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J»fe.«la.it tfi li Wy i i i W M WlWiniifl«' ai l i t «h^i ( iil m "".■''. ..■■■'■■•■.• ■; ■ *•».■• ■■ "f" c- Q.CAy/lAAJ^(:^-y ^^<-^^>^ eA^ ^ cZA^le^^. : ^^i^t>^mi' •.*.»&£ «"■ -■ . jeets, — medicine net excepted. The book aims, therefore, to popularize, and adapt to the many what has been claimed as belonging only to the few. I do not hesitate to avow that my sympathies, as a man, are with the great masses, who may be called the bone and muscle of the race. They are, in tlie main, more shrewd, more endowed wlih common sense, more simple and true in their natural instincts, and consequently less pirverted, than tliose who claim more refinement and a liigher place in the social scale. "All men," says Hippocrates, one of the great fathers of medicine, "ought to be acquainted with the medical art. I believe that knowledge of medicine is the sister and companion of wisdom." Such knowledge would shield the many from the impositions of quackery. No one, I venture to say, who reads this book thoroughly, wi!' bo often imposed upon thereafter by quack nostrums, or quack doctors. Every man's physical organization is his own ; and he is charged with the responsibility oi' taking cai-e of it. To do this properly, he needs knowledge of it; and to withhold this from him, is another form of the old oppression, which decreed knowledge and power to the few, and ignorance and obedience to the many. In accordance with the design of the work, it has been written in plain, simple English, and brought within the comprehension of all who have medium powers of mind. It has not been thought needful to reduce its language to ihe simper- ing style of baby-talt. ; that is done only by those who don't linow much about the people. In preparing this book, a ^eat number of authors have Leon carefully consult- ed, to whom I acknowledge large Indebtedness ; yet the work is not a mere compi- lation. With the exception of a few minor parts, as those on Hydropathy, the Management of the Slck-Room, the Symptoms of Diseases, and, as in all medical works, a portion of the recipes, it huS all taken sliape, coloring, character, and language, in my own mind. In dealing with each disease, I have aimed to sketch a brief pen-and-ink portrait, so like it that every reader shall know the — u W-!' IV PREFACE. original whonovor ho sees it; and then to give, in tho fewest words, tI>o best treatment. No work of t'.io sort has over explained tho reasons, or given the wliys and wherefores of medicine to anytiiing liiio the extent of this; nor has any one been so extensively illustrated. Tho engravings amount to two hundred and tliirty-six in number, and have been, with few exceptions, done expressly for this work. Of tho colored lithographs, there are Thirty-six Fiijures on eigiit splendid plates. They are inserted at great expense, and add much to tho value of tlie book. - I. W seco:n"d preface. The Household Physician was written in the belief that the people were ready and waiting for a popular medical work based on liberal principles ; and that one hundred thousand copies have already found a welcome home, in as many Amer» loan families, is a sufficient evidence that the b:''ief was well-founded. I say welcome home ; and with very little stretch of modesty I might emphasize the word, for the popularity of the book has far outrun the author's hopes — many persons assuring the atJthor and the publishers that fifty or one hundred dollars would be no temptation for them to part with the copy they have if they could not obtain another. Such an extensive sale of so large a book, with the demand constantly increasing, has been quite unexpected. For these evidences of public favor the author is not ungrateful or unmindful of corresponding duties on his part. A chapter is now added, therefore, on •• Old Age and its Diseases," — a subject never before introduced into any popular treatise on medicine, and very rarely, indeed, into any medical book. I have taken great pains in preparing it, and sincerely hope that many Fathers and Mothers will, iu future years, be kindly remembered in consequence of the suggestions it contains. I also have the pleasure to present, from the pen of Dr. Dio Lewis, a very valuable conti'ibution upon his new popular Gymnastics, illustrated with many cuts. With these and some smaller additions, — improvements I think I may call them, —I , abmit the work again to the popular judgment I. W. less GMEEAL INTEODUCTORY EEMAEKS. y Progress of Medicine. Medicine may be divided into a science and an art. - It is a science as it presents facts and evolves principles; an art as it consists of rules for practice. For its present attainments, it is indebted partly to researches scientifically conducted, and partly to empirical and hap-hazard discovery. As a science, medicine is chiefly indebted, and must ever be, to the members of what is culled the " regular profession." This body of men, while it contains numerous persons whose talents and attain- ments do not raise thca above the merest quacks, does yet embrace larfro numbers of men who are alike ornaments of the race, and lights of their profession. It is to the writings of this class that every stu- dent must go who would qualify himself for the proper discharge of the duties of a physician ; and he wlio attempts the practice of medi- cine without a knowledge of standard medical writings is either a fool or a knave — either without the brains to understand science, or destitute of the honesty to deal fairly with men. While this is said, however, it must be granted that a respectable portion of the facts which make up the science of medicine have been contributed by the industry of men who have not had what is called a regular standing in the profession. I am sorry to be obliged to add that the great body of this class have been quacks and charlatans, while only a few of them have had talents and acquirements. Nevertheless, they have been too indiscriminately condemned. Their labors have been useful in various ways, and have contributed to the advancement of medical knowledge. A regard for truth, not less thin justice to these persons, requires this statement. One-Idea Men, — The "irregulars," as they have been called, have generally had their hobbies, which they have ridden with singular diligence, and often in little better than John Gilpin i)llght. Yet they have drawn attention to great truths, which the regular profession either did not see, or would not commend ; and they have done this by dwelling incessantly upon some single idea. The one-idea men, of every class, have been ridiculed in all ages ; and indeed have always exhibited some singular obliquities. Yet when they have been men of learning and talents, they have accom- plished great things, either for good or evil. Martin Luther was Btrictly a one-idea man. Tlio wIk^Io force of his oxtraoriliiuuy cliaracter was given to tlio propagation of the single doctrine of justification by faith ; and by the incessant efforts he made for this purpose, he sank the doctrine deeper into the heart of Europe than a hundred equally powerful men could have done by giving it only an ordinary share of attention. William Ellory Channing was a ono-ideaist. 3fan, the noblest work of creation, to be developed, educated, adorned, loved, made like unto God, wad the thought of his life, — a tho.ight which ho em- bellished and moulded into all the forms of beauty which our flexible language is capable of producing. Under the mild promptings of his genius, and the workings of this thought, philanthropy, quick- ened into a new life, spread out her arms, and embraced the world. Sir Isaac Newton, was a one-ideaist. So entirely did he devote his great powers to astronomy and the higher mathematics, that he be- came unfitted for the duties of social and domestic life — so unfitted, that when induced by his friends to give a little attention to courtship, he fell into one of his abstractions, and detected himself in using his lady-love's fore-finger to poke down the ashes in his pipe ! But, Sir Isaac advanced mathematical science to a point far beyond its previ- ous attainments, iuid laid it under such obligations as no general scholar could have done. It is in this way, though in a vastly less degree, and without the scientific method, that one-ideaists in medicine benefit the world. They seize upon some single remedy, — generally one which has been overlooked, — and using it themselves to the exclusion of all others, they press it upon the world as the panacea for all its ills. With them disease is a unit, and they have found its one all-important remedy. Thus convinced, they press it upon others with the enthu- siasm of fanatics. Testing it in all cases, they develop all its virtues. Those who have the good sense to turn their attention to it have ouly to use it in those cases for which its adaptation is proved. It is in this way that these men become, incidentally, medical dis- coverers ; and not being burdened with modesty, they never with- hold their importunities till the world acknowledges whatever value there is in their discovery. And although they may do some mis- chief with the single-edged tool which they handle so industriously, I doubt if they do much more than many better workmen who use too many. At all events, wise and generous men thank them for their gift to the profession, small, though it may be, and use it in the light of a clearer knowledge. Ilj'dropntliy. — As an illubtration of what I have just been saying, I may refer to hydropathy, or the plan of treating all diseases by water. The singularly careful avoidance, by the whole med"cal faculty, for many ages, of the article of pure water as a medicinal, or, rather, health-imparting agent, was anything but creditable to the profession. It is now admitted by all sensible men that water, cold and warm, used at proper times and to a reasonable extent, has great power over GENERAL INTBODUCTOHV UEMAhKB. several diseasos, niitl i.s n powerful promoter of health. No physicians, except those who are too iiulolont to know what is jjoiiifj; on in the world, or too fast locked in old projiulicca to touch new things, now omit its use in mani/ cases. IIow Avarni and sincere my own approval of water as a leniedy is, almost every page of this volume will attest. Indeed, it may honestly bo allowed that the hydropathists have fairly drov:ne(l the almost criminal professionsil prejudice against water. Tl.oy are in all the more need of this concession, since in their absurd zeal to cure all diseases by water, and make aquatic ani- mals of men, they have also drowned their own common sense. Homoeopathy. — This mode of practice is of comparatively recent origin ; but it I'as already sunk itself dee|) into the popular heart, and has drawn t ) its support many of the wealthy, the cultivated, and the intelligent, in our most refined commimities. I do not pro- fess to comprehend and appreciate its principles, nor would it be honest in mc to pretend to see how its infinitesimal doses can produce the results which it often shows, and which it is fair to confess look like singular success ; and saying this, I can neither adopt nor ap- prove the violent denunciations and censures which so many are induced (by fashion, I fei .) to employ towards this generally well-cul- tivated class of practitioners. I hold them as useful members of the profession, and mean ever to cultivate towards them fraternal feelings. They give great attention to exercise, diet, the use of water, etc., — things which contribute very powerfully to preserve health, and to restore it when lost. In this thing, the old school practitioners ought to learn a most important lesson from them. In truth, they are learning it, but very slowly and reluctantly , I am sorry to say. The central idea of the homoBopathist, that "like cures like," the "great law of cure," as he styles it, I do not feel called upon to dis- cuss — theories being of much less consequence than rules of prac- tice. The old-school men have certainly much to learn from him respecting the augmented power of medicine from the greatest possi' ble division by trituration. We have learned from him, too, — . though many are too ungenerous to confess the source of the infor- mation, — tliat wo may gain our purposes with much less medicinq than wo were once in the habit of giving. Eclectics. — There is a large and gi'owing class of physicians, called, at first, after the founder of the school, Thomsonians. Subsequently, they were generally known as Botanic Physicians. Now they pass under the title of Eclectics. These men, directing their attention, at first, chiefly to cayenno and lobelia, have gradually extended their zealous researches over the vegetable kingdom, and have gathered much information worthy to be preserved. These researches have revealed a sadly neglected duty on the part of old-school practitioners, and, in 1852, drew from the " Committee on Indigenous Medical Botany," appointed by the "American Medical Association," the confession that our practi- tioners generally have been extremely ignorant of the medicinal plants even in their own neighborhoods ; and to this fact the com- t '•' GENERAL INTnOOUOTOHY RRMARKS. Qiittoo nttributod it, lluit tho Ecloctio physiciuiis huil in so inimy in- stttiices Hupplaiitcd the " roguliirs " in tho confidonco of tho people. The cduciition and talonta of this chiss of prautitioiiers have grad- ually risen, year by year, until they have several medical schools, where students are well instructed in tho principles of medicine, by men of real ability. This is particularly true of the school at Cin- cinnati. They have also a literature of no mean Bignificance, espe- cially in the department of materia medica. The list of remedies they have given to the world, drawn from our home plants, are a boon of no small value. I regard them as equal in value to all we were previously in possession of from the vegetable kingdom. The podopiiyllin and leptaudrin, as substitutes, in most cases, for mercu- rials, can hardly bo too highly prized. And yet, it is mortifying that tho remedies which these men have given us are, by hundreds of our old-school practitioners, not even known by name, and whore known, generally not honored with a trial. King's " American Eclectic Dispensatory," a book of 1,300 pages, in which they are well described, is almost unknown among us. Aside I'rom tho copy in my own library, I do not know that one is owned by any member of the Massachusetts Medical Society, in Boston. I consider thi^s a disgrace, for, however learned a man may be, he is not fully equipped as a practitioner until ho is acquainted with this class of medicines. Physiologists. — Beside these various direct practitioners of medi- cine, there is the large and quite intelligent class of pliysiologists, Including the phrenologists, who nearly discard medicine, and, ap- pealing to the laws of life established by the Creator, urge temper- ance in eating and drinking; exercise in the omou air ; securing of pure air by ventilating dwellings, school-housed, and churches ; bath- ing in cold and warm water; eheerfulness of mind ; and the cultiva- tion of tho Christian virtues, as the only rational modes of securing health and life. I confess myself inclined to forgive this class their error in ban- ishing medicine, in view of their zeal and success in disseminating hygienic information of the utmost value and importance to mankind. Put man into harmony with nature, and establish over him the em- pire of reason, and their theory would bo excellent ; but as things are, medicines, like pri3!)ns, and alms-houses, and large cities, are " neces.sary evils." Other Practitioners. — Finally, wo have Mesmerists, Pathetists, Electro-biologists, Spiritualists, Nutritivists, and what not, all pre- tending to cure disease by processes peculiar to themselves. They are all experimenters in different departments of nature, — now spreading over our eyes a large plaster of humbuggery, and now drawing a small curtain and giving us a peep into tho large and well- furnished rooms which nature has fitted up for our reception, by and by, v/hen we are better instructed. All Useful in a Degree. — On tho whole, I am disposed to regard all the operators iu the diflferent departments of medicine as' useful ORNERAL ISTRODUCTOnr REMARKS. 9 in their degree ; excepting iihvays thuso mcrconnry qimcka, who lio about tlu'ir roniediea to nmko money. Each of all these (I mean all sincere and true men who l)ellovowhat they toach) is aiding in some measure the general advancement. And though the truths, as they gather and present them, are hut fragmentary, they are useful in the hands of tlioso trun Eclccticn, who have the wisdom and indepondonco to select the hest hii\ga out of all systems. General Couelusion. — This brings mo to remark that there is l)ut one truly liberal and philosophical school of medicine. It is the Eclectic, — c'()inp»)Hcd of those who have liberality enough to nject every exduane si/stein, and to select out of all systems those thi igs which are ai)proved by experience and reason. I have already spoken of a school of practitioners called Eclectic. To a certain extent they are entitled to the name, but I think not entirely. They have formed a separate and exclusive school. They have turned some articles out of the materia medica possibli/ for no better reason than because their party is committed to their rejec- tion ; whereas they should have no party, but allow each man to act as if he were a citizen of the world only, and not a member of any restricted association. But I will not quarrel with them on this point. I think they are becoming eclectic. Progress of Medicine. — There have been long periods when tho science and the art of medicine made scarcely any progress. They are now advancing, — in some departments quite fast. Tho Chemistry 'of Man, commonly called Animal Chemistry, is opening new sources of light. Few of the profession have yet studied this essential branch of medical science ; but the delinquents are sleeping in the rear, and will soon awako to tind themselves among the ghosts of a dead generation. The writer was in the habit of asserting, many years ago, that most of the true progress in medicine must come through Animal Chemistry ; and the developments of the last few years have made good the assertion. Liebig, a diligent student in chemistry, has done much to open the way for inquirers in this department. Simon has, perhaps, done more. Mialhe is a yet later explorer, and has made valuable discoveries. Tho result is, that students have now before their minds, and are endeavoring to solve and act upon as fast as possible, inquiries and propositions like these : — What is the chemical composition of the solids and fluids of the healthy human body ? What is the nature of the changes which occur in the comp*^ ''^ion of tho solids and fluids during disease ? What alterations in the chemical composition of the solius and fluids take place during tho operation of medicines? Before it can exert any remote action on the animal economy, a remedy must be absorbed. Before it can be absorbed, it must be soluble in the fluids of the living body. I w ;jim' M 10 •GENERAL IN'TRODUCTOUT REMARKS. I- t it: J- ■1 - Medicines are subject to chemical changes during their jjussago through the system. These changes are regulated by ordinary chemical laws, and may therefore, to some extent, bo foretold and made available in the cure ol" disease. Tiicso chemical laws are disturbed and varied, to some extent, by the law of vitality, — just as the needle is made to vary by disturb- ing forces. What are those disturbances, and to what extent, and under what circumstances, do tliey occur? With these and similar inquiries and propositions before his mind, diligently studied, a man will in time learn to prescribe with some intelligent aim. Ho will not know everything, to be sure, but what ho does know, he will have a reason for knowing. If he give a medi- cine, he will have iu \ lew the chemical changes of the solids and fluids of the body, known to bo produced by the disease he is combating. He will also keep in mind the solution of the medicine iu the fluids of the body, and the chemical reaction between its components and the acids, alkalies, etc., found in the alimentary tube and elsewhere. As the science of medicine advances, and beooraes liberal and eclectic in its character, gatliering from all systems tlio best attested tacts, and using them to the exclusion of all mere theories, these facta must not themselves degenerate into mere petted theories, but must be held in subordinntion to future experience. Medical practitioners, who would meet the wants of the age, must be r.ien of progress. The light of to-morrow, with them, must modify and improve the light of to-day. They must knock, every hour, for admission into some new apartment of nature. Need of Liberality. — That medical progress may be real, physi- cians must be free from bigotry. They must have no narrow preju- dices against any man, or class of men ; but be ready to examine candidly any new thought or new remedy brought to their notice, from whatever source it may come. They shoulrl not hedge themselves about with such restrictive by- laws and societary rules as are calculated to fetter their thoughts, and turn their investigations, by a sort of moral necessity, into the nar- row channels of party conservatism; remembering that ho who is once enclosed by such restrictions must hew a path for his feet through bigotry, and even malevolence itself, before ho can escape them, or be a free man in any noble sense. The members of medical societies do themselves no credit, in the nineteenth century, by putting on airs, and telling others to stand at a distance. This would do better, had medicine become an exact science ; but while the primary e (Tects of even opium are not settled — some physicians considering it as primarily stinmlunt, others as seda- tive, others as stimulant to the nerves and sedative to the muscles, other"? as neither, and still others as alterative, — such exclusiveness S"ems neither wise nor modest. When the professors of the healing art can hoard medical kno wedge as misers hoard gold, and can sub- they b( chiefly in whic iiji^jrovc Thesi unless propcrl tropolis tbo bro h"ght oi readily freely tc ■e to hinder other men's light from shining. Beyond this, and of nearly equal importance with it, we ivant medi- cal knowledge diffused among the people. We want — what the world has never seen — a popular medical literature. Wo want the temples of Esculapius pulled down, and the priests turned into the streets to become teachers of the multitude, rather than . 'sliippers in the inner sanctuary. I know this want will be stoutly denied, but not, I think, on well- considered grounds. We do not think it necessary to confine a knowl- edge of the soul to the ministers of religion. There is no branch of theology which we do not deora it proppr for laymen to study ; we even jjopularize it for our children. In the obscurest towns of New England, laymen who follow the plough or push the plane, become, in many eases, eminent theologians. Why should they not study the lower science which relates to the body ? They have not been able to heretofore, because its mysteries have been purposely hidden under technicalities. These coverings should be torn off. It is said that those who begin to read upon medicine are very apt to imagine themselves afflicted with the various symptoms they find dcscril)cd. To some small extent this is true ; but it is also true that the light they obtain relieves them from many apprehensions which their i)reviou8 ignorance allowed to prey upon them ; as boys lose their fears when the light of the morning changes to some familiar object the ghost of the preceding night. Physicians oppose tiie popularizing of this kind of knowledge too often, I fear, upon the sordid ground of self-interest. They think their own services will be less sought. We do not dispense with the services of ministers because the people study theology, neither shall we cease to employ teachers and practitioners of medicine when each man and woman is wise enough to study the healing art. The principal change we shall witness will be much .arger attainments in knowledge among practitioners, — just as the .ministers of religion now know, and are obliged to know, ten times as much as in those darker periods when the people received all spiritual knowledge from their mouths. The teachers of any art or science are obliged to keep in advance of their pupils. Let medi- cine become a popular study, and we shall have very few ignorant physicians, and quackery will become one of the impossibilities. Homoeopathists, Eclectics, Hydropathists, and Physiologists, believe in scattering medical books, stripped of their technicalities, among the multitude, and their people purchase very few secret, advertised medicines ; — these being chiefly bought and consumed by the fol- lowers of those who believe this kind of reading fosters quackery 1 M A. 2!>^ ATOMY r'L. 1^' Anatomy describes the structure and organization of living beings. Special Anatomy treats of the weight, size, shape, color, etc. , of each organ separately. General Anatomy investigates the tissues or structure ; from which organs are formed. Surgical Anatomy or Kegional Anatomy considers the relations of organs to one another. Physiological Anatomy treats of the uses or functions of organs in health. Pathological Anatomy describes the alterations made upon diflferent organs by disease. We shall here introduce a very brief compendium only )f Special Anatomy. It is of great consequence that every person should h. > some knowledge of anatomy and physiology. Self-knowledge ou^^lit to extend to the body as well as the mind. To know one's self, physi- cally, is to gain anew insight into that wonderfully skilful adjustment of means to ends which is never absent from the works of God. Without this knowledge, one cannot know how to take care of the health ; and without health, life loses most of its value. ' Structure cf the Body. / The human body is composed of solids and fluids. The fluids are most abundant in children and youth. It is this which gives softness and pliancy to their flesh. In old age the fluids are less abundant, and the flesh is more hard and wrinkled. The fluids contain the whole body, as it were, in a state of solution ; or rather, they hold the materials out of which it is manufactured. Chemical Properties of the Body. The four elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, make up nearly the whole bulk of the fluids and soft solids of the human body. A number of other elements, chiefly in a state of combina- tion, and in much smaller quantities, enter into several of the tissues. Binary Compounds. — Thus, we have carbonic acid iu blood, urine ANATOMT. 15 and sweat ; and wo have water universally diffused through tiio sys- tem, — cacli of tlieso substances being a binari/ compound, that is, composed of two elements. Compounds of more thim two Elements arc widely distributed over the body ; as, Carbonate of /Soda in serum, saliva, bile, mucus, sweat, and tears. Carbonate of Lime in cartilage, bone, and teeth. Phosphate of Lime in bones, teeth, and cartilage. Phosphate of Iron in blood, gastric Juice, and urine. Chloride of /Sodium in blood, brain, muscle, bone, cartilage and pigment. Chloride of Potassium in blood, gastric juice, milk, and saliva. Chloride of Calcium in gastric juice. /Sulphate of Potassa in urine, gastric juice, and cartilage. Sulphate of Soda in sweat, bile, and cartilage. Sulphate of Lime in bile, hair, and scarf-skin. Oxide of Iron in blood, black pigment, and hair. Org^auized Compounds. — Beside the above inorganic elements and compounds, several organized substances, ov proximate elements, as they arc called, exist largely in the body. The chief of these are albumcu, fibrine, gelatine, mucus, fat, caseine, and osmazome. Otiiers need not be named. Albumen is found in great abundance in the human body. It is the raw material out of which the flesh and other tissues are made. The white of an eg^, which is nearly pure albumen, is a good speci- men of it. Fibrine, when removed from the human body, changes from a solu- ble to an insoluble state. In other words, it coagulates in a kind of net-work. Nearly the same thing takes place constantly in the living body, when the liquid fibrine leaves its soluble state, and is deposited as solid flesh. Fibrine bears the same relation to albumen that wool- leu yarn does to wool ; it is spun from it in the busy wheel of or- ganic life. And the flesh or muscle is related to fibrine as the cloth is to yarn ; it is woven from it in the vital loom. Fibrine has been called liquid flesh. Gelatine exists largely in the ligaments, cartilages, bones, skin, and cellular tif-sue. When dissolved, five parts in one hundred of hot water, it forms a thick jelly. Isinglass is a form of gelatine obtained from the air-bladder of the sturgeon and the cod-fish. Glue is still another form of gelatine. It is extracted from the bones, and parings of hides, and the hoofs and ears of cattle, by boiling in water. Black silk, varnished over with a solution of gelatine, forms court-plaster. Mucus is a sticky fluid secreted l)y the gland-cells. It is spread over the surface of the mucous membranes, and serves to moisten and defend them from injury. Fat consists of cells held together by cellular . )Ue and vessels, and contains glycerine, stearic acid, margaric acid, and claic acid. It Mib. .'* ' 16 ANATOMT. hi has no nitrogen. If tlic stearic acid be in excess, the fat is hard ; if tho chiic acid preponderate, it is soft. The stearine extracted from fat id used for nialiing very hard candles. Caseine is abundant in milk and constitutes its curd. It is held in sohUion in milk by a little soda. When dried, it is cheese. It is found in blood, saliva, bile, and tho lens of the e3'e. It forms tlio thief nourishment of those young animals which live on milk. It is found in peas, beans, and lentils. Vegetable and animal caseine are precisely alike in all their properties. Fibrine and albumen contain almost exactly the same amount of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitro- <:en, aud sulphur, which is found in caseine. This latter, when taken into the stomach, therefore, goes, without much change, to the formation of the albumen and fibrine of the body. Physical Properties of the Body. The Tissnes. — The solid organized substances of which the human body is composed, are called tissues. There are various kinds of tissues. The Cellular Tissue, commonly called areolar, is made up of small filn-es and bands woven together into « sort of net-work, with numer- ous little spaces opening into each other. These spaces are tilled with a watery fluid ; and when this is grei.tly increased by disease, so as to cause the parts to swell, and the skin to shine, the person has ana- sarca, or cell dropsy. The uses of this tissue are to give i)arts and organs a kind of elastic cushion to rest upon, so that they may not be bruised and injured by the shocks of life ; to make a kind of safe highway for delicate vessels to pass from one part of the body to another ; and to furnish a beautifully arranged lodgment for the wa- tery fluid which gives (?uch roundaess, smoothness, and grace to the human form. The opening of the cells into each other explains the reason why feeble persons have swelled feet and ankles in the even- ing, and not in the morning, — the fluid settling down from cell to cell, into tho lowest parts, while they are up during the day, and running back to its proper place while they are lying down during the night. The Mucous Tissue, or mwcotw »iem6mne, lines all the cavities which i-omniunicato with the air, as the mouth, stomach, bowels, lungs, etc. It is supplied with numerous small glands which secrete a sticky kind of fl;iiii called mucus, to protect the surface from any injury which might bo inflicted by air, or by irritating substances suspended in it. Tlie Serous Tissue, or membrane, lines all the cavities which do not communicate with the air, that is, all those which are shut, and have no outward opening. The skull, the chest, and the belly are lined by this kind of membrane. The membrane itself forms the closed sack, — one layer of it being attached to the cavity it lines, while tho other is folded back upon and around tiie contents of the cavity, which are left outside of the sack. A watery fluid oozes from the inner surface of the sack, to make its sides glide easily upon each other. When together, and bund rsy- ANATOMY 17 fiome disease causes this water to be poured out too freely, so as to fill or partly fill the cavity, we have dropsy of the bruia, or chest, or belly, as the case mwy be. The Dermoid Tissue covers the whole outside of the body. "We call it the skin, or cntL. It is similar iu structure to the mucous mem- branes, which are a mere continuation uf it. It is harder than the mucous membrane, because more oxposed to inji./y. In health, it never ceases to secrete and throw off a fluid vhich wo cull insensible perspiration while it is in the form of an iuvisii 'i, vmdot, and perspira- tion, or sweat, when it is so increased as to be sewi. So great is the sympathy botween this dermoid covering of the body and the mucous membranes, that when it is chilled so as to otop the invisible perspira- tion, the internal membrane becomes aflected, and we have a sore throat, or diarrhoea, or running at the nose ; that is tc say, whoa the skin cannot sweat, the mucous membrane begins to sweat. The Fibrous Tissue consists of closely united fil)res, and for what- ever purpose used, forms a lino, dense, and enduring body. In some cases it takes the form of a membrane, as the dura maier, which lines the interi jr of the skull ai.d spinal column. The ligaments which hold he bones together, and the tendons or cords, which fasten the muscles ';0 the bones, are fibrous bodies. It is this firm substance of whick rheumatism frequently takes hold, and this is the reason why it linger!^ so much about the joints. It sometimes takes hold of the ligament which fastens the deltoid muscle to the bone of the upper arm, about two-thirds of the way from the elbow to the shoulder. This muscle lifts up the arm. In this form of rheumatism, therefore, the arm hangs helpless at the side. The Cartilaginous Tissue covers the ends of the bones where they come together to make a joint. It is well fitted to make the joint work easy, being smooth, hard, and elastic. » - The Osseous or Bony Tissue varies in its composition, density, and strength, according to the age of the person, and the uses of the bone. The Muscular Tissue, or muscle, being made for a great deal of Fig. 1. pulling and lifting, is formed some- thing like a rope, except that there is no twisting. Many small fibres or filaments unite to form fasciculi. A fasciculus is a bundle of fibres sur- rounded by a delicate layer of cell tissue called sarcolemma, — just as a cord is a number of smaller threads of cotton or hemp bound together. A number of these fasciculi united to- gether, make a muscle, — just as sev- eral chords, called strands, twisted together, make a rope. Figure 1 gives us a good view of the fibres and bundles, highly magnified. - I 18 ▲NATOMT. The Adipose Tissue is the material which the human body works up into pot8 and cells containing fat. It is found chiefly under the skin and muscles of the belly, and around the heart and kidneys. By the increase of this tissue, persons may become enormously en- larged without having their muscles at all increased in size. Such a condition is to be deplored, — the body having become merely the store-house or depot of myriads of pots of fat. The Nervous Tissue is composed of two distinct kinds of matter, — the one gray ^d pulpy, called cineritious, the other white and fibrous, called medullary. The external part of the brain and the in- ternal portion of the spinal cord are composed of the gray or ash- colored tissue ; the nerves are made only of the white or fibrous matter* and are inclosed in a delicate sheath called neurilemma. the lij of th< vessel ments I Vital Properties of the Body. Bodies begin their growth with a simple cell, which is a delicate .little bladder or shut sack. Cells take their rise in that portion of the blood which is capable of being organized, and which is called blas- tema. In animal bodies, each cell generally begins as a minute point in the blastema, and grows until a transparent bladder or vesicle springs out from one side of it,and soon appears to enclose it. The bladder is then called the cell, and the point or dot is its nudeus. Within this nucleus appears another dot, which is called the nucleolus. When xiiUy ripened, the cell bursts and sets the nucleus fr^^e, and this, in its turn, matures and yields up its contents. Thus all cells have their origin in germs produced by previously existing parent cells. They are multiplied with great rapidity. Having grown to a certain extent^ they lose their fluid contents, and their walls collapsing or coming to- gether, they form simple membraneous discs. In this way, with some variations, the simple tissues of the body begin to be, and the foun- dation is laid for the noble structure of man. Anatomy of the Bones. i' The human skeleton is composed of two hundred and eight bones, the teeth not included. When fastened together by natural ligaments, the bones are said to form a natural skeleton; when attached by wires, an artijicial skele- ton. In Figure 2, — 1, 1, represent the spinal column ; 2, the skull; 3, the lower jaw ; 4, the breast bone (sternum) ; 6, the ribs ; 7, the col- lar bone ; 8, the bone of the upper arm (humerus) ; 9, the shoulder joint ; 10, the radius ; 11, the ulna, 12, the elbow joint ; 13, the wrist ; 14, the hand ; 15, the haunch bone ; 16, the sacrum ; 17, the hip joint ; 18, the thigh bone ; 19, the knee cap (patella) ; 20, the knee joint; 21, the fibula ; 22, the tibia ; 23, ankle joint ; 24, the foot ; 27, 28, 29, The pro processes, fastened. The bor of the bod tively soft, tfiey begin cation. ~ periosteum name of jse nium. The bon ANATOMY. 19 the ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist ; 30, the large artery of the arm ; 31, the ligaments of the hip joint ; 32, the large blood vessels of the thigh ; 33, the artery of the leg ; 34, 35, 36, the liga- ments of the knee cap, knee, and ankle. 7ia. 2. X 9, The protuberances or swellings in certain parts of bones are called processes, and are the points to which muscles and ligaments are fastened. The bones are supplied with nutritive vessels, and, like other parts of the body, are formed from the blood. At first they are compara- tively soft, and cartilaginous. After a time, in the young animal, they begin to change to bone at certain places, caXled points of ossifi- cation. They are covered with a strong fibrous memtrane called the periosteum. A somewhat similar covering upon the cartilages has the name oi perichondrium, and that which covers the skull is ^q pericra- nium. The bones are compounded of earthy and animal matter. From 20 ANATOMY. |l ' mr> the former, — phosphuto uiid carbonate of lime, — they receive their strength ; from the latter, — curtilage, — they derive their life. Put a bone fgr a few days into dibited muriatic acid, — one part of acid to six of watcsr, — and tlio piiospbato and carbonate of lime will all be removed, while the bono will remain the same in shape. It Fio. 3. will now bo comparatively sort, and may be bent, or even tied into a knot, with- out breaking. Place a simi- lar bono in the fire for a few hours, and it will also retain its shape, but the cartilagi- nous portion will be gone. It is now ))rittl(!, and may be picked in pieces with the fin- gers. The bones are divided into those of the head, thirty ; of the body, fftii-four; of the upper limbs, sixty-four; and of the lower limbs, sixty. Bones of the Head, v The bones of the head are divided into those of the skidl, the eaVf and the /ace. The skull has eight bones. They are composed of two plates, one above the other, with a porous partition between. These two plates are capable of giving the brain very powerful protection against injury, the outer one being fibrous and tough, — the inner one, hard and glass-like, and hence called vitreous. The middle layer has the name of diphe. Its spongy nature deadens the jar from a blow inflicted upon the outer table. In early life, when the bones are tender and yielding, this porous layer is not needed, and is not found. y - That the bones of the skidl may not fio.4. easily slip by each other, and get out of place, they are dovetailed together in curious lines called sutures. In advanced years, these generally close up, the bones uniting firmly together. In early life they are quite open, the firm bones not covering the whole brain. The opening of the coronal suture in childhood is called a fontanelle. It presents a soft place up- on the top of the head, where the finger could be pressed down into the brain. In Figure 4, — 1, 1, show the coronal suture on the front and upper part of the skull ; 2, the sagittal suture on the top of the skull ; and 3, 3, the lambdoidal suture, running down on each side of the back part of the skull. The I parts in I In thf ' back boi l)reast b< called OS cavities. The r hone in which ( heart, natural f( 1, is the hones ; tnie ribs Mse ril which t tlie swor constitut l>rt'ast I tilage; two lun, seen bet left lung 11, the d 12,theli 14, 14, t 16j the u on left 8i( )C I AKATOMT. 21 Figure 5 shows the skull hones sepanitcd from ouch other nt the iH. • sutures : 1 , the frontal bono ; 2, the pariotnl ; 3, the occipital ; 4, the temporal ; T), the nasul • (), the malar ; 7, the ru- porior maxillary ; 8, the unguis ; 1), the inferior maxillary. Ariiott has dcmonj-trated that the form of the skull is the| best possible for sustain- ing weights, and resist- ing blows. The summit of the head is a complete arch, like that of a bridge. The ear has four small bones, 'Nvhich aid the sense of hearing. The bones of the face are fourteen in number. They hold the soft parts in place, and aid in grinding the food. Bones of the Trunk. In the tnnik there are tweiity-foiu' ribs ; twenty-four pieces in the l)ack bone or spinal column ; four bones in the pelvis and hips ; one lu'cast bone, culled sternum ; and a bone at the base of the tongue, called OS hyoidcs. They are so put together as to form two great cavities, namely, the thorux or chest, and the abdomen or belly. The ribs, connecting with the back bone behind, and the breast bone in front, form the thorax. FlO. S. which contains the lungs and heart. The Figure (5 shows the natural form of the healthy chest : I, is the spine; 2, 2, the collar bones ; 3, 3, the seven upper, or true ribs ; 4, 4, the live lower or Odse ribs ; 5, the breast bone, to which the true ribs are united ; 6, the sword-shaped cartilage which constitutes the lower end of the lireast bone, called eiisiform car- tilage; 7, 7, the upper part of two lungs ; 8, 8, the right lung / seen between the ribs ; I), 9, the ^k left lung; 10, 10, the heart; 11, I I , the diaphragm , or m id rift' ; 1 2 , 12, the liver ; 13, 13, the stomach, 14, 14, the second stomach, or duodenum; 15, the transverse colon; 16, the upper part of the colou on right side j 17, upper part of colon on left side. 22 AlVATOMT. Upon every Fig. T. Pig. «. Eiich pioco of (lio Hpiniil coliiinn \a called a vertebra. one of tlH;8o nro sovon projections, called jtrocenaen, — a piu't of which mo for linking tlie boncH together, and tl»3 reHt to fiijniHn attachments for tlic muscles of the back. The projections are linked together in such a way, that a continuous channel oc opening runs down through the whole, in which is lodged the spinal cord, or meilulla sjt'nnlis. This nervous cord is connected with the base of the brain, and is a kind of continuation of it. Between all thovertebroj are certain car- tilaginous cushions, which, when conipresned, spring back, like India »'»lbber, and thus protect the brain from beii\g injuriously jarred by "unning, leaping, or walking. ^hopelvia has four bones ; the two nameless bones, — innominata, — the sacrum, and the coccyx. In the side of each of the nameless bones is a deep, smooth eavity, called the areUihnliim. Into this the round head of the thigh bono is nicely fitted. When the bono is thrown out of this cavity, the hip is said to be out of joint. The sacrum took its name from the fact that the heathens used to oflbr it in sacriiice. With them, it was the sacred bone. The coccyx is the lower termi- nation of the back bone. These bones are represented in Figure 8 : 1,1, being the innominata ; 2, the si'crum ; 3, the coccyx ; 4, 4, the acetabulum; a, a, the pubic portion of the nameless bones; d, the arch of the pubes ; c, the union of the ^"^ucrum and the lower end of the spinal column. > , Bones of the Upper Extremities. The shoulder blade (scapula) , the collar bone (clavicle) , the bone of fheupper arm (humerus), the /wo boneft of the fore-arm (ulna and ra- dius), the bones of the wrht (carpal bones), the bnves of the palms of the hand, (metacarpal bones), tho bones nf the thumb and fingers (phalanges), — these are the l)one8 of the upper limbs. The collar bone is fastened at one end to the breast bone, at the other end to the shoulder l)lude. It keeps the shoulders from drop- ping forwai-d. Many persons allow it to fail of this end by getting very much bent in early life. This happens at school, when children are allowed to sit in a stooping posture. In the French, a race i"e- markable for a straight, upright tigure, this bone is said to be longer than in any other people. Th( the oil insert) are atl and m The >ty, b) great r of the 9: 1,1 into th OftI united ' bone ol the san with tl ulna; i which t of the (I 6, the f Fic L The el being bcf l^igure cuneifori zoid boil four for| pal bon( 3, the 8c bones; \. ANATOMY. 23 Tho shoulder blade, lies upon the upper part of the back, foruiing the shoulder. It Iiub a shallow cavity (glouoid cavity), into which is insflrtod tho head of tho upper arm bono. Several strong muscles are attached to the (>lovations of this bone, which keep it in its place, and move it about ns circumstances require. Tho upper arm bone has its round head fastened in the glenoid cav- ity, by the strong capsular ligament, forming a joint capable of a great number of movements. At the elbow it is united with the ulna of the fore-arm. It is a long cylindrical bone, represented by Figure 9: 1, is the shaft of the bono; 2, the largo, round head which fits into the glenoid cavity ; 3, tho surface wh'ch unites with the ulna. Of the two bones of the fore-arm, the wia is on the inner side, and uniteii with tho humerus, making anexcehv.;. hinge-joint. The other bone of the fore-arm, the radius, lies on the outside of the arm, — on the same side with tho thumb, — and unites, or articulates, as wo say, with tho bones of tho wrist. In Figure 10: 1, is tho body of the ulna ; 2, the shaft of tho radius ; 4, the articulating surface, with which the lower end of the humerus unites ; 5, tho upper extremity of the ulna, called tho olecranon process, which forms the elbow joint ; 6, the point where the ulna articulate with the .'rist. Fio.O. Fia. 11. . rio. 10. 5 The eight bones of the wrist or carpus are ranged in two rows, and being bound close together, do not admit of very free motion. In ligure 11 : 8, is the scaphoid bone ; l, the semilunar bone ; c, the cuneiform bone ; P, the pisiform bone ; T, x, tho trapeziur. and trape- zoid bones ; M, the os magnum ; u, the cuneiform bone. The last four form the second r- ■''• of carpal bones. 11, 11, are the metacar- pal bones of the hand ; 2, 2, the first range of the finger bones ; 3, 3, the second range of finger bones ; 4,4, the third range of finger bones ; 5,6, the bones of the thumb. S4 ANATOMY. Of the five metacarpal bones, four are attached below to the first range of the finger bones, and the other to the first bone of the thumb, while the whole are united to the second range of the carpal bones above. Bones of the Lower Extremities. These are the thif/7i bone (femur), the knee pan (patella), the shin' bone (tibia), the small hone of the leg (fibula), the bones of the instep (tarsal bones), the bones of the middle of the foot (metatarsal bones), and the bones of the toes (phalanges). The thigh bone is the longest bone in the system. Its head, which is large and round, fits admirably into the cavity in the F10.12. innominatum, called acetabulum, and forms what is called a ball-and-socket joint. In Figure 12 : 1, is the shaft of the thigh bone (femur) ; 2, is a projection culled the trochanter minor, to which some strong muscles are attached ; 3, is the head of the femur which fits into th<^ acetabulum ; 6, is the external projection ( the femur, called the external condyle ; 6, the internal condyle ;» 7, the surface which articulates with the tibia, and on which the patella slides. The knee pan or knee cap (^patella) is placed on the front of the knee, and being attached to the tendon of the extensor muscles above, and to the tibia by a strong ligament below, it acts as a pulley in lifting up the leg. The sliin bone (tibia) is the largest of the two in the lower leg, and is considerably enlarged at each end. pjjj j3 The small bone of the leg (fibula) lies on the outside, and is bound to the larger bono at both ends. Figure 13 shows the two bones of the leg : 1, being the tibia ; 5, the fibula ; 8, the space between the two ; 6, the junction of the tibia and fibula at the upper , extremity ; 3, the internal ankle ; 4, the lower end of the tibia that unites with one of the tarsal bones to form the anhie joint j 7, the upper end of the tibia which unites with the femur. The instep (tarsus) has seven bones, which, like those of the wrist, are so firmly bound together as to allow but a limited motion. The metatarsal bones, corresponding with the palm of the hand, are five in number, and unite at one end with the tarsal bones, and at the other with the first range of the toe-bones. The tarsal and metatarsal bones are put together in the form of au arch, the spring of which, when the weight of the body descends upon it in walking, prevents injury to the organs above. (Fig. 14.) The phalanges have fourteen bones. The great toe hat IITATOMT. 25 Figure 15 gives a two ranges of bones ; the other toes have three. view of the upper surface of the bones of the foot ; 1, is the surface of the astragalus where it unites with the tibia ; 2, the body of the Fir.. 15. no. 14. astragalus ; 3, the heel bone (os cnlcis) ; 4, the scaphoid bone ; 5, 6, 7, the cuneiform bones ; 8, the cuboid ; 9, 9, 9, the metatarsal bones ; 10, the first bono of the great toe ; 11, the second bone ; 12, 13, 14, three ranges of bones forming the small toes. The Joints. That bones may be of any use, they must be jointed together. Joints are of the greatest importance. It is necessary they should be so constructed that there shall be no harsh grating of the bones upon each other, and no injurious jars in walking, etc. To prevent these things, a hard, smooth, and yet yielding, cushion-like substance is required between them in joints. Such are the cartilages. Fignre 16 B^o- »•• gives a specimen of these I intervening cartilages. D, is the body of a bone, at I the end of which is a sock- et ; C, the cartilage lining the socket, thick at the sides ,,,,„, ' and thin in the centre ; B, the body of a bone, at the e;jd of which is a round head ; C, the in- vesting cartilage, thin at the sides and thick in the centre. Cartilage grows thinner, harder, and less elastic in old age. Hence old people are not quite as tall as in middle life, and a little stiffer in their jomts. The synovial membrane is a thin layer covering the cartilage, and being bent back upon the inner surface of the ligaments, it forms a closed sack. From its inner surface a sticky fluid oozes out, which helps the joints to play easily. I I «^»J5* i 26 ANATOMT. There nre other smaller sacks connected with the joints, called bursa mucosae. They secrete a fluid similar to that from the syno- vial membrane. The ligaments. To retain the bones in their places at the joints, some strong, flexible straps are required to stt'etch across from one to the other, and to firmly unite them. Such are the ligaments. They are the pearl-colored, lustrous, shining parts about the joints, in the form of straps and cords. There are a number of them so woven together as to form a complete covering of the joint, called a capsular ligament. In Figuro 17 : 1, 2, are ligaments extending from the hip bone, 6, to the femu)*, 4. In Figure 18 : 1, is the socket of Via. 17. FiO. 18. FlQ. 1». the hip joint ; 2, the head of femur, lodged in the socket ; 3, the ligament within the socket. In Figure 19 : 1, is the tendon of the muscle which extends the leg; 2, the knee cap (patella) ; 3, the ante- rior ligament of the patella ; 6, the long external lateral ligan °ini ; 4, 4, the synovial membrane ; 5, the internal lateral ligament ; 7, the anterior and superior ligament that unites the tibia with the fibula. Uses of the Bones. The bones are to the body what the frame is to the house. They hold up and retain the other parts in their proper places. They fur- nish points of attachment for the muscles, to hold the body together, and to give it motion. They also furnish strong, bony cavities for the lodgment and protection of such delicate orgaus as the eye, the brain, and the heart. A single bone, examined by itself, might not seem to have much beauty or design about it ; it might even look clumsy and misshapen. But when all the bones are inspected with reference to each other, we immediately discover a general plan upon which they are made, and are compellod to admire their beautiful harmony, and the symmetrical grace with which thev art. They show us that God can command our wonder, even in the i>uny frame of our bodies. Sha ANATOMY. 27 The Muscles. That part of the animal's body which we call lean meat is com- posed of muscles. We have already explained that muscles are com- posed of threads, etc. , put together in great numbers, forming bundles. So numerous are these threads and bundles in some cases, that the mus- cles which are composed of them have a strength truly wonderful. Toward the end of the muscle, the fibres cease, and the structure is so modified as to l)ecome a white cord of great density and strength. This cordy substance is fastened to the bone so strongly, that it is impossible, except in some rare case, to detach it. Gei y the bone will sooner break than this attachment will give wa^ Some- times this cord spreads out like a membrane. It is then callecl /oscta or aponeurosis. The fibres of a muscle have the peculiar property of contracting under a nervous stimulus sent to them by the will. These contrac- tions cause them to act as puUies, and to move the bones, and conse- quently the limbs and body, in such direction as the will commands. This is the special use ot the nujscles. All our movements are caused by them. They pull us about, not blindly and at random, but under the direction of an intelligent will. The manner in which a muscle acts, with the cord attached, may be seen by examining the log or " drum-stick " of a fowl. If the cord on one side be pulled, the claws are shut ; if that upon the other side be drawn, they will oi)en. If both be pulled, they are held fast in one position, neither opening nor shutting. An examination of a piece of boiled lean meat, will show the threads of which it is composed . With proper instruments, these may be unravelled, as it were, until fibres will be found not larger than a spider's web. These, covert-d with sheaths of great delicacy, extend beyond the tleshy fibre, and with ihe cell substance connecting the fibres, are condensed into tendon. Millions of these sheathed fibres are gathered into a bundle, and covered with a sheath, and thus form what is called a fasciculus. A muscle is a number of these fasciculi made into a bundle, and covered with a sheaiu called a fascia. (Fig. 1.) The arm is a number of muscles bundled together, and covered, likewise, by a fascia. The fibres in a fasciculus being parallel, act together. Butthefas- ciculous bundles, which make up a muscle, act in various ways. Shape of the Muscles. — Some muscles are fusiform or spindle- shiiped, so that the attachment occupies but a small space. (Fig. 20.) Other muscles are radiate or fan-shaped. (Fig. 21.) Such is the temporal muscle, the thin edge of fic. 21. which is attached to the side of the head, without producing an elevation or deformity. In some cases the fasciculi are arranged upon one or both sides of a tendon. In this way a FlO. 10. •^mm' 18 ANATOMr. great number may concentrate their action upon n single point. Such muscles are called jsenni/brm, — beini^ shaped like Pio. 21 the feather end of a pen. (Fig. 22.) .^^flflK^^^^ In other instances, the fascicJili form circular ^^WBBiiB^^ muscles, — orbiculares, or spfiinders, as they are called. These sur- round certain openings into the body, which they are designed to Pio. 23. close, either in whole or in part. They surround the eye- lids, the anus, the mouth of the womb, etc. (Fig. 23.) In still other instances the fasciculi are ranged side by side in rings, forming muscidar tubes. By the successive contrac- tion of these rings, any substance is driven through the tube, — as food or drink through the gullet of a cow. Figure 24 is a section of the gul- let : a, b, show the circu- lar fibres ; c, the longitudinal. Fir.. 24. Fia. 25. Sometimes the fasciculi curve around in parallel layers, or interlace with each other, forming a bag or pouch. By the contraction of these fasciculi, the contents of the bag will be turned from side to side, as in the case of the stomach, or driven out, as in that of the heart. Figure 25 shows the mus- cles of the stomach ; L, represents the fibres running in one direc- tion ; c, in another ; e, lower end of gullet ; o, pylorus ; D, begin- ning of duodenum, or second stomach. Number of Hascles. — The muscles of the body are as numerous as the ropes of a ship, — there being five hundred or more. Some anatomists reckon more, some less. They are divided into those of the head and neck, those of the trunk, those of the upper extremities, and those of the lower extremis ties. They are too numerous to be named and individually described in this brief account of them. A part of them are voluntary, that is, under the control of the will ; while another part are involuntary, moving without reference to the will. The heart is of the latter kind, it being necessary for it to keep moving when the will and mind are asleep. On the back there are six layers of muscles, one above another. Such a number are necessary to perform the numerous movements of the back, neck, arms, etc. Every expression of the human face, as joy, sorrow, love, hate, hope, fear, etc., is produced by the gentle pul- ling of muscles, made expressly to indicate these emotions. The diaphragm is a large flat muscle, reaching across the great cavity of the body, and dividing the chest from the belly. It is pen- ANATOMY. 29 PlO. 26. etrated by the food-pipe going to the stomach, and by the great blood- vessels leading to and from the heart. It is shaped like the covei of a dinuer-dish, the convex surface being turned up. When the breath is drawn in, it sinks down towards a level, thus enlarging the chest at the expense of the belly. When the breath is thrown out, the reverse takes place. Mode of Action. — The contraclibility of a muscle, of which I have spoken, is simply its power of shortening itself. The hand is raised by the shortening of a muscle in front, attached to the bone above the elbow, and to a bono be- low the elbow. The con- traction of an antagonistic muscle behind, also attached above and below the elbow, brings the hand back to its place. Figure 26 shows how all joints are moved : 1, is the Irene of the arm above the elbow ; 2, one of the bones below the elbow ; 3, the muscle which bends the elbow; 4, 5, attachments of muscles to bones ; 6, the muscle that extends the elbow ; 7, attachment to elbow ; 8, weight in hand. The musele, 3, contracts at the central part, and brings the hand up to 9, 10. The complication, variety, and swiftness of motion, executed by muscles, are past conception. Every movement which a human be- ing makes, from the heavier motions of the farmer in cultivating his fields, up to the magic touches of the painter's brush, and the method*' ical frenzy with which the great master's fingers sweep the piano, are all made by muscles obeying an intelligent will. The Teeth. The teeth are not like other bones, either in composition, method of nutrition, or growth. When broken they do not unite, not being fur- nished with the necessary power of reproduction of lost parts. Both the upper and lower teeth are set into bony sockets, called alveolar processes. These, with the fibrous gums, give the teeth a very firm setting. ^ Orig^in The teeth have their origin in little membraneous pouches within the bone of the jaw ; and in their interior, have a fleshy bud. From the surface of this the bone or ivory exudes. The tooth and the bony socket are developed and rise up together, — the former, when suflSciently long, pushing itself through the gum. Number. — The first set of teeth are only temporary, and are called milk teeth. There are but twenty of them. Between the age of six and fourteen, these become loose, and drop out, and the permanent teeth appear in their places. Of these there are thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. ■'Hf^V T 30 ANATOMY. Klan empty. They may often be secji open in a piece of boiled beef. The arteries have three coats, — an external, which ia cellular, firm Fio. as. and M which the hei which Tlie c.pe/iinj »rch, V. other tf they en becomii around The J In the c arteries into the the abdi to each ( red blooi The V vit"l by every pai tlie capill purple, a I nearer tl walls, an in the larger, aij into the to those delicate, aid in cir The lal pours it il one whicf is the ver. The pti aur.cle, al tvhich ca[ . Tlie Cij the ends They in( one end, industrioj fe*!, and . take the and vitalil beginning ANATOMT. 37 unci Htroiig ; n iniddlc, which in fibroiiH and chistic ; nnd nu intt'rniil, which in Hcroiis, and smooth, l>cing a continuation of tlic lining of the heart. They arc wurroundcd hy a ceil rt'stjncnt called a sheath, which Hcparatea thcn> from surrounding organs. , Tin" Piiliiioiiiiry Artery starts from the right ventricle in front of the >,A L. ANATOMY. 43 layer ; 3, 3, the arteries ; 4, 4, the veins ; and 5, 5, the nerves of the papilliE. The arteries, veins, and nerves are spread over the true skin in great numbers, — so profusely, that it is impossible to push the point of the finest needle into it, ^»'ithout piercing a blood vessel and a nerve. Figure 44 gives a view of the skin : a, a, the cuticle ; 6, b, the col- ored layer of the cuticle ; c, c, d, df the true skin ; e, e, e, fat cella, ft Ufi »w<' it tubes. Fio. 44. iff rta.4B. The lymphatics are very numerous, in the skin, beside which there are oil glands and tuhes^ and sweat glands and tubes. i The Oil GlaildM are imbedded in the skin, and communicate with the surface by small tubes. They are most abundant on the face, nose and ears. Figure 45 shows an oil gland, — ft, being the gland, 6, the tube, and c, its mouth. The Sweat Apparatus consists of small tubes which pass down ^..= — —^. II I . f:; m Tvs^imi': 44 ANATOMY. throngh the true skin, and terminate in the meshes at the bottom, where it coils upon itself into a kind of bu jdle, called the perspiru' tory gland. Figure 46 gives one of these tubes, with the gland, mag< nified forty diameters : 1, being the coiled tube or gland ; 2, 3, the two excretory ducts from the gland. These uniting, form one spiral tube, which opens at 4, which is the surface of the cuticle ; 3, are the fat cells. The hair and the nails are appendages of the skin. The Nervous System. , , , ' The Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord, connected with each other, and called the cerebrospinal axis ; the cranial nerves ; the spinal nerves and the si/mpathetic nerve. The Brain is that mass of nervous matter lodged within the t>kull bones. It is made up of three parts, — the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. These are nioely covered and protected by three membranes, the dura mater, the arachnoid, and thepta mater. Figure 47 shows a considerable portion of the brain, — the skull bones and membrane;-" being re- moved. The scalp turned down is '"' '^ represented by a, a ; e, e, e, show the cut edge of the bones ; c, is the dura mater, drawn up with a hook ; F, the convolutions of the brain. Tlie Cerebroni is the upper and larger portion of the brrfin, and is divided into two hemispheres by a fissure. A portion of the dura mater dips into this cleft, and from its re- semblance to a sickle, is called the falx cerebri. The design of this seems to be to support each half of the brain, and to prevent it from pressing upon tke other half when the head reclines to one side. The undulating sur''ice of the cerebrum is produced .y- It is an cihc gravity i ANATOMY. 49 of the globe. To this the iimscirs are attached. It ia the part which is called the white of the eye. It has a beveled edge in front, into which the cornea is fitted. The Cornea is a transparent lover which projects in front, and forms about one-litth of the globe. It is shaped like a watch glass. It5 blood-vessels are too small to receive th(^ red particles of blood. Tlie riioroid Toat is a vascuhu membrane. Its color is brown exter- niilly, and black within. It is connected with the sclerotic coat ir cham- bers of the eye, and has a circular opening in the centre called the pupil. Of its two layers, the fibres of the anterior one are radiating, and dilate the pupil, while those of the other are circular, and cauae its contraction. ^ The Ciliary Processes are a number of folds formed from the int«r- nal layer of the choroid coat. Tlie Retina has three layers. The external is extremely thin ; the middle is nervous, being an expansion of the optic nerve ; the internal is vascular, and consists of a ramification of minute blood vessels. The divided edge of their coats, may be seen in Figure 54, namely, the sclerotic, the choroid, and the retina ; 2, is the pupil ; 3, the iris ; 4, the ciliary process ; <5, the scolloped border of the retina. Fio.64. Pia.U^ i Tlie Humors of the Eye are the agueous, the crystalline, and the vitreous. Tlie Aqueous or watery humor is situated \n the chambers of the tve. It is an albuminous fluid, with an aiKaline reaction, and a sp*. cihc gravity a little greater than distilled watet 50 AK ATOMY. ly The CryNtalline Haiiior \h iminodiHtoly behind the pupil. It is a lens, and in convex both on tho ponterior and the anterior surface. The Yltreoas Uumor is also an albumiuoua fluid, something like the aqueous humor, but more dense. In Figure 55 we hiivo in E a good view of tho cornea fitted into the sclerotic coat ; A, is the choroid ; B, tho pignientura nigrum ; (J, tho retina; K, the vitreous humor; D, the optic nerve ; I, tho lens ; C, tho iris, painted on tho back side with pigment ; F, the aquooun humor. Tho muscles of the eye, six in number, are attached to tho bono.'* of tho orbit behind, and to tho cornea in front, by their tondou;*. Tlieso tendons give the eyo its pearly appoaranco. In Figiu-o 56, five of tho muscles are indicated by a, 6, c, d, e; /is the optic nerve. If tho internal muscle be •''" ''^• too short, tho eye is drawnl in towards tho nose, and thej squinting called " cross eye is produced. The Orbits are bony sock- ets which enclose tho eye. Thcl optic nerve passes through iil largo hole at the bottom. The Eyebrows are the pro-j^ jecting arches above, covered" with short hair. They prevent the sweat from running down into the eyes, and also shade them from strong light. The Eyelids are the curtains which rise and full in front. The smooth membrane which lines them is called tho conjunctiva. It secretes a fluid which makes the eyelids open and shut easily. The Lachrymal Gland is at the upper and outer angle of the orbit. Several small ' "^tfl open from it upon the I upper eyelid a which the tears run down [uponth*- va. The ilic (/nun of the ear. V.w Dniiii of tlM> Eiir (iiioin- biiiiiii tyiiipani) is an oval-tiliaped tiiin nil iiii)ninc, inserted into a groove around the auditory ca- nal. The T\lMp.iiluill is a eavity within the temporal bone. The EiisttM-liiuii Tiihe is a ehanr nel orconnniMiiiatioii between the tvnil)aiMuu, and the upper part of the pharynx. The oljjeet of this is \o convey air to the drum of the ear, an without air, no sound can be |)rodueed. The Lttbyrliith is a scri.s '•'"' ™- of chainbera through tiie petrous t)one, — embraeing , the vestibule a three-cornered cavity within the tympanum ; the semi-circufar fowrt/.v, com- municating with the vesti- bule, and the cochlea, which makcK two and a half turns aronnd an axis, called the modiolus. In Figure 58, a, is the pavilion of the ear; r, the auditory canal; ^, the niem- brana tympani ; A', the tym- panum ; e, the bones of the ear ; ft, the semicircular ca- nals ; /, the cochlea ; //, the vestibule ; t, the eustachian tube ; rf, the auditory nerve. In Figure 59, we have a view of the labyrinth laid open, and highly magnified: 1, 1, being the cochlea; 2^3, the channels that wind around the central point (5); 7, 7, the vestibule ; 8, the foramen rotundum ; 9, the fenestra ovalis ; 4, G, 10, the semicircular cauals. PHYSIOLOGICAL LAWS OF LIFE AND HEALTH....HYGIBNE. other m part to V Life, the Infancy o^ eing. It may be stated at; a general iruth that man has but just learned to live when he is reauy to die. We expend a large portion of our lives in searching out our mistakes, and in striving to undo the mis- chiefs they have occasioned. This is true in reference both to our moral and our phy ical life ; and I draw from it the conclusion that the present must 1 e only the infancy of our being, and that our blun- ders and consequent suflTerings here, will cause us, in the great here- after, to place a higher value upon knowledge, and to struggle wi+h new fortitude to rid ourselves of every bondage. A life which has just begun to take shape and symmetry, cannot be permitted, I think, under the rule of a benevolent Creator, to be- come extinct We shall certainly be perniitted to take up the broken thread of life, and, in the clearer light of the future, with the warning experience of the past, and surrounded by better guards, to try again. In the mean time, while here, the sooner we become acquainted with the laws of life, and the better we obey them, the more we shall en- joy- The Nervous System. Man is brought into connection with the outward world through the senses of feeling, seeing, hearing, etc. Those cornmunicate with the brair. and mind through the nerves of sensation. The nervous system is divided into two great conrral portions, tlic brain and the spinal cord ; and these together are called, by tlie learned, the cerebrospinal centre. There are nuincrons pulpy white cords, called nerves, which at one end are connected with this great axis ov centre, and from, thence run to all j)arts of the system. A portion of these nerves start from the base of the brain and run to the eye, the ear, the tongue, etc. (Fig, 48.) ; while another, and a larger part spring from the cord which runs through the back-bone, and are distributed over the body, and the lower extremities. (Figs. 50 and 60.) One portion of these cords' produce feeling ; another part, motion. The former we call sensitive ; the latter, motor. Bot'^ kinds are widely distributed over the body. Those which spring from the soinal cord have two roots, one uniting with the back, the How the . the external ttmiicute w3 I 0" by exterj sations. W the intellige nerves of injury. Compa HTGIENE. 63 ;r le other with the Jront part of the cord. Cut off the back root, and the part to which it in distributed loses its feeling. As we say in com- Fio. «a . rno " language, it be- comes numb, though it may move as well as before. Cut the front root, which is motion- producing, and the part to which it goes cannot move. It is palsied, though it may still feel acutely. The numerou.«* nerves that spring from the spinal column are pretty well represented in cut 60. If the cranial nerves of motion which go to the face be cut, no emo- tion or passion can be expressed. The features will ail be immovable, ike statuary. To smile, to laugh, to frown, to give expression to the feeling of pity, or an- guish, or love, is alike impossible. And yet a breath of air upon the face will he felt as readi- ly as before. Paralysis, or palsy, as it is called, partial or general, is the result of injury upon few or many of these motion- producing nerves. Neu- ralgia, tic douloureux,; etc., arise from some dis- ease, perhaps inflamma- tion, of the nerve*} of sensation. How the Mind Gets Knowledge.— Everything the mind know of the external world, it leams through the organs of sense, which t ./m- niunicate with it through these nerves. Thus, the nerves are acted Oil by external agents, and th^n they act on the brain and cause sen- sations. When the hand is burned the nerves ot- sensation run with the intelligence to the brain, which, quick as thought, through the nerves of motion, despatches orders to the muscles to repel the injury. Comparison. — The arrangement and operation of the nervous sys- ^ nTGIENE. tein are like those of the electric fire-alarm system of Boston. The brain is the intelligtmt centre, like the central office at City Hall. The nerves of sensation which carry to the brain, with electric speed, in- telligence of what is going on outside, are like the wires which run to the City Hall from the several station-boxes. The quick carrying to the brain of any information of injury done to some part of the body, is like sending to the City Hail from a station-box the intelli- gence of fire in one of the districts. The rapid transmission of orders from the mind to the muscles, is like flashing the alarm over the wires to every part of the city. And, finally, the powerful action of the muscles Ln warding off danger, is like the dashing of firemen over the pavements, and the energetic plying of the engines. ■ I Sensations. An efTect, produced on the mind through a nerve, is called a sensa- tion. Hunger is a sensation. It is an eftVct produced upon the mind through a certain nerve by the condition of the stomach. Thirst, pain, heat, cold, are sensations in a similar sense. Nausea is a sensa- tion produced by some injurious substance acting upon the coats of the stomach. Streii|;th of Sensation. — Some pensationn are much stronger than others ; some are very intense. A very strong sensation is called a feeling. It is common to say, " I feel cold," or, " I feel hot." We simply mean by this, that the temperature of the weather makes a very powerful impression upon us. Kinds of Sensation. — Sensations are either pleasurable or painful. Pleasurable sensations arise from the proper exercise of some healthy part of the body ; and they are a suitable reward for any care the mind may take of the corporeal organs. The sensations arising from a proper amount of exercise are pleas- urable. The muscles find a sort of enjoyment in action. He who leads a sedentary life, either from choice or necessity, loses much enjoy- ment. Hence there is pleasure in labor; and the working man, though often pitied by the wealthy, is generally the happiest of men. Thfc eye and the ear, when directed to agreeable sights and sounds, derive the most agreeable sensations from exercise. The air of a beautiful spring morning gi/es impressions which none can describe, but which all know to be delightful. These impressions are well fitted to reward us for taking at that season, in the open air, the ex- ercise we so much need. Moral Uses ol Sensntions. — How little we reflect upon the amount of happiness it is in our power to create by making agreeable impres- sions upon others. A civil and polite address makes a pleasant im- pression. A kind word, fitly spoken, makes the heart glad. Heads of families might do much to increase the happiness of their domes- tics in the kitchen by meeting them with a pleasant countenance, and dropping in their ear, now and then, a word of approval. Such little acts of b agreeable of life, — and whic us like sp; In aimir be governe of happinc stairs, — si refining inl or for recre to wear a 1 flowers of Every hi ism of whi( urable or p iife, it shou Wives ma] tion of the heart of the the husban< pressions uj fully. Mos the heads saying, or di other. A \| loved eitherl who desires] li/p, the whc sions upon A^reeablel not only be/ health. Th Travelling variety of A Cure of tl portant thai agreeable sJ /iced to the \ from diseasfl these impreJ We. TotreJ is broken, irj HYGIENE. 5o acts of benevolence are easily performed, and they make the most agreeable and lasting impressions upon persons in the lower stations of life, — creating attachments, in fact, which end only with death, and which in hours of future sorrow, which come to all, may refresh us like springs of v/ater in the desert Full many a shail at random sent, Finds mark the archer little meant ; Full many a word at random spoken, May heal a wounded heart that 's broken. Waltu Soorr. In aiming to make agreeabie impressions upon domestics, we should be governed by the simple desire to create happiness. Their sources of happiness are comparatively few. They spend their days below- stairs, — shut out from a portion cf the light of day, and from the refining influences of the drawing-room, — having little time for rest or for recreation. How unfeeling to treat such persons with harshness, to wear a frowning face in their presence, and thus wither the few flowers of happiness which bloom around them ! Every human being is endowed with the beautiful nervous organ- ism of which I have spoken, aud is daily receiving impressions, pleas- urable or painful, from thousands of sources. In all the relations of life, it should be our aim to touch delicately this sensitive structure. Wives may add much to the happiness, and I may say, to the affec- tion of their husbands, by always wearing a pleasant face ; and the heart of the wife may be made light and glad by gentle words from the husband. We cannot but love those who make pleasurable im- pressions upon us, and we necessarily dislike such as impress us pain- fully. Most of the coldness and alienations which grow up between the heads of families, spring from the habit, of one of the parties, of saying, or doing, or looking something which painfully impresses the other. A woman who habitually wears a "sour" face, cannot be loved either by her husband or her children. The man or the woman who desires to be loved, must cultivate a manner, a look, a speech, a life, the whole scope of which is fitted to make pleasurable impres- sions upon others. It is against nature to love what gives us pain. Agreeable Sensations, a Source of Health. — Pleasurable sensations not only beget love, aad increase happiness, but they add much to health. They exhilarate the spirits and drive away melancholy. Travelling promotes health and prolongs life, by the number and variety of the pleasing impressions it makes upon the mind. Cure of the Sick. — If the above statements be correct, how im- portant that the sick should be so dealt with as to have none but agreeable sensations made upon them. Many a life has been sacri- ficed to the peevish temper of a nurse. When the nerves are weak frotn disease, even slight causes make powerful impressions ; and if these impressions are of a painful kind, the results are most deplora- ble. To treat harshly the sick, especially those whose nervous system is broken, implies either great thoughtlessness, or extreme cruelty. A iliirViirt-«it'^ I i i n r^f _s. ■" ■ g^yf 56 HYGIENE. single harsh word, which would scarcely move one when well, may Bend the same person, when sick, almost to distraction. Every word" spoken to persons in sickness should, therefore, be gentle and sooth- ing. Every feature of the face should express either cheerfulness, or tenderness and pity. As the painful impressions, which disease is making, tends to de- press the spirits and create melancholy, it is not expected that persons when sick will exhibit as amiable tempers as when well; and for this, all due allowance must be made. Effect upon the Disposition. — This leads me to say that pleasura- ble sensations improve the temper and disposition. This is a fact of very great importance, and parents should never lose sight of it in dealing with their children. There are few children but would grow up amiable and useful members of society, were they dealt with in the gentle and tender manner which their young and impressible natures require. From the moment the young mind wakes to intt^l- ligence, it will be ocrcnpied with something. Parents and guardians should aim, therefore, to turn it to all those things which will impress it pleasantly, and at the same time do it no harm. Exercise, songs, playthings, flowers, — to the and other entertainments it should be led by gentle hands. No thoughtful parent will ever pain a child by harsh threats and denunciations, or shock it by an oath. Bud Effect of Unpleasant Sensations. — If pleasurable sensations improve the health and temp('r, unpleasant ones do just the opposite. They break down the health, and spoil the disposition. They are intended to give us a warning of impending injury. Thus, we have painful sensations when we have overworked the body or mind. The sensation of weariness tells us that the muscles have worked as long as their good requires, and that they need rest. Were this sensation unheeded, exhaustion and entire prostration would be the result. When fatigue begins to be felt, either of body or mind, the sensa- tion may be dissipated by strong tea, or intoxicating drink, or opium; but to drive it away in this manner, for the purpose of working longer, is wrong, and leads, in the end, to disease or exhaustion. It is said t'lat one of the most brilliant advocates of our time is dependent upon opium for the stimulus to carry him through his extraordinary flights of elocpienee ; but his restless motion and nervous face remind us that he has bent his bow very hearly to the snapping point, and that a sudden collapse of his vital powers, at no distant day, may be feared as the result of such tension. Persons in aflliction, whose spirits are depressed and broken by sorrow, should have their thoughts turned away from all sombre ob- jects and contemplations. They should be taken into the open sun- light, and be diverted by the beautiful things of nature. They should visit cheerful society, and open their hearts to pleasurable impres- sions. When we permit any part of the body to remain idle, neglecting to use it as much as we ought, unpleasant sensations remind us of our fault. This is SI says to us for exercis Meed of of the exte the organs mind, slion atrnrnents and will m tiuice, then linpropei herit disea brain, is ofl spring are < the wealth; nervous dis groat part, : under whic wisdom of degrees of ( philosopher the folly of or his child nervous disc sound mine marriages Need of I its duties, than any C/ to this iUi lessened or loss of blc charged wi well, the b and unconsi or have its breathed ov the result Minting, hyi Ventilutifl churches, ai Were a ministers w tion sitting single aften are in a lifet clearnesB, HTGIKNK. 67 our fault. The muscleg, when iiimsed, waste away and become feeble. Tliis is sure to produce an uneasy, nervous state of fueling, which siiys to us as plainly as a sensation can, that the muscles are hungry for exercise, and that it is injurious to let them rest longer. IV'eed of a Ilenltiiy Brain. — In order that we may get correct ideas of the external world, it is necessary that the brain, the nerves, and the organs of sense through which sensations are made upon the mind, should be in a healthy condition. It is evident that if the in- struments of sensation be diseased, the sensation cannot be natural, and will make a false report to the mind. It is of the highest impor- tiuice, therefore, that the brain should be sound. Improper Illtermarrlajfes. — This organ, like every other, may in- herit disease from parents. Insanity, which springs from a diseased brain, is often hereditary. When both parents are diseased, the oil- spring are of course more liable to partake of their defects. Among the wealthy, and particularly among the royal families in Euro|H', nervous diseases and sterility are very common. This arises, in a great part, from intermarriages among blood relations, — a practice under which any people will degenerate, and finally perish. The wisdom of the Old Testament prohibition of marriage within certain degrees of consanguinity, has been established by the observations of philosophers, and the experience of mankind. When a man commits the folly of marrying his first cousin, he generally either has no issue, or his children are afflicted with deafness, or some shocking form of nervous disease. Let those who will transmit to their descendants a sound mind in a sound body, observe the laws of life, and avoid all marriages with blood relations. Need of a Good Supply of Blood. — For a proper performance of its duties, the brain requires and receives a larger supply of blood than any C/ther part of the system. One tenth of all the blood goes to this important organ. If the quantity or quality be materially lessened or changed, great disturbance of the brain follows. A large loss of blood occasions dizziness and fainting. If an atmosphere charged with too much carbonic acid gas be breathed, as in a de well, the blood is not vitalized in the lungs, so as to sustain the brain, and unconsciousness soon follows. If the air be vitiated in any way, or have its oxygen extracted, as in large assemblies, where it i.s breatiied over several times, it becomes unfit to support the brain, and the result is languid feelings, inability to apply the mind, headache, feinting, hysterics, and other nervous manifestations. Ventilation. — This shows the great necessity of having dwellings, churches, and school-houses well ventilated. Were a good system of ventilation adopted in all our churches, ministers would seldom preach to sleeping audiences. A congrega- tion sitting in one of our places of public worship, where the air in a single afternoon is as many times used over as the minister's sermons are in a lifetime, can neither hear with attention, nor comprehend with clearness. ' - 58 HYGIENE. V - In our school-housps, the ventilation is quite as bad, and the consc- ruencTs worse, because they are occupied six hours in the day instead ol ihree, and six days in the weeit in place of one. In the small school- houses which our children filled to overflowing in former years, in which there was Wi ventilation, unless thev happened to be blessed with an old-fashioned chimney and fire-place, the effects upon the nervous system of the children was deplorable. Many of the dis- eases which afflict the present generation of men and women, had their origin in the bad air of those crowded nurseries of education. Our dwellings were partly ventilated in olden time, when the open fire-place received the " back-log," the " top-stick," the " fore-stick," and other sticks to match ; but since we have been warmed by the stove and the furnace, we have known little of the luxury of pure air at the domestic hearth. Need of Exercise for the Brain. — Health requires that the brain should be properly occupied with vigorous thought. The same rea* sons may be given for this as for the exercise of the muscles. It is fovemed by the same laws which apply to other parts of the system. Ise improves its strength and vigor, — idleness causes it to grov/ feeble. Of course the labor it is put to should be only reasonable in amount, and should not be too long continued at any one time. With the weakening of the brain, the whole bodily forces, and indeed the whole mental and moral character, fall into feebleness and decay. It is a great mistake to suppose that the cultivation and even vigorous use of the mind, impairs health and shortens life. Just the opposite is true. Many of the most eminently intellectual men, who have worked their brains hard ail their lives, have been distinguished for long life. Bad Effects of Change in Circumstances. — No class of persons suffer more from nervous diseases and general ill health, than those who, having worked hard in early life, with little or no cultivation of the mind, are suddenly raised to wealth, and immediately drop all exercise, and fall into habits of indolence and luxury. The condition of such persons would be much less pitiable, did they take up books when they lay by the hoe or the broom. But they seldom do this. Many a woman, in early life, has felt the glow of health in every limb, and a thrill of pleasure, too, while scrubbing the floor upon her hands and knees, w^ho has, in subsequent years, reclined »n misery upon her damask-covered lounge, and wondered that she could not have the health of other days. Let her cultivate her brain, live tem- perately, and exercise in the open air, and life may again have real pleasures for her. Discretion in Exercising tlie Brain. — In exercising the brain we must use discretion. We must not sit down in the morning, and ply it with work during the whole day, without rest. This would soon bring upon it disease, or premature decay. It should be worked only until it begins to show symptoms of fatigue. Then it should be per- mitted to rest ; or, what is better, be turned to some new sabject, of a lighter, o than to ent! Ovenrorli not to exert the system, erfion. As made to wo Hource. Ch it is no un( equal in siz in developm alating and In such chi We need no Hpite of us. constitution, and sustain. Yet paren this rule. 1 could they s folly. Could the brain, ep of undescrib( without a na Old People larly careful easily from g cry are feeble age should I journey of tj stages, throutf A Supply . needs and n this, it is tor particular pa forest in ext ground, or b^ body; and ii of blood. 1 gins earnestlj which the vessels, and that it draw] force, it dimi] ""fits them other workinl From this [ effectively atl to hard work HYGIENE. 59 a lighter, or a different character. This often rests the brain better than to entirely suspend its action. Ovenrorkins: the Brnin in ChildluNxl. — Great cnrc should be used not to exercise the brain too much in early life. Like other parts of the systtnn, it is tender in childhood, aiid will not bear prolonged ex- ertion. As a general thing, children are put to school too early, and made to work their brains too hard. Great mischief arises from this source. Children are born with larg«'r brains now than formerly; and it ia no uncommon thing to see upon a child of ten years, a head equal in size to that of an adult. Children run to brain. Precocity in development of brain and mind is common. The results of stim- nlating and hastening the unfolding of such minds are deplorablo. In such children, the brain should be the last thing to be cultivated. We need not urge its growth. It will come forward fast enough in spite of us. Our chief aim should be to harden and fortify the general constitution, so that the noble brain which it is required to bear up and sustain, may long be its crown and glory. Yet parents are proud of their precocious children, and often reverse this rale. They do it thoughtlessly, and would be terribly startled, could they suddenly look into the future, and see the results of their folly. Could they do so, they would see inflammation and softening of the brain, epilepsy, insanity, paralysis, apoplexy, with all the horrors of undescribcd and indescribable nervous affections, which, though without a name, have a terrible reality. Old People's Brnins. — Persons in advanced life should be particu- larly careful not to overwork the brain. In middle life it recovers easily from great fatigue. In the decline of life, its powers of recov- ery are feeble. A single exhaustion may cause its fatal collapse. Old age should be distinguished for gentleness and moderation. The journey of the down-hill of life should be made by short and easy stages, through regions of diversified beauty. A Supply of Blood. — Every part of the system, when hard at work, needs and mu have a very large supply of pure blood. Without this, it is torpid and inactive. To cause the blood to flow to any particular part, it must be exercised. The lumberman, when in the forest in extreme cold weather, stamps his feet violently upon the ground, or beats them against a log, and whips his hands around his body ; and in this way makes them red and warm with a new supply of blood. The stomach, when it has received a supply of food, be- gins earnestly to turn it over; and by this exercise, and the stimulus which the food supplies, it invites large quantities of blood to its vessels, and thus increases its power to work. But just in proportion that it draws Mie vital current xo its f/f, and augments its own vital force, it dimini.-hes the blood in other organs, and, for the time being, unfits them for work. The same may be said of tne brain and all other working organs. From this it follows that only one organ, or set of organs, can work efl'ec'tively at the same time, and that it is improper to put the brain to hard work immediately after a full meal, because the stomach then 1 60 HTCIENE. wants the blood to enable it to digest the food ; and if the blood bt; called oir to the brain, digestion will stop. Nor should the stornacl' be loaded with food direetly after long and hard thinking ; for the brain will yield up the blood to it only after its own excitement has had time to subside. Sympathetic Nervous System. The objeet of this system seems to be to bind all parts of the body together, and to combine and harmonize their actions. It takes care that no part of the system acts in such a way as to injure any othtr part. It exerts a controlling influence over digestion, nutrition, nh- sorption, the circulation, etc. These are natural processes whicli need to go on while the brain is asleep and cannot attend to them. The nervous system, of which I speak, presides over all those func- tions which are called involuntary, — so called because no act of the will is needed for their performance. Secretion, absorption, digestion, and the circulation of the blood, all have to go on while we sleep, as well as while we wake. Were an act of the will necessary to tliiir performance, as in walking, eating, conversing, etc., then they would have to cease the moment the brain fell asleep, and death would be the result. The sympathetic nerves apprize dch part, of the system of the condition and wants of every other part. When the lungs are in- flamed, the stomach seems to be aware of it, and will receive no food, because this would aggravate the disease of the neighboring organs. Well would it be if human beings would exercise a like forbearance, and abstain from those acts of self-gratihcation which they know will injure their neighbors. Eflfects of Xervous Disensos. — Before closing these observations, I wish to add a few words respecting the terrible ell'ects of nervous dis- eases which characterize the present time. That they are far more numerous and afflictive than in former years, must be apparent to the most careless observer. They are nothing more nor less than the price we ))ay for a high civilization, and especially for our republicanism. Among us, every man feels his individuality, and has a motive for thinking and doing his best. Thought and action are here unf«'(tered ; and if the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the stroiig, every man acts as though lie thought it was. The great excitement which the struggle for wealth kindles and inflames, deranges and shatters the nervous system to a shocking degree. And wealth, when obtained, does its full share to weaken the nerves. It brings with it high living, indolence, loss of energy, dissipation, and a weakening of the whole moral and physical powers. It need not do this ; but, in most cases, it does. The result is, that, at least, every other person has some nervous disease, which makes life a misery rather than a blessing. The brain and nerves are too much developed in comparison with the develop- ment of the as men and ^ ing and acti they imperfe( natural to t\ acts and thoi Whnt is r< (10 man can f that that whl it-; destructioi ^ !V(' us but tl V r the system siicli a strain i to counterbal States. We I health, or we i of what is ht ill their own doom. Hopefnl Coi here presented others of a mc I'hysiology i any former pe schools, and a health has aln it, — such as ( encourage anc propose to dev] From the ea| bodies are con^ ^re worn out, Were this thel «\\ay, and that! rials are throw/ ojl of our foocl In order that^ into small partil citation. Durij ^pitde, called s| glands, and mi: condition, it is pharynx. Herd upon the open] trance into the a tube which ri HYGIENE. 61 meiit of the muscles. Half our boys and girls have heads as large as men and women. It is common to see a boy or a girl at ten talk- ing and acting like a man or woman. I do not mean by this, that- they imperfectly imitate the actions of older persons. It seems to be natural to them. Their brains are prematurely developed, and their ai'ts and thoughts have the maturity of adult life. Whnt Is ronillljf ? — What will be the result of this state of things, no nian can predict. I sometimes think the race will break down; tliiit that which was intended to be its ornament and strength, will be it-; destruction. I hope not. Yet there is danger of it. Nothing cm ; ivc lis but the wisdom to adopt such means as will develop all parts vt I lie system alike. No race of men can stand for many generations Mvh a strain upon the nervous system, unless better means are adopted to counterbalance its evil eflects than are now used in the United Stales. We have got to pause in our swift career, and look after our health, or we shall become a nation of maniacs. No proof is needed of what is here said. There is sctirce a man or a woman but has in their own person the foreshadowing evidence of our impending (loom. Ifopefnl Considerations. — It is proper to say the considerations here j)resented, terrible as they are, are mitigated in some measure by others of a more hopeful character. I'hysiology and the laws of life are now better understood than at any former period. These subjects are getting into our common schools, and are engaging the attention of our youth. Declining health has already made us think more of the means of preserving it, — such as diet, exercise, bathing, travelling, and amusement. To encourage and intensify this hopeful direction of the public mind, I propose to devote a few pages to these subjects. Food and Digestion. From the earliest dawn of existence to the last moment of life, our bodies are constantly changing. Old particles of matter, when they are worn out, leave their places and are thrown out of the system. Were this the whole of the matter, our bodies would soon waste away, and that would be the end of us. But as fast as the old mate- rials are thrown away, new ones take their places ; and it is solely out of our food that these new materials are formed. in order that the food may be well digested, it must first be broken into small particles in the mouth. The act of chewing it, is called mas- tication. During this act, if it be well performed, a large quantity of spitde, called saliva, flows out of a number of glands, called salivary glands, and mixes with the food, forming with it a soft mass. In this condition, it is thrown backward into the top of the throat, called the pharynx. Here, a little cartilage, called the epiglottis, drops down upon the opening into the top of the windpipe, and prevents its en- trance into the breath passage ; and it is pushed along into the gullet, a tube which runs down behind the windpipe and lungs, and which •it 62 HYGIENE. pliysirinriH mil the a*Hophagus. Here a B'jcccssion of muacular baiid^, III circuliir shape, contract U|x)n it, one after another, and fouiu it down into tlu' stotnncii. It is important that two thincfx Hhonl<\ be Hpoured while the food in in the mouth, namely, that it should be reduced to a poml decree ot" fineness by chewing, and that a proper amount of saliva should bo mixed with it. If the chewing were not necessary, teeth would not have been given us ; and the salivary glands would certainly not have been put in the vicinity of the mouth, if the mixing of water with our food would servo the purposes of digestion as well. Eating too Rapidly. — The Americans have fallen into a pernicious error in eating their food too rapidly. Time is not given to chow it sufficiently to excite a full flow of saliva; and as it cannot bo swal- lowed in a dry state, it is not uncommon to see persons taking a sip of water after every second mouthful to enable them to force it into the stomach. It is a habit we Americans have of cheating ourselves both of the pleasures and the benefits of eating ; for the only real pleasure of eating arises from the flavor of food while retained in the mouth, and the only benefit we can derive comes in consequence oi its proper digestion. The food when received iwto the stomach is in the same condition as when taken into the mouth, except that it is, or should be, ground fine by the teeth, and well mixed with saliva. The Gastric Juice. — The stomach, like the mouth, the windpipe, and the gullet, is lined by a irmcous membrane. The chief olFice of this membrane is to secrete, or take out of the blood, a fluid which we call gastric juice, which means stomach juice ; for the Greek name of stomach is yaa-Tt}p (gaster). This fluid has not much smell or taste, and looks like spring water. It has a powerful eff"ect upon food, which, when mixed with it, soon undergoes an important change, which is apparent to the taste, the smell, and the sight. What the nature of tlie gastric juice is, or how it produces its effect upon food, is not certainly known. Too Much Cold Water at Heals. — There are some interesting facts connected with the formation of this fluid, of which it is important that every person should be apprized. Its quantity and quiility depend on the amount and hcalthfnlnest of the blood which flows to the stomach during the first stage of digestion. It is, therefore, injurious to drink large quantities of very coid water with, or immediately after, our meals ; as this will chill the stomach, and repel the blood from its vessels, so that but little of the juice can be formed. Digestion, in such case, must be imperfect Tliis Fluid not Secreted Without Limit. — This fluid does not flow into the stomach continuously, but only when we swallow food, and then, not as long as we please to cat, but merely till we have taken what the system requires. If, in the amount we take, we go beyond the wants of nature, there will not be fluid enough formed to dissolve It, and the whole will be imperfectly digested, and be a source of in- jury rathi food be o Not Se( either not be our fe need food gested, ai slight, the in proporl Its Scciv ; l).i|)|)y, I of tile ga iiilciise til iiatunil flo This she make the 1 tind joyous nny of the lucnt, wo E our faces. tiililo it is I will throw if habituall half a doze The ston they can ta of the pow filling then the substar with the si< How al view, the trie juice i held in ot had it not Ktoinach to A young n but then in and a hole dental disc recover id grow toget the breach tain grew Dr. Beaum series of various ar V Horemei iMe: i HTOIENB. 63 jury rather than bonrfit. This ithould teach ua to be careful that our food be only reaMonablc in amount. Not Secreted in Sickness. — Wh'Mi we are sick, the gnstric juice is either not formed at all, or only in small quantities. Whatever may be our feelings of hiHsitudc, and however much we may appear to need food, at such times, it is useless to take it, for it cannot be di- gested, and will only aggravate our disease. If the illness be only slight, the fluid will be formed to some extent, and food may be taken in proportion. Its Secretion Favored hy flieerfnlness. — A cheerful disposition, and ! Ii ippy, lively frame of mintl, are highly favorable to the prodiietioM of the giislritr juice; while melancholy, ;ind an'^er, and gri(;f, and iiiicuse tiioiight of business at the hour of meals, greatly hinder ii^' natural flow. This should teach us to go to our meals with light hearts, and to make the family board a place of cheerful co.iversation, and of a light Hnd joyous play upon tho mirthful feelings of all present. Should finy of the family circle be in the habit of using vinegar as a condi- ment, wo should never boguilty of compelling them to extract it from mir faces. A vinegar face is not easily excused anywhere ; at the t!il)lc it is unpardonable. A single countenance of this description will throw a gloom over a tableful of naturally cheerful persons ; and if habitually present at tho board, may finally spoil the digestion of half a dozen, and entail dyspepsia upon them for life. Tho stomachs of tho sick pour out but very little of this fluid, and they can take but a small amount of food. It is cruel to deprive them of the powers of digesting that little by treating them harshly, :md filling them with gloomy and desponding feelings. I therefore repeat tho substance of the advice given on a previous page : Deal gently with the sick. now all this is Kno\iii. — As the stomach is wholly concealed from view, the reader will very naturally ask how it is known that the gas- tric juice is poured into it in certain states of the mind, etc., and with- held in others. It certainly could not have been so accurately known, had it not been for an accident which opened the living and working Btoinach to the inspection of Dr. Beaumont, a United States Surgeon. K young man by the name of Alexis St. Martin, a Canadian by birth, but then in the State of Michigan, had a large part of his side torn away, and a hole of considerable size made into his stomach, by the acci- dental discharge of a gun. To the surprise of his surgeon, St. Martin recover ^d ; and the edges of the wound in the stomach refused to grow together, preferring rather to fasten themselves to the borders of the breach in the side, thus leaving the passage open. A kint^ of cur- tain grew down over this, which prevented the food from falling out. Dr. Beaumont, taking advantage of this state of things, instituted a series of valuable experiments, by lifting the curtain, and inserting various articles of food, and witnessing the process of digestion. MoTement of the Stomach. — The presence of food in the stomach 1: \- \\»tu^^.^x>:ii^^^,^ -'.i * . . 64 HYOIKNB. eantea ita muBcnlar coat to contract and ihrow it about from Hidp to aiile, mixing it thoroughly with the gantric juice, and reduoiug it to u pulpy masn, called chyme. This, aH fnflt as it is properly prepnrrd, paHseit through the pylorus into the upper bowel, or duodenum^ cullccl also the second stomach, €hyillf. — A certain witty professor of anavomy and ph''?!ology, '\n in the habit of asking his class if they ever saw any chyme; iind when they answer no, as they often do, he calls their attontiuii to what they occasionally see ;n the morning, upon the Bidewalkf", when- drunken men have held themselves up by lamp-posta, and left the eontents of their stomachs. The pylorurt, or opening into the bowel, has a very singular and wise instinct, which is worthy of remark. When a piece of food, which has not been digesti^d, attempts to pass into the bowel, tlie moment it touches the inner surface of this orifice, it is instantly thrown back by an energetic conlracticn ; though a portion of well- prepared chyme touching the same opening immediately after, is allowed to pass on unchallenged. Chyle. — The chyme, when it reaches the duodenum, seems to cause the liver to secrete bile, and the pancreas to produce the pancreatic juice. These two fluids are conveyed into the upper portion of the second stomach, and are there mixed with the chyme, and cause it to separate into a delicate, white fluid, called chyle, and a residuum, which, being worthless, is pushed onward, and thrown out of the body. Bile in the Stomach. — Most persons suppose that bile is generally found in the ston ach; but this is a mistake. It is thrown up by vomiting, because in that act, the action both of the first and the second stomach is reversed, and the bile is forced up from the duode* num, — taking a direction the opposite of its usual course. Destination of the Chyle. — The chyle being separated from tho dregs, is pushed onward in its course by the worm-like motion of the in- testine ; and as it passes along, it is gradually sucked up by thousands of very small vessels, whose mouths open upon the inner surface of the bowel. These little vessels are called laclenls, from the Latin word lac^ which means milk, because they drink this white, milky fluid. Fig- ure 01 shows a section of the small bowel, turned inside out, and covered with the villi, or root-like filaments, closely set upon its surface, for ab- sorbing the chyle, and at the bottom of which, the lacteals take their rise. In these lacteals, and in the mesenteric glands, the chyle is gpradu- Fio. 61. irf »rn Bidp ♦" ;iug it to II ' prepnrr(' turn, culled ''S'ology, i' fiyme; ttciition to iilk?, when- iiid left the ingulnr and >ce of food, ; bowel, tlie is iiiHtaiitlv ion of well- tely after, is ems to cause le pancreatic ortion of the id cause it to a residuum, a out of the e is generally hrown up by first and the m the duode- rse. ted from the chyle ^•!5IP«B^I^P**^»" ■•W^wpfM HYOIKXK. i; ally changod, ho as to appror \ nearer and nrarcr to th«' nature? t•^a at o« <'"' hlood ; but prccisrly wliiil thi* t as phos- and snl- iu milk, ther arti- phate of ecrga and ily called liet. •h in bulk 1. Ill thp F the arti- :.h all the 3 to warm re derived lorn. tides may :hc articles lomposition, Ihat Liebig is, in mo>e ition. They from which Idestitute of and cannot Igroups, also \y add nitro- liiall portion [the pcculiat HYGIENE. 67 qualitj of producing blood and flesh. They are the raw materials, out of which our bof little con- [•ogen it may [nff ii i»i ''' '* St'r ,yaalities [ss V':.- vUole ,agh I do not lat difference le same food, lyncrasy,— -* ^kt, some one, nachs. This HYGIENE. 69 table shows the length of time required for digesting the several arti- cles in the stomach of St. Martin, as shown by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont : Article!. Rice rii;'s feet, soused .... Tripe, soused Trout, salmon, fresh . , Ai)])K's, sweet, mellow Venison, steak Sa;;o A|)|ilt'.s, sour, mellow (';ilit)a<;e, with vinegar Codtish, cured, dry E''fi», fresh Liver, beef's fresh. Milk Tapioca Milk Turkey, wild .... " domesticated Potatoes, Irish Parsnips Pji;, sucking Meat hashed with ) vegetables ) Lamb, fresh Goose Cak" iponge Ci. u.,p,j-head Beans, pod Custard Chicken, full-crown . . Apples, sour, hard . . . Oysterp, fresh Kass, s riped, fresh. . . Bfccf, I'resn, lean, rare " steak Corn cake Dumpling, apple Efjcs, fresh Mutton, fresh . . . , Preparations. P.oiled . . . Boiled . . . Boiled . . . Boiled . . . Fried. . . . Ilaw Broiled. . . Boiled . . . Ilaw Raw Boiled . . . Raw Broiled. . . Boiled . . . Boiled . . . Raw Roasted . , Boiled . . . Roasted . . Baked . . . Boiled . . . Roasted . . Warmed. . Broiled. . . Roasted . . Baked . . . Raw Boiled . . . Baked . . . Fricasseed Raw Raw Broiled. . .. Roasted . . Broiled. . . Baked . . . Boiled . . . Boiled soft Broiled. . . 1 Boiled . . . Time. Ii. m. 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 30 1 30 1 30 1 35 1 45 2 — 2 — 2 — 2 — 2 — 2 2 2 Article*. Pork, rect'titly salted Soup, chicken Oysters, fresh Pork, recently salted Pork steak Corn bread Mutton, fresh Carrot, orange Sausage, fresh Beef, fresh, lean, dry Bread wheat, fresh . . . Butter Cheese, old, strong. . . Eggs, I'resh I'reparatioiia. Time. 15 2 18 25 30 30 30 30 2 30 30 30 2 30 30 30 45 45 50 55 3 — 3 — 3 — 3 — Flounder, fresh. . . . Oysters, fresh Potatoes, Irish .... 'Soup, mutton " oyster Turnip, flat Beets Corn, green, and beans Beef, fresh, lean. . . Fowls, domestic . . . Veal, fresh Soup, beef, vegeta- ) bles, and bread . . J Salmon, salted Heart, animal Beef, old, hard, salted Pork, recently salted Cabbage, with vinegar Ducks, wild Pork, recently !?alted Suet, mutton Veal, fresh Pork, fat and lean . . Suet, beef, fresh .... Tendon Raw Boiled Roasted . . . Broiled. . . . Broiled. . . . Baked Roasted . . . Boiled Broiled. . . . Roasted . . . Baked Melted . . . . Raw Hard boiled Fried Fried . . . . . Stewed. . . . Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled . . . . Boiled Fried Boiled Roasted . . . Broiled. . . . Boiled Boiled Fried Boiled Fried Boiled ... Roasted . . . Boiled Boiled . . . . Fried Roasted . . . Boiled Boiled li. m. 3 — 3 — 3 15 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 8 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 — 4 — 4 -^ 4 — 4 — 4 — 4 — 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 15 15 15 15 15 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 45 45 15 15 30 30 30 30 30 15 80 30 This table may be considered as giving a general idea of the rela- tive digestibility of the food-articles contained in it. If not found exactly right in each iiidividual case, it can be rectified by experience. The experience of no other individual's stomach will ever be found precisely like that of St. Martin's, — though in its general features, it may be sufficiently similar to make his valuable. The general prin- ciples of conduct may be learned from the experience of others. The particular application must come from our own experience and reason. Dig:estibility Influenced by Amount. — The rapidity with which any "-»TRf": jirficic i.s digested will vjiry witli the amount taken. A larger quan- tity than is called for by the wants of the system, will be digested more slowly tiian the proper amount ; while, on the other hand, an insuftieient supply begets an inability to reduce in the tstomach even the small quantity taken. We may err in taking too little food as well as in taking too much ; though the former error is much lesi likely to occur than the latter. Choosing Food in 111 lleaUli. — But in deciding the kind and amvhitl of food, we must be guided not only by its digestibility, but by the state of the health. If we find the stomach apparently in good working condition, capa- ble of dissolving properly whatever is submitted to its action, and yet we are for some cause losing flesh and strength, we should resort not only to the most nutritious of the albuminous group of the azo- ti/ed articles, but likewise to the oleaginous group of the non-azotized. We want a great amount of nutriment, and we need oils to make fat. This is the kind of food generally wanted in constitutional consump- tion. In fevers, but little food can be disposed of at best ; and that little must be chosen with reference to its mildness and its unstimulating (lualities. Generally the farinaceous or starchy articles are most suit- able, because they have no stimulating and irritating qualities, and especially because they furnish fuel to be burned with oxygen, and thus take the place of the animal tissues, which are being rapidly consumed with this devouring element. In fever, oxygen is literally burning up the body. In this state of the system, this element ac- quires, by some means, a singular alfinity for the tissues ; and, uniting with them rapidly, forms a true combustion. The physician who throws to this devouring agent some of the mild, non-azolized articles which oft'er it stronger affiiiities than it finds in the tissues, is as wise as he who tosses his dog to a hungry lion to avoid being devoured himself. FAerci.se to be Considered. — In deciding the diet, the amount of exercise is not less important to be considered than the health. The farmer, who vorks in the open air, and uses his musciles a great deal, wants considerably more nutritive, as well as more combustive, food than one who leads a sedentary life. Of course there is a great deal more waste of the tissues, and he requires more of the llesh-forming articles; and as he breathes deeper, and takes in more oxygen, he needs more of the supporters of respiration, — the sugars, oils, and starchy aliments. Beans. — By turning to the table which shows the amount of nitro- ,gen in the diflerent food-articles, the reader will see that beans are rich in this element. They are, therefore, excellent food for working men, who are obliged to make great use of their muscles. Our fathers, who broke and subdued the rocky soil of New England, showed wisdom even in their instincts in taking so large a portion of their aliment from the bean, — especially as they oi/ed it with the fat %i IIYCJir 'E. 71 irger quan- je digested it hand, an mach even ttle food as much less ; kind and tibility, but lition, capa- action, and lould resort of the azo- on-azoti/ed. \o make fat. lI consump- :l that little istimulating e most suit- lalities, and oxygen, and 3in g rapidly I is literally element ac- and, uniting y^siciau who jzed articles ;s, is as wise ifiT devoured o : amount of leulth. The a great deal, burttive, food a great deal llesh-forming J oxygen, he, ;ars, oils, and )unt of nitro- lat beans are for working luscles. Our ew England, ! a portion of , with the fat of pork. But for th(! hard-working student, who daily makes heavy drafts upon his brain and iK'rvous system, beans and peas are an im- proper diet. They contain no phosphorus, in the shape of phospliate of lime ; and no brain can work hard without a due supply of phos- phorus, which forms a part of its substance. I'lihoUed Wheat Flour. — For the man who uses his brain a great deal, there is no other owe article of food equal to bread made from unbolted wheat flour. Fine wheat flour is little better for him than beans, because the miller has robbed it of much of the phosphorus, which is found chiefly in the hull or bran. 1 mention only two or three articles of food as specimens. By looking over the tables furnished, and reasoning upon the whole in the way I iiave done upon these few, the reader can give every article something like its proper value in most circumstances. Clillinte. — If health and exercise should influence us in choosing the kind and the amount of food, climate must do so quite as much. In the frigid climate of high latitudes, it is necessary that a great deal of heat be produced in the body, in order to avoid perishing with cold. There is no mystery now, as there once was, about the produc- tion of this heat. It comes from the burning of carbon and other sub- stances in the body, where they unite with oxygen, and make just as real a fire as that which warms our houses. Oils, sugar, starch, gums, etc., are largely composed of carbon, and readily unite with oxygen in the body. This is the reason why they are reckoned as fuel, and are called supjmrters of combustion. And /or this reason, they require to be largely consumed in very cold climates. The instincts of men seem to lead to the same conclusion, for the dwellers in all high latitudes, consume great quantities of oils and fats. The amount of train oil, tallow, the fat of seals and other animals, devoured by the Laplanders, Kamtschatkians, and other northern people, is truly wonderful. In hot countries, the fundamental rule for preserving the health, is to keep the body cool. Without observing this rule, the strongest will often fall victims to the climate in low latitudes. But to keep cool, of course all the heat-producing articles of food should be avoided. Particularly all alcoholic drinks, which are powerful supporters cf combustion, should be rejected. Rice, and the various fruits form the most suitable articles of diet. The great sacrifice of life which we have witnessed the last few years among the emigrants to California, has been the result chiefly of using ardent spirits and heat-producing food while crossing the Isthmus, which, to a northern constitution, is much like a vast oven, heated to a temperature suitable for baking bread. There are few persons, with tolerable health and strength, but would safely endure the ordeal of the Isthmian passage, if they would live light for a few days before starting ; and during the passage, take only an abstemious vegetable and fruit diet. Buyard Taylor's Opinion. — The distinguished traveller. Bayard Taylor, reports that while spending a few days in a heated part of 72 HYGIENE. P-*« Africa, he lived, as the iiilnibitants did, pretty much entirely upon the fleah of well-fatted sheep ; and that he enjoyed, meantime, excellent health and strength. From this he concludes that animal food is as suitable in hot climates as in cold. It is a pity a mar. of such excellent parts as Mr. Taylor, should allow himself to rear so tall a structure upon so narrow a foundation. That he could live on flesh in so hot a region, and not be made sick, only proves that he has a fine constitution, and that his health is not easily disturbed ; and when he attempts from his limited experience of a few days, to reason against the established facts of science, and against the well-attested laws of life, he does it evidently without reflecting that he is in a field of thought which he has never had oc- casion to cultivate. The great Jewish Lawgiver doubtless had a reason for prohibiting pork to the Jews. Whatever that reason was, the prohibition had a wise bearing upon the health of the people. Palestine has a hot climate, in which pork-fat is an improper diet More Flit in Winter. — It follows from what has been said, that a more fatty as well as stimulating diet is needed in winter than in summer. But the change should be made gradually. When cold weather approaches, the food should become more nutritious and warming by little and little. The exercise should likewise be in- creased. Even the lower animals act upon this plan. In the fall, squirrels cat nuts, which are full of oil, and grow fat upon them. The instincts of men move in the same direction. It is in the fall that the hog, the ox, and the poultry are killed ; and in the winter that they are largely feasted upon and enjoyed. Upon such food, combined with various sorts of starch, man fattens ; and a good sup- ply of fat, deposited in the cells, is equal, in keeping out cold, to a layer of cotton batting, — to say nothing of the fire kept up within the body by the burning of such fuel. As hot weather comes on, we gradually lay aside these fattening articles (or ought to), and return to the watery yegetables and fruits, such as squash, string beans, straw- berries, currants, etc. Few of u», I apprehend, would suffer from heat in summer, if we could persuade ourselves to abandon stimulating and fire-producing food, and confine ourselves pretty much to a cooling and succulent diet Diarrhoeas in summer are not induced by eating wholesome vegetables, but by combining them with large quantities of animal ibod. The State of the Mind. — This should by no means be overlooked in choosing the kind and the amount of food. If we have lost friends, or heard desponding news, or experienced calamities of any kind, we must during the first hours of the shock, or even during the first days, if the affliction be heavy, partake very sparingly of food. The stomach is in no condition to receive it. The brain lies prostrate under the stroke, and the stomach, in sympathy with it, asks for a day of sorrow and fasting. Disturb it not upon the excellent ood is as )r, should luidation. jade sick, 1th iri not xperience ence, and ' without jr had oc- rohibiting ion had a las a hot lid, that a ;r than in ^hen cold tious and ise be in- l, squirrels in the fall he winter iuch food, good sup- cold, to a up within les on, we return to ns, straw- Tier, if we jroducing succulent rholesome of animal verlooked lave lost es of any uring the y of food, prostrate for a day HYGIENE. 73 Ilent-prodncinp Food Incompatible with Exciteiiieiit. — It is folly to take heat-producing aliment when laboring for days under high excitements. During political campaigns, when the blood of poli- ticians is at the boiling point, the diet should be unstimulating, — containing very little animal flesh, and not much combustive food. Many a man has died of apoplexy, or of heart disease, by putting on the steam when his blood was up. Whenever we have a day ot un- common excitement to pass through, we should always begin and end it with an unusual degree of abstinence as to the amount of food taken, and with special care that the articles be of the lighlesl (Juiid. An^er Denmnds Abstinence. — Anger is a passion which especially unfits the stomach for doing much work. If it occur often, or be protracted, but little food should be taken. Those who indulge it, have a doubh; cause for abstinence. Both their folly and their stom- achs call for a fast. Food Adapted to DilTerent Periods of Life. — Food must vary in dlHerent periods of life. The infant needs a fattening diet ; and this liiis been su|)plied in the milk of the mother, which contains more butter (the fattening portion) than the milk of any other animal. But IIS the infant has much less exercise than the young of animals, its flesh is not wasted, and it does not require so much azotized food, that is, the reader will remember, food with nitrogen in it. Accordingly, it will be seen by looking at the table on page 67, that human milk has uHidi less of this element than that of the cow. As the child grows vtp, and begins to take active exercise, indoors and out, it wants more solid food, and teeth make their appearance to masticate or chew it. In Youtll and Manliood, the great amount of exercise usually taken, calls for larger supplies of azotized aliment, — beef, mutton, pork, fowl, fish, wheat flour, corn-meal, rye-meal, potatoes, turnips, peas, beans, etc. This is the working part of life, when the tissues are rapidly wasted by action, and the flesh-forming aliments are wanted to keep them good. In Old Age, the exercise is diminished, the blood circulates moie slowly, and the body grows cold. Now is the time to resort to notu azotized food, — oils, fats, the various kinds of starch, sugar, and the like. These will furnish fuel to warm the sluggish blood, and will invest the body with fat, which will serve the purpose both of a cush- ion and a garment. Wine, beer, porter, and distilled spirits are never needed by young persons in health ; but the aged are frequently bene- fited by them, if taken in small quantities. They are chiefly com- posed of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon, and are properly ranked with the supporters of combustion. They are likewise stimulant, and add to the comfort of the old by quickening their circulation. Like tea and coffee, they diminish the waste of the body, and thereby lessen the demand for food. The smallest amount of aliment upon which a healthy adult person ever lived for any length of time, was twelve ounces a day. Upon ^ 74 HYGIENE. this small daily allowanco, Lewis Cornaro, a noble Vpnetinn, sub- sisted in perfeet health, during tiie protnicted period of fifty-eight years. This he was able to do only by adding daily to his food about twelve ounees of light wines. I shall have oecasion to refer to this case again. Cost of Food. One other consideration must ever influence the great majority of men in selecting their footl. I mean its cost. It is a matter of great importance to the poor, to know what kinds of food llu-y can subsist upon with least expense. For the last few years provisions have been so high, that persons in poor circumstances greatly need advice in this matter. Let me endeavor to furnish some information which shall be of service to the reader. Milk is supplied by nature to be our first food, and is a good type of all alimentary substances. It contains fio. 64. curd, which has nitrogen, and is equivalent to albumen and librine, and represents the blood-forme rn. It has butter and sugar. These represent the hcnt-formcrs. It lias salts, which contain potash, soii ; 14 of oxygen ; and 6 of nitrogen. In containing nitro- gen they ail diiler from the other three groups. Albumen being a good type of them, they are called albuminous compounds. Albu- IIYOIKNK. 75 mil, pun- ifty-L'i^ht hirt I'ikmI J refer to fijority of • of great 111 yubsist liivc been advice in on which good type swg-or, and and lugu- bodiea, and carbon ; 36 ining nitro- len being a nds. Albu- lueii forms a hirgo portion of the seruni, in colorless part of the blood. It is the leading principle in alimentation. It is worked U|) into the tissues of our bodies. It forms our muscles, our membranes, a por- tion of our neives, etc. It ia the bricks of which the house we live ill is made. All the articles, therefore, which are chemically consti- tuted like it, may well be termed albuiiiinoiis. These bodies, consisting of the four organic elements named above, have been called (/ualcrnnri/ compounds. Heside these; elements, they l.iive a minute portion of sulphur and phosphorus. It has been as- sumed that these compounds contain a common principle called />ro- /riiw ; and hence they have been called profeinareous compounds. It is doubtful whether such a principle can be obtained. Albumen is a very unstable compound, — tending strongly to de- loinpositioi). This is owing to the complexity of its composition, and to its union with the fickle element, nitrogen, which forms chemi- cal compacts reluctantly, and breaks them without remorse. Sub- stances which coagulate or fix albumen in an insoluble compound, or preserve the tissues of the body, which are made from it, from decomposition or putrefaction, are called antiseptics. Futty Cilnni|t. — The next group, re|)res«Mitcd by fat, performs very important oilices in the system, — the most important of which, is a union with albumen in the formation of cells. All animal and vege- table life begins with the cell, — the tiny cup, with which nature dips all the streams of life out of the great fountain of inorganic matter. No cell is formed without a minute particle of oil. The portion not used in forming cells, is either burned as fuel, to kee|) us warm, by uniting with oxygen, or it is stored away in the cellular tissues, adding to the bulk of the person. If, then, the very beginnings of life are dependent upon fat, it is of great importance as an article of diet. So necessary is it in the economy of life, that when not taken in the food, it is formed out of albumen in the processes of assimilation. The Starch ami Siijfar droiip, composed of several kinds of sugar, gum, etc., is never used in forming the tissues, but they perform im- portant offices in the changes going on within the human organism. Thus, sugar of milk is decomposed, and forms lactic acid, so called from being found in sour milk. This acid plays a very important part in the process of nutrition. Pure starch is a snow-white powder, having a glistening aspect. It is composed of grains from jj^ to jo^a^ of an inch in diameter in the different grains ; being largest in the potato, and smallest in wheat. When examined with the microscope, they appear as in Figure 63. The Salts Oroiqi are sufficiently spoken of in another place. A wise philosopher in ancient time said, " I do not live to eat and drink ; I eat and drink to live." If we intend to eat to live, we must combine, in our food, the foar groups above explained ; and if we would live at as small expense as possible, we must take those articles which are low in price, and rich in nutritive matter. The following table will help the reader make his selections : N 76 HYGIENE. \k Table of the relative value of article* of food arranrird accordinrj to nutrient matter in each of the four groups ofelementu concerned their proi)ortion$ of in vital changes. In 100 pounds of GUAINS. Wheat liarley Oats Rje Indian Com liuckwheat Rite Pod Plants. Beans Peas Roots. Potato Turnip Carrot Beet (mangold wurtzel). Long red Short red Sugar beet Parsnip Lkaf. Cabbage Mbal. Wheat flour Rye meal Barley meal Oat meal. . . Wheat bran CO a -g -I 15 15 16 12 14 15 13 14 14 75 88 8i 85 85 85 85 80 10.33 14.60 14 14 13.1 15 15 20 10 to 20 6 25 8 8 to 11 9 4 3 3 2 3.03 3.31 2 li 4.63 55 10 to 19 12 to 15 14 to 1!) 10 to 15 12 8 7 24 to 28 24 2.0 1.5 1.5 2 0.48 0.26 2.5 30 to 35 9.70 8.97 14 18 19.3 ^4 IN 2 to 4 2 tod 5 to 7 3 to 4 5 to 9 0.4 0.7 2 to 3 2.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.35 3 2 6 4.7 65 60 GO 60 70 60 40 60 18 9 10 11 10.36 12.46 13 16 68 Starch 5.85 Sugar 4.12 Gum 66.54 Steh 2.56 Sugar 9.40 Gum 68 62 .6 ^1 2 3 4 2 li 4 04 3 3 JtolJ h to 4-5 1^ to 2 i to 1 .lb 2 2 7.3 The following tables have an admirably practical ■ bearing upon economy in food : 100 Iba. Barley, Beans, Beets, Buckwheat, . . . . Carrot.s, Corn, Oats, Peas, Potatoes, Turnips (field), . Do. (Swedish), . Wheat Flour, . Wheat Bran, . . Cheese,* Cheese,f Muscle-forming Elementc, in lb8. • Whole milk. t Skim-millc. 14 26 2 8 li 12 17 24 2 n 11 18 28 45 Fat-forming Elements, in lbs. 64 42 12 54 10 77 66 52 19 9 12 79 6 27 6 RelHtive Propor- tion of eacn, in 11)8; 1 to 44 1 to l5 1 to 6 to6J to6i to 64 to4 to 2,i to 94 to6 1 to 54 1 to 7 1 to J 1 to 1 Itoi Husky, or Woody fibre, in lbs. 15 10 (?) 25 S 6 20 8 4 £5 rtion$ of tges. Itoli i to 4-5 lito2 i tol .75 i ng upon sky, or ly fibre, libs. 55 Artialw. IIYGIKNK. < IHt 77 ISiirlcy, Ucaiis, Voru, Oars IVas I'otlltOfS, 'I'liniips Flour (fiiu') ] 12 > jmt bbl. Flour (iiiil)oltc(l) I 11 00 50 10 (j8 00 f)0 iO Miifdi' |ii'oiliicliiK t'luit orMiiM'h'iii'ndua M.4 lll|{ I'.lcllU'lllH. IT bu. Urn. 18c. per lb. l(i.|( , ** 6.2 It l;U'. 14.3 It 14i'. 1.6 II 94f. 1.2 11 41c. •r bbl. 38.0 it 54c. u 24.8 , pea soup, suet pudding, sweetened with molasses, oat meal, and barley bread, w^ith " kohl-cannon " for those who can digest m -■"-f,-i 80 HYGIENE. it, will furnish, for hard-working men, the most substantial diet, at the smallest posr^ible expense. To render these dishes savory, and to make the table on which they are spread an inviting board, the deft housewife must employ her best skill in serving them. With the thousand " fixings," with which a New England matron knows how to garnish them (or would know how if they came within her culinary operations), they are well fitted to leave savory impressions upon tongues which would praise them to the end of life. I s|ieak of thcso articles as furnishing a cheap diet for working men. The indolent, the sedentary, and the effeminate from various causes, could not digest them. The Amount of Food Taken. We have already explamed that this should be governed, in part, by the amount of exercise taken, by the condition of the health, by the state of the mind, by the climate, by the season, etc. It remains to add a few words, in a general way, respecting the absolute amount required by an adult man. It is plain enough that most men eat too much. We come v»^ry near, in this country, being a nation of gormands. A principal reason of our over-eating is, that we eat so fast. When the food is well and slowly masticated and swallowed, the gastric juice has time to mix with it ; and at the proper moiiiont, the appetite ceases. But wht/i our food is bolted rapidly, nature, finding her laws disregarded, and all her purposes frustrated, stands back, and lets us learn to stop, too late, alas I from a sense of fulness in a stretched and abused stomach. It has already been stated, that Lewis Cornaro lived fifty-eight years, namely, Irom the age of forty-two to one hundred, on twelve ounces of solid food a day, with about the same amount of light wines. At me age of eighty-four, he wrote a book, in which he praises " divine temperance " in terms which are sometimes eloquent, and often enthusiastic. Indeed it is very rare that a man at that age retains such clearness of intellect, and especially such freshness of feeling as he evinces in his book. Probably but few could live on the amount of food which he found sufficient. Yet it is said the distin- guish =?d John Wesley lived on sixteen ounces a day, which, as he took no wine, and had to derive the combustive materials for warming tlic body from the food, was quite as scanty a fare as that of Cornaro. Considering that he led a most extraordinarily active life, both of body and mind, being half his waking hours in the saddle, and preaching almost daily, this is probably the most remarkable case of fcbstenii- ousness on record. Jonathan Edwards did not, I think, exceed the eame amount of food, but he was not so active a man. Putting aside such excpptionul case." as these, \,e may say in round numbers, that a laboring man requires, i^) keep him in health, about two to two and a half pounds of solid food per day. For mini?tor^;, lawyers, doctors, authors, and merchants, one pound and a half is an., ' • sufficient. The amount should b.; increased a little by a ■se- lection froi some of the fuel-formers, if no fermented or alcoholic' 4;. .......ti-. ■-ski t, at i\w and to the (If It Vith the s how to culinary ns upon : of these indolent, ould not HYGIENE. 81 I, in part, health, by t remains ;e amount !ome very pal reaHon j well and ne to mix But when arded, and 3 stop, too i stomach. fifty-eight on twelve it of ligb^ which he eloquent, ,t that age 3shness ot ll've on the tlic dirttin- art he took .fining tlu' If Cornaro. ^tli of body preaching |>f 'cbritemi- exceed the ly in round ath, about minigter?:, a half is lie by a Ir alcohohv' drinks be taken, and slightly dinii.iished if they arc used. The reason is, that these drinks furnish fuel to be burned in breathing, which has to be drawn from the food, when they are not employed. This fur- nishes no motive for vsing- ardent spirits ; for there is fuel enough to be had in the oils, starches, and sugars. Dyspeptics. — It is said that dyspeptics eat more than persons in health ; and, in many cases, the remark may be true. The appetite of a person suffering from this disease is almost always morbid, and the information It gives respecting the real wants of the system, can «el(loin be trusted. If we a.iow a diseased stomach to dictate to us w lien, and what, and how much we shall eat and drink, our misery lor life is a foregone question. A sick stomach is like a spoiled child-, it cries for what it should not have If the dyspeptic will live, and enjoy any amount of peace and corntct, he must follow this simple rule : I'o eat no more than can be diffesled, even though the amount be only an ounce a day. Animal and Vegetable Food. It has generally been supposed that it was intended man should subsist on a mixed diet, consisting of both animal and vegetable sub- stances. "Within the last twenty-five years, however, a school of physiologists have appeared in this country, who affirm that a vege- table diet is alone consistent with the laws of health. They declare that animal food is not adapted to man's organization, — that it un- d; ly stimulates the blood, predisposes to fevers, consumptions, diar- rhoeas, choleras, apoplexy, and niimerous other diseases, and of course shortens life. That such a school should have come into existence in this country, where animal food is more largely consumed than in any other part of the world, in proportion to the number of people, is not surprising. We do, undoubtedly, eat too much ilesh. So enormous is the consumption, that notwithstanding the vast herds of cattle raised in all our agricultural states, the supply is not equal to the demand ; and beef, for two years, has been selling in Boston mar- ket at twenty cents per pound, — at least twice its f".ll value as a blood-former. Facts show that man may live upon flesh alone, upon vegetables aioiie, or upon flesh and vegetables combined. Is it best he should s".'jsist upon vegetables only, or upon a mixed diet ? A mere affirm- ation upon these points is of little consequence. To "ite facts avails nothing. Men have a way of making their On » affirmations, and of looking at facts with eyes which sometimes see clearly enough on ijoth sides of them, but totally ignore their existence. Man's Structure Settles the ((uestion. — To settle this matter, we must appeal to man's organization. His structure will tell us some- thing we need not mistake. All the works of God show design. Everything ne has made has a use, and is so contrived as to be adapted to that use. Lions, tigers, and oth animals for example, which feed on flesh alone, have a^ short second stomach, — it being 82 HYGIENE. only about three times the length of the animal's body. Animals ■which eat no ficoh, have a long second stomach, — that of the shep]) being from thirty to thirty-five times the length of its body. A very remarkable difierence of anatomical structure ! This is the meaning of the differen(;e ; Vegetable food has a great deal of waste matter in it. Woody fibre makes quite an item in l.s composition. This waste portion must all be carefully separated from the nutritive part, and this must all be done in the second stomach It takes time to do it. It must not be done in a hurry. The nutritive materials are destined to build a living structure, whose duration, like that of all other fabrics, will depend on the care with which the mate- rials are selected and put together. The second stomach of the sheep is long, that there may be ample time for the mixed mass of chyme when it passes out of the first stomach, to be changed to chyle, and then to be carefully separated into the two parts, the useful and the useless. Animal food is in its composition just like our own flesh, — there is little waste matter, and not much time is required for its sep- aration ; hence, the second stomach of flesh-eating animals is short. Nearly the whole aliment: ry mass is quickly taken up by the lacteals, and there is no occasion for its travelling through a long second stomach. Man^s second stomach is in length midway between that of the flesh-eating and the vegetable-eating animals. If there be design in the works of the Creator, and if that design in the structure of the flesh and vegetable-consuming animals has now been correctly inter- preted, it is plain that man is best nourished when he eats both kinds of food. The structure of his teeth, and the motions of hia jaws (see p. 30), confirms the same conclusion. Americans Eat too Much Meat. — Yet, as I have said, there is no doubt the Americans eat too much meat. Sedentary persons require but very little. Less is wanted in summer than in winter, — in warm climates than in cold. People of wealth, whose circumstances im- pose no bodily hardships, need less than the poor, who are much exposed, and work hard ; whereas, they consume more. Thos« who do not labor with their hands, should never taste meat more than once a day. It is painfully-amusing (if such a compound word is admissible) to hear a nervous female, whose sole exercise consists in going from the parlor to the kitchen once or twice a dt.^', and in making a brief shopping excursion once a week, complain that she cannot maintain her-strength unless she eats freely twice a day of meat, and takes her free potations of strong coffee and wine. A like opinion prevails generally among the feeble who are not obliged to labor. The child in its nurse's arms, must daily, it is thought, suck a piece of chicken or beef steak in order to thrive. Children thus fed, have their blood constantly inflamed, and stand a poor chance when attacked by scarlet fever. The little master or miss who attends school, complains of headache, and grows pale, ieeble, and nervous. The books are bkined and thrown aside for iiimal* shepp A vt>ry a great I ill i.s ;d from :omach lutritive ion, like le inate- le sheep f chyme lyle/aiul and the Hesli,— r its sep- is short. J lactealrf, g aecoiid lat of the design in are of the [ctly inter- )oth kinds hia jaws lere is no require , in warm Ranees im- much :hos» who lore than Idmissible) loing from [ng a brief maintain takes het [no are not laily, it is [ to thrive. Ind stand a master or Jrows pai*^? |i aside fof HYGIENE. 83 what the dishes have done. The doctor is called in, and assured that the dear child can eat nothing but a little fat broth, a custard, or cake ; and if he prescribe a diet of plain bread and milk, he is be- lieved to be heartless, and his prescription is not followed. Tlie Miijorify of MiiiikiiKl Eat no Flesh. — All such misguided per- sons should be apprized that the great majority of mankind cat no flesh, because they cannot afford it. And they do not appear to suffer from its loss. Millions of Irish do not taste of flesh or fish from one moiiTli's end to another. Potatoes, oat meal, and cabbage constitute their chief diet. Rice, poor as it is in nourishment, sustains, when combined with vegetable oil, millions of people in Asia. The Lazaroni of Naples, with active and finely moulded forms, live on bread and potatoes. These facts do not afK)rd ground for altogether rejecting animal food, any more than Bayard Taylor's statement respecting whole tribes in Africa who live upon flesh, furnishes a reason for excluding vegetable aliment. Man may live and enjoy health upon either, but hia organ- ization implies the use of both. Proportions of Animal and Vegetable Food. Upox this subject, it is imnossible to fix any absolute rules. This is a point which must be det mined by the temperament, the state of the health, the constitution, etc. Persons of a scrofulous habit should eat freely of animal food. But an inflamed stomach should never be tormented with flesh. Meat is stimulating, and will be al- most sure to do mischief when there is heat and tenderness at the pit of the stomach. There are cases of inflammation of this organ, in which it may be necessary to live on bread and milk, with articles of the starch group, for months, and even for years. On the other hand, when the system has run low from some ex- hausting disease, which excites no feverv h action, it may be necessary at times, to take a diet almost exclusively animal. It is absurd to talk of the same diet as adapted to all persons, even .'hen in health. As well might we expect one shoe to fit every foot, or one coat every back, or one color every eye, or one doctrine every mind. ... - - .-. Temperance the Main Tiling. — After all, the great thing to be aimed at is temperance. It is not so necessary to reject one article and use another, as to partake of all with moderation. " I do not live to eat and drink ; I eat and drink to live," said a wise philoso- pher of the olden time. One would think the moderns had reversed this rule. A modern table has the appearance of being spread for the purpose of inducing men to eat all their stomachs will hold. A man who can dine daily, for half a dozen years, at one of our first class hoteh, and then find himself free of dyspepsia, and all other diseases, must have a fine constitution, as well as most admirable control over his appetite. Mr. Addison said, " When I behold a full table set out in all its magnificence, I fancy I see gout, cholic, fevers, and lethargies M •.4" 9W 84 HYGIKNE. lying ill ambuscade among the dishes;" to which he 'hh, with much truth, in another place, " Abstinence starves a growing distemper." Good Results of Teniperiinre. — A temperate diet has always been attended with excellent results, and always will be. There are times of great anxiety, when abstinence should be pushed to the extreme verge of endurance. During the siege of Gibraltar, Lord Heath- field, its gallant defender, lived eight days on four ounces of rice per day. Dr. Franklin, when a journeyuian printer, lived two weeks on bread and water, at the rate of ten pounds of bread a week, and was stout and hearty. Dr. Jackson, an eminent physician in the British army, says, " I have wandered a good deal about the world, and never followed any prescribed rule in anything; my health has been tried in all ways ; and by the aids of temperance and hard work, I have worn out two armies, in two wars, and probably could wear out an- other before my period of old age arrives." Lord Bacon was right in the opinion that intemperance of some kind or other destroys the bulk of mankind, and that life may be sus- tained by a very scanty portion of nourishment. Cornaro, whom I have before mentioned as having lived fifty-eight years on twelve ounces of solid food a day, wrote as follows respecting himself in his eighty-fifth year : " I now enjoy a vigorous state of body and of mind. I mount my horse from the level ground ; I climb steep ascents with ease ; and have wrote a comedy full of innocent mirth and raillery. When I return home, either from private business or from the senate, I have eleven grand-children, with whose education, amusement and songs, I am greatly delighted y. and I frequently sing with them, for my voice is clearer and stronger now, than ever it was in my youth. In short, I am in all respects happy, and quite a stranger to the dole- ful, morose, dying life of lame, deaf, and blind old age, worn out with intemperance." Howard, tht? philanthropist, fasted one day in the week ; and Napoleon, when he felt his system unstrung, suspended his rneals, and took exercise on horseback. Nothing can be plainer than the duty of fasting, when the stomach, having been overworked, is disinclined to receive food. Brutes in- variably follow this suggestion of nature ; they never eat when sick, — probably because they have no silly nurses to coax them to swal- low stimulating aliments. The habit of putting high-seasoned food Into the stomach when it is inflamed and feverish, is about as wise as directing streams of blue, violet, or red light into the eye when it is led and swollen with inflammation. Tea and Coffee. It h proper before closing this chapter upon diet, that something should be said respecting the beverages of tea and coffee. Some twenty years ago, more or less, a meeting was held by the leading physicians of a city in the old world, in which the merits of tea and coffee were discussed. In this discussion each man first utated his experience in the use of these articles, and then con- rith much iTipev.'' rays been are times 3 extreme fd Heath- )f rice jx>r weeks on :, and was he British and never been tried 3rk, I have ar out an- 36 of some lay be sus- ro, whom I on twelve iself in his id of mind, scents with nd raillery. the senate, lement and h them, for my youth. o the dole- rn out with day in the spended his He stomach, Brutes in- when sick, m to swal- isoned food »ut as wise e when it is ; something held by the le merits of ii man first then con- HYGIENE. 85 gtructed his argument according to that experience. The amount of what the reader could learn from the discussion was, that Dr. A. had used tea all his life, and been benefited by it, while coffee had uni- formly injured him ; and that he thought tea should be used, while cotVoe should be rejected ; — that Dr. B. had taken coffee at breakfast, and found it an excellent support to the stomach and nervous system, while tea had disturbed his digestion and his mind ; and that the former was a beverage of excellent qualities, while the latter was detestable; — that Dr. C. had always drank both tea and coffee, and recommended them to everybody; — and that Dr. D. had himself never been able to indulge either tea or coffee, and would have them both expelled from every household. The discussion was not creditable to the learned and really able men who participated in it. The arguments were all based upon the miserably narrow basis of single individual experiences. They were no more valid than that of the man who should hold up a shoe, de- claring it fitted his foot the best of any he ever had, and recommend- ing all men to have their shoes made upon the same last. The truth is, there is but one thing which can be affirmed universally of the effect of tea and coffee. They both, w^hen taken, tend to prevent waste in the body, and, consequently, less food is required when they are used. This may be affirmed of them in their applicability to all persons, but nothing further. The truth is, some can drink tea but not coflfee, and some coffee but not tea ; some can use both, and some neither. Every man's susceptibility to the eff'ects of these beverages is his own, as much as his susceptibility to the effects of light, or heat, or atmospheric changes ; and these eff'ects, each person must learn from experience. Coffee often produces, and generally aggravates, a bilious habit, — an effect which cannot, I believe, be traced to the use of tea. I have no doubt but that many cases of confirmed dyspepsia are traceable to ihe use of coffee alone. Water. There is one universal beverage ; it is water. All men are fond of it. In sickness and in health, in joy and sorrow, in summer and winter, in cold climates and in hot, man loves and drinks water. The ■stomach, abused and made sick by stimulating food and drinks, and lepeiling everything else, still gratefully opens itself to water. Wher- ever man exists, therefore, or wherever he should exist, water is found, either in the form of springs, or running brooks, or rivers, or ponds, or lakes ; and even where it is not found in some of these forms, it is periodically dropped down from the clouds. As there is no element in nature more necessary for man's existence than water, so there is none more universally diffused. Pure Water Essential to Health. — But water varies very materially, both in its physical qualities, and in its adaptation to its purposes. Pure water is as essential to health as pure air. When either of these fluids is rendered impure by mixture w^ith foreign matters, disease will be a frequent result. The ancients must have been inffuencod by this fact, or they would not have incurred such heavy expenses in u 86 HYGIENE. procuring pure water from great, distances. The strong atjueduftn tlnoiiglj wliicl), for many miles, largi' streams of water are at this day poiin-d inlo fallen Rome, attest the Ireeness of the expenditures she made for tiiis purpose in tlio day of her renown. We may pity th'; ancient Romans for being governed in their military operations by the oninions of augurs and soothsayers, and certainly these things were silly enough; but in other things, at first view equally superstitious, they showed practical wisdom. Vetruvius reports that \n selecting the sites of their cities, they inspected the livers and spleens of animals to jearn the salubrity of the waters and the alimentary provith conceptions of creative Power, which, words never attempt to express. Should the two gases which compose this vast body of water cease to love each other, and fall asunder, the first lighted taper would set the world on fire, and not a living being upon its surface could escape destruction. Iiupurities in Water. — It is not surprising that a fluid with as great a solvent power as water, should often dissolve and hold in solu- tion a great many impurities. In passing along through the earth, before it comes up in springs and wells, it is filtered through various mineral earths, and becomes contaminated accordingly. Jn running through beds of limestone, it takes up a little carbonate of lime. Salt beds impart to it common salt (muriate of soda), while sulphur and other ores tinge it with salts of various kinds. Water from the wells of Boston, formerly used by the inhabitants, was largely impregnated with common salt, and other mineral substan- ces. So marked was the saline taste, from this cause, that the New- Yorkers and Philadel|)hians used to say the Bostonians, when visi^ting their cities, had to salt their water. "~^ qncdnots , lliis diiy lures slit' i pity ♦'>'- •ns by tlu! ngs wiiv erstitious, ecting the .ninials to ons of the t indicate ith which jvhen sub- hvo kinds, , well and ttle impu- .vitli soap, ten Hiore; of this is, inn a com- oi suitable ig the ele- hydrogen, unlearned jt visible to juid which |g upon its L by its un- its, fills the ich, words |h compose 11 asunder, lot a living ith as great lid in solu- tbe earth, Igh various Vin miming te of linie. lile sulphur Inhabitants, ral substan- [t the New- lien visiting CochitUiUc Wiltcr. — These wells, which so long yielded up bniek- isli water to offend liie ])aliites of strangers, are now ai)andoned, and Boston is blessed by a copious stream of pure soft wat(;r, drawn through a fine aqueduct from Cwhituate LaK(>, twenty miles distant. This water is distributed to about every house and siiop in the city. 'J'he result is, that the healtii of tlie citizens has been materially improved. Fevers, particularly those of the typhoid type, have dimin- ished, both in prevah;nce and fatality. The decaying vegetable and animal matter, so much of which gets into the common sewers, and which, in former year^, sent up poisonous gases to attack the life of the citizens, are now washed away by the soft water, which is daily and hourly dropping through the sinks of all the dwellings of the city. ^ Nehiiylkill and Crotoil Waters. — The Schuylkill water, introduced into Philadelphia, and the Croton, brought from quite a distance to New York, are both good waters ; though neither, as chemical analy- sis has shown, is quite as pure as the Cochituate, of Boston. Lead Pipes. — In each of these three cities, water is conveyed through the dwellings in leaden pipes, — a practice fraught with a aks which ather as a most capi- the mind oor life is nly a crijv guish." •ather, be- le person quence in uld be in- the feeble ously, in a powers to :an Indian, nd for en- lining does ance to in- IIYGIKNK. 91 TIh' CiliniH' of Bull requires very active running, and for the young, it is an cxcc'dingly In-altlifid amuscnirMt. It lills the wlioh he currciils of life runnnig In line ike with a bounding spirit, and sets swollei. brookH after heavy rains. (•yilllDlsticH. — The more active species of exercise havi^ generally been included under the term gyiiuiuslics. Among the (Jrceks and Romans, feats of strength and endurance were supposed to confer honor. For this reason, and because war was a laborious calling, re- quiring bodily endurance and strength, their youth were trained in the most active exercises. Gymnastic games M'cre with them at once the school of health, and the military academy. In England, during the middle ages, acts of parliament and royal proclamations were employed to regulate and foster those manly sports and exercises, which fitted the people for the activity required on the field of battle. Those preparations for brutal wars would be unsuited to the pres- ent state of the world ; but the capacity for endurance which these trainings produced, cotUd be most usefully enq)loyed in the laborious and scientific researches which modern advancrement requires. Very few of our scientific men have sufficient hardness of frame to sus- tain them in their laborious studies. The heart diseases which prevail so extensively are the result, many of them, of violent exercise, taken, perhaps, from necessity, and prov- ing injurious because not a matter of every-day practice. Violent exercise, more than any other kind, must be regular in order to be borne, Needed by Yonnjc Women. — Gymnastic exercises, and calisthenics, are particularly needed by our young women, to give them something of the robustness of our mothers, two generations back. For the want of them, they are dwindling away, and becoming almost worth- lesr for all the purposes for which they were made. In view of this want, I carmot but express my gratification here, that a high school for young ladies is now ojM'n in this city, under the care of the Rev. George Gannett and his lady, in which a large and suit- able room is set apart for the daily practice of calisthenic and gym- nastic exercises, suited to the age and strength of each pupil, under the instruction of an exrx'rienced teacher of their own sex. I cannot but look upon this school, offering, as it does, the highest advantages for a complete education in scieace and morals also, as the beginning of better things. Modems Physically Inferior to the Ancients. Renson for It — It is evident that the moderns are inferior in bodily strength to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Before the introduction of Christianity, men knew very little about the future, and therefore strove to make the., most of the present. Hence, they took measures to ensure health and long life. It is true that a due regard to the welfare of the future, need not, and should not, prevent a care for the present ; but from various causes, to be referred to on a subsequent page, such has been the practice, to the manifest physical injury of the race. ■ . 92 HYUIENE. Dtmcillir, when hedged iilumt with proper restrietioiiH and liniitii- tioiiH, hiis great lulvmituges iis ii physical trainer cf the young. Then- are very few forniM of exereine which give mo free a phiy to all thi- niuricles, and at the wanic time ho agreeably interest the mind. Begini in early life, and pursued systematic^ally, daneing imparts a grace and ea8e of iriotion which nothing else can give. For this rea; is so much quickened, and the air breathed is often so impure, that the circulation of the blood is hastened almost to fever excitement And when to this we add the use of wines and cordials, alternated with ices and iced drinks, and the exposure, on returning home from balls, to the chill night air, under the miserable protection of insnlli- cient clothing, we have draw-backs enough to abridge, if not to anni- hilate the benefits derived from this otherwise healthful and elegant exercise. But then it will be said, and truly enough, that these arc the abu.ses, not the uses of dancing. To these abuses, no parent should permit the health of a child to be exposed. In the parlor at home, in con- nection with a few young friends gathered in to spend an evening; or, in a well-ventilated hall, under the instruction of a master of known character and retineinent, dancing is of high utility, and mucii may be said in its favor. An amusement for which there is so gen- eral a fondness, one may say, passion, must be fitted to meet some want of the animal economy, and perhaps of man's higher nature. Grace of motion gratifies our sense of the beautiful, and in its nature is allied to poetry. Turning away from the abuses of dancing, let the reader thankfully use it as one of the very best physical, social, and ajsthetical educators of youth. But if dancing is salutary, it is only when every limb and muscle' is allowed to participate naturally and without restraint in the geneial motion. When performed in a dress so tight as to restrain all free- dom, not only is every grace destroyed, but injury of a serious char- acter may be the result. ^ ' • The CiiltiTiitioit of a Garden is also a species of exercise highly conducive to health. To the poor it should have a double attraction. It is not only ;i healthful exercise, but it yields, in its season, many wholesome vegetables, the price of which, when they have to be pur- chased, frequently puts them beyond the reach of the poor. It i^ pleasant to know that in the towns of Massachusetts, where shoes are largely muiiufactured, most of the workmen own small pieces of f -^ B 4\ V'*^. *M 4-V^ op IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■ 50 "''^™ us KS U ■ 40 2.5 1.8 L25 IIIIII.4 IIIIII.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation y A -^; ^0 m^. iL z »♦ 23 WEST MAIN SrSEET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 :»- I CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. jt Canadian Institute for Historical IVIicroreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques HYGIENE. 93 ground which they cultivate as gardens, — deriving health both from the labor, and from the vegetables raised. This is one of the kinds of exercise which are more beneficial from having an end in view The man who works in his garden derives pleasure from the im- provement he is making upon his ground, and from the prospect of advantage to himself and family. Other Actire Exercises. — To the exercises already spoken of may be added those which are mostly taken indoors, — the dumb-bejls, jumping the rope, the battle-door, etc. They may be resorted to when the weather is stormy, or when any other cause may prevent one from going into the open air. Nevertheless, as promoters of health, they are inferior to those exercises which take one out under the open sky. They are too mechanical in their nature, and have too little aim, to be allowed to take the place of the preceding. Passive Exercises. Sailing. — This, to many persons, is among the most pleasurable and exciting of the passive exercises. But the excitement arising from the motions of a boat, sometimes, in ca^:e of timid persons, degenerates into fear^ which is injurious. Yot_ .^ gentlemen who manage the boat upon sailing excursions, should never put on too much sail in a brisk wind, and torment the ladies by exciting their fears, as their own amusement may be in this way purchased at the cost of others' health, — a result far enough from their thoughts or intentions, but not the less real. Swinging. — The sick may sometimes indulge in this exercise, when capable of enduring no other. To swing gently has a soothing effect, and often allays nervous irritability in a wa^ 7/hich nothing else can. It is like the lullaby motion of the cradle. It calms and soothes. Nervous children and grown persons in feeble health, are some- times, by roguish boys, swung too high, and very much excited and alarmed. This is wrong. It may do great injury. Very few boys would do it if they knew the evil consequences. Boys and girls are generally kind bearted ; and though they may like to hector others, they will seldom knowingly injure them for their own amusement Garriage-Riding. — The advantages to be derived fron is species of exercise are probably rated too high. For feeble perso^.j, just re- covering from illness, who cannot endure walking or riding on horse- back it is valuable, particulaHy if taken in an open carriage. But for those wholiave more strength, it is less desirable than many other ex- ercises. True, it is generally an agreeable mode of locomotion, and for this reason, it is generally more serviceable than the small amount of exercise afforded by it would lead one to suppose. Carriages are luxuries, and like all other luxuries, they are apt to bring on debility, and perhaps shorten life. A man is apt to order his carriage to the door at the time when increasing wealth enables him to retire from the active pursuits of life, — the very moment when •■■^ ¥ 4 rv he is most in need of some exertion to take the place of rhat to which he has been accustomed. Yet so it is, luxury cornea to enfeeble, at the time when we need something to harden us. Could rich men be persuaded to let their luxuries consist, in part, in doing good, and like Howard, find pleasure in travelling on foot to visit those who are sick and in prison, they would be surprised to see how their happiness would be increased. Close carriages are generally used by the wealthy. They at best contain but little air, which is breathed over and over, and becomes unfit for respiration. The windows of such carriages should always be open, except in rainy weather, when tlie latticed windows only should be used. Riding iu Sleij^lis furnishes an agreeable excitement, and may be indulged to some extent with advantage. Yet it can be had only in cold weather, and persons who partake of its pleasun^s, should be careful to wear clothing enough to protect themselves against the frost. This is the more necessary, aa very little motion is communi- cated to their bodies by the sleigh. Horse-Back Riding;. — This form of exercise may fairly rank next to walking; in some states of the «ystem, it is preferable. It justly holds a high rank as an exercise for consumptive persons. Many a man, and woman too, has been benefited by it when suffering from lung disease. For those who have hernia^ or falling of the bowel, it is not proper, as the most serious consequeacea may result from its use. Tlie Horse should be Owued. — A feeble man who rides on horse- back should, if possible, own hia horse ; for, becoming attached to him, as he generally does, he will be able to ride farther than upon an ani- mal in which he feels less interest. A horse is a noble creature, and a man who loves him, will sometimes acquire a passion, almost:, for being upon his back, and witnessing hia splendid performances. Pleasurable Exercises Most Beneficial. — Finally, those exercises arc most beneficial, and can be longest endured, in which we feel the greatest interest. Place* before even a feeble man some desirable ob- ject, and he will endure a great deal to reach it ; or engage the mind of a very tired person in something which greatly interests it, and considerably more exertion will be easily borne. This is well illus- trated by the story told by Miss Edgeworth of a certain father, who had taken a long walk with his little eon, and found the boy appar< ently unable to walk further, some time before reaching home. " Here," saici the shrewd-minded father, ♦' ride on my gold-headed cane." Im- mediately the little fellow was astride the cane, which carried him as safely home aa the freshest horse. Mental Co-operation ia of the highest importance in all exercise. Men who are paid by the job, work with far more spirit than those who are paid by the day. One would dig in the earth with very little Hpirit, if he had no motive for doing it ; but if he expected with every r-;-*),, which ieble, at in part, 1 foot to :d to see ' at beat becomes 1 always )ws only may be I only in hould be linst the ommuni- ank next It justly Many a ring from bowel, it i from its on horse- ed to him, )n an ani- ure, and a Imost, for cea. jrcisea arc ; feel the irable ob- the mind its it, and well illus- ither, who K>y appar- "Here," line." Im- ed hina as 1 exercise. han those very little with every HYGIENE, QH ghovelful of earth to bring up gold-dust, he would not only work with a will, but would endure a great deal more labor. From these consid- erations we may infer that those farmers and manufacturers, who pay their men the highest wages, make the most money on their work. Tlie best time for takinji: exercise is that in which it docs us most good. For most persons, the morning hours may be cons'''^red most mvorable. But there are many who cannot take exercise in the early inorning, without suffering from it through the whole day. Some are able to walk miles in the afternoon, who would be made sick by sim- ilar exertions immediately after rising. Persons often injure friends who have this peculiarity of constitu- tion, by urging them out in the morning. They do it from good motives, but are, nevertheless, blamewortiiy for attempting to advise ill matters which they do not understand. Rest and Sleep. Our bodies are like clocks ; they run down and are wound up once evcvy twenty-four hours. Were they obliged to work on uninter- ru|)tedly, they would wear out in a few days. It is a merciful pro- vision that periods of repose are allotted to us. Everything has it' proper place. Rest is not less a luxury after exercise, than exercise \;i after rest. They both confer bappiaess at the same time that they promote our w«!ll-being. Sleeping; Rooms, — The largest part of our rest is taken in sleep. Of course the kind of room in which we sleep is worthy of considera- tion. Hufeland says : " It must not be forgotten that we spend a considerable portion of our lives in the bed-chamber, and consequently that its healthiness or unhealthiness, cannot fail to have a very im- portant influence upon our physical well-being." It should at least be large. That is of prime importance, because, during the several hours that we are in bed, we need to breathe a great deal of air, and our health is injured when we are obliged to breathe it several times over. We should at least pay as much attention to the size, situa- tion, temperature, and cleaniiness of the room we occupy during the hours of repose, as to the parlors, or drawing-room, or any other apartment. And yet how different from this is the general practice of families. The smallest room in the house is commonly set apart for the bed and its nightly occupants. The sleeping-room should have a good location, so as to be dry It should be kept clean, and neither be too hot nor too cold. A" u more important still, it should be >vell. ventilated. One bed, occupied by two persons, is as much as should ever be allowed in a single room ; though, of course, two beds in a large room, are no more than one in a small one. Both are objectionable. Fire in Sleeping; Rooms. — As to having fire in a sleeping room, that is a matter to be determined by the health of the occupant. Persona who have poor circulation, and are feeble, had better have a mm •a I little fire in the bed-chamber, in cold weather. For those in good health, a cold room is preferable. Open Windows in Sleeping Rooms. — In the hot weather of sum- mer, it is better to keep the windows open to some extent, through the night, but not on opposite sides of the room so as to make a draft across the bed. There is a difference of opinion as to the safety of this practice; but the experience of those who have used it prudently and persevepj iiigly, has generally sanctioned its employment. It is pre.snmed that night-air is made to be breathed; and if we breathe it habitujilly, there irt no good reason why it should be considered hurtful. At all events, we have got to do one of three things, — either breathe it, or be poi- soned by air which is breathed several times over, or use very large sleeping rooms, and thus lay in a stock to last over night. An Open Fireplace in a bed chamber will do much towards its puri- fication. It carries oft' foul air. But many persons board up this outlet as if bad air were a friend, with whom they could not think of parting. At the same time, they will carefully close all windows and doors, as if fresh air were an enemy not to be let in. Beds. — It is a pleasant thought , which make linen cloth sinuuth and Huft, and the spiisations produced by it, upon the skin, altogether agreeable. Figure H7 represents u fibre of linen, as it appears under a microscopt! which magnifies it 155 times. Cottuii is warmer than linen, because it is a worse conductor of heat. The perfection to which its manufacturer has been carried, makes it almost a rival of linen in softness and pliability. It doei not absorb as much moisture as linen, and therefore better retains its powers as a non-conductor. But then the fibres of cotton are not round and smooth, like those of linen, but flat and spiral, with shsirp edges. Figure 68 rt presents two of its fibres, magnifiec 155 times. This renders cotton irritable to some very delicate skins. This is the reason why linen is better than cotton for binding up wounds, where there is tenderness of the surface. Silk has a round fibre, like linen, which is even softer and smaller. It absorbs less moisture than cotton, and in its power of cominuni- Piiting warmth, it is superior to both the preceding. It forms the most desirable fabric for clothing that we have ; but its cost makes it inaccessible to the great body of the people, except as a holiday dress for the ladies. Its culture in our own country, if once exten- sively established, would be a source of national wealth. Tlie Fibre of Wool is quite rough, almost scaly, and highly irritative to delioate skins. Figure 69 shows fibres magni- fied 310 times. It is not possible for some per- sons to wear it next the skin. But where this cannot be done it may be worn outside the linen or cotton ; and being a good non-conductor, it will in this way preserve the warmth of the body, without either irritating the skin, or disturbing its electricity. Wool, in cold climates, is one of the very best materials of which clothes can be made. In New . England, and, indeed, in all cold and temperate regions, it should be worn by delicate persons, in the form of thick or thin garments, al! the year round. It does not readily absorb moiKture, and is a dry, warm, and wholesome material for clothing. Hair. — Though not precisely in the line of these remarks, Aai» may as well be introduced here. Wool is in fact hair. Every part f tne skin, with the exception of that upon the soles of the feet, and the palms of the hands, is intended to produce hairs. On most parts of the body, they are short and fine, hardly rising above the surface. Upon the head and the 5<'ce, they grow to considerable length. Hair, like wool, is a bad conductor of heat ; and, as growing upon m^ '"/^d and face, is doubtless intended for some useful purpose. That it was designed as a warm covering, can hardly be doubted. 1 he beard, when permitted to grow, is a natural respirator, guarding Fio. 69. J k I? 100 IIYOIKNR. the lungs agiiiiist cold niid dust. Mr. CImdwick niiiced that black, smiths wlio allowed their beards to grow, hud their inuatachioit discol- ored by iron dust, which lodged among the hairs, and very justly in- ferred that the dust must have found its way into the lungs, and done mischief, had it not been arrested by this natural respirator. That the beard, when long, does ward otV a great many colds and throat ails, is too well known to be denied, it has reciuired moral courage on the part of those who have broken away from the univer- sal practice of shaving, for which they should be hon- fio. 70. oied rather than ridiculed. For those who dr not sutler from throat or lung complaints, especially if they are getting advanced in lif'', it may not be thought worth while to abandon the razor. Yet the change would not lie regretted. Figure 70 is a human hair, magnified 250 times, show- ing its scaly surface. The Color of our C'lotliiiioioer. White rellects heat, and rays of light, and is a bad absorber and bad radiator, In summer it prevents the sun's rays from passing inward to heat the body, and in winter, interrupts the heat of the body in its |)assage out. In summer, it makes the coolest garment; in winter, the warmest one. These facts can be very simply illustrated, by lay- ing, side by side, upon the snow, when the sun shines, two pieces of cloth, the one black, the other white. Lifting them up, after a time, the snow will be found considerably me/led wider the black cloth, but not under the white. It id now seen that the object of clothing is not to impart heat to the body, but to prevent its loss ; that it is not to create it, but to furnish the occasion for increasing its degree. It appears further, that clothing protects the body against the evil eflfects of changes of tem- perature, and that white garments, by reflecting, instead of absorbing heat, guard it against the heat of summer. Clothinji^ should be Porous. — All articles used for garments, shouli^ be parous, and permit the free passage of insensible perspiration. The ijkin receives oxygen through its pores, and gives ba(-k carbonic acid. It performs a sort of subordinate respiration. India rubber ga' .ents worn next to it, interrupts this, and must do mischief. Shoes made of tho material, soon cause the feet to become damp and cold. The dampness is occasioned by the insensible perspiration, which cannot escape through the rubber. Such shoes worn in the open air, should be immediately taken ofli'on entering the house. Thin Shoes. — The defective way in which American females pro- tect their feet from cold and wet, is a sore evil ; and he who perstfadea them to adopt a wiser fashion, and cover their feet with better guards against colds and consumptions, will deserve the gratitude of the nation. We are in many things too fond of copying foreign fashions: HYGIENE. 101 blacks I (liscol- istly in- id done ild» and 1 moral univer- o. 70. s, show- ?\\e dark :hun the are like- and bad inward dy in its 1 winter, 1, by lay- )iece3 of ;r a time, cloth, but t heat to it, but to ■ther, that s of tem- absorting ts, shoulO Lion. The lonic acid, ga' .ents joes made old. The ich cannot iir, should Tiales pro- pprsqadea ;ter guards jde of the n fashions : / but if our ladies would, in this matter, follow th«! excellent example of English women, they would live longer, and leave a hardier pos- terity behind them. The shoes worn by our females, high and low, rich and poor, are not thick enough to walk with safety upon a |)ainted floor, hardly upon a carpet in an luiwarmed room ; and yet they walk with them upon cold brick side-walks, upon damp and frozen ground, and even in v'ud. T le result is, that they suffer from colds, sore throats, pleurisies, lung fcverw, suppressions, inflammations of the womb, and many other ailments, which in early life, rob them of their freshness and beauty, of their health and comfort, of their usefulness to their household and the world, and leave them helpless in the arms of their friends, with a patrimony of suffering for themselves whil'j they live, and a legacy of disease to hand down to their children. Would that they were wise in season ! Some, to their honor be it said, have already adopted a safer course. It is hoped the evil will be gradually correcte J. Mever attempt to mould the Form by Dress. — Parents commit a great error when they attempt to mould the forms of their children, particularly their daughters, by their dress. This cannot be done. It is tlie work of ntiture, and she wants no assistance in it. The great object of dress in childhood as well as in adult life, is to pro- mote health. With this, there is not much difficulty in preserving the Byiumetry ; vnthout it, deformity is almost a matter of course. The fact cannot be too often repeated, nor too seriously urged upon parents, that while the foundation of all graceful and just proportion of the different parts of the body must be laid in infancy, it cannot be done by tight bands, and ligatures upon the chest, and loins, and legs, and arms. Upon all these points, the garments of children should set easy, leaving the muscles at liberty to assume the fine swell and development which nothing short of unconstrained exercise can give. Could infants tell all the horrors they suffer from the re- straints put uj)on them by tight dresses, it would make many a moth- er's heart bleed. In these brief remarks, the principles are given which should guide us in the selection of our clothing. The mtelligent reader will be able very easily to fill up the outline. Bathing and Cleanliness. Aristotle calls cleanliness one of the half virtues ; and Addison, in the Spectatt)r, recommends it as a mark of poliieness, and as analo- gous to purity of mind. Both in the Jewish and Mohammedan law, it is enforced as a part of religious duty. Its requirement as a prerequi- site to christian communion, would be wiser than the demands some- times made. A dirty Christian may perhaps be found, but not among those who mean to be intelligent. The importance of keeping the skin clean is not generally appre- ciated. The motive for cleanliness is often a lower and meaner one I0:i HYGIENE. .•*»^ '■- • r \ b thiiM should be allowed to liiivo place in tlir iiiliid. Many perMJim wonid he mortilicd to have their hands, or face, or neck dirty, who do not wash their whoh; IxKly once a year. That they may appear well in the eyes of others, is the only motive with such for keeping clean. Offices of file Skin. — If wo look a little at the offices of the skin, w«! shall better understand the need of keeping it clei»n. The skin is not merely a covering to prott^ct us from the weather. It is a living structure, curiously wrought, with a large extent of sur- face, and having important duties to perform in the animal economy. Its slnirlure is more particularly explained under ihe head of "Anat- omy" and "Skin Diseaaea." It has been already said, that it helps the lun;i;s in breathing. It does many other things on which the health is dependent IViiiiiber of Persplnitory Tubej». — The skin performs several kinds of secretion, — that is, it separates several things from the blood, — one of which is the perspiration, or sweat. The sweat is formed in small glands, situated just under the skin, and is brought to the surface in small dncts, or tubes, like the hose through which firemen throw water. These little tubes are spiral, as seen in cut 44, and run uj\ through the two skins. These s|)iral canals are very numerous, covering every part of the human frame, — there being about SHOO of them upon every square inch throughout the body ; and as a man of ordinary size, has about S-'iOO square inches of surface, the number of tubes in the sk>n of one man is seven mi/lions. The months of these tubes are called the pores of the skin. Each one of these tubes is extended just below the skin ; and there, among the cells where the fat is deposited, it, or rather the two branches into which it is divided, are wound into a eoi', called the sudoriferous, or sweat gland. These ducts are each about a quarter of an inch in length, which makes an aggregate length of tubing in the human skin of about twenty-eight miles. Insensible Perspiration. — Through each of these seven million of quarter inch hose, there is poured out, day and night, as long as a man lives, a stream of sweat in the form of vapor. When this is thrown oft' very rapidly, as happens when active exercise is taken, it accumulates in drops, and is called sweat. Ordinarily it does not thus accumulate ; it is then called insensible perspiration, — not being lecognized by the senses. This transpiration may be proved very beautifully by inserting the naked arm into a long glass jar, and closing up the space around it at the mouth so that no air can get in. The inside of the glass will soon be covered with a vapor, which will grow more and more dense until it is converted into drops. Boerhaave says: "If the piercing chill of winter could be introduced into a summer assembly, the insensible perspiration being suddenly condensed, would give to each person the appearance of a heathen deity, wrapped iv bis own sepa- rate cloud." IlYlJir.XK. loa Now, tliiH continiml exudation of Bweat thmtlgh thcMo millions of tnbfs irt for a wi«e and nci-i'Haiiry purposo. It is to take out of \\w blood and other fluids various salts, which would do luischirf if allowed to reiuaitt l«)iiger, and partieulariy carbonic acid, which is poisonous, — the same matters, in fact, which are thrown cut by the \\u\^ii. The skin, in truth, is a kind of hel|)er of the lungs ; and a jjidy, by covering herself with garments which have no pores, and will neither admit air nor let off insensible perspiration, may be stran- gled almost as certainly as by putting a cord around lu-r neck, and (losing hei windpipe. Almost twicti aa much iluid pauuctt ulf through the skin as through the lungs. < Keep the Pores Open. — It is obvious from what has now been said, tJiat the pores of the skin should be kept open to preserve health. When bathing is neglected, and the under garments are not changed sufficiently often, the insensible perspiration accumulates and dries up u|)on the skin, mingling with the oily matter secreted by the oil glands, jind with the shreds of the scarf skin, and forming a tenacious gluey matter, which closes up the pores. By this misfortune, that large quan- tity of worn-out matter which usually goes otVwith the fluid through the pores, is retained to poison and embarrass the living current of blood, or seek an outlet through lungs or kidneys which are already burdened with (piite as nmch as they are able to do. How impor- tant, then, that these channels through which the body is purified, should be k<*pt open ! that the skin should be kept healthy and in working order I The Biltli, tlie fireat I*urifier. — But this can only be done by daily washing. The bath is the great purifier of the human skin. The antiquity of bathing is very great. The practice is supposed to reach back to the infancy of the race, or certainly to a very early period. The inhabitants '^f middle Asia are said to have beet the iirst to use the bath for the specific purposes of purification and health. Domestic baths are represented as having been used by Diomed and Ulysses. Andromache prepared warm wat^r for Hector on his return from battle. Penelope banished sorrow by unguents and baths. Tlie Baths of tlie Nedes, the Persians, and the Assyrians were much?, celebrated. Alexander, though familiar with the voluptuous baths of Greece and Macedon, was astonished at the magnificence of those of Darius. Roman Batlis. — As luxury and refinement advanced, the means of luxurious bathing were multiplied, until establishments were built by the Romans, the very remains of which excite wonder at this day. Among these are the Therma; of Agrippa, of Nero, of Vespasian, of Titus, etc. One of the halls of the buil'Hng constructed for baths by Diocletian, forms at this day the church of the Carthusians, one of the most magnificent temples in Rome. Nnniber and Cliaracter. — According to Pliny, uaths were intro- Uucpd into Rome about the time of Pompey ; their first erection Dion 104 HYGIENE. attributes to Mfrcnms. Agri|)pa increased their number to one hundred ani\ seventy ; nnd within two hundred years they were mul- tiplied to about eight hundred. These establishments were so vast that one writer compares-, them to provinces. They were paved either with crystal, or mosaic, or plaster, and were adorned by sculpture and painting to the very highest degree. They added not merely to the health and luxury of the people, but contributed to their culture in the highest departments of art and tasts. Names of Btltlis. — To the apartment of their dwelling in which they washed their bodies in warm or hot water, the Romans gave the nunie of ba/neuni, or bath; to the public establishments, that of balnea, or baths. The apartment which held the vessels was called vasarium. In this were the three immense vessels which contained the cold, warm, and hot watei. There were instruments of bone, ivory, and metal, for scraping the skin, with a groove in the edge, through which the impurities of the skin might run off. On the north front of the thermae was a reservoir of cold water large enough for swimming, called by Pliny the younger, baplisleium. In the centre was a spacious vestibule, and on each side, warm, cold, and vapor baths, with apartments for cooling, dressing, an«i refresh- ments. There was the frigidaium, a vaulted loom, a co jling room midway between the warmer and the open air ; the tejiidarium, with a temperature widway between the above and the hot bath ; and the tolidarium, or the vapor bath. Then there was the room where the body was rubbed over with a great number of ointments and essences of the most precious kinds ; and another in which it was sprinkled over with powder ; and also a room which held the clothes, in which the bathers undressed and dressed at pleasure. All these apartments were double, the two wings being appropri- ated to the sexes. Open to all. — These baths, thus numerous and magnificent, were open to all classes of the people, and contributed largely to the gen- eral health and physical endurance for which the Romans were con- spicuous. The Biitli Nejrlecfed nnder the Christian System. — When Jesus of Nazareth came into the world, he found man's nature cultivated in a most defective way. The moral element had sunk down to the low- est place, while the physical had risen to the highest, — just the reverse of the true order of things. This Divine Teacher came, not to re- commend a neglect of the body, but a new cure for the imperishable part Mankind were for the first time systematically taught to forgive injuries. Prostrate liberty, and degraded woman, became the wards of Christianity. Unfortunately, under the new order of things, the lower element of man, which had been exalted and worshipped, was cast down and abused. What the Pagan had pampered, the Christian persecuted. The body, which had been bathed, and .scrubbed, and anointed, aiKl ._ J HYGIENE. 105 '1 perfumed, was thenceforward, in conaequence of the improper i pretation of certain texts, scourged, and fasfed, and clothed in inter- j)retation of certain texts, scourged, and fasfed, and clothed in rags. Thousands believed, and thousands do to this day, that to torment the body is to please God. Under this feeling, the public and private baths were neglected; and to this day, nrt christian nation has fully appreciated the necessity of cleanliness, and of sanitary measures for the maintenance of the public health. To a considerable extent, the body is still under disabilities; still the subject of persecution; and where this 's not the case, it is too often regarded only as a loose out- hide garment, to be thrown over the traveller to the celestial city, and is expected to be well soiled with mud and dust. The teachings of I he Great Master will by and by cease to be perverted, and will be applied to raise up man's body, as they have raised his mental and moral nature, and will make a well-developed and harmonious being. In the mean time, it is the duty a. id the privilege of the physician to urge a return, not to the magnificence of the ancient regimen for training the body, but to its real efficiency in a simpler form. Cold Bathing. — Water applied to the skia at a temperature below 75' of Farenheit, is called a cold bath. If applied to a person with sufficient constitutional energy to bear it, it is a decided and very powerful tonic. By this is meant that it promotes the solidity, com- pactness, and strength of the body. The first effect of the application of cold water to the skin, is the sudden contraction of all its vessels, and the retreat of the blood towards the internal organs. The nervous system, feeling the shock, ^ causes the heart to contract; with more energy, and throw the blood back with new force to the surface. This rushing of the blood back to the skin, is called a reaction ; and when it occurs with some energy, it is an evidence that the sys- tem is in a condition to be much benefited by the cold bath. When this does not take place, but the skin looks shrunken, and covered with " goose flesh," and a chilliness is felt for a longer or shorter time after bathing, then the inference should be, either that the water has been used too profusely, or that the bather has too little reactionary power for this form of the bath. The latter conclusion must not be accepted until cold water has been tried with all possible guards, — such as beginning with tepid water, and gradually lowering the tem- perature ; bathing for a time, at least, in a warm room ; beginning the practice in warm weather ; and applying the water at first with a qx)nge, out of which most of it has been pressed by the hand. With some or all of these precautions, most persons may learn to use thu cold bath. It is always to be followed by brisk rubbing with a coarse towel or flesh-brush. The Sponge Btltll. — A wet sponge is the simplest, as well as the best mode of applying water to the surface of the body. With persons who are feeble, a part only of the body should be exposed at a time, — which part, having been quickly sponged and wiped dry, should be covered, and another part exposed, and trcatetJ in a like manner. In this way, all parts of the body may successively be ._ _) f subjected to the bracing influence of water and friction, with little risk, even to the mo.st delicate, of an injurious shock. The only fur- niture required for carrying out this sinnple plan of bathing, is a eponge, a basin, and a towel. There ia no form of bathing so uni- versally applicable as this, or so generally conducive to health. The Shower Bath re(]uires a brief notice. The shock to the nervous Bystem produced by it, is much greater than that from sponging. Beside the sudden application of coldness, there is a concussion o( the skin by the fall of the water. This form of the bath is excellent for those wh are strong and full of vitality, but is fraught with some danger for the feeble and delicate. This, however, depends on the judgment with which it is used. In the form of a delicate shower, and with tepid water, the frailest body might bear its shock. The Warm Bath. — A temperate bath ranges from 75" to So° ; a tepid bath, from 85° to 95° ; a warm bath, from 95° to 98° ; a hot bath, from 98° to 105°. A warm bath is of the same temperature with the surface of the body. Of course it produces no shock. To those who are past the meridian of life, and have dry skins, and begin to be emaciated, the warm bath, for half an hour, twice a week, is eminently serviceable in retarding the advances of age. It is a mistake to suppose the warm bath is enfeebling. It has a soothing and tranquillizing effect. It renders the pulse a little slower, and the breathing more even. If th'* bath be above 98°, it becomes a hot one, and the pulse is quickened. The temperature of the warm bath, as of the cold, should be made to range up and down according to the vigor of frame, and the circu- lation of the individual. The aged and the infirm, whose hands and feet are habitually cold, require it to be well up towards the point of blood heat. The pulse should not be made to beat faster by it, nor should sensations of heat or fulness be induced about the temples and f&ce. The Vapor Bath. — This diflfers from the warm bath in being ap- plied to the interior as well as to the exterior of the body. The warmth is inhaled into the air tubes at the same time that it envel- ops the external person. The first sensation of the vapor bath is oppression, and causes some difficulty of breathing ; but this passes oft as soon as the perspiration begins to flow. From the steam- chamber, the bather should step into a tepid bath, and after remain- ing a short time in this, wipe himself thoroughly with dry towels. Cold Affnsiou immediately after either the warm or the vapor bath, is excellent. In Russia it is common, after the vapor bath, to pour upon the head of the bather, a bucket of warm water, then one of tepid, and lastly one of cold ; and to finish with giving him a good towelling. It is even said that the natives leave the steam and the hot bath, and roll themselves in the snow. No danger need be feared from cold affusion when the skin is red and excited by the warm bath, provided the nervous frame is not in a depressed condition. If the body is chilled, and the nerves pros- Hiii iiiiiiiiiitliiwiifriiiii th little tiily fur- ig, irt a 80 uiii- nervous joiiging, ssiori oi xcelleiit th some oil the shower. 85°: a ; a hot iperature ock. To ind begin week, is It has a le slower, t becomes [ be made the circn- lands and 16 point of by it, nor le temples being ap- ody. The it it envel- or bath is this passes the steam- er remain- towels. mpor bath, th, to pour hen one of lim a good ind the hot skin is red 16 is not ill erves pros*- HYGIENR. 107 trated by tlisease or fatigiu', llio applicution of eold water io the skin may do great mischief, and should in no case be hazarded. Cold water applied to a hot skin, cannot do harm ; to a cold skin, it can do nothing but harm. Hence, the cold bath may be used with advan- tage on rising in the morning, while th(! body is warm. Another good time is at ten or eleven o'clock in the forenoon, when the nervous power is advancing towards its height for the day. Resictiuil Kecessiiry. — As a means for promoting cleanliness, the im|)ortance of the bath can hardly lie overstated. For the support and improvement of health, it is equally imporlar But for the pro- motion of the latter, one prerequisite is essential, — the reaction of the skin. Various means are resorted to, to secure this. The Hindoos secure it by a kind of shampooing, thus described by a writer : " One of the attendants on the bath extends you upon a bench, sprinkles you with warm water, and pr»»ssos the whole body in an admirable^ manner. He cracks the joints of the fingers, and of all the extremities. He then places you upon the stomach, pinches you over the kidneys, seizes you by the shoulders, and cracks the spine by agitating all the vertebrte, strikes some powerful blows over the Heshy and muscular parts, then rubs the body with a hair-glove until he perspires, etc." " This process," says the writer, "continues for three-quarters of an hour, after ' /hich a man scarcely knows himself; he feels like a new being." Sir John Sinclair speaks thus of the luxury of the process : " If life be nothing but a brief succession of our ideas, the rapidity with which they now pass over the mind would induce one to believe that, in the few short minutes he has spent in the bath, he has lived a number of years." Tlie Coarse Towel, the horsehair glove, and the flesh-brush are the appliances commonly used for stimulating the skin, and causing reac- tion. For tender skins, the towel is sufficiently rough. With this the bather should rub himself, unless he is weak and the exertion pro- duces palpitation. The muscular exertion necessary for this will help the reaction. Restoration of the Batli desirable. — It is greatly to be wished that the bath might be restored to something like the importance it held among ancient nations. It is a luxury, a means of health, and a source of purity both of body and of mind; for the morals of any people will rise where the use of the bath is regular and habitual. The attempt to cure all diseases by what is called the "water-cure," has a bit of fanaticism about it, which will i iire itself in time. But that water, used judiciously in the form of baths, is a potent moral and physical renovator of the race, is not to be doubted ; and this should commend it to all sensible people, even though it should some- times be abused by excess, as all good things are. A people with clean hand.^*, and clean bodies, and clean health, will very naturally come to like clean streets and clean cities, and finally, clean consciences. A fondness for cleanliness in one form, almost p- 108 HYGIENE. / necessarily nxns into a like fondness for it in other forms, until the purifying desire pervades the whole nature, moral aa well as physical. Air and Ventilation. Watek and a'r arc fluids. Water covers two-thirds the surface of the globe, havin.^ a depth, in some places, of ^.,e miles or more. Air covers not merely the rf ;Tiaining third of Ine earth, but the water i:s well. It embraces the entire globe, pressing alike upon land ami water, and having a depth of about forly-fwe miles. This is a sea of 8U 1 magnitude, that the Atlantic or Pacific shrinks to a very small lake in the comparison. Man has his residence, and walks about at the boltom of this ocean. He has no means of navigating it, and, therefore, never rises to its surface ; but, with his natural eyes, and with telescopes, he dis- covers objects which lie millions and billions of miles beyond it, and even acquires much exact and useful information respecting them. This vast ocean of air we call an atmosphere, from two Grp(>k words signifying vapor, and a sphere, — it being an immense fluid- sphere, or globe. Pressure of the Atmosphere. — This atmosphere presses upon man and upon every object on the surface of the earth, with a force equal to fifteen pounds to every square inch ; and as a mmi c average size has a surface of about 2500 square inches, the air ii which he lives, presses upon him with a weight of eighteen ton. This would of course crush every bone in his body, but for the l Is within hiin which establish an equilibrium, and leave him unopprcssed. Tlie Philosophy of Breathing cannot be fully explained in the brief space allotted to this subject ; it is enough to say, that, upon the at- tempt being made to draw in the breath, the muscles of the breast draw up the ribs, the diaphragm or midrirt" at the same time contract- ing, — the whole movement being such as to create a vacuum in tlii' lungs. The air, pressing upon every part of the surface, as mentioned above, instantly rushes in and fills the vacuum. The lungs being filled, the contraction of the muscles of the belly causes the dia- phragm, which has sunk down towards a plane, to rise up into the form of an umbrella, and squeeze the air out of the lungs. This is about all that need to be said of the method of getting the air into and out of tlie lungs. The whole process is under the con- trol of that part of the nervous system called the medulla oblongaUi, or top of the spinal cord. Objects of Breathiug;. — There are at least three objects to be ac- complished by breathing; the renewal of the blood and the taking of impurities out of it ; the warmitig of the body ; and the finishing up of the process of digestion, and the change of chyle into nutritive blood. There is no good reason for attempting here to explain the last of these objects. To give any idea of the first two, it is necessary to furnish a very brief explanation of the circulation of the blood. y itil th»> lysical. of this r risi's he dis- it, and hem. Grp(r lack of it. The two together keep the air healthv for each. The relatioi. of plants Pud animal:., in ah that relates to their pecu- liar actions and efiects, is a complete antugonibm. Their movements are in contrary directions, and by hostile forces. Their opposing ac- tions may be illustrated thus : The vkoktaiu.k pRonucKS the non- nitrogenized substances, sugar, Btarch, and gum. TiiK VEOETAiiLK DKCOMP08E8 Car- bonic acid, water, aii'l ammoniacal salts. TllK VKGKl'AIILK l)I.SKNOAGK3 OXygen. TiiK VKOKTAIU.K AHsouiis heat and electricity. The veoetahlk is a dk-oxidizbr. tlie veoktabi.-; is 9tationaby. The animai, consumes the non-ni- trogcnizcd substances, sugar, starch, and gum. The animai, rRODucES carbonic acid, water, and ammoniacal salts. TiiK ANIMAI. AiisORiis oxygcn. The ANIMAL I'RODUCES HEAT aud el- ectricity. The ANIMAI. TS AN OXIDIZER. The ANIMAL IS LOCOMOTIVE. We learn from llie facts of Geology that the time was in the his- tory of our globe, when lunged animals could not breathe its atmos- phere ; it was too much loaded with carbonic acid. The trees then 1,'rcw with a rapidity almost inconceivable, decomposing the poison- ous gas, taking to themselves the carbon and setting the oxygen free, and lifting up their brawny arms to heaven in acts of thankfulness for the great feast. At length the noxious gas was exhausted; and then, pale and sickly, they feebly held up their hands for help ; and God sent numberless tribes of warm-blooded animals, full of life and energy, that sported in the exhilarating air, and destroyed vast forests, thereby reproducing carbonic acid. These simple facts should teach man the sanitary importance of trees and bushes ; and wherever he has a rod, I had almost said a foot of ground to spare, a tree should be planted and carefully nursed. This is particularly necessary in large cities. Every narrow street even in Boston, should be lined with trees. For their absence, thou- sands of men, women, and children have died sooner than they other- wise would. We want them stretching up their arms to all our win- dows to give us oxygen, and to take to themselves the carbonic acid we exhale. Tij^lit Dresses. — The health may be injured by not breathing air enough, as well as by inhaling that which is impure. It is therefore improper to compress the lungs by wearing tight dresses. If the ribs are held down by the dress, but little air can get into the lung.s, and only a small amount of carbonic acid can be carried out. In this event, the health is injured in two ways ; the blood is not vitalized by oxygen received, and it is poisoned by carbonic acid retained. . Hg 112 HYGIENE. Tight lacing has in a measure gone out of fa.Mhion ; yet too murh of it for the best development of female health is vet retHi"*"' As a knowledge of physiology and the laws of life, and a betier judgment of the true symmetry of the female form prevail, this barbarous cus- tx)m will pass out of use, and the substantial health, and real beauty of -the American woman will together rise to a higher standard. Fill the \ungk well. — Persons who take but little exercise are apt to accjuire the liiil)it of drawing the air very little into the lower part of the lungs. This should be counteracted by taking long and full inspirations for a short time, every day, while in the open air. This practice would get the lungs in the habit of opening to the air (luitc clown to their base, and would iriake the breathing much more; natural us well as etfectual at all times. In the case of young persons, it \»'ould enlarge the capacity of the chest, and add to the bri(?f years ot life. Parents should see to it that their children spend from ten to twenty-five minutes every morning inflating their lungs with pure air. Travelling. It is true that many persons who dwell in one apot, and hardly move from it all their lives, live to old age. Yet change of location lor a short time, or permanently, does promote health, and protract life. The mind tires of contemplating one .set of objects for a great length of time; and in the absence of all stimulation, it sinks into apathy, and imparts no enert'jy to the body. The physical frame, partaking of the ennui of the mind, droops. This is doubly true when one is suttering from illness. Travelling is eminently fitted to draw the thoughts of the nervous and feeble from themselves, and to turn them with interest to outward objects. This is of great importance. It is better than stimulants and tonics. The nervous system has great power over the health ; and the pleasurable sensations, excited by visiting new places and scenes, and conveyed to the mind through the nerves, often awaken in the consti- tution, energies which are essential to recovery. Travelling places a man in entirely new circumstances. It sur- rounds him with novelties, every one of which makes a demand upon his attention. It breaks up his old trains of thought, which have been monotonous so long that they have grown oppressive. It causes the world to touch him at a thousand new points, and surprises him every day, perhaps every hour, with a view of the false relations he has sustained to it. It opens to him new depths in his own nature, and causes him to wonder that they never attracted his attention before. It opens to him one door after another, leading him into new apart- ments of knowledge ; and as the world grows, he finds himself grow- ing with it, until his whole nature dilates and beats with new life. Nenus of Travelliiiii; Increased. — The last twenty-five years have greatly increased tha facilities for travelling. Many of the sick may now seek health in distant lands, who, had their circumstances been ma^ IIYllIENK. 113 similar twenty years ago, would have been compelled to pine at home. The cara give an easy journey to thousanuii who could not have borne a ride in the old stage coach. One thinic more wanted. — But one thing is wanted to bring the means of travelling, for the sick, very nearly to perfection ; it is a method of propelling carriages upon cotnrnon roads, by some cheap power, which can never be exhausted, and which shall be easily man- aged by the traveller or his (onipiuiioii. This is a prominent want of the present hour; a giant discovery, which, at a single stride, would ciirry the world forward a hundred years, and which, we may hope, is ill the Womb of the near future. The power, it is believed, 'vill be flcctro-moffnetism. The mode of applying it, when discovered, will be simple, yet wonderful ; and the results to the sick, benelicent be- yond expression. The human mind cannot conceive the advantages which invalids would derive from such a mode of conveyance. Jour- neys might be long or short; might be made with any rate of speed which the strength permitted. The morning or afternoon stages might be discontinued when fatigue demanded, and resumed at pleas- ure. Over uninviting regions the traveller might glide swiftly, and linger where nature spreads her feasts for the mind. Tlie best Seasons for TrnveUing are spring and autumn. V/inter is too cold. A pleasurable excursion may sometimes be made in summer ; but in general the season is too hot for comfort. In chang- ing climate, food, water, etc., in the sultry season, therj is danger of contracting very troublesome bowel complaints. Means of Travellinjf for the Poor. — There is one painful thought connected with travelling as a means of health. It cannot be en- joyed by the poor. When sick they generally have the careful attention of humane physicians ; they receive from kind neighbors little delicacies of food and drink ; they are watched with by night, and visited by day ; but though suffering from the hard routine of a laborious life, and needing diversion and recreation more than all else, they cannot travel. They have not the means, and nobody thinks of supplying them for such a purpose. This is a channel into which charity ought to pour some of its benevolent streams. In large cities there is a diss of poor females, who sit in their small rooms and ply the needle diligently through the whole year, and who run down every summer very near to con- finement in bed. Two or three weeks, in the hot season, spent in travelling in the mountains and elsewhere, would bring back the color to the pale cheeks of such persons, and save them many years both from the grave and from the almshouse. No millionnaire could make a better use of his property than to set it apart, at his death, for the specific purpose of enabling the poor to travel. And if this sugges- tion should induce one rich man to consecrate his wealth to the God- like work of bestowing health, happiness, and intelligence upon the poor, the great labor of preparing this book will not have been en- dured in vain. 15 114 IiyGIENE, Amusements. f'l- »' / % That which engages the mind, and at the same time imprenses it with pleasurable senuations, in a pulHciently accurate definition of amusement Whatever occupies the thoughts and senses in an agreeable way, ond employs them with some degree of intensity, comes under the same head. This brjad and general defmition allows us to regard our diiily employments as ainuserncnts when they engage our deep attention. an( at the same time give us pleasure. The term amusements, however, in the more popular sense, is re- stricted to those sports, games, plays, exhibitions, entertaiiunents, cto,, which involve a suspension of our daily labors, and are properly called diversions. When nature is tired and worn with those severe and exhausting toils by which we earn our bread, amusements turn us aside, divert us, engage other |)Owers, and allow our tired faculties to rest. They are, therefore, of very great im|)ortance. Even tiie most trifling amusements may have the highest value. Their very nature and ob- ject imply that they will be valuable just in proportion as they divert and rest us. And just in proportion as they do these things, they give us health. One other thing amusements do for us, which must not be forgot- ten ; they preserve in us, in middle life, and CTcn in old age, the warm simplicity of childhood. They keep us young in our dispositions and feelings. They keep us in harmony with nature, and consequently artless and truthful. They prevent the formalities of conventionai life from stiffening us into cold and repulsive iiypocrites. Selection of Anmsements. — Of course the same amusements are not adapted to all persons. The farmer who has worked his muscles all day, would not be benefittd by a game of ball in the evening; yet there are few games more suitable for the student who has bent for many hours over his books. Care should always be taken, there- fore, that amusements or sports do not bear upon those limbs or fac- ulties which are wearied by work. Amusements Improve various faculties. — To one who has a taste for art ; who is fond of works of genius and poetry, theatrical enter- tainments wi.'l always be agreeable, and a source of gratification and health. I know these exhibitions are objected to by many as immoral and hurtful, but more, I think, from habit and fashion, than upon any solid grounds of reason or religion. They certainly appeal to a high order of faculties in the human mind ; and to those who are fitted to receive them, teach lessons of great moment Even the lower exhi- bitions of comedy, though not particularly improving to the mind, are yet, from their power to provoke lauffhter, among the most powerful up-builders of health. The Gomes of Whist, Euclire, etc., engage the minds of the players in a sort of mental contest, which is exciting, agreeable, and health- IIYOIENK 115 rOB8C8 it litioii of s in an ntcnsity, )nr daily itteiition, ents, etc^ rly csilled xhausting de, divert it. They it trifling e and ob- liey divert ings, they be forgot- the warm itions and isequently nventional sments are lis muscles i evening; J has bent iken, thore- ibs or fac- has a taste rical enter- cation and as immoral II upon any il to a high ire fitted to lower exhi- e mind, are st powerful the players and health- imparting. These gamoH make urt skilful in calculating chances, and judging how tncu ought to act under certain contingencies. They make us sharp to detect and turn aside the unseen forces, which tend to oppose ana destroy our Bucceaa in life. 1 hardly need say that m' iiey or other property should never be staked upon a game of cards, or upon any other game, (iatiibling is one of the mea -st as well as most destructive things in which men can engage. It raises the healthful excitement of tnese innocent amusements, — innocent when properly pursued, — into raging pas- sions, which, when defeat comes, as come it will, sink into remorse and bitterness as terrible as the mind can conceive. I warn yoimg men as they woidd escape the pangs 'ji a hell on earth, and the loss «)f character, happiness, and probably health for life, to avoid any such abuse of cards. Chess, Chequers, etc., appeal likewise to the fondness of competl- tion, which is common to all men. lint they cultivate in ua a little more of the mathematical element. As they require very close appli- cation of the mind, they are not suitable for persons of sedentary em- ployments, or whose daily avocations re(|uire a constant use of the mind. Such persons should choose lighter and more active amuse- ments. Lidfhter Aliiusemeiits. — Beside these higher amusements, there are a great number of lighter and more childish ones, which should not be overlooked. Some of these are merely physical, involving a trial of strength, fleetness, action, etc., as the games of ball, cricket, etc. Others are domestic in their nature, involving mirth, and various other of the lighter excitements, as blind-man^j buH", puss in the corner, hole in the wall, fox and geese, hunt the slipper, hurly-burly, roll the platter, etc. In fashionable American households, these simple domestic plays have in a great measure, gone out of use, — being deemed vulgar, and below the dignity of ladies and gentlemen. I am sorry to say this ; for the vulgarity, in my judgment, is in those who reject them, and not in the plays. The officer of our navy, whose visit to the mansion of Lord Hard- wick 1 have spoken of on page 90, reports that on the evening of one of his visits, the play of blind-man's buft' was engaged in by the whole party; and that his Lordship in attempting to make a short turn during the play, fell upon his back, when one of his daughters, who was blinded, caught him by the heels, and being assisted by others, drew him steni-foremost half the length of the hall, amid the shouts of the whole party. This would have been deemed very vul- gar by fashionable people in this country. But to me, who am no believer in any nobility which Lord Hardwick can receive from kings or queens, this simple narrative raised him at once to a peerage in nature's realm. Without doubt, he is one of nature's noblemen. A man in his station, and with his wealth and temptations to snobbery, who can preserve such simplicity of character, must have a warm as well as a noble heart in his breast ii 116 IIYGJENR Viilae of D()nii>Mtic AiiiUHeiiicntx. — I remark hern, that in all our ainuHt-riuMitrt, wu should an far im poitttible, seek those of a domeolic character. They are more Hiiiiple and cliildhke in t'leir nature, and prettervc in uh, even to old age, the freshncHS of feelinff, and truthful Hiniplieity, which ttpreud eo beautiful a greenncsa over the autumn of life. Simple domestic amuHcmentrt, too, are always gotten up on a cheap Hciile; they do not encourage costly extravagance, and can be indulged in by the poor as well as the rich. Hut more, and better than all, they keep you ig men and old men, lid young women and old women, nt honu*, by making the domestic ..(•le the centre of attraction. They draw ifie seekers of pleasure iKiund the hearth-stone, instead of outward into the world. They incline young and old to look to \\\e family circle as the centre of the tiutst pure, because the most simple and natural, enjoyments. They teach us to look to home as the centre of life, and to all outside as only its appendages. It has i)cen said that homes are found only in England; that in other c»)untries, life wanders, houseless and shelterless, abroad, seek- ing happiness, it knows not where, while in England it nesJes warmly in the bosom of home. To whatever extent this is true, — and I be- lieve there is triilii in it, — it is owing to the simple household amuse- ments of England All Aiiiericail Want. — One of the great wants of this country is a more liberal provision for amusements. We attach here too much value to wealth ; and we |)ursiie it with an intensity altogether in- com|)atible with health. We cannot take time for recreation because we are in so great a hurry to be rich. if we would save ourselves from a total wreck of health, we must take broader and better views of life. We nmst value it for its solid comforts, rather than for its glitter and show. We need quite an increase in the number of our holidays, — days on which the people can give themselves up to sportive recreation.^. Some progress has been made in this direction of late. Washing- ton's birth day has very nearly fixed itself among us as a holiday ; the claim of Lafayette's to a similar observance is beginning to be acknowledged. Quite a number move, scattered through the year, are much wanted. They would save hundreds of our population annually from insanity. Contrary to the general belief, .nsanity is very prevalent among seamen and farmers. The former lead a life of dreary solitude upon the ocean ; the latter, one, if not of equal, certainly of very objection- able solitude upon the land. The sailor who does business upon the great sea, should provide himself with great numbers of games to amuse him in his wanderings. The farmers of our land shoulc' culti- vate more of the sociabilities of life. Let them meet together in the fiie'surnnier evenings, like the peasants of France, and dance gayly upon the green lawns before their cottages. They will till their lands more cheerfully for it ; enjoy better spirits and health ; and live to greater age. IIYCIENR. 117 CompletriiCNH «f Mfo. — Amusnru'nts nr<' nccfUHnry in order to gfvo Q cotni)l«'tnn'>«M to life. 'I'lic fiicultics of tho hiiinuii mind iirc nutii<*N ohh. It irt only when they lire all cxfrciHi-d. in llnir dnc proportion, thiit there iw ii ImrrnonionH heinity in onr lives. 'I'lie cnslonis of mK\- oty twist ufl all ont of »lmpe, — jM-rvertin^ us nienfiilly, inondly, and phynieully, and robbing ns of every rinnily and lieiiltlifnl (pudity. (Setting out of the tn\A of fuailiionublo life, wo inuat eonu back 'o the eiuiplc paths of nature. I would stronqly imprcsH upon parentn, teachers, and giiardiunn the importance of btudying well the vnriouH temperumcnts, phytfieul and mental peculiarities of their children, in order to judge wisely of the kind and amount of recreation required by them. Instance: a pale, delicate eh 1 of ten to twelve or fourteen years, with clear complexion, flaxen .'ir, blue eyes, slender frame, and a nervous, Bcnsitivc orgini/ation, wiia strong mental cast, requires much more recreation and out-of-door exercise than a full-blooded, robust chiiu of that age ; a fact not at present duly considered, as a gcne/al thi'ig. > I \ (ft."'' TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS, Man ha5 thinkings warminp^^ tunmshing; and moving powers. Foi the performance of each of these great functiona, he has organa of the beat possible construction. For Tliinking', he has a brain. If us be large il^ proportion to his other organs^ it gives a character, a cast, a peculiarity to his whole organization. Everything about him is subordinate to his brain. We recognize him, at once, as a thinking and a feeling being. He has an intellectual look. There is a delicacy, a refinement, a sensi- tiveness, a studious habit, an air of thoughtfulness about him, which determine his traits, his tone, his temper, his whole character. Hence it ia proper to say he has a cephalic or thin/cing temperament. The Liui8;s and Heart, devoted to renewing and circulating the blood, are placed in the chest or thorax. If these be large in man in proportion to other organs, he is characterized by great activity of cir- culation, by a large supply of red blood, and by the general indica- tions of a full, warm, and bounding life. This activity gives him his ton*; and temper, and shows that his is the tho'/acic ov calorific temper' ament. In the Great Cavity of the Abdomen ia done the work of re'^eiving, digesting, and disposing of the materials which nourish the body. If the organs which do this wotiv be lari'e in proportion to others, the body is fed to repletion, and the whole organization speaks of the table. The habit, the look, the temper, are all sluggish. This ia the abdominal or alimentary temperament. Tlie Bones and Muscles are instruments by which the movemeMs of the body are performed. If these be the largest, in proportion, of any in the body, then the locomotive powers are in higher perfection than any others. There is largeness of person, energy of movement, and greatness of endurance. The whole cast of the person partakes of the strength and coarseness of bone and muscle. This is the wws* cular or locomotive temperament. This gives us four temperaments, as follows : I. The Cephalic Temperament, denoted by large brain, activity of mind, and general delicacy o.'^ organization. riMMii TEMl'KKAMKNTS, COXSTITUTIOV, AND SYMPTOMS. 119 II. The Tlioracic Temperament, indicated by a large chest, force of circulation, redness of skin, great activity, warmth of temper, and fulness of life. III. The Abdominal Temperainerii, denoted by a large develop- ment of the stomach, liver, bowels, and lymphatics ; by a fulness of belly, fondness of high living, and a disposition to float sluggishly upon the current of the world, rather than to struggle against it. IV. Tlie muscular Temperament, indicated by largeness of frame and limbs, coarseness of structure, and great power of locomotion and endurance. There are some reasons reckoning but three temperaments in- stead of four, by reducing the thoracic and abdominal to one, after the manner of the phrenological Fowlers, — especially as the organs in the chest, and their appendages, take an important part in the pro- cess of nutrition. But as the heart and lungs are placed in one cavity, and the stomach, liver, etc., in another; and as one set of these organs may be largely developed, and the other defectively, I have thought it most convenient, on the whole, and quite as philosophical, to retain the four temperaments. These temperaments seldom or never appear single and pure. They mix and cross with each other in all possible ways. Medication and Temperaments. The object of speaking of temperaments in this work, is to make the reader acquainted with the principles upon which remedies are to be adapted to their development. The philosophical-minded physi- cian will, in prescribing, always keep the temperament in view. Persons of a Cephalic Temperament cannot bear powerful medi- cines, — particularly drastic purges. Their fine, delicate and sensitive organizations would be torn all to pieces by doses which would hardly be sufficient in a fully -developed muscular temperament. This should always be borne in mind in prescribing for persons of a large brain and delicate organization. In this temperament, too, fevers, instead of running a high and fiery course, take the low typhoid type, the patient becoming pale, and showing a constant tendency to sink. Such patients would be killed by purging, leeching, cupping, sweating, and starving. They want tonics, stimulants, and every kind of support which the case will possibly permit Persons of a Tlioracic Temperament, having a rapid circulation, and a fulness of blood, are most liable to inllammatory diseases. When fever attacks them, they have what is called a " high fever." If rheu- matism comes, it is acute rheumatism. Disease takes hold of them sviartly. As they do everything with emphasis and energy when well, so, when ill, they make a business of it, and are sick with all their mighc. .V.n 1' , JK, k ■ 120 TEMPEUAMKNTS. CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. Stimulants and tonics gonprally make such persons worse. They want sedatives, and diaplioretics, and sweats, and purgatives, and leeches, and cups, and low diet, and cold bathing, and whatever else will slacken the ferocious swiftness of their circulation. Those of the AInIoiiiIiuiI Teni|ierfliiient are not particularly subject either to very high fevers, or to those typhoid forms which produce sinking. As in the two temperaments noticed above, their com- plaints chiefly attack 1 he organs most largely developed. Their dis- eases affect the stomach, t'...; liver, the spleen, and the bowels. These are the largest organs in tho'r bodies, and are most used ; and, being overworked, they fall into diaease. As these persons are slothful in all their habits, so their diseases run a sluggish course. They are not so liable to sudden de; h as persons of either of the preceding temperaments. They have all sorts of chronic diseases which linger a great while, and are cured with much difficulty. These persons will bear larger doses of medicine than either of the preceding. Neither do their constitutions respond as readily to medicine. A physician will be disappointed if ne expects to see them recovering as fast under its use. Those of a Huscuhir Tempeniment, having little fondness for any- thing but a hardy, active life, are much exposed to the elements. Though strong and long-enduring, the hardship of their lives often breaks them down, and when '/elled by disease, » jy are oftentimes shockingly racked and torn by it. These persons bear large tloses of medicine, and when sick, need to be treated with an energj' proportioned to the strength of their constitution. Rheumatism, which affects the joints, the ligaments, and the tendons, is an affection from which they suffer severely. The Constitution. In prescribing for disease, it is of very great importance to take notice of the constitution. This is a different matter from the tem- peraments. Persons of the same temperament are often quite unlike in the strength of their constitution. And those having good natural constitutions, frequently abuse them by improper habits and indul- gences, and at length come to have broken and very feeble ponstitu- tions. Some persons' muscles and other tissues are put together as if they were intended never to come apart. Like some of the woods of the forest, — the lignum vitae for example, — they are fine-grained ?nd tough. A real smart boy will wear out an iron rocking-horse sooner than one of these persons can exhaust their constitution by hard work. Others, to outward appearance equally well made, have very little endurance, break down easily under hard work, and lose their flesh from trifling causes. The r tate of the constitution, therefore, should always be learned before much medicin' is given ; for what a person of a strong const!- .■5a,*tii-,t.Etii'^-- TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 121 tntion will need, may greatly injure a feeble person, even of the same temperament. Ililbite. — These must likewise be attended to. Persons using stimulants require larger doses of medicine to affect them than other persons. Climate. — Medicines act differently on the same persons in sum- mer and winter. Narcotics act more powerfully in hot weather and climates than in cold, and must be given in smaller doses. Idiosjucrasy. — Medicines of only ordinary activity, act very power- fully, and even violently on some persons. This • -ring to a pecu- liarity of stomach, or constitution, called idiosyncr It makes tho person, in this particular, an exception to the gent, rule. And no physician can know beforehand in what particulars this exceptional disposition will show itself. Persona, however, learn their own idio- syncrasies, and should make them known to those who prescribe for them for the first time. The Sex. — The peculiarities of each sex should never be forgotten in prescribing for the sick. Males are not so sensitive as females. They will bear more medi- cine, and their nervous system is not so readily excited by it. Influence of A^. — Human life is divided into infancy, childhood, youth, manhood, and old age. Each of these periods has peculiarities which modify disease. Tlie First Period, extending from birth to the age of seven years, is marked by tenderness and excitability, and is alive to every irrita- tion. Teething and other disturbances occur at this period, and need careful management. The Second Period extends from seven to fourteen, and is quite subject to disease, including the second dentition. During these two periods, there is no great diflference between the sexes ; both are ten- der, and need careful watching. Darings the Third Period, the changes occur which mark and sepa- rate the sexes. This is a developing period, when the functions become established, and the frame acquires form, proportion, and strength. At this time, hereditary tendencies to disease, latent till now, begin to show themselves, and call for every possible endeavor to break them up, and fortify the constitution. The Fourth Period embraces the vigorous maturity of life, when the powers of body and mind, in both sexes, are at the summit of their excellence. The functions are now well established. It is dur- ing this period that the female is subject to most of the harassing ailments peculiar to her sex. So numerous are these complaint^i, and so large and valued the class of persons affected by them, that he who treats them with the greatest skill, and with the delicacy which their nature demands, may be said to be at the head of his profession. .. i.'t ■ fcA-. 122 TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. Iff' The Fifth Period is that of old age, when the functions arc declin-, ing, and tlie frame is bending under the weight of years. Old age begins earlier with females than with males. Many ailments are common to this period, which require peculiar management, both medicinal and hygienic. Proper Frequency of Dose. — Each succeeding dose should be given before the effect of the preceding is gone. If this rule is not attended to, the cure does not advance. What is gained by each dose is lor^t by the rallying of the disease in the interval. Care must be taken, however, not to apply this rule too strictly with very active medicines. How to Examine a Patient. When a patient is presented for examination, having observed the temperament, constitution, sex, and age, 1. Learn the causes of the disease, whether local, specific, or gen- eral, and also its history. 2. Search out its nature and character, whether febrile or other- wise. 3. Take notice of the whole train of symptoms, — embracing the pulse, the condition of the mouth, tongue, and digestive organs, the breathing, the urine, the fecal discharges, the condltiou of the brain and nervous system, the state of the skin, etc. Brief Table Explanatory of Symptoms. GENERAL APPEARANCE OF PATIENT. 1. Tonic spasm of the trunk. 2. Distorted features, altered position, and impaired motion of limbs. 3. Irresular and perpetual motion. 4. Entire and absolute immobility. 5. Great and unnatural boldness. 6. Great and unusual languor. 7. Ability to lie only upon the back. 8. Lying upon the face. 9. Lying upon one side. 10. Muntoining the sitting posture only. 11. The head thrown back. 12. Riistlessness and tosaings. 13. General enlarsemeut of bodv. 1. Locked jaws. 2. Paralysis of one side. 8. St Vitus's dance. 4. Catalepsy. 5. Insanity or delirium. 6. The beginning of an acute diseaas, or tlie prwress of a chronic one. 7. Apoplexy. Organic disease of the brain or spinal marrow. Acute inilamma* tion of the lining of the abdomen. Klieu- matism of the joints. 8. Several kinds of cholics. 9. Pleurisy, or inflammation of the Iung& When one lung only is affected in con- sumption, the patient generally lies on the diseased side. 10. Disease of the heart or lungs, whicL interferes with breathing. 11. Severe diseases of the larynx and 1 2. The beginning of acute inflamma- tion. Fevers. Diilirium, and acute mania. 13. Ccll-di-opsy. Emphysema from a wound of the chest TP^MPEUAMKNTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 123 clecliiii Old age nts are nt, both be given attenili'd is l()!(t )e taken, edicines. irved the c, or gen- or other- acing the rgans, the the bidin Head] Face, and Neck. icute diseas», )ne. isease of th« ute inflamma» )Dien. Ulieu- n of the lungb eeted in coo- lly lies on the r lungs, whicl: e larynx and lite inflamma- \ acute mania, ^seoia from a 1. Head bent to one side. 2. Head increased in size. 3. Swollen scalp. 4. Dull expression of fatre. 5. Full, red face, with blood vessels of eyes injected. 6. Pinched, contracted countenance. 7. Pinched nose, sunken eyes, hollow temples, skin of forehead tense and dry, complexion livid. 8. Wrinkles across the forehead. 9. AV'rinkles from forehead, vertically, to root of nose. 10. A white line from inner angle of the eye to just below the cheek bone. 11. White line from the upper border of the wing of the nose (ala nasi), curved to the outer margin of the orb of the eye. 12. The white line in children from an- gle of mouth to lower part of face. 13. A white line external to the last two, in a semicircular direction towards the chin. 14. Swelling of face and eyelids. 15. Transient redness or flu.shing of face. 16. Hectic flush. 1 7. Paleness of face. 18. Dingy, white, or greenish face. 19. Yellow tint. 20. A citron tint. 21. A bluish tint 22. Perpetual motion of eyelids. 23. Forcible closure of eyelids. 24. Eyelids remaining open. 2.'). Balsy of the upper lid. 2G. Flowing of tears over the cheek. 27. Nostrils dilating forciblv and rapidly, 28. Itching of nostrils in children 1. Convulsions. Paralysis of one-half the body. Dislocation of bones of neck. Swellinjj; of glands of neck. 2. Chronic hydropholus. Enlarged brain. 3. Erysipelas. Small po.x. 4. Typhoid fever. 5. Swelling of heart Congestion rf brain. 6. Acute inflammation of peritoneum. Exposure to severe cold. 7. Chronic disease just before death. 8. Excessive pain arising externally. 9. Distress, anxiety, and severe inter- nal pain. 10. In children, a brain or nervous af- fection ; in adults, abuse of. the generative organs. 11. In consumption and wasting of flesh. The lower part of the line indicates dis- ease of stomach ; the upper part, some affec- tion of upper part of bowel. When united with the white line named above, and with a drawing in of the cheek, fixed pyc*, and a wan complexion. It implies worm .. 12. An affection of the chest, with diffi- culty of breathing. 13. Chronic and obstinate disease in the chest or belly. 14. Albumen in the urine. 15. Suffering from the monthly irregu- larity. 16. Consumption. Chronic affections. 1 7. Cold stage of fever. Acute inflam- mation. ' Chronic diseases, especially Bright's disease, during recovery. 18. A low and deficient state of blood. 19. Jaundice. 20. Cancerous disease. 21. Poor circulation in the veins. Chol- era. Typhus fever. Blue disease. 22. Mania and idiocy. 23. Intolerance or dread of light. 24. Orbicularis pal|)ebranim. Paralysis of the niuscje which closes the eye. 25. Injury of the third pair of nerves. 26. Obstnu-iion of the lachrymal duct 27. Diflicultv of breathing. 28. Worms in the bowels. The Tongue. 1. Surface of tongue covered with a layer of whitish, soft, mucous substance, which may partially be taken off with a icraper, — also, clammy mouth. 1 . Derangement of stomach, or bowels, or both. 124 TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 1 red, white ith fur. 2. State of tonpie a« above, with clammj mouth, bitter taste, and fetid breath. 3. Great load on tongue an vn, which peeU off, leaving the tougui and tender. 4. Tongue slightly white fron. pointa, and somctnncs covered like the fibres of coarse velvet. 5. Tongue pale, tumid, clean, and very ■nooth. 6. Tongue /wrrerf and dry. 7. Tongue white and loaded, with much thirst. 8. As above at first, — afterwards clean, red, and dry. 9. Tongue white and loaded, with dry- ness. 10. Tongue dry, parched, tender, and dark brown or black. Pushed out with great difficulty and trembling. 11. Tongue loaded with white, through which numerous elongated, very red pap- illte protrude their pointo. 2. Acute dyspepsia. Asthma. 3. Severe cases of acute dyspepsia. 4. Chronic dyspepsia. Some aflectioQ of the liver, if I'he fur be yellow. 6. Chlorosis or green sickness. '• 6. Violent local inflammation. Irrita- tion in bowels. 7. Inflammatory fever. 8. Protracted inflammatory fever. 9. Mild typhus fever. 10. Severer forms of typhus fever. 11. Scarlet fever. The Throat. 1. Throat enlarged. 2. Violent pdsation of carotid arteries. S. Pulsation of the nameless artery (arteria innominata) above the breast bone, and to the right of the windpipe. 4. Circumscribed swelling about throat 1. The approach of pubertjr in females. 2. Acute mania. Inflammation of brain. Enlargement of heart, and dilation of right ventricle. Anemia. S. Regurgitation from aorta. 4. Enlargement of glanda. 1. General enlargement of one side of chest 2. Bulging at the b( w of a lung. 3. Bulging at front upper part of chest 4. Bulging right hypochondrium (See Fig. 96). 6, Bulging in region of heart 6. Tumor where the third rib joins the breast bone. 7. Tumor between the base of the shoul- der blade and the spine. 8. Depression or retraction of one side of chest 9. Breathins increased in rapidity. Gen- erally, in healui, about twenty breaths are taken in a minute. 10. Breathing diminished in rapidity. The Chest. 1. Large effusion of water fW)m pleurisy. 2. Water from pleurisy settling to the bottom. 3. Emphysema. 4. Enlargement of liver. 6. Water in heart-case. Enlargement of heart 6. Aneurism of the ascending aorta. 7. Aneurism of the descending aorta. 8. Consumption. Absorption of fluid, effused by pleurisy. 9. Spasmodic asthma. 10. Pleurisy. Paralysis of respiratory muscles. Inflammation of lungs. Emphy- sema. Pneumothorax. Consumption. .■•.AlBUlfffcjt ^ ppsuk afiection 1. Irritv Iver. svep. ' in females, ion of braii\. ,tion of right ■cm pleurisy, tiling to the Bnlargement ng aorta, ling aorta, ion of fluid, respiratory gg. Emphy- umption. ■Jp^^MtJ TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION. AND SYMPTOMS. 125 11. Jerking respiration. 12. Breathing with muscles of ribs only. 11. Spasmoflic asthma. Obstruction in larynx and windpipe. 12. Abdominal inflammation. Inflan>' mation of diaphragm. The Belly. 1. Increased size of belly. 2, Enlargement in cpigaiitrium. Fig. 93. 8. Enlai^enient in hypogastrium. Fig. 95. i. Belly diminished in size. bowels. Inflam- Ohstruction ia 1. Dropsy. Wind in mation of perilonuum. bowels. Hysteria. 2. Hysteria. Cancer of stomach. 3. Distension of bladder. Ovarian tu- mors. Accumulation of feces in bowels. 4. Chronic dysentery. Letul colic. Aim in most chronic diseases. Private Organs. 1. Enlarjred penis in children. 2. Drawing up of testicles. 3. Enlargement of scrotum. 1. Stone in bladder. Masturbation. 2. Stone in kidneys. 3. Hydrocele. licmatocele. Sarcocele. The Limbs. 1. The limbs immovable. 2. Limbs contracted and rigid. .1. General swelling of limbs. 4. Swelling of joints. 6. Limbs diminished in size. 1. Paralysis. 2. Softening of the brain. 3. Defective circulaiion of blood. 4. Rheumatism. Water in the Joints. White swelling. 6. Paralysis. The Nervous System. 1. Morbidly increased sensation. 2. Tensive pain. t. Dull, heavy pain. 4. Smarting pain. 6. Shooting, tearing paint. 9. Boring pains. 7. Contusive puna. 8. Itching, lag over the skin. 9. Exaltation of viaon. aaofutioreep- 10. Black flecks floating bdbre dw ejea. 11. PainAiUyacnte hearing. 12. Dull hearing. 18. Increase of itrengtb. 14. Debilitj. 1. Acute inflammation Af bnun and spinal marrow. Fevers. Hysteria. 2. Phlegmonous inflammation. 8. Enlara-ed internal organs. Internal ttunor. Enunon of water into cavities lined with serous membranes. Felt in the loins previous to discharge from menstrua' tioQ, and from piles. 4. Scarf skin remoTed. 5. Neuralgia. Cancer. 6. Constitutional syphilis. Bheumatiaos Goat Inflammation of periosteum. 7. Bruises. Acute diseases. 8. SevenJ diseases of the skin. 9., Ophthalmia. Inflammation of brair- Some nervous diseases. 10. Afiections of the brain and optio nerve. Dyspeptna. 11. Inflammation of brain. Hysteria. 12. Typhus fever. 18. Delirium. Inflammation of bnun. Mania. 14. Most diseases. I till JJL 26 TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 16. Trembling. 16. Rigidity of upper extremSdefl. 17. Cramp. 18. Temporary spafm. 19. Pain at extremity of penis. 20. Pain in rij^ht shoulder. 21. Pain in lefl shoulder. 22. Exaltation of affections. 23. Loss of moral sensibility. 24. Exaltation of intellect U 15. Cold stage of fever. Nervous affec- tions. Old age. Action on the systt-ni of lead, mercury, strong coffee, alcoholic drink, tobacco, opium. Ifi. Softening of the brain. Infiltration of blood into the brain. Hysteria. 17. Pregnancy. Hysteria. Painters* colic. 18. In convulsions of children. Somo affections of the brain. 19. Stone in bladder. 20. Congestion of liver. . 21. Disordered stomach. 22. Hypochondriasis. 23. Mania. Typhus fever. Masturba- tion. 24. Melancholy. Sometimes indicates close of life. The Breathing. 1. Stiffnes)* of chest 7 2. Pressure upon parts. 8. Obstruction of air-tubes. 4. Compression of lungs. 6. Fain in parts moved in breathing. 6. Paralysis of muscles of chest 7. Spasm of muscles of chest 8. Deficiency of red blood. 1. Cartilages turned to bone. Pleura hardened. Distortion from rickets. 2. Tumors. Dropsy of belly. 3. Spasm of glott«lil lit lit u 128 TEMPEUAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. M'' ^ S. Diminiiihed appetite. 4. Increued thint Thinit gon«. Vomiting. T. Pain incroued hj preuure. 8. Fain relieved hy pressure. 9. Urgent dcsii-e to go to itooL iO. Watery Htools. 11. Mucous stools, like white of egg. 12. Hard and lumpy stools. IS. Clay-colored stools. 14. Yellow or dark-broWn stOoUt 15. Dark-green stools. 16. Stools red, and streaked with blood. 1 7. Pitfhy black stools. 18. Stools pure blood, with nu colic. 1 9. Stools like rice-water. 20. Black stools. 21. Shreds of false membrane in stools. 22. Fat with stools. 83. Fetid stools. 8. In most acute diseases. 4. Acute afiections of stomach and bowels. fi. Cerebral disease, with coma. 6. Early pregnancy. Colic. Disease of brain. Innainmalion of stomach. Hernia. 7. Inflammation of internal organs. 8. Over-diitention of boivels. Neural- gia. Colic. 9. Dysentery. Sometimes in diarrhaa. 10. Diarrhaa. Cholera. 11. Chronic inflammation of colon. 12. Conittipation. Colic. Cancer of stomach. 13. Deficiency of bile. Too much bile. « Bile from children after taking cal- 14. IS. omel. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Dysentery. Melffina. Bleeding piles. Asiatic cholera. Iron taken in medicine. Dysentery. Diarrhoea. Worms. D'abetes. Consumption. Diseases attended by debility. The Urine. 1 Diminished secretion of urine. 2. Retention of urine in the bladder. 3. Urine increased in amount. 4. Red or yellow sand deposits in urine (uric acid). 5. White sediment in urine (earthy phosphates). 6. Oxalate of lime deposits in urine. 7. Blood in urine. 8. Albumen in urine. 9. Mucus in urine. 10. Sugar in nrine. 1. Dropsy. Inflammatory and febrile diseases. 2. Paralysis. Typhoid fever. Hysteria. 3. Diabetes. Cold stage of fevers. Hysteria. Various passions of the mind. 4. Fevers. Acute iv'-eumatism. Con- sumption. Dyspepsia. Great indulgence in animal food. 5. Depressed state of the nervous sys- tem, of serious import. 6. Derangevaent of digestion. 7. Bleeding of kidneys, etc 8. Bright's v^iiiease. 9. Inflamed mucous membrane of ure- thra, bladder, etc. 10. Diabetes. The Perspiration. 1. ProAise perspiratioB. 3. Diminished perspuntioD. 9. Night sweats. 4. Sour smelling sweats. 6. Fetid smelling sweat 6. Sweat with mouldy odor. 7. Smelling like ammonia. 8. Sweat having the odor of micob 9. Sweat smelling like rottea-etone. 1. Acute rheomadsnL Decline of acute inflammations and fevers, being sometimei critical. 2. Early st ige of acute disease. Jitaptf. Diabetes. 5. Consumption. 4. Rheumatinn. Crout 8. Some debilitating fevers. 6. Measles. Scarlet fever. 7. Typhoid fever sometinmi 8. Insanity. 9. Miliary. ,.&n.^ :>." TKMI'KUAMKNTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMl'TOMS. U>0 »J 'x'he Temperature. . (lonoral h«at of «urfiico. . ExtiTiwil '(j<'al liuat. ^ , Hot ti)i'cluui(I. ^ . I lilt m'al|i. . Skill of cliti.Ht hot. . Iliiiiils and li!t>t liot . Acrid liuat, buruinjj tho baud wLuu ilii'd. . ("hilk . l,ow tciupcrattiiv. . Culd iiuudi auU luet — ~ 17 1. Fevers. 2. Intlainmation. 8. Iloatlachu. 4. Disease of brain. I). Inllaiuinatioii in chMb C. CoiiHUinptioii. 7. Typhus fevtr. fi. Beginning of fovor. • n. Poor cirrulation. 10. Nervous diseases. Jjyspcpsia. I, state uf tlie blood. ■■. t.j. /, .» I SKIN DISEASES. The skin is the soft and pliant membrane which covers the entire surface of the body. The interior, liite the exterior, is likewise covered by a skin, which, from its always being moist, is called a mucous membrane. At the various openings of the body, the outer and the inner skins are united, — forming one continuous skin, — like the same piece of silk turned over the border, and covering both the out- side and inside of a bonnet. From this continuity or oneness of tl)e akin and mucous membrane, springs an important medical law, namely, that a di.'tease of the skin may spread to the mucous membrane, and a disease of the mucous membrane may spread to the skin. We see this illustrated by the breaking out around the lips which follows colds, and the itching of the nose of children when the mucous membrane of the bowel is irri- tated by worms. Tlie Hkia is Composed of Two Layers. — These are separated from each other by the action of a blister. The th«i- i.tsi-, r«aroness of the breast, etc., are the result, TIr' redness of the skiji and breaking out appear about the fourth day, and produce heat and itching. This breaking out is- eliaraoter- i^e4 by n pafchy redness, which, on close inspection, is found to consist ; 'ii'Uberless minute red points and pimples, collected into patches ;ne 5vhape of a half or quarter moon. Tlity appear first on the I '.,-.nJ and front of the neck, then upon the cheeks and around the ■ ■ '■ mid mouth. On the fifth day they reach their height in this ;>, ind then appear upon the body and arms, and on the sixth . jf>oii the legs. The color of the skin wheo the inflammatioti is ". Height, is of a bri-g-lU raspberry red. The decline of the rash - oJace in the same order in which it comes out. The redness . ^ i^ti the sixth day upon the face ; on the seventh, upon the body •,bij; On the eighth, upon the backs of the hands. The cory/a, rseness, and the cough, decline about the seventh day, while a ! a comes on about the eighth or tenth, — showing that the in- iiion of the mucous membrane is subsiding. When the irj« ii.iion disappears, the whole scarf-akin peels off in the forr- -•'f a , .^uurf. The artist has given a good picture of the disease in the -lUfiUly colored lithograph, Plate I, Fig. 1. This plate is admi- ■ - done. •^i-wHtHieilt — When the disease is mild and regular in its cor.se, v anything will be required, except mild diet, slightly acid , i^ith fiiX-seed tea, slippery elm, or some equivalent, to quiet 4m0jliiMm^Smmr;ixm>,.-.- Ah Pi CO ■m'- ...1 ^^rfn SKIN DISEASES. 131 Such as are marked by inflammation of the derma and mucous membranes, with constitutional symptoms of a specific kind, and Such as are distinguished by inflammation of the derma, without constitutional symptoms of a specific kind. Congestiye Inflammation of the True Skin. The First of these Groups, — those characterized by inflammation of the cutis, with constitutional symptoms of a specific kind, — embraces measles, scarlet fever, varioloid, small-pox, and cow-pox. Measles. — Rubeola. Measles is an acute inflammation of the entire skin, both external and internal, associated with an infectious and contagious fever. Symptoms. — The disease sets in with chills, succeeded by burning heat, listlessness, languor, drowsiness; pains in the head, back, and limbs ; frequent pulse ; soreness of the throat ; thirst, nausea, vomit- ing, frequent dry cough and high-colored urine. These symptoms increase in violence for four days. On the third day the eyes become inflamed, cannot bear the light, and pour fourth a profusion of tears. This last syntiptom is called coryza. The nose likewise discharges a large quantity of watery secretion, and sneezing is frequent. The larynx, windpipe, and bronchial tubes become inflamed, and hoarse- ness, soreness of the breast, etc., are the result. The redness of the skin and breaking out appear about the fourth day, and produce heat and itching. This breaking out is character- ized by a patchy redness, which, on close inspection, is found to consia' of numberless minute red points and pimples, collected into patches in the shape of a half or quarter moon. They appear first on the forehead and front of the neck, then upon the cheeks and around the nose and mouth. On the fifth day they reach their height in this region, and then appear upon the body and arras, and on the sixth day, upon the legs. The color of the skin when the inflammation is at its height, is of a bright raspberry red. The decline of the rash takes place in the same order in which it comes out. The redness fades on the sixth day upon the face ; on the seventh, upon the body and limbs ; on the eighth, upon the backs of the hands. The coryza, the hoarseness, and the cough, decline about the seventh day, while a diarrhoea comes on about the eighth or tenth, — showing that the iii' flammation of the mucous membrane is subsiding. When the in> flammatioii disappears, the whole scarf-skin peels on in the form of a tcaly scurf. The artist has given a good picture of the disease in the beautifully colored lithograph, Plate I, Fig. 1. This plate la admi< rably done. Treatment. — When the disease is mild and regular in its cox'.se, scarcely anything will be required, except mild diet, slightly acid drinks, with flax-seed tea, slippery elm, or some equivalent, to quiet the cough. Sponging with tepid water, if done with frequency, mod. ' Mi I if a ; l; tl A^i^i^^'.i'- .. 132 SKIN DISEASES. crates the fever, and adds to the comfort of the patient. If the fever runs high, take half an ounce of rochelle salt, and use recipe 51. Should the eruption " strike in," apply leeches or cups, over the inter- nal organ affected, if any, and recall the rash by a mustard bath. Those who have been <\posed to the contagion, and are liable to have the disease, should * oid all unnecessary exposure to wet or cold, — keeping the feet warm and dry, and the whole body well clad. With these precautions, and a mild, unstimulating diet, much of the force of the disease may be broken. During the first stages of the disease, batiiing the feet once or twice a day with hot water, and freely using warm, sweating drinks, as saffron, summer-savory, pennyroyal, balm, and mullein tea, and put- ting mustard drafts to the feet, will hasten the coming out of the eruption. Should the breaking out be delayed by excessive fever, give full doses of tincture of veratrum viride, or nauseating doses of ipecac, antimony, lobelia, or hive-syrup,^ and teaspoonful doses of compound tincture of Virginia snake-root. Beside the milder forms of the disease, cases occur, chiefly in broken- down constitutions, in ^ l)ich the rash delays its coming out till the seventh day, and is tlun nangled with dark and livid spots, whicii remain, often, for ten or twelve days. The fever is of a low, typhoid kind, and the patient is extremely weak and languid. In this condition of things, the patient must be supported by tonics (49), and stimulants (134), and expectoration promoted by some ap- propriate remedy (106), (J24). If at any stage of the disease, there should be fixed pain in any part of the chesty which is made worse by coughing, or by taking a full breath, we may conclude there is some inflammation of the chest; and it must be treated as directed for pneumonia. Scarlet Feyei. — Scarlatina. This is likewise an acute inflammation of the entire covering of the body, both external and internal, connected with fever which is infectious and contagious. Symptoms. — The fever comes on somewhere between the second and tenth day after exposure. On the second day of the fever, the eruption comes out in the form of very small points and pimples, which appear either in patches, or constitute a general redness, of a bright scarlet color. In Plate I, Fig. 2, the artist has given a fine picture of the disease. The disease begins with languor, pains in the head, back, and limbs, with drowsiness, nausea, and chiUs ; and these are followed by heat, thirst, etc. When the redness appears, the pulse is quick, and the pa.'ent is anxious, restless, and sometimes delirious. The eyes are red, the face swollen, the tongue covered in the middle with white mucus, and is studded with elevated points of extreme redness. The tonsils are swelled, and the throat red. The greatest degree of - —'■ i./->«t«?*Sat SKIN DISEASES. 133 Fio. 72. redness is reached on the evening of the third or fourth day from its beginning, wlicn a gentle moisture appears, the disease begins to decline, with itching, and the scarf-skin falls off in branny scales. A swelling or putfiness of the flesh, which spreads out the lingers in a singular manner, seems to be peculiar to scarlet fever. In the first stage of the complaint, the tongue, as stated above, is covered with a fur ; but as it advances, the tongue often becomes suddenly clean, and presents a glossy, fiery-red surface, which is rtometimes, with the whole lining of the mouth, raw and tender. is peculiar in this complaint, that the inflammation of the throat almost always runs into a state of ulceration. As far as can be seen, on pressing down the tongue, the throat is swollen and of a deep, florid red; and on the tonsils may be seen white or gray ulcers. This makes swallowing very diflicult, and aggravates the sufferings of the patient. The great amount of mucus in these parts causes also a continual rattling in the throat. The eustachian tube, which extends up to the ear, is apt to get involved in the inflammation, and cause swelling and pain in that region. The glands under the ear and jaw sometimes inflame, and after a time, they oc- casionally break. Abscesses formed in the ear, frequently produce some deafness which is not easily cured. In the cell-dropsy, which sometimes appears after scarlet fever, the crystals of urate of ammonia may often be found in the urine with the microscope (Fig. 72). This disease resembles measles; but may be distinguished from it by the absence of cough ; by the eruption being finer, and of a more scarlet color (see plate) ; by the rash coming out on the second day instead of il.e fourth; and by the ulceration in the throat Treatment. — In ordinary cases, the treatment should be very simple. The apartment should be kept cool, and the bed-covering light. The whole body should be sponged with cool water as often as it is hot and dry, and the patient be permitted to take cooling drinks. Beside this, in many cases, very little is needed, except to give a few drops of the tincture of belladonna, night and morning. In some cases where there is a good deal of fever and soreness of throat, give tincture of veratrum (124) often enough to keep down the pulse. It would be well also to begin the treatment of such cases with an emetic, (1) (4) (2). In addition to this, the feet and hands should be soaked in hot water, with a littlu ground mustard, or pul- verized cayenne, stirred in. This bath should be continued twenty minutes, twice a day, for two or three days. The cold stage having passed, and the fever set in, warm water may be used without the mustard, etc. If the head be afl'ected, put mus- tard draftti upon the feet. Should the bowels be costive, they may be gently opened by some very mild physic. '- !l -;^ No solid food should be allowed ; but after the first shock of the disease is passed, drinks, in reasonable quantities, will be advisable, — such as cold water, lemonade, barberry and tamarind water, rice water, balm or ilax-seed tea, and some thin water gruel. To promote the action of the skin, the spirits of nitre, with other articles (125), adapting the dose to a child, will be found useful. The nitrate of potash is useful, given in one to three-grain doses, dissolved in water, every three or four hours. i Tiie muriatic acid, forty-five drops in a tumbler filled with water, and sweetened, and given to a child in teaspoonful doses, is a good remedy In very violent attacks, the system sometimes inclines to sink im- mediately; typhoid symptoms show themselves ; there is great pros- tration ; the eruption strikes in; the skin changes to a purple or mahogany color; the tongue is of a deep red, or has a dark-brown fur upon it, and the ulcers in the throat become putrid. This is called scarlatina maligna ; but it is only a sevt-rer form of the same disease. The treatment of this form must be dill'erent from that recom- mended above. It must be tonic, tiuinia (Go) must be freely given. Wine whey, mixed with toast water, will be useful. Tincture of cayenne, in sweetened water, may be given often in small doses. Ammonia (135) may likewise be given as a stimulus. Gargles (245) (244) (243) are also required. A dropsical afi'ecticn is one of the most frequent results of scarlet fever. It is believed that this seldom occurs, if the warm bath is daily used, as soon as the skin begins to peel off. After the dropsy has set in, give the warm bath twice a week, and encourage perspira- tion by the compound tincture of Virginia snake-root, and similar articles. The child should have a generous diet, at the same time, to bring up its strength. Small-Pox.— Variola. Tins is another d'sease characterized by acute inflammation of the entire skin, both external and internal, connected with infectious and contagious fever. The eruption has the form of red points, which Kjon become pimples, then vesicles, then flattened and scooped-out vesicles, then pustules, and finally hard brown scabs. These last fall oft" from the eleventh to the twenty-fifth day, and leave behind them small pits and scars. The fever is remittent, and precedes the eru|>- tion some three or fou"^ lays, — ceasing when the eruption is devel- oped, and returning wlien it has reached its height. The period between exposure and the attack of the disease, called incubation, is from five or six to twenty days, — being short in the severe cases, and longer in the milder ones. Symptoms. — The disease begins with languor ana lassitude, with shivering, and p^ins in the head and loins ; with hot skin, and quick- ened pulse and breathing; with thirst, loss of appetite, and furred tongue ; with nausea, vomiting, constipation, restlessness, and uni- SMALL POX Pie ^^ § ^ ' ,»> ti d; bat aft« i discHMf ij< ]>at!»;iliii or /iaX-MT-d ft a, uiid .■»oiiiir ihin wtitt • To |>roiMofo 111*; ndion <»f llii* nkin, th»^ ««piv" Hrticlt':! (125), adapting 'h« dew; to a child, will ;/. iiifruK* of }>«>ii!r^h is ust-ful, glvrn in on«* t«» rhrer-Mi i 111 wiiUr, I'vtTV thr< f or four lioiirs. 'l':ii* ninriuiiu urid. forty-five drops in u iuiiij>M • Toid MW«'cl<'tied, and given to a ciiild in tt'vi-<|>«iyjifi reiriiily ill very violent Httarkx, the nystem soinctinn * •ncdiarely; ty|>lioii»ly u m-v* 'l"!ie treaiuiont of \U'i» form iiiii-l I" mended ntwve. It must l>e tuiiic. (.iuijii a • Wine whey, mixed •-vith loatt wuier, wiii .»: OHyeiwji',. ui sweeteueil W!t!er, inuv he given ••■ Aiitrnonia (KV)) niny likewise tn; given au a vii' (2U) ('4\'3) iue nlr-o reejuired. A droDHical ntii-e'ion i.s oii»; of the raost fr^^ ; fever. It i» belle.vtd that thi.-* seldom ti^vriiiv, it ' daily nscd, bh ?(0(H1 as thu cikin begins to pvi o*' hii.'< .ser. in, give the warm bath twiec a week, -w fion by the compound tincture of Virgiioi ^i » artie.lt !<. Tht. • luld should have a gei'irouA ili* , ^ i»ririg i»p its Htrength. Small-Pox. -~ Fmriofri. fwgnssof Small Pox J> / Tmm irt another disrasR characterized by «i;\ji- entire -kin, both extf-nial and internal, eoiiite- ;. « coidaj^ioiis fever. The eruption hart the loc.i .. (•uon become pim}>les, then "efiidea, then llatt- , vosieles, then pustule.-, and fim.jly hard HroM'M ■ oH from th; small pitH and s«',ars. The fever is remitt4Mit, a'Ji'J tion scmic three or t'our days, — cert-' g wh«'n \it*^ oped, and returning when it has ached iix H*' t»etween exposure and the attack of the dt^'n-ie. < from five or six to twenty daya, — being r^h r^ ... m longer in the milder ones. ttpgmspf \mlpul rt'»*ijMd<,». V. i;. kJH, and quu k Syinptoim. — The disease begins with lungoor ni.< hhivering, and pains in Jhe head and loiu,;^ ; .with hoi .• i'i»4-d pulse and breathing; with tliiist, k>s« of appetite, nnd iurrf-n t*»uyne ; with nausea, vomiting, CM>ns«ipation, resUesane*!, aiMi iW"' ^ _. ,^, _, , ,,^,_^ SMALL POX 4 * ^ .7 ^'^ *!: ,.#; P1.2 Dogma of Small Ii)x • 9 « @ /My 2¥(iay .i'Mm/ ^^daif S*^y mdny /7'Miij yoriolput fi^day 21'*day J^^day 4?day S^day /O'i'day ^msvf t ^'i'day dfjtday P^dny K^l ^ 8K1N DISKASKS. l\i!i vcrsal prostrntion. To these Bymptoms somctimos Hucrofd, diincult breathing, cuugh, drowMiii*>!4nB who have suffered from small-pox. Paint the face once or tvice a day with glycerine, which will effectually prevent pitting. Varioloid. — Varicella. Varioloid, or modified small-pox, begins with symptoms similar to those of small-pox, but much milder in degree. These symptoms are feverishness, nausea, vomiting, pains in the loins and head, and a quickened pulse. The eruption comes out on the third or fourth day, and looks like that of small-pox. It reaches its height the fourth or fifth day, and then declines without any secondary fever. The pus- tules dry up and form brown scabs which fall off in a few days, and leave slight pits, and a few red or purple spots. Varicella appears under a variety of forms, called " hives," " swine- pox," "chicken-pox," « horn-pox," etc. But they all have a family likeness, and need not be described. The treatment of all these forms must be conducted on the same principles with small-pox. Sponging the nkin in nil thrne iiillnmrnntory coiidttioiin has the happiest efTcct, and should seldom be omitted. Cow-Pox. — Vaccina. This disenso exists to some extent among lower animals, and is identical with smnll-pox in man. The immortal Jcmier taught the world that the pus, taken from the cow haviiig this disease, and intro* dueed under the skin of man, would produce an eruption sirtiilar to that of small-pox, and that this would protect the systt^m from thi^ latter diHcase. This was an immensely important discovery, and will render the name of Jcnner famous through all time. It is a question of great importance how far vaccination, or inocu- lation with the matter of cow-pox, does, in fact, protect the system from small-pox. That it is a protection, to a certain extent, is doubted by none. That in some instances it protects through life, is likewise generally admitted. Is it a protection in all cases, and through the whole life ? Perhaps not, tfiough this is a disputed point. Proba- bly the mild form of the vaccine disease does not impress the system powerfully enough to lust more than a certain number of years. Most thinking physicians now believe it is wise to revaccinate occasionally, to make sure of the protection. It is done with little trouble, and may save a terrible infliction. Plate II, Fig. 4, gives a good idea of the appearance and progress of the eruption. Tlie Second Group of diseases, characterized by inflammation of the true skin, without constitutional symptoms of a specific kind, are Erysipelas, Nettie-Rash, False-Measles, and Inflammatory Blush. Erysipe'las. —St. Anthony's Fire. Erysipelas is a diffused inflammation of the skiu, affecting only a part of the surface of the body, and is accompanied by a fever, which is generally thought to be infectious and contagious. The local in- flammation is disposed to spread ; it extends deep, and is attended by swelling, a tingling, burning, and pungent heat, and by a redness, which disappears when the skin is pressed by the finger, and returns on remitting the pressure. Syniptonis. — The constitutior ptoms are chilliness and shak- ing, succeeded by heat ; low spirits, lassitude, pains in the back and limbs, pains in ' quick and hard pulse, thirst, loss of appetite, white and ( jngue, bitterness of mouth, nausea, vomiting, pain in stomaci u costiveness. These symptoms go before the local inflammation several days; they increase with the redness of the skin, and disappear upon its decline. The nervous system is sometimes severely affected, and indicated by low, muttering delirium. At the close of the inflam- mation there is generally a relaxation of the bowels, and the scarf- skin peels off. Sometimes matter forms under the skin, and occa- sionally mortification occurs. The face is the most frequent seat of EBY31PELA.) ?13 Furf (\ />. ^f^^ -^ -^nf S-w '-'7. - '■i-fe-V i;^ %2 / -^•■-^--'•— ^^^^ lae errr.-.r'juss *>«\i» DISKASB8. thi< skiii in a'f Mif«it» T ■ '.>rY <'onditjon9 has the happiest titticy :.-j liivw - 1^0 X . — T^ttiv^iw^i. '^1 vm R.:- ;.! T»r« di.HPrtM. f-,'«:ft tT this disease, and inrr»- duffd nnder li ' '"km of Diaii, woui that of Hniul'-f'»«, and thnt this would prot'Jct tho syateni from ilv latter di;«'a-'< This was mt iiiipictis^^ilv important diticovery, and v i, render tJjn !i»*>k'.^ of Jcnnrr famouM thnKisrh hU time. It in, y mortm>»>' how far vaccination, or ino«,u- lation w'«n tfe* niitter of oo\*-{v>x, r*xi•' M» l»^An- >'♦ rm»te»» iHv . '. ,ise doi'5". not impress the systcn* jMv i>o Hwrf.Hui iimTjfcter of years. Most thi ' A i£ \B wis? to rf-vacfjiriiite otf'asionallY, Ut . .1 ►ii. It IS done with Ittdo trouble, and rnay k ion. Platk il, Fig. 4, gi^es a good ide* of th^ au,a ,iiJi.,xi .iwi pi ogress of the eruptu'n. Xhe !!K*f©liil <)lroU{t of diseases, chamoteri/od by iidlamniatiou ot the tr;ic akin, vnfhoul const itvtmntii si/mpfoins of' a .yiecijlc Idiul, are Erysipelatt, Nettit!>Raah, Faise-Measiei^, and Ldlaminutory IJlush. Kryajpelfts. — St Anthonys Fire. Ervp'p?:uak i-x a diflTose^ fnflamrnatioi) of the skin, aflPectin/? only a pjujl i-f *h<^ «jn-face of the bmly, and is a'Hompanied by a fever, whieh w (i»p;ie» (Hy liwinjj^ht lo be infoctiou* and contagious. Tlie local in* tlixrnrnatjetj it* disposed to -•pread : it ext*?nd>'. deep,. and is attended &y MWtillfiig, a tnigling, bnruinijf, and pungent heat, v^xmS. by a redness whi^^h disappears wlien the »kin is pres8(."d by the fujger, and return* c»fi jenjitting the pressure. >»\ I iptoms, — The eonstiUitioiiul symptoros ar>j ohidiuesa and sliuk- iog, Niieeeetled l>y heat; lowiifsg ot spirit*, la.«;titTide, pains in the back and Hrobs, pains in the head, quick and har(i pu!!»e, thirst., loan of appetite, whitt; and coated tongue. bitteriM-.s.^ of mouth, nauseji, votaitsng, pain in stomach, and costiveness. Tbei-e symjitoms go before th(! local innammaiicn sever;il days; they increase with the redness of the ekin, and disappear viporj ii» «i«s)'line. The nervous Hy»t<.MTi is liotaetimen severt'iy nti'ccted, and ■ : I'.-'.l by low, muttering delirium. At the ikwe of the inflam- ,u i t'horcis generuily a relaxatitni of the bowels, and the searf- altui pp«fl« otr, . BometinuH uiatter formic under tho skin, and v-ccu- .!•-.'' ■ "u-vtiheation occurs. Tho face is the nuwt frequent seat of ti V if-f-;-^; ERYSIPELAS P1.3. ■ i:r,> m- mon than in former years. It is found freciuently among the poor, whose condition in life does not give them the means to guard at all Jl 140 SKIN DISEASES. " " points against it ; but it is most common among such as neglect per- sonai cleanliness. Symptoms. — An eruption of distinct, cone-like, watery pimples, which are transparent at the summits, and are accompanied by an excessive itching, which is made worse by high-seasoned food, by drinking liquor, and by the "heat of the bed. When those pimples are scratched and torn, a sticky, watery fluid is poured out, which forms email scabs ; and, in time, if the disease is not cured, these scabs lieing often torn off, extensive sores are made. Cause. — It will excite the wonder of many readers to state that animals of so small a size as scarcely to be seen with the naked eye exist in the skin of man. Yet such is the fact; and it is the prt L'nce of these minute creatures, or the effect of their presence, which con- stitutes the disease called itch. The little creature (acarus scabiei, by name), a species of mite, is one seventy-seventh part of an inch in length ; and when closely inspected under the microscope, is really a beautiful, I may say an elegant, animal. Here are a front, a side, and a back view of him, well done by the artist. Fia. 78. Fio. 74. Flo. 76. His Method of Attack. — When placed upon the skin, the little fellow, like the squirrel and other ground animals, sets himself to make a hole through the scarf-skin with his head and fore feet. Into this he pushes his whole body. He then begins to burrow himself in the derma or true skin — making a channel many times his own length, at the end excavating a chamber where he sleeps, and whence he goes out to do his day's work at mining, or boring for food. When tired of this sleeping apartment, he digs onward and scoops out another. This travelling, and boring, and turning about in an organ as sensi- tive as the true skin, must, of course, occasion a tickling and itching' ; and from this circumstance the disease took its name of itch. But this itching is not painful. James the First is said to have remarked that the itch was fitted only for kings — so exquisite is the enjoyment of scratching. Probably it is a royal luxury. Be that as it may, n|ost Kersons would consent to have it all done by royal fingers. They ave been used for meaner purposes. SKIN DISEASES. 141 'ct. per- ■■J •III <1, by )lort are form,-* Ix'ing Treutineiit. — Whatever will kill the little animal described above, will cure the itch. Various agents have been employed for this purpose, l)ut none have been found equal to sulphur. '1 he compound sulphur ointment is a sovereign remedy for the disease. Four ounces of this should be well rubbed into the skin, before the fire, morning and even- ing, for three or four days. This will put an end to the whole colony of these sovereign squatters upon forbidden soil. Two ounces of sulphuret of potash, and the same amount of soft soap, dissolved in a pint of water, and applied well to the skin, is used in many cases with good eflect. Caustic |)otash, one part to twelve parts of water, applied in a sim- ilar way, is said to be a pretty sure remedy. A solution of the chloride of lime, used as a wash, will often eftect a cure. The ointment of the American hellebore sometimes does well. Before applying any of these preparations, let the skin be washed with warm water and soap, and well dried. Rupia. This is from a Greek word which means dirt, from the dirt-colored crusts which are formed after the breaking of the large watery pim- ples. The vesicles are like those of eczema and herpes, except that they are larger. This is distinguished from all other skin diseases by the for.nation of unhealthy, foul, and burrowing sores, which |X)ur out a reddish matter in such quantities that it collects and dries upon the sore, and forms a crust of great thickness, — sometimes of the size of an oysteVshell. Rupia has its origin in a weakly and debilitated constitution, and cannot be cured without renovating the whole sys- tem. Treatment. — Warm baths once or twice a week, with generous and nutritious diet. Tonic medicines (63) (51) (67) (61) (65) will be required. For external treatment, dust the surface of the ulcers with cream of tartar, or apply nitrate of silver (214) (219) (220), white vitriol, etc. Pemphigus. — Pompholix. The first of these t^rms is from the Greek, and means a btibble; the second, pompholix, is from the same language, and means a vxder- l/iibble. This is still more applicable to the disease in hand, which consists, in fact, in the raising up of the scarf-skin in the shape of bubbles, containing a watery fluid. These bubbles are just like com- mon blisters. They vary from the size of a split pea, to that of a hen's egg. They rise up very rapidly, and break in two or three days, leaving a raw surface which soon becomes covered by a thin crust. Treatment. — Similar to thatibr Rupia, with the addition of iodide of potassium (140), and applying the stick nitrate of silver to the 142 SKIN DISEASES. whole surface of the ulcer, and a short distance beyond it on all sides, or the ointment (176). Mattery Pimples. Another natural group of skin diseases are distinguished by an eruption of pimples, nlled, not with water, like those just described, but with matter. The pimples of this class are not transparent, or whitish, but opaque and yellow from the first The matter is poured out upon the true skin, and raises up the scarf-skin, in the same way as the watery pimples. As in the preceding diseases, too, the drying up of the matter forms crusts. But these pimples are never so small as those of eczema, nor so large as those of pemphigus. Crusted Tetter. — Impetigo. This eruption consists at first of slightly-elevated pustules or pim- ples, closely congregated, with an inflamed border. These break, and the surface becomes red, excoriated, shining, and full of pores, through which a thin, unhealthy fluid is poured out, which gradually hardens into dark, yellowish-green scabs. These scabs sometimes look like a dab of honey dried upon the skin. This has given impetigo the name of " honey disease," or honey scab. This honeyed look is well represented in the crusts which form on the lips and ears of children. Sometimes these scabs cover nearly the whole face, and are called the milk crust This is putting the agreeable words viilk and honey to rather questionable uses ! When this crusted tetter invades the head or scalp, it causes the hair to fall, and becomes what is called a scall. Treatment. — The vapor bath, and water dressing. The following ointments are useful : oxide of zinc, white precipitate, or diluted nitrate of mercury (178). Hydrocyanic acid (221), applied externally, has a fine effect The crusts should first be removed by a weak lye made from hard-wood ashes, or potash ; then, after applying one of the ointments above, or the lotion, cover the part with oil-skir. If the crusts are on the head, the hair should be cropped off before the remedies are applied. Papnlons Soall. — Ecthyma, The mattery pimple called ecthyma is developed on a highly in- flamed skin. The bladders are about the size of a split pea, and are surrounded by a broad ring of redness. They are generally separate, not clustered like impetigo. They are scattered over various parts of the body, and are followed either by a hard black crust, or by a sore. The disease is either acute or chronic. The latter attacks weakly children, and persons reduced by sickness or low living. Treatment. — For the acute form, low diet, gentle laxatives, with ointment (176), and the cold sponge bath on the sound parts. For the SKIN DISKASES. 143 aides, |b^ an 'nbed, Mit, or ^oured way iryiiig small chronic form, (140) (65) (63) (61) (48) to be taken internally, and (176) (175) (214) (211) for external application. Scaly Eruptions. The scaly eruption is called dry tetter. It is an inflammation of the true skin, and is distinguished from the rashes and pimples by the alteration of the scarf-skin. The diseases forming this gt- ip are three in number, — lepra, psoriasis, mid pityriasis. I, Leprosy. — Lepra. In this disease, the eruption makes its appearance as a small, salmon-red spot, raised a little above the surrounding skin, and cou- stituting, in fact, a flat pimple, almost as large at the top as at the bottom. On top of this pimple, the scarf-skin becomes rough, and after a little while, a thin scale is produced. New layers are added to its under surface, and it accordingly grows thicker. It has a bright, silvery lustre. These scaly spots multiply, and become the form of leprosy called lipra g'utlata, from the Latin ' of Blructore wliioh pas.i under the name of mother's H; TUt •« marka arc »imply a great dilatiition of these minute > . VfRsi^ijt. These marks vary iu size from a mere point to a paU^fe wi Kt-vcnil inehett .square. The 8tnaUe*t of ail is the spider mark. It is a small red p- from \vhl< li f<.fVKritl jiTfle fitrriggliug vesrtela spread out on al! : Sonielum?) Th»« i» of tlie size and appearance of a red curran' oilier time:*, of a »?ra\vbjpberry ; and occa9i«>nally it i.- J '■■■ coinpivred to a iobster. • ' iution i> active through them, or the individii. ;, or by moral causes, these marks are of a h. .tre iiiituraliy livid and dark-colored, and look > i-X black currants. The blucnesss of these is owiutt '* inn< 1- i;irv.M V,'h<.-- ,.. ej.eispd Uy nd ' tiv- ti'u 'fnne; siiU more stretched and dilatver it VVlicn its coiuse is threatening mischief, it is sometimes cured by jjencillinga small portion of its surface, from vane to time, with nitric acid. Disordered State of the Nerves of the Skin. Iti'Uinjg;. — Pruritus. This is supposed to be dependent on i !! altered e<;ndition cf the nerves of the skin, and consists in a painfvi (•eu.'wttion of itching. There is no perceptible {sl'^ration in the c j^M-amnCf; or structure of the ski.n. This itching h thought, gencra.Uv , to be a nwult of sy.npathy, through ,the nerves, with some diseai^^'i and evrittid condition of a distant part. The itching is brought ou by the most tritling causes, and fur hours may deprive the suderer >>f rvery parti(;le of repose. It more frequently affects the fundameii :r> the constitutional treatment belongs imder the heads of these oth ; diseas«;js. The local applications for relieving the itching are, a soiu- tiou of sugar of lead (224), of white vitriol (220), of corrosive -subi! mat(^ (212), diluted nitrate of menrurj- ointment, and poppy fomenta- tions. Also (223). Disorders Affecting the Color of the Skin. folored l*n(eb<'.s. — Mavuia: The depth of color in the skin depeitd* oa tiwi! amount of a certain coloring mutter, called iMgmcnt, incor)»o- mted '.vith th«: deejH^r and softer portiou of the Bcarf-skiii. In the T t •'^ III ef, it i8 i'j e, from ! LUPUo NQN EXEDENS PI 4.. SKIN DISEASES. 147 Bcarf-skin of the inhabitants of northern latitudes, there is but little of this pigment ; in that of the dwellers in Africa, there is a great deal ; among the inhabitants of Southern Europe, the quantity is intermediate between the two. The depth of color in the skin, depends on the energy of iia action. In the tropica, where light and heat are in exces.s, the skin is stimu- lated to great action, just as vegetation is, and the color is increased and intensified. This is illustrated every year before our eyes. In summer under the heat of the sun and the flood of light, the pigmi - forming power is increased, and the fairest skin is browned ; while the withdrawal of these forces, leaves the winter's scarf without pig- ment, and blanched. What the sun and light do, under natural circumstances, disea:;cd action may etfect. Hence we occasionally meet with alterations of color in the skin, from a disordered state of the system. We witness the formation of patches of dark color and irregular shape on various parts of the body. Sometimes they are raised above the level of the skin, and are called moles. At other times, they have no elevation, and spread over the whole body. Occasionally, from some peculiarity of constitution, the pigment is diminished, and white patches appear all over the body. At other times, a black person will become completely white. Such are called albinos. In many cases the coloring of the skin has varieties of tint, as when persons of light complexion, are, in the summer season, covered with yellow spots, like stains. These spots are known by the name of freckles, or, in learned language, lentigo. Treatment. — It is generally best not to meddle with a mole. If it be very unsightly, let it be removed by two incisions, taking out an elliptical portion of skin, and closing the wound with sticking plaster. In the case of bleached places, apply the shower bath, tonics, and a stimulating liniment (163) to the faded spots. For the change of color called sun-burn, a liniment (191) of lime water, etc., is the best pre- paration. For freckles, use lime water (191), or. perhaps, still, better (222). Disorders oT the Sweat Glands. The perspiration is sometimes greatly increased above nature's de- sign. This is, technically, idrosis. In other instances there is too Jittle sweating. This is called anidrosis. Sometimes the perspiration is so altered in its physical qualities as to have some peculiar smell. This is osmidrosis. In some rare instances, according to old writers, she sweat was changed in color. This was chromidrosis. And now and then a case occurs of bloody perspiration, of which, the most memorable case on record, is that of the Redeemer of men, who, in the garden, sweat great drops of blood. Several cases of this are recorded in medical books. It is called hasmidrosis. The proper action of the skin being so vitally important to health, these changes often involve very serious consequences. .•J^ 148 SKIN DISEASES. Treatllieilt. — Eith.^r too much or too little sweating can generally be corrected by the cold or warm bath, friction, tonics, and proper clothing. Disorders of the Oil-Olands and Tubes. That the skin may be limber, healthy, and fit for use, it is neces- sary to have it oiled every day. For this object, the Creator has wisely provided, by placing in the true sUin a large number of very riiiiall glands and tubes, whose office it is to jircparf, and pour out upon the surface the proper amount of oil. The gland, regular ! itle oil-pot, is in the true skin; and from it a piece of hose or tube mis up through the scarf-skin, through which the oily fluid is poured out. Some of these tubes are spiral, others are straight. On some parts these vessels do not exist; on others they are quite abundant, — art on the face, nose, ears, head, eye-lids, etc. They produce the wax of the ears; and on the head, they open into the sheath of the hair, and furnish it with a hair-oil or pomatum better than the chemist can make. These little vessels are always at work, when the skin is healthy ; and no persons need be afraid to wash all over every day, lest, as the IJoston Medical Journal taught, the skin will be injured by having the oil removed from it. You might as well be afraid to eat a meal of victuals, lest the saliva should all be swallov/ed with it, and none be left for future use. There is oil enough where that upon the skin comes from, and the vessels which produce it are not injured by work, any more than the muscles of the legs are by walking. Grubs or Worms. — But, unfortunately, the skin is not well taken care of in all cases, as in cities and towns where sedentary habits pre- vail. Here, the actions of the skin, instead of being regular and com- plete, are often sluggish and imperfect; and the contents of the oil- cells and tubes, instead of flowing easily, become hard and impacted, and the vessels are not emptied. When this matter becomes station- ary, dry, and hard, it distends the tube, and fills it to the surface ; and then coming in contact with the dust and smoke of the atmosphere, the ends become black, and look like the heads of worms. These spots are common on the nose and fac^ of persons who have a sluggish skin. They may be squeezed out by pressing the nails on each side of them. These are called grubs and worms, or, technically, comedones. When this matter produces inflammation of the tube, there is then a black spot in the middle of a red pimple, and the disease is called spotted acne. Now and then the oily matter becomes very hard, pro- ducing spine-like growths, and even horns (Fig. 77) ; ai;d again, it ool- Fio. 77. lects and forms soft tumors, as wens, etc. These are technically ^C>£i^ .^ !> ^ ^ .. SKIN DISEASES. 149 called encysted tumors. Someti' les the action of the glands is too great, and oil is poured out so j 'usely that the face shines with it. At other times there is so little that the skin is dry and harsh. In the hardened, oily matter, which constitutes grubs, are found small animals, which Dr Wilson calls the " animal of the oily product of the skin." Here are three views of him. ■•f 1 Flo. 78. Fio. 79 Fio. 80. Treatment — For roughness and harshness of skin, wash with soap and water every night, and rub well into the skin after the bath, and in the morning, the ointment (180), and take a dose of sulphur, etc. (23), twice a week. Or, rvb the skin every morning with a damp sponge, dipped in fine oat-meal, and after drying the surface, the liniment (164) may be applied. The spinous variety, or porcupine disease, requires washing with a quart of warm water, having a large teaspoonful of saleratus dissolved in it, and the use of the ointment (181) twice a day. For grubs, stimulate the skin, by washing it with strong soap suds, twice a day, and rubbing briskly with a coarse towel ; and by using the corrosive sublimate (225) as a lotion. A spare diet will do much towards improving the skin in many cases. Barbers' Itch— Jackson's Itch. — Sycosis. This is very much like acne, — only differing from it in its location. It appears chiefly on the hairy parts of the face, — the chin, the upper Up, the region of the whiskers, the eyebrows, and the nape of the neck. It consists in little conical elevations, which maturate at the top, and have the shaft of a hair passing through them. These pim- ples are of a pale yellowish color. In a few days they burst, and the matter running out, forms into hard, brownish crusts. These crusts fall off in one or two weeks, leaving purplish, sluggish pimples behind, which disappear very slowly. 150 SKIN DISEASES. The crnption is preceded by a painful sensation of heat, and tight- ness of tlie skin. The disease is supposed to be brought on frequently by using a dull razor in shaving. It is v(;ry obstinate, — often lasting for many months, and even for years. Treatment. — The most important part of the treatment is the re- moval of the cause. The beard must not be pulled with a dull razor ; the shaving had better be discontinued altogether, and the beard be merely cropped off with scissors instead. All intemperance in eating and drinking, and exposure of the face to heat, must be avoided. A light, cool diet will do much towards curing the disease. The nitrate of mercury ointment, and a solution of oxalic acid, are the best applications. If one does not succeed, try the other. Disorders of the Hair and Hair Tubes. The hair is an appendage to Ih:; scarf-skin, and is intended to be both useful and ornamental. It is subject to several disorders. It may grow too long, or too thick, or it may appear in an improper place. This last happens in the case of those little spots and patches, which disfigure the face, and are called moles. The hair may be defective in its growth, or may fall oft' prematurely from various causes, or in the natural course of things from old age. This last is called calvities. It may change its color, too, under a great variety of circumstances, and at nearly every age. It is not very uncommon to find a single lock varying in color from that which surrounds it. Old age, the winter of life, nat- urally brings the frosted locks ; but they frequently appear also upon the heads of younger persons. Strong mental emotions, such as fear, grief, or sorrow, may bring a bleaching of the hair in a brief period, or even suddenly. Eyron, in his " Prisoner of Chillon," beautifully refers to this fact : " My hair is gray, but not with years, Nor grew it white In a single night, As men's have grown from sudden fears." Porrl^O. — There is a troublesome disease of the hair and hair tubes called porrigo. It begins with the formation of a thin layer of scurf either around single hairs, or in patches which enclose several. These patches frequently have a circular form, which give to the affection the character of a rinffioorm. The hair tubes are generally a little elevated, in the shape of papillae, which gives to the diseased scalp the appeaiance of " goose-flesh." These hairs, losing their proper nour- ishment and healthiness, break off" at unequal distances from the skin, leaving their rough ends, twisted, and bent, and matted into thick grayish and yellow crusts. Upon the surface of these crusts may generally be seen the ends of a few hairs, looking like the fibres of hemp or tow. The scratching causes inflammation of the skin after a tiine, and matter is poured out, which still further mats the hair, • tHutitv ■ntth'- L««£*ra&a SKIN DISEASKS. 151 tight- fing a many the re- to bo and thickens the crusts. There are several varieties of this disease, dilferiiig slightly from each other ; but this general description will answer all practical purposes for this work. The reader will often notice a disease of the hair-glands, character- ized by a yellowish and dirty-looking powder, covering the scalp and hairs. This matter is collected at the mouths of the follicles, and considerable of it is strung upon the hairs like beads. Pull out a hair, and the root will be found thin, dry, and starved in its appearance. In this disease, it is difficult to keep the hair cleansed, or to prevent its falling oflT. Faviis. — Still another disease, called favvs, is known by the collec- tion of a yellow substance, at first, around the cylinder of the hair. This substance, after a time, spreads out upon the scarf skin, and dries into yellow crusts, in the form of a cup, around the base of each hair. A number of these cups, collected together, look like the cells of a honey-comb. This disease is contagious, and is communicable by contact to any part of the skin. Treatment — For removing the hair from particular parts of the scalp, it is common to resort to depilatories. Of these, the recipes 260, 261, 262, are frequently used, and are as good as those adver- tised ; indeed, they are the same. To prevent loss of hair, and to restore it when lost, the circulation should be stimulated in the small vessels of the scalp. With this view, washing the head every morning with cold water, drying it by friction with a rough towel, and brushing it to redness with a stiff hair-brush, are excellent. To these should be added some stimulating ointment (183), or liniment (257) (258) (259). These last are about the best known preparations for causing the growth of the hair. Rin^orni of the scalp requires attention to the diet, and such rem- edies as will improve the general health, with stimulating application.^ externally (257) (258) (259). To color the hair, several preparations are used. Of these, 263 is about the best. It produces a beautiful black. A preparation of sul- phur and sugar of lead (264) is t!ie famous compound recommended by General Twiggs, and extensively used. Preparations of nitrate of silver (265) (266) (311) are much in use in some quarters. They perhaps give a finer black to the hair, but they render it dry and crisp, and they will stain th6 skin, if care is not used in applying them. In Favns, the two great objects to be gained are, to remove all local causes of irritation, and to excite the diseased hair glands to healthy action. The first object is effected by cutting off the hair with the scis- sors, and removing the crusts by washing the scalp with castile soap and water. It may be well first to wet the crusts through with corro- sive sublimate (212), in weak solution. The washing with soap and water should be repeated every day, and be followed by rubbing into the scalp a stimulating ointment (183). A very weak solution of the acid nitrate of mercury (226), applied every other day, with a camel's hair brush, sometimes produces excellent effects. ,»> DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. f ' The brain and spinal cord are the great centres of the nerroui §y8t«m. The brain produces sensation, tfioiight, and voluntary motion. When this organ is diseased, therefore, we may expect one of these functions to be either disturbed or destroyed. Of Sensation there are various disturbances, perversions, and sus- pensions, caused by disease of the brain and nerves ; such as nausea, giddiness, specks floating before the eyes, ringing in the ears, decep- tive tastes and smells, intolerable itching, neuralgic pains, boisterously high spirits, depression without apparent cause, anxiety, and dread. Tliought, in like manner, is disturbed and perverted in many ways. There is high delirium, dulness and confusion, loss of memory, weak- ened judgment, and every degree of stupor, down to entire loss of consciousness. Tolnntary IKotion is perverted and destroyed in muscular twitcli- ings, trembling of the limbs, spasmodic stiffness, involuntary jerkings, convulsions, muscular debility, and palsy. The brain is composed of three parts, — the cerebrum, the cerehel' hum, and the medulla oblongata. These are all contained within the skull bones, and are immediately covered by three membranes, called the dura mater, the arachnoid, a -1 the pia maier. The dura mater is a fitrofig, fibrous membrane lying next to the skull-bones. The arach- noid is a serous membrane, lying next below, and the pia mater, which means pious mother, is a vascular membrane, lying next to the brain, dipping into it in places, and containing the vessels which bring to it all its nutrient materials. Hence its name. These membranes are all liable to be inflamed, — and so is the brain Inflammation of the Dura Mater. The inflammation of this membrane does not often occur sponta- neously ; but it happens frequently from external injuries, as blows up application of cold to the head. General Blood-lettin)i;. — This is much approved by many ; for my- self, 1 do not like it Wet cups and leeching are about the extent to which 1 would ever carry the abstraction of blood in these diseases. These may sometimes be applied with advantage to the neck, and behind the ears. Cold Applications. — These, applied to the head, are of great im- portance. First, shave the head, and put on cloths wetted in water as cold as it can be made, changing them often ; or, put powdered ice in a flexible bladder, and lay it upon the head, — taking care not to make it too heavy. Por^iuj^. — This, while the inflammation is in the active stage, should be thorough and energetic. To effect it, many use calomel and other forms of merc-.ry. They are not needed. Croton oil is one of the best articles (31), or calacynth, gamboge, etc. (32), without the oil, or the compound powder of jalap. In the stage of collapse, if there is pallor of the countenance, a feeble and flying pulse, great debility and tremors, coldness of the extremities, etc., give wine and other stimulants. See that the bladder is emptied every day. The feet, in the early stage of the complaint, should be bathed in warm water, or mustard and water (242). Mustard d.'aaghts must also be put upon the feet. The tincture of veratnim, given in full doses, to bring down the pulse, and produce sweating, must not be omitted. Softening of the Brain. — Ramollissement. Inflammation of the brain, when it haa run its course, sometimes leaves this organ, or portions of it, in a softened condition. The same mischief may happen to the brain from the blood-vessels which run to it being diseased, so as not to be able to carry blood for its proper nourishment. Siii DISEASBS OF TIIR BHAIN ANM) NKUVE8. 15(5 SyniptoillM. — Thu moHt rcinitrkahic Hvinptoin of tliin diMciiHc is the rigid contmctioii of tin; iiiuwlcrt which iimvv up tin; liiiilw; tht; ir.iiid niiiy be clenched and prcsrtcd ugiiinst the nhuuldcr, or tlie licci curried u|> to the hip. The other synnptoniH are varioiis, — tingling nnd nnmhnewrt in the rnd» of the fingers; pervertx'd vision, and sotnetirncH blindness; |)arui- yf»i« of one limb, or half the body; dilliculty of answering quotations; forgetfulncHH, making it diliicult, at tiineH, for tlie patient tu renieuiber biu own name. Suppuration and Absoeets of the Brain. Whkn a diseuHcd brain i< examined after death, Bometimes matter is found mixed in with the >H)ftened portion. This shows that suppu- ration took place. At other times, the matter is found in a cavity, which shows that an abscess had formed during life. The symptoms of these mischiefs am convulsions in the earlier stages, and palsy in the latter. Induration of the Brain. , ' - , ' Instead of softening the brain, inflammation sometimes docs the very opposite, — it hardens it, — producing a change eomething like that which happens to white of egg when dip|)ed in hot water. Convulsions appear as the result, of tiiis change, as in suppuration and abscess ; palsy much more seldom. Tumors of the Brain. Tumors infect the brain, occasionally, — growing around it, on all sides, pressing themselves into its substance, and causing many dis- turbances. Cancers and hydatids are found there. The signs which these irritating bodies produce, are like those of other diseases of the brain, and therefore cannot be distinguished during life. Delirium Tremens.— Drunkards' Delirium. Mania a Potu. This is often mistaken for brain fever; but it is quite a different disease. It is not the result of inflammation of the brain, but of irritation. It is important to distinguish it from inflammation, be- cause the remedies which are employed for that would be injurious if used for this. TIic Symptoms are incessant talking, fidgeting with the hands, trem- bling of the limbs, a rapid pulse, profuse sweating, utter sleeplessness, and a mingling of the real with the imaginary in the busy talk. The patient is apt to think some one is about to do him a great injury, yet is unwilling to be alone. His fane is pale and sallow (sometimes red and . .o.ied), his eye is rolling, quick and expressive, his speech \ ! J ■It; •tuttering niul innrticulatc, — bodily nud inrntiilly, lu; in busy day «nd night, and can with didiculty be confnicd to \m bed or rimrn. As thu diseaHe advances, and he has been long without sleep, he imagines vermin to be crawling upon his scalo and bixly ; troops of rats rnu across his bed, or look at iiim out of the wall ; giant lK)xers confront him, and he squares oH' for a round nt fistieufFs ; animals, figures of all shapes, and horrible monsters, frighten his imagination ; devils laugh at him, and dance before him. In long an»m MMlB r — DI8EA8KS OV THE DKAIN AND MEUVE8. 107 Im' Hirnph*, niid carefully regulated. Bread and milk only is some- tiiriett advittable. Shrinking of the Brain. — Atrophy. This \» a. dirton's(^ in wljich the volume of tin* hrjun is diminished. Tliere arc two forms of it; one is con^ciiifal, the brain not being pro[)erIj develupcd at i)irth ; the other occurs in conse(|ucnce of dis- ease either in the membranes or tlie arteries. The symptoms are not distinguishable during life from those; of other brain alVections, and tJierefore it can only be treated according to general |)rinci|)let«. Water in the Head. — Acute Hydrocephalus. This, like eidargement of the brain, is likewise a disease of child- hood, and often attacks scrofulous eliildren. Being an intlaiTunatory disease, it is important to have early notice of its existence, and, if possible, to be aware of its approach; which we may be, frequently, by observing the following ///•ewo«i7or^ Symptoms ; namely, a disturbance of the disgestive functions, Indi- cated by a capricious appetite, — the food at one time being disliked, at another devoured greetlily; afoul tongue, oflensive breath, enlarged and sometimes tender belly, torpid bowels, stools light-colored from having no bile, or dark from vitiated bile, fetid, sour-smelling, slimy and lumpy. The child loses its uealthy look, and grows paler and thinner. Its customary spirit and activity are gone ; it is heavy, lan- guid, dejected ; it is fretful, irritable, uneasy ; and sometimes is a little tottering in its gait. After these warning symptoms, the disease may begin in one of three wajis : The pains in the head become more severe and frequent, and are sharp and shooting, causing the little patient to wake and shriek out. As the drowsy state advances, the shrieking gives place to moaning. Beside these symptoms, there are stiffness in the back of the neck, pain in the limbs, great tenderness of the scalp, vomiting, sighing, intolerance of light, knitting of the brows, increased disturbance of htomach and bowels. This stage may last ten to fourte*Mi days, the (ihild growing more weak and peevish. Another form of attack is marked by acute pain in the head and high fever, convulsions, flushed face, brilliant eyes, intolerance of light and sound, pain and tenderness in the belly, stupor, great irritability of stomach, causing retching and vomiting upon every attempt to sit up in bed. The third mode of attack is very insidious, — the early symptoms being mild and hardly noticeable, or not even occurring at all. In such case, the convulsions or palsy come suddenly, without notice, bringing swift and unexpected destruction. This has sometimes been called water-stroke. "il The First Sttig^e is the period of increased sensibility and yxcite- rnent, caused by inflammation, in which the pulse is quick and irreg- ular. The Second Stag^e is one of diminished sensibility, or lethargy, dur- ing which water is effiTsed upon the brain, and the pulse is slow. Tlie Tliinl Period is one of palsy and convulsions, with squinting of the eyes, rolling of the head, stupor, and a rapid, thread-like pulse. Treatment. — In the first or inflammatory stage, purging is very important, and it must be continued for three or four days. Scam- mony and croton oil (33) may be chosen for this purpose. Apply cold water, ice, etc., to the head. In the second stage, put blisters upon the back of the neck, and one upon the bowels if they are very tender. In the third stage, effusion having taken place, use the warm bath, or the vapor bath, — also digitalis, squills, and iodide of potassium, (144) (128) (302) (130). Confine the child to a darkened room, of moderate temperature, — excluding all noise and causes of excitement, and let him lie upon r hair mattress, with his head somewhat elevated. Diet, — Gruel only during the stage of excitement, — ^- during that of collapse, it should be nourishing, but mild and easy of digestion, as beef tea, plain chicken or mutton broth, find animal jellies. At the same time, support the patient by the cautious use of the aro- matic spirit of ammonia, ten drops every four hours, valerian, wine whey, and infusion of getitian, columbo, or quassia, (64) (66). Dropsy of the Brain. — Chronic Hydrocephalus. Acute hydrocephalus is an inflammation; chronic hydrocephalus, now to be con^' iered, is a dropsy. It often begins before birth. It con- sists in the accumulation of enormous quantities of water within the brain, sometimes within its ventricles, at other times, upon its surface. When it occurs soon after birth, it advances slowly, and impercepti- bly, — the enlargement of the head being the first thing noticed. The skull being tender in infancy, it separates at the fontanellcs^ as the fla'.d accumulates, and ihe head, at times, attains an enormous size, — so great that the child cannot carry it upright, but lets it droop iaterally upon the shoulder, or forward upon the breast. As the disea&e advances, the senses become blunted, the child is deaf or blind, the intellect is weakened, perhaps idiocy appears, the flesh and strength pass away, convulsions and paralysis come la their turn, and a stupor is apt to occur which ends in death. Treatment — The remedies may be external, or internal, or both. Internal! Remedies. — Tnese ehould dp pi.gatives (33) (31), or di- uretics and alteratives (302) (145) (144). ExtemtU Remedies. — Apply an ointment of the iodide of potas- siui .. ' 1 the scalp every night (185). A tight bandage applied over DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES 159 jotas the whole head will sometimes have a favorable effect. Another ex- pedient ia to puncture the akull and draw oflF the water. Tapping the brain has effected a cure in many cases, and perhaps promises the most relief of any remedy we have. Diseases of the Spinal Cord. Fl*. 81. £-4 occurring in There are few diseases more interesting, as a study, than those which affect the nervous cord which runs 1 through the centre of the back-bone. This cord is a (Continuation, an appendage or tail of tlie brain. (Set; Figure 81.) It is the seat and centre of certain ner- vous functions, called reflex^ by which so many move, ments take place which are not under the control of the will In order that we may feel what takes place in any part of the body or limbs, and that the will may have power to move such part, it is necessary that nervous matter should be continuous and unbroken between the part in question and the brain. If llie spinal cord be cut, broken, or crushed at any point, all those parts which receive nerves from below the injury, lose their power of motion and their feel- ing. Wlicn the injury is in the upper part of the cord, the breathing and the circulation will stop, and death is the immediate consequence. If the middle portion of the cord be the seat of the injury, the bowels and other organs may lose their motion and feeling ; if the lower portion, then the lower limbs only will be the sufferers. Disease or inju:/ in the upper part of the cord is therefore much more dangerous than the same thing the lower. t Inflammation of the Spinal Cord. The membranes which surround the cord may be inflamed just as those are which enclose the brain ; but as the cavity running through the spine is quite small, there cannot vpry well be inflammation of the membranes without its involving the cord at the same time.- Symptoms. — Pains, often intense, running alcr.g the spine, extend- ing out into the limbs, and made worse by motion. They are similar, ia some respects, to rheumatic pains. There is rigid contraction, and sometimes violent spasms of the mu (es of .^iie back and neck, - - so great, at times, as too bend the body back into the shape of a hoop ; also a feeling of constriction in various parts, a3 if they were girt by a tight string ; a sense of suffocation ; retention of urine ; a most obstinate constipation ; and frequent chills or rigors. The pain which is felt along the cord is aggravated by rapping upon the spine, but not by pressure. I'TT" 160 DISEASES OF TUK BKAIN AND NEUVES. The above symptoms are supposoil to be the result of inflammation predominating in the membranes. When itd seat is more particularly in the substance ex' the cord, the symptoms are, — convulsive aftec- tions of the head and face, inarticulate speech, loss of voice, squint- ing, and difficulty of swallowing, if the extreme upper part of the cord is inflamed; if the disease be slightly lower, difficulty of breath- ing, irregular action of the heart, and tightness of the chest ; if lower still, vomiting, pain in the belly, sensation of a cord tied round iiie abdomen, pain and heat in passing water, retention of the urine, ina- bility to retain the lirine, desire to go to stool, or involuntary stools. Spasm and stiffness, then, are the results of inflainination of the membranes; convulsions and palsy, of the same alfection of the cord. Treatment — "When the inflammation is acute, apply a few leeches or wet cups along the sides of the spine. In chronic inflammation, powerful friction, or mustard draughts, stimulating liniments (190), or plasters, will generally answer the purpose. Apoplexy. Apoplexy is that conaition in which all the functions of animal fife are suddenly stopped, except the pulse and the breathing; — in which there is neither thought, nor feeling, nor voluntary motion ; in which the person falls down suddenly, and lies as if in a deep sleep. Nodes of Attack. — There are at le-^st three ways in which this terrible disease may make its assault. The First Form of attack is a sudden falling down into a state of Insensibility and apparently profound sleep, — the face being generally flushed, the breathing stertorous or snoring, the pulse full and not frequent, with occasional convulsions. From this mode of attack some die immediately, others get entirely well, and others get off with the exception of paralysis on one side, or the loss of speech, or some one of the senses. Tlic Second mode of attack begins with sudden pain in the head. The patient becomes pale, faint, sick, and vomits, — has a cold skin and feeble pulse, and occasionally some convulsions. He may fall down, or be only a lilile confused, but will soon recover from all the symptoms, except the headache, — this will continue, and the patient will sooner or later become heavy, forgetful, unable to connect ideas, and finally sink into insensibility, from whicl- he never rises. This mode of invasion, though not appearing so frightful as the first, is of much more serious import. * In the Third form of attack there is sudden loss of power on one side of the body, and also of speech, but not of consciousness. The patient retains his mind, and answers questions either by words or signs. This may be called paralytic apoplexy. The patient may either die soon, or get well, or live for years, with imperfect speech, or a leg dragging after him, or an arm hanging useless at his side. 7 , ina- itools. of the of the in ill DISEASES OF THE nUAIX AND NEllVES. 1(51 Tlie Persons Attncked are apt to have large head;*, red faces, short and thick necks, and a short, «tont, square build, though it occurs often among those who are thin, pale, and tall. The tendency to it increases in advanced life. The Forerunners of apoplexy are headache, vertigo, slight attacks of palsy, double vision or seeing two objects when there is but one, faltering speech, inability to remember certain words, sometimes a sudden forgetfulness of oneV own name, a frequent losing of tlie thread of ideas attempted to be pursued, and occasionally an unac- countable dread, for which no reason can be given. Exciting Caases. — Whatever hurries the circulation of the blood, as strong bodily exercise, is an eJcciting cause. So are all those tilings which cause the blood to flow towards the head, as coughing, sneez- ing, laughing and crying, straining at stool when costive, lifting heavy weights, singing, and playing on wind instruments. To these may be added, exposure to the sun, the bid air of crowded rooms, holding the head down, or turning it around to look backward, tighl cravats worn about the neck, and exposure to severe cold. Treatment. — If the patient have the appearance of suffering from fulness of blood in the head, as evinced by redness and turgescence of the face, and throbbing of the temporal arteries, and if the pulse be full and hard, feeling like a tense vibrating rope under the finger, place him in a half-recumbent posture, with his head raised ; loosen his clothes, particular'^ his neck-cloth and shirt collar, and whatever may press upon the ck, and then as quickly as possible apply cold wet cloths to his head, changing them often. Ice is still belter, if it may be had. Apply wet cups to the nape of the neck, and mustard draughts to the soles of the feet, — at the same time applying tight ligatures around the limbs, to prevent the blood from returning rap- idly in the veins. The ligatures should be gradually removed when the patient recovers his consciousness. Also administer a stimulating, purgative injection (246), and place two drops of croton oil, rubbed up with a little pulverized loaf sugar, far back upon the tongue. Re- peat the injec^on every fifteei. minutes, till the bowels are thoroughly moved. If the patient be old, and the pulse small and feeble, with no ful- ness or beating of ihe temporal arteries, or swelling of the veins of the neck and forehead, the countenance being pinched, and the skin bloodlei-s and cool, the cupping, purging, and applying the ligature must be omitted. In this case it will be better to apply warm flan- nels and hot bricks to the surface, and administer ammonia and camphor (283) (135) internally. To prevent future attacks, gentle tonics should be used, and the skin should be kept healthy by daUy bathing and friction. The bow- els must not be permitted to become costive. The diet should be light, chiefly vegetable, and almost entirely so in hot weather. The food should be well chewed. The mind should be kept cheerful and hopeful, and free from great excitement. The sexual passion should be restrained, and very rarely indulged. Intoxicating drinks should be 21 Z62 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. abandoned, if used, and all tight cravats be discarded from the neck. Direct rays of the hot pun in summer should be carefully shanned. No food should be taken for three hours before ret'rruption hati occurred ; or, if conversing, and in the midst of a sentence, the unfr ished words would be uttered at the end of the fit, even though it bihould last many days. Persons in a cataleptic fit have much the appearance of one in thr mesmeric state ; and the statue-like position in which an attack iixes a patient, reminds one of the maimer in which, the psychologists, so called, will arrest a man under their influence, and make him immov- able, with one foot raised in the act of stepping. The disease attacks females much more often than males. The premonitory symptoms are much like those of epilepsy, and the treatment should be about the same. Saint Vitus's Dance. — Chorea. This disease is chicHy confined to children and youth between the ages of eight and fourteen. But few cases occur after puberty. Symptoms. — The complaint affects mostly the muscles and the limbs. It excites curious antics, — such as we should suppose would occur if a part of the muscles of voluntary motion had hatched a mimic rebellion, broken away from the control of the will, and in sheer mischief and wantonness, were tripping their fellow muscles, and playing tricks with the patient. A few of the muscles of the face or limbs begin their mischievous pranks by slight twitches, which, by degrees, become more energetic, and spread to other parts. The face is twisted into all kinds of ridiculous contortions, as if the patient were making mouths at somebody. The hands and arms do not remain in one position for a moment. In attempting to carry food to the mouth, the hand goes part way, and is jerked back, starts again, and darts to one side, then to the other, then mouthward again ; and each movement is so quick, and nervous, and darting, and diddling, that ten to one the food drops into the lap. If the attempt be made to run out the tongue, it is snatched back with the quick- ness of a serpent's, and the jaws snap together like a fly-trap. The lower limbs are in a state of perpetual diddle ; the feet shuffle with wonderful diligence upon the floor, as if inspired with a ceaseless desire to dance. It is supposed by some that the disease consists in a partial palsy of a part of the muscles. The will in that case not being able to control the palsied muscles, when it commands the others to move, their action is not balanced, and they twitch the face and limbs into all the capricious and fantastic shapes we witness. i KL. 170 DI8KASK8 OV TUK BUAIN AND NKUVKS. \r Others, niul probably with more truth, hold that the nont of the CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Instftut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ..-^.t ittnsST riMHaa DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 171 is no power to suspend tliem without a painful oflTort which cannot be easily continued. No medical treatment is of any avail. These tricks can only be corrected by great watchfulness and etl'ort on the part of the person sutl'ering from them, and in many cases, not even by such means. Cramps. Cramp is experienced in the calves of the legs, the thighs, the stomach, the breast, the womb, etc. It is a very painful, sudden, and violent contraction of one or more muscles. The part is sometimes, as the phrase is, "drawn up into knots." When it attacks the stom- ach, it is a very dangerous atiection. Women are subject to it about the third or fourth month of pregnancy. Caases. — Drinking cold water when very hot and perspiring, ex- posure to dan.p night air, debility, indigestible food, and excesses in eating and drinking, and particularly overstraining the muscles." Trentiiieiit. — Moderate the excessive labor and straining of the muscles which pioduce the cramps. When an attack occurs in the legs, tie a cord or handkerchief tight around the leg above the affected muscle. This will generally produce instant relief. Also rub the part with spirits of camphor, or paregoric, or laudanum. When it occurs in the stomach, apply warm fomentations, or what is better, a mustard paste (1G5). Then make one grain of morphine into four pills, and give one. If this does not bring relief, repeat it in half an hour. The bowels, if confined, should be opened with an injection. Cramps of the l;mbs which afflict women in the family way can only be mitigated, not cured, till after confinement. As a j)alliat:ve, high cranberry bark, scullcap, etc. (87), will be found useful. Pain of the Nerves. — Neuralgia. This disease affects one tissue only, — the nervous; and has one symptom, — pain. In apoplexjj, the nerves, rendered powerless and senseless by an external force, are like a man under a bn '• of earth which has slid down upon him. In pa/sij, they arc suc^cnly bereft of feeling and motion by a bl ng scourge within, — as one is smitten down by a pervasive charge Trom a magnetic battery. In epilepsy, the nerves are grasped and for a time held senseless by an unseen power, in which they struggle, as a man strives in the folds of the anaconda. In catalepsy, they are suddenly etifFened into senseless strings, for such automatic use as the bystander may, for the time, choose to make of them. In chorea, they are set to dancing by an invisible exhilaration, as a man is crazed by brandy. In neuralgia, the nerves are neither crushed, nor collapsed, nor restrained for a time, nor stiffened, nor exhilarated. They simply have their sense of feeling intensely exalted ; they are filled with pain. 172 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. The pain is generally of a peculiarly darting, piercing character. The patient sometimes calls ic tearing pain. It comes on in sudden jiar- oxysms, with intervals of freedom between. The attacks are some- times like an electric shock, and are so agonizing as to bring a tem- porary loss of reason. Occasionally there is great tenderness of the parts affected, and some fulness of the blood-vessels in the neighbor- hood ; but generally the signs of inflammation are all absent, exccp. pain. Neuralgic pains occur in almost every part of the system. One of the most familiar forms of the disease is known under the name of If^- Tic Douloureux. ' It occurs in those branches of the fifth pair of nerves, which go to the face. (See Fig. 92.) Sometimes one, sometimes all of the three branches are affected, but more often, fio. 82. the middle branch only. When the up- per branch is the seat of the disease, the pain is in the forehead, the brow, the lid, and sometimes the ball of the eye. The eye is generally closed dur- ing the pain, and the skin of the fore- head is wrinkled. When the affection is in the middle nerve, the pain is pre- ceded by a pricking sensation in the cheek, and twitxjhing of the lower eye- lid. Soon it spreads in quick and pierc- ing pangs over the cheek, reaching the lower eye-lid, the sides of the nostrils, and the upper-lip. If in the lower branch, it sends its lightning shafts to the chin, the gums, the tongue, and even up the cheek to the ear. Face-Aclie. — There is a species of nervous pain called face-adiv. which does not quite amount to tic douloureux, but is nevertheless very afflictive. It occurs principally in the jaw, which seems to be filled with pain. No one spot seems to be more affected than an« other. From the jaw the pain oft-en goes to the whole head, but it has not the stabbing intensity which generally characterizes neuralgia. It often proceeds from defective teeth. Hemicrania. This is a neuralgic pain, confined to one side of the head, — gen- erally the brow and forehead. Sickness of the stomach often attends it, and in many cases, it is periodical, — coming on at a certain hour every day, and lasting a given time, and then passing away. It may be caused by whatever debilitates the system, as hysterics, Buckling an infant too long, or low diet. Li fever and ague districts, DISEASES OF THE J3RAIN AND NERVES. 173 Iter. The dden par- ire soino- ng a teni- ess of the neighbor- nt, exc-('|)> One of lame of lich go to the three it is frequently produced by miasm, cannot be discovered. In many instances, the cause face-ac!it\ vertheh'ss ms to be than an. ad, but it leuralgia. 1.— gen- 1 attends ain hour ivsterics, districts, Sciatica. This is a pain beginning at the hip, and following the course of the sciatic nerve. Occasionally it is an inflammatory complaint ; sometimes is c" mccted with an affection of the kidney; but fre- (juently it is a purely neuralgic or nervous pain ; and I have therefore thought it best to place it here, with nervous diseases. Beside the various forms of neuralgia now noticed, the disease occurs, — sometimes with great severity, — in the female breast, in t'.ie womb, in the stomach, in the bowels, in the thighs, in the knee, and even in the feet. In many of these cases, the disease is not where the pain is felt, but in the bradn or spinal marrow, and consequently the true source of the complaint very often escapes detection. An excellent Episcopal clergyman in northern New York, the Rev. M. B , with whom I studied Latin and Greek preparatory to college, had a neuralgic pain in the knee so intense, persistent and exhaustive, that the limb had to be cut off at the thigh to save his life. Treatmeilt. — This must be as diversified as the causes of the dis- ease. For tic douloureux, and some other forms, give, internally, valeri- anate of ammonia (88) ; also 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 316. For external use in tic douloureux, and other neuralgic affections, the prescriptions 188, 196, 197, 198. For the face-ache, above mentioned, muriate of ammonia (134), in half dram doses, is a very valuable remedy. When the disease is caused by miasm, and has a periodic character, like ague, it must be treated with quinine (67) (79), and if there be a low state of the blood, iron (72) (93) must be given at the same time. The shower bath, exercise in the open air, and whatever else will build up the general health, must be used according to circumstances. Dera'^gement of Mind.— Insanity. Most writers on this disease have attempted a de/inition of it. I have never seen one which suited me. Here is mine. Insanity is a wrench of man's nature, which sets his intellectual and moral faculties aivry in their relations with the external loorld. In a state of mental and moral health, he looks straight at the out- ward world, and sees it ns it is; insanity gives him an angular con- nection with it, and he sees it as it is not; its objects have all changed their relative places ; objects at the right in the panorama of life have moved, to the centre, or gone quite over to the loft ; while things at the top have gone to the bottom, and those in the lowest places have taken the highest. With the thoroughly insane, the loorld has ffotie back to chaos. •tr,\ 'i' 174 DISEASES OF THE BTIAIN AND NERVES. h f"-.. These peraoiis have their sensibility very much altered and per- verted. Errors of the senses and illusions cheat them. In many cases, they cannot read because the letters are mingled in a confused mass. They often do not recognize their freinds, and regard them as strangers or enemies. They become awkward in the mechanical use of their hands, and their touch loses the power to correct the errors of the other sense.-*. Hence they are cheated in regard to the size, form, and thickness of bodies. They are haunted, at times, with smells which have no existence, and they hoar voices distinctly speaking to them from clouds, or from trees ; and these voices have the familiar tones of a friend, relative, or enemy. The insane lose the power of comparing ideas. They associate things the most unlike, and often in a ridiculous way. They also lose the control of themselves, and come under the dominion of their passions ; and then they will do acts which they themselves disapprove. One of strict integrity, of unblemished mor- als, and of excellent standing, becomes insane, and immediately steals what he does not want, makes infamous proposals, and indecent ges- tures, and is in every respect the opposite of his past self. The insane often become averse to those who were previously among the most dear to them. For acts of kindness, they repay abuse. They fly from their best friends. This is the result of their fear and jealousy ; for they are very cowardly and jealous. This alien- ation from friends is almost a characteristic of insanity, and is one of its saddest features. The moral affections are always disordered, perverted, or annihilated in insanity. So much is this a leading fea- ture of the disease, that it is only when the insane begin to recover their moral affections, when they begin to wish to see their children and friends, to fold them once more in their arms, and to enter the family circle and renew its joys, that we can count upon any certain signs of a cure. The insane have a thousand strong fancies in regard to themselves. One thinks himself inspired of God, and charged with the conversion of the world ; while another, equally sincere, believes the devil has entered into him, and that the pains of hell are already taking hold of him, and he curses God, himself, and the universe. Still another is the " monarch of all he surveys," and much more ; he governs the world, and directs the stars. One has all knowledge, and affects to teach the wisest. Another is proud, and withdraws from his fellows, tidding them not to come into his presence without proper acts of homage, — calling himself, it may be, a king. There are five kinds of insanity. I will speak of each of them briefly. Melancholy. — Lypemania. Tins is char3<*terized by moroseness, fear, and prolonged sadness. The melanchoi; ; person is lean and slender, with black hair, and a and per- In many confused i them as ands, and lit senses, ckness of existence, S or from ilative, or associate inder the hich they 'hed mor- ely steals cent ges- )reviously icy repay t of their 'his alien- is one of isordered, iding fea- o recover r children enter the ly certain ernselves. onversion devil has fing hold 11 another i^erns the affects to 3 fellows, r acts of of them sadness, ir, and a DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 175 pale and sallow countenance. His skin is brown or blackish, and dry and scaly. His physiognomy has a fixed appearance, the muscles of the face are drawn tight, the eyes are motionless, and directed to one point, the look is askance and suspicious, and the general expres- sion is one of sadness, fear, and terror. He desires to pass his days in solitude and idleness. He walks as if aiming to shun some dan- ger. His eye and ear are on the watch for evil. These persons do not sleep much. They are kept awake by fear, jealousy, and hallucinations. If their eyes close, they see phantoms which terrify them. Their secretions are disordered. The urine is either abundant and clear, or scanty and muddy. They sometimes retain their urine for diiys. One patient did not dare to make water lest he should drown the world, but was finally persuaded lo it by the assurance that he would extinguish a fire which was devouring a city. Insanity on One Subject. — Monomania. Tms is a chronic affection of the brain, not attended by fever, and clmraottMizcd by a derangement of the intellect, the affections, or the will, upon one subject only. The patient seizes upon a false princi- ple, and draws from it injurious conclusions, which modify and eli:mge his whole life and character. In other cases the intellect is sound, but the alVeetions and disposition being perverted, their acts are strange and inconsistent. These they attempt to justify by plau- sible reasoning. Mania. . This is also a chronic affection of the brain, generally without fever. The countenance of the maniac is sometimes fiushed, at other times pale. The hair is crisped ; the eyes injected, shining and hag- gard. Maniacs dislike the light, and certain colors horrify them. Their ears are sometimes very red, and are disturbed by a tingling, and a rumbling sound. Noise excites and disturbs them. They suf- fer from false sensations, illusions and hallucinations ; and their ideas come with great rapidity, and are confused and without order. Their affections are in a state of turmoil, and their judgments are all erro- neous. Unlike the monomaniac, their delirium extends to all subjects. Their entire intellect, affections and will, are a chaotic wreck. Dementia. Here is another chronic affection of the brain, without fever, in which the sensibility, the intellect, and the will, are all weakened. Demented persons liave not the power to concentrate their minds on anything, and can form no correct notions of rbjects. Their ideas float after each other without connection or meaning. They sj>eak without any consciousness of what they are saying. K, t Many of them have lost their memory, or, like old persona, they remember nothing recent, — forgetting in a moment what is just said or done. The demented have neither desires nor aversions ; neither hatred nor love. To those once most dear to them, they are totally indiffer- ent. They meet friends long absent without emotion, and part from their dearest ones without a pang. The eveiits of life passing around them, awaken in them no inttirest, because they can connect them- selves neither with the past nor the future ; they have no remen> brances, nor hopes. Their brain is inactive ; it furnishes no ideas, or sensations. They are no longer active, but passive beings ; they ilcfcr mine' nothing, but yield themselves to the will of others. They have a pale face, a dull eye, moistened with tears, an uncer- tain look, and a physiognomy without expression. They sleep pro- foundly, and for a long time, and have a voracious appetite. - ^;' Idiocy. .. _ ' " Idiocy is the condition in which the intellectual faculties have never been manifested. We are not to infer disease from it, any more than we infer it in the lower animals from the absence of intellect. In idiocy there is no mind, because the brain is not large enough to be the organ of intelligence. It always dates back, therefore, to the beginning of life. Everything about the idiot betrays a defective organisation. The demented person, the monomaniac, etc., once had intelligence ; the idiot, never. They, in many cases, may be cured ; he is hopelessly incurable. They had blessings which have been taken from them ; to him, none were ever given. They were once the pride and hope of their friends ; he, from his birth, was the smit- ten and blasted one of his family. He never reaches an advanced age, — rarely living beyond thirty years. These remarks are sufficient to show the difference between idiocy, and other forms of mental derangement. In the other forms of in- sanity there are brains enough, but they are diseased; in this there is no disease ; the smallness of the brain is the primal and fatal defect This form of mental derangement is caused by a defective develop- ment of the brain. That the other forms are produced by disease of the brain, there can be no doubt. Some have supposed insanity to be a mental disorder merely, hav- ing nothing to do with the body. They might as well suppose the delirium of fever to be a disease of the mind only. Insanity is an unsoundness of the brain and nerves wh'ch proceed from it, in every instance. At first it is probably only excitement of the brain ; but this, long continued, becomes a chronic inflammation. The brain and nerves of an insane person are undoubtedly sore, and hence the painful thoughts and feelings which afflict them. Whec tlic soreness is much increased, they are violent and furious ; whta it subsides, they are calm. In consequence of this inflammation and soreness of the brain, an insane person can no more think, oi reason, or will, or feel correctly, than a person with an inflamed stomach can digest food well, or than one with inflamed eyes can see well. C'ciUHes of Insanity. — Hereditary predisposition ; painful subiccts of thought or feeling long revolved in the mind ; injured feelings which cannot be resented, mortified pride, perplexity in businesp ; disappointed affection or an'bition ; great political, religious, or social excitements ; sudden and heavy strokes of misfortune in the loss of property and friends; and in general, whatever worries the mind foe a long time, and creat^^a a deep distress, may be a cause of insanity. But one of the moat prolific causes, and worthy of special mention, is masturbation, or self-pollution, — a vice contracted by thousand;, of young people, both male and female. Beside the above, I may mention several physical causes, as coji- vulsions of the mother during gestation, epilepsy, monthly disorders of women, blows upon the head, fevers, loss of sleep, syphilis, exces- sive use of mercury,-worms in the bowels, and apoplexy. Chances of Cure. — Idiotism is never cured. Melancholy and monomania are cured when recent, and do not depend upon organic disease. Dementia is sometimes, though seldom, cured. Chronic insanity, of long standing, is not easily cured. Insanity which has been produced by moral causes, acting sud- denly, are generally curable ; if the causes have acted slowly and long, the cure is more doubtful. Excessive study causes insanity which is hard to cure. If caused or continued by religious ideas, or by pride, it is not often cured. Insanity caused and maintained by masturbation, is cured with great difficulty. Treatment. — The treatment of the insane is now almost confined, as it should be, to public hospitals. In these institutions, all the means are provided which humanity has been able to devise, to lift from these unfortunate beings the terrible shadow which is upon them. Here they have safety, comfort, recreation, friendly guardians, rest, and medicine. They have safety from the annoyances which well-meaning but mistaken friends at home almost always commit in contradicting, and n»asoning with, persuading, and threatening them ; for only in these humane institutions has it been well learned that to do so is no wiser than to persuade, scold, or threaten a neuralgic pain in the face, an inflammation in i e stomach, or a felon upon the finger. They are safe, too, from the impertinent scrutiny of neighbors, the hootings of unthinking boys in the streets, and especially from the causes, what- ever they are, which have produced the disease. And so far, this is just the treatment they want, — no contradiction, no impertinent scrutiny from neighbors, no abuse in the streets, and a withdrawal of the causes which have produced the disease. In these institutions, to i, they have comforts. They have clean 23 f i nn 178 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. roomn, ralleriea, lodges, bathing-roomfi, yards and gardens for cxerciHe and walking, safe, quiet, well-aired bed-rooms, and clean and com- fortable beds ; cheerful dining rooms, and plain, wholesome, and nutritious food. And this, likewise, is the treatment they require. They have recreation, — dances, cards, back-gammon, chequers, chess, billiards, nine-pins, walking parties, riding partit s, gardening, and an indulgence in those arts of painting, music, ciiawing, uiid architecture, for which they may have a taste. And such recreations are powerful instruments m the cure of fU disorders of the nervous system. Here, too, they have friendly guardians, who have long studied their complaints, and have imbued their souls with a sympathy which goes down into the depths of their suiTerings, and allies itself with all their sorrows ; — men and women who are willing to act the part of guardian angels ; to be their friends ; who know how to gain their confidence ; and who use the influence acquired by love, in leading them back towards health and happiness. And this, too, in curing the insane, is of great consequence, for none can do them good till they have their confidence, and this can be gained only by love and wisdom. In these insane asylums, they find rest. When the brain is hot from inflammation, and they are raving from delirium, they are here withdrawn from the noisy crowd, and shielded from the rude shocks of the world. If need be, they are placed in solitary rooms, where silence spreads its soothing stillness through their excited brains. And it is of the greatest importance that the sore and torn feelings should rest ; for rest allays excitement, and brings sleep ; and without a proper amount of sleep, recovery is not possible. Finally, in these institutions, they receive the best medical treat- ment, "they have warm and cold bathing, judiciously administered ; they have simple cathartics when the bowels are bound, as salts, cas- tor oil, and magnesia ; tonics for debility, such as quinine, iron, quas- sia, columbo, and chamomile ; and quieting medicines for their ex- citement, such as opium, morphin?, cicuta, hyoscyamus, belladonna, stramonum, scuUcap, and valerian. Prescription 74 is a combination much used. Here, too, broth, gruel, and milk, are administered by the forcing pump to such at -ake a fancy not to eat, — an expedient which has saved many lives. Fruits of all kinds, as strawberries, cherries, currants, plums, apples, peaches, and grapes, are allowed freely. Cold water, sweetened or otherwise, is the drink. To these things are added lively conversation, and whatever will divert the mind from ieflection, and internal imaginings and revery. Thus I have indicated, very briefly, the treatment which the insane receive in public institutions. That the chances of recovery in these humane retreats is much greater than at home, does not admit of a doubt. When it is not convenient to send an insane person to a hospital, the treatment should be as near like the one here sketched as circumstances will permit DI8KA8ES OF THE BUAIN AND NERVES. 179 exercise nd coin- me, and luire. .'hequera, irdening, 'ing, and creations ; nervous r studied ;hy which self with t the part »ain their 11 leading in curing ?;ood till ove and lin is hot y are here de shocks ms, where tins. And igs should it a proper 'ical treat- niatered ; salts, cas- iron, quas- their ex- Uadonna, mbination istered by expedient •awberries, allowed To these divert the the insane ry in these admit of a erson to a e sketched Hypochondria. The common names of this disease are low spirits, spleen, vapors, hypo, and the blues. It produces constant fear, anxiety, and gloom. Business, pleasures, the acquisition of knowledge, and all the useful pursuits of life, become insi|)id, tasteless, and even irksome to the hypochondriac. His mind is full of the belief that sonujthing dread- ful is about to befall him. He is either going to be sick, or to die r lose his property or friends. He has no mind to engage in any busi- ness, nor does he wish to go anywhere, or to see anybody. Night and day his spirits are down to zero, and his heart has a load too heavy to bear. He is wholly occupied with his troubles, and his feel- insjs. He thinks he has various diseases, and wears out his friends by talking of his sufl'erings. He feels of his pulse often, looks at his tongue in the glass, and several times a day asks a friend if he does not look pale or sick. The external senses manifest symptoms of derangement as well as the thoughts, feelings, emotions, and passions. There are roarings in the ears, like a waterfall, or the noise of a distant carriage. Floating black specks, or bright sparks, are seen before the eyes. These indi- cate a slight fulness of the blood vessels, and perhaps, in some in- stances, sparks of electricity passing to or from the eye, and are in no proper sense subjects for the alarm they cause. At one time the person will feel as large as a barrel, at other times not larger than a whip-stock ; the head will feel light or heavy, large or small. The skin will twitch in different parts, or feel numb, or have the sensation of spiders crawling on it The smell and taste become perverted ; the hypochondriac will smell odors and flavors, at times, where there are none. These errors of the senses are all owing to some slight disorder of the organs of sense ; and they are no more wonderful than that the mind should perceive personal danger, poverty, and death itself, when none of these things are impending. These persons are subject to fainting turns, when the breathing will appear to stop, the body become cold, the face pale ; there will be distress in the region of the heart, which will apparently stop beating, and the person will feel as if dying. At the same time the mind will remain clear. These nervous spells are alarming, but pass ofl' with- out danger. These persons become changed in their moral dispositions. They are jealous, take a joke as an affront, and feel the greatest distress at any apparent lack of attention or neglect on the part of friends. They put the worst construction upon the actions of friends. They are irritable, fretful, peevish, and fickle. The complaint is distressing, but does not appear to shorten human life. The seat of the disease is in the brain and nerves. It is caused by anxiety, care, disappointment, working the brain too hard, diseases of i' W:. V ' : I' 1. I V ISO DI8KARR8 OF THE BRAIN AND NRRVES. Ilie liver hikI Htuinacli, contiveness, ucdontury habitu, excessive venen'a) iii(lulgiT nail driven into the skull. Headache from Exhaustion. — Still another species of nervous head- ache arises ft . extreme exhaustion, produced by great loss of blootl, by diarrhoea, or by over-suckling. The pain is generally on the top of the skull, and is often compared to the beating of a small hammer on the head. Brow Aj^iC' -- This is intermittent in its character, and is brought on by exposure to cold and moisture in damp and marshy districts ; and in this respect is much like ague. Meg^rims. — This is most frequent among females. It is often de- p»endent on the same causes as Brow Ague, and is also produced by long and exhausting v^atching over sick children, distress of mind, and indigestion. In both the above forms, the pain is intermittent, seldom lasting long, but being of a sharp, piercing character, like that of tic doulou- reux. The pam of Megrims, usually begins at the inner angle of the eye, and extends towards the nose ; the parts being red and sore, and the eye-ball tender. In Brow Ague, pain and great tenderness cover an entire half of the head, compaicd by the patient, sometimes, to " an opening and shutting of the skull." It begins with a creeping sensation over the scalp. > . ■' Rheumatic Headaches. — These generally affect persons who have been subject to rheumatism, and are often brought on by uncovering the head when sweating. The pain is usually in the brow, the tem- ples, or the back of the head, and is dull and uching, — rather an intense soreness than a real pain ; and the paini'al part is exces- sively tender upon pressure. The skin is moist, but mt hotter than natural. Treatment — In considering the treatment, I will take up the same order in which I have spoken of the different forms of headaciie. , Pletlioric Headaclies. — Not much medicine should be taken for these, if it can be avoided. A diuretic (131) may be taken twice a day, and an occasional dose of gentle physic at night, followed by (7) in the morning. This will generally give great relief. Meat should be taken but once a day, and the whole diet should be spare, the appetite never being fully satisfied. All spirituous drinks, including distilled and fermented, should be let alone, and coffee likewise. Much exercise should be taken in the open air. The hair should be kept short, and the head elevated during sleep. Bleeding at th« nose, when it occurs, must not be too suddenly stopped. ili 186 DISKASES OF THE BRAIN AND NEKVES. Conipestive Headaclies. — The exercise, diet, mode of sleeping, etc., should be the same as in plethoric headaches. In this complaint, th(>re is too much blood in the head, and it inclines to stagnate. The feet and hands are cold ; and gloves and stockings of wool, ahd other bad conductors of heat from the body, must be worn. Occasionally a little gentle physic (319) is desirable to induce the bowels to act every djiy. If there is great debility, iron (71) (74) (75) (320) will be required. Heaviaclie of Indigestion. — If the pain come immediately after a meal, and can be traced to something eaten, an emetic (2) may be taken, if the person be tolerably strong. If the pain come on some hours after eating, take rhubarb and magnesia (28) (14), or fluid magnesia. "When the system is debilitated, take a warm draught (322) in the morning after a light breakfast, or twice a day, a bitter with an alkfli (323). If the stomach be very irritable, bismuth, at meal times (324) (326). "When it occurs after a debauch, take recipe 325. Sicli Headache. — When it results from food taken, a draught of warm chamomile tea, or a little weak brandy-and-water, will generally give relief. If the sickness continue, soda and water, with a little ginger may do well, or a mustard poultice upon the stomach (165) may be required. As soon as it can be kept on the stomach, a dose of physic r;26) must be taken ; and if relief does not come after the operation ol his, give a bitter and an aromatic (327). The patient must have perfet '•est. If there be great lack of tone in the system, the mineral acids ^ .'8) (329) wlil be excellent The diet must be carefully regulated, as in plethoric and congestive headaches. >, Bilions Headaches. — These are generally connected, more or less, with some affection of the liver. During an attack, if the suffering be great, attended by nausea, give an emetic (2). In milder cases, give recipe (321). If there be costiveness, give recipe (330) at night, and (7) in the morning. • A few doses of podophyllin, leptandrin, etc. (34) (36) (39), to re- lieve the liver when the bile does not flow fast enough, will diminish the frequency and force of the attack. The fluid extract of dandelion, taken for some time, often does good service. The diet should be light, and chiefly vegetable, and exercise in the open air must not be omitted. The daily sponge bath, with friction, is excellent. Nenoiis Headaclies. — The first thing to be done is to relieve the pain, and this may generally be accomplished either by preparation (331), or (332), or (333), or (88), or (93), or two or three drops of tincture of nux vomica in a spoonful of water, taken three times a day. In simple nervous headache, diet is of the greatest importance ; in hysterical cases, exercise ; in headaches from exhaustion, tonics (81) (79) (63) (73) (64) (61) (60). eping, etc., laint, there The feet I other bad induce the ) (74) (75) ely after a 2) may be on some ), or Hnid m draught ay, a bitter )i»muth, at taiie recipe draught of II generally ith a little nach (165) stomach, a come after Che patient the system, congestive ore or less, by nausea, If there be ing. ■ (89), to re- 11 diminish ' dandelion, rcise in the th friction, relieve the sreparation e drops of ee times a )rtance ; in tonics (81) DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 197 Rheumatic Headaches. — Tike a light diet, with but little animal food. Wear warm clothing, and avoid exposure to wet feet and dampness generally, and go to a mild climate, if convenient. When the local pain is ^eat, apply hot fomentat' jus, or a stimu- lating liniment (334), or a mustard poultice, to the back of the neck. In the beginning of the treatment^ a little physic at night (335) la useful. Before closing this chapter on headaches, let me enter a respectful protest against the indiscriminate use of the thousand and one reme- dies advertised to cure headaches ; for in a great majority of cases it is merely a syniptom of some other disease ; instance : Indigestion, Fever, Bright's Disease, Softening of the Brain, Diseased Livec. etc. ; &nd the use of thetie remedies serves rather to increase than •esseii the difficulty. '' .* i-. r , DISEASES OF THE THROAT. The diseases which seat themselves in the throat, and in the great cavity of the chest, have occupied a large share of my attention for the last ten years. My practice in these complaints has been large, — being drawn from every part of the United States, and the British Provinces. No class of diseases from which men suffer are more nu- merous than these, and none have so generally baffled tiie skill of the profession. For this reason, I wish to present here a brief, practical, and common-sense view of these complaints, which shall be of r^al value to the thousands of families, who, I trust, will consult these pages. . -• Increase ofThroat Diseases. — A striking increase in the number of throat diseases has been witnessed within the last few years. A person suffering from any of them will find, on speaking of his com- plaint, that a number of his neighbors are afflicted with troubles of a similar kind. I have thought that in some of their forms these dis- eases have fastened upon the throats of not less than half our |M)pu- lation. And when it is considered that they are the natural, and if unmolested, the certain harbingers of lung disease, it is wise to make a note of the above fact. As I shall dcscrit>e them in the nasal cavities, the pharynx, the fauces, etc., they all have a natural proclivity downwards. From these upper cavities they pass, by one short step, into the larynx, — the cavity where the voice is formed, — and then, by another equally short and easy stage, into the body of the wind- pipe. It is a singular fact that their progress is always from the upper breathing passages downward, and never from the lower pas- sages upward. They afford a parallel to the order of progression in the moral world, in which evil tendencies are toward a lower depth. A Mistake Corrected. — Before describing the several diseases which belong to this family, I wish to correct the mistake which so generally classes them all under the term Bronchitis. They all consist in a simple inflammation, acute or chronic, either of the mucous membrane lining the several cavities to be spoken of, or of the small glands or follicles connected with that membrane; and each disease takes its name from its particulai location. Thus, the inflammation of the membrane lining the upper part of the throat, or pharynx, h called Pharyngitis. Inflammation in the top of the wind- ifn^sa.! DISEASES OF THE THROAT. 189 the great itition for II large,— le British more im- kill of the practical, be of rial suit these number years. A " his com- ibles of a these dis- >ur popu- turai, and 3 wise to the nasal proclivity liort step, ind then, the wiiid- from the )\V('r pas- i!ssion in depth. es which jenerally ic, either >oken of, ^ne; and 'bus, the 'iroat, or le wind- pipe, or larynx, is Laryngitis. In the windpipe, or trachea, it ia Tra- iliilis. In the bror.chial tubes, it is Bronchitis. As the bronchial tubes exist nowhere except in the lungs, below the division of the windpipe, there can be no Bronchitis in the throat Nevertheless, it is the same disease with Laryngitis and Pharyngitis, and differs from them only in being in a more dangerous place. As the windpipe descends into the chest, it divides below the top of the breast bone into two branches, one going into the right, the other into the left lung. These branches divide and subdivide very ...inuteiy, and send their ramifications into every part of the pulmon- ary tissue. Thus situated, Meckel has compared the windpipe to a Fio. 88. » > hollow tree with the top turned downward, — the larynx and trachea representing the trunk, and the bronchial tubes, with their innumera- ble subdivisions, the branches and twigs. (Fig. 82.) If the reader will now understand that the trunk and bruncLcs of this bronchial tree are hollow throughout, and lined with a delicate and smooth mucous membrane, and that the diseases to be described are inflammations either upon this membrane or the small glands connected with it, causing swelling, redness, unhealthy discharges, roughness, etc., he will have a good general idea of them. Nasal Oatarrh. I TAKE these diseases in the order of their location, consists in inflammation, which begins behind and r> veil of the palate, and extends upward from thence . •^Ef Nasal Catarrh little above the ., the nose. It 190 DISEASES OF THE THROAT. is an exceedingly trcubleBome complaint, and afllicta great numben. It passes nndcr the name of Catarrh in the Head. The inflammation iH not coniined to the nasal cavities. It extends frequently to the air cavities, called antrums and sinuses, which cover a considerable portion of the face, and extend to the lower part of the forehead. Persons sometimes feel as if their whole face were involved in the disease, and were almost in a state of rottenness, — so great is the amount of matter discharged from the head. Such free discharges cannot be wondered at when we reflect that all the air cavities in tlie face are lined with the same mucous membrane which lines the nose, and that they all communicate with the nasal cavities. The *■ horn ail," among cattle, is a similar inflammation of the inner surface of horns; and the "horse distemper" is an inflamma- tion of the air cavities in the head of the horse, and is much the same disease with our catarrh in the head. The catarrh often creates a perpetual desire to swallow, and gives the feeling, as patients express it, " a« (/" something' were sticking in the upper part of the throat." When the inflammation has existed a long time, and ulceration has taken place, puriform matter is secreted, and drops down into the throat, much to the discomfort of the patient. Indeed, this is one of the most distressing features of the complaint, as this matter often descends into the stomach in large quantities, causing frequent vom- iting, and a general derangement of the health. Many times the sufferer can only breathe with the mouth open. Upon rising in the morning a great effort is required to clear the head and the extreme upper part of the throat. There is occasionally a feeling of pressure and tightness across the upper part of the nose ; and the base of the brain sometimes suffers in such a way as to induce headache, vertigo, and confusion. The smell is frequently destroyed, and sometimes the taste. The inflammation sometimes gets into the eustachian tubes, the mouths of which are behind and a little above the veil of the palate, and extends up the lining membrane to the drum of the ear, causing pain or deafness, and occasionally both. In addition to this catalogue of evils, there is often added inflammation and elon- gation of the uvula or soft palate. Treatment. — The following is a fair illustration of my mode of treatment : On the 12th of December, 1852, Mr. , of this city, came under treatment for a bad case of catarrh in the head, complicated with follicular disease of the pharynx, or upper part of the throat. In addition to nearly all the symptoms mentioned above, he had a stench from the nose exceedingly offensive to all about him. So much had the disease worn upon him that he had become bilious, sallow, de- jected, and low in strength and flesh. When it is said that to all this were added a cough and loss of appetite, with insidious ap- proaches of hectic, it will not be surprising that his friends saw the most serious results impending, even though assured by me that tht* disease had not yet taken firm hold of his lungs. The first thing It extends llch COVtT Jart of the ! involved |o great i« liHcharges lies in tliu I the nose, J>n of the }nuc'h the lid gives in^ in the ation has into the is one of fter often ent vom- imes the ig in the extreme pressure ise of the ;, vertigo, ometimes ustachian fie veil of m of the dition to and elon- tnode of ne under ted with oat. h\ a stench uch had low, de- Lt to all ous ap- !aw the that the it thing DISKA8B8 or THE THROAT. 191 done for him was to rut off the uvula. Five days after, I began to bathe the whole nasal cavity, three times a week, with a shower syringe, by pushing the smooth bulb up behind the veil of the palate, and throwing instantaneously a most delicate shower of medieuted fluid up both sides of the septum. The upper part of the throat was likewise bathed by the use of a shower syringe made expressly fi