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.\foniN,f'^ Hiiuratiottal Snri
fn
A Modern
English Grammar
nv
HUBF.R (iRAV BL l.lflJ.R
'^ ►K'.LIsm"
•*«' 111 M. nxtt
EDITED FOR CANADIAN SCHOOLS WITH A
HISTORICAL AI'l'LNIilX
■V
PKLHAM KHGAR Ph.D
"^'^r:*::^:-'" .-... ... ,„,„,,„
r...«.*tV KK, . .,* .. .,.,,„ „ ,„, ^.,^^^ HO.K,s:..S.V.
MITV
TORONTO
nEORGF, N. M<)RAN<; 4 COMPANY. I.W„d
Rntiir*<l ■I't-nntinK l<> An nf lh«> Parlianirnt of I'Mtiailii in Itir \rar
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a( th« tHpiwrtinvni •>( AKru ulmrr.
■I
Enttred at Stationers' Hnll, i oiiJun, EiitfbnJ.
Copyiight, i(X», by H. C. Buimlir.
Copyright, uhh, by Moranu & Oimi'any.
M
EDITOR'S PKEFACH 10 THE
CANADIAN HDITION
Th> etiitor has lift-n c.irfful to dinturh in no way the
.Mlniirahlc arranni-nunt of Mr. Huelilcr'h "MiKkrn
Knylish (Jramniar.' To hritij; it int.. haniionv with
our malrimlation rt<|uinincnts Ik has in a few plans
Kivcn additional infonnation, an in the treatment of the
conJi>oun(l noiuj. and ..f inTinitives and participles, and
haK nuule minor alterations where it steme<l advis4d)le.
In writin^r the historical apjiendix he has l>een careftd
not to enter into too ^reat detail, hut has rather sought
in a snjj^jestive way to interest the stndent in the jjreat
laws which determine the ^'rowth and decay of Ian
iiWii^v. Vet the editor can affirm from his ex|x.'rience
as an examiner fr»r the Province that while the hist;)r-
ical account is free from burd
ensome detail it contains
all that is essential f
or matriculation and for thi
advanced examinations in the department.
Toronio, May. 1901.
'mK KlMlftK.
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K^Tiij
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^ W 'IB?*^.
■.«> ■■ ■< #:
f„..„^
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-!«iW^^wjpii|^llfcifllj|Sg
teili:\li-llF»_
PREFACE
T[ns book is an attempt to present the jrrammar of
tnoilern luiKlish in the manner preseribed by modern
methods of instruetion.
The jfeneral treatment of tlic subjeet has been deter-
mined by two eonsiderations. The first is that when
pupils be^nn the study of j;Tamniar, they not only are
able to understand the lang^tuiKe of standard English
literature, but ihey are eontinually usin.i,^ sentenees of
their own with considerable fluency and accuracy. The
second is that, though pupils have considerable skill in
the use of lanj^uajje, they have little knowled^'c of the
nature of sentences and little insight into the funda-
mental relations of subject, predicate, complement, and
modifier.
The second consideration makes unsuitable for class-
instruction those formal treatises that take for granted
a knowledge of the elements of sentence structure, and
begin v^^ith the discussion of single words. The first
consideration discredits the methfxJ of those text-books
which, following the line of progress of a child's first
efforts at language, begin with single words, and
require pupils to build up the mother tongue bit by
bit, as if it were something new and strange. The
pupils whom we set to .study grammar learn to use the
parts of speech and the various types of the English
sentence when they are very young; and they naturally
find dry and unprofitable a study which ignores the
power and knowledge already acquired. When a new
language is to be learned, a synthetic treatment is
VI
PR K FACE
natural and interesting Hut when the mother tongue
is the subjeet of eritical study, tlie aim is, not t<j learn
new forms of speech, hut to investij^ate the nature of
forms that are already familiar; therefore the treatment
should be analytic.
With rejjard to arranjj^emcnt, the starting point is the
sentence; for surely the first months given to the formal
study of the mother tongue should be spent, not in ex-
amining the proix'rtics of nouns and the other parts of
sixiech, but in learning to separate sentences into sub-
ject, predicate, complements, and modifiers, whether
these be single words or groups of words, and whether
the sentences be long or sliort. These larger elements
of sentence structure are the foundations of grammar,
and they must be familiar before the pupil is ready for
the study of separate words. They influence both the
classification and the inflection of the parts of speech;
therefore neither the classification nor the inflection of
the parts of speech can be effectively studied until these
are mastered.
With regard to method, the presentation is as far as
possible inductive, taking familiarity with English for
granted, and leading the pujnl to observe, compare,
and classify grammatical facts for himself. But while
the author has avoided dogmatic instruction, he has,
on the other hand, shunned with equal care that vague-
ness which results from merely asking the pupil ques-
tions and leaving him to answer them for himself.
The pupil is not only led to observe for himself ; he is
also guided to the right inferences. Whenever, as in
discussing some points of usage, it has been necessary
to employ dogmatic teaching, care has been taken to
speak no more strongly than tlic facts of usage warrant.
The forms employed to exhibit graphically the logical
PREFACE
VII
structure (»f sentences — in many books a hindrance to
the pupil rather than a help - have received the united
attention of the printer and the author in an attempt to
make them appeal throujfh the eye directly to the under-
stand injf.
The fund of knowledjfc that pupils brin^f into the
class-HMjm has also determined the limits which the
author has set to his work. Many things often elabo-
rately set forth in text-books may be safely taken for
},n-anted as already known. To explain them is a vio-
lation of the pedagojfic maxim, " Teach the pupil what
he does not know. " Even the analysis of sentences,
important as it is, has its limits as a means of instruc-
tion and training. In going beyond the general analysis
which brings into relief the logical structure of a com-
plex sentence we do not help the pupil, but present him
with Imguistic riddles that make his native tongue of-
fensive to him.'
As to inflections and the uses of the various parts of
speech, these are already known empirically, and the
business of the grammarian is simply to help the pupil
to systematize his knowledge and to avoid common
errors. Distinctions and classifications, if they are too
minute or numerous, confuse the mind and loosen its
grasp of important things. The author has tried to
make a book that will help teachers to awaken in boys
and girls what is sometimes called the language sense,
and strengthen their grasp of their mother tongue.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty that confronts the
author of a school grammar is the diversity of opinion
among grammarians as to the proper classification and
nomenclature for certain locutions. Anyone, for ex-
ample, who undertakes to present the English verb
• S, S. Laurie: " Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School,"
viii
PREFACE
b^xlv H I T '""''= " " '" "y '" Pl-^"* every.
My. H,«h an.' reverend authorities lift „., t,,e^
Sc"" Th "'?. ""' ""■■" '-^ "" »"^'= '-•■"« "he
niiuaic. The authoi can only siiv that h.. k . • ,
t.. fon„w .h„. phi,„I.„ists wh'o I:,'! : it, ;=^
influence current opinion. ^
With regard to the exercises, the sentences for analy-
MS have been chosen as far us possible with rc^'rJ^L
to ftne literary aualitv Sivr-Jii , ^iv-itnce
J ^liuiiiiy. v-»j)ecial exercises have ht-.-n
Mudtnti. The n.,merou8 exercises iK-aring on nues.
Uo,,s of Ko,Ki u.sagc have been made practical No
sentences for correction have been admi.Ll. M„s, „f
he exerctses have been made fuller than usual, since"
.s much eas,er to shorten an exercise that is Jlon"
■ I-an to lengthen one that is too short
The author acknowledjjes his indebtedness for hel„.
hl'liTKl'™'.'" *"■■ '^''"""■'' "■ ^'"y- "eadn,aster if
Professor ;"p^"'' •*'"■ '"-"* "• ^"""*.'. A-istant
ZJ ,. c ^^^^^''fy '" 'he Vniversitv of Chicag,, ■
and Mrs. Sarah Ellen Andrew. Teacher 'of En.disMn
the Detroit (Mich.) Public High School
CONTFNTS
IntrcHluction ''*<"'
I
PAKT I
c.MrT.« 'SKVIKNChS AM. IMlik SiKt.T.KK
I. Of Sciitiiuis ill ( Ifiieral
11. Of Siil)j(cl .iiul rudic.itr
21
III. Of Sul)si;intivc and Veil)
I\'. Of Coinplcmtnts
\'. ( )f Mofiititrs '^^
VI. or .Suhstanliv,- I'lirascs an.i Clauses ' ^'^
\'II. Of Iiulepeiuient KIcmt nts
\-|| I. Of .Sen.ences as Simple. O mplex. .•,„.! Con,po,'„ul' . .' ." " c/!
IX. Of Elliptical Sentences
'OS
PART II
Thk I'aris ok SI'KKCH
I. Of the Recoj;nition of the Parts of Speech , , ,
II. Of Inflection, Derivation, ami Coii.|)osition , .q
III. Of Nouns
147
IV. Of Pronouns ,
V. Of Adjectives
VI. Of Articles J'^
VII. Of Verbs J''
VIII. Of Adverbs. . "^
283
IX. Of Pieposilions. . ,
289
X. Of Conjunctions
205
XI. Ot Interjections.
. 297
Al'PKNDIX
HlSn.R.CAI. SKKICH ... THK EVC, ,kh LaNcIA.^F " ' t,
Index ^
337
Mm: '
INTRODUCTION
1. T^iiiKtiaffo. — Everybody has an instinctive
desire to tell his thouj^dits and feelings to others;
indeed, exchange of ideas is necessary in social
life. One way of expressing thoughts is to make
motions with the hands or other parts of the body,
as children and deaf and dumb persons do. But the
usual and very much better way is to make with the
tongue and adjoining organs certain combinations
of sounds which by common consent have certain
meanings. These combinations of tongue-sounds,
by which people express their thoughts and feelings,'
form T4in>ruu«re (from Latin lingmx, "tongue").
Combinations of sounds that stand for single ir^'-as
are called AV'ords. These are in turn combined into
thought-groups called Hentences.
2. Why Our T^nffuaffo Is Called Kn^llsh. — Our
language is called English because it is the language
that has been spoken for more than fifteen hundred
years in England, whence it has been carried to
America and other parts of the world by English
colonists.
''.' at
"I "> '*'
*^i » '*
|l' " '
>"ipi|r'»
^..'
.mM^
n
■^ <?<;
- 'MKUDL'CTlUN
3. '»'»»«' *'«rly Homo or KiiKllMi—Iiut the Kiurlish
lauifuaifc did not have its bcginniuir i., Kn^land It
wasearricd there in 449 A. I), by people whoinigraled
from the banks of the river !■ Ibe and the sotuliwest
coasts <, the Baltie Sea. These pe<,ple were from
threetnl,es.calledAnjik.s. Saxons, and Jutes. Ofihe
J'^ns who moved to Enghind nearly all trace has been
MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH,
lost. The An^As and the S.r.vo,is drove the onVinal
mhabUants--the Britons-into the mountain,^;,
parts of the island, and in course of time founded
he .lj/o.Sa.on race. They called their new coun-
try ' Angleland." or -England;" themselves and
their language they called " English "
The wonderful way in which the English lan-
gruage has spread over the world is shown by the
accompanying maps. The map cm this page shows
" ..■■■■ r
v«r»>--
iNTKODlcriox
llic early homo <.f ICnulisi,. when it was a mere
dialect of German, spoken by a few tribes. The
shaded ix.rtions of the map below show the reiriuns
of the world in which English is now used.
"!C T
I. ^«> yja^
*>^ .» t.
MAP SirowiNP. THE SPREAD OF THE KNOIIsH LANGUAOt
How far English has outstripped other languages
may be seen from the following table, which shows
the number of people speaking the principal Eu
pean languages in 1890: —
ro-
Knjjlish . . .
(leinian....
Russian
FreiK h
S|)anish
Italian
Tortuguese ,
IH.TOO.CXXJ
75,200,00)
75.<XX),0O(J
5 1 , 200,000
42.800,000
33.400,000
1 3.000,000
4. OM Knsrll.-.h I>inroroiu f,^„„ Modern Kn^Ilsh.
— Ihe language carried to England by the Anglo-
* INTkODUCTlON
S.ixo„s wan so unlike ih. iCn^.,.-,,, „f ^,,,, j,,,^^
»«st glance ,t .seems tc be quite a di/Terent tongue.
Here, for ex^unple. is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo.
Saxon, or C^ld English, with the o>rres,K>nd!ng
modern Ivnghsh words printed underneath L
F«tler ftr.-. ^n p^ c.rt on hr«,frnum
/■,i/A,r oHt. thou lh.,1 art /» MiavtHt
SI ^In n.ini.i k'-IiiIk'oU
/// /Ay HiitMi- /i,i//i>wf,/
To becurnr Miln rice
Arrive thy linj^.fo,,,
m^<i0H, thy u„ll OH ,arth. u.„s in h,.vuns
Urne (hpshwamlican l.laf s\ 1,. us to .I.i ,;
Our ,/,„fy /,.,,/^i,., ,„ ,^^,,^,y
W«'/W /W M.« «, '"rote^iptution.fiut/oos.uso/Lv
SC)>lice.
Sooth/y {Amen).
ft. Rcliitlon of 01«1 KnirlUli «« xf . «
-.Stra„;j«.l,.,k„,j. as this OIJ Kn^lish is, it Tu^
-.ne lanjftUHc as that which wc „se. T,c differ
once between it an.l „,„der„ IC.Mish is no more to
lc.w,.n<lerc>latthan the difference between a yonnr
en, and the same child when ^rnwn to manUT
Some knowledge of A„„ ,„„ y has ^rown
and changed is helpful to the study of it as Ms
^^wiw^m"^.:
^
ia
*
INTKOIJUCTION I
«. How Our J4iii»iiiiirc lui* <jmwii. — When our
language was earned tu Knglaml. it eonsisted ni
probably not more than two thousand w«)rd.s, now
it contains more than two hundrc»l thou.s;itul— a
much larger number than any «»iher language.
These new words have come into the language in
many interesting ways: —
(I) /Iri/iiA //'.^'r*A.— When the Anglo-Saxons set-
tled in Kngland and drove off the Britons, they
adopted some British words, just as the Americans
have adopted some Indian words. Of these words,
adopted from the Uritons, e amplesare: "cradle"
and "crock."
ROMAN WAIl, IN TIIR NORTH (>K KNCI.AMK
i'.uilt by ihc KomaiiH as a ilcfense against native tribes.
(2) Lafi'n Words Found in Britain. — For several
hundred years before the arrival of the Anglo-
S.ixons. England had been in the possession oflhe
Romans. When the Romans withdrew f.um the
island in 410 A. I)., they left behind a few Latin
?7^ji:yii
iMKoni ( Hon
l--''^ ana ..wall- a.aUu.C/W '""'"'
78 fen 1.,,,., ,.. f„., ,„ , ,. ""'* '•*»" o^ OABH.
(3) J//W,,.n. //•..,A.-AI,o,u the year r>oo A n
^-nristiaii tv hicriM . 1 '*' ^'■•'r f>oo A. I).
i.um> iKjr.ui to l>c rcte veil bv th.. ^i
i,«« i\«»man missionares- in*! «.;»i .1
F-xan,, , ;r. "!•: , ,t: ;-f.» f"""' 'he La.i„.
•■^•i-k",I.a,i,;,/,„:':f ^'""" """""'""> ''""
(-.. /W, 11 W,._T„war<l Iho c„.l.,f ,|,e cVh.h
cen „n- X„r«.,„.„ „r r.a„...s ..v.rr.u, par. If t'
'-"«'"-''• '•••"^""Ples .„,■ : sky ■■ a,„| .. „glj.."
Norman,,,. c„n„„„c.,, I.:n,.la„<, i„ .he JllZZ
men. kncwn as .he X„rn,a„ Invasion.*^ T e Nor"
mans, who lamo fr.un Pnn,.,. .„ ■ -,,
1. n., ., \,a.% f>,r the m.,si part m<>,li(ie<l Utin
IMKuDlcJIuN
In i:n«I.in.l tluy sci/d the laml an.I all ilu- |>..liiivMl
IKiwcr. filk.l all llK ..mccs. an.I nwulc Hair laiiKUaK'e
ihc- laiiirviagc ..f the court, the law, thy m,]uhAh, ,uu\
the church. Wc cannot tjwill oti the particulars *,(
the trcincnilouM chancre in our lanj(ua«e which was
wrought hy this Norman Inva.si.ui. It is cn..u^jh to
.H.iy that after thac hundred yearn of e.mtact with
Norman-I'rench the ICi^jlish lanKUa^e was very
much richer in vocal.ulary an«l si.fter in sound. ( i(
the many hundreds of Norman French words in
our lanjruajr,. examples are: ••battle." "forest"
"duke," and " family."
(0} ll'onh/roni/.atn,. .Is. -In the .sixteenth een-
tury, Ihrouj^dj the in/lue
!ice of what is calle.l il
keviv.-d of Lv^itmu^. the .study of Latin Ueame
very jn.pidar in ICn^d.md. X
o one w.is considered
well educated unless he culd read L.uin ; near!
all
Lat
and
important hooks were written in T
in words l>e^ran to api)ear in Knj^lish c.
writinjf. Since these Latin-Knglish \n ....is were
and
'.ion
learned from books, they closely re.scmbled
in«: the oriifinal Latin words. Kxamnl
n spell-
pies arc
'ex-
imple" (Latin r.u„.phnu\ " fact" (Latin >//.,//)
and
'quiet" (Latin t/uutus)
(7) Import,, f Won/s.—Thii descend
Anglo-Saxons have alwavs I
ints of the
)ecn great travelers and
traders; and in their traveling nn,! trad
have collected words f
1 n V-
th«
•y
Kxamples are: from Spain
i-om all parts «.f the world,
nap
pian
f
mosquit<.;" from
Germany, "zinc;" from Afri
rom ifolland. ••sk.nte;" fr
om
ca, "gorilla;" from
8
INTRODt'CTION
B
the American Indian, •• hammock " and - tomato"
from Arabia. ..sofa- from China, '.silk;'* from
India. ..suijar;- from Persia, ''awning;- from
lurkey, '.tulip." ^
(8) New Words for New 77//V...--Ncw discoveries
and inventions, as they have occurred, have given
n-^w words to our language. Examples are : ' . pho-
tograph •• and ' ' telephone. "
Kn«il.sh.— The proportion of words in modern Juu-
lish which have been drawn from the sources just
described maybe roughly represented as follows :-
Old En-,'Iish WonJs I
Cireek Words
Latin Word-
(including Norman- French)
Iiali.in Spanish. Dutcl). HdJfesv. Arabic"
r^''S''»"' A'lierican Indian, etc.
8. Changes In Our r^iiKuuKo.— Our language has
not only grown ; it has changed.
(I) y>/ ////..//.;;,.._01d English was what is called
a highly inflected language. An inflected langua<re
IS one that joins words together in sentences Sy
means of "inflections" or changes in the words
themselves. For example, in Old English ova'.
meant "oxen " oxena meant "of oxen." oruut meani
with oxen. Accordingly, instead of saying is
we do " tongues ./oxen." our Anglo-Saxon ances"
-. iNrkoi)rcrn)N 9
tors said " tiinKuii osvivr." Traces of these word-
clianyesor inlkctions still remain in our language:
as, "sin^f," "singj."
(2) /// Ort/ir of Words.— 'Y\\K^ order of words in ( )ld
English was clumsy and involved. For example,
instead of saying as we do, —
When Darius saw tlial he would be overcome,
our Anglo-Saxon ancestors would have said,
When Darius saw that he o\ercume be would.
(3) /// Sound.— K )ld English was a guttural speech,
full of harsh, ehoking sounds. For exami)le, our
•' holy" was once "halig," our •* bridge" was once
" ^^njjg" (as in Scotland to this day), our " day " was
once "dacg," our "light" was once pronounced
like the Scotch "licht."
9. How Chansres Cnmo About. — The greatest
changes in our language occurred between 1 100 and
1500 A. D,, that is to say, during the four centuries
that followed the NormanfMuquest. Tiie storyof the
changes is too long to be told here; but some idea
of how they came about may be gained by noticing
what happens to-day when a foreigner who has only
half learned English tries to speak it. lie mispro-
nounces the words, arranges them after the manner
of his own language, neglects the inflections. In
somewhat the same way, when the Anglo-Saxons
and the Norman-French became one people, and
their languages were fused into modern English,
sounds were modified, iiic order was changed, and
inflections were dropped.
AftsdnasiKir w.
lO
INTRODUCTION
7.1
lO. UinvcxiaKo Htm Hubjet't to Chan^e.-Sinte
the invfiuion of priritinif, chancres in English have
not been numerous; for the vast number of printed
EARI.V PRINTINT. PRESS.
books and papers, and the immense spread of the
ability to read and ^.vrite, have given to our lan-
guage a rigidity of form which it could not have
so long as it existed chiefly on men's tongues. For
example, the language of the English Bible, which
is sixteenth-century English, differs little from the
English of to-day. But some change is still going
on, for modifying i ^fluences are still at work. Eng-
lish-speaking people in different parts of the world
do not talk exactly alike ; new words are coming in ;
old words are dropping out; the forms and uses of
other words are changing. An example of this
modern change is found in the word ' ' whom. " The
L Kiiifmm^'i^. ..m.
T«i^N^
INTROnLCTlON ,,
"m" in this word is an inflection, once useful in
I conveying meaning:; and wu still say, when we wish
.t to speak very accurately, "Whom did you see?"
m But since the "m" is no lony^er necessary to the
meaning-, people have become very careless about
using it, and even good speakers often sav, " Who
did you see? "
11. CJooil KnKll!=«h. — Good English is the English
used by the best speakers and writers; and the use
of such F'lglish is " only a phase of good manners."
Bad English, that is, English unlike that which is
used by well-informed and careful writers, produces
in the mind of a well-informed reader an impression
of vulgarity or ignorance similar to that which w.;
get from seeing a person eat with his knife. It
with language as with clothes and conduct. Persons
who wish to be classed as cultivated people must
not only dress and act like cultivated people ; they
must also speak and write like them. A help toward
this end is the study of grammar.
18. Crammar. — Grammar is an account of the
relations which words bear to one another when
they are put together in sentences. An understand-
ing of these relations requires some knowledge of
the nature, the forms, and the history of words, but
only so far as these bear on the uses of words in
sentences. The proper starting point of English
grammar is the sentence. The discussion of words
considered by tiiemselves belongs to the dictionarv.
2^'^'vil,* -
13
INTRODUCTION
13. Vmm of Oramnmr.-ii is not by grammar
however, that we learn lo .s,«ak or wrL Sc
•ng and writing our mother tongue are S'
ormeU by imitation long before tx- aequire thai
knowledge whieh is the .subject.natter of gn^mmar
l.e o bjeet ,,f the s.u.ly of gramn.ar is to learn U.e
.ses of wonis in .sentences, so that we may test the
habits of speeeh which we have already acquired
and make them conform to the best m.Klels.^T^!
dentally the study of grammar affords invaluable
mental training.
14. CJmn,mai^,oiaft„ci New.— Among English-
speaking peoples grammar was first studied as a
step toward the learning of Latin, and the first
English grammar was ealled an " Introduaion to
Li y s Latin Grammar." The author of t >at first
English grammar, keeping his eye on Latin rather
than on English, and making his work conform to
Latin models, treated English as if it were in all
important respeets like Latin and Greek, with no
history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact.
English differs greatly from other languages. In
structure it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the
mistake of the first English grammar was followed
by succeeding books for nearly four hundred years.
Now we have learned better, and study our language
^^ ith reference to its own nature and history
PART 1
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
itJ
I
twm ^T tiF '
I
If
CHAPTER I
OF SKNTKNCES IN (JKNKkAL
15. Meiwun.l IMimMi-M.— -The word "clog," when
heard or scon, instantly creates in the mind a men-
tal picture of a well-known animal. This mentil
picture is called an ii.ka. The idea may be made
more definite by the addition of other words as
"The bijr bulldo^r i„ Mr. Smith's yard; but thouifh
the Idea is now complex, that is. has several parts, it
still remains a single mental picture.
Dcfinition.^K group of related words e.xpressintr
a single idea is called a PhiniHe.
10. ThouKhts ana Hentences.— The phrase "The
b,g bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard " is satisfactory as
an expression of a mental picture or idea ; but as a
remark made by some one it is incomplete, for we
at once find ourselves asking. •« Well, what about
hat dog ? We are satisfied when we hear thai
I he big bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard W.v/."
trom this group of words we get more than a
single Idea. We get. first, the idea of a certain
dog, and secondly, we get an idea of what the dog
dd. Of these ideas, the second is an assertion
about the first Two ideas of this kind-somethlg
though of and an assertion about it-together form
a complete thought.
Definition.-K group of related words expressin^r
a complete thought is called a Hentenee.
•^7zmi
■ i
l6 SENTENCKS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
17. H€>iitenc'CM uiid lMirtU4«>M DlHtlniruliihcHl.
"The big bulldog barking in the yarU" is not a
sentence, for it contains no assertion. •• Barking"
does, indeed, imply action ; but it does not assert.
It is merely a descriptive word, like •' big." helping
to nil out the mental picture of a certain dog. about
which as yet no assertion has been made. •• Big"
shows the size of the dog. -barking" shows his
occupation, " in the yard " sh.)ws his whercabo'its;
what the big dog barking in the yard did, we have
yet to learn. The ^sords as they stand express a
single complex idea, not a thought; that is. they
form a phrase, not a .sentence. The phnise will
become a sentence if we add ana.ssertion : as, "The
big' bulldog barking in the yard/r/^V/Amv/ ;//,/" or
if we connect "dog" and "barking " bv an assert-
ing word like " is." which turns the w,/>/fh/ action
into an asstrtcd action: as. "The big bulldog is
barking in the yard." In either case we .shall
have two separate ideas, one of which is an asser-
tion about the other.
Qmry : What other asserting words might be
used in the la.st .sentence instead of "is"?
EXERCISE 1.
I. Ti-n tv/iich of the folUnvitig groups of ti'ords are
phrases and ivhieh are sentences. Make sentences out of
the phrases by adding appropriate asserting -words:
1. The man in the moon.
2. The man in the moon came down too soon.
3. The boy in blue.
,„-i.^.-ii-
- . . AiiSL,J5J&^i. flO ■■.^aiLix
OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL
4- The f)oy rtt.ting his Icsgon.
5. The fxjy in blue rtcitinir his lesson.
6. i he »H,y reciting his lesson u n.y brolher.
;. Mis attempt to catch the Iwll.
«. A |)riiiirosc hy tlic rivers biim.
9. A rolhi.g sK.iu- gathers no moss.
10. 1 he chiUIrn, playiny ,„ ,1,,. street.
II Wssels carr>mjrc«)al.
12. I he apples hai.Kint. on the trrp.
13. W.nnuls made by wor.ls are hard to heal.
14. Chiirlcs. s«-,i„y a crowil in th- stre.t.
•S- Th.. Kirl at the sprinji. having hiinf he-r pi.cher
l^>. To play fofitliail well.
rm,,, mdshou' lliat tluy arc sailcm.s.
• , , »»M«intu.— Kxan ie tlie sentences
in tiic followin^r conversation :_
nomU: I found these big apples i„ «ra„dfather's barn.
Dorothy: Show us where you jjot them.
J'tik: Are there any more left ?
//^/<-«.- Aren't theybcauti s!
Yo„ obsen-e that. , the f.rst sentence, Donahrs
thought ,s a r.(,„„, or a co„„„a,„i : f„ ,he third
Jacks thought is a «.„„,/„„, i„ „,e f„„,„,, ,r,.len's
hought .seems at first glance to be a question about
iwrrtht::;^'^''"' ?""'<=-«--
that th. r 1 ^ V ' •"""'-' "''^^ *'^^''^''^''^' '^•""^s
t.iat the apples are beauties. As a matter of fact
I?
•a SENTENCES AND TJIEIK STKUCI UKE
Hhc is merely cxprcssinif her delight by an rxt/ama.
tioM, which ha.s the interrojfative form.
/^^A^'/'^'WJ— Sentences that iu«»crt are called
AMM<«rtlvv NontoiiccM.
Sentences that iisk are called Ii,t..rn»«.»ilv.. h,.|i-
Sentences that command are called im.H.mtlvo
H«>llt«>||Ct>M.
When assertive. interr<.K:ative. an<l imiK-rative
sentences are used as exclamations expressinir
stronfiT feelinjr. xhvy are called V.xvUxuuxu^ry
H4'lltl'lUM»»4.
EXERCISE 2.
I. We iill do f.u|c as a leaf.
a. Fear Ciinl. Honor ihc king.
.1. The kiPK' is dead ! Ung live the king »
4- A living dojr i, better than a de.id lion.
5. Can a man take fire in his lx.som.and his clothes not Ik- burned?
6.
Half a 1. M^ri,,.. half a ie.igue,
H.ilf a leayfue onward.
All in the valley of death
Ro<le the .Six Hun<lr.d.
" ^■orward. the Light Hri(jade!
Ch.irge for the guns ! " he s;iid.
Into the valley of death
Rode the .Six Hundred.
* ♦ • ♦
When can their glory fade ?
() the wild charge they made I
All the world wonder'd.
Honor the charge they made !
Honor the Light Urigade.
Noble Six HundrcU!
Jm^r
^1^' ..;»ilii^^l -^^jj^:
OF SKNTKNCKS IN GKNEKAl. ,,
n». Wrlii*.,! Ht.|.i,.,u..^.- In writing, llic firsi
wor.l uf every .sentence Ix^ins wul, a cajMlal klUr
I he end of an a.Hsertive or an inii,erative senienec
.H nurked hy a iK..ri.xl (.). The en.l of an u.u.rro.ra.
.yc sentence rs marked by an interroKalmn ,...nt . >,
U hen the sentences are exclamatory, thene markn
are changed to exclamation iH.inis (!;.
EXDRCISE 3.
I. /Fr/y. ruv assrrrnr s.nUmus about noUd nun.
2. lint, two tnurro^-atnr snUnucs. ^. Write two hn
hratr.c ,aUa,as, 4. //>//.' an ..ulamatory scntauc.
«o. A.M.rtIvt, H«.nton,.o. M.»«f ro.nn.on.-Nfost
sentences are a.s.sertive in character. Internuralive
and jmiH^rative .sentences are like as.scTtive sen-
tences ,n fundamental .structure, the diflerence be
niK often only a difTerence \n the order of words-
as. Can he sing? - •< H,. can sin;,.- Therefore'
m our .study of sentence-structure, we .s lld^ p^^^k
ch.eny of the a.s.sertive sentence, takin,. i aT^he
tyi>e-form. ** "^
not yet sai^ „ htn^ eH, i^/"" 'f 7'"" "^^' ^--- ^^ V- f^-'
>'.u yourself ^^^^:::^TJ:':t^:::^:''^'"^-^
30
SKNTKNCF.S AND THF.IK SIRUi lUKE
:l
a i^-H^k. whH h Im.| ,m, p«rt. ^..h. hUm .,( ,1,. ,«.rv.n who h4d
.4u^. .1. ,vu„. ..,., .,.e HI... or wlM. ,..., p,.r^,. ,!..., .K,..r. tV.
'»HM.Kl.i ,.n, ,H.,h..,„ r,,»rr».c.l |» ,h« wor.U. " I cul my,^!!''. .
MMtr.uc wlMch h.u iu.> ,Mru t.»rrr,,,..„,|l..« i., ihc two ,Mru ol
...nHKKlyrou, my«lf -,. A per-m h.anng .h.«. wor.U wou
.Ml. ihc ,i,,ftn,m in other w..r.U. ihr „. t.„ .,n,| ihe ,f. /
Wh..p, >«u were o,ue fr,«(„.-nc.l by .» „..,^ ,„ , .,,,k r.K..... If
^ .he ex. l..m.u.or, • Oh f • probably e,pre,,r.| yo„r (car. -a KlinK
wh,ch W.U ,.„m«l,n,cly followed in your min.l by . ,hon«h. co,*
^..n.nK .wo ,Mr.,. •• Th.u ^wha. u i. ? • ,4,in« ufj- u^
IMrU .UKCher an ,.lea of «,„K-.h.nK. a„,| a ,u. ry ..bo... ., J"
iHrha,,. e,pr.,«..I your ihouKb. in .he .p.eM.on. •• Wlu, i, ,ha, > "
Smnlarly. .f you .b.„.,.| ^ a .h.l.l aln.u. ,o e... a ,H,iv.nou.
herry you w..ul.l .ay ,,u,. kly. ..Throw ,ha, away." I,, ' h., ca«:
the .houBh, arou.t.l by wha. you M^e .ake, ,h. fo,r„ «f ., co,„.
nunc!, u „h .wo .ar.. as l^-fore wha. K u, be .lone. an<l ,hc ,Hr,o„
-»'o „ .o .U, ..; bu. ,he lat.er i, no, non,-!. Ucau..- yiu .ve
»|)eakmK «" h'm. and to name huii u unmccMary.
wj^^' m.£MMmj^^tj0
ClIAI'TKk II
or sinjKi T AM) IkKIHiATK
«tf. Two \tM.,.^irv l^iMH lo Kyvry H«.„t,.,...».. ^
hxatninc the followinj^ .sciUcnccM:
NwiiihiK I'lirt,
AwH-rlliiif I'Mrt,
^
Kirc burns. ~^
I nit tiusrif.
Thr vho«)l Ik-II hin Jum riinji
The biK buIUIoK m Mr.SmithHyanl b.irk.-.l at iiir.
Y.»u ohscrve that each sentence has two parts-
tl.e nam.njc pari an.l an assunin^ pari-and thai
lx)th parts are necessary.
a:j. 8ulUt'c.t H...I PrtHlieut,. i>,.«,KMi._The part
of a sc.ntence which .ktmles that about which an
■isscrtu.n is made is ealle.l the Hnhjcc-t.
...Ktri 'M"^ :« vnVK sentence ,h. pn-elicnte o.««.«,A. «,, ,h.
s-'rv . a^, LiM^n (yc) ; •• Don't |youJ fortjct."
22 SENTKNCKS ANI; THF.IK STRUCTURE
EXEBCISE 4.
irn/v out a thou^^ltt or a /a/i,i^^r s,^^r^r,sf„i /y, ,,,,;, ,^
t/ic Jollo-u'ing sitbji'its : —
1. I'lowcrs
2. Lions -.
3. Indians .
4. Stars .
5. Chalk .
6. Fanners .
7. Chicktns
«. IkTS .
EXERCISE 5.
9. I .
10. He .
11. Who ?
12. My desk .
With ,vhat subjects t.'ould the Jolloiviug predicates be
otpropruiie^'
1. sinj,'.
2. clinik
3- spin.
4- trot.
5- grow.
6. arc playing.
7- • will be here soon.
o. [s < oniinjr .>
9. C.in ride a bicycle?
10. Iwice was thrown.
11. What larj,'e muscles h<is !
12. will help me.'
84. Position of the Siibjoc-t— The subject does
not always come first. Thus:
IV«>«II<'nte.
Sii!).|o<.t.
Up went the balloon.
Then burst his mij,dity heart.
There was a little man.
The last of all the bards was he.
In the shade of the great elm trees stands a weather-beaten house.
Sometimes the subject is put l^etwcen parts of
the predicate like a wedjre. I„ the followincr sen-
tences, for example, the subjects are printed in
italics: —
Is Fred coxxxm^}
Where do fiincafiphs grow .'
23
OF SI'IJJIXT ANF) rkKDICATE
Hinv f.ist the smno falls !
.^I.mly and s.ullyarl,,ulhi.n down.
:y ""■ ^"''* '"' ""'^' '^- •V''"'^-/"- .narched into ,I,e arena
Has --iury/>,p,na r/u- .u.ss ..rought l.i.s i,ook ?
4^ E; EFCISE 8.
EXERCISE 7.
y './ nc a o/ iiu following sentences :—
„'• '^\'''i^'^^vaydoc.s the wind comr > . Un fl..v»; .», • ,
all. 3. I>ownwent,lu.Roval(;eor.e a "Fh , . .' -""''"^^
'""•• 5. (;r..at is I,.ana;.f thr? phet,' ' ^T "" "'"^
su.pt wilhin his rrasi, 7 ()„. n '"'*'"■' '^^ T^* " •'>|H^^ars he
.S. WluTc are those H,,.. "'^^'""■'"'•-" '"°""«> ' ''•'w dose by.
->pp-st thou ti^rr a , :;;r r" ':• ,^- ^- ^^--'^-
-A dainty plant is ^-.^^^^'^T^'^'^^tf''
I Mannionofthewave. .3. DouLlS ^le ^h t Ue ^ T
arc ail Hs wnvs i- Ti, ., it .. ' "^ "•""^- '4- Wise
«l..l vou find y"u hook r , a"^ ' T" ^"""'■''^^- '^^ ^^hcre
' u iiMu join Dook .-' 17. Arevourfrcndscomin.r? iS tk
and ,h,s,l..s shall ,he earth brin,. forth ,0 M V.stl!" . k'"""'
"line office -'o rv.-f \. ^" restored he to
^ ir(. .0. (,reat is your rewan in Heaven -i Of t,-
I -riy hfe few particulars have reached us. .. oJ^^aJl l!^ \'"
;;::::^:::h::tr;r:'''fs^^-"'-'^'''^'-^
26. At the door, on suinmer evenings
•"^at the little Hiawatha.
"'■ ,^ t)n the car
I^rops the light drip cf the suspended oar.
24 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
28. Her wing shall the eagle Hap
O'er the falsehcirted.
29. To seek thee did I often rove
Throuj'h woods and on the green.
30. Stormed at with shot and shell
Boldly they rode and well.
Cm'Tk.n Consl.ler tarefully whether ".lormp.I at wiO, vl.oi .,„(
shell belong, ,„ ,he s„l,jecl or to ll,c predicate. l(e on yoi.r b„ .r.l
against mi^t;^ke» in similar cases.
31. The pavement damp and cold
No smiling courtiers tread.
33. Under ihe walls of Monterey
At daybreak the bugles began to play.
33- Meanwhile, from street and lane, a noisy crowd
Had rolled together, likt- a summer cloud.
34- In the courtyard of the castle, bound with many an iron
band.
Stands the mighty linden planted by Queen Kunigunde's
hand.
35. In the Acadian land, on tlic shores of the Hasin of Minas
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Prc
Lay in the fruitful valley.
36. The castle's bound
I wander round,
Amidst the grassy graves.
37. Up and down the dreary camp
In great boots of Spanish le.it her.
Striding with a measured tramp.
These Hidalgos, dull and damp,
Cursed the Frenchmen.
8.-,. Compound Subjects.— Very often the .same
predicate i.s used with two or more connected sub-
jects: as,
OF SUMJIXT AND I'KtI.lCATE jj
///*• present s< t,u, l/ujuturc lol, his toils,
/us -wants, ;ill ' ,
Here lorgottcn.
JhJutition.-'Wvo or more connected subjects 1,-iv
ing the s.une predicate form a O....,.,,....,, «„.,„,:,.
««. Co,ni,o,.,ui P|.cMlleutos._Very often the same
subject lias several eoiiueeted predicat' s: as,
Subject.
CoiliH.t.Ull I'lVllliutf^.
States /-Ataiul /,?//.
Charity -v/(^,.,,M ^,^, an. I /v /•/«,/.
11- K,„g of Hearts ../A.//,, ,,, ,,,,, ^.„, ,^.^^^ ^^^ , ^^^^^^
sore, -'
ICLJ. ""^ ""^^■^■' '""■■" ^' <•""'«'->
t..nc. both .s„hjectan,l predicate ar. compounj ^ as.
CoillpoillDl S||h.|».«.t,
S/iri/iLr and
suinincr
<>m|M>iiii,I fiVMlIeate.
^
came and ucnt.
EXERCISE 8.
36
SLNTtNLKS AND THKIR STKUdUkE
EXEBCISE 9.
In the folloxving sentences separate the subjects from
the prcdtcatcs. If a subject or a predicate is compound,
separate it into its parts :—
I. She ami her bioilicr were thirc.
M..I.EI. K.)R Oral Exkrcisk.- The predicate is •w.rc- th.rt ••
tl... subject is "Sl.e a.ul her i>r<.ihcr.' a cu,„|,.,un,l sul.ject cons<Jt-
in- of "She ■• and -licr hrotlitr."' cuiinected by "and."
Model for Written Exercise.—
i».
)
8.
She
and \ were there.
Iier brother )
2. Copper and tin are found in Knj;land.
3- Spring and summer, autumn and wmter. rush by in (luiek
succession. '
4. Sceptre and crown
Must tumble down.
5. Jack and Jill went up the hill
To fetch a pail of w.iter.
6. The lion and the unicorn
Were fighting for the crown.
7- The stranger came with iron hand
And from our fathers reft the land.
8. Little Ho- Peep fell fast asleej)
And dreamt she heard them bleating.
9. Then my heart with pleasure fills
And dances with the daffodils.
10. Only the foolish and the dead never change their opinions.
11. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the
eyeball, and there spreads out.
12. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables
and were fcti .il the same time.
3
OF SLKJKc T AND I'KF.DICATK
27
13. The natives of C, ylon hu.l.l housrs of ,1,,- trunks of cocoa
• nue ,,al,«s and thatch the roofs w.th the h-avcs.
14. In the- lH.st books, nw.a mtn talk to us. ^Wv us their most
pncous thoughts, and pou. tlu-ir souls .nto outs
'y rndrr the benignant influence of peace an.l iilu-rty science
Jus tlotmshed. and has been applu.l ,.. prac.cal pur,H.s..s
.6 I„ Kngland. two hun.lr.vl y.-ars ago. tlu- s.-.us of the gentry
nn-niK. ,a.g... f,..,„houses wnc fortdled against .ov.ng U.'JsZ
21. The common law of Kn<'lari(l kn..^. «,^,i ■ /
•iai. a„„ .a,.,. „„ „.„„„,„„ nt zi' ;r 'z,: L.::''-'.'',"-
and any other subjrct. uetweui a soldier
o'.I.Ts. by sloepinjr on tmn I " ,'''' "'^>' •^'''' ''> -"efusitig to obey
no legal penalty at all! ' "" "^' '""""« '^'^ ^•"'-^- "— d
"^' The thunder.
plrhf T'^K '■''' "^'^'"'"^ •''"^' '"'P^'"""^ rage
Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now
To bellow through the vast and boundless <leep
24. The t^ind is ,ts own place, and in itself
Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell c.f Heaven.
setulc^^r:"""' «»»>Jec.t.-Exami„e the following
ft rains.
It is snowing.
It is growing dark.
38
SKNTKNCKS AM) TIIKIR STRlCTUKE
I
If we try t.> fnul the subjects of these sentences
by asking. "What rains?" .-What is snowing?"
•• What IS yrowing dark? - the only answer is -It *
Hut -If does not here den..te any person or thinjr
Ihcrefore it is called an l.u,KM>.onuI s„,u...,, and
tae sentence is an Inipei-Honul (StMiteiu-t..
EXERCISE 10.
Makefile itnpcrsonal Si-ntiHCis of your own.
i?". -It" Kxplc.flvc..-Comparc the foUowinjr
sentences: — **
OO To find f.uih is easy.
{/') It is easy to find fault.
In mcaninjr these sentences arc exactly alike-
bnt they dirtcr in (,) form and (2) emphasis!
Uuh recrard to form, tlie first sentence beirins
with the subject, -to find fault.'" which is followed
by the predicate, "is easy;" the second sentence
begins with "it." followed immediately by the
predicate, which in turn is followed by the subject
T he eflfect of the second form is to shift the em-
phasis from the predicate to the subject. The .sen-
tence tells us. not so much that something is easy
as that what is easy is /. fin./ fault. In such sen-
tences the introductory word " it " has no meaning
and IS therefore commonly called an Expletive
(Latin, "fdling up"). Other examples are: " //
IS doubtful whether he will come;" " // is certain
that the .sun spins like a top."
In .such sentences, and indeed in all .sentences.
OF SUBJF.CT AND PRFJ)lLAri:
29
'M
the subject is invariably the answer to the (lUcstiuii
formed by putting "who- or "what" bef<.re the
predicate: as. in the sentences above, "What is
certain ? " " What is doubtful ? "
EXERCISE 11.
/i // ///«• sitfijW/ ,}mi I III- pndUati- of cocli of tlw fol-
lowiufi siHtiniis : —
1. 1 1 IS ^oo<l to Ik; here.
2. It (Iocs not pay to worry.
3. It is not all of life to live.
4- ll will not suit us to go with you.
5 ll is easy to see where the fault lies.
6. Ii is more blessed to give than to i< reive.
7 It is a goo<l thinjr to jjive thanks unto the Lord.
8. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.
9- It is said that Paris uses one million oysters a day,
10. It is said hat in Alaska ho-ses and .ows eat salmon.
11. ll is not generally known that camels are found in Texas.
12. It is hard to believe that the finest railway station in the
World is in India.
13- It is excellent to have a giant's strength . but it is tyrannous
to use it likr a giant.
14. It has b.-rn proved by actual measuremei.. th.it ,he ihrtad
forming the cocoon of the silkworm is eleven miles long.
EXERCISE 12.
Construct five scnteuccs that begin zvith " tt " expletive,
and tell the subject and the predicate of each.
30. "There" Expletive.— Compare the follow-
ing sentences: —
ia) A gust of wind came.
(b) There came a gust of wind.
y> SKNTF.NCF.S AM) THIIR SIRLcUkE
Y(,u ..hscrvc that these sentences, too. arc alike
m mcaninK^ l)Ut differ in ( ,, f.,rm and (2, emphasis.
I he second sentence henins with '• there." and
like the sentences bcKnnninjr with "if expletive'
shifts the emphasis from the predicate In the sul,'
jcct. which is pnt last. The second sentence tells
us. not so much that a gnst of wind .>„„.. as that
what eamt was ./ j^ns/ 0/ r..i,„L The use «,f the word
" there - .s precisely like that of the word " it " de-
scnl>ed in the l.nst secti.)n. Having no meaning l.y
Itself. ,t ,s an Kxpl.tlvo. Other examples are:
llwrc was water in the well;" •• Tlurv are two
sides to every question."
The expletive '.there" is rejrularly used before
the various forms of -he" when they denote ex-
istence: as. ../>i.., ,, ^ Ood;" ..y>i... ,,,, ^^^^^^^^
in those days.
EXERCISE 13.
Tell the suhjeet and the predicate of each of the fol-
lo-u'ttig senteitees :
1. There is no one here.
2. There w.is no help for him.
3- Is there no hope?
4. May there he enough for all J
5. There is no peace to the wicked.
6. Is there anythinj? more to do ?
7. There was a jolly miller once.
8. There was silence deep as death.
9- There is no royal road to learning.
10. There came a voice from heaven.
11. There's a aivinity that shapes our ends.
OF SrriJFXT AND I'kr.DlCATE
91
12. There is a rcifH-r whose name is I>c.ilh.
13, I h«re wast a sikiiuI of rcvi-Iry by niyht.
14 There is a higher law than the LOnshUilion.
15. There is no j{(hh| in artfuin^; uh tin i,,. \ it ihlr.
!<".. There rime to ih.- Iwach a pcM.r «\ilr „f Krm.
17. Ihere is no « itherinK ihe roM- without Imimk pricked hv the
thiiiiis. '
18. There Is no-v less tloKjinjj in the srcat Ki.jjh.h schools ilun
lornKrl).
E^^EBCISE 14.
Construct five snittncts that bci^m xvitli ''there " rr-
//-Y/rr. mn/ tell the suhjeet and the f>redieate of eaeh.
To III,. 'IViK-hoi-. -Power .0 «lis.in«i,ish the logical snl.iert
from the pre.juaie must precede all efforts at grammatical analysis
ai'<l until the pupil has acquire.l this power, nothing' else shoul.l ^^
att.n.pte.l. The end to Ik- kept in view in the following exercise'i,
no, the m.istery of .lef,nitions-a comparatively easy thing-hut
.he.levelopment of power tosee instanth ,he fun.hmental stiurture
nfjentences. In other words, the en.l in view is not knowle.lge hut
EXEBCISE 15.
(KtVIKU )
/// the follo'u'ins: sentences separate the subject from
the predicate:—
I.
1. Come with me.
2. Our revels now are ended.
3- r.ive me your attention.
4- Whom (lid the old man .nsk for?
5- Sweet are the uses of .adversity.
6. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
7- The way of transgressors is harrl.
8. Adown the ^ien rode armed men.
9. The aged minstrel audience gained.
t*
SKMTKNCKS AND TIII.IK srKDC. ..KiC
lo. The mrniory o( Ihr Juu |, l,lc.«,l,
"■ '■■''"'• '■■""■ ■' I'""! "I lliu..dcr.iou,„|.
"■ Wl,.,i |«,.u.,c of your l„y ,i„„,|„„, ,
■ J. A n,.rr> h„rt m.kcth a .h.cr(ol co,mi,„,,„„.
14. I li.- ptcci,,,,, „,„„„„„ h„„„ ,,,^^,,1 ^^_^^ 1^ ^^^^^^_^
' ' 'I" ""■ '"7''"« ' "I ""■ V-l. ""«!" :i >o„„„ n,l,ln.
occ. ni,,. , '"' "' '°'"' '"*" "'""' '" <>- -■••"« „f ,00 o„,..
of a'tl'Zr' '""""" '" "-"""^K"- -- »"")-.l hy .he Vic.
'.is-ryif';,'^:?: °' "• *"'"°-'' -■'■ - ""i*''-'«y <>.
11.
1. Here stands the mnn.
2. Wirle open stood ihe doors.
3- Overhead I heard a murmiit.
4- Great and marvellous are Thy works.
5- In those days came John the Baptist.
6. In my Father's house are many mansions.
7. Into the valley of death rod,- ,he six hundred
8. A little boy with cri!i!!!!c ^f !,rc;H!
Many a hun^^ry sparrow fed.
M
OY SUhjKCI AM) rklhlLATK
9, rrnrn flr>«)r In ceiling
1-ikf .» Iiuj{e orjj.in iisr «hr btirni'khr*! arrnn.
10. L'nwoumlrtI lr««ii Uir (lrr:u|(ul t lov.
Hut liie.ithtciui all, Kit/-Jaiiir!» aroMr.
( *i riDM ( otmittrr whvlhor " t'nWHimlr.l fntm th« ar*4jf,i| , !,»«
Il»t l.ir ilhir-. .ill " Iwluiiiit 10 |h« >iilija:il of I,, ||,r (tivtlttdlt. Ilv .,n
V 'iir i:ii4i>l III ^lmll.lr t j<«*.
1 1, rnilrrncilh this vihlc hr.irse
I. US llu! sul»)fi t of alt vtrv.
I.' \\ iiliin a winilovved nichr of ihal hij;l» hall
Sail- Hnmsvvliks falnl i hit llaiii.
13. On ilu- Itrilish hctrt wi-rr lost
Till- Irrrors nt thr c har|{in^ host,
M ^"<lll many a ),'rin of puirst ray srrfnr
llif .1 uk uiifathonud ravrs «>f ocran In-ar.
15 Down the sirrct with latijjhtrr an<l sh.»ul.
<il t(l in thf frrciloni of school let out,
Come the boys.
ify. Somewhat apart from the village, nn.l nearer the Ilasin .,f
Minas,
I«.iu<lict HellHontaine. the wealthiest farmer of Cran.l-I'u'.
Hwelt on his jjfHMlly acres.
17 Far down the lieaiitiful rivi ,.
Past the Ohio shore and past the mouth of the \V,,!,,sh
Into theKolden stream of the broail and swift Mississippi
Unated a rumhroiis boat.
iX. Meanwhile, apart, at n- head of thr hall, th.- pri.-sl and the
herdsman
Sat. conversing together of past and present and fntu.e.
III.
I. Down went the CundM-rland all a wrack.
Wish a suddrn shuddti uf Uciiii,
And the cannon's breath
For her dying gasp.
» »> NCKS AND THKIK SIKUCILkE
a. Serin, in chf MjUgrrHH ihmnif,
f iiinovr.l Uy ihc ru»h of the wmtf,
With «7c» umm|)a»»Mmr«l .m.l »low.
.S.mit.»l|>h.>r» tlamU lislrniMK I"«..iIiIcihi.
l llcinnt; hi% ini|Mrw| i,.,,,,^
foupltil with ihuw vvor.U u( ni.'ilice.
Hall in ,,n,{.r, half In »han..-.
FriMli ihr i^rrM catupaiKnrr came
Sl<>v\ly (rem hi« canvas |inlacc.
4. To rnnrirni his wokUoui-M, w
SUUnn. .,( Hanung ,«or.U. draw,. f,o„, „,. .h.^h, of mi.hly
?• Satan, alwvr ihr rrM
In shapr and ^rMurr pr.Hicll) rniinrnt.
SummI hkf a tower.
^- His f.icr
Drep scan of ihun.l. r had inir.nchwl.
7 Him the Altniijhiy P iwir
Hu. Ir.l hearllonp ♦lamm^ from the rtherr.nl ,ky
N\ nil hideous niin and romhusfion. .lown
To IxJllondess |)er«lition.
On each hand the flames
Driven b.irkvv.ird ,|op<. th.ir pointinR spires.
9. The ittiiwrial ensiKo. fidl hi^h advanced.
Shone like a meteor streaminj; tn the vviml.
n ith jjems an.l ^'olden lustre rich emhiaml.
10. Anon out of the earth a fabric hupe
Hose like an exhalation, with the sound
Of dulcet symphonies and voices sweet.
Hiiilt like a temple.
From the arched roof.
INndent hy subtle maj,'ic. many .n row
01 starry lamps and hl.izin;,. cressets, fed
W'ilh ninlitK-i -jr>«l -» = . '- !i - s 1 ■ -
' '"" -^sptiaitus. yi, idcU Iiuht
As from a sky.
8.
11
OF sunjr.CT and iridic a tk
ii
IV.
l.oNiMiN .Sii<>rr> IV iiu Sivr.NirKNiii Ckmukv.
TItc hwU»c»H«ri not niittilirri'tt ; Ihcrr woiilfl, rmkiil, h;nr Ucn
tiilk- .i.lvaniiKc III iiurit»H'rlm{ tliiiii, for' »( ihe luathmm. i lulr.
ituii |MHirr%. .ukI »ir,»,Ml Im*)*.)! Umilmi. a \,iy Mn.tH |Miriiun (i*tit<l
riM'l. it was ncct !»vir) Id um- nurk» whith iIh- m<»>i iyhurinj
tuuM unckrMaml. I he »ho|Hi were ilienfmt' iliMiii^;.ii»lii-.| hy
|Mml. <l Mjjti'*. -vlikh ij.ive .i yay aiul j;t<)trv|Ui akjM . 1 1<> \\w slmm.
Wluii ihc CMimig clovil in, ihr dilJuull) aiul tlinm r uf wilkiMy
lUfut Lmi«Iuii iRtaiiif Mriuu'» rnWctd. Thi- j;a(rri wuuImw, win-
..|Knril. ami paiU were < rnpilctl, with htltr rrj;ar»l ii. thoM- who
were |w>MiH{ Iwlow. Kails, hrulses ami broken rHiiirs were ul
tuiiNtanl occurrence, f-ii'. till th,- j.im y,..,r of ihi- rrijjn of (.li.iiUs
tlw .S<ion,l. rn«»sl of the ttretls were lifl m profound d.irknes*.
Tliieves ami roblHTi plied lluir iraile-* witlj Irnpunily; ytl'they weic
har-liy s«) terrible to |»edCi-alilr i'iiMiit«. .i> another cI.ish of ruHians.
It wan a fav'utiie amusenirnt of rtissoluie young grniltincn to
swa^'j-rr by nijrht alnnit llu town, breaking; windows, ripM'tiIng
M-.!ans. iHMtinK «|iii«'t n»en. md offrrinjj rude caressen to pretty
women. — ,IAi<fi«/rif. '• lli<>tory nl Kngl.tntl." cha|)ler iii.
' ,\ .iitiiiciliiiK wofil, lietonglni: neither ti. iht <iil<j«i:i n<ir l<i llic |irrilicatc.
CIIAPTI'R III
OK SUnST.\\TI\ , AM) VKRIJ'
31. I.oKlt. 7's. <;mnit„ur.— The distinction be-
tween subjeet and predicate belongs to tliought as
well as to the expression of thought. It exists
in a si>eaker\s mind before he expresses his
thought in words. The distinction is therefore a
logical distinction rather than a grammatical one •
for grammar has to do only with the expression of
thought, that is, with words. We come now to
consider the words used in forming t! subject
and the predicate, and here we enter the held of
grammar proper.
3a. Siilwtantlvo nml Verb Deflned.— Compare
the following sentences: —
HUl>.|««tt.
I*r»'«Ilfnto.
Stars twinkle, ""
ThLlH..-u,tiful.vA„-.. which arc really /nv«//. brightly on fros.y
suns alK)i.t a million niiUs in di- nights,
anictcranci trillions of miles away,
You ob.serve that one .sentence is composed of
two words, the other of many; but the fundamental
structure of both is the .same. Both make assertions
about s/crr s, and in both ca.ses the assertion is that
OF sunsTANTivr: an'd vi.rb
37
stars /It'/ »/X7<. I3ut in the second sentence the fun-
chimenlal worils, "stars" and "twinkle," are ac-
companied by words and groups uf words called
AdJiiiielM (" joined to").
DtJiHitioii. — A word used (with or without ad-
juncts'! to denote an object of thought is called a
ISiiltstiiiitlve.
Dijiniticn. — A word used ( with or without adjuncts)
as the predicate of a sentence is called a Verbl^Latin,
"the word." so named because of its supreme im-
portance).
When we say that a sentence must contain a sub-
ject and a predicate, we speak logically. Speaking
grammatically, we say that it must contain a sub-
stantive and a verb.
'\\\. (•niiiiiniitlcal and Liosflctil Terms Dlstln-
wriilshod. — In the sentence " The beautiful stars,
which are really .suns about a million miles in diam-
eter and trillions of miles away, twinkle brightly on
frosty nights," the substantive "stars" is called the
Hiinplo Hulijeet to distinguish it from the Com-
plete Siibjeet, which consists of the simple sub-
ject and its adjuncts. "Twinkle" is called the
Verb to distinguish it from the Pivdleiite, which
consists of the verb and its adjuncts. Other e.\-
amples are : —
C'oiiiplctu siibjott. Prt>dltMti>.
usually j^,it/irr before a storm.
Vcib.
Low black i/oui/s
Simpl'
Sul>jeci.
The conififioiis of w.ir i>iipy from ajjt- to afje with the
sl'bj«t. '^"''^' [progress of weapons.
38
SENTKNCKS AM) TfJEIR STRL'CTUKL:
EXEECISE 16.
Co,^.tnut four sentences .n ..huh tlu sunple snhjeet
t <Ufferent Jnnn the eon.pleie suhjeet , and iUe ,erb fro,,
tlie predicate. •'
EXEECISE 17.
/// Ihc folhn.'inir sentences point out. in the order
nnme,i t/u- co,np/,te snhjeet, the preduate, the simple
snbject, and the verb :~ ^
1. The ripest fruit falls first.
2. She dwelt on a wild moor.
3. The goo<| news arrived yesterday.
4- A soft answer turnelh away wrath.
5. A hot fire of coals burned in llie j,'rate.
6. A fox jumped up on a moonlight night.
7. The sudden splash frightened the nurse.
8. Bright-eyed daisies peep u>) everywhere.
9. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.
10. Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl.
H. Waldo, playing on the bank of the brook, tumbled into -he
water.
12. The master of the district school
Held at the fire his favorite place.
34. Verbs of Action, Belnsr, and State.— Com-
pare the meaning.s of the verbs in the followin-r
sentences : — **
Birds sing.
My lady sleeps.
He loves children.
There is a flaw in the metal.
You observe that ' ' sing " as.serts action .■ ' ' sleeps "
asserts state or condition; " loves " asserts /.r//,/^,-
OF SUnSTANTIVi: AND VKRB
39
IS asserts ixisttn r or A/z/^.^ It is sometimes
said, therefore, that i verb is a word that asserts
action, beinjr, or stat — feelin^rs being looked on as
mental actions.
Most verbs assert aciion.
EXEBCISE 18.
1. /// Exercise 7 tell xchetlur the verbs assert ac-
tion, Ihin^, or state.
2. Construct three sentences in which the verbs assert
action; ti^'o in which they assert state or comiition ;
one in which the verb asserts existence or being.
a.'). The Verli ** To Be/*— "Am," "is," are,"
"was," "were," and the less common "art!"
"wast," and " wert "— all of them forms of tlie
verb "to be"— are -o peculiar in their use that
they require special notice. The peculiarity will
appear if we carefully compare the predicates in
the following sentences:
The \\^\x\\x\g flashed.
Lightning is clatricity.
In the first sentence, you observe, the predicate
consists of the verb "flashed," which does two
things: first, it calls up in the mind an idea of
sudden brilliance; secondly, it asserts this bril-
liance of the lightning. In other words, it has
both meaning an(\ assertive poxver.
In the second sentence, the predicate consists of
two words, " is " and ' ' electricity, " each of which is
I
i
40 SENTENCES AND T.MEIR STRICTURE
necessary. Hut mark the difference between them
•• Electricity" is a word of definite ,yuaHi,,j;, eallinjr
up instantly a mental picture or idea of that some-
thin^r of which it is the name. liut it has no assrr/-
tvepoxvcr, as appears when we try in vain to make
a piedicate with it alone: as. " Lii^htninj,^ elec-
tricity.' The assertive part of the predicate is
supplied by the verb ",s." which connects the two
names, " lij^htning - and "electricity." in such n
way as to declare that the objects named are iden-
t.cal. But th(.U|rh "is" has this assertive pcnccr.
It has no mcaniug ,^i its own, that is, it calls up no
mental picture. The predicate jrets its meaninjr
from the idea-word " electricity."
It appears, therefore, that "is," "arc," "was "
"were," and the other forms of "be,"'are mere
tnstrumetits of assertion, conveying in themselves
no Idea at all, except in those cases in which
they express existence. Meaningless themselves
they are used to make predicates with words that
have meanings, but cannot by themselves make as-
sertions. They link together two difTerent ideas in
such a way as to predicate one of the other For
this reason the verb "be" is often called the
Coimla (Latin, "link"). It often resembles in
force the mathematical symbol of equalitv or
identity, "=." -^ j
The following verbs, in some of their uses re-
semble "be": '
} i
seem
feel
become
Liste
Jook
smell
sound
continue
appear
remain
I
♦1/
OF SrhSTANTIVK AND VKRH
EXEBCISE 19.
4>
1. Construct five .uiitnas in t.'hich forms of the
verb " to be " are used witli assertive potver only.
■#
2. Construct two sentences in 'a'liich foru.s of *' to
be " are used to denote existence.
3. Construct sentences tn xchich the folUm'injr ^^.f^bs
are used, like " /'< ," to form predicates U'hose meanin^i^
is determined by a follo'win^ i^'ord : —
ftel
Income
taste
look
smell
.nppear
remain
30. VtTli PhniMfs. — Examine the following pred-
icates: —
Mubjt'tt. I'rpdlcato.
studies. (<i)
does study, {b)
has studied, (c)
Dorothy J ^^^ '"^^^ studyinjj. (//)
will study. {,•)
may l)e studying. (/)
may have been studying, {g)
. should have been studying. (//)
Here we have eight different assertions about
Dorothy. One of them contains a single "everting
wr.rd. others two words, others three, still others
f(nir. All of the predicates refer to a single action,
namely. Dorothy's studying; but they refer to it in
different ways. Predicates {a) and {b) assert it as a
customary act, with a difference in emphasis; {c)
and iil) as a completed act ; {e) as a future act ; '(/)
and [cr) as a po.ssibility, with a difference in time;
(//) as a duty. In other words, the eight predicates
are alike in expressing a single action, denoted by
42 SENTKNCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
one or another form of the verb -study- they
dilfcr in representing this action under various as-
pccts, as the speaker happens to view it
Now examine the predicates that contain two or
more words, and see whether any one of the words
can iHJ omitted without altering, or destroyinij the
assertion. You observe that in each ease every
word IS necessary.
Finally, consider whether the helping ^vords
'•does. - has." .. has been." etc.. taken by them-
selves, are of the nature of substantives or verbs.
1 hey do not denote objects of thought; therefore
they are not .subs'.antives. They do have assertive
power, as in " Dorothy ^/ocs embroidery." - She /ms
a book ; " therefore they are verbs.
From all this it appears that frequently, to ex-
press varying shades of thought, we empl<,y in
our predicates several words which together have
the force of a single verb.
Definition. -K group of words >^hich together
form one verb is called a Verb Phr,v.e.
37 Verb Phra-sesln Interrogative, Negative, and
Emphatic Sentences—In interrogative and neira-
tive sentences modern usage requires verb phrases
Compare, for example, the following sentences:-'
Assertive : She sings.
Interrogative : Does she sing ?
Negative : She does not sing.
Sometimes a verb phrase has the force of an em-
phatic affirmation, implying that the thing which is
OF SlJHSTANTIVi: AND VI.KH
43
a.vscrted has Ix'cn doubled. Compare, for example,
llic foUovviiiij sciUcnccs : —
Assertive : She j;/>/j,m-.
Kriiphatic : She i/ois iin^.
EXERCISE 20.
Point out tlu'Vtrb f>lirasis in the followiut^ scHtiHius:
I. I ;im rt.ulinj,' "Ivanhoc." 2. K;ithcriiie has tinishttl the
book. 3. 'ro-inorrosv I shall have finished it, 4. John h.is cut his
liiiK* r. 5. Who will help him ? 6. Swallows were twittering' round
the eaves of the general's lieadquarters. 7. Father may he in his
study. 8. Carrie nmst h.ive lieen di earning this morning. 9. Von
will have pai<! too dear for the whistle. 10. Hy this time he should
have learned more caution. \\. Vou might have told me before.
12. I did tell you. 13. A large eagle was soaring overhe.id.
14. F.alicr has i)een writing all morning. 15 The child would
play by himself for hours. 16. She would have her own way.
17. He mij;ht h.tve b( en doing something useful. 18. This ring
may have been worn by a Roman dandy. 19. Hy to-morrow I
shall have had enough of this. 20. They had had a hard day.
EXEBCISE 21.
Change the sentences in lixercise 17 {page 38) into
negative, interrogative, and emphatic form, and point
out the verb phrases which yon use in the new sentences.
38. Caution.— In .such .sentences as "The sun is
shining" and "The .sun is hot,'' beginners often
find it hard to decide at this stage of their work
whether the italicized word, coming after a form
o*" the verb -be," is or is not a part of the verb.
A good working test is this: If the predicate of the
sentence expres.ses action, the word in question is
part of the verb. If the predicate expresses a con-
i ■
IS,
'i .\
\
44
SKNTKNCKS AND IMKIR STRLCTURK
'iition ur .,,u,/ay of the subject, the word in <,„cstio„
.snot a part of the verb. For example, i'^
lowu,,. .eatcnees the verbs are printJd in italics -l
"The sun /.r sAiHiMj^r ' (.„ tion).
" The sun /j hot " (comhtioiu.
EXZBCI8E 22.
'^'i^''^<'^'f as toris of iUc verbs 1 ''"^"' '''' '' ^*'
8. The Ii,a.ne„.s Le /..I , 'o Th " ''"' ''^ "'•"^■•
foo,b..I| ga.ne las. Saturd y io XV h'^ 7"'" 'f'"'"'' '" "'*^
.3. The house is,/.....;/;:,. n\.r2Lwbir "°' "''^''•
years after it was /J«/// , ' tI 1 n ^ ' """"" '^"
has been ')d ^t. 'J, ^Ir^^ ^ 'X^. 7' :^;'C"
a nas<ipr.liv tt w * "^ *-'y w.is ^jvir,/ by
I'-'f-ser-oy. 23. Were you canfulf ■>a tk» „ ^
^'ausn.f. 35. They ha., Len ..;{:;>^ a'ltn^hl '* ""^ ^■^•
39. Verb Phra*..s 8oparatcd.-The parts of a
verb phn.o are often separated by other words.
IZ "^''^"^P'^'' ''}- verb phrases in the following
sentences are printed in italics :—
I AuTt' just returned.
Have you not hmrd?
I do not yet >f-«tf7t/.
//'» the man in the moon ken //,^rr/W/ indeed ?
EXEECISE 23.
Pov^ nut the verb phrases in the foUounng sentenees.-
t. ^\hat ok! you see? 2. The leaves are slowly chinirin.r
3. He w,.I certainly lose h.s place. 4. I have not seL ^7;!'
OF SUIiSlANIIVh AM) VKKH
4$
J. She will sciniciimcs bsc her Uni|H;r. 6. Wny b he runiiiiig
away? 7. Have you tinishrd your k!>sop ? 8. We are now i cat !•
iiij; "'I'diii Ilrowns Schixjj iJays.. * 9. lJnl ihf man in the l>oat sec
the ihiif* 10. May not tlur coal liavr h«( » takrti hy <somi- one
«Kf? II. A K'«ii*;i''l < «'r<l» rs *hoiilil alwa)-* Ik- prcMnpily olH-ytd.
12. IK- h.itl a frw clays before been elected captain of the team.
•10. VtTliM TniiiHltlvo or IntmiiMltlvc. — Compare
llic verbs ill the following .sciUence.s: —
Joha fri^jhtfned Helen.
John lauglu-d.
In the first sentence, " frij;htenetl " denote.s an
action which, from its nature, involves two f)er.sonsr
John, the doer of the action; and Helen, on whom
the action falls. In other words, the action which
originates with John passes over, as it were, from
him to Helen, who is affected by it.
In the second sentence, "laughed" denotes an
action which involves only one person. The
laughing ends with John, where it began. It does
not pass over to any other object. Nothing else
is affected by it.
Definition. — A verb that denotes an action or
feeling that passes over from the doer of the action
to an object on which it falls, is called a Tmiisl-
tlve Verb (Latin transirc, " to pass over ").
Definition. — A verb that denotes an action,
feeling, or .state that involves only the subject, is
called an IntmiiNitive Verb.
Verbs like "have," "own." "possess." "inherit." etc.. thonjjh
tluy do not c.\prc>s action or feeling, are nevertheless called tran-
sitive, because they involve two o!)jects, the possessor and the
thing possessed.
I. <i
-r-r:
I I
I s
f
46
•StNIKNCtSANU milk Slki/CTURE
EXERCISE 84.
Irar
i.ilch
«.irn
use
ari.se
hear
find
w.iit
f..|l
iMik
rry
Mrikr
He walked.
He walked his h(jrsr.
You observe that some verbs mav in ,>ne sentence
'>e trans.t.ve and in another intransitive.
EXEBCISE 25.
Construct ten saitnias, iishi.r .,,,/i ,>f ,1, . r „
break
fly
move
return speak
John frij,rhtencd Helen.
Helen was frightened In John.
These sentences varv in form h„f „^f •
In both of them t..« V 'v ' ; ° "'"'"""'"S^-
thev denote ...fi "-' ^''^'"•^'I've, beeau.se
ncy denote aetion pa-sstno; fro„, one person to an-
OF SI IKSTAMIVi: AM) VfKII
4;
othir. iJiit in ihc first Sftitcncc tlif Nt-rb tvpri'scntH
ihu .siit»jtit as tfoiHj^' ihc action ; in the .second sen-
tcncv. as til iii'in^i^ it.
/>,//////i'//.— Atran.siiivc verb which represents the
.subject a.s doing an action is in the A««ilv». form.
Ay//////r///.- -A transitive verb which represents the
subject as receiving an action is in Ww VuhhUv f«»rni.
(Jit.ry: Can an intransitive verb have a p.issivc
b)rni ? Ciive tlie rea.s«»n fc»r your answer.
EXERCISE 26.
Con St nut two scutum s in 'which the verbs ,\rc in the
nil lie form ; two in which they arc in the pnssive form.
EXERCISE 27.
Tell whether the verbs in the folhrwing selection tire
tn the active or the fussii e form :
A.'PI.KS IN AN( .KNT TiMKS.
It .ippe.nrs tli.it ..pplcs in.ulc .i p.irl of K.e food of that unknown
piiniilivi- pt«iplr whose tiaccs li.ive l.ilcly Ikcii foim.l .it ihf fx.tioin
of tlu- .Swiss l.ikis.siipposed to l)c oldtr th.in the foundation of Romr,
so old that they had no rm-taliic impli-nunts. An entire hiack and
slui\«l.'d cr.d) .T|)plr h.is Iwcn riTovcrcfl from thtir stores. ♦ • ♦
Thf appl.- tr.-c has ht-rn cvlchr ttod l)y tlu- Hfhrc-ws. (;rc.ks.
Romans, and .Scandinavians. Some have thou^jht that the first
Ittiman pair were tempted by its fruit. C.Mldesses are f.ibled to
h.ive contended for it. drajjons were set to watch it. ;ind heroes
were employed to pluck H.-rAonuiu : "The History of the
Apple Tree."
EXERCISE 28.
(r.i-Ni..KAr. Review.)
Point out the simple subjects and the verbs in Exer-
cise I 5 {pai-c 3 I ). and tell whether the verbs nr. transi-
live or intransitive ; if transitive, tell Xi'hether the form
IS active or passi've.
CILM'TICk IV
«>K t <»M|'| |;Mi;.\rs
Iv the last chaplcr wc learned that some verbs
caiiiiul form cmipkic pndicalcs wiihoiu the help „f
-thcr w„rtls (aa, 40). VVc must now hn.k more
tluscly at such verbs antl the w.rds which are used
with them lo complete the predicate.
4.1. Vvrlm of Complete I'rtMlIcaf |„„. _ ICxamine
the followinif sentences: —
NulUfft. I'rtHMinto.
The wimi aroMr.
The lightning (lashed.
The Ihumlcr rolled.
The r.iin fell.
In each of these sentences the predicate consists
of a verb which makes a complete assertion
/)r/i,uno,i.-A verb that by itself can form a
complete predicate is called a Verb of (omplote
Preilleatlon.
44. VorliM of Incomplete Predlc-utlon.— Now let
u« try to make assertions with the verbs "are "
■■^■, :^camc, '•fngiiiened," ••built," -have"
thus,
49
Mult|«M-i. V*>rfo.
TticK men arc
\Vi«[iington W.I4
Tcniiystm Ixi.iiiic
Yuu rn^hu-nid
The Koiiiuns built
Uatlk»hi|>s tuve
V«»u .sec at once that something' is wanting
Tlioiijrh wc have in each ca>c pni lo}rcther a sub
ject ami a verb as before, we have nt>t in tliesc
groups of words said anything, for the idevis ex
pressed by the verbs are not complete in them
iielves.
DifiHtlwn.—\ verb that does not by itself convey
a c«»mplcte idea is called a Verb of Incoinph.i,.
Predleutiuii.
45. roiiii>h>tii«>ntH IH'fliiml. _ In order to f,>rni
a predicate with a verb of incomplete predication
we must add a completing wt)rd : thus,
Hll^Jt'Ct.
- — PrtHHcMtP. — .
Verb.
Complcraenl.
" - * — ^
. — ^- -— — ,
■ _,
These men
are
so! fliers.
Washington
W.19
|)resi(l«'nt.
Tennyson
became
|H)ct-laureate.
You
frijjhtcned
m«'.
The Romans
built
ships.
Battleships
have
armor.
Definition. — The completinjr word added to a verb
of incomplete predication in order to form a predi-
cate is called a Complement (" complc*-'ng part ").
s
50 SENTKNCKS ANF) TIIKIR STkUCTL RE
CiUltloii.-Con.ple.mnts. whi. I, ,««,/ Ik.- ;.,I,K..I to nuke the
I>'< 'luau- cmpku, arc ,0 be car.fully .I,s,.„ku.sIu..| fron, w.,r,ls
t ..U ,»..j. I,c a.l.lc.l to ,„akc the meaning nu.re ,„..c.Sf. K..r txa,n-
pl<-. ... llu- sc„UM,cc •• The ram fell fas,." ,he wor.l •• fas, " is not a
cuinplcue,,,, for wc should have a complete scnletKc without it.
4«. Atti-Ihuto <<mi|,UMiuMitH.— Are all comple-
ments <,f the sa.ne kin.!? I„ order t.. answer, let us
examine .s.„ne typical sentences, takittg first the
lollowinif: —
NiilUwt. Verb. Coin,,|,„iM.|it.
Tabby
Tabby
IS
lo«)ks
a cat.
wise.
In both of these sentences the verbs arc intran-
sitive, and the oniplcnients .serve to ^/.scnfic t/u
subject. In the first sentence the complement • • cat *•
describes Tabby by attributin<r to him in a sin^de
word all the qualities or marks that di.stinjruish cats
from other objects. In the second sentence the
eomplcment "wi.se" describes Tabby by attributing
to him a single quality, wi.sdom.
To understand more clearly what is meant by qualities or attri-
butes, compare an oranjre and a nail. An orange Is yellow, round,
soft, eatable, juicy, sweet, etc. A nail is gray, thin, hard, tio, ea,-
nble, juiceless, tastel. ss, etc. These distinguishing characteristics
are qualities or .ittnbutes. When we say of an object " This is an
orange," or " This is a nail." we describe it by asserting of it the
various attributes of oranges or of nails, as the case may be ; when
we say "This orange is suwtr or "This nail is fuird," we describe
It by noting a single at,ribu,e; when we say "This is Tabby," we
describe i, by naming it.
Dcfinition.—K complement that describes the sub-
ject is called an Attribute Compleiucut. Other
examples are: —
OF CO.MI'I.F.MKN rS
SI
'I'lu-se men
Washington
Roses
His name
Altrlhiito
>'«'rl». < oiii|ilfiiiciit.
are
was
smell
is
soldiers,
president,
sweet.
John.
47. ObJtH't C'fH ploinontH. — Let
now. the following suntcnce : —
MulU«'ot. V»«rl». romplcimmt
Tabby catches
US examine,
mice.
In this .sentence you observe that the verb
"e.'iiehes" is transitive, denotinjf an action which
involves two thinjrs, the doer of the action, and the
object on which the .iction falls. The doer of the
action is named by the subject "Tabby;" the com-
plement "mit ■• names the object on which the
action falls.
Definition.— K complement that denotes the ob-
ject on which the action of a transitive verb falls is
called an Object Complement, or, more briefly, an
Objeet.
Since an object complement denotes the object
directly affected by the action of the verb, it is often
called a Direct Object. (Xher examples are : —
Snbjoot.
~I
I
Battleships
The Roiiians
Vi<rh. <>ltji>ct.
see
cut
have
built
you.
myself,
armor,
ships.
. '^" **'*: T^t-«<'»»«>r. As ,,!! uachor. : l.n.Kuape know, the
important distinction lietween objects and attribute complements is
5» SENTENCES AND IHEIR STRUCTURE
cau«7'^'l:'h"°'M K '"""'' '""'"'• "»"' """»^" "»« been
Answer " SnUli^r. •• n . ... ' ""'^ '"^" •""■« what ? •
has learned in Sections 46 and 47. ' ' "'^
EXEBCISE 29.
1. Squirrels crack .
2. Grocers sell .
3- Lincoln l)ecan>e .
4- Raden- Powell was .
5. Charles saw .
6. The sun gives .
7- Columbus discovered
8. Farmers raise .
9- The sky is ..
10. The air grew .
1 1 . The room looks .
12. I feel .
EXERCISE 30.
I . To each of the follozving subjects add an appropriate
Pyduatecons^tin, of a rerb and a co^npleZe/t. ad
1. Hens
2. Jewellers -
3. Cats
4. We
5. Birds
6. Elephants
7. Carpenters .
8. Monkeys .
9- Clouds .
10. Mary ,
11. Soldiers ,
12. Trees
pUmenls; lt,o canlammg allrihutc mnplcmcnU.
OF COMJ'LEMENTS
S3
EXERCISE 31.
Pbint out the complements in the folio-win/r sentences,
ami tell lohether they are objects or attribute comple-
ments : —
I. Tom broke a window. 2. nriino bit the tramp. 3. Chaucrr
was a poet. 4. Who killed Cwk Kobin .> 5. Who will toll the
l>ell ? 6. Saul was made kin};. 7. (iiadstone became prime min-
isttr. 8. Some one took my Ijicycle. 9. Denmsthenes and Cicero
were orators. 10. Do you study Latin .> 11. None but the brave
deserve the f.iir. 12. My father remaine«! secretary for the rest of
his life. 13. Righteousness exaltelh a nation. 14. A man's house
is his castle. 15. The bird forsook her nest. 16 She looked a
goddess. 17. Gladstone turned lilwral. 18. She turned her back.
19. Joan of Arc seemed a holy woman. 20. Sir Samuel Baker was
a fjreat hunter. 21. He killed many lions, tigers, and elephants,
and innumerable smaller animals. 22. Britannia rules the waves.
23. Augustus was made emperor. 24. Comparisons are odious.
25- Kmg Alfred was called Truth Teller. 26. Who wrote "The
Maple-leaf for ever?* 27. To-night no moon I see. 28. To
Lord Byron Venice seemed a sea-goddess. 29. The laws of
nature are the thoughts of God. 30. Washington was elected the
first president of the United States. 3,. The two roads run par-
allel. j2. The kings of Egypt are in the Bible called Pharaohs
33. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 34. He came a foe and
returned a friend. 35. Ethel grew tall. I,eautiful. and queenly
36. The dove found no rest for the sole of her foot. 37. A wise
son maketh a glad father. 38. A foolish son is the heaviness of his
mother.
48. Objective Attribute Complements.— Exam-
ine the following group.s of words:
Snbjoct.
^-Prodloate.— ,
Verb. Object.
The Hebrews
This
made
made
Sa«I
him
■^. ' -
« SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
"WL, r,.!- " ""''■■'=«"' make SaulJ'an.l
What did this make hiin ? • Ti, i i
in .he following sentence" L " '"'* " ™""""'
The Hebrews
This
rr i*r€Hiic«to.- ^
•''•• Object. Second Coniplemcnt.
made
niade
Saul
him
king,
vain.
sentence
'i
Subject.
The Htljrews
This
^'•^'•- oi.j«.,.
made-king
[crownedj
made-vain
f spoiled J
Saul,
him.
From this we .see that " l-i'nr. •> i
'he verb "made" .„ ex'e,; ?. T "™'"" '"-'^
•■'l the same time tl,„.. 7 '''■'"" ''"«'""■ ••""!
-..ting from ;rt action "°"= """""'"-"■" " '-" -
••.ctfoi^td^rttT' "■■:' ''^""' •'' ^^^^ •" -'^•p--
the object rest^ut^^T T "'""'"^ ''"'"'""- "'
an oM-onCer ^ ^-np'oment, or, more brieflv,
""J* c tM e Complement.
OF COMILKMKNTS
ss
Objective complements cotiiplete the predicate
and a!s(j describe tlic object. Or, if you prefer,
they assist the verb to express the action which
falls up<jn the object. Other examples are: —
Muljject.
Verb.
— I'rtMlluatis
Objetl. Objcclive tuiiipUmciii.
We tiected
Swinging makes
dot! struck
The Persian army drank
I consider
Harry
me
Ananias
the rivers
him
captain.
giddy,
dead.
dry,
honest.
EXEBCISE S2.
I , Fill the blanks li'ith objective complements, ami
show that they belong both to the verb and to the
object : —
r. They named the boy — -.
2. The people made Washing-
ton .
3. Henry painted his house
4, They called the state ,
5, Let us appoint her .
6. Uo you think him ?
7. Why did you choose me ?
• 8. I consider her .
2. Construct three sentences containing objective com-
plements.
EXEBCISE 33.
Point out the objective complements, and shoio that
they belong both to the verb and to the object : —
I, Victoria made Tennyson a baron. 2. They sang themselves
hoarse. 3. Tell the carpenter to plane the board smooth. 4. Cra-
dles rock us nearer to the tomb. 1;. You think him humble. b«t
God accounts him proud. 6. We cannot pump the orp.nn <!p'.
7. Attention held them mute. 8. One touch of nature makes the
whole world kin, 9. Get the horses ready immediately. 10. Time
s«
SENTKNCKS AND THKIK STKUCTURE
maker the w.)rst tncmiis frunds. ii. Dr. Holmes call««l IJoMon
the hill) of tin: imivtrse. 12. Kiiij; tMor^t-- II .■)|i|Miinti(l Franklin
I'oMui.islcr-dciitral of ihe Itiiiiiih Colonu«i iii Aintrka. 13. Cus-
tom renders the fctlinjjs lilunt and t illous. 14. Madame do Stall
called architecture froz.n music. 15. Cromwell made the poet
Milton Secretary of State. 16. C.ml called the light day. and the
darkness he called night. 17. All Napoleons (on(|ue5ts did not
make him ha|)py. 18. She carries htr head high. 19. A cnimb
of bread thrown m jest made I'rescott. the historian, blind for liff.
20. Whosoever m.iketh himself a kinj,' spcakelh against Casar.
21. Make the memory a storehouse, not a lumber room.
40. Complements with PftHHlve FormH.— Compare
the uses of the word "captain" in the following
sentences: —
{Aittvi) We elected Harry captain.
(fiissivf) Harry was elected captain.
You observe that in one sentence the verb is
active, in the other it is passive, and in each "cap-
tain " expresses attributes bestowed on Harry by
the election. In the first sentence, where " Harry"
is an object y "captain" is an objective complement
describing? the object; in the second sentence,
where "Harry" is the subject, "captain" is an
attribute complement, describing the subject.
EXERCISE 34.
Chau}rc the follo-ivinc; sentences into the passive form,
and sho7v the use of the italicized zcords in the nezc
sentences : —
1. He kept me laa/'/tni,':
2. This made him nn^ry.
3. God called the light day.
OF COMPLEMENTS
4. They p.iinird the \wiifx xrfi-n.
5. \ uu ciiiiu)! |)uiii|> llif tjccaii i/r^.
(>. Viclori.i mailt: rcnuyMin a dtiroH.
7. I'trscveraiH i; keeps honor highl.
8. A thuuderhtoriii often turns milk umr.
$7
ftO. N«>vi>nil <'<>iiipl<>iiu>iitM to On«» Vorh. — Some
times a sinjrly verb has several ct)mj)lemeiUs: as,
Miihji'ft. Vorb.
C'OllipllMIICIIlM,
\Vc study arithuuth AwSf^ritinmttr.
Atldisun was a i^enlhman and a siholar.
51. Hijverul VerlwwIthOnoCompIcMm'iit.— Some-
times a single complement belongs to several verb;,;
as,
MllULHt. VoHm. ( oiiip|,.„H.„t.
Noble ininils loathe and despise falschwld.
5«. Summary of Henteiu-c T.v|K'!s.— Gathering
together the different kinds of sentences that we
have been studying, we find nine rudimental types
of the simple assertive sentence:
(1) Dogs bark. Grace is singinj;. (Intransi/ive verb of
(oniplctc predication:)
(2) Tabby is a cat. Alice was feeling ill. (Intransitive verb
with attribute complement.^
(3) John frightened Helen. Dorothy is studying arithmetic.
( Iransttive verb, 7uith object.)
(4) The Hebrews tna.ie Saul king. Mr. .Smith is painting his
house yellow. ( Transitive verb, -^ith object and objective comple-
ment.) ^
58
SENIKNCKS AND IflKIR STKUCIURE
(5) Harry was hurl, (/'iistiiv ivri.)
(6) Saul was made king, (/'tttshv wrh, wilk allrihtiU iompit-
mtHt.)
(7) It rains. It is snowini;. {/tM/krstmtil su/^Jut.)
(8) It is wrong to steal. ("// " exphtivt.)
(9) There was water in the well. ("Tktrt" txpUlivt,)
EXEBCISE 35.
Illustrrttc inch of the types of the simple sentence
XKHth a sentenee of your oxvn.
To tlio Tt'Ufhcr. — Indirect objrrts. which are moditicrs
rather than cuinplenients, are treated in the next chapter.
CHAPTER V
OF MODlFIKkS
From our previous study it is clear that the essen-
tial parts of languajfe arc Hul0«>ct, V«»rl», and Coin-
plomonr. They arc, as it were, the bones of every
sentence, jfJvinij sha|H; to the thoujjht, and holdinjr
it tojrcther. But these essential parts are seldom
used alone. (Jenerally they arc accompanied by
expressions that, without beinjr essential, fill out
the thoujjht and give it definiteness and accuracy,
something as flesh rounds out the human form.
53. MtMlinerN Doflneil. — Many words have mean-
ings so wide that they must be narrowed before they
exactly fit our thought. For example, the word
" horses " applies to all the horses in the world ; but
we .seldom wi.sh to speak of all horses. To bring
the meaning of the word down to the mea.su re of
our thought we add to it some word, or words, by
way of limitation or description : thus,
RIack
Rig
Fast
Beautiful
GotHi
Trottin<j
Our
Your
These
Two
Some
Both
horses.
SENTF.NCES ANI> THKIK MKUCTUKE
Similarly there arc many varieties of the action
fxprcsHcU by the verb •' went:" as,
He went
Klowty.
thfcrfully.
U%%t.
ihrre.
Ik* (ore.
AIHIII.
iiiiiiMMlialrl).
)<stcr4lay.
I v\ kc,
lilllr.
oflrn.
as,
Often we use several litnitinj>: '"" <lescrit)inp words :
)'i>ur hcauli/u! Hiuk trotti'rt; horses.
He oJttH went thrr,- h,fore.
Definition. — A word joined to some part of the
sentence tt) qualify or limit the meaninjf is ealled a
M(Mlin4>r.
Modifiers may be attached to any or all of the
prineipal parts f)f a sentenee: as.
The
Some
These
Five
Littir
Spanish
American
Smith's
Our
Mod I nod Verb.
Mo4lin« il Corif
|ili'tn«nt.
Ik)vs
yesterday
to-«lay
often
never
there
a^'.iin
once
sehloin
qtiit kiy
surely
founci
some
many
twelve
big
small
rosy
swret
Sfuir
ri|)e
green
apples.
i
?si
>n
*
OK MODIFIERS
6i
EXEKCISE 36.
i.iin a/*/*rof>riitfi mtnitjUrs to I hi /oihwiMf^ 'wortis : —
I -" — nr.iiit(r»,
J. ~ iniiMC.
J. L-liiu<U.
4. — riMtTH.
J. wiml.
6, l.M- — .
7. kiiu — .
8. riiiitk — .
9. Sil — .
10. h.ilU.
II, — . rlutrrhr<%.
U. chair.
IV - —
14.
,5.
16. Cnliie _
17. do —
18. Siny
19. Strp
20. Kiw - —
}|. SIrrp
22. S|rak —
2V Writf —
24. Wiirk -
— lllHIM'll.
• amly,
iU>gft.
:in<l
.-I III I
51. Ciiiitlnn. — Cnrc must \)c t.ikcn not to con-
found iiKHlificrs f>f the vcrl) with coniplcmcnls. A
uituiijUr shows the time, plaee. manner, or degree
of the .lotion, being, or state expressed ]>y the verb.
An ifhjtit comf>/ct>h lit denotes tlie object on which
the action expressed by the verb falls; an attrihutt
(ouiplmtiui points b.ick to the subject, mentiuning
o!ie or more of its attributes.
EXERCISE 37.
/// ///«' fi'i/iKi'iiii^ siHtfims till li'lullur the italicizfi
wonh arc objects, at tribute coiitplcmcnts, or modifiers
of the verb: —
I. Father called „%'"///. 2. Some snvagps .ire <'rt«»r//»rtA". 3. The
rej^inunt maroheiiyc/-//,. 4. (id. i/i \v«nt out a/<// a-. 5. Sh«' sanjf
7i Ihillad. fi. Ilisinan kwasa 0/rw»<///. 7. She sanjj ztv//. 8. The
ship saiU-il y.',*Ar</,n'. 9. The pohreman ]nuke<\ sur/y. 10. Lot's
wife- inokcil ^/f, -{•. II. Thev went /V/f»r.'. 12. Ti'. (iraeons horse
ran a /(f<v. 13. Th' deacon's hors»' ran <ittvi»'. 14. X'esuviusisa
6a SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURK
Vicama 15. \U\*nmf9kt y,tltr,iay. lA. She wrote .1 c«mp«»i.
iMm. 17. Shr wrttm nv//. 18. Moihc-r i« M-wiitg At// l^^^Hij^'kt.
19. She U M-wiiiK my</rm. 30. T«».morrow will Ik- Salnr,iay.
ai. Ihc mm turnr<l ht» 4/rt,/. ai. The men lurnetl fii>,,t.i
aj The mm lumnl r,.wW. 34. Mr walk.1l 4 /«//,■. 35. He walked
\\i%M,»r%t. if,. The Roman* were j{realW.//«r.. 37. Whu|.Hj|;ht
/^rr^r 38. WhofouKhl Aim,: A't.Aartf* 39. Who f.Hjghl StUf
JO. I he »hi|) mruck a r^/. 31. The thip struck kt,t.t-ifH.
■\
4- •
.Ik
*s-*t\
V ,f
'1
I
EXEBaSE 38.
Si/tttrd/t the fo/liKi'in,^ stntoun into simfU subject,
XH-rh, compUiHi'His, ami iiUHiifitrs .—
I. Have you much time ?
M..|,M. M)R OKAI. Ex»K('i,sr..-~An interrogative fw-ntence.
The subject ih •' you." unm.H|ilie.l. The preil cat.- ih •■ have n.u. h
time. consiviuK .»f the verb '• have " and the object " time." which
is moihiieil by "much."
O.
ti me?
murh
Model kok Writtkn Kxkrcis«.—
h.ni r.'l^""'.*''"' 3- F-.very dog h.-,, hi, day. 4. M.nny
handH make hght work. 5. Li„|c broken fell great aik,. 6 An
undt'vout astronomer i, mad. 7. When shall I see you .-.gain?
8. I he postn,an comer, twice daily. 9. We often meet nowadays
somcumes wo exchange a few wonh; we seldom converse long'
10 Here he comes. M. They walked up and down. 13. Where
Clyou find those apples? ,3. I have nearly finished n.y work.
14. We shall surely expect you t.^morrow. le. IVrh.ips your
s.stcr will come too. ,6. To an.I fro an.l in and out the wan
stars d.-mced between. ,7. Why d,.I y.,u con.e here to-day .>
18. Slowly an.l s.-«lly we lai<l him down. ,9. Meanwhile we did
our nightly chores. 20. The old horse thrust his long he.nd out
21. This e*K..I news arrived y.^^rdaj . -, Thr first carriage con -
tamed four |)ersons. 23. A large black <log carried the basket
4 %■
'iiM if- . ' "■ ^ '''■■J,
i. • •• <. <*. [■= i
'%/-
,i'MR|i. 'b - w ,
i
or MoDiniRs
ft}
J4. rh«- |)ltMH{hm.in homrwarfl pltMU hi% weary w.ij, n Thr mUl
Novriiibcr rsiin U falling (Immally. jf.. Ihe m>bic»l niimi ilir l»r»»
tonlenifH€-ni h.»»,
37. G.uly the iriMjlMikiur
'lOutlKTil \n% guii.ir.
38. The c«K.I( hi* crcM(«l lirlmrl brtit
Ami ituwii hm qurruluus* c li.tli<'tit;r srnt.
ftft. Mo<iir>iiiir iMiniM'M iiiHi rhm.*4H«._o»mparc
the iiKKlilicrs in the folluwiin; cxprw ,m,iis:
(J) (lirU u't/A fi/ui- fyti.
(J) ^'tvt\% wko^* fyts art- blm*.
In (!) the iTKHlifier of -'g is" i a .'in^'c a'( -d
("bluc-cyed"); in (2) it is agruuj . , \ id "vv,th
bhie eyes *■) havinjf the force of a si-» -'^ v, d in
(3> it is a K'r'nip of words havin^r the ." . ..f .1 sin-
j(le wonl. and containinjf a subject (" whose eyes")
and a predicate ("are blue ").
Definition.— 1\ jrroup of words used as a sincrle
word, and containinjr neither subject nor predicate,
is called a I*h nu«(>.
Other examples of modifyinjf phrases are : —
He stayed at home.
Phnue.
Stunnct by thf soutiit. he I.iy urconsrioiis,
Ftirasr.
Having; finhh,;t hiiU'ork, John w.nt home.
64
SENTKNCES AND TMKIR STRUCTURE
Definition. — A group of words containing a sub-
ject and a predicate, and used like a single word
OS part of a sentence, is called a CIuunc.
Other examples of clauses are : —
CUUM.
1/ it rains, wc cannot go.
ClaiKC.
They slartctl u/u-n the sun tosr.
ClauM.
ly/iethi'r hf will come is uncertain.
^lall^e. CI.1UW.
Ilr ///(»/ is f^iilily thinks tlit wor It! turns round.
Phrases and clauses are alike in being groups of
words used as single words. They tiiffcr in this: a
clause contains a subject and a predicate, a phrase
docs not.
T<i th<» Tc'iU'hor.— Phrases and clauses used as substantives
are treated sep.irately in Chapter VI.
EXERCISE 39.
I. Narroii' the mcnnitii^ of tJie fothn^'iiig words by
addint:^ to them uiodifyitii; phrases : —
1. Ciciuds —
2. A ride -
3. A house
4. Hoats —
5. News — .
6. Wind .
7. lie went -.
8. We walke.l ---
9. .Sit .
10. Write ,
1 1 . The fox ran
1 2. Ships sail —
2. Construct four sentences containiui!; uiodifyiuj^
phrases.
EXERCISE 40.
I. Narro7V the meanini^ of the folhnvini^ words by
addinj^ to them modifyini^ clauses, and point out the
subject and the predicate in each clause : —
OF MOUIFIKRS
6$
II. The jjrounil is wrt
1 3. The brook
<lef|).
IS
I. Mrn . 6. Tht- Stales .
3. The pictures — . 7. Those .
3. Children . 8. He came .
4. The train . 9. Stay .
5. The book . 10. Make hay .
2. Construct four sent inns lonttxiniui^ modifyin(r
clauses.
EXERCISE 41.
1 . Construct a sentence in which the subject is modi-
fied by siui^le words : one in which it is modified by a
phrase ; one in which it is modified by a clause.
2. Construct a sentence in which the verb is modified
by sintrle words; one in 'which it is modified by a
phrase ; one in which it is modified by a clause.
EXEBCISE 42.
To tho TeaolUT. -This fortn.il exercise is intrmlctl only for
pupils who are slow to ilistinguish phrases and clauses. Ordi-
narily it m.iy be omitted.
Tell whether the follo'winf^ groups of words are
phrases or clauses : —
I. How he got home. 2. Whether he is ready. 3. To tell the
trnih. 4. Doomed for a certain time to walk the night. 5. Stand-
ing by the door. 6. Where Shakspere was Iwirn. 7. IL-f- ;
le.uing the city. 8. Ilcfore we leave the city. 9. lUisied w,in
pu!)lic affairs. 10. That you have wronged me. 11. Ignorant of
his duty. 12. Having m.ide his fortune. 13. Made by Indi.in.
14- Till on dry land he lights. 15. H.aving struck t\v«lve.
ifi. Where the gray birches w.ive. 17. The train h.a\inr^' started.
18. To better his condition. 19. Darl.ness coming on. 20. Where'er
the navy spreads her canvas wings. 21, The left wmg having been
repulsed. 22. As soon as the hri<lge was loweref!. 23. The bridge
having been lowered. 24. Having lowered the bridge. 25. Before
he had lowered the bridge.
i
m
66
SKNTENCES AND THEIR STKUCTURt
EXERCISE 43.
In the following sentences point out the modi/yinjr
phrases, and tell tvhat they modify : —
1. We s|H(l the lime wilh slories old.
2. A baski-l of fruit stood on the table.
3. He.iring a shout, she ran to the door.
4. The borrower is servant to the lender.
5. We saw a brirk sthoolhouse standing by \\\v ro.nd.
6. Surrounded by familiar faces, she breathed Inely again.
7. A comfortable old age is the rew.ird of a well-s|)cnt youth.
8. I»ins were first m.ide by m.ichinery in New York, in 1835.
9. The author of the " 0«le to a .Skylark " was born in a stable.
10. The first submarine telegraph was laid in New York harlH)r.
in 1843.
11. Cd.iss windows were intro<Iuccd into Ei>gland in the eighth
century.
12. Icel)ergs fall into the ocean from Arctic glaciers, and drift
slowly toward the south.
13. The winter palace of the Czar of Russia is lighted by twelve
tiiousand electric lamps.
14. General Cronje, hemmed in by the British army, surrendered
to Lord Roberts.
1 5. Flocks of binls. wheeling round the lighthouse and blinded
by the light, d.ished themselves to death .ag.ainst the glass.
16. Unw.armed by any sunset light
The gray day darkened into night.
17. We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney back.
18. The moon, above the eastern wood.
Shone at its full.
19. Down in the green and shady bed
A modest violet grew.
20. Two robin redbreasts built their nest
Within a hollow tree.
OK M()J)II IKRS
67
£X£ACI8£ 44.
/// the foilinuiiiir stutiiii. < />i, k out the modifyiu^ir
tliiiisis, tilt 'iv'liat tluy inotiijy, and ^ivc the suhjut and
lilt' praiuate of each clause : —
1. Me lay whcrt: he fill.
2. A glutton lives that he may eat,
3. Where the bee sucks, there suik I,
4. Just as I awoke, the cltxk struck six.
5. The evil that men do hves aftt r tlu m.
6. tloil helps those who help thenistlvcs.
7. Blessed is he that considereth the |K)or.
8. The task which yi>ii have to du is easy.
9. .\ teinperate man eats that he may live,
itx Fools rush in where aiiijels fear to tread.
I!. They that govern must make least noise.
\z. I'neasy lies the head that wears a crown.
' 3- ^^y t'yt^s make pictures when they are shut.
14. The city to which I refer is Constantinople.
I 5. When the heart stops beating, life stops too.
16. People who live in glass houses must not throw stones,
17. Rex found a young robin, which ha<l fallen from its nest.
18. The average age of those who enter college is seventeen.
ly. The man who wanted to see you went away an hour ago.
20. The fur which now warms a monarrfi once warmed a Inar.
31. He that loses his c<Miscience has nothing left that is worth
keeping.
22. W^here the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered
together.
23. Kindness is the golden cliain by which society is bound
together.
24. The moon, that onre was round and full,
Is now a silver boat.
f*:
68 SI:N IKNCES AND TMI.lk SlkUCTUKE
35. My heart leaps up when 1 Ix-huld
A r.iinljow in the sky.
26. Me who iisceiulh to inounlain tups sh.i!! find
The loftiest peaks must wrapped in cluuils and snow.
56. M(Mlif>liiM: clatiM(>H C'hiHHimMl. The principal
ideas expressed by modifying clauses are the fol-
lowing : —
(1) Dkscription : Water t/uU is sf,ii^nant in unwholesome.
(2) TiMK : He started 7i'//«7i ///<• sun ros,:
(3) IM.ACK : WAfmur I went was my p(Mjr <log Tray.
(4) .Mannk.k : He did as he wtis lold.
(5) Condition : Rob will yo if Ktfuf ^ws.
(6) C0NCE.SSI0N : T/iouiL,'/i pain is not Hn\i;reatest nil, yet it
is an evil.
(7) CAUst:: \ zavcw: kcause you lalUd me.
(8) IM KPusR ; A j^lutton lives ///,// he may eat.
(9) I)K«;kki- : Ralph is stronj;er than Katherine \is\.
(10) Rksllt : I am so tired ///.// I cannot stand.
EXEBCISE 46.
Till ivhat i(i((i is exprisscd by each of tlif inotii/yinji^
fliinus in lixcrcisc 44.
67. Indirect Object**. — Compare the following
sentences: —
00 Jack gave a penny.
{h) Jack gave me a penny.
In each of these sentences the word "penny"
is an object complement, indispensiible to the pred-
icate. Giving, however, involves a receiver as well
as a thing given, and in the .second sentence this
OF MUl>IMLkS
receiver is indicated by the sinjjle word "me,"
placed immediately after the verb. Hut " me '" is
less closely related to the verb than ••|)enny,"
because (i) it is m>t indispensiible, and (J) if we
change its place, we must indicate its relati()n by
prefixing "to:" as. "Jack gave a {wjuny to mi."
Moreover, the action of giving reaches the receiver
only indirectly through the thing given. "Me"
in .sentence (/') is therefore called an IiulirtH't
Objoi't, in distinction from " penny," which is
called the Dlrt-ft oiijt'ct. Other examples arc: —
Mother l)ouglit Alue a doll.
She made Kulh a new dress.
Dtfiuition. — A word uscfl to denote the object in-
directly affected by the action of a verb is called an
Indirect l)l»J<'rt.
The indirect object of a verb denotes the object
to or for whom the action is performed. But not
ever)' word answering the question " to whom t>r
what'" or "for whom or what?" is an indirect
object. For example, the italicized words in the fol-
lowing .sentence are not indirect objects: "Mother
went to toivn and bought me a doll for a iMlnr."
The verb "ask "' takes an indirect oljject in a r< l.itK^n Sdnu-timrs
.xpressed by 'of:" as, "He asked mc a queslion ; " " He ai,k. .1
a (|uestion of inf."
EXERCISE 46.
I. //'//// f/ii' folfo'ii'iiijr verbs form ten sintcnas, mch
containini^ on indirect object : —
ask forgive make pnirnise t. k h
bring get p.iy send tell
'«»■ '■=»
T ■'^■'
;o SKNTKNCKS AND THKIk STKUCTURK
2. Change your stutttms so that indirut objects that
Win- stHgU' words shall now be expressed by phrases, and
vuf versa.
EXERCISE 47.
Point ont the indirect objects in the following sen-
tences: —
1. Will you <lo me a favor?
2. He paid I he men I heir wages.
3. (iive me Iil>crty. or give me ileath.
4. He wrought the castle much annoy.
5. Riches certainly make themselves wings.
6. C.ive every man thy car. but few thy voice.
7. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends.
8. Owe no ma^ anythiny, but to love one another.
9. Th. God who jjave us life gave us lilK-rly at the same time.
10. If hine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give hhn
drink.
11. I3 Id thee more stately mansions. O my soul, as the swift
seasons (t-il.
58. Iii'"pcct ObJoctM In PuHHlvo 8entence«.—
When .scM nccs containinjr a direct and an indirect
object ar( !.-ncd into the passive form, it would
seem that the direct object should become the .subject
of the passive verb, bccau.se it denotes the object
which directly receives the action expressed by the
verb; and that the indirect object .should remain
unchanged: thus,
I ml. Obj.
{Aitt'-'e) He handeil Avr a chair.
Iml. Obj.
(Passi'vi) A cl>air was handed Acr.
OF MODIFIKRS
n
Asa matter at fact, however, not the direct ob-
ject, but the indirect is often made the .sul)ject of
the passive verb: as,
SAi- was h.indcd a chair.
This cannot Im lojjically explained, but it is
accepted as ^o<h\ Knglish. "Chair" is f,.r con-
venience called a lU>tulii«Ml (>l^i><>t.
EXEBCISE 48.
Cli(Vis:;i' the folUncing suttcnccs into thv passive
form : —
1. H.irry gave mo a jM-nny.
2. She promised nw a Inmk.
3. I K-ive him a rrcript in full.
4. Mother iMJiighl Alice a doll.
5 He paid the men their w.-ijjcs.
6. He wrought the rastle much annoy,
7. Nature teaches leasts to know their friends.
8. He told them many strange stories of the sea.
5». AppoHltlveH. — Compare the following sen-
teiices: —
Paul was behea<led in the reign of Nero.
I'aul. thi- apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero, emperor
of Rome.
In the .second .sentence, you observe, the mean-
ing of "Paul" and of "Nero" is made clear by
.setting next to each of them a modifier consisting
of another name for the .same person or thing.
nifimtioti.—K name set next to another name
by way of explanation, and denoting the .same per-
»-•.». Iir_.,
.%•;•._ ., V
7a
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
son or thing, is called an Apponltlvv (Latin, "set
next to ").
The two namcH set next to each other are said
to be in App<Niltlon.
If an appositive is accompanied by adjuncts, it
is usually set off by commas.
In the (IrAnitbn ut an apiiotitive, the words "tJrnoiinij »he tame
IH-rson or tliiiit; " are neetlecl to ilistii){{ubh an appoutive from a
fwisesMvc m«Mlifier. like " Johns' in the expression "John's hat."
In this expression the wor^ls are not in apposition because they do
not denote the same |>crson or thing.
EXEBCI8E 49.
/n tlw /oiiou'iHj^ itntemrs point out the rvoriis in ap-
position : —
1. Hail. iM.ly light ! offspring of heav'n first-liorn.
2. The meek ey'd Morn ap|)ears. mother of «lews.
3. Come, gentle Spring • ethereal Mildness ! come.
4- The |K)stman comes, the herald of a noisy world.
5. Lal>or to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celes-
tial fire— conscience.
6. Let not women's weapons, water drops.
Stain my man's cheeks !
7. A famous man is Robin Hoo<l,
The English ballad singer's joy.
8. Aurora now. fair daughter of the dawn,
Sprinkled with rosy light the dewy lawn.
9. The sp.icious firmament on high.
With all the blue ethereal sky.
And spangled heavens, a shining frame.
Their great Original proclaim.
la She dwelt among the untro<lden ways
Beside the springs of Dove -
A maid whom there were none to praise
And very few to love.
OF MUDIKIKKS 73
II. In Xanadu did Kubia Khan
A »Ulely picasurc-duiiic decree.
Where Alph, the Mcrcd river, ran
Through caverns nieasurelcM to nuui
Down to a sun leu sea.
"• O ifotMl Cum lalo.
My true prMrrvrr an<l a loyal sir
To him thou follow'sl. I will pay thy 1,'raccii
Home, ixiih in wortl an«l dceil. Mom cruelly
Didst thou. Alonzo. uht rnc and niy daughter:
Thy brother was a furthcrcr in thr act ;—
Tlwu'rt pinch'd (of t now, Sebastian.
EXERCISE 60.
Construct four sentences containing nppositrt'es.
«0. M(Mlinf>rM of MrxlincrH.— Thus far wc have
considered only mixlifiers of subject, verb, and
c«)mplement. But mcxlifiers arc themselves often
modified, and wc find phrases attached to phrases,
clauses attached to clauses. Thus:
(a) Fanny sinjfs very well.
HuUI<H>t.
Fanny
Verb.
sings
I well.
Ijrry
{f>) The widow of the fishrrm.in who was drowned lives in a cot-
tajje by the sea.
Mnhjppt. Vorh.
widow lives
T*^^ I in a co ttage
of the fis herman | hy'the sea.
1 who was drowned ~~
74
SENTENCES AND THEIR HTRI tfURI
(r) Thh is the rai that «tr the nwli that lay in the houM that
Jack buUt.
i
U II
This is the rat
that ate the m alt
|D»nt lay in t he houM
( ihat Jack htitlt.
01. Annl>'ntn. — When, in order to show its strtic-
ture, we sepjirato a sentence into its parts, we are
sail! to Analyze* it.
/h/ini/ ion.— The process of separatinjj a sentence
into its parts in order to show its structure is called
Anal.VHiN (f Jreek, "a takinjf apart ").
In order to analyze a sentence we must tell —
(1) The kind of sentenre.
(2) The romplcte siil>ject.
(3) Tie predicate.
(4) The simple suhji-ct.
(5) The verb.
(6) The • omptement, if any.
(7) I'he modifurs of subject, verb, and complement.
(8) The subordinate modifiers.
03. Dlii,|iri*>un»4. — It is .sometimes convenient, as a
time-savinj; <levice, to .show the fundament.il .struc-
ture of a .sentence by me.ins of a jjraphic repre.sen-
o^" Momnt.Rs
75
tation called a iHuirmtn. l'*t>r example, ihc Mtruc-
turc o( thu (ivntcncc,
All iNiyn like llic k^hic u( ImwImU,
may bv exhibited iIuik: —
V. Ob
of Imachail.
M.
like
This diajfram Hhowsal a jjlanw that thu sentini-c
has three princi|>.d parts, and that the subject has
one m<Klirier, the oliject two.
Similarly, the stnicture nf tlie Kcntcncc,
The lion ami llu- unicorn
Were liKhtnig '"' »''« crown,
may be whown thus: —
linn
Thr|
V.
unicorn
Wrrr fiKhlinf;
1 f'»r tlif cr«»wn.
Ihr
Phrases and clauses. Iwing used with the force
of sintflc words, are best treated as units and not
broken up into parts.
For other examples sec <M>.
To the Teacher.— The chief value of the cllagram is that it
enables the teacher to test a pupil's in .ight inlu sentence-structure
with a minimum of time and effort. The chief olijection to It is
that, being niechanical. it is unnatural as an expression of Inpfral
relations, reilucing the iH'autifuI subtlilirs of Iinfjui^e to hard and
fast lines. wresttnt{ *'>c words out of their order, and fostering »n
me'-m:. =m ^'
ib
''■^~-'^'^i-^y^-0i^,
Mictocory resoiution tbt chaut
(ANSI .nd ISO TEST CHART No. 2)
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140
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2.5
2.2
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A APPLIED IIVMGE
inc
1653 Eost Moin Street
Rochester. New York U609
(716) 482-0300- Phone
(716) 288- 5989 -Fax
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76 SENTENCKS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
the pupil mechanical ideas of the English sentence. Used occasion-
ally and in moderation, it is a help; hut it should not attempt to fjo
iK-yond the graphic separation of subject, verb, complement^,, and
modifierh . and it should never In: allowed to usurp the place of
oral analysis, which remains the chief instrument of the teacher
for developing quick perception and easy expression.
The author doubts the expediency of ever extending the use of
the diagram beyond the expression of the fundamental %/iv,/struc.
ture of the sentence. To attempt to show graphically all grammal.
Hill relations leads to niceties of detail in the diagram which turn it
into a puzzle requiring a key. When a pupil becomes concerned
not so much with the use of a word as with how to express that use
graphically, the purpose of the diagram has become perverted, and
the real object of analysis is lost sight of.
EXERCISE 51.
Analyze the follozving sentences :
I. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower
And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down.
Model for Oral ANALvsLs.-The subject is "Three wives."
There are two predicates, "sat up in the lighthouse tower " and
"trimmed the lamps as the sun went down." The simple
subject is "wives," modified by "three." The verb in the first
predicate is "sat." a verb of complete predication, modified by
"up "and the phrase "in the lighthouse tower." In the second
predicate the verb is "trimmed." with " lamps" as object comple-
ment. " Trimmed " is modified by the time clause " as the sun
went down," and "lamps " is modified by "the."
Model for Written Analysis.—
s.
wives
Three
V.
sat
up
in the lighthouse tower
and
trimmed
as the sun went down.
O.
lamps
"Jthe
OF MODIFILRS
n
2. Hright the lamps shone o'er fair wotijtn ami liravc men.
3. Animals that live in the Arctic reyions among snow and ice
have white fur.
4. Near the " bonny Vioon ' stands the Utile clay-built cottage
in which Robert Hums was born.
5. Rip Van Winkle assisted at the children's sports, niade their
playthings, and told them long stories of ghosts, witches, and
Indians.
6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier
lay,
Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his
life away.
7. Between the andirons* straggling feet
The mug of cider simmered slow.
8. The house dog on his paws outspread
Laid to the fire his drowsy head.
9. Sharply clashing horn on horn,
Impatient down the stanchion rows
The cattle shake their walnut bows.
10. A little nonsense now and then
Is relished by the wisest men.
11. I stood on the bridge at midnight.
As the clocks were striking the hour.
12. Forth into the forest straightway
All alone walked Hiawatha
Proudly, with his bows and arrows.
13. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought.
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought.
Our hearts, in glad surprise,
To higher levels rise.
14. In my study I see in the lamplight.
Descending the broad hall stair.
Grave Alice and laughing Allegra
And Edith with golden hair.
<
78
SENTKNCKS AND THKIK STRUCTURE
i
I
EXEBCISE 52.
(Gknkkal Kevikw.)
Analyze the fol Unci ii}^ sentences : —
1. I cnmc to a shady spot where the grass was wet with tiie dew
that still lay u|M)n it.
MuDKl. FOR Oral ANAl.vsrs.-The sul)jcct of this sentence
IS '• I." without adjuncts. The predicate is the rest of the sentence.
The principal verb in I he predicate is "can.e." a verb of complete
predication, modified by the phrase " to a shady spot." " Spot " is
nuHlihed by " a " and " shady " and the clause of place. •• wKere the
grass was wet." in whiJ. .he -rass " is the subject. " w.is " is the
verb, and " wet " is an altrd)ute complement. '• Wet ' is modified
by the phrase " with the dew.' •• l)c\v " is modified by •• the " and
the descriptive clause "that still lay upon it," In which "that " is
the subject and " lay " is the verb, modirted by " still " and the phrase
" upon it."
Model for Written Analysis.—
8. V.
I came
I to a shady spot
I where the grass was wet
I with the dew
TThat. etc.
2. Nearly all dogs like the water.
3. My bosom's lord sits lightly in his throne,
4. The man in the moon came down too soon.
5. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth.
6. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience in
everything.
7. When I look upon the tombs of the great every emotion of
envy dies in me,
8. Pompeii was suddenly buried beneath a shower of ashes
from Mount Vesuvius.
9. People will not look forward to posterity who never look
backward to their ancestors.
m^l^mSt'.'*^.
<)« M()|)ihi:ks
79
1
10. Hooks that you may carry to the tire aticl hold rta<li!y in your
hanil arc the most ustful after all.
11. The deep cave amonj,' the rocks on the hillside was lonji
the secret home of a family of foxes.
12. In HcMand the stork is protected hy law, because it cats the
frogs and worms that would injure the dikes.
13. The water of our brook, after llowiiifj under the bridge and
through the meadow, falls over little precipices of rock till it reaches
the level of the lake, fifty feet below.
14. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward b«came a
distinguished st.itesman and philosopher. Karncd his trade in the
printing olticeof his brother, who published a paper in Boston.
15. A king sat on the rocky brow
Which looks o<t sea-born Salaniis.
16. At the doorway of his wigwam
Sat the ancient Arrow-maker,
In the land of the Dacotahs,
Making arrowheads of jasper.
17. At his side, in all her beauty,
Sat the lovely Minnehaha.
Plaiting mats of flags and rushes.
18. Soon o'er the yellow fields, in silent and mournful procession.
Came from the neighboring hamlets and farms the Acadian
women,
Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to the
seashore.
19. In the Old Colony days, in Plymouth, the land of the Pil-
grims,
To and fro in a room ot his simple and primitive dwelling.
Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan leather.
Strode, with a martial air, Miles Standish. the Puritan captain.
20. Shut in from all the world without,
We sat the clean-winged hearth about,
Content to let the north wind roar
In baffled rage at pane and door.
While the red logs before us beat
The frost line bark with tropic heat.
■'7r\«*t":"
80
S1:N TKNCKS ANIJ TIILIR STKUCI UKK
21. Tlial orlK.cl maiflcn with white fiic l.nltn.
Whom mortals call the moon.
Gliilfs KliiiimcrinK o'lr my' fkrce-hlvi: lloor,
liy the miilnnjht breezes strewn.
22. He.iring the lm|)erial name
Ci ipled with these words of malice,
{{alt ill anger, half in shame.
Forth the great campaigner came
Slowly from his canvas palace.
23, When { see kings lying by those who deposed them ; when
{ consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy men th.ii di-
vided the world with their contests and disputes. { reflect with
sorrow and astonishment on the little competitions, facti )ns, and
debates of nhinkind.—At/tf/son .- '• Visit to Westminster Abbey."
*A cloud U kitppuied to be i( ;aking.
mmpr^Msmmi^t^**''. lEisiw^nr Ji^i-i^-
CHAPTKR VI
OF SUHSTANTIVi; PIIKASKS AM) C I.AUSKS
In the last chapter we learned (55) that j,^r()ups of
words are often used with the force of single words,
and that such t^roups are iMiniHi'H if they contain
neither subject nor predicate. Clauses if they do
contain a subject and a predicate. The illustrative
sentences and the exercises contained many such
groups used as modifiers. We aie now to learn
that phrases and clauses are also used as substan-
tivt's.
03. PhroHcs OS HubjcctH. — Examine the subject
of each of the following sentences, and, if possible,
pick out the single word that may be used as the
simple or bare subject : —
Subjt'ft.
Verb. Complement.
Over the fence
To jump across the chasm
Tom's being there
IS
was
saved
out.
impossible,
the house.
You observe that no single word can be taken as
the bare subject. The assertion is made about the
idea expressed by the entire phrase used as a sub-
stantive.
To the Teacher — The internal structure of substantive
phrases is discussed in Part II.
a I •• I
83
SKNTLNCKS AND THi:iR STKUCTURi:
EXEBCISE 53.
Construct assirtions about the ii/nis iXprnsai by the
follo't<nng phmsiS : —
1. To die for one's country —
2. Skating on the |K)ntl .
3. Writing compositioriH .
4. I'laying football .
5. To write a sttiry .
6. Chopping wood .
7. To Jintl a horseshoe —
b. To tell u lie .
EXEBCISE 54.
/'■/// the blanks with phrases used as subjeets:
I. is dishonorable.
2. annoys nie.
3. is bad luck.
4. IS hard work.
5. was great fun.
6. woidd make you laugh.
7. is inipossdile.
8. Does make you tired ?
i
04. PhniMC'H tiM CumplemtMitH. — Examine each of
the following complement.s, and determine whether
any single word may be taken as the bare comple-
ment: —
8ub,tt*et.
He
I
ViTb.
Objpft C'oniploinctit.
comtnanded
saw
the bridge to be lowered,
him do it.
Subject.
Th^
They
Subject. Verb.
Verb. Attribute Complement*
They
They
danced
kept
IS
were
Object.
themselves
us
out of bounds,
in no danger.
Objective Complement.
out of breath,
waiting an hour.
From this it is clear that phrases are often used
substantively as complements.
OF SUBSTANTIVK PKRASKS AND CLAUSES 83
EXEBCISE 56.
Compute the folUnvin^r snitencs by adding ideas ex-
pressed by phrases, and tell -.whether the phrases are used
as objeets, attribute eomplements, or objective eomple-
ments : —
1. Our ' 1USC is
2. We ititcnti —
3. Up m:u\v us
4. He seemed -
5. What I want is .
6. LonI Roberts forced Croujc
7. The Alps are .
8. I like .
EXERCISE 56.
/// the folhnviug snifeiiees point out the phrases, and
tell hoiv they are used : —
1. Study to Im' quiet.
2. The vessels were of oak.
3. Out of sight is out of mind.
4- <>iJt of debt is out of misery.
5. I found the book growing dull.
6. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean.
7. The price of wisdom is alwve rubies.
8. A man should learn to govern himself.
9- To break a promise is a breach of honor.
10. Giving to the poor is lending to the Lord.
1 1 . England expects every man to do his duty.
12. This .norning Carrie seemed in good spirits.
13- Men called the first steamboat "Fulton's Folly."
14. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position.
IS- The true university of these days is a collection of books.
16. The greatest of faults. I should say. is to be conscious of
none.
17. Being in a ship is lieing in a jail, with the chance of beine
drowned. *
1
put on
:'f«^^"f V',*^^"
•4 SKNTKNCKS AM) THlllR STRlCTUkt
18. To l)c lonwious that you are ijjnoram \% .1 grmt sUp toward
kriowiccl^e.
19- The wincl<i and waves arc always on the side of the ablest
navigators.
20. The only arjjumrnt available with an east wind is to
your ov<'rroat.
21. To \h' prrparrd for war is one of the most effectual means
of preserving; peace.
22. Early to b<'d. and early to rise.
.Makrs a man hrallhy. wr.ihhy. and wise.
23. Immodest words .idinit of no difrnse.
Kor want of tieccncy is want of sense.
EXERCISE 67.
U'ri/r n sintcucc contninini:^ n pftrnsr used as siih-
Jut ; OS object ; as attribute eoiiiplement ; as object he
complement .
05; CIaiiM(>H iiM HnLjeotH.— Examine the following
sentences, and consider whether any .single word
can be named as the bare .subject.
Consider, also, whether the groups of words ex-
pressing the subject are phra.ses or clau.ses. Give
the rea.son for your answer:
Sul|iJ«'Ct.
PrcMllcRto.
Wh.nt they say
That you have wronged me
Whether I can go
is not to the point,
doth appear in this,
is uncertain.
From this it is clear that a clause may be used
substantively as the subject of a sentence.
OF SIJHSTAN TIVi: PHRASES AND C LAirsiS
EXEBCI8E 58.
«5
AnUr nsstrtions about the uii,ii ixprcssai by th,- Ul-
I. Wh; • - w.inti .
3. Whrll) you go or slay .
3. That two and iw«» in.ikr four .
4. Whom it Iwlunj's lo .
5. What hr docs - ..
6. Where hf \v«nt .
7. When we shall start .
8. '• Charge for the guns " .
EXERCISE 59.
/•■/// t//r Ntvds -u'it/i i/aitsts used as subjects .•—
is unknown.
will never l)e discovered.
pleases nie.
is doubtful.
5. is of no importance.
6. \v IS forel«)ld.
7- were his words.
8. has been proved.
EXERCISE 60.
Review Exereisc 1 1 { f^a^^e 2y), and tell whether the
subjects art: phrases or clauses.
00. Clauses as Complements.— Examine the fol-
lowing sentences, .ind consider whether any single
word can he named as the complement. Consider,
also, whether the groups of words expres.sing the
complementary idea are phrases or clau.ses:—
SuHloct. Verb. OI.J..t.t.
Galileo
He
She
I
tau),'ht
asked
showed
doubt
that the e.irth moves,
who I was.
where she had put it.
wiiclhcr i can go.
f ■»*
86
sENr::NCEs and tmk.ir stri ltire
i:l§?''
B!!% ■!».. ■
tirr chief fault
lie
Thw
V«»rb. AltrlUulti ( »ni|il«>fii(«at.
what i want.
thai »hc would not rracl.
Mriiiid what Uc prctmtlcd u> Iw.
!• where the arbutus ({rown.
From tilis ii is clear that clauses may be used sub-
HtatUively as object or attribute complements.
EXEBCI8E 61.
//// ///,• fi/ituh with thust's iis,,/ as cfiuiplnnents, and
till wliithtr liny art' nsoi ns oif/Wts or altnhutt- ami.
f>i, IHiHlS : —
1. Do you kn.iw ? 6. Have you hrani ?
2. I («ar , 7_ I'l,,. qiif^i,,,,, j^
3. My ho|H- Is , 8. Thinj-s an- srKlom .
4. UV saw . 9. Let u^ n%k .
5 His cry was . lo. I ihiiik .
in. ('laiiM4>M tw ApiM>«ltlv<»H.— Examine the fol-
lowiuij sentence: —
The Arabs have a superstition l/t,il Ihf slork Am n hiwmn
htarl.
Here the clai'sc "that the stork has a human
heart" is in apix»sition (5i>) with the word "super-
stition."
From this we sec that clauses may l)e used sub-
stantively as appositives.
EXEBCISE 62.
Fill the blanks with clauses in apposition with the
italicized ivords : —
I 1
OF NUliSTANTIVE PMKAsKS ANU CI.AL.SKi
I. The rtfHHl I, Mill rue.
a. I hf tt^in |i.i„ ji,,i com^,
y \Sk have Ju»l Itaiiu,! the y.i,/ .^
4. I chcri»h ihc hof*^ .
$. He ntiuJe the at)>*rtim .
«7
EXERCISE 63.
Point out tlw apposith^s iu tlw folUnoh^r sen-
h.,:.;;:;r,;:,:;r '"•"" -•"—'••/. 1-.
ohi .11x1 of rxcrlltfiit wit.
5 Hooks have this n.lv.uu..Ke ov.t travel, th... they convey
inforniaiion from rcmot« times. ^ c.m\.y
6. It w.-,s .1 ,„axi,n with H, ,„ley that no man was ever written
out of reputation but hy himself. "
a umteTurn;::!: °' ^^"'^" '''"""' ^''""''•"'^^^' '^^ '^^ ''^^ —
«. In the armory of Venice is this inscription : " Hanpy is that
cty which in time of pe.icc thinks of war."
9. The theory that the earth revolves aroun.l the sun was not
K«neratly accepted till after the invention of the telesco,>e
lu. Know th.n ihis truth renouRh for man to know).~
' Virtue alone is happiness below."
EXERCISE 64.
U'ri/r a scntnue amtahtifti^r „ snhsfanthr clause usoi
^s subject ; as objeet ; as attribute eomplement ; as an
iippositive.
\
.3\
88
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
FXEBCISE 65.
In the folh'ving sentences point out the clauses,
and tell hoio i.iey are used .-—
1. Ask if you may go too.
2. Life is what wc make it.
3. What he does is well done.
4. What you want is not here.
5. Take whichever you choose.
6. Show us where you found it.
7. This is not what I asked for.
8. What he promises, he will do.
9. No one can tell how this will end.
10. A servant must do what he is told.
1 1. No man can 'ose what he never had.
12. "I am going a-milking, sir," she said.
13. Whether you go or stay is of little account.
14. The village all declared how much he knew.
15. He acknowledged that he had made a mistake.
16. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well.
17. Reputation is what we seem ; character is what we are.
18. Lawrence's dying words were, " Don't give up the ship."
19. That the earth is round is proved by the shape of its shadow.
20. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a continent.
21. What a man puts into his head cannot be stolen from him,
22. The war cry of the Crusaders was, " It is the will of God ! "
23. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" was God's question to
guilty Cain.
OF SirHSTANTIVi: I'MKASKS AM, CKAUSKS 89
can'Jou^b ."'"'' ""'" ""' ""^"■"" ^''" ^"" ''''■ '' ^^"' ^'=*'<- " ^Vhat
26 Philosophers are stiU debating whether the will has a„v
control over dreams. "^
sta's'isThrr''"'!;"" "^ ^ n "''''"'"' '"'>' '"""*^" -^ ^^e sun and
stars IS that the earth spins like a top.
28. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls,
With vassals and serfs at my side.
To the Teiu.Hor.-Substantlve phrases and clauses used as
the objects of pre|)ositions are treated in Part II.
K^mmm'w^'
CHAPTER VII
OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
08. IndcpotMleut Klementw Denned. — Examine
the following sentence : —
1 am going a-milking, sir.
Here, you observe, the subject is " I ;" the pred-
icate is "am going a-milking." The word "sir"
belongs neither to the subject nor to the predicate,
and therefore is not really a part of the sentence.
It is merely attached to the sentence to show to
whom it is addressed.
Definition. — A word or group of words attached to
a sentence without forming a grammatical part of it
is called an Iiulependent Flement,
60. Vocatives. — Independent elements are of
several kinds. In "I am going a-milking, sir," the
independent element "sir" indicates the person to
whom the sentence is addressed.
Definition, — A word used to call to or indicate
the person or thing addressed is called a Vocative
(Latin voco, " I call").
Care must be taken not to confound vocatives with
the subjects of imperative sentences. In " Come
on, boys," "boys" is a vocative. The subject of
the command "come on" is omitted as usual; if
expressed, it would be " you :" as, "Come [you] on,
boys."
■lililTWllllWaftyfr>3t . i-ir ..M^^jmrnt-.
OF INDKI'ENDKNT ELEMENTS
EXERCISE 66.
91
Poinf out the vocative icords in the foU(Kving sen-
tences : —
1. Drink, pretty creature, drink.
2. Give ine of your balm. O fir tree.
3. Mr. President, my object is peace.
4. O Child of Nations, giant-liml)ed.
5. Ye crags and peaks. I'm with you once again.
6. Wave your tops, ye pines, in sign of worship.
7. Roll on, thou dark and deep blue ocean, roll !
8. Sir, I would rather be right than be president.
9. My son, If sinners entice thee, consent thou not.
10. There are more things in heaven and earth. Horatio,
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.
1 1. To arms ! To arms ! Sir Consul,
Lars Porsena is here.
70. Exclamatloiis.—Examine the following sen-
tence: —
What ! are you going ?
Here the subject is "you;" the predicate is '^-ire
going." -What!" is an independent word at-
tached to the sentence as an outcry or sudden ex-
pression of feeling.
Definition.— A word or group of words used as an
outcry or sudden expression of feeling is called an
Exclamation.
EXERCISE 67.
Point out all the independent elements in the follow-
iniC sentences, and tell whether they are vocatives or
exclamations : —
92
SKNTENCKS ANIJ THEIR STRUCI URL
III
1. Oh, hurry, hurry!
2. Well, let us try it.
3. Why, that is strange !
4. The boy, oh, where was he?
5. I'oor man ! he never came back.
6. Mortimer! who talks of M<>rlim«r?
7. Ha. ha, black sheep, have you any wool ?
8. Ha! laufjh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn?
9. Alas! poor creature I how she must have suffered I
10. Ay me ! what perils do environ
The m.an that meddles wilh cold iron !
71. Parent hot leal KxpivMHloiiH. — Examine the
following sentence : —
This, to tell the truth, was a mistake.
Here the subject is "This;" the predicate is
'* ' .; a mistake." '* To tell the truth " is a phrase,
forming no part of the sentence (which is complete
without it), but attached to it as a sort of comment
or side remark.
Definition. — A phrase or a clause attached to a sen-
tence as a sort of .side remark or comment is called
PartMithetleal (Greek, •' put in beside ").
EXERCISE 68.
Pick out the parenthetical expressions in the follow-
ing sentences : —
At all events, he did his best.
In f.ict, there was nothing else to do.
Consi-' -injT his .ige, he did very well.
I felt, .y the least, a little nervous.
So f.. . can see, there is nothing more to do.
Her conduct, generally speaking, was admirable.
Properly speaking, there is no such thing as luck.
8. The ship leaped, as it were, from billow to billow,
9. To speak plainly, your manner was somewhat rude.
I.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.
7.
"I
.^u'r:
OF INDKI'I: NDKNT ELEMKNTS
9J
10. To the best of my recollection, she was not there.
11. Let there be no strife. I pray thee. iKtwecn thee and me.
12. The arniy o.' Xerxes, to put it in round nuniln:rs, comprised
2.500,000 persons.
7«. IMooiiRHm.— Examine the following sen-
tence: —
Thy rod ;ind ihy staff, thty comfort me.
Here the words •• Thy rod and thy .staflf" name
the .subject of the thought, but are independent of
the .sentence •' they comfort me." which is complete
m Itself, the grammatical .subject being "they"
and the predicate "comfort mo." It is as if we
used two subjects denoting the same thing: thus.
Thy rod and thy staff )
They f comfort me.
Definition. ^T\\Q use of more words than are
needed is called Pleonasm (•' more than enough").
Other examples of pleonasm are:—
The smith, a mighty man is he.
My Imtik's, they are furnished with bees.
This construction was once very good English,
but it is now uncommon, and as a rule should not
be imitated.
73. Punctuation of Indci>enclent Klements.— It
IS customary to .separate independent elements from
the rest of the sentence by commas or (in the case
of exclamations) by exclamation points.
EXERCISE 69.
Write txvo sentences of your oxvn tvith vocatives at-
tached: tzoo with exclamations; t^o with parenthetical
expressions.
ii
ii(F.
■»'^'4JL2flfc:*^iL''t^^#^
94
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
74. Uummury of thv PartH of a Sentence. — The
parts of a sentence, which we have now studied,
may be summarized as follows: —
il
J
Ui
U
Ui
H
U
f Word (32).
\ Clause (65).
Intransitive f Cottplcte predication (43).
(40) I Copulative (35) with attrib
Verb
(32)
or
Verh I'hrask
(36)
i
I
Transitive j
(40)
Complements
(45)
Attribute
(46)
jpulative (35) with attribute
complement (46).
f With object (47).
Active J With object and ob-
(42J I jective complement
(48).
Complete predication
(43)-
Passive J With attribute com-
(42) plement (49).
With retained object
(58).
Word (46).
Phrase (64).
Clause (66).
■ Ohjcct
km:
Word (47).
Phrase (64).
Clause (66).
Objective ['^ofiX (48).
(48) I Phrase (64).
r Word (53).
Phr
Modifiers , ... , .
(53) 1 hrase (55).
[Clause (55, 67).
f /ocative (69).
Independent Expressions J Exclamatory (70).
(68) 1 Parenthetical (71).
I Pleonastic (72).
OF INUEI'ENDENT ELEMENTS
95
EXEBCISE 70.
(Gcnekal Kkvicw.)
1. Reproduce from memory the preceding summary,
omitting the numerical references.
2. Define and illustrate each of the terms used in the
summary.
To the Teacher — The nominative absolute, which is in-
dc|)enilcnt in form, tlmuijh it is really a motliticr. is treatetl in
Part II.
1^
1
I
CHAPTER VIII
<»!•■ sF.NTi:\ri:s as simi-lk, complkx, and cDMrfurxn
WiTir respect to uuanini;, sentences are classified
as ANM<M-tlv(s Iiit<>rn>tfutlvo, or Iin|K>nitlv<>. With
respect to form, they are either Hlinplc, Complex,
or ConiiMtiiiid.
75. Hlmplo HontonroH. — Examine the following
sentences: —
Miiltject.
a. Tlif horses
l>. T\\v horses )
and V
the cattle S
C. The horses
PrtMlU'Hte.
were in the stable.
were in the same stable.
i took fright
■' and
d. The horses j
.ind
the cattle )
\ S
f ran away,
were fastened in t' same stable
-V and
( were led at the same time.
Each of these sentences, you ob.serve, consists of
but one subject and one predicate, though several
of the subjects and predicates arc compound.
Definition. — A .sentence wliich contains only one
subject and one predicate, either or both of which
may be compound, is called a Klmplc Kontoneo.
In a simple sentence with compound subject and predicate,
every verb belonjjs to every jrrammatical sut>ject. and every gram-
matical subject belongs to every verb.
Some grammarians hold thai there are as many sentences or
clauses in anything we say as there are verbs. According to them.
"V'^"' 'm^ s A 1\> cm ^. " ■ JJ m-yF-7i' 1 ■
I ''J:^^^ ^:f^':^3l^^ limMi r %■ .ik* ■
W'*-
SIMl'LK. COMPI.KX. AND COMPOUND ,^;
sentences (O nn.l (,/) nre not si,,,,,!, scntnuin. hut two separate
sentences uMitcl. with v„ne words u.nitte.l : as. " Th. I.orsel t.n.k
riKht and [ the horses) ran away f •• The horses .n.l the cattle wne
astened in thr same stable and [the horses and the caltUI were
led at the same time. "
70. C'omplox Ht.iiteiu.eH._Rxaminc tlic followiiur
ntf>tii>(>u • ^
sentences
NulUtwt.
PrtHMoiitn.
ll'A^n t/u- ,ucid,nt iKcurr^ii is not known.
Stili>tanliv>- Clause.
The spot where ihr .ua\U»t occurred is not known.
Mutlirying Clause.
In each of these sentences a clause, performinj,^
the office of a single word, forms an indisiK-nsablc
part of the whole. It cannot be removed without
injury to the meaning of the sentence. 0,i the other
hand, it depends on the rest of the sentence for its
own significance. It is clear that the subject and
the predicate of .such a clause are suhorMnah- to
that IS. of lower rank than, the subject and the
predicate of the sentence of which the clause is
only a part.
Definition.~h clause used like a single word as
a dependent or subordinate part of a sentence is
called a Dependent or Kubomllimto Clauso.
Definition. ~K sentence containing a principal
clause and one or more subordinate clauses is called
a Complex Sontoneo (Latin. " woven together")
The "principal clause" in the first illustrative
sentence is the entire sentence; in the second sen-
tenceitis. " The spot . . . is not known."
^f... ,:■
} r
'/'
9a SKNTKNCKS AND TIII.IR SIKLCTUKE
Sul)<)nlinatc clauses xirc cither m«Klifyinj«[ nr sul).
stantivc clauses; ami all incHlifying or mtbstantivo
clauses arc subordinate.
It is sometinu'» saiil that fiulioriliiintf cI.iumh cnn Ik» rrcoKni/c«|
by the fact that tht-y do nt)t by thcinsclvr;! make complete scum*.
Thin is not a sure test ; for —
(1) Some siilM)r<linatc dausrs make rnmplrt«« !irn*r by them-
selves ; for example. " / ,im goin^ ii-hiiU/h,;, sir,' she sanl."
Here the direct <|iic)tation is clearly th«' object of "said."' and is
therefore a dependent clause ; yet it makes complete sense hy iisilf.
(2) Some principal clauses cannot stand by themselves; for
example, " As a man lives, so must //.- <//«•."
77. Componntl 8entcncH>M. — Examine the fol-
lowing sentences: —
The rain descended. | and [ the flooils came. | an<l | the winds
blew. I and | |lhey| smote upon that house; | antl 1 it fill: [ and |
great was the fall thereof.
The way was long, | the wind was cold, j
The minstrel was infirm and old.
In these .selections we .sec united into one .sen-
tence .several that are complete in themselves.
Although clo.sely related in thought, they could be
separated without injury; therefore they are indc-
pendent of one another. Not being dependent one
on another, they are said to be coordinate, that is,
of equal rank.
Definition. — A sentence consisting of .several in-
dependent or coordinate sentences joined together
is called a Compound Sentence.
The iiuljjKiidiiil scnlcntt-s joined together may themselves be
complex.
iiLM4.,^iL
SIM PI i:. COMPI.I: X. AND COM POUND
99
EXEKCI8E 71.
lompiix, or ioin/*oNUit :~-'
I. Ill till- iiiuhituik ofcounicHors there it Micty.
3. A tiiw U a viry y.xj«| itinmat in tlic tit Ul ; but we lum her
out uf agiirilcn.
3. WluTf the Imi- Mickn. there suck I ;
In a cowslip's liell I lie.
4. Flow mntly. sweet Alton. .iinonK «•'>' K«"'t'n liraeft;
Fl«.w gnilly. Ill sing tlice a soni,' in thy praisi-.
5. My htaii'-. in the Ili>:' .amis, my hrart is n..l here ;
My hearts in the H alamls n-chasinj; the deer.
6. The mos* marbles rest
On the lips that he has prest
In their bloom ;
And the names he loved to h»ar
H.ive Iwen car\td for many a year
On the tomb.
7. Mont HIanc is the monarch of mountains;
They crowned him long ago
On a throne of rocks, in a roln: of clouds.
With a diadem of snow.
8. The mountains look on Marathon,
And Marathon looks on the sea ;
And musing there an hour alone.
I dreamed that Creece might still Iw free.
9. He who fights and runs away
May live to fight .mother day ;
But he who is in iKittle slain
Can never rise and fight again.
(lod moves in a mysterious way
His wonders to perform ;
He plants his footsteps in tiic sea
And rides upon the storm.
10.
'Kji^4;in'X L»"l!|||""'''
.^fc;J
i i
loo SENTKNCKS AM) TMIIR SFKI CH KK
7H. (omiHMIIMl H4*||U*llt>«>M <iHMM|ttf«l. — If wi-
cxaminu ci»m|M)urul scnlcnccs closely, wc linU thai
Ihcy arc t»f four kinds : —
(i) Copulative scnlcncc.H, in which ihc separate
Hiiyings arc united because <if a sumlnnly of mean-
\\\)^ux liiOHtiHuatuffiKA the same line of thoujjht: as,
He callf.l ror his pi|)c, | ami | he called Tor hi> tjowl. | anil |
hv called fur hii ttdtllcr» three.
Fear God | and | keep his comnmndmenu.
(j) Adversative sentences, in which the separate
Siiyings are united because they stand in iontnul : as,
He ran to the sfation. | inil | he missed the train.
Wc called at ihe house. | but | we did not see htr.
(3) Alternative sentences, in which tli. separate
s.'iyinjrs are united l>ecause they present thoughts
between which one must make a cltoUc : as,
The book is lost | or | some one h.is taken it.
(4) Causid .sentences, in which the separate .sayin^;S
are united because they express cause and effect : as,
Carl was tired. | therefore ( he went to bed.
7». C'oiint'ftliifr VVoinIm. — In the sentences given
in the last section as illu.strali ns, the connecting
words are "and," "but." "or," and "therefore."
These arc the mo.st common joining words in the
four kinds of compound .sentences; but other con-
nectives are frequently u.sed. .such as "also," "more-
over," "nor," " nevertheless." "for." Often there
are no connecting words at all. the connection
1 J i
SIMI'l.t. COMH.KX. ASI* l.oMli>LNIi
lOI
Itciwccn Ujc uniud Hcnitntcs H:\nir in«Iicatnl
nnly by the puiuui ilion. To till, ihcrcfort.. how
the .Ht'iKimtc partH of ., com|)otin.l Ntniuntx' arc
rulated to one anoilur. Wf nntsi consider, not the
conncclivca, but the lucaniny of the iwrtj*.
EXERCISE 72.
Siparnt,' tlh follox^ini^ ion,f*onn,t s,nt,Hi,s info tlhir
tiiihf>ituUnt />„rts, .in,/ t./Uiowt/u />.irts .m n/n/,,/.—
I. M.ui pro|M)M.-s. hut (hnI ilisnowv
Mul.K.,. M.k OKU V .., vs,s. Tl.., i, .iCnmp.H,M.| vnlrmr.
forme! I.y uiulinK. I.y .v ..f (.mtr.is.. ihr s. jur-.u- s,m..„.,.s
•Nlan pro|K)scs" ami -Gu*] Uisijccv" The tunm f.u.i: wor.l i%
"but."
3. She mu%t wrrp or shr will ilic.
3. Thty toil not, neither «lu lh»y spin.
4. It r.-»ine«| on S.iturilay, so wc put off I,
5. He says wh.it he mcms. .in<l he incat.H ..,■ h.- say*.
6. The leaves arc falling ; therefore the swallows will !»...,« |>c
none.
7. The words of his mouth were smwithcr than huttt r. hut war
w.is in his heart.
8 The fool ,Ioth think h. is wib<-. but the wise man knows
lumsclf to l>e a fool.
9. The heavens declare the glory of (;o<l ; and the firm.iment
showeth his handiwork.
JO. .Some are born great, some .-.chieve greatness, and some
nave greatness thrust upon "ciu.
II. Trill V fhfr#> ic 1 •;.!.. ;.. .t... _/r.:_. / i_ t
-" •■ '•' •■■"- •'n.tiir, u{ men; but llicic is no
K'Uir stream setting forever in one •lirection.
i
i*
I
,|3f<J*#Y'4"'ffe|,/!!5;
M*
^•^^jtaBfi: m
loa
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
12. There were Kent Icmen and there were seamen in the navy
of Charles II; but the seamen were not gentlemen, and the gentle-
men were not seamen.
13. Meagre were his looks,
Sharp misery had worn him to the bones.
14. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind ;
The thie' doth (tar each bush an officer.
n. Cowards die many times before their deaths;
The .aliant never taste of death but once.
16. My words fly up, my thoughts remain below ;
Words without thoughts never to heaven go.
17. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;
He who would search for pearls must dive below.
18. Through tatter'd clothes small vies do appear;
Robes ai.d furr'd gowns hide all.
19. When beggars die, there are no comets seen ;
The heavens themselves blaze forth the ticath of princes.
20. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops.
21. I have found out a gift for my f.iir ;
I have found where the wood pigeons breed.
22. A thousan<l years scarce serve to form a state ;
An hour may lay it in the dust.
23. He reads much ;
He is a great observer, and he looks
Quite through the deeds of men.
24. This castle hath a pleasant seat ; the air
Nimbly and sweet'y recommends itself
Unto our gentle senses.
25. The rude sea grew civil at her song.
And certain stars shot madly from their spheres
To hear the sea-maid's music.
26. But yesterday the word of Ca?sar might
Have stood against the world ; now lies he there,
And none so poor to do him reverence.
nk«
103
SIMPLE. COMPLEX. AND COMI'OUND
27. The ylorics of our blood and stale
Are shadows. „ot substantial things;
There is no armor against fate ;
Heath lays his icy hands on kings.
a8. Doubt thou the stars are fire;
Doubt that the sun doth move;
Doubt truth to be a Har;
But never doubt I love.
29. Arms on armor clashing bray'd
Horrible discord, and the madding wheels
O bra^en chariots rag'd ; dire was the noise
0» conflict.
80. ImpropoPCom,.o„„,i Sentcnoes.-Untrained
speakers and writers sometimes unite in one Z
pound sentence thonghts that are not related • as
person. There ,s no connection at all between the
should be mdicated '-y putting them in separate
■sentences. Other examples are :—
,„,i' h'^^^ '^'°"^"' '° "'" "f"- f"™' ••""! h' ".-.s l.TEa for his •,„
EXERCISE 73.
I . r.;../n.r/ ^ ./,;,;^/, sn;,c.rc unth compound subject •
^/Z. compound predicate; .ait, totk subject and predl
cate compound. '
f I
..^'^.JiL:^,:^*' *^^A
V
104
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
|i
2 . Constriici a complex sentence containing a modify-
ing clause ; a substantive clause used as subject; a
substantive clause used as complement.
3. Construct a compound sentence in which the sepa-
rate sayings are related by similarity of meaning; by
contrast; by alternate choice ; by cause and effect.
i
CHAPTER I
OF THE RECO<;.N,T,ON OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Hav.n-,; in Part I studied sentences as wholes and
become fam, harwith their general structure, welre
now prepared to study the uses and forms of singb
88 W„„m cin«.|fl„i Aocor.ll„« to Function
Our language contains more than t^o hunZ thotZ
sand words; but when we examine the ays I'L
vh.ch these words are used in sentences, wrfind
that we can arrange them all i„ a few gene a
i n: "Tf ;,"^ '° "^'^ ^'"'^"■"«- "-at is, ! coi
called the Parts of Speech.'
83. Noun.s.-Examine the italicized words in the
followmg .sentence :_
^.u'pZ!'"' "'" °' '^= "•'""'■■f ^-"^«- w- under perf«.
The italicized words, you observe, are names.
Dcfim„on.-K word used as a name is called a
Noun.
w..r.,s as .hey occur' In '.h-s chT . ' S: 'f'^ '" "T'" ""^ '"'""' ^'"'^^^
exercises. cfap.cr, thcrrfarc, ni..ci. space has been given to
IC/)
SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTUKE
M
(l) This is important if [it is| true.
(3) He fell while [he was] bravely leading his men.
(3) Who (lid that? Jack [did it].
(4) I can't come. Why [can you] not [come] ?
(5) He has gone, no one knows where [he has gone].
(6) She has a pink gown, I [have] a blue [gown].
(7) Do you promise? I do [promise].
(8) I have never seen her, but Blanche has [seen her],
(9) You may stay if you want to [stay].'
(10) The sun gives light by day, the moon [giveslight] by night.
(11) He is not so tall as I [am tall].
(12) She put him off as long as [it was] possible [to put him off].
(13) You are wiser than 1 [am wise].
(14) He looks as [he would look] if he were tired.
(15) Speak so as [one speaks in order] to be understood.
(16) [They being as] poor as they are [poor], they will not beg.
(17) She is seventeen [years old].
(18) It is half past ten [o'clock].
(19) School closes on the twenty-second [day of the month].
(20) [I] thank you.
(21) Why [is] this noise [made] ?
(22) [God give you a] good morning, sir.
(23) O [I long] for a glass of water.
(24) If [it] you please.*
(25) [If it] please [you] lend me your book.
(26) Broadly speaking, [I should say that] the objec*. of educa-
tion is to train the faculties.
(27) You are the man [whom] I want to see.
« This _r.tnk^!.-in nf th.- verh after " to" i= nut ap;.
* In this sentence the subject is " it."
by careful writers.
ILa^
OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES
>"7
a fall.
EZEBCISE 74.
What words. ,uccssary to srammatical completeness
but not to the meanin^r^ are omitted m the JoUoiotn.
eUtptteal sentences / ^ a
1. I walk when I can.
2. He is witty but vulgar.
3. I treat him as a friend.
4. Slid is as pretty as ever.
5. She loves Fido as well as L
6. She loves Fido as well as me.
7. Love thy neighbor as thyself.
8. I love my mother more than he.
9- I love my mother more than him.
10. Who steals my purse steals trash,
n. You have known her longer than L
12. She is more generous than prudent.
>3- Father made and I painted the boat.
14. Are you dumb ? If not. speak to me.
15. Either a knave or a fool has done this.
•6. If the day be fine, and I can go. I will.
«7. All seems as calm as an infant's dream.
18. A greyhound can run faster than a hare.
19- He has never seen the ocean, but I have.
20. You should not imitate such a girl as she.
21. John is at the door. Dnvid at the window.
22. He was seen before the battle, but not after it
23. He said that he had found his book and lost it again
24. Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his s,>ols »
-5. tndegoeth before destruction, nnd an- haughty spirit before
Eng;iK,i;>:i-t.XLt:?.ij7;-'-ion of .he Bible .,dc .„ .6,.. I„ modern
io8
SENTENCES AND THEIK STRUCTURE
26. There is nothing so powerful as truth — and often nothing
so strange.
37. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and
writing an exact man.
28. Some books are to be tiisted, others to be swallowed, and
some few to be chewed and digested.
29. Histories make men wise ; poets, witty ; the mathematics,
sul)tle ; natural philosophy, deep ; moral, grave ; logic and rhetoric,
able to contend.
30. We must take the current when it serves.
Or lo>c our ventures.
31. Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind;
And therefore is winged Cupid painted blind.
32. Six hours in sleep, in law's grave study six.
Four spend in prayer, the rest on nature fix,
33. I dare do all that may become a man ;
Who dares do more is none.
34. Trifles light as air
Are to the jealous confirmations strong
As proofs of holy writ.
35. IJlow, blow, thou winter wind !
Thou art not so unkind
As man's ingratitude.
36. Think naught a trifle, though it small appear ;
Small sands the mountain, moments make the year,
And trifles life.
37. Who dares think one thing, and another tell,
My heart detests him as the gates of hell.
EZEBCISE 75.
Construct Jive elliptical sentences, and tell ivhat
words are omitted.
End of Part I.
♦ ••A'-*
■Ji^.lk'^..
ing
M
iiiU
iCS,
ric,
I
PART ri
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
m
tat
1
i
m,'!^'\mi'tf^"
lu.
: i
^v:iL
^h.J A.<
ClfAI'TKR IX
OF KI.UI'TltAI. SKNTKNCKS
81. Elll,,tl..Hl Hc.„tc.„„.» IH.|..„.,I. -Kanpnagc is
an mtc-nsely practical matter, designed „„|y ,^
express t,..,„«,U, „,,,, „„,„.,y^.j ,^^ .^JJ-
«kc In „sm»f .t wc very proj^rly thinic far more
of clearness and force than we do of grammatic'^
completene.s.s. It is, therefore, both nat "r" an
proper that we should from time to time lu f^^^
our .sentences grammatical parts which it is un^
nece.s.,ary to use, our mcani^ - being well uJZ
•stood without them. Such o,,. .ssion.s'arrcpc'il,,
oommon m familiar e-onversation. where la'^nmge
as the a,d of toae and gesture, and in lively or
..npa,ss.oned .s,«ech, where from haste or strength
of fedmg we express only the most important idct■,.s^
ne^™'~ ' '"""""" "' P'^ '" ••' *"'onee
neccs.sary to grammatical completeness but not to
the meanmg is called K„,p«,« (,;reek, •■ . leaving
antm" «"'? '" *'"''' ^" °'"'««'°° °<^"'>-'' i« called
an Klllptieal Sentence.
The following examples of ellip.sis should be
carefully studied. The words incloL in brackei^
arc u.sually omitted :— "racKets
I
jl i,:,X
:^.TJ^jC 1.
*, '^*
I
f
►*• f
ry\ i) I
1 1.
I
I
f 1
113
Tin: I'ARTS OK hl'LICH
Olhvr uxampluH arc* :—
A'«i/«.j i>/ objn is : Wolfe. Quebec, army, tron.
Ntimts of atlioH$: walking. I.iut;h(cr. rctrt.ii. tkl.iy.
A'liwci of ijtutlttit% : twcrtiicM, w.imith. Iicauly, vac.
Xttmts of tonditiims : sicknr<i!i, sleep, jlt-alli, (.«li;;uf.
Nautis of thoH^hti; idea, doubt, belief, opinion.
EXEBCISE 76.
Write the names of txvo things that you eitn see ; of
two that you can hear but not see ; of two that you ean
feel but not see ; of two that you ean taste but not see ;
of txvo that yon ean smell but not see ; of two that you
ean neither see, taste, feel, hear, nor smell.
£Z£BCIS£ 77.
Point out the nouns in the following sentences : —
I. Brevity is the soul of wit. 2. Misery acquaints a man with
strange be<l-fellows. 3. They that die by famine die by inches.
4. Nothing Is im|)ossil)le to diligence and skill. 5. The music
of the great organ sometimes sounds like the roll of thunder.
6. The length of the journey and the dif>iculty of the road over the
mountains discouraged the soldiers, though the general spirit of the
army remained excellent. 7. Sailing on this lake Is somewhat
dangerous, because the wind comes through the gaps of the moun-
tains in sudden and uneven puffs. 8. Pride goeth before destruc-
tion, and an haughty spirit btforc a fall. 9. Solitude is as needful
io the imagination as society is wholesome for the character.
10. The tongues of dying men
Enforce attention like deep harmony.
11. 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view,
And robes the mountain in its azure hue.
To the Teacher, 'f more drili in the re-rogniiion of nouns
is needed, Exercises 15 .inu / : will be found suitable.
RECOCNITION OK TMK .-ARTS OF SPEECH ,„
W. I'r..il..i..,.. - - X„ „„„ ^„„,j
••CharU. l,,UKh, Charles a top; ,h.. ,.., ChaXs
aftcrwar, gave ,„ Charl.,., »(.„„ Pranccs Krr^s
wanted the t..,,. • Such a .sc-ntenec w„„H JI ,,
d..sa«reeablc to the ear and ob.,c„re. it „,i«^ ,, '
to one Char es a„,l „„e Kranee.s or to more h „
■me We should probably .s-.y in.stea.l : ..Cha le"
bought /»«„ ,y a top. which /„. „ft,,«,„d ^^"^
^« MS ter Frances. ../. wanted ,/. - lu .his se.Uenc^
he obscuruy and the monotonous repetition are
...th avcMded by using ,he wonls "^h nself "
••wuch"y,,,v-.Mns/'..wl„,rand..it'!!., i„
In asking a question almut some object the name
of wh<eh we do not know, we represent the ob^'
by>vho"or..what:"a.s, .•;,'/,. is there.v ..l^,
tlitl you say ? " "
c-^Uc^lT'^ ^""^ "'*" '" '"»"'' f"^ » "°"n is
taucu a Prr)iioitii.
called the Antooodcnt of the pronoun.
prised'"''''"^'""' '^ ^'""^""' ^'^' "^^^" "«' -^•
EXEBCISE 78.
«Jw "■^""' "''"'' ' "'^'''^^^ sufisn-funs for your
'jyf^s/or names do you use in speaking of yourself
and others toiretier ^ IVh^f ^.^^ / / ^-^'"^^^'f
tutesfn-rfl. ^ ' ■ ^^"''f ^^""^f^ <io you use as substi-
tuUsfor the names of persons to -u^hom you artspeaki.^ 9
of a boy about whom you are speaking} of a firn 7f a
^/-.^/ off .boys, of three girls f of fou^hug^''
lU
Tin; PARTS OK SI'KKt H
EXERCISE 78.
l\HHf OMt I hi f^rOHOHHS, itNii ^tii t/uit HHtHtiifMtS, if
tlw itHttiiiiiHls iirt- txprtssti/ :-^
I.
Hut honnrablc ^cnllrtncn say, "This may lir .ill vrry w« 'I. hut
you art- lakint; an iMi|>orlanl iwwcr «mu uI ihc liaiith •»( iht t»plr,
whuh ihcy miw ikmimm." Now. tliU is a mistake. \Vc .|o mu(
|irt>{>u!»c lo (lu aii>ltiiii|{: of llu- kind,
Hon. (iiiiiKdr IIhown.
Speech un CunfcdtralioM.
II.
Thrn *pake the chief butler unto f»haraoh. saying. I <fo rc-
memhrr my fau'in this d.iy : I'hamoh was wroth with his wrvantv
ami put me in •...in! in the house of the captaitj of the Kuard. me
anil the chief baker : and we dreamed a dream in one nij{ht, I
and he ; we dreamed each man according to the interpretation of
his drean). And there was with us there a young man, an Hebrew,
servant to the ciptain of the guard ; and we told him. ami l.v 'i.r-
preted lo us our dreams; to each man according to his dream he
did interpret. And it came to pass, as he interpreted to us. so it
was; me he restored unto mine oflTire. and him he hanged. Then
Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out
of the dungeon : and he shaved himself, and changed his raiment,
and came in unto Pharaoh. (Genesis xli, 9-14.)
To the Touchor. — If further drill in the recognition of pro-
nouns is desired. Kxercises 20,44. 52. and 65 will be found suitable.
85. AiljectlveH. — Many nouns have very wide
meaning.s. The noun "horses," for example, ap-
plies to all the horses in the world ; and to bring
the meaning of the word down to the mea.sure of
our thought we add to it one or more distingui.sh-
ing words or modifiers: as,
RKOh;v,,,onoF TMF PARIS OK. SIKtUI
»»$
ItU. k
Trolling
Two
Thrsi*
Stimr
I)oih
No
hurnri.
J "w look ^,///^.
The/,',j.rr that you laid .-iwiv »....- i
There. r/Avr/ and still, lay ,hc ,ir«;,.
S'>mc adjectives show a ^,,,,/,>, ^r ottrih.t, of th.
; ;j-t we have in mind; others show I^^^^,;^^^^
-thcrs show luno vuuty or /..:.. ,„;,,/,. "''J''*''
EXEBCISE 80.
'• Hoiis,.. 4. Soldiers. 7. Grass.
2. not.I. . p..^., ; „ «o. Flowers, ,3.0-nts.
•■^f"Hs. 9. Inches, l.^ Dollar.. 15. Rua.J.
ii6
THF. I'ARTS OF SI'EFXH
I.
EXERCISE 81.
Point out the adjectives, and tell what each shows .•—
I. Little strokes fell great oaks. 2. I'kase make no noise.
3. Where did you find those big apples? 4. I found them in the
third bin. 5. Let us climb yonder mountain. 6. Certain women
were there. 7. All men must die. 8. Most lioys like football.
9. There are several sailboats on the like. 10. Kvery dog has
his day. 11. No school to-morrow ! 12. He has enough money.
13. Along both banks .ire Ijeautiful shaded walks; and near the
mill are two little islands covered with ancient trees.
EXERCISE 82.
Point out the adjectives, and tell ichat each modifies :—
\.
The stately homes of Kngland, —
How beautiful they stand
Anfid their tall ancestral trees.
O'er all the ple.asant land !
The castled crag of Drachenfels
Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine.
Up from the meadows rich with corn,
Clear in the cool .September morn,
The clustered spires of Frederick stand,
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland.
Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.
How beautiful is night !
A dewy freshness fills the silent air ;
No mist obscures; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain.
Breaks the serene of Heaven :
In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine
Rolls through the dark blue depths
Beneath her steady ray
The desert circle spreads
Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky.
How beautiful is nieht !
3.
RECOGSITIOS OF Tin- PARTS
..v:it!!:;::i:--Xt;;iir;:=-"'-i-
f>F SPKKCII ,,7
roco^'nition
l>e found suitable.
thrn'o^nT;;;^---/:^''"^"^ ^^^ -^-^-^ attached to
mc nouns in t ■ lonowiv,: selection .-_
// man and ^ 7 MCf hi.r , ava ^
quishod «,«. ' Th W ' ,','1 ^r"-'- "-<li"K »v..r „ van.
Every noun in .h,s ,e,ection is accompanied .„•
a, an, or ..the," of which ..a" and ..J"
are merely different forms of thl
These remarkable little wLs.n.T" "■"''''•
by way of limitation ^re:' 1,:' t:' ^^ Tr "^
t.ves; but they are .so peenlinr "„ 1 / J"'"
and so frequenUn recurrence th'tth^"' '"'"""
put in a cLisQ K„ ,1, ,"*■'• '"■^' 'ney are usually
own ^ themselves, with a name of their
J^i'finition " A " nv *< o« »• i
Articles. ''^ ^"^ " the " are called
EXEECISE 83.
(Review.)
'• Facts are stubfjorn things.
2. O'cler is Heaven's first law.
3- Time rolls his ceaseless course.
4. No mate, no comrade. Lucy knew.
5. The groves were God'H first temples.
iiS
TIIF. PARTS OF SPKECH
^
i i
ft i
87. Vcrl>H.— 'J'ho nature aiul importance of verbs
have already been studied in Part I, Chapter III.
To tlio ToiU-hor.-Whr-thor or not it is desirable at this
point to review Chapter III of I'art 1 must f«. dettrmmtd by the
teacher.
88. Aaverl>H.— The action or state denoted by a
verb may vary in time, place, manner, or degree.
For example, a person may laugh now or to-morrow,
here or there, loudly or quietlv, much or little.
Words joined to verbs to express such modifica-
tions of time, plu-e, manner, or degree are called
Adverlw. Other examples are : —
A<lv«»Pbs.
ag.iin.
soon.
yesterday.
there.
yonder.
He went J ''^^"'■^•
cheerfully.
fast.
thus.
twice,
often.
little.
I
J
Time.
Place.
Manner.
Degree.
A few adverbs denote affirmation, negation, em-
phasis, or uncertainty : as,
He certainly went.
He did not go.
Yes, he went.
He went indeed.
Perhaps he went.
RECOCiNIIION „F TMl.: PARTS OF srKIXH
119
The at! ibulcs or qualities denoted by many „</
y<-/,.« may vary lik,. „,„ actions denoted by "-^rbs
e ,H..e,ally ,n degree; therefore a.lverbs, esCI^
of degree, are often attached to adjectiv^.s- as
He is
very
exceedingly
rather
somewhat
loo
Ajljeotlvo.
shy.
Similarly, the ideas denoted by mmv ,,/-.• /i
may vary in decree; therefore adverbfo' d^rej
are often attaehed to adverbs : as. ^
AdvfpbM. Adverb.
f very
He writes
' rather I ^'°^'y-
more
rauier I
[ more |
Gathering together these different u«s of ad-
verbs, we have the following definition
,/f'''T~^" Adverb is a word joined by way
advert! " '" " """'• '''" ^''J^^"™' - -"'her
EXEBCISE 84.
• 6. We heard the noise .
2. He came » t-l i-
7. The pohcenian looked
3. He will come . 8. The tired traveler slept _.
4- The ship sailed n Thr --'!;.
• 9- 1 ne =u.dtcr was wounded.
5 1 he agent called . lo W*>rpvn.. fi, r
" . lo. were you thrown from a horse?
f
i
I20 THE FARTS OF SPEECH
EXEBCISE 85.
Pick out the adverbs in the Jolloioing sentences, and tell
what they modify : —
I. She sanK' WfM. 2. I w.is ;ii,'riral)ly disappointed. 3. IL.w
is it <lonc? 4. You have spoken truly. 5. I can hanlly liclieve it.
6. He was ill pleased. 7. Cut it knjjiluvise. 8. Tear it apait.
9. I'ut them together. 10. He was pitched licadlonj; into the se.i.
II. I never saw her. 12. We catne to school lite yesterday. 13.
Once or twice we have met alone. 14. Ambition urj;es me for-
ward. 15. Where is your hut. > t6. Are you yoiiij; far.> 17. We
are going abroad.
EXERCISE 86.
Join af^propriate adverbs to the folioxviiiir adjectives :~
I.
2.
good
more. 5.
tired
7-
sick.
happy. 4. rich. 6. famous. 8. d
iscouraged
EXERCISE 87.
Point out all the adverbs, and tell what they modify :—
I. Are you quite sure.? 2. He was a very tall man. 3. He
was wholly unfit for the position. 4. Iron is much heavier than
aluminum. 5. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 6. The sky was
nearly black. 7. Mother is somewhat better. 8. We were drip-
ping wet. 9. The wide fringe is too dear. 10. The Alps are f.ir
grander than these mountains. 11. Trout are exceedingly shy.
12. The walk was rather long.
EXERCISE 88.
Join appropriate adverbs to the adverbs in the folloiv
ing sentences : —
I. He ran -
2. She sings —
3. She reads -
4. They come
fast.
— well.
— more.
often.
5. Write carefully.
6. I must go soon.
7. Don't go far.
S. I went before.
4!'"*!A'
m
^M,ro-
RECOGMTIOX OF T„K ,,^k,.^ „^
EXEBCISE 89.
SI'LECH
(Jl
rJ-ir;::„::L^:?7rL;,/^"'''~;'^^' • ^- v™
5. n.. „,„ „„, „„„, J, j,^, , -^'-Y-r '.vl...^ ,„„ ,„.,„„,,
- -.-, 7. W. arc i.ulecl .I,,,.: „, .t ' »'" --'y 'l-'-l- yu
... V.».wcu„r„r,„„.,a-lyaniv.,l,„„ ' ■ ,^' ' , :;;'"-" "--
'■'-"...rrmv. , ,. Th. currau runs very !..» Cn "":'>"'":' '""
"" llii- di.il never ,,„^.s |,.ick,v ,r,l . , • ' '"■ *''■"'"»■
■5. He is n„, „,„el, ,li„re«„,,: j"' p ^ rr\"-'7 "^" ""'•"I-
""■cr ;„„ .icnr.: H, '-./'vhtl ; :" "^"•'"^ ^'' » "<- '-
"HI very «.„. iL , ,„„,;':';""/ ' "^ '» '- -lUUe
"'•'V .lu .hat „„ee ,«, „f,e„. J7 T, it ""''■''■ ''■ ■*■""
"1 Ihe world. 21 He\ -.r^ i , '* ""iriiini; somewhere
M- "i"--.oshai,'-,h": „ e .: "r,i:':"' rr-', - ■
proud waves l,e stayed. ' ''"'' ''''''^' ^''''" «''y
*^" never be a mouse oCany soul.
. i^xerc.scs 23. 38. and 52 will be found suitable.
EXEECISE 90.
'• 'T'lou Shalt surely die.
2. There he was quite safe.
3. My Sister will come presently.
4. This child was very little hurt.
5. Little white lily smells very sweet.
liii
132
THr. I'AIMS OK SI'EKCH
HJ». riv|K>NltloiiH.— Compare the following ex-
[)rcssions: —
(/I) Last year.
(/') Ilic last year of I he century.
In the first expression we tleseribe the year by
the adjective " last." In tiie second expression we
further describe it by telling its relation to the
century. Tc. express this relation we use the word
"of," whi.,h unites with the words "the century"
to form an adjunct or modifying phrase.
JhJif:itioN.—i\ word placed before a noun or a
pronoun to show its relation to some other word,
and forming with it a modifying phrase, is called a
'•vfposltloii.
Ihjinition. — The noun or the pronoun used with a
preposition is called its Object.
l\finitiou. — A phrase consisting of a preposition
and its object (with or without modifiers) is called a
I>i*ei>o»itiuiml Phrase. Other examples are : —
The book
I'rt'posltl
niiiil
IMirawM
IlMfHl ilH
AclJ.
't'tlVOH.
Preposition.
Niiiin or
Pronoun,
on
the table.
in
the desk.
under
the seat.
l)ehin(I
the door.
by
the window.
beneath
the cover.
at
the top.
below
the di( lonary
beside
the lamp.
between
us.
near
you.
behind
me.
RKCU(.NITloN OK IIIK par IS (,h sii:,;(
il
•23
The precedins: prcp<.siti<.nal phrases are attidud
I>rf>|M»Mitlnniil IMirnoMM
"'Mil liM Ailvt.rhH.
I'rep'nitici,.
\Ne walked
It is long
Niiiin or
I'ronoiin.
thr village.
Ihf fickls.
tli«- lake.
tlx- street.
tlie l)ri«|j>c,
the S( lioollioiise.
• Ii<' IuiiikI.
tin- storm,
him.
sunset.
dark.
niorniiijr.
hough the word " preposition - means '< placed
efo re a preposition and its objeet are often sen
';ted by other words; and sometimes the prepo'
sition eomes after its object : as. ^ ^
He came 7^/M at least two thnt,san<l ;;;.„.
The top o/yon high eastern /////.
'^//rt/ are you looking ,1/ p r, r At -,/,./
i> "' • II. e., w/ 7.'//,;/ are you looking.')
EXEBCISE 91.
Show relation between the following words bv
appropriate prepositions:.- ^
prepositions ,
1. Clouds us,
2. Men wealth.
3. Train Boston.
4. Born Savannah.
usmcr
o
5- Aoierp
6. Talk-
7. Dust -
S. Travel
sermon.
— nothmg.
(Ifxii-
England.
i
I
m
il
134
Tilt: PARTS OF SPEKCH
£X£BCIS£ 82.
Point out t hi preposition:! nndtluir objects, and teil what
the prepositional phrases modify .• -
THK IUiILK of I'LASSKV.
The (lay brokr-ihe day which was to (l.clc the f.itr of Incha
At sunr.v. the army ..f the Naln*!,. ,K,urm« thr.,uj.h many o,,.n...Ks
'>f the camp. I«-k •^ t.. ,„.,vc tow.,r.l the ^rove wht-re the Knghsh
••y. F,„ly th.,u.a.ul i„.'a.,try. arnud with firciocks. p.kt-s. svvor.U
bows an.l arrows, cov.rc.l th.- ,,I ,i„. Thty were a.n.,„pa,m-c| by
hfty pieces of or.h.a.Kc of the largest size, each tun«...| |,y a lon«
t.a.n ol white oxen, and each pushc.l on from l)chi.ul by an ele-
I'l-ant. .Si.me smaller Riins. im.kr the direction «f a few French
.'iixiliari.-s. were p.rhaps more formidable. The cavalry xvere
hfie..n thousand. Tlu- force which Clive had to oppose to this
Kicat muliiiiide consisted of only three thousand men. * ♦ *
The- battle commenced with a cannonade, in which the artillery
of the Nabob did scarcely any execution, while the few ful.l pieces
of the Kn^hsh pro,luced great effect. Several of the most dislin-
KU.shed ofhcers in Sur.ijah Dowlah's service fell. Disorder began
to spread through his ranks. * * * Clive snatched the moment, and
OH tied lus troops to a.lvance. The confused and dispirited mulli-
lude gave way before the onset of disciplined valor. In an hour the
forces ol Surajah Dowlah were dispersed, never to reassemble * * ♦
With the loss of twenty-two soldiers killed and fifty wounded. Clive
had scattered an army of n.arly sixty thousand men, and subdued an
cini)ire larger and more populous than C.reat lJritain.-J/,rr,i///,it' •
" hss.ay on Lord Clive."
To tho Teachor.- If further drill in the recognition of prep-
os.tions is needed. Exercises 9. ,5. 5,. and 52 will be found suitable.
00. Conjunctions.— Examine the following: —
C'ompniiiul SontfiU'CH.
T I , -, Connecting
Independen^use. Word. Imlependent Clause.
The wind blew.
I ran fast.
and
but
the rain fell.
I missed the train.
RECOr.N.TIO^ OF Till- PARTS OF .SPF.:CH ,.,,
(onifilov M«.iit|.|u.,Hi.
Principal CU,te.
Kol) will go
(iuy is older
C"nn«t ting
if
that
Ih.m
Klhrl JACK'S,
'»«• will com,-.
Lewis (i-.oliJ].
< oiuifttiHl IMiriiH*^.
( uiiiirciiiiii
By the f>co|.|,. f,n,|
U>r the pe«»j)|f..
('<>iiii«.ci,^l n„e,|H.
Sink
t'l'lilirriinn
Wo,.|.
or
swim.
From this it appears that some words .ro ,.« i
I^i'finition. — A word in:«,i ♦
t.!,- "■^^" *'* connect sentence^j
When .subordinate clauses ennie first ih,.v
w,. .^mt..o., .junction .hic/r„;eZn
NMth the principal clause: as,
Conjunction. Subonlin^.e Clattse.
If
Unless
That
Whether
Kthel goes
it rains
'>e will come
lather can come
Principal Clause.
Rol) will jT„.
we shall ail go.
is certain,
is doubtful.
Conjunctions .sometimes occur in p.-,irs tl,e first
o he pa,r Lcng: not really a connective, k , . so
196
THE I'ARTS OK SI'EECH
^'
if
EUktr yoM or \ munt |{«.
It •» Hiitkfr UHrful wiv ornamental.
The king wa» weak ^V^ in IkmI) ,iW in mind.
Sometimes a eonjiinction is used at the twginninjr
of a separate senteiiee, or even of a ixiragrapli, to
eonncct it with what preeedcs.
I'ltposiiions conned words, but not iu ihe s.nnie way as ron-
junciions. When wonls are connecte«l by |»r»|H)»iii«.ns. one alw;i)s
t>ear» a modifyinK' relation to the other. When words are con-
netted by conjunctionv they are Kranimatically on an nju.d.ry. ihc
conjunction merely indicating that they arc to Ik* taken toKeiher.
EXERCISE 93.
Fill thv blanks with appropriate conjunctions .•—
1. Poor honest.
2. Heautiful KO* ''■
3- I wonder he will come.
4. I could buy borrow it.
5- I cannot deny he means well.
6. He was punished, he was guilty.
7. We cannot go we finish our task.
8. I le was punished, he was not guilty.
9- I do not know I shall walk ride.
10. There is no doubt the earth is round.
11. Scarcely h.id I thrown in my line I felt a nibble.
12. She could dance sing. she played the pi.mo.
EXEBCISE 94.
Point out the conjunctions, and tell what they connect :—
1. She was gooo as she was fair.
2. Handsome is as handsome does.
3. Neither a borrower nor a lender l)e.
KKCcxi.NI r.ON ,y^■ TIIK ,.ARIS .,► srhtLII ,„
4. Il.li.r „„, l„„| ,„ |,,„„| „„„ ,^„ ,^ „^_, ^^^1
S- Ki. h Kih. »..» ,»-„ .vl„„ !»„„„, prove unkm.l,
*• ' '^'""" »•" ' I""«. >v..y. ch.,„„ ,„,, ,„,„ „„.
..™m„^„r::::,:,v """'"" '■" "•"••«" > -^i'."')'
to. Dost ihoU loVf ||f(> Thfiwlrt n^. . I
H .he M.ff life ,H ,na.lc of. ' '''"'"''" """' ' ''"^ "'"
' '• Mend your speech a liulf.
Lest it may mar your loru,w%.
12. When sorrows come. ,h.y come not Mn^\, spie,.
iJut m battalions. ^
13- O what a t^nj.|.-,| w. I, we weave.
When fust we practice to .leceive !
J7. 7- and 74 will \w foun«| suitable
01. Intvi.joc.tIonH.-Examinc the use of the itil
icized words:—
r;//<-// / I cut myself.
linivo! that was well done.
You olxserve tl at "Ouch!" and •• Bravo r- u^vm
no part of the accompanying sentences (vhichTr"
complete wtthout them), but are sudden outcries
mered as condensed expressions of some .ind ^f
Definition. — A word used as i <:iw «« «
/./■,. y^y^^Kx a.s a sud aen exnression
" eel.ng. but not forming part of a sent'enTe ?,
called an InttM-Jec'tlon.
m
rHK I'ARTS m SI'KECH
ill
I I
EXEBCISE 95.
^^a^"''"" ^'" "'''•''>*^'*'-^ '^^ff^r.^^ from thos. ^ivrn
EXEBCISE 96.
(K» VUH.)
/>// / V A,r/ of spnr/t to xohuh each urn J in the fol
lox.'iHguHtiHus hi loners :^ '" '"* /*''•
1. I'riKrisiiii ni.m is thr liiirf of ,i,„p_
2. CiiMoiii recoiuilr-i UH lo rvci)i|iinj{.
\. Mu- in.ir. I) of \\w huiii.iri muiuI i^ %Iow.
4 I'.ilinur iH .1 nrcrssat) iiiKi,-,|,..„i of grniu-l.
5. K irth Willi h.r llioijvuiil y.mvn pr-iiMs C.hI.
^.. How |,|..HMiiKS l..ijrhtrn .15 ihry |.,kr ihnr fliKhl !
7. AHsa,si„;u,on ha, Wv.r chanK'.-.l tl..' h,.i.,ry of .he- world
«. I-...r manner, n.-d ,h.. su,,:,o,t .{ .ine maimers ,„ otlurs
y. Il..imr ami slunie from no •o.uliiioii rise;
An well your part, tlu-r.- all th.- honor lir's.
»s-*. V,.|.|miH. -Besides these nine parts of st)eech
just dcscrilK.l. there are tNv<, important kinds of
words that are intermediate between verbs on the
one hand, and nouns and adjeetivcs on the other
rhey are formed from verbs and retain some of the
characteristies of verbs, with whieh ihey are nsuallv
classed: but they differ from verbs in bcinjr used
not as predicates of sentences, but as nouns or ad-
jectives. They arc called VerlmlH, and they are of
two kinds: noun-verbals, called Infinitives, and
adjective-vcrbals. called Purtlc-lplcs. These words
are, in a sense, forms of the verb; but they arc so
peculiar in their nature and frequent in their oc-
currence that they require separate description now
Hi:c.H;NrrioNc,K rHK..ARTs.,KsH:Kc„ ,„
IK, I„,i„,t,v..._|.:xami„c tlH. itauci.c.I wo,.|.s in
the following HciUfiKc:-™
'**.
.x,.hjec,. .. Hill, ,■,,,,,,, ,,.,^^.^,^,,^,'^;
take also .,f,l,^,„;„„r,..,f,„„„„ ""•> l"'"
"f ".th ^crl, a„.l „„„„,.< .alk.,1 an |.„„„„v...
••> >..U. .he same co,„pl..,„e,„s an.l n, fi.rs ,,'
""•• ^•'■•■•'' f^""' "''i^l' i' i^ .Icrivcl ; „, i, is „;. r ■ s
a noun. " *•'*
With rc«:anl to/.r,„. i„n„i,ivos are of two prin
to so called because ,t is thes^une as the r.n.t or
sn;nWeronn.oftheverb;(.)the,nnn,t.v., .'J
of I ; "'?'"'^" "'^'^ "^''" -'»^'^''»- i«as the f.. e^;
of an adjective or an adverb : as. • • Water /. ./.,., • '•
He came /. s.r us." I„ such cases '. to " is a rJd
P'eposmon with the infinitive as its object, tie w
f-rni.njr a prepositional phrase
The root infinitive without "to- is seen in '.Vou
need not rtv///,'* where *• w-.if - i ,i . •
♦xi . . «««^.ic w.ut IS the object com.
plement of "need " Oilw.,.. i
"»^cu. ^Hlicr exampK s are •
'You ilarp not ,/o
it
now ;
I had rather ,//> than //,
' I saw 1. .n /"•//
rl:
^i f !nii-,t
' It.
A''*
iy>
I ill: I'ARTS OF Sl'EKCH
" I
EZEBCISE 97.
Point out the infinitives in the followin^^r ^entenees, and
luZ ^"'^''^'' '^ *'" "''^"^'' "-^ ^''^'' ''''^' ^'*'^
1. Always take time to do your best.
2. It is hetler to wear out than to rust out.
3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.
4. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct.
5- One can show his mor.il courage by (Liring to d„ right.
6. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent.
7. If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do.
cl...p.Is h.ad been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces
8. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is
To have a thankless child !
9. Of all those arts In which the wise excel
Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well.
10. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway.
And fools who came to scoff remained to pray.
"• O, it is excellent
To have a giant's strength ; but it is tyrannous
To use it like a giant.
12. Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power.
By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour;
Far other aims his heart had lenrnetrto prize.
More skilled to raise the wretched than t(. rise.
13- Why so pale and wan. fond lover?
Prithee, why so pale }
Will, when looking well can't move her.
Looking ill prevail }
Prithee, why so pale }
EXERCISE 98.
Construet sentences illustrating the use of the root
tnfinitive and the infinitive in --ing" as subject; as ob-
Ji'ct; as attribute complement : as object of a preposition
RECUGNITION OF THK PARTS OF SI'EKCH ,3,
04. P«Hlc.li.ioH.-Examinc the italidzcd words in
tlic lollowing sentences:—
The girl intently reaMn^^ a book is n,y cousin.
The plant commonly called Nightshade is poisonous.
In the first sentence -reading," formed from the
verb .. read •• has an object. '' book," and is modi-
fied by an adverb, -intently;" therefore it partakes
of the nature of a verb. But it is attached to the
noun -girl" by way of description, and therefore
It partakes also of the nature of an adjective
In the second sentence - called." formed from the
verb - call," has an attribute complement. - Ni-ht
shade. " and is modified by an adverb, ' ' commonfy • "
therefore it partakes of the nature of a verb But
It IS attached to the noun ■ ' plant " by way of dc
scnption, and therefore it also partakes of the
nature of an adjective.
Definilion.-K word that partakes of the nature of
both verb and adjective is called a Participle.
The distmguishing marks of a participle are
these: (i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or
may take, the same complements and modifiers as
the verb from which it is derived; (3) it is used as
an adjective.
From simple participles arc derived Phni.s,ii Par-
ticiples: as, " Florence, //..z7V/^...^/./good.bye, turned
10 go.
Very often a participle is loosely attached to the
subject of a sentence, not so much to describe it as
to express some attendant action or condition : as,
Hearing a noise in the street. I went to the window.
•32
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
EXEBCISE 99.
Point out the partktpUs in tlu following sentences, and
show that they partake of the nature of both verb and
adjective : —
1. I am going the way of all the earth.
2. The smallest worm will turn, being trodden on.
3- He rushed into the field, and foremost hghting fell.
4. Sweeping and eddying through the bridge rose the belated tide.
5- I'eter the hermit, dressed in a coarse rol)e. and bearing in
h.s hand a crucifix, traveled through Italy an.l France, preaching
the duty of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre from the Mohan,medans
6. A little fire is quickly trodden out ;
Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench.
7. Now morn, her ro^y steps in the eastern clime
Advancing, sowed the earth with Orient pearl.
8. The world is too much with us ; late and soon.
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.
9- Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose.
Flushing his brow.
A falcon, towering in her pride of place.
Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed.
Morn.
Waked by the circling hours, with rosy hand
Unbarred the gates of light.
The cattle are grazing.
Their heads never raising ;
There are forty feeding like one !
13. I have heard the mavis singing
Its love song to the morn ;
I've seen the dewdrop clinging
To the rose just newly born.
14. By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
Their flag to April s breeze unfurled.
Here once the embattled farmers stood.
And fired the shot heard round the world.
10.
II.
12.
RECUGNITION OF THi: I'Ak TS OF SFEKCH
EXERCISE 100.
'33
Construct txi'o j. ntinccs ioiitaintn^r f^trti.,^/ c j-
'«i , t.co c . tauun^r other participles.
05 Cttutlou.-Not all words enclinij i" "-inir " ire
mfinmves or participles. Examine' for i s'ane
the itaheized words in the following, sentences -
(0 The child slept durm^ all the noise.
(2) Nolhing daunted, he began again.
(3) There is somet/iint^r j„ t|,g ^j„,|
(4) Thi, c„„s,a„. „.„,s,ns of su.,, ,„„, ,„,,,, „ ,,^.^,^
(5) SpM„_,. ,s harder for so.nt- ,H.rso„, ,!,,,„ fo^ „,|Krs.
"n. In (2) ,t has the force of an adverb, modifyin.,
th. parucple ..daunted.' In(3)it isanounde W "l'
not from a verb, .,ut from the vague noun •. thing •
In (4) t ,s a noun derived from a verb, and so far it
resembles an .nfinitive; but it differs from an n
fin.t ve ,n havmg completely lost its verbal charae-
.ensues, for it is modified by adjectives instead of
by adverbs, and mstead of taking a direct object like
the verb from which it came, it is followed by a
prepos.t.onal phrase. In (5) it is impossible to tell
hsld".s "T'.^'"''"^ '" "-■"^" should t!
cla.ssed as an infinitive or as a pure noun, for it has
tiont easy : 'ruf ^"-^'^ "" P^'^^^"' '"^ ^'-'«-
Good spel/ntg is easier for some than for others (Pure noun
because modihed by an adjective, "good -, ^ ""'
SfiMn^r long words is easier for some th..n for others rinfi. "
tive, because apcp„,panied by an object. " words •') "
s'?f
^
'ii
fi
'34
THE I'ARTS OF SPEECH
£X£BCIS£ 101.
Classify the italichcd xoords tn the followinjr sen-
ti'nccs : — *
1 . A boy came sauntering along.
2. Do you call that being a soldier?
3. I have ^feeling that you may be right.
4. I found her reading " Idyls of the King."
5. Feeling one's way in the dark is slow work.
6. Acconiing to my watch, it is just ten o'clock.
7- His mother is opposed to \\\% playing football.
8. Feeling sure that he would come, I waited longer.
9. He was elected captain, notwithstanding his youth.
lo. Good writing is fostered by the reading of gooil books.
II. Unless the kettle boiling be.
Filling the teapot spoils the tea.
12. He would do nothing to relieve the distress of his stan>imr
tenants. "^
13. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses. thankintr God for
their beauty.
14. '" the battle off Cape Vincent. Nelson gave orders for A;rt,7/-
tng the " San ]o^^{r exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey, or victory! "
15. I have done with expecting from her any course of steady
reading, for she will not submit to anything requiring industry
and patience or much exercise of the understanding.
16. Gladstone protested against people's going Xo Monte Carl,,
and putting down their five francs just for the fun of the //////./
and so adding to the respectability of the place, and then thinkinl
that they are doing no harm.
EXEBCISE 102.
Construct a sentence containing an infinitive in
''-tng:- a participle ending in ^^-ing;" a pure noun
ending in ^'-ing; " a preposition ending in ^'-ing "
J m> -fk i\ *4. •■, F*s»« '- ...,,1 !■ ■■^^«
RKCOC.MITfON OF THK PARTS OF SPFKCH ,r
0«. Caution -It must not l>c si.p,.,sccl that tho
same word is always the same part <.f speech. Kx-
amine. for instance, the function of •• iron '• in the
following sentences: —
(<i) /ron is heavy,
(fi) An /ton keule hung on the crane.
(<•) Launchesscs t'/o/i clothes.
(</) An iro».bimm\ bucket hung in the well.
In C^*' iron;' is a noun: in (^) it is an adjective:
fore, that the function of a word may vary, requir-
in,^ us to classify it .sometimes as one part of spTl
sometimes as another. ^
EXEBCISE 103.
I. («) The sun shines on rich and poor alike. (^) He is a ruh
man. but a poor scholar. "'*
queen. ^"^ ''"""'' "^'^ >°" ^ ^^'> "'^^'-'" '• "lacie for the
was^^:;^^-^'e^Vo^O:^-;e the ..,..,
^^^6. I was about to sencl>. you./.. I have something to show
7. (</) Farmers ////the soil. (^, Look in the ////. (.) Sf.y /•//
the !;c.i nngs. (,/) Stay //// ,he next train. ^
I
136
THE PARTS OF SPKECFI
8. («) Do not lose a second, if.) \ stamd your motion. (.) She
woiwmWpruc. (//) You come javW. ^^
9- (rt) We walke<U^„«/. {/» What did you talk afntutf u\
We talked ,iW golf. (,/) ^^ a dozen girl, were the^ ^ ^
»o. (a) The top, of many mountains are af>,w, the cloud, tM
The captam went^^v. (., Afm^e five hundrr.l were present
Ui) A voice came from af>^>c. (.) He room, on the floor I,Anv.
ol a card. (, ) Aii agreed with me. {d) That is aii right
(.) A;^':i.w:i;!: ^"^"'- ^^^ "^ -^-^^ -'''- --' - —
13. ('») He ran Ar/. (-J) He- was a/,.v/ runner. (.) They/,,./
twice in a week. (,/) This/.«/ lasted forty days. ^^
14. OO I like him. (<*) I shall not l(x,k u,H>n his hke aeiin
ic He look, //.. his gran,Ifather. (./) „e tails //.. hf mo hTr"
(.) Z,>6e. causes pro<luce Uke results. (/) Z/i. produces i^ke.
15. (^0 A /////. child shall lead them. (6) It matters/////, what
he says, {c) Give me a /////.. ^*
sun'^' (r^U^ ""'"' '"'"■'' '"'"• ^^^ ^''' "' ""'' 'he heat of the
sun. {c) Have you any imrc of this ?
you'mad'^ S Sh'^''' T "'"f, ''^ ''"*''' '"-"•"'"« ^^'^ '"^''e
)ou mad. (r) She made muc/t of him.
ic) '''Onl •'Z^ f " "''^ ''^'''"''- ^''^ "•^ ^^"» ""'^ »° the comer.
(^) O^/j' should come next to the expression that it modifies.
(A w ^"^ Tr '"'"■ .'I "''' ''^^- ^'^^ ^^^ "'"^ '^'*- the mountain
(f) We must have walked m/er six miles.
20. («) AWr^ that time I have not seen her. {b) Since it is
rainmg. we will not go. (r) I have not seen her since.
21. (a) The house sti/l stands. (^) All is still. U) A .////
small voice, id) Alcohol is made in a .////. (.) With his inine
the mothers .//•// their babes. "n nis name
(c^ A It /f^^' *"'■'' " ' 'l!™'''- ^''^ ^ ^'^^"Sht //m/ it was a robin.
(0 A city that IS set on a hill cannot be hid. (./) That you have
wronged me doth appear in this. (.) That is what I me^m
REC()(;n| riON of THF part*; nt- ...
EXERCISE 104
better jonn-
long wrong
7; ;^'^ -«"" ■'- „„ ,.^
u.s a t oujuiiciion :
after before
ociore since
. im
•3«
THi: PARTS OK SFMIXM
»T. Humiiiury „r ,|„. p.^^,^ ,,^ HihhhH — The
cla.s.ses of words described in this chapter c.nprisc
all the words of our lanjrua«:c. They may be sum-
marized as follows:
XoiiiiHi VVokIh used ns namps.
ITr.noin.H, W.,r,ls »sr.| to Man.l for no.m».
A.UectU'c^, Wor.ls joined t., noun, or pronouns by way of
liiintalion or descripiion. ^ ^
ArtU'lfHi Tho words -a." "a„. • ,;r Mhe."
an,l'r„".""'""' '^•"■•"^"■■^'I"r.nkc.„f ,h,. „„,„,,■ „f lK„h vnl,
uses, or other adverbs.
l»ivi,«,«mc,„s: Words place.l before nouns or pronouns to
ing iVral"'""" '^ "^'" ^•""'^- ^''' ^"""'"^^ ^^'"> "- --Hf;!
orwo^r"""""' ''^"'^""' •'^ ^'""^^^ sentences, phrases.
Interjections: Words used as sudden expressions of feel-
«ng. but not forming part of a sentence.
EXEBCISE 105.
(Gknfrai, Reviv.w.)
C/nssi/y the 7vortis in the following sentences :—
1. Striving to better, oft we mar what's well.
2. If all the year were playinfj holidays.
To sport would be as tedious ns to work.
3- Imperious C.i-sar. dead and turned to clav
Mitrht stf . - - }>
>p a hole to keep the wind
away.
RKCCKiNinON OK I MI. PARTS OF SF'KIXH
»3y
^ , Heaven* ebt/ij vault
Seudiled with stars unutterably l.riKlit
mough which the moon's unchnnU-.i ,ran,I,.ur rolU.
bttnis hke a canopy which luvc has spread
To curtain her slee|>injr world.
5. He sung Darius, great and good,
Hy too severe a fate.
Fallen. falU-n, fallrri. f.ilhn.
Fallen from his high estate.
And wclfring in hishloo.l;'
I>cscrte<l. at his utmost need.
Hy those his former iM.unly fnj.
On the hare e.irth exposed he lit s.
With not a friend to dose his vyvl.
^- I walk unseen
On the dry smooth-sh.iven green.
To behold the wandering moon '
Hiding near her highest noon,
Like one that had been led astray
Through the heaven's wide pathless way:
And oft. as if her head she bowed.
Stooping through a tkecy cloud.
7. There was a jolly miller once.
Lived on the river Dee ;
He worked and sung fr,„n niorn till ni"ht •
No lark more blithe than he. **
And this the burden of his song
Forever used to be,—
I care for nobody, no. not I,
If no one cares for nie.
« V. . ,-t*.
CIIAITKR II
"K INH.KCTIOX, I.KKIVAIION. AM, („.M,.,.s,ti„n
Hkkokk i,n.ccuclin^r with the study of the parts of
•si>c'cch wc must learn to distinguish those changes
n the fonn .>f a word that arc made by ,nlU.,..,o„,
IKTlviiiioii, and ( omiN>Hltlon.
of w^rds"!!*''""'""^*'''"'"'"" ''^" ^"^'"^'"^^ «^""P«
Noun,
man
nian'M
l*n>iioiiii.
he
liltit
AiM««'tlvi«.
sweet
sWfc-Cc'i*
sweclt'Mt
V«>rl»,
sinj;M
In each of tliese ^rroups we reeognizc the same
word under different forn.s. Thest variationsTn
form denote sli^^ht modiHeations in the meaning
and use of he word, but they do not ehange cither
the general meaning or the part of si>eceh ; the
noun remains a noun, the verb a verb. Moreover
most other words of the same elass. as ..boy/'
they, -siek." -hear." undergo similar altera-
tions ,n form, corresponding to similar ehanges in
meaning and use.
Deficit io„.-\ change in the form of a word to
show a slight change in its meaning or use is called
inflection.
EXERCISE 106.
Mention as many inflections as you can of the follow-
ing 7vords :~ ''
•-hiM do eat heavy move they teeth who
OF INFLKCTION. DKRIV'ATION. ETC. ,4,
00. I>t.Hv«ti„u._Co,n|,arc the following words :^
triif
truly
triilh
truthful
untruth
untrulhfuincM
Here «rc have six w.,r.l.s entirely different i„
".eanmg and use. Some bc.U.n^ to one nr
»l«-ed., ...hers to another: an.l tht... tha .X-l.
the same ,«rt of siKeeh.as-tnuh." ••untruth ■•„d
•;untruU.f„,ness, • h.ve distinctly diffcrel't mj! '
"•g!.. But thouKh they arc tlius different in men,
m and „«, the last Hve words are elearl formed
from the first by attaehinjr a l.„.nx Cun '.rr ,
/>.*• , ^. ' •"«»■•<). or both.
/Ayi„„„„._The proecss of forming a new word
from another word by attaehing a prefix or a s.^f^x
or by chanKHng a vowel, is ealled jlrlvatlo.. The
new word is called a IHTlvutlve.
blet^blii:': "/ TTT ''^' ^■"=""^"= of vowel are =
Wes.s, blLss; feed, food; gild, gold; heat hot-
pnde, proud; rai.se, ri.se ; tale, tell '
Myf«,„„«._The original form of a word in inflec-
tion or derivation is ealled the n.K.t.
EXEBCISE 107.
W .^<, „uu ,ne „«. f„r.„s are </,„W,„,,,, ^ J^
\
child friend
give
man
pure
wise
*•'■ » ifc-JWf
aii:.. -rJ
u*
THE PARTS OP SPEF.c If
BlifSj^l'" i»
'"lliiil i|||i
lfN>. ('OII||NIM|li«»||.
wonl.s: —
Kxaminc lUc lulK)wmjr
hlick
iMMrd
bl.icklMMnl
Here wc have three .li/Tcrcnl wor.ls, vniirely .lis.
lira in na,,MiMK ami use; hut ,he lasl ,» fonnc.l l,v
wmbniiiiK tlic- lirst i»-,.. '
n.Ji,uno„.-Vh^ Pr'>cx-».s„f forming' a ikw «r.,r.l i.y
c...nl.„„„„ ,wo .Hher w..r.lH is eallcj , ,„„„...,..
1 he. new w.,r.l >s ealle.l a <•„,„,„.„„„ word.
I here are many eom|Hnin<l.s in the Kntrli.sh Ian-
K".-.Ke. an.1 we are c.nstantly erealin^ .,ew ones
1 he separate wonis fre,,»ently seen, to have .-rown
together ,n their natural order: as. ,,,X„r.
":refore, to hx a definite line ..f division l-twee
rue and false eo.n,Knmds. Indeed, it fre,,,Kntly
".•.l.|.e"s that what is treated in one lan«„aie . .
mr T"' " "'''"^•""' ''>• '"" -Parate'word
«L >'■ '■'■■•■" •■"' '*-"K'«l"nan says -the
"l7" ;,"; ^••'";--'y- '-.Hishman writes.. I.in,-
s'l>s. It .s owiUK to this confusion that we resort
1 e e.„„pro,„,se of writin,,. many i„,perfeetly
blende,U.on,pounds with a hyphen: as. s.^f.^suj,
iJllZ ''."^T" '""'•''' ""<^"'»i"'y in the use of
hyphens, whah serves further to show the indefi-
n.tene.ss whieh att.-,ches to compound words
"t ISH.Kl IKiN. DIRUAIION. I;TC. .jj
II lias frc,|n..n,ly Uc ,|„„, ,„ ,, ^.
n-l l.y .he a. .mival i.lca ,., ■• „„|,|,/. \V|,jJ,; f
Z^Z " "^" •■' "•'•'"'-•'"•"'••■ — " that .hc'.K- -
*«>'-l>. AKain wu say •ThiTc i, a Hack l.ini "
«lMch ,„ay signify any l,Uk l.ir.l. as a rmw .'.r
r-vc... cc. I,„t ,f wc .say •• There- is a I.Mc^b i. •
-• su«,.csl .hat .he bi,., ,s .,f a .lefi.me s '■ t
here w,.„,., „. „,. i,,,,,,,^,,,, . ^,^^,„ ■;
I here- .s a white blaekhml. • if ,l,,,,ir,| in ,,,,,,':
li<m was an ail.ino. '
est .,fae..n,i)o„„,I, for many e„n,,.„u„,I w.,r,lsmi«ht
he me,U,o„e.l ,n whieh Ihe aeeent is „,„ „,„,„ ^^
firs .syllable. Thns the „an,e •• Xewf„n„.|,'a„ , ■
YU the word ,., evulently a e„n,p,.n„.I, an.l ..ri«i.
nally the eqnivalent of •• lan.I.newlv-found • i,, .,
Kenume eo>n,H.,„„l twoori^rinally in',k|K-n<lent i,k-,s
are eomb.ne.I to ,,r,Hh,ee the impressi™ „! ^l^
I'lea npon the min.l. The si,.«,e wor.ls „f whie U
K worus. 1 Ills isolation may occur in
Severn u'ri\rf.^ ^ "v»,ui m
<•!!•«
(') As in the word "Newfoundland, .
pound group may drift away from the
where the
ori;^inal
■44
THK CARTS OF SPEECH
mcamng .,f thu comix-ncnt parts, and acquire a„
land no longer means ■ • land-newly-found. "
(2) As m ••withstand," ./„„,/ „i.«,«,, where one
fron that wh.ch it ordinarily possesses.
(3) I he comiK-nent parts, or one of them miv
have beeome obsolete as .separate word.s rin^he
compound noun ..bishopric," where r' is the (^d
tnglish r/,r, power.
(4) The grammatical construction of the parts
may have become obsolete, and the compounlex
prc.s.s,on has thus become isolated. Thus, for ex-
ample, the genitive singular of feminine „oun.s "n
no longer be formed without -s;" hence /.„,/,.Z
IS now felt as a compound word.whilst M./ys./o/i
cXd .t *" '^" '' ™"-''- ^' ""«•" =" ""'^ be
^lltd a !,„„«, Comp„„„,i, whereas Zrt,/,.,/,,^ would
be called a ci.»« Compound.
There are many words which are not felt to be
«>mpou„ds but which are really compounds result-
:"theTnguair"°'"°^°^'^^'"--^"-^^°<^
pounds:!^' ^°"°'''''^ "" ''"'"y 'P^'^^'^e <^om.
Concealed Compounds.
barn (O. e. Sern = de're.er». place for barley)
daisy (O. E. (/a-j,rgs Sagc, days eye)
fortnight (for fourteen-night)
hussy (for housewife)
kerchief (Fr. ^^«7.r^-.74(/),/. head-cover)
OF INKUXllON. DtKlVATION. KIC. ,,5
older stajrc „f th^ l.n T ^ ? ^■■"•■' "'•" '" "'«
first eom'i^:! p., r'^rr ;'" ••"■"^•"' ""-^ "" 'he
the first mrt is due ,n t ""'""' ^"""P""" of
not necei:;rd,Wstcr' ^•"""^'--^ ^"'^'' '^ '-^
addr„:Cra -a tZr "'^ -^^ --'- •--
Examples of thVare ^;,/ """-'" -"P"""''-
Plurals or tompo„n,I»._The ?ci,er-.l r„i • .c
compound nouns add the plural Xntol"
P-ts. or, when the compound is C^d of 7""
nouns, the sign is added tn .h» ^ '*"
- to the nou^ ^niJ:t:[::^!:;ziz! r
exampe: blacksmith, c/ a "^-y '"^ other). I^or
i- ^/.rt /I JW////J, steamboats, golf. dubs
The exceptions to this rule are -
(0 Words which are scarcely felt to ho
pounds : as, moutnfnls, .as.oo.flls ^^ '^ ^'^"^•
word, .s .1! ^ ''^" ^' ^'^^^^^ ^« ^he last
"TO . as, runa-ways, casta7vays.
(3) Certain old-fashioned con.po„„,, ...ere both
146
Tlii: PAR IS OF SI'EECH
words I,avc Ihc plural .sign, as, k„isn,..u,„pU,r.,
The two modern compounds, men-servants, women,
servants, have the same peculiarity.
EXEBCISE 108.
Make a list of Jive eomponnd xvords, determining from
a dietionary hoic tliey should be x.'ritten.
CHAI'TKR III
OK NOUNS
I. CIiAH8IFUATION.
A Xoun is a word used as a name (83).
narn'Ll^^ttTll """'^ "' ^-"—Examine the
uaincs in tlie follovvinir sentence: —
discipline IS the name of a condition.
108. PwperNouiia._Thenoun"ViVtnrio •• •
illustrative sentence is the IT ' '" '""'
battleship. "'""* °' '' particular
J,T''T"~^ """" "'•'" '« "'« "••""<= of some par
ot Its kind, 1. called a Proper N..„„.
Other examples of proper nn„ns are •_
captritt::::^' :„"^:, -"r- "'-•'"^-^ "^^^ -'"
them- a Am; • f"" ''" """•'''' '^^""^'^ f™-"
tnem. as, America, American, Americanism.
is rnL?"?""" '""'T-'^''" "'"'" •• battleship"
' """"^ ^"'"™"" '" «" '^hips of the .same class.
:> F;ji -M*i^%. ^ ."Ji
148
THE PARTS OF SI'KIXH
Other examples of common nouns are:-
^«'y day n.an niountain state
^^ Commo. nouns, when written, begi„ ,uh small
EXEHCISE 109.
'->' -'y <log gir, „ev«p.,p,, «„„ ,,^„ ^,^^^
EXEKCISF. !10.
BrocMy,, OUro.la „„„,„ ,„^,,„„ ^^,_,^^ ^^^ ^^^^
'■ cZ ^t^T'lZ ''""'"'• - '^^^ ^o""""" noun
l^Zy '^'""' '° --^ ""'^^ "' ™- --il-ed J
0.her exa.p,esi;tr«ll^turar:-! """■'•
army (a collection of solciiers)
"eet (a collection of vessels)
herd (a collection of animals)
•-, •• it •• when w:s7;tr:t;':,rwr ''"^
'H.n. o, the i„.iW<,„a,.s who e::,;,^ J LM:
'^'«^*h.
OF NOUNS
My
pronoun -they/' Similarly wc sav "TU •
/^as retired.- thinkin^r of it as . sin'^T', , ^"'^
j"^ /- ciined •• thitkin^ :; ;v:r.^>: ^ " '''-
^XEBCaS 111.
audience Coir .,„„ „^, ^„^.,^„^ ^^^^ ^^^^
together in the baU butt th. .''"•'''''''^ •""'"'
fer the. separatelVXaV" Wh"::;^ iHeri;"",
object that x:Lit''r,tLT;"f ''"''= '-- "■•^
" separating ") ^'' ^'»"™<-<l«" (Latin,
acttf'^r„^,:ir:^r^j:;:;:---»-^"'>-.
^^^'^^ an Abstract Noun ^
Examples of abstract nouns are :-
i:...
ability
carelessness
<liscipline
faith
freedom
friendship
hardihood
influence
strength
velocity
'".lutiiy
EXEBCISE 112.
150
THK PARTS OK SI'KKCH
EXERCISE 113.
CAissi/y the nouns m lixvrcisv ;; (/^^r^ , ,2).
N..tms arc occasionally inflected to show c;..„„,.r
and regularly inflected to show N„mber and Calil.?
II. CJENDKR.
lOfl. fJender Dt-flucMl^Observe the distinction
between the following nouns :— "nciion
'ion lioness
Both nouns name animals of the same general
class, but one ,s the name of the male animal the
other of the female. This distinction is indicated by
the inflection "-css.7 The distinction between the
objects themselves is called 8.x. The distinction
between their names is called Goiulor.
Dcfinition.-iWuaov is a classification of nouns
and pronouns according to the sex of the objects
for which they stand. "'
Definition.- A word denoting a male object is in
the Masculine Oeiuler.
Definitwn.~K word denoting a female object is in
the Fomlnlno Gender.
Dcfinition.-K word denoting an object that has
no sex ,s in the Neuter Gender (Latin,- neither")
Words like - friend," •' child," - thief " " bird '"•
which apply without change to either male or fe-
male objects, are masculine or feminine according
to the sex of the particular object spoken of.
Words that apply to objects of either sex are said I>y some
grammanans to be in .he Common (lender; but most modem
grammarians reject this classification as useless
[f'i
OK NOUNS
»5i
107. Ways or DenotInK OonUer.— Compare the
foJIovviug pairs of words : — i ^
MhmciiIIiiu.
waher
nian-scrvant
brother
waitress
maid -servant
sister
You observe there are three ways of distinguish
ing gender:— **
I. «ya Feminine Hnfllx, nMually "-eHK.-_i„ ,hc f,.i
lown,g l.st note the occasional changes i„ tf.o body of the woni -
MUMCtllltlU.
aI)bot
actor
adfninistr.Uor
a«lvcntiircr
b.iroi)
beiiclactor
count
czar
dfacon
(I like
e;ii|)eror
enchanter
executor
giant
K(kI
heir
hero
Fimiliiltiu.
abbess
nctress
adnijnistr.itrix
adventuress
b.ironess
l)enef actress
countess
czarina
deaconess
duchess
empress
enchantress
executrix
giantess
goddess
heiress
heroine
MUMCUllUU.
host
hunter
idolater
Jew
Irl
hon
marquis
master
patron
|)receptor
prince
prophet
shepherd
sorcerer
suhan
tiger
waiter
Kcitilniiie.
hostess
huntress
idolatress
Jewess
lass
lioness
marchioness
mistress
patroness
preceptress
princess
prophetess
shepherdess
sorceress
sultana
tigress
waitress
2. By a Prefix Denoting Gentler.-The following are
important examples:— ^
MaHcallne. Feminine.
bull-elephant cow-elephant
cock-sparrow hen-sparrow
he-bear she-bear
MaRcullne.
he-goat
man-servant
Feminine.
sh?-Roat
maid-servant
^1^1- -.A f
'52
Tin; lAkTS OK SI'KECII
Mh*mmiIIiiu,
bachelor
buck
bullock
drake
gatjiJcr
spinster, maid
doe
lifilcr
duck
goose
M«M<-ii||||o.
niunk
ram
SI.1J,'
Wizard
nun
«rwc
hind
wnth
SXDKCISE 114.
^Giv^Uc,.n,.r of U. nouns in tke follo^oin, seUc-
Dk. Primrose and t„k fack Wash.
As we ex|)ectcd our l.mdlurd (he nex. ,1...
•"ake the venison i.isiv M.. *> '">' '^'^'^ ^^^*"« «"
'"tic ones. My hu'2s ." ^""'"'- ^^'"'^ ' '•'u«h, ,he
> observed .1. / i r at:cr:^^^^^^^^^^ ^"^T"^' ""^ """ "'*'' ^^^ •' -«'
I at first supposed th'v wl ^' ^^^'''^''''''^ ^^er .he fire.
'ace. Washes of all M ', ^ , ^"' ^'"f '"'^'^"'S •'' --'' ^-^ ^l.e
that, instead of men din " he "nnl "'"" •"'"'"'^ '"' '"^ ' "^^ -
P«'<cr. as if it wanted mendin. J" n '. "' '"'' ^'''^^f^'"^' ^^'^
thewhole composition Tn.lhx? V '^^' ''^ "''"'^■"' "verturne.l
-M.- •• The Vici: oVwI^eS !"" '^ '" "^^'^ -other.-oV.A
II
EXEBCISE 115.
discretion. ^ ''" *^^"'' ^^°"' "'« f^regoinj; lists .t
'• ^^'''' ff'^'fnninine wont corresponding to :-
abbot bachelor bullock dr.ike earl «,
•■•ctor buck czar It T "^""'^ ""^ ''"'»«"
«ar duke hero monk sr;,g fi^^^
OK NOl'NS
•5J
2. Writ, till
•Joe ihitk
m,ni uluu word corrvsf>o,i,hn^ to .—
i-wc giKisc luiftr hiiui
s|im!itir \vii,f,
>/..■ M.m:S u^onls, consulting a .luMonary fo lui
108. Ciemlor and P«»n«..nH.-I)istinctin„s of .an-
cer are grammatically important because .>n them
<lei>c.ncls the ri^rht use of the proncmns .-he " •• h s
;;him/' .. she.-, her/- ..hers.-, it.'- ami ..its'-
Ivxam.ne. for instance, the italicized nouns and pro.
nouns in the following selection :-
King Midas ai Hrkakkast
-rrt'T^ -'^™"...i"%fn:;;i;:;;.;::.:*:
keep in glass globes, as ornaments for .he parlor. No l,u. // ,s
rea y a metallic f.sh. and // looked ns if // Lul been ve;y , .;:
nude ,y the n.cest gold.nith in the world. Jts little L : :
now golden wires; //s fins and tail were thm plates of lm.I.I i
.l-e were the marks of the fork in /.. and JZ]^ u^
ch.ir^n l" ' '.'"•''"''•'"^•" •'^""ffht /,.. leaning hack in An
c i nVr. t T ^';"'^--"-'y a. little Jf.r,,o/,f, who was now
t-ating //., bread and mdk with great satisfaction
And truly, did you ever hear of such a pitiable case in all your
If re .^"' "'' ""'"^ ''' ^"'"* '''"'^"^^ ''^"^ -'^"'' '- -t
nothmg. The poorest /nfi.r.r, sitting down to ///v crust of hreid
and cup of water, was far bette-r off than King M.das. who e de '
^r;r •■^^•"^ ''-'' "' '--^^'^ '" «old.-//...W.'^A
You observe that the Masculine Nouns, like • • King
ILl'.
i4
Till-: I'AK IS ()^ siEhcii
I
[._..
Midas," arc ri'furrcd t«i by •• he," •• his," or "him :"
Ffiiiliiiiic >oiiiiM, like " MatyjroUl, * by*'Nhc"(»r
"her;' >'futerNuiiiiM,iike "breakfast" ami "fiMKl."
by " it " or " its." " Trout,' which is cither mas-
cubnc or feminine, is here referred to by " it "
or " its," Ixicause the object named is thought of
as a mere tbinjr, without any reference to sex.
" Laborer," which is also either masculine or femi-
nine, but which denotes a person instead of athinj^,
is referred to as • he," in accordance with an estab-
lished custom of our lanj,aiage when there is no desire
to emphasize distinctions of sex. If the author )iad
thoujrht distinctions of sex were here imi:M>rtant. he
would have said. "The laborer .sitting down to //«
or /tir crust of brcul."
S<jmetimes animals are referred to as "he" or
" .she," even when no distinction of sex is intended.
Thus, " The /i^r,r steals .silently on At's prey;" " A
/mri' popped out from a furze brake, and ran for /ur
life." In such ca.ses the speaker uses "he" if he
fancies the animal to possess ma.sculine qualities,
.such as strength, fierceness; "she" if he thinks
the animal's qualities are rather feminine, such as
timidity, gentleness.
lOO. Cit>n(U>r In IVixonlflcutloii. —Examine the
following sentence : —
S/>nn,r han^^s A,r infant blossoms on the trees.
You observe that the writer refers to spring, which
has neither life nor .sex, by a feminine pronoun.
The explanation is that he imagined spring as a
OF NOUNS
'$S
gracious gmldess, and sixikc accordingly. When
we tliu.s siH.'ak of an oDJcet without life as if it were
a [KTson, we are saul to ivi>««miry it. (lender in
personifiealion is determined by the s;une principle
as in si)eaking ot animals without regard to sex :
things remarkable f.»r size, jxivver. strength, or
other manly qualities are referred to as masculine;
things remarkable f«)r Ix-auty, gentleness, grace, or
other womanly qualities are referred to as feminine.
< )ther examples are : —
(") The 'MM now TOM' u|M»i the right ;
Out ol the sea came A,:
(*) Now Morn. A,r rosy «»te|>s in the enslern « lime
Advancing, so\ve<l the earth with orient |Marl.
EXERCISE 116.
l ill the blmiks in tin- /ollmciH^ stn/iHiis x^'ith appro-
priate pronouns : — •
1. Can a leopard change spots?
2. Close in c«jvtrt covveretl the doe.
3. The ewe lamb Meated for mother.
4. The child w.is unconscious of danj^er.
5. The heiffr ruhl)ed — turn- ij^'.iinst the hars.
6. The goose had wandered frofn companions.
7. The hind knew the do.;s to he incirtal in«-mies.
8. The duck was plunnrjg feathers after swim.
9. Kven a fool, when holdeth peace, is counted wis,-.
10. Hanypersonin llie class needs a iMMicil. ! will l.nd — v „r.
11. Kvery witch, it was thought, kept a hrfximstick re.ady 1m liind
door.
12. The wild l)e.ast from cavern spranjj. t},,- \vil<l bird from
grove.
13. As for man. d.iys are rjs grass ; .is a flow, r of ihf fwU],
so tlourisheth.
:rfi
I $6
Tin: lAkis OK M'KIXII
T'^,
EX£1CI8£ 117.
h t,rso„ij'u,i as masiHliHe . - ^ ^ *^""^
•'""• >v;,r winter eUcmMy
III. XIMIIKH.
no. N„.„iH.r m.n,MMl.--|.:x;„„ine the difTerenct.
between the wonis i„ the fnllowinK^ pairs —
'-.^- f<.M. ....... „,,„
The first word .>f e.neh pair su^Kcsts .. sin;,Ie ob-
cu the seeond word suj^jfests ,„ore than one. In
He r.rst three pairs the di/Terenee in meanin. is
bron,.htalK.uthythe addition ofasnffix. in the
last^ hy an internal chanjrc in the word.
Ay^////,.,„.-A difference in the form of a '.vord to
;^^^st.n,nnsh ohjeets ..s one or more than one is e. Jd
• A/»,y,„„ The form of a wor,I that <k-n„,cs one
"I'jcet ,s called the Nl,,^,,,,.^ X„„„K.r.
m..e ,1 a„ one ol.jeet is ealle.I the ,.,..„„ x,u„,H.r.
^cll.s, an.I the a.ljcetives "this " and •• that." For
example, we say:—
Tlih Ml ,..,„ rin„inK. '"/ // -»,..< sl„|,|w,l.
Ill Forma, I. r ,i,o I-.,,,,.,. - Xfost no,,ns
f'>rm the ,,I„raI I.y ad.ling ..s" to the singular, as'
UV Nni?NS
»J7
Ixvik, Ixxiks. The following variations from this
rtjrular rule are im|)orlaiU: —
I. •• -4»»».**-Wlirn ihr MiiKulir rmln in a soim.l il,..i ,!,„., „,,!
unilr wilh "•' alonr. "r»" i» rt.|,|„|, f„rii,i„g .„, a.|.lMi«i,.i| „)||.,.
bit- ' aft, (ox, (i»«r«.
a IMiiml ofNoiinN Rmllnir In •»o.*' H the fm.ii ••(>••
i* prwc.lr.| by .i vowel, ihr plural i<% fc.rn»r«l r.^iiLirly. t. r. by
a«l.lm« ••»:'• an. camm. c.im.-..^. If tl,. .,.,| •• „ ■• ,^ ,,„.. ^.i, .|' Uy
a r.Mit.m.in«. Ihr lr„.|rnry of ....hI. r,. . jo f„r,„ il,r p|.,r..l by
a.l.lM.,{ "ch:' a*, hrro. hrr.H-s; iH »., ,,ol .uv, I ' - folLminv;
ci»inmon worih. howrvir, iiiil f.
aiuiif* : —
tU>- Mltit .! I, Mu»){
Innjo
burro
canto
casino
rhromo
r«)iitr.ilto
tiuixtci-iiiio
(iynaino
liili'
M.MtO
lahSr
nirfi! hill
Of t i', »
»r. . iso
Htitrllo
torso
tyro
3- Pliiml of XoiiiiM KmlltiK y.*' Ifthe'y'i,
precclril by a vowel, tl.r plural is regular ; as. Valley, valleys.
If the "y •• is precetled by a consonant. ' is changed to "i *
an<l " es ' is .icl.le.1 to form thr plural : as. la.ly. ladies; city, cities.
4. IMiiml orXoiiUM F:im1I„„ In »»!■/• -Th^ following
nouns vmUna wiili the sound ..f •• f " chanx"- " f ' «>r " fe " to " v "
an«l ad«l "es":
b«rf
caU
elf
half
knife
Uaf
liff
loaf
self
sheaf
shelf
thief
wife
wolf
5. Hur\'lvalH of Ancient PliimU. Fn old English there
were other ways of forn.inj,' th.- plural, traces ol which survive :-
(I) l'I.t;RAl,s IV "FN." -These were once in very conunon
use. 1 he only survivinjr examples are : ,>.ty,i, brithren. chiUren.
Kine (cows> is usetl in poetry.
(3) Pl.trkAI.S HV INWAKI. Clf ANGF.-t )f this method the
surviving examples are: foot. /,-,/.• tooth. U.lh : g.>ose. f^fcse;
louse./..,, fjian. w,7/, iiuni->r, ////<, .• woman. Ti'«»w/'«.
P'
158
THK PARTS OF SPKIXII
ly
6. PliimlofPnuH.r Noun- i..
Niros. ^ "Hcrnally. as. Jlcnry. Htnrys ; Nero,
iVopcr narms prtredcd by titles is •• \fr w .... ».
Mr S„„, ,,.- ..,1. Mrs. s ,„," ••„,.. M,", .s ,,•-
.Sn,i,.,.' ..,„.l ...hc Colonel, s,,,','... ' ''•'^"- =""
We s.iy <• the
' the Colonel
the Misses
fu.Hl..m,„,' I |^,r, „r he t. M ''™''"' ""[' "' ""■ l"'"-^" '" •'"•
«"Klc wor,l i, fun,Cm.; t rr;'''"' ■•"''"■''-'■•""I'' Wh™ „„
P'"'..l is put a, .h. Z t L" '""^'■'-"'■"•"■" ■'- sign or ,1„.
■■ Man...™,,." ■•,!, t , '•• ""^ "'■ T"°'"""' "'I'"'"-
"■"' "- ■•" »^- Ji.::r: »:;::.::;?';:■';'■■'■'-■■ ""-•
-I. ..«.r. „ro„se.';„ce„. :;',:::::'„,„i,'T:;r ""' ^"-'>'- -'• ^
'■<"■-■.■■■ •■ Te„ ,!W of .aHfe ■ •• "Twr/ , ''« )c-.r, arc four
•• Three /,„v of hor,e, • •■ • T i , '"""''''■A"*''" "f iron ; "
«.lin«„umera ""'"*•' " -"i'-"")- inJi^uU-d l,y ,|,e pre-
'L.,Jl:
OK NOUNS
•59
yi
EXEECI8E 118.
(r)lCTAIIr.V KXEH.ISK.)
// n/r the tlural of tlw follou'in^r ,,,,„,, ._
( I ) I>c<T, Inmi. Krniisf.
U) A|)|,l,.. |»,,c|,. rose, Ix,,. |,„s|,. ^,„„
(31 »x. chiUI, too, I,. B.H,»o, ,„o„„., „.„,„„„
»"i™n:o;;r:;,;::t;:;;: •"•-"-■ ""•""-. «« v,t.
(9) Man-of-war. L'(M>s(>.niiiit ^. » 1
law. s,q>-son. forgeU,„e.nc.,. l,„.of.far.. look.r-on. knight-errl,
in ^^^\ '^^^ ''»»'^l— Wc say .. There are big fi.n
" he lake." usin,. fish in a plural, colleetive .sen^/
ami we also speak of .-The story of the three /./J''
rom this ,t appears that some nouns b ve two
plurals, whieh differ in meaning. The folloJn;
'*''""••'"•• Pinral.
bmther brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society).
cloth cloths (Of different kin<ls). clothes (garments).
tlH'S (for coming or stamping), dice (f„r play),
fishes (separate objects), f.sh (collectiv,.)
Ken.uses (persons of great ability), genii "(spirits).
•n«l«xes (,n books), indices (in algebra)
pennu-s (separate c.ins.. pence (sum of money),
shots («lisrharg.-s). shot (balls).
die
fish
genius
index
penny
shot
%
i6o
THE I'AK IS OK SI'EKCH
»^,
f
£ZEBCIS£ lie.
Distinguish hctxvecn .—
I. How many shot (shots) did you count ?
a. The story tells of two genii (geniuses).
3. He gave the l)egg.,r six |)ennirs (|)ence).
4- He showed nie some new cloths (riothcs).
5. r have two handfuls (hands fullj of gold dust
6. He was always kind to h.s brothers (hrcthr.-n)
7. rwo .lice (di.s) wer. foun.l in the prisoners ,KK-ket,
8. He carnH two pailfnls (pails full) of water up , he lull
onVJn* ir^'"'''" y''""^^--«onie nouns of forei<,n
"njjm have pecttl.ar foreij^n plurals. In the ilx-
lowtnghst of such nouns, when two phtral fonns
Stnirular.
alumna
(feminine)
alunmus
(masculine)
analysis
animalculum
antithesis
bacterium
bamlit
beau
cherub
crisis
curriculum
datum
Plnral.
alumuie
alumni
analyses
animalcula
antitheses
bacteria
j bandits
^ banditti
K beaus
( beaux
j cherubs
( cherubim
crises
curricula
data
HIniruIar.
formula
genius
hypothesis
memorandum
oasis
parenthesis
phenomenon
jfo
s
Plural.
formulas
)rnnda?
);eniuses(persons
^ of great abiliiv )
' genii (spirits)
genus C'class') gciera
liypotheses
S niemorandum ;
' memoranda
oases
parentheses
phenomcM.i
1 seraphs
( seraphim
strata
tableaux
theses
seraph
stratum
tableau
thesis
("V & «""<x^ K^l^^MMf'W' '-m
OF NOUNS
FXEmcISE 120.
i6i
J.*K.n..,„cno„. s.rn,,h. s.ra, :.n,. sy.mj.sis. ,af.|.au. '••"^♦•""'^'•"'.
2. II riti ' the sini:;ular of :—
EXEKCISE 121.
Co,,s/nutsr„fr„r,.s- n>ut.„„/„^- //,, ^/,,^^/ ^^ ,/,^ .,/
niiiitttiti; : — J J" ""ir
rounttrW T •■"'•• """••;'"■""""• -''I--, hncrium. can,.,,
touri marti.il. crisis, nirru uliim. ,!.,tuni ,If „p„„^ i..,. ., .
T., ,ho 'IVi...!,,.,-. Tlu, .....rnv „,;,v l„. o.„.,„le.l a, ,li,
::;::„:„r""-^' ■■"■""" ^ '■■■ ■ '>«- '„".v';:
114 I>IvI.1<kH ,«w,.._s„me sinffiilar no„„s |,K,k
■ke plnrals. c. g;., ...dins;" „„,l „„„„, ,„„., „„„„.^
are smgiilar m sense, e. g., •■ .noasles." In rcifar.!
to snch nouns cstom is .livi.lcl. treating them at
one t,me as s,„(,n,lars an,l at another as plurals.
The follownitf are sjenerally treated as singular-
amends, gallows, news, the T'ui.e.l .States, m2.
em,ities. opties. .ami other w„r,ls in •• -ies " excent
•• athleties." ,vhieh is oenerallv pl„r.-,l ' ' '
The folhnving ,ire generalU- Ireate-I as plural-
ashes, as.sets, dregs, eaves, nuptials, cats, ^inee'rl;
III
'^- THE PARTS OF SI'KECH
proceeds, riches, .scissors, shears, suds, ton^s
trousers, victuals, vitals. '
For further information on cases of doubtful
usage a large dictionary must be consulted.
EZEBCISE 122.
//7//V// o///ii' ttalicizai forms is prv/crablc ?
1. The (Irt-gs was (were) bitter.
2. Klhics is {(ire) the science of duty.
3- The assets of thr .•o,„p.-,ny /.• (an) $223,000.
4. I'l«-ase pour //i/s (//„u) su<ls on the rose \m\.
5- Where did you get ////v i/A,sr) pretty scissors?
r*. Why wax //us (wen- M^r,) .ishes dumped here?
7. In many schools .-ithietics ,s Um) carried too far.
8. His riches Aas (/i„7'e) taken to //se// U/,ems,lv,'s\ wings
^^^^^^9. Mathematics /. (are) harder for some persons than for
ground.''''' """ "^ ""^ '""" '' ^'"'^ '""'^'y -' ••♦'-ve the
Asylum'*"* '"'"'''''' "^ "'" '"'*"'' '"-(-'-» K'iven ,0 ,h.- Orphan
12 The United States Aas (have) inforn.e.l Spain of its {their^
intention regarding Cuba. ' ' »
13. Politics, in //. (their) widest extent, /r („..) l,o,h the science
and the art of government.
ih //;/7''1'' ^ir*'"'' ""''' ^"^""''^ celebrated at the same tin,e as
that (those) of Bassanio and Portia.
EXERCISE 123.
Construct sentences i//ustratin^r the nuwber of the fol-
unvinxr nouns : —
amends news oats physics pincers she;
irs tongs trousers
OF NOUNS
IV. <'AHK.
I6j
115. Case. T>t.fl,uMl.-Iu the sentence -John has
|r.ven Henry Annies peneil." eaeh of the four nouns
l>ears a peculiar relation to other words. Three of
them are related to the verb: '.John," as subject,
pencil, as direct object. -Henry." as indirect
object. -Annie's - is related to - pencil "by showin.
ownership— a relation indicated by the suffix - 's "
In Old English these relations were often indi-
cated, as in Latin and (ireek. by special forms of
he noun, called c.^.. After the Norman Conquest
hese fV>rms fell into disu.se. and nouns in modern
^nghsh retain only one relic of them, namely, the
Unm^lye. With the single exception of the " "s"
denoting ownership or possession, the relation of a
noun to the other parts of a sentence is now shown
mainly by its position.
But though most of the forms have disappcarcl,
he names of some of them have 1«en retained
to denote relations which the forms used to show,
tor example m the sc.ntenee •■ John has given
Henry Ann.es pencil," we still say -John " is ,n the
Nominative ease, referring to its relation as sul.- •
jeet; and some grammarians say that •• Henry" is
m the /)«/,>.,. case, and •• pencil" in the Arn.s,,.
'-■': But since the dative and .iccusative eases
are now never distinct in form, most grammarians
merge them into „„c c.ise called the <).,j,..-,lve
Ayi;„/,„„ _The form of a noun or pronoun 'that
shows ,ts relation to other words is called ,w.
/J.M',,„.^ih^ fonn of a noun or pronoun
mM
164
THL I'Ak rs OK SI'KECH
!■ J
•i
BlV.
I
that shows the relation of .subject is called the
Nomlniitlvo C'ttMc.
DiJinitioH.—'nm form of a noun or pronoun that
shows |)ossession is called the iNm^i^ivo Ciuh>.
Difiiiitton, -The form of a noun or pronoun that
shows the relation of object is called the OLjoctlve
CttHC.
The nominative and ol)jfctivc cases of nouns. IninK always alike
in nuKlcrn English, might be- merged ,nt., one if it were not for
the fact that 11. pronouns these cases have clistintt forms as /
lielp ///>//. and he helps me.
The function of case forms may be well illustrated by reference
to a line from (iray's " EifL'v • " "Ami ■!! il... .;.. .. 1 ••
, ' *'"Ky- ■'^'"' •'" the air a solemn stillness
Holds. Critics cannot .ngree as to whether "air " or " stillness "
IS the subject of this scntencd; that is. whether the pcH:t meant th ,t
the air contained stillness or that stillness hehl fast the air In
I.atin or Creek 1 1 ere could l)e no doubt, because the form of the
words would shoH which was subject and which object.
110. Form of the PoshossIvo Cost'.— In the Six-
c;ULAR nui ibcr the possessive of nouns is formed,
as a rule, by. -ling- an apostrophe and ••s" ('s):
as, "The boys -.it." Often the pronunciation of
the added "s" n. ikes a new syllable. If this
addkional .syllable makes an unpleasant .sound, the
**s** is omitted, but the aiK>strophe is retained:
as, •' For goodness .sake." If the "s" is sounded,
it is always written ; and if it is written, it should
be pronounced in reading. The putting in or the
leaving out of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a
matter of taste. Whenever there is doubt it is
well to add the "s-.- as, -Horacvs odes," ^^ Char less
ball," ^^Dickcnss • David Copperfield.' "
, *m
OK NOUNS
.6}
e..d" r/;-.?'"- """"*'• "hc-n the plural already
"4 st^^.. -;?''' •^" -.--ophc' alone (■/•;:
a Idmg the pro,K.r sign of the iK,ssessivc to the end
of the compound: as, - That is mv / '"^/-"^
pony;" "This is th. /. ^ .^/-^/^r./z/./rttt;',
Wh ^ '"'"''' "-^ '' ''/'•^•^ palace. ••
When two or more iK-rsons possess a ihin,, i
common, the siLm «,f th ^ I>*'''*»^J»s a thing m
the hst n^mV . Possessive is attached to
tliclast name only: as. "John and Marys home "
s-gn of the possessive to eacli name : as. "Alice^ and
Jessies dresses." -fviict & anU
s stent. The weight of g,„K| ...^ ,,,^.„,
clme to ..anybocly else's- but, on the other hand
we usuaUy say ' • whose else. ' • '
EXESCISE 124.
166
THK I'AK IS OF SI'KECH
2. Write tfw possissivi- msv o/-^
Chirleji, Dickens. DuuKlas. KKglcMoii & Co.. f.H her-in-law.
Krctk-rick the (irtat, llar|Mr & iJrothtrs. Henry ihc Klijhih. hU
wslcr Mary. James, Jones, man of-war. Miss Austen.
117. 1K><*UmimIoii. — \Vc arc now prepared to draw
up a scheme of the inflection of any English noun
for number and case : thus.
Xominative
i'oistssi'vc :
Object we :
Dijinition. — The inflection of nouns and pronouns
f(ir numlx-T and case, arranged in order, is callcil
I>t>clt>llMloil.
VViien we give the declension of a noun or a pro-
noun we are said to Doi'llno it.
HtniriilHi*.
IMiirnl.
MluytilHr.
IMiirMi
man
men
doK
llo^'N
man's
nitn's
dog's
(|0K»'
man
nicn
doj{
<lo«H
EXEBCISE 125.
To the Tea<'hc»r.-Since the only tliflTicuhv in derlininjj
nouns lies in the writin|r of the possessive case, declension i,l.ould
always be a written exercise.
Decline the folUmnng itouns : —
calf deer Henry king monkey
child fox James lady mouse
ox
prince
princess
wolf
V. PERSON.
118. lVi>Mni. — In the sentence, " I, John, was in
the isle Patmos," John names the speaker; in
"John, please come here," John names the person
spoken to; in "John has come," John names the
person spoken of.
Definition. — The distinction bet A-ccn nouns or pro-
B."m-^«^
^--•M I't
OF NOITNS
167
nouns as denoting tlie person spcakin^r. spoken to
or spoken of, is called Vvnnm.
Di'JiHttion.-^\ noun or pronoun that denotes the
person siK-akintr is in the v\mv in-ph^.,..
JhjinitioN.—A noun or pronoun th..t denotes the
person or thintr sjx,ken to is said to J>e in the h^ummmI
IhJimtwn^K noun or pronoun that denotes a
person or thing si>oken <.f is in the Thim iv^mu,.
Nouns .10 nol ch-.n^r In form to .lr„o,e prrson ; .,„.| ,no„ „oun,
ar. ,n .h. ,h,n ,,.rso,.. Th. .lis.inc.ion ha» „„,x,runcc uuU
conncctionvMtl, pronouns and verbs. "■«:«*»'> mi
VI. CONHTRIJCTIONS.
llf». CoiiMtruetlon IH-fiinMl. -^ In the study of
sentences the most important question alK»„t a
noun or any other part <,f six,.ech. is its relation to
the other words of the sentence.
/Ayi/////,;,/. . -The relation .»f a word to the rest of
the sentence is called its CouHtiMu.tlon (Latin, •• pm.
tuig together "). *
1«0. ConHtruetlonH of NounH 8unimarlze«l._lf
we examine the constructions of the word "day"
in the following sentences, we shall find that a
noun may he used in fourteen different ways: —
1. SMbject of verb : The rt'.iK is p.ist .iml gone.
2. Attribuw au,,pi,,„ent : To-morrow is ,hc ap,>ointe(l day.
3- Object compitment : I've lost a //<,»..
4- Objectivramipiement. (;o(l called the light .Aiy.
5. Pmsasnv . Another .iay's work is done.
!<•
THE PARTS OF SPF.F.CH
ail'ii
i*J
I
i
r. ^^W//,.Wvf.... rhr,/.,M.r«ri^,„ your hear,..
9. <^4^>./ 0/prepouUoH. Rom. wa. no. bull. In a ,/.,.
N. r,.a/nv.. Come. ,/.y,. and cha,<. ,hc .hn.low, of .he nigh..
U. l.MU,malioH: () happy ,/.,,/ Jhr b-uile", won
J3. AW>.,M..MWW., The ,/.^,.,., ,,,„y. ,; ..^^^„ ^^
^^J4. ^W.>./ .//./.,//..,. I con..Uere.l ,he ./.^ .o be unfavor-
Of these constnictions the first twelve need no
explanation l^.y^nd what has U-en .said in p 1^
^-^ pages. The last two require explanation""'.
iow:!;:::r:;:L'"""*^^^^---^^"^p^- ^^^^ ^^-
(<») I think Mrt/ ^,. /., konfU.
ih I think ^//// fo bf honest.
In W the object of •• think " is the clause "thit
he ,s honest," in which •• he " i.s the M.bjecTof the
verb .. ,.,; • m (*, the object of •. thinl< " is the phr s^
•• h.m to be hones,," in which the objective ..him"
has the same relation to the infinitive '• to \^ " thit
the nominative .. he," in the correspon.Iinjj clause
has to the verb " is " « ' f Jm •• ♦», / • "'*"
^\^^^x^ ^ ^' ^^^'refore. is called
the Suljjoot of the luflrltlve.
The subject uf an infinitive is always In the
objective case. ^
Other examples are:
■i. ^"▼vw.Jit
OK NOUNS ,^^^
" lie onlrrcfl ft,,- fo m.Kv on."
"Tlu- iratlur mw k,r j.„r
" The ct,lo.ul conimandcl ihr 3,-/,/^v /., A- ^i,ri,^^.-
" lie clcclarril tA,m to A couneirriii."
l«a. X.»..ln«tlv.. AI,N,»l,i,.,._Comparc the f,.l-
lowinjf sentences: —
(rt) /r>*^/, M^yA, ,„„„ „„ „,. 1,^,,,,^^, ^ j.^^
(^) AVc^/ r../////,^. o,,^ ^c l.g|,u-.| a lire.
m f'Ttn In (-„ the tunc .,f i|„. principal action is
verb came. In ,A, the connective •• when " h ,s
N Kill IS th.is left without anv cramnnlic-.l con
oe m the N.„„l,„„Iv,. AI,«..|„„. (Latin. •■ free -,
Other examples of the nominative ab.sohue are ':-
The .,„ being jnioolh. we weni (or .i i.ij|
llruce I.,,- .I„»„. hi, ^,„,, |,,.,„^| ,,^,^.^. ^. ^ ^^^^^^
The „r„„,„y, |h.-,vi„^, |„,.„| ,„,„|,|,,e.|. v..e ,|„,h.„„|.
With 'co„"rc; J,':;:";";'"' "'""";"■ '""" ■"" '" ">■"" '•"
Ml)- hat blew off." -crossinL' " s^.nL T . <-•»'''""« 'h.- fnry.
•s not intendcl. "^ '"' '" '" '''"''^'^"' «" ' »'•-«•.' which
IL..U.
MiaoCOfY MSOIUTION TBT CHART
(ANS ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2)
1.25
1^ 1^
1^ 12.2
116
UO
2.0
1.8
1.6
^ APPLIED IIVHGE
1653 East Moin Street
Rochester, New rork U609 u<;a
(716) 482 -0300 -Phone ^^
(716) 288-5989 -Fox
Inc
*
I70
Tin: PARTS OF SPEECH
'tS*
■■Tf'i-
EXERCISE 126.
CoNsfrinf snttnucs illustratin^r ,ach of the ways in
wnch uoHNS way he nsof. (// „• ,n>t uenssary to ns,
till same noun. )
laa. TThos of the Nominative (nMo.-A noun is
said to be in the nominative case when it is—
1. Tlu.' subject of a vt-rl).
2. An attrihut.. . on.pK-ment. (Often railed a /m//..,/. «,„/«
or prtitiiiil,' ttoi>iiHiitn-i\ )
3. A vocative. (( )ft(n calle.l nom/natnr 0/ aa./nsO
4. An exclar„ation. (Often called mm,nai/ve of exclamat/o,,.)
5. A nominative absolute.
'- '.I.J-„v. . .,se. ..n,.l forms of „,e verb- ,o I.e." which resemble .he J •'- .k"
I he same, ase after them as before- them. '= me s.^,,, _., ,.,ke
124. iTscs of the Objcotive Oaso.-A noun is
said to be in the objective ease when it is
1. A direct object.
2. An objective coiriplement.
3. An indirect object.
4. The object of a preposition.
5. An adverbial modifier. (Often called an adverbial objective.)
6. The subject of an infinitive.
12.5. Use of the Possessive Case.— It is some-
times a question whether to use the pos.sessive case or
a phrase bej^inning: with "of," i. e., whether to say
"Arnold's treason" or "the treason of Arnold."
The tendency of tlie best modern usage is to con-
OF NOITNS
171
fine the possessive ease to nouns denotinj,^ livin-
bein^rs, and with them to use it only in instanced
of aetual or imajrined possession: as, " Anu)ld\s
sword," " the treason of Arnold." Yet some short
phrases, like "a week's waires." "a day's mareh "
••a dollar's worth," " at death's door." -for pity's
sake," arc supported by the best usajre. With pro-
nouns still greater latitude is allowed. X„ „ne
hesitates to write "on our aeeount." "in my ab-
sence," "to their eredit," "for my sake." "in his
defense."
The possessive ease and a phrase introdueed by
"of "are not always exaet equivalents. Fur in-
stance. "John's story" means a story told by
John; but a "story of John " means a story about
John.
EXEECISE J 27.
Express relation bctzvccn the nouns in the folhncin};
pairs by putting one of them in the possessive ease or by
using the preposition ^Uf as seems best from what you
hare /earner/ in Section 125. Give the reason /or your
choice : —
Witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the Speaker, public rertp-
tion; Dehnonico. restaurant; battleship Victoria, <lestruction •
Charles the Second. reij;n ; Henry the Eighth, wives ; teacher'
advice; Paris, siege; book, cover; princess, evening gowns!
Spain, navy ; Napoleon, banishment ; Napoleon, camp chest •
Demosthenes, orations; Webster, orations; gunpowder, unen-
tion; conscience, sake; general, horse; cat. claws; enemy
repulse; Great Britain, army ; Ceneral Cronje. capture; mountain,
top; summer, end.
^7^
THE PARTS OF SI'KKCH
• lis.
EXERCISE 128.
Distini^uisli bctiVicn t/n /oiiowiii^ : —
1. Mother's love. Love uf iiiolhcr.
2. A sister's care. Care of a sister.
3. Kthfl's ilra\viii<r. A drawing of Ethel.
4. Charles am! Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's fovs.
5. Lord Rolnrts's rcioptioii. The rtreptioii of Lord Rob-
6. Lei me ti II you a story of Doctor lirown. Let mc tell you a
story of Doctor Brown's.
180. Double PossoksIvc — Tlic .sentence, "Let
me tell yen a .story of Doctor lirown's," con-
tain.s a f/oi/fi/c /ossfssini'' of doctor Brown's"), in
which we u.se both the po.s.se.ssive ease, after the
manner of Old Rnirlish, and the prepo.sition "of."
after the manner of Norman-Freneh. Though this
double po.s.sessive cannot be logically justified, it is
nevertheless recognized by the best writers as good
English. Moreover, it is often convenient ; as when
it enables us to di.stingui.sh between "a .story of
Doctor Brown" and "a story of Doctor Brown's."
Other examples are : —
That boy of yours.
A friend of my brother's.
O speak good of the Lord, all ye works of his.
137. Case In Apposition. — Nouns in apposition
are said to be in the same case. But when the
nouns are in the possessive, the sign of pos.se.ssion
is u.sually attached only to one of them: as, "Jack
the (riant Killer's boots."
OF NOINS
»7J
lsi8. HuliMthiiti'M for \«.niiM.— Words <.r jrroiips
i>i words that arc nut conimuiily to be cla.sscd as
nouns arc often used substantively in the construc-
tions of nouns, as follows; —
(1) Pronoun. / svc //////.
(2) Aiijcitive: I did xw^ best.
(J) Aih'irb: .Xmo is the accf|)te(l time.
(4) JnfmiliVi- : To ddoy is fatal.
(5) Phrase: 'Ay, ay, sir!" burst from a lliousami thruats.
(6) Clausr : What you want is not here.
ia». ll<»w t«» I»ai'sc NomiH.— When we descril)e a
word as it stands in a sentence, we are .said to i»a,>.,.
It. To jxirse a word we must give a description of
its class, form, and use.
To par.se a noun wc must give its —
(0 Cl.-iss.
(2) (lender.
(3) Number.
(4) Construction.
(5) Case.
EXEECISE 129.
Parse the nouns in the following selections :
I.
A Farkwell.
I\Iy fairest child, I have no song to jjive you;
No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray;
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you
For every day.
Be good, sweet maid, and Kt who will be clever ;
Do noble things, not dream them, all day long;
And so make life, death, and th.it vast forever
One -rand swcei Song. —Charles Kini^r^lcy,
"1
m
IHL I'AR IS OK SI'l i:cH
II.
KVKNINC IN I'AKAIMSK.
Now came sl.ll KveninK' on. a.ul Twihyht jiray
Had III her solKT livery all thiiiys i|.,.| ;
Silence accompanieil ; for Uast and bird
1 hey ,o their grassy cuch. these to ihei^ nest,.
\Vfrc slunk, all '.ut the wakeful n.«htinKale •
She- all n.yhl lonji her amorous descant su,J •
Silence was pleased. Now glowe.l the firman.ent
With hving sapphires; Hesperus, that led
IMc starry host, rode l.riKhtest. till the moon.
Kisinjr in cloude.i majesty, at leiij-th
Apparent (|ueen. unveiletl he.- |)eerless light
And oer the dark her silver mantle threw • '
When Adam thus to Kve : •• Fair consort, 'the hour
"f night, and all things now retired to rest.
Mind us of like repose, since (iod hath set '
Labor and rest, as day and night, to men
Successive; and the timely dew of sleep.
Now falling with soft slumberous weight, inclines
Our eyelids. Other creatures all day long
Rove idle, unemployed, and less need rest ,
Man hath his daily work of body or mind '
Appointed, which declares his dignity.
And :he regard of Heaven on all his ways;
While other animals unaclive range,
And of their doings God takes no account."
—Milton : " Paradise Lost."
^W
■
I
I
■
CIIAITICR IV
• 'I' I'koNoUNS
A Pronoun is a word used to stand for a noun (hi).
The noun for which a pronoun stands is called
its AntectjUeMt.
I. PERSONA r. PIlOXOl^XH.
130. PorHonal PfononnH IvIIntMl.— Examine the
pronouns in the fonowini,^ sentence: —
/ liavc lost ///v pencil ; please- lend >/n- yours till you need //
yourst/f.
"I." "my." and "me" stand for the person
speakinjr, and cannot be used to refer to the person
spoken to or spoken of. -You," "yours," and
"yourself" stand only for the person spoken to.
** It " is used only for a thing spoken of.
Ayf;////V;//.— Pronouns that distinguish between
the person speaking, the person spoken to, and the
person or thing spoken of are called Pei>K>nal
Pronouns.
Personal pronouns are so called, not because they stand fc. per-
sons, but because they mark grammatical i)erson (118).
£X£BCIS£ 130.
Point out the personal pronouns in Exercises 20 and
38, and tell of each li'hether it stands for the person
speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing
spoken of If It stands for the person or thing spoken
of give its antecedent.
1
-'".^^
•76
TMK lAK IS OF SI'F.KCII
H i the blanks with personal pn.nouns rcprcscnlin.r
a boy speaking. ^.>) a ^irl speaking., and note the
differences, if there are any: —
know Mary. \f.„y kn.nvs . Marv k
The pen she is usi„« is ^ " "^"'""•
Fill each of the followin^^ blanks with a pronoun
representing the speaker and some others :--
love Carlo. Carlo lovch . Carlu i« i
he is '* ''"«• Vcs.
You observe that personal pronouns of the first
person are not infleeted to denote gender, sinee the
sex of the person speaking is always suppo.sed to be
ki^wn ; but they are infleeted to show number and
'labulating the forms used in fdling the blanks.
we find that the personal pronoun of the first per-
son is thus declined:— ^
Nomhtathw
Posscssii'e :
Objective :
Sirn;iilar.
I
my, mine
me
riiir.il.
we
our, ours
US
These forms .re really fragments of .liUerenl word, a„,l „„,
.rue ,„„ec..,o„,. „„, ,„ev ser>e ,l,e s..,„e purpose as infl™: ,
I IS always written as a capital letter.
The pUiral forms represent, not two or more speakers but the
speaker anci others for whom he speaks. Sometin is thc^'a^ u e,
l)> an echtor or a sovereign to refer to himself alone : as.
EniTOR : We are sure we voice th. sentiments of the people
KING DUNCAN : This castle hn.h a pleasant seat ; the air
Nnnbiy and sweetly recommends itself
Unto (Utr gentle senses
This is called the •• editorial - or " majestic " use of n>e.
OF J'RONOrNS
•77
EXEKCISE 131.
Construct St'Mtfmrs nmtainini^ the diffvri tit forms of
tlw personal pronouns of the Jirst person.
13tf. rcrm>nal l*r<>iu»unM oftlio Hecoiul IVrnoM.—
In the followinjr selections examine the pronouns
that stand for the persons spoken to:—
HrHI.ICAK.
SiM^ru/„r. Rejoice, () youn« man, in t/iy youth; nm\ l«'t t/,v
hcarl thecr t/iee in the days of thy youth, and walk in the ways of
ttiine heart, and in the sight of t/iim- eyes hni know t/iou, thai for
all these thing;, (,od will bring t/wf into judgnit-fX.
I'/iini/. )V stand this day ;dl of you before tlu- I.oid your (lod.
. . . Blessed are^.' poor, for r<'«;ji is the kingdom of (iod.
FOKIIC.
Singular. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean— roll!
Ten thousand fleets sweep over ///<v in vain ;
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control
Stops with the shore;— upon the watery plain
The wrecks are all thy deed.
* ♦ ♦ *
Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow.—
Such as creation's dawn beheld, ///«;// rollest now.
Plural. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with /<;« once again.
ORDINARY PROSE.
Sint^^ulur. Young gentleman, your spirit is too l>old for your
years. I pray you, give over this attempt. It requires greater
strength than^t?//rj.
Plural Come early, girls; and \{ you feel like W.hr'xn^ your
mandolins; I want to h^nr you play.
These selections show that the pronouns used to
represent the person spoken to differ according to
the character of the language employed, in the
Mi
Ml
i
>7»
TlIK lAKisof .sii:t;cii
i).bl....l and p,K..tK.al pa,.v,Kc-.s they arc. f..r the
^'W.A.^ •• .h,m, • .. thy," .. thine," ami ..thee " .e
<.-.r.l,nK • . Ihe ea.se; f.,r the //„.„/, .. .., •■ ,''.••'':
••yo«r.s,"a„cI..y.H," In the ..nlina ; .r„i :L
»«c« they are. f„r both «„,.,/„. „,„/ ;>/!/, .^Z-'
•your, and -yours." There is no inll eli.m ;,
denote render, beeanse the .se.x of the ,>er.so" L'
o ,s presnntably always known. Ta(,ul,ui„ 'these
forms, we may say that the .^..sonal pronoun of
'he seeond iwrson is thus declined :_
BlbllfHl Ulltl I'iMltlu.
Xominativf ,
Posse ssiff :
Sinfiilar.
Ihuu
thy, ihine
thee
i'lu.ul.
ye
your, yours
you
OrilliiHry.
•SiriKiilar ami IMiir .1.
you
your, yours
you
The forms marked " nibhr il nwl i» -. ••
"<)r(linarv" forms l.w ""''"•;'/""' ' '>ct'c were once the
-.Kutr fo; s r u e Hn T ■ " '"' 'T ''•""' ^"-'^ ''^-
"r sup,.riori,y ■ .heirn '1 T'''"*'^' "' ••'""^■^•'""•"c i"<i'"acy
nIurarfor.„s' ' 'nl S e^n 1^ '''"" °^ "=''^^'^' ^"""'oy-' 'f^'
now .. .hou." .. thy" ' t T'Tn 7- ' k" • °"^" *''"' ^'^'^"»^'^'-- """'
nary conversation exceth '' '■"'^' "° '«"K^''' "'^"l in onli-
"Ye"hL. . ' ^y '"<-''"''ers of the Society of Friends
ve has Iwen ( isn aced hv •• im, •• .k. i . mends.
naliv, and objcc.ivi (137, Not") ""^ " '■""''"""■' »' """•'■
taken Edi.h ■• ,nu, ■■ You .,.,„ ■■,. ' ' ^"" '""'' "'«■
EZEBCISE 132,
Constnu, sn,t,„c,s containing i/.„sc forms of tk.-
ordinary aiscoursi'.
i''fii]"f!Jii
■111 JiF
•»K I'KONol N'S
ro
i:»;i. IVi>MiMiil IMinHMifiMor thoThlni IVrnoii. --
Kill the blanks witi, |K.r.s«»naI |.ron.mns represent,
injr ^,) a Ix.y spoken of. ^2; a girl sjj^.ken of. (j) a
tree s{K>ken of: —
i% ten yrarn ol.l. | .|o not know height. I .,f,en un
lo sec . *•
Fill the blank in the fo! .winjr sentenec with a
pron..un referring to (i) a boy spoken of, (j. a girl
spoken of: —
This fjook is .
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with
pronouns representing ( i) tw<. or more boys sjx.ken
of, {2) two or more girls s|H,ken of. (3; two or more
trees spoken of: —
arc «a(h ten years ol<
often iio to see .
I. I «l«» not know heights. I
Fill the blank in the following sentence with a
pronoun referring to ( 1 ) two or more boys spoken
"f, (2) two or more girls spoken of : —
These books are -.
You observe that personal pronouns standing for
persons or things spoken of vary with gender
number, and case. Tabulating the forms used m
filling the blanks, we find that the personal pro-
nouns of the third person are thus declined:—
I^'omhiaih't' :
Objtcth't- :
Masculine.
he
his
— StiiKnlnr. —
Keniinine.
she
Neuter.
it
-IMiirttl.-
All (ienilrr',.
they
her, hers
its
their, theirs
him
her
it
the 11
lik}
Till. PAKTS OK SI'KIX'M
I
H
.1IIHC ni<i Was .Uv the iHtH^rMivr nf •• l.« •• f
"'-" '"- "'■ •"> ^- 'on---::, in.:^::::::";: !■,:::•
£Z£BCIS£ 133.
r../i.r/r//r/ .1,7//,,/,., , .;«/,!/ ;,,;;,, //,, Mff.rn,! forms of
t/ii Personal pronoum of t/u third person,
134. H|H.c.|,ii irH«.H or "rt.- The pronoun "if
has a variety of s|)ecial uses: —
(I) As suhstitnt, for n ,^roHp of words : as.
1 »>eartl that ^. n.M MV«^/^^ |,ui I .l,,!,,-, |,^iievc //.
{2) As impersonal subjiit (tfH) : as,
Is// wi-ll with thee?
// has In-cn raining.
(3) As impvrsonal object : as,
They rougheel // for two weeks.
Thy mistress leads thee a «' g"s hfc of //.
(4) As an cxplt'tivi' (ai>) : as,
What pain // was to drown .'
How is /■/ that you conic so srwn ?
EXEBCISE 134.
Dcscrihc the use of the pronoun " it" in eaeh of the
JolloiK'ini:: sentences : —
hav
•■ ' won-t K'o.an<l that's an end of//. 2. n is excellent to
- a gunts strength, but // is tyrannous to use// hke a giant.
t»K TKONOC NS
iXi
J. There wan no,|„„g for // t„„ ,., ,. t,„„. 4. t:.,,,,,. aii.l 1..,, // ..,
y'»iKO. 5 H- tl.Mrv..| lii> j,uriisliiiu.ni..ui.| h. kiifw // (, | /
far tu LumloM? 7, |..»w.lH,rn inr.. hk- to I .,.| // our ."h.Jr mle-
rior». 8. /tu I. 9. I sull light // out .... ilu', hne ,1 // i.»kri, ,||
»u...n..r. i«, // w.ll MKm link., t. n. 1 ,. Tl.cy footed // thr.,Miil,
Ihc streets, U. //Ugniwingdafk (..%!.
I.IA. rN«.« of I ho ViwmH^u,, 1 orm^.— Kach r.f the
IKTsonal pronouns except " ho ' aiul "if has two
IK)ssessives in each ntimlxr: namely " mv "
-mine." ••our." ".ums;- .-ihy.- - ^\un^\" ..y,,,,'/-
••yours;" -her." "hers;" -liKir." •• theirs "
"My," "our." "thy." "your." "her." ami
••their' are always foll.,wccl l,y nouns in.licaliuK
the thin^^ pos:;esse«I: as. ".?/,- new sled."
In Hiblieal an.l iv)etieal lanjruaire "innu> " aii.l
••thine "are used l>efore nouns beginniui,^ with a
vowel sound or " h:" as,
" If tAim- rnrmy hun^rr. f.-t-d hun."
"Stretch forth t/iin. hand."
In ordinary discourse " mine " and " thine." and
the forms endin^r in "s" (" ours." " yours." " i,c*rs."
"theirs"), are never f.»llowed by nouns, but ai'e
used only as substantives. They represent both
the ix)ssessor and the thinjr possessed, and are
equivalent to a noun in the nominative or the ob-
jective case modified by a possessive: as. "This
book is mine" {\. e.. "my book"); ^^ Yours (i. c.
••your book") is on the table." "His" is often
used in a similar manner.
C'!mtlon.-No apostiophc is used in writing the possessive
case ui protiouns.
183
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
EXERCISE 135.
Construct stntaurs containing the possessive forms
oj lach of the personal pronouns, both singular and
plural, and tell hoxo each form is used.
130. Uhos of tho jS^omliiatlvo Forms.— The nom-
inative forms of personal pronouns ♦« I " •' we "
"thou." -he.- -she." "they '-are used mainly
in the following constructions :
]■ ffjffto/a verb: as, "/am young." •• fF^ are coming;"
J/e fell ; " S/w laughed ; " " 77/,7 live in New Orleans."
2. Attribute compiemetit : as. "Is it /.?""It was not we-"
" Was it he? " " I think it was she .- " '• No. it was t/iejf."
J-Uc^/f, OH. --The a»rib.ite complement of the infinitive /o he is in the ohjtctirt
rase If the infinitive has a subject: as, " lie knew it to lie me" {1«3).
3. Vocative: as. "Qthou who hearest prayer."
4. Nominative absolute: as. " He being there, we said nothine
about it." *
137. Uses of the Objective Forms.— The objec-
tive forms of the personal pronouns " me," "us "
" thee," " him, " " her," " them,"— are used mainly
in the following constructions:
1. Direct object: as. " Help us, O Lord."
2. Indirect object: as, " Give me your hand."
3. Object of preposition : as. " Show it to them."
4. Subject of infinitive : as. " Did you see him fall? "
Exclamations.— \n exclamatio.is either the nominative or the
objective is used : as, " O. unhappy I ! " " O, wretched me ! "
NOTK.— In the middle of the sixteenth century the distinction
between the nominative and the objective began to break down
and " me," " thee." " us." " you." " him," " her." and " them " were
often treated as nominatives. In the case of " ye " and " you "
OF I'KONOUNS g
The case of "you " and -ii." which h.v,. il, ,'"y-
^.h „„,„i„atlv. a,„, „bj„c,lve, mu« bt deCr „ Lri r" ""
siructiou. "»-'cimineu iroiij the con-
EXERCISE 136.
, i^^irctsi 3»; /// hxcrcise 74.
EXEECISE 137.
To tho Teacher.-In order that both eye and ear may be
blanks ,n lus and s.m.lar exercises have been filled, to write on the
7Z ''?""' '' *-''"' ''"''"'^ "■""'^''^' ^"^ '° have them read
aloud again and again.
Another helpful exercise to tlu- same end is to Kt pupils repeat
rapidly such forms as ■■ It is I." •• It is he." •■ It is she ; •' ' • ,t is'^^^ot
^N^-. •' It IS not they ; " - Is it I ? " etc.. using in succession differn.t
nommat.ve forms, and the affirmative, interrogative, and ne-^itive
forms of the verb. '^
Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blank, and
give the reason for your choice :
I. /, me.
1. Who will go.? .
2. He is taller than .
3. She knew it to be .
4- He is not so old as .
5. Wait for Helen and .
6. She knew that it was .
7. She will come, and too.
8. You and will go together.
I
m
1 84
THK I'ARTS OK Sl'EECH
9. May Aiinir .Mul -go home?
10. It was - th.it j;ave the alarm.
11. If you were , would you j^o?
12. Will you go with John and ?
13. Jessie gave Koy and a kitten.
14. She let Annie and come home.
1 5. Yes, you and were both invited.
16. It makes no difference to you or .
17. She invited you and to go driving.
18. Everyone is going except you and .
19. The kite was made for Harry and .
20. Father expects you or to meet him.
21. Iktween you and , he is losing his mind.
22. Which do you think is the older, Carrie or ?
23. When you saw Mary and , we were walking home.
24. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls, anjong the rest,
II. fF"t', us.
1. He knew it was .
2. He knew it to be .
3. It was whom you saw.
4- I'oys are going swinmiing.
5. They play golf more than .
6. They know that as well as .
7. Everybody was late except .
8. Our parents are wiser than .
9. The Smiths are going, and too.
10. The Browns, as well as , are invited.
11. It isn't for such as to ride in coaches.
12. That is new doctrine among Canadians.
13. He took a picture of girls sitting in the boat.
3-
4-
5-
6.
7.
8.
9-
lo.
l(.
12.
>3.
'4-
'5
1 6.
'7.
1 8.
19.
20.
OF I'KONOCNs
"r. He, him.
I knew it was .
' kfRw it to he .
Was it you saw?
• It must have hceii .
that is idle, reprove.
His sister is darker than .
If I were . I wouldn't jjo.
Whom can I trust, if not ?
and James played together.
Let who cat, answer this question.
W l.at were you and — talking about ?
Was It who objected to our going '
To William and belongs all the credit.
It makes no difference to either you or
I shook hands with all. among the rest'
X-' many could have played as well as
Have you ever seen Fred and _ together .^
What else can you expect from such as ^
There .sn't much difference between you an,l __
— that overcometh w.II I ,„ake a pillar in the temple
185
U
IV. She, her.
1. I am stronger than .
2. It was or her mother.
3- I wouldn't go if I were ,
4- and Constance sang a duet.
5- Was it that came yesterday >
6. When will you and come again?
7. Father told you and to stay here
8- I invited them all, anmng the rest
9. With Edith and — I have no trouble'
^o. Grace and n,et at a dancing school.
i .^.-
l86
! !
I I
I i
ii
II.
12.
«3
' i-
«5-
1 6.
«7-
18.
ii>
3-
4-
5-
6.
7-
8.
9'
lo.
II.
12,
13
14
THE PARTS OF Sl'KECH
Vtry few ^irls c.ui play as well as .
Wh.it can yuu cxprct from sinh as ?
I suppostd the lall, st.itrly 'uly was .
I supposed the tall, st.ilely lady to be .
Wliat is the trou!)le between you and ?
Gills like you and should know Iwt'er.
Everybody came except anil her brother.
H.ive you ever seen S.irah and together ?
Father is afraid to let you or drive the colt.
V. T/tty, i/uin.
It was — .
It must have been .
We are not so poor as .
I know it to h.ivi; been .
I n»'"cr saw Guy and together.
— ' :at talk must stay after school.
that (;dk I will keep after school.
It isn't for such as to dictate to us.
. None so blind as that will not sec.
Let nont touch it but that are clean.
Their opponents were heavier than .
It makes no difference to either you or .
It could not have been . for were at home.
Few school-teachers could have done as well as —
138. Use of Gender Forms.— In the very nature
of things pronouns should be of the same gender
and number as the nouns for whieh they stand.
The followinp :uliar uses of gender forms require
special menu ,iOH, lOO): —
I. Words like/n'«/ and c7///^/. which apply to both male and
female objects, are referred to by the neuter pronouns " it " and
" its " when the object named is thought of as a mere thing, the sex
OF I'KONOUNS ,^,
f>cing unknown or unimportant • is •• k'in,r \ft i . i
reached oui //« litrk- h.uicl,.' »""».". IhccliiM
^■^z'Xr^z ;;"" ^"'T "•'"^" ■"'* •" '■"■•■ ■"••■• -<i
. ";;. , ,:•"•" ""- '-- '■■ -"i.i.aLo ,i,.,„„ ,;, „ ' ;
3- Sometimes animals arc referre.l i,. I». .. i, ••
wl.. .. no „is,i„c„„n „f .,e, i, i„, ' , ' ^J^.-Z T" "'"
>'"<= pronoun is „se,l if ,1,^. ,„.,,.„ , " '"■'-'"•
■"■■'-uline „u.,li,ie,, such t l^Z'Z^Z Tf '" ""'^'■^'
n-nn. H .he speaker ,„ink, ,h,. anin, a i ::;,':, ;■'"'"'"''. ""-
snch as .in,i.li,y, g,.„.lenoss. K,an,,,l " "re • r , '''■
s.ie.,„y on /,/,„,,,■■ ••The hare r::;';!;;;.",,,,,.""- "'" ^'^•■*
ren,arl<al,le for J u,v 1,™ i '' '"•■""'"'"'" I'™'"""" ■ >'">^
.-• - ^- Jr :rs::r;i::; :7:- ---y .,.h.
EXERCISE 138.
1. Rcvic7i* Exercise ii6.
2. /'/// r^./, /v^„/. ,.;>/, a pronoun, ami ^ire the rea
son for Us gender .•— '^ '^'^^
1. Every author has faults.
2. A writer shoul.1 be careful with — pronouns
3. Ven.ce sat in state, throned on hundred isles
5. ^ mter had l.und the lakes and rivers fast in _ icy ,.,.„
deli^Jmur^"""'"' ^'""^ f-n— laue throat tloods 1;
^fl
iHH
THK PARTS OK SPEECH
' I
7. The " Orcanic " is a hugv stranxr. is lonjjcr ihan the
"Great Eastiin. "
8. A calf can (hstinguish mothers lowing' from that of a
hundred other cows.
9. When a eat conirs near a Hjjht contracts and elon-
gates the pupils of e-yes.
10. The polar hear suffers so much froin heat that cannot
live lonjj hi warm climates; therefore is seldom se«n in
menageries.
'sH
■
i;i!». Vho of NnmlK^r Forms. — Difficulties in the
use t)f the number forms of personal pronouns arise
mainly in connection with such expressions as
"anybody," "everybody," "each," "either,"
" neither," and " nobody." Such expressions, in
spite of the comprehensive meaninj"^ of .some of
them, arc {^grammatically singular ; and in literary
English they are referred to by singular pronouns:
as, "If anybody calls, ask ////// to wait." If the
writer con.sidered n Terence to sex worth while, he'
would .say, "ask ////// or //rr to w\ait." Ordinarily,
however, he would use "him" only, taking for
granted the application to women.
In collo<iuial English such expressions as "anybody," "ever)--
body," "each." "cither," etc., are referred to by the genderless
plurals "they." " their." " them: " as, "If .anybody calls, .ask
//it-m to wait." This usage is partly an attempt lo find a pro-
noun th.-it will stand for both "he" and " she," and partly a
reflection of the comprehensive meaning of "anybody," "every-
body," etc. It is shunned by those who have an ear for gram-
matical .accumcy.
• N'lite the :iiitlior's iinconsrioiis ihp of " he '' to refer t" " writer," which here in-
L'iulJc^ ill its iiieuiiiiig wui'ieii as weli u-. iiicii.
¥'f'}
Ol I'KoNoi \s
189
EXERCISE 139.
1. Kach must take turn.
2. Anyone can do this if-- ,ri,.s.
3- M.i.sev,ryon«- fmislie.I — work?
4. J-»'«'ryjri,ican(lotl.isif _ ip,.,
5. Kach .lay an.l each hour l,nn,s 1 own duty
^>. I-..hc-r M.,ry or Li/zic- w.ll Icn.l you —,,,„,,,,
7.I^ch,,upi.wa.r..,uc.,.,,onanu._,.,o,^^
«. rolKH.IyevoryI,o.lyisHo<,u..n,atI..as,oncoin.--.,ir..
9. Man an.... n,an passe.1. ..arry.n, - go.f H..l>s ui.h --1
10. I-.u-h,.f,h,..irls„urrie-,lw.ll.;„ |,. ,s, :„
If r-.<h ,.f .1 ... ..«ii..isiin own opinion.
sci,::, ,!,'!;:;;;;'""• — '^"°°' '"""'■' "■> — '- ... k.-,. i.,
.he winr'S' Sp™" """ ""' ~ """' '" •^" "'-- -™.™' "'
14- Whoso kcopeth mouth m.l
soul from troubles. '""«'""• '^''*'P''">
15- Kverybody believes the wo, 1,1 is v.a,chi„.r , »
17- The man an.l his wife were both jlu-m- 1 . ■ >
tell what had seen.' "'■'""'■ ''°"'''
140. Compound Po,^,onal Pronouns.
the form and uses of the italieized
following- .sentenees:
«"!.'•• t-'-i^cZ-'or-'S"^ "' "''- ■^"""" ^»'-«" according as w
Rxamine
pronouns in the
f'.
••fill I he blank
I9»
THF. I'ARTS i)t SPKKCH
I
1 I
(a) She herself told me.
(h) We saw the Quten herself.
(< ) FIc cut himulf,
(*/) I'hey thirtk too much of themselvei.
Yon observe that "herself." "himself." and
"thiinselves" are formed from personal pronouns
by addinjr the words "self" or "selves;" and that
they are used {n, b) for emphasis, or (r. ,1) after a verb
or preposition to refer baek to the subject of the
verb.
Dcfiintion,~K pronoun formed from a personal
pronoun by addinjr "self" or "selves" is called a
C'oinpoiiiKl IVrNonnl Pronoun.
Definition.— K compound personal pronoun used
after a verb or a prepositiim to refer back to the
subject of the verb is called a lloflexlv*. Pmnoun.
The compound personal pronouns are mysilf,
r>//r^.// (editorial or majestic), thysvlf, yourself , him-
self, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, v^w(\ themselves.
Notice that in the first and second person th* om-
pound is made from the possessive form of the simple
pronoun, a. 1 in the third person from the o1)jectivc
form.
The compound personal pronouns have the same
form for both nominative and objective, and have
no possessive. The place of a possessive is sup-
plied by "my own," "your own," etc. : as, "He
keeps his own horse;" "He has a house of his
own."'
In the last sentence the phrase "his own " is usetl substantively
as the ol)ject of the preposition "of." like the possessive " mine"
in " He is a friend of nihu- " ( 1 rj.'i).
7:^-it*£J3^
OF PRONOUNS „^,
141. rm^orthoCNuniKHMHl IVrM.,„nI Pn,„o„„..
-The compound personal pronouns arc properly
used as follows:^ * ' ^
1. For emphasis: as. " I will do it w/i-.r//" •< Tli^ t...., i i
.Av// shall .l,..,lvc; •• .. NV. ..w .1. k.„« /X;..//, "" ^"" «'"'"
2. As itji,xives: as, '• 1 cut wyu/f, •• \Vc lol.l hi... ,
///>«W/ plenty of time." '"'" "* ^'"^
IJesi-irs thcM- wd|.estal,lisl,cd uses, tlw compoun.l ,Mrs.>n .1
pronouns are son.e.in.es e.npioyeU as sul.s.Uu.es'for s n. L ei-
-nal pronouns: .,s. ■' She n.v.u.l Kthel an.l /....v/ to «« .^iil"
I h.s usa;;e ,s avoide.l l,y the n.os. r.nfnl writers ^'^
fl-.ul> . as. .N.>w I lay ,.. ,|..,n ,o sleep ; - .- „,. i^^e.l al.o»t
EXERCISE 140.
personal pro,unn,s, and tell ,.lutlur they are used rejle . -
tvely or for emphasis .— ''
I. I myself have seen him. 2. I think myself happy. 3 Thou
halt love t y nei,hl.or as thyself. 4. Qui! yoursel es li e nu"
. I . w. tell you himself. 6. Whosoever shall exalt Imnself • i
l>e .-.based. 7. Sinai itself tr.mhie.l at the presence of (Wxl 8 V.
.-ve yourselves heard .he report. 9. Why should you he so c "
to yourselves.:* ,0. It is usually best ,0 study by ourselves.
2. Const met sentenees illustratinj^ the use of eaeh of
the eouipound personal pronouns for emphasis; as
a reflexive.
II. DKMOXSTnATIVE PUON<)rX8.
142. DemoiiHtrntlvo Pronouns DoHikmI — Rx-
amine the italicized pronouns in the foliowinir sen-
tences: —
This is my book ; that is ynjir?.
These ^Xit my books ; those are yours.
Ill
}1
ii?»^^ofiii;/
lyj
Tin. I'AKTS Ol- SI'KKCH
In these sentences " this " (plural "these") and
" that *• (|)lural " those ") arc used to ix)int out cer-
tain objects. Kach is, in a way, eijuivalent to a
gesture.
Jhjinition. — A pronoun usc<l to point out is called a
l>('iiioiiMtnitiv(> l*n>noiiii.
The only demonstrative pronouns arc "this"
(plural " these ") and " that " (plural " those ").
" He." "she," "il,* •• ihry." are sometimes r.illnl \\\v Dt'iiioii-
Mtiiillv«>M oftlu* TlilMl IVi>M>ii.
"So ■ has occasionalK lU-monsiriiivf force . as, " ll*- said so."
I4:i. Um'M of tlio DcinotiHtnitlvo IVonoiiii!^.—
"This "and "these" are used to indicate pcrs<»ns
or things ne.ir in space, time, or thouj^ht ; "that"
and "those" indicate persons or thinjjs farther
away : as, " Tlusc arc my jewels." " Our ri\'ers are
larj»:cr than those of Kurope."
When "this" and "that" are follnwid hy n.nins th.y are
Pi'oiioinliiiil A«IJt><'tlveMi as." This book is mm. . "That
wortl\s harti to pronoum »?."
EXERCISE 141.
Construct sentences i/iiistrntinj^ the use of the tfeuwn-
strative pronouns, sini^ulur ami plural.
III. TNTKIlHOfJATIVE l»nON<)rNS.
144. Jnterfoirattvo 1*r<>n<>iiiis DcfliuMl. — Exam-
ine the italicized pronouns in the following sen-
tences: —
Who is he? Whom (Hd you see? Whkh is !>«• ?
Who is she ? What is that ? Which is yours ?
Who are they ? What are these? Which arr yours?
Whose is this ? What «iu ) ou want ? Whiih do you prelVr ?
OK I'KONol Ns
m
These prr.nouns. you r,l,.scrvc. arc qucstioninir
words. .. who.' .. wh.».sc..- ami •• wh.mi - asking fur
names of ,H..rsons. •• what " asking for names of
tilings an.l •• which *' asking for a .selecti.,n from a
k'roupof |K;rsons or tilings. Kach stands fur tlie
noun or i)ronoun that answers the (|nesti.m.
n,/i,iitioN.~\ pron.um tised to ask »niestions is
called an liit«.ri-oHriillv.. I'mnoiin.
Tabulating the forms used in the illustrative sen-
icnees. we fin.l that the only interrogative ,,rono„n
wh.eh IS infleeted is .• who." and that it is declined
as follows: —
Sinculj' ii.il'luril
/•/M»r,j/?r.- .hose
Ohj.rtivv: whom
Tho i,U..rrojjativ. •■ulu.hrr.- meaning "wl.id, of ,ho ,uo." is
IJilHi- : as, " \\ hcthcr is t-asici ? "
Wlun •■uluch" an.l •• wh.t " an- follownl |,v n.M,„s tluv .r-
•.^rM,o,nI„uI AilJo,.tIv..M. as. >> UM AW is you s /'
// hut new ln\k is this ? "
EXERCISE 142.
Povit out the intcrrtitrativc prouotnis in the following'
sintntas, aim tell the eonstruetum of eaeh :—
I. Who ran to help n.e whon I frll ? 2. What an- tlu- uiM
^vaves .ay.„«? 3. what care I how fair she W} 4 \vi. „ Z
you read, my lord? 5 Whit is s„ r.,-.. ■ i
'^^. What d.c you ask for? 7. Whos. .1,.^. ,s ,h:., ? S. \ |,..,„
.Kyousp.? ..Whom wc-re you s,.aU.,,.... ,.,. W h
le sample, hav. yo. ..|rct«! ? n. Wi... .1., ,o„ .h,,., si..- is >
1 2. W horn do you fake h.-r to be ?
\-i
'III I
', "a
• 04
Till; lAKTS OK SI'EKCII
145. lnt<>rrf»ir»tlvo Prtnioiiii*. IMMttniruiHiuHl.-.
Ordmarily ••who" ajikn for names of |H;r.H«mH,
'•what" for names of ihingH; but wmiclimcH
"what" haN a |K.r.H«.nal reference: a.H, " ll7t,t/ in
he?— a lawyer?" In Mich ctscs •• what"a«kH for
a t/,siri/*tum, in clisiinction fnun " who," which a-sks
for uliHtity: a.s. "/r//,* is he?— the new minister?"
••Which" i.s .selective; that i.s, it implies that
the rijjht one is to l>e selecteil from a numlwr of
IH-rsons or thinj^^s: as. ••//•///,// is she?" ••//'///V//
of the pictures clc» y«m like best? " '-Whuk have you
ileciiled tt> take ? "
!l I
EZEBCT8E 143.
Constrmt Stnttttas illustrttting the use of the inter-
rojrathu fronoini "who," the on/hinrf use of the
interro}!:ative "u'h„t," the personal use of the in-
ter ro^t^ntive "what," the use of the tnterrojrative
''whieh."
1*0. "Who" or "Whom."— In spoken Engli.sh
" whom," as an interrogative form, has been prac-
ticaliy abandoned by most persons as an unneces-
sary and cumbersome inflection: but in literary
Knglish, and in the conversation o. persons who
have a strong feeling for grammatical consistency,
"who" is used only in nominative relations, and
" whom " in objective relations : as. '*\Vho is that? "
"Whom did you sec > " •♦ By whom was this
written ? " " Whom are you making that sofa-
pillow for ? "
i^>j
'^'^. ^;*-
i^tiji|)
r
..■."■"*■*
OF I'koNiM NS
£XEBCI8E 144.
»9f
tnst'rt
in tih
noun y • ' ;,.//,/ ■' or ' ' u'/t0fH ")
tUttt
i^iVi t/u- rutsoH for your i/toin .-^
I. — - «lu )o» MiraH?
>. — — hiivc wc here ?
wilt
you invite
4« — — «l»<l you give It lu >
$• <lo )«»• think I am }
6. ar« you writing' tu?
7. .-_ Hpre y„u i.ilkinK •"?
8. I lion t know \„ %t:nt\,
9- <l«» you i.ike iiic to \hi }
10. \ don't kn«»w to .,sk (or.
11. -
was that siH.iking to you?
12. I do not know
he has met.
tj- - «lul you say %i\\ lK«»|<le >..u ?
M. ~— do you think wdl \k elected .>
15. -
16.
<lo you cx|Krct to call on next }
do you think it was that c died .>
17- I «lo not know
18. Ml
will finish the work.
Ic IS jjoinjf to be married to I d.m't know .
19- should I meet yesterday but my old fii.n.l Jones'
1»r. lllivct niul Iiiilln.,.t QiHHtloiiH I)I.Htlii-
HrulMhetl.— Compare the followin^r .senteiice.s:—
Maude asked. •• IV/io is luf "
Maude ask«d to/io fw jiuis.
In the first .sentence Mande's question is jriven in
her exact words, and the qiieHtion is said to l>e
quoted. In the .second .sentence the question
,is^^."Arf':.*'*iil«L#lrl£|3^- i£r-'Y^:M
196
THE PARTS OF SI'KKCn
blends with the principal clause, and the original
words are changed.
Dcjinition. — A questitin expressed in the exact
words of the speaker is called a Direct (jiioMtion.
Ik/in it ion. — A question used as a dependent
clause, with chanj^es from the original words of
the siKjaker, is called an IiuUreot QuoMtloii.
A direct lucstion may l)e (i) imhpcndetit : as, "Who is he?"
or (2) depcndittt : a,-,. " Maude asked. ' Who is he? ' "
Indirect (jucstions depend on expressions implying inquiry,
doubt, knowledi^e, ii^nonvut; or the like : as, " Maude wotuitred
who he was ; " '• Maude discmwrcd who he v/as ; " •' Maude did not
kiuw wlio he was ; " " Maude told us vvlio he was." (The direct
question presented to .Maude's mind was, *• Wlio is lie ? ")
EXERCISE 145.
Construct three direet questions, and then change
them into the indirect form.
IV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
14. S. Relative Pronouns Defined. — Compare the
following .sentences: —
(<») 'i he man thinks tlie world turns round. The man is giddy.
{b) Tlie man that is giddy thinks the world turns round.
In {(i) we have two separate .sentences about** the
man," with nothing to ihow that they are related.
In (/') the two .sentences are brought into their
proper relation by the word " that," which takes the
place of the noun " man " as subject of the second
sentence, and also connects this sentence with
" man " in the fir.st sentence, as a modifying clause.
In other words, it is both pronoun and connective.
OF l'K(^NOUNS
D,Ji,ntion.~\ proiKMiii which attaches to its
antecedent a subordinate clause of which it is -i
part IS called a JU'lutlvc Pn,i,oui..
A relative pronoun is so called because it relates directiv to •,
substantive in the principal clause. ^ '" ^
EXERCISE 146.
Point out the relative Pronouns in lixereise 4 . and
give t/ietr anteeedeuts. '*"^'
140. Ilolatlvo CI,iusc.s.--A clause introduced by
a relative pronoun is called a Itolatlvo ciuusc.
Compare the reiutiv. clauses in the followin.r
sentences: — *»
{it) Water that is sfa^i^muit is un\vhoIcson)c.
Jfi^::::' '''"" '"" '""^"^ ^^- ^-^^ '">p-' "-
In the first sentence the relative clause, - that is
stagnant," limits or restricts the i;cneral meaning
of water to the particular sort that is in mind
Ihe clause cannot be removed without chan<n„,.
the meaning of the sentence. **
In the second sentence the relative clause, ' ' which
was beautifully clear," describes the water which
the speaker has in mind, but does not restrict the
meanmg of the word - water." The clause miHit
be removed without injury to the sentence, being
in fact parenthetical.
In the third sentence the relative clause, -which
1 4
",T .<!
198
T!IK I'ARTS OK Sl'KlXH
he drank eagerly," neither limits nor describes the
word ** water," but merely carries on the narrative,
like the second member of a compound sentence.
"Which "is, in fact, here equivalent to "and it,"
and the relative clause, though subordinate in form,
is logically coordinate with the first clause.
Definition. — A relative clause which limits or
restricts the meaning of the antecedent is called a
llc'Htrlc'tivo Uelativo C'lauso.
Definition.— \ relative clause which describes the
antecedent without restricting its ueaning is called
a Descriptive Relative Clause.
Definition. — A relative clause which neither dc-
scdbcs nor limits, but merely carries on the narra-
tive, is called a Progressive Ilelatlvt^ Clause.
Descriptive and progressive relative clauses, being
either parenthetical or independent in their nature,
should be separated from the rest of the sentence
by commas.
Restrictive relative clauses should not be sepa-
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
EXERCISE 147.
1. Point out the relative clauses in Exercises 44 and
52, and tell luhcther they arc restrictive, descriptive, or
progressive.
2. Construct a sentence containing a restrictive rela-
tive clause ; a descriptive relative clause ; a progressive
relative clause.
ISO. Relative Pronouns Distinjjrulsliecl. — Exam-
ine the forms of the relative pronouns in the follow-
ing sentences: —
OF I'ROXOUNS
Hepray.-tl, |M?st7.V/,>Iov,.thlM-st
The lady ,oho went out is ,„y aunt.
They ,oho will not work must starve.
The lK,y ze^W manners you likocl is my brother
I know the person oi whom you speak.
The letter T.>J/,/, came this morning was from Ruth
I S..1I have the letter W,/./. Ruth wrote last weT
This is the house //w Jack built,
"appy is the n,an //..,/ ti.Hk-th wisdom.
(I. e.. ///„/ jt,/ua) you say is true.
From these examples we .see thit fb« r
relative pronouns arc "who -• vh'ch • ' ^r^
and " vvb'if " T* 1 1 . • "im-u, inat,
that o5 '•w,, J:;":: :^"v r ^^r "■'^ '"™^' - «■"•
as follows J '•"''• •'""' "'•-" " '■'' declined
», Singubr and Plural.
^omtnatn>e: yvho
/r//^. 7£.//^jr. and «'/^„;« are u.sed chiefl v nf ^
but sometimes of animals: as ' I^:'^;'~
w/w lovethbest" "Th^ ..„k- t Prajeth bost
driving off the bl„e in ^ "^^ «»=^'--ed«i in
pines,-' .. Whose 'ir " ■" "?" '° ''""<' '" "'"•
(153). " "^•'^•-'«°n--'"y used of things
thil'Tf '^ " "f^'^'" P™"°""' i"* "«-l of animals or
mmgs. Sometimes t refers toon ;i "'^''-^f^r
expressed by a precedTnT i^ ''' ""^ '^^"S:ht
"Tbi-o 1 • P^^^edmg phrase or clau.se- is
This description may .seem much exaggerated'
^^^'hich It certa nlv is nof-" ..t i- , ^scrateu,
--«/- made 1 .„ ^4 ;;;,f„,,? '''^'--I "- P-n.
'99
f'^m
'h- r';
200
THE PARTS OF SPEFXH
T/iaf is used of cither persons or things. It is
always very closely connected with its antecedent
in both meaning and position, never being used
when there is any pause between the relative clause
and the antecedent. Hence it is never used to
introduce a clause that is merely descriptive or
progressive. We say, "Water //in/ [or, ri'///V7/|
is stagnant is unwholesome;" "The water,
ti>/iic/i was beautifully clear, lapped the sides of
the boat." Another peculiarity of //mt is that it
never has a preposition before it. We say, "The
hook o/':^J/lu'/i you told me," or, "The book //ia/ you
told me of," putting the preposition last when
"that" is substituted for "which."
IfV/rt/ is peculiar in that it combines the functions
of both antecedent and relative pronoun : as,
I mean
{ what \ -
"Who," " which." and " that " introduce adjec-
tive clauses; clauses introduced by "what" are
substantive clauses.
To the Teacher.— Some grammarians would make "that"
obligatory whenever the relative clause is restrictive, reserving
" who " and " which " exclusively for clauses that are merely
descriptive or progressive. According to them. " He prayeth
best ivho loveth best " ought to be " He prayeth best that loveth
best." But this obligatory use of " that " in restrictive clauses has
never been a rule of English speech, and is not likely to become
one, partly because of the impossibility of using " that " after a
preposition, and partly because of the disagreeablt- sound of such
combinations as " That remark that I made yesterday." As ; rule,
euphony decides in restrictive clauses between " who " ^- " which "
and " that."
OF I'KON'ocxs
30I
EXEBCISE 148.
c/toici:-^ ^ ' ^'" '''■'""" Jor your
'•Man is the only animal--, can talk.
2. 1 .me is lost is never foun.l a-ain
3. l-h^^o« ,, ,,, .,,,„ ,.,^ ^^^^^ ^_-
. !\^!'"'"'^ "'••*" -^'-^-o us yes.e.,ay.
i >Ve have a mastiff (..w
nasiiM. '^'""ws us everywhere
6. I met the boatman , i
.atman „.ok me across the ferry
7. I he crow .Iroppe.l the cheese the fox .hen.te
8. I worked six problems i. .
I rouicms ^vMs the best I could do
9- l>o you know that man • •
lo Qi L '^ J"''^ entering the car '
'o- Sliakesneare wnc .!,„ ■" L.ir .
-•I'c.irc was the most exnressiir*. mn«
II. The cat , ^" ^^■^•' ''ved.
'4. Her hair „.„ ,|nrL. K «pecl«l.
l".*!. ''^ ''"''> ""own, ,v.i5 galhere,! in a CJrecian
^__^.5. Why ,,h„uW we consul. Charle. -_ ,„_ „„„. ,^ „, ,^^
«i,:tf "" ""'^ ' "■'' " P°"-™-. — c„„,en,c„ ,„ ,„
'''• " P'p'iscd me most anfl i .
nientione<| by visitors to FlorenceTT ? , '"°'' frequentlv
one sees there. ^'"'^^"^^. was ihe profusion o, flowers
Iff
//
EXERCISE 149.
Construct sent, nccs illustrating the use of tl, • /
nil, I, t/iiU, find '' to hat."
wi-hl^S;;^"""*^' ■"'•'-""'"". -n.i prob..I,ly ,l.e choice of
pronoun, will v,,ry
*j:'
,»fi
303
TIIK l»AKTS OF SI'EKCii
151. Cicndor, Numlwr, mirt PerMon of lU'lutlvo
l*mii«>iiim. — In the nature of things the gender,
number, and person of a relative pronoun are the
same as those of its anteeedcnt, but they are never
indicated by the form of the rehitive. " Who," for
example, may be singular or plural, masculine or
feminine, and may refer to the person s|x.'aking,
siKiken to, or spoken of: as, " I, Ti'//<;am your friend,
would not pain you needlessly ; " " You, u'//o are my
trusted friend, should not deceive me ;" '* They iv/to
refuse to work must starve." Since relatives thus
agree in number and person with their antecedents,
it follows that the fol-m of a verb used after a relative
should be the same as that which we should use
after its antecedent.
EXEBCISE 150.
Ti'// tvhich of the italicized forms is right y and give
the reason : —
1. She is one of the best mothers that has {Jia7>€) ever lived.
Caution.— The antecedent of *" that " is " mothers."
2. My room is one of those that m'erlook {va>erlooks) the lake.
3. That is one of the best books that was (were) ever written.
4. She is one of the writers who/'v {are) di'stined to be immortal.
5. It was one of the best games that has {/lavt) ever been played
on our field.
6. You are not the first man that has {have) been deceived by
appearances.
7. He is one of those restless boys who j's {are) always wanting
to do something.
8. One of his many good traits that cotne {comes) to my mind
was his modesty.
1 A T» '
OK I'RONOUNS jQ^
158. C'.»H«ornolHUvel»rououiw.^Thc. cisc of .
teatm, but IS determined by its use in t].,. i
>n whieh it stands. It may be- '""■■
"keel ,s ,ny bruthcr.- "^'^ '^'^"'^*' "'•'""^^^ >"u
n^ T-/ J.- I """ "'"" '"^•''« 'S sick."
(4) * '"! object of a prt-bosition • i^ •• i i
I" Milton's expression ••^^•.■, .u ■
"«-. is an idioma.ic .,„,,„„„ ^ hf ' " '' ^""'■^ '"" "'
«Hich i, s,;„;. . , " t"""'?'^ '""■• """'-"v cl-isc in
jec. or •■ v«„l." , .. k " ' r7/ " ""'■'' '"'" ■■ " '» 'l'^' -I-
"(Ihe preposi.io,, "for- ',, '' ^^ ''"I*'"!.' '<"• " is ll,. „|,j,,,
cause .s ..e o.^ec. „, L ^^^Z:J:i ?ZP'"-
EXEBCISE 151.
Ti// the construction and the case of each .ir
noun tn Exercises 44 and 148. "^ re/atnr />ro.
EXEBCISE 152.
^"'^Jff^i^'/>roper/ornio/prononn(^^,,ho '•'-./,,., "^
your ehoice : reason j or
'.She is a girl I know is trustworthy
2. She is a girl _ j k,,„, ,, j,^ trustworthy
3. We recommend only those — we can trust
"4 #fli.4.
«H
THt TARTS OF SPEECH
~i,
4. I met a man 1 have nu iluubl w.ts your uncle.
5. A lady cnicrcil, , 1 .ifltrward!» Icaiiu-ti, was his aunt.
6. lie gave the watcli tu Nurtnaii, he ihuik;* will take care
o( It.
7. They have found the woman they thought hail Ikch
niuiilered.
8. VVc like to l)c with those we love and we know
love us, let ihein be they may.
153. "Whow" or »M)f whifh." — "Who.sc,"
which is properly the ix>sscs.sivc uf the ma.sculinc
or feminine "who," i.s .sometinies u.sed of neuter
objects as a substitute for the longer and harsher
"of which:" as, "The undiscovered country from
Xi'hose bourne no traveler returns." When .his sub-
stitution is not required by euphony it is avoided
by careful writers.
EXEBCISE 153
Till which of the italicizcil expressions you consider
preferable^ and give your reason: —
1 . She .-isked for a book -whose name {the name of luhu h) 1 ha<l
never heard.
2. The " White Captive " is a woman bound to a tree, in whose
bark (the bark of 'which) arrows are stickinj;.
3. Another side of one's education is the scientific — a side whose
importance {the importance of which) is fast being recogni/ed the
world over.
4. Through the heavy door n'hose bronze network {the bronze
net7i>ork of which) closes the place of his rest, let us enter the
church itself.
5. I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious ft\^'
\m\ons, on whose tops {f he tops 0/ which) the sun kindled all the
melodies and harmonies of light.
OF PRONOUNS
prou.l c,l,c, „f ,1,.. |.l.,in, „-/(„„. ..^,„„, „L' '■''"": ""«
words •such and •• same ' the word "as " is used
as a relative pronoun: as, •• Tears, sueli ,„ ,„,„.,„
weep, burs, forth." After ■• such' the re atTve
•"»-.y.s ••as." After ...same' it is ••as^'or- thV"
w.th a difference i„ ,„,a„i„^,. ..The s„„ e . ■•
ustml.y means • • „f the .san.e kitl ■ •■ as • Mv^r , ,,
i.s the w«,. ,„ vours •• ■■■r, Jly Irouhle
••one and the IZ^ ,, Jl". 'r'""; '"'" " •"-»
'to his brother doe^ ■• Th , *' ""■' '""" ^""'^'^
does not hold „ etiptie?::':^"""'""; ''""^"^"
same that • is never Cnd T"T '"^ " ""-'
books ,„ his brother " o/ • ,! '*" "''' '"""■
-'.'^•h"isu.sed,tL.Xr.^;\^'^,;-
predeees,jhadr:;:';i-Tsc:\T""^'-^-^'*^^^
Occasionally "-k" io ,. i
•• which " to r,.f . "' •'•■'' •'' ■•'"''stitute for
mch to refer to a preceding idea or thought •
polar ^^•o:':'^: "■•■'■^ '"'"'" '"■ '" "f- "appcns In
There is n..t:, wife in the west country
/'«/ has heard of tl,e well of St. Keyil
11
ao6 THE I'AK lb UF bI'LLCH
EXEBCISE IM.
1 . Construit sintiMns Ulttstralni^ tin- usis of riia*
tivis a/tir *' smh " and •* sanu."
2. I'ili tlu blanks in tlu JoUox<Hng scntcnus with llu
pro/it r n/atixi {" as," *• i/ta/ " ), anU j^nf tlu- nason for
your I /toil I': —
1. Such I have give I tiac.
2. '\'\\\s is llic i:\\\\K book my (alhcr used.
3. 1 hold llif same {Hihucal upinions iii) father.
4. I hoUl ihf -vuiie |K}htk:al «i|iiiiioiis my lalhrr holds.
5. These are n«)t ihc siunc tramps were hire )iMer«lay.
6. She is the same merry girl since her marriage site w.is
before it.
155. Ilelatlvc PrfinoiiiiM OmlttiHl. — The relative
•• that" (or its substitute), when it would be the ob-
jeet of a verb or a prejKisition, is often omitted : as,
••The book | ///<./ or w/iic/t] I left here is jrone:"
••The girl [that ov luhom] you are looking for has
not come yet."
Occasionally a relative pronoun in the nominative
case is omitted: as, •• 'Tis distance {that\ lends en-
chantment to the view."
It is interesting to note that adverbial conjunctions are frequently
enjployed with relative force. Thus in the stnlence " He went to
a hotel where he might fuul gootl acccjmmmlation," where is the
equivalent of in which. Ag.'«in in the sentence " He came at a
time when it was impossible for me to see him," the word xchcn
may be resolved into at which,
NoTK.— The term Conjunctive Pitinoiin is frequently
substituted for the term * Relative Pronoun," to eniphasize the fact
that the conjunctive introduces a v.' 'use and joins it in adjectival
relation to its antecedent.
0^ I'KOMM \S
*>7
'„■";■''■ "■ '■■ A"y tl„„„ winch, h,- .Iocs l„. .|,„, „,,1
With rtjianl i„ f„rm v.,,, ..u^^vi- il,a. .1 . ,•
equivalent .0 " my trU 1 ' J"^ '^■'"«
.. ft^fr-^ '''""""" f"rmc.l fr„m ..who '•
•■-ever" is called „^f '"'•''"« ""••™«-..x "ever •or
,. '-•"iLU. With reference to its form •,
t«n.,K,u...i iu.l,.„v.. ,.„ „, „ijh refercn V to'i.s
mcantng. an ...a.„„,.„ ,^.,„.,t^. ,.„,,2T
.- wi;v.''r;u„".,tr;:uc;i';"''"'"' '"-'••■■■ ••^^■^= -*'^*
157. " MlHM-ver" or •• Whomever."— The onlv
.mcuUy ,i.ely to ari.- in connection wi.I tL" ^
"f ndefin.te r,.|at,v<.« lies in the words ■•whoever"
and •• whomever." One is a n„n,in.-.tive form, the
m *
aoS
nil. I'A.<IS Ol^ SPEKCII
other ail otjjcctivc. "(iivc it to Tt'//<>ij'ir comes to
'he (hM)r '* ancl ••(Vivo it to w/towiirr you «cc " are
both correct. ••Whoever" is the .subject of ••comes ;"
'* whomever" is the object nf ••.sec." In each sen-
tence the object of the |>rei>osition •• to " in the rela-
tive elauHc, used sub.stantively.
•• \Vh<»wcvcr " anti " whc»m?Micvcr " are uwd in the samr w;iy ;
as, "I'tJto xi'Mnmsihi'ir %uw\\ is j-ivfii, of hiiti sh.ill Ik- tiiuth re-
quired;" •* ir/iwrtirvr txallilh iunikcK nImII U: .ilwscU."
If f
EXERCISE 155.
Fill the blanks witl^ tlu />ropir forms (" whoivir,"
" U'lioiHivcr "), and givt' tlw reason J or your clioue: —
I. Aik >«»u meet.
a. KIcct — you wish.
3, I will enicrtaiu you srnd.
4. Wc will Kivf it to yuu s.iy,
J, (lid it uughi to be .ishanietl o( himself.
6. We will give it to secinsk to need it inoM.
V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNH.
158. Imlonnttc PronounH IK'fliKMl.- Examine
the italicized words in the following .sentences: —
Sonw have gone.
Each took his turn.
You observe that •• .some " and *' each" are .sub-
.stitutes for names, but do not refer definitely to any
particular individuals.
Definition. — A pronoun that does not refer to any
particular individual is called an Imleflnlte l»ro-
notiii.
■*# lp
♦ I* f
/«# * ■■•*('..
3- r*'«i/»,ir.i//TVf . Muh. othrr. ;innihcr.
r»h.,/s) : i, crriAin onr. itMny .i o,,.-. ^
I'«-M»l«-. >uu. they etc f ' „ ! '{ '^''^ '''f '^''''/'''^'/r .-, m.,n.
rich." J. ^' • '^ "'•"' "'"*• ''*^' ' "«y»-y h. „
Whrn lhr%e word, a. ro.npany n.-unn. ihry ,„„,, ,-. h«.^I
£2£&CI8£ 196.
6V«./r«r/ u,u,as iilustrating the use 0/ each of the
iHiieJimte pronouns. ^
lao. How to Parn*. ITo,iouii».-To par«c a oro
noun one must give iu~ ^
(U Class.
(2) Antecedent (if it has one).
(3) licndcr.
(4) Number.
(S> I'crson.
(6) Construction.
(7) Case.
EXEBCISE 157.
Parse the pronouns in the folloz.nn^^r sentences :-
\. I,nvc thy neighbor as tiiyM-lf.
2. Hod helps them that htip themselves.
f 1
!IO
Tin: PAR IS OK si'r.i.cii
JNt
3- I-«t not liiin that girdcth on his harness Iwast himself as he
that pulteth it off.
4. I find the Englishman to be him of all nun who stands
firmest in his shoes.
5- Ye are the salt of the earth : but if the salt have lost his
savor, wherewith shall it l>e salted ?
6. I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute.
7. There's a divinity that shapes our ends,
Rough-hew them how we will.
8. What's in a name ? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
9. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches.— none
Go just alike, yet each believes his own.
10. Go, lovely rose
Tell her that wastes her time and me
That now she knows.
When I resemble her to thee,
How sweet and fair she seems to be.
11. My mind to me a kingdom is;
Such present joys therein I find.
That it excels all other bliss,
That earth affords or grows by kind :
Though much I want which most would have.
Yet still my mind forbids to crave.
12. Some have too much, yet still do crave;
I little have, and seek no more :
They are but poor, though much they have,
And I am rich with little store ;
They poor, I rich ; they beg, I give;
They lack, I have ; they pine, I live.
OF A\a: VlVE'i
An Acycetlve is a word joined hv iim,, «f i
fon or Imitation to a noun^ .r'Z:^^"^;''"''-
marba'a^;;":"';: »*" ^•"-"--Adicctives
lows:- *• **° S"'""^' '^'*'"''«=». as fol-
*»'<' much: a, "fwl" T'- " "'f '"'*'*• *"" •"••"'-. "'
«.;7>f,i(adioc.ive) Js"ta:^^?^;''f7""-'l-/'••"'-«.-.■
Such words are pronouns wh,n .I, . 'l'™"""") « yours."
when ,hey acc„4a„;r:„:\\\;J7,;'-<',;- "ouns: adjecives
aCiv^X" r;: ~ f r "^"^-''•'^ -^
and plural ,re tTJ ^ " *"''"■'' '<"• ••'ing»Iar
(Pl"-1 . thT:. 'L,~;:?^ ;f ^"-s ..fhi...
Mistakes in the use o the e fLl' " " ','"'" ">•
in connection with suchi T '""^''"^""y °'^«"-
■•kind," which Trl '■''■'' ""' "■^'"•'■' '->"''
"^ THE PARTS OF SPKLCH
EXERCISE 158.
Insert the proper form {''this," ''these" "that"
• ' those ") /;/ each of the following blanks .—
1. I do not like sort of men.
2. We w^nt no more of stjrt of goods.
3. What do you think of kind of golf clubs?
4. Young gentlemen should let sort of thing alone.
5. I always delight in overthrowing sort of schemes.
loa. Comparison of Atljcotlves.— Examine the
adjectives in the following sentences:—
This is a high mountain.
That is a higher mountain.
Yonder is the highesi mountain of all.
" High," " higher," and - highest " are all forms
of the same adjective, and all denote the same
quality; but they denote it in different degrees.
*' High " merely denotes a quality; " higher" de-
notes that the object described has more of that
quality than another object with which it is com-
pared ; " highest " denotes that the object described
has the most of the quality.
Definition.— A difference in the form of an adjec-
tive to denote degree is called Comparison.
Definition.— T\vQ simple form of an adjective is
called the Positive Decree.
Definition.— The form of an adjective that rep-
resents an object as having more of a quality
than another object is called the Comparative
Degree.
«F ADJFXTIVES
called the «upc.r.at.vo IH-^l '' "' " "'""">• '»
Sometimes the superlative deirree is „«.,i „.^
".e .m'e^::: :': th:rr:!.;r-!:°" ^- --^
I never knew a \ nobler \
\ tnore twble \ "^•''"•
He is the \ "('^'I'-^t {
\ most nohle \ '"'"'" ^ ^^'er saw.
two S;;:: tr;:i;^''^' •■"'" ■'"-"^ -'i-'-- -^
of •• er •• and '. est '' ""'''''"""' '"' ""•' •■""""""
4~:'t"rsL;v:^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .r-' - --
and " most.'' ^^ompared by using: "more "
In general the method of comparison is . matter
"f taste, determined f.r the most part by the 2
214
THK PARTS OF SPF.FCH
EXERCISE 169.
Compare the /o/lou>inj^r aiijectives :
Able, h.ippy. honest, fenrless. worldly, lively, careful, particular,
unkind, earnest, beautiful, virtuous, proud, ungrateful.
:, I,
104. Irroflriilar Comparison.— The comparison of
the following adjectives is irregular:—
POMltlVU.
bad i
evil [
Coin par.
■Superl.
POHIUVO
. Com pur.
Mn|M'rl.
worse
worst
late
later
latter
latest
last
ill )
little
less
least
far
farther
farthest
many ^
much S
fore
former
' foremost
more
most
> first
\ nearest
' next
(forth.^j'^/7'.]
further
furthest
near
nearer
gootI 1
well (
better
best
old
( older
( elder
oldest
eldest
105. Adjectives Incapable of Comparison.—
Some adjectives denote qualities that do not vary in
degree: as, "straight," "perfect," "circular,"
"daily," "square," " round," "untiring." Strictly
.speaking, such adjectives cannot be compared ; yet
cu.stom sanctions such expressions as " straighter."
" roundest," "more perfect." because they are con-
venient and their inaccuracy is of no consequence.
100. Use of the Comparative and Superlative
The comparative degree properly implies a com-
parison of two things or .sets of things; the superla-
tive, of more than two: as, " He is oMer than I; "
" She is the youngest of the family."
OF Al;Ji:cTIVES
the ,su,«.rlative when only , v. hL ''""'' ""'"*•'
-. ■•Who was the >., 'l^nt ' T.^: """^7' ^
the fits/ of the two •• T ^*'i"uc. lie is
or sets of th^^raVe tT^a^:^'""'''"'"'^'
degree is preferable ■ as "^vrf' • ^^ '•'"'" P»""ve
or Maude ?" ' ' ^^ ''"•'' '" "'^- '«'''''•'•■ Ruth
The words denotinj; the obi,.,.t„ .
called the ■• terms " of h ' '•"'"I«'-'-'<l are
'- objeets are o np^L ''';,:'';.;f;'"-''';- ^hen
exclude the for.ner- as / ' '"'"" "'"■'^'
«"^ «-//«•. ;«,.„/.■ vVhtn ,nor,;' """' "'''"'' '"•'"
ennipared, the lut.r ^"' '"" "''J'^'-''' "■■-
..^ / , '"'■'^ '*-■"" """»' include the former
a^. ^'•""■s the most useful of «,./„/,.■■ "'• "'™--'--
EXEKCISE 160.
3. Ma,ys red,.>io„s. ,he poorer reci,atio„s of her dass„,a.es
In .t w:,r'"'°" °' '°"''°" ■■ ">= ""P-'-iO" "f '-' »"." cues
167. S„l«,ltute8 for A.ljeetlves.-The function
o. an adjective may be performed by-
m
ai6
rut lARTS OI SI'KECn
(2) Af>r./>o.uti,m.,//,/,nis,': as. ■• The pall,/.,. M^/.,/y ,s shady."
(3) An hiJiHilive ffhrasf: as. " Water to drink was scare*-. '
(4) \p.n/,\ip,i/ phrau: as. "The Ix.y raitn,^ hn Usum is
my brother,"
(5) A claiiw : as, " The jjirl li'/ioni you stnu is my sister."
(6) An iuiverb: as, "The then Emptror."
108. How to rai-Ho an Ailjootlvo.— To parse an
adjective one must tell —
tO Its class.
(1) Its comparison.
(3J lis use.
B i
EXEKCISE 161.
Parse the adject lies in Exercise 15.
CIIAPTKR VI
^t-' AkTICI.Ks
TjfK Articles are the words •• fi,,. •• i
"a." ^^ ^"^ ^nd "an "or
1«». OHhtIii of tho Article**—" TI,..' •
encd form of the deiiionsf r .r '' '^ '''^''^^-
" An •• /I "^'"^^"'Strativc pronoun - thit "
An (shortened to --i" Iwf
sounds) is a weakened form of iU "''""""''"^t
tive"one,-whiehw..f , ""meral adjee-
;rener'il ,> oi ^"""erly written •' an " T„
fifcncral it always implies oneness hut ,. .' •
vague, indefinite sense th.f ,i "'''">' '" '^
numeral adjeetive "one •. '' "'' ^'^^""^^ ^" ^''^^
170. "An" or "A " TU., ,.i, • i
^-^nd "a," which nr ,T-/^^^^^^«'^'^'^^'twcH..i-a„..
word, i; Jee^^c ?r„VT;' ""-■ -^-
sound "an" is u>;f.,l- i f "'''' " ^'""''••l
you: Ihereforewesayviuni, "... I, * "■ " >™r, " ami
•! ctflU accented on th*. e^-, i .. -' •• !K^i(i}iin;r
historical sketch " or ■■a ZoZ^^^^ ■■^'fr "'• ^''^ " '"'
^••i sKetch. dccorcJing to taste.
If
W ,';
3l8
Till-: TAR IS OK SI'LIXII
1
EXIBCISE 162.
/•/// ///<• />ro/>ir Jorm of the articU '*an" or "a"
In Jon- null of tin- following ixpnssions : —
Article, onion, union, uniform, uninlormetl ic.tdir, univtrsal Iw-
hcf. useful invention. unipire, unfortun.ite mistake. luiot^y. Kuropean,
hour, honest m.uj. house, lunnble (Iwcliing. habitual drunkard,*
hotel, heroic pe-'plc, heredilar disposition.
171. ThoAi-tlc'UM j>i:4tliiKiiiHluMl.— Compare the
italicucd cxpruiksioiis in the following sentences:—
Afun is mortal.
The ihilit is dying.
A soldier stood on guard.
'•Man," unlimited by an article, applies to all
mankind. -Child," limited by -the," applies to
an individual, singled out as already before the
mind. "Soldier," limited by "a," applies to an
individual, singled out at random as a representative
of his class. -The" points definitely to a par-
ticular object ; - a " selects (me, no matter which.
Definition.—' • The " is called the IH-rinlte Artlclo ;
- an " or " a " is called the Imlettnlto Article.
17a. rxes of the Artie-It's.— In general both the
defmite and the indefinite article single out indi-
viduals from the rest of a class: the definite, a par-
ticular individual; the indefinite, any individual.
Ordinarily, therefore, they are used, not with proper
nouns or names of materials, but with nouns that
apply to many objects of the same class. Yet no
one principle covers all the uses of articles. These
must be learned chiefly through observation and
»^' IhUnltv Artlole is used-.
wh,!,. //„ ,|„g „„ .,, ,,, ^^^ litcouw 1,"^° "•■" "" '""" •■""I '"■"'■>■
til ''"<» ilcsijfnatt oliiccis IS •' A
•ri.is u«"T'iir" ""■ ""' ""*■ '•'"°" """'"'"'" • ■■
The lii,l,.flnlt,. Artl,.|e is u.sci—
t//^/-A" .. u I , "~""iK"i.snts the numhns- .is •• H,. i,
iiieep , "He has j///v;^." "'• "t li.is <f
(2) In the vnjrue sense of ■• a arf,u„ ■ " ,s -. On • ,
WImwith ,, ,Iog." (The wnnl " « -■ • ." ^"*^ "'«'i' " Wolf
'•iffersinfunction^„„.\he;;des/"' '" ^'"^ ^-'-^ '-r.lly
^3) In the sense of '• nttu •• » • i
-prese„,a.i,.e of „ .,., ; as;.v;;arnf:„r,,"" '""'"""■" "' '^'
"^ ."ijeciive, instead of precedinjr it.
■vlf
rso
THK I'ARTS OK SI'EFXH
EXERCISE 163.
1. Conslriut SititiHui tllust rating the common uses
of the ife/initi nrtule.
2. tonslruct sentnices illustrating the common uses
of the inilejinite article.
EXEBCISE 164.
Distinguish between —
1. (iivf me a (onr) pen.
2. I have cauKlu (a) col«l.
3- A black ami (a) while, cat.
4- Hrinjj mc the (thai) camllc.
5. Crass (The grass) is grt-en.
6. Karlh (The earth) is heavy.
7. I sprang to ,i (the) window.
8. Hirds ( Ihe birds) are singing.
9- Men (The nien) admired him.
lo. He h.as (.i) i.out in his b.asket.
n. Bring me a (the) lighted candle.
12. Trees (The trees) are in blossom.
13- Man (The man) is a strange being.
14- Wanted a cook and (.a) housemaid.
15- Men (The men) ran to give the alarm.
i6. There were few (a few) friends with him.
17. He iKhaved with little (a little) reverence.
18. The (That) road crosses the (a) mountain.
19- A iTian (The man) on the shore rescued her.
30. Mr. Smith (A Mr. Smith) called to see you."
2r. If you wish to have virtue (a virtue), you must practice it
22. Shall I tell you a (the) story of a (the) wolf and a (the) dog >
OF AH Tit I.ES
EXEKCI8E 165.
311
Insert the trof>,r nrtuh n, auft f,/.o,l if
3- My favorilr Howrr ii vioI»-f
^A;;:,-;i::::;;;;;;:~:::;M....:t..
»7.-|. C'uiition.— Not cverv " tlin •• ;
nor f very "a." »s an article.
in!l"..wf' "'''''' *^'^>' ^^^ '''' ni^re they w^nt "
ami snn.lar constructions. ..he" is Z\y ,
«"rv,val of an old adverhi U c. e form / n '' ' '
noun "that." <-ast-form of the pro-
In •• Who ^octh n borrov jnrr cmr^H,
and similar constructions .'"f.'.^^^^'^ -^"^rowin^.."
old preposition. '^ ""'^''^'-'^^ "^ *''"
one must tell— »t^.--To parse an article
(0 What it limits.
(2; Its effect.
EXEHcisE lee.
I'arse the articles in Exereises q2
• i
J
^11
J '4
92 and 1 14.
til
ClfAITKR VII
'»»• \h;kHs
A vorb iM a word used, with ,.r without adjuncts
as the predicate of a .sentence (;,»,, •'»^'J"n<.l«»
The verb is the instrument of a.^sertion. Tsually
't denotes act.on ; less often. U-in^. or state r 4)^
sometimes it is without meaning, havin,/.^ ert^ve
I>-vcr only (:,., Sometimes it is a single C
Himietnnes a phrase (;i«). ** *^"'
I. CLAHHIFICATION.
A. ACCORDIN,; T(» MEANING.
Classifie.1 accoHling t., mcnni„K. verbs are either
TraiiHltlve or IntraiiHltlvc.
IW. .•ra„»i,ivo Vcrl«._A trnnsitive verb dc-
notes action that passes over from the .loer of the
action loan object on which it falls: as, •• A hunter
j//(>/a<lccr" (4o). ""nici
The action expres.,ecl by a transitive verb involves
two persons or things, either of which may be
m.a<le the subject of the .sentence. In one ca e we
represent the action as passing from the subject : in
the other, as pa,ssing to i,. r„ ot,,er words, we
may represent the subject either .as pcrf.,rmi„g the
action, or as receiving or .sufTerinL. it. ri,„. .1
A man
OF VKklJS
•*3
/
S^»metimcs, when the .subject n( fh. .
tlie receiver c.f the aelu,„ t. ^erb names
-^-nisnotmenti: "b th^^"'''^^^••^''•^•
»''^• nature of the verb wh ch "" ^■^'*''"^'^*
Thus:— • '"''* '^'"aius transitive.
NMlU'H-t. Art Ion.
A (Jeer was sU,tt.
For such verbs .is •• hiv,. •• ..^ ..
see .10. ''•^^'^- '°^n. "P" »ess." •• ,„,,,,i,.. ,,,,
To fho TiMU'hor ~a ..
P-sivc voice, ,h. .l.(i„i„„„ r„;,™" ■ '' "'™ ">■■ vrl. is i„ ,l,i
c'eno.e,, action, ^in;, . ':~;^.;"'""-'''^'-' '■"''
the subject:. .s,. .-/lie :;::;i.''':!:j"-';- •■">>•
■• E"--"Kh « as g,^, ,, „ feast .•„„;"" ^'"" ^'"•^•- '^
224
THK PARTS OF Si'EECH
Intransitive verbs art- of two kinds; (i) IWds of Complete
PrcduatioH, which can be used by themselves as complete pred-
icates : as. " The rainbow comes and i^oes ; " (2) Verbs oj htcom-
plele I'rcUiati.m, which cannot by themselves ^e used as com-
pletp predicates : as. " Enough is as good as a feast " (43, 44).
177. Home Verlw KIther TmiiHltlvc or Intran-
sitive. — The distinction between transitive and in-
transitive verbs is based solely on meaning and use,
and if the meaning and use of a verb chani;e, its
classification changes too. Hence it happens that
some verbs are at one time transitive, at another
intransitive: as,
She 7vore a wreath of roses
The'niyht that first we met.
Never morning wore
To evening, but some heart did break.
A peculiar instance of change from one class to another oc-
curs when a verb usually intransitive becomes transitive through
the addition of a preposition used as an inseparable adjunct :
as. •• They lauf^/ud : " " They !au,^r/,ed at me." That the words
"laughed at" in the last sentence are to be taken together as a
transitive verb is shown by the fact that if the sentence is thrown
into the passive form, "at" remains attached to the verb: as.
" I 7i>as laui:;he(i at by them."
Sometimes the |)re|)osition is prefixed to the verb : as, " Cresar
oaercMw^ the enemy."
Causative Verl>s. -Another way for an intransitive verb to
become transitive is by being employed in a CaiiHtil sense: e. g..
Transit n>e :
Intransitive .
IiitraiiHltlve.
Water boils.
(aiiMiil (or (niisatlve).
He boils the water
(i. e.. he causes the
water to boil).
The causative verbs are frequently formed from intransitive
verbs by vuuci change (see ijeciion 17»j.
OF VKRHS
MS
akin ):t'.g., ^ "^ *«"' (Cognalc iiit-aiis
■'o fight a go(Kl fi^'ht.
To fight a hard baitlc.
To laij^rh a hearty laugh.
Thty shoutt'd applause (i. e a shm.f ^t , .
He hK>ke.| daggers at ,„e (i. e.. a look of diggers
'>«• i)arse.l as an adverb. -'.Ijecuve may of eourse
A cognate object-noun must be abstract i, i. r
f'e noun idea implied in the verb. represents n.erely
■s suppressed, as in •• He l<e„ ou, „r iV "'"" "" "''J'-^^'
is reciprocated by U e ob7e V vT h ''^r ''"°'"' '^>'^'^--'^
••"I>liecl. These verbs I ke seT^.v h " '^"'*^ '"^^ ^^'"■"-' '>r
the sentence '• These kie'S TT'' ""' '"'••"'^'■"-- '"
sitive With a reciprocri ol'ee? ^^'■'^ ''' •••-
aivvays scratch when they mce '" th. ''\^^"'^"- ^ ^'-se ki.tens
and intransitive. ^ ' ^^^ ""'''' "^"'''t^^h " is reciprocal
Pa-sslval or Middle Vorlis .n *u
papers sold well during the war "tr^T '^"'"""^ " ^'^^^•^-
without an object. If we 'vw ''^^ '""''"'^•^ ^-^--h ^^Z is used
shall see that the gnmm.tir!.? 1"^ construction carefully we
for the meaning is hTt • '1 '^^ ^'^'' " '"""""'' "" '''''^^^ "''J"'^'
war" c . ^ '^ '"'^t news-vemlors sold nanersu.ii I • l
^var. Such a verb is called /WVv,/or J/'X "'' "'^
•" "'^^edTaL^^j!'^- "^ - a -ile." •• . .ined a day.''
oWeCsof an intr::!;!^;.^ :;;;;;;; '-'- ;-. '- -nsldered •.
-St be treated as adverb.a, m^ ^^:;'r ^b"''"^^'''^- '^'^^
f;
:;:i.,
226
THK PARTS OF SPP:ECH
EXEBCISE 167.
1. Rri>ieti> Exercises 24 and 25.
2. Teii whether the verbs in Exereises 17 and 37
are transitive or intransitive.
3. /// the fo/hu'injr sentences state the kind of verb
and the nature of the object or objects, if any :—
1. He ran a mile.
2. She dresses well.
3. He dicfl a soldier.
4. lieauty is a snare.
5. Lemons taste sour,
6. Hi- ran over the hill.
7. She dresses the doll.
8. He was named John. *
9. He overran the mark.
10. He stayed two hours.
n. The tree stayed his fall.
12. He was paid his wages.
13. He died a soldier's death.
14. He walked over the links.
15. He went home to Toronto.
16. They accused him of theft.
17. He looks every Inch a king.
18. The day broke over the sea.
19- He proved to be incorrigible.
20. I never forgave him the insult,
21. They arrived at the conclusion.
22. His eyes flashed fire at his foes.
23. He hit me a rap on the knuckles.
24. They remained all day out of sight.
25. If you are a man prove yourself one.
26. It seemed that he recovered from his illness.
27. We shall of course give what you say due consideration,
178. Transitive and Intransitive Distinguished
by Form.— A few verbs in common use are distin-
$f -Tj^' '111 ■ •iibJlHR' ''~*
■'fft'**t j'....Vi'
OF VERBS
guished as transitive o ,«*^
iniT. the tran»iti:rbci:~r r^'''*--'^ »•-•"•
corrc.,x>„di„,.„ura„»iti.: vX Tht'atrl'''^
■ .. « ...
lutruuMltlve.
Fall : as. " Divided we/a//:'
Z^/. fell .as. ..Great Ca-sar
'':/lf/';f ''■'•'//'•.' fallen: as
She has/rt//,.,/ asleep."
Lie: as. "Z/> still. ••
Transitive.
Fell ("cause to fall"); „
^Voodmen/e'// trees!"
^<»-r/. felled: as •• ti,
Lay ("cause to lie") • as " / ..,
/... deJd'." ''• '^^''°'^'' ^'-- ^-A l.-.id . as. .. He /././ ,he
^"s/ I\irticit,/e I, in book down." "^
'•Haclhe/./^,hereLg?'M <X'e h^T 'i'^/''' '•■"^' ^ -•
Risea. ..JP- -. "^'^•'^'''"'^the book down"
^•se.as. iP«^ with the lark." Raise r-.
I Kaise ( 'cause to rise ") ; as
P^^st, rose : as. " Then up he \ pff'- ''T ^''''^''
rose. "I' ne -^t"/. raised : as "Hp-..- j
P.r., ^..w....... . his head " '^'"•'''''
^?JL{',T'^'>»''''. raised: as.
"e has ra/i^,/ his he.-,,! ••
i ne lark has r/j^«."
Sit; as. "Let us «•/ down."
Set ("cause to sit"): as "9,./
Past, sat : as " We e^/ I « '""""P ''" ^^"^ ^ahle."
thepiazza." • '^" ^''^ °" ^«-A set: as. "She ../ ,he
Past Particift/e s it • -,» n^'^P °" ^'^^^ table."
"Hehas.a/tteaINny"' ^%le h''""*^'^'^' ^^» ^ ^s.
EXEBCISE 168.
I. Z/.f. /ay, /ying, /ayt„g, /am, /aid.
I- Let him there.
- ^- Jt has neve r smooth.
.
asS
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3. I found it on the floor.
4. Now I inc down to sleep.
5. Ireland s west of England.
6. Slowly anil sadly we liim down.
7. You had better down for a while.
8. Hush, my dear, still and slumber.
9. During the storm the ship at anchor.
10. He told me to down, and I down.
1 1. The carpet does not smooth on the floor.
12. I was so weary that I down in my clothes.
13. He told me to — it down, and I it down.
14. After he had down he remcml^rcd that he had left
his pocketbook ing by the open window.
II. Rise, rose, risen, raise, raised.
1. up, you lazy fellow.
2. The price of corn has .
3. Let them up and help you.
4. She cannot get her bread to .
5. Cain up against Abel, his brother.
6. Many are they that up against me.
7. Abraham up early in the morning.
8. He himself up liefore I could reach him.
9. " up," said I, "and get you over the brook."
III. Sit, sat, set.
1. Where do you ?
2. Have you there long.'
3. down and talk a while.
4. Let us a good example.
5. She had to up all night.
6. The calamity heavy on us.
7. Let us here and listen to tlie music.
8. Yesterday we round the fire telling stories.
9. He the basket on a rock, while he went to the sprmg.
OF VKKHS
339
B. ACCokrHNO Tf) FORM
weak „,ay be poTuled ^■'"^'"■^'"" °^ ^""^ ^' -^'-^ «-'
Classified according to form, verbs are cither
17». Sti-onwr VcrbM—Examine the forms of tho
verb ..give- in the following sentences -!1
TI,.V.V..,,,e.U,y. T.ey,.,..,u.„„,, ,.,,;:::.^--;-;^^
Y<ni observe that the past is formed from the
present by ehangin^. the vowel ..i" to "a' ami
the past participle lias the suffix ••-en "
I}.j!,Mo„-A verb that forms its past tense' by
an n ternal vowel change, without any suffix, is
called a Strong Verb.
All slronj; verbs originally h.i.l the emiing ".„ " or " ^„ •• ,„
evr. always a sij'S' a sL" ve^ " ""' ''^"^^""' ''• ^■'"-
<ore''S' rro7^^„v."he"a:r.eTs^'" --^ '•^."'=-«' ■ '^"-
Old Conjugation. somenmes called ihe
180. Weak Verbs.-E.xamine the forms of the
verbs - obey," ■• hope," and ..mean • in the fo low
ing sentences :_ ioiiow-
', See Section 180.
230
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
PrtNM^nt. i»ui»t. l»H«t Participle.
I oh,y you. I obeyed you. , 1 have obeyed you.
VVc hope for the Ix-st. We hoped for the best. \Vc have hoped for
the best.
They mean well. They meant well. They have meant
well.
You observe that IkjIIi the past tense and the
past participle are formed by adding •*-ed," **-d,"
or •• -t."
DiJiNition.—A verb that forms its past tense by
idding "-ed,* ••-d," or "-t," i.- called a Weak Vci-b.
The past participle of a weak verb is always like the past tense.
Many weak verbs undergo an internal vowel change, like strong
verbs; but they differ from strong verbs in having an addetl " -d "
or "t" in the past tense : as. Xc\\,Xo\d; le.ich. trf//gh/ ; buy,
bfwgh/.
In such strong verbs as " find," " ioum\," " fight," "ioughx." the
"-(I " or "-t " of the p.ist tense is not a suffix, but belongs to the
present form also.
Some weak verbs change "d" of the present to "t" in the
past : as, build, bull/; send, sen/; spend, spenA
In general, the test of a weak verb is the presence in the past
tense of a " d " or a " t " that is not in the present.
The following verbs, in which the past tense is like the present,
or merely shortens the vowel sound, have lost their suffix and are
known to be weak only from a study of Old English : bet, bleed,
breed, cast, cost, cut, feed, hit, hurt, lead, let, meet, put, read, rid,
set, shed, shoot, shut, slit, speed, spit, split, spread, thrust, wet.
Most weak verbs are of later origin than strong verbs. Hence
this mode df forming the past tense Is sometimes called the New
Conjugratlou.
181. Mixed Verbs. — Some strong verbs have
adopted the method of the new conjugation while
retaining also that of the old: as, crow, crew or
OF VERBS
«3«
'■rowed; cli^. duf: or di^r^ed ; hang, hung or hanged ■
thrive, Mrc/jv or thrived.
A few verbs form their past tense accorcling to
one eonjugation. and their past participle according
to another: as. hew, /.W, /.•:..; show. sho-.X
Sharon ; sow, so,ved^ so,on ; swell. s:.e//ed, st.ollen -
wake, 'u-ohe, leaked.
I8«. Principal Part« of « Verl,._The present
the past, and the past participle are eoL.oni;
called the PrlnoUu.1 I^.rtH of a verb, because from
them we can determine all the other forms or parts
The prmcpal parts of a verb are the forms used
in filling the blanks in the following sentences--
Prf»H««nt.
I now.
Pn*4t.
J yesterday.
Pa«t I'nrtlfiple.
I have .
EXEBCISE 169.
lul^^erlfS'^'T' ^"'''^ ''///- >//...;V r^rh, tell
<o/uther the verbs are strong or weak, and give the
reason for the classification :— ^
arise
bake
beat
begin
l)en(l
l)eseech
t)ir.d
blow
break
brill-
build
l)iiy
Itch
choose
come
cost
dream
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
freeze
have
hear
hide
hold
hope
keep
laugh
lay
lead
lend
make
seek
send
set
sing
sit
teach
tell
To the Teaoher.-To require a pupil to learn by h-^.rt the
prmcpal parts of all the strong and the irregular weal verbs is
;ive:"rr"''A ;^T'- '''''-''''' "'^ table! of suc^Vrlf are
Kivcri nere. A list, however k jsicprt- ! t- t
A 1- _i!r:i, s'v jjjsertrU lur referent c in rh*
^33
THE PARTS OF SPF.FXH
C. ACCORIUNO TO I'SE.
Classified according to use, verbs are either
Notional or Auxllittry.
I ■»
III
183. Notlottul and Auxiliary Vorli« DonncMl. —
Compare the uses of the verb •• have " la tlie follow-
ing sentences: —
I have a ball.
i hii'i'f lost my 1 11.
In the first sentence •* have '* expresses a distinct
idea or notion of its own, namely, the idea of jkxs-
session.
In the second sentence it has laid aside this
meanmg and merely helps to express the meaning
of another verb, " lost."
Definition. — A verb that expresses a di.stinct idea
or notion of its own is called a Notional Verb.
Definition. — A verb hat merely helps to express
the meaning of another verb is called an Auxiliary
Verb.
The verb that follows an .'•uxiliary is always an infinitive or a
participle, and is sometimes called the Principal Verb in the
verb-phrase.
To the Teacher.— There is much divergence among gram-
marians in the treatment of can, let, may, musl, oisi^ht, should, and
would. These verbs cannot stand alone as predicates, but are
always followed by the infinitive of another verb; therefore they
are all often classed as auxiliaries. On the other hand, can, must,
and ought always have meanings of their own ; therefore many
object to calling them auxiliaries. According to the latter view,
which is adopted in this book, hi, may, should, and -ujould are
sometimes notional, sometimes auxiliary (2L0-S224).
OF VERBS
231
SXEBCISE 170.
184. Vorl«l Innootl,.„B._Vcrbs undcrg,, many
mo.I,ficat,on.s m form, which add to their r.„,t mean-
mss ccrtam ideas of time, completion, uncertainty,
ntnnber person, etc. These accessory i.leas are
attached partly by inflections and partly by auiil-
lanes. ^ ^
II. NI^MBKR AXD PKRHOX.
.nil?; '""^^''**" ^"'' ^y^r^X^v and Per«o„._I„
some languages the form of the verb changes wi'h
the number and person of the subject, and the verb
IS «a>J to^.^r.. with its subject in number and per-
son. In Old English such number and person forms
were numerous; and in the case of the verb - be •'
we still say: -lam;- "Thou .;./.- '• He is;" - We
are; "I j.^. Z' '.You «rn/' etc. Other verbs in
modern English have lost all their inflections for
number and person, except in the second and third
persons of the singular number, as follows:—
\\
■i]
ti
i '1
«34 THK PARTS OF SPEECH
I'trsl P.rum . I tnakc.
Sttomt PtrsoH: Thou niak<i/.
Thint I\rum: He iiiakti (iiiak.//Sj,
The termination " -st ' (subject " thou ") is uwd only in liiblical
anil poetical language (I.ISi.)
The ti-rminatio., " -th " or " -rth." which was once uscil instead
"f "-s." survives only in IJiblical language and in |M>etry : as. '• He
that mak'Hh haste to be rich shall nut Ik: innocent ; " " Wk, hrayeth
well who /,»7'irM well. "
Therefor.-, except in the verb " be." the only inflection for num-
Ikt and j)crson in conunon use is".s " in the third jHrson singular.
IHfl. (onHtmctioii of XumlMr 1 nriiiM. Exam-
ine the verbs and their subjects iti the followini,^
sentences: —
A s,n^.- of duty purmn us ever. (Singular subj.-ct ; singular
verb.)
TrouhUs never come singly. (Plural subject ; plural verb.)
Half of theni are gone. (.Subject singular in form but plural
m sense ; plural verb.)
"Gulliver's Traveh" was yfix\K\^t\ by Swift. (Subject plural
m form but singular in sense; singular verb.)
Tom and his sister were t here. (Two singular subjects together
formmg a plural ; plural verb.)
Bread and butler is good enough for me. (Two singular
subjects taken together as one thing ; singul.ir verb.)
Neither Fred nor his sister was there. (Two singular subjects
considered separately; singular verb.)
You okserve that, in general, a singular form of
the verb is u.sed when the subject is singular or re-
garded as singular; a plural form, when the sub-
ject is plural or regarded as plural.
The principle that a verb agrees with its subject
Of \KKI)S
>ii
in m.,„lH..r is i„ ,„,«( ca.sc.s f„I|.,wc,l ,.„c„„sciuus|.-
wi;.n „.. „,„„„.„ „, ,„., :.x;,„r„ .:::;;„;',;;""•" -;'•
'"■"<.« i. Ibuu„lu <,r a, a l,„,lv, 't' • "' ""■ """■
""•■"■'■■• (TLc c„„u„i.,« a, 'L a?a b"';""l"" '"■"■ '■"""•'
pr.f;,!.::;';::::v'z;fv :'''"•■;''■' '^ •'''■^"' '"- "™" "■^•
sulistaniivc. The followin.r » numinruf tin- mar. s»
.. , loiiowin^ sentences are correct • •• Tiw. t
t«on of paragraphs /. very inmortm. " m \ The f„rma-
'• formation.") " Fvervone of 1^ I i J .''''' "'*' '"''J^*^^' ''
L- y "'-'*' "S^'^Jf had ths fet'lincr " /ii •■_
subject is " Every one.") letting. (Here the
Words joined to a singul.ir subject l,v •• with "" f. , ..
" "« addition to." or " as Well -.. " l T ''>},'eth.r with."
level as the subject but . \ "" "'" '•'^'"^ Sranunatu-.l
affect the n:!:!:: iz:^^^^::' ^"" ''''"'"' "" ■-
.//Wj it." • •^"'''*-^*^' ^=* ^^'^" as mercy.
i <l
! il
m
{I
v
H
11
EXEECISE 171.
Co
.,/"f"'' '''''■"'-'-' -Instmi^n^ rach of the special
<-ses of agreement nuntioned in Seetion ,86.
Oil
ayv
THK I'AKls OF M'KKCH
EXERCISE 178.
iMSt-rt in iiu/i of ttu N,ini's t/u f*rof>,r form of t/u
virb " fii," iiHil ^ivf thi rmsoii for your ihoue :-^
I. I know you there.
2 One of you mUlaktn.
3. One or iwu ■ rt-.uly now.
4- Iwo year* a loiij; nine.
5. U«Mjki — — n tuntniun noun.
6. Five years' interest ilue.
7. A hundred yar«U — — not f.ir,
8. Then- many thnl}•^ to do.
9. Itrcad ami milk j;tMMl «h« t.
10. The public c«>rdially invited.
11. Fl.icli o( the sisters — — iKrauliful,
12. Neither of the girls very much .nt c.tv.
I J. A numlRT of the iMiys waiting outNidc.
14. Manual and physical training necessary.
15. Hither the m.ister ur his servants to Id.imc.
16. Two thousand dollars a year - a gocxl salary.
17. Fluency and eloquence two difTennt things.
18. Neither the servants nor their master to blame.
19. Neither the painter nor his picture very famous.
20. She has one of the prettiest f.ices that ever seen.
21. "Talcs of a Tr.-ivelcr " published by Irving in 1824.
22. General Cusicr, with .ill his men. massacred by Imli.in..
187. "Don't."—" Don't," which is a contraction
of •* do not," and which is proper cnougli in its
place, should not be misused for •♦doesn't" when
the .subject is in the third |)erson singular. The
followinjr sentences are correct : •• Why liocsnt she
come ? " *• Why don I you s^Hiak ? "
OF Vr.RBS
»J7
£X£XCI8E 173.
I. Why he write?
^- •• »t*cm |M>«i»i|>te.
J. Shi! hkc rrtK|Ucl.
5. The . aptam say* he know what it i^ lo Iht a/raid.
IHH. fonNtriictlon or IVmui ForiiiH.-A prac-
tical .l.mculiy in „.si„j. correctly the i,c.r.sonal
forms of verbs arises when the subject consists of
twc. or m.,re substantives of dilTerent jK^rsons con-
nccted by nt/ur~.>r, or ,uif/ur-^„or. Shall we say
for example. •• Kither he or I /. mistaken." or
*• hither he or I am mistaken ? " If driven to i
choice, wc usually, but by no means always, let the
verb a^ree with the nearest subject ; or. we ^nve the
preference to the f.rst i>erson over the second or third
But It IS far better to av(,id such dirtlculties (,) by
usmjr some verb that has the same form for ail
IKTsons: as. •• Either he or I ,nnst In- mistaken ;'• or
{2) by rearran^rinjr the sentence: as. " Kither you
are mistaken, or I am;" "One of us is mistaken,"
Occasionally mistakes in person are made in
relative clauses, the speaker for^retting that the verb
should have the .same person as the antecedent of
the relative pronoun (151).
if
■) -i
i
*3» THE I'ARTS OF SI'IJLCH
III. TKNHK.
1««. Tonw Defliu'd.— Compare the verbs in the
folluwing sentenees:
I ste the Mrooklyn Hridgc,
I sanf the Urooklyn IJridge.
I s/ia// .ut Ihv iJrcHiklyn Hridge.
Here we have three different forms of the same
verb, denoting the same action, but referriuLr a to
diffe^rent times-the present, the past, and the
Dcfinitums.-X difference in the form of a verb
to denote time is called Tcuh., (OM French
"time"). ^ ^ 'it-ncn.
A verb that denotes present action is in the
Present Tense. ' i /"^
A verb that denotes past action is in the Pust
A verb that denotes future action is in the
Futui-e Tenwe. ^
lOO. 8lmp,e Tenses.-The English verb has only
two simple tense forms : the r«.^„t Tense, which is
the same as the root-form of the verb- as "I
«-//..•• ..I noper and the Past Tense, which is
formed from the present by inflection: as -I
'^vrotc, -Ihopcdr To denote future action the
present tense was at first employed, as it still is
occasionally: as. " We ^.;^./„ practice to-morrow. "
^ Jhe methods of forming the past tense are described in 170-
101. Phi^sal Tenses.-In course of time the two
simple tenses were found insufficient ; and to denote
t - ' t. Hi
0^ VKkHs
239
further distinctions of time verl, nhr-.c
ll-f .nfinilivc U.SCCI i„ forming vcrb.,.hr-.scs k
the root nifiuitivc. without •• to " (,,•„ '
Tho participles used in forn.injj C.^b.phrasc.s -.re
the present participle and the past partidp, "'
I he present participle ends in •• -ing •
The past participle of a weak veri- is the same
s^.e past tense and e -s in ...ed.'^ ■■.arZ "T.
iary followed ., the root iniitr;:Uo:rr^^^^
as, i s/m// jon/i' to him" ''H^, •//
Tu ... ' t" nim. He wt// wnu to me."
ine distinction between shall ■%n,\ ,,..// r
given in 100. snail :,vi^ ^,11 ^ f^^^^^ auxiliaries is
EXERCISE 174.
Construct scntcnas contcuning; the Present h ,c/ /
future tenses of ^^ fi,,, '. ,„, .^ Ji""'''' ^'"^' '"'''
action' a? cTo'l"'""" ^-fect.-To represent an
use the present, past, or future of - have " as in
anxthary, followed bv the j>ast partid;,.:^ Z
m
240
THE I'AKTS OF SI'KKCH
i i
i I'
' t
•There, I Aatr i^'rittnt my exercise;" •' Yesterday,
when the clock struck nine, I had xvrittcn two
pages;" "To-morrow, by dinnertime, \ shall luivc
xoritten all my letters." Since these phrasal tenses
denote action as completed or perfect in present,
past, or future time, they are called the l»ei-fec-t
Tt'll>«CH.
The I'rcweut Perfoot Tciimo denotes action com-
pleted at the time of speaking. It is formed by
putting "have" (-hast." -has") before the past
participle.
The PjiMt Perfect Tense denotes action completed
at some point in past time. It is formed by put-
ting - had " (- hadst") before the past participle.
The Futui«o Perfect Tense denotes action that
will be completed at some point in future time. It
is formed by putting " shall have " or •* will have "
before the past participle.
Originally " have " in the perfect tense phrases was a notional
verb, and the participle described the object, as when we now say.
" I have my letters written ; " " I ha^ two pages ivrittm ; " " I
s/ia// /lave my letters written:' Moreover, " have " was used only
with transitive verbs, intransitive verbs forming their perfect tenses
with " be : " as, " Thy sister-in-law ts gone back unto her people."
In course of time the participle was transferred from the object to
the auxiliary as part of a verb-phrase, and the use of " have" was
extended to intransitive verbs also : as. " The sun has gone down."
EXERCISE 175.
Construct sentences containing the perfect tenses of
''fight" and '^ St amir
104. Phra.sal Tenses: Progressive. — Compare
the verbs in the following sentences :— -
'MMmt ..Am
OF VERBS 241
I 7i>r//i' my letters carefully.
I ,t>ft lun/iftj; my letters carefully.
Both of these sentences refer to present time,
but wJtii a difTercnce. In the first sentence the
simple present •' write" does not necessarily mean
that the writinjr is jr<,i„^r on at the present moment ;
It merely asserts a present custom. In order to rep-
resent an action as going on or progressing, we usu-
ally put a form of "be "before the present parti-
ciple, as in the second sentence. Since such phrasal
tenses denote action as progressing in present,
past, or future time, they are called Progressive
Tenm's.
The Pivscnt Progrresslve Tenso represents an
action as going on at the time of speaking. It is
formed by putting - am " (- art," •• is," •♦ are ") be-
fore the present participle.
The Post Projn^sslve Tense represents an action
as going on at some point in past time. It is
formed by putting " was " ("wast," " were ") before
the present participle.
The Future Progressive Tense represents an
action as going on at some point in future time. It
is formed by putting " shall be " or •' will be " be-
fore the present participle.
Now compare the verbs in the following sen-
tences : —
I /ui7'e 7urittcn my letters.
I have been writtn^r my letters.
In the sentence " I /lave xvrittcn my letters" the
verb - have written " merely represents the action
t
H
I'M.;.'^
.^mmm ^]fmat.
242
THE I'AKTS OK bl'EECH
as completed. If wu wish to atUl to the idea of com-
pletion the idea of previous durati(,n or pro^rress we
combme the perfect tenses of •• be •' with the pres
cnt participle: as. - I A^r ban writin^r ,, composi-
tion. •• Yesterday evening my hand was cramped,
for I //,„/ ^,v,/ 7ir///V all day;" -When the clock
strikes ten I s/tail have been -an-iting twenty minutes "
Since these phrasiil tenses denote action as com-
pleted in present, past, or future time, after con-
tinuance or progression, they are called respectively
the Present Perfect Pro«roH»lvo Tenst,, the P«Ht
Perfect ProKrc'«8lvo TeiiMc, and the Future l»tr-
fect Pro|jrresMi\e TeiiHe. ,
Logically the present participle in the progressive tenses is an
attribute complement, describing the subject ; but grammatically
It IS best to treat it as part of a verb-phrase.
EZEBCISE 170.
Const met sentences illustrating each of the six pro-
gressivc tenses of ''fight " and " stahd."
106. Phrasal TenscH: Emphatic, Interrogatlvcs
and Ne«ratlve.— In the sentences " I lorite my let-
tcrs carefully" and "I ivrote to her yesterday"
••write" and " wrote " merely assert action. If we
wish to make the same assertions emphatically, in
the face of doubt or denial, we substitute for the
simple tenses certain phrasal tenses formed by put-
ting the present or the past of "do" before the root
infinitive of the principal verb: as, ''I do ivrite my
letters carefully;" ."I did write to her yesterday."
OF VKKHS
243
These phra..«I tcn.sc-s are appropriately called U...
I'rc«,..t Ki..„h«,l<. Tenn.. and the ,'Jt K.„....
emphasis on the auxihary that is already present
as, '. I A^,^ written my letters." ^ '
In NcKtttlvo and Interro«„tive scntcnees th..
same phra,sal tenses forn.cd with ••do' and fjid'
are substituted for the simple pre.sen and It
enses, without the effect of emphasis: as,'"!"^!
fully .. ^" • ^ou .//,/ not rt'r//r care-
The emphatic meaning of the auxilinn, .. ,i„ •• •
merly the phrasal tenses for, .- , wi^ " 1 ■' ^ TT.^ """■
equivalent to the simnU «r . '^"'' " *'"J were
emphasis. "'^'^ P*^"*^"' ^"^' P'-^^t. and cli<| not imply
The use of the auxillorv <• /!^ •• •
ance with the tendencHf ,'" "^f ^'^'^ ''"«^"«s is in accor.l-
ablesu?.:^:Ji^,,^;;;;;^„;'''«•• in interrogative -tences en-
into a question rhchisTnlu^h'^K' °' '""'"^ ^" --^"-
and the principal verb as -r. l '""' ''''^^^" ^" ^"-'i-V
P vero . as. ^r^ you comi„^f " "Did you Aear ? "
EXEECISE 177.
Construct sentences illnsf rating the present n«rf ^ .
.etrr\rSnTterf:rd;;eXrr„^^^^^
244
THK PARTS OF SPEFXII
Pits/
Jut.
Pres. Per/.
PiUt P.'rf.
I'm. P,rf.
Onllimry.
write
wrole
will write
have written
had written
will have written
«lo write
did write
am writing
was writing
will Ik: writing
have been writing
had lieen writing
will have l)ecn writinjj
N«)lE.— Besides these regular tenses, we sometimes employ a
son of future tense |)hrasc formed hy combining the progressive
tensesof "go" with the root infinitive of the principal verb: as.
•* I am going to write a composition . " "I huve been goin^ to
li'rite to him for a week." It is best to resolve such phrases into
their parts, rather than to classify them as parts of the tense system.
The sanie is true of such phrases as " I useii to write " and " I am
about to ivrite." *
EZEBCISE 178.
Give the tense of each verb in Exercises 23 and 38.
To the Teacher — A complete discussion of the uses of
English tenses is impossible here, nor would it be desirable ; for the
tenses and their uses are. for the most part, learned unconsciously
from conversation and reading. The following discussion is limited
to the few instances in which experience shows that special com-
ment is helpful.
197. Uses of the Simple Present.— The simple
present tense has the following uses: —
1. To denote action belonging to a period of time that includes
the present : as. " He goes to town every Saturday ; " " Two and
two make four."
2. As an occasional substitute for the present progressive, to
denote action going on at the present moment : as, " I see a robin ; "
"I^^rtr thebell."
_ 3. As an occasional substitute for the future : as. " We sail for
Europe next Saturday."
M:
\. '"'4ilK!l..
.PI.
mi]
M..,yr:.^^iar-^
OF VERBS
245
108. Uses of tho Pfcflent Pnwv.»* tu
perfect ten.., ^Ui^^TZ^lTrl^^^LV'::^'
•un,. as ,.„^/,.,,,/ „, .he time of .s^ali:!" ^^
used, mstcid of a past ten«*. ♦« i^*''''"i». »>» also
-io„o,a.co„ti„r^?::/;rnr,:j;-::
Its ccnstquences or^^inc k 1 • '"' *'^ »ta.st in
4"^»«-c.s, or (2) as iK'Ionginir to a oeriixl .»f
tunc not yet ended : as, *» ^ ^ > ^ period of
(•) " I >*-. /../ my fx><,k •• (so tha, now I am without i.).
U e /u,v. //.,v/ here five years - (we live here now).
{') " I Aaiw seen him three times to-dayr
(2) " We have had a great deal of rain this yec :"
The use of a past tense in any of these sen
tences would cut away the action fr'i.m all con nee-"
tion with present time: as, <-onncc-
"I lost my book " (it may have since been found)
*' We lived here five years " (we have moved away).
" I saw him three \\vc\^% yesterday."
" We had a great deal of rain last year."
EXEECISE 179.
J^istin^nish bctivccn :
He studies (is studying) now.
I came (have come) to see you.
I read (am reading) Thackeray.
She always goes (is going) to church.
He hved (h.s lived) her. a good n.any yeara.
We expected (were expecting) you yestenlay.
m
li,
»4<^
THE PARTS OF SPKFXH
You liiU not lit- (have nut tinl) it f.isl cnmijjh.
I have writlrii (have Ikcii vviitnig) letters all <lay.
What have you done (have you l>cci» doing) lo-tlay ?
I have received (have l)ecn receiving) letters from him.
I shall travel (shall Iw traveling) in Kurope next summer.
I wrote (had written, was writing) my letter when he came.
EXEBCISE 180.
Telltvhich of the it alichcd forms is pnfirahle, ami
give the reason for your answer : —
1. I 7ua% (havg ivrn) here yesterday.
2. Shakespeare snyi {sai,l) that love is blind.
3. I kni-w {Ain>f Anoiun) him since he was a child.
4. How far did you say it is {loas) from here to Chicigo?
5. The earth is .1 ball that always turns (/r tumin,:) round.
6. When we saio (h,ut snn) everything in Oeneva we went on
tv Paris.
7. As soon as the ships were within range the Admiral o/>,»s
(opt-ntd) fire.
8. IJy this time to-morrow I shall pass {shall have passed) my
exan)inations.
9. I shall finish {shall have finished) my letter l)y tite time
you come back.
10. Mr. Williams regrets that a previous engagement pm^er-fi
(will pniunt) him from accepting Miss Smith's kind invitation .or
Mond.-iy evening.
190. Shall or Will.— There i.s an important di.s-
tinction between the auxiliarie.s u.sed in forminjr the
future tenses. At fir.st ".shall'* and "will" were
notional verbs, ".shall" meaning "to be obliged."
and " will " meaning - to wi.sh." At pre.sent they
often retain some trace of their original meanings,
V,
II ■ ♦■
I <
or VERBS
^ brought .o jusC • T'*-' >°''; ""« ^W/
•• shall" and ••will" an, m '^ "°' ''»«-<-ver,
'race of their oril,, lr„"''' """"'''"'■•■•'■ with no
-»" ring, and I vw/ ;:.t';:"^" *"• "T'- i-.ii .,//
Modern u.sage .nay be ;xhibi.eda» follows:-
«lmpl« Future. i/"*"5*'' ^'«»« nilded
i (we) shall r °'***''«"-'"'n««loa.
You will ' ' <^^> wi.l
ii- (they) will ;;'°" f «" •
He (Jhey) shall •
in r/a,,srs introihced bv th^
expressed or understo<Kl th, '""''J"''"''^*^ '' thatr
that would be used ttX^T """"^^ '^ "^^
ent sentence: as. •. j f^.r 2' ' '" '"^^"P""^*
t-in .•• (Jn^I^P-dent: "wl^J? ^ the
s K ^ •^'"''' niiss the train ")
-"^--s;^::;— r••^"-
In questions "shall" ic fu
the first person:' in the 1 i^"""^" auxihar>' in
' ^>omelimM useil I'n » - —
■S ■=!
^M
148
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
answer : as, ' 'S/mU wc go to. morrow ? " • • ll'i// you
• ? " {A nswcr .• • • I wUi go. ") • ^Shaii you be glad
A .jn to-morrow come»?' {Ansurr: " I s/m// be
glad.")
"Should "and "would" are the past tenses of
"shall" and "will/' and in general follow the
same rules. See, however, itm and ittftf.
EXEBCISE 181.
Distinguish bet u, en : —
1. He will (shall) not go.
2. Shall (will) you be there?
3. I j'^all (will) not hear you.
4. She will (shall) not see me.
5. He thought I would (should) go.
6. We will (shall) see you to-morrow.
7. What shall (will) the admission l)e ?
8. H he would (should) help, we could do it.
9. You will (shall) know my answer to-morrow.
10. If she disobeyed, she would (should) be punished.
11. Do you think I would (should) go under the circumstances?
EZEBCISE 182.
Insert the proper auxiliary ( * ' shall" « • will") in each
blank in the folloiving sentences : —
1. we go to-morrow ?
2. We have rain soon.
3- I be glad to see you.
4- you be able to come ?
5- we ask her to come too ?
6. I = — be twelve in December.
A t
\',W
.JCS-it
7. How I»cmHl,c|M.kaKc?
^^ IN ilo not hurry. I u- late.
9. I ho|)e you J,e able to come.
lo. I bring a chair for the l.i,|y ?
". Ilr think, we soon have rain.
«3. I am afraid we „,iM ,he train.
•J. She, ays .he Ik- glad .o »e. ,.,.
14. We „ever forget this kindne,,.
15. vve have tirnr to gel our tickt-ts?
16. We — Ik- plfastd to have you call.
•7. I ho,,e we -^ not Ik. ho la . a, that.
'8- Hefe..rswe ^ have to .-.sk her too.
'9. I fear that I — not be. -.blc.o come.
=0. He thinks he _ not \>c able to come.
^•- John thinks he _ Ik, sick to-morrow.
"• He a,k«J how he __ ^„,, ,he p.,ck..ge.
^3- John thinks James- be s.ck tomorrow.
^4. She wonders whether we — . go to-morrow.
J5. It .s probable that I -_,,,,,y,,,,^,^.^^
26. you „,eet me at the corner in five minut.s ?
27. They declare they never _ forget this kindness.
M. _ we have another chance at this examination ?
EXEBCISE 183.
1. He thought I be hurt.
2. We be sorry to l)e late.
3- He thought he . be hurt.
4. He thought she be hurt.
5. He thought you |,e hurt.
6. I like to see a yacht race.
M9
II
fl
i?i
m
3;n
Tin: I'AHTs OF sl»^:^:cH
her.
7. NVhrtl wr (to without c«M»k«?
8. At tirtt I di,|„t think I — hkc Ulin.
9 H I trirti to w.ilk a iight-roiic. I fall.
la I .i!,kc<| hirn whether he come again.
Ill ihink they have kmiwn Jietler.
12. I reel gla.| .r she tdl mc wherein I have offended
JWMJ. MlMiimMi Form«.~ The piist tense and the
past iKirticipIc of the verbs in the followinjf list arc
often eonfounded or incorrectly formed:—
l'r«HM>iit.
begin
blow
break
bur-It
come
dive
do
drive
eat
fly
flow
freeze
forget
«o
lay (" to cause to lie ")
lie (" to rcclint- ")
prove
ride
rise
raise (•• to cause to rise ")
run
see
set ("to put;" of the sun. set
moon, etc., "to sink ")
l»iii»l. l*mmt Pun triple.
*»«K«n t>egun
•>l'*w blown
' broke broken
burst biirsl
came come
dived ,|ived
<J'd done
drove driven
a^e eaten
flew flown
flowed flowed
froje frozen
forgot forgotten
KOI got
went gone
laid laid
••'»y lain
proved proved
foiic ridden
rose risen
raised raised
ran nin
saw seen
set
l*lfMM«Qt.
show
•peak
•lay
steal
lake
throw
wake
write
OF VKKBS
l*IMt.
kit
■hfM)k
showed
tpoke
slew
stole
lo<ik
threw
Woke
Wrote
»$•
l*a«t INirticipi,..
tat
jh^ken
shown
spoken
stain
i.ik'-tj
ii .I'V .|
' ri'.cu
f '<', >/.'' '■ %f>f tH
*»f.
In „s,„K ,hc- verbs ^.,^Jt. nn^, shrink
t Is fK.ner,oconhnc the forms ...■■..•,o,h., , .
»he form, in " u •• ,o ,he p.... ,«r,iciple • ^ -.,7 "^'' -"'
mmute, .go ; - - Yes. ,he bell ha. rulgr *•''"' ""'.' "^c
£X£SCI8£ 184.
A„?z: ..- """"■■"' '-"" '■' "••■"■ -"•« ' '" "•'
1. I i/o it myself.
2. Tortj iivtms very well.
3- Harry /^-^ me coming.
4- The sun waka me e.irly.
5. The wind b/ows furiously.
6. The guests %,>, to go home.
7. They «/ in the third pew from the front
8. The Susqueh.inna River ^urJi<rtos i,s hanks.
9. Helen comes in and /„ys her coat on a chair
'O. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball
". The wild Koose Jiies southward in the autumn
,'!' tI!''J"' '^"'" "''^^' '"^ '' ^'"-y ^^'^ ^-'^ ^'•^••vccl.
13. The Negro women ../ their baskets on thHr h..,..
|4. George ^n.s l,e,.er than any other boy in the c^owd.
'5. The catcher often iAr<nvs the ball ,o the second base
n
853
THK PARTS OF SI'KECH
16. The savages who livt on this island slay iheir captives.
17. The workmen lay the rails for the track wi.h Kmit care.
18. Obedient to the doctors directions, she //« down an hour
every day.
EZEBCISE 185.
Chancre the italichid verbs in these sentenees to the
perfect tense : —
I. lie writt's home.
3. l/ortftt his name.
3. The sleeper atuakes,
4. He stall- njy watcli.
5. Ethel hroir her arm. ,
6. They.<.^<; by sle.imer.
7. Some one fairs my hat.
8. I sii the Premier often.
9- He.<,v/j .ilong fairly well.
10. They slay their prisoners.
J I. The enemy .opue in force.
12. The boys aiv,' three times.
»3- I J*-/ the lamp on the table.
1 4- A mist risis before my eyes.
1 5. The water in my pitcher/A-,;~<r.
16. Wtsficaks his decl.imation well.
17. The boys are mtini^r their supper.
18. He t/trmos cold water on my plan.
19- The Ohio River tn>,rJl,nos its banks.
20. He si/s by the hour talking politics.
21. Rab sAalYs the little dog by the neck.
22. This/r.;7VJ the truth of my assertion.
23. The wind f>lo7i>s my papers oflTthe table.
24. A robin yf/W to the vines by my window.
25. John Is driving the cows out of the corn.
OF VERBS ajj
26. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest.
37. This fact clearly ihoxus the prisoru-r's ^w\\.
28. He loakes me every night by his restlessness.
29. He rules alone from his house to the town.
30. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear.
IV. MODE.'
801. M(Mle ]>eniic(l. — Comparu the verbs in the
following scntence.s : —
He is here.
Would he were here.
Bt here at daylight.
In these .sentcnce.s we have three different form.s
of the verb " be," indicatinjr different way.s in which
the thoujrht is pre.sented to the mind. " I.s" show.s
that it is presented as i\ fad; "were" shows that
it is presented as a mere tlum};lil (he is not here) ;
*' be " shows that it is presented as a command.
Definilion. — A difference in the form of a verb to
show how the thought is presented to the mind is
called Mode.
Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a
thought as a fact is called the InfUcative Mode.
Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a
thought as a mere thought, uncertain or contrary
to fact, is called the Huhjunetive Mmle.
Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a
thought as a command or entreaty is called the
Impenitlve M(Mle.
^ To the Tfa^htr. In mocnUing only three nuMles the author ha* followed the
bent mwlcrn phil,.lo«isiv I l,r forms often clled " potential " fall easily within either
llie inilicativc or the sulijunciive.
Ill
254
THE PARTS OF SPKECH
i; the most c„mm.,„ C^Tsid /„ ""™*""''^
fact, or What is assumed to tc a\ct andT^'^' •'
questions of fact. ' " *^ askin^r
uncer.ain.yoruntru.histxDrt.ssrL • '"' '" '^"^^ ^^''-^^^ 'he
;*''/^itwi,,rain;"Mlc isTf^e e^>^^^^^^^^ -• - /'-
hand, of.en expresses unc.rt.inTj ,7 " {"""*'^' °" '^^^ ""'^•••
Without the help of other w^d? Ts "T"^ .^^ '^^ -- /--
go wi.h us." "* • ^^' ^^^^ he here, he would
803 The Subjunctive Mcnle: Form In f
the subjunctive differs from fh *'',*^'"t^" ^''^"^
following ways:- ' ^ indicative in the
I- In the single case of the verb - hr. •• ♦!
Jiinctive has distinct forms for f h. "" ''"^■
tenses, namely • ^^ P'*^*^^"^ ^"^ Past
Present. _>
Indicative. Subjunctive.
I aw
Thou ar/
Hew
We rtr/r
You are
They <?/■/•
Thou de
He<i^
You de
They ^^
Indicative
I ivas
Thou waj/
He 7</rtj
We 7vt-re
You tt/e7-<?
Past.-
Subjunctive.
I ic/ere
Thou Wt'/-/
He were
We 7€r/*^
You 7i>ere
They wm- They o/^r^
you. I would „„', sfy .ha, . •• wl, fl ^ll '""^■' ■■ " ' --
"y inai , Would that Alice mm here ! "
2. In Other verbs the subjunctive ha, tl,»
form as the indicative excLt Vi ! u "'''""'
-d third persons singu "r ThJe are"n "'™''
endings: as, ^^® "^ personal
.lyitii. i-Aii,,'.-*
OF VERl
-Present. .^
ImliMtivc. Suhj„„c,ive.
I wnte , ^rt,e
rhou writest Thou write
He writes He write
255
~ PaMt.-
^ul)/iinttive.
i^^o^c I wrote
Thouwrotcst Thou wrote
He wrote- He wrote
Examples of ihk Phra.:*. c.
a %h, ,ha, , „„,,„, ,vLT,^'v^:;"!7"'V^-" Bring „.
s.»r, early,,.., we ^W,/ ^l. fe " .';, tT, f '^ " " '- "s
*«v, scream.,/.- ^ "" *"'*"' "•« mouse, she j^.»/rf
«n.ences, for example .hey iTe' """r''"'- '" "" '"""wing
are therefore indicafi™ JTyoT 1;";,!"' '""""'"•'<>' '-,, and
now;" "You ./!<,»/,/ (i. e ouirh, J, ., L "■■■ f° ?"""•«'! to) go
no. (I. c, was unwillllg .o, si^g;"'"* ^'jr^i^^ ^ ■•'^""« W-'
804. The Subjunctive Mo<Ie • Use« Th» ,,
junctive inode exorews ,..,■ ', ,'^*^— ""e sub-
as a fact, but as «1T ' '''-■"'«• "' ''^"'- "°t
the mind ItTsZtl "k '""''^'^ ™"^"^^'' °f '»
from the fac. mode l°i^d'"T'' a.s distinguished
or disbelief in tl^l^^-ZTtTTIr
quently used to express- "'« most fre-
i
III
256
THE I'ARTS OF SPEKCH
1. A wish : as. "Gotl forbi.l !" •• (), that I were a man."
2. A purpose, as. •• Ju<lge not. that yc Anot/W^v./. ' •• Urine
mc a light, that I may see what this is. " '
3- A possibilily : as. "We were afr.iid wr m.)rht miss the
tram ; •' Stiike ere it be too late."
4. A supposition regarded as untrue or unlikely . as " If I were
you. I would go."
5. A conclusion regarded as untrue or unlikely . as •' If I were
you. I would go." " If my sister had seen that n.ouse. she would
nave screamed."
The subjunctive is much less used than it was
formerly; but it is .still common in the writings of
authors who are artistic and exact in expression.'
«05. The Hubjiiiutlvc M«Mle: TonneK -The use
of the ten.ses of the subjunctive is peculiar, the time
referred to not always correspondinjr to the name
of the ten.se. Frequently the present subjunctive
refers to future time, and the past .subjunctive to
present time: as, •' Strike ere it be too late;" •• O,
that I 7vcrf a man." (807.)
80«. The Imperative Mode.— The imperative
mode expresses commands, entreaties, or advice
addressed to the person .spoken to. It is used only
in the second person ; and it has the same form for
both singular and plural, namely, the root-form of
' " Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as ro-kI .,s lott that it
I. doomed, and that its retention i. hopeless. If i„ f„„e,io„ were generally Ippreci-
•ted. It m^ht even now l,e saved. . . . Ff we lone the suhjunctivc verb, it will
certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, wcrr It only for Its
vaue in giving variation to dictir and I make bold to assert that the writer who
helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude.* -7#,|« EarU : " English Prose Its Flc-
ments. History, and Us.ige," p. ,7?. '
or VKRItS
»S7
the verb: as. "/A- j,,,,, .,,„,, ^,.,„ .
mercy „„ u.,." It is usually distinguished from he
present md.cative by the omission of the subjl",!
tor "let " as an imperative auxiliary see tf 10.
EZEKCISE 186.
m/ the mode of each verb tn the follow tng sentences
andgne t/u- reason for your opinion:^ '
1. God forbid.
2. Love mc. love my dog.
3- I could cry my ryes out.
4. Thy money perish with Ihec.
5- The law is good if a man use it lawfully.
6. He serves h.s party I,est whc. serves t i.e country best
7. Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost
of them.''' """^ '^'' '" '" '"' ^°"'' ^''"^ '^^'-^^ '«-. '" ^ seen
all men. " "" """'''• " '""^^ ^^ ''^^'^ '" y°"' "^ »— ^^'X with
a ^Cn^Xr^ftr ^' '-'"--- '- '^- •^"o- - what
not::.sr:;:r:he;^;;:;r°^'*^^
over'in.nfh ''^'',' '''^''' ""'■■"" ^'^^'^ ^'^ '"'Ji^^ ^^'"J ^''oice grain
over mto this wilderness. *
his neck' aTcn^'"': '"■';" ^'"' ' -illstone were hanged about
nis neck, and he cast int(j the sea.
:iJlii-JRAiLiil&£A.\r m-
J58
THE I'ARTS OF SPKECH
«.>• .r ::zT. i;:;r,' :;r, '"""•" ' •^^" -•"■' '-x "»-
T- , . Come what come m.iv
Time and ,he hour runs ihrough ,hc roughcs. day.'
•«. Shall 1, wasting in despair,
Die liecause a woman's fair?
Or make pale my checlis with care,
'Cause another's rosy are ?
Be she fairer than the day.
Or the flowery mcitls in May.
If she tjc not so to inc.
Wliat care I how (.air she be?
807. M.H1CS In Conditional SontcnocH—A sen-
once contain n^ , ,„pp„,i,i„„ „^ ^^^^.^.^^ . Aj -
refer to present, p, st. or future time. If it refers
o pre.sent or past =me, it may b.= viewed by the
with nothtng imi.hcl as to its truth ; if it refers to
he future, ,t may be .wed as either likely or u„!
likely. A supposition ^.i.i^h is as.sumed to be true
or whteh ,s made without any hint of its ineorreet
nes,s, ,s expressed by the indicative: as, -If it L
v3'b?thr"°' r" "" ■""pp''^"'"'' -"-'• -
viewed by the .speaker as untrue or unlikelv is
character of the supposition makes the conclusion
«nt™e or unlikely, the conclusion also is e.xpre^:d
by the subjunctive: as. "If I,„...y„u, U„Jnot^,,
In clau.ses that express conditions, the PrJLt
«"bj„net.vc refers to either/...™, „r /„/„.. Z"
and .suggests ,/Mit. ■' """•
OK VKRHS
»S9
The rittt 8nhl,,n<flv„ rcrcrs to frcscHi //«.• a„,i
.mp .es that the suppasition is „o, „jj. " ""'
I he n«t IVrfoct B..IJ,.„i.„ve refers to f«u /,„,,
and .mphes that the .supposition «-,„ „o> //.">
which ,.,cr .otm. ;rr'; ,", r " ■'"""'r ■ ""•'"''•"'•
ever) ,i rants, I stay at home." " ^ - ''*'*'""
Note 2. Sometimes there is no " if " o« ^ .k
l«'.ot,hcv.rl,prc.„.,e,,lK'uLct , ..,, J^'""' 7" °' '
»>: ine same lorms as clauses inlroduced by " it."
EZEBCISE 187.
Z7Lt!l' ^ "■' """"'• "•••' ''■" ■'■'■ """'•■ -/
go. M „ she L lone, . Jo^hav; g"ne '°"^- ' *°""'
2. («) If he follows my .idviee, he will succeed ffl irh. < i
lowed my advice, he would succee,] M H, T^ ,,, ^ '"'■
advice, he would have succee W 7, I hlx , •"°""' '">'
advice, he would succeed. ' ''"'"''' '°"°* ""y
(« 'r'"he sp:.':;?^th'rwi,f:o;'°^' r "-"' =■" '"'"--■
If
26o
THE PARTS OK SPKF.CH
»"' . > o, ih.il he hiul liccu irulhful ?
6. (rt) Even though H i, raining. I will go. (M Kvcn thmiaK
.. ra.n. , .^U go. u) Kvcn though It .hould r.U. 1 wo hi go
WIN go (/) Kvcn though It rain«l. I w»ul<l go. (.,) Fvrn
Hough It has r«in«|. I w.II go. (4) Kvcn though it h. cl r.I.cd
1 would go. (/) Even though it had rained. I would have gollc
'-"1
I-
EZEBCI8E 188.
Ten which o/fhr iialuizal forms is preferable, ami
gtve the reason : —
1. I wish I nuts {u'fn) a man.
2. I wish she 'was (wt-re) at home.
3. H I mis {loern you. I would stay .it home.
4. The train could go faster if it ,oas («vr., nece«ar>-
^^^^5.^Though a liar sp^als ^sp^ak^ the truth, he will not l>e |«.
^^6. ^Though gold is (^.) more precious than iron, it is not «>
V. VOICE.
808. Voice DcllncMl.— We have already seen
(4a, 175) that a transitive verb may represent the
subject as doing the action expre.s.scd by the verb
or as receiving it: as, -fohn frightened Helen;"
''Helen was frightened hy John."
Definition — A diflference in the form of a verb to
show whether the subject acts or is acted upon is
called Voice.
Definition.^ThQ form of a verb that represents
OK vr.Rns
a«t
the subject as dointr an actum is called the a..,Iv..
/>yf«,W.«._The form cf a verb that represents
he subject as receiving an action is called the
PUHMIVO Volw.
800. Fomi or the Piu^ivo V«lc^.-Comparethe
following sentences:—
(Acttv,) i<roctt%sf/i\niixcr.
(Passtv,) JJuUcr h so/,/ by grocm.
iAitn.,) Tlu. Queen a//)<,/«M/ Lor.l Aber.lcrn.
{iassn^,) Lor.l Alnrnlcen u'.,^ appomi.j by ihr Ourrn.
UUtfvf) The manager Tt;/7/.^./7.^ y„u a ticket.
(/a«m) A ticket W// ^ ^,;>v« you by the mannjjrr- or(.Hrc-i
».onally,. Vou ,.///^.,,^.,« ., .jeket by the manager.'
You observe that the passive voice of a verb is
formed by putting a form of the verb - be " before
the past participle.
You observe, also, that when a sentence is changed
from the active to the passive form, the object of the
active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb
1 he subject of the active verb becomes an ageni
after the passive vcrl>~a relation expressed by the
prc'iKjsition "by." ^
An objective complement lH..comes an attribute
complement (4i>). ^^
nht". '"«'"'' .''^^'"^"' "'"^">^ '^'"^""-^ ^^ indirect
object. Sometimes, however, it is made the subject
of the passive verb, the direct object then becom-
ing a "retained object" (58).'
' Ihough this illoBical construck... is M.p,wte.l bv e..-.IU«. .w • . ■
demneU by some gra».murians. ^ excellent aulhon.y. it „ con.
ylj
TIIK PARTS OK SPKECH
I
UESCISE IM.
I . Rn'ia,. F.xmisf, 37, 34. „„,, ^g
«rok« fell »„« oaU , ;' h, . "°*" ' «'""' """''• '■ Li«««
■..an made u. ci.Ucns mn. T, . Pl^nlinj.' „. |te,o„
of br«.l Ihrow "ta iAf r..^;"° """'1' " """• 'J A crumb
""->■ .7. She ,„|d m< ,„ , and „,f " ,t "."' ,'"'" '"^r ••"""
«n.l hav. „„, r,ferr«l ,„ i, "^^ "'" ''J'.' ''™''r' "" '"'')'"■
- Mh. «, The «„„„d.d':;:v, ':ij.tk l'h rr"^ •"'""
mat tongratulations av shdwert-.l ,,« .. i 1 newspaix-rs
>4S3 Co„„a„.i„„plc sa. cXd ; * ' 'VT '"'"''"• ■•• '"
capilal o( their empire. ' ' "" ^'"^' ""'^ "'"'I" 'h*
ire^«././ "utr • '""J^"- '^S ' Our reve s now
^ ^^ •^""'^ • ^^"«-li constructions must
• Tki, planting, thr Colony of Plymouih.
^atik^.
or VKRIIS
i^S
.;"«re«.vc .„„.„. Whirl rirt'^'::;'''
,V." *"""■"• (' ™»fc«„vc.) •• The birds <„, sm^r.
ZZZSCI8S 1M>.
I- Ki-i'i.io /■jcereisc 22.
■'■.ri.f/,r„s.,.-. ""<fl"-'»'s or p„ru o/ f„un,
w.i» well ,„/„^M/ „, „^i,^ J '" >"''"'">■ /• ri« »l*c.aclr
I. Annie is studyini; htr h ssnn ^ t i .
»'i» l^itf. 3. The lion nml ,h "' *'^"' '**^'^" '"'^"'""Jf
arc sh h nff briirhilv A tk- K-«>ucrRr. 5. 1 |,f M.irs
7 n. .„i '^'^"y- ^- 'he grammar class is lauirht bv Miss M
7. By wi,o,n was this Ink spilled ? 8. In it raining ? ^ '
Ltl
of the
Inflnltl
nature
VI. INFINITIVES.
ve is a form of the verb that partakes
of both verb and noun (03).
If
•r J-
MICIOCOTY RISOIUTION TiST CHART
(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2)
1.0
I.I
1.25
■ 56
Li
Hi
a.
■ 2.8
■ 40
1.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
^ APPLIED \t\MGE Inc
^^ '653 Eost Mam Street
S'.S Rochester New York 14609 USA
'■^^ (716) 48;,: - 0300 - Phone
^= (716) 288- 5989 - Fo«
364
Tiir: i'AF<rs ok spkixh
1
f
ail. Nature of Iiifliiiilvos. — Iiifitiitivcs are in-
termediate between verbs on the one hand and
nouns on the other. They express aetion, bein;^-,
or state, and take the same adjuncts or modifiers as
the verbs from wliieh they are formed; but they
iiave the constructions of nouns. They dilTer from
verbs in not beinj^ instruments of assertion ; they
differ from nouns in having the adjuncts of verbs.
An infinitive is "a verb in a substantival aspect."
The Maine "infinitive" means "unlimited," and refers to tlie
fact that the action, l)einjj, or state expressed l)y an infinitive is
usually not limited to a |)ar(icular subject or time: as. "To climb
steep hills recpiires strenjfth and endurance."
The indicative, subjunctive, and imptraiive forms of the V( rl).
which take the person and number of their subject, arc oflt n
called Finite (" limited "; verbs.
212. Form of Inflnitivos.— With rej^ird to form,
infinitives are of three principal kinds.
I. The Hoot-Iiiflnltlve, which always has the
same form as the root or simple form of the verb :
as, "Better iccar out than rust out;" "You need
not ivaitr This simple Root-Infinitive is used as
follows: —
OO After verbs of perception - V/^vf/-, sec, fed, ohxcrve, petceivv.
A-ni>7t', tic: "I heard him s/tit;." " 1 saw liim r/oi." Yet some
verbs of perception take the " to '• form : as. " I felt him /o be
honest."
{b) After the Auxiliaries— j//(r//. 7iv//. may, do: "Do not interruM
me."
{c) After may, shall, 7i<ill, used as Principal verbs : " He may come
if he wishes to."
{a) After certain verbs— /v. /,/</, w<?/{v,etc.: "We m.ide him ans^ver."
or vKKhs
265
0') After certain txpressions //a,/ />.//.,, had (wouU) rath,,-
" V'ou had bctiLT i;o."
(/) Alter tht: conjunction ///„;,. •• Rather ;han do that I wuuld die."
2. The lt<H>t-iiifiiiitivi> Willi »Mo:'' as, •It is
bettor to i^rar out than to ntst out;" "I prefer
toMiit." The Infinitive with -'to" is frequently
called the Civniiullai Iiillnltlvt. from a supposed
eonneetion with what we now eall the " (Jerund."
3. The Inniiltlvt' In --Intf,'' «,i- (ionnul: as. "She
understands boiliu^i^r ^n egg better than anybody
else."
The gerund is usually active : as,
PriStHt : Loviiifj.
Perfect : Havinj; loved.
The passive gerund is occasionally found : as,
Present : Iking loved.
Perfect : Having been loved.
A gerund is in function a noun-verbal. In the
last example given above it takes a direet object
like any transitive verb. But in the .sentence, "He
is fond of Milking," it is used solely with the force
of a noun. The present participle (which bears the
same form as the gerund) is an adjective-verbal
(see 2i«-ai8), and should not be difficult to distin-
guish. There is one construction, however, which
might give rise to some difficulty, as in these two
examples: —
" We did not like his coming so often." ((ierund.)
"We did not like him coming so often." (I'articiple.)
AR'"' Y
j56 THK parts ok SI'KKCH
When a possessive noun or pronoun precedes the
fcrrn in --ing." the latter must be parsed as a
ircrund. , v«r ^
In funetion it is often difficult to detect a differ-
ence between the gerund and the infinitive Nv-ith
- to.*' althou^di the forms are so different. In the
following examples they have both the value of ab-
stract nouns: " To see is to believe;" and "Seein'C
is believing." Yet in Hamlefs soliloquy, " To be
or not to be," we feel that a substitution of the
gerund forms, " Being or not being," would impair
the force of the passage. Again there are many
constructions in which only the gerund is permissi-
ble • -IS - He was punished for not coming in time,
and conversely many constructions in which only
the infinitive with " to " may be employed : as, "He
was advised to come in time."
The gerund is not identical in form with the
participle only. It also resembles in its present
tense the verbal noun in "-ing."
.. He praised him for the /nuMtg of liis men. " (Verbal-noun.)
'. He praised Iiim for /um,///n^^ his men so well." (Gerund.)
This gerund form is really, as will be shown in
the next paragraph, the old verbal noun broken
down and disguised by the omission of the article
and the preposition following.
ai.J. History of Inflnitlve Forms.—
1 The lloot-Influltlve and the Gerundlal Infin-
itive -In Old English the Infinitive ended in "-an,"
(or "-ian"): as,dmian. In Middle English this was
OF Vr.RHS
a67
chanj^el to .e„."and later to ..-c: - as. W..^/..,,
St later the ..e" was dropped, and the modern
biiul was reaehed. Let us now en<,uire how the
preposition .'to" eanie to be employed so widely as
the sign of the Infinitive.
The Vhc of *Mo- as an Infinitive Nl^n.—Wh it
we now eall the C^on.naiul Inflnhlvo was in ()!d
Knghsh merely the dative ease of the simple infini.
tive preecded by the preposition - to: " as,
" Ut eode se sidcre his si'd to sru^rnmr
•' The sower went out to sow his seed." (Adverbial.)
'• r;ehyre se «e earan haibbe /.7,C'/'J'r.^////r."
" He that hath ears to hear let him hear." (Adiee
tival.) ■'
C'-anne " or --enne " was the inflectional ending- of
the dative infinitive.)
• 1 fT^T'^f V^*" '""'^ "■"*'" ^^^^'"^'^^ ^'-^"^^ ^'•«"i the
older Middle English form "-en," was dropped from
the root infinitive, there was nothing to distinguish
It from many other parts of the verb. Conse-
quently, as a distinguishin^r si^^n, the preposition -to"
u'as borrowed from the dative and prefixed also to the
simple root-infinitive. This use of " to " as a regu
lar infinitive sign dates from the end of the twelfth
century, and became so widespread that the infin-
itives without - to " were restricted to the instances
enumerated above. The dative case ending "-enne "
had meanwhile fallen away, and nothing remained
in the form to distinguish this dative from the root-
infinitive with " to."
iU
368
Tin: PARTS OF SI'EKCII
2. TlH. Inflnltlvo In **.|„«r,- „,. C;oiMii,<l._Thc
jferund f„rm in "-injr" was developed in early mod-
tM-n Kn^lish. In Old KnKlish the term -gerund "
has reference to the dative of the infinitive with
"to, which we now call the jferundial infinitive.
N(>w. this dative ending "-enne" never became
"-ing." but was lost entirely. Therefore, the term
" gerund " is somewhat of a misnomer.
The only form which in Old Kngli.sh ended in
"-ing "(or-.ung- )was the verbal-noun : as, Av;/-;/-//;/^.
or Av.r,/-/;/^r. "learning." These nouns in "-ing"
were only verbal in the sen.se of being formed from
the stem (,f the verb, like many words, .such as
" steal-th." which have no verbal functions. They
pos.se.s.sed none of the functions of the verb, but
were nouns by inflection and usage. Thus' our
modern gerund phrase: as, "He A-as puni.shed for
^Av/////^'-a purse," would have been originally -He
was punished for ///r sf,o/wjr of a purse," where'
"stealing" is clearly a verbal-noun.
During the Middle Engli.sh period (the Old Eng-
lish present participle having meanwhile changed
from --inde" to "-inge"),a confusion arcse be-
twcen the verbal-noun and the participle, which
had now become identical in form. The present
participle was regularly followed by an accu.sative
and therefore it was felt that the verbal-noun should
likewise be followed by an accu.sative. So by the
omi.ssion of the article " the" and of the following
prepo.sition, the sentence " He was punished/,,/-///.-
stcahug of a purse " became corrupted to •' He was
OF \ i;i<ns
3^>9
punished /.r ./,,;//,,,. a purse." where - stealitur - is
cliatiKcd in function fn.m a noun to a verh '
The eonipcund tenses of the Kcrund were formed
in imitation of the partieiple forms: as. " He wis
punished for liavwi: stolnt a purse."
AV./,,;// The m.Hlern gerund is derived from the
^>lc I'^uffhsh verbal-nouns in ..-un^.' and "-in.r -
and owes ,ts new funetio , to the inHuenee of the
Mnld e Ivn«hsh partieiple forms in 'Mngie;- from
the older "-inde."
NoiK. - Then- is ai, infinitive, ronstrurlion in F.nRl.sh which h-.s
-cas.on...| nuuh .liscoss... an...n« p..,is.s. (,,,„i^ |, ™
rr "\"7T '■•"«'"''• •''^- •'-"•«•'• M-'Uh.ws. in a r t
e.sa> .n wluoh he n.akes a pl.a for Rreater fl.x.h.Nty of sneec
consuiers .he cons.ruct.on ,o b.- jus,if...<i „n ,h. sc.e of usage "
l-.xan,,.ios ,.f ,|,e "spl,, infinitive- placed hesule the .rj-ulir
ronstruction are as follows.- ^
spilt htfinUive: " I wish lo clearly point out."
" I wish to point out clearly."
Split hifinitiv,: " I hope to soon go and see you."
•• I hope soon to go and see yru '
EXEECISE 191.
/Crvinc' 7:rrrdsr 9;. /r/.v, M. r.ol.i„^„ilirr /.
prarM by ^^tor Ull u'/ut/nr or not -to" i-^^ ^r.
force of a prrposjtioti.
Jids the
-14 Tonsos oftholnflnltlvo.-Withthe infini-
tives of 'M^e " and "have" as auxiliaries we form
certain T>hms,u infinitives corresponding^ to some
ten.se forms o*" ♦'-- -•-■'• ■• -
le indicative, act
iveand pa.ssivc
as
270
Tin: I'Ak IS OK si'Kixii
ill
ArTi\B.
f^rruHtPro^rress/v,: •' \ ,.x,k.. t /,, f,, ,,.,,„„^. ,..,„.„..
"^ " ' ■ '■ ' •"" '">Ty to /,„'.'.• Mill.n s„ poorly."
" ' '« W'ls reprov. .1 f„r //<,7v,/c x/'///Av/ ii."
Inf.,t I n^r,ssr.e: " I ou^ht /o /,av^ hrn ,..r,n,,,' n.y .xcrcisr."
"HiH .irti, was cratnpcil from his Aavin^
i>tin 'a<ritini^ all morning.'
PrfsfHt: » The cx.rcise must b,- rcr/t/en."
" She (lislikr.) /i,/>nr, „//,,,/. pr„,„,..
/•r/^r/ ; .. jhe (-x.-rcLsc ought A; Aav, hen tvrin,-,!. "
" She is angry at ^l7'/>/^^ M„ calhuP |)r..„,|."
The infinitive forms may be tabulated as follows:
lt<M>|.|iiMiiitiv,.H „,H| <i«.rnii«||alM.
A( TIVK.
''■' Ordinary. , •,
P" :"'""*^- Pol l,e writing.
[toj have written. {,„] ,,,.,^ j^.^.„ ^.^j,.,^^,
-J f'ASSIVK.
I ft'st'nt : ( to] be written n^.f. t r. i i •
' -■ ^^'"«"- '''^V"''- I ">1 l>ave bten written.
lutliiltlveH III "-lii^f," „r <;».piiiui„.
ACTIVK.
'—Ordinary. > „
Presa,f: writing. Pro^rc^s-ve. .
^Vr/,r/ .• having written. having been writing.
Passive.'
/Vr-frw/.' beinc called n.^f,.* i
^ '^"- /'^r/rr/ .• havuig been called.
A Prt'sint Infinitive denotes aetion which is in
complete at the time expressed by the prineipal
verb : as, " He tries /. :.r//./' •■ He tried /. ^.ril ■"
" lie will try /o write. "
A Perfect Infinitive is properly used to denote
aetion which is completed at the time expressed by
the princ ipol^verb : as, "Alfred is said to have draJn
■ l*..ss|. e i„fi,.inv„ in •• -i.,g " ..re rnr.. occurring o„ly wl.h , .r.ain verb,.
OF VERBS
■i7t
up a body of laws:" "I fdt glad /o have sent
Niajrara Falls;" - I shall be glad /., haw fimshui
my task."
hlxu-piion.-" {^^^^\^x:' "must." "nccl.' and " shouUI ' (i,, the
stnsf of •• .mikIu ••) have no (hhtiuctivc form to .knotc past tmit- •
and will, ihfsf vcrl,s chstmclion.s ol lime art- (ki.ote.l |,y . h in^i.-s in
the form of the- following infmitive. the pr.-scnt forms .leiu.t.n^: ..res-
eMtt.n,e..-.,ulthe,,erf.ct forn.H past time: as. •• Vou ou^'ht a',v."
N .». ou«ht io have, on. ,■ " •• He .should f..- .areful." •• He should
//<!.'. Mv, careful. A similar us. of ,lu- infi.u.iv.- fnnns t.> denote
t.mejs found after .'couM- an.| •• nuKht .„ s.,„... .,f „,,,r ..ses :
as I rouM.^.,,. ..I cc.1,1 have^ro,,,-,.'- '. Yuu might ./«.w."
N ou mi){ht //«i7v ansuYnu/."
EX£BCISE 192.
1 . Construct snitnurs illustratin^i; the use of the dif.
ferent tenses of the infinitive.
2. /;// ,.,hieh of the italieized forms is ri^^ht. and
give the reason : —
1. Lee intended to attack {to have attacked) at dayl.r.nk.
2. We meant to start {to have starte.i) long ago.
accident'' ^'' ''"''"'"'' '" ^''^'"'^ ^'^ ^"'"" A'^""^'"') «"<-»' an
4. He Is said to lose {to have lost) ten dollars.
5- It woultl have Ik-ci, better to -wait (to have loa/ted)
suspici^r''"''' "^'^'"■^(/'''^''•/"'■''^'^) ^" ^^'■"'^se {to have aroused)
815. Constructions of the Infinitive.— The in-
fitiitive. with or without adjuncts, is common in the
following constructions:
to nhf rf '' "^ " ^ ''V ''• " '^"^"'^ ^^"'^ '^ ^^^y • " "^""? able
to play the piano is not knowing music."
i
i72
THE I'AK IS OK SIKKCH
Ibwcr« • • III . I 7a : KriMitsi pleasure is /o rauf
Here beloMK luMoncally. infinitive, u«-.l after -ought. ••. muM "
^;;-. •••>-i/-'can/aaduMcrb,.,.ra..afu.rao.!lJ;icMi;::i,
4. Object 0/ a PrtfHHition : as.-irr ha.l no rhoicr l.ut ri e
EXERCISE 193.
tiipnittvi' in ^'-ing''). "'"'Ktr
VII. PARTIC'IPLKS.
A Pnrtlolplo is a form of the verb that partakes
of tlie nature of both verb and a.ljcetive.
«I«. Nature of Pn,.tlt.l,,io«.-Participles arc in-
termediate between verbs on the one hand and
adjeetives on the other. They express action, be-
inff. or state, and take the .same adjuncts or modi-
fiers as the verbs from which they are formed; l,nt
they have the constructions of adjectives. Thev
differ from verbs in not bein^^r instruments of assc,--
tion: they differ from adjectives in havin.. the
adjuncts of verbs. A participle is '-a verb hi an
adjectival aspect."
OK \ KKILS
Vi
for
^17. Form "f tho P.,rilc.|pUH*.-.\VitI, rejrar.l l.,
•", participles arc of two principal kin.ls:-.
I. The IW.U innlclpus lornad f ,.,, ,.„
f the verb by aUdu. , •• .i„g:- as. •• The girl n.n/
roin I he rcM.t
///i,'- a !)<M)k i
my
cousin.
The present participle dcscriU-s an action as
KoiH^t^'on at some particular time.
2- The l»,wt Turtlclphs usually formed from
the r(M)t of the verb by aihiing "-cd.'" •• .d ' .. t •
-■cn.-or ...n"(,7n, iho): as. •• Tlic plam ,w//,/
AJKhtslmde is poisonous;- -The Ijook A,/v// fmm
my desk has been returned."
The past participle describes an action as/,,,/ or
<('/////, Av/ at some particular time.
With the participles of "be" and "have" as
auxdiaries we form certain l»h„i„,n Punielpi..., as.
Active.
p'-{fl*/n "lf,iv,'n^ ivrillnt n.y Irtlors. I wtut t.. hr.l."
t'r/e,tln^ressnH': '• //.,;/,,,. /,,.•./ ;..,//,>/. all .lay. I a.n t.r. ,|.••
/'^«•Jr<'///;
/Vr/V^/.•
P.V».S|VR.
/'V///C 'i'f ///.•» in ink. the nanu- was |,ar.l
to er.nsr.
t.iint'd many niistakts.
The participles may be tabulated as follows:—
ACTIVH.
/;r...«/.- wri.in,.. />,^y,,,, :,avin,. uri..en.
/ " v/ .• wratcn. y v,y;v/ /V,;,.,>..v/rv . I. . vin-j Ik .-n w, ilin;;.
/''V.V.,/.. being written. /W. writt.-n. /'..y,, / , |,av in-.^ !,,,„
writltn.
I
I
I
■'■« *.
ti, fe
l. '.*■
ilf^ 'ii.
'^■» THfc lAK TS OK SI'KECH
£Z£RCIS£ 194.
1 . Kit'itu> lixtrcise y<>.
2. /W/// r>w/ M, tortiapUs u, /\trfs /ff ami fl' of
I'.xtrau 15. ami h// //,, I, use 0/ uult.
«IH. CoMMriK'lloim of Piirth.|,,le«_I»articiplcs
layc all the crclinary uses of mljcctivcs. and the
l«'llowiin^ sjHJcial nscH in addition:—
-....• a..ndantac.io..orcorul.ion:n,.4.,/,, .. ,;„, 7,;
» -r,. I ,pranK to .h. Hin.low;' ...Morn. ...,/•./ ,,y „,.. cir. „ '
J. .//Air^v/ to ., X.,m/,i„//;, AholuU (I2SJ): ns "Nu.hl
"•////«;' on. wfliKher.1 a fin..- *^
for vo.r -^^ ,;''-^''-'^ /« /^rA-/V^..,.. ,,. .. M.„h„ ,, ^,^,^
i«>f >«»» . He hits wtitlfti a Unc-r. " "*
4. 0>//W/rv uu of Parti,, -f^i,,, a, j,, ,h, ,,„,^^^^ ..
;l . ;.s a parnnpl. an., >e. i. ,,0,. ,no. U.an ,.. ..Ify u,e t:'
VOL r hr .cMUe-nce ,|.m s no, ,„ean •■ I insist on ,h. work whirl"
.Ion. .horoujf hly ; that is. ,„/ M, M,,.,,,^,// ././V/^ ,/ the ,.ork Such
;■; l';"«-l «•• "-n-for... ^.s ,he force of a gc'und or v!- t al nT n
aiul may In: sa.d to l,e iscl "gcruntlivcly." '
EXERCISE 195.
^^ In the folhnoins: ^nUnu.s .famine the for, us in
'ij, and deter „n,u- whether they are verbal nouns,
pitrtuiples, or j^ernnds.
1. It is hardly worth l>ol/,erini; aJwut.
2. It is not worth the askint^r,
3. The 7o,ep,ni: woman stood 7.',/«v/„^. her hands.
*►» \KKIiS
^75
4
5
6.
Me wa* rnn.iKt.l m ih, hmUiHc of .i !
The r»»iw
Me Went out Ann/in
i<»»i>e.
gi»i(» i»\ •hiumH/.UiH^' wt^illli.
8
V
lu
II
12.
I J
I4.
«5
1 6.
• 7.
1 8.
ly.
20.
31.
=4
25-
I )ti > on Itkr tJti I, hiH^ *
Do y«ni like i-f.y, .4///^. ircr* ?
lo. They went mit ik.tihtnj^ logrthtr.
I have no liutc for \kftihiMi;,
Mis faiher .»l.)r.iril to hU ik,i,hini; for a liirnK'.
I can see hmi fi^r/, hhii^ rvcr> <| ly,
Me made a h^n,,^ l.ar|,Mm in /'//»7«c thai horst.
I ilicl not ff. I like /.M7«c any unit .
Losing their way ihr chil.Irn, went along v;,p,n^r
We wcrr Ao/>inj^r ,„ ^.j. y„„
Me could not s|Rak for /au^kiHx'.
/.<itf4.'/////^' in jjihmI for till digestion.
Me rcmeiiilMrrril s/>,,Utni: »•> m.- about it.
Your slylc of rfii,tinx '** i'uorrrct.
Mis rtiuihit:: was much adinirtil.
This prcveiurd the work b,hi^ ,/<;«,..
Mf insisted on my amiini; immediately.
Mc «li«l it by h>.>isti»^ his arm.
I
f I-
VIII. PKCILIAII VKini-PIIUAHKH.
Some vcrb-phrascs arc dimciilt to clas.sify he
-au.sc they have .several ineaninjr.s. aeeording'to the
eonneetion in which they are ii.sed.
810. iH't.— -Let." f,.llnwe(l hy the nM,l-inn„itive
without "to," has in modern Kn^rlish two eomnu.n
uses: —
1. As a notional v.-rb meaning "to permit:" .hs. "At List
Pharaoh let the Israelites ^^o."
2. As an auxih.iry. to form a vcrb-phrase expressing an exhorta-
tion ,n the first or third person : as. 'Ut us be merry ; " ••/../ us do
tvmsmmmi^KSLMi^r iHeiij
SI' "'»' -«..
J || *., its?"*'"
rjf^
276
im-: I'AK IS ()|. SI'KKCH
or clU-;" "A^/ thy words be few;" " /.,/ hi,n that thinketh he
stantleih take heed lest U,: fall."
aao. May, ^iiKht.— •• May •' (past, " might "), fi^l-
lowed by thj root-inlinitivc witliout " to," has in
modern English the following common uses:—
1. As a notional verb denoting permission: as. "You may ^o
now ; " " She may come in ; " " Mother said we mi^ht go."
2. As a notional verb denoting possibility: as. " It may rain •"
•• She may be at home ; " " It mii^rfu have been."
3- As an auxiliary, to form a subjunctive verb-phrase: as. "I
hope you may succeed; ' "J/ay you //rr long and happily ; " "'lie
said he hoped that we w/i,'-/// succeed"
aai. Should.— " Should," followed by the root-
infinitive without " to," has the following common
uses: —
1. As a notional verb denoting duty or obli^i^ation : as. " You
s/iou/d speak more slowly."
2. As an auxiliary to express futurity from the standpoint of
past time : as, " He said he should go."
3. As an auxiliary to form a subjunctive verb-phrase : as " If
he should come, \ should have no more fear; ""It is better he
should die."
SS8. Would.—- Would," followed by the root-
infinitive without " to," has the following common
uses : —
1. As a notional verb denoting determination .- as. " Hcivould
not lie."
2. As a notional verb denoting custom : as. " He 7wuld sit there
by the hour."
3- As an auxiliary to express futurity from the standpoint of
past tmie: as. "She said he 7uould come."
4- As an auxiliary to form a subjunctive verb-phrase : as, " It
•would be better if we should start now."
OK VERBS
VJ7
823. Can, Mu.,, o..j,ht. Can, meaning .-to be
able; ,.../. meaning .-to be <,bliged/^.ncl ., J/
"-anmg..tobeinclutyboun<l/N.esonet^^^
<> l<nse by an infinitive. Jiut since tliey always
retain their regular meanings, it seems Ltter to
class them as notional verbs, with the infinitive as
complement.
IX. coxji (;atiox.
8«4. Conjugation DellmMl.-It is often conven-
ient to have tlie dillerent forms of the verb arrange!
together in regular order. ^
A/,,//W._The regular arrangement of the forms
of a verb in a table or scheme is called its Conju-
- br^\v^!!r:!"!^""''? of "i,e.--The irregular verb
IS conjugated as follows: —
I aril.
You are (Thou art)
He is.
ladlciitlvo Mode.
rreseiu.
Paal.
I vvas.
You were (Thou wast, or uert).
He was.
I shall be.
You will he (Thou wilt be).
He will be.
lutiir
I have been.
I'rpseMt rcrfert.
You have been (Thou hast been).
He has bee
We are.
Vou are.
They are.
\\'e were.
Vou were.
They were.
We shall be.
Vou will be.
They will be.
We have been.
You have been,
Th
t-y have been.
'VrL.^
g?"i«
,«"*»'
'Sff!
■•I
..,*. ,i
278
THE PARTS OF SI'tKCH
I na<l been.
You had btcn (Thuu limlst been).
lie had liccn.
, , Future Perfect.
I sliall have l>cen.
You will have been
(Thou wilt have been).
He will have been.
We had been.
You had been.
They had been.
We shall have been.
You will have been.
They will have been.
Hubjiiiietlvct Mmlu.i
((Jftcii pretedcd l.y •
if.")
Present.
I be.
We be.
You be (Thou
be).
You be.
He be.
Pa!.t.
They l)e.
I were.
f
We were.
Yt)u were (Thou wert).
You were.
He were.
They were.
I have been.
Present Perfect.
We have been.
You have been
(Thou have been).
You have been.
He have been.
They have been.
I had been.
Past """ffect.
We had been.
You had been
(Thou had been).
You had been.
He had been.
They had been.
Iinpuratlvo Mode.
Present.
Be, do be.
Inflnltlvcs.
Present.
IToj be.
Root-Injinitivts.
Perfect.
[To] have been.
Present.
Being.
InfiHitivts in " -ing
Participles.
Perfect.
Having been.
Present.
Past.
Perfect.
Being.
Been.
Having been.
• For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with "may," "might," "should," and
would sec «80-«'.»3.
OK VKRUS
-79
*««0. Conjuifullon or "Cull "—riw. .
of the verb "c-m- whi 1 r ^"»J"i,^'iti,.M
Prt-sent.
I If calls.
Past.
He tailed.
Kiiturc.
He will call.
TVcscni I'crfece.
He has called.
Past Perfect.
Heliad called.
I'liliirc IVrfcct.
He will ha\c called.
Present.
He call.
Past.
He called.
Present Perfect.
He have called.
Past Perfert.
He had called.
:seiit.
Pre
Call.
Active A'oko.
InUIfatlvo.MoUo.
Present Eiiipli.aii..
He dues ca'l.
P.ist Ijii|ili.itii .
He did call.
8ub.Iunetlvo Mode.'
("ftcn preceded by " if.")
Present Kmpli.uic.
He do call.
Present Pr.grtssive.
He is calling.
Past Progri-ssive,
He Was calling.
^■ulure Prcgrc^sive
He will |,e calliii-
Present P.rfeu Progressive.
He has been calling.
Past Perfect Progressive.
He had been calling.
Fiiliire Perfect Prf.-ressiv,-.
He will have been callin"
Past Emphatic.
He did call.
Imperative Mode.
Present Empliafic.
Present Progressive.
He be calling.
P.ist I'rogresslve.
He were callini:.
Present Perfe. t Progressiva..
He have been calling.
Past Perf.ct Progi ,
He had been call
ressivc.
ni
Do rail.
' For subjn
Present Progressive.
Be railing, tlo be callin"-.
' would '
see 220-2-i'i
ive vcrh-piirascs fori
ni.ll wit!
i I !
t \
I
' I'.Hght.
w
THE PARTS OF SI'EFXH
Pre>fnt.
(ToJ call.
I'crfi-ci.
[To] have called.
InnnltlvcM.
Kaci'/mjtmitivtt.
I'erfctt Proi;re^^ive.
Haviiijj bctn calling.
Present l'r^Kre^Mve.
[To I be callinjr.
Perfect Prc>grv'<>ivc.
l' i) have been calling.
lii/iHitix-tt i» " .ihg."
PreNcnt. Perfect.
Calling. H.iving called.
„ I'lirtlflpIfM.
^^"'"K- C.dk.l.
U !'"'*^'„ , Perfect Progre^^ivc.
Having called. ||avi„g been calling.
I'asMlvo A'olfo.
Iiidlcatlvf MiMlt>.
"*='* called. He i.s being calltd.
„ ^•"'' „ . Past ProKrc>sive
He was called. He was being called.
I'utiire.
He will be called.
Present Pcrfci t.
He has been called.
Past Perfect.
He had Ijeen called.
Kutiitc Perfect.
He will have been railed.
Subjunctive Mode.'
(Often preceded by " if."i
Prtsetit.
He be called.
Past.
He v>^ illed.
F.- -feet.
He have i. cen called.
Past Perfect.
He had been called.
P.ist Proyressive.
He were being called.
> For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with "raav." "might." "should," and
' would "^ee 820-8S8.
F'rcvnt.
Be called.
OK VKRUS
Impvrutlv*'.
a8i
I'ri »<iU Kniphdtic.
I^o be called.
lUllUlllVfM.
rrcscnc. p. f .
[To] be called. (To] l.avj i;,;i„ called.
l*Hrtlflpli>M.
Ik-.ns called. Callcl. H..vi„„ b":, callc.l.
v..rb!«,".\'" '" '■"-*'. ^'-'--To parse a funic
vcib (ail), we luust jrivc its—
( • • Class : whether transitive or intransitive, strong or weak
(i) rrincipa! parts.
(j) Voice.
(4) Mode.
(5) Tense.
(6) Person.
(7) Number.
(8) Construction.
0) Cla«: whelhcr transi.ive or i„,ra„si,ive. strong or weak.
(2) Voice.
(3) Tense.
(4) Construction.
DXEBCISE 196.
nnca;asof/u- tnfimtires and parttapls that a^cZt
'^'^'^i^^^tth auxiliaries to form verb-phrases :-~
r. She watches him ns a cat woul<! watch a mouse
^^^^^^^^r^. "'" '^ ^°"^"'°"'^ ^-- «^-d than
•v^^
*^
'">#(
WW. I'AK IS ()|- SI'IKCM
3. A man may write at any tuni- if hf will sit hnnstif dugycjly toil.
4. A falcon, towtrinji in Hlt pride o( pl.icf,
Was by a inousinj; owl hawked at and killed.
5. When that the poor have cried. Casar h.ith wept;
Ambition should be made ot sterner stuff.
6. The moving moon went up the sky,
And nowhere did abide ;
Soltly she was going up.
And a star or two beside,
r. Full fathom hve thy father lies;
Of his boiHs are coral made .
Those are pearls th.ii were his eyes:
Nothing of him that doth fade
But doth suffer a se;i-ch..nge
Into something rich and strange.
8. True ease in .vriting comes from art. not chance.
As those move easiest who have learned to dance ;
' Tis not enough no harshness gives offense,—
The sound must seem an echo to the sense.
9. Of all the wonders that I yel have he.ird.
It seems 'o me most strange that men should fear;
Seeing iii.it de.ith, a necessary end,
Will come when it will come.
10. Had I but served my Cod with half the zeal
I served my king he would not in mine age
Have left me nake.l .0 mine enemies,
n. I am satisfied that the vast majority of the people of Can-
adaare in fivor of the continuance and perpetuation of the con-
nection between the Dominion and the Mother country. There
is nothing to gain and everything to lose by sepai-.:iion. I believe
that if any party or person were to announce or declare such a
thing, whether by annexation with the neighboring country the
great Republic to the south of us. or by declaring for independence
I believe that the people of Canada would say " No."
—Sir John A. Macdonald.
CHAPTER VIII
0^ AIJVKRHS
Most advurbs arc used <.„Ij. witl/verbs- 1,
the name " adverb •• Ti,„ > ,"" ^'^'^"■'•; "cncu
-d.e.ve....Lra^t:fri::'i-:2:r
six kinds:— mtanini,s adverbs are of
(I) ././7.r^. o/ //,„,..- as. •■ I,-t US go ,uno "
(3) ^J^.r^. ../„,,„„,,. , ,, .. ,,^. ,,^^^^, ^^^^^ „
(4) ^./Tvr^../,/.i.^,,, as. ..He talks /////.••
(5) ^./r.r^. ./ ,,,,, , ,,^ .. ,^^^ ^^. , ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ,
y^) •'^<''''<rhs of assert ton- 7i<i ''P,rl,,^
you can «^/ help me." ^^ ' """ '^^'i' >"" : '* '•^^•".•
EXEBCISE 197.
uvcros, classified accor<hni^r to mvaniui:.
Pino c 1 »assifh.,i Accowllii^ to T *<o
C^s«,fi., aec..di„« .. use, adverbs L ;/:;,;-
■■5I
»;,JiP ' ■
I
!«4
THK PARTS 01 SI'KKCIl
1. //w/AV/^r ../,i«,rM». uM(l to mollify the mining of n verb an
acljcctivr. or an .Mlvcrl): as. "He walkcl rapuUy ;' "She is tUj.
pretty. an<i talks txctcdittf^ly uu//."
2. Interr,^,uivt A.h>,rhs, usc.1 to ask qurstions : as •• Wheft
<li.l you arrive ? " hulircct : •• He aikcd %i>h,n we arrivcl."
3. Coniuiutiv,- Aih'trbs, used to introduce clauses: as. " We
went on to I'aris. inhere wc stayed a week."
C.)njiMKti\r adverbs sha<le off into conjunctions, fron. which
they frequently cannot be distinguished.
EXEBCISE 198.
Construct .wn fains il lust rat htfr the ,iiffcrent kinds 0/
(U/irrhs, ilassijini according to use.
i
a.lO. Advorlm ClaHHlflcMl Atc-onlliitf t<» Form.—
Classifiecl according to form, adverbs arc of three
kinds: —
\. Snnfi/e A.fvtrh. ssh\c\\ express their ineanin- without the
aid of an adverbial termination: as. "Come ;,,rt ." "That is A.,;
bad. This class includes nouns and adjectives that are n.ade
mlo adverbs by being set in an .idverbial positiua : .ns. " He w ,s
ston,- dead ; " " Pull /mrd,"
2. 'V.u/VvW./rtVv/'Af. which have distinctive adverbial termina-
tions : as. " Yoii acted t.vW,'."
3. P/in,s.d A,iv,rf,s, which are idiomatic adverbial phrases
that cannot easily be separated into parts. The following are
common examples :—
arm-in-arm
as yet
at all
at best
at large
at last
at least
at lenjTth
at most
at once
at worst
by all means
by far
face to face
for good
ere long
in general
in short
in vain
now-a-days
of course
of late
of old
on high
one by one
two bv two
-» >■■
'»'■ w
"F ADVI.KUS
"i
The mo,t common form of adverb in literarv
Ivnglish IS the llex.onal form in •• -ly " I, ,"1"?
f rceiy from al. ,i„a.s of adjecUves eLpt . ^.t:
'n -I), .w lively and •■ fnendly," usually hive
no c„rres,K,„di„, adverb. We u.4 instelli^i^,
-/-/-■ •■Co,,,. ,......■■ ..s,a„d ,iV..- ..,1;^,,.",:
£X£BCIS£ 199.
1. S!.e Kets her lessons ^,,.t 0„.r//,.) enough.
2. Are you coming with us ? .S«r.- (.v^r,/,).
3- Speak .v/</:,. (vAw/,,) a^,) ^y^.^y„^.^ uiistinctlyX
4. He could scanc {scarcely) control his f.-ehnss.
5. A person shouhl dress suitable {sullably) ,o his station.
831. Comimrlson of Adverbs.-Many .adverbs
icmne :de.-,s that vary i„ degree, and'there for^
they .admit of comparison. like adjectives (,„«,
Monosyllabic .adverbs (and a few others) usually
form the>r comparative and superlative degrees by
aad.ng ...er" and .'-est- as, ' Pull ,u,rj" ^
i!
286
TMi: PARTS OK SI'KKCII
Adverbs in •*.lv" usti'illv f,^r^ *u
1 ■ -^ "•''u.iii) form the comnarativr
•IS, He felt It «/„.,/ /,,.„/,,. ••
Jlf"" ';'■'■'''*••'"' ',''"• -"Paris.,,, „f .,,|,„,„ „.
EXERCISE 200.
I. I can „u,ly ,„„■,./ ,„„„, ,„„y^, . , „„. ^^
3. V.U „ugl„ ,„ valu. ,.„ur priviU-^r, A,i,.i.r ,«,„, ^,,^;,,
4. « h,c , can run , he /.,„,. ,/„„„,, e„„„er ,„ a,,„,„,,„, ,
vJc,.uV;:> -^•"■'^•'■'/•"■'^" l.aUrn,.,i„....,„
«.ia. A.U.-<-tlvooi.A.lv,.rl..--rt is s„mctimfs ,
<,..cst,„„ whcth.,- 1„ .,sc a,. a.ljectivc. .„■ .,„ 2 J
. m.. 1, .. ,;,slc. • If ,|„. ,,,I,le,l w.,r<l applies t„ the
■•">.jcc. .,f ,hc vcTh, it sh,.„M I,, an adjcclive : if to
I.e verb, u sh.,„l.l be an adverb. VVe say. •• We
lecl 7i'(frw," when wo mn'm ♦!,..*
. «ucu «t nic.in that we are warm-
we .say. ..\Ve feel :,.„.,„/, o„ this .subjeet," wheti
«e mean th.-.t our feelinjjs are stirred up. I„ t,,"
|r.st .sentence ■•warn," is an attribute c..,nplement ;
... the .seeoncl. •■ «.ar,nly ' is a m,„lifierof the verb
As a rule, ,t ,s pr,.,,er t.. use an adjective whenevei^
the verb re.se„,bles in meaning. ...,„„e fornt „f the
verb ..be" .,r ...seem ;•• otherwi.se we u.se an adverb
Sometnnes we may use either adjective or adverb
ulh no d.fferenee in meaning: ..s, -We arrived
OK /\I)\i:hi!s
EXEECI8E 201.
aK7
2- Tlif ,|oor shut ,•„,,, ,,,„,,/
»• "e .|„l not acl awh.uu,/ (,,- d- , /,
"•-'Is that .he,. rZ;t "■'" '" "'^- ""^'' •"■
The word " onlv " ^
r„ « , ,. f'lllowinjr sentences.—
(•') 0«/)'hcl„st hish.it M, II
■^'^'■■'-. -H..,..h.!:;t:'^;:r;-,;: ,,,:■ ;,:;-.
••"t-nccs), u m:,y I,e pi,,,,.,! ,,f,e,- „„.
If'j.4 :,_
-iji jtlf I
i
1811
THK PARTS OK S|»KI * li
^Tt
wortl it tmMlificfl, with an emphatic, nImoMt (1t!i|Kir-
aging effect: am, •' lie h>Hl his hat only."
tf.'i4. iKiiiiiif Nfifiii I vtH«.— Formerly two or more
negative atlverlw* were frequently useil to Ktrengthen
one another.
In nuKlern literary Kngli.sh two negatives destroy
each other, and are et|uivalent to an affirmative:
as, " I can't do nothing " = " I can ^and must) tlo
suHJcthing."
tf.'Ift. HiiliMtlliit<>M for Adv<»rl»N.— The atlverbial
function niay Ix; |)crlormcil hy —
(I) A noun : as, " The Ixxik com a lio/t.it ," "We Muilird nn
(2> A ftroHftkH : as. " Tktt much we may aflfinn."
(3) Att rt^h't'rhiitl phrit%e ; as, " He ciin«* oh foot."
(4) /!« atbvrbial clausf : " They slarleil whtn the sum rosr,"
tt.'Ki. How ia VtivHt* AUv*'!*!***. — To parse an ad-
verb wc must give its —
(1) Clas* acconlinn i<> (<o mraiung. (O) use, and (< ) form.
(2) Comparison.
(3) Construction.
EXEBCISE 202.
Pnrse the adverbs in Exercise 1 96.
1 1
»
niAPTi'.k IX
or « 1,'rrr'":'" 'r •■ "■"'■' '■'^"^■•' '•'■'-•'' •'« "•»>"
■T n p,.,„„„„ ,„ ,|,„„, j„ ^^,^
wnnl (Hii). "iiiir
The fuiKii.,,, of a ,m.|K>.,;,i„„ i, ,„ l,n„« a „,>„„
;.a,,r,.„„.,..i,u....,,n.„lir>i,„,r..,. wi,h a „.„
.. -no .„ .„, a.l,., I..,, , ,,., .,„,,,,,„ ^ .,,
,h't,.::t """"■'' ''^•^■■••\Vl..a,„,hc.»orl.lwa.s
hat? I .,,.. sorry/,,, .hc-m f •• \\V traVflH
«:I7. Pro|MMftl(»tm C'liwNin,.,!.— r»
a classiHed list' of the prciM^sit,
use: —
Mlnipln I*r«*|MH«|tl(MM.
nf««T down in „^„.^
?; '»•« of ,1,,.,.
J*** '"^ oft through
oy from on till
*i common
to
iimlrr
up
Willi
afward
iljout
alwve
acrosj
igainst
along
amidst, amid
C otii|M)iinil I*rf>|Mi«ii loim.
ar.).iiid, round IhIw.-. n
aslant
athwart
before
Ix-liind
Ik'tow
Iwnrath
anionjr. amon^'st bisidc. hrsidps
Iwtwixl
Iwyond
drspite
into
throuj,'Jiout
toward, towards
undt rntath
until
unto
ujM)n
witlun
without
I ■/•.• <i-
>Jr frr. if,;, j
iM i» (i.r rrlrtrrii r, m,i f
or inciiMiti/ing.
' 1 ■l..«^
ii .' •./'!'!
■*j^*
■n-^:
2'/J
TflE PARTS OF Sl'KF.CH
Pri'poMltlouM iu>rlvtsl from Vt^rlw.
barring
concern inj^
(lurin){
exceptiiij^, except
nrcordinj; to
apart fron
as for
as rejjards
as lo
luraiise of
I))' HUMUS of
by iiMsoi) of
|)ast
piMuHn;;
notwithstanding
regarding
I'lirUHIll l*l'«*|MIHltlol|H.
by way of
for the sake ol
in accordance with
in addition to
in case of
in compliance with
in cons«(|uence ot
in front of
respecting
saving, save
touching
in opposition to
in place of
in preference to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
with regartl to
O"'
I,.-;--. -<■■>
IJS-;
EXERCISE 203.
Construct sentences illustrati)ig the use of sueh />re/>o-
sitions its the teacher uuiy select,
a;J8. Objects of Prepositions. — The substantive
following a preposition is ealled its Objoft, and is
in the objective case. It is commonly a noun or
a pronoun ; but it may be any word or j^roup of
words used as a noun : as,
(1) Noun: Come into the ^'-^r^jVw.
(2) Pronoun : I stood behind ////«,
(3) Adverb: I never felt it till mnv.
i\) Adjecth'e : Lift up your eyes on hii:;Ji.
(5) Prepositional phrase : He stepped from /'<•///>/// ///f' /r^^.
(6) Infinitive phrase : None knew tliee but to Iinie thee.
(7) Siil'stantive clause : Listen to 7vhat I say.
Used In'fore clauses, prepositions often !)Pfonie indistinj^uish-
able from conjiinrtion'^ : -t;, " Ilf^ c-imf* Ih'fore I di'.!.
<»!• I'KKrosiiioxs
EXERCISE 204.
2>jl
i'yuf iiuu a />r,/>osinoii uioy havi.
aaj*. Pivposltloiml IMiiiiscM — A rJ,,.. .
;;.« of a ,.,.,.„.s.u.,. anu ij :4,- i'r: ::;;',::;:;
>-< ..crs, ,.s callcl a ■■■h.....«„I..„„, ,m.„,^,
".hhcs a „„„„ .,.. a ,„.on.n,„, it is an v y.,., ,
l-.n..c.. as, ..-n... watros„/„, js .l.aU, ' i i?
mo<].hes a v.,b, a„ acljc-ctivc, .„■ a,, a.htrl,
EXERCISE 205.
S40. Position of P,K.posltlo„»._Or,li„ariIv -,
Prcp„s,t,on, as its nan,c i.nplies, is place, blr^
t.mc.s, however, it is put after its object, as, "mat
arc wecominjf /„/•• ' ' '""
To tho TcnclUT _tIi« tt,
."nH„„.. ,,. a sen.::; s,:/.!,:?,; ,";;;;;•-■''">• '"-'■ --
■; So,,,,. ii,„, ,„„ ,h,„ .,i,,,^ ,„, ,,,^,_, _^^,. _ ^.^^
K.'lthcr Ix.ii- il, :ii
T!
■an
ny to
Rathrrl,carilu)seills\veh,-ive
oliiLTs that we kn
o\v n
^^o/r -Shafcsp.
care.
' I .t
i
392
THE FARTS OF SPEKCH
The following scnunccs arc eniinly in accord with the best
English idiom : —
What art: you looking at ? What are you thinking of?
What did you ask (or ? That is all 1 came for.
241. Prcpo»4ltioiiH Used as Adverbs. — Some of
the simplest prepositions, such as '* in," "on," *« off,"
"up," "to," were originally adverbs ; and in mod-
ern English many of them are used adverbially.
1. Sometimes a preposition is i-^ed adverbially as an insepa-
rable adjunct of the verb: as, " She carried off the prize ; " " The'
people /<i«i,V/rt/ <i/ Fulton's steamboat." The adverbial force of
such prepositions is shown by the fact that they stay with the verb
when the sentences are changed into the passive form : as, " Ful-
ton's steamboat was laughed at by the people." From this last
sentence it is clear that in the former sentence, " The people
laughed at Fulton's steamboat," " steamboat ' is the object, not
of the preposition " at," but of the transitive verb " laughed at."
2. Sometinies a preposition becomes an adverb through the
omission of its object : as.
It was nothing to joke about. (Omission of " which.")
That is all I ask/t?r. (Omission of " that.")
248. Special Use of Some Propositions. — Prepo-
sitions play a very important part in our language,
and have many idiomatic uses. Most of these can
be learned only by 0I serving the custom of good
speakers and writers. The following notes on soine
special uses of a few prepositions may prove help-
ful:—
At, in : — Before names of places to denote " where," at is used
when the place is viewed as a mere point ; in is used when the
speaker desires to make prominent the idea " within the bounds
of : " as, " He arrived at Liverpool in the morning and remained in
that ritv two divs,"
/ «
OF l'Rl:iO:,ITION-S ■ j,j
lungs of the bodv " VV„ ' ^^ ' *' ^'^V '" '''«'
our comfort 7vith their poverty - ""«-'«-"«-* • as. Crv///,,,^
«^un!ikeness between objects; whrwetfer^r^ '" "' "'"
op'n n we use either .///?• /■ !^'"^*-''''^ '" <''s<'j;reement in
^^if^^t'nt from .—XccoriWiMT t,> .1 u
n^l-""" after ffcZ ' Z/"uitre ^^ ■■ "T ""^ '""""
■s very d,jr„cnl fn„„ |,i, |,„,h„... "'"""")' ■> /'•"" as, ■■ lie
-e.nb,e. /p:;:, L' 7:7,1 fct*",: !:?'«""■"■ '— ^'
Pariso„.so,„e gran.^lltiaTp.elerr:; T:r '' "'""" "' "■'-
an adjective or an idv^rh ^^^11 it.even in .,ese sentences.
suii pht;:: ,:;r", ":;L'°ofr': *"":'^^ •^"'' "•" '"= >•-"-
Joh..,- ■■ .he Province ,/o,,r„' • T' .'"i ■■"; " "" "'^ '^ ■•^'•
■■'■-■' M you ar e Tome ^ /-^"■y"""" " "'™'' ^ " «■ " ^o will
" - .he won,e„ ;: : 1 ,;,^','/;: ■-- ••-'-'! ^ - as, "A,
ii
EXERCISE 206.
'• The kinir confulrfl i •
■J, i-uiin(ic(i fiis ministers,
2. We stayed — ^
Hotel.
Loiulun tsvu weeks
the Victoria
I "
7.£%
•#;
294 THK PARTS OK SI'KI.CH
3. The marriage cuhloms of the KiishMiis arc very iliffercnt
ours.
4- He .s;iys thai he shall he hack in an huur ; hut we cannot
wail him,
5. He retlected iht- lonekict the (lOVirntiient not
supporting' him.
6. The conspirators confided the execution of their plot
llie youngest of their number.
7. We arrived I'.iris in the evening. that city we
stayed the Hotel Normandie.
8. He who comp.ires his own condition th.it of otinrs
will find that he has many reasons for thinking; himself fortunate.
a4;j. Il<»w to Pait*c l*ivi»osltl«iis.— To parse a
prcpo.sition one must give —
(1) Its ol)ject.
(2) The construction of the phrase which it introduces.
EXERCISE 207.
Parsi' the prepositions in lixcrcisr 196.
'i
CHAPTER X
OF CUNJUXiTloxs
A Conjunofion is a word used to connect sen
tenccs, phrases, or words (»o). "'
Conjunctions must lie carefully clistinmiUho,! t
■■"hJ ••t^'ativ c,„„nouns. which are Ikn? "' Prepositions
srm» in.ro<.Les a .no cM ^ ; ^^ ^ ^7:^;:;;« 7^"^- '^ ^^.p..
;ur a noun with which it 'on:;..^: •.:.;'i^'^;.^':'7;'^-'^
■■Ih""8l>.' •• licraus,..- "Dili" -for- ... .? "«''•
844. <l«s.slf|..„,l„„ .,f <„,u„„o,i.,„s._Co„j„ne.
'■""■" m.-.y be arranged in two general classes^
or Xter::i„t^T^i;rr'' ""-- --"■ ■'"--
■ i^, » Lame ^<v <///.«•<• you cae( nip-""r'... • ii
-.rrsomM-"'^""'"; ^""J""<-""n«- - Conj„„eli„n.s
cl.ea mj; that .something will presently be a.l.led : as
John ami Henry ni.ay go with yon."
-orieiatlve Coujuiiotlous,
»9<J
THE PARTS OF SIT.F.rFI
Puff
*flr'.
The most com nifni correlative conjunctions arc:
••both — and," -either — or," " neither — nor,"
'• whether— or," •• not only— but also."
When conjunctions arc used as correlatives, as
••both— and," "either— or," each of the correlated
words should be so placed as to indicate clearly
what ideas are to be connected in thou^^ht. This
principle is violated in •• He not only visited Paris.
but Berlin /rAv;." In this sentence the position of
" not only " before the verb •• visited " leads one to
expect some correspondinjj verb in the second part
of the .sentence; in fact, however, the two con-
nected words are « • Paris " and • • Berlin ; " • • visited "
applies to both. This meaning is clearly indicated
by putting •• not only" before " Paris:" thus, •• He
visited not only Paris, but Berlin also." As a rule,
the word after the first correlative should be the
same part of speech as the word after the second
correlative.
846. Phrasal Conjunctions.— The following ex-
pressions are best parsed as Phmsal Conjunctions:
^* '^ as though as long as as soon as
as sure as except that in case that in order that
for as much as provided that
847. How to Pai-se Conjunctions.— To parse a
conjunction we must tell —
(i) Its class.
(2) What it connects,
EXEKCISE 208.
1 . Review Exercises 93 and 94.
2. Parse the conjunctions in Exercise 196.
CHAPTER XI
«"■ 'MKkJKcTlONs
Ax iMtorJocfloM is a wcnl used n. . ,,
:r;r;;j '-'--'■■•-• -":r;^;:^;;
"-^fr^:^,,^:^:^:,--.-.-^r^
J '"IIS . as, Coodness gracious ! "
EXEHCISE 209.
Point out the interjections in lUcreise 67.
a
la
■s -I
V --mi
'"'''fi'-'i*^
•«T-€#li«.,* *
i
APPENDIX
MST OF STR()N(; AND IRRE(iULAK WEAK VKRHS
Thk forn.H Klvrn in the followinK list arc all supported l,y k,mh|
UV.K.; I.,a they arc not In all cases ,h.- only authorised forn.s
For full infonnalion on the subject, students tnusl have rccou.«:'
to the best dictionaries.
I'reaent.
abide
alight
arise
am (be)
awake
bear (•• brin^' forth")
bear ("carry ")
beat
begin
behold
bend
lx;reavc
l>€ seech
bet
bid ("command")
bid ("offer tnoney ,
bind
bite
bleed
blend
blow
break
breed
bring
build
bui3t
buy
l*nNt.
alKxIe
alijihled. alil
arose
was
awoke, awaked
l)ore
bore
bc.-.t
l>egan
beheld
bent
Ijcreft. bereaved
Ijesought
bet
bade
bid
bound
bit
bled
blent, blended
blew
broke
bred
broujfl
built
burst
Ijought
It
TiUit I'lirlli'Iplo.
alKxIti
alighted, alii
arisen
Iktu
aw.ike'd
Iwrn
Imriie
l)eatcn
Ix-'gim
beheld
bent
iH-reft. btreavtd
Insought
f>et
bidden
bid
bound
bitten
bled
blent, blended
blown
en
brok
bred
brought
built
burst
bought
j^^tA^:
' |l|!
y)o
AliKNIlIX
l*r«HM>nl.
l*N»l.
l*NMt l>Mr(ifl|il««.
I ant
t.l<lt
Ca»(
c.ilcli
la.iKht
cauKht
elude
chul
c hidden
I l|IK>>kC
clioHC
chosen
tlf.ivc (••ailluTi:
") cUavfd
e leaved
ckavi: (•' »|ilil "f
tlovr, cicfl
tluven, cleft
rlmg
clung
clung
cuinc
came
tonic
cost
«C(<»t
cost
crct|i
I rcpt
crept
cut
lUt
cut
deal
dralt
dealt
dig
'•"K. «I«KK«''
dug. digyrd
do
. did
done
draw
drew
ilrawn
dress
drcsl, dressed
«lrcsl, dressed
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
<lriven
dwell
•Iwclt
flwcit
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fdl
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fiKht
fou^'ht
fought
tind
found
found
flee
lied
fled
fling
fliuig
flung
fly
flew
flown
forbear
forbore
forlwrne
forget
forgot
forgotten
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
fioze
frozen
get
got
got
gild
j;ilt, gilded
gilt, gilded
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grind
round
ground
grow
grew
grown
l*r«>M«>itt.
Ii.irig
have
hvAT
lic.ivc
hew
hide
hit
hohl
hurl
ktrp
k I Iff I
knit
know
iailc
1.1)
l«*afl
h-ave
lend
let
lif ("rfclim- ")
hcC'tfIlafalwho..(l
h^ht
lose
make
mean
meet
pay
put
quit
rr id
rend
rid
ride
ring
rise
rive
M.ingc .i ' ,, iiM;ii oniy
* ■■ She htnveil a vjgh ; "
AI'I'F.NDIX
l*n»i.
huM({. hangetl '
had
hraril
hovf . heaved '
hewed
bM
hit
held
huit
k(|it
•'••Hi. kiHflfd
•'•••«. kniiifd
kiu'w
laded
Ukt
led
left
lent
let
lay
•■) lie.l
liKhl« d. ht
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
quit, quilled
read
rent
rid
rode
rnng
rose
rived
of t«eciiiioii liy h.iiiKini;.
■ Tlic crew hovf the ci«tK" overl>..
M>«
!•••» t*iirtl«'||iit«.
hung. h.iii)>fd '
had
he.ird
hove ', heaved
hewn
hidden
hit
held
hurt
kept
kmlt. kiHflrd
knit, knitted
known
laded, laden
laid
led
left
lent
let
lain
lied
li^htod. lit
lost
made
meant
n)?t
paid
put
quit, quilled
read
rent
rid
ridden
rung
risen
riven, rived
iid. '
} '1^%^
JOJ
ArrhNi>i\
t*r*Hit<nt.
fnmt.
run
t.in
My
klMl
nee
».»w
serk
»nU|>hl
»rrlhr «inlr.in<«itivr)
HTflhrd
MTihr (ir.irisiitvi)
MM-lhtd, mhI
Mil
%old
>rn«l
sent
sri
Ml
sli.ike
!»lun»k
!»hr<l
»lu«l
shine
shone
»hue
sIickI
shool
>hoi
show
shov\r(l
shred
•hrtd, shredtlcd
shrink
shrank
thrive
slirtivf. .slirive<l
shut
shut
sing
sang
sink
sink
sit
sat
slay
slew
sleep
slept
slide
slid
sling
slung
slink
slunk
slit
slit
sinell
smelt, sine lied
smite
smote
sow
sowfd
s|)t.'ak
spoke
speed
sped
spell
S|K.lt. spoiled
spend
S|H'nt
spill
spilled, spilt
spin
spun
spit
spit
l>ii«l l*nrl let lilt*.
run
ft.Md
M-rn
IMKighl
Miihtd
M-i-ihi'd, sihIiI •!
Mild
sent
•ct
fthjkrn
•Ik(I
shone
sho<l
shot
shown
shrrd, slirctlded
shrunk
shriven, shrivi.-d
shut
sung
sunk
sat
slain
slept
slidden, slid
slung
slunk
sht
smell, smelicd
smitten
sowed, sown
spoken
sped
spelt, spelled
spent
spilled, spilt
spun
spit
l*rtHM»nt.
•piit
sjioil
•.|.rin|{
M.IVC
^l.^y
Mr.i|
Mick
sllHjj
ftiitik
»ircw
Atriile
Mrjkc
Mrivc
swrar
-HW(Cp
swell
swim
swing
take
teach
tear
tell
Ihmk
thrive
throw
thrust
tread
wake
Wear
weave
Weep
wet
win
wind
wriii^
write
AIMi.N|)J\
•poilvil, hpuilt
>»priai|
!»pr.inj;
^I(NM|
•love, M.ivnl
»»l lyeil. sI.ihI
Mole
hlutk
Kluiij;
it link
M re wet I
MIimIc
struck
Mrunjf
slruvc
swore
swept
svvclle<I
swam
swung
look
taught
tore
told
thought
throve, ihriveil
threw
thrust
trod
woke, waked
wore
wove
wept
wet
Won
wound
wrung
wrote
>'l
1'iM.t l*nrti«-l|ii(..
spill
ftlMMled. k|H>|||
ftprr.id
sprung
sIo<nI
stove, -^imd
6'a>ed. Maid
stolen
NlUtk
Mung
slunk
strewn
stridden
Mruck, stritkcn
strung
strurn
sworn
swept
swell, d, swollen
swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thriven, thrived
thrown
thrust
trodden
woke, waked
worn
woven
wept
Wet
won
Wf>und
wrung
written
^
u
B^
I
!l
HISTORIC/!. SKHTCH OF THE HNGLISH
LAN(.UAGE.
PERIODS OF ENGLISH.
Tlio Celts—The (Itnelopn.cnt of the EnL^i.h I
Its origin is tooted in th.. ,1. , i , i-nglish langu.i^i- from
"H.ai.,': The .l:^i,:^::^T": ,:,;;;: ,':;;::-" 'r-'^ ■"
lory speaks were th.- Celr^ ,., .t i ''^ "^ ^^'"•'" '''s-
'"."i.; c.„.,,. ,..:';; ^:i;v:;::;i;''; :;«;::;'' ' •'■^'■7"-
race of Cells, o, llu,,,,,,, i„ „ ^ „ ,„'','"'■' ' "'"I"-, „( ,|,„
;ir."v„,.ff ,„ ,1, ,,„„,. eisc>v,„.,.:,.„;„',t ;:„„':r ''■""""• "■'■'= """
iry, will, lis laiigii.iKe. reluniiil ,„ i,s f,,,,,,,., "" " ■■., c ,„,„
Latin was, of c„„f ,„,,'„ f, '" ""I" r"''-"""' •' K""'",, province,
after .he in,ro,l , t, f 'cE';'' 1 '''"'"« " '"' ■^''"^ ^ ••""
of the second ee , v , ,™ " tV"'" """'" "'"•■""' ""' '■■1»=
«"rch. in t,,e n:: i;'hrrei:r:nh:V"r'-T °' •"=
teries a popular form of I iti„ ,i.^ ^ ^"'^^ '''"^' '"""'^s-
likelihooc I hat the cec tf he '"''"^'"' "''' '■^"' ""^^ ^^« -'-^y
•o .hese power Jil:: Br;]"" '^'^^ ^^•°"" ^'^'^' '" ^"-
Romans abandoned the coun rv "^' V"' "''^ '"^ ''^- '" 409 the
^lown from the savaleorththh T •r'^:''-"^'^ »'-- poured
to sweep away evx.; rd.c of R ? ^"''^'' "^ '^'^'^ ^"'' ■^^^"^^
'•'^-i-." ceiLf ^:tri;:- :;n-^:;- 1^^^^^^
1 I - "cu 111 tH^ir ttrror to the
3o6
HISTOKICAL SKKTCH OK ENGLISH
I
powerful trilKs of Teutons who dwelt in the low-lyinK lands of
northern (iermany. and thus about thr middle of the fifth century
the pagan tribes of Angles. Saxons, and Jutes rowed their vast flat-
bottomed boats across the North Sea. and became in their turn
invadnig conquerors. Their incursions lasted for one hundred
years, and by the end of that period the native population of Cells
or IJritons. was crowded back into the remotest corners of the
island. Strathclyde. the Scottish Highlands. Wales, and Cornwall.
The Gaelic (including Irish and Manx) and the Welsh dialects of
to-day (for Cornish is now extinct) are the only remnants in Britain
of the primitive Celtic speech.
KiitfUHh the TjaiifjTuuKe of the Teuton Tnvtwiers
Our English language takes its origin from the speech of these
Teuton conquerors. The first list mentions the most important
members of the Indo-European group of languages. The second
list will show the main subdivisions of the Teutonic or Germanic
group.
These main branches of the Indo-European may be subdivided
as follows : —
c
8.
o
c
<*
'C
<
Aryan.
ArinoDlau.
Ilellonlo.
Latin.
Celtic.
Balto-Slavlo.
Teutonic.
Sanskrit. Old and Modern Persian, and the
present Indian languages.
Old and Modern Armenian (intermediate
between East and West Aryan).
The various Greek dialects, both old and
modern.
The Latin dialects, and the modern Ro-
mance languages sprung from Latin, as
Italian, French. Spanish, and Portuguese.
Welsh. Cornish (dead), Gaelic (including
Irish and Scottish Gaelic, and Manx, the
dialect of the Isle of Man), and Armori-
can, the language of northwestern France.
(Celtic was originally spoken throughout
England, France. Spain, and Portugal.)
Old Prussian. Russian, and Polish.
English and the related languages, which
are shown as follows :
"'STnRK-M.sK,:,c„,„.-,;x.,,,,,„
■a
e
C
e
n
a
S
c
r Gollile.
N'orMo.
I <'t'riiiiui.
307
OI.I a-ul .^roc|..^, Danish. Norwegian Ic.
'•iiul.r. and Swedish. '
Old I.„>v
*rant'oii|iii,.
Ohl FriHiun.
Old KiikIIhIi.
^"•"'i'.'h German and Modern German
;;''"■<- Franconian.F,e„,sh. and Hutch
<^''' •''"'' Modern Saxc,
Old and Mod.rn Frisian
0'<l and Mod..rn Kn^riis,,.
How Does IV.itonh. Dim.- /», ^
sq)arated from the other Indo F„r *"''''' Teutonic group is
particulars : m^'o-Luropean speeches in four markrd
'• ^'''^'</'^^'mr of Consonants Tor "Cr\». • r
uniform consonant changelee r \ ^^'' "^-^ S^^'" ^'"<l
«'^e Teutonic Iangua.es fro ncuh VT" ^'''''" '^- ^=4) separates
as Latin or C;ree^ ^i "• ^ Z '"'""^ '""""'" '^"'«"^'^-- -^^
words together which ul^^ sLr:.^,!:'^:^!:"'" ^'"'' ^"^"^'^
Lat. /e./-em Eng. /oo/
2. 7'>*^ Accent of IVorti^ T« .k r . ^
".<= w„„l-„r„s w's fr/l~ ; .■"."''"-f ""P-- !"-"< ^l-ech
and i„ ,|,e ,a,„« word i, f. H I , "'"•"; " ^' "" -'V »y".'l'le.
•he reverse. ,„ ,he Te.,; Z^^^lt"' '°"' " ^""'"^ -
falls for ihe mosi part u,„„ .^"^"^es the accent is fixed, ajid
nouns and ndjective^ oTver .nZ-r k"^ "' "' '"""■ '"
strong and the weak. The «rnn ''"''""°" "' adjectives, the
^".cle) is a Teutonic devetopS ''\"'"";'''' '"" "" "'«""=
German, and Old English likewise shows i' '"""" '" ""^"^
«s^.. -:--:;rc;;,:^-^^^^^^^^^ - k-.
"ine leutonic group. There is
Qi
308
HISTORICAI. SKF.TCH OK ENCMSH
9i
f
■ li
'■WtKt
lU) ( orr.spoiwliii;; |)i.|riiif form.ilion m the ollui iikhiIhts of the
In(l«)-Kur.»|)c;m «niii|). I In; so-cilled stron;,' prctnitts which are
formed by vowil-chanKc {i^nniatwn or ahlaut), as. e. j;.. Ihnw—
tAretif - thnnon, are liki-wist- characteristic of Teutonic. I his sys-
tem of vowel-change rxisted to some extent in the ohhr Indo-
ICuropean lanffuages. but did not serve especially to show differ-
ence of tense.
Old KiiiirllMii TrIboH and i)laIocts.-The Teuton in-
vaders of Hritain be-longed. as has i)efn said, to (hfferent Low
(Jerman trilu-s. Of these the Angles settled in the North ; the
Jutes settled in Kent, the Isle of Wight, and Hampshire; while the
Saxons possessed themselves of the remaining South, except Corn-
wall, which was still held by the Britons. The main body of
Angles settled north of the Humber, and their country received
the n^ine of Nortliiimbi-Ia (O. E. " Nor«i«=tli|.hymbre ' ).
Another portion, called the East Anglians. settled in Norfolk (O. E.
" Nor«-folc." North-people), and in Suffolk (O. E. " SuS-folc."
South-people), while still another colony of Angles occupied the
Mklland counties, to which the name Morela was given. The
dialect of the North-Anglian tribes is called Northumbrian,
and of the mid-Anglian tribes Mercian. The Saxons in the
south broke up into a number of divisions. There were the West
Saxons, who lived in Wessex ; the East Saxons, living in Essex ;
the Middle Saxons, who held Middlesex, and the South Saxons in
Sussex. The main dialects of the South of England were called
West Saxon and Kentish.
English the (Jeneral Name—The Angles during the
early history of the country were the dominant tribe, and for this
reason the speech of the whole island was called English
(O. E. Eni^riis,), Though the West Saxons later gained the
supremacy, they continued to call their language Kn-r/is/i. The
term .]n^'-/o-S\ix,m was only used to denote the collective people,
not the language.
Ohl English Literature.— The literature of England prior
to the Norman conquest is a very interesting study. The great bulk
of poetry was produced in Northumbria, though we now possess
only the West Saxon translations. Alfred the Creat, king of the
West Saxons, is the most important prose writer of the period.
HISTOKK-u. SKETCH Of K^r.US,, ^^
jhe Lo. c;....a,. ....... .n,:;,:: ^ ,^:;;;;-'' <•«' ^-^t.
a few words which ,hey h.ul borrowe.lf o V'"' ''•"'''•
J'ul m acJcli.ion .„ ,ha, ,h.y borrow. k."' " "'^^""""*"«.
«-'ity in 597. Kxau^Wos o . I '''^' r^-'"«^'-" "^ Chris-
wall, wine. „„Ie. These arc c-!i . '""''' '" *''"«"'^'' ■ '^"eet.
Lntin words introduced 1"^^^^^^ ^'-^ ''-od.
La.in words of ,he Seco ! fr^^'""' ^^' ^""^ucst are calle<|
candle, creed. The L .Vi„ . '' ^'"'""I'les : ahar. bishop
'^•''i^^l I'eriod. Kxarnpir. CO '^^^^ "'' '^^"'"' ^•'"'" ^^'"'^ "' "^e
•his period were introdu ed i ir" t'i:7'' r"" ''°^' ^^""'^ «'
All .nodern borrowings from / . ^ "V^"'''" "^''""^''^ ^>-"ch.
caiied Latin words o^ :r;w p:L^,^'""•^*•— '"^y »«
•''«'usan(| Latin words of this nerin^ I. ;. J '''^ ^''"' "^•'•'- '^o
number of derivatives. ' '" '•"^''''^h.besicles an imn.ense
Celtic Influonoos — Oniv t
way into Oh| English, a's the Cdt, r ^f'" ''""'' "^^''^ "'^i-"
Komanized. and the Celts of .h. '"'''"^ '^^"'"^ largely
remote fastnesses. K mp e ^r"^' "^'"''•^ ''"'^ ''"-" 'o
— t. Us., c, „.,..;^;::;^, ^a^'^;::;:;,-:'— .
centuryScandinavianhorde f^^rkw :T;r'"^°'^
overrun the Anglian territory. u JnT .^ and Denmark began to
Pletely conquered the North bu i 11 ""T ""'"'">• ^'-ycon,-
forcecl ,o submit to the West S Ink n r ''"''''''' ^"^^^ ^^^^-
-'-le of England was con ue ed bt th' H '°"' '"""'^'^' '^^
^-^"'I •ill .043. when EcKv.,n , ' qL '"' ^^'^ ^"'^'' "'-
Saxon royal line. The inrtue p, of ^ .'''''' '■'''°'''' "^^ ^"^''O"
speech was chiefly in the direc i on nl I''"'"'" "'^"" '^' ^^"g'ian
-system. It was'ot ^JT^:,^''''''"^^''^^^^^^^^^^^^^
words made their way into t^rp^^T ''T ''^^-"'"-'an
names, especially tho,se ending nU;^^^^^ '"' g-gnphical
Althorp; (^) skin. sky. sk.ll. ^^' -^^^'''T* down) -as, Whitby.
Vo
HISTORICAL SKKTCH OK ENGLISH
liiS
Iho NoiMimi, <oiM,,M.H|._\Vt. now come to the |H..iu,| of
the Nornvin Coiu,ii. si. an , vuit <.( ihr t„st iniportanct- in the .le-
vclopnicr.t of KhkI.,,..! an.l the English speech. The n.ost apparent
result of the C<,n<|u.st was tllo luldltloii of ininu.rouM
JrtiKli wowlH |„ the KukUhIi viHuhuI.iiv, a.ul a
further result of t;real importance was to liiiHtfii the dec-uv
ortho old Ii.neotl.,i,al nysUm. English, therefore. cease'cl
to be a SYnlh,t ,,il lanj-uage <lenc.tinjr the various relations between
worils by change of tern.ination and hecarn.- an analvtual language
<lenotn)g ihcv syntactical relations !,y relational words (i e
prepositions and ether auxiliary forms of speech).
Now we must inquire why the English language survived the
shocK of this invasion, and acquired fron. what must have seemed
at hrst a national (lis.,ster a subtler and richer force of expression
Had not the Anglo-Saxon invaders established their speech in the
is.and winch they conquered } Why then did not the Normans also
succeed in imposing iheir language upon a conquered people, and
English thus become a mere dialectal variety of Erench ? ' The
question becomes more ditricult to answer when we consider that
French was estallishe.l as the language of the court, the church,
the army, the schools. th» law courts, and the Parliament, so that
It became i.n possible for any Englishman to rise above serfdoni
without ac(|uiring the language of ,he conqueror. The peasant
working in the field uses the Saxon word swine; the animal is
killed and cooked for the Norman's table, who calls it by the more
fastidious name of pork. Thus ox becomes beef (Fr. b<fuf),
calf becomes vea' (Fr. feau), and sheep is changed to mutton
(P>. m out on).''
The supremacy of French seemed still further assured by the
ever-increasing possessions in France of the English sovereigns.
Henry 11 added vast French territories to the English throne. '• By
birth, treaty, or marriage Henry was lord not only of England,
with the sul)se(|uent addition of Ireland, but of Normandy, Maine.
Anjou, Aquitaine. and presently of Brittany. lis realm extended
fj-om^^heviots to the Pyrenees. He was a greater power in
•The Nonn.Tns (North-men) were themselves of Teutonic stock In the n!..th
X'"^n'l?'''H'^°""' •*"=*■ '*^'"'^'?,.1'P ""• ^-ne. .aptured Ro '/en. a^ n.,sl^sLd ,hen,.
» See Scott : " Ivanhoe."
HISTOKKAI. SKKTCII ()|. i:.\(;lisII 3,,
France th.n .he K.n« ..f ,.>..„. .• hi,„sHf. ihou^U l.y ,1,. s„ .„...•
-;.K^ of ^..,.Uis.„ he was .h... .he French k.nj' ^^i^
In view of these in.inuie ,,..li,K.il rd.iions with France it w .s
.nov.able that intellectual interchange shoul.l ..e .-.c' . w e
tl.c- .W-. count -.s; so .hat even af.e. the loss of .hese F e cll"
-su.ns . e h.era.ure o, France continued for many cen u J To
'MfUience the speech of Knglai.d. ^
UolavatU.n of Fort.|«n I..II,ion<.os.-nu. the pressure
was lost .0 Lnjfland n, .204 by the .ncapac.ty of John an.l thus
" ^njjianc Forty years later Louis IX of France onler,,! ,h,-
K >.l.sh nobles to relinquish their possessions in Juv-Ian.!. or fore'
all clnnn to those in France. As a .neasure of retali^t.on lenrv ll
conhscated the property of ,he French in En.dand. Thus the '
etween the two countries c.nu„u.e.l to w.den. Meanwhile throS«
1 1 liic end by sheer weight of numbers. "
l4 n. h'-e^"'; r"" "'" "'^ ''^>- '" '362 K.Iward Ills
a. hament abolished the use of French in the courts of law The
Kn ainent in which this measure wa. vassed had been ope d
l'> Edward m English for the first time. I„ ,385 French wa
abandoned in the Grammar-schools.
An English r.Itemt.iro.-In the same century, for.h.-r ,0
ensure the triumphs of ,he English tongue, a native li' . . !
sprang up.and rapidly gathered power. Sir John Mandeville(>) wr e
■n La.m an account of his travels, turned it into French, and fin
-slated It into English in ,356. Langland's •• X'.sion of •
lowman. an alliterative poem, followed a few years later The
poet'ror'cT' ^f"""^' '""^^"' "^^ ^""^^'' '^^- "»• 1---^^'
How had it fared with the English
the Conquest to the days of Ci
s|)»^(ch in tins long interval f
torn
lauccr.'' It survived, as we h
ive
§1
J«3
UISIOKKAI. SKIHH nl KNl.r.lSfl
I
ri
i
s<r„ ,„„.„,« ,1,,. |.,w.r |K-..plr; I,,,, lacking ih- „sti...,Mn« mllm-,Rc
of . uh.irr. and will, no h.ciary HtamluMl ol extdkiuc ..n a orrt-ct-
ivr U. niisuv. u .juickly Infcainc cor.u|.k-«l. Kvn. w.il, thuMr en-
siTvai.Vf forces at work, w.tl, a Kical cla.MCal liuraturt- a.,.| ^m,|.
an accepted Man<lard of culturt-.l »|„-ccl.. in.«l,.rn i;n,.|,>h ,s inipcr-
ccpuhly yet surely cl.an;.,n«. A lanxuaKc that .I.h> not clianKc U
<'"a(l. Yet the .hai.ges l)ctwecn the Corupiest a.ul Chaucer were
nnn.easurably greater than can he ohserse.l in any other perio.l of
sinular length in the language. An e,p.al lapse of tune s.parat. .
us from Shakespeare, yet Shakes|)eare seems scarcely arrh.iir to
us. A child can un.lerstan.l his speech. lU.t Chaucer coul.l nut
have understoo.1 .KKric. who is one of the l.itest authors of th,-
Old hnj^iish period.
The Norn.an Conquest gave a new complexion to the Enulish
lanj^uage : * "
I. /.> /Ms/fHt,ii,r the decay of iiijlationul forms.
IF. liythe inlrodiulion of ni.tny nnv 7von/s into the voeahulary
ivith a f,:q,„nl toss of the correspomlin^r ,uuh>€ wonis.
I. Tho \Hvny uV IiKIoctloriul Forms In MIU.II«.
KllHrllsh. -Old Knjilish had been the period ,,( •• („11 intlcci.ons -
Middle English has been called ,he period of ••levelled inrtect.ons "
The influence of French in this direction was onlv indirect, .uul
served to accelerote a process -a-hieh 7oas inherent in the iam^ua^e
I he texts of the transition period, su.h as I.ayan.on's lirut. which
show scarcely any French influence, abound in examples of levelled
inflections.
Ilediic-tloii of Kiul Vowels to »»o/V-The Old English
vowels a. o, and u of the terminations became weakened to e For
example. O. E. o.ra ; M. E. o.ve ; O. E. 0x0 n ,■ M. E. o.ve» ■
O. E. stiinas ; .M. E. stones.
Change of "en" to *'e/*-IJesi<Ies the reduction of .-,11
final vowels to e. final n was soon afterw.ird dropped from the in-
finitive and past participle. Thus hin<hn became /nn</e and i/nimien
became ibunde.
It will readily be seen what importance this ending e acquires in
the Middle English period. Owing to its universalitv grammatical
relations could no longer be distinguished bv infler.inn nnd ♦i,.,.^
HISTOKKAI. SKITCIIUF KNi.MsH 3,3
•he .ysinn ..f r. I...mh,..| wnr.U was inir.Hlucf.l. // /, m«. //. .
...2;':;;::'; ^•••""«— '^^^ -«= -vo .aso.. .„ acun. ^
unclucl;"|' '""' Corrup,.onH of all kunls were .hcfurc
on the hrst sellable. L.M.sequnuly tlu- unaco-.Ur.l vowels of .1
.crmn,a,.un woul.l l,e .ccluce.l ,0 the n.u.ral vovvcl ' • • "
Among other inflL-ction.il and uramin itir .1 .\,f( .*
"" ' •^' = '■■"^'•^ '""..winL;'::;;';:',;;*;;:;;::,' '■^•'"™
■•iirilioi. <imimm,ii,.„| <li«iiK,.».-_r/„ .v,«„ ii> ,i„
:::ir, "'.r" ttt "■ •'■ "'^' """ "^•^"«^''
was the -fs of the Kfmtivc and plnrd
7'//. . /,/yVr/m.. -The levdlin^^ of noun-inrtcctions and the loss of
K-Kler d,st.nc,.ons naturally led to the d.sre^ar.l of ' I, f
rherefore the case en.lings of adjectives disappeare.l and t !
term.nat.on-. alone survived as the sign throug'h'out of the v I
adjective and of the s ,,ng plur il
accusat.vc //,,;. for the masculine, the dative /u,r replaein^ u
usa.ve /..for .he feminine, and the accusative (/.)// U,:
The other pronoun classes show many similar changes all tend
•ng toward ;, simplification of inHection ^
me^f of'\n;Mle"r"';T'"' ■'"';'" "" "^"^^ ""^^""-^ ''--'"P-
^^^ent_ofJVI,ddle Lnghsh. apart from .he reduction of inflections.
Ihe -ame word is used .Atrr^^,!V^it"^Sh v' *•''-' ''•'*" "°"' «'^ ''"^ somcrl,,,...
A<J«K»««r. " ' " ' ' -'"-■' "'^ fcns'i->ri ..tt eiiiuation. i. e., hondur or
\A
ii
M4
IIISIOKK Al. SKI. nil OK I.Nt.l.lSlI
u.i^ ilir « li.in^f (i( in.iiiy >irui)|{ vcilw lo ihc wf.ik i«»nju|{.itiun,
Thtis (Jh.itiCk.r htiuwt the (olliming utiuii}; priicritr;* : lnf.,/,'M<itt';
I'rrt.. i;H.':i>,x'{uh-g/o,{, /iiui^-A -Am^/i, t/Miiiu- ifuot, wlicrc MimI-
I III I'lt^li^h li.iH only the fuiins iii -nf.
II. Tlif <ii*o\vtli of till* VociilMiliiry. Tlw inllunurc of
(In- NutiiMt) c oiH|iust ii|>«m iiui ^t.iniiiiatu.k s^sii-m w.in iiulircct,
aixinul vrry far-rr.iching. I( did not extend l>eyond tin- in dec I tot is,
.ind w.is not evin the thief ciiisc in ihcir decay. Moreover, our in-
tleclion.d system iMirmweil «<>M///i,' fioin the Krrn< h. hut devcli>|><'d
on a purely Tculonic basis. The tiireii mtriMlui lion of a vast
iitiiiiher of French words w.is an evt iil whuh iidlueiued our
laii^'u;i}{e more profoundly, and changed the whole complexion of
our Knulish siverli. lUit this introtluclion of
A I >tailii.il (trimiti.
new wyrds u is not as sadilen as wo may sup-
pose. It was the slow j;rowih of leiiturus. For many ye.irs llu;
two speeches lived si-'e by side without mtermiiifjliit^. I'ntil Uw
Hiiifiiii- of tilt ta'ilfth . •: titty nut mot,' than a liozcH Fi , tti h words
ittr t,> f>,' foil lilt lit I'.iii^lish -a'tithii^s. In fiMy-six thousand lines of
Lavamons /.';///. a poem imil.ited in tlie thirteenth century from
the French, there are only one hundred and fifty words of Anyio-
French orijjin.
From 1250 to 1350 may be rotij;hly considered ns the pcrio<l
when Anylo-Fiench( Norman-Freiuh) words were introduced most
freely. After that perio«| the numerous French words which came
into the languajfc were chiefly borrowed from the Parisian dialect.
It was a very necessary tiling lliat our vocaliul.iry should be thus
enriclied. for durinj; the fourteenth century F.nj^dish had lost the
power of forming self-expl.iining compounds, and those formerly in
use h.iil fallen away.
Dt'cay In Wonl-Coinposltlon.— Thus Old F:nj,dish had
innumerable words, like forc-dders, lree-u>rii^lit, fair-hood, flcsfi-
iiion^^cr, hook-lioiisr, /(trc-wit, learnini^-knii^ht, which were dis-
pl.iced by correspondinfj words of French orij,Mn, :\?,,(iiicestors, ciir-
f>enti'r, f>ritiity, f>iif(/i,r, /if»arv,ttiiifton, />uf>i7. It is very possible,
of course, that the powtr fo form these self-explaining compounds
fell into disuse owing to the facility for borrowing the correspond-
ing French words. It may also be mentioned here that a very
large number of our living prefixes arid suffixes v.t-ic burrowed
'"■SK.RICAI. SKMUl ... ,..v.,, ,s„ 3„
.'r ;;:,:.''::';::•';;.:::■ 't '!'- '■•••" - ■""" "-
K. rriiith ., ,, fur I iiuoiiu" .,/,^
I c ; h„ „,',,, T" "' "■""■ " > - •■! i,.„
IIUHlIiiUllHl, |U.«.,iK|n.„|^th,.,„.,,.. II „ ..
- ,..-^.n.:;;;:,:4;::;r.: ;::;;• .,,;■;■■■" •"» '-■ .«,.,::
»ni,»: "No, „„|,. ,„ ,,, '"" '^"i:l"-'<^'<"n l).cli„„;„v.-
.".raorera: ,C.r , ':: .7 ■",:"'":■ ',"" '" "- l-"l-
-ii r.,r„„.i, „„M '•■ 1"'": '""'"■""• ""«■• -I-
—111...- i,s ,,n, - , : '■ ^^^ ";;"'•■"-•" •"■" An„...-.S..„„
i'-™ii..r„i,., „f s„ „.„„,,?; ; " " " """ "'■" '■'"■ '■'•'■'
»,»//„ r. /„/;S,.^ „■,,,, '"'•^ "'"•III"-, ("'in mir ,;,rlKs, ,!.,>,, ,„.
farm, and of evervrKv lif • 'narK« t, the strert. tlu-
-r. ..ire:;::,'!: ,tiZ.;':','::; ",t""^ ■""•"■■'«'■ '-
evpr..ssive „, ,„„ „„,„,„, ..„„ ,^ ,„7 . ' , " ' "'""»
stirnng scenes „f lif,.. ,r,„„ ,„, ,.,.,,11,. ,„ ,hV,^ I- '""■''
-'.-a,^;,:;;,::s:U;:':'-::;::;':«,---M.^.
■'■■'"'" ■^»"-"'"- -.- ,„„,i„„ a„,, .,„,,, „,/-;,„:. ""•■ ''-■
Ji6
HISIOKK ,\|, SKI rCM OK INCLISH
I <]
r
I h., ju.lK.nrnt » in ihr m.m corrrci.l>u» wr mutt accqit ii w.iii
c-rrLun rt«rv.iiiof,H. Thrrr arc many naiiim of common »n<l
f.un.lwr ohjrci^ .h.it .... „f Krrncli orn-m. Anions .hrm. r.»r c«.
aiM|.lr. wr timl vith coiiinioii t. rm» (UmuImik ril.ilion*hi|. .i% uft./,
.'//«/. u,/>/o^, Hux.. rl.'. \VV „ui,l tike into cnHMltraliun alvi
III.- fat I thai wluir purr EriK-li^h vvur.U arc ..fit-r, "chararlcrur.! I>>
Mrrn^-il,. |„||,. .„„| hnviu. Ik-iiik' frn|uinlly mono%)llabM-." »t ill the
vvnr.N win. I, wc.c early l«„,ovv..| rmm i|,c I r. „. h hav br.o.nr s«
thoroughly a part of tl,.- hu^uaj;. .1,..,. ,.,xe to thr »,K-cial Mu.lenl.
they are un«li^tln^rul^halllr fu.m nur native M.ktU of wonl*. \\>
ran wfrly c.i. luilc that KKghsh has gained very materially by thi»
fuMun of two vigornus s|>«-.. h. s. \\ c h.n.- gain.-.l alikr in wr.ilih
and subtkly of . x|.ri-»sion. and it cannot nureiy Ik: artirined that we
liave lost in s'rriigth.
LATKR DKVKLOI'MENTS OF MIDDI.K KNdl.lSlt.
MhhlU' KiitfliMli IMiilci'tHiiiwI tli«' IMm4> (>rtli4> \a\\\-
Uoiioi- MfdliilHi I»!iiIm, I. in the ihirl.-.ntli and fourtr.nth
crnliMnsand during a pait of llu- lilte-cnth crntury thrr.- w«-rr ihne
chief litrrary diain IS -thr Noith.rn (Old N'oilhuinbnan). th.- Mid-
land (< )l<| Mercian), anti thr Southern (Old Wrst S.ixon). Thr Norlh-
rrn dialn i rxl.ndfd north of the Iluinlier as far as Alurdeen ; thf
Suuihcrndialrct was spoken south of the Thames, while the Mi<|.
land «lialtTt ociupie.l ih.- inti-i veiling district, including the important
city i)f F.cmdon on the north side of the Thames. The linguistic
distinction l>etwocn these dialects it is not necessary here to discuss
,,j „ .. , . '" «'♦''■'*''• Suffice it to say that the Northern
DiMinciion l)eiweeri the .. , , '
I)i«lcci». dialect, owing partly, perhaps, to Scandinavian
inHuences, cast off inliectional terminations
much more extensively than the other dialects, and in this res|)ecl
is more akin to Modern Knglish. For example, the Northern dia-
lect abandoned -,/// as the third plural sign of the present indica-
tive, in ail but four words substituted plurals in -s for phirals in -/•//.
and gave up the prefix gt- ( ») for the past participle. So far.
indeed, had the Northern dialect separated itself from the Southern
that the natives of the North anl South could not understand one
another.
Now when Norm;in-Frni( h h.id been deprived of its supiemaey
!»'• Mt.ll. .t |». .1^. ,
HlSlfiKICAI. SKKHM(,r KNi.l.lSH 3,7
«wcrnlhr|wo.„rn„... or Nur.l, .,,,,1 South
:;;:;r:^;.:;;:i,r,;:;:-:;;;;;-,JX^-:r=
-lr;:;ri;i«;:;;r;r;j';;r;i;;;,::;v;:TV-^
.!/.'</,
'-'// Stmii't.i I:
'«s' //>//. A'///,/,
riv,;i from /A, Qhl .lA
'/v,
/f </#
'i'fi «•«#
y» ./ //
A //V //»//. ri'///i// /V/ /,,
fcsM)r Skcit
ciiri
of fl
'" ""'l<'«'f'f.ll> in .he rJKhl wl.n, !,»■
« /I ,f,:
'n\> i.Hfciiun that if I.MM.I.M, ha.l
■"• nvri. Ihrs|«.rch of ,h.- h,,,,,!, |
l>«*rn hiiill
sni thai •• It Ka
'>•! ihc south SKir
P'rtof North AiPcrica vvouKI have J^^e
It now is
•'»|"'«' ■•'•'I of ih.- ^rreatpr
»» vrry (hffrrciit from what
MODKKN i:\{;ijsH.
M*Mh«rn Kiiirll«4ii vvi. .
'-"'."" n„,, in E,i,";,,i ;":' «-;'"■■■"'; "'-k .I..S ,.-ri,Kl in
A,n.ric. in l^- Th V^ , "" '" ""■ *'"'""'l"- "'^°V".-,I
» w„„u,.rrui m ,,.,,, „",;,::;■ 7 ',"■ ' "' ■•■■•""""-■■ •.--
"■ir-r,"^'-' ^- ■^""!^^'^:::!::r"- • - ■'""
JIT"" '"■' ^ ■'' «'"'''■" < 1>-"I."« P.HO.U as
•■ The I.m-uajre became nhnost entirHv ,f//.,/i.//. / • u .
scanty remains of the ohier infln tions. """^>''''"^' ^v.,h only
f'Tiri ro, ;,,„...,.„ ..„„, ,,„.^,,^^, y^^ - -'-'- •" --e standard
318
rilSTOklCAL SKKTCH OF KNCILISH
i i f
I
3. M.iny n.\v infl.i- nces Iroin forn^'n Liuku-ikcs still further in-
creased the iiybrid cliaracter ol our vocabulary.
Now FoivI«ii Iii(liicMK-os.-TI,usthe Rtnaissance led to
the adopiion of a large luunl.cr ol (ireek and Latin words, intro-
duced M.to the laiiKua-e in a Latinized torin. Frequent transla-
tions from Latin works had also the effect of j;ivinjr a Latin turn to
many of our };rarnniatical constructions. Surre\ . Wyatt. and other
Eh/ahethan writers came closely into touch with Italian literature
whence a considerable infusion of Italian words into our lan-niaKe'
I he opening up of the New World brought England into contact
with .Spam, and accounts for an infusion of words from that source.
And tinally the ever-growing commerc iai relations o( England nnd
III.' spuit of maritime adventure brought words into the language
from every corner of the globe.
PERIODS OF MODERN ENGLISH.
The Modern Period falls into the following natural divisions :-
1. Early Modern English (Elizabethan or Tudor English), roughly
from 1500 to 1625.
2. Seventeenth Century English (Age of I)ryd«ii).
3. Late Modern and Present English, from 1700 to the present
day.
Professor Sweet distinguishes Early and Late Modern En-dish
by saying that "the former is the period of exp.-riment and com-
parative licence both in the importation and in th.- formation of new
words, idioms, and graitimalical constructions. The Lat< Modern
English Period is. on the other hand, one of selection and organi-
zation. The most n)arked differences in fletail are the great sound-
changes undergone by the spoken language-changes which have
been completely disguised by the fixity of the orthography."
>ll
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT.
Tho Origin of Laiitfiia*re.-The origin of language is
wrapped in mystery. Yet certain assumptions mav be made with
some degree of certainty. The need of communici'tion is the basis
of human speech. At fust primitive man possessed, like the ani-
"ISTOR.CAI. SKKTCH „F EN,;,.,,„ 3,,
mals, emotional cries <if ■>.;., i-
'o hi, (dl„w,. ,1^ :,","/'>■: "':'' "■ ' "'«'l.lc. a, ,„oh
out of which hnu'uaL'r h .. ... ,:'"^ "'*" l>nmituc dements
^urtfu-r power h.stth.ur.n: "'"' '""' ''"■^•^--' -
"^ '••"«ua«e cleation ^Ij' Z f "'" f"- "'" '" '"^' "--'
l""-|'ose. as. for exanmlc to u M n ;'".' '''""'^'''y '^^^^^'^'-out
tHce all clevelopn.ent ; s l ,"' '""^ °^ '^' '"• '*•"
value they inherently possess^ lb .? "^ ''"^ •*^"^'«*^^"^'^
niin.icry. He probahVl J^h ' l^' '°""'"^'' '""'•^""" '>^
the cries of the birc.s'o t.n . ^^Thu '^^ "" ^°"""^ °^ "•'--•
■sprang up. an,! gradually th" nh n ' ' ^'""'"''' ^"^•'''"'■'rv
n-«ls an.l ,o point out ,hrs^^ 'T ^" ^•^'"""^ ^^'^ "'"M"-.
VVhatchfferentLt:^ Z tm ;:;? f^'^'^ "^ ^^"^" "^ "'-'h.
place, then, this superio pow o „ "■"?"" ^"''' '" "^ «-'
power of in,itatlon' w ich n ,m, rh"'';"' """ '---''-"-'y a
Thus arose a tradition-,! ...; r ''"'" J'" f^"' '^^"'^- purpose.
han,.„ „„„„ .:::::;„: ;,;;jr::;r::,,:;!;''^- -r ^^ -"^
eralion to generation An,l ir , "^ '^"^ additions from ^^-n-
->'•'|.smode,,c^^..e^i^^ "'""''" ''-'^
sprung. ■■' •'^ ■ "'''^ ''^" "^ ^vonderful con.plexity. has
One error was 0^^0.1.^'' ' "" ""'^' """ '''^'■"^^ ^^^I'^ ''-ay-
'-cause it l.a n'o S «- forefathers, and
to mention it here ^ '^ ^'■°'" °"'' ""''^^ '^ ^^^'^^ right
English ianguag^^^Th^tlh^ t:7i,;'rT'^ ^^ '^^'^^'"^ ^^
guagc would naturally (e s 1 ' Ld t . ^^ '""" "" '^"-
Srow corrupt. Thev felt thu I . '''"' '''■''"^^^'''- '"'"'' '^us
Had appear!.,, whe.: U w ^a;!: s^rr' T'"' " ^'""^"'^"
changes and corruptions. Sw,f;t:i;!: ^:r;: :::::::i;:;:-
1
1
, i
■ I
1
3 1' i
III I
320
HISTORICAL SKKTCH OF EN(;^.oH
making proposals in this {liiection, " What I have most at heart."
Swift wrotP, " is that some method shouhl he thoujjht on for ascer-
taining and fixinjj our language forever, after such alterations are
made in it as shall be thought rctpiisite." With this ambitious end
in view Johnson undertook his great Dictionary. They looked upon
language as a piece of ingenious mechanism, and failed to realizf
the vital creative forces that are constantly working within it. The
ignorant observer thinks that the continents stand upon the same
foundations as on the day of creation, and that the rivers still flow
in their old appointed channels. We know that the world is even
now in process of creation. The air and rain wear down the
mountain tops, the rivers dig new channels in the changing hills, and
the silent energy of the sun is transforming the solid earth itself.
And so it is with language ; for words are merely the counters r)f
speech, and, like coins, are worn by repe.ited use. A true appre-
ciation of language then can be gained only by reflecting u|)on the
laws which govern its growth, its change, and its decay.
FoHsibllltles of Chanjaro.— The use of words for ordinary
conversation seems as natural to us as breathing. By an inward
movement of suggestion and association the right word comes
readily to our lips, and we scarcely realize the hidden and compli-
cated processes that are involved in such a simple oi)eration. As
children we first began to exercise our speech faculty and to extend
oi:r stock of words and ideas. This we did by that quick habit of
imitation which man alone possesses. Yet everyone knows that a
child imitates but imperfectly. And similarly we, who are only
grown-up children, likewise hear amiss, and are not yet grown per-
fect in reproducing what we hear. The main difference between
the adult and the child is that the l.itter is constantly exercising his
faculty of imitation in reproducing the new sounds which he hears
from the lips of others. The adult, on the other hand, has already
by that method learned enough words for his ordinary use, and in
employing any word he does not consciously imitate others, hut
unconsciously revives a speech-image which is already stored
in his own mind. His vocal organs respond mechanically to this
imi)ression, just as the hand responds to a mental suggestion when
we write. Yet though our handwriting appears superficially the
same, we can never write the same word twice with microscopical
HISTORICAL SKKTCM OK ,;n,^us„ 3,,
"-i-ii.i.t,:,i fact :,.... ou't ":"",'';;''■' r* "■ ''"■""■ """ "■■=
"infainiliar word. Ifclwiri ih,. I, ? ' " "'""«' ""''
Shakespeare will, perfect eise • U,„ „ '^"^"" '"•'"""• ^V e ran rea.l
-M». T,.,.,. .„. ,;,e,fr :; r,:M;: ;:';;i:r ;;;:';:■ '"- ■""
S..U.UIS we heard, a„,l i„,.,gi„e a,,„„3, ,har "•.:,; "T'
ilahnms '" some foreign t„„gue. "'■'•■ '''-
think of other, a. >vel ,, „ ' ' , "'''■'■ '" *""l''=- ^e „,„«
frun, undue char^- wTr^fe I r'",'' T'' '""""" '^"""'•".-
l.^ss„«s degenerate iZ,', [ '"'"''""'••"e 'Itroufh care-
S"ve a „,easure of cle." e« A 'T ^ "".' """"'•' "'"" >'"■
-. w.ar o. and-i-r:;-- ::::':i::!:^\::::!^,r
'rcn co.„/u„ica.io„°:,:r;;r„„ ^" ^" ,;:;j";f "--"•;'•"
generations would show -i di.fin., ^"'^ "^ '"^ ^*^^^
wouUI speak a separat: lli^l^r K,:;^i:r^: r^'' m"' ''''
..net subdinsions representing ,heS ' j :1 ^.^r" ;^.;;'-
tJ'e l.mits of a single con.munitv. small or \.r i , . "
arises spreads ifraduallv to ill -.'n,! " ul-.-tevn- change
speech hut Ie^h7cln.f•; " ""'"' ''""^ "^ "^^ K-"'''-^!
p-ut« . u! then V '" ^ ^' ''"'"'" '"^ '''•''' '"'" '^^^ (-^ n.nre)
! -. ->u! t.cn t.. change, ans.ng in e,.l,...- pa., do not spread to
I J —
. ■ ■'5t A Jf" ■•» '*"...
I
''>-J- .
.'TL-X'
322 HISTORICAL SKKTCH OF ENCWJSH
th.- «)thrr. and th.-ic begins to appear a difference in usage belweeti
ihcnj," '
We may thus understand how by geographical distribution and by
difficulty of intercourse an original i)annt speech n.ay be. and in fact
must be. broken up into local dialects more or less diffeientiated.
We have referred to the subtle changes which our own indivj.lual
S|)eech IS suljject to. TAe- more decisive cham^e^ in language
likewise arise in the individual or in a limife'd number of indi-
vtduals, and are thus gradually spread throughout the commw
nity. The chief opportunity for change arises lo/ten the lani^uai^rf
li being passed from generation to generation.
It remains now to examine in brief detail the mai.i laws which
operate universally to effect language change, and those laws which
seem confi-ied in their operation to our own group of languages.
As these laws are somewhat complicated in character it seems best
to present them chiefly by way of concrete examples.
Words are subject to two main kinds of change, namely
ClmiiKo In Soiiml and ChniiKe In Signification. In
deahi.g with these it must be borne in mind that reference is aU
ways made to the spoken word, for written speech does not appre-
ciably change. The f.ict that modern spelling is so inadequate to
represent modern pronunciation shows how stagnant the written
language is. and how far from the old pronunciation the spoken
word has travelled.
The chief factors so far referred to in the phenomena of sound
change have been imperfect hearlnjir, Imp'Tfeet souna-
meniory (or speech- 1 muffe). and Imperfect i-epro-
tlnction. While these are the most important causes hading to
a differentiation in speech, there are likewise a number of subsidiary
elements in language development, such as the conditions of
climate, habits of life, and many other considerations, so subtle as
to render investigation difflcult and a tangible exposition of the
laws which govern them impossible.
Chanj^es In Sound— Consonant Changes.— There still
remain a number of interesting processes in which we are able to
discern the operations of a constant law. Of these the most im-
portant are given below :
• " Encyclopedia Hritaiiiilc a." Art. PhiMogy,
HI.STOKICAI. .SKKICI. of KN.iLISH j.-j
seeks ,„ overcome .1,, n„ I" '?"" '" "'■ '^ ^"'""•'•■'l •"•'"
lener sou Id -m Law ;, l" rr';"""? "^^ "''" "' '""■■"
ianKuage,ro„r:: 1 :e'i;r;r:r''' '™"^"r'' "^'"^ »■•-
em ;.;„„llsl, will ,,,„„ „,e e"fe„?. ' '""''"r"" °' °''' ""'' •''"''-
/.W and Aw . now slm, J / / ; , " ''■" "I""'"'' Tl.us,
unde? ..."e same X^cLg h:.""'°" ^^^P^'V ^ classe.";
^onsonan. i„ ,he same lord . ^'' ""-" """^''°" "' '"'"'*'"
Mr,M. u is easv Lr. ^^ ""'' '^ »-i">ilatio„ is only
.He . In ,he wlrLll X^'^' i: Tf^ "■"-• .--'^'r "'
C"l. .0 pass from ,l,e voiceless' ei.cr ,o L ," tT'" l" ""■
' '» ."«»//„« ,„ ,|,e , and becomes voMes ■,',/"""»"•• ">=
ess lakes place in the ,vr„,i / "-' '°"^eless. The reverse proc-
correspon,lli:h ice, ;™ThfS P tt' '"= ' '» ™-" "'
ge. .h, modern „„, wns J„,L?J ^"^'"^^ 'T' ''""' '*'''<^'' »=
change.1 ,o ,he dental na,a 7w i, Z", \""''" ""'" '" "-
O. E. /„.„,.;, ,|,e reverse p™ "' ^ seln "? '' '" '""''' '"""
cases olm«Mvt, ,„/„„■/„,: , ^''"'' ""' ""' '"'inv
;™n.,..-/,^/,,,,,.;:rnt::i,a :,frf 'zft;^ "i ■^■'"'■'
,^r:---^r^tJrrc:i::rf^--:"
■ Las. ana .„. are occasion..,,, exp.aincd bv ..,„«, .,,, _, ...,„ ,,^^^^ ^^^
..v
324
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KNcil.lSH
I
r.xamplrs . O. K. " brid " liecaine bird, (J. K. " axian " lu-came t^sk.
O. K. " €urh " Ijecnmc through, O. E. " wa'ps" became %'Hisp, O. E.
" gacrs " Ikicame grass, etc.
(jirltnin^M I^uw and Venior'H Ijiiw.— The importance
of these two great cunsunaiital laws for all Germanic languages
cannot i>c tienied. 'I'hey require, however, in order to Ik; properly
understoml such a knowledge of (ireck and Latin or Sanskrit words
as a young student is not expected tu possess. Inasmuch as these
laws arc rather a part of Indo-European grammar than within the
scope of an exclusively English grammar, it will sulfice to detine
them very briefly, with se»'eral examples for illustration.
(irlinni'H Tja>\', so named for its founder, Jacob Grimm
(1785-1863), seeks to explain anti reduce to regularity the changes
in the consonantal system of the Germanic languages as compared
with the oldest languages in the Indo-European family. Taking
Sanskrit, or even Latin and (ireek, as the best representatives of
the primitive parent speech, Grimm shows how any given consonant
in these langu.iges of the: labial, dental, palatal or velar series
underwent an almost constant change in passing into the Teutonic
languages. A labial could never become a dental, nor any letter
pass from one series into another. Hut within each series a regular
shifting always took place. Thus / of Sanskrit or Latin became
/// in English or Low German, d became /. and dh became d.
And in the Labial series Indo-European bh became b, b became/,
and p became/.
Take, for example, the Latin word frater. This does not look
much like our English brother, but it is almost identical if we bear
Grimm's Law in mind. Indo-F!uropean bh, which is Latin f, be-
comes b, and / according to law gives th. Compare also tres and
three, duo and two.
Verner*s Law.— Vemer's Law is important because it
explains the apparent exceptions to Grimm's Law by referring
them to the influence of Indo-European or early Teutonic accent.
Grimm's Law is invariable when the consonant affected immedi-
ately followed the syllable where the primitive accent fell. Ver-
ner's Law applies to cases where the consonant is not immediately
preceded by this primitive accent. There takes place then, as it
HlSIOKKAl. SKKTCM OF ,.:n,,UsH ,,,
-:;.i^;™".:: ;:;;;^,::;r:;;;r;- "'T----'- ---
vomers L.w. '"""- '""'•*' '^l'"'-""'' .«ccor,|,Mfi to
■I'hi-s . able will show, he .liffcrcn,,. suits:
l-I-.. / to/
/ <o /// (voiceless) ro//, /, ,
Xto// '"///(voiced)
s '°-^
Cull: viS'i:::^""' ^^^-"""^ •" ^^n.,...,::;:i,^„.^^^ .^
Have ::c;: :^:;:;s:i;c'' M:«r' ••' ^^-"^^ ^'■«"^"
«<«i" approximately the s „, e s ., , " '• '* "'"' ' '''""*' ^^-
/ate) has become an entireK- liffer'" /' <P';>-'ou.,cecl like modern
- is the phonetic ec,uivai; V 'f H': V? '" ^"'^ '''''" ''^'
eighteenth century .luecl /.. ., h . ^ ^t ;h'"' '""'^ '" "'^
tensive to examine here and it wil ! ff ' . '"^'" '''' '°" ^''-
the general laws which he L fT T ""'" ^'''^'' '^ ''-'-
i" English. ''" ^'''''"'''^ '^' ^'''-»"K*^« ol vowel sounds
en'r^';:;^;;,!:?-::!;',^;::;''^ >-« --. are general, short-
many suffixes, eg': "^ '"" '"' '""^^ ^""-"an.s. an<l before
O. E. s/<7p/,- ,o Mod. E. s/e'/>/
binacio.,, as /,/, „,/. It.. Tg. '' " """'" "'"°"^"' ""'-
O. E. jfe/,,/, to Mod g ,,^.^1^
" ■' /'■''"■ AM
^ 0„ntr„o„„„.^„, e„„,„e,io„ ,w„ vowels are re,luce,l .„ „„e.
O. E./rewtato Mod. E. ft tend.
^"'"liii'iiil* -
k. '"la*.-
s. ' #■■■»»;
336
IIISIDKICAL SKI.TCH OK KNCil.ISM
lerminahon iS iK-canie -f. Obstrvr also llu- past participli"* wlur»
t lias licvn sy ncopatfil : as. s/i,ra'M. /Annt'fi, horn. vxc. In man]
nouns syiK*()|)€ is seen : as, O. E (cmttt, MimI. E. ant.
Apliii'iH'HlM. -ApHa-rcsis is the loss of an unsJr«*ssccl vowel a
the l)f>;iiininj{ of a word. Ihe loss of tin- Old Knglisli prefix .c'- be
f«)rf past participles is an example. This.j,'^- became Middle Kn^lisl
y- and then wis dropped. Apharesis is ollen shown in the shorli
of two forms of the same word : A^,loni;alofte ; s^u/rt.est/u/ri;cU
A|M»fOlH».— Ai cope is the loss of a tinal vowel. It is ex
emplitiejl, therefore, in the decay ol the inHettional endings, whici
is the chief distinction iKlween Old and Modern English.
Mutation.— Mutation is a vowel change produced by a vowel
or occ.isionally by a consonant of the following syllable. It i
equivalent to the (U-rman Umlaut , and is best shown in Englisl
in words such As/oot. man. mouse, etc., which form their plural I)
change of vowel. Related forms like gold— i^ild, full fill sho\
the same ix'culiarity. The change of the root vowel in these word
is due to conditions in (he older stage of the l.mguage, when th
following syllable contained the vowel /. This / had the power «
raising the pitch of the preceding vowel, so that a became <*. o bt
came y or e, and u became /. Examples \ a Ko e : man -mi-n
talv — tell : English from Knglisc, which is from an older Angli-isi
In this word the / has survived, and caused the e sound to chang
in quality and have the value of an /'.
o to y (e) gold, gild.
b Xa I goose {(). E. " ^^s"^, geese.
tooth (O. E. "tr)«'). teeth.
foot (O. E. '•I6i").feet.
u toy it) full. fill.
H to y Mouse {O.E."mus"). Mi'ci- {O.E."n\Ss"
Gradation.— There is a form of vowel variation, representt
best by the strong verbs, which cannot be explained by mutatioi
To changes in the stem of a verb, as l?egin, />iga>t, begun ; s/n>
sang, sung, the term (wiiMlatlon (German Al'laul) is appliei
Gradation is found throughout the Indo-tluropean family, and s
original gradation series have been established. In Teuton
these series have become reduced to two, and from these two hat
HISTOKICAL SKETCH OK EN(;l|sH ^^j
I'l.nmK il,e six dassc. of ,hr Tcu.o.nc MrooK verl>. (;, u|,,.«n i,
|»t .ir wiin ail altcrcil vowel in various parts of survcU ik .
chaoKes are .u,.,K,se.l .o have had 'h l^^t 't^U^l
accent in ihc prin.iuvc language. *» "'
CHANGES NOT CONFINED TO VOWELS OR
CONSONANTS.
Aimlo«.V.-The powrr of suirirestion is M..r„.-.. ii • ■
H«c Luinan nniul. If wc think of m.n! I'^H't-tually active in
this IS the case with Enghsh. In the old Si.„piifi,a,jo„ ,tue to
I "iguage there were five main declensions of ^"""«y-
nouns and many subordinate nn#.c n... i i
formed i.s p.ur!;. in JS^s rjn it ft^ tr:'?" "'r''
and gradually encroached upon thl othL"""^ '"""^"'•
until now there is practically but one declen^ '"> '" Pl"-l Forma,
sion. Remnants of the other forms of plural """"•
formation, as by vowel change in foo/ fert ^fr .
sidered irregular. ^ ' ^^^•' ^""^ "^^ con-
The Old English noun had likewise three distinct ., • u
s.nKular and plural. But one case in the '" '^'
singular and one in the plural by their more ''** '" ^'''' ^-"'^'^"k*-
328
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ENGLISH
The gniwUi of the weak cmijuyaiion is aixiih* r h«mm| example.
(.> In .he V.rl,. '^" '"■''' ^*'^*" •" •'"• '"'KU'K'- follow the
analiig) of the -eti prctt-riitvt i thus we have
httyiOtt—lHiycoltid, ficrrymaiuhr- g<rtymiin,/irt,i, etc.
Enj{Ush prefixes aiul suflixes are very much influenced by anal-
ogy. The adverbial suffix -ly, for <xample, has f>cconie ahnost uni-
^ . , vtrsal. We even find tfiat fwrtowed French
(*) In rrelixe<. .mil ._il lii*-
suffKcv words become hybrid formations through its
addition: e. g.. tettnin/y, virily, honestly.
The prefix a- is original in ccrt.iiii word?., as, .i//.w.ctt . hut through
analogy we find it in a numlwr of words IxsitUs : '•. g.. .»- in
aduwn is O. E. </- ; a- in att'ity is (J. K. ,>»- ,■ ,/- in <»/<'«(,' is (). K.
ii////- ,■ ii- in tiwiitt is (). E. /,'/-.
Analogy must be recogni/cd as one of ihf living |)iocesses in the
language tending dways towards siinpliticalion. " In spraking a
language we learn only a few of the grammatically modified words
ready-made; all the others we form on the pattern of those already
learnt" (Switt : " New English liiammar").
Popular Ktyinoloflry may be descril)ed as a sjwcies of
an.ilogy. In analogy pr()|)er one form undergoes the influence of a
whole grammatical group, as when a plural in -tn becomes an -s
plural. In popular etymology one word is altere<l to corres|)ond
with Of'C other word which has a fancied connection with it. This
will be shown by the following exampKs :
IViseacre. This word was origin.illy only remotely connectetl
with wise, ind h.is no connection with lure.
Sirloin is derived from the French surlont^e, meaning the piece
of meat " upon the loin." The popular belief was that an I'nglish
king, well pleased with his dinner, had knighted a loin in jest.
So7>erei)^n. In this word, from the French sortrain, a ^ has
been inserted because of a fancied connection with reign.
Shamefaced. This should be shamefast like steadfast, but has
been altered through a supposed connection \s\\\\faee.
Cray-fish is from the French I'ert'visse. and has no true connec-
tion withyf.?^.
Pickaxe has nothing to do with pick nor with axe, but is directly
derived from the Old French fiickois.
Wormwood, a bitter medicinal herb, has nothing to do with
"-- •• - .'-.. ..a. ':: 2';; . ;•"' ;^'^ ^---^^ ^^"- »•
rv/-«...«M. which ,s .» variant. <-«".,,..rf the viu„|
Sotnetjiijcs ttht'ii a wnr>l ^...i i
A popular wor.| cV.,.- u' r 'r"*'"' 'm '"■"'••' ''"''■"•
^"Pp>Hrd u, in- plural. """' ''••'•'"^*' ' ^"»'-''- wa»
^'Olit||||||||,|||,,,l .... .
; •■'" 'v..fr,.c, ^ord :.;'^.;, :;',,;;.7;''-'' ■" ••"•"■"«)•• c„„.
fonnt-r cas,- it mves rU^ . ^'^'" ""•""•«! con.siruclioi.^. |„ ,(,,.
are r..,u.u., i::;;::.^ i::.;L'::;:^;:^ r""""'"^-" ^'"^^ ^^"-^^
•qmrfd .ha. she ha.l just vni •'• r v! . '" '"""^ '*"'' exc.r.lly
or the unintentional l.u Lr of U. ^"' ' '" '^"""^i""" Much
^ro,n this source. "*'''''''''> ■""' •^'"- Malajm.p ari«;s
Contamination in svnfTv ,.. a
Sir Walter liesan. writes ..Shi ""' ^'"'''^ ^^°'" '»'''* '"-"'«•
«« hurt /... coinpU-xion. • n s l' "' ""'^ "' ''"'^'- ^'"' ^«-
are found, e. g. : - .^'».ike5|K-are numerous examples
" Let us onre airain iscnii ..
Whit «,« I, >"'"■ '^•'»''s
^^"^^ '^'^ have. w„„i^,h.s seen."
tk: • . —"Hamlet." I i ,.
This ,s a confusion f,elw'eon - L ef . ^
•■''^•." •-'.Hi ...nssail you w,.h what/' """' •''^'''"" "'" V"" ^^hat.
' erstood .he stres.s laid upon n .m;^;.?"'-?"^' -«"« - --
therefore mus. consider two viri ' i ' "' "' ''>"''"''^- We
-/'■m. when one or more words n f ''"'• "'"^"^^'y- •^'''''"'V-
••'^'cen.ed. and «vvv/-./,v,-. which h 'f'"^''"" "'""^'^"•^e *« markedly
'•yll.^We wi.hin a wo.d. ' ^'"^ ^'''' ^^^'^'-^^^^ to .he accented
Senteneo-St
yo!! going hon
rt'RS. r^,.( „,; j,^
na*i
•ral divisions, the fi
'c with your hroiher?" Ji
iminr n fymV-^j
'Aren
r?it endin< with
spntrnce
"s sentence fall
^ s.rong expiratory stress on
iinto (wo
3VO
HiSiOkU Al. SKIIIM OK F.NC.I.ISM
%iiip „
i
m
A»Hh-, the vcomt t-iuliitg Willi .1 ulrtuii; r)i|»ii.ilory »lrcii<i on hrotktr,
'\\\v. true units of H|K:t>Lh, ilicrcfure, mk. rather lirraih-){r»up« th.ui
iiidiviilual wunlii. li happt'in not iiidcqunitly that a wont may
Wax a ^lr^»^»g HrnU'iicr-nircH!* In one Kroup ami lo*c \\ in an-
«»ilirr. I liu» III " Art- you Komt{ liouif tu-itfghl or ii>-inoirovv ? "
the word liom<!' lo»cs the strrss which it hurc in thr p''*^*-'^*"'*K <""'
ample. There arc, however, terlain word* which arc habitually
unHtre»»rd in the Hfnlcuce. Muh as partii \ks, most prononunal
words including the arliilrt, and auxiliary \erbH. The^e woid».
till reforc, are rsjH-cially Mibjet t to phonetic changes. An «x.iinplc
ol this was seen in our tirst example in the corrupted foim artn'l.
Diir colhKjuid contracted forni'*. such as /laiuHf, I'd. I'U, i/on't,
I li\, .ire all to Ik: expl.iiiu-il on the siinie print iple, M.my iiiono-
H)llal)ic words show ililfcrenl loims according to ihcir stiessed or
unstressed position. Thus /<' and Iih*, of and ojf, than and ///*•«
re|)resent the Siime words tirst In the unstres ,ed and then in the
stressed position. Kxample : " He fell off, and that was the list
of \\\\\\," Many of the obscured sounds which aiisc from l.ick of
stress arc not represented by the written word, since S|>elliiig is not
jihonclir. Notice the difference between the sound in the won!
ivas in these two diflTfrently accented sentences: " Ife tiv/* there"
and " lie ivas th6r«'." In the preceding example, owing to the lack
of stress, the pronoun htm loses its initial //, which it preserves in a
sentence like " I saw //////, but not h,'r." Words such as with,
thou, thi', thiy were originally pronounce<l with .i voiceless th.
Now the th is voicecl owing tf» their constant lack of stress in the
sentence. Compare the jt sounti in iiioo.u-. accented, and in is and
7i>as, un.nccented.
(tiinlatlon.— Finallv. it may be mentioned that the gradation
changrs in the conjugation of strong verbs .ire generally supposed
to have arisen at a remote period owing to a change in stress ac-
cording to emphatic or iiiuniphatic position in a sentence. Pro-
nounce the sentence " \\v c.\n go " with the three possible .icrcii-
tuations, and note the different v.ilue of the vowel in nui. This
will show how variations in vowels may arise from the presence ;;r
absence of stress.
Woitl-StifSH. — The importance of word stress was early
recognized in the history of scicntihc phonetics. It has l)««n men-
HlhinRK Al. SKKicH »»|. KNf.l.lMI j^,
noncl alrrul) th a il„ ^,r,..u co,m,„.,nl .h.li MlurMit-,!
itMou^huui h) ,h. ,H.M.um ..r ,hc M,..,. W,,.,. .... ,.,.. .
".-iM.dy pr«cc.U.I Uk. .ort.man, „ .l^v. 1o,h..| .u.ur.l.nu ..",
■I ».e ...rhcM ..«...„, ,„ I . g.nn.. was prr*„n,.,l,ly (rer. .i, ,„ the
p..r.h, l,Mlo.Kuropr.u,. |Ju. ,r Kr.ul.,..ll> l......,nc. luc.l. a„.| r.M- .|
-KuLuly on . jur... ul..r .yllal.l.-. |„ ..-neMl. .hc- ;u„.„. r. su.l on
h. roo, .Ml..bl. ; .H., in ,. ..,, ,,,,,„,,., ..„, ,„ ^,.^,^^ J
ved Iron, cHhrr. ,, rr>u.l ..n ,hr l^^, ^s||..b,e. ..f .h. ,,..„,. ,,,„ „
«h.s were a prHlv Karly l-inKl.h .....„, ,,.. „„,„.., , ^j'
'^.une Uw^.ahl,.M,Kh,„e.ix,. sl.uwcl a Itml.ni) lo lu.clhnr s nss
as in Miit.iJti. "vss.
The forcKM wor.U thai wrr.- infr.Hlurr.l. e,,H..ial|y fr..,,, r,.n.h
arc found .., Ih- arcnt..! .„ ChaiR. r v.n.rtMu. > ..s n. K,. ... h ...hI
^omrun.e» accor.linK «'» ihe KnK'h.h n.ann.r, I h,.> hr wr.Us 'l„.,n
A,m„ur ami /,,,„„«^. ^/.,„,„ .,„., ^^,„^„ „ ^^,„ ,^. ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^
Kcncral thing. Umt for. .^n svur.U have yiel.l..| ,u ihr K„«|,sh ,ul.-
nouns and adj.clivr, laking the a.-.ent on ih.- (mf.x. an.l v,.rb>
accenting the r.K)l syllable. The following wor.U will .ilustratc
this :~
No iiiH Of AiUfftlvtn*.
CtSMlilU t
(mull
ftt'quent
Vi<rlM.
ii'Mn'rl
I on, f lid
iHsiilt
O.KU'ttt
fr,t/ut'ut
Sometimes adjectives areaccenttl like veil.s : as. suhhw, mmiile
etc.
Many French words of late intrrKluction still retain their loreiLm
stress: as. hurlhquc, cuii'f, c,imf>,ii\',i, caprhe.
The (luestion of accent in comjKiund words is rather involve.l
and has already been sufTiciently referred to. >e Se< tion I(n».) '
The effect of word-siress upon the sound. ;ind in most cases
upon the form of words, may now be discussed. The effe, t of the
strong expiratory stress in Entrlish has Ixen tn w.-nl. i .u,.,
, ,. , , ■- -- •' - ••»•' Wilts
render liable to .h.muc the unstressed syllables which precede or
33^
HISTORICAL SKF'.TCfl OK KNl.I.ISH
J
follow. Many of the vowi-l changes that have iK'en already «lis-
cussctl, such as byncopc. apocope, apha-resis, etc., are characteristic
of unstressed syllables. Alx>ve all, we must remember that the
thorout;hjjoin}^ abantlonment of infections in Knglish is the result
of delicient stress. The sound of these endinys i)ecame more and
more obscure, until they were insufticient to mark grammatical
distinctions, and relational words had to be substituted.
A curious law of sound change in the ac-
Vowel Shortening. cente<! syllable ntay be observed by comparing
(ill In the Accenit'il i i i ; j/ i i ji j/ i i
t „ ,, words like hi-ath and heat Iter, t/ir.Hit and
Syllabic.
throttle, etc. In the derivatives the place of
accent remains the same, and yet the stem vowel is markedly
shortened. This is more especially the case when the origin il
long vowel is followed in the derivative by a group of two or more
consonants. '
EXAMIM.KS.— /)V<»</^/aiul breadth, wide and 'width.
This is the reason for the vowel shortening in ihe past tenses of
weak verbs, such as feed— fed, read — read. Fed was in Middle
English yV/Zir/t', and read wns reddc.
In com|)ound words a similar vowel shortening occurs, generally
due to the presence of two consonants after the accented vowel.
EXAMPLKS. — Goslittg (fronj f^oose), bonfire (from bonefre), break-
fast, husband (from house-bond), ll'hitby {7uhite-tou>n), Whit-
church.
In the following examples the shortening seems due only to the
stress: forehead, knowledj^e, two pence (pronounced tuppence),
holiday (for holy day), etc.
Such are the vowel changes common in the
"^^ '" sy!lab"r"""* Stressed syllable of a compound word. The
unstressed syllable likewise undergoes short-
ening, and is frequently much corrupted in sound.
ExAMl'l,K!=. — lioatrnhiin, coxswain (pronounced familiarly bos'n,
cox'n), hous^k'ife (corrupted to hnssif ov hussy), sheriff {{ov shire-
reeve), Hamton (for Ifani-to7un), Sutton, Weston, Huckingham
{ham means home).
Finally, a syllable, owing to lack of stress, may entirely disappear.
Examples. — {a) In inflectional syllables — man's for mannes.
(b) In the Iwdy of a word — lark for O. E. lawerce, Gloucester
• I'
-«,:.
f •
IIISTOKICAL SKETCH OF ENGLfSH ^^^
f|.romnu,cccl oV.m/.,,. /.,/,,./.,- ,pro„<,UMCc.l /..Ar). /../«/,///
U>r/„ur/,Y,„uX^/,/, and .,/«<,• fu, sM,„.s. ^ "^
U) huiuny-/o,u for n/o/n; dr.Uf lor ^;m>,i/v.
luann;;. couple.l w.l, .naccurate r.,,rocl,.c,ion. \V,.r<ls chan^ie in
...can.ntj a ,cr a son.euhat similar fashion. As no ,w., in.livi.Tnals
^.n poss.l,ly i.avcha,I ,lu- sa.nc cxpcrinuvs in I.f<. i, w,l| |,e evident
tl.at then sto. rs of uieas must partake of the sau.e .hff.rence. Thus
any one of us n.ay listen to a philosophical kctuu-. and con.e away
Mone.hew.str although we seemed to be familiar with ain.ost ail
.e words e. .ployed. Hut were we really as fan.iliar with then, as
^e thought we were .> " Subj.-c." " object." " anger." •■ pi.y •
W.11. and .. host of such words v.ere used by the philosopher in a
connection wh .. only min.ls traine.l upon the sanu- paths of
tl'ouKht could . ,preciate. In ordinary conversation we c'.n n,an-
age to understan.l one an.,-' .r fairly well, because, roughly spe .k-
.ng. our experiences are the san.e. Yet we always put our own
private mterpretation. which is the n.easure of our private ex-
pc-nence. on what we he.-.r. Thus a dog fancier or a horse breeder
speaks to us about his .lugs or his horses. In a general way we
know what a dog or a horse is. but we are far from receiving'int^
our mmds the ,deas which those words embody with the fullness
of meanmg w.th which they were expressed. So we all by our indi-
vidual experience contribute our share toward widening or narrow-
.ng .he significance of wor.Is. Language lives and grows in this
way. The vual principle of its giow.h at the outset was n, t .
phoncal extension. And that san.e principle is alive an<l astonish-
mgyacnve to-day We realise i. n.ost convincingly when some
whim o .he popular nund (originally ,he whim of some lucky in-
<hvKluaI, selects a familiar word, w.enclu-n it from i.s usu.d
n.eanmg .and seizing metaphorically upon some characteristic of
he word, foists upon it some new an.l d.-.ring interpretation. Thus
slang acquires the digni.v of a creative process
If students would believe it. there is scarcely a more pleasurable
and prohtable recreation than half an hour wi.h a goo<l'dictionary
uM ^ rT\ r> '""'' "'^ '"" '^'""^' '■"""'^'' --'"•'^ have gracl
ually extended ,h.,r meaning by this metaphorical process. The
334
HISTORICAL SKETCH OK KNCJLISH
word " subjiTt '• is (Icrivetl ihroufrh Fnmli from tlu- L.ilin su/>-
jfitus. meaning " thrown JKncath." su/> jaare. To t.ke it in its
noun meaning only this gives us Hrsf. " subject," meaning "one
placed under the authority of another. - then as the idea of sov-
ereignty in the state grew it came to mean " one owmg allegiance
to a sovereign." In a sentence like '• I am the unhappy subject of
these quarrels" we are getting somewhat further from the original
meaning, as also in the phrases " subject under discussion." "sub-
ject of a story." etc. It would pu/de us unnecessarily to trace the
word into its further developments as a term of grannuar. of
philosophy, of logic, of nuisic. or of fine arts. Yet all these are but
metaphorical extensions of the original elements of which the word
is composed. Sometimes a word like this, or its kindred philo-
sophical term "object." is a measure of the knowledge of the
world. Volumes have been written to explain what "subject " and
"object " in terms of philosophy truly mean, and probably till the
end of time volumes will be written which will bring us no nearer
to the true solution.
The word " subject " illustrates a very common method of ex-
tending the primary meaning of a word or root by tniiisfonning
it from a comreti- an,i physical to a spiritual signi/tia/ne. Thus
has arisen the whole body of our intellectual and moral vocabulary,
" every word of which this is composed, if we are able to trace its his-
tory back to the beginning, can be shown to have signified originally
something concrete and apprehensible by the senses. Its present
use is the result of a figurative transfer, founded on the recognition
of an analogy between a physical and a mental actor product,"'
Thus abstract means "drawn off," concrete is "grown together,"
substantial is "standing beneath," spirit is "breath," intellect
from a Latin verb meanin,' " to go between." " to choose ; " right
is Latin ;w/«j, " straight." etc.. etc. The Latin word pono, "to
place." is alone responsible for the following words : Pose, poser,
position, post, posture, positive, apposite, apposition, component,
composure, composer, composition, compost, compound, de-
ponent, deposed, deposition, depository, deposit, depot, exponent,
expose, exposition, exposure, imposing, imposts, impostor, imposi-
tion, impound, disposable, dispose, disposed, disposition, indisposed.
' Whitnty . " LanRuage and ihe Study of Language." The list of derivatives from
pone IS also taken from Whitney.
HISTORICAL SKKTCH OK KN(;USH 335
opponent opposite. op,„>.silion. i.mT,M,si.ion. p.„,,.,sc.. proposition,
propound, npose. purpose, suppose, supposititious, etc
The vatious ways in wf.ich wonis may change the.r siKn.ticancc
may be tabulated as follows:-
(«) Hy Metaphorical Extension of .}f„mi,,^r, -Exatnples h.,vc
l.een given above. Let the student consult a d.ctionarv un.ler such
wonis as Z/,.^/. taste, M,,r, et... for further characteristic ex.t.nples
Notice also the worcls/<v and legion.
(2) specialization of Meaning.- -\\on\^ are fre,,uently specd-
ized in meaning : as. e. g.. stan'e from the O. K. sleorfan, •• to die."
" Thus starved the mighty Hercules. "-(•//.i/^tv/-.
Disease, formerly "distress of .my kind." now sickness.
"So all the night they passed in great disease."-.S/„„,^.
(3) Deterioration.-^Uny examples may be mentioned of de-
enoration m the meaning of words. '. The so-calle,l pejorative
tendency IS the result of a v. ry human disposition which prompts
us to ved. to attenuate, to d.sguise i<!eas which are disagreeable
••Huphlm":.' '^ '"^ '""^"'^ ^ ^"^'" ^^ '•- «^"- ""«•
EXAMPLF.S.
Conceit : Once, any kin.iof idea .- now. vanity.
U)s.siP : Once, a sponsor; now, a scandal-,nont,rcr,
INSOLKNT : Once, unusual; now. insulting
Knave : Once, a boy (Ger. Knabe) ; now. a rascal.
1 UN Y : Once, younger ; now. insignificant.
Si i,lv : Once, innocent ; now. foolish.
babe^" '"^'"' ^''"' ''"' ''""' ''^ "" "''' ''"^^ '""'^'^ harmless silly
process" ^'''''"'"''■"~'^''"'' ^"■' ^"'^''' "^^•"'"" °f 'he reverse
EXAMfLKS.
GENKRou.S:Once. -noble only in birth;" now, "noble in
character."
g^uZus"^'" ^"''^•^'''' '" *'' ''^^ ^^"«^' o"- ^'"^''//AvA,,/.. now
" A profane and //'''^r,7/counsciJor."^.S7„,>(v.y>^^r^.
'«!**»*! mimBL.
■■*-i
■afil
33ft HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KN(;MSH
SMA k I : ( )riKinally. •• giving pajn ' (cf. Oer. S,/i,n,,=) ; now.
s/>nX'^A//j: cleiur. In slang usage the word ha J
again (leterioiatctl.
Kxtonnh,,, or Vocibulary.-With the advance of civili/a-
tion language has been found inadequate to meet the new demands
upon a In order to express new ideas of an abstract nature the
Lnghsh language has always beer, able to manipulate its own
existing stock of words, and by way of nielaphoiical extension
bend then, to new uses. JJut it was not |K)ssible to apply this nat-
ural method to meet the needs of the discoveries and inventions in
which modern civilization abounds. Therefore, men of science
have b.en in the habit of manufacturing names for these new proc-
esses, naming them either for their inventor or discoveier. or else
constructing a word from one of the classical languages. For this
purpose Greek roots have for ihe most part l>een employed. The
language of science in all its branches abounds in examples.
*i
*"-Kf
y/'t^dri..
INDEX
The iiuiiieral> refer lo puuck.
A, prcfiosition, j-m.
A or an, articles, clmicc Iw-
twctn, 217; incaiiing of, ^18-
2UJ.
.Ibout lu, J44.
Absolute nominative, lUj, i8j.
Abstract nouns, 149.
Active voice, 46-47. 2^2-223,
260- j6 I.
Address, nominative of, 170.
Adjectives, defined, 1 14-115; as
nouns. i7j; classified, 211;
smgular and plural, 211
ApiKJsitives. 71 ; clauses used
as, t<6; case of, ijj.
Articles, defined, 117; origiii of.
217; clioice between an or a,
217; definite an«l indefinite
distinguished, 21H; uses of
the, 2ig; uses of a or an,
2iy; not every the or a an
article, 221 ; how to parse,
221.
.Is, relative, 205.
Assertive sentences, defined, 18;
punctuation of, 19.
.^•••Kuidi aim piurai, 211; •'^ »", distinguished, 292.
comparison, 212-214; use of Attribute complements, defined,
comparative and superlative, 50-51 ; case of, 170, 182.
214-21S ; substitutes for, 215- Auxiliary verbs, defined, 232.
216; parsing. 216; adjective
or adverb, 286.
Adjuncts, defined, 37.
Adverbial objective, 170.
Adverbs, defined, 1 18- 1 19 ; nouns
as, 170, 173, 288; classified
according to meaning, 283;
according to use, 283-284;
according to form. 284-285;
comparison. 285-286; adjec-
B.
Bare subject, 37.
Be, copula, 39; complement of.
when infinitive, 170, 182: in-
flection for person, 2^i-2^\4;
as progressive auxiliary, ;4o-
242; forms in the subjunctive.
254; as passive auxiliary.
. • . ■ -""„-""■ "yj^^ -261 : conjugation, 277-278.
isT^-^Ilnl? • ^^.'' P°'"'^o"' ^''''•*^^' language, pronouns in,
287, double negatives, 288; 178
s^stitutes, 288; how to parse, British words, 5.
A 1 . ^"^ relative. 205.
Agent with passive verbs, 223.
Although, verb with, 259. q
^nal^J^ '^^^"^'^' ^"^^ 9"' '^""i"gation, 279-281.
.^"g es.^. (^g„ 232. 277.
2 • r'ekt'Jn?' .^^'"^ ""^ "^'"*^' ^^'^' ^^•'^"^'^' '63: nominative,
fish 4 " ^^' Possessive, and objective.
Antecedent, defined, 1 13.
Anybody, number and gender
of, 188.
Anyhudy else's, 165.
337
defined. 163-164: form of
possessive. J64-165; uses of
nominative, 170; uses of ob-
jective, 170: ucc of the x>ri%-
se.ssive. 170- 171 ; in cxcla-
3J8
INUKX
mation.s. 170. iH..; ,|..ul)lc
IMwscssivc. 172; in ai>iK>siii..n,
i7J, <»t |>crs<)nal proniuuis,
l«i. l8j; of interrogative pro-
nouns. 19J-194; of relative
pronouns, joj, joj-MH.
Causative verbs. ^-^4; formation
of. 227.
Changes in our language, H-y;
how they came al)out, y ; still
^ going on. 10-11.
Clauses, defined, 63-64 : as mod-
ifiers 63-64; modifying, clas-
sihed. 68; as subjects. 84; as
complements. 85; as apposi-
tives, 86; subordinate. 07;
relative. 197 iy8.
Collective nouns, 148.
Common gender, 150.
Common nouns, 147-148.
Compare to, compare teilli, dis-
tinguished, jyj.
Comparisoji of adjectives. 2i>-
^14: of adverbs. -285-286.
Complenunts. defined, 49; at-
tribute, 50; object. SI ; objec-
tive. 5J-54: with' passive
forms. 56; several with one
verb. 57 ; phrases used as. 82 ;
clauses used as, 85; case of.
170. 182.
Complete predication, verbs of,
48.
Complete subject. 37.
Complex sentences.' defined. 97.
Compound personal pronouns.
'89-191; relative pronouns.
X)7.
Compound sentences, defined.
98; classified, 100 ; improper.
103.
Compound subject. 2s: predi-
cate. 25.
Compound words, formation
of. 142-145: plural of. 145-
14^, 158; po.s-essive of. 165.
Conditional sentences, 258-259.
Confide in, confide to. distin
guished. 293.
Conjugation, defined. 277: be,
-/7--78; ciiil, 279-281.
Conjunctions, defined. 124-125;
IHwiti.,,,. ,..5. j,^,. ,|i^,j„.
guishid from preposition!*
and relative |ironoun>., 295;
classificatioii, 295; correla-
tive. 295; phrasal, 2*/); pars-
ing. -H/).
Conjunctive adverbs, 284.
Connecting words, 100, 295-29^)
Construction, defined, 107; of
nouns. i67-ir)9; of pronouns,
•81-183: of verbs, 237; of in-
finitives. 271-272; of parti-
ciples. 274.
Ci)ordinate clauses. 98; con-
junctions. 295.
Copula. 39-40.
Correlative conjunctions, 29s-
296.
Danish words. 6.
Declension, defined, 166; of
nouns. lU); of pronouns of
the first person. 176; of pro-
nouns of the .second iKT.son.
178; of pronouns of the third
person. 179; of interrogative
pnmouns. 193; of relative
pront)uns. 199.
Definite article. 218-221.
Demonstrative pronouns. 101-
19^.
Dependent clause, defined, 97.
Derivation, defined, 141.
Descriptive adjectives. 211;
relative clause, 197-198.
Diagrams. 74-76.
/hfFer from, differ with, distin-
guished. 293.
Different from, 293.
Direct object, defined. 51 ; case
of. 170. 182.
Direct questions. 195-196.
Ihi. auxiliary. 242-243.
Ih}n't, doesn't. 236.
Double possessive. 172; nega-
tives, 288. ' • K
E.
flach. number and gender of,
188.
iNi)i:\
Kdjtorial use of uv, iru; our-
J«//, ujo.
Ai//..r. mimlKT aiui gviukr „{,
loo.
JiU/u-r—or. verbs with, jn:
|M)sitiiin of. Ji)5-Mjb.
Klliptical sentences, defined
, 105.
jjnipliatic tense forms, 242 J4]
l'.ngli«,h. origin of name, i-j;
t-arly home of, j; spread «.f.
«i-j; clianges in. 4. H-u;'
growth of. 5 ; good, defined.
II.
I'.-'crybody, ntunber and gen-
der .)f. 188.
Kxclamations. defined, yi ; case
of. 170. i8.>.
r.xclamatory sentences, ilefined
18.
Expletive use of it, _'8 ; of then-
a*
F.
Pall, fell, distinguished. 227.
I'eminine gender, defined. 150-
forms. 151-15J; in personifi-
cation. 154-155; in pnmouns.
179, 186-187.
Finite verbs, defined, 264.
foreign plurals. i6o.
Foreign words, proportion of
in English. 8.
Future perfect tense. 239-240;
progressive. 240-242.
Future tense, defined. 238; for-
mation. 239; shall or xvill,
246-248; conjugation. 277 flF.
J3«i
(iranmiar. defined, ir; use-, <»f
I-'; Kramiiiars old and new.'
12; grammar vs. bigic. ytt
(.rammatical and logual terms
distinguished, ^7.
H.
Had, subjunctive auxiliary. 2SS.
//«J7r. transitive. 45; as auxil
lary ot perfect. 2.^9-240.
//<•. decliiu.l. 179; gender. 179.
i8()-i87; construction. 182
//.r dt-tliiu-d. 17,;; gendtr, ,7,,,
l«)-i87; construction as ik»s-
sessivc'. 181 ; as objective, 182.
Ilcrs, case. 179: geniler. 179,
i8<)-i87; cons;ruction. 181.
1 1 cr self, i8«j-i9i.
Him, case. 179; gender. 179.
iW)-i87; construction, 182.
thmsi'lf, i8«j-i9i.
IIL case. 179; gt-nder. 17.).
186-187; construction. 181.
Gender defined, 150; of nouns.
150-155: ways of denoting.
151-15^: relation to pronouns.
153-154: in personification.
154-155: personal pronouns,
179. 186-187; relative pro-
nouns, 202.
Generic article. 219.
Going to, 244.
Good English, defined, 11.
I.
/.classified. 175; declined. 176;
how written, 170; use, 182.
Idea, defined. 15.
If, verbs with. 258-259.
Imperative mode, defined. 2^r
use, 256-257; let, 275.
Imperative sentences, defined,
18; punctuation of, 19; predi-
cate in, 21.
Impersonal subject, 27, 180 •
object. 180.
Imported words. 7.
Improper compound sentences
103.
/". at, distinguished. 292.
Incomplete predication, verbs
of, 48-49.
Indefinite pronouns. 207. 208-
■iQuy, articles. 217-221.
Independent elements, defined.
90; vocatives. 90; exclama-
tions. 01: parentlu•!il^^!, 92:
pleonastic. 93 ; punctuation
of. 93: nominative absolute,
109; case of, 170,
340
INDKX
liulkativc mo«lc. ilofmcW. J5 ;
'•^•. -^54; HI CMiidiiiwiial >ui*
liiict)., JS^.iS*J-
IiitJirict «»l»jcct, tkrtnfd. OH-(ji;;
as subject of passive verb.
7" 71. -fn ; case (if. 170. iHj.
Ifubrtct questions, Kjs-UJb.
Inliiiiiivis. (liJincd. iM), j()j.
J(>4; furiu c.f. 1^;. ^64.^^,;
history of, M}ji%), subject
of, i(jK, 18^; attribute coin-
plttnent of to oc, 170, iHj;
kinds, Jt^-jijb; with to, Aty
A>7; tenses, A*)-27\\ coti-
structit)ns, 271-272.
Intlectinn, dertiied. 140; of
nouns, i«); of personal pro-
nouns. i7f). 1 78. 17,,; „f ,ii..
nionstrative pronouns, ly.'; of
interr«)Kative proiiounji. lyj;
of relative pronouns, lyy; I>f
adjectives. Jii. jij; of verbs.
-77-J«i.
"ing." words in, ijj.
Interjections, 127, 2^)7.
Interrogative adverbs, 284.
Interrogative pronouns, defined,
igj-igT); decline<I, lyj; dis-
tinguished. i«>4; u-/,,, or
ti'/ioMj. 194; in indirect ques-
tions, I95-|{/).
Interrogative sentences, defined.
18; punctuation of, 19; predi-
cate in, 21.
Interrogative tense forms, 242-
24.V
Intransitive verbs. 45-46, 222-
2-7.
Irregular comparison. 214.
//. expletive. 28-29. 180.
It, pronoun, classified, 175; de-
clined. 179: gender, 179. iST)-
i«7: speci.il uses, 180; con-
structions. 182-183.
Its. 179: history. 180.
Itself. / 89- 191.
Jutes, 2.
J.
L.
I-anguaee. defined i • chnnee'
in. 4. 8-11.
Latin wortis found in Hritain,
5 ; from iNKiks, 7.
I.outili at, 224.
ioy. Ill-, distinguished, 227
l.ct, 2,\2. 27s 27U.
I.ii', lay. distinguished. 227.
I.lki', M)X
Limiting a«ljectives, 21 1; ad-
verbs. 284.
Logic vs. grammar, 36.
M.
Majestic use of u-.-, 176; onr-
it'lf, 190.
Masculine gen<ler. defined. 150;
forms, 151-152; in |Hrsonirt-
cation. 154-155, ,87; pro-
nouns. 179. i8t)-i87.
May, 2.\j. 255. 27b.
•»/.•. classified. 175; case. 176;
constructions. 182-18).
Mtfl/it, 255. 27l>.
Minr. i7h. use. i8i.
Missionary words. 6,
Mixed verbs. 230-231.
Mode, defined. ■253': indicative.
254; subjunctive, 254-2S(»-
imperative. 256-257: in con-
ditional sentences. 258-259
Mo«lifiers. defined. 59-60: 'dis-
tinguished from c«miplements.
61 ; phrases and clauses used
as, 63-f^; themselves i-iodi-
ficd, 7:i.
Must. 232, 271-272, 277.
'^ly. classified. 175: case. 176:
construction. 181,
Myst'lf, 189- < J I.
N.
Xccd, 272.
Negative tense forms. 242-241
Negatives, double. 288.
;Vfi//;(r, number and gender of.
1 08.
Ncither~,wr. verbs with. 217-
position of, 296.
Neuter gender, defined. 150 • in
pronouns. 179. 186-187.'
New conjugation, 210.
A'o. adverb. 283.
.V<:-/-.;f/v. numWr and gender of,
loo.
' '#'■*"■ I-
INDKX
Nuiiiittaiivc, ilorinril. i(»j-j(i4;
of pcrMtiial iiroiiiiuiiji. iHj-
iHj; of intirriigutivc pro-
nouns. uj,\iij4; of relative
pronouns, joj. joj.
i\'or, verhs with, jj;.
Norman- French words. 6.
Notional verhs. jjj.
Nouns. <letinetl. iii; proper,
147; coiiiinon, 147 14H; col-
lective, 14H; ahMract. 141^;
gemler. 150 15.'; ;)er,suniHe.l.
•54; MUgular ami plural. I5<)-
15M; two plurals. i5y; foreign
plurals. Kw; case. Kij. H)5 ;
iKclensiori. iW»; iwrscm. 160-
i')7; constructions. 167-17^;
suhstitutes for, 173; ho. to
parse, 17.5.
Nuink-r. defined. is6: forma-
tion f.f plural. IS6-I5«; two
plurals, 159-160: divided
usage. i6t; jH'rsonal pro-
nouns. 176, 178. 188: relative
pronouns, 20^; adjectives,
-mi; verl)s, 2.?j-j.?6.
Numeral adjectives, jii.
Oniissiiiu of suhjfct. ji,
JS7 ' of witrds. 103 ly^,.
i>uly, iNiMtioii i»f. jHj.
Or, verhs with. JJ^J.
(^HKfil. JiJ, J7l,J77.
Our, ours. 17*.; use. 181.
Ourst'll. ounitvct, 189 io|
Own, uju.
V.
341
JU(l,
Ohject, direct. 51 ; retained. 71 ;
case of. 170. 182. jo.v
Ohject, indirect, defined, 68-69;
in passive sentences. 70-71!
^n : case of. 170. 182.
Ohject of preposition, defined.
\22- case of, 170, 18.2, 2o\;
K'nds. 290.
Ohjective. adverhial. 170.
Ohjective attrihute comple-
ments, defined. s.VSS : case
of. 170.
OI>jectivc case, defined. 164:
suhject of infinitive. 168: uses
of, 170: of personal pronouns.
182-18.1; of interrogative pro-
nouns. 193. 194: of relative
pronouns. 20 ^ 207.
Of. ?8o. 20.^ '
OKI conjugation. 229.
Old English. .1-4.
Pareiitlutical expressions, 92.
I'arsing, iiouiin. 17,}; pr.iiiouns.
AJ^, adjectives. 216; articles,
J^x ; verhs, 281 ; adverbs. 288;
prepositions, 294; conjunc-
iitins. 296.
»'articiples. defined, i.u. 272;
constructions, jb2, 27s ; form'
Tarts of speech, distinguished.
Ill-ia6; summari/ed, 1 {8.
Parts of verlt. principal. 2.M.
Passive voice. 4(»-47. 222-221,
2f)0-2f>.j; complements with
56. 2f)r.
Past iK-rfect tense, 2W-240;
progressive. 240-242.
Past tense, simple form. 229-
AJJ, 2.»8; <krtned. 2j8; pro-
gressive. 240-242: emphatic,
interrogative, and negative.
-^42-24.1; misused forms. 250-
251; conjugation. 277 'd.
jVculiar verb phrases, 27^-277
I erfect tenses. 2.W-242: uses <,f
the present |>erfect. 24.3 ; mis-
used forms. 250-251.
Person, of nouns. ViC^-\6y; of
pronouns. 175. 202: of verbs
2iy-2:S7.
Personal pronouns, defined.
175: first person, 176: second
person. 177-178: third per-
son. 179-180; special uses of
'/. 180: uses of pf)ssessive
forms. 181 ; uses of nomina-
tive forms. 182 : uses of ob-
jective forms. 182-181: use
of gender forms. 186-187:
use of number forms, 188;
compound, 189-191; as re-
flexives. 191.
34i
IN III: X
l*crs«.nirtiaii..n. goiuKr in, isj
^ «55. 1H7
I'hrasf, cKfiiud. 15; diMu,
K«''»licil rroiii MiiUm-c. l(>;
froiii ilauw. (|J.(^; an iiichIi-
her, (».j (j^ ; as Mihjtvi. Hi ; as
CMihplfnuni. Hj : |»ri|K>jmioii-
ul, tJJ, Jyi.
I'li-iitiaMu. ;.<.
Mural mimlHr. iKlim-.l. 156;
l«<rmatioii of. 156 15M; two
phiraU. i.sy. fon-JKn plurals.
Kio; duiilfil usaKf, U>i ; pro-
nouns. 170. ,78. ,HH; adjcc-
livts.^li; verbs, J.U^.K>.
l«H*lival language, pronouns in
17K.
l'<)sition of subject, jj; of a«l
jectives. 1.3; of pre|N)siiions.
IJJ. -*>« ; (»f Conjunctions,
1^5. JiJS M/t: of adverbs, /H;
Pi«sitive degree, define.l, zm.
IN.ssessivc case. deHned. i()o;
form of. Km- 165. iHi; use of.
170 171. iMr ; double. 172; in
ap|M)sition. 172: of |Krsonal
pnmouns, iKi ; of interroga-
tive pronouns. 19^^ ; of relative
pronouns, jo.?, .«>4.
Predicate, defined. i\ . in inter-
rogativt and impt-rative sen-
tences. 2\\ iK)sition of. 2i\
compound, 25: distinguisbed
from verb. yj.
Predicate nominative. 170.
Predication, verbs of complete
and incomplete, 4H-4<>.
Preixisitional pbrase. defined,
\2f\\ classitivd. j»>i.
Prepositions, defined. \i2\ ob-
ject of. 122. 170. 182. 20.1.
2QO: classified. 289-200: posi-
tion. 2r;; : as adverbs, 292;
special uses of some. 2<j2-293 :
parsing. 294.
Present perfect tense, 2.^9-240;
progressive, 240-241 ; rm-
phatic. interrogative, and
negative. 242-243 : uses. 244-
21.": onnjugalion. 2y^.
Principal parts of verb, 229.
Pri.gressive relative clause, I«J7
1 98.
Progressive tenses. 240 242.
Pronommal adjectives, mu
«y.». 20H. 211.
Pron.mns, cUfined. \\\, anie-
tedenl. iij; iktsoiuI, 175-
|H«; comiK.und jn-rsonal or
nflexive. 189-191 ; demon-
strative. 191 192; interri)ga-
tive. 192 l«>); relative. u>>.
JOf). comiM.und relative, 2cXj-
-»7; Hidefimte, 2(j8; bow to
parse, 2oi>.
Proper nouns, dtfincd, 147
plural of, 158.
I'unctualitm. of sentences, 19;
of ap|)ositives. Ti, of indc-
IHudent elements. 93 ; of rela-
tive clauses, i<;8.
yuestions. «lirect and indirect,
ly^ n/».
R
Raise, rise, distinguisbed, 227.
Reflexive imMumns. |8«> 191.
Kelative clauses. !97-i(y<.
Relative pronouns, defined. 196-
t*)7: <li^tingiiisbed, ic;8-2oo:
gender, number, and person.
Mi; ca^', 203. 207: Xi'hose. or
•'/ which, 204; as and but,
-J05 ; omitted. 20^1; comjiound.
20f» 207; indefinite, 207.
Retained object. 71.
Rise, raise, distinguisbed, 2*7.
R<M>t. defined. 141.
R«M)t. infinitive. 129, j(\A-jfts,
267.
Same as, same that, distin-
guished, 205,
Saxons, 2.
Sentences, defined, 15; distin-
guished from phrases, 16;
assertive. Interrogative, im-
perative, and exclamatory.
17 «8. 21 : how written. 19;
assertive most common, ig;
origin or, ig: essential parts
of, 21: impersonal. 28: types
INDEX
"f, Mimmariited, 57. pare, „i
Miinmari/Pd. ,^, .im,,|,.. ,|,."
hiuU. •/.; cmplix. .U»nu-,|.
07; o.iniMnuul, cUfiiu-.l. .,M
K'HllMMItul. cl.lf.%lfUi|. till,;
mi|>r.t|Kr ii)m|M»uni|. 10 }
illipncal. 105; c..ii<|itiun;ir
^t't, sU. (listinKuishffl. jj^.
Shall or tcUI. j,^, J4t, j^s
.S/i.%.|odiiicd. l7y;Kt.n.lir, 17.,.
l«()l«7; cnnstriutions. iHj.
Should. claHsificatiun. Ju. <li>
linKuishcil fruin tcim'ltl jjH
siihjunctivc. J35; ''nH- ..f in-
hnuiw with, ^71 ; iiuaninKs.
SiRii of tlu' infinitive. ^.7.
Simple sentence, defined, gf)
Simple sul.ject, (lefine«l. ^7
Smgiiiar numl>er. (lefuud. 156-
divided usaKe, i6r ; personal
proiK.uns. 176. 178, iSK; a,|.
JcctiveH. ill; verbs, J^]J}().
Sil. set. distinRuixlied, //?.
Strong verbs. 2]o.
Subject, defined, Jt ; oinitte<l.
^'' ^57- position of, jj. com-
pound. ^4-^5 ; imfH-rsonal. 27-
^8; simple, distiiiKuislud
from complete. 37; of pas-
sive verb. 46-47. jj2.j2^^ .,f„ .
phrase used as, «i ; clause
used as. 84; of verb. 16^164
170. 182. 20M of infinitive.
168. i8i.
Subjunctive mode, defined. 2<;v
form, 254-255: uses. 25s-25(,'
tenses. 256; in con.litional
sentences. 258-^sy.
SulK)rdinate clauses. 97; con-
junctions. 2<J5.
Substantive, defined. ^6-^7
Substantive clauses, as subjects.
84; as complements, 85-8r>'
as appositives, 86.
Substantive phrases.
jects. 81. 2f)i : as
ments, 82.
Suh..itmcs for noun.. .,.,. ..,.
adjectives. 215; f„r adverbs.
2oo.
343
.Summary ..f -tentence I>|k-*, 57'
ol Hinumc iirmiure, i>4 of
pariNuf siH-ech. i.iH; .,f 1^,,^^
f'Tni-.. 24.J 244.
SuiHTlalive degree.
JIJ 214.
r
as sub-
complc-
I7.<; for
T.
t'li-e, defiue.l. j.j8; M'uplc
present and pa>t. 2.}8; jw-r-
tect tenses. 2.tH.24o; future.
-iMr. pri^rcsive tiii-es, J40-
-f4^; emphatic. inierroKaiive
;""i '^^n-iuvi. J4jj^j- s,i,„:
iiiary of ten^o forms. 24? 244-
iiMvi of ihv simple pre^ent;
•^44-^45: uses of tlu- present
perfect, 245; j/iaU ,,r u,li,
24?) 24H; misused forms. 250-
■^5' ; tenses of infinitive, j^m-
f7\ ; of participles, 27 \
I han whiini, 20J.
That, demonstrative. 191- lyj
211; relative, igy-200.
/ ht\ adverb. 221.
'/■/'<•. article. 217-219.
//i.v case. 177.178: distin-
guished from vou, 177-178-
constructions. 182-18^.
Ihftr, theirs, case. 179; con-
st. <jct ion. 181: as genderless
plurals. 188.
'/A.-w, case. 179: constructions.
i«2; as genderless plural. 18M
I hi'insi-lxrs, 189- 191.
/ /'fn-. expletive. 29- ?o.
I licse, i<)(-i92, 21,
Thcv. declined. 17.;: construc-
tions 182: as Ken.lerkss
plural. 188.
Ihinc case. 177-17H; ,1, tin-
RUislied from vours, r~7-i78-
construction. i8t.
This. 101-192. 211.
Those, rgi-iyj, 211.
77»^;m declined. 177-17S : dislin-
Kin^ned from \ou. 177-178-
constructions. 182.
T(">un/i. verbs with. 259
'bought, a. defin.-d ic
Thy. case 177-178- distin-
Ki'i>lie«| from vour. 177 178-
'vunstruction. 181.
344
INDKX
Thyiflf. likt^mt.
lo Iwjorr \\u' r«t«»l infinilivr,
ijy, jtS>S, Mf7
Trantilivi* vcrl», 45 «•'>. -'Ji i-»5-
U.
Vnkst, vcrhi with. i5Q
Vs, 170; conitruction^ iKj.
Uifd to, J44'
V.
Vrrli |>hra«eti, icparatcMi, aj. 44:
(irfinrd. 4l-4Jr; inUTrogalivc.
negative, ami emphatic. 4J 4.t,
^4^ .i4j: future, ajg; perfect.
aj9 i40 ; progressive. .140-^4^ ;
emphatic, interrogative, and
negative, a4J-a4J: subjunc-
tive, JSS: peculiar. i75-^7^J-
VerlwU. 1^8.
Verbs, defined. .l6-.^^: distin-
guished from predicate, 37;
of action, being, or state. .V<;
transitive and intransitive.
45-46. 223-225 ; active and
passive. 46-47. 222-22i, 2(10-
363; of complete predication,
48: of incomplete predication.
48-49; infinitives. |j8-l^,
2(\y272, participles. Ij8. IJI.
37^-375; subject of. 167. 168.
iHa, ao.v. strong and weak.
23Q-a.ll : principal parts, aji ;
notional and auxiliary. 2^2;
number and person, i.y-2.^7;
tense. 2.^8-251 ; minle. 35.V
250; peculiar verb-phrases.
275-277; conjugation. 277-
281 ; flow to parse. 281.
Vocatives, defined. 90; case of,
170, 182.
Voice. 46-47. 222-22^. 260-263.
w.
Half for, Udif on, mm
li'f, drained. I7f»; edili>rial or
nujcstic, i7<); c«m»trmtion'..
iKjt.
Weak veriM, 229-2.IO.
Hhat, interrogK ive. 1*^2 i';4;
relative. 199-200. 203.
Hhatctt-r. 207.
H htHsoa^^r. 207.
H'huh, interntgative. 192 194;
relative, 199-200; of tvhtth
or whott, 204.
M'huhet'fr, 207
Who, interrogative. 192-194:
relative, 199^ Joo, J02.
U'hoft'cr, 207- J08.
H'hom, interrogative, lo-li.
193-IQ4; relative, 199 Joo, 203.
H'liomncr, 207-/08.
ll'luuc, interrogative. 192-193;
relative, 199-200, 204; whosf
or of which, 204.
Il'hose else, 165.
H'hosoi'xrr. 207.
H'ill or shall. 2.K). 246-248.
Would. 232. 248. 255. 276.
V.
IV. classified, i77-«78; case,
178; constructions, 178, 182-
183,
Yes. 283. _^
Vou, classified. 175: case. 178,
183: construction, 178. 182-
183; numlier. 178, 235.
Your, yours, classified. I75".
case. 178; construction. iKi.
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