrial crust is this very range of volcanic islands evidently springing from the same fault in the submarine bed and stretching from the islet of Krak- atau to that of Nila for a distance of 2,200 miles. Yet this line of eruptive rocks is intersected precisely in the middle by an abrupt parting-line between two distinct faunas. The inference is irresistible that the formation of the Sundanese volcanoes is of relatively recent date. The sudden contrast of the Indian and Australian animal forms •shows that here the distribution of land and water, as well as the planetary life itself, has greatly changed during the course of the later geological epochs. Between Borneo and Celebes, which however are separated by a much wider strait than that of Lombok, the contrast- between the animal species is no less remarkable, nearly all the forms of the two regions belonging to distinct families. We must therefore conclude that here also the lands characterised by different faunas have remained disconnected since extremely remote geological times. But Celebes, unlike Lombok, formed no part of the Australian world. On all sides its isolation appears to be complete, dating evidently from a period of vast antiquity. On the other hand both their fauna and their flora attest the ancient con- tinuity of the three great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, which are separated only by shallow waters from the Asiatic mainland. Wallace enumerates forty-eight species of mammals common to the continental and neighbouring insular Malay lands. Simiatra, with its long mountain range disposed parallel I.IJPflll* "V ' pi i' o. i.-' y ' I :<■■" S" ' Wi ' &^^ L 74 AHSTRALASIA. with tho Muliiy iMsninsulu, huB ii fuuim which inuy !«' rogunlod an ulinost i«lontical with thill of th« mainluiul. Horiioo, bfinj^ furth« removed, ulroudy prosentu a orrtain oriKinulity in its uiiiiiiul foniiH. Still more marked churiictoristics are offered by Java, notwithstanding itn proximity to Sumatra, with which it in further connected by intervening islets affording resting-places to birds of passage. From tho fact that Java poHHesses more endemic birds and insects than either Horneo or Smnatra, it may be inferred that it was the first to be «letached from tho mainland. Horneo doubtless still formed ccmtinuous land with Indo-China at a time when Java was already surrounded on all sides by the marine waters. Fig. 24.— Fabtino Link or thb Indomeuam Faujus. Soal* 1 : 8.i,sou,000. ' ;>* Deptbr. OtoMO Feet. 640 Feet and apwarda. .aOOHUea. Hence the zoological data formally contradict the Javanese tradition to the effect that the physical rupture between Sumatra and Java was quite a recent event, dating only from about the year 1000 of the new era. But the zoological exploration of Indonesia is still far from being concluded. The region best known to naturalists is the western section of Java, although much attention has also been bestowed on the district of Fadang in Sumatra, those of Sarawak and Banjermassin in Borneo, the island of P-\ngka, and certain peninsulas in Celebes. But all this forms but a small fraction of the vast Indonesian domain, and the future doubtless reserves many surprises for the naturalist. .^ ':; 1 ■p FAUNA OF INDONKSFA. 71 cal N a rod lor K«- ler rom ut ors. ./■*■>' i '■■, '■"■ id At tho Hiuiio tiiiu* th«^ oxploruiiouHulruudy inado nufKco in give i*nnn^ iduaof the teoining luiiinul lift' in th»< weHtern purtH of tlio an-hipolago, During; nix ynirHof roHourch, Walluco ulono collectwl <»vnr a hundiod and twenty-five thousand /fM>lo- gical HpeciinenH. The I n«h>ueHian inainnialN conipriHo over one hundred and Heventy apecieH, aniongHt whieh twenty-four l)elon}f to the a|)« family. In Siiniatui and Uorneo occur two BjHJi'ieM of the orang-utan, that " wihl nuin " who huH been ho often dencribed, and who, by hiH intelligence and moral (pialiticH HceinN to approach neurent to civiliHod man. The ni-amang, nearly an tall uh the orang-utan, huH hin home in Sumatra ; while all the weHtern iHlandn have their long-u)'med gibbona and long* mouthed lemuroidfl. Sumatra and Borneo are still the refuge of a Hpecies of elephant, apparently in no way differing from the Indian variety, as well as of a tapir, which is also mot on the adjacent mainland. Both islands have their rhinoceroses, and Borneo and Java their wild cattle resembling those of Siam cad Bunnah. The Sunda group has no less than thirty-three fl|)eoie(i of caruivoru, amongst which are the royal tiger and the almost equally formidable leopard. There uro also as many as fifty different kinds of the bat family, and a great number of rodents, the squirrels alone being represented by twenty-five species, nearly all distinct from those of the mainland, but outwardly not unlike the tupaias, or insectivora, of which about ton varieties have been observed, mostly j)eculiar to the archipelago. Besides those recently introduced by man, there are about three hundred and fifty species of bii ds, some of which, notably the parrakeets, are distinguished by their gorgeous plumage. The ophidians and other reptiles, somewhat rare in most oceanic lands, are, on the contiary, very numerous in Indonesia, where the estu- aries are infested by crocodiles, and the forests inhabited by pythons over thirty feet long, and by the much-dreaded spectacled snake. Hundreds of species of fishes swarm in all the rivers, while thousands and thousands of the insect order have already been collected and classified in the European museums. Such is the multitude of the butterflies, that Wallace speaks of them as fonning a characteristic feature of the insular scenery. The " oruithoptera," which, thanks to their size, majestic flight, and brilliant colours, make a greater show than most birds, are met in swarms about the verge of the forests and cidtivated lands. A morning stroll in the more fertile districts of Malaysia is almost sure to reveal three or four, and often as many as eight species of jmpiUo, of which naturalists have already enumerated about one hundred and thirty kinds. Borneo alone possesses thirty, the largest number yet found in any single island. The diversity of these species, however, diminishes gradually going eastwards, while their size increases in the same direct 'on. Such is the poverty of the fauna as we approach the Australian continent, that Timor offers no more than seven species of land mammals apart from fifteen kinds of bats. Passing from Borneo to Celebes, the naturalist is less struck by the reduced number of species than by their new forms. Celebes, having boen longer isolated than the neighbouring lands, presents greater originality in the aspect of its fauna. Lying about the parting-line between the Sundandse and Australian ■ ,., * i if':' W ,' ; I 76 AUSTRAI.ASIA. domains, it forms in some respects a connecting link between both ; but most of its species are altogether peculiar, so that this great island constitutes an independent zoological world. Of the three hundred and fifty kinds of birds inhabiting the Sunda group, ten only have reached Celebes, where there are no less than eighty found nowhere else. Of its twenty-one mammals, including seven bats, eleven are also pecidiar to the island, while the local butterflies are distinguished from all their congeners elsewhere by the outward form of their wings. The Moluccas, lying at the eastern extremity of Indonesia, resemble Timor and Celebes in the poverty of their mammals, of which they have only ten, not counting the ubiquitous bats, and of this number there is reason to believe that about half, amongst others the cynopithek, confined to the island of Batjau, have been introduced by man. The typical forms of this insular group approach those of Australia, being of the marsupial order, and comprising amongst others the beli- deus artel, which outwardly resembles a flying squirrel. On the other hand, the Moluccas have a marvellous wealth of birds, their avi- fauna being richer than that of the whole of Europe. Although the exploration of this region is still far from completed, naturalists have already discovered two hundred and sixty-five kinds of birds, of which one hundred and ninety-five are terrestrial, and most of which, such as the parrakeets, pigeons, and kingfishers, rival in beauty of form and gorgeous plumage those elsewhere found in the tropical zone. The numerous insects also, and especially the butterflies, form the admiration of explorers by their size and the metallic lustre of their wings. The little island of Amboyna alone contains more remarkable varieties of lepidoptera than many vast continental regions. Here, in fact, these animal forms may be said to have reached the highest possible pitch of development. Moot of the species are peculiar to the Moluccas, while the genera and types connect this insular fauna with that of New Guinea. Although the Asiatic continent seems to be continued from island to island far into the Pacific; Ocean, both Celebes and the Moluccas already belong zoologically to another region of the globe. Inhabitants of Indonesia. i'^ The Eastern Archipelago is shared as well by different races of mankind as by different faunas, but the parting-lines do not coincide for the human and animal forms. While the zoological domains are separated by the Lombok Strait and the broad Macassar Channel, the limits of the Malayan and Papuan races, with the allied populations, have been shifted much farther towards the east : this line traverses the islands of Jilolo and Buru, and then trends south-westwards in the direction of Timor and Sumbawa. The inhabitants of the islands lying on either side of thf>se limits again present considerable differences amongst themselves, either offering various shades of transition between the true Malays and intruders of other races, or else belonging to a really original type, the possible survivors of some primitive stock. At least fifty languages are current in the archipelago, and each insular group requires to be studied apart with the territory occupied by it. •'•/ INHABITANTS OF INDONESIA. 77 In the Sunda Islands and Celebes, as well as in a part of the Moluccas, the dominant, if not the exclusive race, is the Malayan, which constitutes the bulk of the population, or which at least has absorbed and assimilated most of the other ethnical elements. But whatever resemblances they may present to each other throughout the archipelago, these Malayan peoples are everywhere divided into natuial groups, according to the geographical environmeut, their diverse intev- mingliugs, their diet and different degreeis of barbarism or culture. The Malays, properly so called, who closely resemble those of the neighbouring peninsula, and who have given their name to the whole race, occupy the coastlands of Sumatra and Borneo, with the intermediate islands. ' The Javanese, as indicated by their name, inhabit the greater part of Java, and have also spread farther east , «. '.V, Fig. 26.— Inhabitants of Indonesia. Scale 1 : 45,000,000. 10' 100" LasC or breenvvich lU' 180" Malays of divers lodoneeian* t Annaniites. nationalitieB. Batta, Dyak, Mlnahaan, AUiirtt. Papuans. , eOO Uiles. Kegrito*. ■:^'*::«o to the two islands of Bali and Lombok.' The Sundanese dwell in the western districts of Java, on the shores of the Sunda Strait separating that island from Sumatra. The Bughis hold the south-western peninsula of Celebes as well as the north coast, and all the adjacent islands. Lastly, each separate land has its more or less pure or mixed populations, bearing an endless variety of tribal names. The term " Alfuru," however, collectively applied in Celebes and farther east to all the wild tribes driven from the coastlands to the interior, has no racial significance. It simply indicates the social condition of the populations which have kept aloof from the Mohammedan Malays, some of which are of lighter complexion even than the JavBT^cse, while others resemble in colour and aspect the dark Papuans of New Guinea. ' nW"t*' ■'Af- 78 AUSTRALASIA. Amongst the Indonesians are still found savage peoples, such as the Battas of Sumatra, the Bornean Dyaks, the " Alfurus," that is " Free " or " Wild," of Celebes, and most anthropologists are inclined to regard them as a primitive population of light colour who occupied the archipelago before the arrival of the Malays. To them is iu u Bpeciul manner applied the term " Indonesian," as if they were the representatives of the original masters of this oceanic region. But in the north-eastern islands near New Guinea and the Philippines, there occurs yet another ethnical element quite distinct both from the Papuans and Malays, characterised by black or blackish skin and crisp hair. These natives, who resemble the Andamanese and the Negritos of the Philippines, would appear to be the true autochthones, still older than the fair Indonesians of Simiatra, Borneo and Celebes. In the western islands they have been exterminated, in the eastern driven to the uplands of the interior, just as the Indonesians themselves have been encroached upon in the large Sundanese islands. This remarkable phenotnenon of distinct human as well as animal species dwelling in contiguous islands, under the same or analogous physical conditions, finds its explanation in the histor)' of the planet itself. Such contrusts are the outcome of different epochs, which are here placed, as it were, in juxtaposition. But during the course of ages all these heterogeneous elements must have long been subjected to like influences, for all, or nearly all, the current Malay, Papuan, Indonesian, and Negrito languages seem to constitute a single linguistic family, and this family itself has been afiilia.pd by Hodgson and Caldwell to the Dravidian of Southern India. ^^' ; ^N-Ct ? v^ As commonly understood, the t..Tm " Malay " is practically synonjTnous with " Mohammedan." The Indonesian, whether black, bronze, or fair, who accepts the Moslem faith and acquires a knowledge of the Arabic letters, becomes ipsa facto a " Malay." Still, the great bulk of the population belongs probably to the same stock. Without prejudging the question of the origin of the Malay race now dominant in the archipelago, it may be asked where was its home in the times anterior to ^he historic period ? Did the Malays reach this region through the peninsula named from them, or had they any other centre of dispersion, as for instance, the plateaux in the interior of Sumatra ? According to Van der Tunk, their very name, interpreted by him in the sense of " wanderers," " vaga- bonds," would indicate their foreign origin. In all the lands occupied by them the banks of the rivers are " right " and " left " not according to the course of the stream seawards, but in the reverse way, as if the colonists had in all cases penetrated from the sea against the current into the lutoiiur. Marked resem- blances have also been observed between the Malay houses and their praus, so much so that in many places their villages present the appearance of stranded fleets. The insular as well as the continental Malays, although short, or at most of average height, are of robust constitution, with a ruddy browTi, at times olive, complexion, and in the women, who are less exposed to the sun, approaching nearer to a decided yellow. The hair of the head — ioi' all are nearly beardless -i& INHABITANTS OP INDONESIA. 79 black, hard, and coarse to the touch ; the face rather round than oval and somewhat flat, with small nose but wide nostrils, thick lips, prominent cheek bones, and black eyes. But for their complexion and dress they might often be taken for Chinese. The resemblance is even closer to the Khmers (Cambojans), with whoso language the Malay presents a great analogy oven in its grammatical structure.* Physically the Malays are distinguished by their well-balanced frames, delicate articulations, small hands and feet. ^ ; " ' Like the members of all other human families, the Malays of the different islands present marked diversities according to their pursuits or professions. The corsair or the trader cannot be judged by the same standard as the mechanic or the peasant. But the great bulk of the natives, occupied with husbandry, are sociable if qpmewhat taciturn, of a kindly disposition, ever ready to render each other mutual aid, extremely courteous and considerate for the privileges and feelings of others. The labourer is careful not to awake his fellow workman by a touch of the hand ; the creditor hesitates to remind the debtor of his obligations ; altogether the demeanour and conversation of the Malays are certainly superior to those of their white rulers and pretended " civilisers." But although in some respects highly cultured and for centuries possessing a written literature, the Malays do not appear to be as richly endowed intellectually as other nations, notably the Papuans, who are at present greatly their inferiors in civilisation. According to those travellers who have associated most intimately with them, their chief menial defect is a certain feebleness of understanding, a lack of boldness or vigour of apprehension. They are timid, without power of independent action, hence disposed to submit unresistingly to foreign influences. Thus they formerly accepted Buddhism and Brahmanism at the hands of a few Hindu missionaries. Then came the Arab traders, who soon persuaded most of the populations to adopt Islam ; and now a handful of Dutch officials, supported only by a few mercenary troops, suffices to hold thirty millions of human beings in a state of subjection little removed from slavery. Sumatra and Neighbouring Islands. Apart even from the adjacent archipelagoes geologically dependent on Sumatra, this island is one of the largest in the world, being exceeded in extent only by New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Australia, and the polar regions of Greenland and the antarctic lands. Its surface, which has not yet been regularly surveyed, is estimated at over 175,000 square miles, or thirteen times the area of Holland, to which it is politically attached, if not yet completely reduced. In the northern highlands and forests it is still occupied by independent populations, and the interminable war with Atjeh, begun in 1873, has taught the Dutch people what it costs to attempt the subjugation of a brave nation determined to defend its autonomy against all odds. Until the island is completely " pacified " it will be impossible to obtain * Foataiue, Aynioimier, Keane {Aiutralatia). 80 AUSTEALASIA. accurate returns for the whole population. But from the partial statistics already taken in the conquered provinces, combined with the systematic estimates made for thei independent districts, it may be inferred that the number of inhabitants, although at ill comparatively slij^ht, Las considerably increased since the middle of the present century. According to Veth, the population of Sumatra and the western islands in 1 869 was somewhat less than two and a half millions ; at present it certainly exceeds three and a half millions, and possibly even four millions. Were it peopled as densely as Java, which its fertile soil and abundant resources might enable it even to surpass, Sumatra would have a population of not less than seventy millions. Sumatra presents some features in common with Madagascar. Both are nearly of the same extent and outward foim, that of an elongated oval ; both have one nearly rectilineal coast, that facing towards the high sea, and another, washed by shallower waters, of irregular outline and indented with creeks and inlets. These two seas encircling Sumatra, the boundless ocean to the west, the shallow island- studded waters to the east, are said by some etymologists to have earned for the island its Sanskrit name of Samantara, that is, " placed between two ; " but there can be little doubt that its name is really derived from Samudra, which in Sanskrit simply means the " sea," but which was the designation of an ancient kingdom on the north coast. During the predominance of Hindu influences Sumatra shared with the adajcent island the name of Java, being distinguished from its neighbour by the epithet of " Little," not as being thought smaller than the " Great Java," but because of its inferior commercial importance. The native names of Sumatra are Pertjeh and Anda/as. It remained unknown to Europeans till the first years of the sixteenth century. Ludovico di Barthema visited the north coast in 1505, and four years later a Portuguese fleet made its appearance in these waters. The Dutch, present masters of Sumatra, did not present themselves till the close of the century, in 1598. ' - :: is.;: ■¥.. ; Physical Features of Sumatra. As in Madagascar, the highlands and mountain ranges, largely composed of stratified rocks resting on a granitic foundation, are developed not in the centre of the island, but for the most part in the vicinity of the western or oceanic coast. The orographic system, however, is of far more regular formation than in Madagascar, running from one extremity to the other along a scarcely deflected axis, presenting in some places only a single mtiiu range, in others breaking int.o two or three parallel chains. These ranges are connected by secondary transverse ridges enclosing verdant plateaux and cirques diversified by tranquil lakes and winding streams. In these upland regions, at a mean altitude of about 3,000 feet, are grouped the largest villages, and here the fertile soil is turned to best account. Here also the climate, far cooler than on the coastlands, is suitable even for Europeans, so that the elevated Sumatran tablelands would seem to combine all the mlvaiiUgdb destined to render a country populous, rich, and prosperous. - - mw W Htoi ft i i ii *lu iil H » H i ft. | fU ! W awwriJlWl SUMATEA. ai The Siimatran mountain system certainly forms a southern and more regular 9Q i extension of the Arrakanese, which, terminating on the mainland in the headland of Cape Negrais, east oi the Irrawaddi, afterwards describes the elongated curve of A— O "^^ m' HtMiHUiliH . AUSTRALASIA. the Andaman and Nicobor Islands. The Barisun Mountains, as the Sumatran I'uugea arc collectively onllpd, begin to the north of Atjeh with the islet of Pulo Brass (2,300 ^ect), on which has been erected the beacon known to mariners as the "Sumatra Lighthouse." Eastwards stands the insular mass of Pulo "Wai (1,370 feet), beyond which on the mainland rises the volcanic Selawa Janteu (5,650 feet), known to the Dutch As the Goudberg, or " Gold Mountain." This imposing and almost completely isolated cone is followed along the north coast by other crests, for the most part less elevated, and indicating the border of the still unexplored Achinese plateau. The range terminates near Diamond Cape (Jambu Ajer) in a Tafelberg, or Table Mountain, whose highest terrace stands at an altitude of 5,300 feet above the sea. Beyond the hills on the coast is seen the summit, 4,000 feet high, of the still un visited Samalanga volcano. . But the main range, which has its origin to the west of the Goudberg and of the Atjeh valley, develops a much loftier senVs of crests along the oceanic seaboard. Here the Abong-Abong and Luseh, said to be volcanoes but not yet explored, are reported to attain the respective elevations of 11,300 and 12,200 feet. South of these lofty summits, whose cones rest on a crystalline formation some 3,000 or 4,000 feet high, the mean altitude of the highlands is considerably reduced, and here the system branches into parallel chains enclosing the Toba plateau, and tao, or " sea," of like name. This basin, called also Silalahi, forms a lake of clear water 500 square miles in extent, whose shores are studded with hundreds of Batta villages. In its waters are mirrored the cones of extinct or still active volcanoes, one of which, the Dolok Simanabum, emitted dense vapours in 1881. On its flanks, as well as on those of a neighbouring volcano, may be distinguished from below a broad belt of a golden colour, consisting probably of crj'stallised sulphur. The Fusuk Bukit, another cone on the western margin of the lake, also possesses extensive sulphur deposits, whence the Battas draw their supplies. The island rising in the centre of the basin was itself a volcano, which has been attached by eruptive scoriae to the mainland and to the Pusuk Bukit. Lake Toba stretches in the direction from north-west to south-east, parallel with the main Sumatran axis. Its overflow is discharged to the south-east, towards the strait of Malacca. The amphitheatre of hills, whose spurs branch off towards the east coast, again converges south of the Toba plateau in a single main range, which resumes its normal direction parallel with the west Sumatran seaboard. In this part of the Barisan highlands some volcanic or other petlks exceed 6,000 feet in height. From one of the cones are emitted wreaths of sulphurous vapours, and another is pierced by a crater whose walls are lined with a yellow incrustation of sulphur. The range is flanked on the west by superb lateral spurs, which from a distance seem to be the dominant summits. Such are the Malintang (5,000 feet), and the Pasomau, which European geographers have named Mount Ophir, not on account of its gold mines, which have no existence, but in allusion to the natural MMMU SUMATRAN HIGHLANDS. 88 wealth of the great tropical island. Being completely isolated in appearance, and rising just five miles north of the equator, about the exact centre of the oceanic coast of SiiTTiHtra, Ophir stands nut as the most conspicuous insular landmark for mariners navigating the neighbouring waters. Hence till recently it was supposed to be the culminating point of the island, and a far greater altitude was assigned to it than the 9,000 feet to which modern explorers have reduced it. Mount Ophir has two chief summits besides several partly obliterated craters. Farther on the main range proper is interrupted by the broad valley of the I ' I ,^';i. Fig. 28.- The Mebafi Volcanic Ranob. Scale 1 : 780.0no. to 160 Feet. Depths. 160 to 8v!0 Feet. !m Feet and upwards. IS Miles. :B,.,.;, ,41 ,<■;,,,., I river Masang, south of which a transverse volcanic ridge trends west and east on the border of the Fadang uplands. The westernmost volcano of this system has lost its mountainoiiH aspect, nothing remaining except the vast periphery of the base, which now forms a wooded enclosure. The crest has disappeared, doubtless blown away by some tremendous explosion, and about half of the old crater (1,520 feet) is now flooded with the oval-shaped Lake Maninju, called also Danau, or the " Sea." This basin, which discharges westwards to the Indian Ocean, is fed by a few slightly thermal and alkaline springs much frequented by the '"mm B4 AUSTRALASIA. . natives. Gaseous eruptions take place from time to time in the depths of the lake, and then the atmosphere becomes charged with sulphurous exhalations, while the hsh periuh in Ihuuaunds. East of this lacustrine basin, which greatly resembles the Italian Lake Bolsena, rises the still perfect Singalang volcano (8,800 feet), scarcely less imposing than* its eastern neighbour Merapi, whose highest peak attains an elevation of 9,400 feet. This volcano, as indicated by its very name (Moro Api, " destroying fire "), is the most restless of the seven or eight still active burning mountains in Sumatra. None other has discharged such copious lava streams over the surrounding plaina, and even during the present century it has been the centre of numerous disturbances. Its summit, of a red colour and destitute of vegetation, terminates in a group of three craters, each encircled by recent lavas. The local Malay legend has converted Merapi into a sort of Ararat, whence their first parents descended as the flood-waters subsided. The Sago volcano (7,450 feet) stands out like a bold landmark at the north-east corner of the Padang uplands. This region is throughout its whole extent a mountainous terrace- land somewhat clearly marked off by two longitudinal ridges, on the west the main Barisan range, en the east that of Ngalau Saribu. The plateau is likewise skirted on the south by another transverse chain, which like the northern ridge has also its "comer stone," the Talang or Sulasi volcano (8,440 feet), rising immediately above the west side of the city of Padang. Thermal waters and sulphurous vapours escape in abundance from crevasses of this mountain, which, however, does not terminate in a crater properly so called. On its flanks are rich sulphur beds extensively utilised by the natives. The lowest depression of the quadrilateral of outer ridges enclosing the Padang uplands is flooded by a lake, whose long axis is disposed in the same direction as Sumatra itself and its mountain system. The Singkarah Sea, as this basin is called, teems with fish, yielding aij^bundant supply for a large number of -the surrounding populations. Its level has been lowered some three feet by the destruction of a rocky barrier at the head of its emissary, the river Umbilien, which is one of the main branches of the Indragiri. Three other lakes, one a tributary of Singkarah, are disposed in terraces on the south-east slopes of Mount Talang.* South of Talang the Barisan chain presents only a single ridge skirting the seaboard at a mean distance of fifteen miles from the ocean. In this section of the system, but to the east of the normal line of crests, rises the isolated Korintji (12,200 feet), known also by the name of Indrapura, or " City of Indra " ; for this peak, which contends with Luseh for the first rank amongst the Sumatran summits, was supposed, like the great mountains of India, to be the everlasting abode of the gods. Vapours are almost constantly emitted from its crater, a * Lakes of the Padang plateau : — Maninju Singkarah . '^■i^;mr Area in Greatest Altitude. Bqoaie Milee. Depth. 620 feet 40 510 feet 1,100 „ 46 890 „ iMMiHMakiM he Ue ;!*^'' SUMATBAN HIGHLANDS. M chaam visited by Veth und Van Ilijtssolt, aud by them described as developing a vost circumference and several hundred yards deep. Like the Padang volcanoes, this majestic mountain has also its little lacustrine system in the valleys excavated at its base. Here rises a torrent, which after skirting the east slope of the volcanic chain falls into the danau or "sea" of Korintji, whence an emissary escapes towards the river Jambi. Farther south follow other volcanoes disposed in a line with the general axis of the inland, but for the most part extinct. Kaba and Dempo, however, are still the theatre of frequent and violent convulsions. Kaba {^),bOO feet), which is visible thirty miles to the north-east of Benkulen, towering above the Suikerbrood (" Sugar- loaf"), terminates in two craters, one inaccessible, and both rent by crevassen, whence issue jets of vapour. In 1875 Kaba entered on a period of activity, the eruptions lasting three years, and covering the surrounding hills and valleys with sand mixed with chemical substances fatal to plants and animals alike. Even now, whenever the sandy banks of the neighbouring streams give way the fish die in thousands. Dempo (10,560 feet), which rises some sixty miles to the south-east of Benkulen, is also the scene of constant disturbances. But Sawah, one of the old craters, no longer bursts into flames, so that the natives are able to approach without danger and offer their sacrifices in the midst of the heaths and rhododen- drons. The new crater, named Merapi like the great Padang volcano, stands 830 feet higher up, and is the abode of the deva for whom the offerings are intended. Some sixty feet below the circular rim is seen a lakelet sparkling like a sheet of quicksilver ; presently a black speck in the centre of the glittering surface begins to expand and assume the form of a funnel, in which the water suddenly dis- appears. In a few minutes the rocks resound as with the rumbling of thimder ; the din grows nearer, followed by a flash us of lightning, and the water, trans- formed to vapour, issues in a dense jet from the crater, into which it again soon subsides. Thus every fifteen or twenty minutes the lake vanishes and reappears in the form of a magnificent geyser some hundred feet high. Farther south another ranau,* or " sea," floods an elevated cirque (1,720 feet), which seems to have been an old crater, and which is encircled on three sides by extinct volcanoes. It is extremely deep in the centre, and in one place thermal springs from the neighbouring Mount Siminung raise the temperature too high for animal life. Southwards the Barisan system again bifurcates, one branch continuing in the normal direction south-eastwards to Cape Tjina (China), where it merges in low hills over against Princes Island and the south-west extremity of Java. The other or volcanic branch trends more to the east, where it is indicated from afar by the lofty summits of Mounts Besagi, Sekinjau, Tebah, and Tangkamus (7,520 feet). This last, better known as the Keizers Pick, or "Emperor's Peak," rises near the southern extremity of Sumatra, on the Bay of Samangka, and is probably connected by a submarine fault with the islet of Tabuan. On the mainland the vol- * Sanau, danau, too are various dialectic f onus of the same word, meaning tea, or any large expanse of water. ^ 66 AUSTRALASIA. « canic chain is continued by Mount Tungkii (3,400 feet), round Lami)ong Bay to the south-oaHtorn lieudland of Sutimtra, and tlienco through a lino of inlets and reefs across the Sunda Strait, here only sixteen miles wide, to the opposite coast of Java. The extinct cone of Haja Uassa (4,4()() feet), southernmost member of the chain of sixty-six Sujnatran volcanoes, does not lie in the normal direction of the main axis, and seems to have originally stood on an island afterwards attached to the mainland, either by upheaval or more probably by a shower of scoriio and ashes. Raja Bassa forms part of a transverse volcanic ridge, whose axis intersects that of Pig. 29.— Kraiutau and NKifjiinouRiNO Iblkts bkfoius the Ebuptiok. Scale 1 : 150,000. otoieo Feet. Depthi. leotosK) Feet. 320 Feet and upwards. -SlHilei the Sumatran system, for it runs in the.direction from north-east to south-west. To this scarcely perceptible ridge belong the two islands of Sebesi and Krakatau in the Sunda Strait, and the system is also perhaps continued under the Indian Ocean for some six hundred miles to the Keeling Islands, which lie in a direct line with Raja Bassa and Krakatau. But yet another volcanic fault intersects that of Sumatra and Krakatau in the Sunda Strait. This is the greai, JuvaQese systcia, running due vrpst and east, and marked by so many formidable igneous cones. Thus at this focus of underground forces the terrestrial crust is, so to say, starred with tremendous fissures, and here the destructive agencies have at times, and even quite recently, assumed a character of stupendous grandeur. he fs 'a. in uin the 108. ;of >'■' '.■#.,■ wrest. ' [atau idian tline [1 the . and ound here acter KIIAKATAU. KllAKATAl'. m Till recently Krukatau, risinjf to u height of 2,270 feet, wan hailed with joy hy murinurs cru8^dng the Htruit, und veHselH confidently rode at anchor under its shelter in depths of from 25 to HO fathoms. The lust recorded outburst, that of IC80, hud already long lieen forgotten by the natives. Hut in the month of May, 1883, the fiery demon again awoke : on one of the nortliorn shoulders the ground was rent asunder, flumes burst forth, detonations and discharges of vapours and ashes followed in rapid succession. But so far the display differed in no respect from similar manifestations Fig. 30. — KuAXATAU Airo NEiaunouBiNo Islktb avteu tiik Ebuftiom. 8iiala 1 : ISO.OOa Uepthi. OtoSO Feet eotosso 820 to 960 Feet. 960 Feet and i^pwanU. 8} HUes. observed in so many parts of Indonesia, and excursionists from Batavia even landed on the island and approached the crater. But after three months of groanings and rumblings the volcano put forth uU its strength, and in a few hours the whole topography of the Sunda Strait was changed. At Batavia, 90 miles distant, the uproar was so terrific that an eruption was supposed to have occurred in the immeuiale vidiiity, and every moment the ground wm expected to open. In all the surrounding waters, as far as the China Sea, in the Bay of Bengal, throughout half of the Indian Ocean as far us Hodrigues, the detonations were clearly heard, and everywhere the people wondered 1 » wm^ 8H AUSTKAI.AHIA. whftt miflfht.y floota wore etijfnged in (loudly combtit in the noighliouring Bean. Tlio coiiiinutiDii nhook tlu- iitiiumphiTo for a vtiHt «|nioo, 0Hti':;att'd ut tho four- teenth purt <»r tho phmotury Murfiico ; tlic uadorgruund inutteriu^N hourd in tho Ainori(;iin iHliind of Cuiniun Drue, ulmoitt at tho autipodoH of Krukutuu, may even have procwdod from the name source. Tho cloudH of ushes ejected to a height of sixteen, or according to ono report twenty-one miles, loll in dense J^'ig. 31.— RANoaor Dispbmion orTHi Krakatav Abbes, Briilo 1 : l^(lon,noo. C/f/J¥A SFA 14* 95° Lsab or lirpenwich 105° , 800 Hues. masses over a vast space round about the island, which had been blown to pieces. Within a range of nine miles the bed thus formed was over three feet thick ; in the interior of Sumatra, ninety miles off, some plfices were covered two or three inches deep, and the surface of the water was still powdered in the Indian Ocean beyond the Keeling Islands, a distance of 720 miles. The debris was wafted as far as the shores of Madagascar, and the displacement of rooks in the form of -3iliCM/;-"5:.'.*~-;^_iiV-'-i;;r. ■-■•,i^>' I -.li-y'.! :V«Sjt:i.~-s?*Wi3!Wc:3TOr;sa(SBK:'i;5, lyjgfe'-^sjj; Kj-viS^i/: KUAKATAU. ur- the auy o a use iiNhoH and pumico wiis OHtitimtod ut an much an (>JiO billionii of cubic fuct. Tho whoh) torrcntriul atmoHphero would uvi>n uppoiir to huvu boon charged with tho inip(dpable volcanic dunt as far aH thu upper limits of the at>riul npaceH, at loast according to Norman Lockyor'H theory, attributing the marvellouM afterglows of the following autumn mouths to the igneous particles ejected by Krakatuu ou August JUth, IHHJJ.* Tho seas also were agitated around tho whole circumference of tho globe, us attested by the readings of the mareographs at various oceanio stations, And in i)io Indian Ocean by the great murine wave which in thirteen Lours was propagated as far as the Capo of Good Hope. Tlv reports uf the fugitives from tho threatened villages and of the crows of liff, 3!i<— t)TBAMK> BOBtn OH fHR KbaKATAU WaTK HfLAlTD TO TlOOKH-HKTOyO. ill leces. :; in three >cean id as m of vessels near the scene of the disturbance created an impression that the field of destruction had even been still more widespread. But after the ashes were dispersed, and skippers could again venture into the Sunda Strait, the spectacle revealed to them seemed noue the less harrowing and bewildering. The coast towns of Anjer and Tjaring^ on the Javanese side, Beneawang and Telokh-Betong on that of Sumatra, had disappeared, while no trace remained of the niunerous villages lately dotted along both shores. The cocoanut forests which fringed the seaboard to the foot of the hiile had been Hwepi clean away ; a hugo vrave 100 to 120 feet high, caused by the sinking of the volcano, had dashed against the coast, • Time; December 8th, 1883. *rt!#f- l^lf^^^'^GMSMHitfPMlM^' ' mm 90 AUSTRALASIA. i carrying away headlands and excavating new inlets. All the works of man were destroyed, and over forty thousand persons, overtaken during the terrible morning, " blacker than the night," were overwhelmed in the deluge of waters rolling in from the sea, or in the showers of mud and ashes fulling from above. Within the limits of the strait one man alone, a solitary lighthouse-keeper perched on his watch-tower 130 feet above an isolated rock, escaped scatheless in the midst of the surrounding pother. 80 dense was the darkness that he failed to notice the mighty wave that submerged the lighthouse all but his lantern. Of Krakatau itself nothing remained but the southern volcano; all the northern heights, or about two- thirds of the island, some eight or ten miles in circumference, had been blown to pieces, giving place to an abyss where the sounding-line a thousand feet long failed to touch the bottom. From the breached wall of the southern volcano rolled a continual avalanche of stones, while the dust from the crumbling remains rose in clouds to the sky. But if some lands had vanished, others, formed by vast heaps of pumice and ashes, were raised from the bed of the sea. The island of Yerlaten was more than doubled in size, and heights appeared where the plummet had lately revealed depths of 230 feet. Other islands, such as Sebesi, which had recently been covered with forests and human habitations, now presented to the view nothing but a bare surface of whitish rock. To the new islands were added the floating masses of pumice, forming bars at the entrance of the bays and for weeks and months blocking the passage to the shipping. Gradually (he action of the waves and marine uui'miita swept the strait clear of these floating islands and heaps of emerged scorifc ; but the submarine crater which was opened to the north of Krakatau had held its ground. The geological studies made on the spot show that this crater had previously existed, and that the northern part of Krakatau was on the contrary of recent formation. What remains of the volcano and adjacent islets of Verlaten and Lang are the three outer fragments — the tripod, so to say — of a mountain over 6,500 feet high, which at some former time rose above the present eruptive crater. Rivers of Sumatra. Although slower than the underground forces in their geological work, the Sumatran rivers have been more powerful agents in modifying the aspect of the land. The territory shown by its horizontal alluvial formation to be the creation of the running waters may be estimated at nearly one-half of the whole island. The sedimentary rocks are seen disposed like strands along the base of the coralline limestone cliffs, which formed the primitive coastline on the eastern slope of the Barisan uplands. Over two-thirds of the eastern seaboard is of quite recent geological formation, and is still continually growing by the addition of fresh deposits. I On the west side of the island the action of the streams is far less considerable. The catchment basins are not here of sufficient extent to convey seawards any great quantity of sedimentary matter. Nevertheless, even on this slope the were ning, ag in n tbe 1 ■-.• ' u his }f the ■■"^ e the ?'"'■ I the - es in •i . ■ e the L the ,;;4 while lands ; /..'^i from ■I , }, and utner uman ■'- *.«-*' rock, ars at B SUMATRAN RIVERS. 91 alluvial lands are also of great extent. The enormous volume of rain water precipitated on both slopes of Sumatra explains the exceptional importance of this fluvial action. On an average Padang receives a ftiean annual rainfall of about 160 inches ; Palembang, on the opposite side, is still more copiously watered, and all the heaviest downpours fall on the advanced slopes of the mountains, so that little is lost by evaporation or infiltration before the streams reach the plains. The Asahan, which receives the overflow of Lake Toba, belongs to the eastern slope. Farther south follows the Rokau, which enters the strait of Malacca through two muddy estuaries. It has u course of about 120 miles, nearly half of which winds through low-lying lands created and levelled by itself. Both the Siak and the Kampar disembogue in the labyrinth of marine channels washing the muddy shores of the archipelago lying to the west of Singapore. Although navigable for over 60 miles from their mouth, these two streams wind through almost uninhabited plains, whose climate is fatal to strangers. Beyond the Kampar follows the Indragiri, which like it rises near the west coast on the Padang plateau. After traversing Lake Singkarah it flows under the nan\e of the Umbilien through early Tertiary formations rich in carboniferous beds. Farther on it escapes from a region of plateaux through a series of falls and rapids, and after running for some distance parallel with the Kampar, mingles its waters with those of Amphitrite Bay. Near its mouth the southern and much smaller basin of the Reteh also contains some carboniferous rocks. Vessels ascend the Indragiri for many miles inland, but not as far as the neighbourhood of the coalfields. The Jambi, whose farthest headstreams rise north and south of Indrapura, culminating point of the island, has the largest area of drainage and rolls down the greatest volume of water. At the town of Jambi, 60 miles above its mouth, it is nearly 500 yards broad and over 16 feet deep, at low water, and during the floods its volume is more than doubled. Steamers drawing three feet ascend the Jambi and its main branch, the Hari, for 360 miles from the sea, while small canoes penetrate 100 miles higher up. The Musi, or Palembang river, which also rises on the uplands near the west coast, collects the waters of the eastern slope for a space of about 200 miles before entering the low-lying plains. Here it divides below the city of Palembang into several branches, which ramify into endless channels and backwaters amid the surrounding swamps. The Susang, or main branch, which falls into the Bangks Strait near its north entrance, preserves sufficient water to give access to large vessels during the floods, and to smaller craft throughout the rest of the year. But the other branches aU merge in other streams to the right and left, developing shallow lagoons, expanding into broad morasses, or mingling with marine waters through the dense mangrove forests. These half submerged, uninhabited and, for the most part, almost uninhabitable tracts cover a total area of some 5,000 square-miles. According to the local traditions, which however may have been inspired by the undeniably rapid encroachments of the land on the sea, the whole of this ': J5=r;; 93 AUSTBALASIA. region of the Musi delta has been formed during the historic period. Even the city of Palembang, now lying in the interior far above the estuary, is said to have been originally founded on the coast itself at the mouth of the river. The man- groves, by which these low-lying tracts are overgrown, contribute to the enlarge- ment of the dry land by arresting the sedimentary matter amid their branches, Ilg. 33.— Alluvial Plainb of the Musi Basin. Boole 1 : 4,000,000. Deptfai. Old Shon-Une. Otol6 Feet. 16 Feet and npwnidi. Reoent formatioiu. .eOMilei. and by shedding their fruits beyond the river banks in the muddy waters, where they take root. The "West and East Sumatran Islands. West of Sumatra runs a chain of islands disposed parallel with the west coast. Abysses over 1,000 fathoms deep separate this chain from the Nicobur Archipelago; but with Sumatra it is connected by the incline of the now submerged intervening slopes. These islands form, so to say, an advanced coastline of the neighbouring mainland, and consist of the same Tertiary formations as those of the adjacent shores. I^ing on a marine bed at a mean depth of not more than 50 fathoms, they stand on the very edge of the submarine Indonesian plateaux. Immediately MMriH s 1 5 1 SUMATRAN ISLANDS. 99 to the west the oceanic bed sinks rapidly, and within 60 miles of the islands the sounding line reveals depths of over 2,500 fathoms. . :^ . Beginning in the north-west with the island of Babi, the chain terminates in the south-east with Engano,* over 720 miles distant. The isolated islet of Christ- mas, 300 miles farther on, might also perhaps be regarded as belonging to the same system, lying as it does in a line with its axis, but this point is rendered somewhat doubtful by the distance and the great depths of the intervening waters. Excluding this rock, the western islands, which beyond doubt depend geographi- cally and geologically on Sumatra, have a total superficial area of about 6,000 * Tdanjang of the Malays, Taigoeka of the natives, and probablj the Engafio, or "Deception Uand," of tiie Spaniaids. » "Pi" iBf^fm 1 vV \ 94 AUSTRALASIA. gquare miles, with a collective population estimated at three hundred thousand. On the other hand, the islands of the east coast, resting on the common Indo- nesian submarine plateau, are for the most part distinct from Sumatra, and require to be studied apart. The low-lying alluvial lands separated by shallow channels from the scarcely emerged plains which have been created by the Sumatran rivers, are certainly natural dependencies of the great island. Such are Rupat, Bcngkalis, Padang, Rangsang, Rantau, and others lying about the mouths of the rivers. But those situated farther seaward, and of a hilly and even mountainous character, are of different origin, belonging physically to the Malay Peninsula. Like that region, they are of granitic structure, with surroimding laterite beds. Moreover they lie exactly in a line with the main axis of the peninsula, of which they constitute a southern extension now broken into frag- ments by marine erosions. But while the sea destroys in one direction, the rivers reconstruct in another. They carry in solution the debris of the Sumatran highlands, depositing the sediment to the right and left in beds steadily advancing seawards, and thus gradually enlarging the, great island towards the east. Unless the marine currents undo this work and keep the straits open by their scouring action, these must at last be silted up, and then the eastern archipelagoes of Riouw and Lingga, with Bangka and its satellites, will become attached to the Sumatran coast, lost as its were, like erratic boulders, amid the sands and clays of recent formation. / Flora and Fauna of Sumatra. Like the rest of Indonesia, Sumatra lies within the zone of alternating mon- soons, the south-eastern or regular trade wind from May to September, and the north- western, bringing most of the moisture, and prevailing from November to March. The Sumitran flora and fauna are distinguished from those of the adjacent lands by a large number of curious species. Such are the great raffiesice, the gigantic arum (amorphophallua titeenum), growing to a height of over 16 feet ; and those astonishing fig-trees, whose branches bury themselves in the ground, and then throw ofi their fruit, like so many small mushrooms. The character of the flora changes gradually southward. Thus, while the Merkus pine prevails in certain highland districts north of the Equator, no conifers at all are met farther south. Nevertheless, certain contrasts between Sumatran and Javanese floras on either side of the Sunda Straits are still striking enough to have attracted the attention of botanists. Characteristic of Sumatra, as compared with Java, is the great relative extent of the tracts overgrown with alang and glaga, grasses over three feet high, which stifle the young arboreal growths, and exhaust the soil wherever they become predominant. In Java they are aiTested at about 3,000 feet, but in Sumatra they descend to within 800 feet of sea-level, and during the historic period their range has been much increased by careless husbandry. Of all the Indonesian lands, this island abounds most in gramiuiierous species possessing great economic value. Here flourishes the majestic dryabalanopa INHABITANTS OF SUMATRA. Off camphor, for the produce of which the Chinese formerly paid its weight in gold ; from this region Europe also received its first consignments of guttu-percha {geta pert/a), of which family there are several varieties. Sumatra was also probably the centre of dispersion of the cinnamon plant, of which it possesses ten species, a larger number than occurs in any other region. The Sumatran fauna differs even more than its flora from that of the neigh- bouring island. It possesses the orang-utan, confined however to a district on the north-east coast, besides other remarkable apes, such as the galeopithecus, or flying lemur. The elephant, exterminated in Java, is still common in the northern jungle, where, according to the natives, two quite distinct species are found. The small species of rhinoceros met in the Sumatran forests also differs from the large Javanese variety ; but, notwithstanding the statement of Marsden, the hippopotamus does not appear to be a member of the Sumatran fauna, which, including domestic animals, comprises, according io Hagen, sixty species of mammals and one hundred and twenty of birds. • • • Inhabitants of Sumatra. The Malay populations of Sumatra are diversely intermingled with other elements presenting considerable contrasts in the different provinces in their social usages and degrees of culture. Thus the Achinese, or people of Atjeh, in the extreme north, regard themselves as a nation quite distinot from the other islanders. Their nobles claim Arab descent, and really seem to be of mixrd origin, lor the five centuries preceding the arrival of the Portuguese, the trade of Indonesia was largely in the hands of the Arabs, who intermarried with the native women. By the end of the twelfth century the kingdom of Atjeh had embraced Islazi, and later became a centre of Moslem activity, "with its thi^clogians, who cultivated Arabic letters, and its sectaries, who preached a new pantheistic creed, dying for their faith like the martyrs of the western world. Although in recent times Arab influence has much diminished, the Achinese have preserved numerous usages introduced by their instructors ; and their Malay dialect, written in the Arabic character, has been affected by many foreign elements. The nobles wear the flowing robe and turban, b'ke the merchants of Jeddah, although the women do not go veiled. The Achinese, to whom the virtues of courage and industry are not denied, are stigmatised as cruel and treacherous, like all peoples who dare to defend their liberties. Skilful agriculturists, they raise heavy crops of rice and sweet potatoes, deriving from the soil the resources which have enabled them to mainta'ji the struggle against the Dutch for fifteen years. Like the Hindus and Indo-Chinese, they are said to have succeeded in taming the elephant, employing him as a beast of burden. They also display much skill in working the precious metals, and as silk and cotton weavers, and construct solid vessels with which they carry on an extensive traffic with the surrounding lands, and occasionally scour the seas as dreaded corsairs. The chief centres of their trade beyond Sumatra are Penang *«K 96 AUSTRALASIA. •i/i'''ti. and Singapore, whence they import the opium, of which they have become inveterate smokers. ; The Battas. South of Atjeh the hilly plateau is occupied by still independent peoples partly converted to Islam, such as the Gayus, of whom little is known beyond the name, and who are said to dwell on the banks of the freshwater lake Laut Tawar. Beyond them are the mysterious Alas, and the Batta or Battak* people, centred ^. about the Lake Toba FJo'. 36.— Orano Batta. ' ^ ■ basin. According to '' the missionary Nom- mensen, they num- ber altogether about three hundred thou- sand, divided into two distinct groups, the northern Battas, who trade with the Achin- ese, and the southern, whose relations are mainly with Deli and Sibogha. Beyond the lacustrine region, which thoy regard as the cradle of their race, they are widely spread, as far south as Mount Ophir and eastwards to the mouth of the Bila. The natives of the Tapanuli district on the western slope are also Battas, reduced by the so-called Padri or "Fathers," fana- tical MnPRiilmans, who gave them the choice of the sword or the Koran. Altogether the pure or mixed Battas of the mainland, and exclusive of the Nias islanders, said also to belong to the same stock, are estimated at about a million. The pure Batta type resembles that of the Bomean Dyaks and " Alfurus " of Celebes, affiliated by most anthropologists to the primitivn r"ys allied to the Polynesians, who formerly peopled Indonesia, and who, aitti expelling or exter- minating the Negritos, were in their turn driven out or partly absorbed by the Malays. The Battas of the plateau are much fairer and taller, with more abim- * Batta, singular; fiattak, plural. "of .. ■'■■'■> -JOE — INHABITANTS OP SUMATEA. 97 . 4 «, w^ INHAUITANTS OP SUMATRA. tattoo ) state m and )me of served whole imilies J isades to ill valu- gst the wood, or it unlike jerve the L smooth ai'chives. Q The language, which contains many Sanskrit words, diiTers considerably from the coast Malay, and possesses u richer vocabulary. It moreover comprises special fonuR, such as the jargons of the women, magicians, and tbicves. The young men and women correspond by letters written on foliage, and forwarded through a postal system which utilises as letter-boxes the hollow trunks of trees at the crossings of the highways. The Uatta comnmne constitutes an au .nomous group represented rather than administered by a rajah or pamuank, and deliberating in common. Village groups have also been developed, forming so many little republics connected together by a federal union ; lastly, traces of an ancient kingdom seem to have survived in the expressions of almost religious veneration till lately lavished on a prince resident at Bakara, a large village at the south-west end of Lake Toba, recently conquered by the Dutch. All the members of each community are supposed to be connected by the ties of kindred, although not holding equal social rank, and although the lower classes may even be pledged or sold by order of council for debts, crimes, or oflfences. The penal code is severe, beheading being till lately, and possibly still, the sentence pronounced for grave crimes, such as treason and armed revolt, but not simple murder or homicide. An extraordinary and altogether imique provision of the writtcu ccnIu was ihui ihe outraged community should avenge itself by eating the criminal, who in some cases was even devoured alive. His nearest kin, as mem- bers of the commonwealth, had to share in the feast, and even supply the salt, lime-juice, and other condiments. But except as acts of justice, cannibalism was not practised, nor were women ever subjected to this treatment. At present the Battas assert that the custom has fallen into complete abeyance, but on this point their veracity is open to suspicion. There is reason to think that slaves are also des- patched, to attend their masters beyond the grave, and that they are obliged first to masquerade at the pit's mouth. According to Junghahn and other writers, anthro- pophagy is of relatively recent introduction, a statement, however, which is at variance with the testimony of the old writers. Arab tradition and the first Euro- pean visitors describe the Sumatran highlAnders as cannibals devounng the infirm and aged. As soon as they felt themselves incapable of work, the " grandfathers " hung by their arms from the branch of a tree, while the family and neighbours danced round about, shouting, " When the fruit is ripe it falls." And when it did fall they fell upon it, chopping it into " mincemeat." Such feasts were usually held in the season when the limes ripened. The least mercy is shown to prisoners of war, regrrded as $piilty of " rebellion against the conqueror." Most wars are, moreover, of a very sanguinary nature. The Batta jurisprudence not permitting a commune to be enslaved or deprived of its land, the only way of being revenged on it is by killing off a large number ; and the festoons of human heads decorating the rajahs' residences sufficiently attest the zeal with which the work pf extermination is carried out. In several districts this internecine strife checks the growth of the population, which is farther reduced by the prevalent practice of abortion. Late marriages are the 100 AUSTRALASIA. rule, owing to the high price of the bride, ulthough another form of union, of mutriurehal origin, alno exists, according to which the husband is purchased by the wife. Being regarded us merely so much inovuble property, ho may oven be seized for debt, and bequeuthcti us u legacy to the testutor's heirs. Truces survive of the Hindu religions, for the Battas recognise a triune diety, Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer ; and also admit the existence of other divinities and genii, to whom they give the slightly modified Indian name of diebata (devatS). Fig. 38. — iMHABITiUITS or SinUTBA. 1: 1^000,000. Easb or Greenwicn 800 Mile*. But religious worship enters very little into their daily life. They can scarcely be said to have any regular ceremonial, and there are only one or two temples in the country. The natives are mostly satisfied with invoking the little idols they always carry about with them in pouches, and are most concerned in circum- venting the evil spirits by ingenious devices. Family groups and whole com- munes have been known to secure the protection of some powerful patron by burying a child alive, under the belief that its spirit will henceforth watch over their plantations. Chiefs and nobles are supposed to survive in the after-world. INHAWi OF SUMATRA. '01 Ion, of led by 'en be diety, inities levati). 5* On the day of their death u rioe-rt*'l house of which he has become the guarn.^n spirit- To the Batta family are generally supposed to belong f' itle wilf ihis of Orang-Ulus and Orang-Lubus, who occupy the upland vt eys norti 4 Mount Ophir, and who ap])ear never to have Wn brought wit lliud - iiHuences. They have been compared with the most savage inhabitants .f I'.Hruco like them going almost naked, dwelling in huts mado of branches or in the hollow trunks of trees, and armed with the blow-pipe and poisoned darts. They cultivate no arts, not even that of husbandry, living mainly on fruits, roots, snakes, and insects, besides the rice and salt deposited by the traders in certaia fixed places in ex- change for the local produce brought thither by the " men of the woods." They have a large breed of dogs, who warn them of the approach of the traders, and Boent out any tigers lurking about. »* ■ o« :^' *j scarcely temples tie idols circum- (le com- itron by tch over )r-world. The Menanokahaus and other Sumatkan Malays. The ancient kingdom of Menangkabao, which succeeded the still older Hindu empire of Adityavarma, comprises south n' the Batta country the most densely peopled part of Sumatra in the hilly region of the Padang uplands, and on the west slope of the island. The true form of the word is Menaug-Karbau, or the " Victory of the Buffalo," which is explained by the local legend of a fight between a Sumatran and a Javanese buffalo terminating in the triumph of the former. This tradition may perhaps symbolise some conflict, or even a long struggle between the natives and the intruders from the neighbouring island. The natives ultimately triumphed, and their customs consequently prevailed over those of the Javanese and Hindus. They are at present regarded as Malays in a pre-eminent sense, and their speech is held to be the purest form of the Malay language. Despite their conversion to Islam and the conquest of Menangkabao by the Dutch, the old institutions of confederate village communes and of matriarchy still hold their gpround. The population is divided into aukus or clans, each with its own chief, chosen from some privileged family, and its council, consisting of all male adults. All the village chiefs are again grouped in a district council, the district thus organised usually taking its name from the number of kotas or villages of which it is constituted — the " Seven," the " Nine," the " Ten," the '« Twenty," th© " Fifty " Kotas, and so on. No man can marry within his own kota or sutu, so that xmions are all essen- tially exogamous. The husband helps his wife or wives in the management of the household and in cultivating the land, but his children belong to the mother, and must remain in the maternal village to inherit the maternal property. The father's inheritance, on the other hand, goes to his sister's children in his native village. Such is the undang-undang, or matriarchal law, uud the survival pf these instita- ; ;'■■ ■*. 102 AU»THALA«1A. tionn, no oppnnod to the npirit of Tnlatn, bHowb what little influence is really exorciaod by the official religion of the country. NovertholesH, at the beginning of this century the rigid sect of the (Jrang Puti, or " White Men," uUo l^ The natives of the Siak, Jambi, and Palembang districts, on the east coast, are for the most part immigrants from the neighbouring islands, being the descendants of traders who founded factories about the river mouths. On these ooastlands Hindu influences long survived, thanks to the proximity of Java, whence colonists continued to settle in Palembang down to the middle of the sixteenth century. In general the usages on this seaboard differ little from the Javanese, and even the current speech retains many words introduced from the neighbouring island. In the interior dwell a few thousand Oraug-Kabu, believed to represent the aborigines gradually driven inward from the coast. They lead a wandering life in the midst of . the forests ; but physically they differ little from their Malay ^ ■'■/■ 1NIIA1UTANT8 OP SUMATRA. 1U8 neiglilmurH, «xceptt)iat tlioy ure inoro robuHt und of light(!r coinploxion, iin«l their HUporiora in the qualitius uf truth ftilncmM, honuHty, and (M>uragu. Aruird with a Hiinplt) Hlaku th»y buldly attack the tigur, but, like the northern Oning-Iiuhu, avoid all ])crHonal contact with the Chiiieoc and Malay doiilors. The Kubu language is closely related to the current Malay siteech. Thf, NiAs AND Mentawky Ihlanhkrs. The natives of the Wont Huinatran iHlaiids are of diverse origin. Those of Simalu (Babi) in the north descend from Menangkabao imniigrantH mixod with Achinese blood. The Banjak inlanders are also nprung from Mulays and Aehiuese, who arrived from the mamland about two hundred years ago. Huiigkara, the westernmost member of the group, is still uninhabited, and is »>ven avoided, through dread of the •' evil spirits " by whom it ii supposed to be peopled. The Ono Niha, or "children of men," as the Nias . landers are cal'- d, number, according to Von Rosenberg, about two hundred and forty thousand souls, who, however, have not all been yet brought under the Dutch administration. Most writers agree with Junghuhn in regarding them as of Batta stock. But although the physical and moral resemblances are numerous, thf contrasts are also very striking. Even the northern and southern Nias people themselves differ greatly in their usages, and do not recognise themselves as of common kindred. If the Ono Niha are really of Batta origin, the separation must have taken place in extremely remote times. Both branches of the Niaa group are ustially cheerful, agreeable, coTirteons, easily led by motives of self-love, always an \ sous to please, but extremely indolent, except in some of the southern districts, wl ere war is not carried on, as elsewhere, by a system of ambuscades and nightly purprises. Hereditary hatreds are perpe- tuated sometimes to the utter extinction of one or the other of the hostile factions. The villages, especially in the north, attest the state of constant terror in which the people pass their lives. Nowhere is an isolated hut to be seen, all being grouped together - on natural or artificial eminences encircled by ditches and palisades. The dwellingd themselves are raised on rows of piles, amid which the pigs act as scavengers, thriving on the kitchen and other refuse. A ladder and trap give access to the house, which affects the form of a large oval basket with a high-pitched roof thatched with reeds, the projecting gables being everywhere decorated with the jawbones of hogs, attesting the wealth o^^ the owner. To these the southern village chiefs add the heads of their human victims, while the whole is protected by effigies of the tutelar deity against the machinations of the foe and the malevolent spirits At one end of the village stands the smith's house, to which a magic virtue is also accredited, and for further security the entrance of the enclosure is guarded -by lofty statues of the tribal god and his wife. The Niafe islanders are clever artisans, as shown by their well-constructed Louses and strongholds, their elegant and highly tempered weapons. They work copper with taste, weave and dye their textile fabrics, make highly prized matting 104 AUSTRALASIA. and extract coooanut oil for exportation. Gold, either in fragments or wrought into jewellery, is their onlj' currency ; and the chiefs delight in decking their hair with golden plumes and attaching a golden crescent like a moustache to the upper lip. The southern districts are traversed by a few carefully paved roads skilfxilly constructed over the crests of the hills. But, unlike the Battas, they have not acquired a knowledge of Hindu letters, and their ancient usages have been slowly modified under exclusive Malay and Mussulman influences. At present their religious system has approached the vanishing point. The main function of the 4r^, priests or priestesses, usually chosen by the chief from his own family, is to invoke the bela, or intermediate spirits, who are familiar with both the good and evil genii, and who can therefore be enlisted as helpmates and accomplices in all undertakings. The priests also bless the nuptials by pressing together the heads of the betrothed and offering some flesh to the protecting deity. Marriages are exogamous and always a matter of purchase. But the price is generally so exorbitant that the husband often runs great risk of forfeiting his own and his children's freedom, especially as the amount of the debt is doubled every year. Whole families have thus fallen into slavery for a liability originally contracted by the purchase perhaps of a few pins or a coil of metal wire. The albinos, somewhat numerous among the southern Niassi, are accredited to some prowling demon, and usually badly treated. Adultery involves heavy fines and often capital punishment, while girls who have had an " accident " r^re strangled and thrown to the bush. The priests are above all medicine-men, that is, exorcists. For every ailment there is a wicked spirit, whom the infallible priest never fails to expel by his incantations, but who is replaced by other devouring genii, that is, whenever the malady persits and is followed by death. When the end approaches, the friends and kindred gather round the bed, howling and yelling tiU the patient breathes his last. In the south these wailings are followed by an honourable funeral, the body being borne through the village and the weapons of the deceased exposed along the route. At the extremity of the coffin is placed the effigy of a bird carved in wood ; then the bier is suspended beneath a canopy of foliage, and the friends lie in ambush along the wayside to surprise and behead a few passing men and women to the greater glory of the departed. In the case of a great chief custom requires at least some twenty heads, to raise which indiscriminate warfare is waged against the surrounding villages. Sometimes they are satisfied with slaves, who, however, must die a lingering death under torture in order to render the sacrifice more agreeable to the cruel demons. The inheritance usually passes from father to eldest son ; but the rule is not absolute, and whatever child contrives by means of a reed to capture the dying man's last breath, or persuade the assistants that he has done so, becomes ipso facto a claimant for the fortune and paternal or political power of the deceased. Chiefs, all powerful in theory, are nevertheless often fain to share the sovereignty with their rivals, and, as a matter of fact, they rarely venture to decide in weighty affairs without consulting the notables, or even all freeholders. In the assemblies "■m-jii^^.. ''!S?:4Ss?,i:^ir53i''!s«?WiiS&i^ai INHABITANTS OP SUMATRA. 106 ■VI;-. .. all speak freely, at times coming to blows. It is also usual to deliberate fasting, in order to guard against the violent scenes that might be caused by the abuse of palm-wine. , ji y,;' :v Formerly an extensive traffic was carried on in Niassi slaves, whom hundreds of praus came to kidnap round the coasts of the island. Sir Stamford Raffles was even " censured " by the East India Company for obstructing this trade during the British occupation. At present many of t,h« islanders emigrate to take service in Malay or European families, and amongst them are nearly always chosen the carpenters, masons, and thatchers. /,.,!■ The natives of the Mentawey Archipelago are also " savages," differing greatly, however, from the other west Sumatran islanders. According to Von Rosenberg, who visited them between the years 1847 and 1852, they are not Malays at all, but a branch of the East Polynesian race. Their idiom, remarkable for its softness and abundance of vowels, appears to differ completely from the dialects of Sumatra and neighbouring islands. Like the Polynesians, the Chaga- lalegats, as they call themselves, delight in waving plumes, foliage, and flowers. They deck their hair with bright corals, and cover the breast with tattoo markings in the form of shields, like the Tonga and other Pacific peoples. Certain food is strictly tabooed for the women, while the profane are warned off from certain mysterious recesses of the forest. The Mentawey people do not blacken their teeth like most of the Malay tribes, but file to a point the front teeth. The youth of both sexes join together in all gymnastic exercises, but after marriage the women keep discreetly apart. Divorce is unknown and adultery punished with death. Like their neighbours of the Pagah g^oup, the Chagalalegats are extremely pacific, never warring amongst themselves, nor fortifying their villages, which, however, they take care not to build on the coast, but always on the bank of some small inland stream. Till lately their arms were the bow and poisoned arrows. Although much dreading the evil spirits, they at times consult them in the depths of the forest, where the replies are uttered in a harsh, quivering voice. The souls of the dead, also greatly feared, are supposed to become demons, and a neighbouring uninhabited island is thef special abode of these departed spirits. Even the little island of Engano, at the southern extremity of the insular chain, has its peculiar race, ou insufficient grounds affiliated by some writers to the Papuan stock. These rude islanders were still in the stone age till the middle of the present century, when they learnt the use of iron. They went naked, whence the term Pulo Telanjang, or " Naked Island," applied by the Malay traders to their little territory. The Kerikj^e, as they call themselves, were also un- acquainted with tobacco and strong drinks, but were, on the other hand, scru- pulously honest, theft being unknown amongst them. They bury their dead in a fishiug-net, doubtless to enable them to continue to procure themselves food in the next world ; but the fruit-trees, field, and garden-plot of the departed are laid waste, being henceforth useless to him. ^V^f^m 106 AUSTRALASIA. :r'^f%A Topography of Sumatra. 1^ Being still destitute of easy highways, and inhabited by diverse tribes and nations without any political cohesion, Sumatra has developed on its seaboard but few considerable towns, while in the interior the largest centres of population are little more than villages. I^evertheless several epochs have witnessed the growth of large kingdoms, whose capitals have successively been important comuierciul marts. The old Atjeh empire, which, according to the chroniclers, arose about the be- ginning of the thirteenth century, was.of considerable extent. At the time of its greatest prosperity, in the first decades of the seventeenth century, it embraced about half of the island, and held several secondary states in vassalage. From Egypt to Japan ruling princes sought its alliance ; its army comprised hundreds of fighting elephants and disposed of two thousand guns. The suUau, who, despite his Arab name claimed descent, like so many other Eastern }X)tontates, from Alexander of Macedon, exercised almost absolute power, at least in the districts in the vicinity of his residence. At present the Atjeh frontiers, as arbitrarily laid down by the Dutch across a territory of which they are not even masters, includes only the northern extremity Ox the island, from south of Langsar Bay on the east, to Silekat .Bay on the west coast. The island of Babi, with a few adjacent islets partly inhabited by Aohinetse, also forms part of the State. Although the population has been more than deci- mated during the long war with the Dutch, it is still believed to exceed half a million. The Achinese, properly so called, are divided into three clans, the "twenty-two," the *' twenty-fiv< ," and the "twenty-six," sagi or mukims, that is, communes, each governed by tyo panglimm, or hereditary chiefs, who naturally check each other's power, whil) the whole body of the panglimas constitute the national council. Moreover; each villag6 enjoys local self-government, being administered by its elders, without whom the chief can decide nothing. This independent communal life explains the astonishing vigour with which the natives have hitherto defended their liberties against the foreign aggressors. Since the first treaty of commerce, signed in 1609 with the Portuguese, the Achinese have always maintained either pacific or hostile relations with the Euro- peans. But about the middle of the present century the State had fallen into complete decay, and the Dutch had seized several places on the seaboard. In 1872 the moment seemed favourable to punish the sultan for the piratical doings of his vassals, with whom he was probably in league. Thanks to a treaty with the English, yielding to them her possessions on the coast of Guinea as a set-off against any further claims on their part to the northern parts of Sumatra, Holland hoped soon to make an end of the Achinese ; but their first expedition ended disastrously. Further equipments, a regular campaign, and a siege of forty- seven days, were required to reduce the kraton, or chief native stronghold, which, however, was not followed by the submission of the sultan. After fifteen years of incessant warfare, which has cost Holland an expenditure of £20,000,000 and over one hundred ^^iium TOPOGRAPHY OF SUMATRA 107 thousand Uvea, and double that number to the natives, the inland districts still remain unreduced, and will probably maintain their independence until the country is 0] ned up by good highways ramifying in all directions. The capital of Atjeh, formerly known as the Kota-Raja, or " Eoyal City," and now called Chroot Atjeh, is built in the form of a regular quadrilateral, three miles from the coast, at the entrance of an extremely fertile valley watered by the river Atjeh. Southwards rise two isolated bluifs, the " father and mother of the river," as the natives call them. Numerous villages are scattered round the Fig. 39. — Kota-Raja and Oi^h-Lbb. Soale 1 : 130,000. otoie Feet. into 88 Feet. Depth*. as to 80 Feet. 80 Feet aud Dpwiuda. Bioefleldi. SiMaea. enclosures, and the entrenched camp is defended by a ring of forts connected together by railways. Another line, the first constructed in Sumatra, also connects the city with its marine quarter, Oleh-leh, standing on a narrow beach between the sea and a sluggish backwater communicating eastwards with the Atjeh. Before the war, Kota-Raja is said to have had a population of thirty-five thousand ; in 1882 it hud already recovered much of its importance, and in 1886 contained nine thousand four hundred natives, besides two thousand five hundred wnnm I I 108 AUSTBALASIA. Chinese. Pepper, the lada or piper nigrum, introduced from India, is generally cultivated in the diatrict, yielding in times of peace as much as forty-five million pounds, or two-thirds of the quantity consumed in the whole world. According to Van der Tunk the native idea is that the Europeans, living in a cold and damp climate, stuff their mattresses with this spice to keep themselves warm at night. '■ ' East of Atjoh, on the Areca coast, as it is called, because it is fringed with the Areca or betel-nut palm, the Dutch hold two other stations, 8egli, near the northern slopes of the Goudberg, and Edi, south of Diamond Point. In the neighbouring district of Pasei formerly stood the city of Sumadra, whence the island takes \\a name. On the west or " Pepper coast," which is subject to slow upheaval, the chief port is Kluang, noted for its vast caves frequented by myriads of edible-nest builders. Some 60 miles farther south lies the port at the mouth of the Tenom where the British ship Nisero was wrecked in 1883, and the whole crew captured and subjected to great hardships in captivity. Three years previously two French travellers in search of gold mines had been assassinated on the same river. Tet within thirty miles farther south the little port of Malabuh {Analabu) is occupied by a Dutch garrison. To escape from foreign rule most of the natives have fled to the coast town of Wailah, between Tenom and Malabuh. The latter place, which has some gold- washings and coal-beds, is followed southwards by the port of Tampat Tutmn, which trades with the neighbouring island of Babi. Singkel, formerly capital of a kingdom and now the chief town of a division of the Tapanuli province, lies on an island at the mouth of a river surrounded by pestiferous swamps. Nevertheless, the place is visited by some Chinese traders, who take camphor, benzoin, and holothurias in exchange for opium and rice. Baros, lying in a more healthy district farther south, was also a royal residence before the arrival of the Dutch, and at present does a considerable trade with Gunung Sitoli, capital of Nias. Beyond it follows Sibogha, on an inlet of the deep and spacious Tapanuli Bay, one of the best harbours in the world, affording excellent anchorage close in shore. Sibogha is one of the points whence travellers penetrate inland to the Batta country. On the eastern and south-eastern heights of the neighbouring plaL'aux lie several commercially and strategically important places, sucb as Sipirok, Padang Sidempuan, and Pertihi, noted for its Buddhist ruins. Southwards in the direction of Padang follow the little-frequented porta of Natal, AJer Bangis, and Priaman. Padang, the most flourishing place on the west coast, presents the aspect rather of a large park than of a great commercial mart. Except in the central quarter occupied by the public buildings, the only structures are the low dwellings ' of the Malays, Javanese, Chinese, and Niassi Islanders, overshadowed by cocoanut- palms and mangoes, and surrounded by gardens, ricefields, and plantations of all the tropical growths valuable for their bark, gums, flowers, and fruits. In the • distance rises the smoking cone of Talang, and southwards, beyond the little river Padang, stands the Apenberg, or " Ape Hill," so named from the quadrumana who here dwell peaceably imder the protection of the natives. The exports, averaging >rfai TOPOGRAPHY OF SUMATRA 109 about £600,000 yearly, consist almost exclusively of cofiee shipped for the United States. ''-- ' '- But Padung owes its importance less to the fertility of the surrounding plains than to its favourable position at the converging point of the routes radiating Fig. 40.-Paj>aho and £kvihonxknt8. Boide 1 : 86,000. E«»b oF Greenwich 100 'SO' 100* 8S' OtOl« TMt Depthii. 16 to 82 Feet 82 Feet and upwards. 8,800 Tarda. towards the thickly peopled and salubrious Menangkabao plateau, which serves as a health-resort for the Government officials. On these Padang uplands, where the Dutch have been firmly established for over half a century, the chief military station is the fortress of Koek, lying some 3,000 feet above sea-level at no AUSTRALASIA. the foot of Mount Merapi in the Agam distriot. In case of foreign invasion this place would at once become the strategic and administrative centre of the whole island. In the vicinity is the Karbawen-gat Gorge, whose rocky walls have been excavated to a depth of 500 foeL in ihe thickness of the plateau. Padang-Panjang, another large place, where most of the Dutch officials reside, occupies the edge of the plateau at the west foot of Merapi. On another bijpe are seen the ruins of Priangan, formerly capital of the Menangkabao empire. Pqja- Kombo, capital of the " Fifty Kotas," lies much farther to the east on the opposite side of Mount Sago. This district is the Sumatran " earthly Eden," where tho cultivated plants of the temperate zone flo- ^rish side by side with those of the tropics. Here were also situated the gold mines, which at one time made Sumatra famous throughout the East, but which are now abandoned. The deposits of magnetic iron, however, are still utilised, which occur in the neighbourhood of ■'■ ':■'-, ;"■;■"'".■' Fig. 41.— HioHLANDS East of Paoano. Soale 1 : 760.000. 0- 50' 1°. i^ M 0* 'SO- n^ ^ ite m .1° lOO'ao- Catb or ureenwich lOO-so' OtoSS Feet Depths. n to 100 Feet lao Feet and upwards. 12 Miles. Fort Van der Capellen. On the banks of the Umbilien, east of Singkarah, are extensive coal measures of excellent quality, the contents of which have been estimated at about twelve billion cubic feet. Mainly with a view to opening up these mineral resources, a line of railway has been projected to connect the plateau either with Padang or with the more southern Brandevijn Bay. But the engineer- ing difficulties have hitherto prevented the execution of this costly undertaking, and it is now proposed to reach the coalfields from the opposite side of the island by the navigable river Hari, main branch of the Jambi, which flows within thirty- five miles of the locality. The slopes are crossed by excellent carriage roads, one of which connects Padang-Panjang with the coast, passing by a profound ravine whence are commanded some lovely prospects seawards. South of Padang follow the little ports of Painan and Mokko-Mokko, and the decayed city of Benkulcn {Bangkahulu), capital of a Residency. According to the '^'irii *i*5SS*,' «■ "rlt^UffWy «% TOl'OORAPIlY OF SUMATRA. Ill local saying, " Benkulen is a small place with big bouses, where small people bear big titles." From the end of the seventeenth century till 1824, it belonged to the East India Company, which had mode it the capital of its Indonesian possessions. Hut the harbour has gradually silted up, and the local trad« has withdrawn a few milbs farther south, to the m«re convenient Si/ehar Bay. The town is unhealthy, and in 1714 the English had already removed their residence to Fort Marlborough, some miles farther north. The houses, injured by earthquakes, are often left unrepaired, and the neglected appearance of the place is increased by the general Fig. 42.— PAunraANO. Scale 1 : 75,000. 8,800 Taida. poverty of its Malay and Chinese inhabitants. The surrounding district is not very fertile, and the neighbouring coffee plantations have been abandoned. Despite the excellent commercial position of the ports, lying in deep inlets at the southern extremity of the island, the local trade chiefly in pepper, and dammar resin, has been little developed. Even before the Krakatau eruption, which spread havoc along the seaboard, the region of the Lampongs, or " Lowlands," did not contain a single important town. At present the chief centre of population is Telokh'Batong, a group of eight villages skirling Lampong Bay and a neigh- nmni .-1 112 AUSTRALASIA. bouring streamlet. Numerous thermal springs of varying temperature bubble up at the foot of the volcanoes in the surrounding district. The chief southern trading-place and the largest city in Sumatra, is Palembang, which lies on both banks of the Musi just above the delta, and at the converging point of all the main routes from the interior. Palembang covers a large surface, the thirty-six Kamponga, or quarters of the Ilir, comprising a space of over five miles on the north or left bank, while the opposite side is occupied by sixteen other quarters, grouped collectively under the name of Ulu* The few European buildings are disposed on the north side, round about the kraton, or citadel, which the Dutch have gradually transformed to a residential palace. As in the Chinese city of Canton, many of the natives live permanently afloat, residing on rakits, or bamboo rafts, moored to the banks of the river, which is here 1,000 feet wide, and from 30 to 50 feet deep. Some of the rafts are large enough to bear houses, containing several families, and according to the local tradition, the first of these structures were built by the Chinese traders, to whom the sultan had refused permission to reside ashore. At present they are inhabited not only by the Chinese, Malays, Arabs, and Hindus, but even by some Europeans, for the sake of the refreshing breezes, which blow alt^matoly up and down the stream. Nearly aU the shops are afloat, so that most of the business is conducted in small river craft, which glide along the narrow channels winding between the little houses, painted in bright colours, and surmounted by curved roofs. During the floods some of these dwellings break from their moorings, and drift with the current far below Palembang. Children also frequently fall overboard, and become a prey to the numerous crocodiles infesting the river. The inhabitants of Palembang, who claim descent from a Javanese colony of the fourteenth century, still speak an idiom differing greatly from the Malay dialects of Sumatra, and resembling the current speech of Central Java. Their commercial relations are also chiefly with that island, to which they forward the tobacco, rice, india-rubber, g^tta-percha, benzoin, and other produce floated down from Muwara Dua, Muwara Inini, Muwara BKH, Mutmra Rupit, and other inland towns, usually situated at the Muwaras, or confluences of the main stream with its tributaries. This produce is shipped in large vessels which ascend the Musi to Palembang, 60 miles from its mouth. The gold workings, whence Palembang takes its name, are now ol' little value, and the local industries are mainly confined to lacquerware and furniture, manufactured by numerous Chinese artizans. In the neighbourhood are the tombs of the sultans, amongst which Europeans are surprised to find that of Sikandar Alam, " Alexander the Great," the traditional ancestor of so many Eastern dynasties. North of the ancient kingdom of Palembang, the sultanate of Jambi, reduced by the Dutch in 1858, also posserses a considerable town, Muwara Kompeh, situated, as implied by its name, at the confluence of the Eompeh with the Jambi. This important trading-place lies, like Palembang, above the fluvial delta, and 45 * The two Malay terms Ilir and Ulu, of such frequent ooonrrenoe on the maps of the Eastern Arobi- pelaRo, have the respective meanings of " lower," " below," " left," and " upper," " above," " right." ibble up ilemhang, iverging surface, over five een other European el, which B Chinese rakits, or wide, and IT houses, of these d refused bv the le sake of Nearly mall river tie houses, the floods jurrent far a a prey to B colony of the Malay iva. Their 'orward the oated down ther inland am with its he Musi to Falembang ily confined ians. 1 Europeans 9 traditional nbi, reduced )eh, situated, ambi. This ;lta, and 45 Eastern Arohi* ove," "right." It \ i nil i ' 1 ) 1 11 .itl " '-'^■•■j-; iiiiiiiiiiiils • ^« ts.'^ TOPOGRAPHY OF SUMATBA. 118 miles below Jamhi, the udtniuistrutivo capitul and rnsklonce of the sultun. Here also a portion of the population lives on rufts monie Hindu remains are still stwn in the neigh- bourhood. Several petty states ftill maintain their indoiMindenoe in the up]H>r part of the Jambi basin, the exports of which are directed ahnost exclusively to Singapore. Ringat, capital of the ancient kingdom of Indragiri, whose southern frontiers are marked by the course of the Jambi, lias lost all its former greatness and splendour, and is now reduced to a mere group of villages on the right bank of the ludrag^ri. Its communications with the sea are entirely cut oif by the alluvial matter gradually deposited In Ampbitrite Bay, at the mouth of the r'wdr. An analogous position is occupied on the river Kampiir by Pulu Lairang (Palalarang), which was also an ancient capital. 8iak, another old metropolis, now held by the Dutch, although 60 miles from tlie mouth of the river, still communioates freely with the sea. But trade is here centred chiefly in Pfkan liaru, which lies above 8iak, near the advanced spurs of the Barisan range. This place has been selected as the future terminus of the railway intended to connect the Ombilien coal-fields with the eastern slope of Sumatra. Several little ports on this seaboard, notably Bukit Batu, have begun to take an increasing share in the local coasting trade. Bengkalut, on the island uf the baino name, possesses the advantage of a perfectly sheltered roadstead, and promises to become a busy seaport, since these waters have been cleared of the pirates by whom they were till recently infested. On the Sumatran side of the Strait of Malacca the chief agricultural and commercial centre is the group of villages and plantotions which takes the name of Deli, from a petty state occupying this part of the island. Since the sultan placed his territory under the protection of Holland in 1862, numerous planters have settled in the district, the soil of which is unusually fertile. The first European speculators directed their attention mainly to the nutmeg, pepper, and other spices ; but they have gradtially abandoned these products, and now occupy themselves exclusively with the cultivation of tobacco for the Amsterdam market, where it is highly appreciated. The production has increased enormously during the last few years; but unfortunately mqst of the plantations have been bought up by a powerful financial company, to which the Government has granted several exclusive privileges, ; ^ndering all free competition imposaible. Freehold plots cannot be obtained, and the Chinese and Hindus arc expressly denied the right to purchase land in the district. The first plantations had been worked by slaves, whom the company has now replaced by " contract labour." But the Malay and Batta natives can no longer be procured in sufiicient numbers, so that over 25,000 Chinese coolies have had to be imported. An attempt — not, however, attended by much success — has also been made to introduce Javanese from Samarang, and thus turn to the benefit of Sumatra a part of the yearly increasing surplus popu- lation supplied by the neighbouring island. Some Elings, or Ealingas — that is, Hindus from the Madras presidency, for the most part mixed with other races — also 8— o piiP' tl 114 AUHTRAFiAHIA. oontrilmtn to Hwell the number of hulf-euNluved K^ngs engagefH^iSfii'-:^&!B^^ i-f,— „, «M#4|' ■ ^.„^. i , . : iiurf iaw,, ^.- - ,. .: , ■ .•BK i iri ll »»I M| lt »i f |ll|ii fBi i itl M . l l i f ti,ppil« i »«ll> l ADMINISTRATION OK HUMATUA. 115 Deli h wards irdung. S :' acroMH the nunumms kutnpongN and [)lniitut!<)HH In^longing to tho compnTiy. At Mi'dan, central villugt) ami udmiuistrativc uupitul of the ( )(»8tkuHt or " Kant ('ouHt " province, u bruuch from this liuo peuutratoH wuHtwurdti into the Upper Luugkut valley. Administration ok Si'matha. A uniform adminiRtration has not yet been introduced into the island. The inland ditttrict of Atjeh, as well uh the more inaccOHsible regions of Buttaland, Htill enjoy complete political independence ; while other provinces, such us Pudang, Beukulen, and Palombung, are entirely reduced. Intermediate Ix^tweou those two extremes are several other territories governed indirectly through vassal princes, who pay to Holland the hamiii, or fixed portion of the produce, but who still retain great personal privileges, as well as a (;onsiderable portion of the local revenue. Every degree of transitipn thus exists between the old regime of the Malay pot<»ntate8 and total subjection to the laws promulgated by the Dutch governor of * Batavia. The petty states situated east of the Padang plateau still follow the adat, or "oustoms," of the ancient kingdom of Menangkabau. Nearly all the kingdoms on the east slope have their more or less autonomous sultans and council of not- ables. The nifkus, or clans, have similarly their elected chiefs, who receive their ' investiture at the hands of the Government, and who serve as intermediaries between the people and the Dutch authorities. Several united sukus constitute a marga, or secondary group, tribe, or principality, corresponding to the French canton, and administered by district chiefs who act on the one hand us spokesmen for the people, and on the other as agents for the central power. Formerly every marga had its special laws and customs recorded on bamboos or the leaves of the borassus, and jealously preserved from generation to generation. The main divisions of Sumatra, with their areas and estimated populations, will be found tabulated in the Appendix. - . ,/ it f valued ill, in a I anchor ithwards SuNDA Islands, between Sumatra and Borneo. * f t The Riouw and Lingga archipelagoes, which form a southern extension of the Malay peninsula, occupy a considerable area, but are far from rivalling in population, products, or commercitil enterprise the little island of Singapore, detached by Great Britain from the Dutch East Indies, and by her developed into the chief centre of trade at the southernmost extremity of the Asiatic continent. Like Singapore, both insular groups appear to be mere fragments of the ad jacent mainland, and both are known to the Malays by the name of Tanah Salat, or " Land of Straits," from tlie numerous channels and passages winding between ihese groups of islands, islets, and reefs. Of all the channels, the most frequented is that of Riouw, which connects the roadstead of Singapore with the open sea stretching eastwards to Borneo. Both archipelagoes contrast sharply with the alluvial islands on the Sumatran coust. Belonging geologically to the Malay peninsula, and like it consisting mainly of granite and sandstones, they rise in undulating cliffs, above which appear a few higher summits, or "mountains," as the natives call them. One of the eminences in Bintang attains a height of 1,700 feet, which is still 2,000 feet lower than the peak of Lingga (3,700 feet), culminating point in the island of like name, in the southern group. Notwithstanding their healthy climate, due to the absence of marshy tracts, a large number of the islands are still uninhabited, and entirely clothed with a dark forest vegetation. The neighbouring waters are even still imperfectly surveyed, and consequently avoided by the Malay seafarers. The primitive population of the islands consists of Malays, and the Lingga archi- pelago, which presents a type of remarkable purity, is even traditionally regarded as the cradle of the race. The Riouw dialect is one of the richest in literary products, such as chronicles, dramas, and poems. But in the Riouw, or northern group, the Malay stock is already largely intermingled with diverse foreign elements — Javanese, who ruled over the islands when the Mojo-Pahit kingdom flourished ; Bugi traders from Celebes, who occupy several villages ; Chinese, who, as in Singapore, have already acquired the numerical preponderance in many places- 1° 20' 0* ■J BANGKA. 117 Both in t^e towns and rural districts these Chinese are divided into two distinct nations, each with its " captain," — the Chinese of Canton and those of Amoy, the latter contrasting favourably with the former for their peaceful habits, love of work, and sobriety. This steady inflow of the " Celestials " is due to the development of trade, which is much more active in the Riouw than in the Lingga archipelago. The Chinese are here also occupied with the cultivation of gambit, of which Riouw has practically the monopoly. This product, called also terra japonica and catechu, is obtained from a decoction of the leaves of the uncaria, or nnv.clea gnmbir of botnnists. The island of Bintan alone j'ields about sixteen million pounds yearly, forwarded chiefly to Batavia, Macassar, and Banjermaasin, where it is used in the preparation of betel. Riouw is also one of the most important pepper-growing regions in Indonesia. Some places have also depoelits of tin, amongst others the two Earimon islets in the Strait of Malacca, and the large island of Singkep, in the southern archipelago south of Lingga. The straits yield large quantities of holothurians and of the agar- agar (fucua saccharinua), for which Chinese epicures pay a high price. Riotm, capital of the archipelagoes, and, till recently, of the East Sumatran Residency, is situated in the islet of Tanjang Pinang, close to the west side of Bin- tang, largest member of these insular groups. The town, whose name is often extended to the two adjacent islands, stands on the east side of the Riouw Strait, the Rhio of the English charts. It comprises several distinct quarters, stretching around a shallow roadstead; which, however, is well sheltered from all winds by the .adjacent islets of Mars and Sengarang. Although declared a free port in 1828, Riouw has not been able to compete with its British neighbour Singapore, to which vast emporium it sends the tribute of aU its exports by a regular line of steamers. Bangka. ^ : : The large island of Bangka, with an area of about five thousand square miles, and administratively constituting a Residency of itself, might seem at first sight to form a mere geographical dependence of Sumatra. Nevertheless it is entirely distinct from that region in its geographical constitution, foiming, like the Riouw and Lingga groups, a fragmentary extension of the Malay peninsula. It is also disposed in precisely the same direction, from north-west to south-east, parallel with the main axis of Sumatra. The corresponding series of convex and concave curves presented by both sides of the tortuous and shallow strait separating Bangka from the alluvial lands of Palembang, is due not to a rupture produced between rocks of identical formation, but to the action of the a]t«rnafing marine currents uni- formly distributing the sedimentary matter brought down by the Palembang rivers. Unlike Sumatra, Bangka has neither volcanoes nor igneous rocks, and is almost destitute even of thermal springs. The chief formations are granites, quartz, feld- spars, thrown together without any apparent regularity. The imdulating hills are I Hf-i. ll.MUIUUIUU-^.i,, m lit) AUSTRALASIA. not disposed in ridges, but scattered in disorder over the surface, and nowhere attain 3,000 feet in height. Mount Maras, the culminating point (2,800 feet), rises above the south side of the narrow Elabat Hay, in the northern part of the island. But the steepest cliffs are those of the east coast, facing the high sea. Although presenting the same climatic conditions as those of the opposite Sumatran seaboard, Bangka already offers some marked contrasts in its flora and fauna. All large animals, such as the elephant and rhinoceros, and even the tiger and buffalo, are absent from its forests. The inhabitants, although very mixed, are mainly of Malay stock, as in the other Indonesian coastlands ; but here the Fig. 46.— Banoka. Scale 1 : 3,200,000. Depths. OtolS fi'eet. 16 to 80 Feet. 80 Feet and upwards. . 00 Miles. / I * ■"% Javanese element is less numerously represented than in the Palembang district, being partly replaced by some scattered settlements of Malays from the north, and commonly known as Orang Sekat, or Orang Laut, that is, " Men of the Sea." They are akin to the Bajaus of Celebes, and the Orang Ewata, or " Men of the Estu- aries," who carry on a little trade with the East Sumatran coast. When at anchor they seldom leave their praus, eight or ten of which constitute a sort of floating kampong, or community, with its special customs and council of elders. The Orang Sekat live exclusively on fish and the species of fucus called agar- agar, and to this diet must be attributed the so-called gadm, a peculiar malady to which they are occasionally subject. Having remained pagans, they are often ''''«iai rhere feet), i the losite u and tiger lixed, •e the v:^:' ,.■;'.' ■'l^ :-4 listrict, fth, and They B Estu- anchor floating sd agar- ilady to :e often BANGKA. 119 accused by their Mohammedan neighbours of being addicted to piracy, whereas they are, on the contrary, strictly honest in all their dealings, depending for a livelihood solely on fishing and trade. The inland populations, known as Orang Gunang, or " Highlanders." resemble the Battas both in physical appearance and usages. Of the Chinese, who form nearly a third of the whole population, about one- half are natives of Bangka, this section taking the name of Fernakan, and constitut- ing a group quite distinct from the Sinkee, or Chinese immigrants from Canton and Fokieu. They mostly marry half-caste native women, and speak both Chinese and Malay, but on the whole preserve the original Chinese type. Since 1850 the popu- lation of the island has more than doubled, but is still slight, scarcely exceeding twelve persons to the square mile. Agriculture is almost entirely neglected, everything being sacrificed to the tin-mining industry, the most productive in the whole world. The valuable tin deposits, said to have been discovered about the beginning of - the eighteenth century, belonged at first to the sultan of Falembang, master of the island. In 1740 the Chinese, already at that time exclusively employed to work the mines, raised about 1,550 tons, while the present annual yield of this state monopoly often equals the value of the capital invested. But the miners continue to be neglected, and have to be kept imder control by the Dutch garrisons stationed in the mining districts. The stanniferous beds, of which there are several hundreds, occur in all parts of the island, but are specially abundant on the north-east side, round about Mera- . wang. As in the Malay peninsula, the ores are contained in the alluvial soil which, to a depth of from 14 feet to 35 feet or 40 feet, overlies the dark- coloured clays at the foot of the granito hills. Here and there the streams carry- ing down the alluvial matter have excavated deep cavities or " pockets," in which the metal has accumulated in considerable quantities. Besides tin, Bangka also possesses deposits of silver, copper, lead, arsenic, and iron, none of which are much worked, except the last-mentioned, which is highly valued for the manufacture of small arms. Muntok, capital of Bangka, lies at the north-west extremity, over against the Falembang river delta. During the British occupation it was known as Minto, in honour of the Governor-General of that name, but has since resumed its old Malay designation. Muntok, which comprises a strongly fortified European and a native quarter, with a total population of about 3,300, has the advantage of a well- shel- tered but somewhat shallow roadstead, which is the centre of a brisk trade with Sumatra, Riouw, and Singapore. BiLUTON. Billiton, or Blitong, which is about one-third the size of Bangka, is connected with the south-east side of that island by about a hundred islets, rocks, and reefs, endangering the navigation of the intervening Gaspar Strait. It presents the m. » (ii i jii»i-_jj„ _> ii j!j] ii . ii j AU8TBALASIA. same geological fonnation as its neighbour, and, like it, possesses tin-bearing alluvial deposits. Its culminating point, the twin-creste nver dboth i-west, lot yet to the MOUN'ilNS OF BOKNKO. 126 natives the Datu Tubang, culminating point of thin mountain group, in ho high that "from its aummit heaven might easily be reached." From u distance it is said to appear always " white," either because rising above the snow-line, or more probably because usually n^rapped in vapour. However this be, the nearest mountains that have hitherto 1)een explored are distinguished rather by their picturesque outlines and eccentric forms than for their great elevation. Accord- ing to Schwaner, none exceed 4,G'iO feet, while the ranges branching off towards the headlands on the seab^^rd would appear to be almost everywhere still lower. Even the Lupar chain, running south-west and west, completely diBapi)earB in some places. Between the river of like name traversing Sarawak and Lake Sriang, in the Eapuas basin, the slopes ure soiircely perceptible, whereas towards the north-east the horizon is bounded by the blue crests of the " Thousand and One Hundred Mountains." Farther on the western chain is again interrupted at several points ; but towards its extremity it develops a superb amphitheatre around the Sarawak country, terminating on t coast at the sharp headland of Tanjang Datu. The two loftiest summits of this waterparting are Penrisau and Pu, 4,750 and 6,000 feet respectively. South of the Batu Rajah, or " King Moiintain " (8,300 feet), the range skirt- ing the east side of the Kapuas basin appears to have no peaks rivalling in altitude those of Sarawak and the central nucleus. It is continued southwards by a line of crests from 2,000 to 2,600 feet high, and thence between the Kapuas and Barito basins not by an uninterrupted chain, but by a series of groups separated from each other by broad depressions, and thus forming so many isolated masses. The south-eastern range forming the divide between the Barito and Mahakkam basins is somewhat loftier, the Batu Budang attaining, according to Schwaner, an eleva- tion of 4,650 feet. But southwards it falls rapidly, in its central parts presenting nothing but rounded hills, scarcely more than 600 or 700 feet high. One of the gaps in this chain is occupied by the Jallan-Batd, a chaos of limestone blocks of every form and size, covering a space several hundred square miles in extent. Trees have sprung up between the boulders, and here and there in their fissures or on their summitR. The mountains of which these calcareous masses at one time formed part have been gradually disintegrated and earned away by the running waters, leaving nothing but these scattered fragments of more durable rocks. As it approaches the sea, sweeping round to the south-west of the alluvial Banjermassin plains, the range again develops an unbroken chain of crystalline formation, terminating in the promontory of Cape Satoi. In the same way the hills skirting the north side of the Mahakkam basin merge eastwards in the granite Lakuru chain, terminating in a bold headland on the coast. Besides the fully developed continuous ranges, Borneo is diversified with a large number of isolated groups dotted over the plains, like the archipelagoes in the surrounding waters. Most of these groups are of slight elevation, although some few rival in altitude the summits of the main ranges. Such are Mounts Balik Pippan and Bratus, in the Mahakkam basin, the latter, according to Bock, about 6,000 feet high. I 1 s * „ ~ IsSss^ ' 126 AUHTKALAHIA. Several of the Hiiinmitr' in Centrul Borneo conuist of fi^ranito and other crystal- lino roclcM, aH MuHicit-ntly attested by the debris washt'd down and strewn over the plains by the running waters, liut in the regions near the 8ealN)ar(l nearlj all the hills are of sedimentary formation. < H' these the calcareous rooks are very prevalent, their innuni(>rable caverns affording shelter to myriads of the esculent swallow. Other de|M)sitB of various ages contain rich beds of coal and lignite, and many purts of the island abound in thermal springs. Although surroundetl by a semicircle (»f igneous islands, llorneo appears at present to contain no active volcanic cent rex ; but this regicm also had at one time its eruptive craters, and the scoriu) and other traces ot extinct fires may still be seen hero and there, as in the neighbourhood of kina-Balu and in the Montrado upl' ds. The outlines of the Bornean sealKmrd have frecjuently oeen modified. If there was a time when it formed continuous land with Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, it was also at other epochs reduced to the mere skeleton of its mountain ranges, destitute of the argillaceous, shingly, and alluvial plains at present filling up the spaces between its divergent chains. It was probably during these epochs that its volcanic cones blazed above the neighbouring marine waters. Then also were deposited the horizontal beds on which are strewn the ferruginous pebbles washed down from the hills, and among which are collected the precious metals, gold, platinum, quicksilver, as well as diamonds of the purest water. Gold washings occur in most provinces — the British territory in the north, Sarawak, Montrado, the Pontianak and Banjermassin district. The Malays and Dayaks are moreover acquaintetl with numerous mineral deposits, which they jealously conceal, either in the hope of retaining a monopoly of the mines or else in order to keep the for- eigners from their territory. The diamond mines are usually found in pockets of argillaceous soil at some distance from the auriferous beds. i RivBHs OF Borneo. i < Thanks to an abundant rainfall, Borneo is watered by a considerable number of broad streams flowing in all directions seawards. Nevertheless the north-west slope between the main range and the coast is too narrow for the development of any great watercourses. Here the most copious is the Brunei, or Borneo, which falls into the estuary at the capital of the state of like name. Farther south, but on the same north-west slope of the island, are the navigable rivers Kajang and Lupar, besides the Sarawak, which, although of small size, is better known from the town of that name situated on its estuary, the scene of so many stirring events in recent years. One of the three largest rivers in Borneo is the Kapuas, whose catchment basin lies between the two south-western mountain ranges, and which flows mainly towards the south-west. The chain of large lakes which formerly marked its course have been gradually filled in by alluvial deposits, and are now represented only by so-called danaus, such as the Sriang and Luar, periodically flooded shallow lagoons occurring at intervals along the riverain plains. Before reaching the low-lying^ M0:^^^^m ri KIVKIW OF UOUNKO. 127 very •ulont gnite, imded active and as in co88tlandR, the Kupuas contract* to n narrow htnl bt'twoon two neigh)N)uriii^ liilU, lH.^yon(l whii'h it nuniHoH into two niuin hiiinelu'H and nuincrouH Hniallor chaniioli!, forming an I'xtJ'nsivc dtdtu with a couMtline of no Iohs thun 70 mihs. This alluvial tract projct'tM coiiHidcrahly beyond the original shon'-linc, iind according to tht' local traditions mentioned by Tcmminck, haw advanced several leagiK > wni- wards during the historic ptniod. The island of Majang, opposite the southern branch of the delta, is already almost entirely connected with the mainland, while the sedimentary deposits continue to encroach upon the seu still farther southward, in the direction of the Karimuta archipelago. The province of I'ulu I'etak was formerly un island, um indicated by its very name, which means uu island destitute of all vegetation. The section of Borneo lying south of the equator is the most abundantly watered part of the country. Here follow m rapid succession the rivers Kotaringin, Pcm- buan, Sampit, Katingun, Kuhajan, and Uarito, all, like the Kapuas, lined by occasionally floode.-^—>- ,A^r,:-L^,.... -^•■ two miles, only arbo- beyond the feet " amid , or 6 feet . J RlVElia Ui' llOttNEO. 120 higher than usual, would suffice to iigiiin submcrgu the whole of this nowly-foiuiod delta. i i North of the Lakuru hills none of the eastern streams, such as the £elai, the 9—0 1 -^-^mumBOsmm j.ii i*iijii|!iii III iiOTi;tnm«n< . w Although intersected by the equinoxial line Borneo has a far less torrid climate than that of Aden and the coastlands on the Red Sea. Like the other Indonesian regions it enjoys the refreshing marine breezes, which are attracted from aU quarters towards the centres of rarefaction. On the seaboard the glass seldom indicates 95° F. in the shade and usually does not exceed 90°, while the thermometer normally oscillates between 72° in the morning and 89" about two o'clock in the afternoon. Hence the dangerous charaoter of the Bornean climate is due not to its heat, but to the h'savy night dews and to the malaria caused by the periodic inundations and decomposition of organic matters, especially in the interior, less exposed to the invigorating sea breezes. Here also there is little change of season, the winds being little regulated and rain- bearing clouds arriving from all quarters throughout the year. But on the seaboard the south-east trades prevailing from April to October, are regularly followed by the west and stormy north-west, north r-nd north-east monsoons. But even here moisturs is precipitated at all times, ind at Sarawak the mean annual rainfall is estimated :;* ^roai 160 to 200 inches. Long droughts • Chief Elvers of Borneo :- Brunei or Limbang Bejang . Lupar . Kapuas . Katingar , Kahajan . Barito ^. . Mahakkam » ' Kina-Iiatangan Approziinate liBiisrth. wSn. Approximate Areaof Baain Squats Miles. 120 4,000 300 10,000 180 4,000 480 . 30,000 270 8,000 330 9.000 660 . 40,000 670 .■ 32,000 330 8,000 Length of Navigalile Conne with Affluent*. Miles. 60 190 30 860 120 1«0 600 360 270 . Eapuas basin was completely dried up. In the Kutei district Book traversed forests killed by the heat, and destitute alike of vegetation and animal life. Flora. But these are rare exceptions, and on the whole Borneo may be described as one vast forest, so dense and continuous that, according to one observer, apes might pass from one extremity of the island to another by swinging from branch to branch. The forest growths are interrupted only in some few districts by tracts covered with the herbaceous ahng plant. Although differing little from that of the other large islands, the Bomean flora comprises a few peculiar forms, especially trees yielding good timber, gums, ».' l >.J« li>« W^>iMMia Nnn^WiAttn " i'i ..'' i !tM>. -fill. " ^ , I "> ' ' I 1 1 1 mill ni i r iMii i n ii i ' ^...1? ' ...^. .'.'. -t . 4.l»i» ." ■« j./^. that of other Bomeans, and the women especially, thanks to the shade of the dense forests, have clear skins of a somewhat greyish yellow colour. Their chief food is the flesh of apes, snakes, and frogs. But whether these or any other peoples of the interior are to be classed with the fair Indonesians or the dwarfish Negritos is still a moot point. 1 ■■:sa«i miitmkm liiNMiiMiii 184 AUSTRALASIA. The great bulk of the inland populations are collectively known as Dayaks, a term the primary meaning of which appears to be " Men," " People," but which for the Malays has simply the sense of " Wild," or '' Heathen." In any case, many tribes are certainly grouped under this general designation, which differ in their origin, physical appearance, and customs. The special names by which they are known to their neighbours are for the most part taken from the districts, moun- tains, or rivers inhabited by them. Thus have been named the Orang-Kapuas, the Orang-Barito, Orang-Mahakkam, Orang-Bukit, or " Highlanders," Ot-Danom, or " Uplanders ; " in the same way are distinguished the " Sea," " River," and " Land " Dayaks. Taken collectively the Dayak populations differ from the civilised Malays by their slim figure, lighter complexion, more prominent nose and higher forehead. In many communities the men carefully eradicate the hair of the face, while both sexes file, dye, and sometimes even pierce the teeth, in which are fixed gold buttons. The lobe of the ear is similarly pierced for the insertion of bits of stick, rings, crescent-shaped metal plates, and other ornaments, by the weight of which the lobe is gradually distended down to the shoulder. In several tribes the skulls of the infants are artificially deformed by means of bamboo frames and bandages. The simple Dayak costume of blue cotton with a three-coloured stripe for bonier is always gracefully draped, and the black hair is usually wrapped in a red cloth trimmed with gold. Most of the Dayaks tattoo the arms, hands, feet, and thighs, occasionally also breast and temples. The designs, generally of a beautiful blue colour on the coppery ground of the body, display great taste, and are nearly always disposed in odd numbers, which, as among so many other peoples, are supposed to be lucky. Amulets of stone, filigree, and the like, are also added to the ornaments to avert misfortune. In some tribes coils of brass wire are wound round the body, as among some African peoples on the shores of Victoria Nyanza. The Dayaks are much subject to skin diseases, due perhaps to the luck of salt in their diet. Victims of goitre also are as numerous in the Ku\ei basin as in certain Alpine and Pyrenean valleys. Even before the arrival of the Dutch the natives practised a sort of inoculation against small-pox, which in Borneo is of a very virulent character. The Dayaks believe in the existence of a supreme being, the Sang-Sang, who reveals his pleasure to the priests and communes with them in a "heavenly tongue." But the confidence of the people is chiefly in the bilians or priestesses, who understand how to conjure the evil spirits, dispel maladies, forecast the future, solve riddles and extemporise songs, ''''ley are brought up from, infancy by the priests, and always chosen from the slave class, for they are common to all- the married men of the community acconling to a fixed tariff. One of the marriage customs, probably of Chinese origin, is scarcely elsewhere equalled for refinement of cruelty. The wealthy Ot-Damons confine their daughters when eight or ten years old in a uarrow, dimly lit cell, which they never leave for the next seven or eight years. During this period they are allowed to see ,(;*. }.;:-^' INHABITANTS OF BORNEO. 186 neither parents nor friends, not even their own mother ; their only occupation is the weaving of mats, and their food is administered by a slave. When at last released from her prison, pale, emaciated, tottering on her small enfeebled feet, the maiden is considered a worthy prize for the wealthiest suitors ; a " piece of man," that is to say a slave, is immolated, and her person sprinkled with his blood. Many Dayak tribes are still addicted to head-hunting, a practice which has made their name notorious, and which but lately threatened the destruction of the whole race. It is essentially a religious practice, so much so that no important act in their lives seems sanctioned unless accompanied by the offering of one or more heads. The child is born under adverse influences unless the father has presented a head or two to the mother before its birth. The young man cannot become a man and arm himself with the mandau, or war club, until he has beheaded at least one victim. The wooer is rejected by the maiden of his choice unless he can produce one head to adorn their new home. The chief fails to secure recognition until he can exhibit to his subjects a head secured by his own hand. No dying person can enter the kingdoia beyond the grave with honour unless he is accompanied by one or more headless companions. Every rajah owes to his rank the tribute of a numerous escort after death. Amongst some tribes, notably the Bahu Trings, in the northern part of the Mahakkam basin, and the Ot-Damons of the Upper Kahajan, the religious custom is still more exacting. It is not sufficient to kill the victim, but before being dispatched he must also be tortured, the corpse sprinkled with his blood, and his flesh eaten under the eyes of the priests and priestesses, who perform the preecribed rites. All this explains the terror inspired by the Dayaks in their neighbours, and the current belief that they are sprung from swords and daggers that have taken human form. A regular head-hunting expedition is so much regarded as a pre-eminently religious act, that amongst the primitive tribes it must be preceded by a general confession. All sinners confess their shortcomings, submit to the potnali, that is, the taboo of the Polynesians, and do penance in the forests in order to be " restored to grace." When thus cleansed from all moral stain, they engage in their funeral dances, don their warlike -costume of the skins of wild beasts, and put on *\'''':X masks representing the open jaws of a tiger or crocodile. Thus disguised they sally forth to fall upon some distant tribe of friends or foes, and gather their harvest of heads or of victims reserved for the feast. The skulls of the enemy are usually held in the greatest respect ; every attention is bestowed on them ; at every meal the choicest morsels are placed in their mouth ; they are supplied with betel and tobacco ; they are treated as chiefs, in the hope that they may forget their own and attach themselves to the new tribe. " Your head is ours now ; help us to slay your former friends," is the language addressed to them. With the gradual spread of Islam the Dayaks of the British and Dutch possessions are slowly abandoning their bloodthirsty usages. At the same time the head-hunters themselves, strange to say, are otherwise the most moral KMIIi 186 AUSTRALASIA. ! people in the whole of Indonesia. Nearly all are perfectly frank and honest. They scrupulously respect flie fruits of their neighbours' labour, and in the tribe itself muider is unknown. For u period of twelve years under the rule of Kujah lirooke only one case of homicide occurred in the principality of Sarawak, and in this case the criminal was a stranger adopted by the Dayaks. The natives also contrast favourably with the Malay, Chinese, or European immigrants for their temperance and forbearance. Although cheated and plundered on all sides, they preserve their good temper and cheerful disposition, indulge freely in merry- making, and display much ingenuity in inventing all kinds of games. Born artists, they not only raise their dwellings on piles high above the periodical floods and beyond the reach of nightly marauders, but also dispose the bamboo frames and gables in forms pleasing to the eye. They are eager collectors of porcelain and " old china," and to certain choice pieces are attributed divine properties. The tombs of their chiefs, and in some districts those of their dogs, are solidly constructed of iron-wood and embellished with carvings representing heads, birds, dragons' mouths, rivalling those of Burmah and Siam in delicacy of detail and instinctive harmony. ? -' >• - -- In the centre of most villages stands the balai, or " chief house," a round or elongated building, erected, like all the others, on piles, but containing a vast apartment where the unmarried young men and all strangers pass the night, and which serves as an exchange, forum, and council chamber. Some of these Dayak palaces, occasionally treated as citadels, have a circuit of no less than 1,000 feet. Keppel saw one on the banks of the Lundu which was over 600 feet long, and which accommodated a whole tribe of four hundred souls. The natives also give proof of their engineering skill by throwing cleverly constructed bamboo bridges across rivulets, and sometimes even across rivers considerably over 300 feet broad. But they never lay down roads, and rarely even paths, almost their only highways being the water-courses. Their best tracks are made of the stems of trees placed endwise, over which they run rather than walk. At the least alarm the trees leading to their village are scattered and the track destroyed. The Sarawak Dayaks are good husbandmen, raising on the reclaimed land two crops in rotation, first rice, then sugar-cane, maize or vegetables. Then the ground lies fallow for eight or ten years, during which it is again invaded by scrub and even forest growths. The granaries are a kind of basket fixed on high trees and approached by ladders or inclined planes of bamboo. The inland Dayaks are chiefly occupied in collecting the natural products of the forest, ratan and gutta- percha for the European market, swallows* nests and bezoar stones for the Chinese. When absent from their homes in search of these objects, the women send little lamps of cocoanut shell adrift on the stream, as is also practised on the banks of the Ganges. These floating lights, burning in honour of the spirits of air and water, intercede with them for the absent toilers in the forests. Notwithstanding the almost inexhaustible natural resources of their fertile domain, even those half-civilised Dayaks who have given up the practice of head-hunting do not appear to increase in numbers. Their abundant crops v^-^^ '■ m l M i ll J i . 1 • » I lul l ,. .lU l lJl l J i - ' p l l ■-^;;% ^'<*/'^!^'; .v'.-., «, r nBinr»imiwwiiiiiiii -ir "•PV** *0mmm INilABlTANTM OF BORNEO. 187 yield ample both for their own wants and for a conRiderublo export trade ; celi- bacy is uuknowu, all marrying in thb prime of life ; yet their villages still remain scattered in small groups over vast spaces. This arrest of growth must be attributed partly to destructive epidemics, partly to the slight fecundity of the women. The families average not more than from two to four, which, according to Wallace, is due to the life of hardships to which the women are condemned. Although otherwise highly respected by their husbands, all the hard work falls to their lot, and they thus become exhausted and prematurely aged. The consequence is that in the whole of Borneo the full-blooded Dayaks are estimated at not more than about a million altogether. The Mohammedan Malays, who are disseminating the tenets of Islam amongst the aborigines, are nearly all settled on the seaboard and along the bunks of the rivers. Attracted by the profits of trode, they advance slowly from market to market towards the hilly regions of the interior, gradually transforming and assimilating the Dayaks by crossings and the influence of their higher culture. Although numerically inferior, they have already acquired the predominance, and every day adds to their ascendency. The Moslem element is also augmented by Bugis and Bajaus from Celebes, by Javanese, lUanos from the Philippines, and a few Arabs. But more numerous than all together are the Chinese, who are settled chiefly in the seaports, and who even enjoy a monopoly of several industries, including that of gold-mining. The Europeans had scarcely established their permanent factories in Borneo when the Chinese made their appearance, and soon developed considerable settlements. From them the Dutch met with the most active resistance during their gradual conquest of the southern provinces. Of pure Chinese there are over thirty thousand, but with the half-castes they may be estimated at about two hundred thousand, the great majority of whom have been settled in the island and intermingled with the Malays for several generations. The Dutch and English do not number more than a few hundred altogether ; but they hold the political power, in consequence of which thousands of the natives have begun to speak their langudges and adopt their usages. Dutch Borneo. On the east coast Pontianak was the first town visited by its present masters, and it still continues to be the capital and commercial centre of the country. In 1856 it was ceded by the local sultan to the Dutch, by whom it has been made a free port. The wooden houses of Pontianak are disposed in two groups on either side of the Eapuas River, at the confluence of the Landak, about 10 miles from the coast. Some Hindu ruins, temples and statues, are seen here and there in the surrounding forests. North of Pontianak, in the petty states subject to the Dutch about the Sarawak frontier, the Chinese element preponderates. Attracted to Sambas and Montrado by the rich gold and platinum mines, to Landak by its diamond fields, and now to the banks of the Eapuas by its coal deposits, they have gradually driven back the 188 AU8THALA81A. Dajralcs, ond towards the tniddlo of the preaont century had even conRtituted them- BolvcH in indopendont republics. In these konffni, or brothorhctods, the " older brothers " and the " younger " co-operated together, and pauperism was unknown. Animated by a common Fig. Sl.-BAXJEBicAMiif. spirit of solidarity, they Bou 1 : 88,000. defended themselves with the greatest cou- rage, and expeditions of several thousand men were required to enforce submission to the Dutch rule. As in most other Chinese settlements, the staple trade of Sambas and Montrado is of opium. Sttkadana, situated on a lateral branch of the Eapuas delta, was formerly capital of one of the largest states in Borneo ; now it is a mere village facing the picturesque Karimata archipelago. These islands were at one time densely peopled, but are now almost uninhabited. The culminating peak of the chief island has an altitude of 3,310 feet. Between the Kapuas and Barito deltas every estuary has its market, every petty state its capital, where a Dutch official is now seated by the side of the descend- R8ooYaid». ant of the old sovereigns. But the coast popidation is BO scanty that none of these places are now anything more than humble villages. Yet the upper valley of the Kahajan abounds in gold dust, which is collected by the Dayaks, who have hitherto prevented the Chinese from penetrating to their territory. Farther east the chief emporium is BatyermaMin, or simply Banjer, capital of IWSS taaboPGreefMineh " .' " i J'"/ i " ii j iii t iiiniiiVi;Mirfiiiiiiiiirt>iii» #^ ^^ r - """i ii _w. iiiijiijiiw»wiijp>wiijpwiiiij wrTj't " ■-■"^'^- ''■ - ■^^^i:J:i^^' ■'^'t-^-^/py:i*-] - i-.ryj.'X> T'{{^ :■'■'' -^f'..'; ;'i^- •( • /i^ 140 AUHTUALAHIA. and biiokwiitorH. I (ore tlio Itarito ih jniued by the nikit^i, or floating HtructureM, auchur« Negara and Marganari lower down on both banks, are all large trading and indus- trial places. The armourers of Negara were famous throughout Indonesia before the manufacture of arms was suppressed by the Dutch ; but the district still produces all the earthenware used in the country. Farther east some Javanese immigrants cultivate the fertile plains of the Ken- dangan district, on the banks of the beautiful Amandit river. The new town of Mutcara- Bahan, or Marabahan (Bekompai), at the junction of the Bahan and Barito, is the outport of the trade of Banjormassin with the Bahan basin. Its population is rapidly increasing, thanks to the spread of Islam amongst the surrounding Dayak tribes. Higher up, the only important place in the thinly peopled upper Barito valley is the village of Lutuntur [Lokhton Tiior), at the Teweh confluence, 200 miles from the coast. The various petty states ou the south-east coastlands are still semi-independent. Pasir, capital of one of these states, is one of the chief places in Borneo. Lying at the head of a delta navigable by small craft, Pasir, or the " Sands," as it is named from the surrounding dunes, carries on a brisk trade with the opposite coasts of Celebes, whence it has received numerous immigrants. Several important towns follow along the lower course of the Mahakkam in the kingdom of Kutei, which since 1844 has been half subject to the Dutch. Tangarung, n .:'„ : i-.-^-^^^Yfrn '0^ •linH' DUrrn BORNEO. Ml the capital, lien ul)out (i()miloH above the p«tuury on the rij?ht hunk of tho Muhakkam, whii:h in here u brootl, tidal ntn>ani. But nearly all the trade of Kutet in centred in Samafin/la, which licH lower (h>wn near the fork of the delta, where large (y'hinese junks whip the j^utta-percha, rattans, t.inW, honey, edible birds' ncHtH and other produce brouf^ht d(»wn on rafts from the upper regions of the Makakkam basin. Hainarindu is the residence of tho Dutch political agent, and of the Mohammedan inidm, from whom the natives learn to write Arabic and recite verses from the Koran. Here the Bongis from Celebes have settled on the right bank, where they have set up a strong republic, admiuistering their own laws and enjoying complete Fig. 63.— LoWKR COUBSR UF THB MaHAJUCAX. Soide 1 : l,soo,ono. E»-; oF G D«ptbt. otoie Vttt. 16 to aao 820 to i.iiao Feet. l,2iJ0 Feet and upward*. .80MU». self government. The Chineee and Malays occupy the left bank, residing either in floating houses or in dweUings raised on piles. Here are no roads or even tracks, all the communications between the different quarters being carried on exclusively by water. The town itself is one vast cemetery, headstones or carved boards marking the graves of the dead round about the abodes of the living. The few steamers touching at Samarinda find in the iiiiraediate neighbourhood, and especially at Pelarang, 5 or 6 miles farther down, a supply of coal in the rich mines, the property of the Sultan. Sanga-Sanga, at the head of the delta, was the royal residence before Samarinda. « '' |iWB6>. %>ST ai P?' *^ f::"dkm ■'ih:f:mi-:-/i' 142 AU8TRAI.ASIA. 11' The little port of Sankolirang, on one of the inlets north of the Mahakkam delta, is now a mere fishing village ; but to judge from the surrounding ruins it was at one time an important centre of Hindu culture in East Borneo. Sambiliung, Ounong- Tebur, Bulangan and Tidnng, petty states following north of Kutei as far as British North Borneo, are amongst the least known parts of the island. A few Dutch officials are siationed at two or three points along the coast, in order to maintain the right of possession against the pretentions of the Sidtan of Sulu, the claims of Spain, and the further annexations by England. A large part of these territories, long harassed by corsairs, is almost uninhabited. ill! Administration of Dutch Borneo. The Dutch portion of Borneo is divided into two provinces, that of the west with capital Pontianak, and that of the east with capital Banjermassin. As in Sumatra, the Dutch functionaries establish their direct authority very gradually. Sultans and rajahs are still at the head of the different states, although several of them, " protected " by a Dutch garrison, are practically mere pensioners of the government. Others, on the contrary, such as the Sidtans of Pasir and Kutei, being more removed from the centre of authority, are still real sovereigns, although gradually sinking to the humble position of vassals. Even in the towns, where the Dutch have long been indisputable masters and strictly obeyed, they prefer to rule throi'.gh native agency. The Chinese kap-thai and kapitan, the Malay panum- bahan, pangeran and tomongong, are held responsible for the conduct of their subor- dinates. The Dutch Resident abstains from direct interference in the local affairs of each nation, so long as it keeps the peace and pays the imposts regularly. The Dayaks of the interior are liable only to a poll-tax, although the chief charged with its collection contrives too often to levy it four or five times over. The sultans farm the opium crop and the customs, and according to Bock their surest source of revenue is usury. They lend to their subjects at exorbitant interests and on solid security. - ' * V \ In the Appendix will be found a table of the Dutch administrative divisions, with their approximate areas and populations. '-'■';■■■ .1 Sultanate of Brunei and British Borneo. . ^■■ During the first half of the century, nearly all North Borneo was still subject to the Sultan of Brunei, at that time the most powerful potentate in the island that bears his name. At present his dominions have been enormously curtailed. Hope- less of resisting the demands of those more powerful than himself, he has gradually ceded most of his empire to the British. First went the island of Labuan, com- manding the approach to his capital ; then followed the southern region of Sarawak, surrendered to a soldier of fortune, and lastly the whole of the north handed over to an English financial company. What remains is scarcely a fourth of his for- mer possessions, and even this is already imder the effective suzerainty of England,, pending its official annexation to the British Empire. ♦ ifTs: 1 BRUNEI. 148 Like most places on the coast, Brunei, the Sultan's residence, is an amphibious town, but presents a more singular aspect even than I atianak or Banjermassin. The picturesque Malay structures are not here mingled with flat European houses. The stream, at this point considerably over a mile wide, is lined by long avenues of inhabited boats, while the neighbouring bay is crowded with Chinese junks and praus from Mindanao. After two years of navigation amid the oceanic wastes, the Fig. 64.— Betnbi. ' Scale 1 : 36,000. 4 Hi ''J Bands exposed at low WBter. Depths. otosa Feet. 82 Feet nnd upwards. .1,100 Yards. companions of Miagellau were surprised at the spectacle presented by this great city, which, according to Pigafetta, at that time contained "twenty-five thousand hearths." The present inhabitants, reduced to about ten thousand, are described as mild and timid, impoverished, crushed by heavy imposts, all slaves of tha Sultan. Their chief industry is the manufacture of arms and copperware. The neighbouring Kadyan and Murut tribes have already been partly converted to Islam. :- a .V M i w " i ru i m mtimtmmim uvm m 144 AUSTRALASIA. !|l ill II! !ii Labuan. At the time of its cession to Great Britain in 184fi, Labuan, the island of the " roadstead," was completely uninhabited and covered by dense forest. But in annexing it to their colonial empire despite the claims of the Dutch, the English hoped it might become an important station on the highroad between Singapore and Hongkong. It lies, however, somewhat out of the direct track of shipping, while its coal mines, actively worked for some years, have been deluged by the tropical rains of those regions. They are of older formation than those of the mainland, which belong to the Jurassic and even more recent epochs. The island is inhabited chiefly by Malays and Chinese, and although provided with a governor and legislative council, had only nineteen Europeans in 1884. Since the suspension of mining operations its trade has considerably diminished. Sarawak, The territory of Sarawak, lying between the state of Brunei and the Dutch possessions, and skirted on the west by the main Bomean range, forms part of the British colonial empire only since the year 1888. It belongs to the Brooke family, which holds it as a fief, and the head of which takes the Indian title of Rajah. But these English vassals, more powerful than their Malay suzerain, have steadily enlarged their dominion since 1841, and Sarawak is at present more extensive, more densely peopled, and far mdre opulent than Brunei itself. But it is still very sparsely inhabited, containing perhaps not more than 300,000 souls in a total area of 36,000 square miles. A recent treaty secures to England the control over its internal administration. Like most other towns on the Bomean seaboard, the capital, Sarawak (properly Kuchiny) lies on a navigable river, some distance from the coast, and above the delta, whose two chief branches are accessible with dilEculty to large vessels. Commanded by woodland heights and surrounded with gardens and orchards, the town presents a pleasant aspect ; although its British residents regret that the capital has not bton placed some 20 miles to the north-east, on the breezy and salubrious slopes of a headland at the entrance of the Moratabas river. But it is now too late to displace a town which possesses some fine buildings, warehouses, covered markets, docks, rich plantations, and quite a network of well-kept roads. Its Dayak, Malay and Chinese population is rapidly increasing both by immigra- tion and excess of births over the mortality, and E.uching, an obscure vilkge in 1850, has now over 20,000 inhabitant?. Some antimony and quicksilver mines in the upper basin of the river formerly } lelded large profits, but have now lost much of their value. They are, however, still occupied by Chinese miners, who also work the gold washings, and the diamond and coal fields of the Sadong valley. The most promising districts at present are those of Lundu, west of Sarawak, where the planters cultivate rice, gambler, and pepper. One of the bays on the Lundu coast is noted for its turtles, SARAWAK. 146 the fishing of which is strictly regulated, and a close season enforced for the collection of the eggs. East of Sarawak the broad and fertile Lupar valley, with its rich coalfields, has probably the brightest future prospects, thanks to its easy natural communications with the Kapuas basin and the interior of Borneo. Simangang, its capital, is a large Malay village 80 miles above the estuary at the head of the fluvial navi- gation. The Rejang basin, comprising the northern portion of Sarawak, has already developed a considerable export trade, especially in sago and bilian (iron wood). Fig. 55.— Saeawak. Scale 1 : 900 CXX) bast or WPcenvMich Il0°45 Oto 16 Feet. Deptha. 16 to 32 Feet. 82 Feet and upwards. IS MUea. This trade, carried on by Chinese junks, is centred chiefly in the port of Rejang, on the southern branch of the delta. Sibu, another Malay town at the head of the delta, rah;he great market for the interior, and here the Government has built a fort to overawe the surrounding Dayaks. The Milanos, one of their most numer- ous tribes, have been partially converted to Islam. They are a repulsive race with coarse limbs, uncouth carriage, and milky-white, unwholesome complexion. The custom of treading out the sap of the sago-palm has given them broad, flat feet, while the heads of their children are deformed by means of boards, like those of the North American Flatheads. At the death of a rich Milano his sago plan- tation is cut down, so that his estate may accompany him to the next world. The increasing trade of Sarawak is furthered by about a hundred European, Chinese, and Malay vessels, besides a regular service of steamers plying between Kuching and Singapore. With the traffic the revenue also increases, leaving an 10— o 1 t """•^j 14C AUSTBALASIA. annual surplus devoted to public works and instruction. The rajah exercises almost absolute power, choosing his own council of Europeans or Malays, and holding himself responsible to no man. By a slow process of extinction slavery died out with the year 1^88. The regular army of about three hundred native soldiers draws its officers from a civil and military school attended by one hundred and fifty students. The territorial divisions of Sarawak, named from the chief rivers watering them, are, Lundu, Sarawak, Sadong, Batang Lupar, Saribas, Kalukah, Bejang, Mukah, and Bintulu. !'!! North Borneo. The British territory of Sabah, better known as North Borneo, has been con- stituted by successive acquisitions by purchase. In 1865 a United States consul had already obtained from the Sultan of Brunei the grant of a portion of this region, and founded an American company for its development. But these essays ended in financial ruin, and an English corporation had Uttle difficulty in securing the privileges of the bankrupt American speculators. Fresh concessions made in 1877 and 1878 enlarged the area of the districts detached from Brunei and ceded to a small group of British capitalists, who also obtained from the Sultan of the Sulu Archipelago the domains which he possessed or claimed on the mainland. By means of a few pensions they thus acquired a whole kingdom, for which they, moreover, procured recognition and a charter from the English Crown. The limits of the new state are fixed on the west coast by Mount Marapok near Brunei Bay, and on the east side by the course of the Sibuko River. Numerous travellers have been encouraged by the Company to explore the interior, to trace the rivers to their sources, scale the mountains and passes, study the mineral and agricultural resources of the land, and select th best sites for future plantations. Thanks to these explorations ]n or i,h Borneo is now known to be the finest, most picturesque, and promising region of the whole island, although at the time of the British occupation one of the least peopled. In the Kina-Batangan basin Pryer found only three villages and one isolated house for a space of two hundred and ninety miles, and the whole population, scattered along the coasts and river-banks, scarcely numbered one hundred and fifty thousand souls ten years ago. But the suppression of tribal wars and piratical expeditions, the introduction of vaccination, the arrival of Chinese immigrants, and the establishment of orderly governnaent have been followed by a rapid increase of the free and enslaved inhabitants. By the terms of its charter the Company engages to prevent all foreigners, European or Chinese, from holding slaves ; but it is not bound to suppress servitude amongst the tribes. , s?' .»v; In any case the social condition of the people cannot fail to be rapidly modified under the influence of the Chinese, who flock to the recently founded towns and take the management of all new enterprises. To the Chinese is even attributed the old Bornean civilisation, traces of which still survive here and there, and which is I, - AJ-- ""' ' '.■■ ' ""^yP ' . ' ilg ' !;' »wpr :k Fig. 66.— Sandakan. Scale t : 900,000. Ij "40 East op Greenwich Il8°25- Depths. Oto82 Feet. 32 Feet and upwaidg. . 18 MUes. entrance there ia a depth of no less than 26 feet at low water, and shipping can moor at the landing stage in 93 or 24 feet. In the course of eight years Elopura, or Sandakan, as it is more commonly called, has become a flourishing little seaport with over 5,000 inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are Chinese. In the immediate vicinity it possesses abundant elements of future commercial expansion — coal in the hills skirting the roadstead, ironwood and other natural products in the sur- rounding forests. Large tobacco plantations have been made on the opposite side of the port, and the sago-palm now thrives in this part of Borneo, where it was hitherto unkjiown. Throufrh coast lagoons or backwaters Sandukan communicates directly with the NORTH BORNEO. 147 recalled by the names of Kina-Balu and Kina-Batangan. The local Dayaks are commonly designated by the collective terms, Dusun and Idaan. The Bul^- Dupis tribe, near Sandakan Bay, appears to be distinguished from all the others by their almost white complexion and " European profile." They are regarded as almost pure representatives of the Indonesian type, but seem doomed to extinc- tion. For their new capital, Elopura, the English have selected a favourable site on the magnificent Sandakan Buy, an inlet on the north-east coast, the entrance of which is completely sheltered from all winds, and which ramifies for over 20 miles inland between sandstone cliffs terminating in wooded heights. On the silt at the ■J ■-1 •■/it '(:' ^ l|..'S- it 148 AUSTRALASIA. mouth of the Kina-Batangan, the largest river in North Borneo, and navigable by steamers a long way inland. At Mnlapi, the riverain port, the Chiiiese have a dep6t for the edible nests collected in the caves of Mount Gomanton, lying some miles farther west. The entrance to one oi these limestone caves rises to a height of 900 feet, and in the evening the dense clouds of esculent swallows take three- quarters of an hour to pass through this vast portal to their roosting-places. The annual sale of the nests yields £5,000 to the Chinese dealers. Other caverns, occupied some by swallows, others by bats, occur in all the spurs of the North Bornean ranges and especially in the river gorges, and ail contain rich deposits of guano still untouched. The Segama basin, south of and parallel to the Kina-Batangan, also possesses gold-wii-^hings, which are said to be very rich, and already attract numerous Chinese miners. A carriage road has been constructed from Sandakan Bay to these mines. One of the vital points of the new colony lies at the soutbern extremity of Marudu Bay, where the river of like name reaches the coast. Here the village of Bongon, the commercial centre of the whole coun'.-ry and already surrounded by extensive tobacco and sugar plantations, is the natural emporium for North Borneo and the islands of Mallawalli, Banguey, and Balambangan, which form an extension of the mainland towards the Philippines. In 1773 the English had already founded a settlement in Balambaugau ; which, however, lasted only two years. The port of Kudat, in Marudu }iay, although neglected till 1881, seems destined one day to become one of the f iiief commercial centres in the Eastern Archipelago. Formerly the two rivers Tdmpusuk and Tarawan were notorious resorts of the Illanos (Lanon, Lanun), pirates from Mindanao, against whom the English had to send several expeditions. On the west coasfc Gaya Bay, still more spacious than Eudat, offers one of the best anchorages in the China waters. The whole British fleet might here easily ride at anchor, and supply itself with coal from the beds in the surrounding cliffs. Yet the British settlement has been founded, not on this magnificent bay, but at j!f(?»?/)ffA:o', facing Labuau. Tho rapid development of traie in North Borneo is mainly due to the tobacco pla.vations on the east coast. The Sa;j;ut and Labuk fluvial valleys yield a fine elastic leaf much prized, especially for wrapping cigars. In 1887, about 200,000 acres were already planted, and in that year 150,000 additional acres had been bought by specuators 'm-: the same purpose. Thanks to this rapid increase of productive laud, tae public revenues havu also been considerably augmented, though still failiae to balance thv expenditure. There is no army properly so called, and only a fe-fv hundred police, raised chiefly amongst the Daj'^aks of other parts of Borneo. All the tribal chiefs are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Company and pay the poll-tax. The state is divided into the four administrative provinces of Dent and Keppel or. the west coast. A/cock in the north-east, and East-Coast in the east and south- east. In the last-mentioned is situated the capital. j^ „.. > .^ „. r,«„-^.^^ . "■ ■ I w»a I' M i »w i;i^ n « ^ i m ' t'^i^fj^ft^mmyim ^vft ■sift. III II'MI" "J'T U BIIIWMKH I ip^ JAVA. Java anu Maduka. 149 In the Indonesian tropical world Java ranks only fourth for size ; but it contains over two-thirds of the whole population, while the relative value of its productions is still more considerable. For a period of at least twenty centuries it has surpassed all the other regions of the archipelago in population, abundance of resources, and the progress of civilisation. First visited and colonised by the Hindus, it soon became the centre of their iuiluence in Indonesia, and from that period the Javanese have enjoyed a material and social pre-eminence in this region. Their tribes, to whom the Buddhist missionaries had brought the words of peace and universal brotherhood, became fused in a united nationality, thus entering on a new historic era unattainable by the barbarous and savage inhabitants of the adjacent islands. Under the subsequent Arab and Dutch sway the impulse given by the first Indian civilisers made itself still felt by the Javanese populations. According to some authorities the very name by which the island is still designated is of Hindu origin. The term Jabadiu, known to Ptolemy, is merely the vulgar form Jam-Jipa, the " Island of Barley," apparently so named by the Hiadu immigrants from a cereal which looked like the barley of India, but which was probably millet [panicum italicum). Nevertheless other etymologists sought an explanation of the word Java or Javi in the native languages. The Sundanese of the western districts called themselves Jelma Bumi, that is. " Men of the Soil," designating their neighbours of the central and eastern provinces as Tyang Javi, or " Foreigners," and the region itself as Tanah Javi, that is, "Foreign" or " Outer Land." This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that other outer regions, notably Sumatra and Bali, also bore the name of Java, and at the dawn of modern history, the Australian continent itself is vaguely indicated under the appellation of " Great Java." But at the close of the sixteenth century, when the first Dutch traders founded their factories in the present Java, it was already known by this name throughout its whole extent. It is the Zabej of the Arabs, and to it the term Nusa Kendang, or " Island of Great Mountains," seems also at one time to have been commonly applied. At present this marvellous region is almost as well known as the lands of Weat Europe. The works rt>lating to it are already numbered by the thousand, it has been studied from every point of view, and explored in all directions by eminent geologists, geographers, naturalists, anthropologists, historians, and engineers. Its triangulation has been completed since 1882, and its relief in all its details is figured on carefully prepared topographical charts. Each volcano has even been specially described in section, plan, and elevation, so that all changes of form may hence- forth be recorded with as much precision as those of Vesuvius and Etna. Java was formerly supposed to consist exclusively of eruptive rocks upheaved from the bed of the Indian Ocean. But we now know that about three-fifths of the surface is composed of sedimentary rocks, plains, and uplands, and that the whole island is continued northwards in the direction of Billiton and Borneo, and ""'-tSISS*''**'** _i*-*c ' 160 AU8TBALASIA. north-westwards towards Sumatra, by a level marine plateau covered by less than 50 fathoms of water. Above this flooded plain rise a few low insular groups, such as the " Thousand Isles," north-west of Batavia, and the twenty-six islets of Karimon-Java, north of Semarang Bay. Bawean, with its fringing reef and cone 2,000 feet high, is distinguished by its igneous origin from all the other islands in these waters. Farther east the Solombo group, about midway between Madura and Borneo, is very low, nowhere presenting any eminence, except on Great Solombo. Madura itself may be regarded as a simple dependence of Java, forming its north-eastern extension. On their north side both mainly consist of low-lying plains continued under the water by reefs and sandbanks. The south coast, on the contrary, is steep and rocky, plunging abruptly into the ooeanic depths. Both Fig. 67. — Chief VoLOAifOKS IK Java. SoOe 1 : lo,ooo,o(X). ' ' ' "-•; ■^' 6i 8° ^ fiOO to 8,000 Feet. 8,000 to 11,000 Feet and upwaids. . 180 Miles. seaboards are indented by bays and inlets penetrating some considerable distance inland, although as a whole the island presents the almost geometrical aspect of a long quadrilateral, nearly parallel with the equator. "West and east it extends from the Java-hoofd (Java head) in a straight line for 620 miles to Java's Obst- hoek (Java's East Point). But north and south the distance varies greatly, narrowing towards the centre to about half of its normal breadth. Excluding Madura and the smaller indentations, the coast-line has a total length of 2,100 miles. . VoLCANOKS OF JaVA. The western has a much greater mean elevation than the eastern section of the island, forming a plateau from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high. Here also the mountains are connected by lofty ridges or saddles, the former intervening valleys having ■'^fl si JAVA. Ill been to a great extent filled in by outflows of lavas and ghowers of ashes and scoriae. Eastwards the island falls gradually nearly to the level of the sea ; but towards the extreme east the mountains again rise with a uniform slope from base to summit. The volcanoes, which follow from one end of the island to the other, are not developed in a continuous chain, and in many places are separated one from the other by a distance of 30 miles. But it is noteworthy that they are often grouped two, three, or four together, forming independent ridges, whose axes run, not parallel with, but obliquely athwart the main axis of the island. They are in fact disposed mainly in the direction of the axis of Sumatra, while by a remarkable contrast those of Sumatra itself run parallel with Java. Thus the crevasses through which the lavas were ' ejected appear to have been caused in both islands as it were by a sort of inter- change of the igneous forces. The undergroimd energies are also about balanced, for the Javanese Semeru is only a few feet lower than Indrapura and Korinchi, the highest volcanoes in the neighbouring region. Altogether the mountains of Java are not inferior in mean altitude to those of Sumatra, while the absence of subja- cent terraces gives them a greater relative elevation above their base. Java also differs from Sumatra in the rarity of longitudinal valleys between the parallel crests and in the absence of lacustrine basins. The mean altitude of the whole island ijs estimated by Junghuhn at somewhat less than 1,650 feet. Of the volcanoes, two near the north coast, Karang at the north-west comer, and Murio (Murya) in the peninsula east of Semarang Bay, appear to belong to an independent igneous system. Both occupy isolated posiuous on the plains, 80 that a rise in the former case of 1,000, in the latter of 15 or 16 feet above the present sea-level, would suffice to convert them into islands. They are still sur- rounded by alluvial deposits which rest against the northern flanks of hills belong- ing to the tertiary age and disposed parallel with the main Javanese axis. In the same way the volcanoes on the opposite side skirt the northern base of other tertiary heights which run in a line with the south coast. Java in fact, according to Junghuhn, consists of two islands merged in one ; but the southern alone is intact, of the northern nothing remaining except fragments. It has disappeared between the provinces of Cheribon and Yapara, where the seaboard develops a large marine gulf, and beyond which Madiira is separated by a strait from the Javanese plains. Nevertheless, the original coastline may still be recognised, being continued eastwards by a series of small groups comprising the Sapudi, Kangean, and Pater- noster archipelagoes. Southwards is developed, like a vast breakwater, the parallel chain of large islands from Bali to Nila, forming an eastern extension of the main Javanese volcanic range. The terminal points of the disruptured northern island would appear to be Krakatau in the west, and in the east Gunung Api, or " Moun- tain of Fire," north of Wetter Island. Both Karang and Murio appear to be at present in a state of repose, the former alone with the twin Pulasari cone emitting some sulphurous vapours. But in the southern chain, Salak, highest of the first volcanic group going eastwards (7,300 '•^Wum^^. TUfe. tra AUSTBALASIA. i i Ha! '* feet) was still active in iG99, when streama of jiud and aand were ejected in Huch vast quantities that some of the neighbouring vuUeyK wore completely dammed up and converted into temporary lukerj. The main line oi the Javanese railway sys- tem pasBON along the east foot of Sulak, here crossing the Tjitjurug pans at a height of 1,700 feet. East of this pass follow the far loftier cones of Gede, or the " Great " (9,800 feet), which gives its name to a whole group, and the neighbouring Mandala- Wangi, which exceeds it by 200 feet. The Ged^, properly so called, has frequently Kig. 68. — Gboe Voloano. Boalal :80,000. ' ' '' !<;■;>-' lOB-ST ast or breenwicr , 8,800 Tarda. ejected scoria), and from its brenched crater, about 4,000 feet in circumference, jets of vapour are still emitted ; sulphur is also deposited on the encircling walls, while copious thermal sireums flow from the flanks of the mountain. Gede is connected by a narrow ridge with another and far larger crater, which from the Sala wall on the south to Punggerango on the north side has a circuit of about *wo and a hal'' miles. It is wooded to the summit, terminating in an inclined terrace, whence numerous rivule's rapidly converge in a broad stream, which was till recently visited by the rhinoceros. From this terrace, the highest p int of observation in t ■ .^!^«r.:': ifv •v^Mm- ^■' i i i fij^i i .ntfiif injtpn ii m i JM » »— ■ i| « JAVA. 158 West Java, u panoramic view is communded of both seas, with the intervening hills and plains, forests, villages, and surrounding plantations. South of the Gede highlands the tertiary rocks, limestones, clays, and sand- stones attain their greatest development. Nearly everywhere carved into steep cliffs 800 to 1,000 feet high, these white and yellowish formations rise in the Breng- Breng Peak to an altitude of over 6,500 feet. But farther east they disappear beneath the talus of scorieB and lava streams of the Patuha volcano (7,800 feet). 4 ^ '} 7 "^ ' 'i tt' 1R4 AUSTRALASIA. Iloro ilifl oratyr in flooded with un " alum liiko," that in, with wator Baturatwl with Hulphur iind ulum, ut tho normul utinoHphorio tunipvrutur" lUit u fow iniluH to the north-cust, at tlio source of tho (^hi VVidoi, lies u cirqu of hot mud emitting ucid va{)our8 of a sulphurous odour, which are disintcgrutiu^ the surrounding rocks. East of Patuha tho voU;anic cones follow in great upiHirent disorder, connected with each other by elevated ridges, ond enclosing upland valleys, whence the streams flow through narrow outlets to northern river basins. One of these volca- noes, the Malabar, or IIoho Mountain (7,800 feet), no longer retains its conic shape; its crater is almost effaced, and its former activity is indicated only by two thermal springs. But farther south, Mount Wajong (7, '^00 feet) still preserves on its west flank a magnificent solfntara, u little geyser with a jet of 10 feet, recurring at intervals of two or three minutes, and a «tream of sulphur and alum waters. Still more active is Papandajan, or the "I'j/;;e" (8,700 feet), whose breached crater contains nearly all the elements of volcanic laboratories, sulphurous swamps r„t boiling point, mud cones, snortinfr. groaning, and ejecting mud and stones, hot 'jprings and jets rushing out with a hissing sound. All the voices of the volcano are merged la one deafening yet rhythmic uproar, suggesting a vast workshop with the voice of a thousand hummers mingling with its hissing jets of vapour. A rivulet which enters the " Forge " pure and limpid, emerges boiling and saturated with sulphur. In 1772, Papandajan was th'' sccue of one of the most tremendous eruptions of modem timuH, but at that tinv the district had been visited by no European naturalist, and the reports of the natives are of a contradictory character. North ( ' Papandajan, but forming part of the same group, stands the Gui '/U^ Guntur, or • Thunder Mountain" (7,450 feet), which, unlike all the other Javo- nese mountains, is absolutely bare from base to summit. It forma a huge greyish black mass presenting a uniform iirface broken only by the lava blocks half buried in the scoria. During t. " 'on, : , whole cone has been illumined by the burning ashes ejected from its ci • , for iiuntur ranks with Lamongan as the most active volcano in Tava. Thi < '/■ounding plantations have often been covered with the ashes ejected during . outbursts. In 1843 Junghuhn estimated at ten million tons the quant y of sands throwj to a height of 10,000 feet, and for a time darken- ing the face of the sun ; yet this was only a minor display. Galungung, or the " Cymbal Mountain " (7,400 feet), although less active than Guntur, was the theatre of two terrific outbursts in 1822, when the din was heard over the whole island. The showers of stones and ashes were on both occasions accompanied by a deluge of mud, the pent-up reservoirs overflowing on the sur- rounding plains, and covering villages, rice fields, coffee plantations, and forests with a layer of greyish blue mud in some places 50 feet thick. All vegetation had disappeared for a space of over 12 miles, and 114 villagfes, with a total population of 4,000, were completely inundated. Magnificent forests have since resumed possession of the flanks of the volcano and surrounding district. A little to the west lies the Telaga Bodas, or " White Lake," where the sulphurous clays are kept at boiling point by incessant jets of vapour. In the neighbourhood is the famous Pajagalan, or " Field of Slaughter," which emits deadly exhalations, .J»^tf> ty- t"* ■Aiif'^^i^p^ . '{k . ■^ ■ ' ■ 'li * * ■Rsx.^-_ '^ ■ " t*-vi,-^ r- f r M •^f^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■^ I2i 12.2 iM 12.0 11.25 i 1.4 NlaE ■ 1.6 6" Photographic CorpOTation I' ^ •1>^ \ \ \ 23 WKT MAIN STRUT WIBSTIR,N.Y. 14510 (7H>) i/a-4503 ifllBa ""WiKsgKmttSsiSBSamm »' iJii ft iii ti i a iritl i f rii&'ife M li a^-i"'^^!---"^'-''^''^^^ •- CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Instltuta tor Hhtorieat Mteroraproductiona / Inatltut Canadian da mlcroraproductlona hlttoriquaa JAVA. 165 and which is always strewn with the carcases of wild cats, squirrels, snakes, birds, and at times even tigers and rhinoceroses, suffocated by the carbonic acid, and pre- served from putrefaction. But the emanations vary considerably in quantity and even in quality, and occasionally the district may be traversed without risk. The other volcanoes of this region, such as Tjikurai (9,360 feet), and Sawal (5,860 feet), have been quiescent throughout the historic period, and no igneous phenomena occur on the chain of hills falling gradually eastwards dcwn to the Tanduwi delta. The elevated Bandong plain, which stretches north of the PreaDg volcanoes, and in which are collected the headstreams of the Tarum, is donunated on the north by a volcanic system running west and east. Burangrang (6,840 feet), the first link of the chain, forms a truchytic mass whose eruptions were antecedent to all history ; but it is followed by Tangkuban Prahu (6,900 feet), which is still active. Tampomas (5,600 feet), at the eastern extremity of the system, seems to be also extinct, although some sulphurous gases still escape from a fissure in its flank. Gunong Tjerimai (10,200 feet), near Cheribon Bay, and also called Mount Cheribon from the town at its foot, has a perfectly regular crater some hundred yards deep, inhabited by thousands of swallows. Beyond this point Java is con- tracted between two gulfs, which formerly penetrated much farther inland than at present. Here the main waterparting falls to about 3,000 feet ; but in the neighbourhood Mount Slamat, a recent and perfectly regular cone, rises ia isolated majesty to a height of 11,400 feet. Its slopes are forest-clad to within 2,500 feet of the crater, which ejects with the roar of a cataract a dense column of vapours, which the upper atmospheric currents always carry westwards. The volcano, of which Prahu (8,420 feet) is but a lateral ruin, was in prehistoric times probably the culminating point of Java. But the upper cone was blown away during former eruptions, leaving nothing but fragments of its periphery, Prahu on the north, Pakuoejo on the east and Wisma on the south side. All the intermediate space is occupied by the irregular plateau of Bieng, a term often applied to thewhole group. This plateau, on which stands the highest village in Java, in the midst of tobacco plantations, presents some of the most remarkable igneous phenomena in the island. Here are grouped in close proximity eruptive craters, lava streams, hot lakes saturated with chemical substances, solfataras, thermal springs, rividets of boiling water, gases and vapour jets. Here also, in a depres- sion between two streamlets, lies the Pakaraman, or Guwa Upas, that is, " Valley of Death," described by some travellers as a desolate plain, on which no one dares to venture except at imminent peril. Yet it is nothing but a simple cavity a few yards broad, whence is occasionally emitted a little carbonic acid gas. Its celebrity is doubtless due to the religious traditions associated with the Dieng plateau, which was formerly much frequented by the worshippers of Siva, god of destruc- tion. Even on the terminal crest of Prahu, not far from the summit, are still seen abandoned temples, while other sanctuaries are scattered round about. Structures have also been recognised which served as refuges for the pilgrims, besides a gigantic flight of steps by which the faithful reached the edge of the plateau, and an under- 1 ■ .'iii^^:'i ' II fi«i | ll>i; ^i ^ n ull 1 ) 11 1 156 AUSTRALASIA. ground canal which drained a neighbouring marshy valley. In one of the ca\es Junghuhn even discovered a Hindu inscription, which, however, has not yet been deciphered. The importance of the architectural works attests the presence of a considerable population in these uplands during the period of Sivaite civilisation. But the volcanic eruptions, aided perhaps by the zeal of Mussulman propagandists, spread desolation over the Dieng plateau, which reverted to a state of nature till the beginning of the present century, when the first attempts were again made to bring it under cultivation. South of this district follow the superb cones of Sindoro (10,400 feet) and rS^ m: i ■V-. if'-'' " Kg. 60.— DiBNO. Soale 1 : 90,U0O. , 3.3no Yards. .1 Sumbing (11,000), known to navigators in these waters as the " Two Brothers." Sindoro, that is " Majestic," is the finest of all the Javanese volcanoes, with per- fectly regular outlines and truncated cone, as if the summit had been cleaved by the stroke of a sword. The lavas flowing uniformly down its flanks have pene- trated northwards into the breached crater of Telerep, and southwards to the more precipitous slopes of Sumbing. Although higher than Sindoro, Sumbing is ItibB symmetrical ; but it is specially distinguished bj' the surprising regularity of the ridges radiating in all directions from the summit to the base with intervening ravines excavated bj'^ the running waters to depths of from 250 to 300 feet. The Two Brothers appear to be all but extinct, the only indication of activity being a few i JAVA. 157 jets of vapour. Sumbing occupies almost exactly the centre of Java, and the neighbouring Mount Tidar (1,680 feet) is spoken of by the natives as the "nail " by which the island has been fixed to the surface of the globe. Telerep is connected by a low water-parting with Ungaran (6,800 feet), which is itself connected by a range of hills with the twin cones of Merbabu Fig. 61. — GuNoNo Sewxt. Scale 1 : 76,000. I 8,300 Yardi. ■(10,320 feet) and Merapi (9,500) facing Sindoro and Sumbing on the opposite side of the broad Kadu valley. Merbabu appears to have been in repose since 1560, when the last recorded outburst took place. But Merapi, the " destroying fire," is in a continual state of restlessness, ejecting from its terminal crater a •constant volume of white vapour, which sets with the trade-winds steadily towards 168 AUSTRALASIA. the west. Nevertheless, the eruptions that have taken place during the hiatoric period have been less terrific than those of some other Javanese volcanoes. Some of Merapi's trachytic walls have a columnar formation resembling that of the Staifa basalts. Eas-t f>f Merapi the igneous system is completely interrupted by the alluvial valley of the river Solo. In this part of the island the main range consists of &■- Fig. 62. — South- West Slopes of Kblut. Scale 1 : 200,000. 112° 10- East or Greenwich llS'aC ..SMUm milk-white limestone rocks known by the name of Gunong Sewu, or the " Thou- sand Mountains," and developing a long Une of cliffs on the southern seaboard. The highest peaks rise to about 2,000 feet ; but most of the " thousand " eminences scattered over the plateau range from 100 feet to little over 200 feet. They are separated by winding valleys shaded by the finest forest trees. Some of the narrow longitudinal dales, mostly overgrown with tall grasses^ '^: ^l(}p ) j||^ | | I .WI l | i | i '(!l!i>l |i l i )lil * ome the I vial ts of rhou- board. ?and" r 200 forest raasea^ JAVA. 169 are closed at both extremities, the water which accumulates during the wet monsoon escaping through underground liiicangs, or channels, seawards. The Gunong Sewu district is described by .langhuhn as the loveliest in Java, its shady avenues, gently sloping hills, grassy dells and villages surrounded by gardens recalling the sylvan beauties of more temperate lands. North-east of the Gunong Sewu and of a more elevated semicircle of other sedimentary hills, the Gunong Lawu rises in nearly isolated majesty to an altitude of 10,800 feet. The three domes of this volcano, which was formerly venerated by the worshippers of Siva, are not pierced by craters ; but vapours still escape from the deep crevasses on llie south side. The Gunong Willis (8,500 feet), some 50 miles beyond Lawu in the same igneous range, no longer presents the form of a volcano. The supreme cone was probably blown away during some prehistoric explosion, and now nothing remains except a long, irregular, and craterless eminence. Thermal springs and solfataras, however, still attest the existence of underground forces, both here and in the smaller Mount Fandan (3,000 feet), which stands out on the plains to the north of Willis. South of Surabaya and its fluvial delta, Java is occupied by a transverse system of other volcanoes, of which the Gunong Eelut (5,760 feet), Ipng nearest of Willis, is the most dreaded by the natives. Its crater, at least 650 feet deep, is flooded by a fresh-water tarn, whose contents were estimated by Junghuhn in 1844 at 2,000 millions of cubic feet. During eruptions, when the igneous outlet lies below the lake, the liquid mass is converted into steam, which rises in dense volumes emitting flashes of light and then falling on the slopes in tremendou& downpours of water mixed with the sands ejected by the volcano. Channels of trachytic scoriae furrowing the flanks of the mountain from summit to base recall the rush of these sudden torrents, which deluge the surrounding plains, sweeping away the crops, uprooting forest trees, and razing the villages to the ground. In 1848 the regular detonation of the gases which changed the lake into clouds of vapour, produced an uproar that was heard throughout nearly the whole of Indonesia. The Macassar people in Celebes, 600 miles o£E and under the lee of the explosion, were terrified by what seemed like the roar of artillery, and despatched vessels to scour the neighbouring seas. The other volcanoes of this system are extinct, or at least have retained but a feeble remnant of their former energy. The triple-crested Kawi, whose highest peak, the Butak, attains an altitude of 9,600 feet, has preserved no solfataras, and only a solitary thermal spring ; the mighty Arjuno (11,000 feet), where the Sivaites formerly offered sacrifices, emits vapours only from one fissure, while Penanggungan (5,500 feet), last of the chain south of Surabaya, appears to be completely quiescent. Nevertheless, in the main axis of the system, some 12 miles from Surabaya, two mud volcanoes have made their appearance, which are about 30 feet high, and which are usually active at the turn of the tide. From one are ejected fragments of bricks, which must come from the Hindu structures of the ancient city of Mojo-Fahit, which formerly stood much farther to the west. ■■' •Yvs^'n 'Tv.'^-f^^ . T-; ■ ^^ ' : ■ ■^^. ' ^*Jyll ly » l^'' *; ^ -mvJ^r'^'^.'^ ' /J i''' ;; ' 'v l'' r^ ' ^ ' . '| ^ ''' ll^JJ^ ^ ^ L" i 1 160 AUSTRALASIA. Fig. 63. — Tenoobr and Skxeru. Soale 1 : 800,000. The Arjuno chain is connected by a ridge scarcely 1,650 feet high with another igneous group, comprising the Tenggor and Seraeru volcanoes The former has the largest crater in Java, while the latter, to the south of it, is the highest peak in the island (12,100 feet). From its crater was discharged in 1885 a lava stream estimated at over 10,000,000 cubic feet, the first of the kind recorded in Java, where till recently the volcanoes were supposed to eject no molten matter, but only solid substances, such as ashes and stones. Semeni takes its name from the Indian Meru, the holy mountain at all times venerated by the Hindus and Tibetans. Tengger (9,000 feet) is of extremely regular form, and from its summit are emitted at short intervals columns of vapour and scoriae, black by day, red at night. It was formerly probably as high as Semeru ; but of the upper part all has disappeared except the outer walls, which form a vast enclosure about 15 miles in circuit, here and there interrupted by gaps and breaches and rising in isome places 1,650 feet above the inner plain. This level plain, which was formerly the crater, and which has a mean altitude of over 6,500 feet, bears the name of Dasar, or " Sea of Sand," mostly con- sisting of the finest dust, movable in dry weather, but . ; . f.,^. : V" ^ tS"%> changed by the rains to the consistency of clay. From the centre rise a few sandy hills, one of which, the Bromo, still constantly ejects smoke, and has at times been the scene of tremendous out- bursts. Its crater is alternately flooded by a small lake and filled by a mass of molten lava. The term Bromo is merely a corruption of Brahma. The last Javanese who professed the Hindu religion took refuge on the slopes of Tengger, and their descendants still celebrate feasts in honour of the Devo-Bromo, or "God Brahma." 6 Miles. it W""" I ^ ; mmmmt^mmmm . i VOLCANOES OK JAVA. 101 A chain of hilla, croased by a paaa 880 foct high, connects Mount fioniongan on the east with another igneouH Hyatcm whoso numerouH peaks arc collectively known by the name of /. mg. Before 1844 this hilly region, which also conipriscs ii broad forest-clad plateau, wtis completely unknown ; but in that year it waH discovered by .lunghuhn, the indefatigable explorer of Java. Close to the summit of Argopura, the highest peak (10,200 feet), ho noticed the ruins of a temple of Siva, and other structures scattered round about explain the name of this summit, which in the Kavi, or old Javanese, language means the " Mountain City." One Fig. 64.— Lkmoncuh. Sotl* 1 : 110,000. .S^HUet. of the sanctuaries, corroded* by the acid vapours, shows that during the last five hundred years the quiescent volcano has been the theatre of at least one disturbance. The Gunong Ringgit (4,150 feet), which projects seawards at the north-east extremity of the Ajang range, is also at present quiescent ; but towards the close of the sixteenth century it was rent asunder ; enormous quantities of ashes were hurled in the air, and when the sun reappeared after three days of darkness caused by the dense volumes of black clouds, it was found that all the surrounding villages had disappeared with their inhabitants. The traces of the eruption are still visible)^ although the mountain has now neither crater, solf ataras, nor thermal springs. Like the western extremity of the island, the east coast facing Bali is also 11—0 4 _j„ ,l„« _l„4. _t,; .1- * - ' ' r 102 AUSTRAT.AaU. crater, is oncircltMl by n diadoin of lofty peuka, such us i\ Haun (ll.OUO foot) on tho south-west, Kendong on tho north-wost, Kukusuu on the north-eiist, Merapi and others on tho Houth-oust, often collectively known us tho Uunong Ijen, or " Isolutcd Mountftin." Tho waters that collect on this plateau were fonncrly conBnud in u lacustrine basin, but now eHcu|)e northwards through a gorge between Kendcng and KukuHan. The crater of Raun at the time of Junghuhn's visit hud a cin-uit of al)out three niilt'S and a depth of no less than 2,400 feet, being tho deepest of any yet explored in Java. But all these encircling volcanpes are now extinct or quiescent except Merapi, whose crater, like that of Eelut, is flooded by a freshwater lake, which, during eruptions, is changed to steam and prccipituttul in the same way on the surrounding district. During the outburst of 1817, houses and inhabitants were swept away, and the strait flowing between Java and Bali contracted by the formation of new land. The south-eastern head- land of Java, formerly an island, has thus been joined to the mainland by showers of scorioD, while the extinct Baluran (4,300 feet), at the north-east extremity, is separated only by a sill 50 feet high from the Gunong Ijen system. The island of Madura, close to the north coast, has a somewhat irregular surface of limestone rocks, the highest of which, Tambuku, at the east end, has an elevation of little over 1,500 feet. As in Java itself, Verbeek's survey shows that in Madura there is no trace of triassic, Jurassic, or chalk formations. Although the igneous are far less extensive than the sedimentary rocks in Java, this island receives its characteristic aspect from its forty-five conspicuous volcanoes with their lateral cones, lavas, and scoriso. As the mariner appruuches its shores, his gaze is irresistibly attracted by these lofty symmetrical cones, towering above the wooded plains, now purpled in the aolur rays, now of a pale blue, standing out against the deeper azure of the sky, at times surmounted by a wreath of white vapours, at sunset flushed with pink like the snowy Alpine peaks. At different epochs, but especially during later tertiary times, all these burning mountains have tuken part in the transformation of the island; even during the historic period more than twenty of them have contributed greatly to modify the profile and contours of the land, transforming what was before a chain of separate islands, like the Lesser Sundas, into one continuous insular mass stretching from Bali to Sumatra. This action of the underground agencies appears also to have been aided by a process of slow upheaval, which is still going on ; in many places, the beach and coral reefs have thus been raised twenty, thirty, and even fifty feet above the present sea-level. *v.; BivERS OF Java. Owing to the position of the volcanic ranges, lying for the most part much nearer to the Indian Ocean than to the inland seas, the northern are far more extensive than the southern fluvial basins, scarcely any of which are navigable. The north-western plains about Batavia are watered by numerous streams, the Wgeot of wLicL is the Turum, v.'hich rises on +he slopes of the southern volcanoes, 4> ....otr RIVKIIS OF JAVA. les and, fiftcr cuonpiiig from the litiiulnng plutruu throuj^h ii gorpo in j f< fl>^iipiM? t *'*^ Hffli l jm^ i M | ) > ; !i "g j ^^3!| |pSi >^ i t^ i K«i^ ■»i H i'>»W|»»— ^^«.>yi> | l i»l 'i |i taJWX rt . . ft jf t *| ^ . < . - ^. t i W Wi»|w *l ^ » ^^ Hi! i)^ i W L 4' r» ' M£$1 >l- ' ii ■ m . mr>* ii If IS If 164 AUSTRALASIA. natural depression between the two parallel sections of the island to its delta in Surabaya Strait over against the westei-n extremity of Madura. At its southern entrance this shallow passage receives another large river, the Brantas or Kediri, which, although ranking next in size to the Solo, is scarcely navigable except during the floods. The Brantas, which also rises very near the Indian Ocean south of the Kawi volcano, is remarkable for the quantity of sediment it washes down, and for the disproportionate size of its constantly increasing delta. On the southern slope of the island the chief streams are the Progo, whose farthest waters flow from the Sindoro and Sumbing volcanoes on the west, and Merapi and Merbabu on the east ; the Seraju, fed by numerous tributaries from the Sumbing, Slamat, and other volcanoes, and navigable in its lower course ; lastly, the Tanduwi, whose headstreams descend from the Sawal Mountains, and whose broad estuary is accessible to steamers. In its lower course the Tanduwi winds through a vast marine inlet, which has been transformed to a ratca, or marshy plain, by the alluvial matter washed down with the surrounding torrents. Of the original inlet nothing now remains except the shallow Segara Anakan, which is already noarly cut off fron. the high sea by the long rocky island of Nusa Kembangan. This island itself, which has greatly contributed to the silting up of the inlet by preventing the sedimentary matter from being carried sea- wards, is now separated from the mainland only by a narrow muddy backwater ; it may already be regarded as forming an integral part of Java, from which it was formerly detached by a broad intervening channel. Climate, The Javanese climate resembles that of the other western Indonesian lands, offering the same alternation of the two trade winds, which here assume the character of monsoons. Both are accompanied by a certain quantity of moisture, the western being as a rule the more humid and attended by the more stormy weather. Being partly sheltered from the west winds by Sumatra, Java receives less moisture than the uplands of that island. The atmospheric currents are also modified by the disposition of the mountain ranges, running in the direction from west to east. The south-east trade frequently veers round to tho south, while the west monsoon is shifted tc the north. The northern and southern seaboards thus present a great contrast, due to the direction of these winds, and an analogous contrast is offered by the eastern and western extremities of the island owing to the gradual increase of dryness as we approach the Australian Continent. Other differences arise from local conditions, but most moisture falls every- where on the western slopes exposed to the " bad " monsoon. Above 2,600 feet the alternation of land and sea breezes is no longer observed, and at 5,000 feet the west monsoon loses it« strength. Still higher up a neutral zone prevails, while the highest summits are subject to the south-east trade alone. Several days seldom pass without rain on the uplands, and almost evei'y evening has its local «» IWy ti B l i.i r FLOBA OF JAVA. 165 thunderstorm. The mean annual rainfall, as deduced from the records of a hundred meteorological stations for the last eight or nine years, would appear to vary from a little over 40 to nearly 200 inches.* F1.0KA. The Javanese flora, as described by Miguel, comprises altogether over nine thousand phanerogams, of which three thousand have native names, a strong proof of the remarkable power of observation of the inhabitants. Thanks to its numerous volcanoes, following each other like islands in the sea, Java presents an endless variety of vertical vegetable zones, ranging from the perennial summer of the low<^ 1' slopes and plains to the wintery, or at least autumnal upland regions. As a rule, the strictly tropical zone scarcely rises above the 2,000 feet line, beyond which few palms are met. Nevertheless the areng (borassus gomutus), which yields a fermented drink, su^ar, cordage, foliage for thatching, and many other useful articles, is everywhere found in the interior as high as 4,600 feet. The finest trees flourish between 2,000 and 6,500 feet, their aspect becoming more European the higher they ascend. Here such western species as the oak, maple, and chestnut, are found associated with the lakka {myristica inera) and the rasamal» {liquidambar altingiana), giant of the west Javanese woodlands. In the higher regions the vigour of the vegetation is gradually diminished, the thickets consisting for the most part of shrubs and small plants, such as the myrtle, acacia, thorn, elder, woodbine, and especially the woody gnaphalium and the agapetes, a species of heath. Several of the volcanic crests, even when emitting no gaseous exhalations, are completely bare ; yet some ancient travellers attributed the noxious emanations to the presence of trees, such as the antyiar, to approach which was supposed to be fatal. But this plant {antiaris toxicaria) is in itself in no way dangerous, although it yields a upas, or ' poisonous sap. It is met in all parts of Java, as well as of other Indonesian regions, where it is used for poisoning arrow and spear heads ; it kills by paralysing the action of the heart. Next to the oocoanut, the areng and bamboos, one of the most valuable indigenous plants is the jati or teak {tectotm grandis), which is not found in many other parts of the Eastern Archipelago, and the range of which even in Java has much diminished during the historic period. It is comparatively rare in the western provinces, and its true home lies between the Japara headland and Madura, in the Rembang residency, where it occupies more especially the drier districts on the plains and the slopes of the hiUs to a height of over 800 feet. But extensive teak forests also occur everywhere in the central and eastern provinces, and this valuable tree has been planted along the highways and in unoccupied spaces. Fauna. Like Sumatra and Borneo, Java also presents some distinct animal species. Of * Mean rainfall of Situbondo, East Java, between 1879-86, 46 inches ; of Baitenzorg, West Java, 196 inches. I <»mmr 166 AUSTEALASIA. about a hundred mammals five or six, and of two hundred and seventy kinds of birds, forty are peculiar to this island. But, strange to say, certain animals characteristic of the other large Indonesian islands are not met in Java ; here are neither the elephant, the tapir, nor the orang-utan, but instead the eiegant dwarf- deer, a perfect miniature of the common European deer. Of the large mammals, the most remarkable are the rhinoceros and wild ox, but the former have become very rare and are already restricted to the western provinces. The tiger still infests the jungle in various parts of the island, and hundreds of himian beings yearly fall victims to its ravages. As in India, when their teeth are worn they often become man-eaters, and in the province of Bantam whole villages have had to be displaced in consequence of their depredations. The crocodiles are also very dangerous in certain rivers, although causing fewer deaths than the tigers. The tokei, a lizard of gigantic size, is so named from its cry, which a stranger might fancy uttered by a human being. The insular dependencies of Java present some peculiarities in their faunas. Bawean especially almost constitutes a little zoological world apart, and even Nusa Kembangan, which is scarcely more than a penmsula of the mainland, has a woodlark (pleropus aterrimua) not found in Java. Inhabitants. The natives of Java do not all belonfr to a common national group. The Malays, properly so-called, are represented only by immigrants, and are in the ascendant only in a section of the province of Batavia, whither they have been attracted by trade and political influences. The rest of the island is occupied by the Sundanese, the far more numerous Javanese, and the Madurese, three groups distinguished chiefly by their languages. Excluding the Malay enclave of Batavia and the north coast, where the Javanese language has prevailed, the western part of Java is inhabited by the Sundanese as far as a transverse line drawn from Cheribon Bay to the mouth of the Tanduwi. The term Sunda given to this region is of very ancient date, and the Sundanese, or " Men of the Soil," that is, aborigines, thanks to the hilly nature of their territory, have better preserved their primitive usages than the other inhabitants of the island. They are as a rule taller, more robust, and healthier; but they are regarded as relatively barbarous, and in the company of Malays or Javanese, they are themselves ashamed of their dialect, which is looked on as a sort of rude patois. Less developed than the Javanese, it differs little from it in the primitive stock of words and structure, but it contains far fewer Sanskrit terms, Hindu influences having been relatively weak in the Sundanese highlands. Yet the people at one time accepted Buddhism, and afterwards Islam. They have also suffered much from invasions, and the word preang, whichi gives its name to the Preanger Kegencics, is said to have the meaning of " Land of Extermination." In the upper IJjung Valley, near the western extremity of the island, about a thousand Sundanese, known by the name of Badui, still practise pagan rites inter- INHABITANTS OF JAVA. 167 mingled with traces of Buddhism. These highlanders are distinguished from their Mohammedan neighbours by their honesty and more correct morals. Amongst them murder, theft, and adultery are unknown, and visitors guilty of any mis- demeanour are banished from the commune. The heads of the villages take the names of " father " and " source of joy." The Javanese proper, representing over two- thirds of the population, occupy all the central provinces east of Cheribon Bay, as well as the northern seaboard between Cheribon and the Sunda Strait, and the whole of the south-east coast. Their ancient liturgical lauguage, the Kavi, that is, " cultivated," coutaius a large nimiber of Sanskrit words. It has been preserved from oblivion by old documents and inscriptions, and numerous traces survive, especially in Javanese poetry. The great scenes of Hindu mythology are still commemorated in the national legends, poems, theatrical representations, and those wajauga, or marionettes, in which the natives take such delight. ■ o:; ' • ^ ' ' ••;.. Fig. 66. — INH4HTTANT8 OF JaVA. 6 n t ) ii i i ! i iiiii' i m a w,iii i jnw i m i , i j i nt i u i n» ECONOMIC CONDITION OF JAVA. 175 deficit, showing once more that monopolies end in the ruin of states us well as of the plundered Of late years, the system has been gradually modified. -»*^, ts»3Wi e.*«A£effiii68aSiidit5S 170 AU8TBALAMIA. thorn abnolutoly ; tho cultivatiDn of too, tobacco, indif^, eochineul and cinnamon has b««n loft to private ontorpriw, tho (iovorniiu-nt rctuiniiig tho monopoly only of sugar till tho year IH!)0, and of uoffeu until thu question is settled by legis- lation. Tho systom of forood lab«>iir, that is, of slavery in disguise, has had tho natural oonaoquoncr, of retarding the intoll«''tnaI and moral progress of tho people. Tho structures in different parts of the island dating from the Hindu e|)och show that tho knowledge of industrial, scientific and artistic processes has greatly deteriorated since those times. Doubtless the initiative came from the Hindus, but the works executed under their control attest the advancement made by their disciples. But decadence was inevitable under an Administration which for n'>nrly fhr^p f»*»ntnries closed the soh(M»lrot>iu to the uativuB, lout thoy should loam to think and thus attempt some day to bridge over the gap Heparutiug them from their masters. Even now, for a population of some twenty-three millions, Java possesses only tTV? hundrpd nntivo sohonls. attended by some forty thousand scholars. In the Javanese communes the land has remained unallotted, tho sovereign boing still regarded as the supremo proprietor, while the collective usufruct of the cultivated parts belongs to the peasantry. The cultivators thus form with the communal land an organic whole, the so-called deasa, and they can scarcely under- stand any other system of tenure. Efforts have in vain been made in some places to introduce that of private holdings amongst the poor cultivators of the plains. DoubtleM there exist a certain number of plots inherited in the family ; but the communal organisation everywhere prevails. Even where the jungle is cleared by private enterprise, it lapses after a certain time io thu u«iiuiiiuuu, whluli, according to the (ufnt, or " custom," is the true owner and collectively responsible for the taxes and the statute labourers. An in the Hlav mir, each member of the dessa keeps his cottage and garden, while all have equal right to the woods and waste lands. But the tracts under tillage are distributed to the families either every year, or every two or three years according to the districts. Unfortunately the enormous increase of population during the present century has had the consequence of reducing to a mere fraction the portion assigned to each individual, in some places five acres or even less, while tho government abstains from helping the communes by the grant of public waste or fallow lands. On an average, the Javanese cottage is worth about sixteen shillings, and the revenue of each family plot five pounds at lliu utmost. The peasant finds it difficult to earn an equal sum on the Government plantations, so that the whole population sees its substance constantly diminishing, and itself threatened with still deeper poverty, although it at least contrives to live despite the imposts and forced labour. Would they fare better were the principle of private property established in the 40,000 communes, and were most of the holdings rapidly reduced to proportions too small for any practical purpose, or even bought up altogether, leaving the bulk of the peasantry without any property ? Would not the coiiclition of Jav^a then ■J '^-i mmw i m ivmimiitHtm ttmmmm X Miat .W.' ■*'5^^^SfSL ECONOMIC (CONDITION OF JAVA. 177 become analogous to that of Ireland, and depopulation become inevitable Y In the province of liantain under the British adniiniiitration tho greiitont impuUc waa given to the development of large etttatcn, and h(>ru also tho land, belonging mostly to absentee owners, is the worst cultivated, hero the indigent (tlaHium are most DumerouH, fuuu(i< « most frequent and often attended by broad riota. Tho famous novel of Miu Harr/nor, which deeply moved tho public ctmncience of Holland, described in tdoquent laiigiufr*' the deplorable condition of tho liantam peasantry, and since theu there haa been uu change for tho better. The staple rop is rice, which in many districts constitutes the excluHivo food of the people, ilonce, despite the i*normou8 annual production, tho export of this grain is slight oom^Mied with that of Buminh nnd Cochin China. The rico-iields Axr>«>^ H totnl nren of •''>,000,000 Hcres, covering not only the marshy low- lying tractfl ard regularly irrigated sloping vallcj's, h:r ttiso tho so- called leyats or dry grounds, yielding the most nutritive, varieties, as well as the flanks of the mountains to a height of over 4,000 feet, below the zone of co£Fee plantations. After the harvest, the ditches and reservoirs are emptied, and a second hnrvest made of the myriads of fish that swarm in these waters during the year. Fevers are endemic in tho Sawah, or wet rice distriols, but are less fatal than in other regions lying even farther from the equator. This is due to the fact that the Javanese do not allow the waters to stag- nate, but always keep up the current, and also plant a curtain of large trees round their villages. In Madura, where the surface is nearly everywhere gently undulating, scarcely any rice is grown ; here the chief alimentary grain is maize. Although the Javanese peasantry never drink coffee, those residing in the pre- scribed coffee districts have to cultivate a strip of 600 feet, and to supply fresh plants in ease of failure. It is from this source that Holland derives, or has hitherto derived, her " colonial bonus," and consequently to it the natives are indebted for the oppressive system of forced labour. The coffee plant was not introduced till towards the close of the seventeenth century ; yet Java producei^ from a sixth to an eighth of the yield of the whole world, or an average of about 150 million pounds, valued at £2,000,000. Since the end of the Napoleonic wars, when this island was restored to Holland, the yield had gone on increasing from decade to decade till recently. Now, however, although several private capitalists have entered into competition with the Government, it seems to be at a standstill, or rather to have entered a period of decline. In 1876, the destructive hemileia vuHUtirim, which had alrwfidy w«»«**d ih« plantations of Ceylon, made it« appearance in Sumatra, and three years later attackad those of Java. Precautions have also to be taken against other parasites, such as the xylotricua quadrupes, the combined Attacks of which have reduced the Government crop from nearly 80,000 tons in 1879 to less than 18,000 in 1887. The Javanese ooffee-plaaters have now great hopes of the Liberian varietj', which resists both the hemileia fungus and the xyloMcus borer. But merely to replace over 200 million plants would alone be tantamount to an economic reyolution. 12—0 4a-v. 178 AUSTRALASIA. Java ranks next to Brazil in the production of coffee, and also holds the second place in the markets of the world for that of sugar, in this product heing exceeded by Cuba alone. The crop, which, however, varies greatly from year to year accord- ing to the rainfall and other climatic conditions, averages one-tenth of that pro- duced by the rest of the world. There are several local varieties of the cane, whose cultivation is one of the old industries of the island. In 1808, the yield rose to 5,800 tons, but it did not acquire its present gigantic proportions till the second half of the -century. The share of the Government in this industry declines each year in virtue Fig. 70.— Zones or Wbi akd Dbt Riob Fields and CJoffse Plantations on Uount Suxbino. Scale 1 : 180,000. .8MilM. of the law obliging it to gradually abolish statute labour, and to grant concessions to private enterprise. Some of the plantations, especially in the Jokjokarta and Siirakarta districts, are supplied with machinery in no respects inferior to that of the finest sugar mills in Europe. The tea industry, introduced from Japan in 1826, has never acquired a development sufiicient to enter into serious competition with the Chinese and Indian growers. The plantations laid out by Government in all parts of the island did not prove very profitable, and since 1865 the industry has been completely ECONOMIC CONDITION OF JAVA. 17» abandoned to private speculatora. The yield averages about 6,000,000 pounds ; but the leaf is of indifferent quality. " :'" .. ' ; ri Other economic plants, such as ca6ao, the clove, and cinnamon, are not extensively grown, and even pepper, formerly the chief resource of the province of Bantam, has ceased to be a profitable industry. Of the 25,000,000 cocoanut trees, about 10,000,000 are fruit-bearing. Despite great commercial vicissitudes, tobacco has become one of the important Fig. 71. — Tbax Fobxsts betwsem Sbmabino and SniuaiTA. Soala 1 ■ 2,600,000. .'■ *'"'> . :atth oPGreanvyich f?a .flO exports, besides supplying a considerable local consumption. This industry has also ceased to be a Government monopoly, and is now largely in the hands of Chi- nese speculators. But they are not allowed to cultivate opiiun, and have to pur- chase this drug from the Government, which imports it 'from India, Persia, and Asia Minor. Indigo, formerly one of the most jealously preserved monopolies, is now also surrendered to free labour, and still continues to be an important article of the export trade despite the competition of the coal-tar dyes. Neither jute, cotton, nor any of the other textile plants are extensively cultivated. Amongst J ISO AUSTBALASIA. fiil these is the kapok or randu {eriodendron at^fractuoaum), the fruit of which yields a down utilised by the native weavers. The same plant is used for building purposes, butin this respect avastly more valu- able tree is the teak — the Jati of the Javanese, which still covers an extent of about 2,500 square miles. Recently, also, some of the cleared spaces have been replanted with the no less valuable cinchona, first introduced from Reunion in 1852, and again directly from South America in 1854. Within nine years of that date, there were already 1,140,000 cinchona plants either in the nursery-grounds or the forests of Java ; but the variety selected was one of the least valuable, and it had even to be replaced by others of more medicinal value, notably the calinaya, which had been successfully introduced into the .uplands of British India. In 1888, the Government enclosures contained over 3,700,000 of the best varieties, growing at different altitudes between 4,000 and G,500 feet. By careful selection and grafting, plants have been obtained whose bark yields from 1 1 to 13 per cent, of quinine. Java lacks a sufficient number of domestic animals for agricultural operations. In the western province of Bantam, the proportion of horses, oxen, and buffaloes is only 94 per thousand of the population, but this proportion increases somewhat steadily eastwards until, in the extreme east, it rises to 830 per thousand. But everywhere the live stock has diminished during the second half of the present century, while the population has rapidly increased. The Javanese horses of Arab stock have diminished in size, but not in mettle and staying power. The Cheribon trotters and the Eedoc cart-horses are highly spoken of, although none can compare with the Sumatran ponies in form or vigour. The produce of the fisheries, which employ about fifty thousand hands, is all required for the local consumption, except the sea-slug^ and sharks' fins exported to China. Java also yields the very finest quality of edible birds' nests, also des- tined for the Chinese market. To the traditional industries, such as weaving, dyeing, krisses, and other arms for which the Javanese have always been famous, the manufacture of heavy machinery has recently been added for the sugar refineries, the harbour works and railways. An ancient monopoly of the Jokjokarta regency are the gongs and musical instruments for the Gamelangs, or native bands, bells, cymbals, drums, and bars ofcopper or bamboo which the players strike with a hammer to accompany the theatrical representations and native ballets. The most skilled craftsmen are the Chinese, who are usually employed, especially by Europeans, wherever taste and execution are objects of consideration. The carriage roads are well planned and kept in excellent repair, and are often supplied with footpaths and supplementary avenues for heavy traffic, especially between the chief towns. The main artery is the great military route, 780 miles long, running from Anjer, in the extreme west, to Banjuwangi, in the extreme east, and constructed by the terrible Daendels, still remembered by the natives as the " Master of the Great Thunder." The torrents and even rivers are crossed by ingeniously planned bamboo bridges, which, despite their frail appearance, are extremely solid works. The first railway, connecting Batavia 1MM MMMMI mmmi »nFfM"*^«P«P'**W^ * TBADE OF JAVA. til with Buitenzorg, was opened in 1872, and since then the network of lines, as originally planned and suggested by the configuration of the island, has been slowly developed. When completed, the system must obviously comprise two coast lines running from one end to the other, and connected at intervals by transverse lines through the valleys separating the volcanic ranges. But this system is far from complete, although the three great ports of Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya are already connected with the rich inland districtj. More than half of the railways, as well as all the telegraph lines, belong to the State. The latter are connected with the Indo-European system through Singapore, and with that of Australasia through Timor. The 8t«am navigation companies, whose craft ply regularly between Europe and Batavia, as well as from port to port round the coast of Java and through- Fig. 72.— Railways in Java. Soale 1 : 11.000,000. OtolOO X^thomi. DepUu. 100 to 1,000 FaUxmu. ^ Baawajn. 1,00C to 8,000 Fathonui. ^ Stenin Tramway ..iSOlIiles. 8,000 Fathoma and npwurd*. out Indonesia, already own over sixty steamers, with a collective capacity of nearly 100,000 tons. The largest share of the Javanese trade is still carried on with Holland, although the law of 1874 abolished all diCFerential dues on foreign vessels touching at the insular ports. The entry and clearing charges were also, at the same time, greatly reduced, on a large number of commodities. All the Government exports are shipped for Holland by the privileged Handeh MtrntschappiJ (" Dutch Trading Company "), founded in 1824, and in the imagination of the people confounded with the State itself. The original Dutch East India Company, after realicting miUious by its long muuopoly of the trade with Indouebia, became bankrupt at the end of the last century with a debt of £10,000,000. Since the declaration of free trade in 1874, the movement of the exchanges with Qreat Britain has acquired Qonsiderable importance. England takes especially SSlsSxsS.^'.iiXmiiSSSlilS'i, 182 AUSTRALASIA. raw sugars in exchange for cotton goods and hardware. China, the United States, and France also share to some extent in the general export trade. The Javanese sailors arc surprisingly daring and agile, swarming up the ship's shrouds almost with the nimbleness of the monkey. Topography. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the chief outport was Bantam, situated near the north-west extremity of the island on a well-sheltered semi* circular bay, but obstructed by mudbanks. Ilere the Dutch founded their first factory in 1596 ; but it is now a mere village almost hidden by the surrounding foliage. Although Bantam has given its name to the province, the capital of the Fig. 73. — LniES of Steak Natioaiion in Indomusu. Sod* 1 : 48,ooo,ooa icr 0* 10' tasb oPBreenwich .i,aoo residency has been removed to the small town of Sevang, some six or seven miles farther south, while the local trade has been diverted to Anjer, which was nearly destroyed by the Erakatau eruption of 1883. Batavia, the Jakatra of the natives, present capital of Java, and of all the Dutch East Indian possessions, occupies an area out of all proportion with its population, stretching from the harbour in a straight line for over twelve miles inland. The vast space, however, is not continuously built over, but rather occupied by several distinct quarters, connected together by canals, routes, and avenues. The old town had been founded in 1619 on the coast along the right bank of the Liwong, while the oitadet r/ith its four sharp bastioc? stood on an artificial islet at the entrance of the estuary. Batavia gradually acquired the aspect of a Dutch city with ito canals, and dykes, its many storied and gabled brick houses ; but a shon^er o'i ashes ejected from Mount Salak choked the canals, con* ' ■«M 8 {m' wnai»tj< i i* i w i «w« AAili^^ ' Mi ft i ifAn'r i ■->• ■■•■ ,«■ t*M M. » ( * TOroailAPTIT OF JAVA. 188 Fig. 74.— Batatia in 1628. RJ^;?«S«a(*- , SUNDA 8TF J)^p^. 50 Z50 \ t-T.". Stahovrdj sw^ hy ih» ware dtuHihg Uvt Thi UghUumscs art in NEW VORK. D. APPLET ♦ SUNDA STRAIT. t-T.". w^ by ih» waye dtunin^ Uvt^ erupti/on/ of JSrakaUutm ISSH. ITis Ughthcnuts ecn mebieateA Ijy red eUrts. NEW YORK. D. APPLETON 8c C9 •^ isis r" nrn TOl'OGRAPHY OF JAVA. 185 •weni of the roadstead, which already poueanefl a naval araenal ; but after much disoiiMion, the engineers at lust decided in favour of the Tunjong Priok Point, which is ditttunt only G luilesto the uurth-eust of the ulJ town. Here the land, Noiiiewhat more elevated than the neighUturing coast, projectM aeuwurds towards u lino of upheaved beds, which are continue'i^^^i'^vi'i*st^*^ r> '^''i,'. 186 AUSTRALASIA. which before the opening of the railway was the only outlet for the produce of the whole district. Farther east, at an elevation of 2,470 feet, stands Bandong, the picturesque capital of the " Preang regencies," almost completely concealed by the surrounding forest vegetation, and commanded northwards by the long crest of the Tungkuban Prahu ridge. , £'•''■■■'.;-; ^rr'^^v ■, .,-.,rK'i^-;;K - At present (1889) the railway terminates beyond Bandong at Tj'itjalenka, but is to be continued across the plateau down to the Manuk Valley, where it will throw off a branch south-westwards to the town of Oarut. Then climbing the eastern hiUs it will fall by long inclines down to TjUutjap, the most sheltered port on the south coast, and already connected by rail with the northern slope of the island. Even at low water there is a depth of 17 or 18 feet on the bar, and from 30 to 35 in the harbuur, which is protected by the island of Kembangan, and defended by fortified lines. East of Batavia the marshy coast, fringed by mangroves and mud- banks, has no harbours west of Cheribon Bay. Indramaju, in the Manuk delta, which grows the best rice in the island, is a small riverain port accessible only to vessels of light draught. The populous and productive province of Cheribon has a large number of small towns and large communes, but no cities of great size. Cheribon, the capital, which takes its name from the Tji-Ribbn torrent on which it is situated, occupies only a secondary position amongst the commercial centres of Java. Tegal, capital of the province of like name, has a roadstead exposed, like that of Cheribon, to the north and east winds, so that vessels run some risk in shipping the produce of the interior brought tiowa by the railways, connecting this place with Balapulang and Pangka. The largest town on the north eea»iJ)etween Batavia and Semarang is Pekalongan, which occupies both banks of the river of like name. Pekalongan formerly enjoyed a monopoly of the indigo tirade, and the native women wove highly esteemed coloured fabrics. Semarang or Satnarang, lying near the centre of the curve formed with the rest of the coast by the peninsula of Japara, is one of the three great Javanese marts. At the close of the last century it stood first, and still rivals Batavia and Surabaya, exporting large quantities especially of sugar, coffee, tobacco, and indigo. Yet it has no harbour, and large vessels calling here are obliged to anchor consider- ably over a mile from the shore in waters exposed to the fury of the west monsoon. Boats and steam launches alone can penetrate into the city through the Banjir canal to the west, and the canalised river to the east, on which have been erected the chief public buildings. I£ a iiarboui- It) coustructeu it will probably have to He further west, near Krowelang Point, for at Semarang deep water of 25 or 30 feet occurs only some five miles from the coast. In the marshy plain between the canal and the river rises a star-shaped fort strengthened by bastions and a moat, and close by is one of the two artesian wells which supply the place with pure water. As in Batavia the inhabitants are grouped according to their nationalities, the Europeans, here numbering several thousands, being chiefly centred in the Bojong tiffSm^ )roduoe iiresque unding ^kuban but is 1 throw eastern ; on the island. Oto 35 ded by Lka, has 1 grows of light Quinber on, the ituated, Tegal, ^eribon, produce 'apulang marang ilongan n wove ith the Etvanese yia and indigo. )n8ider- onsoon. Banjir erected (re to He 30 feet sen the a moat, bh pure ies, the Bqjong IIP mm i --)6KS^**™fiS '•-^ JnliMli lai -.„^.f ■ ::. . .^,. mr^- ;:S SS ^ S S^SS S ^ ' ^. mammmmmmmmmmlK^^ mimum, TOPOGEAPHY OP JAVA. 187 quarter, which lies above the low-lying tracts near the spurs of the hills to the south. Pleasure resorts are also scattered to the south-west at the foot and on the flanks of the TJngaran V' loano, whose terraced slopes are crowned by the ruins of Hindu temples. Semarang is abundantly supplied with means of communication, roads, railways, steam trams, canals, and steamers, one line of navigation connecting it with the Fig. 76.— Skhabano. Setia 1 : 60,000. .v-;>;, .' r-^' >*-j*>"'V«',t iMIIthl. to 82 Feet. a» Feat and upwuda. . a,800 Tatdi. ancient city of Japara. During the Hindu epoch, Japara, which gives its name to a province, was a graat emporium, and down to the close of the last century it was still frequented by shipping. But its port has been gradually closed by the coral reefs, and its trade having been transferred elsewhere, Japara is now nothing more than a dull administrative centre. In the rich valley stretching southwards one of the chief places is Demak, whose mosque is famous in the Mohammedan world as being the first erected in Java. Farther east follow the large markets of Kudus and Patii, and on a broad •*: w HHi 188 AUSTRALASIA. estuary accessible to ships of average size, the ancient city of Jawana or Joana. South of Semarang the railway gradually rises in the direction of Ambarawa, which the Dutch have selected as their chief strategic station in the interior. Here the vast fortress of Willem /., 1,680 feet above sea-level, commands several natural routes radiating in all directions. Pig. 77— Maoblano akd Bubu-Budhto. Towards the south east, on Scale 1 : iao,ooa the first slopes of Mount Merbabu, stands the town of iialatiga, where in 1811 was signed the capitulation sm-- rendering the Dutch East Indies to Great Britain. At present Salatiga is one of the chief health-resorts of Java. Magelang, capital of the province of Eadu, occupies the centre of a mag^fioent plain watered by the river Progo and fertilized by the ashes of the surrounding volcanoes. Some nine or ten miles to the south of this enchanting spot a small eminence near the Progo is crowned by the pyramidal temple of 3ztr:t~Btidknr, the finest Hindu ruin in Java. Standing on a square plat- form, 540 feet on all sides, the edifice rises in seven retreating storeys to the central dagoha, or dome, a solid mass of masonry tower- ing above thousands of sculptured stones and bas- reliefs, representing battles, hunts, shipwrecks, domestic scenes, triumphal proces- sions, in which is figured the elephant, an animal unknown in Java. At the angles of the terraces are monstrous carved idols, while at intervals are throned effigies of Buddha of the traditional solemn and conventional type. Thus are intermingled in these sculptures the cults of Siva and Sakya-Muni. This superb monument, which has been compared, for vaslness of proportions and finish of details, to the Oambojan (llQlM. ;.JJ^>W| i^ H i , l, | plin i jn J I ||i p|i j ilwm^;tf»»K^» TOPOGEAPHY OF JAVA. 189 temple of Ankhor-Vat, has lost a large number of precious carvings, carried off by native princes and officials to embellish their palaces and gardens. But enough still remain to give an idea of the prodigious architectural work executed in the eighth or ninth century by Javanese artists, under the guidance of their Hindu instructors. The discovery has recently been made that the base of the building is surrounded by a revetment, or stone facing, which masks inner walls richly carved and covered with inscriptions. Here archaeologists hope to find vaxuable data on the history of the edifice and of the country. Lying on the southern slope of the island, both Magelang and the equally Fig. 78. — Hbhah aitd Joxjokabta. Boal« 1 : 500,000. "^ 7- 50- 7* SO ^^B ^i^^SfclttlSI^"^^^^"''' M ^'W|(^^g^ac| 7- ' "^^ r^fflHlBPii C Hia^ite,.*.^J^ffliBlPK^:^^iU..^^ HO" 10- Eaeb oF Greenwich '|IO*40' '%*13 m 'ISMilM. picturesque Puncorejo, capital of the province of Bagalen, have their natural outlet in the port of Tjilatjap. Here the fertile and thickly-peopled coastlands are traversed by a railway running parallel with the seaboard. North of this line lies Bar\juma», capital of the province of like name. But the central station of the insular railway system is the city of Solo, or %rakartn, the ancient Kartasura, capital of one of the few remaining native " regencies." In population Surakarta holds the second rank, and would even be the first were Batavia and Meester Cornelis regarded as forming two really distinct cities. Its numerous quarters, lining the banks of the Pep^, a western " ''\ ■ V. \- ■ 190 AUSTRALASIA. affluent of the Solo, occupy a vast space, in the centre of which stands the kraton, or royal palace. This structure, with its inner courts, harem, barracks, kiosks, and gardens, forms a town of itself, with a population of ten thousand Mrithiu its ^ Fig. 79. — Fatjitak. 8(Mla 1 : 100,000. Easb oPGreenwioh 0toS3 Feet Depfbi. 89 to 80 Feet. 80 Feet and apwarda. Stt Yania. enclosure. But close by is the Dutch citadel, whose guns command the Imperial court and aU its surroundings. Jokjokarta, or Jolyo, capital of the sultanate of like name, takes at present mm MMMM liiif I -mmmmsat TOPOGRAPHY OF JAVA. 101 Lraton, kiosks, bin itii imperial present only the fifth place amongst the Javanese cities ; but it has preserved its national character far better than Surakarta, or any other town subject to European or Chinese influences. Jokjokarta, which in the last century bore the famous name of Mataram, lies at the southern foot of Merapi, fifteen miles in a straight line from the south coast. Like Surakarta, it groups its various quarters round about a central kratun, covering nearly a square mile iu extent, and occupied by the Sultan and his numerous household. A few ruins of Hindu temples are scattered over the surrounding district, and on a hill to the south-east stands the highly- venerated necropolis of the Mataram princes. Although lying so near the coast, Jokjokarta has no port, and the projected harbour on the nearest creek {Manjiengun) has not yet been constructed. Mean- while the least remote port is that of Patjitan, which is formed by an indentation of the rock-bound coast, to the east of the " Thousand Hills." But this place com- municates with the inland towns only by means of rugged paths traversing a thinly peopled territory'. The district, however, contains rich deposits of fine marbles. The elegant Sivaite temple of Brambanan, situated to the north-east of Jokjok- arta, was the first discovered by the Dutch explorers. It was brought to light in 1797 by some engineers who found it buried beneath a mass of dense vegetation. Madiun, capital of the province of like name, lies like Surakarta in the Solo basin on the banks of the Madiun, a navigable affluent of that great water-course. Ngam, standing near the confluence, was formerly a vitally important strategical station on the frontier of the regencies, and is still a busy market. Bojonegoro, on the Solo, about the head of its delta, is also a considerable trading place, forward- ing most of the supplies for the maritime cit^ of Tuban, one of the most frequented ports on this coast. Although merely the chief town of a district, Tuban is a larger place than Rembanp, oapit«l of the province, >rhich lies faitliur west on u bay bounded by the two volcanic headlands of Murio and Lasem. Surabaya, metropolis of east Java, and for a time capital of the whole of Indon- esia, is one of the great marts and the chief naval arsenal in the island. As a sea- port it has taken the place of its northern neighbour, Chresik or Chinee, an old Arab settlement, whence Islam was propagated throughout the interior, and which became the residence of a powerful theocratic -dynasty. The city of Surabaya proper stands on the left bank of the Brantas, its site having been gradually created by the deposits of this stream, which compelled the sea to retire some miles to the north. Here the strait of Treohter, separating Java from Madura, has preserved sufficient depth and width to give large vessels access to this perfectly sheltered and commodious roadstead. Certain quarters of Surabaya, intersected by canals in all directions, present the aspect of a Dutch town. But the com- mercial parts are encircled by the palm-g^ves of the native kampongs, while the European suburban villas of Simpang are embowered in dense tropical foli&ge. The ancient tombs still standing in a neighbouring auburb recall the arrival of the " Legendary People," that is, the Hindus. To them the local tradition refers the foundation of the great Mojo-Pahit empire, a Brahman State, which the Mohammedans at last overthrew in the second half of the fifteenth century. iSfe^ri- mpiiv nmt i ) i | ii y< 192 AUSTRALASIA. The ruins of the Hindu capital are still seen strewn over the plains watered by the Brantas some 30 miles south-west of Surabaya, near the town of Mojo-Kerto. The decline of Javanese civilisation since the arrival of the Europeans is here Fig. 80. — SUBABATA AND MaBUBA STRAIX. BOiU* 1 : 400,000. D6ptlM> Oto 18 FMt. 16 Taet and upward*. .AMOaa, illustrated in the perfect specimens of masonry seen in the remains of several brick edifices. Higher up the Brantas river traverses the magnificent province of Eadiri, one of the earthly Edens of Java, but also one of those regions where the wretched Inhabitants, bnitalised by servitudo, are moreover physically degraded by the use of opium. The upper bend of the stream, sweeping round the Eelut and Kawi mountains, comprises the Malang district, in which are situated the richest coffee and tobacco plantations in the island. At SingoMri, piear Malang, occur numerous ■ ifVM d-' ii'- ih ' iCj u a i^rtrffi ^w ' It. rt- - T.^.-ji»'T^«weniiiRi5j^K)wi*?*5M m p' " -'m^ -w-y*" watered by Mojo-Kerto. ana is here w. i my veral brick Eadiri, one I wretched by the use and Kawi ihest coffee numerous m" .„-,■.. >^...,.1.^— . -y— ^.j^ 1- "If iiiiiilii ;:* I ! I -f , •■*^»*"W<**?W^il«pi«"fW ." I m i l ,00, buHides travelling ox])enseH. In his legislative work he is oided by u council of five members, who are proposed by him and nominated by • the king, but who take no part in the executive. Public opinion both in Java and Holland has hitherto in vain demanded for Indonesia the appropriation of its own budget, as well as some share in the administration. The natives retain nothing beyond a few tolerated rights in the management of the de»»a^ or communal groups. A large section of the iuha- Fig. 81.— ADMiNiOTiUTnrit DinuoNs or Java. J^Z^^' lOP" Ln«;'", or Qrerrnwic^ I. Bantnm. II. BAtAvil. in. Prennfrer Regvnt- nbappeo. IV, Krawsoff. V. Cberiboo. VI Ttfrti VII. BMjniniu. VIII. Pekidongan. IX. B«|^len. X. Bcmiinuic. XI. Kada. xn. JokJokuU. Xtll. Sonkarta. XIV. Japan. XV. Rambanff. XVI. Hadliin. XVII. Kadiri. XVm. Bnrabajra. XIX Pamnian. XX. ProfaoUnairo. XXI. B auki ta& Ban. juwaDffi. XXII. Madura. hitants still consists of the so-called manumpang, that is, "houseless and home- less," with whom might till lately be compared the class of the heimathloHcn in Switzerland. Surprise is often expressed that so many millfons should obey the orders of a person who has at his disposal so few material forces. The army scarcely exceeds thirty thousand men, of whom only one half are Europeans, and even these include Belgian, German and other mercenaries or adventurers. Whites and natives of diverse races, half-castes, Negroes, Arabs and Hindus, serve together in the same battalions, but grouped according to colour in distinct companies, and commanded by a relatively small number of European officers. In accordance with Eastern usage the troops may reside in the barracks with their permanent or temporary families, which at times even accompany them >>n short military expeditions. It is an exclusively colonial service, and even for the Atjeh war no Dutch troops have ever been despatched to the East Indies. But the better part of the fleet belongs to the national navy. The European element is directly administered by the governor-general, while ADMINISTRATION OF JAVA. IM irliument, iuity with minishfld, ork he is linatcd by anded for re in the rights in the inho- jra. n. Rnd Bas- ind home- athloHcn in rders of a y exceeds iven these bites and ogether in anies, and iccordance manent or t military Ltjeh war the better iral, while for the natives the fiction is still muintainud of a certain local rule by tho dnsccndunts of their ancient princes. The various provinces arc divided into rogenciew, whose " regents " or titular chiefn ure meiiiborH of the former dynuHties. Although uoniinated by tho crown, those ndhipatti amX /timenfff/iint/, that i«, rogontnof tho first and second class, have always t)ie prestige commanded by woulfh, for they enjoy stipends ranging from £800 to over £7,000, besides a share in the pnMluce of the land. But at their side are the Dutch residents and assistants — prefects and sub-prefects — who, although keeping more in tho background, represent the real authority. Even in the secondary divisions the vedono, or native officials, are held in check by European controllers, these Dutch functionaries numbering altogether about thrco hundred. Thoy urn ovou gradually replacing the Javanese officials, who will doubtless sooner or later disappear altogether. In the two Vor»tenlamlen (" princijialities ") of Surakarta and Jokjokarta, the old regime is still kept up with its primitive outward formalities. Surakarta officially obeys a Susuhanan ("emperor"), while Jokjokarta is ruled by a sultan ; but both alike are controlled by a Dutch resident, without whose sanction they cannot even leave their palaces for a stroll in the neighbourhood. The muuopolifait loriuerly enjoyed by them have for the most part been bought up by the Dutch Oovemment. A supreme court of justice for tho whole of the Dutch ixtssessions has its seat in Batavia. Java itself is divided into three legal circuits, corresponding to the natural divisions of the land, and under these courts, located in Batavia, Semarang and Surabaya, secondary tribunals are established in the provinces, regencies and districts. Each resident, assistant, and controller is at the same time a magistrate who pronounces sentences in conformity with precedent and after formal consulta- tion with the Mohammedan assessors learned in the Moslem law and the local usages. The communal mayors also enjoy a certain discretional power for repressing crime and awarding penalties, and the same privilege, though to a less extent, is possessed by the heads of the Chinese comtnunities, the mayors, cRptains, and lieutenants, as they are called, being charged with the maintenance of order amongst their fellow counirymen. Capital punishment, though not yet removed from the colonial penal code, is rarely enforced. The native convicts are for the most part employed on public works, in the arsenals and dockyards, on the road and canals. Except in the large towns, there are no local police, the commimes being directly responsible for the preservation of peace in their several jurisdictions. The " colonial " revenue, two-thirds of which is applied to local purposes, is partly derived from the sale of the coffee raised by forced labour, the other chief sources of income being the sale of land and the opium and salt monopolies. About a third of the budget is applied to defensive purposes, and anolher third to the administration properly so called. The actual revenue is much larger than would appear from the official returns. Including the statute labour and estimat- ing this burden at the lowest rate, it amounts, according to Brooshooft, to not less than £10,000,000. ■-V':^.-^''^.^-: :»-.';*styi**Vri mmmm dW ; .J;i<-k<^;^L^'f'Lir^-i'*^ii'^>!^^x^ll 196 AUSTRAIASIA. Java and Madura constitute twenty-two administrative provinces, which with their capitals, areas and populations will be found tabulated in the Appendix. ! i Bali. Bali, or " Little Java," as it is often called, is in fact geologically a fragment of the great island from which it is separated by a channel little over two miles wide, and in one place only 53 feet deep. Yet this narrow strait has sufficed to impart a certain local character to the flora and fauna, as well as to the native population. From the historic point of view Bali is, so to say. a fossil Java ; while the latter has become Mohammedan, the former has remained Hindu in religion, customs, institutions, and, to a certain extent, even in speech. Hence the his- torical and linguistic relations of Bali, owing to their unusual interest, have been carefully studied, somewhat to the neglect of its present material and social con- dition. No systematic census has yet been taken ; but according to official docu- ments this island, like Java, is one of the most densely peopled lauds in the world, about 1,340,000 human beings being here crowded together in a space not exceeding 4,300 square miles. Bali presents the general outlines of an elongated triangle, with apex pointing towards Java and base turned towards Lorabok. Hills of eruptive formation run west and east, disposed in ridges or isolated masses without any apparent regu- larity. Bakungan, the first of the volcanic peaks, rises to a height of 4,800 feet over against the Javanese town of Banjuwangi. The much more elevated Batu Kau (9,700 feet), occupies very nearly the geometrical centre of the island. Its central cone is enriched by a number of lakelets, and north-east of this point stands the still active Batur (6,420 feet), whose twin craters emit columns of vapour accompanied by a rumbling noise. Streams of molten lava flowing down its eastern flank have reached and nearly evaporated a lovely blue lake at its foot. According to the local legend Batur is the abode of a god, whose wife dwells in the waters of the lake. South-eastwards follow other volcanoes apparently extinct, such as the Gunong Abang (7,650 feet), and the Gunong Agung, that is, the "Great Mountain," called also the Bali Peak, whose bare yellowish cone rises 10,520 feet above the sea. At the eastern extremity of the island stands the Seraya volcano (4,125 feet), now a vast ruin, whose crater and upper parts were blown away during a prehistoric eruption. South of these igneous masses the plains are strewn with volcanic scoriae, beyond which occur a few hills of tertiary formation, such as Badung connected by an isthmus with the mainland, and the insular Nusa Penida or Pandita, that is, " Isle of Priests." Despite an abundant rainfall Bali is too small to develop any important run- ning waters, and most of the rivulets even run dry during the south-east monsoon. The surface water is almost entirely absorbed in irrigating the rice-fields, which are carefully cultivated by the native peasantry, and which cover nearly all the productive land; The primeval forests have entirely disappeared, and with them „.,TO.w^K-.aB.^»«a!S»fer.»aoK0,Ma^^i.ajifiaii-7t^^ ~~ipilB»" BALI. 197 rhich with adix. ; fragment two miles as sufficed the native iva; while a religion, B the his- have been social oon- icial docu- ids in the space not X pointing nation run pent regu- 4,800 feet rated Batu land. Its this point olumns of ^ing down at its foot. ) dwells in le Gunong lountain," above the ino (4,125 r durifig a rewn with n, such as isa Peuida trtant run- monsoon. Ids, which rly all the with them :::SA-', all rapacious beasts, except a few tigers which still prowl about the brushwood on the mountain slopes. The Balinese, akin to the Javanese, are somewhat taller and more robust ; being also less inured to serfdom and freer from the direct control of their Dutch masters, they have a more resolute attitude and prouder glance. On the uplands goitre is very common, in some districts more than half of the population being afflicted by this affection, which, however, according to Jacobs, is here never accompanied by cretinism, as in the Alps and Pyrenees. Two quite distinct dialects are current, the " low " or primitive Balinese, differing greatly from Javanese and showing more affinity with the idioms of the ''■'^': Pig. 82.— Bau. " --■'v.v.;..- •;•,..;■,:.;;;:_,,_ Soate 1 : 1,500,000. to 100 EtthonM. Depths. 100 to BOO KWthonu. Fathoms and npwaida. .36 Miles. eastern islands, and the " high " Balinese, which differs from the " high " Javanese mainly in the large number of words it has borrowed from the Eavi, or sacred hmguage, still spoken by the priests and men of letters. As in Java, the servile classes are obliged to use the high language in addressing their superiors, who reply in the low language. Hindu culture appears to have penetrated far more deeply amongst the Balinese than amongst the Javanese. The persistence of the Hindu religion in the smaller island may be due partly to the immigration of refugees from the Mojo-Pahit empire in the fifteenth century, and partly to the arrival of settlers direct from the Coromandel coast. Officially, the whole population is still divided, :,zii.:iiM^' SiMtiitif!£L:i- 198 AUSTRALASIA. as in India, into the four castes of the Brahmans, Eshatryas, Yaisyas, and Sudras. But these primordial groups arc again subdivided into numerous sub-castes, while the ancient Balinese nobility constitutes a special class between the Yaisyas and Sudras. All these distinctions are maintained by inveterate custom with pitiless ferocity. The daughter of a Brahman marrying a man of lower position is thrown to the flames, and her lover sewed up in a sack and drowned. Even in the provinces under direct Dutch control, public opinion compels the magistrates to banish any young persons violating the laws of caste. Brahmans have often been known to slay their own daughters guilty of this o£fence. Nevertheless, inter- crossings are frequent, both Brahmans and nobles having the right to take from the lower ranks as many wives as they like, the offspring of such unions inheriting the paternal caste. • -^ ;. The Balinese are still worshippers of the Hindu trinity, and everywhere is to be seen the tricolour flag, red, white, and blue, symbolising the Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer. But the eflSgies of Brahma and Vishnu have for the most part been replaced by those of Durga and Ganesa. Buddhist influences also persist under the outward forms of Brahmanism, and Siva, by far the most popular deity, is invoked as a beneficent god. In other respects the Balinese have little religious zeal, and display no intolerance towards those of other religions. Some thousands of the lower caste have even become Mohammedans, in order thus to improve their social position. But since the murder of a missionary in 1881, all further attempts to propagate Christianity have been discontinued. The thousands of Hindu temples scattered over the island are obviously too numerous for the faithful, for many are in rninp and no one thinks of repairing them. The religious ceremonies observed with the greatest fervour are those connected with husbandry. These agricultural islanders delight in processions round their fields, in worshipping at the little bamboo shrines of the goddess of the crops, and crowning themselves with chaplets of flowers after abundant harvests. The religious jurisprudence is excessively harsh, and severe public penances are frequently imposed in order to avert any fancied forebodingps of evil. Till recently certain ill omens required the shedding of human blood, at times accompanied even with the most atrocious tortures. One of the hideous devices of the priests was to stretch their victims on the sharp points of young bamboos and leave them to linger for days until released by death from their unspeak- able agony. The wives of Brahmans and of princes were morally bound to perish in the flames kindled to consume the bodies of their husbands, and twenty years after the last case of Butt«e in India, Bali still had its holocausts of widows. The Balinese live almost exclusively on rice, other cereals, and fruits, pork being the only flesh permitted by the priests, who, however, never touch it them- selves. The extensive cocoanut groves yield large quantities of oil, and domestic industries as well as agiioulture are even more developed than in Java. The jewellers, metal-chasers, and armourers are very skilful, while the women weave and dye beautiful cotton and silk textiles. • »---^KTrgig.Tr-g-.;:jaa;t(av»tiiiT-;.T" H' » J»aTi«W »aK Saari » U.J ^ BALI. Public instruction stands at a high level, and, although there are no m schools, most of the men and women of the upper castes can read and write Balinese and mmmmmmmam HiiMiiiiMiiiiM 200 AUSTBAIiASIA. even Eavi. Thousands of books circulate amoiigst them on history, theology, jurisprudence, ethics, poetry, and the drama. According to Van der Tuuk, who formed a rich library of this extensive literature, the Balinese poem of Tantrya is at least partly the original source of the Arabian Nights. The people often gather of an evening to assist at theatrical performances, the subjects of which are mostly Hindu and local mythologies. The actors, all of the Brahmanio caste, use the sacred language, as was formerly the case in Java, and in these " mysteries " the ancestors of the Balinese are figured as rakahams, or giants. But the native civilisation has, for the last two centuries, entered on a period of decline. The early travellers speak of flourishing seaports, and well-kept highways connecting the large towns ; now trade has fallen off, and the country is mainly traversed by rough tracks. This decadence must be attributed to the use of opium, now prevalent amongst all classes, to the constant civil wars, to the slave-hunting expeditions which have wasted the coastlands, and lastly to the degradation .of woman, now reduced to a mere object of barter. The two western provinces of Jembrana and Buleleng, lying nearest to Java, are subject to the direct administration of the Dutch. The town of Buleleng, near the coast, is the chief residence of the officiab, and ranks as the capital although destitute of any harbour. The seven remaining provinces have been left under the control of protected princes, who still enjoy certain sovereign rights, but whose military power was broken during the sanguinary wars of 1840 and 1849. Although deprived of all real power, they maintain the outward show of mighty potentates. They are approached with much prostration, and at their death all their subjects have to shave their heads in sign of mourning. They inherit some of the effects, of the women, and slaves of those dying without direct heirs, and of all criminals sentenced to banishment. But in these matters the princes themselves are the judges, and whenever it suits them, they have merely to mount their stately tri- bunal, and award to themselves any coveted estates. The principality of Bangli, which lies to the east of Buleleng, is the " Holy Land " of Bali, for here is situated the Batur volcano. But the province of Kalung-Kung, on the south-east, coast, ranks first in national importance. The chief, although now one of the least powerful in the island, is, nevertheless, the- " Great Man," to whom all the other princes pay homage. Oyanyar, lying west of Kalung-Eung, is the most densely peopled territory in Bali ; its g;reat fertility, generally flourishing condition, and relatively mild administration attract a constant stream of immigrants to this favoured princi- pality. The conterminous state of Badnng, on the Bouth coast, was formerly the chief centre of trade, but is now almost destitute of inhabitants, the slave trade having converted it into a wilderness. The western principalities of Tabanan and Mengtci are both said to be thickly inhabited. The eastern province of Karang- Assem is included within the jurisdiction of the Rajah of Lombok. Since 1882, both Bali and Lombok belong to the same administrative dividon of the Dutch possessions. ■nr-i^VSV l9.Wf7^V^•' v,:^^»ga^j y,»i»,g^^a^- ,..vis«sBw*. , t, ,f iiMffs*rF?g^'fWfr^"W.1^iff^^ LOMBOK. 201 - A table of all the provinces with their respective areas and populations will be found in the Appendix. , :•. ^iJ LoMHOK. ^ This island, so called by the Europeans from a village on the north-east coast. Fig. 84. — LoxBOK Htuait. Scale 1 : 600,000. Depth*. '■ms to 100 Fatbomi. 100 to fiUU Fatbomi. 600 Fathpnu and apwarai. ISMilee. is known to the natives by the name of Selaparang or Selaparan, and to the Malays as the Tanah Sasak, or Land of the Sasak people. It presents about the same superficial extent as Bali, hv'i is less known owing to the more rugged character of the land, and the lower state of culture of its inhabitants. Since the middle of the eighteenth century it has been a political dependency of Bali, although the Balinese themselves form but a fraction of the population. Miii^^:d^U:lL^^ mm^ mmm mtimmmm AUSTRALASIA. The Strait of Lotnbok separating the two islands, although little more than twenty miles broad at its narrowest point, has a depth of no less than Hve hundred fathoms. This apparently unimportant channel may thus be said to form the natural limit of the shallow Java Sea, which has an average depth of considerably less than one hundred fathoms. The current in the Strait sets with a mean velocit}' of four miles an hour in the direction from south to north, and Wallace has shown that for the distribution of animal and veg. '.able species this passage forms in many respects the chief parting-line between the Indian and Australian domains. The Areng palm {arenga aacchari/era) is not found in Lombok, which also lacks the teak, orchids, heaths, and mosses peculiar to the Javanese flora. In the animal kingdom the differences are still greater, Lombok possessing neither the tiger nor any other members of the feline family. Most of the Javanese and Balinese birds are also unknown in the neighbouring island, which on the other hand possesses several Australian species, amongst others the remark- able megapodim gouldii, a species of turkey, which buries its eggs under a heap of eartb and foliage 6 or 7 feet high and 40 in circumference. Here also are found the Australian cockatoos, which, however, reach as far west as the islet of Pandita (Penida), separated only by shallow water from Bali. But the transition of species may be followed from island to island, and according to Martin, the true parting line between the Asiatic and Australian forms should be placed rather to the north-west of Timor. Like Java and Bali, Lombok is intersected by two parallel ridges, sedimentary in the south and volcanic in the north. The former, which scarcely exceeds 1,000 feet in height, is continued both east and west beyond the coast-line, and is inter- sected at certain points by a few prominent masses of scoriffi. It is also connected with the northern volcanoes by some still older eruptive tufas, which form in the centre of the island a water-parting for the streams flowing in one direction towards Lombok Strait, in another to that of Alias. The volcanic chain begins over against Bali with Mount Wangsit (4,000 feet), which is followed eastwards by several other extinct cones. The system merges towards the middle of the range in the massive Renjani group, from the centre of which rises the peak of Api, or " Fire," whence are still emitted wreaths of sulphurous vapour. The highest summit of this group, usually known as the Lombok peak, is one of the loftiest, if not the culminating point of Indonesia; but this majestic cone has not yet been ascended, and its altitude is variously estimated at from 11,000 to 13,800 feet. The Sasaks, who form the great bulk of the population, differ physically but little from the Balinese and speak a language of the same stock, but ap*^roaching nearer to the Sumbawa dialect, althougl^ written with the Balinese alphabet. The natives are all Mohammedans, but display little religious fervour, as is shown by the general absence of mosques. Politically they are subject to the Balinese intruders, who are represented by a colony of about twenty thousand scattered over the western parts of the island. LOMBOK.— SUMBAWA. 208 Matamm, the capital of the kingdom, lies on a plain about four miles from the east coast. The neighbouring port of Ampunan is a flourishing place composed of four Eampongs, which are inhabited by as many distinct nations: Malays, Balinese, Bugis of Celebes, and Sasaks. Mataram, where the Balinese alone enjoy the privilege of riding on horseback, is a well-kept place with broad streets lined by shady banyans. A little to the south lies the Sasak village of Karang- Assetn, which was the capital of Lombok before the Balinese conquest ; but since the year 1849 it has been subject to the foreign lajah. The rolling plains stretching east of Mataram towards the Sasan hills are described by "Wallace as perhaps the most highly cultivated in the whole of Indonesia. For a space of some hundred square miles uU the streams are dis- tributed with admirable art in a network of irrigating canals, which encircle the flanks of the hills, and rise from terrace to terrace like the seats of an amphi- theatre. " Each terraced plot consists in some places of many acres, in others of a few square yards. We saw them in every state of cultivation : some in stubble, some being ploughed, some with rice-crops in various stages of growth. Here were luxuriant patches of tobacco ; there cucumbers, sweet potatoes, yams, beans, or Indian com varied with the scene." * The chief crops are rice and coffee, which are shipped at Ampanan. The Sasaks also export a small but fiery breed of horses and a peculiar species of duck, which walk nearly erect like penguins, and which are locally known as " Balinese soldiers." In Lombok the penal code is very severe, theft and adultery being capital offences. In certain cases torture is even inflicted before death, and gamblers and opium smokers are punished with the bastinado. The rajah, who is represented in the Balinese province of Earang-Assem by a viceroy, maintains a force of about 20,000 men, well drilled and supplied with the best fire-arms. SuMBAWA. Smnbawa, the correct form of which is Sambava, is larger than BaU and Lombok taken together. It really consists of several distinct lands, which a slight subsidence would decompose into a small archipelago, and which a corres- ponding upheaval would connect with the neighbouring islets, such as Moyo in the north. Side and Tengani in the south-east. Towards the centre Sumbawa contracts to a narrow isthmus scarcely twelve miles across, and here a broad inlet penetrates from the Sunda Sea far inland, ramifying here and there into lateral creeks completely sheltered from all winds. Farther east the coast is again in- dented by similar fjords, such as Tjempi Bay on the south and Bima on the north side. The surface is for the most part mountainous, developing distinct masses of eruptive origin, and comprising altogether as many as twenty-two active or extinct ■ I%» Malay Archipelago, fifth edition, p. 164. im^- niiHniiiii WSM&S. ':-'fff' II 1 204 AUSTRALASIA. craters. In the south, however, occur some aedlmentary formutions, which form an eastern continuation of the Javanese, Balinese and Lombok limestone system. The south-western extremity of the island also consists of a non-volconic promon- tory terminating in a regular plateau, which, like so many similar formations elsewhere, takes the name of Tafelberg or Table Mountain. ' The Ngenges (5,370 feet) and Lanteh (6,260 feet) volcanoes in the west ore succeeded farther east by the far more imposing Timboro (Tomboro, Tambora), which projects on the north side beyond the normal coast-line, its broad slopes Fig. 86.— Cbmtiul Part or Sumbawa. Boatl :1.SOO,000. " V'i- ,.•1/..-, •-. 0to89 Feet. DtpUtf. 8S to 8W Fcot. 810 Veet and npw&rda. , 80 Milet. here completely filling an extensive peninsula. At present its loftiest peak rises to a height of 9,900 feet ; but it is said to have hod an elevation of over 13,000 before the year 1815, when it still formed the culminating point of the Eastern Archipelago. But on the evening of April 5th in that year, a tremendous explo- sion took place, which was heard as far as Celebes, Borneo, and Sumatra, and which was accompanied by a prodigious shower of ashes burying all the sur- rounding lands and waters in darkness for ten consecutive days. In the neigh- bouring seas the floating masses of pumice exceeded a yard in thickness, and SffllSSf!*!!!!? m^MMmi&^kUsmmium^sx^l^ ^.i-gj^n*' BUMPAWA. 20R 8° 10- [8" fso these debris represented at least 150, and according to some authorities over 500, cubic miles of matter ejected or blown from the mountain on this occasion. The 12,000 inhabitants of the surrounding district wore all buried under the ruin of Bcorio); but probably as many as one hundred thousand perished during the famine and epidemics caused by the destruction of the forests, the loss of cattle, the ruin of the irrigation works and the general havoc spread over the adjoining islands by this terrific outburst. Over 40,000 Sasake died of hunger in Lombok, and the population of Sumbawa, which in 1815 was about 170,000, was still only 75,500 in 1847. Even at present the Timboro peninsula remains almost a com- plete desert. Throughout a great part of Indonesia the " night of ashes " was long con- sidered the chief event in history, and sewed as the starting point of a new chronological era. ... The eastern part of Siimbawa is often agitated b^ iolent earthquakes, and here also are numerous volcanoes, such as Dindi (5,160 feeiy, Soro Mandi (4,570 feet) and Aru Hassa (5,520 feet) near the north coast, and towards the south-east angle Sambon (4,130 feet), and Lambu (4,650 feet). Lastly the islet of Sangean, called also Giinong Api (6,900 feet), is still in a constant state of agitation, emitting at short intervals jets of vapour and ashes. The Malayan inhabitants of Sumbawa have been much influenced by the cultured peoples of Celebes, with whom they cany on a large part of their trade, and by whom they have long been governed. The Bugi language cf South Celebes is current, with other Malay dialects, in some districts of the north coast, while that of Macassar is the only literary standard in the island. Nearly all the natives profess Islam, but some groups of Orang Dongo, or " Highlanders," occupying the forests south of Mount Aru Hassa, are still pagans, though preserving a few practices dating from the early visits of the Hindu missionaries to their mountains. They call the spirits by the Sanskrit name, dem, and offer them fruits and flowers. At night torches alone are used, the light of lamps being regarded as ill- omened. The property of the departed is shared equally amongst all the kindred, a share being also reserved for tt . deceased. The cattle are sacrificed on their graves, and the other articles burnt or buried for their use in the other world. These high- landers keep aloof from all direct contact with Europeans, and their barter with the outer world is confined to certain clearings in the forests on the verge of their territory. Sumbawa, capital of the western state which bears the same name, lies on a bay on the north coast exposed to the north-west winds. At the time of the Timboro explosion, only twenty-six of the inhabitants escaped alive, but at present it has a mixed population of natives and Celebes immigrants numbering altogether about six thousand. This place exports cotton, sandalwood, sapanwood (ceeaalpinia, or " red wood "), and an excellent breed of ponies. Bima, on the east side of the bay of like name, is almost the only noarket in the section of the island lying east of Timboro. It is the capital of a native state which also comprises the old breached crater of Gili Banta, east of Sapi strait, the w w i w feaBa M mmlm AUSTRALASIA. Konuxlo group, u few other islets, uud the Mangkurui district in the west part of Flores. Formerly the large island nf Suml>a also formed part of this state. The port of Bima is one of the best in Indonesia. The inlet, which here penetrates over fifteen miles inland, is no less than sixty-five fathoms deep at its entrance, and oppoMte the capital, where it expands to a land-locked lake, it affords large vohsoIh perfect shelter in dt-pths of from twelve to eighteen fathoms. The European merchants and the Dutch officials who keep the sultan under control, reside in a separate quarter known as the Kttmpong Wohnda, or " Dutch Village." In the neighlwurhood are some Hindu tombs, dating probably from the epoch when this part of Sumbawa was tributary to t!.e Javanese Empire of Mojo-Pahit. Here also have been discovered some undecipherable inscriptions, whos :>rigin is un- known. •■ .' •''..'" ' ' i, ''-y.. '"i--S. ^ -.^''- ■■;•*.■. FrOHKS, SoLOR AND AlLOR Ar(HIPKLAO()E8. These members of the " Little Sundas " constitute so many links in the long chain of volcanic islands which stretches eastwards to Timor, and then curves gently round north-eastwards to Nila. Flores and its eastern neighbours are entirely of igneous origin, lacking even the sedimentary limestones that are con- tinued from Java through Bali and Lombok as far as Sumbawa. The southern headlands of Flores are all volcanic mountains with extinct or still active craters. Although abounding in natural products of all sorts, these lands have hitherto been somewhat neglected by their European masters. The vast Indonesian Empire is too extensive to have yet been systematically surveyed and opened up through- out its whole extent. Till 1859 the Dutch and Portuguese were still contending for the eastern part of Flores and the adjacent archipelagoes, and although all were then assigned by treaty to Holland, their exploration has since remained nearly at a standstill. No accurate returns have yet been mode of the population, which is roughly estimated at about four hundred thousand for Flores and the Solor and AUor groups, which have a collective area of 9,000 square miles. 1 Conspicuous amongst the chain of volcanoes stretching along the north side of Flores are Rokka, or Ombuu Soro (6,900 feet), and farther east, in the Endeh district, a name sometimes applied to the whole island, Gunong Eeo, or Roma, believed to be the culminating point (9,200 feet). South of the village of Endeh (Ambogaga) rises the Gunong Api, and the natives report to the north of the same place the Gunong Eingo, which is said to have been the scene of several eruptions during the historic period. At the south- east corner of Flores stands the double-crested Lobetobi volcano, one of whose cones, the Laki-Laki, or the " Mon " (7,160 feet), is always smoking, while the other, Perampuan, or the " Woman" (7,460 feet), is covered on the inner walls of its crater with incrustations of sulphur. The extinct Kabalelo (7,500 feet) commands one of the passage of Larantuka Strait, facing the island of Solor ; the strait itself takes its name from another volcano, called also Ilimandiri (5,180 feet), at the north-east extremity of Flores. This moun- mmmmssammmmmmsm m FT-0RE8. 207 toin is at pi«sent quiescpnt, but at its foot are numerous thrrnial springs, throujjh which the subterraneun heats still manifost thernHelves. Near the village of Oeliting on the north coast, mention is uiadti of another crater, which, however, has not yet been identified. South of the Taujong Bunga, or " Promontory of Flowers," whenco tho Portu- Fig. HO.— Lmuwti'k* Strut. BniiU 1 : I.UU.UOO, BApthi. Oto& Fathom*. 6 to 100 Fathomii. 100 to l.OUO Fathoms. 1,000 Fathnmi and upward*. 18 guese term, Flores, a channel about 1,300 yrds broad at its narrowest part sepa- rates this island from the islet of Adonar^, and farther south from Solor, which, although the smallest member of the group, gives its name to the archipelago stretching east from Flores. Adonar^ is much more populous as well as larger, and farther east foUo^rs the still more extensive Lomblem. The two islands of the ^ 808 AUMTRAIiA«lA. I V Allor group, Pantur and Oinbuai, vinitml by Pigafeita, companion of Magellan, and desoribod by bin> under tho name of Maluva, are also turgor than 8olor, while round alK)ut the chief lundfi are scattered a largo number of rvefn and islota. All are hilly and from many lavu atroama have been diNchargod. The highest conen are Lamabul^ ''i.OOO foet), in Adonart^, and Lobctolli^ (4,900 feet), which forms the northern hoadland of Lomblom. ' " \ Tho inhabitants of Flores and of the neighbouring islands are of a mixed cha- racter. Those of the coastlands, who for the most |)art speak tho Malay dialect of Bimn, belong to tho siimo group na tho native" of Snmb:iwa, and, like thorn, eon- struct their dwellings in the Malay fashion on the wlid ground, and not raised on piles after the manner of tho Papuans. Nevertheless the natives of the interior both in FloroH and Molor appear to havo a darker complexion than those of the seaboard, and are said to betray both in their fuatures and usages a murked'affinity to till) Papuan inhabitants of Now Guinea. Like tho peoples of Sumbawa and Lombok, nearly all claim to be foUowero of the Prophet. But the Portuguese, who, down U< the middle of this century, occupied tho eastern part of Flores with the adjacent archipelagoes, displayed far greater zeal than their Dutch successors for the conversion of their pagan subjects. Hence some of the Malays in these islands still call themselves both " Portuguese " and " Christians." They may even have some Portuguese blood in their veins, and priests from Timor pay occasional visits to their communities in order to baptise the children, solemnise marriages, and bless tho graves of the departed. Larantuka, an old Portuguese stronghold at the foot of the volcano of like name and on the west side of Flores Strait, has become the capital of the Dutch possessions in these waters. The place is yearly visited during the north-wost monsoon by a fleet of native craft from Celebes, returning with the south-eastern trade- winds, and exchanging textiles, pottery, and hardware for mother-of-pearl, sea-cucumbers, edible birds'-nests and other local produce. The Celebes traders also visit a few other seaports, such as Adonare, in tne island of the same name, Lawayang, capital of Solor, and Allor Katjil, at tho north- west extremity of Ombaai. These places with their archipelagoes all depend administratively on the province of Flores, while the district of Mangeraai in Flores itself is attached to Sumbawa. ;■"'■■■" " ' SUMBA. This island, called also " Sunda," although lying in the deep waters of the Indian Ocean outside the line of the Sunda Islands proper, forms a little world apart from the surrounding lands. Separated from Eomodo and Flores by an arm of the sea some 60 miles broad and over 100 fathoms deep, it« quadrilateral mass is disposed, not east and west, parallel with the Little Sundas, but in the direction from north-west to south-east. It possesses no active volcanoes, and igneous rocks appear to occupy but a small portion of its surface. Nearly the whole of the island, in fact, is believed to be of sedimentary formation. The south coast consists '1 nirirr'iirir'ifffl'F^^s^ wmmmm me n SUM HA. 900 entirely of limoHtone cliffs piorix'd by cuvernH, which are frequented by niyrimiH of o. 'i .■'■.:" : Depths. OtoBOO Tatlioms. 600 to 1,000 Fathonu. 1,000 i ithonu and upwards . 120 Milei. V^'^"' a'B ■■■■.'■ i.t;4 . • '■"■- . <^-*i pletely independent, is said to have a population of half a million, while the Dutch section appears to contain scarcely half that number. The Malay term Timor, that is, the " East," shows that this island long formed the eastern limit of navigation in Indonesia. According to tradition the natives were savages, ignorant of agriculture, and living only on the chase and fishing, when the first Malay immigrants landed on the south coast, where is now the petty state of Waiwiko-WaihaH. These settlers, who introduced rice and maize and iron implements, are said to have come from Temate towards the close of the .'v»'a;iv -- TIMOR. 211 Timor of the >roceB8 a a far )twith- la over mly be ortions minis- , com- II' B Dutch formed natives fishing, le petty ize and I of the fourteenth century, and soon made themselves masters, everywhere imposing dynasties supposed to owe a certain vague allegiance to the Sultan of Temate. The first European arrivals were: the Portuguese, who appear to have secured a footing at Lifau, towards the middle of the north coast, about the year 1520. Soon after they raised a fort at Eupang, now the chief station of the Dutch, who first made their appearance in 1613. The desolating wars of the two rival powers and their native allies were continued almost uninterruptedly down to the present century, when they were replaced by diplomatic negotiations, the treaty of 1869 finally settling the question of the frontier line between the respective states. '' According to the partial explorations round the coast and in the interior, Timor seems to present a backbone of mountains and plateaux, consisting mainly of schists, sandstones and limestones ; but on both slopes these older formations underlie chalks and argillaceous deposits of great thickness. The coral reefs fringing the south-west coast have gradually been upheaved several hundred yards above the present sea-level. In some places the rocks of the primitive system tower up above the surrounding formations in the form of obelisks and citadels, one of which, "^ Mount Leeu, in the south-west, attains an elevation of 4,000 feet. Farther east ' follow still more lofty peaks, although within the Dutch or western province none of the summits reach un altitude of over 6,500 feet. In the Portuguese division the surface is of a more rugged aspect, and here the Eabalaki peak, visited by H. 0. Forbes, exceeds 10,000 feet, while Mount Alias, close to the frontier and near the south coast, is said to rise 11,500 feet above the Indian Ocean. The existence of true volcanoes has not yet been placed beyond doubt, although mention is made of a Mount Ilun-bano in the west, which . was the scene of an eruption in 1856, while Bibiluto in the Portuguese territory is said to have ejected ashes the following year. In several districts porphyries and serpentines have cropped out above the sedimentary rocks, and the islet of Eambing, between Samau and the south-west extremity, terminates in a sort of crater, within which are several mud volcanoes, 10 to 30 feet high, resembling the Sicilian macealube. Mud volcanoes also occur in Landu, between Samau and Botti. In Timor the seasons are much more sharply defined than in the large islands of Western Indonesia. During the south-east monsoon, prevailing from May to October, the winds blowing from the neighbouring Australian continent bring no moisture, the vegetation withers, and wherever the slopes are covered with grasses or scrub, they assume red, yellow, or greyish tints. The brooks and even the rivers run dry, and are not again flushed till the return of the western monsoon, when vegetation revives and the land resumes its verdant aspect. The northern slope of the island enjoys the most copious rainfall, and consequently here the streams are most voluminous, the forests mos'- extensive, and the population most numerous and prosperous. But the southern slope is far from being so arid or improduotive as it has been described by travellers who have visited it only during the dry season. The same contrast between the two slopes is also presented by the respective .^m ^>^ 212 AUSTBALASIA. • :. ; floras and faunas. The side facing Australia abounds most in forms characteristic Fig. 88.— View takk» ra a Fomwr nkab Kupano, Tdcob. ga safeS ?'J ^! *- / X.'- -■ . , . ■ , ^^ ■■ " - '■•'^x. '■ - ■» f-';,.; ■ - .\ ft • *. -^ "■ L. -.^ ^•/A' ,,,i»^^***^*^ \%?. ,- 1, ^ .-. .. _ , ^jjjiEi'^j^ ^tt.na jq:^3-s -V>%su: r _■©!»- of that continent, while the opposite side belongs more to the animal and mmmmmm TIMOR. 218 iristio d and vegetable zones of the Sundas and Moluccas. But Timor is on the whok com- paratively poor in biological species, and in this respect forms part rather of the Australian than of the Asiatic world. Here occurs the eucalyptus, a peculiarly Australian plant, while the vegetation of the interior often recalls the African flora. The only feline animal is a long-eared wild cat, and the largest quadruped is a species of deer resembling one found both in Java and the Moluccas. The only meaber r ; the simian family is the Cercopithecua cynomolguH, and two-thirds of all the mammalian species belong to the widespread bat family. The most dreaded animals are the green trigonocephalus and the crocodile, from whom the rulers of Kupang claim descent. At the accession of a new rajah, his subjects thronged to the waterside to render homage to his saurian relatives : the first that came to the surface was regarded as his Majesty's cousin ; a beautiful maiden, gaily decked and perfumed, was presented to him as his consort and devoured amidst the applause of the multitude. ' The natives of Timor are not classed with the Malays properly so-called, and appear to be more akin to the Bornean Dayaks. Despite the statements of several writers, there are no dark or Papuan tribes in the island, all the inhabitants of which have the light, yellowish complexion of the Malay, and differ from each other rather in their dress and arms than in stature or features. They are divided into a large number of distinct clans or communities, speaking according to Crawfurd as many as forty different idioms. The largest ethnical group is that of the Ema-Velus (the Belimays of the Dutch), whor occupy all the eastern section and ' great part of the centre. They claim to have come from the Moluccas, and attribute the same origin to their western neighbours, the Timorese properly so-called ; whom, however, they also call Ema-Davan, or " Javanese." Some Bugis, Chinese and European traders are settled in all the seaports, and a half-caste people, the so-called " Black Portuguese," have become established especially in the northern principalities of Ambenu, Okuss^ and Noimuti, forming a Portuguese enclave within the Dutch frontier. The natives who have not yet been brought under the influence of the Protestant and Catholic missionaries have a somewhat developed animistic form of religion. They worship Usi-Neno, " Lord of Light," who dwells in the Sun, and whose wife is the moon. ■ The stars are the abode of an inferior order of deities ; but while paying reverence to these remote divinities, the Timorese address their supplications chiefly to the natural objects round about them, the mountains and rocks, trees, running waters, and t)ie like ; they also make offerings to the souls of the departed, who are regarded as the indispensable intermediate agents for all communications between man and the higher divinities. The laws of pomali or taboo are as intricate and as carefully observed as amongst the Polynesians and some Malagasy tribes. In fact the religious ideas pervading the oceanic regions are so uniform that they can scarcely have been independently evolved, and point rather at a common civilisation at one time diffused throughout the whole area from Madagascar to the remote South-Sea Islands. vSi^,t'-r"j,i»irjl iiiiiliiilliMilNMl ■■■■■lil mmm ttMTjSk^--' 7E33iSJ!'S®?S!ffifMra!5»1S5»3E?3BS3Ei;?3!!^^ iSH [gijy^ia 114 AUSTEALASIA. In Timor every village has its temple hid away in some sacred grove and surrounded by a stout enclosure. Each petty state has its special sanctuary, a hallowed spot which the profane dare not approach, for in it dwells the lulik, or tutelar genius, seated in the centre of the edifice on a stone cast down from heaven by the Lord of Light. There are also evil spirits, to which are sacrificed black victims, the animals with red coats being reserved for the protecting deities. The Timorese tattoo various parts of the body with thorns, file the teeth to a point, and often dye them red " in order not to look like apes." The usages Fig. 89.— KuPAHO. Soale 1 : 800,000. -^}.:OX-^^'- otoie Feet. Depthi. 16 to 100 Feet. lao Feet and npward*. ■:.-■' 'Vs connected with marriage and inheritance differ greatly in the different districts. In some places exogamous, in others endogamous rites prevail. In one tribe the succession is from father to son : in another through the female line. (The young men in some communities can neither marry nor enter the public assemblies until they have carried qff one or more heads, as in Borneo, but only in open warfare or else At funeral ceremonies. The penal code is very severe, death being the penalty for most crimes ; but as ransom is allowed, the poor are the chief victims. As m many other places, the i'ulers, " children of the sun," never die, but only i'*Mm .^^*^^ r- "'•''^'^"■^?*'^fflp yyi^?^^f-^"^ ' ^ ^] - ! P'';^^^^^^^^^ i Ti'tiwwwl Jtt't.3^ TIMOB. 215 fall asleep, and are not buried till long after the beginning of the " trance." In gome districts they are exposed in open coffins on the branches of the trees ; in others the wives have to keep them night and day for months together, until reduced to the state of dried mummies, and then buried with all their treasures beneath cairns corresponding in height to the rank of the deceased. They were formerly accompanied by an escort of slaves, as they still are by a dog to lead the way in the region beyond the grave. To prevent their return, the route followed by the funeral procession is carefully blocked by a strong bamboo palisade. Kupang, capital of the Butch territory and of the neighbouring islands, is one of the unhealthiest places in Indonesia. It lies at the south-western extremity of Timor, on the south side of a derp inlet too confined for the air to circulate freely. Yet its official position and safe harbour have made it the chief trading place in the island, with a motley population of about seven thousand Timorese, Malays, Chinese and Europeans. Its principal exports are sandalwood, horses, excellent oranges and beeswax. The neighbouring fishing grounds and oyster beds yield great varieties of fish, besides pearls, tortoise-shell, sea-cucumbers and shark's fins for the Chinese market. The people of Botti prepare large quantities of a much- esteemed palm wine, and rear an excellent breed of little ponies, " about the sine of Newfoundland dogs." ; - ' C Atapupu, another seaport on the north coast near the Portuguese frontier, lies in the province of Filarang, which is said to be one of the richest in copper ores, though mining operations have scarcely yet been seriously begun. Ihlli, administrative centre of the Portuguese territory, is a less important place than Kupang, and appears even to have entered on a state of decline, the population having fallen from over five thousand about the middle of the century to little jnore than three thousand in 1879. It is even a more unhealthy' town than its Dutch rival, but has the advantage of a good roadstead, from which it presents a pleasant appearance. Its exports are chiefly coffee of superior quality, wax, and sandalwood ; rice being the staple import. The wheat grown on the plateaux and slopes to a height of about three thousand feet is much esteemed. North of Dilli rises the steep rock of Kambing, the only islet beyond Timor which the treaties have left to the Portuguese ; it has a population of about two thou- sand. The Zuid-Wester (Serwatty) Islands. These " South-western " groups, so-called because mostly lying to the south- west of Amboyna, their administrative and commercial centre, are better known by their English name Serwatty, which, in fact, is a corruption of the Dutch " Zuid- Wester." The southern and more numerous islands form an eastern extension of Timor, of whiuh they are, so to say, merely scattered fragments. But the central chain, of which Wetter forms by far the largest link, belongs to the volcanic Sundanese system, while Gunong Api (the "Burning Mountain"), with a few scattered rocks farther north, are supposed by Junghuhn to constitute the eastern I ,H\&RdRifl>'^>rt*E.^)" ^f-jt^. ^^ttdr 4J-. , , L!.-^ /t«*Shi'ib^i^. J "'■"■'- ■*iiniTiiilii 118 AUSTRALASIA. Tenimber (Tanuh Imber) was supposed to stretch uninterruptedly to the southern extremity of the Archi{)elugo, and this error still figures uu most maps. Yet the natives are quite awuro that their territory is divided into two distinct islands, to each of which they give a special name. Owen Stanley had already stated in 1839 that Tenimber comprised several separate islands, and in 1878 the Egeron, a ship from Banda, traversed the channel between Yamdena and Selaru, varying from eight to forty fa'^homs in depth, and presenting several excellent havens on both sides. But the hydrographic survey of the group is still far from complet«, and so recently as 1888 a hitherto unknown island two miles long was discovered at the Houth-west extremity of the Archipelago. The two chief islands, consisting of limestone rock, are almost everywhere low, and the highest point of the whole group is the volcanic islet of Laibobar, off the west side of Yuradcna, rising, according to Forbes, to a height of about two thou- sand feet. The islet of Larat, separated by the navigable Wallace Strait from Yamdena, is also low, but beyond it rises the precipitous islet of Yerdate, at the northern extremity of the Tenimber group. The archipelago is skirted on the west side by a parallel line of islets and reefs, which, lying mostly in shallow water, are little accessible to shipping. '■,, ? Owing to the porous nature of the calcareous soil tbe rain-water almost every- where disappears without forming fertilising streams; hence, vast tracts have remained barren and uninhabited. Some of the slopes are, nevertheless, clothed with dense brushwood, where the cattle, let loose by the early navigators, find a refuge from the native hunters. Large herds of wild boars infest the neighbour- hood of the villages ; but Tenimber, like most of the Moluccas, has no monkeys, and its fauna generally presents a New Guinea aspect. The natives recognise no rulers, although certain individuals claim the empty title of chief. In appearance they resemble the Malays much more than the Papuans, although they are evidently a mixed race. Both sexes slightly tattoo the forehead, cheeks, breast, and hands, and the women deck themselves with bracelets and necklets of red glass beads. The wealthy natives convert into heavy rings and ear ornaments the gold coins they take in exchange for their holothuriee and tortoise-shell ; in the decoration of their praus and dwellings they also display far greater artistic taste than their Malay neighbours. They have hitherto resisted the proselytising attempts of the Arabs and other Mohammedans. Nevertheless they worship a supreme deity, Dwadilah, symbolised by a sacred post and other rude images set up in front of their dwellings. They also believe in a future state for themselves and all living beings, and the fisherman never fails to return to the sea a portion of his capture, so that the soul of the fish may swim away to the spirit world. The Kei (Kd) Islands were probably so named by the Portuguese, for the term appears to be identical with that of the Keys, that is, the Cayos, of Florida. Lying nearer to Banda and Amboyna than Tenimber, this group, to which the surrounding populations give the name of Evar, or Hog Islands, has been brought more under Mohammedan influences. They manufacture earthenware, and build excellent CELEBES. •It praus, which are exported to all the neighbouring archipelagoes. Two-thirdB of the inhabitants are centred in Great Kei, the largest member of the group ; but Dula, the most frequented station, lies in Little Kei, on a deep inlet well sheltered by a chain of insular hills. Kocently some planters have settled in the islands, the chief products of which are holothuriao and tortoise-shell, both of excellent quality. 1 vii:f Celebes and adjacent Islands. Celebes, which in extent takes the third, in population and commercial impor- tance the fourth place in Indonesia, vies with Java itself for romantic beauty and the variety of its natural phenomena. It consists, so to say, of a framework of pen- insular ranges, radiating from a central nucleus, and enclosing extensive marine inlets, which, unlike those of Borneo, have not yet been transformed to alluvial plains. Northwards the peninsula of Oorontalo and Minahassa sweeps round in a double curve to the north and east. In the centre two other peninsular masses project north-east to the Molucca waters and south-east to the Banda Sea ; lastly, in the south is developed the Macassar peninsula, stretching due south to the Flores Sea. Thanks to this extraordinary conformation Celebes, with an area of about 75,000 square miles, has a coastline of no less than 3,500 miles, excluding the secondary indentations. In other words, although little over one-third the size of France, it has a seaboard equal in extent to that of France and the Iberian Penin- sula taken together. This eccentric island, everywhere so easily accessible from the set*, and, more- over, enjoying an extremely fertile soil and a superabundance of natural resources, is nevertheless almost destitute of inhabitants. Were it as densely peopled as Java, it would have a population of some thirty millions, whereas, according to the approximate estimates the actual population is little over three-quarter,, of a million. But although nominally under the Dutch rule, most of the interior is still occupied by Aifurus, that is, wild tribes for the most part living in isolated and hostile groups. In many places head-hunters still prowl about the villages, and till recently the neighbouring waters were infested by corsairs, continually sweeping down on the natives and carrying them off into slavery. Nor was the Dutch occu- pation effected without many sanguinary struggles, not always to the advantage of the invaders. The Europeans appeared first as guests, and the early conflicts were connected with questions of trade rights. Then the Dutch presented themselves as rivals of the Portuguese in 1660, when they seized the fort of Macassar, long their only possession on the coast. Later they concluded a treaty of alliance and a protectorate with several petty states in the south-western peninsula, and since that time they have omitted no occasion of strengthening their position in the island. Tet in most of the inland states they are still unrepresented by any officials, and even the coast districts are visited only at long intervals. Celebes has not yet been completely explored, and some parts are known only fS 220 AUSTRALASIA. in a general way. The Latimojong highlands, which form the central nucleus, and from which flow the largest rivers, are one of the least known regions, and travellers have hitherto failed to form an estimate of the elevations. According to Schneider the main range, beginning at Cape Palos (Donggala) on the west coast, runs south-east towards the Latimojong mountains, beyond which it traverses Fig. 91. — ExpLOBKu Keoions or Cklxbu. Soale 1 : H,(XIO,000, Easb oP Greenwicw to 100 Pathonu. 100 to BOO Fathoms. Depths. 600 to t.OOO Fathums. 1,000 to 3,000 Fathoms. . 180 Miles. t.OOO Fathoms and npwards. V The finished parts of the map represent tlie regions completely surveyed by the Dutch. the south-eastern peninsula. The framework of these highlands consists of gneiss and granites, which in some places crop out above the secondary and tertiary rocks of both slopes. A lateral ridge of gneiss, radiating from the central nucleus, forms the backbone of the Balante peninsula, while that of Macassar, traversed in 1888 by Weber and Wichmann, is also dominated by crystalline or paleozoic ranges, (I f : ■M '^'V ^.^^r^,,,^.t^qr|^y^l.yn< CELEUE8. loleus, 8, and )rdiDg I west tverses It gneiss y rocks i, forms n 1888 ranges, Fig. 92.— Hauitib. HmI* 1 : scw.noo. whieh^ however, are not diBjwsed purullol with the coasts, but run in a transverse direction towards the south-west, one of them turminating in the granite headland of Cape Mandhar. Farther south rises the isolated mass of J)ikbuik, better known by the name of lionthaiu, or Bantaeng, from the town at its foot. liouthain, which was found by Webber and Wich- maun to be of volcanic origin, as already suspected by Beccari, is the culminating point of Celebf>s (10,270 IVet). The south-east comer of the Macassar peninsula is continued seawards by a few islets and the long, hilly island of Salayer (Saleyer), or Limbongang, with heights ex- ceeding 3,000 feet, and at one point attain- ing an altitude of 6,840 feet. A curious and hitherto unexplained phenomenon is the glow of light observed in the evening at both extremities of Salayer during the prevalence of high winds. Salayer is itself continued southwards by other islets, such as Tambolongang, Pulasi, Rusa, Tanah Jampea, and Bonerate, which belong ad- ministratively to Celebes, and which like Buton, at the extremity of the south- eastern peninsula, may also be regarded as forming part of the same geological system. Although no volcanoes have been dis- covered in the central parts, there can be no doubt that in remote times Celebes was the scene of considerable eruptions. In several districts, and especially near Maros, in the province of Macassar, the limestone formations rest on basalt rocks, which here and there even crop out above the sedi- mentary deposits. The northern peninsula, attached to the rest of the island by a low, narrow isthmus, forms geographically and geologically a dis- tinct region. £ast of Tomini, where the isthmus is contracted to a width of about 18 miles, and commanded by the lofty Mount Donda (9,500 feet), the peninsula is traversed by chains of gpaeiss and auriferous quartz hills, and at the point where it trends towards the north-east more recent lavas and scoriae have burst through the other formations. Here rises the Saputan volcano (6,170 feet), the theatre of I \ Depth* OtoSl Feet 82 feet and npwBTda — i_ 18 HUM. ■WMMl aullMMJUHIiiiruiiMa lBM (Mi »> »tt» i tow. ■:-■ . -••s-ni- .Mifir .r: V ^i/Tt-vrv* AUHTBALA8IA. sovoriil diHturbancoM during tho proHont century. In tho noighbourbood are the thormiil waters and still active mud volcunues of Punghu. Towards the northern extremity of Minahu(s.-«u follow other volcanoes, such oa the twin-crested Klabal (fl.HOO feet), the Duwa Saderu, or "TwnSi"*" " (4,650 feet), and Ijukon (i't/ilO feet), all visible as far as Ternatc. This >^ .< . ■• syfltem is continued in a northerly direction seowards, thus connecting Indo ■ lu t.'i© Philippines at the southern headland of Mindanao. Several of tht interreninp: Fig. 03.— MiNAHAMA. BmU I : l,IOO,OU). Depthi. OtoSfiO Fathoms. i ■■■.■\ 2fi0 Fathomi and upwards. __ S4 MUm. , 1 islets are still active volcanoes, and Duang (Ruang), west of Tagulanda, forms a cone 1,720 feet high, which emitted flames in 1856. Siao, lying farther north, is often wrapped in smoke, and in the larger island of Sanguir (Sangi) rises the superb volcano of Abu, which has been the scene of several disastrous eruptions during the last two centuries. The peculiar conformation of Celebes prevents the development of any large rivers. Nevertheless certain ranges are so disposed as to form longitudinal plains where the streams run for a considerable distance parallel with the coast before ■' .'<;■': /A'-ililf Tl ich aa 4,6r>0 cm is enint' a Cm^EHES. tM reaching tho seo. Thua tho Bnhii Holo, riHing in Lako Tafuti, traTcrsGM tho Routh' F)f> 04>— Tub Tundano Cawaoi, Min^hama. ..■■1 eastern peninsula for a distance of about 150 miles. The Sadang also, flowing I •immmimmllrii i M rin Mi 224 AU8TBALASIA. between two oblique mountain ranges in the Macassar peninsula, has a length of no less than 240 miles. On the eastern slope of the same peninsula the copious river Tjeurana, fed by several northern and southern tributaries and by the shallow Tempe (Tamparang) lagoons, is navigable for boats for some 60 miles from its mouth. Of the other lacustrine basins one of the most romantic is Lake Tondano, which lies at an altitude of 2,000 feet near the northern extremity of Minahassa. After piercing a winding gorge the emissary of this basin suddenly plunges from a height of 490 feet into a rocky cirque, whence it escapes through a broad valley northwards to Menado. < , . . Climate, Flora, and Fauna of Celebes. Like Borneo, Celebes is crossed by the equator, which leaves the three southern penir aulas in the Austral, that of Minahassa in the northern hemisphere; hence the mean temperature is high, ranging from about 90° F. in the day to 70^* F. at night. But these extremes are usually tempered by the alternating land and sea breezes, which prevail round the whole periphery of the island. The rain-bearing clouds brought by the south-eastern and north-western monsoons being intercepted by the inland ranges discharge an abundance of moisture on both slopes, but especially in the Macassar peninsula, which is exposed to the " bad monsoon." Thus with a yearly rainfall varying from 40 to 160 inches, Celebes seldom suffers from drought, ^and in other respects enjoys one of the most salubrious climates in Indonesia. Its flora almost rivals in splendour and variety that of the Sunda Islands ; its forests even appear more beautiful, having to a large extent preserved their primeval aspect, especially in the wonderful Minahassa peninsula. But while the indigenous flora is closely allied to that of the western islands, the fauna presents considerable differences. Separated by deep waters from the surrounding lands, Celebes appears to have enjoyed its insular independence long enough to impart an original character to its fauna. Lying midway between Asia and Australasia, it possesses some species belonging to both of these zoological areas ; but it also presents numerous forms quite distinct from either, and often more allied with African than with Indian or Australian types. Amongst these are the Cynopithecus mgrescens, a baboon occurring nowhere else in Indonesia except the small idand of Batian ; the Anoa depreasicornis, with the horns of the antelope, but by many naturalists classed with the bovine family, and greatly resembling certain African species ; the famous Babirussa, half pig, half deer, with four spiral tusks. There are no felines, but five varieties of the squirrel, and two marsupials, Celebes being the extreme eastern and western limit of the former and latter respec- tively. \ Inhabitants op Celebes. The native populations are usually classed as Malays and Atfurus ; a division, however, which is much more of a social than an ethnical character. The ■ A^.<'%'ift •mm a length e copious le shallow from its Tondano, [inahassa. iges from )ad valley the three tmisphere; the day to ating land ind. The monsoons sisture on led to the 60 inches, me of the slands; its Tved their t while the aa presents ling lands, to impart Australasia, but it also allied with lynqpithecm Jl idand of t by many lin African ks. There Js, Celebes ter respec- a division, cter. The CELEBES. 226 cultured coastlanders, who speak or understand Malay or allied idioms, are regarded as members of the dominant Indonesian race, while tho inland wild tribes, whatever their physical types and speech, are indiscriminati y grouped as Alfurus. Hence this name is dropped when any of those tribes exchange their savage ways for a settled life on the coffee plantations. Many of these indigenous ■*. V ^ > Pig. 96. — ^MAOAflUB AND THB SoUTH-WkST ReOION OF CELEBES. Stale 1 : 84fi,000. ! ■ Depths OtoS StoAO Jlatboms. 60to280 360 Fathomi and upwards. ISUlIec peoples betray undoubted traces of mixed descent, and individuals are often met with tho characteristic features and hair of the Papuans One of the dominant nations are the Bugis, whose original home is the kingdom of Boni, in the south-western peninsula. From this region they have spread to the neighbouring provinces, and have even founded settlements in many remote parts of the Eastern Archipelago. Like their Mangkassar (Macassar) and !Wajo neighbours, the Bugis are of middle size, but robust, vigorous, and active, IB— r AUSTRALASIA. with a complexion somewhat lighter than that of other Malays. They are a brave, haughty people, but very revengeful, and more addicted to " running amuck " than any other Indonesian communities. The Bugis have long enjoyed the reputation of being daring and enterprising mariners, and they have completely monopolised the local trade in many of the surrounding lands. Although they purchase no slaves, creditors reduce their defaulting debtors to a state of absolute servitude, regarding this law as the essential condition of their widespread commercial enterprise. Their women enjoy a certain liberty, practising the industrial arts, such as weaving and embroidery, and often even learning to read and writ« either Malay or Bugi, this idiom possessing, like the Mungkassar, a peculiar alphabet of Indian origin. Towards the middle of the seventeenth century the Bugis, yielding to the Mohammedan missionaries, abandoned their old animistic religion, which had been profoundly affected by Hindu influences. They even still observe many rites connected with the worship of Siva, and the doctrine of metempsychosis explains the respect even now paid to the crocodiles swarming in the moats of their citadels. The Alfurus of the central districts are divided into many tribal groups, such as the Torajas, a term often applied collectively to all the pagan savages of the interior. The Topantunuasus, or " Dog-eaters," of the Lake Posso district, eat the brain and drink the blood of their enemies. Even some of the islands off the coast are still occupied by wild beasts in human form. Those of Feling Island, near the Balante peninsula, roam naked in the forests and take refuge at night amid the branches of the trees. But in the extreme north the civilised and confederate peoples of Minahassa, that is, " Brotherhood," vie with the Bugis and Mangkassars of the extreme south in the arts of peace and industry. The Minahassans and their western neighbours are distinguished above most Indonesians for their remarkably light complexion, many being quite as fair as Europeans and distinguishable from them only by their more prominent cheek-bones. Dumont d'TJrville was struck by their surprising resemblance to the Tongans and Maoris of Eastern Polynesia. At the beginning of the present century most of the Minahassans were still head-hunters, and even ''-^voured human flesh at their great feasts. But since then they have become t^uiet, peaceful citizens, very industrious and skilled artisans. The chiefs wear the European dress, and the pure Malay taught in the schools is gradually replacing the thousand local dialects. This remark- able change is mainly due to the cultivation of the soil, and especiRlly to the coffee plantations, which since 1822 have been rapidly developed throughout the Minahassa districts. Besides coffee, the chief cultivated plantn are sugar- cane, tobacco, kosso (Macilla hemp), the nutmeg, sago, rice and maize. This district also yields for export gutta-percha, wax, honey, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, edible nests and algee. Nearly all the Minahassans have accepted Christianity, whereas most of the other cultured Celebians are followers of the Prophet. •5^-U^* CELEBES. Topography of Celebes. 227 The most famous city in Celebes is Mangkaasar (Macaanar), the Vjnng Pandang of the natives, and by the Dutch often called Vlaardingen, from the fort of that name erected in the centre of the town. North of this fort stretches the busy native quarter, with its crowded streets, shipping, and Bugi, Chinese, and Arab traders ; to the south lies the European quarter, with its avenues of large trees, and numerous shady gardens. Macassar, occuppng one of the most convenient positions for trade in Indonesia, had already been much frequented by the Malays when it was seized by the Portuguese in 1538. The Dutch occupation dates from the erection of Fort Vlaardingen in 1665, after which trade rapidly increased till 1846, when Macassar was declared a free port, to the detriment of its commercial prosperity. A chief item of the export trade is the lakalava extract from the pulp of the badu plant, long known in Europe by the name of Macassar oil. The roadstead is well sheltered from all winds by the numerous chains of islets and reefs forming the Spermoude Archipelago. Although held by the Dutch for over two centuries, the province of Macassar has but few good roads. The most important is the route skirting the coast north and south of the capital, leading northward* to Maros, residence of a vassal prince, and running thence through several petty states to Tanette. Another highway running east crosses the rugged region north of Mount Bonthain, reaching the east coast at Sinj'ai and Bahng Nipa. The southern route, after passing Qoa (Gotca), residence of a former powerful sovereign, traverses Glisong, Takalar, and other coast towns inhabited by daring mariners. On the south coast of the Macassar peninsula the chief place is Bonthain (Bantaeng), which has succeeded Bulukomba as capital of the district. Other "kingdoms" occupy the eastern slope of Macassar and of the two penin- sulas radiating eastwards ; but their capitals are mere hamlets, like the numerous fishing stations on the creeks and sheltered straits of these waters. Bajoa, the port of Boni, at ont time the most powerful state in Celebes, is an active centre of trade. But the eastern shores of Celebes present little but a monotonous succes- sion of headlands, inlets, and wooded tracts, mostly destitute of inhabitants, and visited only by the Orang-Bajo, the " Gipsies of the sea," in quest of trepang and tortoise-shell. Farther north the shores of the gulf of Tolo or Tomaiki, with all their natural advantages, present the same desolate aspect. Even most of the adjacent islands are deserted, and of the Sula (Xula) Archipelago the only inhabited islands are Sula Besi and Sula Taliabo. The Togean Archipelago aho, which lies in the northern gulf of Tomiui (Gorontolo), has a mixed population of not more than four hundred souls. Parigi, at the neck of the northern peninsula, occupies a favourable position for trade at the narrowest part of the connecting isthmus, and within 21 miles of the Bay of Palos on the opposite coast. Palos itself, lying in a fertile district on a deep and well-sheltered bay, enjoys quite exceptional com- mercial advantages. iVfi- iVi-i fill ^ »• rrtti1»iMI m 111 IHn'IMWin UMi iiilV'ii'lirii--'^^^^^''^''-'"'""?"'' ' 228 AUSTEALASIA. North of Parigi the peninsula still continues to contract between the Bays of Dondo ar.d Tomini. But the whole region is almost depopulated, and Totnini, wi^ch gives an alternative name to the vast Gulf of Gorontolo, is an obscure hamlet comprising some ton or twelve native cabins. Gorontolo {Holontalo) which gives its name both to the gidf and to the northern peninsula of Celebes, lies in a Fig. 96. — Adidnibibativb Divisioifs OF Cblhbbb. ;> 7,: *;M v'tV'- Soale 1 : lii,eOO,000. ;> eu'Fif '^,tfV Str. «"^ JSaleye Sea oF B»n d« a- \: Oovemment of Celebes . Resideiioe of Meaado. mm Residenoe of Temate. Beddeooa of Amborm. Besidenoe of Timor. Borneo. Foitugueae Territory. 840 HUes dried -Up lacustrine plain at the mouth of a narrow valley watered by a torrent which issues from Lake Limbotto. Beyond this point the coast is almost unin- habited as far as the shores of Minahassa, where follow the two ports of Belang and Kema. These places are connected by good routes across the peninsula with Menado, capital of the province, and northern rival of Macassar in political and commercial ■ J i m .1 1 mi l I I l y .or d' I ' " If, ll^ Im L I, fi"'' I I I ( I ■■ * I I liltnLlLii In Li a I II I . . fc :;S ■M^^i i 'ii< ffl ri»wl!i*t V f!*'* yt iW"'*<> * 'W* ^ ' ^| '*' Wf >i' , yW W '' *w ij -j-aca^Bg.;;tfg«3fr ,f i\r/-7»j»-^; ^jKtitramimm'i^KSiwm ilr w ^^:.i^ r ■' n^:im\iT7Wif* ' ^- '' -' ■-^^" ■ " CELEBES. 889 importance. Menado (Manado), the Wenang of the natives, liee« on a spacious inlet open to the west and sheltered on the north by several islets, one of which, Menado Tuwa, or " Old Menado," marks the site of the old town, which was abandoned in 1682 for the present more secure position on the mainland. Here a pleasant little Dutch quarter gradually sprang up round about the foot of Nieuw- Amsterdam. Kut the town itself is little more than a vast garden dotted over with rural dwellings and crossed by shady avenues, each terminating with a lovely view of sea, islands, and extinct or still smouldering volcanoes. The district is enriched by cultivated grounds, which have replaced the primi- tive forests, and which are traversed by good roads giving access to the magnifi- cent plateau of Tondano, with its coffee plantations, its woodlands, romantic wilding lake, and waterfall of the river Menado. A little to the west of Tondano stands the village of Rnrukan, 3,300 feet above the sea, being the highest group of' habitations in Minahassa, if not in the whole of Celebes. The political and administrative in no way correspond with the natural divisions of Celebes. Thus Sumbawa, one of the lesser Sunda Islands, forms part of the Macassar " government," while the petty states on the Gulf of Tolo belong to the Sultanute of Temate, and consequently depend politically on a remote eastern islet. The greater part of Celebes is still divided amongst local rulers, some classed as direct or indirect feudatories, others as allies, and others again as h still completely independent. Thus the districts under direct Dutch administration occupy but a relatively small part of the territory ; and even here the old adminis- trative measures have been partly maintained, the authority being exercised by native regents under the control of Dutch Besidents or Assistants. The system of government varies also in the numerous native " kingdoms," most of which are electoral monarchies limited by custom, the authority of the notables, and priestly influence. Wajo, on the east coast of Macassar, is an oligarchy of powerful families, with a prince elected as nominal chief, and a council of forty delegates, including some women. The various Bugi states constitute similar oligarchies, where the nominal sovereign merely executes the pleasure of his vassals. The Southern Momtccas : Buru, Ceram, Amboyna, Banda. A submariae bed less than 100 fathoms deep connects Celebes and the Xula (Sula) Archipelago with Buru, westernmost member of the Moluccas. On the other hand this oval island forms a link in a chain disposed in the form of an arc comprising Ceram, Goram, sundry islets, and in the Eei group intersecting another chain of upheaved lands, the already described South-Easteru Islands. The chain of the Southern Moluccas, sweeping round some 450 miles first ■w'est and east, then south-east parallel with New Guinea, is well defined by deep waters both north end south. Thus Ceram is separated from the Northern Moluccas by an abyss of over 1,500 fathoms, while on the opjMsite side the Banda Sea has a depth of 3,000, and at one point near the Banda volcano 4,280 fathoms. Precisely in the centre of this sea rises the submarine plateau of Lucipara, marked by a few ;S. J.', j^iV, n.i ■ .„ .Hill ti ■-/*■■■■■"•'•■■ ■*^y 280 AUSTRALASIA. reefs appearing above the surface. With the exception of Amboyna and Banda, which do not lie along the general axis of the Southern Moluccas, all these islands are situated beyond the Indonesian volcanic zone. The smuU island of Amboyna, and the still smaller cluster of the Banda islets, formerly enjoyed a commercial importance far beyond that of the larger islands in these waters. They even still retain their political supremacy, though the centre of gravity will probably be eventually shifted towards Burn and Ceram, ' > ■, '■;■ ; - ■' ' ';•' v Fig. 97.— Bn»u. < *• SoU* 1 : 8,000,000. E»sb op G re e nwf eh OtoSS Fatbomf. 86to2fiO Fathom*. Depthi. 3EOtofiOO Fathoms. 000 to 1,000 Fathoms. 1,000 Fathoms aai upwards. > SO MileH. which have already outstripped them in population, and which also possess excel- lent havens. Despite its fertility and abundant natural resources Bum is still one of the least-known lands of Indonesia. Near its rock-bound west coast it culminates in the lofty Mount Lamandang, or Tomahu (8,640 feet), with which are connected other mountain masses falling gradually eastwards, bat more elevated and precipi- tous along the southern than the northern side. The whole system is disposed in a semicircle with its convex side facing eastwards, and leaving in the centre of the island a large crater-like depression flooded by Lake Wakoholo, 1,900 feet above sea-level. The east coast is indented by the superb Bay of Kayeli, which is encircled by an extensive plain enclosed by an amphitheatre of hills. A geo- graphical dependence of Burn is the hilly and reef -fringed islet of Amblauw, off the south-east coast. The islets of Manipa, Kelang, and Bouoa, connecting Buru and Ceram, are ,• V ■ ■-W >■ '• v K i' mf .t *' ... T V|«»t'. THE SOUTHERN MOLUCCAS. SSI mere geographical fragments of the latter. Amboyna with the Uliuaser group (Oma or Haruku, Saparua, and Nuaa Laut) all rest on the same submarine plateau as Ceram. Amboyna is formed as it were by two peninsulas, Hitu and Loy-tiraor, connected by a sandy isthmus little over a mile wide. Although regarded by Wallace as of igneous origin, European residents deny the existence of any volcano in Amboyna. Ceram, or Serang, largest and loftiest of the Southern Moluccas, is covered by a dense forest on its western slope known as Howamul, or " Little Ceram." The island culminates in Mount Musaheli (9,710 feet) ; its prevailing formation appears to be granite. Its shores are encircled by fringing reefs, and the islands continu- ing the mainland south-eastwards are mainly formed of coralline limestones. Goram, one of the largest of these groups, consists of a rocky central nucleus, roimd which the polyps have constructed their coral reefs. But others, such as Manawoko and Matabello, are composed exclusively of upheaved coral. The little Banda group presents a marked contrast to all the surrounding lands in its complete isolation, and the incessant activity of its Gunong Api, or '* Burning Mountain." Of the six islets of the cluster, three, Great Banda (Lon- thoir), Banda Neira, and the Volcano, are so disposed as to form the margin of an inner lake, probably representing an old crater of vast extent. Both Bandas are clothed with verdure to their summits, while the superb cone of Api presents on its lower flanks a mere fringe of vegetation, and higher up nothing but heaps of rocks whitened with saline e£9oresoences. The craters emit constant wreaths of vapour, and all the Banda Islands are subject to frequent earthquake^ In this neighbourhood is best seen the curious phenomenon of the " Milky Sea," the water during the months from June to September appearing white at night and Ulumined by a strange phosphorescent glow. Lying between Indonesia and New Guinea the Southern' Moluccas participate of both regions in their climate and animal and vegetable fonns. But land mam- mals are almost completely absent, while on the other hand each island presents some original types. Noteworthy are the Marsupials (Cuscus), allied to those of New Guinea ; the babirussa, which has reached Burn from Celebes, and especially the huge pythons which attack and devour man. The Moluccas are amazingly, rich in birds, mostly resembling those of Papuasia. In Ceram alone Wallace enimierated fifty-five indigenous species, including a remarkable helmeted casso- wary five or six feet high, the wings being replaced by groups of " homy black spines like blunt porcupine quills." The surrounding waters also teem with every variety of marine life, and in the ports and creeks of Amboyna alone Bleeker found no less than seven hundred and eighty species of fishes, nearly as many as occur in all the European seas and rivers. Amboyna also presents larger and more beautiful butterflies than any other spot on the globe. Tet by a strange and inexplicable contrast the eastern part of Ceram, with all its wealth of vegetation, is extremely poor in animal forms. The " Alfurus," or uncivilised natives of the Southern Moluccas, are allied, not to the Indonesians of Celebes^ Borneo, and Sumatra, but to the Papuans of New AUSTRALASIA. Guinea. Those of Buru, absurdly supposed by some to be thn -vwtern home of the Kastern Polynesians, are of middle size, with deep brown cr mploxu'n and bugfe " mop-hottds." Most of their sottlementH are on the coast, where, as in Ceram, the typo has become largely modified by crossings with Malays and other immigrants. In Amboyna Hindu features are even said to occur, and here the language would seem to betray former Asi'itic influences. Except in Ceram most of the Alfurus have discontinued head-himting and their other ferocious practices. All believe in a Supreme Being, creator and pre- server of all things, great judge, rewarder of good and punisher r/i evil in this life and the next. But he is honoured by no worship, prayers and ircautations being reserved for the innumerable beneficent and malevolent spirits, who dwell in the rocks, the trees, the streams, and the wind. These ure appeased by wizards and astrologers, who also heal maladies, make the crops prosper, and preserve mariners from the dangers of the deep. Marriages are exogamous, and the women as well as debtors are treated with remarkable kindness. In the interior Mohammedanism han hitherto failed to gain a footing, but on the coastlands its influeuce is predomi- nant, and steadily increasing with the ascendency of the Malay intruders. On the other hand Christian missionaries from Amboyna have already baptized some thousands of Cerumese and other islanders. In some villages the Christians are in the majority, and on the coast of Ceram facing Amboyna all the natives are at least nominally Orang. Sirani, or "Nazarenes." The general spread of Christianity is mainly the result of the early proselytis- ' ing zenl of the Portuguese, many traces of whose occupation still survive. In the first year of the seventeenth century the Dutch seized Amboyna and Banda, where they endeavoured to monopolise the trade in the famous spices " worth their weight in gold." They ordered the destruction of the nutmeg and clove forests every- where in their domain exmvpt Amboyna and Banda, and even here the number of plants was strif'tly limited by numerous decrees. For two hundred and fifty years Amsterdam wad the only market in the world where nutmeg, cloves, and mace co\ild be procured ; but this policy was followed by many evils, such as the depopu- lation of formerly flourishing inlands, the spread of piracy, and the debasement of the natives condemned to forced labour on the plantations for half a year. All industries were sacrificed to the cultivation of the spice plants, and the monopoly itself became so burdensome and disastrous that it had at last to be abolished in 1860. Since then the yield has been greatly reduced in Amboyna, but the Banda growers, favoured by the conditions of soil and climate, still compete successfully with those of other spice-growing lands. Amboyna, the native Ambon, capital of the Residence of the Southern Moluccas, lies on. the south side of the bay of like name at the foot of Mount Soya ; it comprises a central trading quarter and suburbs with broad shady avenues stretching for some distance in various directions, with a total population of thirteen thousand. It is commanded by Fort Victoria, and is now a free port, where the largest vessels ride at anchor in ten or fifteen fathoms of water. Amboyna is the centre of the reUgious establishments for all the surrounding t ., -V- um ii u ii I . t il l p i t Vn n i L II M I M U l" > " mmmmifmi^K^^ ' ^' ( mimmx^i'''^^ *^r .r;* j,-Mm*«mWj»««^ ■t:."^,i.iii5^%iiaE;v ^S •B* ▼^ .0. >?^ C ^ /i / ^> F IMAGE EVAiUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ^ US. 12.0 2.2 L25 iu 11.6 ■J' Photographic Sdences Corporation «' 23 WiST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)872-4503 ,Mib^>0^m 4' ^o ' ^1^ <^ «', CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. .'a^^, .-:" ;. '§!■, Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques #■ THE SOUTHERN MOLUCCAS. 288 ■Yi regions ; here resided Valentiju, and here died Rumphius, the pioneers of scientific exploration in Indonesia. The chief port in Buru offers all tha material advantages for a great centre of trade, but on this magnificent and well-sheltered harbour nothing is seen except the obscure village of Kayeli, with a mixed population of about two thousand Fig. 98 — POBT OF AXBOYNA. Scale 1 : 80,000. otoie Feet. Depth*. 16 to 96 96 to .320 Feet. S20 Feet and upwards. .3} MUes. Mussulmans, Christians, and Chinese. The shores of Ceram also present no centres of population beyond a few groups of cabins occupied by Malays, some Moham- medan and Christian Alfurus, and a few foreign traders. Of these groups, known as negerijen, from the Hindu nagar, a town, the chief are Amahai, centre of the Dutch administration on the south side, and on the north Wahai, a fortified village "with an extensive harbour. r ..j ' i.J.y. ' i ' iyj^ i yi.iu ' V y' 284 AUSTRALASIA. The islet of Kilwaru, o£E the east point of Ceram and near the ring-shaped Gisser, presents the aspect of a little " Malay Venice," where the pile-dwellings are so closely packed that the ground can nowhere be seen, and the whole island looks like a flouting village. Lying on the only deep channel across the subma- rine banks of Ceram Laut, Kilwaru is a busy mart, the chief entrepot of the trade between Amboyna and New Guinea. East of Amboyna, the chief town of the Uliasser group is Saparua, in the island of the same name, near the shore of a good haven, and at the converging point of two routes which cross the island at its narrowest parts. But despite ■M Fig. 99.— KiLWABU. 8cftle 1 : 26,000. 150° 52' cash oF Greenwich 130° 5S' otoie Feet. Depths. 16 to 82 Feet. 82 Feet and upwards. i 1,100 Tartta. these natural advantages, Saparua has less than two thousand inhabitants, nearly all Christians. The surrounding plantations yield a larger quantity of cloves than Amboyna, though the crops are very precarious. A good harvest will exceed 340,000 lbs. for the whole Amboyna group, while that of bad years will fall below 66,000 lbs. The fortified town of Banda, or Neira, in the island of like name, occupies one of the most picturesque positions in the Eastern Archipelago. It lies on the north side of Banda Bay, on the slopes of Mount Papenberg, amidst the loveliest nutmeg plantations in the world. The opposite island of Great Banda is almost covered -;;:. iil ii i WPHWipifWp ^ 11 ■fcWf .>',';tf!WlM;U ! ))l.i.Jl«.Bl .j l jjpiipipgii I I NW)) | g || |, Bi ip i ,i]^|i^ ^ ^ ■*^ -aaa^,'aa4^,<^^% ^ ny ^ ^^,«M«mn.jipi THE SOUTHERN MOLUCCAS. 286 with the same shrub, and with others of larger growth planted for protection. The light volcanic soil, the shade, and the natural moisture of the climate are all conditions most favourable for the nutmeg, which here grows almost spontane- ously, whereas in Singapore, Pulo Pinang, and other places successful crops can be raised only by most careful cultivation. A fringe of cocoanut trees encircles the base of the neighbouring Gfunong Api, which is inhabited by the descendants of immigrants from Buton. The islets of :^ ' 1 Fig. 100.— Banda Guoxjp. Boole 1 : ua.uoo. E3 0to6 Fathoms. 6(o25 Fathoms. Depths. SfitoSO Fathoms. SfiO Fathoms and upwards. 2i MUes. Run and Rozengain are also occupied by small colonies of cultivators, descended for the most part from transported convicts. The residence of Amboyna is divided administratively into the four districts of Amboyna, Bum, the Uliasser group, Banda, and the three circumscriptions of Ceram. The Northern Moluccas : Obi, Batjan, Tidor, Ternate, Halmahera, MoROTAI. This northern group, of which Halmahera forms the centre, is completely euolosed on all sides by deep waters. On the west it is separated from Celebes by m^ h< i I I- ;f:- 286 AUSTRALASU. abysses of over a thousand fathoms ; on the north and north-west occur troughs of two thousand fathoms ; southwards, a chasm of fifteen hundred fathoms yawns between Obi and the Southern Moluccas ; lastly, towards the east, depths of five hundred fathoms, with a sill of over two hundred and fifty fathoms, mark the part- ing line between the insular world and the islands depending on Papuasia. The Northern Moluccas are mainly disposeT - ' . ' -^ ' - I 240 AUSTUAI.AfllA. Dutcli luliiiiiiiHtnitivo diviHion known uh th« UcsHh'ure of Tornuto. One of the nioHt roinurkublu pliononicnu in tho luHtory of Ii ionesia is the uxtruonlinary politicul impurtanco ac(|uin«(l by thcNO two insi^niKcunt islets. At the very time when the Italian n^jmhlicM of Venice, I'isa and Genoa wore enjoying? a marveUous proMperity, these caHtern Alahiy comiriunitieH were, under unalogouH conditions, ue(iuiritif( vast cohiniul empires strotehing far over the surrounding archipelagoes and continents. Trading settlements from Tidor and Ternate were founded in all the markets of Malaysia, and their ascendency was maintained as long as their operations were limited to trade. Hut decay set in as 8(K)n as their sultans became rich potentates surrounded by thousands of slaves, levying heavy tribute and plundering the surrounding regions with their armies of mercenaries and piratic fleets. At present these sultans retain little beyond an empty title. The so-called Tig. 104.— DKNsinf OF TiiK PoruLATiow IN Dutch Indonmia. Scale 1 : 4ft 00O.00O. 0* 10* *'as>ffl£i22i..ci:xs:-'«'Vi?» ■ 95' Lsst or breen>/vich liO' IntmUtantl to the (^qiinre Mil*. D D E2 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 100 D 10 to 20 20 to 100 100 to 300. Each (qu « IB- ! 242 AUSTRAI.ASIA. of corsairs. In 1837 the Butch authorities removed four hundred of these pirates to the island of Saleyer, where they received allotments of land to cultivate. The large island of Morotai, which forms the north-east extremity of the Moluccas and of the whole of Indonesia, became entirely depopulated in conse- quence of the constant incursions of the corsairs. Thus the vast colonial empire of Holland, comprising over five hundred islands and too extensive for all its natural resources to be developed, teiininates towards the Pacific Ocean in lands which were formerly thickly inhabited, but which are at present deserted. As shown by the statistical charts, Java, Madura, Bali, and Lombok are the only islands where the population is grouped in considerable masses. The eastern members of the Sunda group are far more sparsely occupied, while the other regions, such as Borneo, Celebes and the Moluccas, are relatively speaking almost uninhabited. In the Appendix will be found a table of the Dutch possessions, with their administrative divisions, areas, and populations. - --'•'r^"-r7rl iii tfl ii i- > ii i (» ii ( ii«>i > i n i iitMi>*aajii^ i»iW*;rf*w iiMrirnr in'uftniiii^ mr 1^ ■-,■4*'", I '". :-*''^7.^ " se pirates ite. y of the in conse- al empire tor all its 1 in lands rted. As the only e eastern the other ig almost with their CHAPTER IV. THE PHILIPPINES. HE term Magellama, given to the Philippine Archipelago in honour of its illustrious discoverer, has shared the fate of other denomina- tions, such as tke Western Isles and the Archipelago of Saint Lazarus, all of which have yielded to the name conferred on this group ly Lopez de Villalobos to flatter his master, Philip II. All these islands are also in a general way designated as the Spanish Indies, rivalling as they do the Dutch East Indies in extent, picturesque beauty, and the infinite variety of their natural resources. Luzon, the largest member of the group, has alone an area of 40,000 square miles ; Mindanao, next in size, is very nearly as extensive ; five others are each over 10,000 square miles in extent, while round about these larger masses is scattered a vast labyrinth of no less than two thousand satellites of all sizes. Luzon and its neighbours scarcely yield to Java, Sumatra or Celebes, in the splendour of their tropical landscapes. Perhaps they even offer greater variety from season to season, thanks to the more marked alternation of the monsoons, due to their greater distance from the eqxiator. The vegetation of the seaboard, which comprises the same or corresponding species, is fully us dense and leafy as that of Indonesia ; the shores are everjrwhere deeply indented by bays and inlets ; island-studded lakes reflect the surrounding woodlands ; the horizon is bounded by lofty crests and cones wrapped in vapours. The inhabitants also, whether aborigines, Malays, Chinese, or half-castes of every shade, present many curious ethnological studies, and appear on the whole to offer more originality than their kindred of Dutch Indonesia. The action of their Spanish rulers, however violent at times, has weighed less oppressively on the natives, whose primitive character has consequently been less profoundly modified than in the Sunda Islands. Some members of the vast archipelago, as well as the more remote districts in the larger islands lying beyond direct Spanish control, have even remained unexplored, while even the regions directly administered by Europeans are still but imperfectly known. No methodic and detailed study of the Philippines has yet been made ; the maps and charts are extremely defective, except for the seaboard, in the survey of which the leading maritime nations have co-operated. The official returns themselves, being left to careless functionaries and parish priests, too often give superficial and even contradictory results, while for the uncivilised If 244 AUSTRALASIA. Scale 1 : 18.000,000. U:'-" natives not even approximate estimates are available. Nevertheless the present population may be fixed at not less than seven millions, or more than nine millions, in a total area of about 118,000 square miles. Although forming a group quite distinct from Indonesia, from which they are separated by two marine abysses, one nearly two thousand five hundred, the other over two thousand five hun- Fig. 106.— TUE THBBB IsTHMUaKS OF INDONESIA AND THK j i n ,i i , i t»i .•■ . Philippines. ^^^"^ fathoms deep, the Philip- pines are connected with the (southern lands by three long ridges, partly rising above the surface, partly covered by shallow water. Of these three isthmuses the north- western is the most regular and best developed, being constituted for over half its extent by the long narrow island of Paragua. Between Mindoro and the north-west point of Borneo the deepest parts of the sill limited by Balabac and Bangney do not average more than twenty- five fathoms. Balabac Strait between Paragua and Borneo is occupied by reefs resem- bling in outline the alluvial islands of a delta, and formed under the influence of the marine current which, during the south-west monsoon, sets strongly towards the Sulu Sea. The second isthmus is formed by the Sulu Archipelago, which connects the north-east point of Borneo with the western extremity of Min- danao. But here the shallow channel, through which the deep waters of the Sulu Sea communicate with the still deeper Celebes Sea, is traversed by a system of alternating currents over two hundred and fifty fathoms in depth. Lastly, east of the nearly circular trough of the Celebes Sea the penin- sula of Minahassa, with the Sauguir Archipelago and other islands, develop a third isthmus sweeping round to the southernmost point of Mindanao. This connecting to 1,000 Fathoms. Depthn. 1,000 to 2.000 Fathoms. 2,000 Fathomi and upward*. I SCO Miles. iiWiil'iii''iiiiiilBfe iifeiliiilia'iflfTiii5;> , THE PHILirPINES. 245 ridge is also broken by numerous openings, the broadest and deepest of which lies off the coast of Mindanao. As shown by the submarine explorations of the Chnllpnger, the two baeins enclosed between the Philippiues and Borneo resemble the Mediterranean in the tem])erature of their lower depths. The cold waterei of the oceanic depths are unable to penetrate across the intervening isthmuses into these inland seas, where the thermometer nowhere records less than 50*^ F. These three lines of partly emerged, partly submarine, ridges, stretching from Indonesia towards the Philippines, continue their main axis in the interior of this archipelago, and constitute a great part of its relief. Mindanao, least known of the whole group, although one of the most remarkable for its volcanic phenomena, is formed, at least in the west and centre, by the prolongation of the two eastern ridges, iuuiuuted seaward by the Sulu and Sanguir Archipelagoes. The Sulu axis, whose normal direction is south-west and north-east, comprises all the western peninsula of Mindanao, while the Sanguir axis, running south and north, strikes the southern point of the same region at the Saragani volcano. Beyond this point it first continues its northerly trend and then gradually sweeps round to the west. East of this mountain range another parallel chain occupies all the eastern section of Mindanao bordering on the Pacific Ocean. A broad survey of the whole orographic system shows in the same way that, from the southern point of Mindanao to the northern extremity of Luzon, the relief of all the islands is disposed in a line with or parallel to the southern isthmuses. Thus the coast range of the east side of Mindanao is continued north-west in a graceful curve through the islands of Leyte, Masbate, Ticao, and Burias ; in the east is developed a parallel curve formed by the island of Samar, the Camarines peninsula in Luzon, and the Isla del Polillo. On the other hand the islands of Bohol, Cebu, Negros, and Panay are disposed in a line with or parallel to the Sulu Archipelago, while Mindoro and the main section of Luzon form the north- eastern extension of Paragua and Borneo. In many places volcanic or other masses mark the points of intersection, and it is noteworthy that in Luzon, most rugged of the Philippines, all the cordilleras converge like the ribs of a dome in the culminating crest of Caraballo. ^orth of the Philippines the mountain ranges, interrupted by broad straits, are continued through Formosa and the Liu-Kieu group towards Japan. The whole surface of the Philippines is essentially mountainous, the only plains that occur being the alluvial districts at the river mouths, and the spaces left at the intersection of the ranges. Mut of the surface appears to be formed of old rocks, especially schists, and, in the north of Luzon, granites. Extensive coal-fields are found in the central islands, especially Cebu and Negros, and in many places these carboniferous beds seem to have been buried under more recent lavas. Later limestones have also been developed by the coral-builders round all the seaboard, and there is clear evidence that along extensive stretches of the coastline these formations have been upheaved to a considerable height above sea-level. They form at some points broad horizontal tables round the headlands, and here are found shells and other marine remains belonging to the same species still living in m 246 AUSTRALASIA. the surrounding waters. But about the Gulf of Davao, in South Mindanao, the contrary movement of subsidence has taken place, as shown by the dead or dying forests invaded by the sea. The Philippines abound in minerals. The natives collect gold in the alluvia of all the islands, but especially m the province of Benguet, Central Luzon, and about the north-east point of Surigao, in Mindanao. Copper is common in the Lepanto hills bordering on the same central district of Luzon, where from time immemorial the natives have extracted the ore and wrought it into implements and ornaments. The blacksmiths also have at hand an excellent iron ore for their arms and instruments. Cebu is said to contain lead-glance yielding nearly half of its weight in pure metal, while the solfataras of many extinct volcanoes have formed inexhaustible deposits of sulphur. Extinct or still active craters are relatively as numerous in the Philippines as in the Eastern Archipelago, and all seem disposed in regular axes coinciding with those of the islands themselves. In the islet of Dumaran, at the north-east end of Paragua, rise the two active cones of Alivancia and Talaraquin, and Sulu has also its burning mountain, which, however, appears to have been quiescent since the eruption of 1641. Sarangani, or Sangil, at the southern extremity of Min- danao, hasalso been at rest since the seventeenth century. On the range running thence northwards stands the Apo volcano, which was ascended by Montano in 1880, and found to be the highest in the Philippines (10,310 feet). The islet of Camiguin, belonging to the same coast range, forms another igneous cone, which was the scene of a violent outburst in 1871. West of Apo follow in the direction from south to north several cones, such as Sugut (Cottabato), Macaturin, and Malindang, all probably extinct, but apparently connected through the western islands with the Taal volcano in Luzon. Along this line occurs the still active Malaspina or Canloon, in the northern part of Negros (9,040 feet). The eastern coast range in Mindanao, consisting mainly of basalts, appears to contain no volcano, unless the large and deep lake Mainit, near the extreme head- land of Surigao, is to be regarded as an old crater. The coast range is continued northwards through the island of Leyte, where the argillaceous soil, near the wooded crater of an extinct cone, yields about one-fourth of pure sulphur. j But the igneous energy of the Philippines is concentrated mainly in Luzon, where the superb Bulusan volcano stands at the southernmost extremity connected by a narrow isthmus vrith the peninsula of Camarines. Farther north follow the craterless Poedal, and on the Gulf of Albay, the Albay, or Maj-'^n volcano, the most dreaded as weU as one of the highest (9,000 feet ?) in the whole archipelago. Mayon, which is of almost perfectly regular form, covers at its base a circuit of over eighty square miles, its flanks are clothed with forests to a height of about two thousand feet, but higher up little is visible except deposits of scoria), which are very difficult to scale. Nevertheless, both Jagor and Von Drasche reached the summit, the latter in 1876, when no trace could be detected of a crater properly so called. During its frequent eruptions Mayon ejects little lava but prodigious .1. iwwwjwienwj imiami.ij xiiiiii'ildui l"lll'|'l«|||i'*ilffi|ifilV !' ' ' t hi' I I rj, 1,1/1' ill I'll, ill I,, W' I' 1,1 I Ik' PiiM .' y.' l" f" •>i. \, mmkliltim u»0m . tim < ULmmiji:vimiM i l ii M i mmm VOLCANOES OF TUE I'lIILirPINES. 247 quantities of ashes cover the surrounding districts fur and wide. In 1814 the town of Daraga was buried and the ejected matter was wafted as fur as Munilla, two hundred miles distant. Nazaraga (4,445 feet), a craterless dolorite cone, and Malinao, which appears to have been quiescent for ages, continue the igneous chain northwards to Iraga, the scene of a disturbance in 1641, when the little Ijakc Buhi was formed by a sudden Fig. 107.— SotrrHEHN Part of Luzon. Scule 1 : 1, 500,00' ). 3l..<^>7^1^^ =^'^i !^^^=F^ l25°ao' tasb oPureRnwirh '^^Mm l.?1°20 Depths. OtoSO Fathoms. 60 to 100 Fathoms. 100 Fathoms and upwards. , 36 Miles. landslip. East of this lake the Tibi valley presents the most remarkable group of thermal, sulphui'ous, and sili'ious springs in the whole archipelago. They are copious enough to develop a rivulet of hot water, which the people of the neigh- bourhood utilise for culinary purposes. The springs precipitate considerable quantities of silica, covering the surface with dazzling white innriistationi?, and one jet of water and vapour has a temperature of no less than 226° F. At the neck of the Caramuan peninsula stands the broad-based Ysarog (Isarog), n i m iMiw i |i 60 Miles. an islet in the middle of Lake Bombon, which is separated from the China Sea by a low narrow isthmus. Taal, whose flanks arc furrowed by deep gorges, terminates in an enormous crater, out of all proportion with its size. "Purgatory," as the natives call this crater, has a circumference of over 4,300 yards, and contains in its depths secondary craters, numerous crevasses emitting vapours, and two blue lakelets charged with sulphuric and hydrochloric acids in the proportion of over six per cent. Formerly the two other volcanoes in the island — the Great and Little Binintiang — ejected ashes alternately, and the bed of the lake itself was occasionally in a. state of eruption; but since 1749 all the underground forces have been centred in Mount Taal, which casts up showers of pulverised rock, but VOLCANOES OF TIIK rHIUrPINES. 24» no lavas. The last outburst in 1885 destroyed all traces of vegetation in the island. Bombon, which is nearly 610 feet deep, was probably a vast orator, of which the islet with its three volcanoes in merely the central cone, while the walls of tufii, over 600 feet high, encircling the north and east shores of the lake, are the remains Fig. 109.— Lake Bombon. Scale 1 ; .TOO.OOti. w ■■'%■■ J y SVTon 14' tSJ a«l 4 " .#• X 120" 56- Labb of breenw7ch ISI'S' 6 Miles. of the original rim of the crater. But, like that of the island of Saint Paul, tbis crater was formerly open towards the sea, as shown by the present intervening barrier, which is entirely composed of eruptive scoriae. The water of the old inlet, thus couverted into a lake, is stiil somewhat saline, although constantly renewed by rain water, and although the overflow is carried off by an emissary running south-west to the coast. The marine fauna inhabiting the lake has gradually adapted itself imo AUSTHAIASIA. f to itn modified environment. The great Tiuko Ray, or the Laguna, south-eaiit of Manilla, was also probably un ancient marine gulf cut off tVoni the Hoa by the narrow isthmus of recent formation on whi<'h stands the capital of the Philippines. According to Sompor, the Laguna is inhabited by the shark and another soa-tish found in the m'ighbouring marine waters. The peninsulas and islets in the northern part of the Laguna, as well as the island of Corrcgidor, at the entrance of Manilla Bay, consist of igneous rocks, but all have been quiescent throughout the historic j)eriod. The (contradictory statements of Spanish writers leave it doubtful whether any outbursts occurred in the seventeenth century at Mount AriL^^iy, or Santo-Tomas (7,o;iO feet), which rises above the east side of Liugayeu Bay. Data, lying to the north-oast of Aringay, is certainly quiescent, although, like several other cones in this group, it is encircled by thermal springs and solfataras. No other volcano occurs between this district and the northern extremity of Luzon, where Cagud (3,020 feet), at the terminal headland, constantly emits wreaths of smoke. Beyond this point the igneous system is continued under the sea to the island of Camiguin (2,415 feet), which contains a productive solfatara. In the neighbour- ing Babuyan, an active volcano rose above the surface in 1856 ; four years later it had attained a height of nearly 700 feet, and since then has continued to grow, its present elevation apparently being about 800 feet. The reefs of Dedica, on which the new volcano stands, would themselves appear to be the remains of an old burning mountain. In this vast igneous chain, which extends from Sangil for about 1,000 miles northwards, the last member is Babuyan Claro, whose fiery cone, over 3,000 feet high, lights up at night the dangerous waters of the Sea of Formosa. This great island is connected with the Philippines through the reefs and islets of the intervening Batanes (Bashee) Archipelago. Few regions are more subject to underground disturbances than the Philippines. Despite the numerous " safety-valves " which, according to certain theories, are offered by the active volcanoes to the subterranean forces, this archipelago may bo said to be in a continual state of tremor. The seismographs of the Manilla Obser- vatory are constantly vibrating ; the crust of the earth is incessantly quivering with undulations, normally running in the direction from west to east, and few years pass without some disaster caused by these oscillations. The city of Manilla has been frequently wasted hy such convulsions, and most of its public buildings and European houses built of stone were levelled to the ground by that of 1863, the most terrible on record. The no less violent shock of 1880 was far less disastrous, the edifices having in the interval been constructed on a plan better s^^le to resist the effects of these oscillations. During the earthquake of 1880 Taal and several other volcanoes were in full eruption, and a submarine crater, between the island of Polillo and the east coast of Luiioii, rose above the surface ; but the folluwiug year thiu heap of ashes Ixad entirely disappeared, washed away by the waves. The disposition of the mountain ranges in parallel chains has afforded space for the development of some considerable streams both in Luzon and Mindanao. The -^-•»,«ll«IISJ mil II ii|ii»'nn>i« lUVEiW OF TllK rUlLIWINEa. 261 most copiouH 18 the Ciigayan, or Rio (Jnimlc, which after a courso of over 200 miloH Ix'twoen two oordilloruH in liUzon cutors the w«u throujjfh a broad cHtuary fiuung the islaTid of Catnimjin. The Aj9° ; rainfall about 100 inches. •.. 4' «MMMi iimi I * .j* ii iiML.:i ! ;ia > . < j] ' ! ' ", ' '" ' ' X ' 'V-i' ' i'*^^fi^ ' «« w> > ' ' - w( |l« i>n; » W'»n i ii i> i iii i ni ! <-ii ii ijl i ] iii i]ii/i- i if, m mmi^^^^- *^ ■Aj^aliiilV.riiiiat.^fe'iga^; S^^:* INHABITANTS OF THE THILirPlNES. 268 element ; it is met browsing fur from the streams, and even climbing up the stems of palm-trees. All the venomous orders of snakes are represented in the local fauna, and crocodiles grow to an enormous size, some having been met about 30 feet long, at least according to De la Gironniere. Inhabitants of the Phh^ippines. The aborigines, gradually driven back or exterminated by the intruding Malays, have disappeared altogether from some of the islands, and in the others are now met only in scattered tribal or family groups. The full-blood Aetas (Atas, Itas), as these Negritoes, or " Little Negroes," are collectively called, do not number at present more than twenty thousand in the whole archipelago ; but traces of Negrito blood may be detected in large sections of the population, which presents every shade of transition in physical appearance, culture, and usages, between the Negrito and Malay elements. The pure blacks are most numerous in the island of Ncgros, but they are also found in all the other islands, except the archipelagoes north of Luzon, and apparently Samar, Leyte, Bohol, and Sulu. The Negritoes fully deserve their name, for the average height is under five feet. The head is relatively large, with bright eyes, high forehead, abundant frizzly and at times almost woolly hair, slender extremities, calf almost absent, and great toe often standing wide apart. The wrinkles of the face combined with their projecting jaws give them at times quite a simian aspect. The Aetas speak Malay in their intercourse with their more civilised neighbours, but amongst themselves they use words of unknown origin, supposed to be derived from the primitive language which was still current in the seventeenth century. It appears, however, that many of their tribes must have been subject to Malay influences from very remote times, for the dialects spoken in some districts undoubtedly belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family, although the Aetas them- selves are sprung from a totally different ethnical stock. Most of the tribes practise tattooing ; circumcision is also very general, and in some parts the women artificially deform the skulls of their children. Except in the vicinity of populous districts little clothing is worn beyond a loin-cloth by the men, and a short skirt by the women. In some places they build huts of branches and foliage, and even pile-dwellings like those of the Malays ; but elsewhere their only protection from the inclemency of the weather are frail screens of palm-leaves, wljich are placed against the sun, wind, or rain. In the provinces where they are gradually becoming civilised, they clear and till the land, raise poultry and pigs, and enter into trading relations with the Malays. But being unable to reckon beyond four and five, they are easily cheated, and they have evidently a profound sense of their own inferiority, reserving the term tao, or " men," to the dominant race. Apart from the Negritoes, the Chinese settlers, the Europeans and half-castes, the entire population, at least north of Mindanao, is of Malay origin and speech. At some unknown, but certainly very remote epoch, the Malay ancestors of the i T\ »"' .?"'<« '- v j .v> r m- _iM.;jui ■.>»..-..iu.\ti.;,.VM''Vif^.:r.'-r:rr,-'yVi^.\9:»'-'i\,,i^fitfi^ !| »l I 254 AUSTRALASIA. presenf^ inhabitants effected a permanent footing in the arcbiptihigo. The term Fig. 111.— Gboup of Neobitoes. balangay, or boat, still applied to the villages, recalls the time when these mariners. INHABITANTS OF THE THILIPPINES. 265 lifflil) iH ,.*;t- encamping on the beach, continued to lead much the same lives as when scouring the high seas in their praus. As was the case with the sampans or junka of the ■ more recent Chinese settlers, every balangay became the cradle of a Malay colony, In general the Philippine Malays resemble those of Indonesia, except that in Fig. 112. — Chikp Inhabitants ov the Philippines. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. **-. ;;:^ Tagal«. Vioota. Viaajma and Kindred. llocanoR. Znmbalaa and Cagayanea. Fagasinanes. nniD Tfforrotoa and Moon and Davaks. Kindred. Kindred. ■'■(■ ■ ■ Ur: -t.;-*'^ Negritoes. . 80 Miles. Chinese. some places, and especially Luzon, a slight transition is presented towards the Chinese tj'pe. Thus the oblique eyes, rare amongst the southern Malays, is on the contrary a distinctive feature of the northern Malays. Independently of their special local characteristics and dialects, all are brn.id1y gro'ipef'. in three clat,3Cb ? . . i . Tf A ?v . »fflift'rti i >tg i iyiwai»tf , -- i» ii»r W- i iftn'« ■~f 25U AUSTEALASIA. Kl. ft ''■' U$; %■ K'^ according to their religion and pursuits. Those who have accepted the authority of the whites and the ministrations of the Catholic clergy are called Indios, or *' Indians," und this class is gradually merging in a common nationality. Those of the south, who remain followers of the Prophet, are collectively known as Moras, or " Moors ; " lastly, the tribes that have maintained their independence, or submit impatiently to the foreign yoke and still practise their old pagan rites, form the class of Lijie/es, or " Infidels." Of the Indies the most civilised are the Tagals (Ta-Gala), who number 1,500,000, and are steadily increasing, less by the excess of births over deaths than by the gi'adual assimilation of the surrounding tribal groups. The Tagal domain, which comprises all the central parts of Luzon, is slowly encroaching on all the other populations of the island. Thus in the north it has already absorbed the territory of the Pampangos and Pangasinanes, in the north-east that of the Aetas, in the south-east that of the Vicols, while the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque have also become "Tagalised." The Tagals are met everywhere along the sea- board, and are in fact the chief pioneers of European culture throughout the archi- pelago. Besides them there are other groups of Indios, even in Luzon, such as the Ilocos or Ilocunos on the west coast north of Lingayen Bay, and the Ibanags or Cagayanes in the extreme north and neighbouring islands. The Vicols, or Bicols, who occupy the Camarines peninsula, with the islands of Catanduuue^i, Burias, Ticao, and half of Masbate, greatly resemble the Tagals, and like them were already somewhat civilised before the arrival of the Spaniards. They number at least 400,000, including the Cimarrones and a few other groups who still keep aloof in the more inaccessible hilly districts. The third great ethnical division of the Indies are the Visuyus, or Bisayas, who are estimated at 2,500,000, and who give their name to the cluster of islands comprised between Luzon and Mindanao. They have also formed several settlements on the coast of Mindanao itself, and to the same division belong the inhabitants of the Calamianes Islands and of Paragua, although their darker colour and wavy hair betray evident traces of Negrito blood. The Visayas had formerly the habit of " painting them- selves with fire," whence the term Pintados applied to them by the Spaniards. But since their submission and acceptance of Christianity, they have discontinued this practice, as well as that of head-hunting, formerly universal. The " Moors," who occupy the Sulu Archipelago and the southern shores of Mindanao, comprise, like the Indios, a considerable number of distinct tribes or nations, united by the common tics of their Mohammedan faith and social usages. Amongst them are groups resembling the Bornean Dayaks, the Bayos of Celebes, and other Malayan peoples. The aristocratic families are Arabs, or else from Bor- neo or Ternate, while traces of crossings with the Chinese and Spanish renegades may also be detected. The roving habits of these corsairs, who were continually carrying off the women from all the ;jurrounding regions, have made the Moors one of the most mixed populations in the extreme East. Their essentially feudal indtitutions caused the whole social organization to rest on piracy. By the siae of the sultauB were their almost equally powerful vassals. v* .;^. - -|g'aBBH I » | l»'>- *-' ■W*"^: INHABITANTS OF THE PHILiri'INES. 257 the daiu, each of whom, with the reservation of the homage due to his suzeruin, became proprietor of the lands conquerod and wealth plundered by his retainers! The tao maraluiy, or " good men," that is, the free warriors, accompanied them on their predatory expeditions, while the nncope; or lack-land class, were reduced to a state of serfdom. Like the Norman knights they issued forth in search of adven- ture, to do battle against the infidel in the name of the true faith, or to acquire renown by carrying off women, slaves, and treasure. In the early years of the Fig. 113.— IruoAO Indian. #: w ■■Sfr*'^'""; sixteenth century they were beginning to overrun the Philippine Archipelago, and but for the intervention of the Spaniards there can be no doubt that the Tagals would at present be Mohammedans. Piracy in these waters was not entirely destroyed till the latter half of the present century by the Spanish occu- pation of the Mindanao seaboard and the Sulu Archipelago. >J >' - . The pagan populations, often confounded by the Spaniards under the general name of Tgormt^'s, still form a considerable section of the inhabitants both in Luzon and Mindanao. The Igorrotes, properly so called, dwell east of the llocos, in the 17— o 258 AUSTRALASIA. Benguet Valley and surrounding hilly districts. North of them are the Tingui- anes, whose Christianity is limited to the possession of crucifixes used as talismans ; eastwards the upper Cagayan basin is held by the Ilongotes, Ifugaos, Catalanganus, Irayas, and other pagan tribes. The Tinguianes, whose complexion is almost white, are regarded by most observers as half-castes of Chinese origin, whereas the Igorrotes appear to be Tagals, who have hitherto preserved their primitive religion and usages. They believe in a supreme God, and in other deities in whom are personified the phenomena of nature. To these they offer sacrifices, although their chief worship is that of their anitos, or ancestors, whose souls rustle in the foliage of the sacred tree planted at the entrance of every village. These anitos also appear at times in the form of animals, and in many parts of Luzon, as in Celebes, the fish ponds are stocked with eels which are tended by the natives with filial piety. Strict laws of solidarity bind together the family group, and all outrages must be avenged by death ; hence the hereditary feuds, and the prevalence of head-hunting amongst these tribes. The Ifugaos use the lasso to seize the passing foe and drag him suddenly under the sharp knife. Amongst the Igorrotes certain practices survive pointing at former Brahmanical influences, and the very term dimta, applied to the national deities, is of Hindu origin. lu ]>Iiuuanao, the " Infidels ' comprise numerous communities, which are often grouped by the whites under the collective name of Manobos. But this term should properly be restricted to the natives of the north-east, who occupy the Agusan basin and the Surigao peninsula. Some of those dwelling near the coast have been conquered and converted by the Spaniards, others iu the interior present the Malay type of the Visayans more or less modified by Negrito crossings. But most of the tribes appear to bo of the Indonesian stock, which is closely allied to the eastern Polynesian, and characterized by high stature, fair complexion, and well-proportioned figures. The lobe of the ear is usually pierced for the introduc- tion of bone and other ornaments ; the teeth of the young men are filed according to a different pattern for every clan ; the heads of the children are artificially de- formed in many communities, and various systems of tattooing prevail amongst the different tribes. » * The expression " Land of Terror," applied by Montano to the eastern regions of Mindanao, might with equal truth be extended to nearly the whole island. When the Manobos, led by their high priest with his divine talisman, have suc- ceeded in surprising their sleeping enemies, they slaughter all the men and carry away the women and children into slavery. After the victory the high priest opens the breast of the victim with the sacred knife, plunges the talisman in the flowing blood, and eats the heart or liver raw. The Mandayas, who slay for honour, have a special term, bagani, to designate the hero who has cut at least fifty heads, and who has alone the privilege of wearing a scarlrl r^ -ban. Vast territories have been transformed to solitudes by this incessant intertribal rfat- fare. Of foreigners settled in the Philippines the most numerous are the Chinese. '9»!i»IW)WliW<3SiWiWiW JJWUJIMJiJiUiimiW^^ INHABITANTS OF THp] PHILIPPINES. I Tingui- lismans ; unganus, 8 almost ereas the s religion bom are although e in the tse anitos :on, as in ves with imust be -hunting and drag practices tn dimta, are often bhis term cupy the the coast )r present igs. But allied to xion, and introduc- iccording cially de- ongst the n regions e island, lave suc- ind carry ^h priest m in the slay for ; at least in. Yast ibal fVal"- Ohineee From time immemorial their colonies have fringed the seaboard, and in nearly all the tribes traces may be detected of Chinese crossings. According to the imperial annals, the native princes sent envoys and tribute to the " Children of Heaven," and objects of Chinese workmanship found in the local graves show that trading relations had long been established between the two regions. Three times during the seventeenth century the Chinese of Luzon rose against their Spanish masters, and each time the revolt was quelled in torrents of blood. After uU .manner of harassing restrictions were imposed on these troublesome immigrants, they were expelled in mass or massacred in 1763, soon after the temporary occupation of Manilla by the English. But with them trade disappeared, and despite the con- tempt of Europeans and the hatred of Tagals, they had soon to bo recalled, so that at present every town in the archipelago has its Chinese quarter. In 1887, they were estimated altogether at fifty-three thousand, almost exclusively men, most of whom return to China after making their fortune, and generally leaving behind them a family of half-castes. These hulf-castes, who resemble the Chinese much more than the native type, found new homes in their turn, and, thanks to their surprising vigour, they constitute at present the majority of the bourgeois class in most of the towns. Although the Spaniards made their appearance forty-four years after the death of Magellan, the conquest of the archipelago is still far from complete. Although by an abuse of language spoken of as a colony, it is really a military possession, in which the whites are mainly officials, who control the natives, but found no permanent settlements in the country. The Spanish Creoles, hoAvevcr, who have not maintained the purity of their blood, are perfectly acclimatised, and become the heads of numerous more or less mixed families. The white element, in which are also represented some Peruvians and Mexicans, numbers altogether about four- teen thousand, a proportion not greater than that of the Dutch in Indonesia. Apart from the wild tribes in Mindanao and elsewhere, the inhabitants of the Philippines are amongst the most civilised in the extreme East. In most of the provinces the villages of the Indies are well kept and far superior, in many res- pects, to the irregular groups of cabins still to be seen in so many European lands. Each dwelling is isolated in the midst of a flowery garden, and separated from Ae adjoining plots by rows of palms and bananas. The houses are all raised on piles about seven feet above the ground, thus recalling the time when the natives dwelt on alluvial lands on the shores of lakes or the sea. The timber framework of ^hese houses is carved with the greatest care and often with much taste ; while the well- swept and polished apartments are fitted with good furniture and Chinese ornaments. Except in the territory of the Ilocos and some other parts, each family has its little independent plot of land, and this system of small free lodgings prevails throughout most of the archipelago. Apart from a few Chinese half-castes nobody owns extensive domains, but all have enough, taking one season with another, to support their families and leave a little for the feasts niiH holidays. In the thickly peopled provinces the land is di^dded and subdivided into innimierable allotments 260 AUSTE.UiASIA for tho cultivation of rice, sweet potatoes, and other alimentary produce. All the plots belong to the cultivators themselves, who sell only the surplus of their crops, and this surplus, bought up by Chinese and other middlemen, constitutes the great bulk of tho commodities exported by the Manilla merchants. But the exports are still far less than they might be, for the cultivated lands are estimated at not more than 4,500,000 acres, or scarcely one-fifteenth of the whole area of the archipelagp. One of the last of the old government monopolies was that of tobacco, which was not abolished till tho year 1882. This plant is cultivated chiefly in the northern provinces of Luzon, and especially in the Cagayan basin. Formerly the labourers on the plantations were little better than serfs. Every village was bound to deliver a certain quantity of tobacco at a price far inferior to the real value. The result was that the cultivators, oppressed by official rapacity, found no time to till their rice-fields, and, dtspito tho groat fertility of the soil, they were constantly threatened with famine. The monopoly tended also to impair the quality of the leaf, and the Manilla cigars, badly prepared by servile labour, became greatly inferior to those of Havana. At present the Philippines hold the fifth place for the production of tobacco, standing before Cuba and coming next after the United States, Turkey, Brazil, and Indonesia. The plantations suffered much from the ravages of parasites before the introduction of certain insectivorous birds from Cochin-China. Sugar, which stands first on the list of exports, goes almost entirely to the United States and Groat Britain. The crop is about two-thirds of that of Java, and is now valued at about £2,000,000. Coffee, much neglected after the Franco- German war, has again acquired some importance ; but cacao and other colonial produce contribute little to the export trade. An extensive local industry has been developed in connection with tho Musa abaca, commonly known as "Manilla hemp," from which are woven textile fabrics superior in strength and lightness to those made of the best Russian hemp. These articles are seldom exported, being almost entirely bought up by the Chinese half-castes for the local consumption. The banana, which yields the fibre for this industrj', flourishes best in the Cama- rines peninsula, where as much as thirty cwts. are raised on an acre of ground. None of the other native industries have acquired any development, so that most manufactured wares have to be imported from abroad. During the last decade the movement of exchange has increased rapidly, thanks to the abolition of certain monopolies, the reduced customs dues, the free admission of foreign shipping, and the opening of new ports to trade. Regular lines of steam-packets ply now between Manilla and the two great British marts of Singapore and Hong- Kong, while smaller steamers maintain the communications between the capital and the chief seaports of the archipelago. But the great natural resources of many inland districts still lie dormant, owing to the almost total absence of good roads and of railways, beyond a short line running from Manilla northwards. On the other hand, the social position of the people is greatly superior to that of the Javanese and other populations under Dutch administration. Most of the i-.-f f MMJUMte-lU'jltiMlil)! INIIAHITANTH OF THE I'llILIl'I'lNKS. 861 ludios huve loarnt to reud and write Spanish, und even when omployinj? thoir native idioms they suhstitute the Roman for the somewhat rudo and difficult characters of Hindu origin, which Were in use before the arrival of the Spaniards. The civilised natives have also adopted the P^uropoan cnatunic, though in a tnodifiod form, wearing the shirt as a blouse, and the Chinese form of hat. Speaking generally, the Indies of the Philippines may bo regarded as amongst the happiest populations in the world. They k i pleasant, easy life in the midst of their fragrant gardens, under the shade of fruit-laden palms, and on the banks of babbling brooks. In many places they sow their rice in cadence, to the sound of violin or clarionette. But they yield too readily to indolent habits, and omit no opportunity of indulging in the national vice of gambling. Cock-fighting is a favourite sport on feast days, and the Roman Catholic religion itself is for them little more than a succession of festive amusements. Troubling themselves little with questions of dogma, they display extraordinary zeal in the celebration of the pompous rites of the Roman liturgy, and a great part of their existence is thus passed in the observance of practices not greatly differing from those of their primitive cult. A domestic altar, with the images of the Madonna and saints, suc- cessors of the ancient anifos, occupies the place of honour in every household, and the humblest hamlet has its special feast, during which these sacred images, draped in embroidered silks and crowned with chaplets of flowers, are borne at the head of brilliant processions. The churches, built in the Spanish " Jesuit " style, are similarly decorated with rich hanging!?, bannerols and floral festoons, while every village has its band of musicians, who accompany the religious ceremonies with a flourish of trombones and cymbals. Actors also are frequently engaged to perform the " mysteries," and play comedies in which the sacred and profane are strangely intermingled, the feast days kept in honour of the saints usually winding up with a grand display of fireworks. The cur^, especially if a Spaniard by birth, is the most influential person in the district, and to him the"Capitan" applies for advice on all serious occasions. The church bells announce the hour of his siesta, and on him far more than on troops and arms the government depends for the absolute submission of the con- verted natives. But the increasing relations with the outer world, the spread of education, the diffusion of profane literature daily penetrating more and more despite the censure of the press, all tend to bring about a new order of things, under which the Indies, while becoming more assimilated to their European maater, must gain in independence and moral freedom. Hence the local clergy show themselves little favourable to changes threatening to diminish their influence over their congregations. They even see with reluctance the slow spread of the Spanish language amongst the natives. But this result is inevitable since the official decree that no Indio can henceforth exercise any remunerative or public function, even in the villages, unless he can read and write Spanish. ■f" A ' V^: '■ v '. V ,:: Topography of the Philippines. Manilla, capital of the Philippines, lies on a spacious oval-shaped bay at the I!! It. I 1 IH il 262 AUSTRALASIA. mouth of tho Pasij? emissary of the noighbouring Lugunii. The city properly bo- callcd, enclosed by u lino of riimpurtB, occupies the site on the left or southern bank, which was chosen by Lopez de Legaspi in lo71 as the bulwark of Spanish power Fijf. 114.— Maniila. Seal* I : 4&,(X)0. . 3,800 Tai^. -IT-" in the Eastern seas. Here are centred the administrative buildings, barracks, and convents, while trade and the industries have migrated to the quarters on the north side, which are connected by two bridges wifh " walled Manilla," as the old ■'.. I \ 5 -* t i t m TorOOlUlUY OF TUE I'UlLll'l'lNliH. 868 I town 18 railed. KxtcnMivo Nuburhb iiIho Mtrctch ulong both inurpfiiiH of tho Panig, the wholo |)lu<'«) covcrirg an urcu of iil)oiif fivi' s(|iian> niile«. Tho Kuniliiry roiiditionB uro fur from HuliHfiictory. Thus tlu* river, the wiitor of whith tukoii alxjvo the city is uwd for drinking purposcM, is churned with all kinds of refuse floutiug up and down with the tidcH. The numerous ennuis derived from tho I'asig, und ri'raifying through this "Tugiil Venice," run dry for hulf the year, heaving deposits of fetid mud to poison the atmosphere. Tho fortifications also, now ahsolutely useless as defensive works serve only to prevent tho free circulation of healthy sea-bree/es. Often shaken by earth(}iiakeN, Manilla possesses nr) public buildings of an imposing character, but hero are centred tho chief educational ■istablishmcnts, tho observatory, a Bchool of design, a small museum, und a public library. As a centre of trade Manilla occupies an admirable jwsition at the outlet of an inland sea, and on a vast bay 120 miles in circumference, spacious enough to accommodate all tho navies of the world. The a])prouch to this luudstead i.s partly protected by the volcanic Corrogidor island, while during tho prev, lence of tho south-west monsoon ships of throe hundred tons are able to ride at anchor in the Pasig estuary under shelter of a long pier. The inlet at Ctivite, eight miles farther south, also affords a refuge at this season in small men-of-war, and a new port in course of construction off the old town will soon accommodate ships of the heaviest tonnage in its extensive basins. To its other advantages Manilla adds its com- manding position on the main routes of navigation between the Sunda Strait and the Yangtze- Kiang estuary. Lapdrouse asserted, perhaps with some exaggera- tion, that the capital of the Philippines occupied the finest commercial site of any city in the world. Until the year 1811 it served as 'Mo cliief intermediate station for the trade between Spain and Lor American colon i .s. Manilla is connected by a line of steam omnibuses with Malahou, which, like the capital, lies on the shores of a guli at the mouth of a river. Here is the largest cigar manufactory in the Philippines, employing at times as many as ten thousand hands. Both Malabon and Biilacan, which stands a little farther north on a branch of the Pampanga, may be regarded as industrial dependencies of Manilla. The same remark applies also to the fortified town of Cavite, which lies to the south, and which, with its arsenal, docks, factories, and European build- ings, has the most Spanish aspect of any town in tue archipelago. The neighbour- ing district of Indan is noted for the prime quality of its coffee. The two pueblos of Panig and Paferos, on the Laguna, at the outlet of its emis- sary should also be considered as outer markets of the capital. For over three miles along the banks of the river nothing is to be seen except aquatic preserves for the ducks bred to supply the wants of the city. They are fed on shell-fish brought from the roadstead, and the eggs are artificially hatched at Pa teres. The lake, Laguna de Bay, takes its name from a village on the south side of this inland sea ; on the same side but more to the north-west stands Santa-Cruz, capital of the province. Here are also the much-frequented thermal waters of Baiios, and tho industrial town of Lucban, which, with its springs, grottoes, and cascades, •»!*?" '•.f,:^*i 264 AUSTRAIiASIA. occupies one of the most romantic sites in Luzon, not fur from the San-Cristobal volcano. On the north side of the Laguna lies the riverain port of Moron, also a provincial capital. In the basin of the copious Pampanga river, a northern affluent of Manilla Bay, are several populous towns, such as Gapan, near some gold and coal mines in the province of Nueva-Ecija, a more important place than its capital, San-Isidro. This is one of the regions which suffered most from the earthquakes of 1880, when Fig. 116. — Entibons of Manilla. Scale I : 300,000. I20°i,v Eijsb oF Greenwich l2l°-> ^ Depths. W,, Bands exposed at low water. Otol6 Feet. 16 to 83 Feet. 83 Feet i?-A /' '■ V>;v;>^' and upwards. .■ ;'= ' .6 Miles. vast tracts along the river bank were broken into more or less regular sections by yawning crevasses. Farther south is Bacolor, another provincial chief town, which was selected as the capital of the Spanish possessions during the temporary occupa- tion of Manilla by the English in 1762. The steamers plying between Manilla and the Low^i.* Pampanga stop at the station of Ouagna below Bacolor. Calumpit, an agricultural centre east of this place, stands at the confluence of the Pampanga and Quingoa rivers, in the most fertile district of the archipelago. \.f,k^\ ,;«; mi ii . i i. ip wi iii uni i ii **»> TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINES. 266 ZJristobal m, also a Manilla mines in n-Isidro. BO, when ty, •■ 'S. 3tion8 by n, which occupa- Manilla 'alumpit, impanga Balanga, facing Manilla on the west side of the bay, is followed round the intervening promontory by the well-sheltered port of Markrlcs, which gives its name to the neighbouring volcano. Beyond it is the harbour of Subig, said to be the safest in the Philippines, being protected on three sides by the southern head- lands of the Zambales Mountains. Iba, capital of the province, lies on a dangerous creek a little farther north. In the spacious Lingayen Bay are several excellent havens, notably that of Sual, which, though now opened to international trade, is still little frequented by shipping. The rugged Zambales highlands and the lack of communications with the interior prevent trade from being attracted to this part of the Luzon seaboard. The large town of Lingayen, whence the bay takes its name, lies between Sual and the port of Dagupan, on a branch of the Agno Grande delta. In the interior of this basin, which comprises the three provinces of Benguet, Tarlac, and Pangasinan, the chief town is San-Miguel de Camiling, where several tribes of distinct speech are conterminous. . Along the north-west coast follow several considerable towns, such as Santo- Tomas, Aringay, San-Fernando, and Viyan, this last in the delta of the Abra river. Laoag, near the north-west corner of Luzon, ranks next to Manilla for population, although it possesses no harbour, nor any resources beyond the agricultural pro- duce of the surrounding district. Beyond this point the seaboard is nearly unin- habited, the population of Luzon being mostly concentrated on the west side facing the Asiatic mainland. Even in the basin of the Cagayan, the most copious river in the Philippines, the only large towns are Tuguagarao&nd. Lallo, formerly Nueva- Segovia, which in recent times has acquired some imjtortance as the depot for the best tobacco grown in the archipelago. Aparri, the jwrt of this place, stands on the right side of the Cagayan estuary. Then for 420 miles along the northern and eastern coasts of Luzon no seaport occurs until Binangouan is reached, in about the latitude of Manilla over against the island of Polillo. The Babuyanes and Batanes groups between North Luzon and Formosa are almost uninhabited, although favourably situated near the ocean highway between Hong-Kong and Sydney. This route is longer but safer, and, consequently, more frequented than that of Torres Strait and the intricate waters of the eastern archipelago. ' Marigondon, Barayan, and Taal, on the west side of Luzon below Manilla, all lie in extremely fertile and highly cultivated districts. Here also Batangas, one of the largest towns in the archipelago, occupies a position of vital importance at the entrance of San-Bernardino Channel, the great commercial highway between ' Luzon, the Visayas Islands, and Mindanao. On the north side of Mindoro, nearly opposite Batangas, lies Calapan, round which are grouped nearly all the inhabi- tants of this island. ' Along the, narrow Camarines peninsula follow several busy marts, such as Tayabas and Mauban, on a roadstead well sheltered by the islet of Alabat. But here the population is concentrated chiefly in the basin of the river Vicol, where are crowded together the rural towns of Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao, Oas, Polangui, and Libong, each with over twelve thousand inhabitants, though distant less than -■:i- 266 AUSTEALASIA, two miles from each other. Below Lake Batu, where it becomes navigable, the Vicol flows by Nahua and Naga or Nueva-Cacerea, capital of the province of Caraarines-Sur, beyond which it falls into San-Miguel Bay opposite the fortress of Cabusao, and not far from Daet, capital of the province of North Camarines. Albai/ and its neighbour Fig. 116.— Samab AMD Lette. Baraga occupy a charming «~"'*='~"'^- position at the foot of the verdant lower slopes of the Mayon volcano. Duraga, oflScially designated Cag- saua, replaces an older town of this name which stood higher up on the flanks of the mountain, but which was destroyed by the erup- tion of 1814. The port of both towns is Legnspi, which is exposed to the full fury of the north-east monsoons, and consequently inacces- sible during the winter months ; at this season all the traffic is transferred to Sorsogon on the west side of Luzon. Other ports in this region are Tibi and Tabaco, north of Albay, and Bulman at the east foot of Mayon. In the island of Samar, which forms a south-eastern extension of the Camarines peninsula, there are no large towns. The most important centres of population are Quinan near the southern extremity ; Borongan on the east coast, like Guinan sur- rounded by vast forests of cocoa-nut palms ; and the capital Catbalogan on the west coast, on an almost inaccessible roadstead. Of the adj icent island of Leyte the capital and chief seaport is Tacloban, at the southern entrance of the channel separating the two islands. This channel, some twenty-four miles long, contracts in some places to a narrow defile, expands in others to a broad lake, and at certain points is only a few hundred yards wide. OtoSO Fatboms. Depths. fiOtc too Fathoma. 100 FathoiiM and npwarda. . 60 MUes. *. .Ji.x TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINES. sa? Both shores are fringed by primeval foresfr, interrupted only by a few village clear- ings and their cocoa-nut groves. Here and there occur picturesque cliffs pierced by caverns v^cre the islanders formerly deposited their dead. In the vicinity of Basey on th^ Samar side opposite Tacloban the poisonous plant known as Saint Fig. 117. — Ilo-Ilo and Strait ov Guikaius. Scale 1 : OM),U0O. Oto6 Fathoms. DcpUia. StnlOO FatboiDS. 100 Fathunu and upwards. > 12 Hilea. Ignatius' bean {Strychnos Ignatia amara) grows in the greatest profusion. Another tree of the dicterocarpm species yields the balao or malapfijo, a resinous oil, which is highly prized for its property of preserving iron from rust. Panay, situated about the centre of the archipelago, is relatively the most '«-;•. iMiliiililii^ 268 AUSTRALASIA, C» iiit populous member of the whole group. Hero are several more or less important places, such as Capiz on the north coaet ; San Joh^ de Buenavista and Antique on the west side ; Siha/on farther inland in the same district ; Concepcion in the north- east, and in the south-cast Ilo-Ilo, on the well-sheltered channel separating Panay from the islet of Guimaras. Next to Manilla, Ilo-llo is the most frequented oeaport in the Philipijines. Since it has been thrown open to foreign trade, it has rapidly attracted to itself a large share of the export trade in sugar and other colonial produce, as well as of the import trade in European and Chinese wares, A little to the north of Ilo-llo lies the episcopal suburb of Jaro. Although Ilo-llo is the central emporium for the whole of the Visayas Islands, Ccbti or Zebu, the chief place in the island of like name, ranks as the capital of the group, probably owing to the priority of its foundation. Its first buildings were erected by the conqueror Legaspi in 1571, just fifty years after Magellan had met his death on the islet of Mactan close to this spot. Cebu, which like Ilo-llo was thrown open to international trade in 1803, exports the rice of Panay, the abaca of Leyte, the wax, ratans, and mother-of-pearl of Mindanao, the sugar and tobacco forwarded from Tagbilaran and Maribojoe, capital of the neighbouring island of Bohol, In the Cebu district are some carboniferous beds, which yield a coal of good quality. The large island of Mindanao, still almost entirely occupied by independent tribes, has no Spanish stations except a few here and there on the seaboard. One of the most promising of these stations is Miaamis, in an auriferous district on the north coast, Butiian has the advantage of being situated on the estuary of the great river Agusan ; Sungao, at the northern extremity of the island, commands the chief channel opening eastwards In the direction of the Pacific ; Bislig, towards the middle of the east coast, possesses an excellent harbour on a seaboard exposed to fierce gales during half the year. Here is the only safe anchorage on the east side of the island south of Suragao. West of Vergara, recently founded on the spacious Gulf of Davao or Tagloc, the only settlements are Cottabato and Polloc, in the fertile plain watered by the Rio Grande, and Zamboanga, an old station at the extremity of the south-western headland dating from the year 1635. This place, which exports the best coffee in the archipelago, is remarkably salubrious, notwithstanding its position on a low-lying plain broken by brackish lagoons or swamps at the foot of wooded hills. Its inhabitants, nearly all half* breeds, are none the less proud of their Spanish descent, and speak Castilian with great purity. In the last century Zamboanga temporarily disappeared under a shower of ashes from a neighbouring volcano. In the Sulu (Jolo) archipelago, since 1876 formally annexed to the Spanish colonial possessions, each of the larger islands has its military or naval station to keep the unruly inhabitants in awe, and guard the neighbouring seas from their piratical excursions. At Basilan, against which the French had sent an expedition in 1845 to avenge the murder of some sailors, the Manilla government fearing a permanent French occupation, has founded the town of Isabella, which, thanks to its excellent harbour facing Zamboanga, seems destined one day to acquire some TOPOGBAPIIY OF THE I'lIILIPPINES. 269 importance. Unfortunately the climate is so imhealihy that some hundreds of convicts sent to clear the ground in the vicinity of the rising town all died of fever. The ancient city of Siilu, at the western extremity of the island of like name, has also become a Spanish stalion, and the descendant of the dreaded sultans who ruled the whole archipelago together with North Borneo, is now nothing more than an obscure pensioner of the Philippine Governn. .nt. Hia capital has lost all its industries, and the famous krisses made at this place arc now replaced by weapons of English or German manufacture. In the large island of Paragua or Palawan, Spain also maintains two military Fig. 118.— SvLu AHCHiPEi.Aao. Sottle 1 : 2,200,000. 121° East oF Greenwich Ceptbi. Oto26 Fathoma. SStolOO Fathoms. 100 to 1,000 Vathnnu. 1,000 to 2,000 Fathoms. . 80 Milf s. 2 000 Fathom* and upwards. stations : Tay-tay, near the northern extremity on a well-sheltered inlet, and Puerto-Princesa, on a fine natural harbour on the east coast. The forests in the immediate neighbourhood of the latter station are still occupied by the Tagbanuhoy, wild tribes of Malay origin, and the mountains of the interior are inhabited by the Bataks, who are supposed to be of Negrito stock. v.'-r • ,v •*;• In the island of Balabac, facing the Bornean archipelago of Banguay, the only * centre of population is a mere village, while the islets studding the China Sea farther west are uninhabited. '^mmrous calcareous soil and volcanic scoriie. The destruction of the forests has also reduced the rainfall and rendered tho fresheta more sudden and the droughts more protracted. The indigenous flora, consisting chiefly of Asiatic species, has mostly disaj)- poared, and the present vegetation has been mainly introduced by man in recent times. Here, as in most tropical islands, the prevailing forms arc tho cocoa-nut palm and the rima, or bread tree. Tho ojily indigenous mammal is the largo '* Keraudren " bat, the flesh of whic-h is eaten by the natives, notwithstanding its disagreeable odour. There are but few species of birds, and tho paroquets, so richly represented in tho Moluccas, are totally absent. Even insects are rare, and the reptile order is limited to a few kinds of lizards and a single species of serpent. When first visited by Europeans the archipelago was found to contain a considerable population. The Chamorros, unjustly stigmatised by Magellan as Ladrones, or robbers, appear to have been akin to the Tagals at least in speech ; but the physical appearance of their few descendants would lead to the supposition that the aborigines were a half-caste Indonesian and Papuan race. These two elements may have been represented by the two distinct classes of nobles and people, between whom marriage and even contact were forbidden. But however this be, the Spanish conquest ended by reducing all alike to a common state of servitude. Long after the occupation of the archipelago the Chamorros continued to hold out valiantly against the oppressive measures of the authorities, and when all resistance ceased towards the end of the seventeenth century, it was found that of the fifty thousand or sixty thousand natives more than half had perished or escaped to the Caroline Islands ; over two-thirds of the 180 villages hud fallen to ruins. Then came the epidemics, which swept away most of the natives of Guam, and when they were replaced by compulsory immigration from Tinian nearly all the new arrivals perished of inanition : Tinian had been entirely depopu- lated without any advantage to Guam. In 1760 the population of the Marianas had been reduced to 1,654 souls, and it was then that recourse was had to Tagal-colonists from the Philippines, who absorbed most of the surviving aborigines. In 1875 not more than six hundred iu a total populatiou of nearly nine thouaand were regarded aa of more or less pure Chamorro stock. In Guam are concentrated six-sevenths of all the inhabitants, who have steadily increased since the outbreak of measles in 1856. The northern islands are occupied only by a few families engaged in fishing ; Tinian has only a single village and a community of lepers ; Rota and Sayan have each not more than a few hundred souls. The natives of the Mariivnas have fallen off in culture as well as in numbers y wmm -ft^firi^mm - U N m mr" ' " "fe' ' I . i Wi i iH J j i ^^^ t 'lii l W il'i i l if #> iftft'i}ii'fe iii> wWf>'lP' i il » Jl" ' r- ■■^r \ iimmifiim MBfP ;^- ■%.:;•■ THE MAEIANAS. 277 although baptised and capable of reading Spanish they have forgotten the industries practised by their forefathers. Agriculture has greatly deteriorated, the art of pottery has disappeared, the woven fabrics are coarser than formerly, the perfectly symmetrical houses seen by Anson in Tinian are no longer constructed, and rude canoes have replaced the beautiful outriggers admired by the early navigators. Anson's crew calculated that this craft could make twenty knots an hour running before a brisk trade wind ; when driven from their proper route they often reached iHlands lying at great distances from the Marianas. Agaha, capital of the archipelago, on the north-west coast of Guam, contains more than half of the whole population, as well as all the political prisoners banished to this region. The port is accessible only to small boats, and the postal service with Manilla is made only once in the twelvemonth. The government of the Marianas is military, the garrison consisting of thre<< hundred natives recruited by conscription. The clusters of islets, such as Parry and Volcano, scattered over the northern waters in the direction of the Ogasavara or Benin group belonging to Japan, are nearly all uninhabited. On many marine charts they are still designated by the collective name of the Magellan Archipelago, but their total area scarcely exceeds forty square miles. II. — The Pelew or Palaos Islands. This archipelago is often regarded as belonging to the chain of the Carolines, just as Yap and the neighbouring islets have frequently been included in the Pelew group The Spaniards, political masters in these seas, comprise all alike under the common designation of the Caroline Islands. Nevertheless they clearly constitute different systems, as shown by the disposition of the chains, the Caro- lines running west and east and then bending round to the south-east, while the Pelews are disposed north-east and south-west. However, the geological constitu- tion of both groups is the same, all being formed of mountains of eruptive origin, trachytes or basalts, or else of coralline rocks, either as low atolls or upheaved to considerable heights by the oscillations of the ground. Collectively the Pelew Islands have an area of little over two hundred square miles, of which more than half are comprised in the single island of Baobeltaob (Babelthuap). From north to south they have a total length of about 650 and a breadth of over 240 miles at the widest point, being thus spread over an expanse of 40,000. square miles, and bounded east and west by abysses over 1,000 fathoms deep. ■ The population is variously estimated at from ten thousand to fourteen thousand. The northern islands, which were first visited by the Spanish navigators and which Villalobos designated by the name of Arrecifes, form a perfectly distinct group, comprising Babelthuap with its south-western extensions terminating in the insular mass of Niaur (Ngaur), most fertile and healthiest member of the archi- pelago. The loftiest eruptive eminences lie near the west coast of Babelthuap, where one of the peaks rises to a height of 2,130 feet. This island is partly covered mm mm -^ i m\ 278 AUSTRALASIA. with timbor, whence its Spanish name of Pa/os, afterwards changed to Palaoa, and by English mariners corrupted to Pelew. Although very poor in animal forms, the Pelevrs have nevertheless some types not elsewhere found, such as the psatnathia, a species of bird, and a grey rat. Fig. l'2'i. — Pblkw Islanob. Soale 1 : 900,000. Both the crocodile and the dugong, formerly numerous on the coast, have become extremely rare, if they have not already disappeared altogether. The first vertebra of the dugong is considered the most precious object that a chief can bestow on a subject, being a distinctive mark of an order of nobility. When a happy mortal is judged worthy of this honour, his fingers are bound tightly THE PELEW ISLANDS. 279 'aos, and ue types jrev rat. e become The first chief can When a d tightly together, and the hand is then thrust by sheer force through the narrow aperture of the bone. The distinction is thus often purchased with the loss of a finger. The Pelew islanders have a darker complexion than the natives of the Marianas and Carolines, and most of them have crisp or frizzly hair. Although there has evidently been a mixture of Malay and Polynesian elements, the Papuan type predominates, and the southern islands lying nearer to the New Guinea coast belong ethnically to the Papuasian world. According to Semper many might be taken for Jews, while others are distinguished by small eyes, flat nose, and massive jaws. Formerly all pierced the cartilage of the nose ; but this practice is falling into abeyance, although connected with a religious legend. The. teeth are blackened by means of an earth which causes the gums to swell and prevents mastication for several days. The body is also painted a bright yellow, and tattooed ; not so elaborately, however, as by the Caroline islanders. The practice is even falling off owing to the dangerous nature of the operation ; nor has it any longer a sacred character. On the other hand some of the Pelew dames wear beauty spots, like the fashionable ladies of the eighteenth century in Europe. Wilson, being ignorant of the native language, fancied that the people had no form of belief. But although there are scarcely any religious ceremonies, their mythology is very intricate, and the kalites, who act as mediators with the spirit world, are very powerful, often more so than the chiefs themselves. These magicians of both sexes can raise the souls of the dead, cure ailments, dispel or evoke public calainities. Their powers are hereditary, and five of them enjoy a supremacy over all their associates throughout the archipelago. The privileges of the kalites and of the chiefs combined with the belief in spirits have surrounded the existence of the natives with a multiplicity of prescriptions and observances. The life of each individual is regulated by strict rules, and many places and things are mongul, that is, tabooed. - > The women are respected and may even acquire authority whether as kalites or supreme chiefs. They form sisterhoods, whose privileges are recognised, and some travellers have reported that in criminal cases they are judged by their peers. Traces of a former matriai'chal system still survive. Thus power is inherited, not from father to son, but from brothe? to brother, and the sister ranks before the wife of the chief. The men also of the different castes, noble or military, are grouped in brotherhoods, and possess special pai or " clubs," into which no one can penetrate without their consent. These clubs are relatively sumptuous edifices, which are carefully decorated with carved and painted figures. A symbolic group is set up in front, and on the walls are disposed rows of wooden images painted in red, yellow and black, some representing religious myths, others recording social scenes and constituting a sort of national history. There is also a graphic system analogous to the Peruvian quippos, consisting of cords and strings, which serve to exchange ideas according to an elaborate method of knotting. In the Pelew Islands there are almost as many petty states as villages. But, thanks to the support of Wilson after his shipwreck in 1788, the " king " of the jfte^'-ffiiri 280 AUSTRALASIA. ■A' ^ 11 ;l t " '^ island of Koroer, south of Babelthunp, acquired a sort of euzerainty over his neighbours. His successors, however, have lost much of their ascendancy, and most of the other chiefs hold themselves as fully his equals. These chiefs bear different titles, one of the most significant being mad, or " death," meaning that the potentate's mere glance is fatal to his subjects. But associated with him is a krei, a sort of military " mayor of the palace," often more powerful than the mad him- self. Hound him are grouped the rupahH, or vassals, each with his suite of fierce retainers. War, the essential occupation of this feudal system, is carried on with relentless cruelty, the victors sparing neither women nor children. The chief object of the hostile raids is to obtain skulls ; for " the great Kalite," say the natives, " likes to eat men," and the heads are consequently laid at the feet of the magicians, his representatives on earth. But even during warfare the rights of hospitality are still respected, and any fugitive who succeeds in penetrating to the house of the hostile chief has nothing further to fear. To this intertribal strife is mainly due the moral and material decadence of the islanders, who are no longer the simple, kindly people described by Wilson at the end of the last century. Even Miklukho-Maklai, with all his sympathy for inferior races, speaks of them as false and rapacious. Since the arrival of the Europeans the social conditions seem in other respects to have undergone a complete change. The natives are more civilised, at least outwardly ; they ornament their dwellings with engravings and photographs ; they possess iron implements, firearms, and even books ; many speak a little English or Spanish, while their mother tongue has been enriched by numerous European words, required to express the new ideas. The age of stone has passed away, or survives only in the local currency, which is of jasper or agate for the chiefs and nobles, of stones of less value, glass or enamelled beads, for the lower classes. But with all this the population continues to decrease, having fallen from probably fifty thousand at the end of the last century to little over twelve thousand at present. III. — The Caroline Islands. The archipelago formerly known as the " New Philippines," and afterwards named the Carolines in honour of Charles II. of Spain, is spread over a consider- able expanse. From the wr temmost island of Ngoli to Ualan in the extreme east the distance in a straight line is no less than 1,800 miles, with a mean breadth of about 350 miles. Thus the Caroline Sea comprises an area of about 640,000 square miles, where the total extent of some five hundred islets disposed in forty- eight clusters is estimated at no more than 600 square miles. The water, however, is very shallow, and several of the insular groups are enlarged by extensive reefs. The greatest depths occur at the western extremity of the archipelago, the *' Challenger Trough " in the north, the " Nores Trough " in the south, with an intervening submarine bank connecting the Carolines with the Pelew gproup. The Carolines were discovered by the Portuguese in 1527, when Diogo da mi they THE CAROLINES. 281 Rocha reached the western island of Ngoli or Matalotes. He was followed in i 1542 hy Saavedra and Yillalobos, who traversed the Caroline Sea and sighted some 'r^m^mm-M.-^'m ^s|gf?JSf?i'l^«S9»»*!ft«»;?S8W!*.-S?a^^ ^'^^ ■■' * '■ 282 AUSTRALASIA. l\ Its ■ i !L«i*: of its islands ; others were seen by Legaspi, conqueror of the Philippines. But their position not having been accurately determined, it was impossible to identify them, and every passing navigator laid claim to their discovery. The existence of the lands south of the Marianas was well known ; but instead of endeavouring to fix their position, mariners rather avoided them, owing to the dangerous shoals by which they were surrounded. No serious attempt was made at an accurate survey till about 1686, when the first " Caroline," from which all the rest were named, was discovered by the pilot Lazeano. This was perhaps Yap, or else Farroilep (Farraulep), which lies on the meridian of the Marianas some 340 miles south of Guam. Then Cantova prepared the first rough chart of the region round about Lamurek (Namurek) in the central part of the archipelago ; but the scientific exploration of the Caroline Sea was first undertaken by Wilson and Ibargoita towards the close of the eighteenth century. Between 1817 and 1828 occurred the memorable expeditions of Kotzebue, Freycinet, Duperrey, Dumont d'UrviUe and Lutke, after which nothing remained except to fill up the details and explore the interior of the several islands. This work of exploration has been stimulated by the question of sovereignty lately raised between Spain and Germany, and finally settled by papal arbitration in favour of the former power. The names of the islands, islets and reefs strewn over the Caroline waters are far from being everywhere clearly defined. Except for some of the larger lands, such as Yap, Ponape and Ualan, custom has not yet decided between the native appellations variously pronounced by the seafarers of different nation- alities, and those given to the different groups by English, French, or Russian explorers. Most of the Carolines are of coral formation, upheaved some few yards above sea-level, and many lack sufficient vegetable humus for trees to strike root between the fissures of the rocks. Some, however, have gradually been clothed with dense verdure down to the water's edge, and here native settlements have been formed beneath the shade of the cocoanut palm, the bread-fruit tree and the dark green barringtonia. Some of the groups form perfectly regular atolls, where lagoons accessible to boats through narrow channels are encircled by a verdant fringe. Satoan, one of the circular islands of the Mortlock group, consists of no less than sixty islets, some a few miles long, others mere pointed rocks, but all disposed symmetrically round the periphery of the coralline enclosure. Others again, such as Ruk, Ualan, and Ponap^ (2,860 feet), attain considerable elevations, and these are often clothed to their summits with magnificent trees of few species, con- spicuous amongst which are the superb tree-ferns. This evergreen forest vegeta- tion is supported by copious rains, which fall on the slopes of t,hb hills especially during the south-west monsoon. ' ■ The fauna, like that of the Marianas, is extremely poor, the mammals being represented only by a dog with pointed ears and long pendent tail, and a single species of rat, which is said to have taught the natives the art of obtaining palm- wine by gnawing the crests of the cocoanut palm to get at its sap. The vegetation "^imL. TUB CAROLINES. 288 cistence also affords shelter to some lizards and iguanas, while the sandy beach is visited by turtles during the season. The population of the Carolines is variously estimated at from twenty thousand to thirty thousand souls, two-thirds of whom are concentrated in Rule, Ponapd Fig. 124.— Kux IsiAMM. SoUe 1 : 800,000. Oto2& Fathoms. Depths. 2StofiO Fathoms. 600 Fathoms and apwards. _ 18 Miles. and Yap. Owing to its proximity to the Philippines, Yap has been chosen as the centre of the administration for the Western Carolines and the Pelew Islands. Although the great majority of the natives are of Indonesian stock crossed by sundry foreign elements, the various insular groups present considerable contrasts 'Semmmaiiiummmm^- *mm 284 AUSTRALASIA. iu their physical appearance. The western islanders with their fair complexion resemble the Visayas and Tugals of the Philippines ; those of the central islands have a red coppery colour, while farther east the natives of the Soniavin group are almost black and like the Papuans. In Ualan they are still darker, with slightly crisp hair. The people of Nukunor and Satoan are descendants of Samoan immigrants, as is evident from their physique, language and usages. Lastly, in some of the islands the European element is already so strong that most of the children present a type approaching that of the whites. The population has certainly decreased since the arrival of the Europeans, but not, as has often been asserted, in virtue cf some mysterious and inevitable law aifecting inferior races. Epidemics little dreaded in the West doubtless become terrible scourges in Oceania, and such is the terror caused by measles, for instance, that in Yap and elsewhere the people combine to attack the infected villages, and stamp out the plague by killing the victims and compelling the others to withdraw for some weeks to the interior. Nevertheless the maladies introduced by foreign sailors do not suffice to explain the disappearance of the race, which has suffered still more from the raids of these foreigners, who carry off the natives to work on the plantations in Fiji and other archipelagoes. After the Caroline Islanders have thus been swept away, philosophic travellers indulge in meditations on the fatality which dooms the so-called inferior races to perish at contact with the civilised whites. Nevertheless there are certain favoured spots such as Lukunor, " pearl of the Carolines," in the Mortlock group, where the population is even rapidly increasing by the natural excess of births over the mortality, and where every inch of the land is carefully cultivated. Taken as a whole, the Caroline natives are a mild, hospitable, industrious, and peaceful race. They allow their women much freedom, treat their children with great tenderness and faithfully observe the laws of friendship, comrades becoming brothers by an interchange of names. In certain places, notably Ualan, the people had no weapons of any sort, no strife or warfare. They even still lead simple, peaceful lives, except in the neighbourhood of the factories and missions, where their habits have been modified by contact with Europeans. Tattooing is extensively practised, the systems varying greatly according to the localities, tribes, and social position. Some of the chiefs and nobles are further distinguished by badges such as the white shell worn on the hand by the aristocratic families in Yap, where combs of orange-wood and ebony are reserved for the free men. Their food consists chiefly of the rima or bread fruit, the taro {arum esculentum), the sweet potato introduced from the Philippines, fish and other marine fauna. They cultivate no rice, which the planters are said to have vainly attempted to introduce into the archipelago. The dwellings, in general much smaller and far less commodious than those of Melanesia and Papuasia, are in many places mere roofs of foliage resting on the ground and entered on all fours through openings at both ends. But every village possesses one spacious and more carefully con- structed building, which serves at once as a boat-house, a hostelry for strangers, a refuge during rainy weather, and a playroom for the children. Although they THE ( AROLINES. 285 purchase hatebetH, saws, and knivos from the traders, the people have scarcely yet outlived the stone age, most of their iiiiploinonts still consisting of shells, fish- bones and the like. In the eastern islands the American missionaries, who arrived in 1 849, have Fig. 126.-YAP. Scale 1 : 300,000. iSS's- Laab or Greenwich \58°zo- Snbmarine Beeft. 6 Hiles. -converted some thousands of the natives ; but hundreds have returned to their ancestral practices, while in the western groups the prevailing religion is still animism associated with the worship of trees, of mountains, of everything that lives and moves, the fear of the spirits of air, and homage paid to their forefathers. 286 AUHTRALASIA. r '?> Much xeniTutioii is shown for tht« dead und for thoHe animals, mu-h an li/ards aud eeln, into whoHo bodioM they are supposed to have migrated. The folynenians of Nukunor and Satoau are the only natives who have earv«"()() miloN truiiB- vorHoly to tlio (-(luiitor, all Ix'lon^ to the huiiiu geological ioriiiatioii, aiul are all <-ti(l])oint thoy hUouUI Im> HtudiiMJ together, alt hough iiihahitt-d by dilFereiit ethuieal ijopulationn. Tho KUice and part oi' tho (iilhiMt IslandH aro in this ronjwct PolyneHiun lauds, wbilo tho moro important Marshall group holongH to Micronosia. Politically alw) thoy form different ureas, lioing already distributed officially amougHt two Kuropoan jwwers. Tho MarHhalU, whono trade in inonopoliHed by Iluinburg nierchanlH, form part of tho (iorman colonial empire, whereaH in IHHtJ tho (iilbort and I'lUico ArehipolagooH wore declared to lie within the Hphore of Urilish interosts. Hut were priority of diHcovery to confer any right of poHseNsion, uU nhould certainly be asNignod to Spain. Tho San Hurtolomeo sighted by Loyasu in 15'i"> was probably one of tho Murshalls ; but in any cuse tho " Jardines," so named by Alvuro do Saavcdra in 15'J9, certainly belonged to this group, as did also tho l*eH(!adores visited by other navigators during the sixteenth century. In 15(57 Mendana do Noyra also sailed through the southern EUice group. None of these islands, however, were exactly determined before the systemutio exploration of the I'licitic two centuries later. In 17t)7 Wallis first surveved two members of the Pescadores ; then Marshall and Gilbert, returning from Port Jackson in 1788, traversed these regions of Eastern Micronesia, and studied in detail the position and form of the groups henceforth known by their names. Other designations, however, have also been given thom, and tho Gilbert, for instance, have been called the Kingsmill and the Line Islands. Marshall and Gilbert were followed by other English navigators, and then at the close of the Napoleonic wars Kotzebue and Chamisso made their memorable expedition through the Micronesian atolls on board the Russian vessel, tho liurik. In 1823 Dupcrreyalso visited two important members of the Marshall group, and since then interesting memoirs have been published bv traders and missionaries long resident in various parts of these archipelagoes, whose collective area may now be estimated at about '350 square miles, with a total population of fifty-five thousand. ' Nearly all the islands in the three archipelagoes, which rest on a common marine bed less than 900 fathoms deep, are disposed in the direction from north- west to south-east. A moderate upheaval of this bed would unite them all with the Samoan Archipelago in a long narrow stretch of dry land. With the excep- tion of three or four islands probably upheaved by igneous action, all the Marshall, Gilbert, and EUice groups are of low coralline formation, rising little more than five or six feet above sea-level, except where shifting dunes have been formed by the winds. Some of these coral islands have been united by the marine alluvia in conti- nuous lands without break or lagoons. But most of them are atolls with an outer circuit of islets and reefs, and a central lagoon offering shelter to boats, and some- EASTKRN MirUONKHTA. 2fl0 times evoii to lurgn vohboIb. From tho pccuHur ehiirufter of tliia formotion tl>o Kllico group hus even l)©en culled the " Lajyooii InIuiuIs," imd is huhitimlly so iiuini'd by lhi< miHsionarios. Si^m&>jm.^fi^:u2ii^^i^M»^:^s^^ mx. EASTERN MICRONESIA. 291 by breezes from the east and south-east, or else interrupted by calms. Storms are to be dreaded chiefly in October and November. Being also further removed from the continents than the Marianas and Carolines, the Marshall group enjoys a more oceanic climate. At the same time its flora and fauna are much poorer, although still compara- tively rich for lands of coralline origin. To the fifty-nine species of plants found in the archipelago by Chamisso subsequent explorers have scarcely added any new forms; one alone seems peculiar to the Marshalls. The most useful plant is the pan- dan us ocloratimmus, of which there are some twenty varieties, and from which the na- tives derive their chief nourishment. Both the pandanus and the bread-fruit tree grow to greater perfection here than in any other oceanic region. There are also several distinct varieties of the cocoa-nut palm ; but this plant is less used for food since the development of the export trade in copra and cocoa-nut oil. There are no indigenous mammals or birds ; but the goats, pigs, and cuts intro- duced from Europe have multiplied rapidly, and the domestic poultry have reverted to the wild state. The indigenous populations become gradually modified in the direction from north to south. Thus the natives of the Marshalls resemble those of the Carolines, and like them belong to the Micronesian group, whereas the people of Ellice are of nearly pure Polynesian stock, like those of the eastern archipelagoes. Between these extremes stand the Gilbert islanders, of mixed descent but fimdamentally Micronesians. They are the finest race in this oceanic region, tall, sometimes even gigantic, often with quite European features, and occasionally acquiring a somewhat Jewish cast from their slightly aquiline nose. Except in the remoter islands not yet visited by the missionaries the old dress — a loin-cloth and fringes — as well as the practice of tattooing have been abolished, and the few ornaments now worn are flowers or foliage inserted in the pierced lobe of the ear, bird's feathers and necklaces. In 1817, when Chamisso explored the Marshall group, the natives, still free from the influence of traders and missionaries, seemed to be possessed of high qualities, intelligence and enterprise. Everywhere was presented a picture of peace, love of work, and domestic harmony, combined with a strong sense of equality, even in the presence of the chiefs. Yet these populations, which seemed to give promise of a prosperous future, are precisely amongst those that have most rapidly declined. The young are carried off by consumption ; all initiative is killed by the introduction of European wares ; there is no longer any necessity for exercising the faculty of thought, and listlessness takes the place of an active life. In some of the islands not a single article of native manufacture is now to be found, and here the villages resemble the wretched suburbs of some American city. Traditions still survive of former cannibal practiceis, at least in some of the groups. Other sanguinary rites also prevailed, as in the Ratak Isles, where the mother was allowed to keep her three first children ; if a fourth was born she had to bury it with her own hands. But much tenderness was shown for the 292 AUSTRALASIA. survivors, who, in case of the mother's death, were at once adopted into other families. In general the wife was much respected, the men performing all the hard manual labour, and leaving to the women nothing but the preparation of food and the weaving of sails and matting. Their religion was little more than a kind of spirit-worship, and the temples were merely a square space between four stones, or under the shade of a rock or some high tree. The influence of the priests was but slight compared to that of the chiefs, most of whom enjoyed absolute power. Hager speaks of a ruler who, having learnt the alphabet, beheaded all those whose progress was more rapid than his own. The social hierarchy is clearly defined. Under the iroiy, or royal class, from whom are selected the kings in the female line, come the nobles, the land- owners, and last of all the poor, who may be deprived of the land they cultivate without compensation, and who are restricted to one wife. Amongst this proleta- riate class were till recently recruited the labourers for the plantations in Samoa. But in the Marshall archipelago the population has so greatly fallen off that scarcely sufficient hands now remain for the cultivation of their own palm-groves. Even in the barren and relatively more populous Gilbert group the supply of living freights has been nearly exhausted. Since 1864 European traders have been settled in the Marshall Islands. Although mostly representing German houses, they have to compete with the missionaries, as well as with English, American, Hawaiian, New Zealand, and even Chinese dealers. In order to secure their commercial preponderance against these rivals, they induced the German government to extend its " protection " to the archipelago in 1886. To this protectorate were added the two little groups of the Brown (Eniwetok) and Providence Islets, which, according to the conven- tion with Spain, should rather have been included in the zone of the Caroline Islands. ^ Jaluit has become the administrative centre of the German possessions, as it had already been the commercial centre of the Carolines, the Gilbert and all other groups in these waters. Plantations and factories have also been established in Milli, Namorek, Arhno, Majuro, Likieb, Ebon, and elsewhere. The religious stations are chiefly under the direction of Hawaiian missionaries, who are much disliked by the traders. Conflicting interests have given rise to dissensions, which have in all cases been settled by the protecting power in favour of the Jaluit dealers. North of the Marsh alls are scattered ;. few clusters, which should be regarded as belonging, if not t the same groups, at least to the same geographical zone. Such amongst others is Cornwallis or Gaspar Rico. The islets and reefs following in the direction of Japan are separated by abysmal depths from the submarine bank above which rise the Marshall atolls. In the Appendix will be found a table of all these archipelagoes, with their respective areas and populations. M^ to other all the •ation of temples rock or that of iler who, ipid than yul class, -he land- cultivate proleta- Samoa. ofE that n- groves, supply of Islands, with the land, and ;e against Btion" to ;le groups 3 conven- Caroline ions, as it I all other ilished in. religious are much issensions, ur of the regarded ical zone, following mbmarine rith. their CHAPTER VI. NEW GUINEA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. (Papuasia.) HIS vast region owes the appellation of New Guinea, conferred on it by the Spanish explorer, Ifiigo Ortiz de Iletis, in 1545, to the resemblance observed by him between its inhabitants and those of Guinea on the West African seaboard. Next to Australia it is the largest continental mass in the Pacific, and exceeds even Borneo in extent. From the north-west to the south-east extremity the distance in a straight line is nearly 1,500 miles, exclusive of the groups and chains of islands by which the mainland is continued in both directions. At the broadest part it is over 400 miles from north to south, and the total area is estimated at 314,000 square miles, or 826,000 including the Aru Islands and other adjacent groups scattered like fragments round a shattered continent. New Guinea, which is thus half as large again as France, seems destined to take an important part in the future evolution of the oceanic lands, for it is abun- dantly watered and rich in various natural resources. Hitherto, however, it lias remained almost entirely excluded from civilising influences. The fringing reefs, marshy coastlands, dense forests, and even its very vastness have protected it from white intruders, while the scattered indigenous populations, divided into endless hostile tribes, have nowhere merged in a compact nationality. Progress of Discovery. But although still unexplored to any great extent, Papuasia has already been partitioned amongst three European powers. Holland, which had laid claim to the whole island for over half a century, is henceforth recognised as mistress of the western section as far as 141° east longitude, while the rest of the territory has been divided between England and Germany by the treaty of 1885. To England is assigned the south-eastern slope, facing Torres Strait ; to Germany the northern seaboard washed by the Pacific. The honour of having discovered New Guinea belongs to none of its present political rulers. A letter addressed by the Florentine Corsali in 1515 to Julian dei ..I),-.: M* J '■^■y. 294 AUSTRALASIA. Medici mentions the existence of u very extensive region stretching east of the Moluccas, and the reference was probably to Papuasia. But most historians attribute its actual discovery, or at least thft of some of its contiguous islands, to the Portuguese Jorge de Mcnezes. The " good haven of Versiya," whore this navigator wintered in 1526-27, was perhaps the present Warsai, near the north- west extremity of the mainland. But, however this be, there can be no doubt as to the direction followed by Menezes's immediate successor, the Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra. In 1528 this explorer »..ast anchor near an " island of gold," which seems to be one of those situated in Geelvink Bay, and the following year he coasted a land south of the equator, which extended south-eastwards across several degrees of longitude, and which was certainly the New Guinea seaboard. Sixteen years later lletis gave this region the name it now bears, and took possession of it for Fig. 129.— Chibk Exploeationb on the Coasts and in thk Intekiob of New Guinea. Scale 1 : 24,000,000. (o: 126- t.isb of Gf'eenw'Ch eooiiOM. !' the Spanish crown. At that time, however, it was still uncertain whether it was an island or a part of the Australasian mainland. Doubtless some charts dating from the sixteenth century already represent Papuasia as an island ; but on others, notably that of Valentijn, prepared in the eighteenth century, it still figures as a part of Australia. Yet its insular character had already been practically demonstrated in 1606 by the Spanish pilot, Torres, who had penetrated into the dangerous strait named from him, and who had at the same time survey rit the south coast of New Guinea. But this discovery, carefully concealed as a state secret in the archives of Manilla, had at last been forgotten by the Spaniards themselves. It was again brought to light, however, by Dalrymple during the temporary occupation of Manilla by the English in 1762 ; and in 1770, Cook, resuming the itinerary of the Spanish navi- gator, traversed the strait which he supposed he was the first to visit. Henceforth 296 AUSTRALASIA. Ill" ll mariners, such as William Junsz, who, in 1606, reached the Aru Archipelago and the south-west side of Now Guinea. Ten years later, Le Muire and Schouten discovered the Schouten Islands, north of Oeelvink Bay, and in 1623 Caratensz advanced as far as Valsche Kaap at the extremity of the island of Frederik llendrik. Other seafarers, amongst whom Tasraan, also visited the north and south coasts : yet, at the close of the seventeenth century, Papuasia was still so little known that its western end was quite wrongly described by Rumphius, who even extends it to the north of the equator. Attention was again attracted to the great island by the fear that the English might succeed in founding settlements on the seaboard and deprive the Dutch Company of their monopoly of the spice trade. Dampier had, in fact, already coasted the north side, and determined the independent insular character of the New Britain and New Ireland Archipelagoes. Hence Wijland was despatched to the same waters, and the northern seaboard was traced to its eastern extremity, and even beyond it to the Masaim or Louisiade Archipelago, which was at that time supposed to form part of the mainland. Yet old Spanish charts studied by E. T. Hamy and carefully compared with the Dutch documents, show that Torres and his precursors in the sixteenth century had already determined, in a general way, the form of the eastern section of New Guinea. The era of modern exploration in these regions begins with Cook's expedition. Before the close of the eighteenth century, Forrest, MacCluer, and d'Entrecas- tcaux surveyed long stretches of the seaboard But the Napoleonic wars inter- rupted these peaceful operations, which were not resumed till the general pacifica- tion. Duperrey, Dumont d'Urville, and Belcher were amongst the first navigators who then found their way to the New Guinea waters. KolfB sailed through the strait between the island of Frederik Hendrik supposing it to be a river, and in 1828, this explorer founded on Triton Bay, over against the Aru Archipelago, the first military station occupied by Europeans on the Papuan seaboard. Fort Bus, afterwards abandoned owing to the insalubrity of the district, was thus the com- mencement of the work of annexation, which has since been prosecuted slowly but irresistibly. In the same year, 1828, the Dutch Government officially announced the formal possession of the great island as 'ir as 141° east longitude, substituting throughout that region the sovereignty of Holland for that of her vassal, the sultan of Tidor. Meanwhile the greater part of the interior remains still unexplored. Learned naturalists, such as Jukes, Wallace, Cerruti, Beccari, d'Albertis, Bernstein, Meyer, Raffray, and Forbes, have already penetrated at different points considerable dis- tances inland. But despite these isolated efforts, the physical features of the land, with its populations, products, and natural resources, still remain almost less known than those of any other region of the globe. Long journeys are rendered extremely difficult, and often impossible by the malarious climate of the coastlands, the total absence of stations on the breezy plateaux of the interior, and the often too well grounded hostility of the natives, who justly distrust the white strangers coming with a revolver in one hand and a bottle of brandy in the other. To complete 'Wi PHYSICAL FEATURES OF NEW GUINFA. 297 the work of discovery without friction, explorers ure needed, such as Miklukho Muk- luy, whose rule of conduct was to be ever discreet, forbearing, truthful in his dealings with the aborigines, and who, in the midst of imminent perils, always remained faithful to his resolutions. Hut such heroes are I'ure, and there are few who have " demonstrated by experience that in every port of the world man is still human, that is to say, a sociable being, possessed of good (qualities, with whom it is right and possible to enter into relations on a footing of mutual justice and kindness." — {Letter of Tohtoi to Miklukho Maklay.) Physical Fkatures of New Guinea. New Guinea has nothing of the massive form characterising the Australian continent, which it separates from the equatorial waters. It hos been compared to a gigantic bird whose head is represented by the north-west peninsula, the neck by the narrow isthmus between Gcelvink Bay and Etna Bay, the tail by the south-eastern prolongation fringed by numerous little parallel peninsulas resem- bling the plumage. The surrounding waters are so shallow on the south side that a sudden subsidence of some fifty fathoms would suffice to connect Fapuasia with Australia; while the Ivouisiade Archipelago would form a continuation of the mainland towards the south-east. But in other directions its shores are encircled by profound chasms of over one thousand fathoms, such as the Nares Trough on the north side, and the Carpenter Trough (1,320 fathoms) between the Louisiades and the great Barrier Reef of East Australia. Even the narrow channel separat- ing New Britain from the north-east coast is over 500 fathoms deep. At the north-west extremity some islands of considerable size, such as Mysol, Salwaty, Batanta, and Waigiu, indicate the beginning of the relief which on the mainland rises to great elevations. The Arfak hills, which skirt the nprth side of the Berau Peninsula, terminate at the entrance of Geelvink Bay in a precipitous headland, 9,520 feet high. The Gulf of Berau, better known as MacCluer Inlet from the navigator who explored it at the eUd of the last century, penetrates over 120 miles inland, almost completely separating the north-western peninsula from the rest of the great island. The two regions are connected only by a narrow range of hills, and even these were recently supposed by Strachan to be pierced at one point by a channel flowing between Geelvink Bay and Mac- Cluer Inlet. But the naturalist, A. B. Meyer, who had crossed from sea to sea, had already demonstrated the non-existence of any such communication. Accord- ing to the missionary Geiseler, who resided, in 1867, in a ^^llage on the isthmus, boats may cross from coast to coast by utilising two streams flowing in opposite directions between the rocky water-parting, which is, at one point, only " a quarter of a mile " broad. It is uncertain, however, whether the " mile " in question is German or English. South of MacCluer Inlet the seaboard is indented by the deep Arguni Bay, a long, narrow, fjord-like formation winding between the steep escarpments of the surrounding hills. The Onin Peninsula enclosed between these two inlets stands at e wMwm* iWMSi j jj.;y%s*:ii!i .■■.-isrESwntts^y:.'! 298 AUSTRALASIA. ^*t~ a conHidorable mean elevation, though still lower than the Beruu uplands, with but few summits exceeding .'J.OOO feet. Farther east rise the Huperb crests of Gonoffo (4,9 1 feet), ut the entrance of Arguni Bay, and Lamausieri (2,450 feet), ut the foot of wliich are the ruins of Fort Bus. Jieyond this point the (ioast-range is again intern:pted by other inlets, such as Triton and I'^tnu bays ; but farther east it merges in the loftiest mountain range not only in New (Juinea, but in the whole oceanic world. This system, which is still very imperfectly explored, begins ut Cape Burn with the Lakahai headland (4,000 feet), after which follow eastwards a succession of crests continually increasing in altitude and rising even above the snow line, one of the glittering peaks having an elevation of 1(5,750 feet. These snowy summits, to which has been given the Fig. 131.— Mountains of New Ouinka. Boale 1 : 24,00O,OOa kasb cF urfRn/v'Ch to 1,000 Futhoms. Peptha. 1.000 to 2,000 I'athomii. 2,000 Fatbonu and upwards. . 600 Miles. name of Charles Louis in ignorance of their native appellation, are probably con- tinued ea,8twards to the crests seen by d'Albertis to the north of the Fly River basin, and are doubtless connected either by lofty plateaux or by other highlands with thfj ranges skirting the north coast. Here Mount Gautier or Tabi attains an altitude of 6,500 feet ; Mount Cyclops, farther east, is nearly as high, while the system terminates opposite New Britain in the mountains, 11,500 feet high, to which the French navigators have given the name of Finisterre. The last head- lands present in many places the aspect of regular fortifications, the step-like ramparts being formed of old coral beaches successively upheaved at various geological epochs. Earthquakes are of most frequent occurrence in this region of the mainland, which lies nearest to the volcanoes of Melanesia. The orography of the south-eastern peninsula has been more extensively sur- PHYSICAL FEATURES OF NEW GUINEA. 209 veypfl, thfinks partly to the proximity of AuMtrulia, uiul purtly to tlie more con- tracted form of this region, rendering it accesHihle to explorers penetrating inland from both coaHts. Hero the highlands lying witliin the territory annexed to the British colonial possessions have received English names. The north-west chain, under the same meridian as the Finisterre highlands, begins with the Albert range, followed south-eastwards by Mounts Yule (10,000 feet) and Owen Stanley (l.'{,200 feet). This twin-crested mountain, which dominates the whole peninsular system, was first ascended in 1888 by the Australian explorer, Martin. Eastwards, the range gradually diminishes in height, and then branches off Fig. 132.— MacCi.ueb Ini.et and Onin Peninsula. Boale 1 ; 4,U00,000. 2".::^ to 82 Feet. Depth*. 82 to 80 Feat. 80 Feet and upwards. 60 Miles. into two ridges forming the extreme south-eastern fork of New Guinea, and reap- pearing at intervals in the Moresby and Massim (Louisiade) archipelagoes. The channel here separating the mainland from Hayter and the other eastern islands has received from Moresby the name of China Strait, because it offers a direct route for vessels plying between Australia and China. The shores of this channel present some of the most enchanting scenery in the whole of Melanesia. Owen Stanley was the first to determine, in 1848, the completely insular character of the eastern archipelago. East of the China Strait, the south-east extremity of New Guinea is continued ttMilllliMiiiWM ilL 800 AUSTIIALAHIA. Hoiiwunls by u ohuin of roots and iMlotw which ttTiniuato 300 milea further on ill the liouisiado group. All those IuiuIh ure diypoHcd from woHt-uorth-wi-st to east-smith-eust in a lino with the niuin uxIh of New Guinea itself. South- east Island, the largest member of the Louisiados, is surrounded by roofs also dis- posed in the same Uirtction. In the north the ('alvados rooks run parallel with South-east Island towards RonsoI Island, whilst Saint-Aignan is similarly disposed in the north-west. The Entreeasteuux group, lying north of the terminal peninsula of the main- land, has the same conformation, and servos as the base to a semicircle of reefs wliioh encloses one of the largest lagoons in the tropical seas, often known by the name of the Lusen\'ay Lagoon, from one of its reefs. Above this reef rise the Trobriand, Grandiere, and other clusters of islets, all of which lands probably at one time formed part of the mainland. The peninsula now terminating at the eahtern headlivnd of the Finisterre range no doubt formerly extended through the intervening reefs eastwards to the island of Muyu or Woodlark. Rivers and Islands of Nkw Quinka. Although lying so near the somewhat arid Australian continent, New Guinea being situated in the equatorial zone and traversed by lofty ranges, which intercept the moisture-bearing clouds brought by both monsoons, receives a rainfall sufficient to feed several large rivers. Of these the most copious appear to be the Amberno, or Mamberan, and the Fly. The former, to which the Dutch have also given the name of Kochussen, drains the snowy Charles Louis range, and reaches the coast east of Geelvink Bay, where it develops a vast delta with numerous branches fringed by the nipa palm and casu.irina. For a long distance seawards the water is white or greenish, and the mouths of the Amberno are avoided by shipping through fear of the surrounding shallows. On the southern slope the chief artery is the Fly river, discovered by Black- wood in 1845, and named after his vessel. This voluminous stream has been visited by Jukes, MacFarlane, and d'Albertis, the last of whom ascended it for a distance of about 500 miles to a point within sight of the lofty highlands where it has its origin. All the branches of its delta have not yet been explored, and it is still doubtful whether the numerous channels flowing south of the Fly exactly opposite the York peninsula, Australia, are independent streams or only branchea of the delta. Islands of alluvial formation project seawards at the mouths of the rivers, but in many places the coast is fringed by coral islands, for the most part clothed with vegetation. Many of these being eroded by the waves look at a distance like masses of verdure suspended in mid air. Off the seaboard are also several large islands, which should be regarded as forming part of the mainland. Such are Korrido, Biak, and Jobie in Geelvink Bay, and on the south side Frederik Hendrik (Frederick Henry), which is little more than an island in appearance. It is separated from the Klapper-Kust ( " Cocoa-nut Coast " ) merely by a narrow "M. CLIMATE OK NKW OUINKA. 801 rllicr on )rth-vvfMt South- aiHo (Hh- Ui-l with liaposed 10 inain- of roofs 11 by the rise the :)bably ut g ut the 'ough the winding caniil, whioh niiglit oanily ho hUtrkod by a Rnug or a wmdbnnk. tS«'v«'ral loletH, espociuUy in TorreH Strait, are diN|Mmod in such a way an to form natural hiirlKnirw, a fortunate provision for Khi|)|)ing in the vioinity of a rook-bouiid coast with but few inhUs, mid for liundrcdH of inih's destitute of a single sjiultering creek. According to Wallace the Aru Archipelago inuBt also l)o considonid, like Fredorik Ilendrik, u- n part of Now Ciuinoa, soparuted from the mainland only by BhuUow waters. The river-liko channels by which it is intorsectod and distjosod in r\ its separation from the mainland by a slight sub- sidence of about 300 feet. " When the intervening land sank down we must suppose the land that now constitutes Aru to have remained nearly stationary, a not very improbable Bu])position, when we consider the great extent of the shallow sea, and the very ^mall amount of depression the land need have undergone to produce it." * V Guinea intercept suificiont Amberno, given the the coast branches the water ' shipping by Black- has been I it for a 9 where it , and it is ly exactly ■ branchea ers, but in ithed with fcance like eral large Such are i. Hendrik e. It is a narrow Cmmapk — Fi,()UA — Fauna. Thanks to its geographical position, under the same mean latitude as Sumatra, I'upuasiu is essentially a hot and moist region, without great oscillations of tempera- ture, without excessively prolonged rains or droughts. This region has neither the cold nor the sultry heats of Australia, and observers have recorded no tempera- tures higher than 89° Fahr. or lower than G8" Fahr.t As in the eastern archipelago, the alternation of the seasons is regulated by the trade winds, which, for a portion of the year, set regularly from south-east to north-west, and at other times veer round to different quarters according to the various centres of attraction. The lofty ranges by which the island is divided into two precipitous areas of drainage also cause a sharp contrast between the succession of the seasons on either side. During the winter of the northern hemisphere, from November to April, when the vapours of the Pacific are brought by the north-east trade wind, the slopes facing northwards receive an abundant rainfall, while droughts, varied by a few occasional showers, prevail on the opposite side turned towards Australia. During the other half of the year the south-east trades, which are always accompanied bj' rains, blow steadily on the south-east seaboard, that is, on all that part of the island which is not sheltered by the Australian continent. West of Torres Strait this continent again modifies the direction of the normal currents which come from the south-west and west, and which also bring a considerable quantity of moisture from the Indian Ocean. During this • A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, chap, xxxiii. t Obgervationa mado by Miklukho Muklay at Hermitage Point (5° 23' S. lat ; 146° 46' E. long ) : — HightMt Temperature 88° F. Lowest „ ..... 70° F. Mean „ 80° F. . Rainy Days 160 Rainfall 94 inches. '■'■^ 1 I I* j »•» ■ 802 AirHTUALAHIA. ]M'ri«Ml tho phcnoincnu uro rev«>rH««l on the tiortiu'rn slop br(H*/(>H in th<< sholtorod wutom north of I'upuHNiu. IFalf AuMtraliun in Homc of it« aHjwctH, Now (iuinua pr(»««n1 ■ 's<«i varied flora than Ind(>ii(>Hiu, iilthou^h tho wcHtorii |H>ninNuhi tM><'niH to ) oi • <■ tf> tho mmi< z.me as the MohicciiH. HiTc aro found tlio nuttnog and other M . .ii piuniM, whihi tho acaoiiisaud oucalyptWH of tho oaHtorn roj^ion« rocuU tlie noighbouring c ;.tinont of AuHtralia. In f^cnoral tlio two HoraH may bo naid to ovorlap each othor in Now Guinoa, altornating with tho drynoss or moi-tturo of the contrasting Mh)po8, Whore tho slopoH aro oxpoMod to droughtM the provailing forest trees are tho eucalyptus uud other Australian Hpocios, and hero occur vast Havannaha of tho so-called •' kunj^'aroo grass," while tho stroanis aro fringed with tho bread-fruit tree, thr» mango, pandanus, areca, and cocoa-nut palms. IJut tliero are also u largo number of indigenous forms, and Ueccari enumerated no loss than tifty varieties of the palm peculiar to the groat island. Amongst tho more valuable local species is the minsa/ran (joheiamitn, the bark of v.'hich yields tho precious mavHoi oil, so highly prized as a febrifuge in tho Malay Archipelago, Notwithstanding tho groat diversity in their relief, climates, and general physical aspects, New Guinea and Australia present remarkable re.somblance8 in their respective faunas. On tho one hand lofty mountains, rain-bearing winds, woll-watered valleys, largo rivers, vost over-green woodlands ; on the othor, boundless plains, where waterless and stony tracts aro varied by thorny scrub. Yet the mammalian fauna belongs to a common centre of dispersion, a fact which can bo explained only by assuming a former continuity of land between both regions. The present Torres Strait by which they are now separated is evidently a comparatively recent event in the history of the planet. Tho animals, however, have had to modify their habits in order to adapt them- selves to their different environments. Thus one of the New Guinea kangaroos, formerly a jumper, is now a climber. His tail has become smaller and covered with hair, his paws have been furnished with claws, and he moves from branch to branch with short springs. Instead of grazing he feeds on the rich foliage of the trees, but he is still rather awkward at climbing, and would soon be exterminated were tho local forests infested by rapacious beasts. The whole mammalian fauna is limited to a pig, some bats, mice, and mono- tremes, with over thirty species of the characteristic marsupials, one of which is no bigger than a rat. The dingo, or wild dog, which everywhere accompanies the natives, came with them at some remote age from foreign lands ; like the Austra- lian dingo it never barks, it lives almost exclusively on fruits and vegetables, and its flesh is said to be excellent. In its avifauna New Guinea partakes both of the Australian and Malaysian regions. In the north-west peninsula and neighbouring islands alone Wallace and other naturalists have enumerated at least two hundred and fifty species of land birds belonging to one hundred and eight genera, of which sixty-four are peculiar to the zone of Papuasia, the Moluccas, and North Australia. Some of iti iU B rBw J .«» i .■! m FAUNA OF NKW GUINKA. 808 thvHU uro retiiurkiihUf for tlifir bvuuty, original formN, und hrilliuiit cotout'H. Such are tho ijoiira coroimta, lovi-lient of thi' pigL'ou fiiniily ; the lurj^o hiack cockutoo iitid tlu) miHitorim, tho " >,fiant and dwarf" of iIuh tribo; luHtly, tlio inarvfllouB birdn of paradim^ callt-d by tho Malays tho 'bii I of iuA," and formerly suppoMrd to live ulwayN on tho wing, over-isoarinj,' hoavonwards. They were uIho liiliov«'d to have no foot, bocuuNo the HkiiiH prepared for tho Moluceun niarkotH had the legs amputated, and even liinnuouH gave tho uumo of jmrndinen npoda to tho large variety. The eaMW)wary is also found in New Guinea, but birds of prey are almost romplotoly absout, and to this circumstance is due the development of so many other Hpecios with gorgeous plumage. Amongst tho numerous reptilcN occurs tlie curious chondropythun pulclivi\ which forms the transition between the Amcricun boas and the pythons of Asia. Although the exploration of Now Uuineii is still fur from complete thousands of insects have been discovered, fully as remurkable us tho birds for their surprising wealth of forms and genera. general InHAIUTANTS of NkW Gl'lNKA. The population of New Guinea, variously estimated at from half u million to two millions, comprises a very large number of groups differing greatly from ouch other in stature, complexion, shape of the skull und other physical fcutures, us well us in their usages und mental qualities. Several tribes upprouch the Indo- nesian type, us found in Borneo and Celebes, while others resemble the Malays, and are described by travellers us belonging to this ruce. Wallace, Virchow, Humy, d'Albertis, and other ethnologists also believe that the Negritoes ure repre- sented in New Guineu us u distinct race, and not merely as degenerate Papuans, as supposed by A. B. Meyer and Miklukho Mukluy. Communities of Polynesian origin are also numerous, especially in the south-eastern districts, and endless interminglings have taken place between contiguous groups. But, ulthough there is no ethnical uniformity, us seemed probable from tho reports of the early explorers, the Papuan element, whence the great island takes the name of Pupuasia, certainly predominates over all others. This element is found almost unmixed on some parts of the north coast, and according to several authorities it even occurs in all parts of the Oceanic world. Formerly it reached as far as Hawaii and New Zealand, where it has been replaced by the Polynesian stock. This term Papua, said by Crawford to be derived from the Malay expression pua-pua, that is, " black, black," is by most writers explained to mean " frizzly," from the natural texture of the hair, the trait by which most strangers are arrested. The natives give themselves no collective name, and the special appellations by which the various tribes are known are usually found to be of topographical origin. The languages, as numerous as the tribal groups, are sufficiently distinct in many places to prevent the natives of neighbouring villages from understanding each other. According to Lawes no less than twenty-five idioms are current along the section of the southern seaboard stretching for about 300 miles to the east of Torres r 804 AUSTRALASIA. .Xi- i.'iii' '|IMfi'fl*l»wMii*m«K1 ^ ^w^t^l^.^BJt*'*-.i^*^A>^.*j;#4^*eii*,.i .;=^t,wt*<-*-'''-i----.''Hf>^-'* -rU- 808 AUSTRALASIA. frequented market in this western archipelago of New Guinea is Samatd, at the north-east point of the island of Sulwaty. On the Dutch mainland the hest-known and busiest station is Dorei, at the foot of the Arfak hills, at the entrance of Geelvink Bay. Close to the coast are three Fig. 134.— DOBBI. Sodle 1 : 900,000. Lasb or Grefnwr'cl-i I54''80- Deptli*. 0to50 rathomc. 60 Fathoma and upwards. 18 Mae*. pile villages sheltered on the north side by a wooded headland, and visited by a few Malay and European traders. Here is also a long- established mis.sionary station ; but although well received by the natives, the preachers of the gospel have hitherto failed to form a small congregation of neophytes. I '^^^> -,,. j,Mi i r>l<':aS'ijfe r .i^ i jim^iii^i) TOPOORArHY OF NEW GUINEA. 801) The Papuans of Dorei are known by the name of iMafur or Nofiir, a terra supposed by some to have the same origin as the word Alf uru, which in Portuguese would have the meaning of "outsiders," or "savages." But Van Ilasselt interprets it in the sense of " discoverers of fire," and these natives are justly proud of the sublime invention attributed by other peoples to the gods. The neighbouring highlands are occupied by the Arfak people, much dreaded head- hunters, who have nevertheless given a friendly welcome to those travellers who ventured to visit them. West of Dorei on the north coast lies the station Amberhakcn {Ainherbnki), that is, " Amber Land," which is inhabited by Papuans of the same stock as the Mafurs, and like them peaceful and friendly and even more skilful agriculturists. Their villages consist of very high cabins perched on the interlaced stems of the bamboo. The territory west of them is occupied by the Karons, one of the few New Guinea peoples who have not been unjustly accused of cannibalism. They eat the bodies of their enemies slain in battle ; but they are probably not of Papuan race. Although averaging about 5 feet 4 inches in height, they would appear to belong to the same stock as the Negritoes of the Philippine Islands ; and according to the naturalist Raff ray are characterised by robust, thick- set frames and limbs, large round head, verj' prominent superciliary arches, thick lips, broad flat features. They dress their frizzly hair in long tresses, which hang loosely over the temples and forehead, and practise a kind of tattooing with large raised welts. According to the Malays who have visited them, the Karons do not eat sago like the coastlanders, but feed on the sprouts of another palm that grows in a dry soil, and also devour all kinds of reptiles and insects. They are accused, though not on direct evidence, of eating their own offspring when all the slaves and captives have been consumed, leaving only two children to each family. Further south and more inland dwell the Gebars, who, like the peoples living on the shores of MacCluer Inlet, are also reputed cannibals. South of Dorei one of the most important coast villages is Wairur, lying not far from the narrowest part of the isthmus, across which a portage might easily be established between the Geelvink and MacCluer Gulfs. This place is visited by Malay traders, who purchase the nutmegs here growing wild. Other stations follow round Geelvink Bay, such as Wandammen on the south and Aropen ( Waropen) on the east side. Then beyond the Amberno delta occur a few ports of call occasionally visited by Dutch skippers. But here the population is very scattered, and foreign trade has fallen off since the middle of the century. The dealers, following the usual plan of making advances to the natives in order to secure their produce beforehand at nominal prices, run the risk of being murdered by their debtors, and in some places do not venture even to land, but wait off the coast the arrival of the native craft laden with local produce. Humboldt Bay (Telokh Lintju), the easternmost inlet within Dutch territory, is inhabited by some of the rudest coast tribes in New Guinea. Such is their ignorance that they are even unable to extract the oil from the cocoanuts that fringo all the western parts of the bay. l^gS^^^ ' ^vmmmm^ ^mmm* wwi>M>wiiMii' V i*«i»**i " 'i i *if' i.ii»«.\>«.—A— rn-w W *«i ..■H''fm^m0(!f-''^- •i«i- 810 AUSTRALASIA. Along the whole of this seuboard the tnuinland is less frequented than the adjacent islands. Those of Geolvink hay have each some busy markets, the most important of which is Annus, on the south side of Jobi or Jappen, The inhabitants of the station greatly resemble the Mafurs of Dorei ; but the interior of the island' is occupied by much-dreaded savages, who are accused, rightly or wrongly, of cannibalism. On the Dutch territory facing the Moluccas the most frequented station is Sekanr, which stands on a small bay at the southern entrance of MacCluer Inlet. The traders from Ceram penetrate in this direction as far as the port of Bintuni in search of sago and nutmegs ; but they never venture to approach the northern shores of the gulf, whose inhabitants are dreaded as pirates and man-eaters. Here the most powerful " rajah " is the prince of Atti-Atti, an insular group of some twenty houses lying west of Sekaar, and occupied by a motley population of nominal Mohammedans. The rajah of this place is the representative of the Sultan of Tidor in these waters, and the tribute of the villages along the coast is collected by him. Thanks to his intervention the Tidor suzerain and the Dutch Govern- ment itself have ceased to be myths for the natives of these districts ; in the Kuras archipelago, in the Island of Adi, and as far as Nnmatotte and Aiduma, near the bay where formerly stood Fori Jinn, the authority of the Netherlands is fully recognised ; but farther eastwards the power of the " Company " is no longer anything more than a name. The Papuans of these regions are said by travellers to approach the African Negro type more than any others ; formerly they carried on a trade in slaves, and according to the early explorers at times even sold their own children into bondage. The Aru, that is, " Mother-of-Pearl," Archipelago, lying about 90 miles south of the New Guinea coast, enjoys far greater commercial importance than the trading places on the mainland. Dobbo, the commercial centre of the group, commands a well-sheltered channel in the islet of Wamma, one of the coralline rocks in the north-west of the archipelago. During the season from March to ]May whole fleets of praus assemble here from Ceram and the surrounding islands, from the Kei Archipelago and even from Macassar. According to Wallace the exports of Dobbo, chiefly mother-of-pearl, tortoise- shell, holothurisB, birds of paradise and edible birds'-nests, have a mean annual value of £18,000. During the busy period the houses are unable to afford accommodation to the numerous traders flocking hither from all parts of Western Indonesia ; but after the fair the place is completely deserted. The Aru Archipelago depends on the Amboyna Residence, and usually once a year a Dutch commissioner comes round from the capital to make his general inspection and deliver judgment on pending cases. His intervention, however, is little needed, for during his absence the people administer their own affairs fairly well, having neither murders nor thefts to punish. According to von Rosenberg, some groups of Negritoes dwell near the fisheries in the eastern part of the archipelago. The Alivurus (Alfurus) of the Aru Islands claim descent from an ancestral tree, and are regarded by Riedel as of the same stock as the Australians V ■/^■t^ (t™.si efT. jfi ._^ ■aU Wil f J ' ii "fe » . ii| B i 'n 'nil li j i tut^/?';'' ! han the the most habitants lie island ongly, of is Sekaar, et. The in search shores of the most e twenty nominal Sultan of collected I Govern- I ; in the uma, near is is fully 10 longer travellers 5y carried sold their lies south than the lie group, coralline March to ig islands, allace the , birds of During numerous le fair the illy once a is general lOwever, is fairs fairly losenberg, irt of the it from an Lustralians BRITISH NKW GUINEA. 811 of North Queensland ; others think they came from Timor and Tenimber, while Wallace considers that they belong to the pure Papuan type. They eat the HcHh of the dog, suppowiug that this diet will always keep them brove and strong ; but with their sugo cakes they also take a few slices from the bodies of deceased relatives. The foreign religions, whether ChriHtian or Mohammedan, have hitherto made scarcely any progress amongst these islanders. British New Guinea. Even before they became the official rulers of southern Papuasia, the English had already extended their jurisdiction over all the inhabited islands of Torres Strait to within sight of the groat island. Hence the Australian colonists had only very narrow waters to cross in order to take possession of their new domain. The proximity of the Australian continent in fact gives quite an exceptional importance to this British territory. It is accordingly the best known, or rather the least unexplored region in the whole of New Guinea ; here the itineraries of travellers reach farthest inland, and here attempts at colonisation have be^n essayed on the largest scale. Australian speculators are already demanding the concession of vast tracts to be converted into plantations and cultivated by native labour. Meantime the Government, fully alive to its responsibilities, has issued salutary measures tending to protect the aborigines from extermination or from the evils usually resulting even from peaceful contact with the white. The sale of fire-arms, or alcoholic drinks and of opium to the local tribes is absolutv^.^ forbidden, as is also the indiscriminate recruiting of the natives for the labour markets else- where. The portion of British territory conterminous with Dutch New Guinea seems to hold out the brightest prospects for future settlement and material progress. Here are the rich alluvial lands watered by the numerous navigable branches of the Fly River, and at the same time lying nearest to the Australian mainland. The intervening shallow and island- studded waters of Torres Strait are only about 100 miles wide, reckoning from the mouth of the Baxter River to Cape York at the northern extremity of the York Peninsula. Nevertheless the vast and fertile delta region is still entirely held by Papuan wild tribes, and the nearest station of white traders and missionaries lies, not on the mainland but on the reef -fringed islet of Saibai, off the coast to the east of the mouth of the Mai Kasa. When the syndicate of the Australian colonies sent an expedition in 1885 to establish British authority over the officially annexed territory, the site of the future capital was fixed at Port-Moresby, an inlet opening to the south-west of the superb Owen Stanley highlands, and sheltered by a chain of reefs from the fury of the surf during stormy weather. At this point white coralline cliffs take the place of the muddy mangrove- covered shores which skirt the mainland to the north-west. The basin of the roadstead, which is approached by a wide entrance, has a depth of from 24 to 40 feet almost close inshore. Here also is one of the largest and most salubrious native villages on the whole seaboard. Even at the ' .i' 812 AUSTUAI.AHIA. time of the discovery in IH73, its double row of uuts, shaded by cocounut puliu- groves, hud us many us eiju^ht hundred industrious iniiabitu'ita occupied with agriculture, trade, and pottery, and doing a large trafHc .vith the villages along Fig. 135.— POBT-MOBESBT. Soale 1 : 1U(),(I0(). ■•.•.•.•;.•.■.•.;.•;■<:/.'*••■.■.;••.•■•• :: , ;v-.V;a;:.-?;v.:{V^-.,:!» .>:•.;: ■•••.•...•:■.■•■".•.•.■■■•-•'■•.. .:•■ ^**^.ii aiji^ las,t oP Greenwich lae'se- 146' 29 m v.'^ Beefii and sands exposed at low water. Oto82 Feet. Depths. 82 to 80 Feet. . 2 MUes. 60 Feet and upwards. the north-west coast, which took the excellent Port-Moresby earthenware in exchange for sago. Since that time the native town has considerably increased in size, while the llUITlHir NKW OUINEA. 818 Europcuu quurtcr, which in lS.S,"i hud ouly u group of housoH helougiiig to Ihe Fig. 136. — KoYXBi Dwuxiira. mkau Pobt-Moiiehhy, Nkw Guikka. ^9- a/' ■■ ■ missionaries and the depots of a British trader, now boasts of its Government - * ■ - - / 814 AU8TUALA8IA. Il;'' » \^. " palace," barracks, onurt-houHo, priwm, and othor structuroH (ivt;ib»>Hmnf? Kuropoan admiiiiHtratioii. lN)rtMntinont. In IHH7 not tnorc than about twenty whites, officials, traders, and inlssionarics, wore resident on the inuinhmd of the British territory. Most of tho deulors curried on their operations with tho natives from their ships without ever landing. Tho explorer and naturalist, O. II. Korln's, had founded a sniull sottleniont ut Sogere, in tho interior, about 50 miles north-east of I'ort-Mori'sby, un«l it was from this |K)int that he orjjanised liis expoditiouH to the surroundinnf hij^hlands. (iold miners, hitherto attended with but liftlo success, have .-ilso ostublishod u few camping grounds at some distance iidand, and a while i iveller may now wander alone without danger throughout most of tho southern regions in Hritish territory east of the Fly River. But it is chiefly through the action of native teachers trained by the missicm- aries that Euru))ean influence is slowly making itself felt amongst tho highland populations. The Protestant seminary at Port-Moreaby sends every year a certain number of young educated natives to the villages along the seaboard and in the islands, and thanks to them tho languages current in this region are already well known. Those teachers have been most succes; ful especially as gardeners, and the enclosures of the villages are already in many places well stocked with vegetables and fruit treet 'ill recently unknown in tho. country. Beyond Poit-Moresby no Ivaropean houses are anywhere to be seen except on the Hula headland some 60 miles south-east of the capital, and in a few islets near the coast. The Gov> rnment. howe' r, has acquired South Cape and Stacey Island, at tho south-east extremity ; T Te\s linea, in anticipation of a future strategical and commercial establishr- i, in this region. Plantations have been recently begun in Southeast ItJ, :, the chief member of the Louisiade Archipelago. Here the Island of Vare, ur Teste, bus already become a station much frequented by skippers engaged a the coasting trade. On the whole the British is much more thickly peopled than the Dutch section of New Guinea. In some districts, and especially on the shores of Papua Gulf between the Fly Delta and Yule Island, the population is verj' dense, large villages following in succession from creek to creek. The Aroma country, south-east of Port -[Moresby, is also well peopled, while the Louisiade and Entrecasteaux Islands are fringed with hamlets round their peripberj'. The natives of these archi- pelagoes, however, are much dreaded, and seafarers shipwrecked on their shores have often been devoured by them. They have the reputation of being all powerful magicians, of whom it is related that they can tear out the eyes, the tongue, the heart and entrails of their enemies without the victims' knowledge. Some of the tribes are of Papuan origin, and closely resemble those of western New Guinea. These are fof'.lhe most part agriculturists, while those engaged in trade and navigation appear to be half-castes, the Polynesian type predominating ijLii-i^iii|immfijiu.4«M>^ii r*'^--j,ji*'^';;yth,'/-.flsS&/?;ini>j;^--.li^i3.';ft^S'^ Jt»i<.i..Ml|f!!^-'.(^ BRITISH NEW GUINEA. 816 amongst many of them. To this mixed race belong the Motus of Port-Moresby, who manufacture and export vast quantities of earthenware, and whose language has become the lingua franca of the traders along a large part of the seaboard. Their complexion is relatively fair, not unlike that of the Tahitians, and in their attitude, physiognomy, and usages they also recall the eastern Polynesians. Of all the New Guinea peoples they practise tattooing to the greatest extent. The designs, with which they cover a great part of the body, bear a surprising resem- blance to Greek and Latin characters. At the sight of these fine torsos, which seem clothed with inscriptions, one feels involuntarily tempted to decipher the writing, as if it contained the personal history of the bearers. The Koyari, who occupy the first slopes of the mountains back of Port-Moresby, have near their villages little doboa, or houses, perched on the tree tops, where they take refuge in case of danger, and whence they hurl stones on their assailants. It was perhaps these dobos that gave rise to the legend of certain Papuan peoples living in the trees, and springing from branch to branch like monkeys. The Koyari and the neighbouring Koitapu of kindred stock have a much darker com- plexion than the Motus. The aborigines of the British territory must be included amongst those popula- tions, who have developed no distinct form of government, all the male adults being practically equal. Doubtless each village has its so-called " chiufs," who owe this title either to age or to personal valour in warfare, or else to their superior skill aud potency as magicians. But this moral ascendency gives them no authority over the tribe, and the consequence is that the British Government is imable to utilise tliem as officials in the way it would wish. All its efforts aim at giving the tribes a monarchical constitution, by appointing some distinguished member of the community to be henceforth a paid functionary, and at the same time the representative of his fellow-tribesmen, and responsible for their conduct. The general administration of British New Guinea has meantime been delegated by the home Government to the Australian colony of Queensland. The German Possessions in New^ Guinea. The German territory, officially designated by the name of Eaiser Wilhelms- land, is not administered as a state colony by officials from Berlin. Its manage- ment is simply left in the hands of a trading company, which, under the protection and control of the Government, endeavours to make money by laying out planta- tions, establishing trading stations, and exporting local produce. Men-of-war visit these waters to give the German traders the necessary prestige, and, when required, to lend them active assistance. Numerous expeditions have revealed the form of the coastline in all its details, but the old French, English, and Russian names of the prominent headlands and other geographical features have been gradually replaced by German appellations. Very little of the nomenclature given to this region by the first explorers now reniains on the maps, :;nd the natives uo lougei ctuluie strangers by the title of mmm. 1 1 linniiMlf!!! ■ 'f i n ' yw" " : ' . '! f O' ^T r 816 AUSTRALASIA. " Monsieur," as they had learned to do from Dumont d'Urville and other French navigators. The capital of the German possessions in New Guinea is Finsch-hafen, so named in honour of the German explorer Finsch, who has surveyed most of the country Fig. 137.— AsTBoiABE Bat. Soale 1 : 426,000. 145 "^0 ■ Easb Qp Greenwich Depths. OtoSO Fathoma. SO Fathoms and upwards. I 9 HUM and best described the land and its inhabitants. Finsch-hafen lies near the extremity of the peninsula, which projects to the north of Huon Bay ; at this point the coast is deeply indented by a winding inlet, where large vessels can ride at anchor in 60 or 70 feet of water completely sheltered from all winds. -n*" GERMAN NEW GUINEA. 817 French * > named country The first houses of the settlement were erected towards the end of the year 1885 on a round island, which has been connected by an embankment with the main- land. Cisterns have also been constructed to husband the rain-water, there being a total absence of springs in the coralline limestones of the island and surrounding shores. At the first arrival of the Germans the district was comparatively well- peopled, but most of the natives have since emigrated in order to avoid being obliged to work on the plantations of the whites. A Protestant mission has been established in the vicinity, and communication with the civilised world is maintained by a steamer plying between this station and the Australian settlement of Cooktown on the east coast of Queensland. In the Appendix will be found a table of the islands which may be regarded as geographical dependencies of New Guinea. The German islands off the north coast form part of the Melanesian Archipelagoes, while those of Torres Strait on the opposite side of the great island are attributed to Australia. lear the at this iels can. . winds. ■> ^ w »i* « p»'*»w?* y "^ " T ■* CHAPTER VII. MELANESIA. LL the islands lying north-east of New Guinea as far as the equator have been declared German possessions by the treaty of partition with Great Britain. Towards the west the German waters are limited by the meridian of 141° east longitude, but eastwards the Pacific Ocean is left open for future annexations. Till 1885 the limit was indicated by 154° east longitude, but that limit was effaced the next year when the north-western members of the Solomon group, Bougainville, Choiseul, Yzabel, and all the neighbouring lands to the north of 8° south latitude, were pro- claimed German territory. The islands thus ofiicially annexed to the empire have an estimated superficial area of over 30,000 square miles, with a population of pro- bably about three hundred and fifty thousand. Like the New Guinea possessions, these insular groups are assigned to a trading company, which at the same time exercises political functions. According to the terms of the treaty the southern section of the Solomon Archi- pelago falls within the sphere of British influence. i e I. — North Melanesia: Admiralty, Bismarck and Solomon Islands. These oceanic lands are amongst those that have longest remained unnoticed. In 1567 Mendana, guided by the pilot Hernando Gallego, landed on Yzabel, one of the large islands to which he gave the collective name of the Solomon Archipelago, doubtless with the hope or pretension of having here discovered that auriferous " land of Ophir " whence the King of Judaoa imported the gold for the Temple of Jerusalem. Mendana spent six months in exploring the islands, which he was at last obliged to leave through lack of provisions and water, after quarrelling with the natives whom he had come "to convert to the true faith." Later he returned to colonise the archipelago which he bad discovered, but died before reaching it. The route to the Solomon Islands was thus lost, and remained unknown for two hundred years afterwards. Its position had been too vaguely indicated to be followed with any certainty, while Gallego's report had been kept secret, lest he should direct the mariners of other nations to these islands henceforth claimed by Spain. The record of this route has only recently been discovered in the Spanish archives, and translated into English by H. B. Quppy. inMligrft.^T*liiilil«ii II NORTH MELANESIA. 819 Two hundred years after Mendanu's voyage, Carteret, in 1767, followed the next year by Bouguiuville, and in 17()f> by 8urville, again sailed through the straits and channels discovered by the Spanish navigator, but without identify- ing them ; in fact, they fancied they had discovered new lands and accordingly gave them new names, it was reserved for Buache and Fleurieu, by patient investigation and comparative studies of the early itineraries, to restore to the Spanish mariners the glory of having first explored these Melanesian regions. But while navigators were in vain seeking the lost route to the Solomon group, they visited other lands lying nearer to New Guinea. In 1616 the Dutch sailors, Le Maire and Schouten, surveyed the " Twentv-five Islands," since Carteret's time known as the Admiralty Archipelago • they also discovered Birara or New Britain, which, however, they mistook for the northern seaboard of New Guinea fringed with numerous islets. Tasman, who also visited these lands in 164;}, fell into the same error, which was not corrected till the year 1700, when Dampier, passing southwards, penetrated into the strait that bears his name, and thus determined the insular character of the Admiralty group ; but much still remained to be done, and the systematic survey of these waters, begun in the last century by Carteret, Bougainville, and d'Entrecasteaux, and continued in 1827 by Dumont d'Urville, is only now being gradually completed. For the inland exploration of the islands little has hitherto been done. Missionaries, traders, adventurers, naturalists, such as Miklukho-Maklay, Finsch, Guppy, have visited various parts of the Melanesian groups and published the results of their studies ; but no methodical survey of the whole region was begun till the year 1884, when New Britain and New Ireland were occupied by the German Government. Unfortunately, one of the first oflBcial acts of that power was to change the geographical nomenclature, in which names of English and French origin prevailed. Doubtless, some of these arbitrary terms might with advantage have been suppressed, and replaced by those current amongst the natives themselves. But the maps have been modified in the spirit of a mistaken or aggressive patriotism, without considering whether the new terminology could be justified by the physical aspect of the islands, the nature of the soil, population, or comparative geography. The chief insular group has thus become the Bismarck Archipelago ; Tombara, or New Ireland, is henceforth to be known as New Mecklenburg ; York Island has taken the name of New Lauenburg, and Birara, or New Britain, that of New Pomerania. Most of the mountains and ports have been similarly " re-baptised," with a cynical defiance of international etiquette and indifference to the fitness of things. ' %t Physical Features of North Melanesia. The North Melanesian lands are disposed in the form of two transverse curves. The northern, beginning with Tiger Island, about 100 miles north of the New Guinea seaboard, stretches eastwards through the groups of Ninigo or Exchequer, the ""••"i"<*J*n m. AUSTRALASIA. Hermit and Admiralty to New Ilunovcr, which is followed by the elongated island of Tombara, disposed in the direction from north-west to south-east, in common with all the mcsmbers of the Solomon Archipelago. The southern curve runs at first parallel with the New Guinea coast, where the extreme limit of the chain is marked by Vulmn Island within ten miles of the mainland. The system is then continued at intervals by Dampicr (Kar-Kar), Long and Rook, beyond which the curve, ceasing to foUow the Nc v Guinea coast south-eastwards, sweeps round through Birara (New Britain) east and north-east transversly to Tombara. Both curves thus converge and somewhat overlap about York Island in St. George's Channel. Like most other insular chains disposed in the form of arcs of a circle, these two ranges of the North Molanesian islands consist in a great measure of volcanic lands. Vulcan, at the western extremity of the southern curve, forms a superb peak from which wreaths of smoke constantly issue. Its shores are festooned with a garland of plantations and its slopes clothed with forest growths to a height of over 3,000 feet, beyond which nothing is seen except a scanty herbaceous vegeta- tion as far as the summit, 5,000 feet above the sea. Aris, near this smoking cone, is a long extinct breached crater ; but Lesson, lying farther west, is still active. These waters have often been the scene of violent commotions, and when Dampier penetrated through the strait bearing his name, the atmosphere was charged with vapours and ashes ; flames were reflected from the clouds, and the sea was covered far and wide by floating pumice ; but at present all the numerous igneous cones dotted over this maritime region are quiescent. Birara, largest member of all the Melanesian groups, is too little known in its central parts to determine the character of the rocks concealed beneath the uniform mantle of verdure clothing all the mountain slopes. But Cape Gloucester, at the extreme point overlooking Dampier Strait, is known to be a still active volcano, while round about rise numerous eruptive cones with an average height of about 6,500 feet. A low reef in the cluster of the French Islands scattered to the north of Birara is also an upheaved igneous mass, one of whose springs forms a geyser. Farther east a promontory on the mainland, 3,940 feet high, consti- tutes, with two less elevated crests, the group of still-burning mountains known as the "Father" and his two "Sons."' Lastly, Blanche or White Bay, at the northern extremity of Birara, appears to be itself a ruined crater encircled by an amphitheatre of hills. In the midst of the waters, which present an almost lacustrine aspect, stands a steep circular eminence, while the peninsula enclosing the bay on the east is surmounted by another triplet of volcanoes, known as the "Mother" (2,100 feet) and her two "Daughters." In the neighbouring seas the water has often been seen to boil up, and some of the islets have even been partly blown away. * ; -„:y> Igneous energy seems to be less active in the western section of the northern curve forming the chief insular chain of North Melanesia. The Exchequer and Hermit groups ate vast atolls resting on a rocky bed whose true character has not "^m:- ••ii nl ' fi ■'t r f NOUTII MELANESIA. 8fl yet been determined. The Admiralty Archipelago conMRtn mainly of coralline rocks, and here a muss, 2,970 feet high, occupying the centre of the large inland of Tuui, is alone said to be of plutonic origin. Among the loss elevated hills in Now Hanover, Tombara (Now Ireland), and - ;(■■■■. ■ Fig. 138. White Bay. Sonle 1 : 170,000. Depths. Sandi and Reeb ezpoMd at low water. OtoSS Fhthoms. 86 Fathoma and upward*. 8 Mile*. neighbouring islets no igneous cones have yet been discovered, but the volcanic system again reappears in the Solomon Archipelago. Here, the large island of Bougainville consists from one extremity to the other of a continuous igneous range describing a regular curve whose concave side faces north-eastwards ; Balbi, its culminating peak, has an altitude of 10,170 feet ; but Bagana, situated in the 21—0 IT — ■ ■> ' »i f iai ' I I att i WWiii . !iti i j ii >'' i K ii i iii ' < frt?Wfe.»ft*^a Miwi ih ■.'-'.itK!. 'r.iS'tK'i Vs-Jf-, ■^^mHi NORTH MELANESIA. 826 Maklay to the surprise of most ethnologists, who regarded the dolichocephalic or long shape of the head as specially characteristic of this Oceanic group. A large number of Melanesians, especially in the Admiralty Islands, have long teeth projecting beyond the mouth, a feature whi''}i intpurts to the phy- siognomy a somewhat ferocious and even bestial expression. But this feature is less conspicuous amongst the men, whose teeth are covered with a dark varuish from the habit of betel-chewing, than amongst the women and children, whose tocth are white. Some natives, espeiielly of New Britain, are also met, the toes of whose feet are all connected together by a common membrane.* Ulcers under the soles are very general, and in the Solomon Archipelago at least two-fifths of Fig. 139.— 8an Cbistobal. 161'ao' East oF Greenwich 162*20 Deptin. 0to3B0 i..ii^.:-,:<^y'.mi>. 300 Fathoma and upvrardc. — - 80 MUM. the inhabitants are afflicted with large sores caused by a parasite {(ined cireimta tropica)', in some islands nearly the whole population has to entertain these. „^, troublesome guests. Skin diseases, also, are not less prevalent than amongst the Caroline islanders, while the Imneful habit of eating argillaceo'is clay is common in the Admiralty fl^rpim. Most of the old p»>oplA are carried off hv pulmonary affections, and when the mortality becomes excessive in a village, the iahubitant« migrate to some other place declared by the magicians to be more propitious. As a rule the Melanesians are less aifeoted than the Polynesians by the morbid inJlueuces caused by contact with the whites ; but on the other hand certain islands are being gradually «Itj|K>pulaU)d by tlie iuiiversij piucliuu o* ijui'da;.iiiidc. Iz; Ugi, o£E the cas« cuaet uf Bomilljr, The Western Paeifie and New Guinea. 826 AUSTRALASIA. San Cristobal, ue^rly all iLe cliildrbu of bolL uexea uio killed by their parents, and the population is recruited by the purchase of young slaves on the neighhour- ing island ; on reaching the adult age these slaves become free. The Melanesians do not practise circumcision, and the prevalence of this rite in any community is a sure proof of Polynesian descent. Tattooing is the rule, porformed, hcwover, by incisions with sharp stpnes, not by pricking, as amongst the South-Sea Islanders. In Santa-Ana, at the southern extremity of the Solomon group, the youths do not acquire the privileges of manhood until they have sub- mitted to this rite, and during the operation they are obliged to dwell apart and live on the blood of n Sflcred fish. In Bougainville, on the contrary, tattooing is interdicted to the young ; but aft^r marriage both sexes embellish the person with rows of knobs in the form of peas, the number and disposition of which indicate the rank of the individual. Like most savages the Melanesians pay great attention to their toilet ; thoy daily spend hours in the water, rubbing the body and painting it red, except in time of mourning, when bathing is forbidden. The hair is dressed in various ways, either as an enormous globe, or tower-shaped, or else fashioned by means of clay and ochre into a compact red mass. Such is the labour required to keep the hair properly dressed that in Trensnrj' Island some of the old women shave it o£E altogether in order to find time for their bousehuld dutlea. Instead of clothes some of the more savage tribes load themselves with oma ments of all kinds, necklaces, bracelets, f^intastic trinkets, tufts of foliage and the like. The cartilage of the nose is generally pierced for the insertion of small boars' tusks, or else strings of shells, wt' e bits of stick, bone, and other objects are introduced into the pierced lobe of the ear. Warriors distinguished for their prowess in the battletield wear festoons of human teeth, vertebite or finger juIuLs, a ihlgh uoue suspended on the breast completing their military decorations. In Matupi and many other islands the currency still consists of strings of shells, replaced elsewhere by dogs' teeth, and in the cauuibal districts by necklets of human teeth ; empty bottles serve the like purpose in the Admiralty group. Incessant wailare prevails in certain islands not only between the seaboard and inland tribes, but also between the coostlanders themselves. This is due tc tho necessity of procuring heads to decorate the chief's house and the war canoes ; captives are also needed, to be slaughtered on certain solemn feasts, so that their souls may protect the plantations or bring success to the fishermen. Further victims are required to grace the funeral obsequies of the chiefs. The body is placed erect in the grave, then buried up to the neck, after which a tire is kindled to consume the flesh, the skull being then carried utf and set up in the canoe, serving the purpose of a temple. Bui the grave has still to be £llcd in with the youngest wife, a child, and the niosl valueJ tieasuies of the depar with the offerings of his friends. Then the miscellaneous contents are crushed, broken to pieces and covered with stones, while the assembled multitude utter orie» oi grief; occasioaaliv the very palm jj-rovca are felled, eo that the owner's trees mav share in the universal mourning, or else accompany him to the other world. ::.M -sm t pm m.L.. ••f mf ' i ' ^ ' M-x" . '^•IM NORTH MEfANESIA. ' j«»i liSo nrooiiTiiAn fn rliotafw to his neighbour; all the members of the community are equal, and deliberate without the control of superiors on the common interests. On the other hand the power of the hereditary chiefs has been firmly established in most of the Solomon Islands. Although, as a rule, there are as many states as villages, some of the more powerful chiefs rule over whole clusters of islets and even over extensive tracts on the larger islands. Thus the " King " of Shortland in Bougainville Strait holds sway over all the islanders in that channel, as well as over the neigh- bouring tribes in Bougainville and nhoieeul, The more powerful dynasties are . generally constituted by the rulers of the smaller islands, whose inhabitants are more restless and uuriug than the settled agricultural populations of the large islands. The policy of the German Government is at present directed towards consolidating the power of the more influential chiefs, and gradually transforming them to paid officials. There are no towns in German Melanesia. The "colony" of Port-Breton, founded in 1879 on the south coast of Tombara, in the most arid part of the island, has been completely abandoned by it« French immigrants, to whom such golden promises had been held out, but who found nothing but famine and sickness in " New France." Nothing remains of the settlement except a few sheds sheltming The politionl and commercial capital of the German Melanesian possessions ooo.iipies B perfevjtly central position between New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. The first station was Mioko, in the still waters stretching south of York Island (New Lauenburg) ; but this port was abandoned in consequence of the fetid odours emitted by the neighbouring shoals which are exposed at low water. Choice was then made of the thickly peopled island of Matupi, which lies farther ■t. ■^M '■::-.il axis running north-north-west and south-south-east. The two clusters comprise some fifty isles and islets, besides countless reefs, and a few groups scat- tered over the eastern waters on the highways leading to Fiji and Samoa. Alto- gether Santa-Cruz and tho New Hebrides, with the more remote Tikopia and Anuda, have a collective area eetimpted at from 5.000 to 5.500 square mile8, with a totnl nopnlntioTi nnproximately computed at about seventy thousand souls. The Santa-Cruz Archipelago was discovered in 1595 by Alonzo de Mendana, during the unsuccessful expedition undertaken to rediscover the Solomon group visited by him twenty-eight years previously. His companion, Queiros, when exploring the same waters in 1606, was the first to sight the New Hebrides. Casting anchor in a bay on the coast of Espiritu-Santo, he supposed he had reached the Australian continent, and accordingly gave to this " mother of so many islands " the name of Australia. It was in this island of Merena, or Espiritu-Santo, that he founded the " New Jerusalem," the city whence the true faith was to be spread over all the scattered lands of the Pacific Ocean. But Queiros never returned to this region, which remained unvisited for a himdred and fifty years till the time of Bougainville. But the very name of the " Great Cyclades," given to the New Hebrides by this navigator, shows that he made no systematic survey of this archipelago, which is disposed not in circles but in chains. In 1774, six years after Bougainville, Cook visited the same group, whioh he studied more in detail, and to which he gave the name of the Scotch Islands, which has since been maintained in geographical nomenclature. After Cook's visit the coasts of the central islands still remained to be surveyed, and some more remote groups f« be discovered. In 1789, Bligh, driven from his ship by the mutineers of the Bounty, and compelled to make his way across more than half of the Pacific, had the good fortune to come upon the Banks Islands, lying to the north of the New Hebrides. The previous year Lap^rouse had navigated the same parts of the ocean ; but he never returned to announce his discoveries. His vessel was wrecked on a shoal ofE Vanikoro, the aoutheruinust member of the Santa-Cruz group, though the scene of the disaster remained unknown until SANTA-CRUZ.— NEW HEBRIDES. 881 I discovered thirty-nine years afterwards by Dillon. The fatal rouk lies to the west of the island in one of thu channels piercing the circuit of fringing reefs. Although now well known to mariners in the Houth Seas, and frequently visited by labour vessels and missionaries, neither the Santa- Cruz group nor the New Hebrides have yet been annexed by any European power. The former como, no doubt, within the sphere assigned to British influence by the treaty concluded with Germany ; but the New Hebrides, which also seemed destined to become an English possession, have been disputed by France, and some of the islands have even been temporarily occupied by small French garrisons. Protes- .•'li 1'" 889 AUSTRAI.ASIA. Fig. 142.— Nkw Hkuiuukh. Scale 1 : 9,SOO,000. volcanic origin, as is evident from the regular conoa strewn with ashes and lavas, which occur in nearly all those Melauesian lands. According to Dana, the almost total absence of coralline reefs must be attributed to the activity of the igneous forces; although lying between New Caledonia and Fiji, so rich iu corals, neither tSanta-Druz nor the New Hebrides have a single utuU, and the only complete fringing reef is that which encircles the island of Vauikoro. Tinakoro, a northern member of the Santa- Cruz group, is in a constant state of eruption, while a volcano 1,870 feel high, iu the iaiet of Uiopuiu- para, Banks Archipelago, shows a breached crater facing north-east- wards and now flooded by the sea. Copious tberroal springp well up on the sboreR nf VnnnH-T/avn in thw same neighbourhood ; both the island of Ambrym (3,690 feet), in, the centre of the New Hebrides, and the precipitous Mount Lopevi (.^jOOO feet), culminating point of that group, are active volcanoes, as is also the wooded Mount Yasova, in Tanna (Tanna Aiperi), near the southern extremity of the chain. Vapours, ashes, and lumps of lava are ejected from this crater at in- tervals of six or eight minutes, especially in the months of Jan- uary, February, and March. Port Besolution, an excellent harbour in Tanna, was filled up by an earth- quake in 1878. Submarine disturbances are of frequent occurrence in these waters, whore vessels have occasionally t« force their way through dense masses of floating pumice. Besides the still restless craters a number of other insular cones were formerly the scene of igneous convul- sions. Many places show indications of comparatively recent upheaval, and Ormieres pppuVs of mnngrovR roots encrusted with shells lying some 4:0 feet above the present sea-level. Daptlu. to 1,000 Fathoms. 1,000 to 2,000 Fatlioms. 8,000 Fathomi and upwards. ISOJIUcs. ■MHH mmmmm 1 "n SANTA-CRUZ.— NEW HEBRIDES. Climate — Fi.oka — Fauna , 888 The climate varies considerably in the ditferont insular groups, which are scattered over a space of more than 12^ of latitude (10° to 22° south latitude), lleuce the mean temperature varies from '6° to 4° or 6° Fahr. between the two extremities of the archipelagoes. Nevertheless the movement of winds and rains is everywhere the same in these waters. The southern trade wind blows regularly during the summer of the northern hemisphere, from May to October, while variable breezes alternate with the trades throughout the rest of the year. Heavy rains, storms, and even cyclones visit the archipelagoes during the prevalence of the western gales. ':•' ''' '''^•Mii-k- \ - Owing to the abundant moisture the vegetation is dense and the mountains mostly foreat-clad. For Fjuropoons, the climate of the New Hebrides, and especially of the weut ui- mure humid side, is extremely insalubrious ; the same region appears to have also become less healthy for the natives themselves, who are now decimated by consumption. Thanks to the great fertility of the soil, the flora of these archipelagoes comprises a large number of forms not occurring elsewhere. Such are a species of myrtle, which gives a pungent odour and grows to a height of over 4U feet, and a vanety ol cedar, with olive-like toliage, wtiicli grows much higher and which might supply Tnn«tft for largo i-^sioTs. Nerirly al! the New Hebrides trees arc highly resinous, and the white, transparent substance oozing from them is much valued by the few European manufacturers acquainted with its properties. In the New Hebrides sandalwood is mainly in demand for the export trade. , In these archipelagoes the alimentary plants are chiefly of western origin. Although the Indian vegetable world is here still represented by a number of forms, the New Hebrides also belong to the New Zealand domain, as shown by the dammara, the arauoaria and about a himdred varieties of ferns. With few exceptions, the fruit trees, such as the cocoanut, sago, bread-fruit tree and banana, are the same as those found in the other oceanic, lands. But of all plants the most important is the yam, which constitutes the staple of food for the natives. The years are reckoned by the yam harvests, and for the hands carried off to work on the Queensland; Fiji, or New Caledonian plantations, the period of contract service is estimated not by years but by yams. The indigenous fauna is extremely poor in mammals, the only primitive species being rats and bats. The pig has been imported, and even quite recently the natives of Tanna and Mallicolo beheld with surprise the first dogs introduced from the Society Islands. The nutmeg pigeon is found also in Tanna. » Inhabitants. Santa-Cruz and the New Hebrides occupy a transitional zone between the Melanesiau and Polynesian worlds, and their populations consequently present a great vaiiety of i^pe^ ai;i:;ofdIng to the extent, of iTitprisaisturc or the jiiAiUpowition of the two races. Every island offers some contrast with its neighbours, and even ,,fPfhte^lKKrt! 'r - -,: 8ANTA.( illJZ — NKW IlEimiDKS, m iBtoms ¥|:^i ^"i^ ist and inland populations form <,voll-iiiurki>d divisiouH, generally dcHignutod, in the " Pigeon Knglish" of thcHe wuters. by the numcH of ifiin-Haifiriifrr and Mtin-himh. Hut according to Otto FinNch, th» Mclani'sian in on the wholo the dominant ty{)e even in the Houthorn iHlandH of Vutt', Krroniango and Tunna. Navigators have noticed that the natives of those southern iHlandn are as a rule strotiger, taller and better built than those of the northern section. Ihit judged by our normal standard of beauty they cannot be considered handsome. Tb*- forehead is low and retreating, the face broad, with two prominent cheek- bones, the nose flat and the lips thick. In several islands the head of the children is deformed by means of boards, which have the effect of lengthening the skull from back to front, while at the same time contracting and lowering it. To this artificial deformation is perhaps due the fact that, according to Professor Flower, the Vanikoro and Mallicolo islanders are the most dolichocephalous or long-headed of any known race. Hair and beard are woolly, or frizzly, ond the complexion almost black in the New Hebrides, where the people embellish themselves by piercing the lobes of the ears and the cartilage of the nose, by gashing arms and breast, decking the head with shells, foliag^e, or tufts of grass, and embellishing the body with paintings in red ochre, lime, and diverse piarments. But tattooing in the strict sense of the term is somewhat rare, and in the southern islands absolutely unknown. Many use wood ashes to impart a tine gulden tint to the hair, which in Tanna the height of the fashion requires to be arranged in a multitude of small tresses tied at the roots with vegetable fibre. To complete this part of the toilet of a gay warrior is said to take no less than three or four years. At the time of the discovery the natives went naked, or wore nothing beyond a strip of pounded bark, leaves, or cocoanut fibre. Some of the irianders described by Cook fastened the waist so tightly with a girdle of cordage as to look like large ants. At present most of the New Hebrides people have adopted European materials for all or part of their apparel. Their dwellings are not raised on piles like those of the Papuans and western Melanenians, but consist, for the most part, of simple roofs of pclm-leaves suspended on four stakes. While tho bulk of the population in both archipelagoes is evidently of Mela- nesian stock, the fine Polynesian race is in almost exclusive possession of the more easterly islets of Anuda (Cherry Island) and Tikopia (Barwell). They are easily recognised by their tall stature, robust frame, long hair and bright countenance. The people of Futuna and Aniwa, the " Madeira " of the New Hebrides, towards the southern extremity of the group, are also Polynesians ; the very names they have given to their new homes are taken from tho lands in the vicinity of the Tonga Islands. Judging from the description given of them by Quoiros, it is highly probable that the natives of the Taumaco or Duff Islets, north-east of Santa- Cruz, also belong to the same family. Those of Nukapu, a chief member of the Santa-Cruz cluster, are the issue of a crossing between the two oceanic elements, for their language is essentially Polynesian, closely related to the Maori, while their usages oouuuul Ihem with the Melunesiaus. ■"i^i^ "•**«^i>ji T, .. ^ ^^ , .lik^jj^il^i -\" ri AirSTRALASIA. In tho New Huhridcs tho woiiu'u are na u rule very hurshly trouUxl. Muny thiii^R pormittod to tho husband uro di'tdiirod " tuboo" for th« wife by the ohiefM and pru'BtH. Th<^ hitter uro potent wi/urdH, who control wind und rain, conjure or expel the npiritB und ailmentn, hold convcrne with tho unceMry, the godm of the trib<>, und comraunicute their pleuxure to the living. They formerly presided ut the cannibiil buncpietH, for unthropopha^'y, till re«!ently more prevident in eiiMtcrn Melanesia than iit any other oceanic region, hud uHHumed u religioutt churucler. Prisoners of war und the enemy slain in buttle were devoured, in order to acquire their strength und courage ; but the taste for human flesh hud ulso intr(Mluceolag() in owiiod by u Now Culudoiiiiiii cDinpiiiiy. In thu Ap|.>4 FRENCH MELANESIA. 889 V Tn New Caledonia the prevailing formations are syenites, serpentines, dioritcs, metamorphic schists, and trachites. The very pumice cast up as flotsam by the waves attests the existence of former eruptive centres. The great geological resem- blance of these rocks to the East Australian ranges at one time held out expectations of rich auriferous discoveries ; but the financial results of the local mining opera- tions have not hitherto been encouraging. The metals which really occur in ubuudauce, and which may yet contribute to the industrial prosperity of New Caledonia, are iron, nickel, cobalt, antimony, and chromium. Copper mines have also been worked, and coalfields, though of little economic value, have been dis- covered at the foot of the serpentine rocks on the seaboard. m Fig. Hi. — New Calssokia. 8«al« 1 : 6.ooo.ooa Lasb oF Oregnwicti to 1,000 Fathomfl Oeptlu. IJOV} i''fttbODM and upwu-cU. .180 New Caledonia is at least doubled in size by the reefs skirting its shores and extending it in the direction of the north-west and south-east. The hydrograpbic surveys of Chambeyron and other explorers leave no doubt of the existence of these fringing and barrier reefs on the east side, though their presence had been denied by Darwin and Dana. Towards the southern extremity, however, the encircling coralline rooks disappear below the surface, at first a few yards, then from 16 to 20 fathoms, forming, north of the central passag^e. near the isle of 1| OUAUO jfm^^^ 840 AUSTBAI>ASIA, m emerging, some still covered by water. In its middle and northern sections €hamboyron's "great barrier reef" everywhere presents n uniform mass from 200 to 1, 000 yards broad, interrupted only by a few passes, which give access to a broad and deep sheet of smooth water flowing between the reef and the mainland. This basin is about 6 miles wide and from 25 to 30 fathoms deep towards the centre ; but the navigation is endangered by a few hidden shoals occurring near both margins. Seawards the great reef sinks rapidly, and then at a mean distance of 460 yards plunges abruptly into depths of over 360 fathoms. Nowhere else does Darwin's hypothesis regarding the slow subsidence of fringing coralline reefs appedi- to he l>ott«r supported than in these waters. The coral builders work with surprising rapidity on the New Caledonian reefs. North of the mainland the two branches of the fringing barrier do not converge, but, on the contrary, grow wide apart and stretch for a distance of 160 miles before they become reunited north of the Huon, Fabre, Leleizour, and Surprise islets. Between this perfect atoll and the north end of the great island, the lagoon, enclosed by the two barrier reefs, is occup'-^d in its central part by the Belep group, which comprises the islets of Art and Pott. Tho Loyalty chain, built up by polj'pi, presents in a summary form the whole history of corallinti islands. The Potrio and Astrolabe roofs in the north arc dciugert-us Siioals, awash with the aiirfaca and grouped ae atclls. TJvoa, following southwards, is a semi-circular uurul plateau, perfectly horizontal, with a mean height of 50 to 60 foot, and enclosing a lagoon 9 fathoms deep. Lifu, largest member of the archipelago, is also an ancient atoll, which has been upraised at successive epochs to an altitude of 300 feet. The observer easily distinguishes the three terraces marking three consecutive upheavals, and disposed in abrupt scarps like the outer «liff at present washed by the waves. Mar4, or Neogon«^, some 30 feet higher than Lifu, develops five horizontal terraces, which indicate a corresponding number of change^) between the level of land and sea. Having risen above the surface at a more remote period than the other islands, Mar^ is also more fertile, better wooded, and relatively more densely peopled. To judge from the numerous shells of still surviving species which occur on the upper terraces and which partly retain their colours, the last upward movement must have taken place ill i'ec6ut geoiogicul tiuieo. With a mean annual rainfall of about 40 inches. New Caledonia is abundantly watered by numerous streams, one only of which is sufficiently copious to deserve tho name of rivei. I'his is the Diahot, which rises at the foot of the Panic Peak and flows parallel with the east coast to Ilarcourt Bay, between the two north- western promontories of tho island. Including its windings the Diahot is over 60 miles long, and in its tidal reaches is accessible to craft drawing 8 or 10 feet of water. The Toutouta, which falls into Saint Vincent Bay, north-west of Noumea, as well as several other rivulets, flows for a large part of its course below the sur- face, and near its source in Mount Humboldt develops a copious cascade at a height of 4,000 feet above the sea. Judging from their high temperature some «i "iwuinWlillM*" FRENCH MELANESIA. 841 brooks appear to be fed by thermal springs. Owing lo the absence of hills to intercept the rain-water, none of the Loyalty group have any permanent streams, while the moisture collected in the limestone cavities is so charged with im2)urit)(>H that the natives mostly prefer cocoanut milk. :is,:m'm' Climate - Flora — Fauna. Lying entirely within the torrid zone. New Caledonia has a mean temperature of over 70° F. But despite the moderating influence of the surrounding waters, the difference is considerable between that of summer and winter. The Austral summer is the season of rainSj of variable winds and storms, which at times assume the character of real hurricanes. But they are seldom felt in the northern part of the island, where the trade winds with their regular atmospheric phenomena prevail during the summer months. Although the average rainfall is about 40 inohes, some districts, especially in the north, occasionally eulTer from long droughts. One of the most remarkable facts is the surprising salubrity of New Caledonia. Wbile so many other lands luider the same equatorial zone are justly dreaded, especially by European settlers, white labourers can here till the soil with iTopumty, at times even in marshy districts, This privileged climate can be oxpJaicc^rl neither hy llis influence of. Ihe tif dee or the sea breezes, nor by the porous nature cf the coralline coastlanda, for the other oceanic regions wilhiu the tropics enjoy the same advantages. The fringing reefs, however, are all " living," not "dead," corals, as in the New Hebrides. But according to the natives and colonists, the true cause of the excellent climate is the niauli {melaleuca leuca- dendr&n), a beneficent plant, which flouriuhes alike on the arid slopes and in the swampy tracts, and which would appear to be for New Caledonia what the eucalyptus is for Australia. This member of the myrtle family, which in appear- ance resembles the birch, supplies to perfumery the volatile oil of the cayaput, like the other variety of melaleuca found in Burn, one of the Moluccas. While presenting great diversity according to the varied nature of the soil, the New Caledonian flora is on the whole extremely rich, regard being had to the small extent of the island. Brongniart en'jmerates 1,300 species, of which 1,100 are dicotyledons, a fact which lends support to the theory that New Caledonia is but a surviving fragment of a much larger region now submerged. In the volcanic districts, the conifer, myrtle, and casuarina families are represented by several special foTHife ; bv.t ;u the ^me districi* ibeie Is au almost total absence of herbaceous vegetation, so that stock-breeding is here absolutely impossible. Even gardens cannot be laid out on this thankle-s soil, The sedimentary formaliuiis, which prevail in the northern districts, have a different flora in which both foreut and graasy types are represented in gi*euL variety ; but here the indigenous vegetation has already been modified by confla- grations and clearings, and partly replaced by intruding plants, which are every- where encroaching on the older forms. Amongst them is the andropogon allionii. vmrmmfm^ ■■,■:•'*<', v."'- 842 AUSTEAIjASIA. a grass whose seeds are harmless for horses and homed cattle, but fatal to sheep. Sandalwood, formerly a chief source of wealth, has nearly disappeared, and the finest forest trees still surviving are the dammara, araucaria, and ebony. As in most other oceanic lands the fauna is extremely poor, the only indigenous mammals being a rat and a large variety of bat. The only reptile is a snake very Fig. Ufi. — Nativb of Maii£, LoTi.i.iT Isles. f ■■•- V f:* ■■;^."'> \ -.: ■,'fr common in the marshy districts, and the only noxious vermin are a centipede, a spider, and a scorpion. Of the 107 species of birds hitherto observed by naturalists several are common to New Zealand, to Australia, and even the Sunde Islands ; but some are peculiar to New Caledonia, as, for instance, the Eagu {rhinochetm jubatus), which shows certain affinities both to the heron and the stork, but which, like the apteryx and some other local species, is already threatened with extinction. ifiiiiiiiiliiiW"i"«"i Mi"niii |>n«yitnWlte '*' ^*fe rim: »V.i^: '•f^'V^^v * , r ■ '■ ^Fr^^z-r*' FRENCH MELANESIA. Inhabitants. 848 The discovery of polished jade hatchets in the quaternary 'formations of New Oaledonia attests the presence of man in these oceanic lands from a very remote epoch ; attempts hove even been modo to discriminate the descendants of the primitive element amongst the present tribal groups. But, however this be, the kanakas* or " men," belong mainly to the Moluucsiau family, as shown by Fig. UC— Naiivs ov Mab£, Loyalty Iiu.s8. HI 4*12 their almost black, or at least deep brown complexion, highly prominent cheek- bones, and crisp or frizzly hair, naturally of a black colour, but in many districts still dyed yellow or white with lime. The lobe of the car is also pierced for the insertion of wood, bone and other ornaments, and the heads of the children of * Thia now familiar Polynenan tenn denotos no particular raoe, but is commonly applied by the French in a colleciiTe sense to all tlie inhabitants of New Caledonia tind the neigbbooringp archipelagoes. 844 AUSTRAIASIA. both sexes are artificially deformed, the object being to elongate that of the boys and fihorten that of the girls. Tattooing has become rare, and is scarcely practised at all except by the women, who puncture arms and chest by a painful process, which leaves an indelible blue pattern. The custom of smearing the body with soot is also fulling into abeyance according as clothes take the place of the primi- tive rudimentary costume. Patriarchal right prevails among the New Caledonian tribes. All power and Jig. 147. — New Calbdonian Man. ■/■:,■'."•'• property are inherited by the eldest son whether by birth or adoption ; but although the idea of property is thoroughly developed, custom requires ail pr-'ii«.'ie to be shared in a brotheily way amongst the members of the community. Whei^ provisions abound; all, even the dead, have their portion ; the emigfrant also presents all his earnings to the chief to be equally distributed throughout the tribe. But amongst the tribes themselves there exists scarcely any political union ; MS SOBS e boys actiaed rocess, y with primi- er and .,■■■»■'-.!•«,>:■' ;hougli to be WbeL it also )ut the union; , ilrf. FRENCH MELANESIA. 845 BO many clans, so many nations, now allies now enemies, and all speaking different dialects, though of n common stock langfiiage. Nevertheless, the tribes are usually grouped during hostilities in the two confederacies of the Ots and Wawaps. £ach group is constituted under a monar- chical form, with a chief whose person is sacred, and to whom all owe not only deference, but also forced labour for the plantations, structures, fisheries, and transport of provisions. In the native villages, the chief's house is at once Fig. 148.— Nkw Calbdomian Wohak. v\'- t-* recognised by its size and its pointed cone terminating in little wisps of straw and a few tilKls, or bark banderols. The dwelling of a great chief is still more ornamented, for the chief is the " sun " of his tribe, and at his death the luminary is said to have " set." He is bound to summon the council of elders on all serious occasions, such as judicial inquiries and sentences, proclamations of war or peace, the organisation of the pilu-pilu, or national festivities and banquets. I 846 AUSTBAIASIA. Every villuge possesBOS a supreme tahu, a sacred image carved in hard wood, embellished with bat skins and sol up ou a loug pole v.ith its face turned towards the east. Acconling to some authorities the chiefs and nobles are, ior the most part, of Polynesian origin, and are distinguished by their physical appearance from their Melauesian subjects. Not only is the complexion said to be lighter, but the forehead would appear to be higher and broader, the nose straighter, the lips thinner, the figure taller, the carriage more haughty. This Polynesian element is ntiturHlly most widely represented on the east side facing the oceanic homes of this race. '• Like so many other insular populations, the New Caledonian kanakas appear to be dying out. " We are not like our forefathers," said a chief to Brenchley, " they were numerous and wise ; we are neither." Travellers estimated at about sixty thousand the population towards the middle of the present century, and in 1886 they had already been reduced to twenty-three thousand. At the same time this diminution must be partly attributed to the constant massacres followed by cannibal feasts, for the enemy slain in battle were always devoured. The bodies were fairly divided amongst the warriors, who in their turn distributed the " joints " in equal portions amongst their families. "When the European mariners first made their appearance the natives had never seen any other meat except that of their fellow-creatures, and fancied that the beef distributed to the crews was the flesh of gigantic human beings. '£* . ,,., 1 The insurrection of 1878 cost the lives of a thousand natives, besides one thou- sand two hundred transported to the Island of Pines and other places. Never- theless the losses caused by wars and revolts are trifling compared, to the numbers who perish by ailments, such as consumption, introduced by the Europeans. Drink also claims many victims, since the invasion of the dealers in " tafia." Alliances between the white convicts, soldiers or settlers, and the native women are rare, because the kanakas hold in great contempt the tayo carabous, or " people of the prison." Hence there is no hope of a half-caste race gradually absorbing the whole native element by fresh unions. Little success has attended the attempts of the landowners to employ native labour on Iheir plantations. The tribal groups themselves possess reserves, the collective enjoyment of which h guaranteed to them by ^be state, Hence they naturally prefer to cultivate maize, manioc or taro on their own account, than to toil on the tobacco, sugar, or coffee plantations of the whites. Hence, also, the accusations of the inveterate indolence brought against them, and the efforts to replace them by hftntls " engaged " iu other islnuds, niid held iu a sort of slavery by advances difficult to refund under several years of hard work. Over two thousand labourers have thus been introduced, chiefly from the Loyalty and New Hebrides groups. The political convicts transported in 1872, to the number of about four thousand five hundred, have nearly all left the colony. Some few, who had developed profitable industries in Noumea, have alone declined to take advantage of the free pardon granted to all in 1880. Ordinary convicts number at present about twelve i m *w." m [ wood, owards .0 most ;o from )ut the be lips lement mes of pear to ichley, t about and ia le time H^ed by bodies ed the ariners pt that vas the B thou- Never- umbers opeans. ' tafia." women 'people Borbing native res, the ce they than to Iso, the Forts to slavery '•er two id New lousand veloped she free twelve i I II . . Ill niin ■inwprw— wj "••W"?!** — '■»' »t? . |y«"" ■""" ■* ■"' ■ >"■" H »f«f ,1V ' " t: '^ « \ ^•. V. PJiMMIMM ' iaBBgai^ FRENCH MEf-A: 847 ■ ■ "- ,■'• the ,3te, beii^i • i) rigliis^. thounand, of whom the majority are employ»td « twelve hundred have been handed over to mini some six hundred enjoy a relative measure of in tiaries, where they cultivate their own "concessions. The coin i«ts i hii merge in the class of the free citizens, who, though still far infeiior in the criminals and their keept^rs, cannot fail ultimately to predfMKt continually recruited by the deacuudauts of convicts resturud to thuii But uioHt of these families must die out, becauw) very few women are traiiiiporUHl to New Caledonia ; at present they number scarcely one hundred and fifty in the whole island. Novcrthcless, some families arc perpetuated, and, as happened in Australia, the offspring of these convicts have already begun to protest against a further importation of the criminal classes from Europe. Free immigration is but slightly developed, and the " colony " still possesses fewur colonists than ofHcials, Doubtless the government offers to all immigrant labourers a free grant of ten acres of arable land and fifty of pasturage, on the condition of residing a few years on the estate and bringing it under cultivation. But the essays at colonisation have hitherto been so disastrous that the unfortunate squatters have had to be restored from time to time to their native land. The competition of penitentiary labour deprives the small holders of all hope of success. The most numerous and flourishing settlors arc the Austrnliars, some hundreds of whom have settled in the agricultural districts, where they devote themselves chiefly to stock-breeding. With their knowledge of the clinniate, of the natives and the local economic conditions, they are able to face the difficulties of colonisation in its initial stages with more confidence than the ignorant peasantry imported from France. Large estates have already been created, and so early as 1880 one speculator owned as many as 42,000 acres in a single holding. Tet stock-breeding, the only industry of these extensive landowners, possesses but a slight relative importance. In the whole of New Caledonia there are less than 100,000 head of cattle, scarcely 20,000 sheep, and but a few hundred horses introduced from Norfolk Island. A total area of 50,000 acres is reserved by the state for all the agricultural penitentiaries. TopoouAPJiY. Noumea, or Port-de-France, as it was called during the first years of the occupation, is the capital, and the only town in New Caledonia and its depen- deuuies. It has a population of four thousand, or about ono-half of all the resident civil and military Europeans. Founded in 1854 after the submission of the Nguea, or Numea tribe, it occupies a favourable commercial position towards the southern extremity of the island on the side facing Australia. Here a wide opening in the outer barrier reef communicates with several roadsteads, all perfectly sheltered by the neighbouring hilly peninsula and adjacent islands. The largest expanse, opening in the north-west between the islet of Nou and the Ducos peninsula, is spacious enough to receive a whole fleet. The whole trade of rfcJo: ■■^'^liii m ^ mm i ^j*^^^P^|^^^^S5l%^'' ;**?*«' N^J^JWS 84H AU8TBAI.A8IA. New Culedoniu is at present centred in Noiuneu, which, an a town, iH Htill in its infancy, hut for which un abundant supply of water has been brought from a diHtunco of 11 miles. The chief thorough fureH are planted with trues; u Hue garden encircles the goveruiuent palace, and pleasant walks winding up the slopt^s of the euoircling hills lead down to the inlets on the opposite side of the ;)ouin8ultt. Pig. UO.-- Noi/jou. Seala : 130,000. OtoB FaUMnna. C«pthi. 6to18 Fatbomi. II FaUuniM and upwards. \--i>-t: i MUes. Beyond this peninsula the main highway from Noumea ramifies in various direo- tions through the island. Noumea is surrounded by "penitentiaries," or convict stations, such as those of the island of Nou, with three thousand inmates, of the Dueos peninsula, where eight hundred Communists were detained, and of Montravel, set apart for military criminals. Others are engaged on the public works in and about the capital, while the Marist missionaries employ a large number on their gardens and plantations at Saint-Louis, east of Noumea. ■HMHHiillli FRKNrU MKf.ANESlA. 840 Farther north follow alonir the wo§t ooa«t the iiiilitary postn and suttleuicnts Fig. 160.— l)w«LUM<» OK A Nativk (JiiiKy, Nkw <'aLKIX)NU. ■m of Buuloupai'i, near Saint Yiuceut Bay ; Foa and Teremba, ox Urai, markets for S60 AU8TEALASIA. the surrounding farmsteads ; Botimil, the most important agricultural centre in the island, connected by good roads with the rising port of Ooitaro ; Oomen, on a spacious and safe roadstead, with a saladero for the preparation of tinned beef. The middle course of the Diahot, towards the north-east extremity of the island, is the richest mineral district in French Melanesia. Here the Balade mountain is traversed in all directions by metalliferous veins, including gold, copper, pyrites, and nickel. At the time of the discovery in 1872, crowds flocked Fig. 161.— Iblb of Pinbs. Scale 1 : 8S0.0O0. OtoSS VMt. lieptb*. 81 to 160 Feet. 190 Feet and a;twwd*. 6HiU». to the spot from Australia, hamlets sprang up in the midst of the wilderness, mining companies were formed, and the district began to assume the aspect of a Queensland cantonment, when a financial crash brought about the ruin of all these undertakings. Since then a mining association, supported by the government, has made all further competition impossible ; the Australians have retired, and the mining population is reduced to a small group at Ouegoa, guarded by a mili- !.'J',^*y!#.^r.-- ■.*vS"«^^ itre in », on a )ef. of the Balade ? gold, flocked M 68 46' demess, lect of a Eill these imment, red, and a mili- FEENOH MELANESIA 851 tary post. Most of the ores are shipped at Caillou, on the Diahot estuary. The road from this port leads across the mountain down to the historic village of Balade, the first sighted by Cook in 1774, and the first occupied by the French in 1S63. Kanala, founded iv 1859, may be regarded as the capital of the east coast ; it lies near a deep inlet, completely sheltered by a hilly peninsula, and is both a mining and agricultural centre. The nickel of Kanala, Houailou and Thio, worked almost exclusively by Australian miners, who spread the English language amongst the natives, is the richest and purest hitherto discovered in any part of the world. A few short railways traverse the nuning districts ; but the general communi* cations are still in a backward state, notwithstanding the fact that the government has at its disposal over ten thousand labourers. The inhabited islands depending on New Caledonia — Art and Pott in the north, the Island of Pines at the southern extremity of the barrier reefs — have neither large villages nor frequented port«. The last mentioned is a penal settlement, where the three thousand Communists, formerly working in the forest clearings, have now been replaced by Kanaka exiles, invalid or aged convicts, and others condemned to perpetual banishment. ; In the Loyalty group the centre of administration is established at Ch^p^n^h^, in the island of Lifu, a port frequented by traders from Sydney. Some 300 miles west of New Caledonia, a large atoU, comprising the islets of Chesterfield, Bampton and Avon, occupies the centre of the waters flowing between New Caledonia and the Great Barrier Reef south of the Coral Sea. In 1878, France took possession of this group, through it had been discovered by English navigators in 1793, and afterwards surveyed by British exploring expeditions. Great Britain and Austialla have accordingly protested against this political annexation. Chesterfield and the neighbouring islets, formerly much frequented by whalers, have some guano deposits worked by a few traders. Administration. ' ;^;^- Till 1860, New Caledonia was regarded as a dependency of the French Oceanic establishments, of which Tahiti was the centre. Now it is administered by a Governor assisted by a Colonial Cotmcil, comprising the chief local officials, two notables, and some municipal delegates. Noumea is the only commune possessing a mimicipal council, the colonists in the rest of the island being represents by an elective Colonial Council, and in France by a special delegate to the Colonial Office. The judicial bystem is the same as m. Fiaaue, the uative chiefs acting as magistrates for crimes committed in the tribe. The police, also, are recruited from the natives in Noumea and throughout the island. New Caledonia proper comprises the five circumscriptions of Noumea, Kanala, Bourail, Oubache and the North. The yearly budget varies from £80,000 to £120,000, and since the occupation the colony has cost France altogether £8,000,000. III •■iinfiir-rriTT-i---TTjr- — ^ , „ n ^. mmsmm i»iia»f V* •ii''iifTirfriiiiniwrniirw CHAPTER VIII. AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA. jHE very name of Australia recalls the numerous voyages which, previous to Cook's decisive expedition, were undertaken in search of a vast Austral continent suppoeed to balance in the south the immensely preponderutiug exleul ul upheaved land in the northern hemisphere. But, reduced hy the illustrious navigator to its true proportions, this southern region can no longer he considered as a "make-weight" to the coniin^jnts lying north of the equator. Nevertheless, it is still extensive enough to he regarded as one of the great sections of the glohe comparable to the southern divisions of Africa and America. It may thus be considered as one of the three southern continents which are connected with those of the north either by narrow isthmuses, or by continous chains of islands. The insular lands uniting it with the Asiatic peninsulas belong themselves in great measure to the Australian zone by their climate and natural ? roductions. The Austral mainland is, more- over, considerably increased in extent by a submarine bed fringed with barrier reefs. Its superficial area with that of the adjacent islands scarcely exceeds three-fourths of that of Europe ; but with the other lands stretching from New Guinea to New Zealand, the whole area of the upraised land in this part of the South Sea is very nearly equal in extent to the European continent. General Survey. ;:- -• '■ t' i' ■ ! I &. f^ ^ ilta. But in other respects what a profound difPerence between these two antipo- dean lands ! Relatively speaking, the one is the most densely, the other the most sparsely peopled division of the world, the discrepancy between the two being in the proportion of a hundred to one. At the same time it should bo remembered that Australia has but entered on the career of its evolution in the common stream of human culture, while its new occupants have already made astounding progress in numbers and influence. Still, this region is far from enjoying the advantages in physical constitution and climatic conditions that have made Europe a privileged section of the globe. CouipHied wit.l\ this favoured rogion, Australia presents the heavy, shapeless outlines of a rough-hewn block, being, for the most part, deficient in lofty mountain ranges, extensive river basins ramifying in all directions, fertile es which, in search wiith the northern io its true (-weight " extensive ble to the )ne of the either by uniting it Australian . is, more- ged with i scarcely hing from is part of wo antipo- r the most ) being in membered ion stream g progress idvahtages privileged esents the t, deficient ms, fertile \^ . fc.. ■ ■t. ' i v ; ^' , '^ ' '8i- . ) , r;» .» W i iSi i C'-' tf'fV >;r; i V.'; :i t-fty : 'a a iAvi i '- 1 #aa ii ii!v^ i >'M AUSTRALIA TASMANIA i HI A-:^.:^- "° . \. \^ \ L...T .,l.U..X-,-L NEW T-Q-RK, D. APPL 'ri^?iK^>;^?a*^ lL^f::'r%:'s' ■» ' /Vi^y,;.,;v.^:.^:a^,,f 850 AUSTRALASIA. Our knowledf^o of the interior wus doubtless greatly enlarged by the search for grussy lunds, and after the discovery of gold in 1861, by the sudden rush of minors to the still unknown a'Juviul plains and rocky valleys of the eastern regions, nut fur more was accomplished by the disinterested expeditions of travellers who never hesitated to risk their lives in the cause of science and geographical dis- covery. And, in truth, the work of Australian exploration bus cost the lives of many daring pioneers and distinguiNhed naturalists, such as the botanist Cunning- ham, the learned lisichhardt, Gray, liurke. Wills, who, with numerous comrades, fell victims, either to the spears of the natives or to the hardships, hunger, and thirst of toilsome journeys across inhospitable lands and the trackless wilder- ness. A.nd of those more fortunate pioneers, who brought their expeditions to a successful issue, how many proved themselves true heroe-", displaying all the energy, resolution, and endurance of which man is capable ! For days and weeks together they had to study the soil and scan the horizon in search of some stream- let, mere, or " water-hole." Fellow-travellers had to disperse in the midst of the desert in quest of a little moisture to quench their burning thirst, indicating as their rallying-point some distant rock, from which they might easily be beguiled by a treacherous mirage. Then the weary ploddinga across sandhills, over shingly plains, through salt marshes, and thorny scrub ; the deviations in search of stray horses ; the intolerable heats beneath brazen skies, followed by the dangerous chills of night ! Altogether the history of Australian exploration forms a chapter iu the records ol Leruitoa, Wiiich givus llic moat e^Llled Idcu of the greatness of man. In the series of essays which followed year after year, the decisive journey was^ that made in 1862, after two failures, by MaoDouall Stuart, whose itineraries to the right and the left resemble the movements of the antennee of puzzled ants. He first succeeded in crossing the Australian continent at its broadest part, from Saint Vincent Gulf to the north coast, opposite Melville Island. Australia was thus severed, as it were, in two by a transverse route, along which stations sprang up at intervals, as so many places of refuge, or starting-points for future explorers. From these headquarters, which reduced by one-half the distance to be traversed, it became possible to penetrate far into the stirrounding wilderness, and in 1873 Warburton at last reached the west coast. The network of itineraries was now rapidly extended in all directions, east and west, as well as north and south, and the preliminary rough survey of the continent may be regarded as already accom- plished. The inland regions are known in their main features, while the details are being gradually filled up by the partial explorations undertaken in connection with the telegraph service, or in quest of springs and grazing grounds. Never- theless there still remain vast spaces, especially in the west, where no European has yet succeeded in penetrating, and the blank spaces, even on the latest maps, between the routes of Giles, Forrest, and Warburton represent altogether an area of some yOO,000 square miles, or considerably more than double the whole extent of the British Isles. mmm ■**:■ KXl'liOUATlON OF AU8TUALiA. H57 enrch for rush of regions, ilers who lical dis' a lives of ^unning- omrades, Igor, and I wilder- ons to a f all the nd weeks 3 stream- st of the eating as beguiled r shingly 1 of stray angerouB a chapter latness of irney was araries to zled ants. >art, from Talia was as sprang explorers, traversed, i in 1873 ) was now louth, and ly accom- he details lonnection . Never- European est maps, 5T an area ole extent Fig. 164.— MaoDouall'r iTixBiuaiKS. Soala 1 : U,U)IU,UU0. 16' ^^37 The explorations carried out in recent yours by the ChdllcKijcr and other vosscIh have determined with tolerrtblo accuracy the Hubmarine bed on which Australia stnnds, and which may be geologically regarded us forming with the mainland a partly up- heaved coutineutul muss. In the north New Guinea, with the clusters and obums ot udjuceut islands, such as the Louisiades and Aru, all rest on the com- mon pedestal, being united with Australia by the reefs dotted over Torres Strait and neigh- bouring waters. The Oulf of Carpentaria and the north- western seas nearly as far as Timor belong to the same sub- marine bank, which in the south stretches far seawards, and in the south-east develops a long submerged peninsula, above which rises Tasmtinia, and which advances over 900 miles into deep water. On the ea.-?t side the New South Wales seaboard is washed by abysses of over 2,000 fathoms, while the north-east coast is fringed by the Great Barrier Reef, which is connected by a sill less than 1,000 fathoms deep with Norfolk Island and the north-west peninsula of New Zealand. This connecting line between the continent -and its most remote geological depbv- dencies is disposed towards the south-east in the same direction as New Caledonia, the Loyalty, and New Hebrides groups, and other upraised lands in this section of the South Sea. It is noteworthy that in this vast aggregate of Australasian lands the continent itself presents the least diversity of relief. Even the loftiest Australian ranges are of secondary importance compared with the New Guinea and 22" reenwici 120HflM. 866 AU8TEALASIA. i II Now Ziiuliind oroj^ruphic nyHtoms, and are Rurpussod even hy the inuunUiins of the Solomon Arclii|)oliigo. Thin circuniHtannu Htroii^fthonii the hypothofliH, according to whiiih Australiu forniH u Hinglo geological unit with the lundH now scattered to the north and cant. New Guinea, MolanoHia, and Now Zealand would thus l)o nothing more than the margin of the primitive Austral continent, over half of which now lies Hulmu-igi-d buiiuulh lliu iiilfivuiiiug nliallow uvuh, NuiueruuH uxumpljit of Hiuiilar formationH o('<^\ir elw>whor(>, an in Sotith America, in Africa, and, in a general way, round the great (.)ceanic basin from the Capo of Good Hope to Capo Uoru, where the loftiest crests also rise immediately above profound marine abysses. I'HYSICAL FeATURKS. MOUNTAIN SVSTEMS As in other Australasian regiouH, the highest mountains on the mainland occur in the neighbourhood of the soubourd and on the side facing the deep Pacific waters. The chief continental crests are disposed in such a way as to form an outer crescent sweeping round from York Peninsula to Wilson's Promontory, over against Tasmania. Beyond this elevated rim the land falls so uniformly as to suggest to the early explorers the existence in the interior of a " Caspian " depression, into which flowed all the surrounding streams. But instead of this imaginary central sea there exists nothing beyond a few small basins without any outflow, while nearly all the important rivers flow directly to the coast. Never- theless the plains traversed by them stand at a very low level, in consequence of which disposition of the land the seaboard has been excavated far into the interior bjlh on the north and south sidca, where havo boon respectively dcvelopod the Gulfs of Carpentaria and Saint Vincent. Between these two indentations, which are the largest on the whole continental periphery, the intervening plains scarcely anywhere exceed an altitude of 500 feet above sea-level. West of this depression the surface again rises, and towards the centre of the continent several of the summits exceed 3,000 feet in elevation. The chief range, known as the Australian Alps, begins in Victoria, and after presenting its convex side towards the south-east, trends round to the left and is continued by other chains northwards. The Yass, a headstream of the Murray, is regarded as the northern limit of the Australian Alps proper, which have a total length of about 250 miles. These highlands deserve the name of Alps less for their altitude than for the large number of their collective groups, spurs, offshoots, lateral or parallel ridges. They are almost everywhere of easy access, the most rugged escarpments being usually situated about midway between base and sum- mit, while higher up the slopes are more gently inclined, and ext^nsivft grassy or sparsely wooded plateaux form the pedestal of domes and crests which may be ascended even on horseback. The culminating peak, Mount Townshend, in the Kosciusko group. New South Wales, attains a height of 7,350 feet. ^ In many of these upland valleys the snows never melt, and in winter from May to November even the plateaux remain shrouded in a white mantle. A few neves are foimd in the higher ravines of the Kosciusko Mountains, and traces of ancient glaciers in various parts of the range. In the Bogong Hills (6,630 feet), •-■'■fe' THE AUMTTlAt.TAN AT, PS. Hfin which Ho west of the farthont anuroos of the Murray, u frontul moruino (Iiiihh up u little fluvial vuUoy at an elevution of 2,9o() feet. In the Australiun Alps the pritvuilin^ formutionn are of great ago, ooriHiAting of granitoH and Silurian muHHOs inttTHiHjrHod with porphyrioH, dioriioN, and baHultq. Here and there tertiary nx^ks overlie the valleys, but are always disponed horizon- tally, whorcaa the surrounding ?trntn hnvo b*>«»n divprwly folded and dislociated. Fig. 156. — AuiTBA7iAt» Ar.ps. Be»U 1 : 8,200,000. Deptlw. to 100 Fatliuuii. 100 Fstboma tiuil upwarU. . MMilM. Notwithstanding the intervening depressions the same general features reappear farther west in the Victoria highlands, and even in Tasmania, which belongs in great measure to the same geological epoch. The Pyrenees, which run parallel with the coast north-west of Melbourne, and the Grampians, whose irregular forms fitretch farther west, are also of Silurian formation, though less elevated than the Alps, Mount William, the culminating point in the Grampians, being scarcely 5,600 feet high. But nowhere in Australia have igneous formations been more developed than tii i Wgiiffr i Trff ^. «» f ^iB W'^^ . : 'Sr^~i ■:' ^i:J^^'^^\ r-v'<"- f;-v";y.v'?"'7.'.'^'^ 860 AUSTRALASIA. in this region of "West Victoria, where volcanic cones are reckoned by the hundred — some simple eruptive craters, others real mountains 2,000 feet high — belonging to every successive period between paleozoic and tertiary times. Several of the craters are perfectly circular basins now flooded by lakes of great depth, such as the Blue Lake, which occupies the upper cavity of a volcano belonging to the Gambler group in South Australia, and which is no less than 675 feet deep. Others, which formerly discharged lava streams covering vast expanses, are now more grassy or wooded cirques. All the older yolcano93 are on the mainland except Tower Hill, near Warrnambool, which rises above the surface of the neigh- boiiring waters. Like the Australian Alps the Tasmanian mountains are formed of granites and Siluriau deposits. But geologists have hitherto failed to determine the presence of volcanoes properly so-called, although in many places eruptive rocks have formed transverse barriers over which the running waters fall in cascades down to the plains. Nearly the whole island is covered with irregular mountain masses, which attain their greatest elevation in the north-west, here culminating in Cradle Mountain (5,065 feet). Several other peaks exceed 4,600 feet, but the land falls towards the south-east, where the seaboard is ppnetrated by deep fjords. Viewed as a whole Tasmania presents the outlines of half an oval, eroded on the north side facing Australia in the form of a regtdar concave curve. Here the intervening waters of Bass Strait were at some former epoch undoubtedly replaced by au isthmus cuuuectiug both regions, and of which nothing now survives except a few granite islets. But immediately east of the strait the marine abysses plunge into depths of over 2,500 fathoms. From the geological standpoint Wilson's Promontory, the southernmost point of the Australiati continent, is an island like those scattered over the shallow waters of the strait. Were the mainland to subside some 300 feet the two inlets to the west and east of the headland would be connected by a second marine channel. North of the Australian Alps the highlands skirting the seaboard ramify into aeveral parallel chains, the main range running at a mean distance of 45 or 50 miles from the Pacific. Each chain and each transverse ridge has its separate name, while the whole system is sometimes designated by the common appellation of the Blue Mountains, a term more specially applicable to the mountains lying to the west of Sydney, and long regarded by the early settlers as an unsurmountable ram- part towards the interior of the continent. Although the highest peaks, such as Sea- view, west of Port Macquarie towards the north of New South Wales, scarcely exceed 6,000 feet, while most of them fall below 5,000 feet, they have in many places been carved by erosive action into rocky cirques with vertical walls of an imposing aspect. ;.;.*: The ranges fall precipitously seaward, while on the opposite side they frequently present the appearance rather of a gently inclined tableland, the ground sloping somewhat uniformly in the direction of the plains watered by the Murray. Exten- sive cavities, where the rivulets now escape through breaches in the periphery, appear to have formerly been lacustrine basins. Such amongst others on the e hundred belonging rul of the h, such as ng to the feet deep. 8, are now mainland bhe neigh- anites and e presence ocks have fides down in masses, in Cradle laud falls ded. on the Here the y replaced vres except ies plunge Wilson's island like linland to md would amify into 45 or 50 B separate ellation of ing to the table ram- w, such as 8, scarcely 3 in many alls of an frequently id sloping '. Exten- periphery, rs on the >1!| Uttk.1 ■■ y H' ii -iwi —M- PWi- ^ ■ — fJ U r >>■• «K^5<^ mm GEOLOGY OF AUSTRALIA. 861 '-. r^ ^•;.;,; \ , vV-, . » % western slope of the mountains are the Liverpool Plains, which are dotted over with isolat^^d basalt rooks TjiV« the regions in tho north cf Europe, Australia ulso hud evidently its glacial epoch followed by a lacustrine period. In the northern section of New South Wales the water-parting gradually falls in the direction of the colony of Queensland, where few summits attain an elevation of 2,000 feet. In some districts the mountain system is even completely inter- rupted, the parting line between the two slopes being formed by scarcely per- ceptible undulations. But eminences exceeding 3,000 feet reappear north of the tropic of Capricorn, where a granite ridge skirting the seaboard runs north- westwards to the neck of York Peninsula, here merging in a small water-parting of moderate elevation. Between the Australian Alps and the granites of North Queensland the pre- vailing formations are carboniferous of various ages, some dating from paleozoic, others from mesozoic times. Here also occur some granites and porphyries, and on the western slopes a few volcanoes and lava fields. It is in this section of the Australian highlands and on the northern slopes of the Victoria Mountains that are scattered those auriferous deposits that have so greatly stimulated the develop- ment of Australia. All belong to different periods of the tertiary epoch and rest on a rocky bed of the Silurian system. Most of the deposits fill old fluvial channels, the so-called " gutters," and in some districts they attain a thickness of over 300 and even 600 feet. "West of the " backbone " of the continent the depression comprised between the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Murray estuary is largely occupied with cretaceous formations. From these meso/oic strata and the vast plains of tertiary origin it is evident that Australia, formerly considered as the " old " continent in a pre- eminent sense, has also had its revolutions, its alternating upheavals and subsi- dences, like other great divisions of the globe. ' Beyond the chalk zone begin the little-known regions intersected at long intervals by the itineraries of a few daring explorers. We know, however, that granites and primitive rocks occur in South Australia on both sides of Spencer Gulf, as well as round the margins of the saline basins in the interior. The northern peninsulas facing Melville Island have also their granites and metamor- phic formations. Lastly, the south-western regions are to a gr^at extent consti- tuted of slightly elevated grauit« plateaux traversed here and there by a mountain range from 1,800 to 2,000 feet high. All these chains and ridges are named after the early explorers or statesmen distinguished in contemporary politics. The MacDouall group, lying east of the overland telegraph line, abounds in precious stones, some of which have been doubtfully or wrongly described as " rubies." The " desert sandstone," comprising over one-third of Australia, is probably of more recent origin than any of the continental mountain systems. But owmg to the general absence of fossils its age cannot be accurately determined, although the upheaval of the plateaux, hills, and plains in this arid wilderness is by most geologists referred to pliocene times. In North Queensland it overlies cretaceous formations. Its numerous depressions have been produced by meteoric agencies. - -.•^1 -iSi>Jimmm^»3 i 362 AUSTRALASIA. heat and cold, wind and ruin, und in several places the surface has been excavated many tens und even hundreds of yards, leaving here and there masses of harder rocks, which indicate the original level of the now vanished formations. In north-west Australia lies the region to which Gray has given the name of " Pillar Tiand," from the myriads of sandstone columns rising above the surrounding plains which have been irregularly excavated. This region is carpeted with flowering plants and festooned with belts of verdure, while the work of erosion is still con- tinued by running waters partly flowing below the surface. About the very centre of the continent stands another of these geological witnesses, w^hich is known as "Chambers's Pillur," and wLicli rises 150 feet above an eminence itself about 100 feet higher than the surrounding plain. This column, one of the most regular formations of the kind on the surface of the globe, forms a conspicuous landmark much utilised by the early explorers as a rallying point, and convenient site for a cache or storehouse of provisions. It is about ten feet by twenty in cross section, of nearly equal compass from top to bottom, and formed of a soft white sandstone like the hill on which it stands. The upper part of the pillar is of a red tint, and its preservation is perhaps due to the greater hardness and durability of this topmost layer 'Wallace). Like the Sahara, the Australian desert has its region of dunes stretching west of the overland telegraph on the north-west continental slope. Here the chains of sandhills follow each other with perfect regularity, rolling away like the waves of the sea for a distance of about 350 miles in the direction from east to west. Consisting entirely of red particles, without a blade of grass to relieve their fierce glare, these dunes are described by Sturt as producing a "terrible" effect, and no traveller ventures to traverse them without a sense of awe. Beyond this dreaded region a few verdant and flowery oases are seen here and there in the dreary wilderness. The aspect, however, of the Australian desert changes with the dry and wet seasons, so that the descriptions of the same district by different explorers often present great discrepancies. The observations made by geologists on the main features of the continental periphery lend much probability to the hypothesis of a general upheaval of the Australian seaboard. Its shores, after having been submerged under the waters, which at one time covered about half of the surface, were again gradually upr lised above the level of the Huriouiidiug seas. The coasts are fringed by upheaved beaches, in which are embedded banks of shells similar to those still surviving in the neighbouring waters. Numerous lakes, which were, till recently, marine inlets, have preserved their oceanic fauna, while others have been gradually changed to freshwater basins, or have even been completely evaporated. Shoals and reefs formerly concealed below the surface now show their black rocks above the level of the sea. A careful study of the whole region stretching to the north of Spencer Gulf leaves no doubt that this tract of drj' land at one time formed an aroiiipelago with numerous islands separated from each other by shallow straits. Bass Strait itself, which forms the southern limit of Australia proper, would be changed to dry land THE AUSTRALIAN SEAS AND ISLANDS. 868 excavated f harder ons. In " Pillar ag plains flowering still cou- ^logical uet above This he globe, k rallying about ton ttom, and pper part le greater ling west he chains khe waves ) to west, leir fierce it, and no 8 dreaded he dreary h the dry explorers )ntinental ral of the le waters, '■ upr lised upheaved viving in r, marine gradually . Shoals cks above icer Gulf la^o with 'ait itself, dry land by a general upheaval of less than twenty-five fathoms, and Tasmania, which was long supposed to form part of the neighbouring continent, really belongs to it from the geological point of view. The presence of glaciers probably contributed to preserve the primitive form of the Tasmanian seaboard, all the south side of which is carved into creeks and inlets, evidently ancient fjords which have main- tained their original depth and outlines. A close resemblance to the sea which formerly flooded South Australia, is pre- sented by the channel at present separating this continent from New Guinea. Between Capo York and Mount Comwallis at the narrowest part of Torres Strait Fig. 156.— Bass Strait. - Scale 1 : 6,6fifi,0(K). ^s^iff L»sb cF Greenwich Deptba. OtolO Fathomi. 10 to 2S Fntbonu. 96 to 100 Fathoms. 100 Fathomi and apmird*. 120 HUe*. the water is nowhere more than eleven or twelve, while the average scarcely exceeds seven fathoms. It was shown by the accurate surveys of the Flp and Bramble (1842 — 1847) that, even by keeping to the windings of the deepest channel, a vessel drawing over 30 feet could only pass through in perfectly smooth water. The rocky islets in this strait, whether isolated or grouped in clust'Ors, Bcndct onclusivcly of porpbyrios or syen'tos, lil^e tha rockc in tha northern peninsula of Queensland, of which they evidently form a seaward extension. East of these reef-fringed islets, between which flow channels perfectly free ■SSSSSSBSSI^Sn^Es ^^SBSB ■i'i5 or 70 feet above the present sea-level. Another depression towards the centre of Australia is occu- pied by "Lake" Amadeus, alternately a shallow lagoon, morass, or saline waste. In the arid region of West Australia there also occur several depressions of like character, which are commonly designated by the name of lakes. In the thoroughly explored basins, such as that of the Darling, the fluvial discharge is so slight compared with the rainfall that some observers have sought for an explanation of the discrepancy in the existence of underground rivers flowing beneath tho surface clays, and carrying either to the sea or to nome subterranean reservoirs the greater part of the running waters. Some portion, however, of the rainfall, instead of being carried off in river beds, remains on the ground in certain shallow basins, which in the Darling pasturages are known by tho name of " gilgies." On these level tracts, where the rains spread out in stag- nant sheets without the force required to excavate a fluvial channel, the only depressions where the watr r can be collected are the fissures formed in tho arid soil during the dry season. Under the action of the heavy downpours the sides of these crevasses are washed away, the bed of the cavities thus formed is levelled, and water-holes are gradually developed, which vary in depth from 4 to 5 or 6 feet, and in size from a few feet to over a hundred yards in circuit. Some of those natural gilgies have even been enlarged by the natives, and converted into reservoirs capable of containing considerable quantities of water. CUMA'IE. The climate of Australia is written on the surface of the land, its more salient features being clearly indicated by those bare rocks, those treeless plains and waterless depressions which occupy the greater part of the continent. Although surrounded by marine waters, Australia is of too massive a form to enjoy an insular climate, such as that of Europe with its deeply indented seaboard. Owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, due to the slight relief and the monotonous contours of the coastline, the meteorological conditions are essentially of a continental character. Lying half within the tropical and half in the south temperate zone, this region presents, from the York Peninsula to the terminal point of Tasmania, a •mmmmmam OT.IMATK OP AUSTRALIA. 860 nirago, or protructed traveller und boga frum the Torrens, '., it aeems lunicating i cortainly feet ubove iu is occu- iiie wuHte. lis of like ho fluvial ve sought nd rivers ' to nomc a portion, ins on the known by it in stag- the only 1 the arid le sides of s levelled, to 5 or 6 Some of erted into long Hucceasion of graduated isothonnul linos, with a mean tcmptiraturc ranging from 78" or HO'^ F. in the extreme north to not more than li-i^ in the extreme south. liut this gradual decrease does not correspond uniformly with tlie chaugo of latitude, for the normal averages aro often greatly mol('om de- flected from the normal direction. On the mainland itself the changes of the dominant currents, espe- cially in summer, are usually accompanied by sudden squalls known by the name of "bursters." The baro- meter falls rapidly, clouds iiiaiiirfiSyiiiiitfii'ffftiiiWi'iW" mmmm FLORA OF AITHTRAMA. m UMiflorably U'S of tho sft'ily 'ind •ly wiikIh. 'I'OZl'B S*!t [ the Nuu- [lorth-west iug from At) wiuter north-east [ning from t'liUHphure, ction with le. 5 two zone* and north - ho noutrnl with tho it to west outh, cor- sneral way Peninsula, f Australia westerly often very a tempes- lobstructed Indian to n, and are l(lom de- le normal e mainland fes of the Qts, espe- are usually y sudden y the name The baro- ily, clouds ihe welkin, gales from ids of dust Eistlands no ir efEects to the African scirocco. Under thoir action the ti'ni|)«ruturt' rincH suddenly, both men an*ss?«itife»%gsi^«aifi»iiSi*'4i^a»®§ifmf^^ i it! '«•; 876 AUSTRALASIA, resembled the Malay species found in Timor.* On the other hand there exist in the islands of Torres Strait peoples with abundant frizzly hair, who belong probably to the sampi stock as the Papuans. Maer (Murray Island) is inhabited by a dark race differing in no respects from the New Caledonians. But whatever be the origin of these contrasts amongst the natives, whether due to difference of race or to diversity of environment and social life, the ordinary type of the Australians not yet debased by a degraded existence amongst the colonists is much finer than is usually supposed. Those especially who occupy aiore favoured domains along the fertile river-banks are distinguished by fine figures and a well-developed muscular system, with low but broad forehead, rather flat nose, large mouth, massive jaws, brown animated eyes sheltered by very promi- nent superciliary arches. The natives are generally free from physical defects, and amongst those of West Australia Bishop Rudesindo Salvado noticed only four blind, but not one either deaf, dumb, or insane. Although of dark or blackish complexion, like the Sudanese Africans, unlike them the Australians have no woolly or frizzly hair, being in this respect distin- guished from all other dark races. The beard, also, is much more developed than that of the Negroes proper, while the lips are never everted so as to show the red inner skin. Their weak point are the lower extremities — spindle legs, flat calves, flat but very small feet. On the whole, they doubtless yield to the Europeans in physical strength, thoTigh not in endurance and power of supporting pain, but they are by no means the beings of grotesque and repulsive appearance as described by travellers wLo saw them only in the wretched hovels on the outskirts of large to, ns, or as depicted by the sportsmen who hunted them down like so much game. To believe some accounts, they are little better than animals, intermediate between man and the higher apes, and even more allied to the latter than the former. On the other hand these vilified aborigines have found enthusiastic champions amongst the dominant race. Mitchell, who had taken the black Yuranigi as his guide across the tropical regions, expressly declares that the Australians of his escort were " superior in penetration and judgment " to his white assistants, although he had no occasion to complain of the latter. Turanigh he calls his com- panion, his counsellor and friend, and from the physical point of view regards his superiority as self-evident. As a mere specimen of natural history, what civilised animal, he asks, could have compared with this native for the beauty of his teeth, his powerful digestion, the perfection of his org^s of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, his staying powers in walking, runniri", and climbing trees, his healthy constitution, and the intensity of his animal existence P t As a rule the superior tribes have a coppery rather than a black complexion, while nearly all the skulls are of the dolichocephalous or long type. The aborigines appear to be most degraded physically in the arid central region, where man, exhausted and stunted by hunger and thirst, passes his days in grubbing the • Journal of Two Expeditioni of Lucovery in North- Wtttem and Wetlem Aiutralia. t Tropical Australia. i v--f- :M:f %i« ■» iWr'jilt« »l| » f V i f il il |i lere exist lo belong inhabited whether I ordinary )ngst the 10 occupy i by fine ad, rather ry promi- il defects, only four ns, unlike »ct distin- )ped than w the red lat calves, *opean8 in , but they cribed by i of large iich game. ermediat« than the iharnpions igi as his ms of his assistants, i his com- jgards his t civilised his teeth, tell, taste, is healthy mplexion, iborigines lere man, )bing the INnAfilTANTS OF AUSTBALIA. 877 earth in quest of a few roots and of a little muddy water. Tribes are even said to exist which, together with their dogs, have adapted themselves to the use of sea-water. The finest natives were those of the east coast, where a more beneficent nature supplied food and water in abundance, including, however, certain articles of diet calculated to excite the astonishment and loathing of Europeans. Th\is Von Lendenfeld tells us that Mount Bogong takes its name from the grubs which the aborigines here collected in myriads for their daily meals. Although numbering but a few thousand souls, the Australian race is divided into hundreds of tribal groups. In certain districts there are as many languages as communities or scattereii family circles. In others, again, the native idioms present great uniformity throughout considerable tracts of country. Thus from the banks of the Hawkesbury to Moreton Bay, a distance of about 350 miles, the natives have little difficulty in conversing together; so, also, those of the south-west coast, between Hamalin Bay and King George Sound, speak closely related dialects. Another extensive linguistic zone comprises the whole region between Cooper's Creek and the Middle Darling, a space of over 40,000 square miles, and this surprising uniformity of speech is attributed to the extreme dryness of the land, which obliges the tribes to gather round the watering-places in sum- mer, suspending all hostilities, and for the time being merging, as it were, in a common nationality. . On the other hand, the tribes of the Lower Darling, where there is never any lack of water or vegetation, have been able to keep aloof for long ages, and their languages have consequently become greatly diversified. The fact is evident from the very names of the different peoples in this region, all of which have exactly the same meaning, though often differing altogether in form. Such are the Baraba- Barabas, the Wati-Watis, the Waiki-Waikis, the Lichi-Lichis, the Darti-Dartis, the Yari-Yaris — terms meaning " No- No," just as by an analogous mental process roediaQval France was divided into the Langue d'Oui and the Langue d'Oc. The rapid divergence of the local dialects is also partly due to the respect paid to the dead requiring the survivors to taboo for a time, and even for ever, a large num- ber of words which bore or seemed to bear a certain relation to the deceased either in sound or sense. But, however they may differ from each other outwardly, all the native idioms present some common points of resemblance. They are polysyllabic and aggluti- nating by means of harmonious suffixes abounding in vowels. Aspirates are slightly developed, the sibilants are completely absent, and the accent falls usually on the penultimate syllable. Onomatopoeic terms are very common, and &11 objects perceived by the senses are indicated by numerous synonyms, or at least by what pass as such amongst strangers interrogating the natives. But on the other hand, these primitive tongues are extremely poor in abstract expressions, as well as in the names of numerals. Scarcely any appear to have distinct terms for more than one or two, while probably none of the tribes can count beyond five. In the absence of accurate knowledge attempts have been made to classify the ■.-.i '""*^i»»«jft- w,A.i>iiisiS-i '^'slkuA^rJ;; ■„Ji:»!^@V''■' 878 AUSTRALASIA. ^Vustralian languages on the ground of a few common points of resemblance, but these attempts have not proved very successful, often yielding the most contradic- tory results. In any case the Tasmauian idioms, of which a few vocabularies are extant, are regarded as forming an independent group. The islanders themselves were evidently of a different stock, and much more closely allied to the Melanesians than to their Australian neighbours. To the great physical differences of the abbrigines correspond moral traits of a no less divergent order. Hence the varying and even contradictory reports of observers, some of whom vaunt their native pride, courage, and respect for their pledged word, while others describe them as cowards, liars, and traitors. One of the most common charges urged against them is their cruel and oppressive treat- ment of the women, and in most communities this accusation is only too well founded. Instances are not lacking of women who have acquired a certain moral ascen- dancy in the tribe, but as a rule they fare little better than slaves. Not only are they forbidden to eat in the presence of men, but many kinds of food are denied them, while they are required to show in speech and attitude a sort of adoration towards their masters, the least inattention being visited with the severest castiga- tion. The husband may kill and even burn his wife, her friends and relations being powerless to interfere on her behalf. He may throw her body to his dogs, because the wife is his property, which he has the right to use or abuse at his pleasure. Nevertheless, traces still survive in Australia of a primitive matriarchal system, and even now name, kinship, rank, and fortune are for the most part transmitted through the female line. ■ ; r 5 r - Polygamy prevails amongst the native populations, and in the north-western districts cases occur of powerful tribesmen acquiring as many as ten wives. In some communities exogamy is strictly observed, all marriages contracted with women of the same class being regarded as incestuous, yet amongst others unions between near relatives are held in honour. In one place marriages are effected by a real or simulated abduction, in another the only formality is the payment of the contract price. s ^ . . ,> This purchase of the women by the strong and wealthy members of the com- munity has the effect of condemning the poor and the young men to a state of celibacy, or obliging them to put up with the divorced wives of their elders. The dearth of wives amongst most Australian populations is all the greater that the women are far less numerous than the men ; not, however, because female births are rarer, as has been asserted, but because during their short existence the women are exposed to many more dangers, such as premature confinement, exces- sive hardships, bad treatment, night attacks, and the like. Amongst many tribes infanticide is common, and as a rule it is the girls who are removed either by being buried alive or knocked on the head immediately after birth. Children who survive the perils of infancy are treated with much kindness ; they are never beaten and grow up freely to man's estate, following their elders to the chase and war. Nevertheless they have to undergo the severe trials of the INHABITANTS' OF AUSTuaIJA. 879 unce, but ontradic- ilaries are icmselves slaneBians traits of reports of for their One of live treat- Y too well rul ascen- t only are ire denied adoration it castiga- relations his dogs, Lse at his atriarchal most part h-westem rives. In cted with ers unions (fEected by ent of the ' the com- a state of lers. The ir that the tale births itence the )nt, exces- any tribes r by being kindness ; r elders to als of the bora before being admitted as oquuls into the society of the men. In a largo number of tribes two incisors of the upper jaw are broken or extracted. Most of the youths are subjected to circumcision, or else to various kinds of extremely painful mutilations. They are also required to run down a kangaroo in the chase, to remain alone in the forest without food for several days at the risk of their lives, to endure horrid tortures without wincing, and so on. Amongst the Eurnai of South Australia these probations end in a magnetic sleep, after which the youths wake up "men." Then at last they are entitled to wear the girdle, bracelets, the fron- tal band, and other ornaments, indicating that they have reached the virile state. These initiatory ceremonies are usually concluded with a corrobori, or tribal gathering, held during the full moon, combining the administration of justice, par- liaments, solemn treaties of alliance, and concluding with theatrical representations, midnight dances, feasts, and orgies. Once initiated, the youths may take part in the songs, dances, and oratorical displays. As members of the clan they are branded on the breast or thigh with the kobong, that is, the national emblem, some plant or animal, like the totem of the North American Bedskins. But these emblems are at times insignificant enough, a simple ant or spider, or other small insect. The person so marked must henceforth show his respect for the talisman that symbolises the family group, holding himself as the inseparable companion or kinsman of all bearing the same totem, as well as of all natural objects associated with his particular kobong. Thus during the funeral rites care must be taken that the body be buried under a tree regarded as belonging to the same clan. ' Tattooing is often limited to the figure of the kobong, but in some tribes the body is covered with symmetrical scarifications of a rude design, incised by means of sharp shells. On the north-east coast the natives also follow the Papuan custom of piercing the cartilage of the nose and introducing a bit of stick or a kangaroo bone, which impedes the respiration and obliges those so adorned to keep the mouth open. According to the various occasions of war, feasts, or mourning they paint the face and body in red, yellow, white, or black colours. White is an indica- tion of grief, while red is the sacred colour reserved for the great events of the tribal life. Before the arrival of the Europeans the natives of the tropical regions went naked, or restricted their attire to a few rags or waist-bands of fibre, while in the colder southern districts the women wore a smock or tunic of kangaroo skin. The northern tribes still paint the face and body in various colours, and near Port Darwin the white streaks traced on the black ground of the face give from a distance the effect of a death's head. But the form and pattern of dress and orna- ment, as well as of the dwellings, vary endlessly. In one place the only shelter are the natural caves and rocks, in another a screen of foliage, hovels, and even rude stone sthxctures. The weapons also differ greatly, though the most prevalent are spears, clubs, and darts with fish-bone or flint heads. In certain districts the aborigines still make use of unpolished stone hatchets, but the bow and arrow are imkuown, except along a small strip of the east coast. .„.._,. .. . , . . , ^(^^g^j^; ^mtfM.i^ . ^r >yt^jBaro^^qs^^ ' fe ? wy- ' ' ' ' '' ' T^ swN '' * * ^ ^' CVv 880 AUSTRATiASIA. Tho most characteristic weapon is the boomerang, a short curved stick which whirls with a corkscrew motion in the direction of the object aimed at, and after striking returns to the thrower. Tho inventive genius which devised this remark- able implement has also enabled tho natives to invent other ingenious contrivances for the hunt, fishing, and navigation. Yet it is noteworthy that the neighbouring Tasmanians were ignorant both of the throwing-stick and of the boomerang, and even of boats or canoes, although living in an island fringed with clusters of isleta. The populations of Torres Strait and of the Arafura Sea, amongst whom the Fig. 161. — Inhabitants and Lanouaokb of AxraTEAXiA about 18S0. Moalv 1 : 40,000,UUO. eooHiiM. The dots i'ldicate the regioni where the boomerang waa unknown ; the lines mark the range of certain lingoistio groopa. Papuan elements seem in some places to prevail, were also ignorant of the boome- rang, the form of which curious weapon varies greatly in the different tribes. Not only is the tribal territory perfectly defined, but within this collective domain each individual often own? a plot, his right to which is never questioned. No one can cross the boundary without his express permission, the stranger pre-^ senting himself without arms, and holding green branches in his hand. The aborigines, however, are the most backward of agricultural peoples, the yam being the only plant cidtivated by them, just as the dingo is the only animal they have INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. 881 ick which and after B rcmark- itrivances ^hbouring rang, and ] of islets, vhom the 10 155' liaUogronpa. 16 boome- ibes. collective iiestioned. nger pre- md. The am being they have succeeded in domesticating. Nevertheless, induHtry lias been so fur developed among certain tribes that they appreciate the advantage of taking foreign articles in exchange for skins, nets of vegetable fibre, spoar- heads, diverse pigments, and other native produce. This intertribal commenie is carried cm through the so-called ngalla watos, who are solemnly elected to the office, and who act as mediators between their own and other tribes whose languages they speak. Thanks to cer- tain pass-words, signs, and " writing sticks," they are able to present themselves everywhere with confidence, their person being sacred even in time of war. The remarkable development of certain Australian tribes is shown especially by their knowledge of the sturry firmament. They give to the different constella- tions the names of legendary heroes, and are able exactly to describe their position according to the eight points dividing the sphere. The path of moon and stars enables them to determine the hours with great nccurn on thom, und tho twelve Rurviving men, twonty-two women, and iev 'hildron, nearly all hulf-broeds, wito removed to a narrow promontory at Oy .,i, -;.,.. ..... I . INIIAIUTANTS OF AUSTUALIA. flH6 N pluCO of I tukcn on DM, iKMirly .r lloburi, !) thu luHt ll(H>kb, astus, unrl from tbe sappifeared. district in 8 where a I. At the m1 at some me of the ilarged so iiently not Da to show that thoro has been a roul increiiHe either of the pun- or tho mixed iilMtri^iiiul elumontH in certain " rcBervoH," whore the nativoH are treatod with kimhuNM. In the arid regions of the interior beyond the iliHtrictH Hcttled by the whitoH tho aborigines aie probably own Ichh ntimerouH than in tho vicinity of the Hoaboard. Tho mixture of white and native blood proocome abNolute maHterH of the continent, whore they are already at least fifty times more numen.uH than the aborigines. Rut their b< ginnings were lowly enough, and whereaH the inhabitants of other countries delight in celebrating the heroic virtues of th fir forefathers and predocossors, the present citizens of the Australian states pr(>fer to trace their descent, not from the first arrivals, but from later immigrants. Those first arrivals were in fact convicts, who, to the number of seven hundred and eighty- seven, were transported in 1778 to Hotany Hay, and thence soon after removed to a more favourable locality on the south side of Port Jackson. liut tho experiment to found a colony with elements drawn from the criminal classes was attended with little success. The prisoners, treated with excessive rigour, especially under the administration of Bligh, thought only of escape, and thousands perished in their repeated attempts at revolt or flight. liarge numbers, however, succeeded in reaching the inland tribes, and although many were devoured by the natives, others rose to positions of authority and became tribal chiefs, while some played an historic part as conquerors of archipelagoes in the South Seas. Between 1778 and 1820 Australia received from the mother country 28,878 convicts, of whom not more that 3,661 were women. During that period the births did not exceed 1,500, and so far from becoming self-supporting, these in- voluntary immigrants cost the British Government about £600,000 annually. But a new era opened for the Australasian world with the introduction of free immi- gration in the year 1820. The new settlers soon began to protest vigorously against the continuation of the system of transportation, and in 1840 their efforts were crowned with success, at least in the eastern provinces, for Tasmania continued to receive convicts till 1853, and West Australia till 1868. At present the original convict element may be regarded as completely merged in tho rest of the popula- tion, and all sense of humiliation associated with the early penal settlements has entirely disappeared. The white population, which had hitherto increased at a moderate rate, received a tremendous impulse by the discovery of the gold-fields about the middle of the cen- tury. Since thoft time it has been multiplied tenfold, rising from three hundred thousand to considerably over three millions in 1889. The mining element con- sisted for the most part of adult males, while other fortune-hunters, traders, artisans, or tillers of the soil, arrive in large numbers without families. Hence the discrepancy between the sexes is all the greater the more copious is the stream of immigration. In Queensland, which receives the largest influx of settlers, the women are least numerous, whereas the equilibrium is already nearly re-established in South Aus- tralia, towards which the tide of immigration has almost ceased to flow. From m 'Vg ,1 '■•!/ ■maam SSSR e 6 Bss;glffla»»>A^H«iw-*JWM l ^ 1 'i' ii ji 1 886 AUSTRALASIA. year to year the disparity diminishes, because the excess of births over the mor- tality, which is much higher than in most other civilised lands, acquires more im- portance the more the general population increases. This excess is already greater than the whole number of immigrants, and thus are gradually re-established the normal conditions. It is also noteworthy that the mortality is far less amongst Fig. 163. — Density ok the Austbalian Population. ^ Soale 1 : 80,000,000. 0to3 Inhabitants per iqnare mile, wP\ .|g| 9to4 4ta8 Eaeb equaie repreeents a popnlation of ?,000. ^— ^— ^-— — .^ tiOOMilei. 8 and npwatda. the women than the men, so that by the end of the century the Australian popu- lation, like that of Europe, will show a slight predominance of the fair sex. In the movement of immigration the part taken by the English, Scotch, and Irish preponderates to such an extent that all other ethnical elements may be regarded as of no account. Language, institutions, usages, all is English, and in some places even more English than in England itself.* Many Australians take a certain pride in resisting the current of modern ideas prevalent in the mother country, although their new environment obliges them to strike out fresh paths, severing • Froude, Oe«a«a; Anthony Trollope, .<1m«< ra/»a and JVeio Z'M/anrf. ' M . . l U. 1 ■*•' ,. INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. 887 per the mor- res more im- eady greater ablished the less amongst jraliari popu- ir sex. , Scotch, and ents may be glish, and in ralians take a (ther country, iths, severing them gradually from their European fellow-citizens, and bringing them somewhat nearer to their North American kinsmen, whom they resemble in figure, bearing, and even features. The German settlers, although numerous, are nowhere grouped iu sufficient masses to enable them to live apart from the English, and, in fact, they become rapidly absorbed in the surrounding Australian populations. On the other hand, the Chinese, formerly introduced in large numbers by capitalists to work their planta- tions and mines, had begun to form a powerful class, which threatened to drive the white workmen out of the labour market. But the national antagonism aroused by these conflicting interests, by the "yellow danger," as it is called, Kg. i64.— Inobease of the Austbalian Popuiatioi». has had the result of rendering a residence in Queensland and the other Australian colonies almost impossible for the " Celestials." Thousands have had to leave the country, while recent laws passed in contravention to the treaties concluded with China, prevent them from landing, except on payment of a heavy fine, besides imposing on them all sorts of vexatious burdens. As in all modern colonies oi an industrial character, the immigrant populations have been to a large extent centred in the towns, and owing to this tendency the cities of Sydney and Melbourne alone con- tain nearly a third of the whole Australian population. Yet it is from the land that the settlers in this new world derive their chief recourcea. A comparative study of the ample statistics now available for the various provinces shows what an important economical position is already occupied by the Australian colonies. Although the vast domain belonging to the Crown has only been utilised to a relatively small extent, considerably over 100,000,000 acres had already been disposed of to private individuals at the end of 1886, and either brought under cultivation, or devoted to stock-breeding, and especially sheep-farming. Artesian wells, sunk in many of the inland regions, have tapped the underground reservoirs, and transformed extensive arid wastes into good grazing grounds ; projects are also being entertained for husbanding the surface waters by means of dams and other hydraulic works. Australia is the first wool-producing country in the world, ranking in this i < ■MMIIIIIIHIHillii^ MjiiiiiirFiitiiHii 888 AUSTRALASIA. respect even before the United States, the Argentine Republic, and Russia. The wool yielded by its twenty-four million sheep being of the finest quality, commands the highest prices in all the markets of the globe, and represents an annual value of about £20,000,000. The stock-breeders also own large herds of cattle, excellent horses and swine, yielding for the export trade considerable quantities of hides, suet, fat, tinned meats, and since 1882 frozen carcasses. The Australian dingo is much dreaded by the sheep-farmers,- for he regards the flook as so much game, killing all he cannot devour ; whole folds have been destroyed by the depreda- tions of this animal, which, however, is rapidly disappearing with the natives themselves. The fox has also become dangerous ; but the great scourge of the stock- breeders is the rabbit, which, once imported from Europe, soon found a congenial home in the rolling, grassy, and flowering plains formerly tenanted by the kangaroo. Here the coney has multiplied to a prodigious extent, and although at least fifty millions are yearly destroyed by the shepherds and their dogs, he encroaches more and more on the pasturages to the great detriment of the live-stock. To get rid of this pest several plans have been tried or suggested, amongst others the complete enclosure of the grazing grounds, and the systematic extermination of the does, thus arresting the propagation of the species. Experiments have also been made at Rodd Island, near Sydney, with " chicken cholera," inoculated according to the Pasteur method, in the hope that the rabbits themselves will spread the contagion. But fears have been expressed that the disease may thus be gradually disseminated among the domestic animals. ,, In 1888 the arable lands comprised a total extent of nearly 8,500,000 acres, yielding a relatively high proportion of produce, which is largely required for the local consumption. But Australia has already begun to take a prominent position amongst countries exporting wine, sugar, and tobacco. Some of the vintages have even acquired a certain reputation, and the burgundies especially shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1889 were much appreciated by French connoisseurs. Other classes of wine, such as bordeaux, champagne, moselle, port, are also success- fully grown; but the vineyards have unfortunately begun to sufEer from the ravages of the phylloxera. Cereals and other alimentary plants are chiefly grown on small holdings, while the Queensland sugar plantations, like the pasture lands of the Darling and of other regions lying beyond the east coast- ranges, are for the most part in the hands of large land-owners. Despite the laws limiting the extent of land which one person may purchase, or rent for seven, fourteen, or twenty-one years, the tendency in Australia, as in the mother country, is in the direction of vast landed estates. In New South "Wales the smallest plot offered for sale is about forty acres, but in some of the colonies allotments of 2,500 acres may be purchased, and H}rndicates have been formed for buying or renting far more extensive holdings. Certain estates, sheep-runs, or sheep-walks, as they are called, are laid out in the central part with a park, gardens, and a magnificent residence with turrets, galleries, and conservatories, for the squatter is the true Australian aristocrat, a wealthy citizen, owning sheep by the hundred thousand, administering his issia. The , commands inual value e, excellent 3S of hides, un dingo is luch game, le depreda- the natives )f the stock- a, congenial le kangaroo, t least fifty >acheB more b get rid of le complete le does, thus 3n made at ling to the 9 contagion, isseminated 10,000 acres, lired for the Lent position intages have lown at the ionnoisseurs. also success- jr from the dings, while rling and of part in the f land which e years, the ion of vast ale is about e purchased, ive holdings. I out in the pith turrets, aristocrat, a istering his INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA. 889 domain through agents, and residing in the coast towns, or even in London or m Paris. Thus it has come about that the land is already largely monopolised by a imiiilflMMMw » m i. «»» tii : ««» M l m i«ii i i i iiiillM Hi |il < til W l f ii I il l i r >iii«Ui.i >f«« ii. 890 AUSTRALASIA. limited number of wealthy capitalists, so that of a hundred settlers not more than "^'x are landowners. The gold-mines which more than aught else have contributed to the rapid development of the population, still form a chief resource of the country. Victoria especially possesses auriferous deposits of immense value, and to them was indebted for its temporary ascendency over New South Wales. But here, as elsewhere, Pig. 166.— Gold Mines of South-Eabt Austbalu. Boale 1 : 7,S00,000. 58* lasb or Greenwich 144 ISO mining operations became continually less remunerative according as the precious metals diminished in relative value. Since the discovery of the gcM-fieids in 1851 down to the year 1887, the total quantity of gold recovered by the miners reached the enormous sum of £320,000,000, or more than £8,000,000 a year. The tin- mines, which occur chiefly in Queensland, and the highly productive copper-mines of South Australia also contribute to feed the export trade of the colonies, while ^'j^ iiim«iWimili»i'»'iTm'ii''w»»'iiii AUSTRALIAN INDUSTRIES. 891 re than B rapid i^ictoria idebted ewhere, precious in 1851 reached The tin- ;r-mines !8, while the New South Wales coul-tields yield in importance only to those of West Europe, the United States, and Russia. The coal-mines increase in value according as those of gold fall off, and to them, combined with sheep-farming, New South Wales is indebted for the first place which it now holds amongst the Australian colonies. The silver-mines have but slight economic importance, whilst the salt lakes are scarcely utilised at all, as they yield only an inferior article full of impurities. The Australian manufacturing industry differs in no respect from that of Great Britain, so far as regards the raw materials and mechanical processes ; but it is not yet sufficiently developed to give rise to any considerable export trade to the surrounding oceanic world. The country offers little beyond agricultural and mining produce in exchange for the manufactured wares imported almost exclu- sivelj' from England, and for the teas received from China. But the total value of this commercial movement is prodigious, regard being had to the relatively slight population of the continent. Amongst trading lands Australia takes a first rank for the value of its exchanges compared with the number of its inhabitants. In this respect, however, the inter-colonial traffic is reckoned as so much foreign trade, because the custom-house tariffs differ in the diffei ent states, and are even regulated with a view to protecting special industries against the competition of neighbouring provinces. This local and foreign commerce er^ploys thousands of vessels, constantly plying along the seaboard and on the highways of navigation converging from all quarters on the periphery of the continent. The main lines of oceanic steamships subsidised by the British Government maintain the communications between the great seaports of the British Isles and the Austral regions ; foreign steamers, also, such as those of the French Messageries and the German Company, touch at the more important Australian ports. Thanks to the combined service of steam navigation and railways, letters have been received in Adelaide from London within twenty-seven days. The colonies have also developed a considerable local ship- piitgv, and the mercantile marine registered in the various seaports already equals tliat of several European trading countries, such as Austria- Hungary and Greece. In the interior cf the continent railways have been constructed between all the large towns of East Australia, and the completion of the viaduct across the Hawkeis- bury river now places Adelaide in uninterrupted communication with Brisbane by a trunk line over 1,700 miles long, or as far as from Paris to Moscow. West Australia at the south-west corner of the continent also possesses a few short lines and has just begun the vast undertaking of a coast railway to connect King George Sound with the South Australian system. The government of the latter colony on its part jp pushing forward the construction of a trans-continental line between Adelaide in the south and Falmerston on the north coast. Tasmania also is adding a few branches to its main line between Launceston and Hobart. With the exception of a few mineral and other industrial lines all the Australian railways belong to tho f^overal colonies whose territory they traverse. The teleg<'a]^>hs, which are ulso maintained by the national budget, connect all -jatilWiTifr .A^ ■--■ 'r^^'''f^''''-''ii''i-' ' i i 1 .'■I* ' 899 AUSTRALASIA. the colonies with each other, as well as with New Zealand and Java. Two sub- marine lines will soon be laid from Ceylon to West Australia, and from Sydney to Vancouver Island on the Pacitic coast of Britiwh North America, and thus will be completed the electric circuit of the English colonies round the globe. Education being compulsory and free, at least in the Government schools, all children pass a few years in the public schools. The average standard of instruc- tion is even higher in Australia than in England, and as a rule girls attend school longer than boys. The expenditure for educational purposes is very high, amount- iifj SfSW Pig. 167.— Au8TBAU,»N Railways at the End or 1887. Scale 1 : 40,000,000. 120° Lar;b or bfeenwich 150' _ TJne8 eo npleted. ' - Main Lines ir p^-ogreas. ing in 1 aSS to £5 for each pupil. The Australian press comprises about 800 newspapers and other periodjcl publications. At present Australia cor.eiututes five, ant ^ith Tasmania six, separate colonies or sta'cs. According to the dte of thoir foundation, their economic interests, and the influence of dominant political parties, these various states frame for them- selves different constitutions ; but all lequire their fundamental enactments to be ratified by the British Government, and also receive as governor a direct represen- tative of the Crown. Nevertheless a recent controversy between Queensland and the metropolis on the appointment of a governor resulted to the advantage of the colony. In the two states of Victoria and Tasmania the institutions are derao- ,,.S5L ii f ll . ll l l j! lllJIi l W i iy ii n GOVERNMENT OF AUSTRAIilA. 898 cratic, and the two chambers are elected by universal suffrage, applied in such a way as to give a proportional representation to minorities. In New South Wales and the other stateT the upper house is either entirely or partly named by the Crown. According as they grew in power and wealth the Australian colonies felt the need of drawing closer the bonds of union. A f 'oration, authorised beforehand by the Imperial Parliament, has been projected for the purpose of amalgamating the states under the suzerainty of England, and safeguarding the common interests on the mainland and in the South Sea Islands. But certain questions of Kg. 168.— AUSTBAUAN COLONIB8. Boale 1 : 44,000,000. t.asb oF GreenwicK . euo Miles. rivalry and precedence have hitherto prevented the definite constitution of the future federal state of Australasia, which must establish the absolute and perma- nent dominion of the Anglo-Saxon race in the oceanic world. Albury, on the Murray, about midway between Sydney and Melbourne and on the common frontier of New South Wales and Victoria, seems destined by general consent to become the metropoliE of the rising empire. In anticipation of its future rank it has already been named the " Federal City," although it is still possible that this high honour may fall to the share of another place. To the first conference held in 1886 at Hobart, New South Wales, South Australia, and New Zealand had sent no delegates, although the Fiji Archipelago ■..\! ■■I ^■"Sj i^ilfe;iifci'''iis Hi I'li-'i r •■ -'-"^ >ii!it<:^-.'^^::K.. -'Via-'. 894 AU8TRAI-ASIA. was adequately represented. But in 1888 a second conference, attended by dele- gates from all the Australasian states, discussed the establishment of supreme tribunals for the whole group of colonics. South Australia also, hitherto opposed to all projects of federation, has recently joined the movement. Australia natu- rally looks forward to the time when the confederation will be joined not only by British New Guinea and Fiji but by all the Pacific islands already acquired or to be acquired by Great Britain, and thus secure an incontested hegemony throughout Fig. 160.— Kino Gkoboe Soukd. Soale 1 : 260,000. i57r*^ II7°54 E«iB oIL Greenwich Depths. otoie FWt. 16tu82 Feet. 82 to 160 Feet. leu Feet and upwaide. ,6 Miles. the southern hemisphere. In many instances, notably during the recent discuB- sions with France on the subject of the New Hebrides and the transport of convicts to New Caledonia, it became evident that the Australians aspire soon to be masters in the Austral regions, and proclaim, like the North Americans, their " Monroe doctrine " — the Oceanic World for the Oceanians. As a military power Australasia would already present formidable difficulties to a foreign invader, for the adult population between their twentieth and fortieth year exceeds half a million of men thoroughly organised in volunteer corps, which iminm»ll!tm>mrirwmmvmim:mt<: WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 898 by dele- mpreme opposed ia natu- only by ■ed or to oughout t discus- convicts I masters ' Monroe ifficulties I fortieth )8, whicli the coast railways might rapidly concentrate on any threatened points along the seaboard. Moreover, the three strategical positions of King George Sound at tlie south-west corner of the mainland, the entrance to Port Jackson at Sydney, and some islands in Torres Strait, have been strongly fortified. A fleet of gunboats, torpedoes, and swift cruisers guards the approaches of the seaports, while recent conventions with England provide for a rapid increase of the Imperial navy. In 1888 over £800,000 were voted for the coast defences and the construction of forts. Financially Australia is heavily burdened. The possession of seemingly inex- haustible gold-fields fostered a spirit of extravagance to such an extent that the public liabilities, head for head of the inhabitants, are already higher than those of France. But this incumbrance is much less felt, thanks to the rapid develop- ment of the population and of the resources of the land. The annual increase of the population exceeds a thirtieth, while that of the national wealth is still more rapid ; yet the demon of pauperism has already raised his head in Australia. A table of the Australian states, with their respective areas and populations, is given in the Appendix. The administrative subdivisions differ in the various colonies, and even in each state, according to the density of the population and the several political and economic interests. They take the various names .of counties, boards, shires, municipalities, boroughs, electoral and pastoral divisions. Westkrn Australia. This colony, the first Australian land sighted by vessels arriving from Europe, is the least populous and the least important of all the Australasian states, although its territory comprises about one-third of the mainland. It was founded over half a century ago in 1829, yet its residents of European origin scarcely exceed forty thousand and may possibly be still surpassed numerically by the natives, whose tribes continue to form relatively compact groups in the north western districts. In 1850, when the colony had no more than six thousand inhabitants, the British Government made it a penal station, and by the year 1868 nearly ten thousand convicts had been introduced into Western Australia. But despite, or possibly in consequence of, this continuous stream of involun- tary colonists, the population increased very slowly until a decided stimulus was given to the movement by the discovery of auriferous deposits in the part of the territory situated between the Irwin and Murchison Rivers. The reluctance of intending colonists to turn their steps towards "Western Australia was, however, mainly due to the drjrness of the climate, the arid soil, brackish waters, and inferior pasturages infested in several districts by poisonous plants. The greater part of the colony, which stretches north and south from shore to shore, and east- wards to 129° east longitude, is even still unexplored. The settled parts are, in fact, chiefly situated in the south-west corner of the continent and along the lower reaches of the coast streams, which follow in the direction of the north beyond Perth. Western Australia is thus an isolated world separated by vast desert ■4 "it ]-■ 89U AUSTRALASIA. spaces from the other Aufltralafliim colonioH, with which it commn riicatos only by sea. The dangerous overland routes across the intervening solitudes still rank with those rare and daring exploits which are recorded iu the unuuls of geographical exploration. The centre of the colony is the city of Perth, which has been founded 12 miles from the coast on the banks of the Swan River, at a point where it expands into * Fig. 170. — rKBTH AND ITS EwVIBOini. 8«a« 1 : 600,00a iH>°so- Cash or Greenwich II5'30 liep hH to M Feet. 82 to 80 Feet. 80to 1«0 Feet. ^_ 12 Miles. IftO Feet and upwards. the form of a lake. This modest capital is connected by road and rail with its seaport of Fremantk, which lies on the south side of the Swan estuary ; but there is no natural harbour and the open roadstead is so unsafe during the prevalence of the north and north-west winds that the shipping has at times to take refuge farther south in Oockbum Sound between the coast and Garden Island. Never- theless, Fremantle is the busiest port in the colony, and here are shipped the p'yw^^ii . '^ j yty y iWi ^ ' ip ii fm i n WESTKUN AUSTUALIA. 807 wools, which httvo hitherto formed tho chiof renourco of WoHtern AuHtraliii. Foft- nent Inland, which partly sholtcrs Uuge Kuiid on tho wowt, in friiijfcd with »alt beds worked by the convicts imd natives for the Government. FartluM- north follow tho three ports of Uockiiiylmm, liunhunj, and Jhimi'ltoti, from which is mainly exported the jarra-woo1 ■^,a».K.iiJ»n.!V«»3'>-^?-r&^<^v- ^ ^:r AUSTUALAHIA. woro (liAoovored in tho hilly district bounded on th«' mmth ' > tho courno of the Fitzroy Uivor. This event attrnctod hir^c numhorn of K' i-huntorH to tho spot; viilii^rN Nprung up, mid ])ortH woru CHtiibliHhcd uloiig th< ivor-bunkN iiiid on the BhoroM of tho neighbouring inlotd. In IHHO, when the mines were placed under official adiniiiistriition, thin diNtrict of Kiiiibcrley wiih found to be inhabited by B(!veral thousiinds, nioHtly connix^ted with the mining induHtry. Drrti;/, the capital, stands on tho east Hide of an CHtuary, where the Fitzroy lliver reaches the coast. The settlenient of this part of Australia, which over half u century ago was already described by (jeorgo Grey us one of tho most promising regions on tho continent, is an event of primary importance in the history of colonisation. Although comparatively well watered and fairl}' productive, it had boon avoided by tho British colonists owing to the heat of the t! 'nate. It certainly lies entirely within tho tropical zone; but it occupies u fa voui able position over against the Dutch East Indies, from which it is separated only by the narrow Arafura Sea. Hen "6 Kimborley is probably destined lo become the chief centre of trade and intercourse between the Indonesian and Australian populations, at present almost complete strangers to each other. In some of the estuaries along this coast the tides rise to a height of from 35 to 40 feet. Of all the continental colonies Western Australia has remained longest attached to Great Britain by direct udraiuistrative tioc. Ilitherlo not only the Gover- nor and Executive Council, 'Tiut even tho Legislative Council has been at least partly nominated by the Central Government. In 1889, however, the Imperial Parliament favc rably entertained a bill passed by the Legislative Council substi- tuting a responsible government for the hitherto existing representative system of administration. By this ch< nge Western Australia will doubtless soon be placed on the same footing as all the otb< r colo •<>( of the Australian continent. It is divided into fourteen electoral distriv* i le v nichise being extended to all citizens pos- sessing landed property of *' value of £1,000, or paying a yearly rent of at least £10. The defensive fore < imprised in 1889 a volunteer corps of over 600 men. South Australia. The name of this colony is scarcely justified by its geographical position, for its territory does not include the southernmost part of the mainland, while on the other hand it stretches right across the continent northwards to the Arafura Sea. It thus comprises all the central region westwards io 129° east longitude, and eastwards to 138° on the Gulf of Carpentaria and as far as 141° on the slope draining to the Southern Ocean. On the north coast it embraces the peninsula skirting the west side of the Gulf of Carpentaria ; on the south the Gulfs of Spencer and S. Vincent form the chief indentations of its seaboard, and over a fourth of the mainland lies within its borders. The settlement of South Australia began on the shores of the southern gulfs in the year 1834, and towards the close of 1836 the official proclamation of the new state was made near the port of Glenelg under a large eucalyptus, whose now life- ■ !!tti'.:s,ix-S!a/.sifst-: /^ ■HO of tho tho Hpi)t ; 11(1 on the et'd uiulor ubitod by \\t) ciipitul, lO coust. y ugo WU8 HH on tho louiHation. .voided by )8 entirely fuinst tho ifura Sea. trade and ant ulmoat coast the t attached be Gover- 1 at least Imperial cil substi- system of placed on is divided zens pos- )f at least 600 men. isition, for lie on the afura Sea. itude, and the slope peninsula I Gulfs of nd over a n gulfs in E the new now life- mmi IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) "v^^ 1.0 I.I US ■■■ ■tt lii 12.2 Mil |l.25 j U ||.6 • ^ 6" ». Aotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRIfT WIBSTIR,N.Y. 14SM (71«) 872-4503 «' - -^^^^W.*iM*:»* ,™Aafc*M^>«». .w,1-i"iV'.---'?>./^1w ^ii «' CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/iCIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian InatHuta for HIatorlcal MIcroraproductlona / Inathut Canadian da microraproductlona Matoriquaa V Mi SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 899 less stem bears a commemorative inscription. Here the people gather in multi- tudes on the anniversaries of the foundation to celebrate the national feast. Free settlers alone have taken part in the development of the colony, where no convicts from beyond the seas were ever landed. Nevertheless, the growth of the popula- tion was extremely slow down to the year 1846, when the discovery of rich copper- mines immediately attracted numerous speculators and miners. But notwithstanding this stimulus South Australia has lagged far behind the three eastern colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland in population, wealth, and trade. In the years 1885-6 it even presented the phenomenon, unique in Australia, of a temporary decrease in the number of its inhabitants, the emigration to the West Australian mines and to other regions having exceeded the immigration and the natural excess of births over the mortality. Although the climate is one of the healthiest for Europeans, it is dreaded on account of its heats and the lack of invigorating sea breezes, the concave formation of the coast facing the desert. causing the parching winds of the interior to prevail. Infant mortality is high, and the acclimatisation of the race presents greater diffi- culties than in most other regions of the continent. Here also consumption, the Australian malady par excellence, is more common than in any of the other colonies. Another obstacle to progress are the long periods of drought, which occasionally occur, and which render much of the land arid, unsuitable for tillage, and in many places even saline and destitute of vegetation. In the northern districts the torrid climate is still more unsuitable for European workmen, so that the suzerain Oovernment has been fain to tolerate the introduction of Malay and Chinese labour. .'.•,■■ Thus nearly the whole of the white population is confined to the southern region between the lower course of the Murray and the east side of Spencer Gulf. From here also come the copper, wool, and wheat, from which South Australia derives its importance in the British colonial world ; for the production of wheat it takes the first place amongst the Australian states. Essays have been made at ostrich-farming, while wine-growing has received a great development during the last few years ; wines are already produced, which the growers in the difPerent districts compare to port, sherry and hock. The colony also exports fruits and preserves. Adelaide, the " Model City," capital of South Australia, ranks for population after Melbourne and Sydney, already containing over one hundred and thirty thousand inhabitants in the central quarters and its suburbs. It lies on a plain near the sea not far from the first slopes of the Lofty Range rising to the east, and on the banks of the Torrens River, which often runs dry. The broad streets running at right angles in the direction of the cardinal points dispose the city in a number of regular blocks. Enormous sums have been expended on the con- struction of vast reservoirs in the neighbouring hills needed to supply the city with water. There are also numerous promenades, extensive parks, and one of the most beautiful botanic gardens in the world. The University of South Australia, the Institute and other learned societies, have their seat in the capital, 400 AUSTRALASIA. where is centred all the scientific and literary work of the inhabitants. Beyond Adelaide, which, with its suburbs of Hindmarsh, Norwood, and Kensington, alone contains over a third of the whole colonial population, there are no towns or villages except those exclusively occupied with trade, agriculture, or mining. Adelaide has several ports, the chief of which, Port Adelaide, lies three or four miles to the north-west near a creek which has been artificially deepened and lined Kg. 171. — Adelaidh. Scale 1 : 280,000. Deptbi. Bands exposed at low water. to 16 16 to sa Feet. Feet. • • lighthonMB. 81 Feet and upwaidB. 6MUea. with wharves. Olenelg, situated to the south-west, and almost connected with the capital by continuous groups of suburbs and villas, is a port of call for mail steamers. Farther south follows Victor Harbour, on the shore of the Southern Ocean, but connected with the capital by a railway. Another line running north- eastwards to Morgan, at the chief bend of the Lower Murray, places Adelaide in communication with the only line of inland navigation on the Australian main- land ; above Morgan the Murray is navigated by about forty small steamers. temii ill i ' t-C" ■4l*fMi«lw< SOUTH AUSTBALIA. 401 nd me or )ur Led the mail lem rth- le in ain- The little fluvial port of Ooolwa, seven miles above the mouth of the Murray on its terminal Lake Alexandrina, exports a considerable quantity of wool. Beyond the river and near the frontier of Victoria, Mount Gambier, or Oambierton, at the southern foot of the volcano of like name, is the most active commercial Pig. 172. — Adhlaide, Spbnobb and St. Vinoknt Qulfs. Scale 1 : S,300,000. 33' 'f t.ffil/f0m basb oF tfeenwi ch Depths. OtoM SStoSO Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. IflO Feet and npwucU. 130 Hilts. centre in the southern districts. It is connected by rail with the capital, and supplied with water from the lake in the neighbouring crater. Other railways run from Adelaide towards the northern mineral districts, where Gaickr, Kapunda, and Kooringa are the chief centres of the copper mining operations. The deposits of Boora-Boora, near Kooringa, have largely contributed 26—0 ■sf^ K 402 AUSTRALASIA. to the prosperity of the colony, having yielded ores to the value of over £4,000,000 between 1846 and 1877. No less productive are the copper mines of Wallaroo, Moonta, and Kadina, on the east side of Spencer Gulf, while TeeUilpa, in the north- east, near the frontier of Victoria, has been enriched by its gold mines. Farther north the railway, penetrating inland through the pastures, deserts, Fig. 173.— PoBT Darwin. Scale 1 : 880,000. Q Sanda exposed at low water. Depths. OtoM 16 Feet iind npwarda. 6 Mile*. and saline wastes, soon advances beyond the mineral districts, and serves only for the transport of wool and some agricultural produce. But when it has pushed its way across the continent this trunk line will be used by most travellers and immigrants bound for the flourishing regions of east and south-east Australia. The two submarine cables already connecting the northern end of this line with SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 408 OOO roo, rth- srts, nly for led its rs and Btralia. with Bunjuwangi, in Java, were broken by a volcanic eruption in the year 1888. They were supplemented in 1889 by a third cable laid between the same Javanese port and Roebuck Bay on the coast of "West Australia. This line, which is about 1,000 miles long, serves not only for the local communications of West and South Australia, but also, in case of interruption, for those of the eastern colonies. Palmeraton, the future terminus of the trans-continental railway, already enjoys a considerable trade. Since 1875 Port Darwin, on the east side of which Palmerston has been founded, has been thrown open to the commerce of all nations. This extensive inlet forms one of the largest, most convenient, and best sheltered harbours frequented by seafarers in the eastern seas. The popu- lation of the Northern Territory, as this region is officially called, has considerably increased since 1881, when it contained only 4,550 inhabitants. Over four-fifths of the residents are Chinese, occupied in discharging cargoes, in clearing the land for plantations, constructing highways, and working the southern gold-mines of Burrundie and other districts. Here the employers of labour are vigorously opposed to the laws restricting Chinese immigration. Being unable to employ white labour in these torrid lands, they naturally look to China for the hands required to cultivate their plantations. A little traffic has'already been developed between Palmerston and the Javanese city of Surabaya, which lies on the future highway of inter-continental trade between Australia and Europe. The essays at colonisation made so early as 1824 on Apsley Strait between Melville and Bathurst Islands, as well as subsequent attempts of the same kind made farther east on the Coburg Peninsula, all proved failures owing to the isolated position of the British settlers in a torrid climate and on an unproductive soil, covered with an almost ferruginous laterite. The station of Victoria, founded on the fine harbour of Essington, has never risen to the rank of a town/ -j^^!*'." ^^■" The colony of South Australia is autonomous. The governor, appointed by the Queen, is assisted by six responsible ministers chosen by the Parliament, which itself consists of members elected by the citizens. The Legislative Council, or Upper House, comprises twenty-four members, and the House of Assembly, or Lower House, is formed of fifty-two deputies, chosen for three years. The franchise for electors of the Council is limited to about two-fifths of the ad' It male population, holders of property, or paying a certain annual rent ; but a. 1 citizens settled not less than six months in the country have a right to vote at the elections for the House of Assembly. Some thirty municipalities enjoy the privileges of communal autonomy. The armed forces comprise over three thou- sand volunteers and the crew of a small man-of-war. t, ., .-.A v„.,t ,,..,.., .,..,,.-< Queensland. Its very name is an indication of the recent creation of this colony. Originally it formed part of New South Wales, from which it was not separated till the year 404 AUSTRALASIA. s- 1859. But although its political life is shorter than that either of Western or South Australia, it already surpasses both of those states in trade and population. Convicts, however, had been transported to the shores of Moreton Bay so early as the year 1824, and the territory had been thrown open to free colonisation in 1842. The inhabitants of North Queensland, whose economic interests are not always in harmony with those of the southern region, are alreadj-^ demanding the formation of a new state, to comprise the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, the York Peninsula, the Torres Strait islands, and British New Guinea. The country is meantime administratively constituted in the three " divisions " of North, Central, and South Queensland, which are regarded as destined one day to form three distinct political states. More than one-third of the inhabitants is still concentrated in the south-east corner of Queensland, the old district of Moreton Bay. But beyond this region centres of population are already very numerous, settlers being attracted to different parts by the diverse agricultural and industrial interests. As in New South Wales there are vast grazing grounds, especially on the western slope of the moimtains ; Queensland also possesses rich auriferous deposits, which are scattered throughout the whole colony from the New South Wales frontier to the York Peninsula, and the valleys sloping towards the Gulf of Carpentaria. Its deposits of copper, tin, and coal have also attracted speculators and miners to various parts of the territory, while such alimentary plants as wheat, maize, sugar-cane, tea, pine-apples, which do not thrive under the same climate, have had the consequence of developing several distinct centres of colonisation throughout the colony. For the cultivation of tropical plants the growers have had recourse to the services of South Sea Islanders engaged for a term of years, and usually com- prised under the general name of " Earnakies," that is, Kanakas, a word in the Polynesian languages simply meaning " men." But this system of contract labour, carried on by means of the so-called " labour-vessels," has been a fruitful source of crime and of outrages against the freedom and even the lives of the Oceanic peoples. The presence of the Chinese also has given rise in Queensland to the most cruel injustice on the part of the " representatives of the higher civilisation." Kidnapping expeditions have often been organised in this colony, which have spread havoc and ruin throughout many Melanesian and Polynesian archipelagoes. Brisbane, capital and oldest town in Queensland, stands on the river of like name, at the point where it expands into an estuary communicating with Moreton Bay some 24 miles lower down. Vessels of average tonnage ascend this estuary to a bridge about 1,160 feet long, which here crosses the river. The port of Brisbane, the most frequented in Queensland, is approached through the fine roadstead of Moreton Bay, which is sheltered by a long chain of low islands, and connected with the capital by two railways. One of these lines runs north-east in the direction of Sandgate, a favourite watering-place and summer residence ; the other passes south-eastwards through Alberton to the southern entrance of the bay, which is accessible only to boats. Brisbane is supplied with an abundance I ilrtriii«i>iWl1i (iUEENHliAND. 40S of water, and like the other largo Australian towns haa a beautiful botanical garden. Ipswich, some 35 miles above Brisbane on a southern affluent of the river, stands at the head of the fluvial navigation, and receives by water the wares which are thence forwarded to the various stations of the interior. At this point the Fig. 174. — Bbisbanb and Mobbton Bay. Scale 1 : 1,800,000. I52*«- Easb oP Greenwich I53*w Depths. OtoS Fatbonu. 6to» Fatboma. .■*J KtoBO Fatiioms. SO rsthomi and upward*. main railway begins to climb the coast range, after crossing which it descends to Warwick in the upper valley of the Condamine, chief headstream of the Darling. The trunk line continues to run beyond Warwick westwards through Toowoomba, Dalby, and Roma, while a branch connects the system southwards with the Sydney- Melbourne line. Another branch has already been projected to bring Point Parker, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, into direct communication with the southern regions. 40U AUSTUALAHIA. -0: 's' r n ManjboroiKjh occupies, 170 miles further north, a position analogous to thut of Brisbuno ; it stands on the nuvigublo river Mury, which expiinds to u broud inlet und reaches the coast through an arm of the sea sheltered on the east side by Great Hundy Island. At Maryborough the river is crossed by a bridge about 1,()40 feet long. Sugar is chiefly grown by the neighbouring planters, und there are numerous factories in the district. On a southern tributary of the Mary stands the struggling town of Gi/mpie, noted for its gold mines, which were discovered in 1807, and which by 1880 had already yielded a quantity of the precious metal estimated at over £2,000,000. At Burnim, lying to the north, rich coal-fields of excellent (Quality have been discovered, and productive copper mines have been opened in the north-western district of Mount Perry, which is connected by a railway with the port of Bundaberg, at the mouth of the Burnett. Rockhampton, another fluvial port, is the largest town in Queensland next to Brisbane. It occupies a fine position in a fertile district, within view of the wooded cliffs skirting the broad river Fitzroy, which is accessible to large vessels. Rockhampton, which lies in the vicinity of rich gold, silver, and copper mines, stands, like Brisbane, at the terminus of a railway, which penetrates far into the interior in the direction of the central plains, and which ramifies to the right and left towards the mining districts. Farther on follow along a deeply indented seaboard the port of Mackay, whence are exported tobaccos, sugar, coffee, and other tropical produce ; Bowen, or Port- Denison, with easier access than any of the other harbours sheltered by the Great Barrier Reef, and Townsrille, which derives its importance from the gold mines of the Burdekin and its tributaries. Ravemtcood and Charters Towers are the chief centres of the mining operations, the latter place producing about £250,000 of the precious metal annually. On the Pacific Coast the last frequented port is Cooktown, which was founded in 1873 and soon became a flourishing place, thanks to the vicinity of the Palmer River gold-fields. Cooktown is also the chief market and victualling station of the British and German establishments in New Guinea and the Melanesian Islands. The settlement of Somerset, which was founded at the northernmost eztremity of York Peninsula in the hope of making it a second Singapore, has remained an obscure village with a bad climate ; but the neighbouring Thursday Island is already a much frequented station, which owes its prosperity to its favourable position on the route of vessels traversing Torres Strait. Since 1877 it has also become the centre of the pearl-shell fisheries in these waters. Here over two hundred craft of all sorts with one thousand five hundred hands find employment on the pearl, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, and beche-de~mer fishing grounds. A central station of the London Missionary Society has been established on Ernb or Darnley Island, which lies in the eastern part of the Strait. ■.;>;;,:. * .. -.'^o;- ..: W;; .'-is On the slope draining to the Gulf of Carpentaria the two stations of Normantotcn and Burketown were till recently nothing more than little rural markets for supplying the stock-breeders of the surrounding districts with provisions and ari I I Ir'lll i[ QUKKNSLANI).— NEW SOUTH WALES. 407 Europt'un wares. liurkutown hud even been alinoNt entirely ulmndoned, owiiijf to the iiiBulubrity of . e neighbouring niurshoH. Hut the discovery of the Croydon gold-fieldH made in 1 885 immediately attracted thouHands of upeculators ond coloniHts to these diHtricta. Point Parkrr, ut present the only seaport of the whole region, ia sheltered from the northern winds by the lientinck and Morninyton insular groupa. Queensland has not yet severed the administrative ties connecting her with the British Government. The Governor and Legislative Council, that is, the Upper House, are still nominated by the Crown. The members of this chamber numbering thirty-six, are named for life, while the Legislative Assembly, or Lower House, is elected by universal suffrage for five years, and receives no payment for its services. The armed forces comprise a standing corps of 1,650, about 600 volunteers, and 136 cadets. A gunboat and a few marines are charged with the defence of the coast- line, some 3,000 miles in length. '■it New South Wales. This colony, the oldest on the continent, has recently celebrated its first centenary. But it bears a name which recalls its dependence on England, and which certainly presents a somewhat cumbrous and inconvenient form. Hence it has been frequently proposed to change its official designation for the simple title of " Australia," just as the United States have claimed the exclusive right to the name of "America." But the- old designation still holds its ground, owing chiefly to the protests of the other Australian states against this assumption. Doubtless there was a time when New South Wales really comprised all the European settle- ments on the mainland and neighbouring islands. But after the foundation of West Australia, and the separation of Victoria and Queensland from the mother colony, this state was reduced to little more than one- tenth of the continent. Yet even this space remains out of all proportion with its relatively slight population, for its superficial area is still far more than twice that of the British Isles. The southern frontier towards Victoria and on the Pacific slope, follows a straight line traced across mountains and valleys between the south-eastern head- land of Cape Howe and the Pilot Mountain on the main range. But farth'T inland the common limit of the two colonies is indicated first by a headstream of the Murray, and then by the Murray itself as far as 141° east longitude. Towards Queensland the border line is marked by a mountain range beginning at Danger Point, and then in the Darling basin by the course of various rivers as far as the '29° south latitude, which constitutes a conventional frontier across the boundless inland plains. " \ "' - '. '"":." Since the abatement of the gold fever, which gave a temporary ascendency to Victoria in population and commercial importance, New South Wales has resumed its natural position at the head of the Australian states. She is no doubt less rich in gold ; but the yield of this metal is yearly losing its relative importance in the general economy of the continent, while wool, which has most contributed to the ■WSf sme* 408 AU8TRALASIA. - D tptha . J/iet. KtoSZf* SZtolGOf* 160 f* upwards. NEW -YORK, D. APPLETON Be C9 i ..... J 41 r n \; ■•S-- ;.■ 'I iwHaip«::i«ii NEW SOUTH WALES. 409 since been abandoned by commerce, the neglect was not due to any lack of deep waters or of sufficient shelter for shipping, but to the marvellous group of havens which are collectively known as Port Jackson, and which are scarcely rivalled in the whole world for extent, safety, and nautical advantages of every kind. The only drawback is the entrance ^mssage between the headlands, which is scarcely quite deep enough for modern ocean vessels. The anchorage has a total area of 9 Kg. 176.— Sydney im 1802. SmOe 1 : 88,000. iSi'ia- Lasb or Greenwich 151 'i* .1,100 Tarda. or 10 square miles, and the shore-line of the inner waters with their bays and secondary creeks is no less than 50 miles long. Sydney, founded on the south side of this magnificent harbour, is the oldest city in Australia, for a cycle of a hundred years is still a long period in the history of European settlements in the southern hemisphere. At first a simple convict station, and afterwards the headquarters of the prisons scattered over the sur- rounding territory, Sydney long remained an obscure village built in a forest "HnnaamntSlgl^ 410 AUSTRALASIA. clearing at the extremity of a conspicuous headland. At present it is a great capital, which competes with Melbourne for the first rank in the oceanic world, and which has already received from its inhabitants the title of Queen of the South. Thanks to the numerous windings of the shores, and the irregular relief of the encircling lands, Sydney has nothing of that insipid monotony so characteristic of most Australian and American cities. Instead of resembling a chess-board with square blocks of uniform size and structure, it is laid out with streets of varying proportions running up hill and down valley, and interrupted by creeks, inlets, and ridges, by which the irregular plan of the city is disposed in several distinct quarters. In the centre lies the old town in the form of an open hand stretching its promontories far into the well-sheltered roadstead. Southwards run the fine avenues of Woolomoloo, while animation is added to the bright scene by the steam ferries incessantly plying on the north side between the old quarters, the new town of North Shore and the watering place of Manly with its double beach, one exposed to the ocean surf, the other facing the tranquil inland sea. Every street thus presents a constantly varying prospect sweeping over the surrounding hills, the harbour with its innumerable creeks and bays, the public gardens and more distant woodlands. For few other capitals are more liberally provided with parks and grassy swards. Moor Park, one of the tracts reserved on the south-east side as a public pleasure-ground, has an area of no less than 600 acres, while another open space in the very heart of the city commands a superb panoramic view of the inland waters and the channels communicating with the Pacific Ocean. A project has been formed to supply the city with fresh water from Lake George, which lies to the south-west amid the Australian Alps ; but in years of unusually protracted droughts this lacustrine reservoir has itself been • almost completely dried up. As a seaport Sydney occupies a vital position as the chief centre of the lines of steam navigation in the Pacific, as well as of the coasting trade along the east Australian seaboard. Moreover, the harbour is so vast that room has also been found for the development of an ever-growing inland traffic for the transport of passengers and the distribution of merchandise amongst the rising markets of the interior. Forts erected on the headlands commanding the seaward approaches defend the city and roadstead, which, however, have never yet been attacked by ■ any enemy. ; ■■ .-■■ ■ -v- ■• . .:.-■■...,./>.,. >v,;^;_.' Compared with Melbourne, the only other place \ Other railways, branching ofE from the trunk line between Sydney and the Blue Mountains cross the affluents of the Murray and the Murray itself, touching at several mining or agricultural centres and riverain ports. Of these places, all recently founded, the most important are, Forbes, on the Lachlan ; Oundagai and Wagga- Wagga, on the Morrumbidgee ; and Albury, on the Murray. Albury especially has made rapid progress as a station midway between Sydney and Melbourne, and as the centre of extensive tobacco plantations and vineyards yielding a wine of ex- cellent quality. At this point the Murray is crossed by a long bridg^e. East*: wards, beyond the course of the Darling, occur the silver and lead mines of Silver' ton, which are frequently desigfnated by the name of Wilcannia, from a town on the banks of the river. South of Sydney the ports of Wollongong, Kiama, Nmora, and Shoalhaven do a little traffic in coal and agricultural produce. But in this part of New South Wales the chief commercial and industrial centre is the inland town of Ooulburn, which stands on an upper affluent of the Hawkesbury, 2,130 feet above sea-level. The ''•■'f ll || iliil i irfy i lllliiTii!M ,^* '•t ' 'I f ■■ - i ■ I ;. '^M&' II L i .mii i j (»i i ) i im.mi)t m jjah.',- . n u.uut4iM ! Ma^;)IWKWWa»WUiiMWJii»i^^ 416 AUSTBALASIA. I ', i colonial empire. Melbourne, the "Magnificent," claims, like Rome, to be built on seven hills, and in the Yarra-Yarra it may also boast of a modest Tiber with muddy or yellowish waters. Although founded at some distance inland it has grown rapidly seawards, and has already lined the beach with monumental quays and facades. The numerous suburbs, each with a town hall and municipality, and each forming a chess-board of streets and squares distinct from the central paral- lelogram, stretch to great distances in all directions, and collectively comprise a population of about four hundred thousand, or rather more than one third of all the inhabitants of the colony. Far more regularly constructed than Sydney, Melbourne claims also to possess in the Houses of Parliament, the Governor's Palace, the University, museums, churches, and banks, a number of superb monuments, on which no expense has been spared. The libraries already rival in importance the secondary collections in Europe, and the Observatory, establl^jhed in the midst of extensive gardens east of the city, is provided with the most costly instruments by the best constructors. The local savants have even largely contributed to the study of the Austral heavens, as well as to the geological exploration of the continent. In Melbourne has been projected that expedition of discovery in the Antarctic seas, which the parsimony of the Central Government has hitherto prevented from being equipped and despatched. Here also has been founded the Australasian Geographical Society. The port of Melbourne, discovered by Murray in 1802 and more specially de- signated by the name of Hobson's Bay, is crowded with shipping, amid which hundreds of steamers ply from shore to shore of the roadstead. The ocean packets stop seven or eight miles below the city proper, near the quays of Sandridge, or Port Melbourne^ and in the Williamstown docks at the extremity of a tongue of land near the head of the bay. To the same commercial centre belong also the towns which follow round the vast triangular inlet, the head of which forms the port of Melbourne. One of these satellites of the capital is the town of Geelong, a busy centre of numerous industries, such as tanneries, spinning-mills, preserving establishments, and the like. The founders of Geelong hoped that, being situated nearer the sea, this place would soon outstrip Melbourne as a commercial mart. Qufiemcliff, on the west side of the strait or " Rip," giving access to Port Phillip, is also a dependency of Melbourne, its watch-tower and chief bulwark towards the southern ocean ; east of this gully Nepean Point marks the site of the buildings connected with the quarantine station. The small watering-places dotted round the shores of the inlet and along the adjacent coast are all indebted for their prosperity to the visitors from the neigh- bouring capital. Innumerable villas and little rural retreats are also connected with Melbourne by the twelve railways radiating in all directions from this great centre of Australasian life. Some ten miles to the north-east lies the artificial lake Yan- Yean, 14,000 acres in extent, which is formed by the River Plenty, a tributary of the Yarra-Yarra. This great reservoir contains about 6,380,000,000 gallons of water, or sufficient to supply the city for a twelvemonth at the daily rate of forty gallons per head. ILi .«■ be built )er with d it has ;al quays lity, and al paral- comprise Td of all ;o possess nuseums, ense has 1 )llection8 iens east i ■ jtructors. heavens, has been arsimony )ped and " '_ Society. sially de- • id which m packets " '"''M'. dridge, or , '.■-.'' ;oiigue of ;■-*.■.;■ g also the ■■ ' ■ ■'•»#'" brms the .s'i'. P Geelong, reserving 3; situated cial mart. rt Phillip, wards the >^^ buildings - ,.'-ia5^ along the :/;, .W# he neigh- Bcted with eat centre lake Yan- butary of gallons of > of forty '■im: ^f ! " /> ■'ft' 11 i ., 1 MiiMrMHnMni ■aiiii i fl.'iii ii WiTTniffirvwiii" VICTOBIA. 417 In the thinly peop>led hilly district east of Melbourne the most important centres of population are Sale in the agricultural coast region of Gipp's Land, and Beechworth in the heart of a rich auriferous country near the sources of the Murray. Beyond Melbourne immigrants have been attracted in the largest num- Fig. 180. — MsLBOTmirB and Hobson's Bat. Boole 1 : 860,000. OtoSS iNt. MtoM Vwt. DeptlM. SOtolOO Feet 100 Feet and npwMxIa. . 18 MUee. bers to the region which occupies both slopes of the waterparting for a space of from 60 to 100 miles to the north-west of the capital. Here were discovered the first gold-fielda in 1861, and here is situated Ballarat {Ballaarat), the second oity in Victoria, standing on g^und every clod of which has been washed for the 27—0 418 AU8TRAI.ASIA. precious metal. Since those days 13ullarat, like Melbourne, baa surrounded itself witb villas, gardens, plantations, and has even constructed an artificial lake in the vicinity. Other flourishing towns, such as SmytheHdale, Creswick, Clunes, DayleHf'ord, Kyiieton, and Castlemaitie, are dotted over the district, beyond which follow the prosperous Sam/hurst or Bendiijo, rival of Ballarat itself, and Eaglehawk, both at the northern extremity of a chain of hills at the approach of the plains watered by the Bendigo and Campaspe affluents of the Murray. Three railways radiate from Sandhurst, one of which, crossing the Murray on a bridge 1,900 feet long at Echma, runs northwards through New South Wales to the flourishing town of Deniliquin. Echuca, the chief riverain port on the main stream, is conveniently situated on a peninsula at the confluence of the Campaspe. Although not quite so thinly settled as Gipp's Land, the western part of Vic- toria has not yet developed any important centres of population. Warrnatnhool, Belfast, and Portland are small trading places following each other along the coast westwards from Fort Phillip; but Portland is likely to attract a considerable traffic as soon as the roadstead is sheltered by the new breakwater from the fierce south-east gales. In the interior of this region the largest settlements are Ararat and Sfawell, both founded in mining districts. The Stawell and Sandhurst gold mines are the most productive in the colony ; the latter had been sunk in 1888 to a depth of 2,400 feet. Victoria is one of the Australian states that depend least on the Central Gov- ernment, which is here directly represented only by the Governor. The Legislative Council, or Upper House, is elected by ballot, each of the fourteen provinces naming three members, one-third of whom retire every two years, so that the whole representation is renewed every six years. The Legislative Assembly, or Lower House, elected by universal suffrage, consists of ninety-four members returned for three years, and receiving an allowance of £300 a year. No allowance is made to the Legislative Council, the members of which body must possess an estate of the annual value of not less than £100, while the electors must own or occupy property rated at £10 if freehold, or £25 if leasehold. The land forces comprise nearly five thousand men of all arms, and the fleet, which includes an armoured turret-ship and several gunboats and torpedo boats, is manned by about five hundred hands. Tasmania. Although the smallest in extent of the Australasian colonies, the island of Tasmania, formerly Van Diem en's Land, has a much larger population than the vast territory of West Australia ; relatively to the superficial area it is even the most densely peopled of all these states with the single exception of Victoria. So early as 1804 it began to serve as a penal station, and the Central Government continued to send thither convicts from Great Britain till 18^3, the year before Tasmania entered into the comity of the Australasian States : bat after its political separation from New South Wales it received most of its free immigrants from that colony. But the discovery of the gold-fields on the mainland brought ?)1. IMIMI ■^T^ . t m ^ X /- \ ■■/ % 3S^ ■Ki W,WM. TASMANIA, 419 about a reaction, and the Tasmanians rushed towards the new Eldorado, the prosperity of the island thus diminishing to the advantage of the neighbouring continent. Now, however, a fresh era of prosperity has set in, and the population continues steadily to increase. Tasmania offers to British settlers a climate which, more than any other in the southern hemisphere, resembles that of their native land. Hence during the dry and sultry Australian summers, numerous temporary visitors come from Victoria and New South Wales to enjoy its fresh marine breezes. As in other Australian colonies, the staple export is wool ; but the island also possesses deposits of tin, gold, and silver ; another source of wealth are its excellent fruits, which grow in such abundance that the greater part rot on the ground. Tasmania, says TroUope, should prepare jams for the rest of the world. The island contains only two large towns, and these have been founded at the northern and southern extremities of the depression connecting the two fjords that penetrate farthest inland. Both cities are also connected by a railway, and by a splendid highway, constructed by convict labour. Launceston, the northern city, is the chief commercial centre, and already a more important place than the Cornish town from which it takes its name. With its outer port of Georgetown, situated at the entrance of the fjord on Bass Strait, it monopolises nearly all the trade of Tasmania with Melbourne, from which it is distant only a day's voyage by steam. Hobart Town, or simply Hohart, the southern city, has like Launceston a harbour accessible to vessels of average size, besides an outer port where ships of the largest tonnage can ride at anchor. As capital of the island Hobart possesses the finest buildings and the chief scientific and other institutions in the colony. Its magnificent park, covering an area of over a thousand acres, commands a panoramic view of the siirrounding scenery almost unrivalled in Australasia. The western horizon is bounded by Mount Wellington, often snow-clad in winter, and by the other ranges and wooded hills, the headlands fringed with foaming surf, Storm Bay and the winding straits merging in the distance with the Austral seas. Eastwards Storm Bay is skirted by the bold promontory of Tasman Peninsula, broken by numerous secondary headlands, and connected with the mainland only by a narrow rocky ridge. At the southern extremity of this peninsida lies the inlet of Port Arthur, which had been chosen as a convict station for the more desperate class of criminals, here guarded both by armed sentinels and ferocious bloodhounds. Now that these painful scenes have passed from the memory of living generations, Port Arthur with its craggy heights, cavernous recesses and seething waters stands out as one of the most romantic spots along the seaboard. At the southern extremity of the peninsula all vessels bound for Storm Bay and the Derwent estuary have to double the frowning cliffs of Cape Baoul, whose black columnar basalt rocks are encircled by a white line of breakers. On the west side of the bay the inlet of Oyster Cove, near which perished the last survivors of the Tasmanian race, has been recently converted into an oyster-bed modelled on those of the French coast. ■ The western districts of Tasmania, mostly a rugged moimtain region, are ■ ' ' '''■■■-■ ■■"-''''■■^' 420 AUSTRAI.AS1A. almost uninhabited and for the most part even uninhabitable. Here the bare rocky heights, at most covered with almost impenetrable scrub, yield no fodder for cattle, and are clothed in a snowy mantle for eight months in the year. No settlements can be formed in these bleak tracts except at the entrance of a few valleys scarcely sheltered from the prevailing boisterous moisture-bearing winds. Fig. 181. — HOBABT AND THE DeBWXMT RiTKB. Soalo 1 : 1,iiaO.UOO. -re Oto6 FatliomR. DApthfl. S to AO FaUiomi. SO Fatboma and apwards. \,:tyi-i^::^ - ^f'''^, !:'r In this inhospitable region, however, are found all the mines of gold, tin, bismuth and antimony that have hitherto been opened in the island. The constitution of Tasmania differs little from that of Victoria except in the number of members composing the two assemblies forming the local parliament. The former, numbering eighteen, are elected for six, the latter for five years. The defensive forces comprise nearly 1,000 volunteers of all arms. Hi!'''' ': i' f3!iffifiif|i"i'!'''ii'fp!!'!i7ii«™ in m f ^ ■-» -* \ * V Vi ^R * '' W l Bo! e^ i3BSaigteij'>iilww!!»'' ' ' ' 'JiMi Il l wmKm immfiiiKlliHm CHAPTER IX. NEW ZEALAND AND NEIOHBOURINO ARCHIPELAGOES. HE insular home of the Maori race, wliich penetrates southwards in the direction of the Antarctic waters, has preserved the name bestowed upon it by its Dutch discoverer. Although the most English of all the Australasian colonics, and often called the " Great Britain of the Antipodes," New Zealand thus still recalls the uieiuory of the great navigator Abel Tasmau, who sighted its western shores in 1642, and who at first named it Staaten Land, in the belief that it might possibly be continuous with the other so-named Dutch territory lyiug to the south of America. In consequence of a sanguinary encounter with the natives of Massacre Bay at the north-west side of the southern island, Tasraan continued his northerly course to the extreme headland of the Archipelago without determining the insular character of the lands discovered by him. This region was not again visited till the year 1769, when Cook touched first at an inlet on the east coast of the northern island, to which he gave the name of Poverty Bay, a name, however, now belied by the magnificent flocks of the surround- ing pastoral district. Cook then coasted the seaboard in a southerly direction, and by circumnavigating the whole group showed that it formed no part of the Austral continent which he had hoped to have at last discovered. He again visited these waters on each of his two subsequent voyages, and altogether passed 327 days in surveying the archipelago, the chart of which, prepared by him, is remarkable for its surprising accuracy, even in details. Henceforth, nothing remained to be done beyond following the sinuosities of the coast-line and explor- ing the interior of the islands. The very year of its re-discovery by Cook, the French navigator Surville landed on the northern island, the shores of which were studied three years later by Marion and Crozet. Marion, with fourteen of his men, was here massacred by the natives, and after this period the whalers began to visit the New Zealand waters, without, however, founding any permanent settlements on the seaboard. The earliest attempts at colonisation were due to the enterprise of Australian immigrants. A miasionary station founded at Pahia, on the shores of the Bay of Islands, near the northern extremity of the archipelago, was soon followed by a settlement of fishers and traders, which sprang up at Kororarika over against 423 AUSTRALASIA. pi'lg! i Puhiu, and which wiih pooplod by whiteH and hulf-caates. A resident inagiHtrute *a8 appointed by the Hritiiih Govfrnniciit with jurisdiction over the Kuropoann of the riMJng colony, but without chiiniing any authority over the nativcN, who were regarded a.s a fsovoroign people. Colonisation in the strict sonHo of the terna, that is, with official occupation of the land, began in 1840 by the foundation of the NeiP Zealand Company, whicli purchuHod territory from the natives and selected a site on Port Nicholson ut the south end of the northern inland as the capital of its possessions and the starting- |)oint for the peopling of the archipelago. In the same year a French vessel belonging to the Compaynic Nanto-liordelnke cast anchor in Akaroa I/arbour, at the oxtrcmity of the hilly Hanks Peninsula, near the present Christcfivrch, in the Routhern island. But when the French landed they found that the/ had been anticipated by some British officials who had already bought the land. Hence the French colonists had to establish themselves on their domain of 30,000 acres as subjects of Great Britain, and the little settlement became gradually merged in the surrounding English population. This attempt at colonial annexation in the name of France had the effect of stimulating the action of the British Qovernment and territorial companies. The latter, without even awaiting official approval or sanction, hastened 'o found villages along the seaboard, and to land immigrant families by the hundi-d. In 1841 New Zealand, ceasing to be regarded as a political dependency of New South Wales, assumed the title of a distinct colony, and twelve years later, when its white population already numbered some thirty thousand souls, it took its place amongst the Constitutional States of the British colonial empire. This event was followed in 1857 by the discovery of the gold-fields, which made the fortune of the colony by attracting thousands of capitalists and miners. Henceforth the popula- tion rapidly increased, and the archipelago now ranks as one of the leading Australasian states, as well as relatively one of the most densely peopled. Although separated by Cook Strait the two large members of the group are naturally comprised under the collective name of New Zealand, for they form in reality but a single geographical unit, disposed in the same direction, presenting the same physical conformation and standing on a common submarine bed. The North Island, Marion's "Austral France," is the smaller of the two, and is occasionally designated by the Maori name of Ilea na Maui, the " Fish of Maui," in reference to a native heroic legend. Another Maori name is Aotea-roa, that is, the " Great Expanse," or according to Kerry NichoUs, the *' Bright Sun." The South Island bears the native appellation of Tevahi Fanamu, which, though variously interpreted, probably means " Land of Jade" (A. 8. Thomson). Foveaux Strait separates South Island from the much smaller but steep and ■alevated Stewart Island (3,000 feet), which was also for a time formerly known as South Island. This is the Raki-rua, or " Arid Land " of the Maoris. The archipelago terminates southwards in the isolated peak of the Snares, which is encircled by a few rocky islets first sighted by Vancouver in 1791. Many geographers have called attention to the remarkable resemblance of ','m it i y^SaiBPBmtlPfmaftBeiaamat ■^TI*»W*«*^^:tiia«Jr,i',- NEW ZEALAND. 428 Now Zealand in iu outward fonn to the Italian Peninsula, diiipoaed, however, 5 I 00 ^ in a reversed direction. Thus the north-west point corresponds to the Gala- ,is; / . M i St!iiMf:\« , u 424 AUSTRALASIA. 51 ■•^-■ brian peninsula, while the north-east extremity recalls the " heel " of Otranto. Nevertheless, in their general relief the two antipodal regions present scarcely any analogy. The general lie of the land is from south-west to north-east, and the submarine exploration of the Pacific also shows that in this part of the ocean the other insular groups are disposed in a like direction. The same remark applies to various other islets, such as the little Auckland Archipelago, the volcanic rocks of Camp- bell and Macquarie, and Emerald Island, discovered at the beginning of this century. North of New Zealand the chain of upheaved land becomes slightly deflected and is continued through the Kermadec Islets to the Tonga Archipelago. Lastly, the Chatham, Bounty, and Antipodes groups, lying more to the east, are all disposed parallel to the general axis of New Zealand. The Antipodes, better named the Fenantipodes by Waterhouse, who discovered them in 1850, scarcely deserve their name, for they do not stand quite opposite the Observatory of Green- wich, as was supposed by the English explorer. Their position (49° 42' south lat., 178° 43' east long.) corresponds exactly to Barfleur Point on the opposite face of the globe, that is, 120 miles south-west of the astronomic point indicated by Waterhouse. The Antipodes are inaccessible granite rocks pierced with caverns and galleries through which the water rushes with thundering echoes. Mount Galloway, culminating point of the large island, rises to a height of 1,320 feet. On the west the mainland is continued by two elevated rnibmarine banks, which take a north-westerly direction. One of these banks, terminating in the pyramidal rocks of the Lord Howe group, is separated by deep waters from Moreton Bay on the Queensland coast. The other, forming a seaward prolongation of the north-west peninsula of New Zealand, rises above the surface at Norfolk Island, and again at the Chestei-field Reefs, west of New Caledonia, beyond which it merges in the Great Barrier Reef. These relatively shallow oceanic waters, where the soundings seldom reveal depths of over 900 fathoms, are supposed by some geologists to indicate the line of direction of the now submerged lands formerly connecting New Zealand and Australia in a vast continent corresponding to Africa and South America in other parts of the southern hemisphere. Accord- ing to this view the New Zealand highlands would form the eastern coast rang^ of the drowned continent, although, unlike most other coast ranges, they do not rise above the deepest oceanic waters. The sea is much shallower at the foot of the New Zealand Alps than along the east side of the Australian Alps. Physical Features op South Island. The Alpine chain which gives the South Island such a striking resemblance to the Scandinavian uplands begins with the volcano group of the Snares, beyond which it traverses Stewart Island, a fragment of a hilly plateau, consisting, like the mainland, of granites and old sedimentary formations. The backbone of the South Island mainly follows the west coast, which is very steep, with rocky walls rising in many places abruptly above the neighbouring waters. On the other hand the eastern slope is relatively but slightly inclined, but here the fall is mmm "',! . f3MlM ^ SM'k:* ' l^-i. •^Z gi,i V . V ^ ^ i V Ji^P Hip»f!WP?WHiis^???ffi5rTSS«^s^ ■jt-gr^W^iL,-,-, ^ v-r.P.:^^_. NEW ZEALAND— SOUTH ISLAND. 427 by the sedimentary matter washed down with the mountain torrents. "Without counting numerous sparkling ponds or tarns loss than a square mile in extent, South Island contains about sixty basins, some of which cover an area of over 40 square miles and fill cavities 300 feet and upwards deep. Nearly all these great reservoirs are grouped in the southern part of the island and on the east slo^,e of the mountains. Rising abruptly above the western seaboard, the New Zealand Alps have too precipitous a slope on this side to allow the running waters to collect in large basins. But the opposite declivity and the plains stretching thence to the east coast present numerous depressions where the glaciers have been replaced by lakes, most of which have been formed in the intermediate zone between the uplands and the plains. A straight line drawn across the chief flooded basins from north-east to south-west for a distance of about 200 miles would run parallel to the main Alpine chain, and would represent the direction of the axis of the southern island. The northern group of lakes east of the highest section of the Alps appears to be merely the remains of a labyrinth of inland waters, which formerly occupied the vast Mackenzie Plains, and which are now disposed in countless secondary cavities by moraines, heaps of erratic boulders, dams and sedimentary deposits. These basins — Te Kapo, Pukaki, Ohau — were formerly much deeper, and are now rapidly silting up, just as those farther north have already been filled in which were at one time traversed by the river "Waimakariri. The day may be predicted when the glacial waters of the Waitaki, which now issue in a cr}'stal stream from the flooded depressions, will roll down in a turbid current to the plains. Although its course scarcely exceeds 120 miles in length, the Waitaki is none the less a great river, according to W. N. Blair five times more voluminous than the Thames, although this writer gives no data in support of his statement.* Farther south the Clutha, which receives the overflow of the central group of lakes, is a much larger watercourse, being compared by the same author with the Nile. It is certainly the first river in New Zealand both for size and volume, its catchment basin exceeding 8,000 square miles in extent. The Clutha has also been more thoroughly explored than any other stream in South Island, thanks to the rich gold-fields, which.since the year 1862 have attracted thousands of miners to the region about its headwaters. Wakatipu, one of the lakes belonging to this system, is no less than 50 miles long, but only from 1 to 3 miles wide. It thus presents the aspect of a winding river, without visible current, with a mean depth of no less than 1,200 feet, and in its profoundest chasms sinking to 1,400 feet. On both sides the encircling hills plunge abruptly into these abysmal waters. Te Anau, largest of all New Zealand lakes, lies beyond the Clutha basin at the head of the Waiau, a short stream flowing to the south coast. The lake fills a long valley and several tributary branches for a space of 140 square miles, and in its deepest part the sounding line has measured 940 feet. Te Anau is separated by a narrow isthmus from Manapuri (Manipori), another lacustrine basin, which is also said to be very deep, and which branches into numerous creeks and bays, winding * Seoltiih Oeographieal Magazine, Norember, 1887. W 428 AUSTRALASIA. between numerous islands and steep rocky headlands. The Maoris who formerly dwelt in these now almost deserted uplands never ventured without a sense of awe to approach the shores of this lake, in whose gloomy waters were reflected the dark forest-clad slopes of the encircling hills. The name Manapuri, that is, " Sad Heart," possibly expresses the sense of melancholy inspired in them by the god concealed in this silent lake. To the lakes on the east slope correspond the fiords indenting the west side of Fig. 184 — F10HD8 OF SotJTH-WE8T Nb'v Zbaiand. Soale 1 : 8,-J0O,000. Depths. Otogo Fathom*. /'.-...•^ V 90 Fathom* and apwarcU. -aouflw. the southern plateau of the New Zealand Alps. Both are of analogous formation, the only differdnce being that the eastern depressions are flooded with freshwater, while those on the west are saltwater basins communicating with the sea. In this region of the archipelago the contrast is consequently the same as that presented by the eastern and western valleys of the Scandinavian Peninsula, where Sweden •with its lacustrine and fluvial valleys corresponds to Norway with its marine nn 'f*'*" v-'n^'^ NEW ZEALANJ)— SOUTH ISLAND. 429 'ormerly e of awe :he dark Heart," oncealed t side of I 8 Iff indented seaboard. As in the northern region, the New Zealand fiords, or sounds, as they are here called, occur only at the issue or at the converging points, where glaciers filled the primitive valleys, protecting them from the deposits of debris which were formed round about wherever the surface was not covered with layers of ice. Neither moraines nor alluvial matter could help to fill these profound depressions, which were preserved in their original form by the frozen streams occupying all their cavities. But as soon as the glaciers withdrew above sea-level and their lower reaches became gradually converted into running waters, the levelling-up process set in. Avalanches, landslips, torrents, marine waves, and currents combined to fill up the Fig. 186. — Bbbaxbba aitd Dubxt Souirss. Donle 1 : 600.000. OtoKO Fathomi. DepUu. BO to 100 TMmtm. too Fsthoma uid npwarda. ,18 Miles. srmation, Bshwater, In this presented 5 Sweden 8 marine basins, which thus became transformed at first to chains of lakes, then to swampy tracts and fertile plains. All the fiords that formerly existed north of 44° S. lati- tude have already been obliterated, and those still surviving are now all concentrated in a space about 80 miles long in the south-west comer of South Island. The largest, as was to be expected, are those which open exactly at the southern extremity of the seaboard. Such are Preservation Inlet, Dark Cloud Inlet (Chalky Sound), and Dusky Sound, which last has an area of no less than 80 square miles. The northernmost fiord in New Zealand, or in any region of the southern hemi- sphere, is Milford Sound, a magnificent sheet of water, in which are mirrored the surrounding snowy crests, glittering peaks and verdant headlands. Sheer above 480 AUSTRALASIA. the surface rise the rocky walls of the encircling hills, through whose fissures are precipitated several sparkling waterfalls. All the New Zealand fiords offer a general resemblance in the length, narrow- ness, and great depth of their troughs, which present as a rule but few ramifica- tions. Nevertheless several are connected by lateral branches, which thus form islands of regular outline along the seaboard. In the central parts these inlets have an average depth of over 700 feet, while Milford Sound, deepest of all, averages 1,180 feet. All without exception have a sill or bar at the entrance, like the "sea- bridges " of the Norwegian fiords, and the seaboard is everywhere washed by relatively shallow waters. Depths equal to those of the sounds are not met in the open sea within 60 miles of the coast. Is this phenomenon due to the vast quantities of refuse formerly brought down by the glaciers from the uplands ? Or are the submarine banks the remnants of mountain ranges first destroyed and then redistributed in regular layers P Or are they to be referred to geological agencies more potent than the glaciers P The general form of the coast, disposed in regular convex curves between the fiord estuaries, seems to point at the action of a powerful current, by which the old beach was eroded and the debris deposited far seawards. On the east side, on the contrary, the land has encroached on the marine waters, the rivers with their sedimentary matter developing vast alluvial plains protected at two points from erosion by volcanic promontories. One of these is Cape Saunders, under the shelter of which Otago harbour has been opened ; the other is the much bolder Banks Peninsula, a superb and completely isolated mountain mass indented with several deep-water creeks and bays, such as Akaroa Harbour, Pigeon Bay, Port Levy, and Fort Cooper. The south side of Banks Peninsula is connected with the mainland by a strip of marine sands enclosing an extensive muddy lagoon. The whole formation presents a surprising resemblance to Monte Argentaro on the Italian coast. Excluding the minor indentations and windings of the seaboard, Thomson estimates the whole New Zealand coast-line at over 3,000 miles. Physical Features of North Island. Despite the deep gap caused by Cook Strait, the eastern ridges of South Island are continued on the opposite side by low parallel crests disposed in the same normal direction from south-west to north-east. But while in the south the Alpine system skirts the west coast, in North Island the ranges are developed along the east side, or at least within 50 miles of the shoi'e. The foundation on which they rest forms almost a separate region, a long quadrilateral terminating in the south- west and north-east in massive peninsulas, and attached to the rest of the mainland by extensive plains and rocky ridge«, which south of Lake Taupo rise to a height of about 3,000 feet. In this eastern region the culminating point is Mount Hikurang (5,550 feet), which is situated not far from East Cape. The short Kaimawana chain, whose wooded slopes are often snow-clad to the summit, belongs to the same orographic system in its general disposition and the character of its old rocks, schists, sandstones, and quartz interspersed with veins of diorite. The crests of NEW ZEALAND -NORTH ISLAND. 481 sures are , imrrow- raiuifica- 1U8 form ilets have averages the " sea- ished by tet in the ];ht down ananis of Or are 1-8 P The the fiord h the old e, on the ith their inta from le shelter er Banks th several [levvi and mainland 'he whole le Italian Thomson ith Island the same he Alpine along the hich they the aeuth- mainland height of Hikurang aimawana < the same )ld rocks, crests of Eaimawana, which lies near the centre of the island, attain an altitude of 6,000 feet. West of these uplands the rest of the island is occupied by volcanic masses, disposed for the most part without apparent order and separated from one another Fig. 186.— Cook Stbait. KobIb I : n,ooo.ono. 4(7 Dspthl. OtoAO Athoms. GOtnlOO Fathomi. lOOFatbam* and npwarda. , 60 MUes. by lakes and deep valleys. Mount Ruapehu, highest in North Island, forms a whole cluster of cones whose common base, resting on a plateau over 3,000 feet high, has a circuit of no less than 60 miles. From the two snowy points of the loftiest pyramid, nearly 9,000 feet high, the eye sweeps over a vast horizon •^•^wiiiwDimiii tLM 482 AU8T11ALASIA. ;3ii m ^r embracing nearly the whole island away to the eaBternmost headlands. The wi'dtom Hlopos of the extinct .•'^Icuno are finely tinilxn-ed, while on the other aide stretches the uninhabitable Onetapu desert thickly strewn with the ashes and scorite ejected from the Ruapehu craicru ut some unknown epoch. But at one time even this dreary solitude wan covered with largo forest trees, whoso charred stems are found beneath the overlying refuse. A level space of about 5 miles separates the base of Ruapehu from that of the still active Tongariro volcano, which rises farther north on a pedestal about 3,000 feet high. Rut the deep trough encircling the mountain seems to show that perhaps at one time there stood on this spot a vast crater, from which gradually rose the Tongariro cone, a perfectly regular pile of ashes and scorio), whose turminal crater according to NichoUs is i«ow about 8,200 feet high. The volcano, nearly always in u state of eruption, was till recently strictly " tabooed " by the natives. Nevertheless it has been scaled, its summit affording a superb view of the great crater and smaller lateral mouths vomiting forth dense clouds of sulphurous vapours. Across the wreaths of smoke waving on the breeze the observer detects a few pools of blue water flooding the terminal depressions of the parasitic volcanoes. Farther north Mount Eetotahi also discharges dense vapours, while the regular cone of Mount Pihanga, commanding the south side of the great Lake Taupo, has long been extinct. A Maori chief recently deceased has bequeathed the volcanic masses of Ruapehu and Tongariro to the New Zealand people as a " national park," to be guarded for ever from the encroachments of private property. Lake Taupo, occupying almost exactly the geographical centre of North Island, also belongs to the New Zealand volcanic system ; the hypothesis has even beeu advanced that it was formerly a crater of prodigious size. This view is certainly not justified by the irregular form of the basin, which, however, is bordered by volcanoes, whence have been discharged enormous quantities of lava, pumice and scoriae. The first eruptions probably took place beneath the sea, the ejected matter gradually separating from the ocean a large inlet, which in course of time became transformed to a saltwater and then to a freshwater lake by the action of rain, snow and other agencies. j . It is a remarkable coincidence that the Maori word Taupo has the meaning of " Formerly Flooded Rock," as if the natives had a tradition about the gradual upheaval of the land. All the Cb itral part of the island west of the old formations dominant along the main axis consists of pumice several hundred yards thick and covered with humus partly derived from disintegrated trachytes. The mountaiuu in the east, the volcanoes in the west and the ashes and scoriae in the intermediate space, have pent up the central reservoir, thereby raising its level to the convex surface of the shield-shaped plateau which occupies the central part of North Island. Taupo stood at one time even at a higher level, as shown by the clear lilies of the old beaches along the face of the surrounding slopes. But it has been partly emptied by the emissary, which has gradually eroded the heaps of pumice confining the lacustrine basin on the north side. At present the level of the lake wmm NEW ZEALAND— NORTU ISLAND. 488 ids. The [)ther side iud scoriu) time even stems are lat of the )out 3,000 show that gradiiiilly e turminal ao, nearly le natives. the great ulphurous '^er detects ) parasitic mrs, while l^reat Lake •equeathed people as of private of North s has even lis view is owever, is es of lava, le sea, the 1 in course ake hy the neaning of le gradual formations I thick and mountaiuu termediate he convex of North Y the clear Lt has been of pumice )f the lake is 1,200 feet above the seu, while its superficial area exceeds 300 square miles ; in some plarcs it is shallow, but towards the centre has a depth of several hundred yards. Of its seventeen affluents the largest is the Wuikato, which skirts the foot of Mount Pihanga, and is now slowly encroaching with its sedimentary matter on the southern part of the lake. The Wuikato, whose name simply means " Running Water," rises amid the upland snows of Ruapehu near another stream, which flows to Cook Strait. Jhe river through which Taupo sends its overflow northwards to the Puciflo Pig. 187.— Lak Taupo. BpiiI* 1 ; 1,100.000. ^33 I78*S0 Easb ipP Greenwich .18 also takes the name of Waikato, and, like the Rhone, the upper and lower Waikato are popularly supposed to form a continuous stream traversing the lake without intermingling their currents. Like the Rhone the Waikato also plunges into deep gorges cut through successive layers of pumice rising one above the other in perfectly regular terraces. At several points the base of these crumbling cli£Fs is lined by fissures emitting smoke, su£^.;>dting from a distance the fires kindled by fishermen. The waters of Waikato are of a lovely opalescent colour, said to be due to the silica with which they abound. Within six miles of the outlet the river is crossed by a ledg.' of hard .rachyte, over which it plunges some ;•':.. 28—0 ■,->:•;-:„■ /■•,„-":. iSffiM AUSTRALASIA. 60 feet into a wide bumn of u(l(Iyiii)|[ wutcrs. Kurthor down it receives on its loft bank a broiid thormul stri-iim descending from the Wuirakoi Cirque, whore numerous goysors with silieious margins jet up in till directions umid the sur- rounding forest. Here und there fuUen st^nis muy still be recognised beneuth the crystulline incrustation by which they have Ix'en gradually coated. A t the foot of a hill a jot of hot vajiour at a temperature of 252*' F. rushes with a ceustjloss hissing sound through the air. This geyser muy at times bo detected from a distance of 50 miles round about, and the luooris navigating Lake Taupe study its varying phases as trustworthy weather forecastings. Delow its confluence with the thermal stream, the Waikato describes a great bond to the east across the pumice-strewn plateau, beyond which it trends north- westwards to the west coast, where it enters the sea through a wide estuary south of the Auckland Peninsula. Between the Waikato volley and the Bay of Plenty on the north-east sea- board, the plateau is occupied by another group of volcanoes and of lakes, either old craters or reservoirs formed by barriers of eruptive matter. Roto-rua, that is, the " Second Lake," largest in this region, lies to the west of the other basins at the east foot of Mount Ngongotaho (2,630 feet). Roto-rua, about 30 square miles in extent, presents a charming view with its green islets, the hills and headlands rising above its margin, the forests and thickets fringing the river banks. But the whole of this region is a veritable land of wonders, conspicuous amongst which are the springs and fountains which burst through the ground on the west side of the lake, and which are endlessly diversified in their form, size, periodicity and chemical composition. The district in a constant state of tremor occupies a zone 3 or 4 miles long, and about a mile broad, along the margin of the busin. Within this narrow space are concentrated the most varied igneous phenomena, intermittent fountains, erratic jets disappearing in on? place to reappear in another, tranquil pools of clear water scarcely ruffled by a few bubbles, cold, tepid, hot, or boiling springs, some sulphurous, others saline or acidulated, Bolfataras, fumeroles, geysers, and the like. One of the geysers rises to a height of 60 feet above a silicious cone 60 feet high, the vapour escaping with a hissing noise, and the water bursting out with a roar as of thunder. The thermal and mineral waters, whose curative properties had formerly attracted the natives from all quarters, are now visited even by the European settlers, who have erected a sanatorium on the banks of the lake. East of Roto-rua follow other lacustrine basins, such as Roto-iti, or the " Little Lake," Roto ehu, the "Muddy Lake," and Roto-ma, the "White Lake," all of whose short emissaries flow northwards to the Bay of Plenty. Farther south, at a mean altitude of 1,000 feet, are grouped other lakes, the largest of which is Tarawera, dominated eastwards by the volcano of like name. This Burnt Rock," as the word is interpreted, has the form of a truncated cone of formidable aspect, whose red and black taluses rise 1,000 feet above the lake. Tarawera was supposed to be extinct till the year 1886, when one winter's night it suddenly awoke. The whole region was shaken by a tremendous shock, 3i: on its luft 10, where the Hur- iiiouth the tlio foot of COUSbloBS od from a ) study its )es a great ads north- lary south i-ea^t sea- kes, either iia, that is, r basins ut 30 square hills and the river onspicuous ground on form, size, ) of tremor pgin of the >d igneous 3 placR to iw bubbles, acidulated, a height of L a hissing bermal and atives from e erected a iti, or the lite Lake," Farther ) largest of me. This tted cone of ) lake, ne winter's lous shock, m *' -^v gJiiiUBiiUMikmiii!. ' . ' jmiaaaBouiBL ''!!S(BI8!f ' NEW ZEALAND— NORTH ISLAND. 485 crevasses opened on the flanks of the volcano, whose summit, reduced to ashes, was hurled into the air in the form of a column of vapours and flaming scorifc. The ejected matter, which was visible over 150 miles off, rose to a height of 20,000 feet and fell in dense showers on the surrounding district. AVhole villages were crushed beneath the weight of the dry ashes, or changed to heaps of mud by the raging storm that had gathered round the burning mountain. Wheu people could again venture to approach Tarawera, they found the whole aspect of the land transformed, and in some places buried beneath a uniform layer of volcanic dust. No trace was left of the " Wonder of Wonders," the famous Fig. 188.— Lake Tabaweba. SoUa 1 : 800,000. lasb op breenwich I76°20 ^6°iO' & Roto-mahana before Jane 10, 1886. ■ 6 MUei. mineral spring of Te-Tarata, on the site of which there appeared a mud volcano over 500 feet lower than the level of the old lake. Before the explosion the waters falling into Boto-mahana, or the " Hot Ijake," rose in intermittent jets in a flooded crater about 650 feet in circuit and 80 feet above Hoto-mahana. After filling this crater the waters overflowed its transparent, alabaster-like silicious margent, falling in thin azure sheets from basin to basin, all with perfectly semicircular white rims due to the regular undulation of the water circulating in uniform eddies round the cascades. As its temperature fell the water, saturated with silica and sulphurous substances, gradually changed in colour from the i pN. ii' ; 'i mm 486 AUSTRALASIA, sapphire tints of tbe upper baBin to the turquoise huo lower down and a slightly azure shade at its entrance into the lake. At present these " white " and " pink terraces " are shrouded beneath a heap of scorise. But the hidden forces are coming to the surface at other points, and if vulgar speculators are prevented from manipulating the mineral springs and converting them into " rarey shows " with charges for admittance, the phenomena of this volcanic region will always continue to rank amongst the most remarkable spectacles of Nature's laboratory. The Awa o te Atua, or " River of the Gods," as the lacustrine emissary is called, flows at first north-eastwards, and then, after sweeping round the extinct Futauaki volcano, unites with the Rangitaiki, the chief watercourse of this slope, which falls into the Bay of Plenty. But the volcanic region is still continued beyond the mainland, and in the middle of the bay rises the cone of Whakari, or White Island, which although only 850 feet high, at times ejects sulphurous vapours over vast spaces. The crater, which tilts a little to one side, is one and a-half mile in circumference, and the interior is completely filled with fumeroles, solfataras, jets of vapour and hot springs. "Whakari may be regarded as the northern extremity of the volcanic axis, of which the south-west end is occupied by the superb Ruapehu volcano. According to a Maori legend the Whakari crater is connected with that of Tongariro by an underground passage, and it was through this passage that the messengers of the gods brought the sacred fire to the central volcano of North Island. New Zealand has no other still active volcanoes ; but some of those now extinct are of imposing grandeur. Taranaki (Mount Egmont), which fills a whole penin- sula at the south-west angle of North Island, was formerly an island, whose base became gradually attached to the mainland by the accumulating deposits of scoriaa. Its supreme crest, nearly 8,300 feet high, is overtopped in the northern island by Ruapehu alone. Other cones, some exceeding 3,000 feet, are disposed in chains to the north-west of Lake Taupo, and Perongia (3,150 feet), rising on the south side of the Waikato estuary, has discharged westwards vast lava-streams, which have formed long headlands enclosing deep marine inlets. In the Auckland Peninsula, which projects far seawards in a north-westerly direction, the volcanoes are low, but very numerous, being counted by the dozen at the narrowest part of the peninsula. Some rise 300 or 400 feet above the sea, while others are flush with the surface, forming perfectly regular little havens along the coast. Off Auckland on the east coast the oval-shaped Rangitoto, that is, " Blood-red Sky," seems from a distance to close the entrance to the harbour. Farther north the long peninsular horn of North Island is indented by numerous shallow inlets, which appear to be the remains of half-obliterated fiords. Such is the Bay of Islands on the east coast, which is studded with islands und islets of pyramidal form ; one, however, which with its truncated cone and eroded argil- laceous clififs resembles a huge " sou'\\ ester " floating on the surface, has accord- ingly been named the " Old Hat." On the shores of the Bay of Islands occur some thermal and sulphurous springs. Earthquakes are frequent in every part of New Zealand, and in many places » :,• CLIMATE OF NEW ZEAIiAND. 487 a. slightly nd " pink forces are nted from iW8 " with 11 always oratory, missary is lie extinct this slope, continued hakari, or us vapours i-half mile solfataras, I northern led by the i crater is 18 through the central ow extinct lole penin- v^hose base I of scorisD. 1 island by a. chains to south side irhich have ih-westerly the dozen ve the sea, ivens along ito, that is, le harbour, jT numerous s. Such is nd islets of oded argil- las accord- occur some [lany places geologists have observed uiodifications of the coastline due to former convulsions or other underground phenomena. The hypothesis has even been advanced that the whole of the archipelago is subject to oscillations of level analogous to those of the Scandinavian Peninsula. While the northern part of North Island would appear to be slowly subsiding, the rest of the land is said to have been perceptibly upraised even within the short period of British colonisation. Sudden upheavals caused by violent igneous disturbances account for the withdrawal of the marine waters in some places, and especially in the harbour of Wellington on the north side of Cook Strait. But elsewhere the movement appears to have been much slower, and unattended by perceptible shocks, as attested by deposits of pumice occurring at different elevations along the seaboard. In 1847 there was discovered in South Island nearly 650 feet inland from the coast and far above highwater mark the hulk of a vessel supposed to be the Active, which had been shipwrecked in 1814, that is, only thirty-three years previously. Climate of New Zealand. The climate of the archipelago has been compared to that of Great Britain, although the mean temperature of the tracts occupied by the British settlers is considerably higher than that of their native land. Great climatic contrasts, how ever, are presented between the extreme sections of New Zealand, which stretches for a space of over 900 miles across nearly 14 degrees of latitude. Thus the peninsula of North Island enjoys an Italian climate, while the southern regions recall that of Scotland, and Stewart Island that of the Orkney Archipelago.* But in these oceanic lands the sudden shifting of the winds is attended by corresponding changes from heat to cold, from wet to dry, changes which are here everywhere abrupt. The temperature, however, is on the whole more equable along the western seaboard exposed to the least variable marine breezes. On the other hand the discrepancies are very great in certain parts of the east coast, and especially on the plains near the Banks Peninsula. But notwithstanding the great transitions from heat to cold the east side, being more »heltered by lofty ranges, enjoys a pleasanter climate than the windy opposite slope, where a whole year passes without a single calm day. To the prevalence of .westerly breezes the coastlands facing towards Australia are also indebted for their more abundant moisture, which falls as rain on the plains and lower slopes of the hills, as snow on the uplands. Amongst these winds that which sets from the north-west and which blows over the mountain ranges down to the eastern slopes resembles the Mediterranean scirocoo in the phenomena accompanying it. This atmospheric current supplies an abundant rainfall to the side of the New Zealand Alps, which it strikes coming directly from the high seas ; hence it reaches the eastern plains as a dry wind ; during its prevalence the sky here assumes a deep blue colour, the heavy clouds that had gathered on the horizon • Climate of the chief New Zealand towns : — Latitude. Mean Temp. Auckland ... 36° 60' 8. . . . 68° F. . Wellington . . 41° 16' „ . . . 54° „ . Christchuroh. . 43° 32' „ . . . 62° „ . Doaedin . . . 46° 62' 61° „ . Hiffheat. 86° . Loweit. . . 28° . . Rainfall. . 33 inches 83° . . 26° . . ■ 16 „ 96° . . 21° . . • 29 „ 84° . . 30° . . . 33 „ ^i*fte# 488 AUSTRALASIA. disappear as if by enchantment, and the atreums fed by the melting glaciers sud- denly become swollen torrents. The "England" of the Austral seas has the advantage over the mother country of being exempt from fogs, enjoying a clear azure sky succeeded at regular intervals by rain-bearing clouds, without those long periods of unsettled weather which at times render a residence in Great Britain so unpleasant for strangers. It is mainly to this absence of fogs that physicians attribute the remarkable salubrity of the New Zealand climate, a salubrity which, with the magnificent scenery and abundance of all kinds of mineral waters, promises to make the archipelago one vast health resort. But tlic serene skies are purchased at the expense of frequent and fierce gales. Along the shores of Cook and Foveaux Straits these tempestuous gales prevail throughout a great part of the year, and in 1886 the approaches to the harbour of Wellington were swept by as many as fifty-seven successive storms. Flora. , The New Zealand flora varies with the climate from the temperate zone of the north to the cold southern region, while still preserving a certain general uniformity throughout the archipelago. Thanks to its isolated position in the ocean hundreds of miles from any other great extent of dry land, it possesses a flora very distinct from that of any other region in the Austral hemisphere ; two-thirds of its plants, forming nearly thirty different genera, have absolutely no representatives else- where. The nearest allied forms occur in Australia and South America, and by a remarkable phenomenon the latter, although the farther removed of the two con- tinents, seems to present the most numerous analogies. The eucalyptus and acacia, so pre-eminently characteristic of Australia, are not found in New Zealand, a fact of primary importance scarcefy in harmony with the assumption of many geologists, that during recent epochs the archipelago was connected with the neighbouring continent by now submerged lands. New Zealand appears to have been an inde- pendf>nt centre of plant life, whence numerous species have been dispersed through- out the surrounding insular groups. The isolation of the archipelago had for necessary consequence a certain relative poverty of its flora, which in fact comprises only 9()0 indigenous species. The forests contain only a small number of distinct forms, and these forms are for the most part characterised by dull and inconspicuous flowers. Hence the thickets present a sombre and monotonous aspect compared at least with the lovely flowering woodlands of Tasmania and the Cape. Their gloom is intensified by the absence of animal life, and even of the song of birds. After wandering through these dense leafy thickets and returning to the sunlit open spaces, the traveller feels relieved as if from an oppressive sense of awe. The characteristic plants are the 130 species of tree-ferns and others which in many districts hold exclusive possession of vast tracts. New Zealand has also some peculiar varieties of the pine family, amongst others the kauri {dammara australis), which is at present restricted to the northern island. The magnificent stem of this conifer attains a height of 200 feet, and it yields a FAUNA OF NEW ZEALAND. 489 ciers sud- sr country it regular id weather ngers. It salubrity enery and )elago one frequent mpestuous roaches to ive storms. !one of the uniformity 1 hundreds )ry distinct ' its plants, itives else- a, and by a lie two con- and acacia, land, a fact T geologists, tighbouring en an inde- m1 through- 3 a certain lous species, e forms are Hence the h the lovely ified by the ng through he traveller thers which Zealand has i the kauri Bland. The it yields a gum much valued for the preparation of varnish. But it has been recklessly cut down, owing to the excellent quality of its timber as a building material ; whole forests have been cleared in the construction of the new towns, and before measures were taken to re-plant the clearings, the species itself was in danger of being exterminated. The climate appears to have also contributed to reduce the range of this tree. Along the banks of the Molyneux, in the southern part of South Island, the ground contains large quantities of kauri gum, although at present the species is confined to the province of Auckland in North Island. The fossil resinous substance collected in the southern regions of New Zealand looks as fresh as that derived from living plants ; yet long ages must have passed since the pines producing it have gradually receded some 600 miles northwards. The old gum, being more compact, is much more highly valued than than obtained from trees still standing, and trading companies have been formed for working the rich deposits in various parts of the country. Fauna of New Zealand. The indigenous fauna is no less original than the flora, and is supposed by geologists to comprise only a single mammal, a species of otter, whose traces were seen by Von Haast, and which was pursued by other explorers, without, however, being captured. The Maori rat, now utterly exterminated by its European rival, appears, as the natives assert, to have been introduced by themselves, as was also the dog, which was nowhere found in the wild state. There are neither snakes nor tortoises in the archipelago, and even the batrachians are represented only by a single species confined to one locality on the east coast of North Island. Lizards, however, abound, and comprise as many as twelve species occurring in no other part of the world. One of these, the hatteria punctata, numerous in an islet in the Bay of Plenty, is of very peculiar form, somewhat intermediate between the ordinary lizard and the crocodile ; hence, although quite harmless, it was regarded with a certain superstitious awe by the Maori. . Before the introduction of European species the New Zealand rivers were almost destitute of fish. Some, however, of the native forms are remarkable for the vast extent of their range. Such are an eel found also in China, Europe, and the West Indies, and a trout, which is likewise met in the streams of Tasmania and South America. One of the great curiosities of the New Zealand biological order is a species of caterpillar (sphwria Robertsi), which burrows a hole at the foot of a tree, and in which a tall fungus then takes root and grows above the surface of the ground. Of the New Zealand fauna the most remarkable class is that of the birds, which is very rich, comprising altogether about 150 species. One-third of these are peculiar to the archipelago, and constitute seventeen or eighteen absolutely distinct genera, some presenting some very curious features. Such is the huia, a kind of starling {heferolocha Gauldi), the male and female of which have entirely different beaks, the one straight, the other curved quite round like a sickle. But the essentially characteristic bird is the famous kiici {apteryx), absolutely wingless wm wswm ^m 440 AUSTRALASIA. and tailless, of which three or four species still survive. Being covered with a hair- like plumage, and us large as an average fowl, the kiwi is helpless against dogs, and would soon be exterminated even in the remoter districts but for its nocturnal habits. But it must nevertheless disappear, as analogous species have disappeared in the Mascarenhas Islands, and as in New Zealand itself have disappeared the fifteen varieties of the nioa {dmornis), a bird of varying size belonging to the ostrich family. The fossil remains of the moa, one species of which was over 10 feet high, have been discovered in the bogs beneath alluvial deposits and in caves encrusted with stalagmites. But skeletons have also been found, as well as an enormous egg 10 inches long, besides fragments of skin and feathers, in the Maori graves and amongst the kitchen refuse. Hence there can be no doubt that the natives hunted these birds, which were doomed by their defenceless state to rapid extinction. According to the local tradition the moas were decked with a brilliant plumage. Amongat the types in course of extinction or already gone, are included the moho (notornis), the coturnix, a sort of quail remarkable as the only indigenous representative of the gallinaceous family, the anarhynchus, distinguished by the lateral twist of its beak, the thinornis, another bird of the same group, and the kea (nestor), an owl-like parrot still common in the lower valleys, where it is much dreaded by the farmers since it has acquired a taste for the flesh of sheep and lambs. Since the arrival of the British settlers the gaps made in the local fauna have been gradually filled up by new wild and domestic species. Sportsmen have introduced the deer, roebuck, hare, and rabbit, of which the last named has proved specially disastrous to the prospects of agriculture. The pig has reverted to the wild state in some districts, and thousands are now annually killed in the thickets. The streams have also been stocked, chiefly with salmon, trout, and other species from the mother country. But the extinct forms of bird life have beei^ replaced mainly from Australia, Europe, and America. Thus the indigenous qiiail has been succeeded by the Californian variety, which has multiplied to a surprising extent, and by the grey partridge and pheasant from China. Starlings, sparrows, blackbirds, thrushes, crows, larks, finches, introduced at great cost from England, have become acclimatised, and often produce on the colonist the . impression that he has scarcely changed his home in migrating to the Austral world. He finds himself surrounded by fields, woodlands, buildings similar to those of the old country ; he meets the same wild and tame animals, and hears the same birds warbling in the thickets. ',; ■^■■" Inhabitants of New Zealand. ■ :■; :~- ..!.;:,. * The natives found in the archipelago by the white immigrants compare their destiny to that of the indigenous plants and animals, and believe themselves doomed to perish with them. " Our rat," they say, "is eaten by the European rat ; our fly yields to yours, and we ourselves will be replaced by you." Yet these Maori, who thus foresee their extinction, were amongst the most intelligent, the noblest, and most cultured Polynesian peoples. If their disappearance is inevitable, it must still be regarded as a common calamity for mankind. M%;: ^ •'JiT'.i'jffiM.:- INHABITANTS OF NEW ZEALAND. 441 ith a hair- inst dogs, nocturnal sappeared teared the he ostrich feet high, encrusted rmous egg ;raves and res hunted «tinction. umage. luded the ndigenous led by the ad the kea it is much and lambs. :auna have >men have baa proved rted to the e thickets, her species ii^ replaced quail has surprising , sparrows, I England, ession that vorld. He ) of the old same birds (ipare their themselves 3 European Yet these Uigent, the learance is The Maori, that is, the " Line," or " Descendance," in the sense of " Indige- nous," are unquestionably a branch of the eastern Polynesian race. Their legends, full of precise details, are unanimous in recording their migration to the archi- pelago, and even give some approximate idea of the epoch when this event took place. The children were carefully instructed in all these oral traditions, and taught the history and genealogy of the national heroes, as well as the succession of events and ages by means of inscribed tablets. These sources of information, collected by Grey and other ethnologists, relate how some four or five centuries ago the chief Te Eupe first landed on Aotea-roa, the North Island, and that, astonished at his discovery, he returned to his native land of Havaiki for his fellow-countrymen. He then returned with a flotilla of seven war-canoes, each containing about a hundred warriors, priests, stone idols, and sacred weapons, as well as native plants and animals. To this tradition of the first immigration the descendants of the Maori add legends of marvellous deeds, the severance of Aotea- roa into two islands, the emergence of islets, rocks, and reefs, the appearance of springs and of flames bursting from the ground. But, according to Huxley, Quatrefages, and other authorities, skulls presenting all the characteristics of the Papuan type would seem to indicate the previous existence of an aboriginal race apparently exterminated or partly absorbed by the Maori intruders. This island of Havaiki, whence came Te Eupe and his followers, cannot now be clearly determined. The resemblance of names suggests the island of Savaii in the Samoan Archipelago, and the same island of Savaii is also supposed to have sent out other kindred tribes to colonise Havaii in the Sandwich Group. The marked analogy between the peoples, languages, customs, and legends of New Zealand and Polynesia certainly leaves no doubt that migrations have taken place from some region of equatorial Polynesia towards the more remote archipelagoes. Nevertheless, there is nothing beyond a vague resemblance of names to identify the Samoan Savaii with the legendary cradle of the Maori people. It even seems more probable that they came from Tonga, that is, the group of islands lying nearest to New Zealand. The distance between the two archipelagoes is not more than 1,200 miles, and here the marine current sets in the direction of New Zea- land. So great is the afl^nity of the Tonga and Maori languages that the natives of both regions soon understand each other, and the very word tonga is of frequent occurrence in the Maori dialect, as well as in the geographical nomenclature of the archipelago. The Mori-ori inhabitants of the Chatham Islands, now reduced to a few family groups and Maori half-castes, are certainly Polynesians of the same origin, who, according to their traditions, arrived from the north about the fifteenth century. They are of smaller stature, but more robust and stronger than the Maori, with very marked features and the aquiline Jewish nose. This little song- and myth- loving community lived happily in their island home of Warekauri when a Maori sailor of Taranaki, serving on board an English vessel, happened to visit one of their villages either in 1832 or 1835. On his return he spoke to his friends about these islanders, " peaceful and good to eat," and his report was soon followed by a 5K'.. fw^ 442 AUSTllALASIA. warlike expedition to Wurekauri. The unhappy Mori-ori, suddenly attacked, were easily captured, and the conquerors immediately selected those to be eaten. The victims had themselves to fetch the wood and to prepare the fire on which they were roasted. The population of Chatham was thus reduced from fifteen hundred at the time of the conquest to no more than thirty-six, practically slaves, despite liliiMi Fig. 189. Tattoobd Maoei Chief. f.is msf the official decrees of emancipation. Their reserved holdings comprise little more than 600 acres. The Maori are amongst the finest islanders of the Oceanic world. Some are very tall, and the majority above the average European height, strong and well- built, with very broad chest, but with trunk proportionately longer and lower extremities shorter than amongst the whites. The features are as a nile suffi- ciently regular, with slightly prominent cheekbone, high forehead, piercing and haughty glance. Formerly the men were carefully depilated, in order to increase ;nBS"'- /ht^i. INHABITANTS OF NEW ZEALAND. 44» ked, were ten. The hich they 1 hundred 138, despite i little more . Some are ig and well- ■ and lower a rule suffi- iercing and r to increase the surface to be covered with ornamental tuttooiiig, whih) for young women the operation was limited to the lips, whence the term i//«r-///M applied to them by the English. No Polynesian nation rivalled the Maori in this art of embellishing the human form with harmonious designs following the contours of the body and bringing its proportions into fuller relief. The Maori artist knew how to give endless variety to the curves of his drawings ; all was calculated so as to produce a happy blending of the lines; the natural furrows, the movements of the coun- tenance, the play of muscles, oxerything was made to enhance the charm of the design, and a hale young man certainly presented a fine sight, draped only in this delicate network of blue lines on the ruddy brown ground of his skin. Whoever refused to undergo the protracted tortures of tattooing required at every important event of his life was regarded as a person by his own com-' t foredoomed to slavery. On the other hand the tattooed native could never be enslu \ , d. " Liberty or Death " was his motto. Proud a:.^d skilful pleaders, the Maori have always commanded the respect of the English ; in the political conferences they have even frequently proved them- selves superior in logic and eloquence, just as in field sports, such as cricket, they excel in strength and skill. Even in the schools they stand at least^on a level with their masters, and when called upon to defend their native land, they proved themselves fully as valiant as their pakeha (European) invaders. Near the present town of Tauranga a farmstead occupies the site of the great pa, or fortress of earth and palisades, which General Cameron at the head of four thousand British troops failed to reduce, the siege ending in the utter rout of the assailants. At the same time this warlike spirit was associated with cannibalistic and other ferocious practices. The Maori ate the heart and eyes of the foe in order to acquire their courage and intelligence. In the old kitchen middens occur human remains associated with thpse of dogs and birds, and tradition speaks of a memorable victory celebrated by a banquet of one thousand of the fallen enemy. In their few national industries the Maori displayed remarkable skill. They tilled the soil with extreme care ; as carvers and decorators they were unrivalled in the Oceanic world, and displayed great originality in the design and perfection in the execution of the rock-paintings and in carving the ornamental figures of their dwellings, their boats, and sacred enclosures. Many of these objects are still carefully preserved in the local museums, or in places still regarded as tabooed by the natives. Like that of other Polynesians the Maori religion was concerned with the wor- ship of the natural forces, always associatod in their mind with the spirits of their ancestors. The memory of their fc.ofathers was so interwoven with their every- day life that friends on meeting, instead of saluting each other with signs of joy, gave way to groans and lamentations over the departed. All are now at least nominal Christians, and have forsaken the stone idols brought with them from Havaiki at the time of the exodus. One of these effigies was given by the people themselves to Governor Grey, and the other, which had been buried in the sacred lake Roto-rua in the island of Mokoia, formed the subject of a law-suit between '''^^^mmm 444 AU8TRALAHIA. two tribes in 1884, During the revolt of 18(54 many renounced Christianity, and founded a new religion in which Christian mythology and ancestral worship were struugely blended. The Ilau-huu sect, us it was called from the cries of grief or ecstasy uttered at the public prayer- meetings, has not yet entirely disappeared, and a few of its adherents are still found iu scattered groups in the King's Country. This region, somn 10,000 square miles in extent, comprises a large part of N orth Island, west of Lake Taupo. The two lofty mounts, Iluapehu and Tongariro, were till recently included within its limits, together with the ;. board between Port Aotea and the north foot of Mount Taranaki. Alarmed by the incessant Fig. 190. -Kino's CunirrsT. SMtlA 1 ! 8,ooo,ooa 3sb ol" Greenwich Depths. OtoSB Fathoma. SSFathonw •nd upward!. — DO HU«s. mw' . *■ J encroachments of the white squatters, the natives assembled in congress in 1854, and resolved thenceforth to sell no land at any price, and even prevent the Euro- peans from penetrating into their domain. Since that time conflicts have taken place, British troops have crossed the frontier, and sundry tracts have been detached from the territory. Nevertheless this Native Reserve still constitutes a well diafined region, till recently almost inaccessible to explorers unprovided with INIUmTANTS OF NEW ZEALAND. 445 ianity, and rnliip were of grief or JHuppoarcd, he King's go part of Tonguriro, •d between e incessant se- •59' ess in 1854, it the Euro- have taken have been ionstitutes a ovided with safe'Conduots. The trib««, formerly without any bond of union, are now grouped in a sort of {mliticul state ruled by a "king," whence the name of King's Country. This potontuto has hitherto refuHed to become a colonial functionary by accepting the heavy pension and udininiHtrative jxjwor ottered him by the crown. Miverthe- loss the days of the Maori nation are numbered. The white population is increas- ing at the rate of at least twenty thousand annually, and its influence on the still independent territory increases in the same proportion. On the other hand the Maori grow continually weaker in numbers, in physical force and moral energy. Owing to the refusal of the natives to allow any official census to be taken within their domain it is impossible to foim an accurate idea of their present num- bers, although the summary estimates niade at various times are generally accepted as sufficiently trustworthy to place beyond doubt t)ie steady decline of the race. At the first arrival of the whites they numbered at least one hundred thousand, but in 1874 they were already reduced to less than forty-six thousand, and acccord- ing to the returns for 1886 they appear to have lost three thousand more at that date. The most serious fact, well authenticated in those districts where both races live side by side, is the higher rate of mortality amongst the women. Nor have the young Maori the same vigour as their forefathers, and about half of the deuths is attributed to consumption. Nevertheless the decay of the race appears to have been partly arrested, and in some districts, notably that of Eaipara north of Auck- land, some excess of births over the mortality has been observed amongst the half-castes. On the other hand the white population rapidly develops, not only by immigra- tion but especially by the great increase of births over deaths. This increase, at present estimated at nearly three to one, is almost unparalleled elsewhere. More- over, the loss ajid gain are invariably balanced in such a way as to increase the proportional number of females, and thus reduce the disparity caused by the much larger immigation of males. Already more than half of the colonists are native bom ; nearly all come from the British Isles, the English and Scotch being greatly in excess of the Irish. The Germans number not more than five thousand, and some Scandinavian communities have been established in the North Island. Some thousand Chinese have, also been introduced by employers of labour, but here, as elsewhere, unaccompanied by their women. The competition of the white labourers has required Parliament to pass some prohibitive measures against Chinese immigration analogous to those taken by the Australian Assemblies. During the early years of colonisation methodic steps were taken to reproduce in New Zealand as perfect a copy as possible of the English social system regarded as an ideal standard. Efforts were made to reproduce at the Antipodes an image of the mother country, with its powerful clergy, its territorial aristocracy, its indus- trious middle classes, its submissive auJ religious working communities. In accord- ance with this plan the capitalists, who in the North Island had obtained possession of the land from the natives under the protection and suzerainty of Great Britain, sold it at prices beyond the means of small holders, and the sums thus obtained were employed to introduce day labourers on the large estates. < v;!.! ^mS ammstm BiBBBSSS^BWF jt-'-jL . . 44» AITSTHAI.ASIA. Nevcrtholoss, Hnuncial diificultieH uiul conflicts with the government prevented the complete reulisution of this Hociiil scheme. The projects of other coinpunies thut hud secured coaceHHions of oxtensive donmins in the southern iwhind proved more successful. The province of Canterbury, so numod by /.eulous Anglicans from the primutiul see of Kn^liind, was ut once constituted under the direct spiritual and partly temiM)rul control of the Anglican clergy, and was divided into parishes and " flocks." On the other hand the Scotch immigrants of the Free Kirk, who had settled in the southern part of the same island, and who had given to their capital the Gaelic name of Dunedin, synonymous of Edinburgh, also possessed their religious constitution intended to maintain them in a distinct community. 13ut the discoveries which suddenly attracted thorusands of gold-hunters to this rigid Pre.shyterian settlement soon bmko up the narrow organisation of the young colonial churches, and New Zealand no longer differs from the other British colon ioA in its social religious constitution. Sects of all denominations are now us numerous as elsewhere. The majority, however, are still members of the Anglican Church. From the very first agrict Iture has been the chief industry of the colony. Since the first sale of public lands down to the end of March, 188H, planters and others had acquired an extent of 11,500,000 acres at a total cost of £13,000,000, to a very large extent secured by a limited number of capitalists. Seven proprietors possess each over 100,000 acres, while two. hundred and fifty-nine own domains each exceeding 10,000 acres. The regions still available for tillage are at least as extensive as those already disposed of ; but the uplands, especially in South Island, can scarcely be utilised except for their forests and pasturage. North Island is the more fertile of the two, thanks to its decomposed volcanic tuffas, and it also enjoys a milder climate ; hence in former times the Maori were concentrated chiefly in this region, which however is the smaller in extent ; and here also the settlers have a far less extent of land at their disposal. The 33,400 farms which existed in 1887 in the archipelago were all under pre- cisely the same crops as those of Great Britain, the only perceptible difference being a few fruit trees in North Island, where the fruits of Italy ripen side by side with those of England. New Zealand is less favourably placed than Australia for stock- breeding ; nevertheless, the livestock is already considerable, and wool is now exported to the annual value of over £3,000,000. Meat-preserving is also a flourishing local industry, and New Zealand has recently turned its attention to the preparation of butter for the home market. Both islands abound in minerals, although the gold mines alone have hitherto been actively worked ; in 1887 nearly twelve thousand miners, of whom one-fourth were Chinese, were engaged in extracting the precious metal from the quartz rocks and auriferous sands. Between 1867, when the gold-fields were discovered, and 1887 the total yield was over £44,000,000, and in the single year 1886, the produce was no less than £28,000,000. The decrease in the exportation of gold will probably be followed by greater activity in the coal mines, which already em- ploy over a thousand hands, with a total yearly output of more than 600,000 NEW /.HAI.ANI), SOCIAL rUOOUKSH. 447 tons. New Zoiiluml hus ulroarly (IuvoIoinhI nomi) lurjjo iniinufacturinpf induHtricH aud now turns out hur own ahipH, IcK'uniotivoH, und other rolling xtock. The urchiprlugo hus un cxtfUNiv^i network of roudn und ruilwayH, and it will Boon be possible to truvol by mil from one I'xtroinity to the other of both islands. Except u few provinciul brunches, nearly ull the lines huvo boon constructed and uro owned by the Government. Steumers also ply regularly Iwtween the seaports round the coast, and muintuin rapid communication with Australia, America, aud Kuropo. Vig, 191.— Railwatb ..'f N«w Zhaland Scale 1 : ia,ono,uuo, :asb cF b 800 Miles. The foreign trade is relatively greater than that of European countries, for it already exceeds £22 per head of the white and Maori population. The proportion of letters forwarded through the post is also higher than in France, and the colony enjoys a more developed system of primary instruction. The periodical press is represented by 200 journals, of which one is issued in the Maori lan- guage. mm rrt? 448 AUSTEALASIA. „»!,!i i,^,.."' Topography of New Zkaland. Auckland is one of the " old " cities of New Zealand, its foundation dating from I ' ;. M ■ 111 Ri"', \,i If I'ifii r 1840, that is, a few years after the establishment of the station of Katru-Kawa, or 'iW".ilAjij i i W |P m^stifVtM^a. TOPOGRAPHY OF NEW ZEALAND. 449 dating from Tatca-Katea, or Russell, on the Bay of Islands. It was originally chosen as the capital of the whole archipelago, and although deprived of this dignity, it has remained the largest city, with a population of over sixty thousand, including the suburbs ; here is also the chief university in the colony. Auckland owes its importance to its Kg. 193.— Auckland. Boole 1 : 6SO,000. I74*30' Lasb orore I74"35 Beptha. Bands ezpoMd at low wat«r. otoss Feet. Street and npwardi. ■ ISHUea. admirable position on the south side of the excellent and thoroughly sheltered port of Waitemata, at the narrowest point of the isthmus connecting the northern penin- sula with the rest of North Island. Its suburb of Onehunga lies seven miles farther south on the great inlet of Manukau, which comprises a group of havens also open 89—0 "!■. -■ IMS ,>':I9IMMM|I 450 AUSTRALASIA. '«;■ mk'i to navigation. Thanks to these maritime advantages, to the density of the popula- tion in the surrounding district, and the fertility of the land, Auckland exceeds all other New Zealand seaports in commercial activity; it enjoys a monopoly of the export trade in kauri wood and the valuable gum of that tree. Being encircled by several small extinct volcanoes, Auckland is the centre of one of the most interesting regions Kg. 194.— Kaipabi. Soala 1 : 680,000 Sands expnaed at low water. OtoSS Feet. 88 Feet and npwatda. .1SMU««. on the globe for the study of plutonic phenomena. In the neighbouj-hood are no less than sixty perfectly regular cones, each in former times the scene of igneous eruptions. North of Auckland the only trading places are the small stations on the Bay of Islands, and the villages dotted round Kaipara Harbour, whose numerous branches - ; 1 (111 . j iii i . 111 , 11 . »jn*- ^Mrtttijta I , .,-..„^..|^, ■.,.yj»nt»t..1- -'CTilFi'JirHiiiV. TOPOOEAPHY OP NEW ZEALAND. 481 the popula- . exceeds all 3f the export id by several iting regions -life urhood are no le of igneous )n the Bay of reus branches wind in all directions amid the surrounding forests and recent plantations. Kaipara has been called the " Eden of New Zealand." South-east of Auckland are the twin towns of Shortland and Grahamstown, which are now united under the name of Thames, and which lie on the east side of the inlet improperly called the Firth of Tha&es. Farther south is Tauranga Harbour, the landing-place for travellers pro- ceeding to Lake Tarawera and " Wonderland." South of the little haven of Ois' borne on Poverty Bay, the only coast town on the east side is Napier, capital of the province of Hawke Bay. Napier is well situated on a peninsula between a winding estuary and a semicircular bay which, like so many others, has been compared to the Bay of Naples. Although its port, the Ahuriri of the natives, is of difficult access for large vessels, the yearly export trade of Napier in wool, preserved meat, and cattle already exceeds £800,000. Wellington, capital of New Zealand, dates from 1840 ; it occupies a central position on Port Nicholson, on the north side of Cook Strait, and holds frequent communication with Blenheim on the opposite side. Wanganui, another busy sea- port in the same province, lies at the mouth of the navigable river of like name south of the King's Country. North- west of Wanganui the coast railway is deflected inland by the peninsular Mount Egmont (Taranaki), and thus Teaohes New Plymouth, which is probably destined to become a flourishing seaport when the construction of the neighbouring Moturoa breakwater will enable skippers here to ship the pro- duce r* the " Garden of New Zealand." In the South Island Blenheim, over against Wellington, is still a small place although capital of a province and converging point of two railways. On this south side of Cook Strait the most commercial town is Nelson, which lies at the head of the hill-encircled Tasman Bay. Farther on the north coast presents nothing but villages and hamlets ; but on the west side a few little towns have sprung up in the neighbourhood of the gold and coal mines. Westport, sheltered by Cape Foulwind, has the advantage of possessing a safe and deep harbour, whereas the more southerly ports of Greymouth and Hokitika, capital of the province of Westland, were of difficult access before the construction of jetties and other harbour works. Greymouth, formerly a centre of gold-mining, is now the " New Zealand Newcastle," and in 1886 no less than 120,000 tons of coal were shipped at this place. Hokitika, the town lying nearest to the regions of snows and glaciers, still retains some importance, thanks to the neighbouring gold-fields, which in 1866, the year following the discovery, yielded over £1,300,000 of the precious metal. ^l\-;^V'} The east slope of South Island being more gently inclined, presents by far the greatest extent of arable asxA. fertile lands, with the largest centres of population and most flourishing seaports. Here are found the two chief cities, Christ- church and Dunedin, the former of which lies not on the coast but in an extensive plain watered by the river Avon and about eight miles from its port of Lyttleion, . formerly Port Cooper. Christchureb, capital of the province of Canterbury, is the , most English in aspect of all the New Zealand cities, and as the see of the Anglican , primate, it also contains the most sumptuous religious edifices. In its museum is a ; m (■MiABMMMXiC' 452 AUSTRALASIA. very remarkable collection of the remains of jxtinct birds. With the surrounding suburbs Christchurch ranks as the second city in the archipelago for population, while its port owns the largest mercantile fleet, although the general movement of the shipping is inferior to that of Auckland. The neighbouring Banks Peninsula with Akaroa Harbour, where still survive some descendants of the early French settlers, are pleasant retreats, much frequented by the inhabitants of Christchurch. \f\ m;^ :*;:!*^ Fig. 106. — Chbistchtboh akd Axaboa Vznaxmhk. Scale 1 : 700,000. 178*40 175* Casb orbr««nwieh to 88 Feet. Depth*. 88 to 80 Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. 100 Feet and opwanU. HUM. A railway, connecting the city with its port, passes in a tunnel through a thick bed of lava — the finest work of the kind in New Zealand. South of Christchurch follow along the east coast the seaports of Timaru, Oamaru, t>nd the flourishing city of Dunedin, metropolis of the south, which lies on the west sid<) of Otago Harbour under shelter of an eastern volcanic headland. Since the deepening of the channel ships oi' average size are able to ascend as far as the town ; but larger vessels are obliged to anchor in Port Chalmers at the mouth of urrounding population, overaent of 9 Peninsula rly French iristchurch. rH so ■ 139 W!ch L a thick bed jru,Oamaru, on the west Since the I far as the be mouth of R " •^T h Wi: ^ y. -.- gn- ? T •• ■ ' ( rr - ^ -3 I TOPOORAPHY OF NEW ZEALAND. 468 the estuary, about eight miles north of the city. During the flourishing period of gold-raining, Dunedin, which from an obscure village had suddenly been trans- formed to a populous town, became the busiest commercial centre in New Zealand, and even still holds the second rank in this respect. This place is the usual start- ing point for travellers visiting the region of the lakes in the New Zealand Alps. On the southern seaboard, washed by the Antarctic Ocean, the most flourishing place is the recently founded Invercargill, converging point of all the roads and Fig. 106.— PoBT Chauoibs. Swic 1 : 800,000. Easb oF'Graennvich . 170* 55 170*43 SaadaezpoMd •t low water. OtoK DeptlM. MtoSO FMt. sotoiao Feet. 160 Feet and upwards. . 6Milea. railways radiating towards the interior. Unfortunately this seaport lies at the head of a shallow estuary without any outer port, so that the large steamers are obliged to stop at Campbelltoun on Foveaux Strait. A railway runs from Inver- cargill towards Kingston, a pleasant little inland town delightfully situated at the southern extremity of Lake Wakatipu. Queenstotcn, at the foot of Ben Lomond on the east side of the same lake, is a still more romantic place, originally founded ..-*!■ IF"^ 464 AUSTEALA8IA. M» f by the miners, but now a much-f requonted rural retreat. The few travellors bound for the almost uninhabited Stewart Island embark at Invercargill. The small groups of islands not subject to the administrative system of the mainland have a collective area of 1,170 miles, with a total population of about Fig. 197.— Ohathax Ibland. 1 1 : 900,000. V/eat op Greenwich 176*40 I76*I0' D«pttui. OtoW Vathom*. BO Fathoms a&d upwards. __181Iilea. six hundred souls. Of these groups the largest is Chatham, or Warekauri, whose capital, Waitangiy lies on Petre Bay, an inlet on the south-west side ; here are the headquarters of the Maori invaders of the island. Pitt, or Butaritari, south of the larger island, is a basalt table 600 feet high, mostly overgrown with scrub and W:' ^^■-J i«Trwif:5»iw^^ !sai I If' a. O o (0 z > -I o CL OH < z I- z < < 111 UJ z 1 1 biBiiRBnaaaniiciiMBi fililjlllliijl H'. m I I jf.MiiM- .; ■ . 1 i ' ,..4 i' ", r mill iiiiffliTiTifc i l l i i i liiin. < «rt « > i '« i» . m ■<:y.'.!-" \^'^''^'v^]^lX"- ^ ---^ . ^ m\ ■j^- V J t '«| ilM«y,.9,W*l>", ■\S<. ' • (■- ■•■'' ■ • ,i'.4v: ■ i CHAPTER X. THE FIJI ISLANDS. HIS large archipelago of the south equatorial zone is not even oflGcially designated by the name given to it by the inhabitants themselves. The term Fiji is simply a Tonga mispronunciation of the native word Viti, these islands having thus lost the very right to name themselves, while entering by a constitutional fiction into the num- ber of the independent Australasian states. In point of fact Fiji is a simple political possession of Australasia, belonging to a limited number of planters, who cultivate their lands by coolie labour introduced from the surrounding islands and even from India, while the natives themselves perish in the villages of the interior. Yet the archipelago occupies a considerable area, and is so favoured by a fertile soil and genial climate that it might easily support a population of two millions. Tasman first discovered the eastern part of the group, which he named in a general way "Prince Willem Islands." In 1774 Cook merely sighted Turtle (Vatoa) Island, and in 1789 the Fiji waters were traversed by Bligh, when, abandoned by most of his crew and perishing of hunger and thirst, he made his way to the Eastern Archipelago. Fiji was again visited in 1797 by Wilson, after which time numerous trading vessels opened relations with the natives, chiefly for the purchase of trepang and sandalwood. But the scientific exploration was not begun till 1827 with Duraont d'Urville's first expedition ; in 1838 the same navigator resumed the survey of the archipelago, which was continued in 1840 by the American Wilkes, .accrmpanied by Dana and other men of science. Then came the missionaries and isolated travellers, and Fiji was one of the best known oceanic groups when it was annexed to the British colonial empire in 1874. The hydrographic survey of the coasts, begun by Dumont d'Urville and Wilkes and extended by Denham and Hosken, was completed in all its details by Moore, who, during his three years' expedition, coasted every part of the group. The chief island, Viti-Levu, that is, "Great Viti," is of oval form, its main axis being disposed in the direction from west to east. Yiti-Iicvu, one of the largest islands in equatorial PolyneHia, is entirely mountainous, with densely wooded extinct volcanoes 4,000 and even 5,000 feet high. The argillaceous soil, of a yellow or dull red colour, consists of decomposed scoriee, which are extremely productive wherever exposed to a copious rainfall. The plains themselves are •,;.rt-v.- 4C8 AUSTRALASIA. naturally watered by hundreds of streams and brooklets, and even rivers accessible for some distance to steamers. One of these, the "Wai-Levu (" Great Water "), commonly called Rewa-Rewa, embraces in its catchment basin over one-third of the island, and forms a considerable delta at its mouth on the south-east coast ; the tid6;; ascend 26 miles and boats 50 miles farther inland. Vanua-Levu, or " Great Island," the second in extent, lies north-east of Viti- Levu, and encloses between its two eastern peninsulas the extensive Nateva Bay, also called the " Dead Sea," owing to the stillness of its waters. This island is also m^ Fig. 199.— Fiji Isuanm. Soale 1 : 16,000,000. 0to2S0 Fathonu. Deptha. 850 to 1,000 Fatiionu. \fiOO Fathoma and upwsrda. 180 Mile*. volcanic, sending down from its hills numerous thermal rivulets. It is connected with Yiti-Levu by barrier reefs, which may perhaps indicate a former coastline, and above which rise several other islands. The large outer reef, whose long con .ex curvo is pierced by an opening in the north-west, supports the little Yasawa and Mr^manutha archipelagoes ; on the inner reef stand the islets of Mbau and valau, famous in Fiji history as polidcal centres of the whole group at various epochs. Besides the two large islands there are two others of average size, the volcanic £andavu in the south-west, important as the nearest land to New Zealand and Australia and encircled on the north by a long fringing reef ; and in the north-east Tavuini, dominated by a volcano with flooded crater 2,500 feet high, and separated Fin. 469 ers accessible Bat Water "), one-third of ast coast ; the ■east of Viti- Nateva Bay, island is also 19' nwich ^ is connected ler coastline, whoM long ittle Tasawa uandOvalau, IS epochs. the volcanic Zealand and le north-east nd separated ■:,■■•,>,- from Vanua-Levu by the narrow picturesque Some- Some Strait. Of the other members of the group not one has an area of 60 square miles, all being for the most part mere fragments of atolls or low hills fringed with coral reefs. Tbe main chain of these, islets, sweeping round the east side of the archipelago from north to south, is designated by the general name of Lau ; it resembles the rim of a submerged cone open towards the sea on its right side, and enclosing a few reef-fringed islets. Altogether Fiji comprises 225 islands, of which about a hundred are inhabited. Climate. — Flora. — Fauna. The windward and leeward sides of all the islands present remarkable contrasts due to the moist south-east tradewinds, which prevail throughout the year and support a luxuriant vegetiktion on the south and east slopes, while the drier oppo- site sides are mostly under grass, with here and there a few odoriferous pandanus trees. Here the settlers find the more favourable tracts, already prepared by nature for tillage and stock-breeding. ;- V#J' r- •!• *^^ The mean temperature is somewhat lower than that of the continental lands lying under tbe same latitude; but although the extreme heats are tempered by sea breezes, the whites still complain of the fiery solar rays on the plantations of the interior. There are two seasons, one relatively cool, from May to October, the other warmer and more humid, for the rest of the year. This is essentially the " wet season," when the moisture especially in March is precipitated in tremendous downpours, and at times accompanied by fierce gales and hurricanes. In 1871 Mbua received in a single day 15 inches of rain, as much as South Australia in a whole year. A tropical vegetation prevails in Fiji, where the outer fringe of cocoanut palms and, in the few swampy districts, mangrove thickets, are succeeded higher up by tree-ferns, various species of palms and other equatorial plants partly covered with parasitic orchids. In some places the flora is essentially Australian, with casuarinas, acacias, and other forms, such as those occurring along the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Towards the altitude of 2,000 fe^t the seaboard vegetation is replaced by other plants, amongst which no Alpine forms have yet been found. The botanist Home, who has himself discovered over 300 new species, assigns 1,086 flowering plants and 245 ferns and allied forms to the Fiji flora. Like the other Pacific islands the archipelago is extremely poor in higher animal life, the only mammals being a rat, some bats and the cetaceans of the surrounding waters. Bu;. all European domestic animals have been introduced and thrive well, both the pig and cat having already reverted to the wild state. Berthold Seeman has reckoned 46 species of birds, and reptiles, snakes and lizards are still more numerous ; a few varietiee of the frog in the eastern parts are the last representa- tives of the batrachian family in the Oceanic world. The neighbouring seas are inhabited by about 125 species of fishes, several of which are venomous and their flesh poisonous. Sharks also are numerous, and some of these formidable animals are confined exclusively to the estuaries. 460 AUSTIlAhASIA. m>« Inhabitants of Fiji. The Fijians present affinities both with the western Melanesians and eastern Polynesians, and areat least partly of mixed descent, although the majority approach nearest to the former group. They are tall and robust, very brown or coppery, sometimes even almost black, with abundant tresses intermediate between hair and wool. Half-breeds are numerous and are often distinguished by almost European features. Till recently they went nearly naked, wearing only the iorn-cloth or skirt of vegetable fibre, smearing the body with oil, and dyeing the hair with red ochre. The women passed bits of stick or bark through the pierced lobe of the ear, and nearly all the men carried a formidable club ; now they wear shirts, blouses, or dressing-gowns, or else drape themselves in blankets, and thus look more and more like needy labourers dressed in the cast-off clothes of their employers. They display great natural intelligence, and according to Williams are remarkable for a logical turn of mind, which enables Europeans to discuss questions with them in a rational way. Their generosity is attested by the language itself, which abounds in terms meaning to give, but has no word to express the acts of borrowing or lending. Compared with their Polynesian neighbours, they are also distin- guished by great reserve. Their meke or dances, always graceful and marked by great decorum, represent little land or sea dramas, sowing, harvesting, fisLing, even the struggles between the rising tides and rooks. At present all the Fijians are nominal Christians. The first missionaries, who settled at Lekemba in the eastern group of islands so early as 1835, gradually extended their influence, founding other stations in various parts of the archi- pelago and even acquiring a share of authority with the chiefs. For the last fifty years the history of the natives has been a record of endless rivalries and alliances between the missionaries and planters, who are hen'-^forth associated under the protection of the British Government, ^uu dominant religion is that of the Wesleyans, comprising over 100,000 fai' hful ; some thousands have also become Boman Catholics, while the Anglican Church, enjoying a considerable revenue, yearly increases the number of its adherents. At first a great obstacle to the progress of Christianity was a mistake made by the missionaries, who, in the ignorance of their language, adopted a« the name of the Deity the word Kalu, which is applied by the people only to the secondary gods, the patrons of the social classes, family groups, and professions. A bet<«r term would have been Ndegei, the name of a mysterious being, who under the form of a great serpent hidden in the deep caverns created and still preserves the universe. Ancestry worship formerly prevailed ; the <^oref athers of the race had been raised to the rank of gods, and some, renowned during life, had beooma potent divinities invoked by the whole nation. As in most Polynesian islands, the exact spot was shown where the dead started on their long journey to tne unknown world whence none return, and which lies far away in the region of the setting sun. This Vanua-Levu, or " Land's End," lies at the extreme western headland of Naikobokobo, whither the natives made frequent pilgrimages. They had also powerful priests, who were able to hold commune with the souls of the dead and ■:^" FIJI. 461 and eastern ity approach or coppery, )en hair and st European oin -cloth or air with red lobe of the wear shirts, us look more • employers. ) remarkable 18 with them itself, which )f borrowing also distin- l marked by ling, fishing, onaries, who 16, gradually if the archi- the last fifty and alliances id under the that of the also become Me revenue, ake made by I the name of M>ndary gods, L better term (he form of a be universe, ce had been ?oomd potent ids, the exact .known world setting sun. headland of hey had also the dead and even with the gods, making them open their mouths before the assembled multi- Fig. 200.— Thk Rotal Family, Fiji. 1 tude. These vHeets also consulted all living things, for not man alone but every- -«->,*«'*.t.'**i- W*"** L ' -.i ■" ir»f'ill!K m hW m. i:is: :i ■t -:;!i »Jl!i 462 AUSTRALASIA. thing possesses a soul, animals, plants, even the houses, canoes, weapons, and imple- ments of labour. The temples stood for the most part on natural or artificial terraces, and consisted generally of an oriinuiy cabin erected on a square base or else on a pyramidal pedestal. A magic wand, probably intended to ward oft evil influences, was placed horizontally above the roof made of branches and foliage. Cannibalism entered largely into the religious system of the Fijians. The names of certain deities, such as the " God of Slaughter," and the " God eater of human brains," sufficiently attest the horrible nature of the rites held in their honour. Religion also taught that all natural kindness was impious, that the gods loved blood, and that not to shed it before them would be culpable ; hence those wicked people who had never killed anybody in their lifetime were thrown to the sharks after death. Children destined to be sacrificed for the public feasts wer«» delivered into the hands of those of their own age, who thus served their appren- txtcrLip as executioners and cooks. The wives of the chiefs had to follow him to t'ib' grave, and on certain occasions the sons consented *o be buried alive in their nther'a tomb, "happy victims highly acceptable to tho godo." All protest against tk'3ir fate would have been regarded as an outrage, and it is related of a woman v\ 'icued by the missionaries that she escaped during the night and delivered herself up to the executioners. The aged and invalids frequently asked to be despatched, :.jiiii wnre then usually strangled in their graves. rhe banquets of "long pig," that is, human flesh, were regarded &i a sacred cerenony from which the women and children were excluded, and while the men used their fingers with all other food, they had to employ forks of hard wood at these feasts. The ovens also in which the bodies were baked could not be used for any other purpose. Notwithstanding certain restrictions human flesh was largely consumed, and in various places hundreds of memorial stones were shown which recalled the number of sacrifices. Near Namosi, in the interior of Viti-Levu, there was a tribe, the Nalocas, who happening to offend a neighbouring kinglet, was condemned t^; systematic extermination. Every year a single household was put to death end served up at the chief's banquet. After the feast the cabin was burnt, and t'le place planted with taro and the solanum anthropophagum, to serve as the f vv< ure accompaniment of the next family. Flight would have been imme- diately punished with death, and the wretched victims had to remain on the spot while the plants sprang ^p, bl )6:oraed, and ripened. On the harvest day the ministera came to prepare tixe table, to cu* the taro, and heat the great pot ; then seizing the victims by the arms and legs the\ carried them off and dashed out their brains against a sacred stone. When most of the community had thus perished, the rest were reprieved and an old woman, last of the tribe, died a natural death in 1860. Thakumbau, who later became " a fervent Cliristian," and who was accepted by the English as the " legitimate king " of the whole archipelago, was wont to indicate with his club the person he should like prepared for his evening meal. If any wretch dared to sue for pardon the king had his tongue torn out and devoured it -M*>|if».iJIPiil FIJI. 468 and imple- )r artificial tare base or to ward ofl anches and ^ jians. Tlie Jod eater of >ld in their lat the gods hence those rown to the feasts were leir appren- )llow him to live in their )te8t against of a woman rered herself despatched, 1 ai a sacred bile the men lard wood at t be used for L was largely ihown which I Viti-Levu,i^ Tng kinglet, ousehold was he cabin was mm, to serve been imme- 1 on the spot treat day the it pot ; then bed out their 3U8 perished, latural death s accepted by nt to indicate leal. If any I devoured it raw. He also amused himself by setting up a "tree of forbidden fruit," on the branches of which were hung up the more choice pieces of human ilesh reserved for the royal table. Yet when the missionaries and English residents called on the chiefs to put an end to cannibalism, the " conservative party," sticklers for the old usages, energetically defended the national " institutions," maintaining that it was due to society to uphold the system of terror ov " the lower classes. But the " radicals " triumphed, and even before the British occupation human sacrifices had everywhere ceased, as had also the atrocious custom of launching war canoes over the bodies of prostrate captives. A great inducement to accept the sovereignty of England was the dread of the Tonga immigrants, who might overrun the archipelago, just as Tonga itself had formerly been reduced by the Samoan ancestors of the Tongans. At first these islanders dared not venture to land without special permission, but, thanks to the ever-increasing commercial relations, they gradually obtained a footing, especially in the eastern islands lying nearest to Tonga, and at last became numerous enough to form independent communities in Lakemba and elsewhere. One of their chiefs converted to Christianity took the missionaries as allies in extending his conquests, and at every treaty of peace required the vanquished Fijians to bum their temples and join the lotii of oil, that is to say, the Wesleyan Church, whose ministers were paid in cocoanut oil. In 1859, this victorious chief, who claimed to be merely a lieutenant of the king of Tonga, found himself at the head of three thousand victorious troops ; all the eastern islands together with Yanua-Levu had already been redujed, and he was preparing to invade Viti-Levu when the British consul Pritchard interfered and compelled the Tonga intruders to desist from all further military or political intervention in the affairs of the archipelago. The terror of the Tonga invasion was followed by the danger of extermination by American or Australian whites. Some United States seafarers, having suffered some real or fancied wrong at the hands of King Thakumbau, demanded enormous damages, which he would have been unable to pay had not a company of Austra- lian speculators advanced the money in return for 200,000 acres of arable land in the most fertile parts of the archipelago. Henceforth the white planters were masters, and those natives who refused to work on the plantations with the coolies from the New Hebrides, Samoa and India, were fain to withdraw to the remote valleys of the interior. i; .'. ;; S*;i ,%; Even the annexation was at first followed by disaster, over thirty thousand natives having perished in a few weeks from a frightful outbreak of small-pox, accidentally introduced from Australia in 1875. The population still continues to decrease, and although the number of inhabitants at the arrival of the whites is uncertain, the decay of the race is placed beyond doubt by the ruined villages, the deserted islands, and more recently by the more or less accurate returns of the regular census. Of late years the whites themselves have become less numerous, owing to the fiuctuations of trade. An indication of the unhappy social conditions now prevalent is afforded by the fact that the women are in a minority both amongst the natives and the strangers, either arriving voluntarily or else intro- H ^ '""^^^ ''"^VtHt^rTkn nt»ww<*^>~*-*-— * jtt^ 464 AUSTRALASIA. B ! I "r^ duced as labourers on the plantations. Evory year the mortality is also greatly in excess of the births. A great variety of plants are cultivated in the archipelago. A species of yam supplies the staple of food for the natives, who also raise large crops of the taro or dato ; but the sandalwood so largely exported at the beginning of the century is nearly exhauHted, while the dakna, or Fiji pine {(htmmaru Vitienaia), resembling the New Zealand kauri, has become very rare. The shores are fringed by hun- dreds of thousands of cocoanuts, owned, however, not by the natives, but by the planters, who export the oil and copra to Europe and Australia. One of the plants most utilised for the local industries is the male (Lrouaaonetia papyri/era), the bark of which is pounded by the women to the consistency of a stout pliant fabric used as a loin-cloth or toga, and even for making fancy paper. Naturally of a pure white colour, this cloth is dyed in various designs by a process which resembles printing, by means of carefully prepared bits of bamboo charged with pigment. The natural or acclimatised flora abounds in plants valuable for their fruits, edible roots, drugs, spices, fibres, colours, gums or resins, and if the plantations have hitherto proved little remunerative, the fact must be attributed not so much to the destructive cyclones as to the evils associated with the prevailing system of contract labour. During the first years of the colonisation the American Civil War rapidly enriched the planters by the sudden impulse given to ootton growing. But since that time labour has become too dear to allow this industry to compete with the growers of the Southern States, and Fiji now exports only a few bales of cotton. Tobacco is raised exclusively by the natives, and at present the chief agricultural industries are the preparation of cocoanut oil, copra, and sugar. Up to the year 1882 the public lands sold to planters had a total area of over 280,000 acres. The foreign trade is mostly in the hands of the English and Australians, although Bume Hamburg houses are also represented by a few local agents. Levuka, the former capital, being inconveniently situated on the east side of Ovalau Island, the centre of government was removed to the new capital, Suva, near the southern extremity of Yiti-Levu between the deltas of the two largest rivers, and not far from Reica, the largest village of the interior. But the port of call for ocean steamers lies in Ngalao Bay, south of Eandava Island, where the waters are deeper and less obstructed by reefs. Savu-Savu Bay, south of Yanua- Levu is also frequented by skippers. Near the port copious thermal springs bubble up on the beach. The natives take no part in the administration of the archipelago, which is a Crown colony, with a Governor and executive council named by the Queen, and a legislative council of thirteen members, seven ex officio and six chosen by the Governor. Fiji is divided into twelve districts under paid chiefs. The yearly budget has fallen off with the decrease of the population, while the public debt grows from year to year. Fiji has, in fact, disappointed the expectations of the first white settlers, and the local traders have already several times petitioned the Victoria Parliament to undertake its administration. In 1881 the volcanic island of Rotuma, lying 300 miles to the nortj^sest, was formally "■W r^T MV'' ■;'■• dso greatly in pecieB of yam ps of the tare )f the century 8), resembling nged by hun- 38, but by the One of the apyrifera), the t pliant fabric .rally of a pure bich resembles bh pigment. i r their fruits, he plantations id not BO much ling system of American Civil otton growing. itry to compete r a few bales of isent the chief nd sugar. Up )f over 280,000 ad Australians, agents. the east side of N capital, Suva, the two largest But the port of land, where the jouth of Vanua- ihermal springs hipelago, which by the Queen, . six chosen by efs. opulation, while lisappointed the I already several ration. In 1881 st, was formally ..«"^ 1 -«*8*||8W-«»iW— - S . " T' " - ' """*^ - FIJI. 465 annexed by England to Fiji. The interior of this hilly islet, scarcely 14 squaro miles in extent, has been transformed to an enclosure for wild pigs, which with palm groves and gardens constitute its chief wealth. Like the Fijians, the Rotumans, skilful and daring seafarers, have been subjected to the influence of Fig. 'iOI.— SUTA AMD LllTUXA. I : 670,000. lasb oF Greenwich I78*S0 I78'50- :'^ 'i D^tbi. ■■.!'■ Books and Band* «■• poaed at low water. OtoSO Stot. 80 to MO Feet. IS 640 Feet and upwBlda. the Tongans, who, even before the arrival of the English missionaries, had converted most of them to Wesleyan Christianity; but the natives, like so many other Polynesians, are dying out. 80— o m p^i \m ?i V CHAPTER XL EQUATORIAL POl : ^ESIA. , OLYNESIA ia one of those vague geographical terms which have been variously applied to more or less extensive aggregates of oceanic islands. From the purely geographical standpoint these are insular groups of small extent, scattered over the Pacific east of the great archipelagoes and continental regions of the Philip- pines, New Guinea, and Australia. But ethnographically considered Polynesia, that is, the " Many Islands," consists of the vAtX oceanic clusters inhabited by the light brown race allied to the Malays in spett K, but di£Eering greatly from them in physical appearance, usages, and traditions. Hence, from the ethnical point of view, b h New Zealand in the Antarctic hemisphere and Hawaii in ihe northern hemisphere would 8. Soale 1 : 90,000,000. to 1,000 Fathoms. Deptba, 1,000 Fathomi and upwardi. .•i»3 , 1,800 Mile*. upraised lands, beginning in the north-west with Samoa, one member of which is the largest in Polynesia. Then follow the little Falmerston and Cook clusters, the whole terminating with the more scattered Tubuai Archipelago. The third line, less regular in its general disposition, but still clearly traced by the sub- marine soundings, runs from the Tokelau group through Fukapuka and Suvarov to the Society Islands. Beyond this point a few islets, usually assigned to the Tuamotu Archipelago, might be equally well regarded as belonging to the same system as the Tahiti (Society) group. Although isolated by abysmal depths, such as those of Hilgard and Miller, west and east, the Phoenix cluster is disposed in the same direction as Tahiti, as are also the Penrhyn Islands (Manahiki) forming the north- west extremity of the fourth range. This range, running south-east through the main axis of Tuamotu, curves slightly round so as to present its convex side to the equator. To the same range belong Pitcairn and Easter, as well as Sala y Gomez, '/'•■•■5 •In24°37'8.1at. ; nS'SE. long. r~ ■* V% f ^ ' VH'^ '' ^ ' '.!^'^ ': V;^ ' ^"' ' ^M' *^' '^ *'' 168 AUSTRAIiASIA. the last Polj'neaian land in the direction of Asia. Farther "east the Pacific is entirely free of islands for a space of about 1,600 miles, and Juan Fernandez, although in a line with Tuamotu and Easter, must be regarded as a geographical dependency of the American continent. North of the Central Polynesian axis follow two other ranges, one comprising Maiden, Caroline, and the northern chain of the Low Archipelago, the other beginning north of the equator with Samarang, New York, Christmas, and Fanning, often collectively named America Islands, and terminating with the isolated swarm of the Marquesas, still 3,000 miles from the Californian peninsula, and even 2,000 from Hawaii. Like other oceanic populations, the Polynesians have been brought under the Fig. 203.— VoiiOAino Islands of Eabtebn Polynesia. Soale 1 : 100,000,000. 0* 50 Kjfmtma •jAfncm* Tain \ Ji. •■ . . M u yttssa f Smstmr ,y ^- 0* 50* 180" Meridian or Greenwich 110' 1,800 influence of the European missionaries and traders, and the clash of national and religious interests has resulted in the ofBcial annexation of most of the archi- pelagoes. England id supreme in the western parts, where Tonga and Tokelau come within the political attraction of her Australian possessions. Owing to its central position in the mid-Pacific Samoa forms a bone of contention between the rival British, American, and Germanic powers, and to their diplomatic conflicts are due the civil wars that have long raged in the archipelago. The less important Phoanix, Funning, Enderbury, Maiden, and other guano producing islands, though often attributed to the United States, have hitherto remained unoccupied. But Tahiti, together with the Low and Marquesas groups, are henceforth recognised as belonging to France, which is thus paramount in the easternmost parts of Poly- nesia. -•■■'.;■ ^- 'v- ,^v'i;;'s,--:':":j Geologically this region differs in no respect from Micronesia. The vol- canoes, extinct in the east, are now confined to Tonga and Samoa, the former group EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA. 469 tie Pacific is I Fernandez, geograpbical le comprising 50, the other iristmaa, and ing with the Ian peninsula, ^ht under the 0* ,y 50' HO* >f national and ; of the archi- 1 Tokelau come ]; to its central tween the rival onflicts are due less important islands, though occupied. But orth recognised t parts of Poly- jBia. The vol- le former group continuing the igneous system of New Zealand. Here Tofua (2,800 feet) was the scene of an eruption in 1885, and Kao (5,000 feet) has been frequently disturbed during the historic period. Lat^, west of the Vavao group, emitted flames in 1854, and its northern neighbour Fonualai (Amargura) was nearly blown away by a terrific explosion in 1846. Niua, which stands in a line with the volcanic axis. Fig. 204.— ToNOA- Tabu. SoaU 1 : 700,000. to 1,000 Fathoms Depths. 1,000 Fathoms and upwards. I.. 13 Miles. presents a remarkably regular oval shape, with a lake of like form within the circuit of its vast crater. Tonga really comprises two distinct chains, a western with several lofty isolated cones, and an eastern consisting of low islands. Here the large island of Tonga-Tabu itself is merely a level plain of coralline sands un- derlying a thick layer of extremely fertile vegetable humus. The whole island is covered with a rich vegetation of bread-fruit trees, palm-groves, and bananas. Other coralline islands, such as the picturesque Vavao group and Nine farther east have been raised to a certain height above sea-level. , ^ miim i M^^ms ' imfm^^^'^ ■ ■ X I l|l|ll|ll!«I . I^ ^ IWW t I .I ^ M l «. l "- 'I " " ■ "I ' j.J B' t- »w,"^ivK^i 'i? ' "f!^'-'w^"j* ' ^ ' ''TS 'i vif i 'i^fii ' «' ' i ii i^^ ? > g> ' yf aw,' ' .'^ ' V ! j.'j ' «^ywi'Uy p.- K 470 AUSTEALASIA. t r Samoa, which is regularly disposed in a long chain, is entirely volcanic, present- ing nothing but basalt rocks, either still compact or reduced to tuffas and scoriae, and differing greatly in age. Some are completely weathered on the surface, while others appear to have little changed since the time when the lava streams overflowed from their fiery furnaces. Tutuila, easternmost of the three large islands, has no longer a central crater, all the cones having been obliterated by weathering, while profound ravines have been opened in the flanks of the moun- tains, whose original outlines can no longer be recognised. TJpolu, farther west, presents a somewhat similar aspect, though the volcanoes have preserved their regular slopes, scoriae, and craters in some districts. Lastly, the large island of Savaii, in the extreme west, forms a single igneous S?r Fig. 206.— Samoa. Scale 1 : S,fiOO.OOO. West oF G Deptha. Oto 1,000 £!atboini. 1,000 to 1,000 Fathoms. 8,000 Fatboraa and upwaidi. lOOMfles. b' * mass, an Etna with central crater, with gently inclined slopes dotted over with numerous parasitic cones. A continuous forest clothes the central summit and the zone of secondary crests, while every crater is embowered in verdure. Of all the Samoan islands Savaii has the narrowest fringe of coral reefs, which Dana attributes to the shorter period that has elapsed since the extinction of its vol- canoes. The eastern islets also present the same coralline formation, relatively larger in proportion to the longer time they have been quiescent. Rose, last link of the chain, is probably an atoll built up by the polyps on the summit of an igneous crest. Even on the reefs are seen here and there fragments of basalt, perhaps deposited by the floating trunks of trees, or thrown out by passing boats as useless ballast. ' ' ■'*"'; -i ^„ ' r" ' r'''">^" B .-i!MM l {ill | ^JL I " ■! il EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA. 471 icanic, present- fas and scoriae, tt the surface, B lava streams lie three large obliterated by I of the moun- 11, farther west, preserved their I single igneous t lotted over with 1 summit and the verdure. Of all jef 8, which Dana ction of its vol- mation, relatively Bose, last link imit of an igneous >f basalt, perhaps ig boats as useless The various groups continuing the Samoan range south-eastwards also consist either of volcanoes or upheaved coral rocks, with but few atolls. The Cook Islands have several cones 300 or 400 feet high, overtopped by the majestic Raratonga, which attains an elevation of 4,000 feet. Of like formation are the Tubuai or Austral Islands, whose reef-fringed igneous crests continue the line of the Samoan system. But the loftiest volcanic mountains in equatorial Polynesia are those of the Fig. 206.— Gambieb Abohipblaoo. Soale 1 : 300,000. Otolt Fathoms. Depth*. IStoSOO Fathonu. 600 Fftthoms and up^rorda. 8 HHes. _\..^ Tahiti or Society group. Here Maupiti, rising over 300 feet above an atoll, is followed by the twin-crested Bora-Bora (2,300 feet), Tahaa (1,300 feet), Huahine (1,180 feet), and the isolated Tapamanoa, leading to the superb group of Tahiti proper. Moorea or Eimeo, westernmost of this group, is dominated by the long extinct Tohivea (4,000 feet), whose decomposed lavas now support a luxuriant i .r... .,, i,i-, i ,»y « ip,,. i,| i j iii j i i i ,i ii |y i.ii y y n ii yn, I I , ^. r n , ji,|j iiii jj ^i ' f i^ i yfj'y^Miw y yyif f ^■ll^l^ | ^4^.w^^«^ ' : l .|: ' l'B ^ yl ^ W / ^ 472 AUSTEALASIA. I I i ft; tropical vegetation. Of more symmetrical form is Taiti Nui ("Great Tahiti"), whose regular cone occupies the centre of the island, which is connected on the south-east by a narrow tongue of land with Taiti Iti, or "Little Tahiti." Komo, highest peak of the latter (3,700 feet), is nearly doubled in height by the superb Orohena (7,335 feet), which springs from the centre of Great Tahiti. The neigh- Fig. 207.— The MABouwAa. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. to 1,000 FaUunna. Dapttia. 1,000 to 9.000 Fatbomi. S.OOO Fathomi andnpwaMt. . 80 Milei. bouring Aorai is nearly as lofty, while several of the surrounding satellites of these two monarchs attain an altitude of 5,000 feet. Orohena, that is, "Soil of the Gods," terminating in a cluster of vertical basalt columns, has never been scaled, and even the more accessible Aorai was only ascended for the first time in 1882. Some hundred and fifty streams or rivulets rushing in cascades over the basalt terraces have gradually deposited the rich detritus of the eruptive rocks on the narrow I:- reat Tahiti"), aneoted on the ihiti." Komo, by the superb i. The neigh- «>irt 10' -*: — -W ■*•, •■■'. satellites of these Soil of the Gods," 1 scaled, and even in 1882. Some lie basalt terraces ks on the narrow _•— .i_ "S^r v^ : '■■ EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA. 478 Bone of plainH encircling the iulund with u fringe of verdure ul)out two tuile.H deep ; the deposits ure prevented from being carried Heuwurds by un outer biirrier of reefs. The Maniihiki islets, scattered to the north-west of Tahiti, are uU "low," like those of the great archipelago spciully denignatod by that name. This Low Archipelago, formerly known an Pomotu ("Lands of Night" or "Mystery"), and at present us Tuamotu ("Remote Lands "), might well have retained the name of "Dangerous" given to it by Bougainville. Nt .rly all the visible islets are atolls or mere reefs extremely perilous to navigators. Before the introduction of the cocoanut the only arborescent plants were the paiidunus and a species of box called mikimiki. Of the 78 islets composing the archipelago properly so called 74 appear to be under 14 feet high, and the few that attain iip ctninonce of 120 feet look like veritable mountains. Possessing no lagoons of smooth water they are avoided by skippers The atolls are generally of a regular oval shape disposed in the direction of the archipelago itself, that is, north-west and south- east. South-east of Tuamotu the relatively large island of Mangareva forms with a lew elevated islets a distinct volcanic group, known as the Gambler Archipelago, and mi i-norable in connection with the researches of Darwin on the oscillations of the terrestrial crust. The whole group is enveloped in an outer coral reef appa- rently indicating the ancient coastline of now submerged land, which, according to the illustrious naturalist, slowly subsided, while the exterior rim was kept near the surface by the coral builders. But whatever is to be said of this theory, which has recently been contested by Guppy, Murray, and others, it is certain that Gambler consists essentially of an igneous nucleus round which the polyps have raised their coral structures. Duff, the central eminence (1,200 feet), is an extinct volcano, as are all the other heights scattered over the inner waters. Apart from a few atolls and coral reefs the Marquesas are all old volcanoes, or groups of volcanoes, probably extinct for many ages, and no longer anywhere pre- senting the regular form of cones with terminal craters and lava sheets. Nuka- hiva, largest member of the archipelago, shows on its west side nothing but steep cli£fs and stony plateaux almost destitute of vegetation ; but the central part, source of the largest stream, is enclosed by a circle of hills culminating in a peak 3,860 feet high. Hiva-oa has better preserved its primitive architecture, still forming an amphitheatre of volcanic hills, one of which is the highest point in the archi- pelago (4,140 feet). The solitary Easter Island, on the eastern verge of Polynesia, is a huge block of lava, t«rminating in a volcano ruptured at the three corners of its triangular mass. The highest summit at the north-west angle rises 1,640 feet sheer above the surface of the water. • ,4J^.,v■?^■. : <■■■ !;■•-. }:s^M^&:'''S •;':.; ■"* •■■■..- ■. v" ', Climate. — Flora. — Fauna. Equatorial Polynesia is almost entirely comprised within the zone of the south- east trade winds, the groups north of the equator being alone exposed to north- east breezes, which in summer veer round to the north-west, or become variable ".,-' *■ ' ' ■pw« « II fi.M » 474 AUHTUAliiVMIA. i I ctirrentd. Tn ihPBO woters hurricanon ore rare, although they blow at timoH with oxtroiiio violonco, eHpociully in the Low Archi|)olufjo and in Kamou. In IM7H a oyclono paBfling over Tuumotu Hwopt away Anaa, tho capital. Another tremuiuloua typhoon visited Samoa in March, 1H8!), and almost completely wrecked the American and German fleets riding at anchor in the harbour of Apia. The liritifih (Tuim'r Calliope alone escaped uninjured by making for the open sea ia tho teeth of Huch a gale as had not been known in the archipelago for nearly thirty years. The hilly islands, such as Nuka-hiva, Tahiti, Raratonga, Upolu, and Savaii, lying along the track of tho trade-winds, receive an abundant rainfall at least on their windward slopes. Uut the low insular groups, which are unable to arrest the moist atmospheric currents, are much drier, and at times never receive a single downpour for years together. The islands lying within this almost rainless zone were, till lately, covered with thick deposits of guano, and some are even still worked with profit. Such are Baker, the neighbouring Howlands, and farther east Jurvis and Maiden. In its flora and fauna Equatorial Polynesia is essentially Melanesian. Although American forms occur, nearly all its plants and animals have come from the west, which would seem to imply that these archipelagoes are not surviving fragments of a submerged continent. Tahiti, Samoa, and other lands enjoying a copious rainfall are clothed with an exuberant tropical vegetation, but distinct animal and vegetable species are everywhere few in number. In the Low Archipelago Gray failed to discover more than 28 or 30 indigenous plants, and before tho arrival of the whites a species of rat, said to have been half domesticated in Mangareva, was the only mammal found in equatorial Polynesia. Here also a centipede 6 inches long is the only venomous animal. Inhabitants of Polynesia. From the ethnical standpoint Polynesia forms a distinct domain in the ooeanio world, although its inhabitants do not appear to be altogether free from mixture with foreign elements. The vestiges of older civilisations differing from the present even prove that human migrations and revolutions have taken place in this I'egion on a scale large enough to cause the displacement of whole races. The jurious monuments of Easter Island, although far inferior in artistic work to the wood carvings of Birora and New Zealand, may perhaps be tL ", witnesses of a former culture, no traditions of which have survived amongst the present aborigines. These monuments may pr^^ibly be the work of a Papuan people, for skulls found in the graves differ in i.^u essential feature from those of New Guinea. The " statues " are enonaous basalt rocks, one no less than 23 feet long, representing the head and bust of persons with uniformly low forehead, prominent superciliary arches, long nose, wide nostrils, large mouth, thin lips, and stem expression. According to Clements Markham they resemble the Aymara (Bolivian and Peru- vian) more than the present Polynesian type. Most of them are erected on basalt ledges in the interior of a crater, and some have been left unfinished or not com- ii- "i! i i.^^]}iiiii i im iii> » i EQUATORIAT/ I'OLYNKi^TA. 475 • at times with II. In IH78 a tier treraondouB ' wrecked the )f Apia. The ,ho open seu in or nearly thirty )lu, and Suvaii, fall at least on inable to arrest receive a single ' (st rainless zone e are even still I ids, and farther Bian. Although 3 from the west, iving fragments oying a copious tinct animal and Lrchipelago Gray jre the arrival of Mangareva, was sntipede 6 inches iin in the oo^Iilo ree from mixture fEering from the aken place in this rhole races. The •tistic work to the the witnesses of a wesent aborigines. }, for skulls found ew Guinea. The long, representing linent superciliary stem expression, lolivian and Peru- •e erected on basalt lished or not com- pletely detached from the primitive rock. The Hurrouiuling district is strewn with obsidian implonientM, scrajwrs, and knives, doubtless the iiiHtrunuuits employed by this extinct raco of sculptors. In Kaster Island are also seen avcuin's with n^gular flag pavements und walls omboUisliod with little obelisks, besidim tablets of fnro^ fiiii'o, u species of hurd-graiued acacia, on which are carefully inscribed in regular lines objects of various kinds, such us fishes, turtles, snakes, plants, shells, men and their weapons. Most of these " speaking " tablets, or hieroglyphics, are preserved in the museum of Santiago, Chili, but they do not appear to have yet been inter- preted, although a chief, who died about ISiiO, was said to understand and even Fig. 208.— Eamtrh IsiiAlTD. Soale 1 : UbU.UW). IfeM or I09'25 Ota9S X'athomi. Dep^hR. 25 to 1,000 Fathoms. 1,000 Fatbomi and upwards. 6 MUm. write these characters. Other monuments occur in Fanning, Rapa, and elsewhere, and in Tonga-Tabu is seen a sort of triumphal arch. V ; - . The Polynesians properly so called, to whom the collective tenrs Mahori and Savaiori have also been applied, and who call themselves Kanaka, that is, " Men," have a light brown or coppery complexion, and rather exceed the tallest Europeans in stature. In Tonga and Samoa nearly all the men are athletes of fine proportions, with black and slightly wavy hair, fairly regular features and proud glance. They are a laughter-loving light-hearted people, fond of music, song, and the dance, and where not visited by wars and the contagion of European " culture," the happiest and most harmless of mortals. When Dumont d'Urvills questioned the Tukopians as to the doctrine of a future life with rewards for the good and j>unishment for the wicked, they replied : " Amongst us there are no wicked people." 'W,.f:^ipSv'<' 476 AUSTRALASIA. ?fc: k^ The various idioms current in Eastern Polynesia all spring from one stock and are still closely related to each other both in structure and vocabulary. More distantly akin to the Malay family, they represent an older period of development, and would seem to imply greater racial purity on the part of the Polynesians them- selves. They are poor in sounds, but soft and harmonious, no syllable ending in a Fig. 209. — Tattooed Native of the MABQxmaAB Islands. '^1P. •*'4':- V 11 ■. ' „ M M, m/y/ s - \ " ■1 . y|k pV,/ ' ■■: ;' '--^ \mw - '..,""C ,.-■'. p^ll~* .^^ -." 1 ^■VS.*^-^* , *t- • •; . -i; . . '■'' rf - ?-- ■■■■ |^%^;;-4^W1^\ a^f^l^-V'^ '«if.: ■lS>^"^^?W^ ".> w. ^ • -'■•■'■- ':,/". .- . '^^^i l-f ---^".^C"- ' ■ M-i '.'■r-^-'f ^ consonant, and the vowels everywhere predominating. Till lately ilnxost unin- flocted, thoy have in recent years been considerably modified by the roissionaries ignorant of their true genius, and are now largely affected by English words and expressions. . Tattooing was widespread, and so highly developed that the artistic designu m t ^ m\-> v»» > EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA. 477 n one stock and abulary. More of development, lyneBians them- ible ending in a ''/z y'M '^. lately almoEt Tinin- by tbe tnissionaries English words and tbc artistic design* covering the body served also to clothe it ; but this costume is now being replaced Fig. 210.— Saxoan Wohbn. ilii!!!#;:SHiKi;i;;;:::;;:,;;,;:'^;^^ aiwiii!!iip|S;l, . :i;ipii'l;riii:ii:;;!iiiiliiiiiS^^^ ;:;':;::i;.;:il:iiiiaii*::ni;i!Sii:ii;!iiS ■■■""iiii::"!!:";?!!'!"'":!" •. ■' - ,i-''"»iiii5 ■■""Cijllif laiil.lWiSa:::::,:::::',;:: '■■;.;:.:1 fSg -Jias . ""'"njiiiiaiai::.!: iiiuulikHi' t-^'ji^^'N^^ by the cotton ganneuts introduced by the missionaries. lu cerlaiu iiilauds the ■■ l l ^ l M ||^ yl l > ll l)^j | ^ l ^ ll .l^Jll ^l l^ ll ^, jly ^^ l ^ ll■l . 478 AUSTEALASIA. operation lasted so long that it had to be begun before the children were six years old, and the pattern was largely left to the skill and cunning of the professional tattooers. Still traditional motives recurred in tl^e ornamental devices of the several tribes, who could usually be recognised by their special tracings, curved or parallel lines, diamond forms and the like. The artists were grouped in schools like the Qld Masters in Europe, and they worked not by incision as in most Melanesian islands, but by punctures with a small comb-like instrument slightly tapped with a mallet. The pigment used in the painful and even dangerous opera- tion was usually the fine charcoal yielded by the nut of aleurifes triloba, an oleaginous plant used for illumining purposes throughout Eastein Polynesia. The Polynesians are wrongly supposed to have been unacquainted with the bow and arrow. In Tonga and Samoa these weapons were used in the battle-field, and' in the eastern archipelagoes they figured at the civil or religious feasts, or as mere playthings. Except where anthropophagy formed part of the mythical ceremonies, the only animal food was fish, shell-fish and pork, and even this diet was generally forbidden to the women, sometimes under pain of death. In most of the groups fruits, grains, edible roots and leaves, sometimes fermented and pounded to a paste, sufficed to nourish the natives, and were mostly yielded by bountiful nature with little labour on their part. At every repast the never-failing beverage was kava, which the young women prepared by masticating the slightly pungent leaves and fibre of the piper methisticum, still cultivated in the gaidens for this purpose. After fermentation the liquor becomes clear, pleasant to the taste, very refreshing and but slightly intoxicating. Indulged in too freely, however, it is said to cause general debility and skin diseases. Since its interdiction by the missionaries, it has been almost everywhere r^laced by the more dangerous brandy distilled from, orange juice. In Samoa tbn women were much respected, and every village had its patroness, usually the chief's daughter, who represented the community at the civil and religious feasts, introduced strangers to the tribe, and diffused general happiness by their cheerful demeanour and radiant beauty. But elsewhere the women, though as a rule well treated, were regarded as greatly inferior to the men. At the religious ceremonies the former were noa, or profane, the latter ra, or sacred, and most of the interdictions of things tabooed fell on the weaker sex. The women never shared the family meal, and they were regarded as common properly in the household of the chiefs, where polygamy was the rule. Before the arrival of the Europeans infanticide was systematically practised; in Tahiti and some other groups there existed a special caste, amongst whom this custom was even regarded as a duty. Hence doubtless arose the habit of adopting strange children, almost universal in Tahiti, where it gave rise to all manner of complications connected with the teniire and inheritance of piopoity. In Polynesia the government was almost everywhere centred in the hands of powerful chiefs, against whose mandates there was no appeal. A vigorous hier- archy separated the social classes one from another, proprietors being subject to the chiefs, the poor to the rich, the women to the men; but over all custom reigned EQUATOBIAL -POLYNESIA. 479 )n were six years the professional 1 devices of the acings, curved or ouped in schools laion as in most itrument slightly dangerous opera- urites triloba, an 1 Polynesia. , (itedwith the bow e battle-field> and feasts, or as mere thical ceremonies, iiet was generally lost of the groups - ounded to a paste, ntiful nature with leverage was kava, ungent leaves and lis purpose. Altei- ery refreshing and t is said to cause missionaries, it has ndy distilled from e had its patroness, y at the civil and i i general happiness where the women, ar to the men. At latter ra, or sacred, 3T sex. The women non property In the :e the arrival of the iti and some other a was even regarded ftge children, almost plications connected Ltred in the hands of 1, A vigorous hier- tors being subject to 5r all custom reigned supreme. This law of taboo, which regulated all movements and every individual act, often pressed hard even on its promulgators, and the terrible penalties it enforced against the contumacious certainly contributed to increase the ferocity of the oceanic populations. Almost the only punishment was death, and human sacrifices in honour of the gods were the crowning religious rite. In some places the victims were baked on the altars, and their flesh wrapped in taro leaves was distributed amongst the warriors. Yet despite the little value attached to human life, the death of adiilt men gave rise to much mourning and solemn obsequies. Nor was this respect for the departed an empty ceremonial, for the ancestors of the Polynesians were raised to the rank Fig. 211, — Reuoions OF Ogbania. Swle 1 : 180,000.0001 40' e* p ■■•- ■/«• '. ■•^.•" 40' IQO* Meridian oF GreenwicVi 180' 150* A. Animists. B U Birnhmanlnto. Mohammedaai. CP Catholio*. PC P Frotestanta. f rot«>ii«nt« more nnmerooa than Oathoiios. 1,800 MUea. Miga rt gij 'i^TWiW^r'i of gods, taking their place with those who hurled the thunderbolt and stirred up the angry waters. A certain victorious hero thus became the God of War, and had to be propitiated with supplications. But the common folk and captives were held to be " soulless," although a spirit was attributed to nearly all natural objects. But for about half a century nearly all the Polynesians have practised some form of Christianity. The work of conversion was begun in 1797 by the establish- ment of the Protestant station at Tahiti, whence the missionaries gradually spread their influence tbrougbout Polynesia. They wore followed by the Catholics, who tliC^igh less numerous and possessing smaller revenues, have everywhere made prowlytes ; in some places, and especially in the French possessions, they even already outnumber the Protestants. Civil strife has often been stirred up by the friction of the rival religions. Where the priests hold undisputed sway theocratic ^mmmmmmmmmtm > in li H» i i i>i iH i> j i) r i n i| ^ii.< i i i iii 480 AUSTRALASIA. !■ governments have been constituted, and in Gambler a Catholic missionary attempted to transform the island of Mangareva into a vast monastery. On the other hand tho English Protestants in the Cook Islands and for a time even in Tahiti deprived non-communicants of all civil and political rights, and regulated social customs, attitudes, salutations, and the whole conduct of the natives. In their institutions, myths, religious rites, and many other respects the Poly-* nesians betray diverse affinities to all their western neighbours, Papuans, Indo- nesians, Malays, and even Japanese. They also present numerous analogies with the natives of North and South America, and more especially with the Araucanians of Chili. It seems therefore possible that the Americans have had their share in Fig. 212. — Inrabitamts of Oceania. I Seale 1 : USO,000,000. *o- 100* Meridian oP Greenwich -: i - Halajn, Indoaeiians. Aoitndiaiu. Britiih. Papuan*. Mioraneaia la. Futyiieaiaiia. .N .E. .B. .M .H Negritoea. Burn. Bsom. Maori. HaTaiki. ^—^——^—— 1,800 MUaa. 1 the interminglingps that have taken place throughout the eastern archipelagoes, the more so that the normal winds and currents set in the direction from east to west. Recent historical facts show that migrations from the mainland to the islands and from one archipelago to another may often take place under certain favourable conditions. Thus in 1832 a Japanese junk with nine fishermen drifted for ten months with the winds and currents, finally landing at Oahu in Hawaii. About the same time another Japanese bark was stranded on the American coast, and similar unwilling voyages have frequently been made between the Philippine, Caroline, and Marshall groups. The Tahitians and seafarers returning from the Low Archipelago also speak of numerous migrations made even in the contrary directiou to the uoimal winds. Siaailar eases are attested by the iinaniiuous tradi- riMMWManMSKTI EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA. Ml [onary attempted I the other hand I Tahiti deprived i social customs, 38pect8 the Poly-* , Papuans, Indo- 18 analogies with . the Araucanians lad their share in Fulynadan*. L archipelagoes, the from east to west. . to the islands and certain favourable en drifted for ten n Hawaii. About merican coast, and en the Philippine, returuiug from the en in the contrary le nnaniTroons tradi- tions of the natives, so that interminglings could certainly have taken place at various times throughout the vast Pacific basin. But although migrations may evidently have occurred in all directions, physical resemblance, speech, usages, and tradition^ all point to the western lands near Asia as the region whence most of the Polynesian islanders reached their present homes. Ethnologists have also shown that the general eastward movement must be referred to a very remote epoch, certainly prior to the spread of Hindu influence in Malaysia, for no trace of Sanskrit can be found in the Polynesian languages. According to Hamy their nearest kindred should be sought amongst those tall, light-coroplexioned Indonesians, who have been driven into the interior by the in- truding Malays, and who under the common name of Alf urus are often confounded with the Negrito or Papuan populations. Attempts have been made to fix the point of Pig. 213.— EouATOBiAi, Polynesia. BY TuPAiA. v V A \iSmm/tmnm Copy Of the Chart by Tupala. Half of the original iizt. ^^ w f »^' • |fe\ 4Q2 AUSTKALA8IA. East of thi8 mysterious land the dispersion took place from island to island and essays have been made to trace the very order of the migrations by the aid of the map of Tahiti and surrounding islands prepared by the Tahitian Tupaia who accompanied Cook on one of his voyages. But this map itself, correct enough for Tahiti and neighbouring lands, has probably little more than a mythical value for the more western regions. , ' . * •♦ MeanwhUe, the race itself seems to be almost everywhere hastening to its extinction, as shown by the accurate returns made at different times durmg the present century. In 1774 Cook estimated the population of Tahiti at about two Fig. 2U.— M0VBMBNT8 OF THE OOKAMIO PoPUlATiONfl. Scale 1 : 100,000,000. '' ■■''Vl***' 0" 40* 100° Meridian oF Greenwicn 180" ■I30' lAnd« fa which the populaHon U increaaiiig. The popnlalion tecreaaeral* In the idande toeerted on the map. In dl the oftet. it dln>inid>N. 1,800 Mile*. hundred and forty thousand, reduced to one hundred and fifty thousand by Forster who assigned six hundred and fifty thousand to the whole of Polynesia At presen the Polynesians number scarcely more than one hundred and ten thousand, but whUe they are thus disappearing at a rapid rat« they still remain physically one of the finest races on the fa<.e of the globe. In this respect there appears to be no deterioration, and the decrease in numbers must be attributed in great par^ to numerous external causes, snch as former massacres, the contract labour system, especially before it was regulated by government control, the sale of strong drinks, and above all the epidemics introduced by the white traders and seafarers. In 1778 immediately after Cook's visit. Hawaii was decimated by this scourge, and what the Hawauans assert all their Polynesian kindred repeat, that disease and extermination were introduced by the Europeans. ^ • Even the adoption of European clothes, rendering them more susceptible to •M.^Ji.J.'JjJ-.J.W-'JH*' EQUATORIAL' POLYNESIA. 488 island to island, ions by the aid of itian Tupaia, who iorrect enough for nythical value for ! hastening to its times during the ihiti at about two 0" •V 40* ■I30' etsitdiminiahM. thousand by Forster, lynesia. At present d ten thousand, but ain physically one of ere appears to be no ed in great part to tract labour system, sale of strong drinks, s and seafarers. In by this scourge, and peat, that disease and • more susceptible to changes of temperature, and stiU more the suppression of their national pastimes, boisterous rejoicings, feasts and dances, interdicted by the missionaries, have co-operated towards the extinction of the race. The people become weary of a too placid, aimless existence, and die out through sheer inanition. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to the general law of decadence and in certain favoured localities, such as Lukunor in the Carolines, Futuna in the Wallis group, and Niue north of Tonga, the population normally increases by the natural excess of births over deaths. Elsewhere the natives become more and more intermingled with immi- grants from all quarters, and wherever any actual increase takes place, as for instance in Tahiti, it occurs almost invariably amongst the half-castes resulting from these crossings. The modem era has thus begun for the Polynesians, who can be rescued from ultimate extinction only by the sacrifice of their racial purity and gradual absorption in the surrounding populations. The Tonga Archipelago lies somewhat apart from the chief ftcean highways between Australia and the New World, its principal member, Tonga-Tabu, being over 420 miles south-east of Fiji, the natural station on the route from Melbourne and Sydney to Hawaii and San Francisco. Nevertheless, Tonga is visited by many skippers, mostly Germans, who here ship large quantities of copra, yielded by the vast palm-groves of these fertile islands. The capital and most frequented port of the little Tonga state is Nukualofa, on a roadstead well sheltered by reefs on the north side of Tonga- Tabu. On the east side Mua, the central Catholic station, lies near the old residence and the necropolis of the royal family. Lefuka, in the Haabai group, and Niua, in the largest of the Vavao Islands, also trade in copra, chiefly with German houses. The port of Niua, although of somewhat difficult access, is one of the finest in the Pacific, forming an extensive basin 20 to 25 fathoms deep, sheltered from all winds by an amphitheatre of high escarpments. East of Tonga, Savage Island, so called by Cook from the rude welcome given him by the natives, has resumed its original name of Niue (Inui), and has been declared neutral territory by a convention signed in 1886 between England and Germany. English influence, however, is paramount in this islet, one of the most fertile in Polynesia, and inhabited by Polynesians of Tonga speech and descent. The few islets lying north-west from Tonga and north-east of Fiji, and collectively called Wallis from their discoverer in 1767, are disposed on a line which, drawn from Samoa, would pass through the British island of Rotuma to Anuda and Tukopia, the last western lands inhabited by Polynesians. The natives probably came from Tonga-Tabu, although Uvea or Wallis, properly so called, is regarded by them as the cradle of their race. Futuna, west of Uvea, was formerly inhabited by ferocious cannibals who devoured to the last man the eighteen hundred of the neighbouring island of Aktji, " Land of Love," and one of its chiefs is reported to have eaten bis own mother. Wallis was annexed to the French Oceanic possessions in 1887. Samoa, named by Bougainville the Navigators' Archipelago, is still a great MMNkMMte IV 46i AUSTEALASIA. centre of Pacific navigation, Upolh iSe most densely peopled island, being much frequented by £nglish, American, and German skippers. The chief port, Apia, lies at the head of a semicircular bay on the north side of Upolu, which is sheltered on the west by a long wooded promontory fringed with reefs. Formerly a rendezvous for whalers, Apia now chiefly exports copra, although cotton, coffee, and tobacco plantations have also been laid out. But a protracted war of sucoeasion Fig. 216.- Apia. "• Soia* 1 : 87,000 ^ ,1 11 ■ J ■ I 1 lasb jpbreenwich 171' 43' I7l**4.' J < Depths. Books exposed at low trater. OtoSS Feet. 8>to80 Feet. . 1,100 Tarda. 80 Feet and opwatdi. fomented by th« Germans has well-nigh ruined its agricultural prospects. The fields aiid gardens have been wasted np t,o the very suburbs of Apia, which has itself safPered much from these deplorable rivalries. Apia might be replaced as a seaport by the much safer inlet of Panyo-Pango on the south side of Tutuila, but for its remote position. At the bay of Funga-sa, on the opposite side of this island, Lauglti and thieo other companions of Lap6rouse Trere murdered by the natives in 1787. EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA. 485 ind, being much chief port, Apia, vhich is sheltered fs. Formerly a sotton, coffee, and rar of sucoession •■•;. '■■' ■. ■'\ •<'•: ■ 80 Feet and apwmrda. ral prospects. The of Apia, which has fht be replaced as a dde of Tutuila, but e side of this island, »d bv the natives in 9/ The whole of Samoa except Ttiu, easternmost member of the group, forms a constitutional state modelled on that of England, with a king and upper and lower houses. The capital is Mulinuu in Upolu, Apia forming a special municipality under a triumvirate of the English, American, and German consuls. Tau constitutes an " independent kingdom," whose sovereign is sharply looked after by his half-pagan subjects to prevent him from drinking water or bathing in the sea, events which would involve the state in ruin. The groups stretching south-eastwards from Samoa, though thinly peopled, had formerly great historic importance as stations along the lines of migration. Earatonga {Rorotonga), in the Hervey or Cook Archipelago, is pointed to by the Ilg. 216.— Tabiti and Moobia. • ' 6oaU 1 : 1,000,000. Deptha. to 1,000 Fathoms. 1,000 Fathomi and upward*. ^ 18 MUm. uatiyes of several other groups as the home of their ancestors. The present Rara- tongans have completely accepted the rigid administration introduced by the English missionaries. Thoy have schools, libraries, and even a newspaper in their language. Farther east, Tubuai or the Austral Islands, of which Rapa is the most important member, have recently been annexed by France. Tahiti, or the Society Archipelago, lies at present far to the east of the main Pacitic highway. But whenever the Panama Canal is opened, this group will be situated exactly midway between Central America and Australia, and must then take a foremost position in the Polynesian World. Papeete, residence of the representative of France, is a pleasant little place on the north side of the large island, with a spacious and deep harbour sheltered by a barrier reef pierced by three navigable openings. The trade of Papeete is mostly in the hands of English »«*,. AUSTRATiASIA. and American dealers, and next to their mother tongue, the natives are most familiar with English, originally intro. sboFGr 154' 14' 154.* 16' Deptlw. Km ■ B«efBezpowd at low water. otost Feet. SStoSO Feet. 80 to no Feet 810 Feet and npwaida. , 1,100 Yard*. speculators. About a thousand of these have settled down as petty dealers and gardeners. ;' About 50,000 acres, or one-fifth of the large island, are estimated to be avail- able for plantations. All these lands lying on the seaboard or on the first slopes of the hills, are easily accessible by the highway, 115 miles long, which winds in a double circuit round the twin islands of Great and Little Tahiti. But at the south-east extremity of the latter this romantic route is interrupted by precipices, and here the surf, driven by the trade winds through u large opeiung in the fringing reefs, has to be crossed in frail outriggers. The western part of Great Tahiti, between Papeete and the plantations, will soon be reached by a railway from the capital. A little fort has been erected on the isthmus of Taravao, which connects both islands, and which is the most convenient site for the centre of administration. Fort Phaeton, in this southern district, is far more qtaoious and 1 1 i m t rn m « I iwii BW*''^ 'I I lll'ii" ' '■ I 'Ig'ilW m, I' I I M I mi ll | i in. i in i . i m i»««^|jn^«»»iw»iwww— ;»p»«p««l>« lutives are most mt missionaries, cultural resource us wild, covering otto'n, coffee, and an utter failure imployed by the 820 Feet and njiwaida. petty dealers and imated to be avail- r on the first slopes ng, which winds in Tahiti. But at the ipted by precipices, ge opening iii the stem part of Great ached by a railway IS of Taravao, which be for the centre of r more spacious and iJii''' i ' '•! "t'k-"' '■'!■ I I ' ' "•n"''inUiMlilMli'lll W i.'i' '• 'JWl ■m fJ H g'E g-"'?" " . I 'l' i' - 'i "I ' W" EQlIATOUIAi; I'OLYNKHIA. 4ft7 ■£'■- '• bettor sholtored thuii thut ot l'a{M>ot<^, and it bud uUu the udvuntuge of u bcttur olimute und u rauru ftirtilu ioil. Moori'tt is u mere ugriimlturul dop«*ndency (rf Oreut Tahiti ; but liainti'ti, one of the Lvoward (^roup, |M)HwmH08 one of the beat )uirlM)urN in the I'ltcitio, thaiilcM to which it huH become the centre of u brittk trude, chiufly in the hundtt of the Ucnnuna. Some 4H0 miles north of Tuhiti lies Caroline IhIuiuI, whore the French ustrono- mersmude some remurkuble studios of solur physics in IHHi). Tho eastern groups of Tuamntu, Maiiffarfva, und the Marquemn have also some excellent havens, which might afford shelter to large Heots. Hut thoy are all thinly peopled, and the two capitals — Tnio-hai in Nuka-him und Rikitea in Mun- Fig. 218.-NUKA-UITA. , 6HUM. gareva are mere villages. In Tuamotu the administrative centre has been removed from Anaa to the more northern atoll of Fakarava. But the nparse population, dispersed over a space some 400,000 square miles in extent, renders all industrial and commercial development almost impossible. These remote archipelagoes, lying 3,600 miles from the nearest point of America, can never possess any natural resources beyond their palm-groves and pearl fisheries. In 1813 Porter, an American, seized the Marquesas Islands in the name of the United States Government, which, however, did not ratify the procedure. But in 1835 the French adventurer, Thiierry, proclaimed himself "King of Nuka- hiva," and he was followed by French Oatholic missionaries, whose action led to w m I m- 488 AUSTRALASIA. the gradual auuexatioa of tlie archipelago by France. Here the French agent exercises absolute control, while till quite recently the Catholic priests governed on theocratic principles in the name of France. In 1880 the Tahiti group was declared a French possession, and is now administered by a Council General elected by all citizens speaking the French language. South-east of Tuamotu the last inhabited laud is Pitcairn Inland, where the English crew of the Bounty,, after the mutiny of 1789, finally settled with Tahitian wives. When this little republican " state " was discovered in 1808 it awakened a certain sympathetic curiosity in England. The revolt was forgotten, donations Fig. 219.— PoLiTicAt Divisions of Ooxiini.. • » *?» SMla 1 : 160,000,000. F. A. Al. P. Fiaace. England. Oennanj. PortogiL TT. United StaiM. 0. OUU. . t,800 Hilea. flowed in, and the British QoYemment even placed the fertile island of Norfolk at the disposal of the overcrowded community. Most of the islanders accepted this offer, but some have since returned to Pitcairn. Easier Island, or Rapa Ntii, that is " Great Rapa," famous for its monolithic monuments and hieroglyphic tablets, lies 1,300 miles east of Pitcairn. After its occupation by some Tahitian immigrants, it was regaided an virtually a French possession ; but it has now been assigned to Chili, whose fleet dominates in these waters. The guano islets lying near and north of the equator are considered as British territory, although their only residents have hitherto been Americans engaged in working the guano deposits. The group nearest to Hawaii has even been named America Ishnds. Christmas, a southern member of this group, is one of the largest islands in Polynesia proper. A table of the chief Polynesian groups is given in the Appendix. aA^tiii^j^hiata^iaaMi*!^^*'*'^ the French agent c priests governed Tahiti group was aoil General elected * Inland, where the jttled with Tahitian n 1808 it awakened forgotten, donations f f m ft o • 0* 10 'SO- .1 0. cuu. e island of Norfolk at ilanders accepted this lus for its monolithic : Pitcaim. After its virtually a French set dominates in these 3 considered as British Americans engaged in has even been named group, is one of the .ppendix. ■ft',-'-. IVV*. ',-■■- .*,.!■_■ , CHAPTER XII. HAWAII, OR SANDWICH ISLANDS. . '' I HE Hawaiian group, better known by the name of Sandwich, given to it by Oook in 1778, forms the limit of the oceanic lands in the north-east Pacific. It forms a chain of islands, reefs, and banks ruuuliig nearly 2,000 miles in the direction from north-west to south-east, parallel with the South Polynesian archipelagoes. Hawaii is limited northwards by chasms ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms, and on the south side by abysmal depths exceeding 2,750 fathoms. It occupies a position of vital importance, being the most advanced region of the oceanic world in the direction of the United States. Yet its Polynesian inhabitants, who con- tinue to diminish in numbers, have not yet been replaced by fresh immigrants, and the whole archipelago, with nearly 7,000 square miles of dry land, has a population of little over 80,000 souls. Sighted by the early Spanish navigators, Hawaii appears to have been subse- quently visited by passing European seafarers, and thirty seven years before the arrival of Cook a Spanish vessel was wrecked on one of the islands. But the honour of having revealed the archipelago to the world still belongs to Cook, who twice visited it in 1778, on the first occasion discovering the three western islands of Niihau, Kauai, and Oahu, on the second perishing at the hands of the natives of Maui under circumstances that have not yet be6n satisfactorily explained. After Cook's voyage Hawaii was visited by Lap^rouse and Vancouver, and in 1794 Brown surveyed the port of Hsnclulu, which has since become the commercial centre of the group. Missionaries, naturalists, and traders gradually settled in the islands, and the work of exploration was even prosecuted by the natives themselves. At present Hawaii is by far the b«'3t known of all Polynesian lands, and its biblio- graphy comprises thousands of treatises of all kinds. A native legend, referring the origin of the archipelago to an enormous egg suddenly bursting in mid-ocean, is probably a reminiscence of old eruptions, during which some lands really rose above the surface. The volcanic range repro- duces in the inverse direction and on a far larger scale the formation of the Samoan group, for here also the loftiest moualuius lie at one extremity, the islands thence decreasing in altitude until at the opposite end they are mere reefa risiug little above the surrounding waters. The igneous forces diminish in the same direction, 490 AU8TBALASIA. I for the highest volcanoes and vastest caiildrons of seething lavas are found in Hawaii, the largest member of the group, at its south-eastern extremity. The other islands are also studded with cones and craters ; but here the fiery energy is much weaker, or is reduced to a few thermal springs. In the extreme north-west the long-extinct craters have been obliterated, and the heights are now clothed with an exuberant vegetation. Here also the coral reefs are far more numerous than oS: the coast of Hawaii, where the noxious" gases prevent the development of coral life. ;. In the island of Hawaii the southern volcano of Mauna-Loa, or the " Great Mountain," rises to a height of 13,760 feet, or about 3,000 feet above the vege- Fig. 220. — Hawaiian Islands. ' Soala 1 : 6.fiOO,000 Depths. otoiono FkUioina. 1.000 Fathama ■ndnpwuds. .y..^ 1» Miles. table zone. The crater, or rather group of craters, collectively named the Mokua- veoveo, open on the very summit of the mountain, «o as to form a 83rmmetrical cavity disposed in the direction from north to south. In the centre lies the vast primitive crater, which has a mean diameter of about 2,200 yards and a depth of over 1,000 feet. Mounds of sooriee, some in ignition, some extinct, rise from the bottom of this pit, north and south of which two semicircular terraces over 400 feet high represent two halves of a crater inscribed, so to say, on the periphery of the central opening. Vast lava streams have been discharged from the very rim of Mauna-Loa, as in 1880, when about 2,200,000,000 cubic feet of burning matter flowed down the slopes of the mountain. But the molten lavas mostly eficape from openings far below the upper cone. Thus in 1855 such a stream over* ivas are found in remity. The other •y energy is much le north-west the low clothed with numerous than ofi elopment of coral oa, or the " Great Bt above the vege- named the Moktia- f orm a symmetrical centre lies the vast rards and a depth of stinot, rise from the ar terraces over 400 iy, on the periphery rged from the very ibio feet of burning nolten lavas mostly > such a stream over- HAWAII. 491 flowed from the north-east side, and after covering a space of 300 square miles reached the plain of Hilo close to the coast. Three years later another crater was opened six miles north of the central one, discharging a double stream which flowing west half filled up Kiholo Bay. On the east flank of Mauna-Loa has been opened the vast lateral crater of Kilauea, at a height of about 4,000 feet above the sea. Kilauea, abode of the formidable goddess Pele, in an almost circular chasm about nine miles roimd, and varying in depth with the movement of the boiling lavas at the bottom. During the present century there has been no direct overflow from Eilauea or from the other furnaces forming its eastern prolongation ; but the underground heat has melted the rocks at a lower depth, and through these the fiery streams have found their way to the surface. In 1868 one of these, after flowing some sixty miles to Fig. 221. — Ckatbub or Mauna Loa amu Kilavba. , smiMk ihe south-west, poured iq a flaming cataract over the cliffs into the sea, where it formed a pyramid of lavas which, by later accessions, has been gradually attached to the mainland under the name of Kala^ Point. Dana estimates at over fifteen billions of cubic feet the quantity of molten rock discharged on one of these occasions. North-west of Mauna-Loa, which covers a space of nearly 2,000 square nules, the much less elevated Mauna-Hualalai (7,822 feet) is also occasionally active, but all the other cones in Hawaii Island are extinct. One of these is streaked or even covered with snow during a g^reat part of the year, as indicated by its native name, Mcuna-Sea, the "White Mountain." It even overtops Matma-Loa, its highest peak rising, according to the official surveys, to au altitude of no less than 13,850 feet. Hawaii is continued north-westwards bv four mountainous island^ «onid a few j&fwatwwMV.^ J ,/;■'-/::?■• ) 402 AUSTRALASIA. islets, which constitute a secondary group within the archipelago itself. Each of these has its volcanoes, whose height bears a somewhat uniform proportion to the size of the island. The loftiest is Haleahula (" Abode of the Sun "), whose vast cone, 10,200 feet high, occupies the southern part of the island of Maui. Its crater, one of the largest on the globe, has a circuit of no less than 15 miles and a depth of over 2,000 feet. The two sections of Maui are connected by a strip of sand, six or seven feet high, which is incessantly destroyed and renewed under the con- flicting action of winds and waves. Beyond Maui follow the islands of Oahu with several cones, Kauai, Niihau, and Kaula, terminating the chain of the Sandwich Archipelago towards the north-west. Then follows for 1,800 miles in Fig. 222.-Tmv^ RItrhamh ok Kilauka. ' the direction of Japan a rang^ of reefs and islets, also probably volcanic, olthoug'k lavas have been found on only a small number of these upraised lands. The traces of upheaval are everywhere conspicuous throughout the archipelago, and here and there are met ancient beaches at different elevations along the slopes of the hills. In one of the Maui group, a coral bank of apparently recent origin runs for a considerable distance at a height of 500 feet above the present sea- level, and a similar, though less distinct, formation fringes the great volcano in Eauai Island at an altitude of no less than 4,000 feet. Since 1794 the shoals at IIouolulu havB been TTprai9«?d about four feet, to the great detriment of navigation. Excluding the western reefs the whole of the Hawaiian archipelago lies within n itself. Each of proportion to the un "), whose vast !llaui. Its crater, miles and a depth strip of sand, six ed under the con- 3 islands of Oahu ;he chain of the for 1,800 miles in .^l:.- ''''y'^_j:'-'1'^::'^^^^^^^ :. .: ' ■■• HAWAII. ::-.■;'■ ',; \,^ ,;■,'■ _,' ,;. , 498 the torrid zone, and although the temperature is lower than in Fiji or Samoa, y volcanic, although ipraised lands. The bhe archipelago, and [S along the slopes of arently recent origin aovc the present sea- the great volcano in Lce 1794 the shoals at riment of navigation, robipelago lies within »: a a S it is Htill very oppressive in the sheltered districts, where the atmosphere is not renewed by the north-west trade winds. The glass stands normally at 70° Fahr. ■Cl'-iyri^^: V"; V,: 404 AUSTRAT.A8IA. in Honolulu, where, during a period of twelve years it never rose above 90° or fell below 63°, showing an extreme range of under 40 degrees. Although less copious than in Indonesia, the rainfall is still abundant, averaging annually from 60 to 80 inches. The north-east trades, which blow with great regularity for nine months in the year, bring from time to time refreshing downpours, and the climate is altogether one of the most agreeable and salubrious in the world. Fig. 224.— Hawaii. SoiOa 1 : 1,600,000. I Oeptba. to 1,000 Fatboma. 1,000 Fathonu arnd upwards. ■ ISMUes. The indigenous flora is less varied than might be expected from the mean lii($h temperature and the fertility of the soil. Along the narrow zone of the coast- lands little is seen beyond cocoanut groves and two other species of palms, the breadfruit tree, and a few other plants, such as the oleaginous kukui (aleurifes) still used for lighting the houses. But in the well-watered upland valleys the vegetaLion is far more exuberant and diversified. Here flourishes the gigantic halapepe {brenchleya), with foliage like that of the pandanus, and in general the l l, ll i l ,lJ, l ,^ly.^ *•' '^/^ " HAtVAn. 406 se above 90° or fell 8. Although less jing annually from rcaL rtgularity for downpours, and the in the world. Km 10' 155* pected from the mean rrow zone of the coast- )r species of palms, the jinous kukui (aleurites) jred upland valleys the flourishes the gigantic aus, and in general the Sandwich flora may be said to abound more in arborescent than in herbaceous forms. Even many plants which in Europe are annuals, here become perennial. The native fauna is very poor in mammals, and before the arrival of Cook the only domestic animals were the dog, the pig, and poultry, all probably iatruducud within a few centuries previously. The only indigenous mammals are the mouse and a species of bat, while the reptile class was represented only by three small lizards. Of land and aquatic birds there are some 40 species, amongst which not a - 1, Fig. 226. — HONOLTILU. Soale 1 : 380,000. West oF Greenwich 107 ' 33 ' Oqytbii. Beeb exposed at low wkter. 0to83 Feet. »9to8K> Feet. 820 Feet and opwudi. eUilea. single songster is found. The most highly valued bird was the oo (drepanis pacifiea), whose beautiful black plumage was varied with a few small yellow feathers in great demand for the decoration of the chiefs. The royal robe of Kamehameha I., which represented the labour of nine successive generations, was entirely made of thei«>« feathers attached to a groimd of close netting. The streams are almost destitute of fish, while molluscs abound in prodigious quantities. The Hawaiians have long lost their national usages, which resembled those of the kindred peoples in New Zealand and eastern Polynesia. They now regard the ruins of their ancient sanctuaries with as much religious indifference as the present greneration of Britons do the Stoneheng^ monoliths. Even when the first mis- sionaries arrived, in 1820, most of the natives had already ceased to believe in their national gods, and religious wars had broken out between the conservative and progressive parties. But after the official conversion of the chiefs all their subject* had to conform under the severest penalties. Then the rivalries between the SBJiSS!!'."!! „,; 'T, > 406 AUSTRALASIA. Anglicans, Methodists, and Catholics, fulluwed by local revolutions and the inter- vention of foreign powers, kept the archipelago in a state of ferment for many years. As in most other Polynesian groups the indigenous population is steadily decreasing, having fallen from perhaps three hundred thousand at the time of the discovery in 1778 to forty thousanJ in 1884. The natives are now being replaced by the immigration of foreigners of all nationalities, who already outnumber the aboriginal element, which must rapidly disappear by extinction and absorption amongst the new arrivals. To the other causes of decay was added in 1848 the terrible scourge of leprosy, here called mat pak4, or " Chinese malady," which is absolutely iucurable. When attacked by the loathsome disease the patients are removed to the island of Molokai, bulweeii Maui and Oaha, where about 800 nr« usually confined till relieved of their sufferings by death. Amongst recent victims was the heroic Catholic priest. Father Damien, who had voluntarily selected this island prison as the field of his religious administration. ' In virtue of a reciprocity treaty with the United States the foreign trade of the archipelago is almost monopolised by North America. Even the exchanges with Europe are made chiefly by the overland route, by which Honolulu may be reached from London in about twenty- four days. In the islands of Hawaii and Maui a few short railways have been opened, while the postal, telegraph, and telephone services are more developed than in most European states. All the natives without excep- tion can read and write, and at the Paris Exhibition of 1878 Hawaii was awarded the grand prize for primary instruction. Hilo, the capital of the island of Hawaii, lies on a bay open to the north-east trade winds, and partly silted up with alluv?.&l deposits. A more convenient position is occupied by Lahaina, chief town of Muui, on a roadstead sheltered by the islands of Lauai and Ealulaui. Honolulu, capital of Oahu, and of the whole archipelago, is well protected from the dominant v/inds by an amphitheatre of hills, and from the variable currents by a double line of fringing reefs. Since its discovery in 1794 Honolulu has completely superseded the old capital, Kailua, on the west coast of Hawaii, north of the bay where Cook was murdered. From the sea little is visible of the town, which is scattered over some square miles of gardens, orange groves, and forest trees. The roadstead is commanded on the east side by the extinct volcano of Diamond Head, and at the back of the city rises the perfectly regular cone known by the name of the " Punch-bowl." Honolulu is the centre of the intellectual movement in the archipelago, and here are ittaued nearly all the local English and native newspapers. According to the constitution of 1887 Hawaii is a constitutional monarchy, with two chambers, both elected by all citizens whether native or foreign, thd Upper House for six, the Lower for two years. . The official Kanaka (Hawaiian) language is being gradually replaced by English, already the chief medium of intercourse throughout the Pacific Ocean. The schools are constituted on the model of the American system, the schoolbooks, weights, measures, and currency are American, and the group itself is practically i iLjji.iujyw.tjiM i »iJi i .«yiwwi»gwwjiii^^ Ions and tho inter- But for many years. Illation is steadily at tho time of the low being replaced idy outnumber the ion and absorption Eidded in 1848 the malady," which is Be the patients are hero about 800 wre mgst recent victims itarily selected this foreign trade of the exchanges with may be reached waii and Maui a few telephone services tives without excep- Hawaii was awarded the lulu en to the north-east e convenient position jltered by the islands le whole archipelago, re of hills, and from ince its discovery in Kailua, on the west From the sea little es of gardens, orange the east side by the ity rises the perfectly aolulu is the centre of IttHued nearly all tho stitutional monarchy, lative or foreign, thd radually replaced by )ut the Pacific Ocean. 'Stem, the schoolbooks, ip itself is practically ,« -•iiHR.sawwiSiiiiMia:. i J .H I iii ii iiiw II , i w»i » lii . i . >i'i' " ■PUP!*"****!* • ijjM'VV.-. / •.■,• •■'■> ■ ' !.!;--!W:.ifej^^>»v L,.X, .ia.'i'a?: ,A ^i=r ,a^I? fe HAWAU. 497 • ^NiHnce of the great repu* ic. The ver ^arbour of Honolulu ia an Anieriran S naval station, and the political independenoe of Hawaii may be regarded as a legal fiction sustained by the personal interests of the American planters. 88— « s s m". ;..>.-x. uS:sr':;;s'ii':v-€S S3. ^ > <^;f^=^' 'r^^^^S#\,^v■'^,i:^^;;.^'' APPENDIX. STATISTICAL TABLES. MA8CARENHA8 AND NEIGUBOURINO ISLANDS. Mauritiii Ro Importx of Reunion (1886), £1,126,000 ; exports, £632,000 ; revenue, £106,000. Area of Ami^rdam, 18 square miles ; of St. Paul, 3 square miles ; of Marion and Prince Edward, 126 square nules. Area of Crozet, 210 square miles ; of Elergruelen and dependenoies, 1,H00 sqiuure miles ; of Heard and MaoDonald, 176 square miles. ' y INDONESIA. : ' ^ Ana in Popolatiaa i >' SquareMUes. (1881). Dutch Indonesia 600,000 30,660,000 British (North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei) . 108,000 630,000 Portuguese 16,000 630,000 Total . 723,000 31,810,000 Area of Sumatra and adjacent islands, 186,000 square miles ; approximate population, 3,600,000. Tobacco crop of North Sumatra, 1876, £200,000 ; 1880, £900,000 ; 1886, £2,400,000. ADMINI8TKATIVE DIVISIONS OF SUMATRA. Poimlation {1666). Chief Towns. Fopalstian. Atjeh (independent and reduced) 643,000 Eota-Raja 30,000 BattaLand 300,000 — — Tapanuli 194,000 Sibogrha — Padang, Lower (Beneden-Ianden) 310,600 Padang 26,000 Fadang, Upper (Boven-landen) . . 670,600 Fort kook — Benculen 162,000 Beaoulen 11,000 Lampong 122,800 Telokh-Betong — Pulembaug C67i4iO Palembang 60,000 East Coast . . . .«••«; 182,000 Hedan 10.000 •"•'A . ir»aGcJM f iw#y j p i i iwuniii mm, AITKNDIX. 4U0 Rloiiw iinil I.lti^K^ Ar«hl|M>lBHrM|imrt> iiiil.m ; |)<.|>ulHti.)ii (IHHK), 74,71/5, ..f whom M.OOO an, Maluyi., uud 21,000 <'hiii«m<. Anil of Hillitoii, 1,H70 miiianimilcn; popiilntion (IHH(I), ."W.n*. Mean iiiiiuihI outijut of tho HmiKlm ami Millitoii Mn iiiIiioh, N,;t;tO tonn. Ar..» of Twubekn, Auwiibw, Ntttutw, mid Herawin, !i;i() H-iuoro nilles ; of tlwat Niituua, 040 miuaro milM. ' Ana to 9iiii»r« Mile*. TopuUtlon. Dutch Bornoo . . . 21i!,()00 . 1,(171,000 *»'«''»'' .... 30, 000 . , 600, 000 Britiiili North Borneo . . 20,000 . . 260,000 ®"*n«* 16,000 80,000 Total 290,000 1,001,000 ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS OF DUTCH BORNEO. M and leM. 000 000 8 of 602,000 ince Edward, of Heard aod DlTillc WBar.— Area, 62,oui/ ^j. miloM; population, 410,000; capi- tal, Foutianak. South ait^ £jun.—AnB, 1 60, 000 aquaro inilos ; population, 017,000: capital, Banjer- FroWnoti ut Kingdoms. I flambati I Puntiauak .... Kotaringiu Bnnipit Great and Little Dayak DuHun and Bokompni .... Amuntai Banjormaiwin . . . I . Murtapum . • Timali Laut Tauah Kuwn Tanah Bunibu Paitir Kutei Sambiliung Gunoug Tebur Bulangan ...... ■ _ Tidung ^ Area of Labnan, 30 square miles ; population, 6,300 ; shippbfr, 62,278 tons ; exchanges, Bavenue of Sarawak (1886), £60,000; exchanges, £800,000. Imports of North Borneo (1887), £212,000 ; exports, £113,000 ; revenue (1888), £30,000. Chief Towns. Population. Sambas Fontianak . . 10,000 . 16,r.) Maratmham Amuntai . fianjormassin Martapura . 10,000 . 8,000 . 38,000 . 12,000 Paair Samarinda Taugarung . 20,000 . 10,000 6,000 £164,000. ion )• 000 000 000 000 , 3,600,000. ipulattim. 30,000 26,000 11,000 60,000 10,000 • JAVA. .:,::\,. .:.,.. ;,:■;■■:■.■' . ' Population according to languages (1888) : Javanese, 16,600,000; Sundanese, 2,600,000 ; Madurese 2,600,000 ; Malay, 1,000,000 ; sundries, 300,000 : total, 23,000,000. ' Growth of population of Java and Madura in 30 years (1867—86), 1 1,300,000 to 22,000,000 = 98 p.o. Mohammedan Schools in Java, 16,760 ; altiAdance, 266,000. Primary Schools for Natives (1887), 201 ; attendance, 39,700. Bice crop of Java (1886), 4,370,000 tons ; rice exported (1887), 71,260 tons. Natives e:-iployed on the coffee plantations (1886), 476,000 families. Coffee crop (1816), 3,000 tons ; (1860) 60,000 tons ; (1879) 79,000 tons ; (1887) 17,760 tons. Average sugar crop (1867— 62), 103,700 tons; (1876) 199,000 tons; (1887) 418,000 tons. Tobacco exported (1831), 280,000 lbs. ; (1864) 16,000,000 lbs. ; (1882) 34,000,000 lbs. Indigo crop (1887), 1,660,000 lbs. Salt (1886), 67,000 tons, value £626,000. Live stock (1880) : buffaloes, 2,642,000 ; oxen, 2,090,000 ; horses, 518,000. Railways open (1887), 780 miles. Telegraph lines, 6,600 miles. Letters forwarded, 6,162,000 ; newspapers, 3,029,000. Exports to Great Britain (1886), £3,000,000 ; imports from, £1,300,000. Total exports (1884), £12,600,000 ; imports, £10,300,000. Shipping: 9,196 vessels, 2,227,000 tons ; mercantile navy, 1,060 vessels, of which 34 are steamers. 94,000 tons. ' Chief towns, with population in 1886: Batavia and suburbs, 172,000; Surakarta, 130,000- Sura baya, 129,000 ; Jokjokarta, 90,000 ; Semarang, 72,000 ; Pasuman, 60,000. •yMllM 600 APPENDIX. a™., of Dutch Indone^a (18S7) : f^I^;- i;;;?, "o^ E^^' Navy (1886) : 1 13 veasels ; crews, 4,803 of whom i, U i— LZuue (1888). £10,740,000 ; expenditure. £11.110,000. total, 32,644. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS OF ProvinccB. Buntam . Batavia . Krawang Cheribon Preang . Tegal . Pekalongan Semarang Japara Banjumas Bagelen . Kadu . Surakarta Jokjokarta Benibaug Surabaya Madiun . Kediri . Pasuruan Probolingo Besuki . Madura . Capital. Seraiig . Batavia . Pnrwakarta . Cheribon Bandong Tegttl . Pekalongan . Semarang Patti Banjumas Purworejo Magelang Surakarta Jokjokarta Roinbang Surabaya Madiun Kediri . Pa8U"uan Probolingo Besuki . Pomekasan Area JAVA AND MADimA. ropuUtion (1866). 645,847 1.013,884 331,638 / 1,369,163 ' 1,664,836 ; 1,006,656 , 3,338.978 1,412,336 ;; 858.166 . 1,112.100 1,272,632 740,278 1,071,090 642,728 1,196,402 1,889,366 1,021,196 979,301 838,947 606,013 691,700 1,403,494 Total 60,100 OTHEB DUTCH POSSESSIONS. Awa in Sqnate Miles. ^ \. ,. . *.300 Bali and Lombok 5 600 Sumbawa Flores, Solor, and Allor . • • • • Timor, Samau. and Botti ■ • • • Wetter, Kisser, and Boma . • Damma. Nila, and Sama . . • • Letti, Moa, and Lakor . . • ■ • Luang, Sennatta, Babber . • ■ • Tenimber group Kei proup . • • • ,.■ ^'. 1 J. ' Celebes, Kabuna, Wowoni, and adjacent islets Saleyer gioup . • Buton and Muna . Tanah Jampea Pelling and Bangaai Sula group Sangi group Talaut 8,800 12,700 1,300 180 300 320 2,200 240 70,000 270 3,200 180 1,200 2,600 370 360 21,997,269 Population (1886). . 1,342,932 160,000 373,000 823,000 18,600 4,300 6,880 28,760 6,700 17,680 , 660,000 67,000 20,000 600 10,000 6,600 40,000 6,000 Bv » Tondano, 3,000; Kema, 2.000; Palos. 2.000. ^^«,„^Hile.. SOUTHEBN MomCOAfl: — Bum and Amblauw Ceram Ceram Laut group Gk>ram Amboyna Uliasser Islands Banda group . Total 8,760 7,280 60 130 270 100 16 16,696 . Populatioii. 62,000 200,000 2,000 4,500 32,000 26,000 6,000 .^30,600 '^fggfgi^^flfgf^fm ^ - ^tt faafs^^f^'^ ' o^ ,: -.--•''•^ (1886). 17 n )8 33 36 56 78 36 66 00 >32 578 )90 728 102 J66 196 301 947 013 700 ,494 APPENDIX . m NOBTKKBN MOLUOOAS: — Batchian group Little Moluccas Halmahera (Jilolo) Morotai . Obi group Tafiiri and Maju Total Area in Square Milei. 1,060 110 0,800 1,080 . 740 60 9,840 Popnlation. 2,000 30,000 26,000 . I uuiuhubitod. 67,000 MAIN ADMINISTEATIVE DIVISIONS OF DUTCH INDONESIA. ,269 ion (1886). !,932 ),000 },000 },000 8,600 4,300 6,880 8,780 6,700 7,680 (0,000 (7,000 20,000 600 10,000 6,600 40,000 6.000 ,, £1,000,000. ; Bonthain, 3,600; ipulatioo. 62,000 200,000 2,000 4,600 32,000 26,000 6,000 Java and Madura . Sumatra, West Ckiast Lampong DiBtriots Palembang Sumatra, East Coast Atjeh Biouw Bangka . Billiton . Borneo, West Borneo, East and South Celebes and Sumbawa Menado . Temate and East Celebes Timor . Amboyna Bali and Lombok . Total in Sqoare Bfiles. Population (188 60,100 . 21,997,269 60,000 1,190,264 10,400 122,803 66,300 667,396 17,000 182,414 20,000 643,460 1,680 4,196 6,000 74,716 1,870 36,174 61,700 401,687 144,000 671,948 47,300 392,829 28,000 222,497 96,000 102,048 26,000 * 912,000 19,600 261,691 4,300 . 1,342,3.12 647,260 29,248,872 330,600 PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. Aiea, 118,000; approximate population (1888), 7,000,000. Tobacco exported (1884), 130,000,000 cigars and 13,000,000 Iba. Mean annual tobacco crop (1876-86), 20,000,000 lbs. Sugar exported (1886), 2,060,000 cwts. Coffee exported (1884), 73,000 cwts. Hemp exported (1887), 636,000 bales ; value, £2,000,000. Total impoi to (1884), £3,600,000; exports, £3,700,000. Shipping : 802 vessels ; tonnage, 660,000, of which 241,000 are British. CHIEF TOWNS. Manilh^ population (1880), 260,000; Laoag, 36,000; Batangas. 36.000; Tavabas, 23.000 • Lmgayen, 23^00 ; Tuguegarao, 21,000 ; Daraga, -0,000; Vigan. 18,000; Gapan, i8,000 ; Mhayl 13,000; Luflban, 13,000; Calumpit, 12,600; Baoolor. 12,000; Bulaoan, 11,600; Ilo-Ilo 24 000 • Cairi^ 23,000 ; Sibftlon, 16,000 ; Tagbilaran, 12,000 ; Cebu, 10,000. ' ' ^' Revenue (1886), £2,300,000; expenditure, £2,326,000. '; tiovemmenti Lu;son Viwyas Mindanao . Palawan, &o. ADMINISTEATIVE DIVISIONS. Area In Square Hilei. 48,000 20,000 40,000 10,000 Total 118,000 ropolation, 3,240,000 2,613,000 761,000 40,000 6,666,000 602 •an! Hmiaiui Iiilancb . Pelew Islands Caroline InlandB . MaTHhall group Gilbert ^Kingsmill) Ellioe . APPENDIX. MICRONESIA. Area In Sqnwe Mile*. 4A() 200 400 100 170 14 FopuUHi (1887). 9,GH0 12,000 (?) 29,000 10,600 41,000 3,300 Total 1,394 105,680 PAPUA8IA (NEW GUINEA). Dntoh New Guinea Britidi New Guinea German New Guinea . Total . Waigeu, Batanta, Salwati, Myiiol Islands in Geelvink Bay Aru ArchipelaKo . Islands on the South-West Coast Moresby Group • Entrecasteaux Islands . Woodlark (Muyu) group Louisiade Archipelago . Total Area in Square MUm. 156,000 90,000 70,000 316,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 130 200 1,100 iac 870 326,780 Eatimated Popnlatkn. . 300,000 140,000 100,000 640,000 640,000 (?) MELANESIA. Admiralty group Matthias group Other Western Islands New Hanover . . • • New Ireland (Tombara) . New Britain (Birara) York and other Islets . • , - v " French " Islands (Willaumeas, Raonl, Giguel, *r.) Book Inland . . . • Long Island . . • • Dampier group Solo VON Abchipelaoo : — Bougainville (Boukaj) Choiseul (San Marcos) Now Georgia group Tzabel group . Guadalcanar and Savo • Malaita (Ramos), Meramasiki, &o San Cristobal (Arossi, Baura) Adjacent Islets . ^ • Santa Cruz Archipelago . Banks and Torres Islands New Hbbwbm : — Espiritu-Santo Mallioolo Area in Sqaare Milei. TtO 260 \ 240 600 6,000 10,000 300 1 3001 280 X 240 { . 300 1 4,000 2,000 1,200 2,000 ' 2,600 I 2,400 1,200 1,000 300 3,000 fl»0 Est. FopnlaUon. . 2,000 70,000 100,000 20,000 10,000 176,000 6,000 4,600 20,000 8,000 MHI 5W5 m^mW' 's-ja^tf^-.iws.- ^ im). lUtiOB. I ) ) -mm m Hf) Eft. FopnlaUon. . 2,000 70,000 100,000 20,000 10,000 . 176,000 6,000 4,600 . 30,000 8,000 appendix:. 608 Area in Sqnare MOn. 240 Ambrym ....... Vat^ (Sandwich) . . . . 200 Erromango 400 Tanna 160 Anatom 60 Othop Tsleb* 1,200 Tikopia, Aiiuila, and other eastern isles .... 20 New Caledonia 6,600 Loyalty Group 1,100 Annual yield of the New Caledonian nickel mines, 12,000 tons. Niunea, imports and exports (1884), £640,000 ; shipping, 277 vessels Budget (1887), £400,000. Eit. Population. 3,000 3,000 2,000 10,000 1,280 16,000 660 43,000 20,000 AUSTRALIA, TASMANIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND FIJI. Colonies. AiMinSqiuie Fopolation 11887). Bevenne Expenditnra. Debt. New South Wales. 310,700 1,043,000 £8,683,000 £9,100,000 £41,000,000 Queensland . 603,500 ■ 307,000 3,178,000 3,369,000 26,000,000 Victoria 87,900 1,036,000 6,734,000 6,661,000 33,000.000 South Australia . 903,400 312,000 1,870,000 2,166,300 19,000,000 Western Australia 976,000 43,000 378,000 467,000 1,290,000 Tasmama 26,000 143,000 696,000 662,000 4,110,000 New Zealand 104,000 604,000 3,620,000 4,082,000 37,000,000 Fiji 8,000 3,084,600 126,000 66,000 £24,923,000 73,000 £26,429,000 266,000 Total British Austral Colonial Empire 3,673,000 £161,666,000 Aborigines (1881) : New South Wales, l,t;43. Victoria, 768. V -r" Queensland, 20,686. South Australia, 6,346. - Tasmania, none. New Zealand, Maori, 44,097. AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA. Births (1886), 36 per 100 ; deaths, 16 per 100 ; immigrants (1887), 64,800. Wool produced (1887), 247,000 tons ; sheep, 84,827,000 ; cattle, 7,677,000 ; horses, 1,262,000 ; pigs, 760,000. Wheat produced (1886), 36,000,000 bushels ; other cereals, 7,000,000 bushels ; potatoes, 367,000 tons ; sugar (1888), 40,000 tons. Gold produced (1886), £4,100,000; tin, £1,120,000; copper, £416,000; silver, £260,000; coal, 3,070,000 tons, value £1,400,000. Imports (1887), £67,000,000 ; exports, £61,000,000 ; total exchanges, £108,000,000. Shipping (1886) : vessels entered, 7,668 ; tonnage, 6,684,000 ; vesbels cleared, 7,668 ; tonnage, 6,692,000. Mercantile navy : 1,646 sailing vessels, 800 (iteamers ; total tonnage, 269,000. Kailways (1888) : 7,000 miles ; capital invested, £76,000,000 ; net profits, £2,700,000. Telegraph lines (1887) : 32,000 miles; defrpatohfls (1886). 6^479,, 000. Letters, cards, &c., forwarded, 99,430,000 ; papers, paroets, &c., 80,000,000. PnUio schools (1886), 6,321 ; attendance, 646,000. OHIEP TOWNS. WsarBBN AusnujJA: Perth, population (1886), 6,000 ; Freenumtle, 3,600. South Aottbaua: Adelaide (1888), 130,000; Teetulpa, 6,500; Port Adelaide, 6,280; Moonta, 6,000 ; Qawler, 3,000 ; Olenelg, 3,000. QuKENSLAND : Brisbane (1888), 66,000; Gympie, 12,000; Bookhampton, 11,000; Ipswich, 10,000; Maryborough, 9,000 ; Townsville, 8,000 ; Toowoomba, 6,000 ; Croydon, 6,000. Nbw SoijTH Waum: Sydney (1887), 360,000 with suburbs ; Newcastle, 20,000 ; Paramatta, 12,000 ; Oonlbun^ 8,000 ; Wollongong, 8,000 ; Maitland, 7,600 ; Bathm'st, 7,000. Viotobia: Melbourne (1887), 392,000 with suburbs ; BaUarat, 37,000; Sandhurst, 30,000; Gedong, 23,000 ; Eaglehawk, 8,000 ; Oastlemaine, 7,000 ; Warmambool, 6,000 ; Stawell, 6,000 ; Eohuoa, 6,000. Tabkuiu : Hobart (1886), 29.000 ; Launoeston, 19,600. 6m APPENDIX. Kauri "nmMT)ort«l (1887V 6.790 tons, value £b.J,00O. ,, ,, " ' ' " Pastures, 12,000,000 aom. ; sheep. 15,000.000 ; cattle, 863,000 , ho«e», IST.OWI. , ^ . Tinned and frozen sheep exported (1887), 1,525.000. ^ 0„ld produced (1887), £800.000 ; coal, 659.000 tons. BaUways opened (1887). 1,760 ndles ; capital mvested £14 mOOO Letters, &o., forwarded, 40,000,000; papers, paH!elB,&o., 20,000,000. „ . Teleimtphio despatches, 1,836,000. ; Tot«limports(1887). £32.000,000; exports, £36,000,000. -*. Shipping entered and cleared, 1,432 of 991.000 tons. Melitilenavy: «03 idling vWs; [JJ^^^^^-^^^^^^^l^ ^^Sn^^^ 28.000 ; Dunedin. Chief Towns: Auckland, P^P'^***"" ^f '^'' '^V „!^„ .*^„^' , 500 • 6,000; Inver- 46,000; Christchuroh, 37,000; Thames, 8,000; Napier, 8,000; Nebion, 7,60« . uamaru, oargiU, 6,600 ; Wanganui, 6,000. » ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS. NOWTH ISLAMD. South / Auckland ) Hawke'sBay I Wellington \ Taranaki Nelson 1 Marlborough * Canterbury \ Westland i Otflgo \ Other Islands Aiaain Sqnuo MllM. 45,000 63,000 Potnilation U887). 264,000 339,000 FUI. Viti Lem, 4,000 square milee; Vanna Levn, 2,400; Tavinni, 200; K«idavn, 200; Ngan, 60; Cteo, 60 ; Ovalan, 50 ; other islets, 800. Cocoanut crop (1886), 27,000,000 nuts, yielding 4,900 tons of copra. Total imports, £800,000 ; exports, £500,000. Shipping enterwl and cleared, 396 of 137.000 tons. EQUATORIAL POLYNESIA AND HAWAII. states or ProtMtonktas. England and Germany . Franoe England and Gflrmany . England, Germany, and U.S. England Franue Fiance ArohipelagoM. Tonga (Friendly) Wallis Savage (Nine) Samoa Union (Tokelau) Cook (Hervey) Tubuai (Austral) Tahiti (Society) Phoenix Manahild Tuamotu (Low Islands) France Easter and Sala y Gomez Chili Fanning (America Is.) England Marquesas . . Franoe . HawaU (Sandwich) . Kin^m CBiief towns of Hawaii : Honolulu, population (1886), 20,600 Bevenue, £700,000 ; expenditure, £698,000 ; debt, £470,000 ; AiMinSq. PopaUttoo. HflM. 460 . . 30,000 120 . 8,000 30 . 6,000 1,000 . 34,000 12 620 140 . 11,600 106 1,400 600 . . 17,000 16 60 50 . 1,600 360 6,600 40 600 120 200 480 6,000 6,700 . 81,000 Hilo, 6,000 ; Laluuna, 4,000. exohMiges, £3,200,000. , 28,000 ; Dtmedin, naru, 6,000; Inver- >00; Ngaii,60; Goto, All. PopnUttoo. . 30,000 . 8,000 6,000 34,000 620 11,600 1.400 17,000 eo 1,600 6,600 600 200 6,000 . 81,000 LtOuuna, 4,000. 1,200,000. » -''i Abang Volcano, 196 Abonjr-Abong, 82 Abu Yoloano, 222 Abungrn, 102 Adelaide, 300 Adi Island, 310 AdmiraltT Islands, 319, 321 Adoiiar6 Island, 207 A Otis, -75:! AiraAa. 277 Agung, 196 Agrigan Island, 276 Agoijan, 276 Agusan River, 261 AnraTaigi Mountain, 426 Ahuriri, 461 Ajang Mountains, 161 Aier Bangis, 108 Akama Bay, 430, 462 Aiamaganliilaud, 27o Albany, 397 Albay. 266 Albay Mountain, 246 Albert Mountains, 299 Albert Birer, 366 iUberton, 404 AlbuT)-, 39ii, 412 Aloook, 148 Alexandra Land, 14 Alexandrina Lake, 401 Alfurus, 77, 210, 231, 310 Alivanoia Mountain, 246 Alias Mountain, 211 AUor Inlands, 2G6 Allor EatjO, 208 Alps (Australian), 368 (New Zealand). 424 Amadena Lake, 368 Amahai, 233 AniHrgnra Mountain, 469 Ambarawa, 188 Amber Island, 46 Amberbaken, 309 Amboyna Island, 230 Town, 232 Amtoym Island, 332 Amerioa Islands, 468, 488 Ampanan, 203 Amphitrite Bay, 91 Amsterdam Island, 66 Amunt^ 140 VOL. XIV, INDEX. Anaa, 474. 487 Anambas Island, 120 Anatom, 336 Angket) River, 184 Aniwa, 336 Anjer, 88 Ansus, 310 Antipodes Islands, 424, 464 An-!(l3 M-i>d, 330., •JS? Aorai Mountain, 472 Aotea Bay, 444 Aparri, 266 Apenberg Mountain, 108 Api (Banda), 231 (Flores), 206 (Lombok). 202 (Sumbawa), 206 (Wetter). 216 Apia, 474, 488 Ayt Mouuittiu, 24& Ap«1«7 Ktmit, 403 Arafura Sea. 217 Ararat, 418 Aieoa, 108 Arfak. 308 Mountains, 297 Arguial StMi, 2D7 Argopura Mountain, 101 Arnno Island, 289 Aringay, 260, 266 Arjunu Mountain, 169 Aiopen, 309 Arreoifee, 277 Art Island, 340 Arthur Mountain, 426 Aru Islands, 293, 301, 310 Aru Hassa Mountain, 206 Asabsn Eiver, 91 Ashbnrton River, 366 Aspiring Mountain, 426 Assumption Island, 276 Astrolabe Bay, 304 Atapupu, 216 Atjdi, 79, 96, 106 Atti-Atti, 310 Auckland Islands, 424, 466 Peninsula, 434, 436 Province, 439 Town, 448 Austral Islands, 69, 471, 486 Anatralis, 362 Australians, 376 Avon Island, 361 Awa o te Attua, 436 Awarua River, 426 Baba Island, 216 Babalthuap Island, 277 Babber Island, 216 Psbi M".Ti!l, "3, 103 Babuyan Island, 260 Baoolor. 264 Badui, 166 Badung Island, 106 Bahan River, 140 Bahu Solo River, 223 Bahu Tiing, 136 Bajoa, 227 Balos, 256 Baker Island, 474 Siiliuugeu Muuutaiu, 19S Balaba« Strait, 244 Island, 244, 269 Balade, 361 Balambangan Island, 148 Balanga, 266 Bala^ulang, 186 Bului Mouuittiu, 321 Bali Island, 196 Balik Pippen Mountain, 126 Ballarat, 417 Baluran Mountain, 162 Banbunr, 397 Banda Islands, 231 Neira, 231 Sea, 219, 229 Town, 234 Bandong, 166, 162, 186 Bangka Island, 117 Bangkalan, 193 Bangli, 200 Banguay Inlands, 269 Ban^ruey Island, 148 Banjencassin, 122, 138 Banittwanji, 103 Banks, dpe, 408 Islands, 330 Peninsula, 430, 462 BaBos, 263 Bantam, 179, 182 Baobeltaob Island, 277 Banyan, 266 «06 INDEX. i^i Baroos River, 366 Barisan Mountains, 82 Barito River, 126, 127 Barog, 1U8 Baailan Island, 268 .-• Basey, 267 Basheo Islands, 2S0 base Strait, 3G2, 383 Batanee Islands, 250 Batang Lupar River, 146 Batangas, 265 Eatanta, 297 Batavia, 182 Batohian Island, 236 Bathurst Island, 403 Town, 412 Batjan Island, 236 Battas, 96 Batu Bundang Mountain, 126 Kau Mountain, 196 Rajah Mountain, 126 Tebflng, 125 Baura Island, 481 Bawean Island, 160, 166 Bay of Islands, 421, 436 Beeuh worth, 417 Bekasi, 1^5 Belang, 228 Belfast, 418 Beudigo, 418 Bengkalis Island, 94, 113 Benguet, 251 Benkulen, 110 Ben LonioTid, 453 • Bentinok, 407 Berau Peninsula, 297 BesuU, 193 Beverley, 397 Biak Island, 300 Bibiluto Mountain, 211 Bioots, 256 Big Ben Mountain, 63 BiUiton Island, 119 Bima, 203, 206 , '' Bay, 203 .■. * .■ -* Binangonan, 266 Binintiang Mountains, 248 Bintang Islands, 116 Bintulu River, 146 ^-V^' , Bintuni, 310 ; ■ Birara Island, 319 Bislig, 268 Bismarck lalands, 319 Black River Peak, 43 Blambangan, 193 Blanche Bay, 320 Blenheim, 461 Blue Lake, 360 "Blue Lips,'" 443 Blue Miiuntains, 360 Bojonegoro, 191 Bo'gong Mountains, 368 Bohol Island, 253 Bombon Lake, 248 Bonerate Island, 221 Bonfire Beach, 63 Bongon, 148 Boni, 226 Bonoa Island, 230 Bontbain Mountain, 221 Town, 227 Boora-Boora, 401 Bora-Lora ^fountain, 471 Borneo, 120 Sea, 120 Boiongan, 266 Botany Bay, 386, 408 BougainviUe Island, 318, 321 Strait, 322 Bounty Islands, 121, 454 Bourau, 360 Bourbon Island, 46 Bowen, 406 Brambanan, 191 Brandewijii Bay, 110 Brantas River, 164 Bras-Panon, 62 Brass Island, 92 Bratus Mountain, 126 Breng-breng, 163 Brisbane, 404 British North Bompo, 142 Brown Islands, 292 Bromo Mountain, 160 Brunei Bay 146 ... River, 124, 126 State, 122, 142 ' Town, 121, 143 ; > Buffalo Peak, 216 j ; Bngi, 226 . f , Buhi Lake, 247 Buitenzorg, 70, 186 BukitBatu, 113 ..-;]?>-, Bulaoan, 263 • : '' ' r Bulangan, 142 Bul6-8upuis, 147 Buleleng, 200 Bulusan, 266 Mountain, 246 BiiTidBbwrer. 406 Bunguren Island, 120 Burangrang Mountain, 166 BuTdekin River, 366 Burias Island, 266 Burke, 412 Burketown, 406 Burrundie. 403 Burrum, 406 Burn Island, 230 Buru-Budhnr, 188 Eq3 fort, 298, 310 Busselton, 397 Butak Mountain, 169 Butaritari Island, 464 Butuan River, 261 Town, 268 Oabusao, 266 Gagayan River, 261, 268 Cagayanes, 266 Cagsaua, 266 Cagud Mountain, 250 GaUlon (le), 361 Galamianes Island, 266 Calumpit, 264 Gamalig, 266 Oamarines Peninsula, 246, 248 Caminguin Mountain, 260 Campbell Islai ds, 424, 466 Campbelltown, 463 Candelaria, 322 Canterbury Province, 461 Capiz, 268 Caraludlo Mountains, 246 Cargados Islands, 487 Caroline Island, 468 Islands, 280 Carpentaria Oulf , 364 Castle Mountain, 425 Catalanganes, 268 Catanduanes, 266 Catbidongan, 266 Cavite, 263 Cebu Island, 246 Town, 208 */ Oolcbcs, 76, 219 Cersm, 229, 231 ' LAut, 234 ■ 'i ' ChagalalegHt, 106 '> > Chnlmcrs, 452 — • " Chambers's Pillar," 362 Chamorros, 276 Champion Bay, 397 ■ . Chandana Island, 209 Charles-Louis Mountains, 298,300 Charlotte Waters, 371 Charters Towers, 406 Chatham Island, 424, 441, 464 Cheribon Mounttin, 156 Province, 161, 186 Town, 186 Chesterfield Islands, 361, 424 Chinii Strait, 209 Chi Widei River, 164 Ohoiseul Island, 313, 322 ChristohuTch, 461 Christmas Island, 66, 93 (Polynesia), 468, 488 Harbour, 63 Cimandef Mountain, 46 Clnnes, 418 Clutha River, 427 Coburg Peninsula, 403 Cookbum Sound, 396 Condamine River, 366 Cook Olaoier, 426 islands, 467, 4!X, ^iio Mountain, 426 Strait, 422, 430 Cooktown, 406 Cooper's Creek, 366 Coral, Sea of, 364 Gomwallis Island, 292 Mountain, 363 Corregidor Island, 263 Cottabato, 246, 268 Cradle Mountain, 360 Creoles, 42 Creswiok, 417 Croydon, 407 Crozet Islands, 60 Crazier Mountain, 61 ' Cuiepipe, 46 Cyclops Mountain, 208 Dadinga Bay, 241 Dpet, 266 Daiby, 406 , Damar Island, 236 Damma Island, - 2 1 6 Dampier Island, 320 Strait, 320 Dana Island, 209 Danau, 83 Dan^r Island, 33 Dam River, 185 Daraga, 247, 266 Dark Goud Sound, 429 Darling River, 366 Damley Island, 403 Darwin Peak, 426 Dasar, 160 Data. Mountain, 260 Davao Bay, 246 Town. 246 Dayaks, 78, 134 Daylesford, 417 Deception Island, 29 ISi id, 246 .'• '•;;.: , 208 *,' -^ft^ ; i, 219 9, 231 . 234 --/^V:"' . rHt, 106 462 re's PUlar," 362 1, 276 Bay, 397 Island, 209 iui8 Mountaing, 298,300 Waters, 371 [owers, 406 [gland, 424, 441, 454 Mountnin, 168 noe, 151, 186 I, 186 I Id Islands, 351, 424 ait, 200 i Biver, 154 [Hlaud, 313, 322 rch, 451 I Island, 56, 93 nesia), 468, 488 our, 63 If ountain, 46 18 iver, 427 'eninsula, 403 . Sound, 396 le River, 365 oier, 426 ids, 467, 4a, 48o atain, 425 ,t, 422, 430 1, 406 Creek, 366 a of, 364 is Island, 292 ntsin, 363 Dr Isltind, 263 3, 246, 268 lountain, 360 42 :, 417 , 407 ilands, 60 ffountaiu, 61 (, 45 Mountain, 298 , Bay, 241 6 06 I [sland, 236 Island, 216 . r liOand, 320 lit, 320 land, 209 83 Island, 33 iver, 185 . 247, 266 cud Sound, 429 Biver, 366 r Island, 403 Peak, 426 160 ountain, 260 Saj, 246 Km. 246 , 78, 134 ord. 417 on Island, 29 pillippiipjI I IIJJlMU.i i k Deli Town, 96, 113 Demak, 187 Dempo Mountain, 86 Denillgnin, 418 Dent, 148 Derby, 398 Derwent Biver, 419 Diahnt Riv«r, 340 Diamond Cape, 82, 497 Dieng, 165 Dilli, 215 Dindi Mountain, 205 Dobbo, 310 Dolok Simanabom, 82 Donda Mountain, 221 Dongg^la, 220 Dorey, 304, 308 Duang Island, 222 -^ , Dubbo, 412 Dooos, 347 Dula, 219 Dunedin, 446, 461 DuKky Sound, 429 DuBim, 147 Duwa Sudara Moontain, 223 Eaglehawk, 418 K.amslaw Mountain, 426 Easter Island, 467. 473, 475, 488 Ebon, 292 Eohuca, 418 Edi, 108 Efat, 336 Ejmont MonTitn,inf«, 436 Eimeo. 471 Elie de Beaumont Peak, 426 EUice Islands, 288 Elopora, 147 Ema-Davan, 213 Ema-Velu, 213 Emerald Island, 424 Emmaville, 412 Endeh, 206 Enderboiy Island. 468 Euderby Lttud, 14 Engafio Island, 93 Eniwetok Islands, 292 Entreoasteaux Islands, 314 Equatorial Polynesia, 466 Rrebna Mountain, 14 Erromango, 336 Erub Island, 406 Espiritu Santo Island, 330 Essington^ 403 Etna Bay, 297 Euola, 397 Evar Island, 218 Exchequer Islands, 310 Eyre Lake, 366 Fak-Fak Isthmus, 307 fakaraua, 487 Fanning Islands, 468 Farallon dus Pajaros, 276 Farewell Cape, 426 Farraulap (Farroilep), 282 Fiji Islands, 467 Fijians, 460 Finisterre Mountains, 298 Finsch-hafen, 316 Fitsroy Biver, 366, 398 Flinders Island, 383 River, 366 Flores Island. 206 Strait. 208 ' INDEX. Fly Biver, 300 Foa, 349 Fonualai Island, 469 Foibos, 11 J Foul Wind Cape, 451 Foveaux Strait, 422, 453 Iranklin Mountain, 326 FrederiV Henringa, 401 Korintji, 84, 102 Korocr Islnnd, 280 Korurarika, 421 Kosoiuzko Mountains, 368 Koto Raja, 107 Kotaringin River, 127 Koyari, 316 Krakatau, 86 Kuohing, 144 v, Kadut, 148 Kudus, 187 Kulnisan Monntoin, 162 Kupang, 210, 216 Kuro-Sivo, 24 Kutei River, 127 Labo, 248 Labuan, 114 ' -» Island, 144 Labuk, 148 " , Laohlan Ri%'er, 366 Ladi'OMu Iniuiidtt, 27< Laguna de Bay, 260 Lanaina, 497 Lakahia Mountoin, 298 Laki-Laki MounUin, 206 Lakoru Mountains, 126 Lakon Mountain, 222 Lakor Island, 216 Lamahale Mountoin, 208 Lamandang Mountain, 230 Lamansieri, 298 Lamongan Mountain, 164 Liampogperg, 102 Lampong, 86, 111 Lamurek Island, 282 Landak, 137 Landu Island, 211 Lang Island, 90 Liangsar Bay, 106 Lanteh Mountain, 204 Larantuka Mountain, 206 Town, 208 Larat Island, 218 Lat^ Mountoin, 469 Latimojong Mountains, 220 Lau Islands, 469 Launoeston, 419 Laut Tawar, 96 Lawayang, 208 Lawu Mountoins, 168 Leeu Mountain, 210 Lefuka, 483 Legaspi, 266 Leichhardt River, 366 Lekomha, 460 Lele Island, 286 Lemong^n Mountoin, 161 Lemuria, 3, 62 Letti Island, 216 Levuka, 464 Leyte Island, 246, 266 Leytimor Peninsula 231 libong, 266 Lifau, 210 Lifu Island, 340, 361 Ligao, 206 Likiob Island, 202 LiinlMtugang Island, 221 Limbotto Lake, 228 Line Islands. 288 Lingayen, 260, 266 ■" Liugga Islands, 116 Mountain, 116 Liverpool Plains, 301 ^ Liwong River, 182 Lobetobi Mountoin, 206 Ixibetoll6 Mountoin, 208 Loftv Mountoins, 399 Lomblen Island, 207 1 Lombok Island, 201 Peak, 202 Strait, 202 Lonthoir, 231 Lopevi Mountoin, 332 Louisiade Island^ 296, 31A Louis-Philip Land, 14 Low Islands, 33, 468 Loyalty Idanda, 337, 364 Luanv Island, 216 Luar Lake, 126 Luoban, 263 Luoipara, 220 Lundu, 144 Lupar River, 126, 126 Mountoins, 126' Luaoh, 82 Lntnrtiir, 140 Luzon, 243 LyeU Peak, 426 Lyttleton, 461 , Mabiak, 304 Macassar, 221, 229 Maoaturin Mountain, 246 MaoCluer Bay, 297 Macdonald Island, 63 MaoDonall Mountains, 361 Maokay, 40ti Maoquarie Island, 424, 466 Maoton Island, 7, 268 Madiun, 101 Madura, 149, 160 Maduroao, 166 Maer Island, 376 Mafate, 48 Mafur, 300 Magelang, 188 Magellania, 7 Miwindanao Lake, 262 MiOiakkain River, 126, 127 Mah^bonrg, 46 Maitland, 412 Maiang Island, 121, 127 Makjan Island, 236, 238 Malabar Mountain, 164 Malabuh, 108 Malabon, 263 Malays, 38, 78, 263 Malaysia. 64 Malaito Uand, 322 Maiang, 192 Malap^ 148 Malaspina Mountain, 246 Maiden Island, 468 Malinao Mountain, 247 Ma l i n dan g Mountoin, 249 Malintong Mount-ain, 82 Mallicolo, 336 Malte-Bran Mountaiu, 426 »MiJWM«yiiiM*tay^M*^^ INDEX. 600 d, 340, 361 5 ' and, 202 .nV I»laiul, 221 -< Lake, 228 >dH, 28H , 260, 266 -•" . ilanda, 115 . ' ' ttain, 118 ' > riaiiu, 361 ^ Uver, 182 . , Mountain, 206 Mounteln, 208 untaina, 309 Island, 207 ' [aland, 201 , 202 t, 202 < 231 [ountain, 332 i Islandis 2HH, 31A Jlip Land, 14 vOk, 33, 468 [danda, 337, 364 Oand, 216 ke, 126 263 ,, 229 144 iver, 125, 126 .ntains, 126 2 r 140 !43 ak, 426 a, 461 , 304 r, 221, 229 in Mountain, 246 * Bay, 297 dd laland, 63 all Mountains, 361 , 40i> rie laUnd, 424, 466 laland, 7, 268 , 191 , 149, 160 io, 166 Und, 376 48 309 »g, 188 knia, 7 anao Lake, 262 cam Biver, 126, 127 lurg, 46' .d, 412 : iHland, 121, 127 , Island, 236, 238 r Mountain, 164 h, 108 n, 263 , 38, 78, 263 la. 64 \ Island, 322 :, 192 , 148 ina Mountain, 246 I Island, 468 o Mountain. 247 ang Mountain, 246 ung Mountain, 82 ilo, 335 Bran Mountaiu, 426 Malu Mountain, 124 Mamanuthas, 468 Manahiki iBlandit, 467, 473 Manapuri Lake, 427 Mandala-Wangi, 152 Mandayaa, 258 Mandhar Capo, 22 1 Mangareva iHland, 474, 487 Mangkarai, 206 Mangkassar, 227 Manilla, 20 1 Maninju Lake, 83 Manipa laland, 230 Maulv, 410 Uaon, 30, 440 Maraki laland, 290 Marapok Mountain, 146 > Maras Mountain, 118 Mar«, 340 Margaaari, 140 Marianas, 274 Maria-Therew Shoal, 497 Maribojn, 268 Marigondon, 266 Marion lalanda, 60 Mariveles, 266 Marlborough, HI Maros, 221, 227 Marquesas lalanda, 487 Mars Island, 117 Marshall Islands, 288 Marsuins River, 62 Martapnra River, 127 TovTi 540 Marud Mountain, 124 Marudu River, 148 Mary Rivw, 406 Maryborough, 406 Masbate Inland, 246 Masoaren^aas, 40 Massacre Bay, 421 Maseim Islands, 200 Mat River, 48 Mataram, 190, 203 Matupi Islautl, 328 Mauban, 266 Maui Island, 492 Manna Hualalai, 491 Kea, 491 Loa, 489 Manpiti Mountain, 471 Mauritius, 40, 43 Mayon Mountain, 246 Hayn, 236 Mban Island, 468 Medan, 116 Meester Comelis, 183 Melanesia, 318 Melanesiaue, 39, 324 Melbourne Mountain, 14 City, 414 MelvUle Island, 366 Mempakol, 148 Menado, 228 Town, 228 Menangkabao, 101 Moagwi, 200 Mentawey Islands, 103 Merapi (Java), 157, 162 (Sumatra), 84, 109 Merbabu Mountain, 187 Micronesia, 39, 274 Milano, 146 Milford Sound, 426, 429 Milli Islands, 292 Minahaawa, 219 Mindanao, 243, 246 Mindoro, 244 Minto, 119 ftlioko, 328 MiramiK, 268 Mitchell River, 366 Moio-Knrto, 1«2 Mojo Pahit, 159, 191 Mokko-Mokko, 110 Mokoia laland, 443 MukuHveuveo, 400 Molokai Island. 496 Moluooaa, 76, 220 Molyneux River, 439 Mono Island, 322 Montrado, 126, 137 Montravel, 348 MoontH, 402 Moorea, 471, 487 Moreton Bay, 404 Morgan, 400 . ■* MorT-Ori, 441 Momlng^n, 407 Moron, 264 Morotai, 236 Morrumbidgee River, 366 Mortlook, 282 Motir laland, 236 Motu, 304, 316 Mount Perry, 406 Mua, 483 Murio Mountain, 161 Mulinuu, 486 MuntoV, no Murohiaod River, 366, 396 Murray River, 366, 407 Island, 364 Murrat, 143 Musaheli Mountain, 231 Musi River, 91 Muwara-Bahan, 140 Bliti, 112 Dua, 112 Inim, 112 Kompeh, 112 Rupit, 112 Mysol, 297 Naga, 266 Namorek Island, 282, 292 Nan|fame8Bi, 209 Napter, 451 NaroTO, 022 Natol, 108 Nateya Bay, 468 Natuna Island, 120 - Navigators' Islands. 483 Negara River, 127, 140 Town, 140 Negritos, 6a, 263 NegTos laland, 246 Neira, 234 Nelson, 451 Newcastle, 412 New Britain, 296, 319 Caledonia, 337 Georgia, 322 Guinea, 293,311, 316 Hanover, 320 Hebrides, 320 Ireland, 296 Lanenburg, 319 Mecklenburg, 319 Nnroia, 397 Flymouih, 461 South Wales, 470 New York laland, 468 /nnland, 421 Ngitlao Bay, 464 Ngaur laland, 277 Nvrawi. 101 Ngengea Mountain, 204 Ngnli Inland, 280 Ngongotaha Mountain, 434 Niaa laland, 06, 103 Niaur laland, 277 Niihttu, 4U2 Nila Island, 206, 216 Niua, 483 Niue Island, 446, 469, 483 Njavonga, 132 Norfolk laland, 35, 413 Norman River, 366 Normantown, 406 North Borneo, 146 Island, 422, 430 Northern Territory, 403 Norwood, 400 Nou Island, 347 Noumea, 347 Nowra, 412 Nuevtt-CauvreH, 266 Nufor, 304 Nuka-hiva, 474, 487 Nukapu lahtnd, 336 Nukualofa, 483 Nukunor, 284 '' Nuaa Kembangan, 164, 166 Laut, 231 Oahn Island, 480, 492 Oamaru, 461 Oas, 265 Obi Island, 236 Obau Lake, 427 Old Hat Island, 436 Oleh-leh, 107 Oma, 231 Ombaai IsUnd, 208 Onehunga, 440 Onetapu I>esert, 431 Onp^tong-Java, 822 Onin Peninsula, 297 One Nihe, 103 Onrnat laland, 184 Ophir Mountain, 82 Orange Bajo, 227 Buntu, 132 Dongo, 206 Ounotig, 119 Kuba, 102 Kwata, 118 Laut, 118 Lubu, 101, 103 Sekai, 118 Serani, 232 Ulu, 101 Orange, 412 Orohona Mountain, 472 Otago Harbour, 462 Ot Danom, 134 Ots, 346 Ouegoa, 360 Ovalau Island, 468, 464 Owen Stanley Mountain, 299 Oyster Cove, 384, 419 River, 62 Fadang, 83, 108 IsUnd, 94 Panjang, 110 Sidempuan, 108 BIO INDEX. Padri, 96. 102 PaKttn iHland, 27ft FagHh Island, 106 Pallia, 421 Painaii, 110 ^' Fajatralaii, 164 Paia-kombo, 110 Pakarainan, 165 Pakuojo Mountain, 166 Paliion Wands, 277 Palawan, 269 Palembang, 91, 112 River, 91 Falmur River, 40« PalmernUm, 391, 403 IslandB, 467 PaloH Bay, 227 Cape, 220 Town, 227 PamekaHan, 193 Pampangan River, 261 Pampangos, 266 Pananikan. Ib3 Panay, 267 Pandan Mountain, 168 Pangaron, 140 .Pangawinan, 266 Panggerango Monntain, 162 Panghu Volcanoes, 222 Pango-Pango, 484 Fame Peak, 338 Fanka, 186 Pantar Island, 208 Papandajan Mountain, 164 Papeete, 486 Papuans, 38, 303 Fapuasia, 293 ■ , Paragua. 244, 2H9 Paramatta, 411 ^ Parigi, 227 Parry Islands, 277 Pasaman, 82 Pasig River, 251 Pasir, 140 Pasumah, 102 Pasuruan, 193 Paternoster Islands, 161 PateroM, 263 Patjitan, 191 ' ' Patti, 187 . Fatuha Monntain, 163 Pekalongan, 186 Fekan-Baru, 113 Pelarang, 141 Pelew Islands, 277 Peling Island, 226 Fenanggungan Mountain, lo» Penrhyn Islands, 467 Fenrisan Mountain, 126 Fep6 River, 189 Ferampuan Monntain, 206 Pemakan, 119 Ferongia Mountain, 436 Perth, 396 Fertibi, 108 Pescadores Islands, 288 Fotre Bay, 464 Fetrie Reefs, 340 Philippine Islands, 243 Phillip Port, 414 ' Phoenix Islands, 467 Fieter Both Mountain, 43 Pigeon Boy, 430 Pihanga Mountain, 432 Pilot Mountain, 407 Pillar Land, 362 Pines, Island of, 338, 361 Pirato'n IwlandH, 121) PiUsaini Wand, 407, 488 Piton doB Nuiges, 46 Piton du Midi, 43 Pitt I-land, 464 Plato iHland, 43 Pleasant Island, 289 Plenty, Bay of, 434 River, 414 Poedal Mountain, 246 Point Parker, 406, 407 Polangui, 266 Polills Island, 260, 266 Polynesia, 466 Polynesians, 39, 474 Pomotu Islands, 473 Ponap6, 282, 280 Portlanak, 122, 137 Port Adelaide, 400 Akaroa, 462 Arthur, 410 Breton, 328 Chalmers, 462 Cooper, 430, 461 Darwin, 403 Denison, 400 Hacking, 413 Jackson, 386, iP9 Portland, 418 Port Levy, 4u0 LuuiB, 43 Macquarie, 360, 412 Mathurin, 63, 64 Moresby, 311 Nicholson, 461 Phaeton, 486 PhiUip, 414 Stephec. 412 Possession lai.'-nd, 60 Posso Lake, 226 Poverty Bay, 421 Prahu Mountain, 166 Preang, 166 :ftreservation Inlet, 429 Priaman, 108 Piiungan, 110 Princes Islands, 86 Prime Edward Island, 60 l4obolingo, 193 Progo River, 164 Providence Reefs, 292 Pu Mountain, 126 Puerta Prinoosa, 269 Pukaki Lake, 427 Pukapuka Island, 467 Pulasari Mountain, 161 Pvilfk-i Island, 221 FuluLawang, 113 Petak, 127 Purworejo, 189 PuBuk Bukit Mountain, 82 Putanaki Mountain, 436 Pyrenees, 369 Queen's Channel, 366 Qiieenscliff, 414 Queensland, 403 Queenstown, 463 Raja Bassa Monntxin, 86 Raiatea Island, 487 Raki-rua, 422 Ranay Mountain, 120 Rangitaiki River, 436 Rangitoto Mountain, 436 Rangsang Island, 94 . Ranjuua Island, 200 Rautuu Island, 94 . RaoulCape, 410 Island, 466 Rapa Island, 486 <1 .. RafHtongn, 471, 486 , Ratnk Islands, 291 , -jtr Raun Mountain, 102 Ravenswood, 406 / , Keiang River, 120 Rejangs, 102 Rembang, 101 Renjanl Mountain, 202 Reunion, 40, 46 Rewa, 464 Rewa-Rewa River, 464 Rikitea, 487 Ringat, 113 Ringgit Mountain, 101 Riouw Islands, 116 Town, 117 Rookhampton, 406 Rockingham, 307 Roebuck Bay, 403 Rodrigues Island, 40, 62 Roebourne, 397 Rokau River, 91 Rokka Mountain, 200 Roma (Australia), 406 Island, 216 Mountain, 206 Ronde Island, 43 Rook Island, 328 Roper River, 366 Rosa Bank, 276 Rose Island, 470 Mountain, 164 Ross Mountain, 61 Rota Island, 276 Rota-ma, 434 Roto-ehu, 434 Roto-iti, 434 Uoto-Mahana, 436 Roto-rua Lake, 434 Rotti Islands, 200 Rotnest Island, 397 Rotuma Island, 466, 483 Rozengain Island, 236 Ruapenu Mountain, 431 Rnang Island, 222 Ruk Islands, 283 Run Island, 236 Rupat Island, 94 Rurukon, 229 Rnsa Islandv 221 Russel, 449 Sabab, 146 ■ Sabrina Land, 14 Sadang River, 144, 146, 222 Sago Mountain, 84, 110 Sagut, 148 8t. Aignan, 300 St. Benott, 62 St. Denis, 47, 60 St. Etienne River, 48 St. Joseph, 62 St. Leu, 48, 61 St. Lonis, 61 St. Paul Ishind, 66 Town, 47, 60 St. PhiUppe, 62 St. Pierre, 48, 61 St. Vincent Gulf, 366 Sala Mountain, 162 ^f^S^^S^ INDKX. 011 g Inland, 04 " . iMland, 200 [Hiand, U4 < ipe, 411) iid, 46/5 and, 486 m, 471, 4«S dandH, 201 j^-' auiituin, 102 rood, 406 River, 126 , 102 g, 101 Mountain, 202 1, 40, 46 ,64 ;ewa River, 464 487 113 • I ; Mountain, 161 Ittlands, 115 wn, 117 mpton, 406 iham, 307 k Bar, 403 lies Inland, 40, 62 xne, 307 River, 01 Mountain, 200 (AuBtralia), 40fl and, 216 >untain, 206 Island, 43 Aland, 328 [Uver, 366 lank, 276 aland, 470 ountuin, 164 fountain, 61 gland, 276 na, 434 }hu, 434 iti, 434 lllahana, 436 rua Lake, 434 Inlands, 200 at Island, 307 ita Island, 466, 483 Sain Island, 236 u Mountain, 431 gr Island, 222 [slanda, 283 [aland, 236 t Island, 04 kan, 220 Island^ 221 d, 440 li, 146 . na Land, 14 ng River, 144, 146, 222 Mountain, 84, 110 it, 148 Lignan, 300 i^oit, 62 Jenia, 47, 60 Stienne River, 48 Joseph, 62 L«u, 48, 61 Liouis, 61 Paul Island, 66 Town, 47, 60 Philippe, 62 Pierre, 48, 61 Vincent Gulf, 366 , Mountain, 162 Salak Mountain, 161, 182 Halatiga, IH8 •Sala y iJnnnet Inland, 467 Halassio, 48 Sale, 417 Baleyur Inland, 221 Salwaty iHlimdn, 207 Sttiiiii1iiuu;tt Mouutaiu, 82 Hamiir Island, 263, 266 SaniiiranK, IHtl, 408 Samarinda, 141 Samate, 308 Samau, 211 SttmbaH, 137 8aml>aya River, 163 Sambiliuntr, 142 Sambori Mountain, 20S Samoa, 467, 4H3 Sampit Rivor, 127 Samaan, 307 San Bartolomeo Island, 288 San Bariiardino Strait, 206 San Cristobal Inland, 322 Mountain, 204 San Fernando, 266 Sandakan, 147 Sandalwood Island, 209 Sandffste, 404 San^urst, 418 Sandridsre, 414 Sandwioh Island, 336 Islands, 489 Snndy Gape, 364 Sanga-Sann, 141 Sangeang Mountain, 206 Sangi Islands, 222 Sangril Mountain, 240 Sanguir lalands, 222 San laidro, 204 San Jo6 de Buenavista, 268 Sankolirang, 142 Santa Ana Island, 322 SantH Cruz Islands, 320 Town, 263 Santo Tomaa, 260 Sanama Island, 231 it?*.., 234 Sapudi Islands, 161 Saputan Mountain, 221 Sarangani Mountain, 246 Sarawak, 68, 144 River, 146 Saribaa River, 146 Sasaks, 201 Sasan Mountain, 203 Satoan, 284 Satoi Mountain, 126 Saunders Gape, 430 Savaf(e Island, 483 Savaii Island, 470 Savo, 322 Savtt Islands, 200 Savu-Savu, 464 Sawah Mountain, 86 Sawal Mountain, 166 Savpon Island, 276 Sohonten Islands, 296 Sea View, 300 Sebeai laliuid, 86 Seboku Island, 121 Sebuwai^ River, 130 Segama River, 148 Segara Anakan Bay, 164 Segli, 108 tSekaar, 310 SeUngBu, 86 Holitparnng, 201 H<>lnru Inland, 21 H tScluwu Janten Mountnin, 82 Sf'inarHng, 18(1 Humnrn Mountain, 161, 100 iSi'tiganinK Inland, 1 1 7 S<>rawin Inland, 120 Seriing, 182, 'iM Herwutty Islands, 216 Sown Mountiiinn, 16H Shetland Inlands, 14 Sherlock River, 307 Hhoalhavon, 412 Shortland, 328, 461 Hiak Rivvr, 01 Town, Hi) Siao, 222 Hibalon, 208 t Sibogha, 00 ' ' -» Sibu, 146 Sibuks River, 146 SileUrBay, 111 Sllikab Bay, 106 SUvctrton, 412 Mines, 412 Simalu Island, 103 Simangang, 146 Rindang I^ya, 1 86 Sindoro Mountain, 160 Singalong Mountain, 84 Singfapore, 236 Singkara Ijake, 84, 01 Singkel, 108 Singosari, 102 ^k, 108 Slamat Mountain, 166 Smythesdale, 417 Snares Islands, 422, 424 Sooioty Islands, 407, 486 Solander Cupe, 408 Solo, 189 River, 183 Solombo Islands, 160 Solomon Islands, 318, 322 Solor Islands, 206 Somerset, 400 Somo-Somo Strait, 460 Sorobandi Monntnin, 206 Sorsogon, 200 South Australia, 308 laland, 422, 424 Spencer Gulf, 361 Sriang Lake, 126 Stawell, 418 Stewart laland, 424 Stoi\e Islands, 14 St^rm Bay, 419 Sual, 266 Subig, 266 Sngut, 240 Suikerbrood, 86 Sola Islanda, 227 Beu, 227 Takomi, 227 Taliabo, 227 Sulu Islands, 122, 208 Somadra, 108 Sumatra, 79 Sumba laland, 208 Sumbawa, 203 Bay. 206 Province, 206 Town. 206 Sumbing Mountain, 166 Sunda Islands, 64, 208 Strait, 64, 86 Sunilannan, 77, 100 Hunilny Inlnnd, 166 SumlMiyn, 101 I"riivin( (', 101 Strait, 1(U Surakartu, I HO IVovinne, 180 Surigot) Port, 240 Town, 208 Susang River, 01 Suva, 404 Suvorov Inlands. 407 Swan River, 300 Sydney, 400 Taal Mountain, 240, 248 Tabaoo, 200 ■ Tabanan, 200 Tabello, 241 ^ Taoloban, 206 Tafelberg (Sumbawa), 82, 204 I'afelberg (Halmahera), 236 Tafuti Lake, 223 Tagals, 360 Tagbanuhcy, 200 Taffbilaran, 208 Tahaa Island, 471 Tahiti, 407,471, 486 Taio-Ha6, 487 Taiti Hi, 472 Taiti Nui, 472 Taiem Mountain, 120 " Talang Mountain, 84 Talaraquin, 240 Tambora Mountain, 204 • Tambelan Island, 120 Tambuku Mountain, 102 Tamil, 286 Tamparang Lake, 224 Tamworth, 412 Tanah-Jampea, 221 Tanduwi River, 166, 164 Tangarung, 140 Tangerang, 186 Tangka Mountain, 86 Tanffkuban Prahu Mountain, 166 Tanfacg Pinang, 117 Tanjong Bunga, 207 Pandang, 120 Friok, 183 Tanna, 332 Aiperi, 332 Tapamanoa Mountain, 471 Tapannli Bay, 108 Province, 06 Tarakan Mountain, 236 Taranaki Mountain, 436 Taravao Isthmua, 486 Tarawera Lake, 434 Voloano, 434 Tarun River, 166, 162 Taaman Glacier, 426 Tasmania, 362, 363, 418 Taamanians, 380, 383 Tataa Island, 140 Tan Island, 486 Taui Island, 321 Taumaoo, 336 Taupo Lake, 432 Tauranga, 443, 461 Tavinni Island, 468 Tayabaa, 266 Tay-tay, 260 Te Anau Lake, 427 Tebah Mountain, 86 Teetulpa, 402 1 i i n t ni'i Tegal. 1 86 PmrinM, IHfl Tn K«pm|iinffnii, 'ilH Tir Miiuntain, ItlO TmiinitMir IitUniU, iltt T«ii.irii River, I OH Teniate Inland, 'i'M Tdwn, -ill Tarror Mountnin, 14 Tu TaritU, 43/i Tevithi Panamii. ii'i ThaniM River, 4A1 Town, 401 Thio, 3A1 Thuni'tar Inland, 406 Tlbl, -iM Vallejr, 247 TioaH Island, 266 Tidar Mountain, 157 Tidor Island, 236, 241 TiduDg, 142 Tifuri liilandi 236 Tiger Island, 319 Tikopia, 330 Timaru, 4A1 Timboro Mountain, 204 Timor Island, 200 Tiraiirese, 213 Timor Laut, 216 Tinakaro, 332 Tinguianea, 2fi8 Tinian Idand, 276 Tjanjur, 185 • I , Tjarinvi, 88 T^empiBaT, 203 «.v Tjenrana River, 224 T erimai Mountain, 106 < Tiibodas, 185 Tiikao, 186 Tiikurai, 166 Tjilatjap, 189 T ilongok, 185 ^ - / Tiitialenk*. 186 Tjitjurog Pass, 162 Toba FLateau, 82 Lake, 82, 06 Tofua Peak, 460 Topan Islands, 227 Tohivea Mountain, 471 Tokelau Idands, 467, 468 Tolo Mountain, 236 Gulf, 227 Tombara Island. 319 Tomaiki, 227 Tomini, 221, 227 Gulf, 227 Tondano, 229 Lake, 224 Tonga Islands, 468, 469, 483 Tongariko Mountain, 432, 436 Tonga-tabu, 469, 483 Toowoomba, 406 Topantuuuasu, 226 Torajas, 226 Torrens Lake, 368 River, 399 INDEX. TorrM ntralt, 9, 293, 204, -MS Towiri, 193 Tciitiiiite CaMiade, 340 Tower Mill, :mo Townnhend Mi>uutain, 368 Townaville, 4(Ml Trt'Hsurv Island, 322 Trit4)n Bar, 20(1 Tuaraotu Islands, 407, 473, 487 TuUu, 191 Tubujii Islands, 437, 471, 486 Tuguagarao, 266 TukadHna, 1 38 Tnkopla, 476, 483 Turtle Island, 467 Tutuiitt Island, 470, 484 Tjrang Javi, 140 Ualan Island, 280 ^ Uap, 286 Ugi Island, 326 ITjung I'andang, 227 Uliasser Islands, 231 ^ Ulu, 112 Umbilien River, 4, 01 Ungaran, 167 Upulu Island, 470, 484 Uranan, 276 Ural, 340 Ureparapara, 332 Uvea Island, 483 Van Diemen's Land, 366, 418 Van der Capellen, 110 Vanikoro, 33, 330 Vanua Levu, 332, 458 Vui Inland, 314 Xnti Island, 336 Vatna Island, 467 Vavao Islands, 469 Vegetable Creek, 412 Vela la Velha, 322 Vera Cnia. 336 Verdate Island, 218 Vergara, 268 Verlaten Island, 90 Viool, 256 Kiver, 266 Vlotor Harbour, 400 Victoria Colony, 414 Fort, 232 Land, 14 Port Esaington, 403 West Australia, 397 Vigan, 266 Viaayans, 268 Visayas Island*, 265, 270 Viti, nee Fiji Viti-Levu, 467 Vlaardigen, 224 Volcan Island, 320 Volcano Islands, 277 \7sgg»-Wagga, 412 Wahid, 233 Waiau Biver, 427 Wal (Pnlo), 82 Waigeu, 297, 306 Waikato River, 433, 43609 WaiUh, 108 m THR END. Watmakariri, 427 Walrakei Cirque, 434 Wainir, 3(M) WaiUki River, 4'.>H Waitangi Island, 464 Waitemata, 440 Waiwiko-Waihall, 210 Witjang Vo'onuo, 164 Wajo, 226 WakaUpu I^ko, 427, 463 WallartHi, 402 Wallis Islanda, 48.) Wainma Island, 310 Wandammen, 309 Wanganui, 461 Wangsit Voloano, 202 Warekauri Island, 44), 46i Warmamtiuol, 360, 418 Warsii, 204 Warwiuk, 383 I Town, 406 Wawaps, 346 Wellington, Australia, 413 New Zealand, 461 .^ | Mountain, 419 - . Weltevlvden, 183 Wenang, 229 Wustnm Auttnilia, 395 Westport, 461 ♦ Wotang Island, 216 Wetter Island, 216 Whakari Mountain, 436 Wiinkoope, 186 Wiloannia, 412 Willem, l>rinoe, Island, 457 Wilkes Land, 13 William Mountain, 369 Williamstown, 414 Willis Mountain. 168 Wilson Cape, 368 Wisma Mountain, 155 Wollongong, 412 Woodlark Island, 328 Woolomoluo, 410 WxviUe-Thomaon Mountain, 61 Xttla, 229 Tamdena Island, 218 Yan-Yean, 414 Yapara, 151 Yap Island, 277, 284 Yarra-Yarra River, 4U Yaaova Islands. 468 Monntain, 332 Yaaa Biver, 3C8 York Island, 320. 328 Cape, 363 Town, 397 Peninsula, 34, 300, 358, 361 Ysarog Mountain, 2t7 Yule Inland, 314 . Mountain, 299 Yzabel Island, 318, 322 Zabej, 149 Zambales, 266 Zamboanga, 268 Zebu, 268 Zuid-Weatn- lalanda, 216 -r ikMiri, 427 k«i Ciniue, 4»4 r, ;iH n^i IhUikI, 4A4 iimU, 440 iko-Waihttli, no \g Voioitno, lft4 Tili (ipn Lnko, 4'27, 4A3 r, 402 I IitlHnda, 4H;) ^ [ia Inland, :I10 tinmen, 300 anui, 4A1 nit VoloHno, 203 muri Inland, 44), 4A4 lamlMNil, 360, 418 i, 294 ink, 38.1 I DWD, 40A .», .pa, 346 i^ton, AiutralU, 412 ew Zealand, 461 fountain, 419 j ,--■ vt«den, 183 ng, 220 „ Tn Auftmlia, 306 lort, 461 iM )g Island, 216 ! ir Inland, 216 v ari Mountuis, 436 ^ coopa, 186 nnia, 412 n, PrinoA, Idaad, 467 m Land, 13 km Mountain, 360 imBtown, 414 I Mountain, 168 n Cap«, 368 a Mountain, 166 ingong, 412 lark Island, 328 imoluo, 410 lle-Thonuon Mountain, 61 229 ena Island, 218 ifean, 414 ra, 161 island, 277, 284 -Tarra RiTer, 414 « Islands. 468 foontain, 332 River, 3C8 IsUnd, 320, 328 !ape, 363 ?own, 397 'eninsula, 34, 300, 368, 361 g Mountain, 2i7 Island, 314 fountain, 299 A Island, 318, 322 , 149 lales, 266 oanga, 268 268 Wester lalands, 216 *^ IT .■-■•..■-— — ■%