IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

f/.

!.0

I.I

1.25

1^ III 2.2

12.0

1.8

1.4 IIIIII.6

pi?

r^^

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques

1980

Technical Notes / Notes techniques

Th«

pos

of 1

The Institute has attempted to obtain the best

L'Instltut a microfilm^ le melileur exemplaire

filn

original copy available for filming. Physical

qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Certains

features of this copy which may alter any of the

ddfauts susceptibles de nuire d la quality de la

images in the reproduction are checked below.

reproduction sont not6s ci-dessous.

Thj

Coloured covers/

Coloured pages/

COl

or 1

Couvertures de couleur

Pages de couleur

app

Th<

Coloured maps/

—

Coloured plates/

filn

Cartes gdographiques en couleur

Planches en couleur

ins

Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/
Pages ddcolor^es, tachetdes ou piqu6es

Show through/
Transparence

Ma
in (
up(

Tight binding (may cause shadows or

bol

distortion along interior margin)/

Pages damaged/

foil

Reliure serr6 (peut causer de I'ombre ou

Pages endommagdes

de la distortion le long de la marge

int^rieure)

Additional comments/

Commentaires suppldmentaires

Bibliographic

Notes / Notes bibliographiques

Only edition available/

—

Pagination incorrect/

Seule Edition disponible

Erreurs de pagination

Bound with other material/

Pages missing/

Reli6 avec d'autres documents

Des pages manquent

Cover title missing/

—

Maps missing/

Le titre de couverture manque

Des cartes gdographiques manquent

Plates missing/

Des planches manquent

Additional comments/

Commentaires suppl6mentaires

• '

The images appearing here are the best quality
possible considering the condition and legibility
of the original copy and in keeping with the
filming contract specifications.

Les images suivantes ont dt6 reproduites avec le
plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et
de la nettet6 de I'exemplaire filmd, et en
conformity avec les conditions du contrat de
filmage.

The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall
contain the symbol -^(meaning CONTINUED"),
or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever
applies.

Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la der-
nidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas:
le symbole — »> signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole
V signifie "FIN".

The original copy was borrowed from, and
filmed with, the kind consent of the following
institution:

National Library of Canada

L'exemplaire film6 fut reproduit grdce d la
gdndrositd de I'dtablissement prdteur
suivant :

Bibliothdque nationale du Canada

Maps or plates too large to be entirely included
in one exposure are filmed beginning in the
upper Inft hand corner, left to right and top to
bottom, as many frames as required. The
following diagrams illustrate the method:

Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour dtre
reproduites en un seul clichd sont film6es d
partir de Tangle sup^rieure gauche, de gauche d
droite et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre
d'images ndcessaire. Le diagramme suivant
illustre la m^thode :

1 i

HANDBOOK

G E O L O G- Y

FOR THE USE OF

CANADIAN STUDENTS

Bv SIR eT. WILLIAM DAWSOX,

C.M.G., LL.I)., F.K..S., KTC.

PRINCirAL OF McGILL UNIVERSITY.

MONTREAL:
DAW S O X P, R O T H E R S, P U IJ L I S H E R S.

1889.

11.1

"Witness" Printiso House,
Montreal.

Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in tlie year 1889, by
Dawson Broth eus, Montreal, in the otlice of the Minister of Agriculture.

PREFACE.

This work is intended to servo as lecture notes for teachers
of Geoloj,'}', more especiaily in tlie Dominion of Canada, and as
a ^niide to Canadian Geoloyy for private students, enquirers and
travellers. The first ])art relates to the <,'eneral ]irinci])les of
the science, with examples, as far as possible, from Canadian
minerals and rocks. The secijud part gives an outline of
Geological Chronology, illustrated hy Canadian rock-formations
and fossils. The third part gives details as to the Physical
Geography and Geology of Canada. In this part reference is
made to authorities and to works giving more detailed inform-
ation ; and credit is given, as far as possible, to the original
observers of the more important geological facts.

Sept., 1889.

I NT

II. I

ni. I

TAIMvK OF (X):s^TEN'rs.

INTIJODICTION

I'Aiii:.

PART I. General Geology.
T. LITUOUKiV

I. ClIKMIslliV or UdCKS

■J. MlNKI; AI.OCV HI' |{()( KS

;!. Cl.ASSIl'ICATKlN A.M. StIDV OK |{o( KS

1. IgUt'ollS RoclvH ....

2. A((iioou.s Rocks

II. I'.VI..E()XT(>L()(iV

1. I'ltKSKUVAIIO.V OF OliCAMC |{|:mm\.s

2. Class KS oi- Ammvi.s

.'{. Cl.ASSlFUATlON OF I'l.ANTS

III. PHYSICAL (;K()L()(;v AM) STKATKiRAPllV

1. <>iU(;r\ OF Aqikhis Di;i-osrrs

2. HaRDEXINO AM) ALTKItATIOX.

By Pressure .....

B}' Tntilh.irioii

By Hunt

3. COXCKETIO.NAUV A( TIOX

4. Colours of AyiEou.s IIock.s .

2»)
26
27
27
28

10.

11.

12.

\:\.

14.

ir.
It)
17

TABLE OF CONTKNTS.

.Maukin<:s on Sri!K.\<KS OK Bkds
Kippk! MuikH . . • •

CiiiTi'iit liines

Kill M.iiks

Sliriiik.iyo Cmcks . . • •
Ruin Marks

.\uk.\nokmi;nt ok Hocks

.|..|Nr.S AM. Sl.ATV Cl.KAVACiK

JNci.iNKh Position ok Bkks .
Kaii-I's

rNCoNKOl(MAIllI.II"Y . • • •

Uknii>ation

Massivk Rocks

Vi;iN-KoK.MKi) Rocks

( >IU01N OK Mol NIAINS.
ClIUoNol.o'^V oK HkI)S
(ilOOl.OOlCAl. MaI'S ANl. SKCnoNS .
riKl,l> (JkoI.OOY . • • •

I'.VUK.

:u
:il
:u
:n

.'{2
32
32
{\A

;«;
:v,)

41
41

4:5

44
46

48
j1

PART IL— Historical Geology.

CL.VSSIFICATION AND TKRMS

I. KO/OlO PERIOD .

1. Laikkntian Svstkm. .

Lower Liuu-entuin
Mitldle Laiiruutian .
Uppor T/uiriaitiaii

2. H IKON I AN S VST KM

TT. PAL.EOZOTC PERIOD .

1. Camhrian System .
• Lower Cambrian .
Middle Cambrian
Upper Cambrian .

57
57
59
()2

(55

()5
05
(5(5

(58

T.M'.f.K Ol' CONTK.N'I'S.

I'ACIK.

:n
:;i

:il

3()

IV.)

'•7

r>7

iV.)
02

()5

(58

2. Sll.l l!n-(A\lli|;| AN SvsTlvM

(^Mii'lu'c Sorios
Ti'oiitiiii SorioH .
Iludsdii Kivi:r Sorit'M

.'t. Sll.llilW SVSI'KM

Mc'diiiii SuriL's
Niuf^ivru Soi'ius .
SaliiiM Series
llclderlnjrg Surie.s

4. EiiiAx oil Dkvoman Svstkm
ConuforoiiH Surios
H.'iniiltoii Series .
Clieiiuiiig Series

T). CAIUiONlFKUdfS SysTKM

liortoii Series
W'imlsor Series
Millstone (Irit .
Coal Fiiriuatiiiii

(). Pkumian Svstkm

Lower Permian .
Ui)per Penniiiu

111. MKSOZOIC PERIOD .

1. TiiiAssir Systkm

1. Bmiter Sandstone .

2. Muschelkalk .

."). lveni)er Sandstone.

2. JtKAssu' System

1. Lias

2. Oolitic Series .

3. Cretaceous Sy'.stem

1. Lower Crotaceons

2. Middle Cretaceous
.'i. I'pper Cretaceous

•MiK.

70
7(1
7'>
7"»

7.'.
7.".
7ti
77
( I

S(l

H>
82
82

8(;

8(J
HS
HK
88

!I7
'••7
!I7

!t;t

KJO

101

103
103
103

105
105
105
106

'I Alll-K til' (ONTKNTS.

IV. KAINH/OIC l'i:i{l<>|)

I. I'liM KM-; SsviKM .

I. liiiSVlir Knct'lll!

'J. Miildlo Kncciio .

II. I |>|)cr Ivic'i'iK!
li. .Mi<>( i.m; Svstkm

1. lidwcr Miciociu!

2. Midilli! MincDiio
.">. I ppor Miiiceno

;;. I'i.kkkm: Svsii:m

I. < HdlT I'linCL'IlO

•J. Nc'wuf IMincuno

4. ri.KISI'ocKNK SVSTKM

1. linnldm- Cliiy .
•J. Lid.i Clay .
;!. S;i.\ic;iva Sund .

5. iMohKltN AlIK .

1. I'dst-dliicifil

2. liiiCiiUt 1)1' lli.stiiric

lot)

|()<.>
1(11)
IK)
IMI
II'-'
ll'J
li::
ii:;
li:;
li:;
III

114
114

lir.
iir.

ik;

IL'O

II.

III.

PART III— Canadian Topography and Geology.

ACADIAN UE(il()N l-'4

liArUKMIAN SVSTKM . ^-*'

Hl'ldMAN SvsTKM ........ i-^>

CAMliUIAN SV.STKM !-<>

SltrKO-CAMIMtlAN Sv.STKM ].'>()

Sin lilAN SvsTKM . . ... . . . . l-"'>

FiKIAN Ol! DkVOMAN SVSTKM ].'>7

Cahi'.omkkkoi s System ...... !•'!'••

Pekmia.n 8vstkm 14r»

Tria.-;.sic Svstkm 14<>

Pleistocene Ack 14!)

Mf)l)ERN AfiE • • 1'*^

COKKELATION Olr' AfADIAX WITH Kf 1!( M'KAN ( i K( II.Dd V . 158

Tabular CoN'.sPEnrs of Formations in tiii; Aiadian

RElilON 1'>1

IV. i;

|0<.>
Id!)
10
Id
l-J
!•_'
i::

TAHLK OF CONTKXTS.

II. <.>l|';iM';C AM) OXTAIUO

l>iM>i<.s rvn. DisriacTs

.\i:( II i;\s (III Ku/()ic hiMiiii T

CVMUKMS VM, Si,., ,;nCAM,i|M\s |)|„l!,rT ..K S..l,ll-

v«

l'\nK.

KJL'
1(1:'

ifi-J

K\>,I|;N (,Ii i;ii,;c
I'AL.Ko/nir Disriii. r .„. (.,,.;,„, .s„ K.sn.Ks ()n,m;„, ii;
I*i,kist(mi:m: I)|.;r(isr,>

Dlsritlr,' ,.|.- \\k.s,|.;ii.\ (»\taI!I<>

'run I.AI! (\,.VS1-K(TIS OK lMMiM\T„,vs ,v mV. (.ll KIUOC AM.
OmAKIo MciMoNs

Hi:;

I (is

171

J7.'.

14
14
14

ir.
ir>
k;
I'd
-'!

|-_'4

}\>r>

125

ll.'(i
i;;()
j:!.-!
].'!7
];!<»
i4r>

14()
14!t

inn

158

i()i

ill. MANITOIJAN AM) N(.|{TIi\VI.:sT I{E(;i<)N

l'llVM( Al, <;i:(h;1!.\|>||v

<ii;..l..M;v: I'al.'.'c./oic, (J,x.tn,vn„san.l Larai.ii,.

fJi.AciAi. I'liKvoMKNv oi- t;ii; Lai ,!i;nt,an Axis

DlMI-l' I'LATKAI or KasTKIIS MwitoMA

\'ai,i.i:v ASh i'MAiiiiK Lkvki. oi' I, I,; |{,.:,, |{,vi:,;

Si:coM' Pl{AII!IK I'l.AIKAl
KlMiK OK Tllllil. I»I!A||!1K I'l.ATKAl
Tlllltl. l'l!A||;|K IM.ATKAI
TlIK RocKV !\Io, STAINS

iNTKKIoli i{,:,;|oN ,.,u;viOls To TlIK (Jl.AC l\l. I'k|;1o|,
FoliMATIoN OK DlilKT DkI'osITs

TaISI I.AI! CoNsn.:,Tr.S ok FoKMATIONs ,n tIIK MAMn.llAN
AM) NoliTIIWKST Rk(;ion

TV. I'.RlTrsiI COLIMRIAX KKCJION

(ii;\Ki;Ai, Fkatihkn ...

IIOCKV Mor.NTAINS AM. (ioi.li [Ja.NOK
IXTKIilOl! Pl.ATKAC

Co.vsT l^\^(u■;.s

VaNCOI VK,: AM. (,),KKN ClIAIil.OTTK Is|.AM..S
TkUT1.\I!V ivOCK.s ...
PlEI.STOCKXK DkI'OSIT.v

TaIH I.AI! CO.NSKK.TI S ..K TIIK FoiJMATlON.s JN TlIK llUITIMl
CoKl'MlilAX KlUiloX

17(1
I7'l

ISL'

1.S7

ISS
1K'.»

j'td
l!i;;

]!»5

l!t(;
I'.t.s

1!».S
L'OL'

L'dL'

2(».'i
20(;
208
210
211
215
218

222

i'fl

vin

TABLE or CONTHNTS.

V. AllCTTC OR TTf'DSONTAN REfJTOX

(Jknkual (Jkolockai, Stuicti hk

Mackenzh; I^ivf.u am> Aiutic ("oast Distkkt

Hi DsoN I'.AY ..•••••

AlMTIC Alt( III! Kl.\<i(>

(;1!I;TA( r.ol S AM> TKirilAUV nV (il!i;i-,M.AM>

DuiKT DKrnsns

VI. TKKRANOVAX oK NKWFOlNDL AND IIEOIOX

LAlliKMIAN AMI II' ItoMAN . • • •

TAi..K<>Z')It' DkI'OSITS . . . • ■

Pi.f:ist()('knk .••■■■■
APPENDIX

PkINCII-AL MlXKRAL CoNSTmKNTS OF RoCKS

I'AllK.

22;{

227

228
220
230

232

234
235

23(1
23()

I'AIIF..

223
223

227

228
220
230

232
232
234
235

230
236

i\i

■■■ V'-

< V

X K

A\«

1^4

X ^

■v "

^_.V

/x )f

'' H

■V*

" -X*

<1
o

INTRODUCTORY.

Geology, or, as it has been soiiietinies termed. Geognosy, is the scientific
knowledge of the earth ; or more particularly of that rocky crust of the
earth on which its superficial features depend, which afibrds to us mineral
products and soils, on which animals and plants exist, and in which are
preserved the monumental records of tlie changes which our planet has
experienced in past time.

Previous to experience and observation, it might l)e supposed that all
the rocks of the earth's crust are of the same age; but on careful study
we find that this is not the case. On the contrary, the crust is built up
of successive strata or beds deposited one over the other in such a manner
that the upper are the newer and the lower the older. Thus we obtain
a chronology of the rocks. Further, as the successive beds contain remains
of animals and plants which lived at the times when these beds were
deposited, we also obtain a chronology of animal and vegetable life. In
connection with this succession, we can consider the causes of geological
change, whether acting at present or in past time.

Geology may be studied Avith reference to its practical pursuit as a
method of scientific investigation, or with reference to tlie theories of the
earth deducible from its facts, or with reference to its applications to the
arts of life. These several aspects of the subject may be termed —

1. Practical Geology.

2. Theoretical and Dynamical Geology.

3. Applie'l Geology.

The first is that which should engage the attention of the student at the
outset, as being preliminary to the successful cultivation of the others; l)ut
in studying it, reference may be made to its bearings on the second
and third.

2 INTRODUCTION.

Practical geology may be arranged under the following heads : —

(1.) GENERAL.

I. LiTHOLOGY or PETRCiRAriiY — or the study of Bocks as mineral aggre-
gates and as materials composing the earth's crust. Tiiis study is best
carried on with the aid of properly named hand specimens of minerals and
rocks, and is much aided by chemical tests and by the examination of
sections of rocks under the microscope.

II. Pal.eontology — the study of the fossil remains of animals and
plants imbeddeil in the earth's crust, in connection with the succession of
deposits ascertained by stratigraphical investigation. This subject requires
some preliminary knowledge of zoological and botanical classification, and
is studied by comparison of museum specimens and by collecting and
determining fossils.

III. Stratigraphy or Petrology — or the consideration of the
arrangement of the rocky masses of the earth on tlie large scale. This
Suudy requires the aid of maps and sections of the structure of portions
of the earth, and is carried on in nature by the examination of natural
sections, in clitfs, quarries, mines, and other exposures of rocks.

(2.) HISTORICAL.

IV. HisT' aiCAii Geology is the application of the above to the geo-
logical history of the earth, and connects the elements of practical geology
with the theory and applications of the subject.

The first, second and third of these subjects may be regarded as general
and preliminary to the fourth, which includes geology proper. "We shall
therefore first consider the elements of Lithology, Palaeontology and Strati-
graphy, in so far as necessary, and then proceed to the main subject of
Geological History, more especially in relation to Canada.

[In the repTiilar University curriculum the student is supposed to have given some
attention to the elements of Chemistry, Botany and Zoology. He is thus prepared in
the ordinary course in Geology to enter on the study of Lithology, Palajontology, and
Stratigi'aphj' and in the honour course to go more fully into the determination of rocks
and fossils, and into local stratigraphy and descriptive and theoretical geology.]

PART I. GENERAL GEOLOGY.

geo-

I. LITH(JLOGY.*
(1.) Chemistry of Kocks.

Of about seventy elements or simple substances known to clicmistiy,
only sixteen enter into the composition of the more common rocks wliich
constitute nearly the whole of tlie earth's crust. These are, in the order
of their relative importance : —

Non-MdaUic Elements. M'-taVic Elements.

Oxygen. Iron.

Silicon. Aluminium.

Sulphur. Calcium.

Chlorine. Magnesium.

Carbon. Sodium.

Hydrogen. Potassium.

Fluorine. Barium.

Phospjiorus. Manganese.

Of the above, oidy Oxygen, Sulphur, Carbon and Iron can exist in nature
in a pure or uncomlnned state. The more common minerals are all com-
pounds of two or more elements.

Oxij'jen is the most important element in the crust of the earth, since in
the ordinary rocks the other elements almost always occur in combination
with this, as oxides. Thus Silica or Flint is Oxide of Silicon, Alumina
the earth of clay is Oxide of Aluminium, Lime is Oxide of Calcium. The
ordinary ores of Iron are oxides of the metal.

Xext to Oxygen the most important element is Siliam. Coml)ining
with Oxygen this forms Silica, and Silica has the property of combining
with many other elements to form Silicates, which are the most common
constituents of minerals and rocks. Of these Silicates the most abundant

* The term Petrography is sometimes employed for Lithology, but as the similar
term Petrology is also applied by some geologists to Stratigraphy, and as both are
applicable to rocks rather than to hand specimens, it is not so definite as Lithology.

LITHOLOGY.

arc those of AJuininium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and I'otassium ;
and these are variously combined and mixed with one another to constitute
the more complex miiierals and rocks. Silicates sometimes contani water
as an essential constituent, when they are termed Hydrous Silicates.

Other important Oxygen compounds are the Carbonates, Sulphates and
Phosj)/iatfs. Thus Calcium Carbonate is common Limestone, Calcium
Sulphate is Oypsum, and Calcium Phosphate is Apatite or l>one-earth.

Some important constituents of rocks are not Oxides, as Sodium Chloride
or common Salt, Calcium Fluoride or Fluorspar, Iron Bi-Sulphide or
Iron Pyrite.

There is a peculiar group of minerals and rocks of organic origin into
w lich Carbon enters as a principal ingredient. These are the Coals,
At )halt and IJitumcn.

(2.) Mineralogy of

Of the chemical compounds above referr
the majority of rocks are the following : —

1. (^iuartz or Silica.

2. Felspar.

3. :Mica.

4. Hornblende.

5. Pyroxene.

6. Garnet.

7. Chrysolite.

8. Nepheline.

9. Leucite.

10. Talc.

11. Serpentine.

12. Chlorite.

13. Calcite.

14. Dolomite.

15. Gypsum.

16. Apatite.

17. Fluor Spar.

18. Rock Salt.

19. ^lagnetite.

20. Hematite.

21. Limonite.

22. Pyrite.

Rocks.
ed to, those which constitute

Anhydrous Silicates.

Hydrous Silicates.

Carbonates, Sulphate,
Phosphate, Fluoride,
and Chloride.

Oxides and Sulphide
of Iron.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS.

23. Coal.

21. r.itninon and Asphalt.

Carbonaceous Mineral?.

>r). Graphite.

[For the cliaracters and description of the more important of the minerals, see the
aiipondix. If the learner lia.s not iiroviously studied Mineralogy, ho slioidd refer con-
stantly to the descriptions of minerals unknown to him, and should havounopi'urtunity
to examine specimens.]

(3.) Classification and Study ok Rocks.

Some rocks, as ([uartz roc^k and liiiiostonc, iire definite chemical com-
pounds, and consist of one mineral species onl}'; hut even these are often
mixed with foreif,'n matters ; and the greater part of rocks are mixtures
of dillerent mineral .substances in various proportions. As these mixtures
are regulated by no definite law of proportion, it follows that such rocks
pass into each other by indefinite gradations. 1 fence the nomenclature
and classification of rocks are attended with many dilficidties.

For purposes of practical geology it is important to consider the classi-
fication of rocks under three aspects.

1 . With reference to their Ori(iin, rocks may be : —

(a) Aqueous or Sedimmfari/, that is, they may have been deposited as
sediments, as sand, clay, &c., in water, and such deposition may have been
aided or moiliiieil by accumulations of organic matter, as .shells, corals,
vlrifted plants, <kc. Kocks (jf this kind are Coui/lmiifrafi's, or hardened
gravels ; SaiKfutouos, or consolidated sand ; S/m/i'i^, which are compressed
clay ; Limestoneif, which are usually aggregates of .shells, corals, &c., or
fragments of these.

(1)) Lini'ons or Aquro-ignonns — products of the action of heat in the
interior of the earth. Of this kind are lavas, scorife, pumice, and volcanic
ashes.

(c) Metamorphic — that is they may be sediments or volcanic beds which
have been so modified by heat or pressure as to assume' a crystalline con-
dition accompanied, in many cases, by some chemical change. Examples
of these are— Quartzite, produced by the hardening of Sandstone; Crystal-
line Schi.sts, produced from altered clays ; Marble, produceil by the altera-
tion of limestone ; and Graphite and Anthracite, by that of coal.

2. With reference to their Pvf'dominant Chemical Ingredients, rocks
may be regarded as (a) SiUcious, (b) Argillaceous, (c) Calcareous, (d)
Carbonaceous, (e) Ferruginous. The Silicious rocks, which are by far the
most abundant, may further be divided into those that are Acidic or have

6 LITHOLOGY.

an excess of Silica, and those that are JJai^ic or have au excess of the
eleinonts with whicli Silica is combined.

3. With reforence to their Texture, rocks may bo : —

(a) Fraipiieiital, or Clastic, that is, composed of l)roken-up remains of
older ro(;ks. ( )f this kind are conglonierat(fs, sandstone and clay.

(b) Ci'i/xtal/ini', or composed of crystals of one or more minerals united
together. Of this kind are granite and crystalline marble.

The above grounds of classification are of course allied with each other.

Thus friigmcntal rocks are for the most part aqueous. The crystalline

rocks are for the most part of igneous or metamor[»hic origin, though .some,

like gypsum and rock salt, are a(iueous, AVe may thus adopt one of the

above arrangements as the dominant or general one, and use the others in

sulwrdination to it; and the first consideration or that of origin is pro-

liably at present the most available for the larger groups. Our general

division of rocks may therefore be as follows : —

Class I. ] . , 1. ^^ [ (1) Vulcanic or Superficial.

Igneous Rocks, j ° ( (2) Plutonic or Nether.

Class II. ). , ,. r (1) Unaltered.
y including J ^ '
Aqueous Rocks. ) ( (2) Altered or Metainorijhic.

The Plutonic rocks correspond in the main with the" Intrusive" rocks,

properly .so called, and the Volcanic with the "Ell'usive " or lavas proper.

The riutonic rocks are in structure holocrystalline. The Volcanic are

usually partly vitreous or compact.

CLA.SS I.— IGNEOUS ROCKS.

Section 1. Volcanic.

These are superficial products of Igneous action. All of them are
Silicates, having usually Aluminium, Calcium and Magnesium as the
principal bases. They may be divided into sul)-sections, in accordance
with the proportions of acid and base ; those containing less than 60 per
cent, of Silica, being called Basic, and those with more than 60 per cent.
Acidic. Some lithologists also distinguish Intermediate and Sub-acid
rocks having 60 to 65 per cent, of Silica, and Ultra-basic rocks containing
less than 45 per cent.

Sub-Section 1. basic volcanic rocks.
Doleritic Lava is poured forth in a mcjlten state by modern volcanoes, and consists
of Pyroxene with basic Felspars. It generally presents a vesicular or scoriaceous

IGNKOUS ROCKS.

aplifaraiice, caused by the expansion of inchuliid vapours and «ases, and it lias usually
a dark colour, becoming reddish or yellow on weathering, owing to the presence of
iron in low states of oxidati<in, (Protoxide, Magnetite and llnienite.) In ancient lavas
the vesicles often boconit filled by aqueous iutiltration with various niinernJs, when
the texture of the rock is said to bo Amiigdal-iiilal.

lifinitU is a dark-coloured finely crystalline compact lava, which often exhibits
cohuunar structure. Meldjihi/vc is a variety more crystalline than I'asalt.and presents
a transition to the true Diabase of the Plutonic group. Andt»itc is a variety contain
ing Hornblende. Leucitic and Peridotic lavas contain crystals of Leucite and ( )livine.

Sub-section 2. acidic volcanic hocks.

Tfaehiitic Lava is a light-coloured lava containing an excess of Silica, and produced
by volcanoes in the same manner with ordinary lava. It is vesicular, and when highly
so passes into Pumice. The name Hhi/olitc is given to those highly acidic Trachytes
having an excess of cpiartz.

Trarhi/tc is a more compact rock of the same character, consisting chiefly of ortho-
clasp, usually with a little hornblende and mica. When quartz is present it becomes
Quart:-tmrlii/te. It is more or less finely crj'stalline, and sometimes has imbedded
crystals of orthoclase felsjjar, giving it tiie texture known as jinrit/iyritic.

Obsidian and Pilchstonc are volcanic glasses of similar composition to trachyte but
vitreous in texture.

Volcanic Agglomerate and Volcauic Tuff are fragniental deposits made up of the
stones and dust ejected from volcanic orifices. Their materials may either be those of
the basic or acidic lavas or a mixture of both. Tiioy are strictly volcanic rocks, though
their materials are often arranged in beds and subseciuently consolidated by the action
of water.

Section 2. Plutonic.

These are the nether or underlying products of igneous action. Being
slowly cooled they are more hi.ghly crystalline than the rocks of the
previous section, and having been consolidated at great depths below the
surface, they do not become visiljle till after the removal of the more
superficial volcanic products. Hence the rocks of this section visible
at the surface, are usually of greater age than the volcanic rocks.

Sub-section 1. BASIC Plutonic uocks.

Diabase consists of the same material with Doleritic lava and Basalt, and passes
into it; but is usually mucii more coarsely crj'stalline. It often contains hydrous
minerals, as chlorite. Gabbro is a name applied to a variety of Diabasic rock in which
Pyroxene occurs in the form of Diallage. The Pcridotitcs are ultra-basic Plutonic
rocks with a large proportion of Olivine,

iJioritc or Greenstone is a crystalline mixture of Hornblende, usually dark coloured
or greenish, with a triclinic felspar. This and the jirevious rock present great varieties
of coarse and fine crystallization. The Diorites with fibrous hornblende are supposed
to be altered Dolerites, Those with massive and usually dark-coloured hornblende
are the true Diorites.

Syenite is a crystalline mixture of Hornblende and Orthoclase or Potash Felspar,
It may be regarded as a sub-acid rock, and by the addition of Quartz it becomes an
caidic rock and passes into Hornblendic Granite,

■•»>

LITHOU)fJY.

Sulj-Hcction 2. Acinic plitonio rocks.

Ontnitc is a crystiilliin' niixt.ui'f of l^'clspar (OitlioclMni', nr AUiitc) with (^)uartz and
Mica, It may 1)0 ciiarnn or HiU! ((raiiird, and Noniutinicit heciiinei* pnriiiiyiitic liy the
adniixturu of largo folnpar cryntalH. J/ornhUiidic or Si/ciiitic Grunilc containn Hnin-
Monde with nr instead nf .Mica, /'I'lilni/ine cimtix'mH Talc as well as Mica. Ora/iliic
Gntiiiti is a hinary variety fnund in veins, it is dostitnte uf mica, and has the
quart/, arranged in platoM in accordanco with the cleavage of the felspar,

Fthitc is a hard, finely crystalline or compact mixtun! of Felspar and ',|iiart/.. It
is Hometimus called J'drnni/ex and Fchtone. When distinct crystals of orthoclase
Felsjiar are developed in it the pori>hyritic texture is produced. This is ordinary or
FclnUc pur/ilti/rii, but other igneous rocks may assume the iiori)hyritic structure.

The above are only a few of the more ordinary ignecjiis rocks, which should bo
known to the student by specimens, and if jiossible also by their microscopic structure.

The natmv of i^'iiooiis rorks leads u.s to iiii|uiro as to the (Icep-scuted
sources, luidei' the superticial crust, from wliidi f hey come. Tlic fact that
igneous rocks are very generally ilistrihuted over the earth's surface, so
that few largo regions are destitute of them, proves that the sources of
such material must bo very widely spread, if not universal. The further
fact that igneous rocks are in all parts of the world of the same general
character, shows in like manner that their origin is in general and uniform
"magmas "or pasty sheets of more or less uniform heated and plastic
matter, spread under the crust. Lastly, the fact that in every region the
igneous rocks are of both groups, the basic and the acidic, shows that
both kinds of material exist, and to some extent separate from each other,
under all parts of the crust. These great facts have important liearings
on our notions of the interior of the earth, and on the origin of igneous
rocks, which may lie foi'nulated as follows : —

(1.) Since the dawn (Ji geological science, it has been evident that the
crust on which we live must be supported on a plastic or partially liquid
mass of heated rock, approximately uniform in ([uality under the whole
of its ivrea. This is a legitimate conclusion from the wide distriliution of
volcainc phenomena, ami from the fact that the ejections of volcanoes,
while locally of various kinds, are similar in every part of the world. It
led to the old idea of a fluid interior of tlie earth, but this is now generally
abandoned, and this interior heated and plastic layer is regarded as merely
an under-crust.

(2.) We have reason to believe, as the result of astronomical investi-
gations, that, notwithstanding the plasticity or licpiidity of the under-
crust, the mass of the earth — its nucleus as we may call it — is practically
solid and of great density and hardness. Thus we have the ajjparent
paradox of a solid yet fluid earth ; solid in its astronomical relations, liquid
or plastic for the purposes of volcanic action and vuperficial movements.

lONKOUS ROCKH.

lionney hns also 8Ug<,'esU'il the iniportnnt considi-ratiou that a mass may
be HK)\vly inubile under loiij,' contimu'il pressure, while yet rigid with refer-
ence to mure sudden movements. An ()l)jf(jti(>n has been taken to tho
eflt'ct that the 8iipi»isi'd •■llipsoidai form of the cipiator is iiironsistcnt
with a plastic suit-crust. I'.ut the cxislunce of this ellipsoidal form is
not absolutely (-ertain, or, if it exists, tho divergence from the circular
form is very minute.*

(3.) The plastic sub-crust is not in a state of dry igneous fusion, but in
that condition of acpieo-igneous or hydro-thermic fusion which arises from
the action of heat on moist substances, ami which may either be regarded
as a fusion or as a spimies of solution at a very high tetiiporature. This
we learn from the phenomena of volcanic action, and from the conqxisition
(if the volcanic and plutonic rocks, as well as from such chemical
experiments as those of Daubree, and of Tilden and Shenstonc.

(4.) The interior sub-crust is not perfectly homogeneous, but may be
roughly divided into two layers or magmas ; an upper, highly siliceous or
acidic, of low specific gravity, and light-cnlourod, and corresponding to
such kinds of plutonic and volcanic rocks as granite and trachyte ; and
a lower, less siliceous or more basic, more dense, and more highly charged
with inm, and corresponding to such igneous rocks as the dolerites, basalts,
and kindred lavas. It is interesting here to note that this conclusion,
elaborated by Durochcr and Von Walterhauson, and usually connected
with their names, appears to have bei'U first announced by.Iohn Phillips,
in his " .Manual of (jeology,"and as a mere common-sense deductidu from
the observed phenomena of volcanic action, and the probable results of
the gradual cooling of the earth. It receives striking confirmation from
the observed succession of acidic and basic volcanic rocks of all geological
periods, and in all localities. It wnuld even seem, from recent spectro-
scopic investigations of Lotkyer, that there is evidence of a similar suc-
cession of magmas in the heavenly l)odies, and tho discovery by
Xordenskiold of native iron in Greenland ba.salts, affords a proljability
that the inner magma is in part m(;tallic.f

* Hoiikins, Mallet, Sir Williiuu TiiDnison, anit Prof. (I. H. I)arwin maintain the
solidity und rigidity of the earth (in astroniiniical grounds; but different conclusions
have been reached by Hennesey, Delaunay, and Airy. In America, Hunt, Barnard
and Crosby, Dutton, LeConteand Wadsworth have discussed these questions.

t These basalts occur at Ovifak, Greenland. Andrews has found small particles
of iron in British basalts. Prestwich and Judd iiave referred to the bearing on general
geology of these facts, and of Lockyer's suggestions.

LITHOLOGY.

(5.) AVliere rents or fissures form in tlie unper crust, the material of the
lower crust is forced upwards by the pressure of the less supported por-
tions of tlie former, giving rise to volcanic phenomena either of an
explosive or quiet character, as may be determined by contact with water.
The underlying material may also be carried to the surface by the agency
of heated Avater, producing those quiet discharges which Hunt has named
crenitic. There can be little doubt that the weight of the crust pressing
downward on the interior magmas, especially in places where cracks or
folds have caused unequal pressure, is tiie cause of the ejection of molten
rocks, which may thus be forced upward into fractures, forming dykes, or
pressed between the beds, forming igneous floors or LaccoJifhs, or may be
raised to the craters of volcanoes and caused to flow over as currt i.s of
lava. All this may go on (quietly, but where water in a superheated state
is intimately mixed with the molten rock, and is prevented l)y pressure
from passing into vapour, or when water is introduced into the ascending
lava from porous beds, or from fissures communicating with the sea, the
sudden evaporation of the water produces tremendous explosions. Thus
gravitative pressure is the cause of (juiet ejections of volcanic products,
the explosion of steam is the cause of the more violent phenomena. It is
to be observed here that explosive volcanic phenomena, and the formation
of cones, are, as Prestwich has well remarked, characteristic of an old and
thickened crust ; quiet ejection from fissures and hydro-thermic action
may have been more common in earlier ^leriods and with a thinner
over-crust.

Active volcanic phenomena are not now manifested within the
Dominion! of Canada ; but igneous rocks of all ages from the Laurentian
to the Pliocene exist in various portions of its area, and will be noticed
in connection with the aqueous rocks of the iieriods to which they
belong, and with reference to the classification and principles above
stated.

Igneous rocks are to be studied with reference to their crystalline,
vitreous or fragmental condition, their various constituent and accidental
minerals, the changes to which they have been subjected by subse(iuent
decomposition, or from the injection of aqueous materials in solution, and
the crushing or lamination which may have been induced by pressure
after their consolidation.

del
cla
sail
in.i

Class II.— AQUEOUS ROCKS.
Section 1. Unaltered Aqueous Rocks.

TluiSu may be produced either by the niechanicfxl distribution of sedi-
ment in water, by chemical precipitation, or by tlie accumulation of the
remains of animals nud plants. Processes of these kinds are now going
on, and must have been in operation throughout geological time. Crystal-
line rocks have been undergoing decay, whereby their grains and crystals
of (juartz have been separated as sand, while their felspathic or horn-
blendic material has been decomposed into clay, marl. Sec. The sui'f on
coasts, and running water on the land, have been grinding rocks iiito
pebbles ; corals and shells have been accumulating as beds of limestone
in the sea. IJy such processes the immense sheets of aqueous rock Pi)read
over our continents have been slowly accumulated, so that they now pre-
sent an ag<,a'egate thickness wliich has been estimated at 70,000 feet,
or more. The ways in which they have been elevated from their original
sub-aqueous position, disturbed from their horizontal attitude, and
hardened and altered, will be considered under a subsequent heading.
The principal kinds are the following : —

Conylumcmte conaiHta of pebbles of hard, usually .silicious, rocks, united by a paste
or cement which may be silicious, argillaceous, calcareous or ferruginous. Con-
gl<inierates are Ijeds of gravel, and they indicate the s(/nie\vhat jiowerful action of
water as an abrading and removing agent. They have often been formed along old
lines of coast, and are consequently irregular in their bedding and limited in their
horizontal distribtition. The terms Vulcanic Breccia and A(j!/lomcratc are applied to
rocks comjiosed of angular fragments. Volcanic agglomerate has already been refer-
red to ; but besides this, Breccias are accumulated by aqueous agencies in caves and
fissures, and are also derived from the debris of hard rocks disintegrated by frost, and
spread out by water without rounding the edges of the fragments.

Grit is a rock composed of coarse sand or small stones, and is intermediate between
the last rock and the ne.\t.

Saitdstune is composed of grains of sand, more or less fine, and eitiier angular or
rounded, cemented together. When mixed with clay it becemes argillaceous sand-
stone. When cemented by carbonate of lime it becomes calcareous sandstone Its
grains are often superficially stained of red or brown colotu's by the oxide of iron.
Freestone is a term apjilied to the softer and more easily worked sandstones ; Flwjstonc
to the laminated varieties. The harder varieties pass into Qnnrtzite. Grecnsand is a
varietj' coloured by grains of the hydrous silicate named glauconite. Sandstones with
the surfaces of bedding and lamination covered with |>lates of mica are micaceous
sandstones.

Shale is hardened clay or mud, having a laminated texture, due either to original
deposition in layers or to subsequent pressure. On the one hand it passes into soft
clay, on the other by metamorphism into slate. Arenaccovs fhale is mixed with fine
sand and passes into sandstone. Carbonaceous sha/c is mixed and blackened with coaly
matter, Bitumitious skale or Pi/roschist is impregnated with bituminous matter.

flO -^

LITHOLOGY.

Calcareous shale contains limestone in a fine state of division, and effervesces with an
acid. FlrecUtii is a soft variety rendered infusible by the iibseiicu of alkaline matter.
It is often associated with beds of coal. Kaolin is a fine clay resultin;^ from the
decomposition of felspar. Loess is the alluvial mud deposited in lakes and rivers.
Loam is a mixture of sand and clay.

Conglomerates, sandstones and shales are typically clastic or fragmental rocks, and
in studying them we h > .'e to c(msider the nature and origin of their constituent pebbles
and grains, the amount of abrasion or decomposition to which these have been sub-
jected, the nature of the cementing material, if any, wliich lias been deposited in their
interstices and binds them together, and the changes whicii they have experienced
from heat or pressure.

Limcsldiir includes all the unaltered rocks composed of calcium carbonate, or calcite.
It is distinguislied by its softness as compared with fpiartz and most of trie silicious
stones, and by effervescing with an acid. It may be earthy, ccmijiact, crystalline,
massi\'e or laminated in structure ; or with reference to matters mixed with it,
argillaceous, l)ituminous, ferruginous, orcliorty. Oolite is a variety conqiosed of minute
rounded concretions, whicli often show under the microscope a radiating prismatic
structure as well as concentric lamin.ation. Travertin or Calcareous Tufa is a lime-
stone deposited by calcareous springs. Stalactite ■ .d Stalaijmitc are similar matter
deposited on the roofs and Hoors of caverns. By mixture with fragments of limest(me
or of bone. Stalagmite may become a calcareous or bone Breccia.

Coral and Shell Limestone and Criiioidal Limedone, or more generally Orfianic Lime-
stones, are composed of fragments of calcareous organisms, sometimes api)areut to the
eye, in other cases visible only under the microscope. Ciialk is an organic limestone
made up of tests of Foraminifera mixed with the miimte organic boilies named
Coccoliths.

Dnioiiiitc is a double calcium and magnesium carbonate. It may be distinguished
from common limestones by its higher hist re, slightly greater weigiit, failure to etfervesce
with cold acid, and by often weathering of a rusty colour, in consequence of the presence
in it of ferrous carbonate.

Marl is an earthy mixtiu'e of calcium carbonate with clay or sand. The calcareous
matter is sometimes in a fine state of division and sometimes as fragments of shells
(shell marl). Marl is distinguished from ordinary clay by effervescing briskly wiien
treated witli an acid.

Gii/isum, or Calcium .Sulphate, is of less connnon fjccurrence than limestone, but
sometimes constitutes thick beds of great purity. Anh'idrite is often associated with
the ordinary hydrous variety.

Coal and carbonaceo\is rocks will be referred to under the iieadins of Minerals in
the Appendix.

Iron ores will also be noticed under the same heading.

Section i'. ]\lETAMO"iPHic Kocks.

These are rocks originally aqueous or aqaeo-iyneou.=!, which have been
i^uhjocted to the action of heat and pres-surc, along with chemical agencies,
until their particles have so rearranged themselves as to give a crystalline
character accompanied by dillcrences in the state of combination of the
contained elements.

The metamorphic rocks are intermediate in character between the
unaltered aqueou.s and the plutonic series. On the one hand they pa.ss

METAMORPHIC ROCKS.

■?

into onlinary aiiueous rocks, on the other by bocomiiif,' hi,L,'hly crystallino
and losing their original bedding, they graduate into plutonic rocks. The
principal varieties of these metamorphosed rocks are the following : —

Qnarfzite or Quaiiz Rock is a result of the alteration of sandstone, whereby its grains
of sand become insei)arable and sometimes indistinguishable.

(hicisn is a product of the alteration of sodimontH containing .sutticient basic matter
for the iiroduction of Felspar and Hornblende or mica. It thus resembles granite in
composition, and is distinguished by its laminated structure and stratified arrange-
ment, ^lany gneisses may have originally been Ijedded trachytes or volcanic tutfs.

AvyUHU- or Clay Slate is a product of the alteration and hardening of clay or shale.
It is remarkable for the development in it of slaty structure, wiiich arises from the
forcing by lateral pressure, of all flat i>articles in a soft mass into jiositions in which
tliey lie at right angles to the direction of pressure. In this way the most perfect
lamination is often i)roduced in planes quite different from those of bedding.

Mica Schist is a crystalline mixture of Quartz and Mica. It is a product of tlie alter-
ation of shales. It often contain.s disseminated minerals, as pyrite, garnet, staurolite,
or chiastolite. By addition of felspar it passes into gneiss. By increase of quartz it
becomes micaceous quartzite or quartz schist, and by diminution of its crystalline
character it passes into Argillite.

Hornblende Schist is a laminated mixture of hornblende with quartz, and sometime.'s
witl) mica.

Talc Schid is a slaty rock in which Talc takes the place of Mica.

Chlorite Schist is a similar slaty rock consisting largely of that mineral.

Nacreous or Hydro-mica Schist is a name which has been given to crystalline slates
in which a hydrous Mica takes the place of the ordinary Mica.

Marble or Crystalline Limestone and Crystalline Dolomite include the varieties of
these rocks in which a perfect crystallization and often a white colour have been
developed by metamorphism. Ophiolite is a marble containing grains or streaks and
patches of Serpentine.

Anthracite and Graphite result from the alteration of Coal or of bituminous matter.
Thus ordinary coal passes, under alteration, into anthracite, and finally, in certain
cases, into graphite, and bituminous shales pass into graphitic slates.

Magnetite is very often a product of the metamorphism of ores consisting of the
sesquioxide of iron.

Local metamorphism can often be observed at the contact of a(iueous
rocks with the larger igneous masses, and a study of these cases allbrds a
key to the explanation of those larger examples in which no obvious
cause of alteration is present. Metamorphism is induced or favoured by
heat, by pressure, and by the percolation of heated and mineral waters;
and rocks of complex character and containing basic and acidic minerals
intermixed are those which present the most remarkable metamorphic
changes. Such rocks have abounded more especially in the oldest rock
formations, and in those partly made up of igneous ejections. At the
same time the older deposits and those near to igneous foci have been the

LITHOLOGY.

most exposed to int'taniorphic ayencies. Hence certain niotaniorphic or
crystalline rocks are characteristic of the older formations, though not
absolutely confined to them.

Fife'. 1.

Metamorphic rock (Gneiss) intersected by Igneous dykes. Lake of the Woods. (l)
Red Felspar, (ii) Greenish Diorite. (in) Hornblendic Diorite. (iv) Red Granite.
(G. M. Dawson.)

Scale — feet to an inch.

The conclusions of geologists have from time to time varied greatly as
to the causes and extent of Metamorphism of rocks. These differences
of opinion have, however, like many similar disputes, been to some extent
subjective rather than objective, and have depended on the capacity of
observers to comprehend the phenomena which they have studied.

As to the facts, the conversion of woody matter into Anthracite, and
Graphite, and finally into Diamond, the change of ordinary organic lime-

METAMORPHIC ROCKS.

stones into crystalline limestones, with various disseminated minerals con-
tained in them, the change of sand into quartziie, of clay into micaceous
schists, and many similar metamorphoses are so common and well known
that they cannot be disputed. Such changes may refer either to crystal-
lization of rocks not previously crystalline, to recombination of the ingre-
dients of originally elastic or organic rocks, or to the introduction of new
minevid substances by water or in vapour, and the consequent develop-
ment of disseminated minerals whose materials Avere not previously pre-
sent. The first of these is what Bonney has called ^letastasis, or changes
of position of molecules. The others come under the name Metacrasis,
or changes of combination. What has been called ]Metliylosis, or change
of substance, is altogether exceptional, and not to be credited, except on
the best evidence, or in cases where volatile matters have been expelled,
as in the change of htematite into magnetite, or of bituminous coal into
anthracite.

As to the causes of such metamorphic effects they are to be sought in
the action of internal heat, aided by heated waters, along with enormous
pressure cither vertical or lateral. Local examples show the efficacy of
these causes on a limited scale, and enable them to be applied to the
larger areas of metamorphosed rocks, or to the phenomena of what has
been called Rcjional as distinguished from Local j\Ietamorphism. In
connection with this, it is to be observed that the facts already stated in
connection with igneous rocks show that the lower and older portions of
the stratified crust must have been subjected for long periods to the con-
tact of heated magm is in the under-crust, and to the action of heated
water and the mineral matter contained therein under intense pressure.
"We shall also find farther on that the earlier stratified rocks are of small
relative thickness, and have been crumpled and folded by lateral pressure
in such a manner as to produce changes of their t xture, and also to sub-
ject them to the action of heat and heated waters under different con-
ditions from those which would have applied to them when horizontal.

The study of metamorphic rocks, whether in hand specimens or under
the microscope, involves a combination of the questions and methods
already referred to under igneous and unaltered aqueous rocks ; and this
complexity causes it to be a subject of greater difficulty. A glance at the
geological map, or at any of the general sections of Canadian rocks in this
volume, will show that a(|ueous rocks, Avhether unaltered or metamorphic,
largely predominate over the surface of Canada as in all the larger areas
of our continents.

LITHOLOGY.

Slicing Rocks and Fossils fob the Microscope.

The aid of the microscope is invaluable in examining rocks of mo.st kinds, and
especiiilly tiiose that are crystalline. They may be studied as tipaque objects or in thin
flakes broken off with a hannuer, but much better in thin slices prepared by a skilful
lapidary, or which the student may prepare for himself as follows : —

Slicin),' and i)olishing machines may be ))nrchased in London or Berlin, or a lathe
may bo converted into a Lapidary's wheel.*

If not provided with uuch a machine, the lithologist may use the following
method: —

A cast iron plate should be procured about inches square ; two ])ieces of glass
of the same size ; a Water-of-Ayr stone; coarse and tine emery and putty powder ;
glass slides, covering glass and Canada balsam for mounting the specimens.

Chips are then broken off the rock to be examined with a small hannuer. They
should be about half an inch in diameter, and as thin as possible. One side of a chip
is ground flat on an iron plate with emery and water. To facilitate this the chip may,
if desired, be cemented with a cement made of resin and bees' wax to a jjiece of wood.
When one side has been ground flat, the chip is washed and the surface is then polished
on the glass plate with flour of emery, or on the Water-of-Ayr stone. When quite
polished the chip is again washed, and its flat side is now cemented with hard Canada
balsam, or with melted lac to a strip of glass, and the other side is ground till the
chill becomes transparent or translucent, when it can be washed and examined with
the microscope when moist and covered with a thin glass. If not sufficiently thin, it
can be farther reduced with putty pewder on glass, or on the Water-of-Ayr stone.
Care is reqinred in the last stage lest the chijj be altogether ground away. Practice
will soon give the recpiired nicety of touch, even if there be some failures at first. It
will be best to begin v.' th rocks not too hard, brittle or opaque.

The chip having been reduced to a transparent film, may be warmed and covered
with balsam, or with balsam dissolved in ether, and a thin glass cover applied to it and
a label gummed on and marked. If, however, it is desired to have neat slides, the
balsam may be softened by heat and the thin film of rock slipped off to a clean elide on
which it may be mounted in balsam.

To determine the minerals in the rock, the microscope should be furnished with a
polariscope of two Nichol's prisms. For special lithological research, microscopes fur-
nished with many appliances are now made ; but for ordinary purposes any good work-
ing microscope furnished with a polariscope will suffice.f

The above directions apply equally to fossils, except that of these it is usually
desirable to have two or three slices in different directions. In the case of fossil
woods, for example, we require a transverse slice and two longitudinal, one radial and
one tangential.

Fig.

* Cotton &, Jordan, Grafton St., Soho ; Cottell, 52 New Compton St., Soho : Fuess,
Berlin. The latter makes small and cheap maciiinery. Cutting Discs are made by
Ken, 35 Westminster street. Providence, R. I.

t The best books on Microscopic Lithology are those of Zirkel and Rosenbusch,
(German) ; and Rutley, " The Study of Rocks."

II. PAL/EONTOLOGY.

(1.) PllESERVATION OF OuOANIC REMAINS.

This depeiiils in the first instance on the accidental imbedding of
animals and plants or of portions of them, in deposits in process of forma-
tion, or on the accumulation of the remains of animals am! plants on the
surfaces on which they live, aS for example of shells and corals on the sea
bottom, or of vegetable matter in bogs and swamps. In one or other of
these ways most aqueous deposits become more or less charged with
organic remains. These are sometimes entire and sometimes fragment-
ary, and as already stated some beds contain so great abundance of organic
fragments that they may be regarded as orgjinic rocks. Often, however,
the presence of organic fragments can be detected only by the lens or
the microscope. (Pigs. 2, 3.)

r~.,,,- X, 7',' . ;', Yo},'/

Pig. 2.— Fine grained Trenton limestone, Montreal, showing organic fragments x 10.

Fig. 3.— Chazy Limestone, Island of Montreal, showing fragments of sheila and
Stenopora x 10.

Organic remains may occur in an unchanged condition or only more or
less altered by decay. This is often the case with such enduring sub-
stances as shells, corals, bones and wood, especially in the more recent

rAL.EONTOLOGY.

deposits, in whicli such remains occur little modified or iterhaps only
sliglitly changed by partial decay of their more perishable parts, as, for
in.stance, of the animal matter of bones. In the older formations, how-
ever, organic remains arc usually found in a m<n'e or less mineralized con-
dition, in which their original sul)staiice has been wholly or in part replaced
by mineral matter, or has been chemically chiuiged. The more important
of these changes are the following : —

(a) Injiltvatiou of mineral matter which has penetrated the pores of the
fossil in a state of solution. Thus the pores of fossil wood are often tilleel
with calcite, (piartz, oxide of iron or sulpiiide of iron, while the woody
walls of the cells and vessels remain in a carbonizeil state. (Fig. 4.)
Bones, shells and corals in like manner have their cavities Idled with
mineral matter, and are rendered hard and heavy thereby. In the sea
bottom the filling material is not infre([uently composed of Glauconite or
other hydrous silicates. (Fig. 5.) We .sometimes fnd on nucroscopic
examination that even cavities so small as those of vegetal)le cells and
vessels have been Idled with successive coats of ditl'erent kinds of mineral
matter.

g^aSS s

Fig, 4.— Discigenis tissue (a, h), wx\A Scalnrifnnn tissue (c) from carbonized plants of
the Devonian systeiu, liiglily magnified.

(b) Organic matters may be entirely ri'plarcd by nuneral substances.
In this case the cavities and pores have been first tilled, and then, the
walls or solid parts being removed by decay or s(jlution, mineral matter
either similar to that tilling the cavities or differing in colour or com-
position, has been introduced. Silicitied wood and silicified corals often
occur in this condition. In the case of corals and similar calcareous
structures included in limestone, it sometimes happens that the Avails of
the corals are siliciiied while the cells are filled with limestone. Fossils
thus preserved often appear with great distinctness projecting from the
weathered surfaces of the containing rock. (Fig. 0.) In the case of
silicitied wood, it sometimes happens that the cavities of the fibres have
been filled with silica and the wood has been afterwards removed by decay,

rHi;SKRVATI()N OK ()K(!ANIC IIKMAINS.

leaving' the cftsts of tlio tul)ular tiltics as a loosn tilaineutous suljstance.
Th(? iiioro important of the foregoing nioclos of iircscrvation are re; pro son tod

in Fig. 7.

j.'ig. 5, —Joint of 11 Crimml tiaving tlic pores fillod witli a liy<ltons silicate allied tcv
(Jlauconite. UppiT Silurian, New Brunswick. Ma^'nitiiid.

(M'ff

Fig. C. — Silicified dinils, Pch'aia j)il;i»lfii, and crinoidal
joints wcatliercd out on a limestone surface.
(After r.illings.)

Fib'. 6.

i\ i;

!• •

•tr'- r»

HIM

f
t
t

I IK" t

\^Mum

Fig. 7.— Sections of part of a cell of a Tabulate Coral in different state.s of [)reservation.

(a) Cell-wall calcite, cavity enii>ty.

('/) Cell-wall calcite, cavity filled with the same.

((•) Cell-wall calcite, cavity filled with silica or a silicate.

((/) Cell-wall replaced by silica, cavity tilled with calcite.

(f) Cell-wall replaced by silica, cavity tilled with silica.

(c) Tlio substanco of organic roinain.s may '"c wholly ronioved, h'-avitig
more moulds or iniprc^^sions of thoir external forms, or perlnips nionkls of
tlio external forms ami casts of the interior.'!. This frequently occurs ou
the surfaces of rocks, where for example calcareous fossils have been
weathered out from a harder matrix, but it also occurs in the interior of

paL/Kont()L()(;y.

porous l)(.'(l.s, owin^' to tlu; solution (»f the fossils by iicrcolatiiij,' waters.
In tlio case of fossils in tins state, it is always noccssary to consider
wliother the impression ol)serve(l is that of the true exterior surface, of an
inner layer, or of an interior cavity.

(d) The cavities left l)y fossils which have decayed
may lie (iiled with clay, sand or othei ;'ore'^'n matter,
and this lieconiin^' suhsecpicntly hardened into stone
may constitute a cast of the fossils. Trunks of trees,
roots, tVc , are often pr(!served in this way, appearinj;
as stony casts, often with tin; outer haik of tlie plant
forniini,' a carbonaceous coating on their surfaces.
(Fi- 8.)

Fig. 8. - Trunk nf Hi^jillaiia ri'iirescnted \>y .i HaiKlstDiio cast of
the interior iif the bark. Coal formation of Nova Scotia.
Keduced.

I'-ig. 8.

Fossils preserved in the two li st modes usually shew more or less of
their minute structures under the microscope. These imiy be observed,
(1) By Ijreaking off snndl splinters or Hakes and examining them either as
oiwque or as transparent objects. {'2) IJy treating the material with aciils,
so as to dissolve out the mineral matters or portions of them. This
method is applicable to some fossil woods, silicified corals, iV'c. (3) jiy
grinding thinst!ctions. These are first jiolished on one face, then attached
to glass slips by a transparent cement or Canada balsam, and ground until
they become so thin as to be translucent. (8ee p. IG.)

In the movements to which rocks have been sid)jected, fossils have
often been distorted by pressure, whether vertical (U' lateral. Thus
truidcs of trees originally round have been llattened by the vertical com-
pression of the beds, and where lateral piessure has allected the contain-
ing rocks, shells and other fossils have been shortened, lengthened or
distorted oljliipiely. (Fig. 9.)

Fig. 9. — Spirifev Nictarcn.iin, Lower Erian of Xova Scotia, (aj Shortened, and (h)
lengthened, by distortion, in the direction of ilie arrow. (Acadian tJeologj-. )

IMIKSKIIVATION OF ORGANIC REMAINS.

Ichniti'ii or fossil footprints and sinnliir nmrkiiij^s constitut(3 a peculiar
ami sometimes inturcstin;^ kind of fossils. Animals walking,' over mudtly
shores may leave impressions, wliidh luMiig partially hard(!ned liy the air
and sun, may not he ol)literatt'd l)y the succeeding deijosits of sand or
mud. Once .so covca'cd uji, they remain for an indclinitc time, and if the
l)eds be hardened into stone, tht^ footprints appear distinctly as llui layers
are removed hy the ([uarrymen. In this way the footprints of some land
aninnds, not known to us Ity other renuxins, have l)oen preserved, and
important information has been ol)tained as to their athnities and habits.
(Fig. 10.)

Fig. 10.— Footprints of a Batr.ichian (Sauropux,) in iii)i)le ni.arked Sandstone. Coal
field of Cape Breton.

Not only land iinimals, ])ut a(iuatic creatures, as fishes, crustaceans,
worms and mollusks, have left impressions and trails on the surfaces of
beds, and these though less definite than tlu; footprints of land animals,
are of some importance as fossils. Such impressions have sometimes been
mistaken for fossil plants ; but they can be distinguished by the absence
of carbonaceous matter, by their close connection with the substance of the
containing beds, by their being in relief on the under side of the beds,
and by their forms. (Fig. 11.)

The geological observer in examining any section or exposure of rocks,
while noting all the facts respecting stratigraphical arrangement and

PAL.f:ONT()LO(JY.

rolations, ciirofiilly collects tin; fosailH of ciich bod, and lalwlb tlioni in such
a mann(!i' that thi'ir order of succession can ho preserved. The study of
these fossils may ho expected to aflord important information resiKH;ting
the aj,'e antl conditions of deposition of the l)eds. Siioidil the ol)st'rver
not possess the special kiiowlc(lj,'c necessary to int('rpr(!t the fossils
obtained, he has recourse to iiakeontolo^'ical specialists, either experienced
in the fossils of the formation in (juestion, or of the groups of animals or
plants represented in the collections.

Fig. 11.— Tracks jjrobably of a Crustacean (Kusic/niitcii) in relief on under side of slab.
Coal formation of Cape Breton.

The most abundant and cliaracteristic fossils available to the
palfBontologist are those of acpiatic animals, liaving hard shells, crusts or
cells. Thus practically the most important elementary knowledge of the
study of fossils is that relating to the characters of invertebrate animals,
and especially those of the sea. The student should therefore have some
familiarity with this subject, and should have for reference some good
zoological text-book, and if possible some work on the special palaBontology
of the district or formation he may be studying.

In some geological formations, especially the middle and newer members
of the geological series, a knowledge of vertebrate animals becomes
important ; while in others, as the coal-formation, an acquaintance with
fossil plants is necessary.

MOST IMPORTANT CLASSES. 23

(2.) Classes op Animals most imi-outant in Pal-kontolooy.

Tlie following tal)lo iiulicates tho groups of aniiimis nio <t imixf 't
to 1)e known in connection with the stiuly of fossils : —

rnoTozoA.

1. RhizopoJs Foranianifnra Polycistina.

2. Porifcra Sponges.

COELENTEllATA.

3. Hydiozoa Graptolites, S'jrtularians, &c.

4. Antliozoa Coral Animals.

ECniNOUERMATA.

5. Crinoidea CrinoiJa, or Feather-stars.

6. Asteroitlea Star-fishes.

7. Echinoidea Sea-urchins.

8. Ilolothuridea Sea-slugs, &c.

MOLLUSCA.

9. Polyzoa Sea mats, &c.

10. Brachiopoda Lamp-shells, &c.

11. Lamellil)ranchiata Ordinary bivalves.

12. Gasteropoda Snails and their allies.

13. Cephalopoda Nautili, Cuttlefishes, &c.

ANNULATA.

14. Annelida "Worms.

ARTIinOPODA.

15. Crustacea Soft shell fishes, &c.

16. Insecta Insects proper and Myriapods.

17. Arachnida Spiders and Scorpions.

VERTEBUATA.

18. Pisces Fishes.

19. Batrachia or Amphibia Frogs, Xewts, &c

20. Reptilia Reptiles proper.

21. Aves Birds.

22. Mammalia Mammals.

24 PAL/EONTOLOGY.

(3.) CLAaSIFICATION OF PlANTS FOR PURPOSES OF PaL.EONTOLOQY.

CRYPTOGAMS.

*Tf>aIlo(/cns, or
Thallophyta .

Anogtms, or
Bryophi/ta , .

Acrogens, or
Pteridoplujta .

Algse Sea weeds.

Lichenos Licliens, Arc.

Fungi Mushrooms, &c.

!Musci Mosses.

Hepaticse Liverworts.

Filices Ferns.

Lycopodiace£E Club-mosses.

Ecjuisetaceae Glares-tails.

PHAENOGAMS.

Gymnosperms, or
Archispcrmae .

{

Cycailese Cycads.

Coiiiferte Pines, &c.

I"-

Endogens

I" Numerous families of palms, grasses, and allied
\ plants, with Monocotyledonous embryo.

„ f Numerous families of exogenous and covered-

Lxofjens . ' ' " \ . ^

[ seeded plants, with Dicotyledonous embryo.

For further information as to fossil animals and plants, and more
especially as to their characters and classification, the student may be
referred to the author's " Hand-book of Zoology " and " Geological
History of Plants," and also to such larger works as Xicholson's
" Paleontology " and Zittell's " Pal?eontologie." With reference to the
special Palaeontology of Canada, reference may be made to the various
Memoirs of Billings. Whiteaves and the author, in the Reports of the
Geological Survey of Canada, and to the PfJteontology of New York, by
Dr. James Hall. Illustrations of some characteristic fossils will also be
found in the following pages. —

* To these maybe added the extinct group of Protoyens having Algoid structure
but constituting forests in early Palaeo^oip tim^s.

1 1

III. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY.

The previous departments relate principally to the study of hand
specimens. This introduces us to the arrangement of rocks on the large
scale, or to tlie manner in which they are built up as constituents of the
crust of the earth. As the greater part of rocks are bedded or stratified,
and the massive and vein-formed rocks may be considered as subordinate
to the bedded in all those i)arts of the crust accessil)le to us, the term
Stratigraphy may be used to cover the whole subject of rock arraJigement
on the large scale.

(L) Origin of Aqueous Deposits.

It will be useful in introducing this subject to notice in the first place
the mode of formation of stratified rocks, and other matters connected
with their present condition and appearance. —

In nature there is a constant struggle between aqueous and igneous
agencies in modifying the materials of the earth's crust. The deeper
portions of the crust ar" Ijeing slowly softened and crystallized under the
inlluence of heat and pressure, and are thus being converted into meta-
morpliic rocks, and these finally into plutonic masses, portions of which
being erupted constitute volcanic products. On the other hand the
waters and the atmosphere are constantly decomposing and wearing away
the crystalline rocks at the surface, and depositing their detritus in the
bottom of the waters. These processes seem to have Ijeen active, through-
out the whole of geological time, in producing igneous and aipieous rocks.
Since, however, tlu latter are tlie more important in geology, on account
of their greater relative abundance, their regularly bedded character and
the fossils they contain, we may direct our attention in this place princi-
pally to them, having already shortly noticed igneous plienomena under a
previous head.

AtmospliPric Erosion. — AVe have seen that the most common crystalline
rocks are composed largely of silicates, as the Felspars, Hornblende au')
Pyroxene. When these are exposed to the action of the atmosphere and
of rain water, which always holds carl)on dioxide in solution, the soda,
iwtash, lime, and other bases which they contain in combination with
silica, are gradually removed in the state of carbonates, leaving the
alumina and silica l)ehind in an incoherent state. Thus from the decay
of a hornblende granite there may result quartz-sand, clay, limestone, and
iron oxides, which, when sorted and variously deposited by water, may
assume the appearance of distinct alternating beds, while the alkaline

STRATIGRAPHY.

:i!

matters removed in solution arc washed into the sea or into hikes, where
they may aid in chemical changes leading to other kinds of deposition.

To the atmospheric agencien we may also add the disintegrating power
of frost, which, ])y the expansion in the act of freezing of the water con-
tained in rocks, chips olf sand and fragments, and rapidly reduces very
hard rocks to ruins. In mountains and the polar regions this action of
frost is aided by the mechanical movement of glacier.s, wliich removes to
lower levels or into the sea the material disintegrated by frost, and which
also exercises a polishing and abrading effect on the subjacent surface.
The action of coast ice, which is also very powerful, may rather be cla.ssed
with aqueous agencies.

Arjuious Erosion. — This takes place by the abrading action of rivers and
torrents, by the beating of the waves on coasts, by tidal currents, by the
action of cold heav "" ents on the sea bottom, and by the solvent action
of springs and other subterranean waters. As these agents are constantly
at work, the changes which they produce in the lapse of ages are very great.
It has been estimated that the atmospheric and aqueous causes of erosion
at present in action, would sulHce to remove the whole of the dry land
into the sea in about six millions of years.

Deposition. — The materials thus set free by chemical deconiposition
and mechanical abrasion are deposited in layers in the depressed portions
of the earth's crust occui)ied by the waters. The coarser materials, as
pebbles and sand, may be thrown down along coasts and at the mouths of
rivers; the finer materials will be carried farther out to .sea, and those
held in solution may be ultimately ttxed in the organisms of coral animals
and other marine creatures, and may form coral limestones and similar
organic deposits.

In any given locality all these agencies, whether of erosion or of
deposition, may be greatly moditiod from time to time by changes of level
or of climate, whether arising from movements of the earth's crust, or
from astronomical causes ; and also by volcanic paroxysms breal<ing forth
from time to time.

(2.) Hardening and Alteration of Aqueous Deposits.

Aqueousdeposits thrown down by crystallization maybe hard from the
first; but sedimentary beds are usually at first soft, and are hardened by
subsequent processes such as the following : —

(a) Bij i)rfssurf of a great thickness of superincumbent material. In
this v,ay, for example, soft clay is hardened into shale, and peat into brown
coal ; and there is reason to believe that lateral pressure, occasioned by

AQUEOUS DEPOSITS.

folding and settlement of the earth's crust, may produce still more power-
ful effects in liiinloning and crystallizing rocks. Prussuro may act by con-
densing soft sediments to a fraction of their original thickness, by arrang-
ing flat particles on the same plane, thus causing lamination or cleavage,
by causing minute particles to adhere by contact, and by developing heat,
(b) Bi/ Iirfi/frafion of mineral matter in solution. Subterranean
waters usually contain calcium l)icarboiiat(', soluble silicates or other
mineral substances in solution, and depositing these in the interstices of
sand, gravel, fragments of shells, i^'c, may ultimately cement such materials
into a compact rock. (Kig. 12.)

Fiff. 12. — Fragment of Trenton Limestone, magnified. It is comi)osed of broken
pieces of corals, crinoids and shells cemented together by transparent calcite.

(c) Bij Heat. "When sediments are buried at so great a depth that
they are acted on by the earth's internal heat, or when heat is developed
by the movement and crumpling of great masses of rock, or when
sediments are invaded by intrusive molten rocks, they become baked and
hardened, and in some cases their particles are enabled to arrange them-
selves as distinct crystalline minerals or to enter into new chemical com-
binations. The result is metaniorphism, wliich, as already stated, may
change mud or volcanic a'^hes or similar incoherent material into the
hardest and most crystalline rock. It is farther to be observed that the
heat to whicii sediments are subjected at great depths, is not dry heat,

■I >■ I ■

STRATIGRAPHY.

since their substance is satunitcd willi water, ami tliis being prevented by
pressure from escaping, remains in a heated state, and must greatly pro-
mote chemical and molecular changes.

(3.) CONCRETIONAUY ACTION'.

• An important modification of these hardening processes results from
concretionary action. Tiiis is an unequal hardening of the mass, whereby
certain jiortions of it become indurated into balls, nodules or grains. It
depends upon molecular attractive movements collecting together certain
constituents of the mass, and may produce the following kinds of
concretionary structure : —

(a) The whole mass of material may assume a concretionary structure,
aggregating itself into nodular grains. This is the case with Oolitu, lima-
stones and Ooli/ic ores of iron. (Fig. 13.) x\. similar change sometimes
occurs in the cooling of igneous masses.

Fig. 13. — Magnitii'd section of Oolitic Limestone (after .Sorbj',) showing concretions
with radiating and concentric structure, and some of tliem enchising frag-
ments of shells, &c.

(b) Foreign materials diffused through the mass may be collected into
limited spaces, and thus form concretions. This is the case with JitJits in
chalk and with clai/ ironstone in beds of shale.

(c) The cementing substance of the mass may be unequally collected
in certain portions at the expense of the rest. This occurs in the hard
concretions in clays and in " bull's-eyes " in sandstone.

CONCRETIONARY ACTION.

Fig. 14. — Rounded eonci'LciDii containing a fossil fish, ((Ja.sterosteiis,) si)lit open.

Pleistocene, Canada.

Any foreign body, as a fossil or a.L^iaiu of sand, may form a nucleus for
a concretion. (Fig. H-) Concn'tions iiave often a concentric lamination
marking their stages of increase. Tliey are sometimes hardened at the
surface while tlie interior ri.'inains soft, ami the latter may subsequently
crack fnjm shrinkage. When these cracks are afterwards filled with other
mineral matter, Si'ptarin concriitions result. Concretions often assume
very fantastic .shapes, and have licen mistaken for fossils.

The curious conical bodies found abundantly in some beds of shale
and greenstone and known as " Cuni'-in-i'oni'^' (Fig. 1.5,) appear to be
caused by concretionary action proceeding from the surface of a bed or
layer and modified by the gradual compression of the material.* A
similar origin has been attributeil to the columnar striated bodies found
in some limestones and naim'd Sfuldliti's, which are often occasioned by
the presence of shells or other objects on a .soft ma-ss undergoing
compression.

Fig. 15. — Cone-in-cone. Coal formation of Nova Scotia.

.11

I''!

* See Acadian Geology, ]). 070 for more full explanations.

HTRATKiRAPHY.

Gfoi/c,^, which lire cavities in rocks lined with crystals, are distinct in
tlieir mode of formation from concretions, though sometimes coufoundej,
with them.

(4.) Colours ok Aqueous Kocks.

The most abuiuhint colouring,' matter in rocks is iron. Its monoxide
and sulphide when difl'used thronj^'h sediments produce ^'reen, <,'ruy and
blackish colour.s. Its sesquioxide produces red colours. Its hydrous
ses(]uioxidej,fives yellow, bull' and brown shad(!s. Pt^roxideof man^'aneso
is sometimes a cause (jf black colours in rocks, and coaly matter is also a
not infreipKiut cause; of the blackening of seiliments.

The followinLf facts are important witli reference to the colours
produced l)y iron : — ■

(a) In the subaerial decomposition of most rocks a sufficient quantity
of seS(|uioxide of iron is produced to colour the resulting sands or clays.
In ordinary circumstances it is tiie brown or hyilrous oxide that is pro-
duced in this way ; but in warm climates, under the influence of volcanic
heat and in the presence of saline waters, the n.'d oxide; is produced. Thus
the subaerial decomposition of crystalline rocks coloured gray, green or
black by sulphide or monoxide of iron, gives rise to brown ami red,
sediments.

(b) If the sediments thus coloured are rapidly washed down and
deposited in the sea, or in limited areas of fresh or salt water, they may
retain their colours, and thus the red, brown and purple sandstones ancj
clays so characteristic of certain formations are produced.

(c) If the sediment is long abraded by moving water, the clay is separ-
ated from the sand, and the su[)erlicial red coating is washed from the
latter so that it loses its colour. In this way gray or white sandstones are
often found to alternate with red or reddish shales.

(d) When sediments coloured with iron are deposited in fresh water
along with organic matter, as peat, &c., the latter deprives the iron of a
portion of its oxygen, reducing it to monoxide, and this being soIul)le in
the acids naturally produced by the dwtay of the vegetalile matter, is
removed, leaving the sand or clay in a bleached (condition.

(e) When the deoxidizing process occurs in sea water, the sulpliates
present in the latter being deconq)osed at the same time with the iron
oxides, a black iron sulphide is produced, which gives a gray colour more
or less dark to tlu; sediment. Material coloured in this way becomes buff
or brown on weathering, and becomes red when heated in the air. This
is a useful mark of marine clay.s. In this case or the last, scattered

mud(

AQUEOUS ROCKS.

organic fmf^ments dopositcd in rod sediments and not in sufficient (|iian-
tity to atfect the colour of the whole, produce gray or white stains.

(f ) It' organic matter be present in large (piantity, it not only removes
the; red colour but communicates its own black or dark brown colours to
the whole.

The above considerations serve to show why red rocks have been
deposited in large (piantity in times of physical disturbance and volcanic
activity, and generally when deposition is rapid and organic matter ab.sent.
They also .serve to explain the presence of red beds with rock .salt
deposited from the waters of .saline lakes or lagoons. They also explain
the rarity of fossils in n^l rocks, since the retaining of the red colour
implies scarcity of organic remains, and an excess of peroxide of iron
tends to oxidise and destroy such as may be present. On the other hand
they show why gray and dark coloured beds are those which most
abound in fossils.

(5.) AIaukings on the Surfaces of Aqueous Rocks.

The circum-stances under which aqueous beds have been deposited are
often indicated by markings seen on their surfaces.

(a) Riiqilc marks, caused by the motion of currents throwing up slight
ridges and hollows at right angles to the direction of the current.

(b) Current lines, caused by the driftage of sand, organic fragments, or
sea-weeds and drift wood, in the direction of the current.

(c) Ili/l marks, caused by the running of drainage water over inclined
surfaces of mud and clay after recession of the tide. These are often .so
complicated as to simulate foliage and have frequently been mistaken for
fossil marine plants. (Fig- 10.)

Fig. 1(). — Kill-marks, Carboniferous (reduced.)

(d) Shrin/ia(/e cracJcs, i)roduced by the drying and shrinkage of
muddy surfaces when left bare to be acted on by the sun and air.
(Fig. 17.)

..'♦' ;

STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 17. — Shrinkage ciacks, Carboiiiferou.s (letluced.)
(e) Rain markt^, or nmiukMl j)it8 ])r(Kluci'(l l>y vain drops, or waslitnl
surfaces productMl l)y contiiuious vain, afterward covtived up and preserved
by subsequent depo.sits. (Fiu;. ]<S.)

ifij^^^

Fig. 18. — Haiu-niarks, f'a^ modern, (b c) Carboniferous.

Tbeso markings l)elong for the most part to shallow water and to the
vicinity of the sliore and to ti(hd estuaries. They are often of much
interest as indicating the conditions of deposit and the changes which
have taken place in these.

(6.) Arrangement of Rocks on the Large Scale.

"With reference to this, the materials of the earth's crust exist in three
diU'erent conditions: — (1) The Sfrafip'''iJ ; (2) llii' Massive or Unatrati-
fied ; (3) The Veiii-formcd. The rocks of the second and thivd classes
are however subordinate to tliose of the tirst, which vastly predominate in

Al^UKOUS KUCKS.

••^

those parts bf the earth open to our insi)ectioii. We '..i.^ Jierefore con-
sider fir-st and principally the Stratified rocks. (Figs. 19 and 20 ^

All ordinary aqueinis or sedimentary rocks are
stratitieil, or arranged in beds more or less nearly,
when undisturbed, approaching to a horizontal
position.

A Lamina or La>ji'r is the thinnest slieet into
whicli a stratitied rock is divisible. Some slialy
beds are divisible into extremely tlun lamina'.
Other beds are destitute of lamination and are
said to be compact.

A Sfrafnm or Beil is of greater thickness, or
may consist of several laminif — ''. (/. a bed of
laminated .sandstone or shale consisting of several
layer.-*.

The term Seam is often used by miners for beds
of useful minerals ; and when such beds are con-
siderably inclined, they are sometimes called
veins, though not of the nature of true veins.

A For)nation consists of several beds deposited
consecutively and under similar general con-
ditions. A formation may thus include beds of
rock of different kind.s, though usually there is a
certain lithological similarity in the beds con-
stituting a formation — 1>. g. the coal formation,
which includes many beds of sandstone, shale,
coal, il'c, or the Laramie Series of the "West.
(Fig. 20.)

The idea conveyed by the term " Formation " ^ I
is one of the most important in Geology, since it
relates not to lithological similarity but to con-
tinuous deposition under like general conditions.
The more important formations are designated
by the term Series, and subdivisions of such
formations by the word Stage. (Fr. eta>/c'.)

By French Geologists the word " Terrane "
is used in a general sense to indicate any
geological formation.

§^

STRATKiHArHy.

A Si/ff'ni of' t\>i'niatii>nx includes all
till' foi'inatinna of one of the lar,i,'cr
geolo^'ical pcrioils — c ;/. llio Cai'l)on-
iferous System, which includes with the
coal fornintion other formations l)elon^'-
ing to the same great geological period.

The term Group has been proposed
for the larger I )i visions embracing
several systems ; hut this term is more
usually and properly employed lo des-
ignate any assemblage of strata or form-
ations.

Inasmuch as formations and .systems
of formations imply the lapse of time,
tliey may also be designated by terms
relating to time. Thus we may speak
of the Carboniferous Period, the Coal-
formation Epoch.

The classitication of formations in
relation to time will be considered under
the heading of Historical Geology.

cnCY SANPY SHALE

LicNrre

CREY U rELU)W
SANDY SHALE

IRONSTONE
ORtYCLAY
aiRsot4Aecous shalc

ORtVSANDSnONE
UCHITE
SANDY CLAY

IRON3T0NC
UBNITE
CARBONACtOUl BHAU

UCNITE

ORtY SANDY CLAY

LICNITE
SANDY CLAY

LICNITE

_ CiREYSANDYOLAr
"— "^ WITH ROOT*

Fig. 20 — St'ction of LamTiiie form-
ation, west of Miinitolxi. The
wliok'iif the beds shown, except the
soil and drift, belong to one Form-
ation, though differing in mineral
characters. Some of them, as the
shale beds, .are laminated. (tJ. M.
Uawson. )

(7.) Joints and Slaty Cleavage.

These appearances are important, because it is necessary to distinguish
them from planes of bedding.

Joints are planes of division cutting beds at various angles, though
usually approaching to vertical. They often divide the bed into oblicjue
angled blocks by the inter-section of two sets of cleavage planes ; and
when the cleavage planes of one set are close together they often simulate
true bedding. Joints sometimes facilitate the operations of the quarry-
man by enabling blocks of stone tc be more readily detached ; but when
numerous they injure stones otherwise useful.

When joints occur in beds of igneous rock they sometimes give origin
to a columnar structure, as in beds of basalt.

Ill

JOINTS AND CLKAVAGE.

Joints are often s/ir/,-r}i,<ii(fri/, tliat is, they have tlioir surfaces polislieil
by friction which lias occurriHl (hiring movenionts of the beds. Joints
may sometimes have been produced by such mechanical movements ;
but are usually attributed to shriiikaj^'e or to a rough kind of ciystalline
cleavage.

Joints are sometimes widened into fissures, whidi being filled with
foreign matter, constitute! veins. Tiie joints of rocks thus connect them-
selves with the vein-condition afterwards to he noticed.

Jointed structure sometimes weakens otherwise enduring rocks so as
to permit them to be worn int(j ravines ainl valleys.

The student should ol)servo here that in cases where intense pressure
lias been applied to massive igneous rocks they have sometimes a.ssumed
a laminated structure similar to that of metamorphoseil afpieous beds.
Such phenomena are usually local, and are to l)e distinguished by study
of the relations and structure of the rocks concerned.

S/afi/ sfnidwe is a lamination not caused l)y original deposition Imt by
pressure subsecjuently exercised, whereby plates of mica and otlier flat
l es present in the material, may be induced to assume positions paral-
lel to the plane of pressure. Such slaty structure or slaty cleavage has
been ell'ected in many regions over great thicknesses of beds, antl while it
is of practical importance as giving the best roofing slates, it is somewhat
puzzling to geologists as masking the true bedding. This can however
be usually ascertained by noticing the bands of colour and structure which
represent the original planes of deposit. In some cases the planes of
bedding and of cleavage coincide, })ut in very many they are altogether
different. (Fig. 21.)

I (

;h
|ne
lid
Ite

|en

Fig. 21. — Silurian sliiile.s affected with slaty cleav.ige, Matapedia River. The bedding
is represented by the slightly inclined lines ; but the rock cleaves across the
bedding in the planes indicated by the more highly inclined set of lines.

STKATUJKAl'HY.

(8.) Inclined Position ok Ukdh.

Arjiieoua strata have been originally (Uipu.sited in a position approaching
to horizontality. Tliu only exceptions to this are where these bods have
been uniformly disposed over uneven or inclined surfices. or where
material has Ix-en wusIkmI ov(!r the edge of a bank, giving rise to (jbliipie
stratilicationor false bedding. Movements of the crust of the earth, anil
especially movements of folding or bending which have apparently arisen
from the shrinkage of the mass of the earth as compared with its crust,
have however caused the originally horizontal beds to assume various
degrees of inclination, A((ueous erosion has further caused the lu'oken
edges of l)ent strata to protrude at the surface. The degree and direction
of such inclination aflbnl most valuable data for ascertaining the relative
positions and ages of beds. The most important facts of this kind are
the following : — (Fig. 22.)

Fig. 22.— Inclined position of rocks. Beds of slate f'r*,^ and iron ore f'6^ diijping to
the northward at an angle of 41°. (Picton, N.S.)

(a) Dij), or the angle of inclination to the horizon as measured by
the clinometer.

(b) Direction of Di}} as ascertained by the compass.

'(") Sfrihc, or the horizontal line at right angles to the dip.

Outcrop, or the line of intersection of the plane of the bed with
surface of the country. Ou perfectly level ground this is of course
identical with the strike. Otherwise it is different.

Observations of these facts can be made in natural exposures, as clifl's
and shores, or in artificial exposures, as (]uarries, cuttings, mines, &c. The
harder rocks usually project in ridges and the softer are cut into hollows.
Hence the lines of ridges and valleys often form very useful guides in
tracing the outcrops of beds. The harder rocks are also more likely to
crop out at the surface than those which are softer, and the latter are
more liable to lie in low ground and to be covered with soil.

A line drawn across the strike of a series of beds gives a section of
those beds, and in proceeding along such a line in the direction towards
\which the beds dip, we obtain an ascending mries. In the opposite

INCLINED POSITION.

direction we obtain a ih'tici'tKUntj muHcg. Thus we can nscenil or doiccnd
goolo;,'icivlly in proceeding along the surface of tlu> ground, and geological
ascent and descent do not coincide with topographical, except when the
beds are horizontal or nearly so, or when they dip toward the suniniit of
an elevation.

The thickness of beds is always measured at right angles to tlieir dip.
For ordinary purposes it may be assumed that the thickness is equal to j2
of the distance across the outcrop at t)" of inclination, and so on for every
additional .■>'.

When we follow a series of beds in ascending or descending order,
we at length arrive at a lini; in which their dii) changes to the opposite
direction. When this takes place in the descending series it constitutes
an witidinal lin- or a,iix, sometimes called an aiitidini'. When it takes
place in the ascending series it constitutes a xi/wfina/ line or synrlinc.

When the anticlinal and synclinal axes are not horizontal, or when the
surface of the country is inclined, the lieds may be seen at the surface to
bend around the ends of the unticlinals or synclinals, so that on a map
these appear as more or less abrupt bends or loops of the strata.

In tliose regions where the beds have been slightly inclined, the anti-
clinals and synclinals are low and wide ; but in disturbed districts tlie folds
are often very abrupt, causing the l)eds to approach to verticality, and in
some places to l)e overturned. In such cases also the anticlinals or syn-
clinals are sometimes very steep on one side and less soon the other, and
they are not infrequently accompanied with minor flexures and foldings
of the beds as well as with fractures or dislocations. In such disturbed
districts great caution is reipiisite lest abruptly folded and repeated beds
should be regarded as cons'atuting a continuous scries, and lest overturned
beds should be regarded as in their natural positi'ins. (Figs. 2.3, 24, 2.").)

STRATIGRAPHY.

-a 5!

&c :!i.

■m

^1
J ft*

? c3

be u

C 'n

a ,3.

FAULTS.

Fig. 2"). — Beds of Limestone, Sandstone and Sliale of Lower Carboniferous age in a
vertical position. Smitli's Island, Cape Breton.

(9.) Faults.

When movements of beds have l)een accompanied with fracture and
slipping of tlie beds up or down, faulting or discontinuity of 1)eds is
produced.

Faults traversing inclined beds may displace them laterally as well as
vertically. The vertical displacement is sometiaies designated by the
term slide, the lateral displacement by the term heave. A <Iou:?fhri))r is
said to take place on that side toward wliicli the beds are sunkei^, and
an tipthrmr on that side toward which they have risen. When the plane
of a fault is inclined, tlu^ inclination is usually called Ijy miners its " harh"
and is measured from a vertical plane. The downthrow is almost always
found to have occurred on the side toward which the plane of fault
inclines. (Fig. 27.) When the contrary occurs the fault is said to be
reversed, or inverted. (Fig 26.)

S^at ; a rif. Mr

a. IT

Fig. 26.— Reversed fault bringing Palieozoic rocks (a) over folded Cretaceous,
(h) Cascade mountain, Rocky Mountains. (After McConnell.)

In highly disturbed districts reversed faults are not infrequent, and in

some cases beds have even been thru.st horizontally over others, producing

very complex arrangements, and sometimes leading to error in estimating

■\ I

■iO

STRATIGRAPHY.

ii^^

the true ages of beds. Good examples of these abnormal arrangements
exist in the Canadian Rocky Mountains and in the highlands of Scotland.
(Fig. 37.) It often happens that several faults in the same direction
occur n^dr each other, throwing the beds in steps, and in disturbed
districts there are often two or more sets of faults crossing the beds in
differtnt directions. In this case the original position of the beds can
be ascertained only by careful study of the effects of the several disloca-
tions. The surface of the plane of a fault is often polished and striated
or slickensided by the movement of the beds. Sometimes, however, the
edges of the beds have bent and broken where in contact, and sometimes
lines of fault present open fissures filled with debris or with crystallized
minerals.

In observing faults, the facts to be noticed are the directions of the
planes of fracture, tlieir hade and the amount and direction of move-
ment, with its effect on the beds traversed. When these facts are
obtained, all the effects of the dislocation can be readily workt.-d out,
though, when several lines of fault cross the same beds, the appearances
are often very deceptive, leading to incorrect estimates of the thickness
and number of the b<!ds.

Fig. 27.— Fault, Lignite Tertiary series. Porcupine Creek, N. W. T. (G. M. Dawson.}
The bed of lignite (a) has been thrown down, and has been removed by
denudation from the other side of the fault.

As the inequalities caused by faulting have usually been rounded or
smoothed oif, and the line of a fault is often a weak place where the rocks
have been worn dow-n and covered with debris, faults can very rarely be
distinctly seen, and their nature and direction can usually be ascertained

UNCO^ FORM ABILITY.

only by inference from the dislocation observed in the beds on their
opposite sides. They are very numerous in disturbed districts, and there
are often two or more sets of tliem crossing the beds in diti'erent
directions. In most cases, however, the amount of movement which they
produce is not great.

(10.) Unconformability.

When one series of beds has been disturbed and another deposited
upon the upturned edges of tlie first, the upper series is said to rest
uncomforniably on the lower. This indicates not merely a difference of
age but an interval of time between the dates of the two series. It often
happens also that the edges of the lower series show evidences of great
erosion, or that the beds of the lower series have been hardened and
altered before the deposition of the upper. A false cr simulated want of
conformity occurs when a l)ed has been cut unequally by water before the
next bed is deposited. When conglomerates or coarse sandstones rest
upon liner beds such apparent unconformity is often produced. (Figs. 28,
29, 30.)

It is to be observed here that false bedding and also partial denudation
may simulate true unconformity and that progressive subsidence may be
accompanied by the overlapping of successive formations,

Fig. 28. — Unconformable superposition of (rj .Silurian beds on ^6 ) Cambrian, .ind
of the latter on f a ) E(jzoic. West of Scotland. (After Murchitjon.)

(11.) Dk.nudatio.v.
This is the removal of matter by atmospheric or aipieous erosinii. It
has already been referred to as a source of the materials of aqueous
deposits. We must now consider it as concerned in giving relief to tlie
surface of the earth. That denudation has taken place to a great extent
may be inferred from such facts as the following : The projection of hard
beds and massive rocks in conseijuence of the removal of softer material
from around them ; the existence of syncliiu\l elevations in consequence
of the erosion of anticlinals which once were higher but must have been
more peiishable owing to their fissured condition ; the planing away to a

M I

(

STRATIGRAPHY.

low level of rocks which testify by tlieir dips or by the existence of
extensive faults that they once rose to much greater height and were very
uneven ; the cutting of deep ravines through table lands, and the quantity
of stones, gravel, sand, and other detritus of older formations, employed
in the building up of those which are newer. (Fig. 31.)

l)enudation of undisturbed beds also leaves exposed hard igneous
masses which may have penetrated them and which sometimes protect
portions of the surrounding beds partially hardened by contact with the
igneous rock. Montreal Mountain and its companion eminences in the
valley of the St. Lawrence are apt illustrations.

In desert regions and along sandy coasts grains of sand caiTied by the
winds aie capable of producing a certain amount of erosion.

,. -c-^is^ ^:^;?;;•:);^J9;^•f;..:^ :;J!?;^il

Fif?. 29. — Unconformable superposition of Triassic red sandstone f'/y/ in highly
inclined carboniferous rocks, at Petit River, Walton, Nova Scotia.

Fig. 30.— Ar>parent uneonformability produced by denudation and filling up. S.
.Toggins, Nova Scotia, a, Sandstone, b, Shale, c. Irregularly bedded
Sandstone and Remains of Plants.

DENUDATION, ETC.

Geological observation has shown that the ine([ualities of the earth's
surface are very laryely due to denudation. This is best seen in sections

Fig. 31.— Denudatidii of horizontal btds, Great Valley, N. W. T. ((i. M. Dawson.)

of highly inclined rocks in which it often api)ears that such rocks have
been planed off on the surface (Fig. 24,) while in other cases the softer
rocks have Vjeen cut away and these of greater liardness remain as peaks
or ridges. (Figs. 19, 23, 2.5.)

It has been estimated that the areas drained by the rivers of our con-
tinents are losing by denudation at rates varying from 1 foot in 1500
years to 1 foot in 6000 years. At these rates, were no counteracting ele-
vation to take place, our continents would be levelled with the sea in
from four millions to nine millions of years.

(12.) Massive Rocks.

These are in almost all cases of igneous origin, and can be readily dis-
tinguished from the stratitied rocks both by their mineral character and
their mode of occurrence. Such irregular masses may represent either (1)
the remains of the bases of old volcanic cones, the looser parts of which
have been swept away ; or (2) exotic or intrusive materials ejected among
other rocks from beneath : or (3) portions of the aqueous crust so much
altered that their stratification has been obliterated.

If the stratitied rocks have been altered at their contact with igneous
masses, or are penetrated by veins proceeding from them, we know that
the masses are newer than the beds. (Figs. 19, 32.) On the other hand,

STRATKJRAPHY.

if the massive rocks have been eroded before the deposition of tlie beds,
if the latter are unaltered, and if they contain debris derived from the
massive rocks, we know that these are older.

Fig. 32, — -Tunctioii of massive intrusive granite and Cambrian qu.artzite in
clitf near Indian Harbour Lake, Nova Scotia.

(13.) Vein-formed Rocks.

The most common veins arc fissures tilled with material introduced
either in a molten state or in ai^ueous solution.

Iijneous veins or dyki's are often of great size, and extend through the
stratified rocks for long distances. They are filled with som<; of the
kinds of igneous rock ; sometimes present a jointed structure at right
angles to their sides; often have the surface in contact with the adjacent
rock of different texture from the interior, and have often, by their heat,
produced considera])Ie alteration in the adjacent rock. They are especially
numerous in the vicinity of igneous masses and of volcanic foci ancient
or modern. (Figs. 19 and 33.)

Veins or dykes, if harder than the enclosing rocks, may project above
the surface like walls when the latter are removed by denudation. If
softer than the containing rocks they may be eroded into ravines or
furrows.

VEINS.

A'/ni'ii>is nins, which are often inineral L'/'itis, are usually filled with
ciystalline miucmls deposited in them by water. Tliey often present a

Fig. 33.— Igneous dykes or veins, extension reservoir, Montreal, (a) Felspathic dyke
traversing beds of limestone, (bj Floor or horizontal vein of Dolerite
cutt'mg f II I. f'r; Thick dyke of Felsite cutting f </^. ft/^ Inclined dykes
of Dolerite cutting all the others.

laminated appearance, owing to the deposition of successive coats of matter

on the walls of the vein. Occasionally the walls of veins present margins

or " srlvaij(^s " consisting of decomposed rock or decomposed veinstone.

In the case of mineral veins, the mass filling the vein is called gangue
or veinstone, as distinguished from the ore associated with it. The rock
traversed by veins is called by miners the " country rock."

Veins may fill open fissures, or may be of material slowly segregated
into cracks in process of formation and of widening. They are usually
vertical, or nearly so, but igneous veins have sometimes been injected
between the bed.s, constituting " floors " or horizontal veins. (Fig 33.)
Such horizontal veins when of considerable thickness have been named
Laccoliths. Veins are sometimes lenticular or interrupted, and not infre-
quently occur at or near the junction of ditferent formations. (Fig. 34.)

Fig. 34.— Metallic veins near the contact of slate and granite. (After Von Cotta.) fa)
Fissure vein, (hj Horizontal or bedded vein sending off a branch (e.) fcj
Contact vein at the junction of the two formations, (d) Lenticular or
interrupted veins, sometimes called by miners "pockets."

' i y

I'l

STRATIGRAPHY.

Veins are often very irreguhir in their forms. Tins arises not only
from tlie original irregularity of cracks traversing rocks, bnt from sub-
se(iuent shifts of tlie containing walls, from detachment of loose jtieces
or ^^ /lorsex" from the siiles, and from erosion of the walls by subterranean
waters. They also differ very much in their contents in j^assing from one
kind of rock into another, and are often decomposed and changed by
atmospheric action at their outcrops.

There is reason to believe that some veins have been filleil simul-
taneously with their oi)ening, so that they have never actually been open
fissures. Such veins, which present many peculiar appearances, are called
segregation veins.

(14.) OnuiiN OF Mountains.

We are now in a position to consider the general principles which
regulate Orography or the relief of the continents, as composed of Plains
or Valleys, Table-lands, and Mountains or Mountain ranges.

(1.) Acjueous denudation may cut table-lands into deep ravines or
Ca7ii/(ms, of which those of Colorado and of some districts of Ilritish
Columbia are good illustrations. Where such cutting widens these
ravines, it may produce flat-topped mountains, composed of horizontal or
even i synclinal beds.

Fig. 3.5.— General Structure of the Cobequid Range, Nova Scotia. An anticlinal
mountain, with unconforniability and intrusive igneous masses and veins.
«, Massive .Syenitic Granite, b. Lower Cobequid Series, Felsite, Porphyry,
Agglomerates, &c. c. Upper Cobequid Series. Ferriferous .Slates and
C^uartzite. </, WentworthFossiliferous Beds. — Silurian, e. Carboniferous.
/, Triassic. x. Veins of Syenite and Diabase.

ia^flfo.t.K L^t-t

Fig. 36.— Synclin.al and Monoclin.al moimtains. Rocky Mts. (after McConnell.)
The beds are Cambrian, and are broken by a fault at E.

VEINS.

'17

(2) WIr'Ii tho earth's crust has been thrown into broad foKls of small
inclination, (geoclinal bends), these may form broad-topped elevations

Xwii-Mort

Fig. 37.— Ben More, Scotland, (after Geikie.) showing thrust (T) of contorted gneiss
fa ), over Cambrian and Sihiro-Canibrian rr)cks Cl>), and deniidation indica-
ted by the dotted lines. Faults at F F. Ijykes at x x.

subsequently cut by denudinf; agencies into mountain masses. The
Lebanon range and some of the ridges of the Ai)alachians and in the
western part of America furnish illustrations.

(3.) The abrupt crumpling and sliding of the crust of the earth is the
cause of most of the larger and more important mountain ranges, though
such ranges are always greatly modified by denudation.

(4.) In volcanic regions mountains of considerable elevation are often
composed of the ashes, lapilli and lavas ejected by the volcanic vent, and
arranged more or less in a conical form. Vesuvius is a heap of this kind
4,000 feet high, and which has been piled up since the year 79 of the
Christian era.

In great mountain chains, as in the Cordillera of western America, all
the above agencies may enter into the causes of mountain-making, and
such great mountain ranges are often due to agencies which have been in
operation either constantly or with intermissions throughout the whole of
Geological time. It therefore usually happens that mountain ranges
whose formation has been going on up to late geological periods are of
larger dimensions and more complicated than those in wliicii the elevat-
ory movements have been arrested at early dates in the earth's history.

The experiments of Cadell and others, as well as the r,u>:ulations of
Prof. Darwin and ^lellard Reade have shown that the thickness of the
crust affected by these movements must be relatively very small, and I
have shown that evidence of this fact is afforded by the great igneous
dykes which traverse for long distances the crumpled Laurentian rocks of
Canada, and cut directly through them as a thin veneer of curled wood

'l:l

STRATKiRArHY.

. ■ t

nuiybo cracked llirou^'h bytlu; .slirinknj,'e of tlie jiliiiik on wliicli it is hiid.
Tlius tlic wrinkled crust, includiu},' its mountain masses, is l)ut a thin
veneer on tlic iionioi^'eneous undor-crust.

In some mountains great uplifts, fractures and lateral thrusts have
given the oriji;inal inecjualities. In others the l)eds have been closely
folded with little fracture. 15ut while these causes have produced the
ori^'inal tdevations, denmlation has so greatly modified these that synclinal
mountains are by no means uncommon. It is also to be observed that
those belts along ocean margins wluu-e the greatest amount of deposition
and downward bending of the crust have occurred, are often or usually
those which have experienced the most violent folding.

(15.) CimoNOLOGT OF IJeus.

Siipurposition. — The great leading fact as to the ages of a(|ueous
deposits is that tlie upper of two beds is necessarily the newer. Wherever
therefore the actual superposition of Ix'ds can be ascertained, there can be
no doul)t as to their relative ages. In mines and liorings, and in clifis
and quarries, we can thus easily ascertain the ages of the beds exposed.
In the case of inclined beds this is equally obvious as in those which are
horizontal. In these, however, we must be careful not to be misled by
overturns and by repetition of beds by faults.

Xo one exposure, however, can show anything more than a limited por-
tion of the series of rocks occurring in any district of consideraljle extent.
Hence in extending the results of our observations it is necessary to have
recourse to other data.

TrwiiKj of hr.il-^. — Having ascertained the sequence of beds in one
locality, we endeavour to trace them along their outcrops. We tlius bring
them into relation with other beds not seen in the original exposui'e.

Mhv'i'al chamdi'r. — Where the tracing of the beds fails, we have to
compare them in different sections, and to endeavour to recognize them by
their mineral character — a succession of like beds in two not very distant
sections giving us fair evidence of identity. Here, however, we must
rememljer that in tracing any given })ed for a long distance, it cannot be
expected to retain precisely the same character, but may be represented by
some different material.

Fiissil remains. — When Ave can obtain from any of the beds in question
fossil orgaric remains, these afford us a new means of testing identity of
age. Ex[)erience has shown that in the course of the earth's history the
facies of animal and- vegetable life has been constantly changing, .so that
the fossils of one formation are different from those of another. When

CiKOLO(;iCAL CYCLKS.

wo havo ill any ono locality ascertained this succossioii, we are safe in
applying it to others. The evidence of fossils is thus at present held to
be one of the ])est criteria for the agi^s of stratified rocks.

In ojuploying fossils as evidence of agi;, we have, however, to hoar in
mind certain necessary precautions. There are other diflerences than
tliDse of age ; as for example, the diiference between animals of the sea,
of freshwater and of land ; of ditlerent depths in the sea, and of ditl'erent
climates. It is nece.s.sary, therefore, to comiiarc animals or plants of like
habitat and conditions of existence. It is farther to l)e observed that cer-
tain forms of life have been of longer duration in genlogical time than
others, and therefore do not .so definitely mark the lapse of time. Again,
certain forms of animal or vegetal)lc life may have been begun earlier or
continued later in one locality than in others. On these accounts the
evid(!nce of fo.ssils is more certain with reference to the greater geological
periods than with reference to tlu; minor subdivisions of these.

It has been supposed that the similarity of geological succession in dis-
tant places may not imply .strict synchroni.sm but merely what has been
called IIomoto,vis, or resemblance of order without identity of time.
"When, however, we comi)arc the whole .series of stratified rocks in differ-
ent regions we find that there is an identity of sequence throughout, from
the earliest to the latest, .so that there must be a general identity of time
in the several members. We must, however, make allowance for the
earlier or later introduction or extinction of the faunae and flora? at the
beginning and end of each great period.

fri'(iIo;/ical Cycles. — The foregoing considerations luring in a very dis-
tinct manner before us two different, and at first .sight irreconcilable,
general views which we may take of any given geological period. First,
we must regard every such period as jire.senting during its whole con-
tinuance the diversified conditions of land and water with their appro-
priate inhabitants, or in detail — mountain ridges, continental i)lat(!ans and
ocean depths ; and ,S''CO)t>f/i/, we must consider each sucli* period as form-
ing a geological cycle, in which such conditions to a certain extent were
successive. As we give prominence to one or other of these views our
conc'usions as to the nature of geological chronology must vary in their
character, and in order to arrive at a true picture of any given time it is
necessary to have both liefore us in their due proportion.

^^'e shall thus find that in each geological system there was at least
one great continental depression bringing marine life over the continental
plateaus, and this with elevations before and after. In the meantime the

HTRATIGKAPHY.

lii>,'lH'r parts t»f tlie cuiilincntH may
ocean depths peiinaiieiitly abyssal,
tliis 8u})je(t in the chronological geuIoj,'y

have been continuonsly
We hIuiII have occasit

land, and the

m to nturii to

s."

■n

■C

c ta

s
- a

■^ t

f 3

•- f

* S

«9
V

^ 1"

— ■*-•

s -^

S S s

U ■' a

^ a; S

- — 2

1- t. >—

•« c 5

.£ c "^

s > o

1 i' T

5 5
h4

_1 - s

215 S

MAPS AND SKCTIONS. 51

(IG.) (iKoi-cdicAi. Maps an'd Skctions.
Tlic facts iiiid ^ciK'niliziitiiiiis olitiiiiuMl on the ahove i^'niuiuls aio
ro I (ruse 11 It'll to till' t'}'!.' on nia|i.s ami sections. ( )n the foriiu'r are iiuliiatt'd
hy spots or liiK.'s of colour or by ilill'creiiqi's of sliacliii},' i]u' tlilfciont forni-
iitions luitl their precise Ixjundnries as far na ascertained. To these may be
a<ldcd marks indicatin.n dip and strike and other arraiij,'enienta. (Fig. 41.)

i-N. ,^Oj^_^ 1 ^

Fij?. 41.— MiU'ksiiHcd in inappin^'. n, Hnrizontivl beds. '/, Iiiclint'd. c, riidiilatin^'.
'/, C'lntortiid. i\ N'citiciil. '', .Viitiolinal. '/. Synclinal.
While maps exhibit the horizontal distribution of formations, sri'tioiis
show morc^ clearly the relations of aye and superpositiftn. Lines of section
observed on the j^rouiid may in the first instance art'ord materials fni' the
construction of a inaji, and wln-n a mnp has been drawn these; lines may
be marked on it, and the sections aloUL; these lines may be drawn to
accomiiany it. Such sections are usually named horizontal sections. jJut
vertical .sections may be olitained in shafts and borings, or may be con-
structed with the aid of the horizontal section.s. (Kij,'«' '^8, 39, 40.)

The colours desijL,matin,n' the dillerent formations on (leological mai)S
have usually l)ei'ii adapted to the ffooloj^rical features of particular countries.
They should be .so distinct from one another as to be readily disti!ij,'uished
cither by natural or artificial li^dit, and should as far as possible present
.some approach to harmony pleasin,i; to the eye. One colour lieiiij,'
.selected for each system of forniation.s, the sub-divisions may Ije indicated
by shades of this tint, by white bars or dots traversin;,' the tint, or by
letters [irinteil on it, or by combinations of these method,-^.

In the maps of the Canadian survey the following tints have lieen
employed : —

Ljncons liorltn Shades of deep Kod.

LaKnnitian Carmine.

llni'uiiian Keddish Ilrown.

Cainhrian, Silnro-Cainhrinii, Sihiridii. .Shades of Slate.

Elian, or Devonian Urown.

Carlninifei-ous and Pirniutn Grey.

Triassic Light Red.

Jurassic lilue.

Cretaceous Shades of Light Green.

Tertiarij Shades of Yellow.

In detailed maps Limestones are deep blue and Coal-beds black.

^1'

HTKATKiHAPHY.

II'

The ('i)loiirs recently proposod by the International Congress of
Geoh.)gi^ts, for tlie (leological map of Kiiiope, are similar to the above,
except that the Trias is violet and the Caml)rian and Silurian greenish
gray, both of wliich are ol)jcctional)le colours in artificial light.

(17.) Field (Jeoi.ooy.
Geological observation may be carried on in several d i tie rent way. s, the
most important of which may be stated under tin; following heads : —

(1.) The Local Geologist — It is scarcely too much to .say that
absolute ignorance of the structure and history of the earth, and more
especially of the geology of the dist''ict in which we reside, is scarcely
compatible with the mental health of any educated man, as it is certainly
quite inconsistent with any intelligent comprehension of the geography
and resources of our country. It is also true that the study of Geology
from its wide range in time and space, and its intimate relations with
physical geography, chemistry, physics, and the natural sciences generally,
is well adapted to strengthen and cultivate our powers of observation,
comparison and generalization.

Independently, however, of these subjective aspects of the science, a
local amateur geologist often poi^sesses facilities to make original dis-
coveries and to extend the boundaries of knowledge. In order to dothi.s,
independently of some preliminary ac([uaintance with the principles and
methods of the .science, he should ac(piaint him.self with what has
been previously done in the geology of his locality, and should provide
himself with a good topographical map, hammers, a compass and
•clinometer, a pocket lens ; and if po.s.sible with a microscope, a blow-pipe
and its accessories, and a few of the ordinary chemical reagents ; and
he should keep a note-book wherein to enter all the facts observed. A
cabinet or chest of drawers or of trays for specimens will also be desirable.
So provided, he can, as opportunity oilers, examine, draw and note down
the various rock exposures in his vicinity, can collect specimens of
minerals, rocks and fossils, and can watch for such temporary facilities for
obtaining information as may be aflbrded by excavations, land-slips ( r
accidental discoveries. In this way much may be done that could not
be etiected by a temporary survey, however detailed, and many precious
facts and specimens may be preserved that otherwi.se would be lost. The
local collector wiU soon become known to (piarrymen and others, and
specimens will be brought to him that otherwi.se would be neglected. It
will be useful for liini to establi-sh relations with specialists who may aid
.him in the determination and description of new specimen.s, and sucli

gp:ological exploration.

persons will usuiilly be glad to do so if ^applied with duplicates of tlic
specimens. Useful exchanges may also be made with such jiersons.
The local collector should beware of giving away uni(iue specimens to
mere tourists or curiosity hunters who will make no good use of them.
Duplicates only should be <"ven in this way, and usually such specimens
alone as are not likely to be of importance afterwards. Many of the most
interesting and important discoveries in the science are due to the labours
of local geologists.

(2.) The Tourist. — Every traveller who wishes to understand the topo-
graphy, scenery, productions, history and modes of life of the countries
which he may visit, should know something of geology, and if he has
opportunities to travel in districts not previously explored, he may be
able to obtain most important facts respecting their structure. In order
to do this he should be provided with the simple apparatus already
mentioned, and above all with a geological map, should such exist, of the
<listrict and regions adjacent, and should read what has been already
written as to their geology. If he can so arrange his time and route, he
should traverse the country in directions at right angles to the prevailing
structure, and should visit all good exposures within reach of his line of
travel, making collections and taking full and accurate notes. In this
way, by the intelligent observation of geological travellers, much nf the
information we possess of large portions of the earth lias been acquired,
while on the other hand costly expeditions have Ix-eu rendered of little
practical or scientific vahie by the absence (jf geological observation.

(3.) The Geological Explorer — who may be either an amateur or
an ofhcer of a (Jeological .Survey. He may be supposed to dcvute his
wliole available time to geological observation and collection. lii' must
be pi'ovided with a good topographical map, or, if this do not exist, with
surveying instruments that he may make measurements for himsi-lf. It
will he his duty to visit every exposure, to make careful notes and
njeasurements of all the phenomena, and to collect specimens. He must
not only cro.ss the countr\ by the best lines of section, but must trace the
boundaries of every formation, and map them as accurately as possible,
and must study the structure and arrangement of the formations, tlieir
faults distu "bailees, mineral vein.^ intrusive nia.sses and dykes, unconform-
ities and denudation. He should not be content to be a mere mechanical
exploi /ut should endeavour to understand the structure as he proceeds,
in order that he may at lea.st hypothetically supply defects in exposures,
and may have his attention devoted to (piestions which he might other-

('(•

STRATKiKAPHY,

'III '

wise overlook. Work of this kind may of course admit of many degrees
of detail, according to tlie facilities of travel and observation, and the
time that can be deviated to it. It is the business of the geological
expl(.)i'er rather to work out the structure of the country than to .search for
useful mineral.s or fo.ssils ; but lie should give special attention to these
whenever opportunity occurs, and should be particularly careful to mark
ami note every specimen in such a maimer that no mistake may be made
as to its Irue position, geological or topographical. Lastly, the geological
observer should be prepared to note all facts connected with or dependent
on the structure of the country, which may be useful economically or in
relatiiiu to allied sciences.

(4^) The Mining Surveyor and Engineer — It is the object oi the
Mining Surveyor to discover and o|)cn up valuable mineral deposits ; but
in order to etlect this with advantage it may be necessary to do some
preliminary work in geological exploration, in case this has not been pre-
viously done by f)thers. In any case he should make himself personally
familiar with the structure i)f the district, and with all the difficulties and
com[)lexities it may present, and with all good exposures which show the
actual relations of useful minerals to the countiy rock.s. lie may have to
nuiki- minute topographical surveys in connection with the courses of beds
or veins, and may al.so have to conduct exploratory works, as trial-holes,
trenches, adits or shafts, and to collect such samples as may Ije suHicient
for assays and practical trials of their vahu>.

Tiie Civil Engineer, concerned in preliminary surveys for engineering
works, or in actual construction, is also interested in the geological struc-
ture of the country in which he works. The distribution of geological
formations regulates the contours and the nature and position of the rock
masses under the surface. Hence the cost of excavation and construction,
the stability of structures and the materials of which they may be composed
and the accidents to which they are lial)le, are directly dependent on the
geological formation of the country ; and dithculties may be avoided and
advantages secured by the judicious api)lication of even a small amount of
geological knowledge. In like manner, the miscalculations, errors in
specification and unexpected difficulties and pecuniary expenditures
arising from want of attention to geological facts, are fruitful causes not
only of loss but of dispute and litigation. Such difficulties may arise
either from inattention to the facts, or from ignorant attempts to specify
details not ])roperly understood. ( )ther things l>eing e([ual, he will be the
best and most economical engineer who best iinder.stands the rocks in or
on which his operations arc l)eing conducted.

\lr

PART II. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

Classification and Tehms.

The apiiliciition of the facts and principles of litliology, slratigniphy
and ]ialiv>ontology to any given district, enables ns to work ont tlio geo-
logical snccession of formations or geological history of the district in
question, including not oidy the physical changes but the changes in
living l)eings that may have occurred. The comparison and grouj)ing of
such Incal results enables us at length to frame a table or chart of the
geology of the whole earth. This we shall now proceed to construct,
beginning with the oldest formations, and giving, wherever practicable,
ty[)ical examples of each from Canada, or from those regions in America
or elsewhere in which it may be best developed and has ])eeii most fully
studied.

The whole geological history of the earth may be included in four great
Periods or Eras, the luunes of which have been based on tlic progress of
aiuiual life. They are, beginning with the oldest —

1. 21ii' Ei>::nic* or that of Protozoa, often called Arch?pan.

'1. Till' Pa/ii'ii::iiir, or that of Invertebrate animals.

3. llii Mi'fi(j::nif, or that of Reptiles.

4. Till' Kaincznif, or that of ^[ammals and of Man.

They are farther subdivideil into Agis, or if we regard the rocks them
selves rather than the time occupied in their deposition, into 5//.s7'';/;.s of

*" Az'iic," the term originally proposed by Mtircliison is not now applicable, and the
same objection applies to the term " Agnotozoic " recently proposed by western (Jeo-
logists. The only objection to '■ Areb.ean "' is that it does not carry out the idea of
succession of life embodied in tiie names of the other periods.

"':«

"mmmmm

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

I Si !

Forinations. These are represented in the following table, beginniii},' as
before with the oldest : —

,, , ( Laurentian.

Lozoio or Ahcilkan. ^r

I Huronjan.

( Cambrian.

Sihiro-Canibrian.

Silurian.

Erian or Devonian.

Carboniferous.
, Permian.

PaL/KOZOIO.

Triassic.

Mesozoic ' Jurassic.

I Cretaceous.

' Eocene.
Pliocene.
Kainozoic Pliocene.

Pleistocene.
Modern.

Systems may be divided into Series, and these into Stages or Subdivis-
ions : — ^These again into beds. The method recommended by the Inter-
national Congress is as follows : —

1. Groups ox E rax ; <\r. PaLneozoic.

2. Si/stf'iiis or Pr'/'iodx ; r.r. Silurian.

3. Seri'S or Epoclis ; <'.i: Niagara.

4. Staijcs or Ages ; ex. Niagara shale.

\\\ tht! Reports of the (leological Survey of Canada —

Systems are divided into (iroups,
Groups into Formations,
Formations into Series,
Series into J3ed.s.

In noticing the Systems of formations and their subdivisions in detail,
we shall begin in each case with a general statement of the subdivisions
of the system and their most characteristic fossils, more especially noting
the earliest known appearance of each leading animal and vegetable type.
We shall then describe some typical Cana<lian locality, shouM there be
such, and the distribution of the system in Canada and elsewhere.
Finally, we shall mention characteristic useful or economic minerals.

EOZOIC PERIOD.

Since Canada embraces about lialf tli(; area of Xorth America, ami includes
portions of all the f,'eological formatiotisof the continent, we shall in most
cases be able to obtain witliin its limits typical examples of rocks and
fossils ; and when tliese fail, shall have recourse to other regions.

KOZOIC PERIOD.
(I.) Lauuentian System.
1. Lower Laiirentian or Ottawa Series. In Canada — Urthoclase gneiss
of Trembling Mountain (Logan), Ottawa gneiss (Geol. Survey), lower
part of Lower Laurentian, of Logan. European equivalents — Bogian
gneiss, Ur gneiss, Lewisian gneiss. Consists mostly, so far as known, of
beds of Orthoclase gneiss destitute of fossils, constituting the "funda-
mental gneiss " of some geologists. In this and the next group there is
much porphyritic gneiss (the Augen Gneiss of Scandinavia.)

Fig. 42. — Section showing the mode of occurrence of Eozoon in Middle Laurentian
St. Pierre, (a J (Jneiss ; (h) Limestone ; (I'J Dioriteand ( Jneiss.

2. Miildh'. Laitrenfiaii or Orenville Series. In Canada — <Ineiss,
diorite, limestone, pyroxene rock, itc, of (Trenville, Petite Nation, itc,
being the upper part of the Lower Laurentian of Logan. European
e(iuivalents — Ur gneiss in part, Lewisian gneiss in part, Etage A of
Bohemia in part, Dimetian of Wales'? (Jneiss and crystalline limestone
of Brittany. In the upper part of this series there is much (juartzite and
garnetiferous gneiss, also ferruginous gneiss holding magnetic grains and
beds of Magnetite.

Eozoic FosHiLH.— Eozoon Cunwicn^f, (Figs. 43 to 44) also graphitised plants.

HISTOHICAL (iKOLOOY.

LAIKKNTIAX FOSSILS.

Fig. 4.3. — A'o:oo« Canadniitc. (1) Small s]>eeiiiieii di«^■nK»g<'C^ 1h' weathering. (2)
Acervuline cells of iipner part— magnified. (3) Tuberctilated snrfaee of
lamiuie— magnitied. (4) Lamiiiiv of Serpentine in section, repre.senting
casts of the sarcode— magnified.

Fig. 44. — Stnictnre.s of Eozoon. (1) Section magnified, showing tuhuli
at (ii ) and canals at (h). (2) Canals more highly magnified.

WPiPl

KOZOIC PERIOD.

."5. Uppi'r Laiiyi'utia)!, {Nnriau of Hunt.) In Ciuiada — LalmKlorite
and Aiiortliosito scries of the Ottawa district, i^c-. Kuropcaii equivalents
— Kta^'e A (if IJnlieniia in part, I)inietian of Wales? Norite formation
of S(;andinavia. No fossils known. In the district originall}" descril)ed
by Logan there occur large masses of Lal)radorite rocks, now !)elieve(l to
be intrusive ; but there and elsewhere there are gneisses, schists, &c., and
the formation is usually characterised Ijy a prevalence of basic and lime
felspar as distinguished from the orthoclase of the Laurentian. Hence
bedded .Amirthosite rocks and giieissic Anortliositc arc cliaracteristic
features. To this horizon may belong the LimestiMies, Schists and bedded
Dioritii; rocks of .Southern New lirunswick, which underlie the Huronian
in that district ; also the "White Mountain Series " of Hitchcock occupy-
ing a similar position in New Hampshire and the Green iMountains,
and the sJMular rocks called lJ[)per Laurentian by Kerr, in South Carolina.
A felspathic and Mica Schist group of this age seems inileed to bo very
generally associated with the typical Laurentian of Eastern America.

The Laurentian group of rocks has been recognized in Brazil and else-
wheri! in .Sduth America. In tiie Old World it occurs in Scandinavia, in
the Western Highlands of Scotland, in Lrittaiiy, in liohemia and else-
where in Eastern Europe, and in Central and Eastern Asia. It recurs in
Arabia and in Africa, extending from the first cataract of the Nile far to
the southward. The Laurentian may indeed be regarded as a universal
foundation of the Continents; though in many very large arcuis buried
under newer .sediments.

In the Laurentian districts there are great ma.sses and veins of Oranite,
binary (Jranite, I)io-ite, Labradorite rock and Lolerite. Some of the.se
seem to be <.'ither contemporaneous or little newer than the containing rock.
Others have l)een introduced at much later periods.

i)i.-<triliiiti(>ii 1)1 Canaila, ijv. These formations constitute an extensive
angular belt extending south-westward, north of the St. Lawrence valley,
from Labrailor to the Western coast of Lake Superior and thence norih-
west to the Arctic ocean, and they recur in Oreenland. At the Thousand
Islands this belt is connected with an extensive peninsula in the State of
New York. Minor areas protrude through the I'ahTozoic rocks in New-
foundland, New Ih'unswick, and the Atlantic coast of the United States,
and also [)robably in the mountainous belt fringing the racitic coast.

The following Section given by Logan on tlie North Side of the
Ottawa maybe regardi^d as characteristic*

* (leology of Canada, p. 4.5.

■m

60 HISTORICAL (iEOLOGY.

Section from Trniibliii'j Mountain, in the Gonntij of Otiaira.
(Logan).-—

(Onler asoeiuling.)

First Orlhoclase Gneiss of TreniV)ling Mountain,

(Lower or Ottawa ( Jiieiss) .'),000 foot, or tnore.

First Limestone, or Limestone of Trembling Lake. 1,500

Second Orthoclasc (liieiss, between Trembling

Lake and (jlreat Beaver Lake 4,000

Second Limestone, or Limestone of (ireat Beaver
Lake and Green Lake, witli two interstrati-
fied bands of gariietiferous rock and liorn-
blendic orthoclase gneiss, making up about
half its volume '2,500

Third Orthoclase (Jnciss, with bands of garnet-
iferous gneiss and (^uartzite, between Leaver
Lake and the Kouge River , 3,500

Third Limestone, or Limestone of (Jrenville, in
some places including a band of ( Jneiss :
( Kozoon CanaitenscJ. Its thickness varies
from 1,500 to GO feet, average thickness
estimated at 750

Fourth (Jrthoclase Gneiss, including a tliiu bed of
Limestone (Proctor's Lake), and 600 feet of
(^uartzite 5,000

Norian or Labradorian, or Upper Laurentian Series,

estimated at 10,000

Total 32,250

KOZOIC PKRIOI).

The genesis of the Laurentiaii rocks has liccn a .suhject of much dis-
cussion. To the writer it has hw^ apjieiired that llie lowest or Ottawa

> ^

.>^?')~

5 r:

* OS

c a

5 2.

5 S

O 2

Gneiss is an a(|ueo-igneous product of the original ocean covering the
cooling crust. The Middle Laurentiaii, while presenting the same char-
acters ill part, introduces also the formation of sandstones, mud-rocks and
limestones, with organic deposits. The U[)per Laurentiaii marks a traiis-

HISTORICAL ( i KOLU( i Y.

lipi<

ition period, with varicil lucal deposits, ijfiieous and atpieous, iiidicatinf^
the he^'iiuiiiij,' of those ^'I'eat inoveiiieiits of tlie nust whirli closcil tlic
l^aiireiitiait era.

Kciiittinrii' l'i'(itlnrh. — \\\ Canada the I-aurcntian abonnds in (Ineips,
Syenite, Cry.stalhne i.ini«stone«, Serpentine and otlier roeks suilaMf for
construction and for ornamental purposes. It contains beds of Ma^'uetite
(Hull, Marmora, \'c.) and veins of Hematite (Perth), and the ferni^jinous
gneisses have yielded Iron-sand, (.Moisie, i^'c.). Important veins oi
Apatite occur, especially in the I'yroxenic beilsand the Micaceous schists,
(Ihiekitigham, Tenipleton, ISur^'ess, iV'c.), ( Iraphite occurs in larye (piantity
(Ihickinghain, ttc), Mica, (laleiia, (lold, (Mailoc, »•(■{•.) are also locally
among the jjroducts of the l.aurenlian.

(11.) II f HON IAN System.

1. Iliironiaa propi'r. — In Canada — Chloritic slate, jasper conglomerate,
slate conglomerate, (piartzite, limestone and bedded diorite of (leorgiau
]juy. Similar rocks in Newfoundland, New Ilrunswick and p(jssibly also
in the Eastern Townships of (,>uebec. KiU'opean equivalents — Urschiefer
of Scandinavia, Ktage A of liohemia and rel)i(iiiin of Wales (Hicks).

Fo.ssii.. — Eoruiun Banin'rinii, (lumbel, — a somewhat doubtful form —
(Fig. 4G). The Huronian Limestones liave hitherto afforded no f(»ssils in
Canada, though I have detected traces of spicules, ]irobably of spong(>s
in the chert contained in them.

The following section (Logan, (,'f(i/ii</i/ af Canada) represents the struc-
ture of the Huronian in the typical region of (leorgian Hay, in ascending
order : —

1. (Ireeii silicious an<l slaty strata with bluisli and l)lack slates.
'2. Slate conglomerates, or slaty or earthy rock, prol)al)ly in part volcanic
ash, with numerous pebbles of Laurentian rocks; in and near the
Iiase greeni.sh slates.
^. Impure Limestone, with chert. (The chert shows traces of silicious

spicules.)
4. Slate conglomerate, greenish slate and tj>uartzite.
o. (.^uartzite, with (piartz conglomerate and jas[ier conglomerate.

Associated with these IkhIs are extensive sheets of .stratified I )iorite ;
and in places they are traversed with Diorite and Syenite Dykes. The
Copper veins of the Huronian district of (leorgian Bay attain their
maximum thickness in the bedded J)iorite.

The thickness of the Huronian on (leorgian liayis estimated at 18,000
feet, but this is probably only a part of the volume of the entire system.

KOZOIC PKRIOI).

Tlif " Hiistiii;,'s (IriHip,'' (if ()iilari<s may Ik.' of Himmiiiii a;;i', Ijiit it is
not iiiijirobal)!*' that some tif tlio crystalline schistose rocks west <<i Lake
(Superior usually classed as iliudiiian umy really he uiipor Laureiiliau.

iMiili'l/IBWMWItMVIllXUSIISM

■

' '■■''J

-.' i.tB

r* 1-

■ , ;J

\\'

.1 , >

£Ui4ijUJL

iJtvE*.

I;':,

ft c a

Hl'uoman I'ossii.s.
Fit,'. 47. — (1.) Cast of wiiiiii Imiiows, Mailuc (Ifastings gnn'.p) — niagnificd, <i, Con-
taiiiiiiK rock. '/, Space filled witli calcite. c, Sand agglutinated and
stained black. '/, Sand nncolmired. ("_', .'<,) Annttier specimen, natural
size, and magnified.

Fig. 4».—Eo:uun Bararivum ;;2r) (after Gunibel). c, h, calcite. -•, tubuli.
'/, (', Casts of contorted chambers.

Dr. .Selwyu dcscrihes tin; Laurculiaii and lluroiiian succession on the
North Shore of I^ake Superior, on the line of the Ciinaila Pacific Kail-
way, as follows, in ascending; order : —

Laiiri'iitidii.

1. Red, ^'ray and white Orthoclase Gnois.'5 in great variety.

2. Black Hornl)lendic (Ineiss, often ( larnetiferous, and cut by veins of
red and white ( )rthoclase.

3. Pyroxenic (Jneiss, laminated.

4. Crystalline Limestone in thick beds.

These beds are all much contorted Imt distinctly stratified.

c^i

HISTORICAL (JKOUUiV.

Jluroniau.
1. Knlsites and Kclsitic Quartzites, rod iiiid white.
•J. I)iirk coloiirod (.^Mmrlzitos and dark gray and hiack silicious beds, tho
lowLT part lioldiiii,' angular fragments and pt Itlilcsof white granitt; or gneiss.
.S. l)i(prite and I)ial)ast', witli chluritic or liorid)Iendic ash-rocks and

aiitrioinerates.

Associated with thestt are hands of arL'iiiite.

These Huronian rocks iire overhiiil Ijy the Vermillion River Cirey
kSandstones or (^)uurtzite.s and 81ate.s, .supposed to be of Cumbrian age.*

'2. Uppi'i' Ilnmuian or Lnirrxt Canihriiui. In Canada — -Conglomerates,
shites ami grits of Kastern Newfonmlland, lnterme(liate or Signal Hill
beds; Aninuke and Kewenian grou[i of l,ak(; Superior. Cpper Huronian
of Southern and K. New I'runswiek. European oijuivalents not certainly
known. This must be regarded for the present as a provisional group.
It may include the '' 'ntermediate Serie.s " of Murray, in Ivistern New-
foundland, the upper part of i\w. Pre-Cambrian rocks of Southern New
Urunswiik, the Animike and Kewenian rocks of tho basin of Lake
Superior, and possiltly .some of the njcks called Taconian l)y Hunt. These
rocks may, on the otlier hand, be ultimately referred in part to the Lower
Canilirian anc' '" part to tin' true Huronian. The following section .shows
the development of the Kewenian at Maimanse, Lake Superior,! order
ascending : —

L Conglomerate with granitii; and gnei-ssic pebbles and Ijoulders — tho
latter sometimes two feet in diameter, — about 250 feet.

2. Crystalline and amygdaloidal trap, (dolerite) with conglomerate ; veins
of quartz and calqil*! with native copper and co})per ores, — about 700 feet.

?>. Argillo-arenaceous beds and mottled argillaceous sandstone, — about
3;i0 feet.

4. Alternations of trap ami tufa, with a l)ed of conglomerate, — veins of
calc-spar, quartz and launionite, with native copper and silver, — about
750 feet.

Fossils.— .4«/>i(W/« Tcvra-nuvica, BillingH ; ArenicoUtes.

.^'i

''i

Fig'. V^.—Area'<comt» Sjiirali.^. Fig. 4H.—Axi>idrlla terra)iovica—iyi\Vn\gu.
Upper Huronian of Newfoundland.

* "Descriptive Sketch," 1884.

t Paper by the Author, Canadian Naturalist, IS""?.

PAL.ROZOIC I'KltlOI).

Gf)

I)i.itril>iiti<in. — Till' lliiroiiiim is cxtciisivt'ly dcvcldpfil on tlic imi'tli
side of Laki! Huron and south ami wi-st of Lake Sniiuiior. ll oi.curs
also ill Ncwfoniulhuiil and New I'.ninswick, and i»i'obal)Iy in various parts
of eastern (,tUL'lii'(: and the Atlantic Status.*

TliL' Iluronian in thn typical rt'<,'ion of Goorgian l»:'y and also on T<ak<'
Supci ", and in New lirunswick and Newfoundland is mainly a littoral
deposit, foriiiod alon,i,' tlio mar.Ljin of tlu; ancient Laureiitiaii land, and
indicating' extensive movement of stones, i)oulders, sand ami mud, not
iniprobaltly in part by ice action, alijiig with yreat ij^'iioous ejections of
])iorite, i^'c, couse([Uent on the foldings of tiie crust which closed the
Laurentian age. The deep-wat(!r formations of the period are little known
to us ; but their margins may be; represctnteil by the limestones and black
slates. The forms of Proto/oa resembling Kozoon, the l.uirrows of worms
and remains of sponges indicate oceanic conditions.

U»'/iil Miwrah. — The nuronian includes the great co])per veins of
Georgian liay and the gold and silver deposits of the western extremity
of T.ake 8ui)erior, the iron ores of Manjuette and ^leiioininee. The
Trappean ash rocks and gabbros of ]\raimanse, Michipicoton Island and
Kewciiaw I'oint belong to the Keweiiian, and contain much native copper
and silver. The rich .silver deposits of Silver Islet, Lake Superior, belong
to till.' Aiiimike formation.

PAL.EOZorC rKRI(.)l).
(I.) Camhiuan System.
1. Liiirrr Caiuhn'aii. — In Canada the (piartziteand slate of the Atlantic
coast of Xova Scotia (the gold serie-s) containing Asfr"jin//f/,nn and trail?
or markings known as Eop/ti/fon and Sco/ifJnifi, may be referred to this age.
"We may also place here the liasal series of Matthew in Southern New
liriinswick, consisting of conglomerate, sandstone and shale with liiigiiloiil
shells, (Jljuht.t pii/i-Iit'i; Matthew, and wor ii burrows, ( Pnaiiniiirlniifix and
Si'iilHliiix.) To the upper part of it are .iw referred the Georgia beds of
Vermont and Quebec with Oli-ndltis llKvnpsdin. Lapworth has (ISS,--!)
announced the discovery of Oh'inlhiif and its associates in the Lower
Caniliriun of Englaml. It would appear that in Europe and America as
many as 67 genera and 10.5 species of marine inverteln'ates, including all
the leading types of marine life, have been found in the Lower Cambrian, f

* The precise relations of the Hastings group of Eastern (Jntario, and various otlier
groups of altered rocks resembling it in mineral character, with tiie Huronian, are
not yet \v(>ll understood.

t Wulcott.

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

Ill Aiiitjiicii, ill ailditiou to VhiwUns, PlijrlKiparia, MicnnUsctis, Ellipfo
ophafii.-t^ /fi/ii//f/i'!^, ohohis, Ktifuiyifia, Edcustitfs, Li^jfoinitas and otlier
I'C'iU'i'a liavij IjL'L'ii found.

Fig. iJO. — Olcni;!lns Thmnpsoni, Georgia slates. (After Walcntt.)

llure soint; would also place provisionally, in the alisence of fo.-'.sils, the
IvL'Wtniaii, or I'liin'i' Copper bearing series of Lake Superior, and the
Signal Hill series o<^ Xewfoundland. iSoth of these are formations of
conglomerate and ">andstone of rediiisli colours and associated with igneous
rocks and resting on the lluronian. It is possible, however, that these
beds may cniistitute another series beluw the Cambrian. The}' may
correspniid with some of the older sandstones and schists of AVestern
Eurojie which underlie the fossiliferous Cambrian.

The Caerfai series of Hicks in AVales, consisting of jjurple, red and
green sandstones, shales and conglomerates, seem to lie the equivalent of
these beds, and also etages A and 15 of Ikihemia, and the Eophyton and
Fucoiilal shales of Sweden. The known rocks of this age are everywhere
littoral or coast formatioiis.

2. Miihlh' CmnJirian. — In this we may place the Acadian series of Xew
lirunswick, Division 1 of Mattliew in the St. -lolm group, consisting of
slates wi.ii abundant fossil remains, and equivalent to the Solva and
Meneviau groU[is of Wales, and to the Paradoxides Iieds of Sweden.
They aio also the equivalents of the Paradoxides slates of Southern
Xewfoundland and of ISraintree in Massachusetts. These beds are
divided by Matthew into four series, (a to d) of which c antl d are those
to which the name Acadian group was originally given. Above these at
St. John are other slates containing fossils which indicate a somewhat
higher horizon passing into the Upper Cambrian.

.;,•

I .\'tfi.'^s-in.

PAL-EOZOIC PKKIOD.

Fossils, — PKfd'In.iiilc^, (l'"ig. 31.) Cunororiiiilir, Cfrnoir/ilifiht.'i, (Fig- ^>--) Mii'i'oili.'irus,
A'jivislii.'i, and other trili)l)ites, (iIsd Liii'iiiJi'lht, (Fi^'. oU.) O/'^A/x, {Fig. TA.) Stenothccn,
(Fig. 5.").) HiiolUhes, EociiditeK, Protmtimnt/in, ilv. In the upper Divi.sionaro Ctcnoji;/iie,
Plijchojuivia, Agniintiis, Kntorgiiin, f('C. Tlic species and many nf the genera are distinct
from thnso in the lower group.

^latlliews lias catiilogiied 05 species fnnii this series, of wliicli 28 are
Trilobites, l)nt llie .^^(lllllsks, l''.cliiiiii(liMius, Cneleiiterates ami l'r(jt(.)Zou are
also vepreseiiteil.

At ^[o-.int Steplieu in the Rocky .Mountains, on the lino of the Canada
Pacitic Kaih'oad, fossils of Lower and Middle Cand)riau ago have been
found in a formation of (piartzite, slate ami limestone.

Fig. ol. — One-fourtli natural size.
"i3. TA,

Mnini.K C.wiuuAN F'ossu.s.

''''ig. 51. — Paradox ides Rf(iimt. 52. Ctomn iilntl !(.■< Mattliewi. 53, LitiguUUa Mattheui.

54. Ortliis lUllinijsi. 55. StuKiilucn Acadi<'i(. — Acadian group, St. John, X, 13.

HISTORICAL (IKOLOCV

3. Upjwr Caiiihrian. — Tin;
cliaracteiistic funniilion of tlii.s
age in Cuiuula is tlie Potsdam
saiitlsti>no, to wliicli may l)e
addctl the lower part of tlie
Calciferons formation. It is
■widely sjiread over the lower
St. T.awrenee and in the State
of New Y(jrk, and is remark-
able for the abiuidanee of the
cylindrical burrows known as
Sc"/ if hits, for tracks of crust-
aceans {Pi'iitichniti'S, Cliniar-
n-lntif '■■<,) and in- species of
Liininldla and Trilobites of the
genera Oh'nitu and Dild'lln-
c('2)halns. It is the e(piivalent
of the Lingula Flags of ^^'ale.s
and the < )lenus Zone and Dicty-
onoma Slates of Sweden, the
lattei; being equivalent to the
English Treniadoc and the
Lower Calciferons of Canada.

The ]\Iire Kiver Slates of
Cape Ih-eton, Flags of Kelly
Island, Xowfoundland, Upper
Slates of St. John, New Jiruns-
Avick, T,imestones of L'Anse-a-
Loup, Labrador, and the l)i
onciini .shales of Matane am
Rosier belling to this or
jiart to the previous group,
vavicnis Corals, Crinoids, L
ellibranchs, lleteropods, G
toropod« and Cephalopods occur

upper nii'inher, w

shows transition to the next i

Fig. ''('>.— -Protichnitcs scptem-notittus, Owen, I'dtsdiuu.

rAL.EOZOIC PERIOD.

Tliis Uppt.'!' Ml'IuImt, the Calciforous saiul-Kick of tlu; original survey
of Xew York, is represented by eoarse dark-culoreil dolomite over tlie
continental |)lateau, Ijut contains slaty hedHfDirfi/oni'hia shixle.!^) an the
Lower St. Luwri-ncc. It may admit of division into two niemhers
1)clniiL;ipg respectively to the Caiiilirian and Silui'o-Camliriar..

Fi"

•")". — DilicUi>ccjtk((hi.t Miiuic.iotfiiniii

h ']

HISTORICAL (JKOLOdV.

iMi>i''r(i/-<. — The l;()1(1 veins of Xova Seotia occur in CiUiibiiaii mcks,
cspoeiiilly at and near llu; junctioii of llie (Hiartzile ami .slate constituting
the Lower Cambrian of tlu; Atlantie cuast. They arc best ilevelojied on
tlie ;uiticlinals, and ofleii cninciih' in directiim wilh the strike of the l^eds.
The mali'ix is usually (|Uartz, in w liidi the u'l'ld nceiu's either disseminated
in mieroscopio grains or in nuggets. These veins are of later age than
the beds they traverse, probably as hite as the Krian or Devonian. In
some parts of the coast region of Nova Scotia Staurolite, Chiastolile
and ( laruet have been devehipeii in the aili reij slates.

In the Kastern Tdwnsliijis of the I'mvinrcdf (^lueliee, where large areas
at one time supposed td be Sihu'n Camlu'ian (<,)ueb('c group) are now
mapped as Camln'ian and I'lv-Cambriau liy the (leolngical Survey, there
are e.\ten>ive deposits of Copper, (Harvey ILill, \\'ickliam, i^'c.,) also
veins of (iold, Chromic Iron, Manganese, Fibrous Chrysotile (Asliestos),
and Soai>sione. These deposits are lielieved to occur principally in the
Candirian and Pre-Caiid)rian areas.

(2.) SlI.L liO-LAMIJIilAN SvsriOM.

,ower

Sil

uriai

1 of Murchison, (Jrdovician of L

iiiwoi

th.)

1. (.Inrhi'C S''rk\^ (Cahiiferous-chazy).— In C;

inaila tvc, sliale.-

lime-

stones an<l samlstones of Point Levis,

and the

sou

th side of the Lower

St. Lawrence, Upper Calciffroiis 1 )olomite and Chazy Liuu^stolle of the
interior plateau. In the Linted State.-; a belt extending southward
through Vermont anil New Ilanipshin'. European eijuivalents —
Llandeilo series in part, Arenig (Skiddaw and IVirrowdale) of England;
Etage J) I, Ijohemia ; Lower (Iraptolithic slates of .Scandinavia.

The (Quebec Gi'ou]i jimiier i^

I suoniarLrina

~enes helonuniL

to tl

Atlantic border, and from its coastal position has Ix.'cn subjected to great

lateral pressure and fold

inu', ami loi'a

llvt.

mctamorphisni.

le eiiuiva

dent

rock?- of the continental plateau are more calcareous and less disturbed,

and their fo.ssils are for the i

nost par

t ditlerent. The disturl)ed positii

and iieculiar ccjutlitions o

liti

1'
perplexity, and tl
compared with those o

)f <h

<itof the (j>uel)ec group have caused much
lis is increaseil bv tlie ancient facies of the fossils as

f tl

le i»laleau de

•^its. It is also now known that

rocks and fossils extending from 'An: Cpper Caml)rian to the Tnuitoii

Ijeds of the (.^)ueliec gi'oup proper.

group

have been folded in with th

Fossils, — Graiitelites >f (Jencra araptulithui', PhyUorivuptus, Dcndrograptas,

Dkhiiiiniiitus, Diitmnumn. kc. Trilobites of Genera l>ikillocc/ih(iIii>i.
Arioiullns, Biithi/tinis, &c., Land I'lants— P/'(*^(/(/i(('arirt of Skiddaw series

Agniidi's,

PAL.EOZOIC PKUIOD.

r.o

C%4i,^;v^

i^^ ^.■

r.2

SiMRo-cAMnuiAN I'ossiLs. (Qiu'bec gnuip.)

Fi^- •""•'• — r/i>illi>griij>tii)i iiji' 00. — lHihiigra}itu$ Logaui. VA.—hWiiliDmjihaliii

iiitDrtits. G2. — li<itli!juni!f Saffiirili, (33. — Lnkcll<irfphtt(Hi mapiiijirus. G4. —
Pvotospoiigia tctmnfina.

HISTOKICAL (iKOLOOY.

Tli(! tirii[)ti)lik's uf the QikjIjoc <,'roup have been iluscribed by Prut".
Jiiincs Hall, aiiil inoro reciiiitly coini)iiri.s(jns have been instituted botwoeu
the HUCL'essidn of j^eneni and species in Canaila and in Kurope by i'rof.
Lapwoi'th, from which it ap|)eai'.s that the oldest yraptulilhie beds (Matane,
Cape Rosier, »K:c.) containing Dicti/oinhia aociah', are, as stated by the
writer in 18S3, as oM as Treniadnc, the Levis graptolites, [Plujlloiiraptux,)
Tcti'diji-aptax, l)ii'hii(iraptn><, i^'c. represent the English Arenig, and
certain upju'r beds, (^^arsouin, i^'e.) an; of Trenton or Utica age. This
graptdlilhic succession may l)e stated thus, in ascending order : —

1. Dicfjionenta Zimc, holding I), xoriah-, Salter, ei[uivalent to Tri'iiiadoc
and Calciferous.

■J. Pliijllniiraptii^ Zmtr. holding P. tijpus, il'c., and Levis triloliites and
Prafospui/i/ia, e([uivalent to Arenig and Fpper Calciferous or Chazy.
Typical (Quebec group of Logtui.

3. C"')i'ii/rn}i/iis Znni\ holding C. iji-wilis and Trenton fossils.
Equivalent to Knglish I'.ala and to jllack River and Trenton.

.Ml of the above are fouml at various points in the long range of
Cambrian and Ordovician deposits between Cape Rosier and <^>ueliec and
thence south-westward, and which collectively constituted the (^Miebec
group of Logan.

4. I)ij)/iiijrai)/iii> Zone, with 1). prit^fis, i^'c, e(piivalent to I'ppev
Caraihjc and Utica shale, lleds of this age occur on the North shore of
the St. Lawreiu'c near Murray Lay and Les Eboulenients, also at Lake
St. .lohu. Certain beds associated with the (^)ucbe(' group at Covt' tidds
and ( )rleans Island near (Quebec show a transition toward this fauna,
according to I-apworth.

The (irai)tolithic fauna is of special value because it is oceanic and not
limited to continental plateaus. It presents identical characters in the
west of America as well as in Europe, and even in Australia. \\i
interesting illustration is furnished by the discovery of graptolites on the
Dease river, in the N(n'thern part of lU'itish Columbia, by ] >r. (1. 3L
Dawson. According to Prof. Lapworth they are mostly known species of
^Middle Ordovician ag(!. Similar s[)ecies were found by ^\v. R. S.
McConnell in the Kicking Horse Pass, Rocky ^louutains.*

* Canadian Record nf Science, 188)^.

PAL.EOZOIC PERIOD.

I •>

2. Ti'r)tton Sffii'S. In Canada — lUack River and Trenton limestones
of (^)uebec and Ontario. Cnrresiionding rocks df the New York serie.s.
European ei[uivalent.s — r>ahi formation of En^^laml and AVales ; Ktago
1) 2 of l!(jliemia ; K^L^io C, or < Kiland limestone of Scandinavia ; < Irapto-
lite and Calymene .slates of France — Seeon I Fauna of liarrande.

Fig. 04r(,— Supt'ipositiiiu of Siluro-Caiuhrian limestono on ciuartzito and slate of
Hastiiii^'s .-^eries, Hog Lake, Ontario.

The Trenton serie.s re[iresents a .suhmergence of the whole continental
plateau of Xorth Ameri('a under warm waters richly tenants 1 hy a ^neat
variety of forms of invertebrate life, and representing the culminatinn of
the inverteljrate animals in the Lower Palaeozoic. ^lore especially the
great Cephalopods of the family ()rthoceralid;e were dominant at the
time, and the genera .<'I^•(Yj)^'^■<■, Cal iptn'iie i\m\ Ti-innrlrii!< rc'[)lace the older
forms (if Trilolntes. The I'tica shale overlying the Trenton re[tresents an
inHu.\:of cold and muddy waters into the great iidand sea of the Trent'm,
along with the entrance of Gra[itolites and other dceanic forms nf life.

Fossils. — Kich inverteVn-ato I'auna of Corals, Ci'inoid.-;, Bracliioiiods, Lauiolli-
branchiatt's, ( Jasteroiiods and Crustaceajis. The following are very cliari'.cteri-^tic in
Canada — Mouticnliiinrd (different siii<ii'.<), CnhiDinarid (tli'CnlHtfi, I'ctrio/ii'iiiHhriitnii),
PlifudU'tya cti'iUd, G/yitlorriinis mmulosus, StroiiliniiHn<( idtrrnctd, Leiitnena tiericca,
Orthi.i liiii.r, LitiiiuJu (luadntta, (^ijrUtdonta Huroneusia, Miirrliitimiia hdlirinrtd. I'lturo-
((iiiiKria tmhriiiiicu, Cintahtria Inntnncnsi.^, Asdji/iiis iiie'ji.nto.'i, 'J'riniirkn.i onifculrinis.

In Xova Scotia and Xew lU'unswick tlu' Trentun and »^>uehec .series
appear to l>e represented by the Grai)tolite slates of Xnrthern Xew
Ijrunswiek, and by the felsite.s, agglomerates, slates, Ac. of the C(d)eiiuid

HISTOllICAL CEOLOGY.

SU-rKO-CAMBIilAN 1''0S.S1I,S.

Fi^- •>■"'■ — (f'raptolithus bicornis. (id. — Petraid prufmida. (!". — Monticulipora,si>. OS. —
I'ti'odictiia acuta. (Jit. — Lingvla ijiiadrata. 70. — Orthis hinx. "l.—Orthis
pcctincUa. 72. — Illiyvchonelta iiicrdircsccus. 73. — Di.fciiia circc. 7A. — Orthis
tcstudiiiaria. 7o. — Stoplnniicna ultcrimta. 7(5. — BcUcrophon Sulmtiiius. 77.
— Muirhi.^oiiiar/'mcilix. 78. —il/. hicinda. 79.—Plcurotomavia umhilicatu^n,
80. — Orthoccras sp. 81. — Caliimcnc aciiaria.

I'AL.Ko/.oIC I'KKlol).

MiMiiitaiii', A"i'. in Xiiva Scdiia, wliirh Imvc lirm iiaiiieil tlic C(il)(Miuid
sc.'i'ii's. TlifV I'Lvsciulili' in ininci'al cliarai.'tri- [\[i- Ilnrnnvdalo series of
KliL;Ianil.

'?,. lln.lsnii Ilirr,- S'-ri's. In Canada — I'lica shale nf the 8t. Luwreiice
valley, shales, coarse limestones ami sandstones overlying; the Utica in
various |iarts of Ontaiin and (jUieliec, and extending southward into the
United States. iMn'opean equivalents — Caradoc sandstones and shale,
Reyiii I» of Seamlinavia ; l'',ta,L;'es 1).'5. Ml, iMihemia.

Fossils. — C'lHitimiHtiiiii of iiivcitcliiiitc ]'':iiiiiii of Tri'iitnii in )),ai't, with sdiuc new
t.vpus, as Fiirislcllti .■<tfl!iit(i, JIii/ii.<itis •irKri'ls, J'tiriimi ilniii.'i.id, And/ili n.t Cdnailcnsin,
Trill rtliriis Ihrkii, and T. xiiinnxus, (/rajilii/itCK iilimind in s(ime paits ef tlie I'tica,
e.s|it'ciall.v '/. iiyixliK, <1 . hiraniis and !•. 7'(iiiio.iii)<. JOarliust cirtainl.y known land
plant-- —I'r'itn.iliiiiii'i, Aiiiiii/itriii, Sjilnin'/Jii/lliiiii ,

iJ/sfn/iiif/n)/. — Kni'maliuiis of this a.i^'eoceur in palehes alon^' tin; north-
ern eoast of the (lulf ami River Si. Lawrence, on the north siile of
Antii.'osli ami on tin; south side of the' St. Lawrttuce from (Jasjie. From
]')ay St. Paul ui)ward, they oicuiiy l'<'ll' sides of the St. Lawrence and
the valley of the J>ower ( )ttawa, as far up as the Thousand Islands.
"We.-tward of this they form a hroad helt e.xteiidinu' across < >ntario, from
Laki' nntaiiii to (Ieoi^i;in Lay. They occur in the Islands of fJeorgian
Lay and the X(U'th Channel, and at Liver St. Mary cross over into the
L'niled States. They reapjiear in the \'alley (jf the Red River.

Usi'/ii/ I'riKhifts. — The limestones of the Chazy and Trenton ^roups
afford '41 Hill Ijuilding' stone and lime. Sandstones and ilags are found in
the Hudson River series. The Ctica shale is in some places sutiiciently
rich in iiituminous nuitler to atl'ord illuminatinL;- oil, ami it is also a source
of natural gas. The co])iier and other metallic minerals of the I'.astern
Townships of (^Mudiec, formerly referred to the t^'uehec group, are now
regardc'd as for the r,iost part ocrurring in older rocks.

III. SlI.UHI.VN SVSTKM.

(T'|iper Silurian of Murchison.)

1. Mfilina S'jri'S. In Canada — Sandstones of the "West end of Lake
Ontario and extending thence into the United States. Lower p.ut of
Anticosli series. European equivalents — Llandovery formation of Wales
or beds of passage, including the Mayhill sandstone. Etage E 1 liohemia.

Fossils. — The trails known as Avlltrophiicus, and LiiKjula Cu.ncata are characteristic.

7(; HISTORICAL cr.oI-OCY.

2. Niaijava Siri't^. In Ciiiiadii— ('liiitdii au'l Nia'^aia lirnc.-tniif nf
Ontario, and Llu'ir cxti'iiNidii stnitliwaid inln tin' I'niti'il Stair-. Lnwi.-r
Ari.siii,L; and New Canaan slates (if Nova S(;ijtia ; I'liprr Silurian linu;-
stont's and slates n£ Xortlicrn Xcw iJrnnswick and (la>iiij in part.
Kuroiican ciiuivak'nts — Wcnloclc iinicstuno and slialc iif Kin;land. Muil,'!?
E 2 (if llohi'inia.

l''ossu,s.— The Niagara liiiicstiuio cnntiiins a rich marine fiUiiia ; A.st!i'"i<i"iii>/i",
jiracmnma, Stnimutuimra couccntrka, an<l Ciirftlx, &c. of the y-enera/'dciwiVM, HnliisiteSf
NeHnlilix, Dirfi/iiiKiiia ; Crhmid.-i, as Sleii/iiiiinfriiius ami (^nriinrriiiiiK ; MoUusks, as
Stro/iliiimciin rutjimi, J'ciilitiiit nm, Si>irif('r A'liiiiitrriiKii^. Trilnliiti's nf genera li'i'innnin,
LU'lttifi, Cahjmenc, and /l/minin, are characteristic. (Ihiiitiuli lulniii of tlie Clinton is
Iiriiliahly a Ijj'C(i|i()iliaceiiiiH plant.

i^^^l

P^^
^^^

.SlLlRIAN' Fossn.s
Fig. 8.'i. — HeUoUtcK.'ipcriosKs 84. Fdrositea (,'iit/i'<ni'lir i. .'Sr>. Hali/.titcs C'ttiiinJnta .
S(3, DirtiinniiiKiWihdcri. S7. I'dhntM' r Xinyvc i.tis.

I'AL.Kozoic ri:i{i()i».

.'i. Sd/iiifi »>''•/•/' N. Ill Caiiiida — Sliiilcs, iiiarls, dolnmili's and inck salt
of ( liiclcricli ill (ditario, Tliis is a local series (^oiitiiicd to tlie intciinr
basin df Xnrtii America, aiul iiiaikiii,^' a iicrind of elevatinii and dry ciiiuale
\villi dcMTls and salt lakes. The (Iiieliih liinestdiic and ddliimitc of
( »iitarii) is a traiisilioii tleposil lielweeii this and the Xia.Lfani. Miya/oui/i.'^
CdiKi'l' )isis, i\ lai'Lje lainelliliraiicliiate, is characteristic; of the (liudiih liine-
stone. There are also species of iSfi'niiHtfnjiiira, Miiir/iis'ini((, C'/c/n-
ninta, K-v.

4. //■ /i/i ill' r</ S> r/'rs. In Canada — I.inicstoiie of Si. Helen's Island,
Montreal: Upper Limestones of Anticosti ; Caj e (Jaspe liuicstone ;
Upper Arisaii,' series, Nova Scotia. I'Jiropean eiiuivaleiits— Ludlow
Series of ]\ni,daiid ; KtnLjc; F, (I, of jlohenda.

Fig. 88 — Chondts Nova Sail ini. 89. Atriiim rcticnhiriii.
'JO. HumHloiiottis ikJi>hiiioccphulus.

Fossils, — Poitauicvun tjdlaitiin, P. purinlo-iKilcalH.t, HhinichdiuUd vcntricom. Species
(if Mii'ifita, ChuiitU'n, Katmiid, Stricklaiiduiiii, Tciitucu/itcs a.nd Eiivm^crtitt, iiro clmi-
actoristic. Tlie earliest kiiowu ScDrpion.s and Insects occur in the Silurian. Fossil
]il:ints nf ^i^ww^ Psikqili iiton , Ncimtldiiliiitoii, iS:c., occur. ]']arlit'st fossil fishes — Placo'iiDi-
oli/t) and Schit'liiaii.t. Jn America — yVovf.s'/x'.s Aradica, Matthew, from the llelderburg
of New lirunswick, Pala'cispis hitnuicatd, J'. Amcvionia, Claypolc, Saliiia of
Pennsylvania.

Di.-'fi'ihutiini. — The Silurian rocks are well developed in the district
extend iiK4 north-we.stward from the Niagara river to Uake Huron. The}-
orcupv a largo area in (^)ueboc and Xorthern New Urunswick, extending
S. "\V. from ( laspe and the I!ay de Chaleur ; and isolated ai'';as occur in
>.i.\-a Seotia and Southern ^sew l>runswick.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

IIIIIM

1^ 1^
^ us,

12.0

1.8

U ill 1.6

HISTORICAL (iKOLddV.

Ill tlie Kast, where tliey liave lieeii involved in the fukls extending
.South-we.stwai'dly in the Apalacliians, tliey liave been much disturbed,
more or less altered and affected with slaty structure. In tin- interior
plateau and iu tlu; area of the Gulf of St. Lawrence they remain flat or
inclined only at very small angles. Extensive ejections oi dolerite and
other igneous rocks occurred in the later par. of the Silurian period.
Examples of these are allurded by the great sheets of dolerite inter-
stratified with the I'pper Silurian in Xorthern New lirunswick, (C. l>on
Ami, &c.) and in the trapiican masses occurring in the valley of the St.
Lawrence, and to which Blount Koyal and JJela'il mountains belong.
The nuumer in which the dykes of these mountains cut the Utica beds
and the association of their agglomerates with the Ilelderberg limestones
show that these were active volcanoes at the close of the Silurian.

i;i

Fig. 01.— Silurian ve^etatiim of N. America. Prdtaiiiiulai'ia, liencynhi,
Xeiiuitoji/ii/ton, AvthnatiijiiM, 1 silofiluiton .

PAL.^^OZOIC PERIOD.

The earliest known land animals belong to the Silurian. In ISSO \)i\
LimlstrOniannounceil the discovery of a well-iireserved s[)('ciiiu'n >>( a true
.scorpion, which he named Palivaplmncus niuirins, in the L'i)i)er Silurian
of Sweden ; and in December of the same year a similar diseitvery in
Scotland was announced by l)r. Hunter. In the following year, Prof.
Whitfield of New York described and figured a third species in the Lower
Helderberg series of the State of New York. Thus this form of life has
been at one bound, and in three different localities, carried back from the
Carboniferous to the Silurian, a remarkable instance of the nearly simul-
taneous discovery of new facts, in different places and by different
observers.

The insects had previously been traced back to the Devonian or I'rian
period, and the scorpions would now have antedated them, but for another
discovery made in Spain by M. Donville, and communicated to the
Academy of Sciences by M. Charles Ih'ongniart, in December, 1884.
This is a wing of an insect in the sandstone of the Middle Silurian,
prol)al:)ly equivalent to our ^i iagara series in Caiuula. This wing is shown
by its venation to belong to the Blattidte or cockroaches, a group already
well known in the Carboniferous, where they seem to have tliriviii on the
abundant vegetable matter of thai period. It differs, however, in some
of the details of venation from any living or fossil species known.
Brongniart proposes for it the name Prutahlattiiia Dunril/ii, and as the
beds containing this insect are probably a little older than any of tiiose
containing the scorpions above referred to, this di.«covery makes the
cockroaches, still so numerous and voracious a family of insects, the oldest
known air breathing animals.

The Silurian is also characterized by the earliest known fishes, which
belong to the groups of the Plaeogauoids or plate-bearing (ianoids, and
the Selachians or sharks. These early fishes had in this period to con-
tend for the mastery of the seas with gigantic Orthoceratites and with
large and formidable Crustaceans, (I'terygotus, S:c.)

On the land the few known fragments of plants indicate a meagre flora
of I'rotogens and Acrogens.

Modiolopais rhomloideu, Sihuian.

80 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

Miwral-'^. — Tin- ,c;rcat Salt (1c]insits nf fiodi.'ricli, iVc, in Ontario, occur
in tlic Salina sorios, which also aH'onls Gypsum. The following .section
from the Geological Suvvoy* illustrates these depo.sits : —

I'cct. Inches.

Pleistocene Cliiys, &c 7(5

Dol'iiiiite with Limestone hands 27H ■'?

Limestone witli Corals, Chert, and layers of ])oloinite. . 'J7t> <•

Dolomite LM.J

Variegated Marls with layers of 1 )(jloinite 121

EorkSall .SO 11

Dolomite and Marl ;$2 1

Jlork- Suit 2.") 4

Dolomite 11 10

Jiork Salt 34 10

Marls and Dolomite SO 7

JlockSalt 1.". 5

Dolomite and Anhydrite 7

Jlnrk S((lt . 13 (i

Marls 135 (',

IlockSalt

IMarl.s 132

Total 1.572 feet.

Limestones of valuable ijuality aliound iu the Xiagara series, and roof-
ing slates are affonleil by some of the altereil shales in .«ome parts of
Eastern Canada.

IV. EiUAN System.
(Devonian of KnglLsh Geologists.)

1. Cornifi'rnxs Srrli'i^ — Corniferous limestone and a.s.soeiatcd san<l.stones
in Ontario, Lowm' Gaspe sand.stones. European eipiivalents — I'lymouth
and Linton groups of J)evon ; Eifel limestones, spirifer sandstone of
Germany ; old red sandstone of Scotland anil West of England, The
Oriskany sandstone, which lies at the base of the Corniferous .series, is by
some regarded as the upper member of the Silurian. Li Canada, how-
ever, it is more closely connected with the Erian.

Fossils. — Placoganoiil and Ganoid fishes abound. Abundant corals of genera
Fuvnsiten, Heliojihiinum, J-Jriilo/ilti/Hum, Ciisti'ih'jUum, Z<tphrcntis, itc. Plants —
I^'ematophyton Loijani and Psilophyton princeps.

Sterry Hunt, 1870.

PAL.EOZOIC PERIOD.

\-vt52^

EuiAN OK Dkvonian Fossii.s.

Fig. '.'•^-Zaphrentis pmliHra. 0.1 Helwph,,ll,m H„lli. 94. Sph-ifa- laucromUus.

9.'}. Ptn-ineafiaheUa. 90. Platephimcra aiitiuua. QT.Phactps bafo.

1 i:/f

HISTOKICAL (JK()LU(;Y.

Hi'

KltlAN I'lSIIKS.

I'ig. 'M.—J((w oj Biinchlltiis (ri'duct-d). IMt. ('(iilialaspU Ditivsoni (reducetl).

f((^ Sculpture.

'2. Ildniiltnu Si'n'cs. — Ilamiltdii sIimIcs (if Wosturn Oiitaii-. Mi'Kllc
part of CJaspe samlstonos, Conlaitc shales of St. John, New Ihuiiswick.
Kiir()[H'an LMiuivali'uts— Middle l)evniiiaii of Kiiifland and S.Mtiand ;
upper part of Eifel fonintion.

Fossils. — Spirifcr mncnnidtiis iind Alriiixi irlindttris and dnixnt .ire cnmninn. Tlie
genus (roiiiiititcs ajipeivrs. Kislies of ^^eniTii Diiiichthim. Trilobite.s of geiui* Pfutrops.
Numerous fossil jilaiitsof the jfenera Calitinilin, Lrpiiliidctitlroti, Pxilniilmtnn, .Irrhno-
pterin, Coi'daitc.i, &c. Several insects (Pldtcphiiiunt, itc.) ap|)ear in the St. Joini
shales. Ivirliest \)ecii\wi\n(I'al(Vop<i!cmo)i),

3. ClK'ninuij Si'vii't^. Ill Canada — Slialcs, itc, of Kettle Point, Lake
Huron, ITi)per Gaspe sandstone, upper sandstone and conglomerate of St.
John, Xew llrunswick. Kur;)pean eipiivalents— Upper old red sandstone
of Scotland, Kiltorcan beds in Ireland, I'ethervin group i>f I>evon,
Cypridina shale of iJennany.

Fossils.— Many Lamellibranchiates of genera Pteronites, Avicnhi, &c. Fishes of
genera Holoptiichiun, Ptcrichthim, &c. Peach has discovered Millipedes if two sjiecies
in the Krian of Scotland. Ferns of genera AvchaofAerU, Cyclopkric, &c.

PAL.KOZOIC PERIOD,

Eriax oil Devonian Plants.
Fig. 100. — Psilojihiiton )>rincfi)S. <i, fruit, h, stem enlarged, r, scnlariforin ve.ssels of
axis. 101. Splicnophi/lluia autiiiintm, a, inagnified, '/, natural >*izf. 102.
Asterophyllites parvuld, a, natural size, h, c, portions ni.ignitied.

HISTORICAL GEOl,OC;Y,

Dutt'ihution. These rocks occupy the peninsula of Ontario Ijctween
Lakes Erie and Huron. Tiioy occur largely in the region south of Lake
Erie and elsewhere in the United States. They are extensively developed
in flaspe and the Lay de Chaleur and also in Southern New Brunswick.
In the maritime regions however, last mentioned, the great limestones, so
rich in corals in Ontario, are wanting, and the whole system is represented
by shallow-water beds, while fossil plants and remains of fishes prevail to
the exclusion of strictly marine forms. The folljwing table shows the
comparative development of t'lc system on the Atlantic margin and the
Continental Plateau : —

103

Fig. Va^.—ArchmpUris Jacktoni, a, I, portions allowing venation.

PAL.KOZOIC PERIOD.

Devonian, or Erian nf America.

SUBDIVISIONS.

Upper Devonian or
Lrian.

NKW VOIIK ASn
WKSTKKX CANADA.

CliennuiK Group.

GASI'E AND ItAY
|)K CHALKLU.

Upper Sandstones
fjonK Cove,
.Scuunienac.

SOLTHKRN NEW HIUNS.
Wlt'K AND XCVA SCOTIA-

Alisptc (Jroup.

.Shale, Sandstone, and
Conglomerate. .Sand-
stones near Middle
K., Pictou?

Middle Devonian or
Krijin.

Hamilton Oroup.

Middle . "Sandstones.

Ijois Iinili', Cape

Uiseau, etc.

Little K.(ini\ii)(includ-
'\ny( Cordaite shales
ami Dado.xylon Sand-
stone).

Lower Devonian or
Erian.

Cornifcrous and
Uriskuny groups*

Lower SandstoneH.
(iaspt' Hasin.
Little (iaspi-
Canipbi'Uton.

Lower Conglomerates,
etc. Nictaux and
IJear River Series
((Jriskany).

A .similar ditrert'iioe obtaiii.s between the Atlantic margin and the
interior continental area in Europe, a.s evidenced by the comparison of the
old Ked Sandstone of Scotland with the Eifel limestones in ("iernuuiy.

The Erian i.s emi)hatically the period (jf the reign of li.shcs, when animals
of that class first I)ecame dominant in the waters. The rich tish fauna of
the Devonian of Scotland has long been known, and the discovery of
Ci'phalaxpisixniX Mar/iaeracanf/tns in the Gaspe .sandstones, by the author,
in 18G9,* showed that Ijoth Placoganoid and Selacliiau fishes existed in
Canada in the Lower and Middlt; ]Jevonian. ^lore recently Mr.
Whiteave.s has described, from the Lower Devonian of Campljcllton,
fishes of the genera C<iri-()ti/>.'ii.i, CoplialaKpiii and CtiniacantltH--^, and from
Upper Devonian beds at Scaumenac Bay, other species of the genera
PtencJi(/ii,'.<, I)i])/oL'anfhiii^, Pltamrnpleurnii, (r/i/ptoh'jns, Cht'iroU'piti, and
of a now genus named liy him Eif.-^f/intopferon.f The evidencr- of the
relative ages of the lieds as indicated ]>}' the lishes corresponds perfectly
with that deduced by the writer from the fossil plants which accompany
them.

The Erian is also the age in which we fir.st find, in the Palteozoic, the
evidence of extensive forests and of great vegetable growth. Wi; have
remains of Land plants, as already stated, in the Silurian. JUit in the
Erian wo find a profusion of new forms, introduced however not in the
beginning of the period but more especially in its middle portion. The
Lower Erian fiora is meagre, and the prevalent forms are Psilophijton,

* Geological Magazine, 1870.

t (iesner first noticed the Scaumenac fishes which were subsequently collected by
Ells and Foord.

IIISTOKICAL (iKoUXiY.

Artln-imtiijma niul Xniiato]>/ii/fi)ii. In the iiiiildlt' Eriaii we have riymno-
sporms, rcprosL'iUeil by Daiioniliiu, Conlai/'x, ami tlie fruits known as
Anilinlitlna and Qinfinrdrpnui. < )f An'OLjcns we liavc Lfjiiihulrnih-n)! and
Li'ptopJili iini and Li/i'np(iifif,s, rcprcsonlinL; the Lyi'opnds, Calamitrn, ivp-
resonting the Equisetacea' and numerous genera and .species of ferns, l)olh
tree-ferns ami lierl)ac'eous species. We have also a Viist exuberance of the
huml)le aipiatic plants known as Khizocarps, their sporocarp.s tilling .some
thick bed,« of shale in such a manner as to render it highly bituminous.

Mill' ra/ Prmhifts. — The Krian is especially remarkable as a source of
petroleum, which se(!ms to abound in tlie Corniferou.- and Hamilton groups
in certain districts in ( )ntario and in the North-West.

V, Cahhomi'erous System.

1. tlnrtan S'\ ii'/i. Lower Carboniferous Shales and Conglomerates,

Horton r>lull, iVc, in Nova Sc(jtia. K(piivalents in United .States —

Vespertine group of Pennsylvania ; Waverly .sandstone (in part), Ohio;

Kinderhook and Marshall groups of Illinois and Michigan ; lower or false

coal measures of Virginia. Kuroi)eau equivalents — Tweedian group or

Calciferous sandstones of Scotland ; Carboniferous .sliale and Coondiala

grits of Ireland ; C>dm formation of nermany, (Jraywacke of Vo.sgcs.

Fossu.s. — Fislics (if gfiicni Itliinliiiiflttliii.i, illiizii'iiin, AcroJeph, Ctiniira>itliit», etc.
Footiiriiits (if earlif.st known B;itracliiiuis : Luiiilmicndron oirruijatuin, Aneimitis,
Acadica, Conlaites. &c.

Fiff. 104.— Piihi I. II Igcim mml ul ux, Ihi. «, Outline, natural size. t, .S(.^ries of 8uale.s
enlargt'(.l, seen fmni in.side. The lower row are tliose on niei»ii»l line, c,
Surface of exjxvsed i)art of scale from side and from upper lobeof tail, show-
ing .sculpture enlar^'ed. ft', One of the doivsal scales, enlarged.

PAL.KOZOIC PERIOD.

LowEU Carbonifehous Fossils.
Fig. lOri.—Slenoporaexilis. \W>. Chatetcs Umida. 107. Litkostrotion Pictocnsc. 10S.
Spiriftr acuirosta. 109. Sinrifcr cristata. 110. CentroncUa ainm. 111.
Productus nemireticuhitus. 112. Athpris mUUita. 113. Canlinmorpha
Vitidohouettsis. 114. Aviculniiecfeu simplex. 11.5. Conularia riuadvisukata.
Wt. Nalicopsis dispasna. 117. Murchisoniaf/tipsea. 118. Loxovema acutula.
IW. NaiitilHn nvonemis. 120. Ovthoccras vind'oboticnse. 121. Phillipsia Howi.

HISTORICAL (;E()L0(;Y.

iil^

2. Wimfriar S'riin. In Canada — Lower Carlwiiifftrnus limestono.* and
^'ypsiftTous surius of Novii 8cotiii and Xew l»run.Avick. KiinivaliMits in
United States — Hurlington, Keokuk and CliesttT limestones of Illiiioi.'=i.
European eipiivalents — Old ^^ountain or Carhonifovous limestone of
Knj,'land ; Caleairo Condrusien of France ; Kolilen-kalkstein of ( Jermany ;
Fusulinii limestone of Russia.

Fossils.— Murine Invortebratfrt of genera Fit/<alin(i, Lithostrolioii, Cyathiiihiilhnn,
Fenestflld, J'v(xliictns, Tcrehratuld, Affiiirin, Spiri/ev, Arirulopcctcn, Mucrmljn,
Coiiitliiriii, Naiiti/uH, Orthorems, PhUUpnin, &C.

3. Millxtoiio ijrit. Canadian typt's — Sandstones and conj^'lomcratea
between the Carboniferous limestones and the coal formation, in Xova
Scotia and Xow lirunswick. In United States — Serai conglomerate of
Pennsylvania, Lower Carboniferous sandstone of Kentucky, Alabama and
Virginia, Cliester group of Illinois in part. European equivalents —
Millstone grit and Yoredale rocks of England ; .Moor rock oi Seuliaiid ;
Jungste (irauwaeke of the llartz, Saxony and Silesia.

Fossils. — Plants similar to those of the Coal forniation.

4. Cual Fonnafion. In Canada — Productive coal measures of Nova
Scotia and Xew l>ruiiswiek. In United States — coal formatinu of
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois ami Michigan, represented in the west by
marine limestones, il'c. In Europe — the coal formations of Scotland,
England, France, Germany, &c.

Fossils. — Land plants of genera Araucaroxiihrn, Sir/ilhiria, Lepi'loileii'lrnn anil
Cidamitcs, and Fcnin and allied plants. Fishes of f,'enera Piihtoinscus, Hlti:oiluii,
Diploiliis, (iiimcaiithuK, &c, IBatrachians of genera Baphdcs, Dendrcrpiton, Hii'onoinus,
Aiithracosaurioi, &.c. Insects, Millepedes, Arachnidans and Decapod Crustace.ans.

ORIGIN OF COAL.

All ordinary beds of coal consist of compresseil and carbonized vege-
table matter, principally the cortical and other more durable and least
permeable tissues of plants. That this matter has accumulated I'li situ
on swampy Hats and depressions, is shown by the occurrence of fossil
soils or "underclays" full of roots, below the coal-seams, by the vege-
table debris spread out in the shales which overlie the coal, and by the
frequent occurrence in tliese "roof-shales" of erect trees rooted on the
surface of the coal. (See Figures, page 92).

The chemical relation of vegetable matter to ordinary bituminous coal
is seen in the following table : —

Cellulose, - - - - Cn Hjo O^o

Cork, C24 Ilig H ^6 10

Bituminous Coal (Regnault), C24 H,„ O3 ,^

I'AL.KO/.oIC rKKloi).

Hi)

COAL-FOBMATION F08SII.S

II' 1

Fig. 122. Pi(i(i Ktusta ; «, natural size, '/, enlaiptd, c, aiiex, (/, sculiiturt'. 123, Con-
uliis prisons; a, enlarged, h, sculpture. 124. Spirorbh rarhomtrius. 12.j.
L'ntomai'tracaus ; a, Carhoniu hnirdeoidcs, Jonew ; h, Carhmiia ii'iintn,
Jones; r, Cijthcre. 12C>. Mil/ipeiJeti ; a, Xylohius, siiiUlnrin ; li, Anhhiltts
Xyfohioiles ; c, Xylohius fardus. 127. Blattina Bretoncnsis. 12.s. Blnttina
Hccri,

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

Disfi'ihiifinn. — 111 Canada the CarVioiiifeious occupies considerable areas
in Nova iScolia and New lirunswick, and includes the extensive and
valuable coal lields of Cumberland, Pictou and Cape IJreti .i. The Carbon-
iferous tlistrict of New Brunswick while extensivt; in area is as yet
known to contain only thin l^eds of coal. The thickest beds occur in the
vicinity of the ancient shores of the older formations in Picto"., Cape
llretoii and iSouthern Cumberland. These coal beds from their resting
on fossil swamp soils or underclays and being covered with beds holding
erect trunks of trees, are known to have been produced in situ, and
to represent buried bogs of the period. The microscope shows that the
coal itself is made up of layers of vegetable deln'is, largely cortical and
epidermal tissues of trees, and sporocarps and other remains of fructific -

^n. "Woudy lUatter proper appears in the form of mineral charcoal.

In the R(jcky Mountains and in Ijritish Columbia, Carboniferous rocks
are largely developed, but consist principally of quartzites and limestones
associated with igneous rocks. In Ih'itish Columbia the limestones con-
tain foramiiiifera of the genera FntuUiia ami Lo/fn,<ia.

The forests of the Coal period were remarkable for the great abundance
of Sigillari.T, and the Stigmaria roots of these trees are present in nearly
all the underclays. Conifers, ( DaiTn.riilnn), ConJaitcs, Ferns, Equiscta
uud L>;pii1nili:ni1ra are also extremely alnindant. The flora throughout
consists of Gymnosperms and Acrogens, but the species diller somewhat
in the ditferent members of the group.

iji,

Fig. 129.— Tooth of Ctcnoptiichius cristulus, N.S. ; natural size and magnified.

In addition to insects and scorpions we now have on the land many
myriapods and land snails, and above all, numerous batrachians, some of
Avhich, those of the Labyrinthodeiit and Miorosaurian groups, presented
•characters in advance of those of the class ia modern times. The genera
Eo:'au)'iis, Dajiltetes, Dimdn'riyton and Hylonomm, may be mentioned as
•examples. (Fig. 130.)'

PAL.EOZOIC PERIOD.

Us'-fnl Mtwrah. — Tlio Lower Carboniferous of Nova Scotia abouiuls
in I.iniestoiit.' and Gj'psum. It also contains ores of Iron (Limonite and
8uderitc) and of Manganese (Pyrolusite). Valuable sandstones for build-
ing, and grindstones are also quarried in the Millstone Orit and Coal
formation. This formation is however most remarkable for the great
workable coal beds, now mined in various places, and the produce of which
is extensively exported from Xova Scotia and Cape Dreton, more especially
from the Pictou and Springhill mines and from the various collieries in
Eastern Ca[M- lUeton.

Fig. 130. — lidphetes planiceps, Owen, a, Fraj,'inent of Maxillary bone, showing sculp-
ture, four outer teeth, and one inner tooth ; natural size, b, Section of inner
to(jtii ; magnified, f. Dermal scale ; natural size.

The Permo-Carboniferous occupies some space in the south of Prince
Edward Island ; and the Lower Carboniferous, locally termed the
Bonaventure formation, extends into the east of (Quebec. A limited
area, incluiUng Ijeds of coal, occurs in western Newfoundland. In the
west, rocks of Carboniferous age occur in the Rocky Mountains and in
British Columbia, but, so far as known, without beds of coal.

The following section from Acadian Geology represents a bed of coal
•with its accompaniments: — (Fig. 13L)

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

:(r

Fig. 131.— Section from the Coal formation of S. Joggins. 1. Shale. 2. Shaly coal,
1 foot. 3. Underclay with rootlets, 1 foot 2 inciies. 4. Gray sandstone
ptissing downward;* into shale, ,\ feet. Erect tree with StiRniaria mots fc}
on the coal. 5. Coal, 1 inch. 0. Underclay with roots, 10 inches. 7. Gray
sandstone, 1 foot o inches. Stigmaria rootlets continued fmm the bed
above; erect Calamitcs. 8. Gray siiale, with pyrites.— flattened plants.

•Mm^xjiiif:^.

—~~- - — — SamUtoa

Sh.ale.— (roof)
Coiil, 15 inches.

Shftly cliiy,— (uiiilercliiyl.

— — ■ ~ Saiidatone.

Fig. 131rt.— Section on Coal Creek near Richebucto,— Dr. Robb.

PAL.€:OZOIC PERIOD.

Fig. 132.— Caubonifkrous Feuns.

A. Odontoptevis subcuneata (after Bunbury)

B Neuropteris covdatd.

C Akthoptcris lonrhitica.

D Dicti/apteris ohliijua (after Bunbury).

E Phi/lfoptcris antiqna, mag. (El) nat. size.

F Neuropteris cydopteroides.

IILSTORICAL GEOLOftY.

Fl(i. l;«.— CAUIiONIKKIiOrs SiGILLARI.K.

A Sir/Hfriria Jiroinni,rf^ti)ri'(]. V> S. c'fiinii.t, n'ntur&l. lU Loiif of ,'?. ^/<.7'ni.i. B2
I'dition iif clecortiuatcd .stiuii, sli(iwinf,'r)ne of thu transversa hand.-- nf fniit-scars.
153 Portion of stem ami braiiclics, rediicod -and scars, iiat. si/.c C Cross sec-
tion of ,S'. Ilrowiiii {'!), reduced, and portion at (M), nat. size. ((() SternlMirKia
pitli, (lA) Scalariform vessels, (Ifi) Discigerous colls, (c) Inner h.irk, {'/) Outer
l)ark. D, E, Tissues mag. ¥ SiyUlaria nrct<>neiisis,'n- ^i S. ilrinlit. W S.
tiiiiiiens, reduced. I S. cate»oidiS. K >'. planicosta, L Leaf.

r.VL.KOZOlC I'l'.IlKJl).

'.)->

T1 '■

Vu;. l;U.— (JAiuioNii'KKois Lki'ihoiikxdka.

A Ijiaiuli ami leavfs'of L. Pirtucisi , '^
iiiit. si/.i'. A'-i Ii<-iif, A3 Twig
ami li'iivfs, jj. A4 Piirtioiinf hark,
H. A'> Leaf-scar. An IJarknf i>l(i
stem fiirrowed by growth, j;. A7
Cone, <i.

B' /y. iicr.^ondtum, leafy liraiicli, H- I'-'

Portiimof l)ark, j^. I'.'' Ai>'il<; -.n-

largeil. Va Leaf.

(J A. plii'ittmn, hark of nltl «ti'iii.

1) A. )'t//i'wa»i, old Mtem with fui rows, J5.

H. L. uii<hil((tiuii, showing furrows and

scars <;f coni's, ij.

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

Fig. 135.— Carboniferous Calamite.s.

A Catamites Suck v restored.

Al F(jliage.

A2 Ribs and Scars.

A3 Roots.

A* Base of stem;

B Calamii.a Cidii, restored.

Bl Leaves.

B2 Leaf enlarged.

C Leaves of G. iwdosus.

Cl Whorl, enlarged.

D Structure of stem.

E Vessels, magnified.

PAL.fXJZOIC PERIOD.

VI. Permian System.

1. Lower Pennian. Caniuliiu type — Pernio-carl)oniferous rt'il .^and-
etones of Prince Fidward Tsland and Ea.stern Nova Scotia. In I'^nited
States — Permian sandstone.'s of Viri^Miiia and limoslones of Kansas and
Nebraska. Upper Carboniforous l)L'ds of Illinoi.s, holding roniains of
reptiK's. European etpiivalentS — Lower IVrmian sandstones of England.
Rotheliegendes of Germany, Lower Permian Sandstones and Limestones
of Russia.

Fossn.s. — For the most piftgenerically similar to thope of the Carboniferous. The
earliest true reptiles appear.

2. Uppi-r Pi'i'mian. Not represente<l in Canada, but niarino lime-
stones of this cage occur in Kansas and westward. In England it is rep-
resented by the important formations of the ]Marl slate and Magnesian
limestone ; in Germany by the copper slate and zechstein ; and in Russia
by the copper sandstones and gypsiferous limestone.

Fossils. — Rejitiles of genus Proterosaurus. Fishes of genus Palaoniicus. Mol-
lusks of genera Pseudomonotis, Mi/alina, Productus, Fenestella, &c.

Tile Permian or Permo-carboniferous of Prince Edward Island <loes
not as yet admit of any division into distinct groups, and it rests conform-
ably on the Upper Coal-formation without any stratigraphical break. It
is characterised, as will be seen in the section following, by a prevalence
of sandstones and shales coloured by the red oxide of iron.

Section on the south coast of Prince Edward Island, at Gal/as Point.

Feet.

1. Brown and reddish sandstones, with thin bands of concretionary limestones

and calcareous conglomerate, witli fragments of red clay or shale 30

2. Red and mottled clay ; thin-bedded and alternating with argillaceous sandstones 39

3. Soft reddish sandstones 75

4. Brown sandstones with gray bands and layers of concretionary limestone,

silicitied and carbonized trees, Calamites and comminuted plants 81

5. Concealed by marsh, probably clay and soft sandstone 09

6. Red and gray sandstone with beds of red and mottled clay 60

7. Red sandstone with gray and white bands 93

8. Reddisli sandstone and gray bands, with nodules of oxide of iron, and Calamites 102

57t>
O

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

Fig. ISCi. Plants ok the PKUMo-CAiinoNiFEUoLs.

(Prince Kdwavd Island.)

( a ) Wa\'hia [iracUis. (b) ]V. ro'ntsta. (c) Calamitcs uims. (d) PcrojiUrU nrhoresccns.

General note an fin' Pa/cicuic.
It will be ulisorvt'd that each of the groat systems of the Paheozoic
has fossilifei'ous limestones indicatiiiL; oceanic conditions in its central
part, and beds indicating littoral conditions or shallow water aV)ove and
below. Thus each system constitutes a triplet of formations, and shows
a gradual subsiilence of the continental plateau followed by re-olevation,
or, in other words, sandstones and conglomerates in the basal and upper

MKSOZOIC I'KKIOI).

p;ii't, liiiicsttiiie ami slnilc in the iiiiilillc. Il was in tlif wann-waltn'

lasiiis I'ovcriii^' tlic |ilal('ati in

times (if siilisi.lcncc tliat tlic siicc ossivu

marine fiUinas Huiuislieil. In inteiveiiiii'^ times tiie cuntinental areas
Itei'amt! elevate(l anil exteniled, sdmetiines, as in tlie ( 'arlmnil'ennis, in
i(l(! .swam|>y tlal- ; ami forests an.l nmrasscs sprcail thtMiiselves, while;

il ami

rrave

I est!

suliiPnal (lennuatioM iirnilueeil va<t ijnanlitmsdf sam

suceessive |iulsati(ins nf tlic coiilinental areas priulneed liy successive

.11

ciii)ai)se

■1" the crust, ciinstituteil the physical enviroiniK'nt of the flora

anil fauna nf the I'al.Tozoii

inallv a 'Tea

I, 1:

lien

iires>uie anil cnn

tinental u[iheaval, sliding ami criimj)lin,L,MiriMliireil the I'ermian cuiitineiits,
ami linmu'hl the I'aliviv.nic to a close.

In connection with this it may he oljserveil — (1) Tliat the Carhonifcr-
ous rocks share in the Ljreat folding's which have aflecteil the older rocks
in the Ap ilarhian r'L^ion, and in Xova S(!iplia and New lirunswiek. ('2)
That the red sandstones of tiie Trias ai'i; ile|iositeil in troic^lis pioduced
hy the folding,' of the Carl)oniferous, and rest uneoiiformalily on the edL,'es
of the latter. (."') That the ^'reat triippean ejections of the Trias.-ic ivn>
may he rcLjarded as consenuent on tlie precediiiLj eaitli movements. (4)
That tlie aijueous de[)osits of the I'pper I'einiiau and Lower Trias
resemhle eaidi other in the prevah-iice nf reil sandstones, indicatin^' that
hoth hidoULj to a period of transition. (.">) That, throUL,'hout tlie Xnrtheru
IIemis[ihere, tlie I'aliPozoic forms of life disappear almost entirely in tlie
Permian and are succeeded Ity new types in tint Trias.

In Canada tiie principal i.Ljneous ejections of tin; Paheozoic occurred in
the Kewcnian, ( Lake Superior, i\jc.) in the (Jamhrian, (Rocky Mountains) ;
in the 8iiurn-(,'auil)iiaii (Nova Scotia, *Ve.); in the Silurian, (New UriinS'
wick and valley of Lower St. Lawrence) ; in the Devonian, (.granites of
Nova Scotia and (Jueliec, Felsites, iKrc); and in the Lower CarIinniferou.s.
(Nova Scotia and New Prunswick).

MKSOZOIC PKKIOI).
1. TiuAssic System.
1. Ilinit''!' Scuulstoni'. In L'anada--Lower new red sandstone of the
Bay of Fundy and Prince Edwanl Island, as.sociated with trappeaii rocks.
In L^nited States— Lower red sandstones of Connecticut and New Jersey.
In the West, red and maynesiau limestones overlying Carhoiiiferous of
Rocky Mountains. In Europe — -lUinter sandstone of CJermany, Lower
Triassic red sandstones of England.

Fossils. — Conifers and Cycads. Fi)oti>riiit» of Dino.saurs.

100

HISTOKICAL GK()LO(}Y.

2. Musrhi'lhalh'. A iiiarino limestone foiiiul in Germany ami Eastern
France, but not represented in England or Eastern America. In British
Columbia and the Western United States the Triassic santlstones and
slates with volcanic rocks, and the ^flm^)tix shales, may be partly <>f this
age, and it may also be represented in the East by part of the Triassic
coal formalion of Virginia and 8outh Carolina.

Fossils (in Kunipe) — Eitrrinnn moniliformis, Aficula soeialis, Ceratitet nodoiut,
Pein/ih>ix Sneri, &c. Fistien -lii/hodus, &c. Keptiles, Nothosaurus, &c.

Fig. 137.— Jaw of Dormatheriuni Sylvestre— Trias.

>t iPtf

,< JOO

Fig. 1.38.— Triassic Fossils.

(Prince Edward Island.)

1. — Bathygnatfins borcalis (Lower }a,w), reduced. 2. Araucavoxylon

Edvardianuin (Structures magnified).

MKSo/.oic I'Kinoi). 101

3. Kiiijur Sanihfono. In Cuiiailii — UppiT Tiiu.ssic samlstones of

I'riiict' Ktlwiii'il IsliiiKl ami l>ay of Fuiuly, ami |iruljubly portions of the

Trias of I'.ritish Columbia. In I'nitoil Stiites — Up|)cr kmI sandstone of

North Carolina, iVc. To the Upper Triaasic are also usually referred the

Mesozoic coal beds of Vir^'inia and North Carolina with their associattnl

sandstones and shales. In Europe — Saliferons series of England ;

Keupcr formation of ( lenuany.

Fossils. — PlantH, Enniiirtum, Pteroiihyllum, &c. Heptiles, &c., Bathiignathnt
hnrtalitt, fudtpriiitH of Diimsjims, Lahyriutho'loii ijiijanteum. Tlic earliest MarHUpial
nminiiials (MirrnliHttx, Druinatfii'vium).

Distrihiitinn nf t/ii' Triassir in Cnna'fa. — This formation occupies a
larj,'e part of Prince Eilward Island and the basin of the Hay of Fundy,
where its trappean beds form the " North Mountain " of Cornwallis and
Annapnjis. Koeks of this age also appear in the Rocky Mountains, in
British Columbia and the <^>ueen Charlotte Islands ; but in these West-
ern n ^ions their mineral character is very diirerent from that which they
present in the East.

lioth in Nova Scotia and in New En^'laml theTriassic age was remark-
able for the deposition of Red Sandstone in shallow bays and straits, and
for the ejection of griiat beds and dykes of bafaltic and amygdaloidal
basic volcanic asli. (Jn the coasts of the Bay of Fumly and Minas I>asin
the tufaceous beds are ricli in zeolitic minerals of great beauty.

The sections show the characters of tliis formation in Prince Edward
Islan<l and in Western Xova Scotia. In the former Province, owing to
the slight dips of tlie Permian antl Triassic and their mineral similarity,
it has proved ditfiiudt to di'tine their bounilaries ; but the Trias ap[iears
to rest in slight troughs of the Permian and to be partly composed of
its debris.

Section in OririU JJai/, in nui'un'/inii unb'r, fh" hi'<h n'.-ifini/ an the
Pt'i'niian samlsfoncn, •^•(•., of Gallas Point, vi-fivred to nnil'-r tJc Permian.

1. Bright red sandstones with white bands 30

2. Red slialt's with white stains and red sandstones with cylindricitl casts and

fucdids CO

3. Red and jua'plisii samlstoni's witli k'''i.v liaiids and layers of feiruginous con-

glomerate with obscure reniaiii.s of i>lants 88

4. Beach, probably representing soft beds 48

5. Red flaggy sandstone with conglomerate ami concretions of red oxide of iron,

Containing remains of plants 50

0. Bright red sandstones and red shale with greenish stains 30

7. Marsh, probably soft beds 24

8. Red Shale and green bands capped with bright red sandstones .... 75

405

102

.)> 'C

V iJ-

« "

IIISTOKICAL (iEULUGY.

T*^

-w ^ /

Kjc3

•5

■3

'■^

•^s

-3

f,iy

! "5

1^1

MKSOZOIC I'KRIOD.

103

(Hfif tlio Hfctinii is l)r«ikon liy OrwelJ Bny, wliicli jirohftbly reprcHentu »oine
tliicknt'HH iif Hiift IxmIn).

1' On tlit( lii»<li clitTn imar Itt-lfiiitt ivrc very ItriKlit reel HiiiulHtunfa aiul Mliuly W<U.

with (fray liliitclicH luitl oyliiidriciil fucoids iilmut 1-0

10. Over tilt! liiNt arn mi-imi, in tlic ciMuitry oast of lti>lfait, mift rt'd HaiKintunes with
IumIh '>(, c'iiii);rliiiiiiM'atiMvith roiiiulud (|iiart/. pfhlih-M and aruiiaceinix ct-nu'iit
(thicioiuNH uncertain) 52*)

As seen in this section, tho wliolo thickness of these heds eiuinot niu<h
exceed 500 feet. ( )f this tlio h)\ve8t 270 feet, hein;,' Nos. 1 to '» inchisive,
of the al)uve section may ho referretl to the h)\ver division, or *' Uunter,"
and the remainder to :l.ii npjx'r division of the formation, or '" Keniier."
The dips are so low, and the beds so much allecled liy oliliiiiic stratiticalion,
tliat tliose of tile Trias cannot lie saiil to he uncoiiformalth? to the under-
lyinj,' Permian rocks; and for this reason, as well as on account of tin-
similarity in mineral clinracter between the two groups, some uncertainty
may rest on thp position of the line of separation. That above stated
depends on fo-^sils, or a somewhat abrupt chanj,'e of mineral character, and
on a slij,dit change in the direction of the dip.

In the West, in the Rocky Mountains, and in liritish Columliia, the
Trias is represented by argillites with bivalve shells of the genus J/"//n//,s-,
by red arenaceous rocks and also by large masses of diorite and felspathic
igneous rocks. The gold veins of Uritish Columbia are lielieved to lie, in
part at least, in the Triassic slates.

II. JuHAssic System.

1. Li<t-<. Xot represented in Canada, uidess some of tin.' shales and

sandstones overlying the Trias of Peace Kiver are of this age. Xot rep-

resenteil in the Eastern United States, unless somt; of the rocks referred

to the l'p[ier Trias are its equivalents. In England, the gray limestones

and shales of Lyme Kegis, i*i;c., ricli in Saurian remains. Similar beds

with marls, \'c., are extensively distributed in France, Switzerland, Italy

and Suabia.

Fossn.s (in Eurnpf) — This group is rich in marine shells. Ammoiiitifln abntind.
Pterorem.i, Patiulina and other modern genera of gastropods aiipear. Lciitaena,
Spirifcm and other old genera of Brachiopods become extinct, Ostrea and other recent
forms of Lamellibranchs appear. Knitliot<(tnv.'< are abundant and crocodiles of the
genus Ttlomiiiirus appear. CycadH and conifers are the most abundant fossil trees.

2. Jnras'<ic proper, or Oolitic Sfrifx. Xot represented in Canada,
except perhaps by porphyrite and other volcanic rocks in liritish
Columbia, and shales and sandstones of Kock Island, Peace Kiver.
Limestone >\nd marl ot l>lack Hills and elsewhere in "Western United
State-s. In Europe — Lower, Middle and Upper Oolite of England, with

II
I

104

HISTORICAL GEOLOdY.

the intervening Oyfonl and Kininieridge clays. Also very largely rop-

resenieil in France ami the Jura Mountains ami elsewhere in Kumpe.

The Lower or l>ath Oolite of England is remarkahle for oolitic structure.

The Stonesfield slate, a flaggy series connected with the Lower (Jolite, is

noted for vegetable remains and remains of mammals and insects. The

Lithographic slate of Solenhofen has many interesting fossils and is nf the

age of the Middle (Jolite. It has atibrded the earliest known bird,

A)r}iii-npti'r;/.r niamiruK. The L^pper or Portland Oolite is overlaid by a

fresh-water formation, the Purbeck, which has afforded many mainiualian

remains and land plants, and also fresh-water snails allied to Planorhis.

Fossils.— Remarkably rich in Cephalopods, especially Ammouitida .and Bckm-
nitida: Also in Reptiles, as Pkrodacti/la, Dinosaurs, Enaliosaurs, dvcodi/taiis,
Turtles, &c.

Fig. 143.— JiKASsic Fossils.

1.— He.ad of Meijalosaurus. ?.. Pterodactyl us crassirostris. 'i. Ickthiiosaurus

communis, i. Tail o{ Arclidroitteri/x. '>. Ammonites Jason.

(>. Bdemuiles (section).

MEsozoic pp:riod.

105

III. Cretaceous System.

1. Loirrr Cretaceous or Neoconiian. In Canada — Tatlayoco lake sand-
stone and conglomerate, with Ano'lla Piochii, and underlying porphyrites;
and perhaps the coal series of Queen Charlotte Island and Quatseno
Sound, in British Colunil)ia ; Shasta group in California ; Lower Cre-
taceous clays of New Jersey, itc. In Europe — Hastings sand, Weald clay,
and lower greensand of England, and their equivalents on the continent.

Fossils. — Dinosauriau Reptiles, Ir/iianodon and Hiihtcosaurus, &c. Appearance of
Teleost fishes, anil of Angiosijermous Exogens of modern types. Criocerait,
Anojloccvns, and Ammonites ixhrnvXtint \ Diceras.

2. Middle Cretaceous or Cenomanian. In Canada — Dakota group of

We.'-^orn Territories and its extension north of the 49th parallel ; Niobrara

limestones and clays cf "Western Territories and Western States of the

Union. This is an extensive marine formation, rich in Foraminifeni with

Ostrea I'anfjeda and species of InoceraDnis and Baeiditet^. In Kurope —

the (lault clay, Upper Greensand and Chalk marl of England and the

continent of Europe.

Fcssn.s. — SpecieH of Hamitcs, Scaphites, TurrUites, Lima, Ostrea, &c. , are cliar-
acteristic in Europe. Plants of modern types.

1 2

Fig. 144.— Crktacbous Fo.ssils, (Western America.)
1 and 2.— Scales of Teleost Fishes, N. W. Territory. 3. Trigonia Americana.
4. Iiioccramus Vancouvcrcusis. o. liacuUlci oratus.

rr^^

106

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

X too

0. Ckktaceous Foramixikkha, Boyne R., Manitoba,
(a) Text.darin rjlohalosn. (h) T. iiw/man. (c) Planorbuliuu arimiiicnsia.

(d) PlanorhuHna.

3. Upper Crcfaceons or Smnniau. In Canada — Ft. Pierre and Fox
Hill clays and sandstones of the Western Territories, and continuation to
the Soutli. Greensand of Xew Jersey witli associated clay and lime-
stone. White or Upper chalk of England and other parts of Europe,
ami while limestones of Xorth Africa and Western Asia, Ma?stricht lime-
stone of ])enmark.

Fossils. — Vast numbers of Oc:anic Forauiinifera, especially Giohigerina ;
Coccdlitlis ; Sponges of genus VnUririilitrs, &c. ; Ecliinodernis of gt-nera Ananrhitcs,
Galeritcs, ^[arsupites, Cidavis, &c. ; Luinollibranchs of genera Inoccramus, Spondi/lus,
Ostrea, &.C. ; Cephalopods of genera Bclemititvlla, BacuJites, Nautilus, &c. ; Rei>tiles of
genera Md.msaurus, Cfidit.ifeg, Hudrou'diriis : toothed birds of genera Icthiiornis,
Hcsiieriiv lis. &.c. The flora of this period contains a large preponderance of modern
types. Mammalian Remains (March 1889).

////// i1 it til A

Fig. 14.5, — Jaw of a Cret!ice<ius toothed bird ^ /(■/(//( //o nis di.yjai: J
After Marsh. Natural size.

Disfrilmfii/ii. — The Cretaceous rocks occupy a liroad belt extending on
the 49111 parallel from near the Red River to the Souris River and thence
to the north-west. They also occur on the Saskatchewan and head waters
of the ^lissouri farther to the west. Considerable areas occur in lU'ltii^h
Columliiu, the most important Ijeing that which includes the Nanaimo and
Comox coal-field on Vancouver Island.

In till' North-west territories of Canada a great breadth is occupied by
cretaceous rocks whicli extend southward to the Gulf of Mexico, indicat-
ing an extensive inland .sea East of the Rocky ^lountains in the Cre-
taceous age. The following section is that given by Meek and Ilayden
for these beds as they occur south of the U. S. boundai'y. (order
descending) : —

MESOZOIC PERIOD. 107

No, '). For Hill Beds. — (^rey, ferruginous and yellowish sandstones and arenaceous

clays. Marine Hhel/s 500

No. 4. Fort J'ierre (iroup. — TJurk-grey and bluish plastic clays. Marine shells,

iiiil^sinii and fnh I'emains 700

No. 3. Niobrura (/roup. — Calcareous marls. Marine shells, Hsh remains, foraman-

ifern,Sic.. '. 200

No. 2. Fort lienton Group. — Dark-grey laminated clays, witii some limestone.

Marine .shells 800

No. 1. Dakota (h-oup. — Yellowish, reddish and wliitish sandstones and clay, with
oc'ciisional lignites. Murine and some frc.sh-watir shells and antjiuspcrm-
oil It lea res 400

Tiie Cretuce(nis Poriod is remarkable, in botli the eastern and western
■continents, for a prevalence of estuarine and fresh-water conditions in its
earlier puitiim, and for a great subsidence, producing oceanic conditions
over wide areas now land, in its nnddle and latter portion. It is also
marked l)v the decadence of the reign of reptiles, and by the introduction
of the modern flora in the continents of the Northern Hemisphere.

Nortli of the Canadian boundary, and especially westward, the Niobrara
and Benton groups of the above section change their character, and are
■composed of sandy shales and sandstones, with beds of coal and fossil
plants, and shells indicating brackish water. This has been calle(l * the
Belly-River Series, and contains important beds of lignite and coal. In
the prairies tliese deposits are nearly horizontal ; but in the Kocky
Mountains ihey have been included in the folds of the older rocks so as
to form narrow troughs with high dips. Coincidently with these disturb-
ances the coal is changed into anthracite.

On the west coast, in Vancouver Island, the cretaceous rocks constitute
the coal-bearing horizon of British Columbia. They have been folded
and disturlji'd in the movements in progi'ess in Tertiary times, and have
no doubt lieen much reduced by denudation.

" Their most important area, including the coal-mining regions of
Kanianio and Comox, may be described as forming a narrow trough along
the north-east border of Vancouver Island, 130 miles in length. The
rocks are sand tones, conglomerates and shales. Tiiey hold abundance of
fossil plants and marine shells in some places, and in ajipearance and
degree of induration much resemble the true Carboniferous rocks of some
parts of I'^astern America. In the Naniamo area the formation has been
divided by Mr. J. Richardson as follows, in descending order: —
Sandstones, conglimierates. and shales. . . 3290 feet.

Shales (JliO "

Productive Coal-measures 131G "

52(IG "

* Dr. G. M. Dawson, Reports fieol. Survey of Canada. Possilily the Lower
Laramie may also be Upper Cretaceous. — See next heading.

108 HISTORICAL CJEOLOGY.

" 111 the Queen Chiirlotte Islands, Cret.icoous rocks cover a considerable
area on the east coast, near Cumshewa and Skidegate Inlets. At
Skidegate they hold true anthracite coal, which, besiiles beini; a
circumstance of considerable geoloLjical interest, would become, if a really
Avovkable bed could be proved, a matter of gveat economic importance to
the Pacific coast.

At Skidegate, where these rocks are rnost typically developeil, they
admit of subdivision as follows, the order iKnng, as before, descending : —

A. Upper sh.ales and sandstones 1500 feet.

B. Coarse conglomerates 2000 "

C. Lower sliales with coal and clay ironstone .... .~)000 "

D. Agglomerates 3500 "

E. Lower sandstones 1000 ' '

" 13,000 "

The animal fossils of the lower part of the Nanaimo beds have been
determined by Whiteaves as equivalent to those of the Chico group in
California, or to the Cenomanian and Senonian of Europe. In the (,>ueen
Charlotte Islands and (m the mainland are beds containing A/n-rlhi PincJiii,
and regarded as e([uivah'nt to the Shasta group of California, ov Upper
Xeocomian. In the Rocky Mountains are still older beds, tin- Kootanie
series, liolding fossil plants. These would probably occur liflnw the
Dakota group of the .section given above.

The fossil plants of the Xeocomian, as represented by the Kootanie
serie.s and the (^>ueen Charlotte Island coal series, have a strictly luesozoic
aspect, and consist of Conifers, Cycads and Ferns. r>ut in the Dakota
group and eipiivalent beds in Canada, we find uuinerous giMicra ;ind
species of Exogenous trees, as PopuJus, Sasmfras, Plafaiui^:, Ara/ia and
Bctula. In the Upper Cretaceous of Vancouver Island there is a very
rich angiosperniDUs tlora, with Conifers of the genus S''</iii>ii( mul a fan
palm (iSalxc/J. Thus the modern types of i)lants appear in lln' MidiUe
and Upper Cretaceous, and then appear also the ordinary nv teleost
fishes, which in this age take the place of ihe ganoids, and present generic
forms identical with those of the modern waters.

The useful minerals of the Cretaceous are the coals already referred
to, and which are of the greatest economic importance in Vancouver
Island, in the Rocky Mountains and in the Bow and Lelly River
Districts.

109

KAIXOZOIC PERIOJX
I. Eocene Age.
1. Lnirrr Eocene (OiihrocneJ. In Caumla this formation is probably
represented by the Lignite Tertiary formation of the Western Territories,
the Lignitic or Laramie group of the American geologists, which consists
of estuarine and fresh-water sandstones and shales, with reptilian remains,
lignite and fossil plants of modern types. It is, however, regarded by
many geologists as more nearly related to the Upi)er Cretaceous than to
the Eocene proper. Fig. 141, and the section on p. 34, represent parts of

1 2

Fig. 14(i.— Kainozoic Mammals.

1. — Coriiplioilon hamntits (Eocene) reduced. 2. ZcuyMon cctioides — tooth (Eocene)
reduced. 3. DinocemH mirabUL (Eocene) reduced.

this group, which is very extensively distril)uted in the region between

the Red River and the Rocky Mountains and thence southward. In

England the typical formations are the London clay and Tlianet sands,

holding marine and estuarine shells and fossil fruits and wood. The

Argile Plastique and Sable 15raclieux represent it in the Paris l)asin. In

these beds, in Europe, the oldest known placental mammals occur.

{Fl^/raoif/iennm, Lophiodon, Conjpliodon). Marine invertebrates of living

species also appear, though as yet in small numbers, about three per cent.

of the whole.

110

HISTORICAL (}EOL(JGY.

2. Midlife Eoceni', or Eocenp prnjwr ( Nnminnlitic ). Not as yet rocng-
nizt'd in Canada. In the United States this series is represeiiteil by tho
clays, marls, sands and coarse liniestonos of the Claiborne series of
Alabama, holding marine shells and bones of Zi'ioj/oihin. In the west
the great lake basins of the Wahstaeh have atrordeil remains of many
land animals (Cori/jt/mdai/, Ti/lo'Iunfia, Eohippns, Sec). In iMUnpe tho
most characteristic and wide-spread formations are the Calcaire drossier
of the Paris li.isin and its associated marine sands, and the Xummulitic
limestones extending from Western Europe to India, and marking a
great subsidence. In Englanil the Bracklesham and Alum Bay series are
of this age.

SOIL
OUARTTTIT DRIFT

CRTrAYUUlWJSH

ucNnx

PLAHVBLARIIID

UONrrE IBIT

CRTrSANDSmiB

Fig. 147.— Lignite Bed. Porcupine Creek, N. W. T.— (O. M. Daw^-on).

3. Upjnt' Eno'ii'' (Proii'inv'). Xot recognized in Canada. In the
United States represented by the marine clays and ()rl)itoi(lal limestone
of Alabama, Mississippi, &c. (Vicksburggronp\ and in the west l)y fresh-
water clays and samls (Uridger group, Szc), containing Dimtceras,
Uintatln'rium, ()rohipp>if>, i^-c. In Europe the best known represeiitativo
is the Gypseous series ami Silicious Limestone of the I'aris liasjn, and
the npper beds of the Isle of Wight series in England. Tiiesc formations
abound in mammalian remains (Ancldtlienum, Pa/ieofheriinn, Anoplo-
t/icria))i, Xiipliniloii, Lmmiridd').

A very ecpiable and warm climate seems to have prevailed in the
Eocene and Miocene, .so that plants of genera now living in temperate
climates were abundant in Greenland and Spitzbergen.

KAINOZOIC PERIOD.

Ill

Tliu Laramie of tlie Xortli-West Turritoiies rests confoi'iiial)ly mi tlie
Upper Cretaceous and lias thick beds nf lignite and many fossil plants,
witli fresh-water shells of the genera Unio, Goniohasis and Mi'ipava.
Its general distribution and structure may be stated as follows : —

On the geological map of Canada, the Laramie series, formerly known
as the Lignitic or Lignite Tertiary, occurs, with the exception of a few
outliers, in two large areas west of the 100th meridian, and separated from
each other liy a tract of old(!r Cretaceous rocks, over which the Laramie
beds may have extended, before the later denudation of the region.

The most eastern of these areas, that of the Souris River and ^Vood
Mountain, extends for some distance along the L''nited States boundary,
between the 102nd and 109th meridians, and reaches northward to about
thirty miles south of the "elbow "of the South Saskatchewan Kiver,
which is (;n tlie parallel of 51° north. In this area, the lowest beds of
the Laramie are seen to rest on those of the Fox Hill group of the Upper
Cretaceous, and at one point on the west they are overlaid by i)eds of
Miocene Tertiary age, observed by Mr. McConnell, of the Geological
Survey, in the Cypress Hills, and referred by Cope, on the evidence of
mammalian remains, to the White Kiver division of the Unit<'d Stales
geologists, which is regarded by them as Lower Miocene.* Tiie age of
the Laramie beds is thus stratigraphically determined to be between the
Fox Hill Cretaceous and the Lower Pliocene. They are also undoubt-
edly continuous with the Fort L^nion group of the Uiiit('<l States
geologists on the other side of the international boundary, and they con-
tain similar fossil plants. They are divisible into two groups — a lower,
mostly argillaceous, and to which the name of " Bad Lands beds '' may be
given from the " bad lands " of Wood Mountain where they aic well
exposed, and an upper, partly arenace(jus member, which may be named
the Souris Kiver or Porcupine Creek division. In the lower division are
found reptilian remains of Upiier Cretaceous type, with some tlsli remains
more nearly akin to those of the Eocene. t Neither division has as yet
alforded mammalian remains.

The western area is of still larger dimensions, and extends along the
eastern base of the Rocky Mountains from the United States liouiidary
to about the 55tli parallel of latitude, and stretches eastward to the 1 11th
Meridian. In this area and more especially in its southern part, the
officers of the Geological Survey of Canaila have recognized three divisions

* Report of Geological Survey of C.aiKadii, l.SS,").
t Cojjt! ill I'r. Dawson's Report on 49tli parallel.

112

HISTOIIICAL GEOLOGY.

as follows : — (1) The Lower Laramie or St. Mary River series, correspond-
ing in its character and fossils to the liOwer or I'.ad Lands division of the
other area. (2) A Middle division, the Willow Creek beds, consisting of
clays, mostly reddish, and not recognized in the other area. (3) The
Upper Laramie or Porcupine Hills division, correspon<ling in fossils and
to some extent in mineral character to the Souris River beds of the
eastern area.

The most characteristic plant remains of the L^i)i)cr and Lower
Laramie respectively are the following ; — Platannn nnhiliii, P. llaiinolihii,
i^'c. ; C'ln/his McQnarrii, PiipiiIiisArctica,a.\u\ other s[tecies, and species of
Sali.r, UlniHs, Sassafras, Viburnum, &c. ; also Thuja interrupfa, Hcquoia
NordensldohJi, Taxites Olriki, Sec, and the feriis Onoclm se7isibilis and
Davallia tenuifnlia.*

A^ery thick and valuable beds of Lignite occur in the Laramie series of
the North-western Territories.

II. Miocene Age.

1. Lower Miocene or Oliijocem. The Fort Union Group, or L'pper
Larami(% near the Canadian boundary in the U. States, once regarded as
Miocene, is now known to be older, and indeed many groups of beds
holding plants of Eocene age in Europe and North America, as well as in
(ircenland, have been wrongly referred to the Pliocene.

So far as known this group is very slenderly represented in Canada.
A small area occurs in the Cypress Hills in the Territory of Assinaboia.
It consists of conglomerate, soft sandstone and clay ; and has afforded
some mammalian remains, considered as belonging to the "NMiite River
series or Lower Miocene of the United States. The Miocene may also
be represented by the volcanic rocks, sandstones and shales with lignite
and fossil plants of Nicola, Similkameen, Sic, in the interior of British
Columl)ia. In America the subdivisions of the Miocene have not been
distinctly separated, but the age is represented by the New Jersey,
Virginia, itc, middle Tertiary sands, clays, marls and infusorial deposits ;
and in the West by the Middle Tertiary lake basins of White River, i^'c,
east of the Rocky Mountains. In the latter, three subdivisions are char-
acterized by ^larsh as respectively those of the Drontotheriam, Oreodon
and Miohippus. The Miocene beds hold a larger percentage of recent
shells than the Eocene (17 to 30 per cent.), and abound in mammalian

See papers by the author in Trans. R. S. C, 1886.

KAINOZOIC PERIOD.

113

remains (Brontotherhun, TitanotJu'riion, OrcniJim, MachairodiiH, Sec.)
In En^liiml — Ilempstoiul Ijeds of I. of Wi;^'lit, ISeiiilji'iilge and Ileailoii
beds. In France — Calcaire de IJeauee and Sabli's do Fontainolilcaii, with
equivalent deposits in Germany, Italy, Sec. The ba.salts of Antrim and
the Hebrides are, in ])art, of tliis age. Living genera of mammals, as
li/iinoccros, Tapir ns, Miu^tcla, Sciiti'Kx, Sec, appear.

2. Mi'/iffc Miocene. Falunien of France, Middle or marine Molasse
sandstone of Switzerland. Genera Masfoifmi, Dinotheriiuu, Sn.^', Aniilnpe,
Gcrvns, Fflis, Dnjopithi'fus, cjv.

3. Upper Miocew. In Kuroj)e, Molasse of ( )eniiigon in Switzerland,
Leberon and Kpplesheim beds of France, Pikermi formation in Greece.
Additional modern genera of mammals, as Camdopardali'), Gaz''lla,
Hycena and Hystri.!- appear.

Fig. 148. — Serieaof Equine Feet. — After Marnh. a, Omhippun, Eocene, b, .l/io/f (/)//»,»,
Miocene. c, Protoliippun, Lower Pliocene, (/, PlinhippHS, Upper
Pliocene, c, Equns, Post-Pliocene and Modern.

Fig. U^. — Oreodon #«r/yor (Miocene) reduced.

III. Pliocene Agk.

1. Older Pliocene. Xotrecognizeil in Canaila. In the United States,
Sumter clays and .sands of North ami South Carolina. In the West,
Loup Kiver j. .'oup of Xiobrara, containing remains of Camel, Khinoceros,
Horse, &:c. Sandstones of Los Angeles, California, and fresh-water basins
of Oregon. The remarkable phosphatic deposits of South Carolina, which
contain vast numbers of l)ones of animals of various ages swept together
by water, have been referred to this age. In England, Coralline Crag and
Red Crag.

Ill

HISTORICAL (IKOLOdY.

2. Ncii'r)' P/ioroif. Not ivco;,'!iiz(Ml ii\ Caiiadn, in)r tlistiii,L,'uisli(nl in
tlic Uiiilcil Stutos from tlio oMor Plioceiie. In Knghunl, Ncnwicli Crag
aiul Cliillcsfonl day.

Ill till! Pliocene, the jiercfjntage of recent shells rises to 50 or more.
Mammalia of modern genera are abundant, and a few modern species
appear. In the later Miocene the land both of Europe and America
seems to have been more elevated ami extensive than at present (First
Continental periotl of Lyoll). The climate of the Northern HemisplKjro
was cooler than in the Miocene.

The Pliocene, having been in the main a time of continental elevation,
the deposits of this age are usually confined to the margins of the
continents, or occur in inland lake basins. There is evidence that in this
age the Northern Hemisphere was occupied by a very grand and varied
mammalian faumv, including .several specie.s of Mantoihni, Ehplta-^ and
RhinociTDf, as well as animals allied to the Camel, Horse and other
modern genera.

IV. I'i.EiSTocENK Age.

This was characterized throughout the Northern Hemi.sphere by a great
refrigeration of climate, followed or accompanied by a submergence of the
laud to a depth exceeding in some places 5000 feet. The formations of
the period are well represented in Canada, and may be taken as types,
more tjspecially as from their great extent and uniformity they are free
from .some of the coiniilications which have caused controversy elsewhere.

1. Boulder Claij. At the beginning of the Pleistocene the land was
higher than at present. At this time the mountain tops were extensively
occupied with glaciers, Avhich have left their traces in all the elevated
ground. Very deep valleys and ravines were also excavated by the rivers,
lieds of peat were accumulated, and gravels and sands in low grciuiids, in
lake l)asins and on coasts. (Jradual subsidence then set in, under which
the valleys were invaded liy cold Arctic currents laden with field ice and
bergs, while the high levels still sent down glaciers. Under these circum-
stances moraines were formed on the land, and sheets of stony clay with
boulders in the sea, forming what has been termed the boulder clay or
" Till," and extensively polishing and striating the surface of rocks.

In the deposits of this period Arctic shells are found, though not
abundantly, and also trunks of boreal coniferous trees. At the l)eginning
of the age, however, tliere were in Europe and America forests of temper-

.' 1

KAINOZOIC PKUIOn.

115

ate niid liorcal tyitc, iukI ix i^Tcat luuiihfr of iiiiuiinnils, .soiiu! exlimit, soino
still surviviii}.;, ami l)r(,'st'lltiIl,^a rt'iiiarkaljlc mixture of Ijoroal aivl temper-
ate forma. Remains of these occur in peaty beds under tlie houlder
clay. r>y the proi^'niss of the glacial cold and sul)sidence, these animals
were destroyed or comi)elled to migrate to the sijuthwanl.

Fig. l')0. — IJimlder (11 feet loiijj;) on glaciated surface. Ijakt- of tln' Woods.

2. Li-ila Claij, Kru' Clcnj. This marks the greatest subsidence and the
gradual emergence of the land. It i.s a tine stratiKed clay, smnetimes,
however, with large boulder.s, and thus pa.ssing into boulder clay. It has
on the Atlantic slopes of America and Europe numerous marine fossils,
especially in its upper part; and the.-se are mostly of species still inhabit-
ing the North Atlantic and Xortli Pacific. Farther inland it contains
.some remains of plants and land animals. The Leda clay is (.'([uivalent
to the Clyde beds and Uddevalla beds of Europe. There is reason to
believe that the great subsidence which closed in tins period reached to
2."500 feet in the mountains of Wales, and to 4000 feet in those of Xcn-th
America, it was j)roliably greatest toward the north. At the beginning
of the deposit of Leda clay, the shells indicate cold water covered with
floating ice. Toward its close (Upper Leda clay or U<lde valla beds) the
marine climate niust have been little different from that now occurring in
the same latitudes on the western side of the Atlantic.

3. Saxicaca Sand and Second lionldar Drift. This marks the ro-eleva-
tion which ended in a second continental period, raising the continents to
a greater elevation than at present The climate was still somewhat cold,
and large boulders carried by floating ice abound in the Saxicava sand,
but are most abundant at its base.

'•H

116

mSTOKK'AL CEOUKiY.

Tlic fnllowiii;,' may l)u taken as a (■oiiiplt'tc synopsis of the I'lcistocone
of Kastcrn Canada in ascending' order : —

a. T(>:ity ti ireHtriiil surfucc iintt'riiir to Ixnildur clay.

b. LdWt'i- Htiiitifii'd (,'riivel.s — (SyrtcnHiiiii deposits of Miitthcw).

c. HouldiT (.'liiy ivnd imstratified Hands witli boulders. Fuiiiia, wljcn inesont,

extremely Arctie.

</, Lower I^'dii Clay, witli a limited immln'r of liiglily Arctic shells, stich as are now
foiiiid only in iiernianontly ice-laden seas.

e. U|ii>er Tji'dii clay and sand, or I'dtievalhi beds, holding many suli-Arctic or boreal
shells similar to tlioso of the liubrador coast at present. This in some places
contains remains of boreal i)lants and corresponds to what lias been ternied in
the >'est " Interb'lacial."

/. 8axicava satid and gravel, either non-fossiliferoiis, or with a few littoral shells of
boreal or .Vcadian types. This often contains travelled boulders and constitutes
an upper or newer Boulder deposit.

Fig. 151. — Stratified Oravel resting on J5oulder Deposit. Nova Scotia.

Fig. l.')2.— Modern Ice-drift. Travelled Stone resting on recent tidal mud,

Petitcodiac River.

The I'loi^tocono dojiosits are sometimes called Quafeniarij ; but there
is no good grotuid for separating them from the Kainozoic or Tertiary.
The t(!rm " Champlain "' deposits has been applied to them in the United
States ; but the Lake Chaniplain beds are those of a limited valley among
mountains and are not typical or cliaracteristic.

Some writers include in the Pleistocene the next or post-glacial age ;
but it is more nearly connected in its physical conditions and its animal
life ^vith the modern period.

Pawkins catalogues, for this period in IJritain, 1 mammal surviving
from the Pliocene and still living, 7 surviving from Pliocene and extinct,
67 new species, of which 14, including elephants and other large and
important species, are now extinct.

KAINOZOIC I'KUIOI).
2

117

Fig. 153. — Pleistocknk Fossils.
Fig. l.—Rhimrkonella psiltacea, 2. Mi/tilus elali-t. 3. Sixxirnra ragonn, 4. Leda,
( PortlatuUa) arctica. it. TcUina ( Maconm t (irinilaii'lica. it. Tellini
( Macnrmi) alcarca, 7. Mya trum-atd. 8. Astartcf NicaniaJ Lnureiitiana.
9. Natica clausa, 10. Fusiis tornatus (Ncptiinca desiicrta). 11. Sca'aria
Granlandica.

118

HISTORICAL GKOLOGY.

Tlie fuUowiiig (losciiption of tlie drift of the western plains is from a
paper 'ny Dr. G. M. Dawson : — *

"Resting immediately on tlie snrface of the cretaceons and Laramie
rocks in a nnmber of localities on the l>ow, IJelly, Old ^lan, and other
rivers, is a deposit of well-rolled pebbles of shingle, consisting, for the
most part, of hard (piartzites, and derived entirely from the paliEozoic
rocks of the Kocky Mountains. These jiebbles are seldom more than a
few inches in diameter, and often very uniform in size. The deposit has
been o])8erved to extend to a distance of over a hundred mik'S from the
base of the mountains. Whether it has been carried from the mountains
entirely by the action of rapid streams of preglacial times, or has been
distributed in some more extended body of water, I am as yet unprepared
to decide ; but the fact that it occurs at very different elevations above
the present water-level in neighboring sections on the same river, would
appear to point to the latter conclusion. No marks of ice-action have
been found on the stones of this deposit, whicli at one place on the lielly
was observed to be associated with stratified Siind beds.

Resting upon the shingle deposit in some localities, but in other places
directly on the Cretaceous and Laramie, is the IJoulder-elay, a mass of
sandy c'ay, often very hard, and not infre(piently sliowing a pretty well
marked relation in colors and material to the underlying soft rocks, from
which it has evidently been largely formed, but packed irregularly
with ])oulders and fragments > f Laurentian and Hurouian origin, often
distinctly glaciated, and with quartzite pebbles resemljling those above
described. While generally rather massive in character, the boulder-clay
is frequently more or less evidently divided by stratification plaiies, and
is quite distinct in appearance from the morainic accumulations which
occur in the foot-hill belt.

The upper part of the boulder-clay is usually much more distinctly
stratified than the lower, and often more or less markedly lighter in color,
though still h<)lding numerous stones and boulders of mingled Laurentian
and Rocky l^Iountain origin. In the region through which the lower
part of the J>elly River cuts, a series of well-stratified sands and sandy
clays are intercalated between these two divisions of the boulder-clay ;
and in several sections these were observed to include an irre,','ular layer
of impure ligniteor indurated peat a few inches inthickness, evidently
the accumulation in a swamp or shallow lake which must have covered

•Quart. Journ. Gool. Soc, Nov., 1875. Geology and resources of the 4'Jth parallel.

KAINOZOIC PERIOD.

119

many miles of surface. A thin nodular deposit of ironstone was also
found in association with the lignite at one place."

The Missouri Coteau is a great ridge of drift deposits at tlie edge of
the tliird or Tertiary plateau of the prairie, about 400 miles west of
the Laurentian area, from which it is separated by the palaeozoic district
of ^lanitolja and by the first and second prairie plateaus. It is thus
described by ])r. G. M. Dawson : —

" The Missouri Coteau is one of the most important features of the
western plains, and is certainly the most remarkaljle monument of the
Glacial period now existing there. I have had the opportunity of
examining more or less carefully that portion of it which crosses the
forty-ninth parallel, north-westward for a length of about 100 miles. On
the parallel, the breadth of the Coteau, measured at right angles to its
course, is about 30 miles ; and it widens somewhat northward.

On approaching its base, which is always well defined at a distance, a
gradual ascent is made, amounting in a distance of 25 miles to over 150
feet. Tlie surface at the same time becomes more markedly undulating,
as on nearing Turtle Mountain from the eas , till, almost before one is
aware of the change, the trail is winding among a confusion of abruptly
rounded and tumultuous hills. They consist entirely of drift material ;
and many of them seem to 1)6 formed almost altogether of boulders and
gravel, the finer matter having been to a great extent washed down into
the hollows and basin-like valleys without outlets with which this district
abounds. The ridges and Valleys have in general no very determined
direction ; but a slight tendency to arrangement in north-and-south lines
was ol)servable in some places.

Tlie boulders and gravel of the Coteau are chieflj of Laurentian origin,
with, however, a good deal of the usual white limestone and a slight
admixture of the quartzite drift. The whole of the Coteau-belt is char-
acterized by the absence of drainage valleys ; and in consequence its pools
and 'akes are often charged with salts, of which sulphates of soda and
magr.esia are the most abundant. The saline lakes freipiently dry up
completely towards the end of the summer, and present wide expanses of
white ertiorescent crystals, which contrast in colour with the crimson
Saliconiia with which they are often fringed.

Taking the difference of level between the last Tertiary rocks seen near
the eastern base of the Coteau, and those first found on its western side,
a distance of about 70 miles, we tind a rise of 600 feet. The slope of the
surface of the underlying rocks is, therefore, assuming it to be uniform,

4I]:|

120

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY.

a little less than 100 feet per mile. On and .ngainst this gently inclined
plane the inmiense drift deposits of the Coteau hills are piled.

The average elevation of the Coteau above the sea, near the 49tli
parallel, is aljout 2000 feet ; and few of the hills rise more than 100 feet
above the general level."

The Missouri Coteau can be traced across the central region of North
America for 800 miles, and is believed by the geologists of the United
States to be traceable south of the great lakes to the Atlantic coast, and
to constitute what they regard as the moraine of a great confluent glacier.
In the North-west however, where it attains to its maximum development,
it is evidently the edge of a shoal or coast, on which floating ice has for a
long period discharged its burden of boulders and debris.

V. Modern Age.

This extends from the close of the glacial or Pleistocene age to the
present time, and is divisible into two well-marked periods.

1. Till' Pu^t -Glacial. (Second Continental Period of Lyell.) In this
the land of the Northern llemisi)here was more extensive than at present.
The climate was temperate but .somewhat extreme. All the modern
mammals, including man, seem to have been in existence, but several
others now extinct, as the Mammoth, the Tichorhini; Khiiioceros and the
Cave Bear, lived in the Northern Hemisphere, and many still extant
difTered very remarkably in their geographical distribution from that of
the present time. To this periixl Iteloiig the human remains of the early
cave deposits and river gravels of I'^urope, or of the " Mamnidlli age"
('Palpeocosmic or Palaeolithic age.) This period was terminated by a sub-
meigenco or a .series of submergences whicli with their accompanying
physical changes proved fatal to many species of animals and to the old-
est races of men, and left the continents at a lower level than at present
from which they have risen in the recent period. In Ih'itain, I)awkins
catalogues 22 living and 6 extinct species survivors of the Pleistocene in
this period, and 18 new forms still living. The 6 extinct species include
2 species of elephant, 2 of rhinoceros, the cave bear and the great Irish
elk. It is evident therefore that man comes in with a fauna in the main
modern, but including a few large and important species which have
perished since his advent, and many others which have much changed
their range.

KAINOZOIC PERIOD.

121

2. Tlie Recent or Historic Perio.l. Tliis dates from the settlement of
our continents at the present levels after the Post-lacial subsidence. It
is the ijeriod of Xeocosmic or Neolithic men of races still extant. I have
called this the Historic Period, because in some regions history and

s
^

tie

tradition extend l)ack to its beginning. The liistorical deluge is in all
likelihood identical with the movements of the land above referred to,
by which this age was inaugurated ; though in certain localities, as in

122

HISTORICAL GEOLOCiY.

= 03

J3 3

H^ 5

s
3

Aniorica, tlic beginning of the liistoric period is very
recent. In this age man coexists wholly with existing
species of nianinials, and the races of men are the same
which still survive. The whole forms geologically one
period, and the distinctions made by antiquarians
between stone, bronze and iron ages, and under the
former between palpeolithic and neolithic, are merelj'
of local significance, and connected with no physical
or vital changes of geological importance. The real
geological distinction is that of I'aliBOcosmic, Post-
glacial or Antediluvian man on the one hand and
Neocosmic, Recent or Post-diluvian man on the other.
The PaltTocosmic men have been divided into two
races, the Canstadt or Neanderthal type and the Engis
or Cro-magnon type. Poth of these were contempora-
neous with the Mammoth, the tichorhine Rhinoceros,
and other Post-glacial animals now extinct. It is
probable that they may be lUtimately identified with
the ruder tribes of the historical antediluvian period,
and that the physical changes by which they and some
other animals seem to have been destroyed were the
same with those recorded in the ancient history and
tradition of all the older races of men.

Slight changes of level have occurred in the con-
tinents in the modern period. In Canada tlie most
interesting evidence of these exists in the remains of
submerged forests in the Bay of Fundy.* (Fig. 155.)

' See Acadian Geology, p. 38

PART III. CANADIAN TOPOGRAPHY
AND GEOLOGY.

The Dominion of Canada consists of a belt of more or less inhahiteJ
conntry extending for about three tliousand miles across the continent of
North America, between the parallels of -12° and 55° Xorth liatitude,
together with a vast region to the north of this belt not colonized and
extending to the shores of the Arctic sea. Its most eastern part is
Scatari Island, in W. Longitude GO' 25', and its most western part,
Graham Island, in the Queen Charlotte group, extending to W. Longitude
133°. Its total area is estimated at 3,406,562 square miles. Its area is
thus rather less than that of Europe and somewhat greater than that of
the L'nited States, and it embraces representatives of nearly all the geo-
logical systems from the Laurentian to the Modern.

For the purposes of Geological description, Canada and Newfoundland
may be divided into six regions, as follows : —

1. Ill'; AcaiUan Ri'jion, comprehending the Atlantic Provinces of
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edwartl Island. These con-
stitute a part of the Atlantic Slope of Nortli America.

2. Till' CanaiJian Rrrjion j)rope- or tliat of Qiwhcc and 0«^rt;vV>, includ-
ing the two Provuices above named. These occupy the St. Lawrence and
Ottawa valleys and their vicinity, and a portion of the basin of the great
lakes, and l)elong to the Eastern and Northern part of tlie continental
plateau of North America.

3. Tlie Manitohan and Northn-est Rfgion may include the Province of
Manitol)a and the great plains extending westward to the Kocky
Mountains, and including the territories of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan,
Alberta and Athabasca.

4. The British Oolumhian Region, being the Province of British
Columbia, extending across the Rocky Mountains and Cordillera ranges,
with the Pacific coast and the islands adjacent.

12-t

TOPOGRAPHY.

5. TIte Iludsoni'an or Arctic lii'i/ion, including all the vast territories
stretching northward to the Arctic sea, and heretofore constituting the
territory of the Hudson's Lay Cinnpany. This constitutes a portion of
the Arctic Geological basin.

6. T/ie Terranoran Itir/iini, or the great island of Newfniindland,
which is geologically related on the one hand to the ^Vcadian rcgi'in and
on the other to the Canadian.

It will be convenient to consider the.se several regions se[)arately.

I. Tin-: ACADIAN REGION.*

The general orographic features of this region consist of (1) the broken
hilly ranges of Nova Scotia, extending along the Atlantic coast of that
Province and into the Island of Cape Ih'eton ; (2) the isolated ridge of
the Cobequid hills, extending from west to east and joining the former
eastwardly ; (3) the hilly range of Southern New lirunswick, stretching
along the coast and sending oil' a wide Ijranch to the North-east ; (1) the
liigh ranges extending along the south side of the St. Lawrence, and
separating the xVcadian Kegion from the Canadian [U'oper. Tliis con-
stitutes a northern extension of the Apalachian mountains, sinking how-
ever in Gaspe below the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.'. The high-
lands of Nova Scotia and New Lrunswickdo not attain a greater elevation
than alxut 1600 feet, but the northern ridge attains a much greater height
beyond the limits of New Lrunswick. Between these hilly districts are
included the Silurian and Devonian area of Northern New Liunswick,
the liU'ge triangular Carljoniferous area in tlie centre of that Province,
the Carboniferous and Triassic tlistricts of Nova Scotia, and the dep'^ession
occupied by the Lay of Fundy and its branches.

The Hist and fourth of the ranges above mentioned extend farther to
the North-east than the others, and include between tlieir extremities the
semi-circular Acadian Lay of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in whii.li lies the
low and crescent-sha[)ed Island of Prince Edward.

The wliole of this Acadian region is characterized, like other parts of
the Atlantic slope of North America, as distinguished from its interior
plains, by a varied and uneven surface, and by great variety of soil and

* As Canadian Geologj' was referred to for illustrative examples in Part II. the
statements made there and figures, etc. of fossils given will not be repeated in Part
III., except when absolutely necessary for the comiection. For the Acadian Region
additional details will be found in tlie latest edition of the author's " Acadian Geology,"
and in recent Reports of the Geological Survey.

ACADIAN REGION.

125

iiiineral iirodiicts. In tlio liitter, the Acadian Provinces are especially
rich ; ami in these and their maritime situation, they bear to th(> inland
regions of Canada much the same relation witli that which the British
Islands hear to the plains of Central Kurope. Nova Scotia, more
particularly, is most richly endowed with coal, iron, and gold.

The fcirniations represented in the Acadian Kegion are those from the
Laureutian to tiie Trias, im liisive, with the addition of the Pleistocene
deposits. Tiie development of the older rocks corresponds very closely
with that on the opposite side of the Atlantic, and dilfers materially from
that in the interior plateau of America. We may therefore notice the
several svstems of formations in detail, and shall be enal)led to point out
their resemblances and difFerences as compared with those of the Canadian
region, pvdpc.'r, next to be con.sidered.

1. Till' Lanrentian. — These rocks, as they occur near St. John, Xew
Brunswick, have been arranged l)y ]\Iessrs. Bailey and Matthew, in their
recent Keports, in a Lower and Upper -series.*

The furnier consists, in ascending order, of gray, red and gray, and dark-
gray gneiss, with chloritic gnei.ss and diorite. Tiie latter consists of lime-
stone, with graphite and serpentine, gray quartzites and diorite, gray slates
and limestones with diorite. In one of the Upper Limestones I have
recognized somewhat obscure structures, whicii n])pear to indicate the
presence of fragments of Kozoon.f

In Capo r)retou the gneisses of St. Anne's Mountain resemble the
Lower Lanrentian of Canaila, and the evidence that they may be of this
age has been much strengthened by the recent observations of Mr.
Fletcher. Specimens, and the observations of Mr. Brown and Mr.
Canipbell and others, induce me also to believe that in the little island of
St. Paul, and in .some parts of Xorthern Cape Pireton, we may have a
continuation of the rocks referred by IVfr. Murray to the Lanrentian in
Newfoundland. With these exceptions, I have not seen in Xova Scotia,
unless in travelled boulders, any rock that I could l)elieve to be litlio-
logically eciuivalent to the Lanrentian of Canada, nor have I found any
.stratigraphical evidence of the occurrence of such rocks.

2. The Hiirnniaii. — The Coldbrook series of ■Messrs P)ailey and
Matthew, rising from beneath the Cambrian fossiliferous slates, has been
referred to this age.

: 1,^

* fiei>l. Reports, 1871, etc.

•)• Proceedings Auiericiin Association, 1870.

,;<!

126

TOrOGRAI'HY.

<:t

It appears from Reports of I'ailey and Matthew tliat the Coldhrookor
lluroiiiaii series rests uncoiiforiualjly on the Laureiitiau, and tliat poljbles
of tlie hatter are incUided in its conglomerates. On the other hand, the
Acadian or Cambrian bods lie nnconforniably on the Coldbrouk series.
Tiiere would ajipear to be indications of unconformity between the upper
and lower members of the lluronian itself. It thus aiipears as a distinct
fornuition, or j^'rouji if formations, jjctween the Laurentian and Acadian
groups, and connected with neither. The study of a series of typical
specimens, kindly furnished by yiv. Matthew of 8t. John and Mr.
Murray, director of the Geological Survey of Xewfoundland, enal)les me
to aflirm a remarkable similarity in mineral character between the rocks
descri )ed as lluronian in these two regions, while their relations to the
Laureuiiau b(dow and Camlirian above are the same. The peculiar fossils,
however, A,^in(h'Jla and AriuicoUfes, allied to A. spiralis, discovered by
^luriiiy in the Upper Huroiuan of Newfoundland and described by
Billings, have not yet been recognized in New Brunswick.

The lluronian .system, while consisting largely of conglomerates, hard
slates and quartzites, is remarkal)le for the abundance in it of felsites^
felsitic breccias, porphyi'y, diorite, and other crystalline or cryptocrystal-
linc rocks, which, tliough stratified, are evidently of volcanic origin, and
if such rocks are to be considered as everywhere of this age, the classifica-
tion of the older rocks of Acadia would be greatly simplified. It is
evident, however, tliat we must separate some of these as probaljly of
later age. There seems good reason to class as lluronian, or at least as-
Lower Cambrian, the rocks of the lioisihile Hills in Cape Breton, which
Mr. Fletcher finds to underlie the fossiliferous Cambrian of that region,
and which are more quartzose and micaceous than the rocks of the
Cobequid .series. It is not impo.ssible that rocks of this age may also-
occur in the vicinity of the Cambrian ])eds found at ]\Iire. "We may also-
conjecturally class as lluronian the chloritic rocks of Yarmouth, N.S.

3, The Camhrian. — Under this head we may place the interesting
" Acadian series" of St. John, so well characterized by its fauna, that it
may be considered as the typical representative in Eastern America of
that Middle or Lower Cambrian formation known in England as the
Menevian, and of Barrande's etage C of the Primordial in Bt)hemia.

Matthew has recently greatly extended our knowledge of these beds
and has shewn that they include several subdivisionsof the Lower
Cambrian. These subdivisions arc given by him in a recent paper and
may, Avith slight modification, be arranged as follows, in ascending order :

ACADIAN RE(;iON.

1-27

1. LdU'cr Caiiilrian. — IJasal or Etchciniiiiiin series of St. John, Lower
Cambrian of Cape Breton and Newfoundland ; Georgian series, Vermont ;
Caerfai of Wales, and Fucoid and Eophyton sandstones in Sweden.

Fossils. — Obolus pulchcr, Worm burrows, Ellipsocephalua, Olenellus, &c. •

2. Miihlk' Cambrian. — Acadian or St. John series of Xew IJrunswiuk,

Parailoxides beds of Newfoundland, Massachu.setts and Sweden ; Solva,

^lenevian and probably Lower Lingula Flag beds of Wales.

Fossils. — Parndoxiiieg, Conocoriiphe, Pti/choparia, and many other Trilobites,
HyoHthiis, Stenotheca, Orthis, Lingulella, Eocystites, &c. This division holds tho richest
Cambrian fauna.

3. Upper Camlirian. — Not yet recognized in New lirunswick, but may
be representeil l)y smne beds overlying the last. I'otsdam sandstone and
Calciferous of Quebec, Upper Lingula ? and Trenuidoe of Walet ;
CeraUqiijijc. and DidijoiKnna beds in Sweden.

Fossils. — Dikdloccphalus, Ceratapyge, ScoHthus, Dictijoncma sociale, &c.

In the St. Lawrence valley the Upper Calciferous constitutes a
transition group to the Siluro-Cambrian. — (See tlie description of tliat
region.)

The great Atlantic coast series of Nova Scotia, which is the auriferous
formation of that province, and includes, in ascending order, the so-called
Qnartzite and Clay-slate formations, in which these rocks respectively
predominate, I believe to be likewise Cambrian or Primordial, a view
which Dr. Sidwyn and Professor Hind have also advocated. It is pro-
bably an eijuivalent of the IJasal Caml)rian of New Brunswick and of
the older slate series of Newfoundland.

The evidence of fossils in determining the precise age of these rocks
is unfortunately as yet somewhat imperfect. Dr. Selwyn has recognised
in the Slate formation at Lunenburg linear markings of the nature of
those which in Sweden have been named Eoplnjfon^ and have been
described as laml plants. They are, however, of very doubtful origin,
and in my judgment more akin to those trails of aquatic animals which I
have named IViahdicltniti's. These beds also contain rounded bodies with
radiating branches known as Astrop)olit]ion. (Fig . 156.)

* Matthew includes the Paradoxides beds in the lower member,
t Rei)ort of Geological Survey, 1870.

If- I

128

TOPCXJUAPHY.

Fig. 150. — Astrojiiilithon Ifinili. Waverly, Nova Scutia.

Tlie only other fo.ssils known to me an; spcM'iincns rosombling tho
tubes or iicrfonition.s named Sni/iflina, and very cliaraeteri.stic of tlie
Pot.sdain .■sandstone in Canada. Tliese 1 found near the month of St.
Alary'.s River, in hw.se block.s, which mu.<<t have Ijeen derived from a
neighboin'in,i,' ledge of qiuirtzite. In so far as tlie above fossils give any
indication of age, they serve to confirm the supposition tliat the Gold
scries of the Athmtic coast is to be referred to the liowcr Camlirian.

Professor Hind has given a good description of the eliaracters and
structure of the more important parts of the (lold .series in his Reports
to the Department of Klines in Nova Scotia. f lie states the ent're

Fig. 157. — Vt'in of AuriferouH (Quartz, a, conformable to bedding. Waverly,

thickness of tlie series at 12000 feet. Of this the Lower or Quartzite
and Slate division, which, includes in its middle and upper part the pro-
ductive gold vein.s, comprises about 9000 feet, and the Upper or
Ferruginous Slate division 3000 feet, The whole is thrown into a series
of somewhat sharp anticlinals, which, as might be expected, are much
faulted. The steepest fddes of the anticlinals are usually to the north,

t Reixnt on Waverly District, ISfiO ; Sherbrooke, 1870 ; >[ount Uniacke, Oldham
and Renfrew, 1872. (See also later papers by Mr. Poole an 1 Mr. (Jilpin.)

ACADIAN KEdlON.

129

though ill suiiii! casus, as at Slici'lu'miku, to tliu soutli. Tlic cuui'scs uf
thus(! aiitii'liiiivls are approximately east and west. The gold has heeu
found to lie most accessil)h' in tlie sides and near tlie summits of tin;
nntii'Unals, while in the synclinals the upper unproductive slates usually
appear. It is also to !«) oljserved that the productive gold veins are best
developed in the vicinity of the great masses of erupti' " granite of
Devonian age which traverse this formation, ami in connection with
wducli it has locally Ijrcn mucii metamorphosed, the slates assuming the
character of Mica Schists with Staurolite and Chiastulite.

The gold veins, as stated in "Acadian (leology," run for the most part
parallel to tlie bedding, lait cross courses and branches traversing the l)eds
arc Very freipient, and there is no proof that these are less ancient than
the conformabh; veins or "leads," Though occin-ring in the (^)uartzitu
division, the auriferous veins usually follow bauds of slaty rock included
in the ipuirtzite, ii circumstance which much favours their ]irolitable
workiuLf.

Fig. 1.58.— Junction of Granite and Slate, Nictau.

Intrusive granites occupy a c(jnsiderable space in the Cambrian area.
A map kindly communicated to me by Mr. Gilpin, F.G.S., shows that the
largest granite mass extends continuously and with great l)readth, from
Shelburne northward into Annapolis county, and there bends eastward,
and southward till it reaches the Atlantic, west of Halifax. Smaller
isolated areas occur to the eastward of Halifax and in Guysboro county.
All these granites are of ] Devonian age, and they alter the slates in their
vicinity into Mica Schists, and cau.se the development of Staurolite,
Chiastolite and Garnets ; while the impure quartzites are converted into

130

TorotiUAPllY.

imporfcct ^'iioissos. Those clmiigos are more nmiiifcst where miiiicrdii.s
vt'iiis of l)iiiury graiiito jiciictnite tliu beds tliiiii wIhtc the liittcr are
iiitTi'ly ill ('(iiitiict with massive ;,'raiiite.

^^^. Kh'tchcr, of the (Icological Survey, has discovereil, in (■crt.iiu licils
near St. iViidrew's Channel, Cape Ih'eton, fossils which imilmlily liclonj,'
to the ("aniliriau series, ami arc apparently newer than the Ai-ailian or
Menevian j^'roiip. They eonsist, uceonlin.L,' to Mr. Dillinf^'s, of an oliithlln,
Orf/iisiun, ami /Jirfi/nnctiin, ami a trilol)ite of Prinnprdial typi' ; and the
beds hdldin,!,' the Liiii/u/a or (ilmhlhi are very like the Lin^aila shales of
St. John. The .series is characteriziMl as consisting,' of a pur|»I{', ltd, and
grtM'ii slat(!, sa: Istoncs ami liim'stiincs, with beds nf fclsitc. It liius
dilTers in eharacter from tiic Acadian .uroiip, as developeil at St. John, and
also from the Cambrian of th<; Atlantic coast of Xova Scotia. It rests
on the crystalline rocdvS of the lioisdahi Hills.

Mr. Klet<dier has also pi'oc>ired fossils from the vicinity of Mire River,
where beils similar to tliosi; of St. Andrew's Channel are extensively
developed, ami which inelnde an Aijw»<tii>i and other triloliites of
primordial type, but specitically distinct from tliose of the Acadian gn)np ;
and also a small Orthis, apparently allied to O. J'Jiri'Jn'', l>illinL,'s, from
the Quebec group, or to O. lenticnlaris, Dalmau of the Ihitish Upper
Lingula ilag.s. These fossils I regard as indicating a position prol)aljly
Cambrian, but later than that of the A> idian beds of St. John. The
beds containing these fossils are associated with the volcanic ash .series of
Southern Cape Ureton. Professor 15ailey informs me that in the belt of
old rocks, north of the central Coal-tield in New Brunswick, there are
portions, apparently older than the Silurian rocks of tliat region, and
resembling the Xova Scotia coast series, like whicli they are auriferou.?.

4. The Ordovician OT Si'nro-Canihrian.—ln Xew Drunswick the l)and
of old rocks lying on th' of the crystalline belt extending south-

west from liathurst, posed of greenish felsites, quartzite.s, and

slates of various k' .sually referred to this .system. The evidence

of this is, first, its ..irance from under the Silurian beds in the same
manner with the rocks of the (^)uebec grouj) on the north ; and, secondly,
the occurrence of a few characteristic fossils.* Lithologically these rocks
may be regarded as corresponding somewhat closely witli portions of the
Quebec group, and also With the contemporaneous Skiddaw and IJorrow-
dale series in England. According to Messrs. Bailey and Matthew, similar
rocks occur also in several places in the south-west of New Brunswick,

Accoiding to Prof. Bailey, Triniideus, Harpes, Leptaena, and Obolclla.

A(JAl)lAN |{i:(il<)N.

i;u

ami unilcrlie tliu Silurian «i thai iT.;inii. If ihis view of tln'ir :\'^i'. is
cnrrcct, tlit'ii it wuulil follow llial the iiiixcil aqin'oiis ami volcanic
(li'j)osits so charactcristii' of tlu? Iliii'oiiiaii rccuri'i'il in tin.' Siliiro-( 'amlirian,
ami again in thi' tli'imsition of the Silurian .Mascarciic series.

CroHsini; o/er to Nova Scotia we iiavc in the ('olie(|ui(l Mountains a
<,'r<.'iit series of slatos, ([Uartzites anil vo|caiii(! rocks, eviilently uiiiIeilyin,L;
tho Silurian Wentworth serius, l)nt doslilute of fossil remains. These,
with their continuation in the district extending castwanl from tho
CubL'i[uids to the Strait of Canso and into ('ape Ih'eton, were characterized
by mo in 1S.')0* as consisting of "various slates and i|Uartzites, with
syenite, greenstone, conii)act felspar, ciaystoiif! ami ]ioi'|)iiyry,'" and wen;
named in "Acadian ( Icology "' liie •' ('oljeijuid groui),"and their ai'e deiinod
as intermediate l)etween that of the lower Arisaig fossiliferous series and
the (!old series (Caml)rian) of tin; Atlantic coast. As they had allbrded
no fossils, ami as there .seemed to bi- a lithological and stratigraphical
connection between them and the lower part of tho Silurian, they were
placed with that series as a downward extension, oi', in part, metamor-
phosed members of it.

The arrangenu-'iit of these rocks in the central part of the (Joljcipuds,
and also between the Kast Kiver of I'ictou and the east branch of the
St. ^rary'.s River, nnxy be stated thus. There is a central mass of w.d
intrusive syenite or syenitic granite, usually having a Iarg(! predominance
of red orthoclaso, with a moderate tpiantity of horid)lend(! and (piartz.
This sends veins into the overlj ing beds, and isits(df penetrated l)y dykes
of diabase. (Jn this central mass rests a great thickness <if felsites,
porphyries, felsitic agglomerates, and diorites, evidently of volcanic
origin. Upon these are gray, black, and reddish slates and i[uartzites,
with a bed of limestone, and penotratecl by metallic veins. The lower
volcanic i)ortions and the upper more strictly a([ueous parts might perhaps
be separated as a Lower and upper Cobecpiid series ; but the dillerence
appears to depend rather on mode of deposition than on any great difFer-
enco of age.

Fig. 159. — General structure of the Coliequid Range, (a I Massive Syenitic (Jranite.
(I>) Lower Ci>bequid Series, l''elsite, Porpjiyry, Agglonicratc, &« ('c)
Upper Col)e(iuid Series ; Ferriferous Slates and <.,)uartzite. (ilj Went-
worth Fossiliferous beds; Silurian, (cj Carbonifci-ous. O'/ Triassic.
(x/ Veins of Syenite and Diabase.

* Journal of Geological Society, vol, vi.

132

TOPOGRAPHY.

Along tho northeni side of the Cobequiils, ami botweoii Pictmi and
Arisaig, these b'-ds ave seen inuncdiatcly to tindcrlic the Silurian rocks,
Avhich have been disturbed with Ihcin, and are penetrated by the same
ignec.ns dykes. Dr. lloneynian ajipears to have observed the same rela-
tion on the Loehaber Lake and in other parts of Antigonish County.
This somewhat constant association would seem so indicate that the rocks
in ([Ucslion immediately underlie the Silurian, and are tlierefore tlicni-
selves of Siluro-Canibrian age. ' )n the other liaml, their similarity in
mineral character with tho II .nian series of New Brunswick, with
rocks observeil in Cape 15reton t;i rise from under Cambrian deposits, and
with the lluronian rocks of Murray in Newfoundland, might induce us
to assign them to an earlier diite. Tiu-re are, howtiver, some diiferences in
mineral cliaracter ; as, for example, the greater prevalence of olive, black,
and micaceous slates, and of highly felspathic rocks in the Cobetpiid
series, which, while they ally this series with that of Northern New
lU'unswick and of the Kingston peninsula, separate ir. from the typical
Huronian. I am therefore inclined to believe that it will ultimatidy be
fouihl that tlicre are tliree barren series of mixed volcanic and acpieous
deposits in the Acadian Provinces, separated by fossiliferous deposits,
viz., (1) the lluronian, over which lie the fossiliferous Cand)rian
(Acadian) beds; (2) The Cobe(piid series, over which lie the fossiliferous
Silurian ; (3) The Mascarene series, belonging to the Silurian. In some
districts, as in Southern New ISrunswick and Cape lireton, where these
series, or some of them, approach closely to each other, and are mui;h
disturbed, it nuiy l)e ditticult to disentangle these deposits ; l)ut I believe
the distinction will be found to liold good, and will, no doubt, be
facilitated liy the discovery of additional fossiliferous l)eds.

In the meantime, I have no doul)t of the identity of the greater part
of the altered and volcanic beds of the hillv country extendiui:' throu'di
Pictou and Antigonish counties, and underlying the Silurian, with the
Cobequid series. Further, large suites of specimens placed in my hands
by Albert J. Hill, Esq., leave no room to doubt the similarity of the
greater part of the rocks in the district extending from St. Peter's to
Scatari in Cape Breton to the Cobe(iuid deposits; though, as previously
stated, there is reason to believe that older rocks occur both in this district
and in Northern Cape i>reton.

If the above views are correct, it will follow that in tho Lower Silurian
period, the area of Nova Scotia ami New Brunswick was the theatre of
extensive and long continued volcanic ejections, producing a series of

ACADIAN REGION.

13:5

1)0

art

,'h

tlio

luls

lio

I'ict

an
of
of

rocks cntii'oly ilissiinilai' from tlioso deposited at tlie saino period in tho
interior continental I'e.nion, tlioui^ii in some respects resenil)lin^f those of
Great Britain and tlioso of tlie regions in Quebec and the rinlc(l Slates
lying east of the great Appalacliian line of (listurl)ance.

Th^

-In tlie Acadian P

lie ,\i:nrian. — m ine Acaoian rrovinces, as in soni(! oilier jiarts of
Eastern America, the great igneous outbursts, evidenced by the masses
and dykes of granite which cut the Lower Devonian rocks, make a strong
line of distinction between the later and older PahcDZoic. While the
Carboniferous series is unaltered, except very locally, and comparatively
little disturbed, and conlined to the, lower levels, the Silurian, and all
older series, have been foldeil and disturbed and pntfoundly altered, and
constitute the hilly and l)roken parts of the country. In tlie Silurian
and the older periods there seems also to have been a constant mixture
with the aqueous sediments in process of deposition of both acidic and
basic volcanic matter, in the form of a-'lics ami fragments, as well as pro-
bably outflows of both acidic and basic igneous rock, so that all these
older formations are characterized by the presence of felsitc, porphyry,
petrosilicious breccia and diorite or diabase. Further, since these
volcanic and tufaceous rocks, owing to their coin[U)sition, are nnich more
liable to be rendered crystalline by imitamorphisin than the (U'dinary
ai[Ueous siidiments from wliicii the bases have been leached out by water,
and since they are usually not fossiliferous, the appearance is piesciited
of crystalline non-fossiliferous rocks alternating with others holding
abundant organic remains, and comparatively unaltered. The volcanic

members o

f tl

lese series are a

Iso often verv irreyular in distribution, and

there is little to distinguish them from each other, even when tlirir ages
Uiay b(i very diifermit. These circumslaiKies oppose many diiiirulties to

tlie classilication of all the ore-Devonian ri

-r X

ova Si'otia an

1 X

Brunswick, dilliculties as yet very impi'rfectly overcome

In X'orthern X'ew lU'uiiswick, at the head of the liaie de Chaleur, and
more especially near Cape lion Ami, tliei'c! are Silurian limestones and

resembling those on the Xortherii side of the Itay,

sociated
k.

shales rich in fossils, and

Igneous rock

at Gaspe and else- iieie in the (^Mu'bec region. Tiiese strata ar<' .is
with great interstratilied lu'ds of dark-coloured diahasii
They art! (hiserilied in " Acadian Ceology."

^lessrs. Bailey and .Matthew have devoted much time and labour to the
rocks which crop out from under the Upper Devonian beds at Perry in
Maine, and extend thence eastward into New Brunswick, where they
have been named the " Mascarene series." I studied tlie.se beds in 1862,

r»»-v

tis i!

134 . TOrCKiUAPHY.

as they uccui' at I'inoon Tlill and t'l.scwlicu; near Jvislpoi't, and ruft'iTiMl
tlicni to the Upper Silurian period,* but tlie tracing of tlieir extension
in New Ilrunswiek, and the full e.stahlishnient of their age, Ijelongs to
the gentlemen above nanud.f

These I'deks ar" extensively developed in the south-western part of
Xew Ih'unswick, and tlieir thickness has lieen estimated at 2,000 feet.
The fnllowing section, in ascending order, taken from the report (if the
Geological Survey for 1875-0, shows the general structure of the forma-
tion in (^Hieen's County. —

Div' in 1. (Jray clay slates, mostly of pale colour and generally somewhat
calcareous. Darker gray clay slates, some of which are carbo-
naceous, about 400 feet.

Division 1'. lilack and dark-gray argillaceous or silicious clay slates, with

very regular sediniontary bands al)out (iOO "

Division 3. Dark-graj' and greenish-gray enrthy sandstones, the lower part
compact, the upper part more slaty, greeiiish-gray, calcareous,
or black and fissile, about COO "

Division 4. Ash-gray and greenish-gray schistose beds, generally chloritic

and calcareous, sometimes amygdaloidal and dicritie,. . . about oOO "

Division T). .Vlternalions of gray and dark-gray felsites (often porphyritic),
witli comjiact dark-gray fcldspathic rock, clou led with green
and purple, and witli beds of dark and pale green chloritic
schist. There is a mass of felsite about 150 feet thick near the
base, and a breccia conglomerate at the summit, about SOO feet or more.

Tlie.se rocks, with the same general structure, are widely distriljuted in
Southern New Ih'unswick, but, as might be ex|K'cled, they vary in detail,
more especially in the njjper nuimbers. They also jjre.sent a general
reseni!)lance to the I^eltof Silurian rocks already referred to as extending
towards llathurst, and rocks of this type are known to occur in the
Silurian districts of Nova Scotia.

The fossils found in the lower members of this series near Eastport are
a Li)i>/nla allied to L. o'ntri/tiurifa of the Lower Ilelderberg, ami also
very near to some Ilaniillon species, and to that found in the Lower
Devonian of Oaspe, though probalily diil'erent from that occurring in the
Siluriai' of Wentworth, I'ictou, and Arisaig. There are also species of
MoiUiiiiiorjilia, and a species of Loj-owiiia, with a snnill Bi'ijrii-hia of
Silurian type. Elsewhere in New Ih'unswick these ))eds have afforded
species oi SfrDphoufna, Orf/un, It/n/nchonella, Pterinea, and corals of

* Paper on Precarboniferous Flora.
+l{eport8, (ieol. Survey, 187o-().

ACADIAN REGION.

135

Siluriiui genera. There can thus be ikj doubt as to their general age,
tliougli we have not sufficient evidence to assign them to any particular
horizon in the series of Silurian beds known in Nova Scotia.

The cuttings of tlie Intercolonial Railway have enabled Dr. lloneynian
to recognize at "Wentworth, on the north side of the Cobequids, the
extension westward of the Silurian rocks mentioned in "Acadian Geology,"
and also in an earlier memoir on the metamorphio rocks of Eastern Xova
Scotia,* as ilaidcing the crystalline rocks of these hills in Xew Annan
and Karlton. Dr. Iloneyman was disi)osed to regard these beds at
"Wentworth as possibly as old as the Hudson River group; Itut the fossils
which 1 have collected in tiiem seem to me to indicate that they are pro-
bal)ly of the age of the Lower Arisaig series,! or about that of the
Clinton oi Xew York. They also much resemble in mineral character
the Lower Arisaig beds, as well as those of similar age near Cape Gaspe,
and on the Miitapeilia. The more characteristic fossils in my collections
are : —

(ii-.a|iti)lithns Clintoiu'iisis, Hall, CliiiiacogTapsus and Retiograjisus (?) .si>. Atryjia
reticularis, Dalinaii, Strdphoinena rhi)iuboidalis, Wahl. Lingula ohloiiga, Hall.
Ortiiis teiuiiradiat.a, Hall, or allied. Orthis elef,'autula, Dalmaii, or allied. Uliyncho-
iit'lla neglects, Hall, or allied. Leptocu'lia intermedia. Hall, or allied. Tentaculites
distans, Hall, or allied.

As usual ill the shales of this series, the liner markings of the shells
are not well [)reserved, so that it is not easy to assign them to their
species. I think, however, that I cannot be wrong in referring them to
the lower part of the Silurian.

At W(mtworth the dark shales holding these fossils are traversed by
diabiiso dykes, in the vicinity of whicli the shales have assumed a gray
colour, and have been hardened .so as in places to resemble felsites. It
is probaljle that the fossiliferous beds may be unconformabk' to the hard
slates, felsites and porphyries underlying them, but the .'^hales have par-
ticipated to some extent in the movements to which the older rocks have
been exposed.

Farther eastward, at French River and Waugh's River, the reiircsenta-
tives of the Wentworth series contain coar.se limestone and hard sand-
stone as well as shale, but hold some of the .same fossils, and at Karlton

* Journal Geological Society, vol. vi.

1 1 use the term " Lower .Vri.saig " in the sense attached to it in "Acadian Geology,"
namely, for the lower fossiliferous series of that place, in tlie main equivalent to the
Clinton and Medina groups of New York— Llandovery of England.

i i

130

TOPOGRAPHY.

! ■:

loose pieces contain fossils of a soniewliat lii^her horizon equivalent to
the Upper Arisai^^ series.

Passing,' from the eastern end of the Cobeijuids across a liay of the
Carboiufcrous into the Pictou area, we find well characterized Upper
Silurian rocks with fossils of the Upper Arisai^f (Lower IIelderVMu;L;) age.
These rocks have recently been somewhat carefully examined in connection
with exiiloratioiis of the great deposits of iron ore associated with them.
It M'ould .seem that the upper half of the Upper Silurian is here (piite as
well d(!VeIo]i('d as at Arisaig, and includes the great bed of fossilifcrous
hematite which is so characteristic of this region (Fig. IGl). Fmrn
below these beds arise thick beds of ferruginous (piartzitf, and of

« o

Fig, ICO, — Iilenl Section, showing the general relations of the Iron Ores of the East
River of Pictou. 1. Great bed of Rod Hematite. 2. Vein of Siiecidar
Iron. 3. Vein of Linionite. (a) Older Slate and '^iiartzite series, with
Fclsite and -Vsli Rocks, etc. (Ii) Lower Helderl)erg formation and other
Silurian Rocks, (c) Lower Carboniferous of the J'>ast Jiranch of East
River.

imperfectly crystalline diorite and slatyaiid fidsitic Ijreccias, wliirh wmUd
seem to be hiwer mendjers of the Silurian, and which are less indurated
than the rocks of similar composition previously referriMl to the Sihiro-
Cambrian and older series. These latter rocks, which also ajipcar iu tlie
vicinity of the Fast liiver, are breccia, felsile, (piartzite, slates and hydro-
mica schists, which bear a close resemlflanci; to tln! Cobei[uid scries, and
pass to the southward and westward of ilic newer rocks, no doulit form-
ing in this region the continuation of that formation. In the central
parts of the hills, at the head waters of the Fast Kiver, these beds are
seen, as in the Coljcquitls, to be invadeel by great mas.ses of an intrusive
red syeiuto.

Fastwavd of tlie Fast Eiver the contiiniatioii of tln' Upper Silurian
rocks has Ik'cu traced l)y Dr. Iloneyman and Mr. Fletcher to Arisaig,
where they were originally studied and described by the writer, and
include well characterized representatives of the Clinton and Ilelderberg
series but without the great limestones characteristic of these forma-
tions to the westwanl, and witluuit distinct representatives of the Niagara
group which has however been recognized in Xew Canaan, in Western
Nova Scotia, with its characteristic fossils.*

* Canadian Record of Science, vol. ii., Acadian (jleology

ACADIAN REGION.

137

Mr. Matthews has reci\L;iiisiMl reinains of a Phicogaiioid Fish akin to
those of the .Sihirian of liritain and the I'nited States, in louks of this
age in Xew Brunswick. It lias been referred to the genus Pteraspis (P.
AcacUca, Matthew.)*

of Fundy.

West IJi

Misjicck River

Be.iver Lnke .

Movuit Prosiiect. . .< ■

CokU)rook

O =

?, i ^ 2 X o M

— " ,*-" '^ 'S r '' ^hT ^

^» O — — r'l — ' "S

6. 'Till' Brian or Devon-

ian.

Tl>e ]•

nan System

does not occupy a very
wide area in tiie Acadian

. yet, in counec-
1 the neiirhhorintr

til

circas in tlie Province of

"= c (Quebec, it is of great in-

-3 _= ierest, as showing perhaps

I -t more of the land life of

c n the r)oriod, and more es-

^ '-S pecially of its flora, than

= ^ the Devonian of any other

t: ? inu't of tlieworld. Incou-

3 2

~ 2 nection with this, it is to

p bo observed that the vast

' T-TT^ develoimient of this for-

i "I J mation in the great Lake

-^ 5 § Erie district shoM'smaiidy

\\.~

niarnie

cniiiluions.

Yet it is satisfactnry to
know that rmfessor Hall
finds erect trunks of tree-
ferns and abundance of
remains of fern frmids
and P.<il dill iijt (1)1 in the
Chemung sandstones of
Xew York, and that in the
marine limestones of (_>hio
l)r. Newberry lias dis-
covered trunks of conifers
and beautifully preserved
stems of tree-ferns.

Acadian Geology and supplement, 18G8 and 1878.

138

TOPOdKAPIlY.

These rocks in the Acadiau Provinces overlie tlie fossiliferous beds of
the Lower IleliUn-berg or Ludlow group, and underlie the Lower Carbon-
iferous, whose peculiar llora readily distinguishes it. From these lieds,
thus limited, I have described or catalogued 1:25 species of fossil plants,*
of which the greater part are specifically, and some generically, distinct
from lliuse of the Lower Carbonifennis. A very considerable propor-
tion of these plants have been derived
from the rich plant-bearing beds near
St. John, 2S'ew lirunswick, so admir-
ably explored by Messrs. Hartt and
.Matthew.

One of the most characteristic
forms of the Lower Erian is the re-
markable genus PsilnphiitdH. The
restoration given in Fig. 1G2 •will
serve to show the general character of
this curious plant, which, while allied
to the club-mosses in structure and
hidiit, has remarkable peculiarities in
its fructitlcation. Ci/clopfcria Jac/i-
so7ii and C Gafijv'enf^if, which should
be placed in my new genus Aniio'-
opt'-ris, are characteristic of the
upper memliers of the system. The
remarkable discoveries of fossil lishes
and insects in the Lower and Upper
Lrian of the Laie de Chaleur and
St. John liave l)een referred to in
part 11. The former, as de.scrilied
by Whiteaves, show distinctive fi.sh
^ fauiuT of the Lower and Uj)per
Krian, parallel with those of Europe,
and corresponding to the distinct
flora^ of the Lower and Upper
Erian. f

Yig. V'y2.—Psilophi/ton priiireps, restored. t(, Fruit, natural si/e ; b, Stem, natural
size ; r, Sc.alariforin tissue of the axis, highly niaguitied. In the restora-
tion, one side is represented in vernation, and the other in fruit.

* Ro|Mirt on fossil Plants of Devonian, etc., Geol. Survey of Canada, 1871 and 1882,
t Wliiti'iwes, Transactions Royal Society of Canada.

\\IJ

?c^

c/j

'C -s

•f. .~

3 v:

0)
-3

■J. Ji

5 5^

_i i) o

— K o

— 3 ^

= •So':;

^ ^ -

• - - bo
I '^ '^

T :C -

z'.

Albert Mine.

Lower Carboniferous.

Lower Co.il meaR\irt's,

meaR\irt'S. \ \ ■t

Hopewell. / . ^| "S

III. ill* Ii.i\' _ 3 '""

Chepoily Hay

Coal me
Chepoily

ACADIAN REGION. 139

7. Thi' Carhoiiifcroas
Sj/.^f'-iit. — The total vcn--
tical tIiiokiK'.-;.s of the im-
mense mass of sediment
con.stituting the Carbon-
iferous system in Xova
Scotia ma}' l)e estimated
from the fact tliat Sir ^V.
K. Logan li:is ascertained,
by actual measurciiuMit
at the Jog.uins, a thick-
ness of 1 1,570 t'ect ; and
this does not include the
lowest member of the
series, which, if develop-
ed and exposed in that
locality, would raise the
aggregate to at least
1G,000 feet. It is cer-
tain, however, that the
thickness is very vari-
able, and that in some
districts particular mem-
bers of the series are
wanting, or are oidy slen-
derly developed. Still
the section at the Joggins
isl>yno means an excep-
tional one, since 1 have
been obliged to a.ssign to
the Carboniferous de-
posits of Pictou, on the
evidence of the sections
exposed in that district,
a thickness of about
10,000 feet; and Mr. R.
lirown, of Sydney, lias
estimated the Coal for-
mation of Cape Breton,
exclusive of the Lower Carboniferous, at 10,000 feet in thickness.

Lower Coal measures. \
ly Ferry. J

Chiegnecto Bay.

Lo\.or Carboniferous. \
.Miuudie, etc. /

ii "^

= J

u ^

Coal measures
logfc':

iieasures \ l '.r
Joggins. / -.-a '"'

^ -f

pifm

I "!

140

TOPOGRAPHY.

When fully ilevelopeil, tin; whole Carboniferous series may be urrangetl
in four subordinate groups or formations, wliichare referred In in Tart II,
and are there taken as types of the Ciirboniferous system. They are (1)
the I/iirfoN Series, or Lower Carboniferfjus shales and conijlonii'rati'S ; (2)
the l[7«(/,s'o/',SV/v''>', or Lower Carboniferous Limestone; (3) the J////.-7o«e
(/rit ; (4) the Coal Fonnafiim. Detailed features of these several mem-
bers will be found in " Aeadian Geology."

Pig. Itj.').— Sketch-niai) of Pictoii Cual l)isti'ict. A, Upper Coal fiiniKition ; 13,
Middle Coal formation; C, Now (Jlasgow conglomerate; ]>, Lower
Carhoiiifoiou.s ; K, Silurian and Devonian. Cutil Anas. — (1) (icneral
Mining As-^dciation, or Albion flints ; (2 and 4) Acadia ; (3) Xova Scotia;
(5) Intercolonial <ir Hear Creek; ((J) Montreal and Pictou ; ("jOerman
Company, and others ; (S) Sutherland's River ; (!)) New Glasgow,

The area occupied liy Carboniferous rocks in Nova Scotia and Xew
Brunswick is very extensive ; and is divided by ridges of the older
nietamorphic rocks into portions which are considered separately in
"Acadian Geology." These are —

1. The Xew lirunswick Carboniferous district, the largest in point of
area in the Acadian '^jrovinces

ACADIAN REdlOX.

- tc

5 J '-^

2. Tlif Ciuiil)(,'i'laii(l Carlxiiiifcrous distrii't, Ixmnilod
on tlio south liy the ColicMjuid Hills, and coiitiimous
on thu nortli west with the great Cavljoniforoiis area of
New liniiiswirk.

3. The Carbonifermis district of Miiias liasin and
Cobeqiiid l»ay, and its dutliers, inchidini,' tlu! long
Ijandof Carboniferous rocks extending along tlie south
side of tlie Cobequids, and tliat roacliing along the
valley of me Miis(ju(iili>b(iit Ixiver.

4. The Carboniferous district of Pietou, bounded
on tlie south and (;ast by inetanior[)iuc hills, and con-
nected on the west witli the Cund)erl:ind district and
tliat last mentioned. (Fig. IGo.)

f). The Carboniferous district of Antigonish county,
bounded by tW(j spurs of the nietaniorphic hills.

G. The narrow band of Carboniferous rocks extend-
- "^ ing froni. the Strait of Canseau westward through the
-£ Jc S county of (iuyslxiro'.

= Z ^ 7. The Carljoniferous district of Kiclunond county
and southern Inverness.

8. The Carlioniferous district of Inverness and
Victijria counties.

9. Tlie Carboniferous district of Cape Breton
county. (Fig. 167.)

Cuwlitions of Df'pn.<;ififiH of tJic Bfds. — It is evident
that very various geographical conditions are implied in
the deposit of this vast thickness of sediment. The
Acadia of the Carboniferous period must not only
have diifered much from that wdiicli now is, but it must have presented
very dilFfrcnt appearances in the different portions of the Carboniferous
time itself.

The conditions of deposit thus implied in the mineral character and
fossils of the several formations above described, would api)ear to be of
three leading kinds : — (1.) The deposition of coarse sediment in shallow
water, with local changes leading to the alternation of clay, sand, and
gravel. This predominates at the beginning; of the period, recur.s after
the deposition of the marine limestones in the formation of the " Mill-
stone-grit," and again prevails in the upper coal formation. (2.) The

- = o

112

TOPOCiUAPHY.

gvowlli of corals ami slioU-lisli in ilcoji clear water, ftlon;^' with tin! pro-
ciiiitalioii of crystalline liinostoiio and j,'ypsnni. Tlu'su comlitions
occurred during the formation of the Lower Carhoiuferous liniostonc and
its associated gypsum. (3.) The deposition of fine sediment, and the

10. Block House Mine.

11. Gowrie ''

12. South Head "
18. IMire

Fig. 107. -^rap of Cape Breton Coal-fielfl. A, Upper Coal beds ; B, Middle Coal
beds; C, Lowest Coal beds ; 1), Millstone grit ; E, Lower Carboniferous ;
F, Metaniorphic Silurian.

1. New Cauipbellton Mine. (!. Caledonia Mine.

2. Little Bras d'Or " 7. Little Ulace Bay "

3. Sydney " 8. Clyde

4. Lingan " 9. Schooner Point "
o. International "

NoTK - It should he oliserved that there are prohnhly several beds of coal between series A and
series B, and that the lines of series K, C, D, and K are conjectural. The town of Sydney has been placed
too far noith.

accumulation of vegetable matter in beds of coal and carbonaceous and
bituminous shale, and of mixed vegetable and animal matters in the beds
of bituminous limestone and calcareo-bituminous shale. These conditions
were those of the middle coal formation.

Within the limits of Nova .Scotia anil Xew Brunswick these con-
ditions of deposition applied, not to a wide and uninterrupted space, but tO'
an area limited and traversed by bands of Silurian and Devonian rocks,.

ACADIAN UEOION.

143

ftlrnatly piii'tiaUy iiictiimnriilidsiMl aiul oloviited above tlio avix, ami almi^'
till' inarifiiiM of which iLfUcous action still (jontinuoil, as oviileiKi'il hy the
hutls of ti'a|) iiiti'i'calutuil in tlu! Lower Carboniferous;* while abnut the
close of the !)evoniun period still more important injectiniis and
intrusions of i^Mieous matter had occurred, as sliown by the ^aanite dykes
and masses which trav((rse the Devonian beds, but have not penetrated
the Carl)onit'(ri)Us.t Tliei'e is evidence, hnwevei', in the ( 'arlinnit'erous
rocks of the .Ma,i,'dal(!n Islands and of Newfoundland, and in the fringes
of such rocks on parts of the coast of Nova Scotia* ami New lMiL;laiid,
that the area in ipiestiou was only a part of a far more exti'usive reL,don
of Carl)oniferous deposition, the j,'reatcr part of which is still under the
Avaters of the Atlantic and of the (lulf of St. liawrence.

The Ljeneial phenomena of deposition above indicated, apply to all the
Carboniferous areas of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and, so far a.s
known, to tiiose of the Ma<,fdalen Islands and of Newfoundland. But
numerous Incal diversities occur, in consei]uence of the interference of
the oMer elevated ridges with the regularity of deposition. In some
places the entire Lower Carboniferous series seems to be represented by
conglomerates and coarse .sandstones. In others, the Lower Coal
measures, or the marine limestones, or both, are extensively developed.
These local dilferences are, on a small scale, of the same character with
those which occur on a large scale in the northern and southern Appala-
chian districts and western districts of the United States, and in the
different coal areas of Great IJritain and Ireland, as compared with each
other and with the Carboniferous ilistricts of America. On the whole,
however, it is ai)parent that certain grand features of similarity can bo
traced in the distribution of the Carl)oniferous rocks throughout the
northern hemisphere.

It is further to be observed, that in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,
as well as in Eastern Canada, disturbances occurred at the close of the
Devonian period which have caused the Carboniferous rocks to lie uncon-
formably on those of the former ; and that in like manner the Carbon-
iferous period was followed by similar disturbances, which have thrown
the Carboniferous beds into synclinal and anticlinal bends, often very
abrupt, before the deposition of the Triassic Red Sandstones. These
disturbances were of a dilFerent character from the oscillations of level
which occurred within the Carboniferous period. They were accom-

* Dawson, Quart. Journ. Genl. Soc, vol. i. 1843, p. 329.
t Dawson, Can.adian Naturalist, 1800, p. 142.

TOPOCRAPHY.

I 4

l)iiiii"il liy vnlciuiic action, iiiul worn most intense! alon;^' cci'lain lines, and
espeeially near tlie junction of tiie Carljoniferous witli tlie older
formations.

I have noticed an apparent case of nnconformability between meMil)or3
of the Carl)oniferons system near Anti;,'onish.* In the ('onnty of I'ictoii,
tlui arran^'enu'iit of the lieils suj,';,'ests a possil)le nnconformaliility of the
Upper Coal formation and the Coal measure-. f In \ew Ilrunswick,
Prof. r»ai!ey+ has observed indications of local unconforniahility of the
Coal formation with the Lower Carboniferous. I'.ut ihe strict conform-
abiliiy of all the members of the Carl»onifcrous series in the ,L;reat major-
ity of i.'ases, shows that these instances of unconformability are excep-
tional. In the section at the .Iof,'j,'ins more especially, t\u- whole series
presents a regular dip, diminishintf i,'radually from the margin to the
middle line of the troui,'h, where the l)eds become horizontal.

The most gradual and uniform oscillations of level must, however, be
accompanied with irregularities of deposition and local denudation ; and
phenomena of this kind are al)undantly manifest in the Carboniferous
strata of Nova Scotia. I have descriljcd a l)ed in the Pictou Coal-lield
which seems to be an ancient shingle-beach, e.xteniling across a bay or
indentation in the coa.st-line of the Carboniferous period.!^ At the
Joggins, many instances occur of the sudden running out and cutting off
of beds, I, and Mr. Ilrown has figured a number of instances of this kiml
in the Coal formation of .Sydney.H They are of such a character as to
indicate the cutting action of tidal or tluviatile currents on tin; muddy or
sandy bottom of shallow water. In .some instances the layers of sand
and drift-]ilants tilling such cuts suggest the idea of tidal channels in an
estuary Idled with matter carried down l)y river- inundations. Even the
beds of coal are by no means uniform when traceil for considerable
distances. TIk; beds which have been mined at Pictou and the Joggins
.show material differences in cpiality and associations ; and small beds
may be observed to change in a remarkable manner, in their thickness
and in the materials associated with them, in tracing tiunn a few hundreds
of feet from the top of the clilF to low-water mark on the beacli. I have
no doubt that, could we trace them over sufficiently large areas, they

* (^uart. Journ. Genl. Soc, vol. i. p, 32.

j-Ihitl, vol. X. )). 42.

J" Report on (Jeology of Southern New Brunswick," p. 188.

§Quiirt. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol, x. p. 45.

:: Ihid., vol. X. p. 12.

H Ibid., vol. vi. p. 125 et seq.

ACAIHAN 1!I;(;K)\.

11.-)

CO S

5i^

J it

•* ?.'

■r.-x.

would all lie; fduml to f,'ive place to sandstones, or tn run
out into bituminous shales and limestones, accord ini,' to the
undidatioiiH of the surfaces on which they were deposited,
just as the jicaty matter in modern swamps thins out
toward hanks of sand, or passes into the muclv or mud of
inundated Hats or pomls.

8. 7'/('' Pmiiian Si/xfi'in. — The I'jjper Coal formation
was first distinjj;uisli<'il as a separate member of the Car-
Ijoniferous system in Eastern Xova Scotia by the writer, in
a paper iiulilishi'il in the first volume of the .lournal of the
(leological Society, in 1845 — and was delined to be an
upper or overlying series superimposed on the jiroductive
Coal measures, and distinguished liy the absence of thick
coal-seams, by the prevalence of red and gray sandstones
and red shales, and liy a peculiar group of vegetable
fossils.

SubsecpU'ntly, in ray paper on tlie South Joggins* and
in Acadian ( leologf," this fornuition was identified with the
up[ier series of tlie Joggins section. Divisions 1 and 2 of
Sir William Logan's sectional list, and with the Upper
liarren Measures of the Mnglish Coal-tields, and the third
or upper zone of ( leinliz in the Coal formation of Saxony, f

Still more recently, in the " Report on the Geology of
I'rince Edward Island," 1871, I have referred to the upper
part of the same formation, the lower series of sandstones
in Prince Kdward Island not previously separated from
the overlying Trias.^

In Prince Edward Island, however, where the highest
beds of this series occur, they become nearly horizontal,
and are overlain apparently in a conforma])le manner by
the red sandstones of the Trias, which dill'er very little
from them in mineral character. It thus happens that,
but for the occurrence of some of the characteristic Carbon-
iferous plants in the lower series, and of a few e(|ually
characteristic Triassic forms in the upper, it would be
ditiicult to artirm that we have to deal with two formations
so different in ago.

*Journal (jeological Si)ciety, vol. x.

t AeafUan (leology, p. 140.

X Report on the Geological Structure of Prince Edward Island.

IIG

TOPOGRAPHY.

111 coiuiL'ctioii with tliis, tin; pvcsuuicd ubscnce of the I'ciiiiiaii, nut
only here but tliroughout Eastern America, raises the question which I
have already sug<,'este(l in "Acadian deology," whether the conditions of
the Upper Coal formation may not have continued lon,L,'er here than in
Europe, so that rocks in the former region constituting an upward
extension of the Carboniterous may synchronize with part at least of the
Permian. On the one hand, there seems to be no stratigraphical break
to separate these rocks from the Middle Coal formation of Nova Scotia;
and their fossils are in tlie maii; identical. On tlu; other hand, where
the beds are so slightly inclined that the Trias seems conformable to the
Carboniferous, no very marked break is to be expected ; and some of the
fossils, ,is the conifers of the genus Walc/ua and Ca/aunf'" i/i^/a", have
a decided Permian tendency.

On the whole, in the Report above referred to, I declined ti) separate
the red beds of the lower series in Prince Edn-ard Island from the
Newer Coal formation. Prof. Geinitz, however, in noticing my Report,*
and aho in a private letter, expresses the opinion that the fossils have,
as an assemblage, so much of a Permian (or Dyadic) aspect that they may
fairly be referred to that formation, more particularly to its lower part,
the Lower Rothliegende. This with further study of the sections on the
North coast of Nova Scotia and New Prunswick induced me, in 1872,
to propose the name Permo-Carboniferous for this formation.*

9. The Tria'i. — -The great Geological Periods known as tint Mesozoic
and Early Tertiary are represented in the Acadian Provinces only liy the
Triassic system.

During all those periods in which the middle and older Tertiaries, the
Cretaceous and the ( )olitic systems were produced, no rocks ai)[)ear to
have been formed within its area, or if they were formed they have been
swept away. This remark ai)|)lies not only to Nova Scotia, but to an
immense region extending through New Brunswick, Canada, and the
Northern United States. During those long periods, these regions, thut.
destitute of the newer Secondary and Tertiary rocks, may have been in
the interior of a great continent, or in the fathomless depths of an ocean
where no sedinien*'- was being deposited ; but whatever their condition^
they retain no geological monuments of the lapse of time.

The distriliution of the Trias imlicates that, when it was deposited,
the form and contour of the country already made some approach to
those which it still retains. Just as the marsh mud lines the coasts of
the Pay of Fundy, so do we find the Trias occupying an inner zone,

* Journal Geological Society, August, 1H74.

ACADIAN KEfaON.

lie

liV to

i an

the

Ithut

In in

Lean

Lion,

litci

to
Is of

lone,

^ 5-

= H

H 5

•6 "^

O Q

find aiipeann'.

to 1

lavc l)C;'n (Icposi

tc.l

m a iiav a ii

ttU

wider and luii.Ljer than tin; present one. It is indeed to
tlii.s l)ay district tliat, in Xova 8co'ia and New iSruns-
wiek, the Trias lias Ihhmi ehietly confi"ed, and it may

lave heen deposi

ited

in cireiunstanees not verv dis-

siinihir fmni those of the present marshes, except that

le older deposit is accompan

lied l)y evidence that active

■3 volcanoes pouied out their lavas on the grandest scale
•X in the waters and on tlm shores of th(> hay while its
5 ^ sandstones were heiii'' formed. While the Trias of
J > Xova Scotia is limited to the I'ay of Fundy, we have
i" '/', evidence in the wide extent of the .samr formation in
•| '" Prince Edward Islanil,that a sinular d(>posit was in pro-
J S yress in the (Inlf of St. Lawrence. In the ''ulf, how-
c "^ ever, unlike tin; hay, we do not find the New Red
along the coasts, but in an isolated patch separated on
all side.s from the continent. I may r"mark here, that
the Trias, though patches of it are scattered over
several parts of North America, is nowhere very extens-
ive. To the southward of Xova Scotia it reappears in
Connecticut, where it extends over a considerahle area
;^ B in the valley of the river; and in Xew Jersey, where
S ^ another l)and commences that extends a great distance
'Z '-= to the south-east, some i.solated patches occurring as

2 far south as Xortli Candina.

02 S
I ^

The ai[ueous rocks of this period in Xova Scotia and
Prince Edward Island are i)rincipally coarse and soft red
""! ^ sandstoiKfs with a calcareous cemtnit, which causes
13 S them to etl'ervesce with acids, and contributes to the
fertility of the soils formetl from them. In the lower
part of the formation there are conglomerates made np of well-worn
pebbles of the harder "nd older rocks.

The V(jlcanic rocks of this [leriod are of that character known to geo-
logists as I toleritic Lavas and indurated tufl' or volcanic ashe.s, and are
quite analogous to the products of modern volcanoes ; and, like them,
consist principally of Pyroxene and le-felspars.

In Xova Scotia the })riiicipal areas of Triassic Red Sandstone ai'c those
arovuid C^obequid l!ay and the long, narrow valley of Cornwallis and
Annapolis, celebrated fur its a[)[>Ie orchards. The Triassic voh-anic rocks

ll;

148

TOPOGRAPHY.

form u l(jng, nanow and elevated bell, exteiuliiig westward fioiu Cape
Blomiddu on the P.ay of Fiindy, while isolated eminences of the same
rocks apjjear (in the opposite side of the Bay.

Fig. 170, — Jiuictidn of Tria.s and Ciirb(>nif,'i<)u.s, (ireat Village Kiver, Nova Scotia.
a, Sihiro-Cambrian. b, Carboniferous, c, Trias.

The ImmIs of the Triassic series, as seen in Prince Edward Island, and
more especially in its northern part, consist chietlyof soft red sandstone,
with some buif coloured beds and red and mottled clays. Associated
with them are conglomerates and hard calcareous and concretionary sand-
stones, passing into bands of an'naceous limestone, which is in some
places a dolomite. They present a division into an upper and lower
group which may be held to represent respectively the Uunter and
Keuper Sandstones, the lower member containing a greater proportion of
gray, purplish and pebbly beds.

The dips are so low, and the Ijeds so much affected by oblique stratifica-
tion, that those of the Trias cannot be said t(j be unconformable to the
underlying Carboniferous rocks ; and for this reason, as well as on account
of the similarity in mineral character between the two groups, some
uncertainty may rest on the position of the line of separation. That
above stated depends on fossils, or a somewhat abrupt change of mineral
character, and on a slight change in the direction of the dip. These
beds spread over much of the island, though with no great thickness.

Fossils are rare in the Triassic beds, Of plants, one of the most
interesting is a species of coniferous tree distinct from that occurring in
the Carboniferous beds beneath, and allied to Dadoxijlon Keuprriaimm
of the European Trias. I have described it under the name 1). Edvard-
ianam. Another is apparently a small cycadean stem, whicli 1 have de-
scribed as Ci/cathmidca ( MautoHia) Ahcrjiiidensis, from the old ^licmac
name of the Island.* Besides these there are Knorria-like stems, a
coarsely marked Stcriihcrijia, and impressions resembling fucoids. The
only animal fossil yet known is Bathijjnatlnis horealis, Leidy, a member
of the group of carnivorous dinosaurs, the highest known reptiles, and an
order verv characteristic of the ^lesozoic.

* Reijort p. 4o.

ACADIAN REGION.

ie.se

uost
gill
nnm
ard-
(le-
in;ic
s, a
The
iber
ll an

10. The Pleistocenf. — After a great gap in the Geological succession,
the Maritime Provinces present a moderate development of tlie clays,
sands and gravels of the Pleistocene or (llacial age, resting on striated
rock surfaces. These I have all along regarded as evi<lence of arctic and
sub-arctic conditions, but not of land glaciation within the area of tlio
^laritinie Provinces, except on the flanks of the liigher mountain ridges.

I fail to find, either in the Acadian Provinces or in Canada proper, any
indication of a great continental glacier. There is evidence of great
depression of the land, acconipani(;d with a reduction of the mean tem-
perature to such an extent that the hills remaining aljove water were
occupied with local glaciers, and formed areas of denudation, while the
lower lands, traversed by northern currents of ice-cold water, bore float-
ing ice throughout the year, and this was steadily pushed by the lower
currents from the north-east ; while in periods of extreme submergence
there was a drift, perhaps caused by prevailing winds, from the north-
west. In these circumstances the boulder clay and the lower part of the
Leda clay were formed, and are consequently non-fossiliferous, or hold
only a few Arctic .shells. Re-elevation l)rought shallowness, and con-
sequently warmer water, and eventually land surfaces, and introduced the
modern climate.

"Whatever the cause of this submergence, the fact of its occurrence is
proved by the marine clays and the high-level sea beaches. Mr. Richard-
son of the Geological .Survey has found these terraces 1225 feet above
the sea on the coast of Xewfonndland, and the evidence of travelled
stones would take the sea to tlie tops of the highest bills in Kastern
America, 0,000 feet above the sea The drift phenomena of the west-
ern plains and the Rocky Mountains imply subsidence there to the
extent of, at least, 4,400 ft.* Now, the existing climates of the Xorth
Atlantic, as compared with those of the Post-pliocent;, point precisely to
the natural effects of such a submergence, while the action of local
glaciers, of pack and pan ice, and of drifting bergs, as iiow actually
observed, would, if intensified, as they must have been by tlii; causes
supposed, give all the observe<l etl'ects of glaciation. There is therefore
no geological necessity to a[)peal to the varying eccentricity of the earth's
ofljit ami the precession of the equinoxes, or to an imagined change of
the earth's axis of rotation, or of the obli(iuity of the ecliptic, or of the
energy of the sun's radiation. If these, or any of them, can l)e proved
on other grounds, geologists may fairly be called on to allow for their

' U. M. Dawson, Report on i9t\\ i)ar.illel.

150

TOPOnRAPHY.

iiifliiL'UCO ; liut tliore is no f^'oolo^ical iieco.s.sity for them, oilier tliaii Uk;
exi},'(!iicic's of iiii iinai^iuary period or succession of periods oi continental
glaciation, of which unquestionably there is no geoloj,acal evidence in
Eastern America. For facts in support of this view, I may refer not
only to the chapter on Acadian Geology on this subject, but to my sub-
sequently i)uljlishcd >«otes on the rostqilioccne of Canada.*

I may, however, quote the explanation which I gave in the first edition
of Acadian Geology, in 1885, and to which I still adhere : —

" In reasoning on this subject as regards Xova Scotia, I have the
advantage of appealing to causes now in operation within the country,
iind which are at present admitted l)y the greater number of modern
geological authorities to allbrd the best explanatii^n of the phenomena.
In the first place, it may at once be admitted that no such operations as
these which formed the drift are now in progress on the surface of the
land, so that tiie drift is a relic of a past state; of tilings, in so far at
least as regards the localities in which it now rests. In the next place,
we Iind, on examining the drift, that it strongly resemljles, though on a
greater scale, the effects now produced by frost and floating ice. Frost
breaks up the surface of the most .solid rocks, and throws down cliffs and
precipices. Floating ice annually takes up and removes immense quan-
tities of loose stones from the .-hores, and depossits them in tlie bottom
of the sea, or on distant parts of the coasts. Very heavy masses are
removed in this way. I have seen in the Strait of Canseau large stones,
ten feet in diameter, that had been taken froui below low-water nmrk and

Fig. 171. — Modern Travelled .Stone, Petitcodiac River.
pushed up npon the beiich. Stones so large that they had to l)e removed
by blasting, have lieen taken from the base of the cliffs at the Joggins
and deposited off the coaldoading pier, and I have seen resting on the
mud-flats at the mouth of the Petitcodiac River a boulder at least eight
feet in length, that had been floated by the ice down the river (Fig. 171.)
Another testimony to the same fact is furnished by the rapidity with

*AIr. Clialnier.s has more recently iuvestit,'ated the facts as to local drift in the Baie
des Cliak'urs and the mountains south of the Jjower St. Lawrence. — Reports, Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, and Can. Record of Science, 1889.

i i:

ACADIAN REGION. 151

wliicli liui,ft' piles of falltMi rock arc renidvcd by the floating ice from the
ba.se of tlic trap cliils of tlie Day of FiiiKly. Let us suppose, then, the
surface of tlie laud, while its projecting rocks were still uncovered by
surface deposits, exposed for many successive centuries to the action of
alternate frosts and thaws, the wlmle of the untravclleil drift might
have l)een accumulated on its surfai'c. Let it then be submerged until
its hill-tops sliould become islands or reefs of ro(;ks in a sea loaded in
winter and sjiriug with ilrift-icc, floateil along by currents, which, like
the present Arctic current, would set from N.K. to .S.W. with various
modifuMiiiius produced by local causes. We have in these causes (along
with the actimi of local glaciers) ample means for accoiniting for the
M'lioje of the appearances, including tiie travelled blocks and the .scratched
and polished rock-surfaces. This, however, is only a general explanation.
Had we time to follow it into details, many most interesting and complica-
ted facts and processes would be discovered."*

Glacial striation is very freipient wherever fresh surfaces of rock are

exposed. The following are instau(.'es of its direction : —

Point rie.isant. :ind ntluT places near Halffax, expnsure soutli,

Vfiy distinct and beautiful striation. S. 20 K. to S. 30' E.

Head of the Basin, exposure south, but in a valley, E. & W. nearly.

La Havre River, expo.sure S. E S. 20 W.

Petite liiver. exposure S.E S, 20 E.

Bear River, exposure N S. 30 E.

Rawdiin. e\iio.-.ure N S. 2.5" E.

The (lore Mountain, exposure N., two sets of striae, respectively S. (l-V E. & S. 20' E.

Windsor Road, ex))osure not noted S.S.Iv

Gay's River, exposure N Nearly S. & N.

Mu.squodob<at Harl)our, exposure S Nearly S. & N.

Near I'ietou, expo>ure E., in a valley . Neai'ly V.. k W .

Poison's Lake, summit of a ridge Nearly N. it S.

Near (iuysboro', exposure not noted Nearly S. & N.

Sj'dney Mines, Ca[)e Breton, exposure S S. 30' W.f

The above instances show a tendency to a southerly and south-easterly
direction, which accords with the prevailing cour.se in most i)arts of
North-eastern America. Local circumstances have, liowever, modified
this prevailing direction ; and it is interesting to observe that while S.E.
is the prevailing direction in Acadia and New England, it is e.\c(!ptionaI
in the St. Lawrence valley, where the prevailing direction is S.W. |

*8ee " Notes on Canadian Pleistocene," Canadian Naturalist.
tThe above and other courses in this volmiie are muijmtic, tlie average variation
being; about 18 W.

i Logan, " Report on Geology of Canada."

152

topo(;raphy.

Professor Iliiul lias <,'iven a table of similar striation in Xew Bninswiek,
showing that the direction ranges from X. 10° W. to N. 30' K., in all
except a very few cases. ()ii IJlue Mountains, IGoO feet above the sea,
it is stated to be X". and S. As in Xova Scotia, X^AV. and .S.F. seems to
be the prevailing course.

The occurrence of Laurentian boulders from Labradin' in Xova .Scotia,
shows the great distance of transport in some cases, and its direction to
the south-west, while there are abundant examples of local driftage, more
especially from the higher lands and alitng the lines of depression of the
surface, and some of this is no doubt the work oi local glaciers in inter-
vals of land elevation.*

The Pleistocene of Prince Edward Island may ])e taken as a good
illustration of the deposits of this age.

The Triassic and Upper Carboniferous rocks of this island ci insist
almost entirely of red sandstones, and the country is low and undulating,
its highest eminences not exceeding 400 feet. The prevalent Post-
pliocene deposit is a bouliler clay, or in some places boulder loam, com-
posed of red sand and clay derived from the waste of the red sindstones.
This is tilled with boulders of reil sandstone derived from the harder l)eils.
They are more or less rounded, often glaciated, with stria' in the ilirection
of their longer axis, and sometimes polished in a remarkable manner,
when the softness and coarse character of the rock are cimsidered. This
polisliing must have been elFected by rul)bing with the sand and loam in
which they are iml)edded. These Ijoulders are not usually lar^e, though
some were .seen as much as tive feet in length. The boulders in this
deposit are almost universally of the native rock, and must li.iv(,' lieen
produced liy ihi'. grinding of ice on the outcrops of the harder lieds. In
the eastern and middle portion of the island, oidy these native rocks were
seen in the clay, with the exce[)tion of pebljles of quartzite, wiiich may
have been derived from the Triassic conglomerates. At Campljellton, in
the western )iart of the island, 1 ob.served a be(l of lioulder elay tUled
with boulders of metamorphic rocks similar to tho.-i; of the mainland of
X'^ew Ih'unswick. Stria? were seen only in one place on the north-eastern
coast and at another on the south-western. In the former case their
direction was nearly 8.W. and X.E. In the latter it was S.TO" K.

X'o nuirine remains were ol)served in tlie boulder clay ; Imt at
Campbellton, above the boulder clay already mentioned, there is a Hunted
area occupieil with tlie beds of stratified sand and gravel, at an elevation

See Clialmer.s, I.e., and Geological Magazine, 1889.

ACADIAN in'.GIOX.

153

'ood

|ut at

linitt'd

atiou

of about 50 feet above the sea, ami in (iiu' of the beds there are sliell.s of
Tcllina Gricn/amlira.

On the surface of the country, more especially iu the western part of
the island, there are numerous travelled boulders, sometimes of consider-
able size. As these do not appear in situ in the bouMer clay, they may
be supposed to belong to a second or newer boulder drift, similar to that
which we find to be connected with the Saxicava sand in Canada. These
boulders being of rocks foreign to Prince Edward Island, the ((uestion
of their .source becomes an interesting one. With reference t(i this, it
may be stated in general terms that the majority are granite, syenite,
diorite, felsite, pori)hyry, (juartzite, and coarse slates, all identical in
mineral character with those which occur in tin metamorphic distiicts of
Nova Scotia and Xew Brunswick, at distances of from 50 to 1.'00 miles
to the south and south-west, though some of them may have been derived
from Cape Ih'eton on the east. It is further to be observed, that these
boulders are most abundant and the evidences of denudation i>f the Trias
greatest in that part of the island which is opposite the deep break
between the hills of Nova Scotia and Xew Brunswick, occupied by the
Bay of Fundy, Chignecto Bay, and the low country extending thence to
Northumberland Strait, an evidence that the boulder (h'ift was connected
with currents of water pa.'ising up this depression from the soutli or south-
west. Similar local <lrift occurs iu Nova Scotia, though theie the pre-
dominant direction is from the norllnvard.

Besides these boulders, however, there are others of a different char-
acter ; such as gneiss, hornblende-schist, anorthosite and Laliradorite
rock, which must have Ijcen derived from the Laurentian rocks of
Labrad()r and Canada, distant 250 miles or more to the northward.
These Laurentian njcks are chiefly found on the north side of the island,
as if at the time of their arrival the island formed a shoal, at tin' north
side of which the ice carrying the boulders grounded ami melted away.
With reference to these boulders, it is to be observed that a depression
of four or five hundred feet would open a clear passage for the Arctic
current entering the Straits of Belle Isle to the ISay of Fundy : and that
lieavy ice carried by this current woulil then ground on Prince Edward
Island, or be carried across it to the southward. If the Laurentian boul-
ders came in this waj', their source is proba])ly -tOO miles distant in the
Strait of Belle Isle. On the north shore of Prince Edward Island,
except where occupied by sand dunes, the beach shows great numbers of
pebbles and small boulders of Laurentian rocks. These are said by the
inhabitants to be cast up by the sea or pushed up by the ice in spring.

ir)4

ToroCHAl'HY.

"Whi'llii'i' thi'V arc! now lining drifU'd liy ice dinn.t from llio LaliViidor
coast, or are old drift beiiij,' waslit'd up from tho bottom of tlii> gulf, which
north (if the island is very shallow, doi-s not appear. They are all much
rounded liy tiie waves, ditlering in this respect from the majority of the
boulders found inland. I may adil here that Laurentian l)oulders have
been observed on the north shore of Nova Scotia.* Dr. lloneyman
records their a}>pearance even on the Atlantic coast.

The nlder boulder clay of Prince Edward Island, with native boulders,
must have been produced umler circumstances of powerful ice action, in
■which comparatively little transport of material from a distance occurred.
If we attribute this to a glacier, then as Prince Edward Island is merely
a slightly raised portion of the bottom of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, this
can have 1>een no other than a gigantic iiuv.ss of ice HUing the whole
basin nf the gulf, and without any slope to give it movement except
towards the centre of this great though shallow depression, (in the
other hand, if we attribute the boulder clay to floating ice, it must have
been produced at a time when numerous heavy bergs were disengaged
from what of Labrador was al)Ove water, anil when this was too thorough-
ly enveloped in snow and ice to alFord many travelled stone.s. Further,
that this boulder-clay is a sub-marine and not a sul)aerial deposit, seems
to be rendered probalile by ihe circumstance, that many of the boulders
of the native sandstone are so soft that they cruial)le immediately when
exposed to the weather and frost.

The tnivclled lioulders lying on the surface of the boulder clay
evidently belong to a later period, when ihe hills of Labrador and Nova
Scotia were above water, though lower than at present, and were
sufficiently bare to furnish large supplies of stones to coast ice cai'L-ied by
the tidal currents sweei)ing up the coast, or by the Arctic current from
the north, and depositeil on the siu'face of Prince Edward Island, then
a .shallow sand-bank. The sands with sea-.shells probably belonged to
this period, or perhaps to the later i»art of it, when tho land was gradual-
I3' rising. Prince Edward Island thus appears to have received boulders
from both sides of the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the later Post-
pliocene period ; but the greater numljer from the south side, perhaps
because nearer to it. It thus furnishes a remarkaliie illustration of the
transport of travelled .stones at tliis period in ditl'erent directions ; and in
the comparative absence of travelled stones in. the lower boulder clay ; it
furnishes a similar iliustration of the homogeneous and untravelled char-

* Note.s i>n Post-pliocene, 1872. p. 112.

ACADIAN KEfJION.

155

actor of that doposit, in circumstances where the theory of tloatin.i,' ice
serves to aeeoimt for it at hnist as well as that of laiul ice, ami, in my
jn(l,i,'ment. .greatly Ijetter.

Sitliifiri^n'niis nf fitf PIfistni'i'iif I)i'piixit.<. — -In Acadian (leolngy, ami in
my ^[ellllli^s n\\ the Pleistocene of the 8t. Lawrence Valley, I iiave pro-
posed a three-fold division of these heds into IhmJih-r rlaii, Leila I'laij,
and Saxii'fira saml and ^'ravcl, to which may lie aihh'd the old peaty
deposit ol)served under the Iioulder clay in Cape lU'eton. ^fr. Matthew
has since rccnnnizcd in New lUiinswick certain licds only locally
developi'd in the St. Lawrence Valley, and which I have been hitherto
disposed tu reganl as dependinjf on tin; action of streams from the land
or littoral aijencies, but wliich he re^'ards as marine deposits. They are
gravels and sands underlyinij the boulder clay, and as yet destitute of
fossils.

The eumph'te series of Pleistocene beds in Acadia and Canada would
thus stand as follows, in ascendin.L; order, though it is to be o])served thfit
the whole si'i'ies is not to be found developed at any one place : —

{a,) Peaty tm-rostrial surface anterior to boulder clay.

<l.j Lowir stratified gravels— (Syrtensian deposits of Matthew).

{c.J Iioulder clay and uiistratified sands with boulders. Fauna, wln-n present,
extremely Arctic.

(d.) Lower Lcla clay, with a limited munber of hiffhly Arctic shells, such as are
now found only in i)ermanently ice-laden seas,

{i.i I'ppcr Leda clay and sand, or LMdevalla beds, holding many sub- Arctic or
boieal sliells similar to those of the Laljrador coast at jiresent.

(f. I Saxicava sand and t,'ravel, either non-fossiliferous, or with a few littoral shells
of boreal or ^Vcadian types.

This table may Ije regarded as giving a complete statement of the series
of deixisits in the Post-pliocene, not only in the Acadian Provinces, but
throULrhout North-eastern America.

Fof'f'i/s nf the Pleistin-tjuc. — Xear the city of St. John, are gray and
reddish clays, holding fossils which indicate moderately deep water, and
are, as to species, identical with those occurring in similar dejwsits in
Canaila and in Maine. They would indicate a somewhat lower tempera-
ture than that of the waters of the Bay of Fiindy at present, or about
that of tiie northern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They correspond
to the Leda clay of Canada and ^Lune.

156

TOP(X;RArHY.

.Mr. C. K. lIiM'tt has <,'ivoii, in Vvi>(. 15aili'y'.s Report on New Uninswick,
the following list of fossils from those beds. I have aliixrd an asterisk
to the species found also in the I.eda clay and Saxicava sand nf the
Province of (Juehec. —

Articiildtii.

Kiilaims Hanieri,* Asc, Lawlor's Lake.

]'.. crt'iiutus,* '* "

Molhtunt.

I'ecton iHliuulicuH,* Linn., Lawlor's Lake, K.R. Depot, Saint John.

P. tfimistiiatus, MiK'li., " " " *'

Mytilus cdiilis, Linn.*

(.'iiiilimii |)iniiulatTiiii, dm. " " "

Tt'Uiiia (Jiii'iiliiiulica* ( T. Iialthica L/xh.), Lawlor's Lake, etc.

T. calcait'a* ( Macoina sabulosa, St/i.), Duck Cove, etc.

Leda .lackrtoni ( - L. perniila*), Lawlor's Lake.

L. tniiicata,* Duck Cove ; Lawlor's Lal;e ; U.K. Dejiot, Saint John.

Nucula aiiti(iua (var. of N. tenuis. )* " "

Mya arenaria.* " "

i\L truncata,* " "

Aiihmdite (Serripes) Oro-nlandica, Beck, Duck Cove, etc.

Cardiinu islandicuni,* Linn.

Mf'sodt'snia, 11. U. Depot.

.Saxicava distorta, Sai/ ( - .S. rufjosa, Linn.)*

Lyonsia arciiosa, Duck Cove.*

Lacuna neritoidea,* O'uu/d, Duck Cove.

Pandora trilineata, "

Natica clausa, Saw,* "

15uccinuni !uidatuni,* Linn, "

J3»V/or(;(/.— several 8i)ecies undetermined, Taylor's Island, Lawlor's Lake, etc.
lidiliatii.

Opliioglypha Sarsii, Lntk., Saint .Ti.hn, Duck Cove.*

Toxopneustes drobachiensis, (Echinus granulatus, Snii.),* Red Ilcail, Lawlor's
J^ake.

Plants. — Algie, three 8|)ecies, uiideterniinHd.— Manawagonis.

In soiue si)L'cinien.s .sunt to nie by INfr. Matthew, I lind in aiMitii>n to
the forms al)0ve enumerated, S(une niicrosco|ii(: organisms, more cspt'cially
P(ililt<t!t)ii('lla striatihpanrtata (umbilieata of Walker), and several s[)ecie.s
of Cijfhirr : and among tin; iiryozou I recognize Piistii/ipnra, T>ilii(/ipom
st'rj>r?/,s and Crixia t'hur)iea, all in small fragments.

The Kev. Mr. Paisley has published in tlie ''Canadian Naturalist"
(1872) a list of shells obtained from a railway cutting on the Tattagouche
River, near ISathurst, in New lU'unswick. They were found in beds of
Leda clay passing upwards into sand and gravel. At the Jacipiet River
in the same district, the bones of a small cetacean have been found, and
have been described by iJr. (lili)in and Dr. Iloneyman.* Tlu-y are

* Trans. N.S. Institute.

ACADIAN UIKiroX.

l.h

111 to

•inlly

|H'(;ies

il'ora

list "

[uche

Is of

|\iver

uiid

are

refenvil by I'r. (lilpin to IMmja V'ruKDifaiia oi Tlionipson from the
PleistotjtMio of Vt'i'inDiit. Similar buiiL's have been fouiul in the Loda
clay of the f^t. Lawrenco Valluy, aiul liave boon comparcil by the late
Mr. r>illin^'.s with the skch^ton of the recent li. (•(ttddmi, L., of the 8t.
Lawrenci.', with which the socalled Ji. Vrrniimfatia is probably iilentical,
as the specimens above referred to, and examined by liillinys, certainly
were.

!\rr. >ratthew has noticed the occurrence of TrlUna (rfrn/nniJica at
llorlon Jiliiff, and Ixs makes the important o))S('rvation that the shells
found on the coast of the IJaie de Chalcur are oi more modern typi; than
those in tlie Hay of Fundy, which conform more nearly to the assemblage
found in tiifse deposits on the New England coasts, so that the existing
geographical regions were alrea<ly to some extent establishi'il on the const
of North America in the period of the Upper Leda clay.

Just as wo attribute the formation of the older or boulder ilrift to the
action of water and ice, while the land was subsiding beneath a frozen
sea, so we miiy assign as the cause of the superlicial gravels the action of
these .same waters while the country was being elevated above their level.
!Many of tlie mounds of gravel have evidently been formed liy currents
of water rushing through and .scooping out the present valleys. Some
of the mure regular riilges are apparently of the nature of the gravel
beaches which are thrown by the .sea across the mouths of bays and
coves, and may mark the continuance of the sea-level unchanged for
some time in the process of elevation. Others may have been pros.sed up
by the edges of sheets of ice, in the manner of the ridges along the bor-
ders of our present lakes. That the action of ice in some form had not
ceased, wi; have evidence in the large boulders sometimes found on the
summits of the gravel ridges.

In the island of Cape Ih'eton tlie bones of a large elephantine (quadru-
ped, Masfoihin Americanus, have been found in connection with thesui>er-
ficial gravel, which may be regarded as of Post-glacial or late Glacial age.
This gigantic creature probably inhabited our country at the close of the
Glacial period, and may have been contemporary with some of the
present animals, but possibly extinct before the introduction of man,
though the Micmac Indians seem to have had traditions of its existence.
In Cape Breton the animal must have attained to its usual great
dimensions, for a tbigh-boiu^, now in the Provincial ^fuseum in Halifax,
though api)arently somewhat worn, measures three feet eleven inches
in length.

ins

TOl'OlJIiArilY.

11. T/i'Mnif<rn pi rioif. — ('liiiiij,'e.s of Li-vd. — In the .suivl'Vh of tho
Vm'm Vurtf Caiml, made I»y Mr, I'aj,'t! uiiiIlt aiillioiily of tlio l>niiiiiii(iii
( lovrriiniL'iiL, I liiid it stalfil in tlic report of Mr. I!uillar;,'c, tliat Iictweeii
the .Missacpiash Kiver ami Ciinil)erlaiiil Creek to tlio north of tlic ixiint
where I have (li.seoverL'(l tlie reniarkalile suhniarino forest nf I-'mt I/iw-
rencej- stumps of tree.s were .seen rooted in eartli for inoic tlian lialf a
mih; aloni; the shore, and extending,' from low water mark to the hank.
They are stated to he from >V2.H feet to l*2..'J feet b(dow the level uf tho
hiijhest tides. The surveyors ri'co^Miized s[)niee, beech, pine and tamarac,
all in a fair statu of preservation, and roote(l in a veyetal>le niniiM under-
laid by a sandy .subsoil. The bed of stumps in f>if/i at Fort Lawrence,
iiotieL-d in part II., [nv^a \2'2, and fidly described in my " Acadian ;;cology,"
is a still more inlercstin;,' example. In my Report on Prince Kdward
Island I have noticed evidence of similar moderi' subsidence, th^u^h to
11 less amount. These facts place themselves in connect inn with the
prol)abilily that in America, as in Kurope, a period of continental eleva-
tion succeeded the great 1'lei.stoceiie subsithiuee, and has been followed
by a depression in more modern times. This consideration seems to
account for some otherwise anoiualou • facts in connection with tho
distribution of modern murine animals.

; r

1.1

Note on the Coruelation of the Geology of the Maritime
Phovinces with that of Euuoi'e.*

As early as 1855, in the first edition of Acadian Geology, the author
had indicated the close resemblance in structure and mineral productions
of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with the Ihitish Islands, ami in
subsequent editions of the same work, further illustrations were given of
this fact. Recent researches by liailey, ilatthew, Fletcher, Ells and
others, still more distinctively indicate this resendjlance, as well as tho
distinctness of the Maritime Geology from that of the great interior
j)lateau of Canada and the United States. In short, tlie Geology of tho
Atlantic margins of America and Kurope is substantially the same, and
distinct from that found west of the Apalachians in America and in Cen-
tral and Eastern Europe. In this fact has originated much of the <lilliculty
experienced in correlating the gciological formations of Eastern Canada
with those of Ontario, of New York and Ohio, as well as similar dillicul-
ties in Europe, which have led to much controversy and difference of

* Abstract of a paper in tlie Journal of the Geological Society of London, 1888,

ACADIAN KK(!I(>X.

ir.y

IME

\uil ill
veil of
Is iiiul
lis tlio
inli'vior
(if the
me. and
in Ceii-
iliirulty
Caiiada
dillicul-
•ciice of

1. 1S88.

dassilii-iitioii and iioincni'Iatiin'. Tln' system of I'alii'n/.oie sediiuciits,
cmiildved fnrtlie interior plateau nf tlic Aiiieri<'an I'luitinent, thus rei|uiros
very iiiiiinrtant niinlitieatinns wlien applied to the Atlantic coast, and
nei,deet i)f this has led to serious niiseoni'options.

The rii;^'<,'('d islands of Laurciitian and l[uronian ro(;ks correspond on
both sides of the Atlantic, and shu oi identity of 8UC(X'ssion in deposits
as well as a synrliKniism of the ureat f<ildsiiiiil lat<'ral pressures which have
disturlied these old formulioiis. The (.'amlirian sediments and fossils as
ori;,dnally deseril)ed liy Hartt, and more reciMitiy and in so j,'reat detail by
Mattluiw, are in close correspondeiic(! with those of Wales and not iden-
tical with those of internal America. The recent paper of Lajiworth on
the (liaptolites ailbrds evidence of the same kind, and shows that these
were Atlantic animals in thdr time. It also thrt)Ws much additional
light on th(; (^)ii(d)('c group of Logan considered as an Atlantic marginal
formation, representing a great lapse of time in the Camlaiaii and Onlo-
vician periods. The author lias long ago .■'hown that the Siluro-Cambriau
or Ordovician of Nova .Scotia conformed more nearly to that oi Cumber-
land and Wales than to the great limostone formations of (j)ueliec,
Ontario and New Vork. The I 'pper Silurian also is of the type of that
of England and Wales, a fact very marked in its fo.ssil remains as well as
in its sedinii^nts.

The parallelism in the Krian or nevonian in both countries is most
marked, both in rocks and fossils, and while this is apparent in tlie fishes,
as worked up by .Mr. Whiteaves, it is no less nuuiifest in the fossil plants
as described by the author.

The Carboniferous, in its limited troughs, the character of its beds
and its fossil animals ami plants, also points to a closer relationship in that
period between tlie two shores of the Atlantic than between the Atlantic
coast and the iidand area.

The Trias of Xova Scotia and uf Prince Edward Island, as the ai ihor
showed in 1<*^G8,* resembles that of England very closely, in its ac .^ous
deposits and in its associated trap[)ean rocks.

Beyond this the Geology of the ^Maritime Provinces presents no
materials fur comparison till we arrive at the boulder drift and other
pleistocene de[)osits. In regard to these, without entering into disputed
(piestions any farther than to say that the observations of the author, as
well as those more recently made by Mr. Chalmers, conclusively prove
that submergence and local ice-drift were dominant as causes of distribu-
tion of Ijoulders and other material, there was eviilenc<! of great similarity.

* Jmirnal of Geol. Soc. of London, vol. VI.

I!.! i

IGO

TOPOGRAPHY.

Tlio iiKuine Ijeds described by Mr. MatUusw at 8t. Jolin are precise
eciuivaleiits of tlie Clyde beds of Scotland, as are the upper shell-bear-
ing lieds of Prince Edward Island and IJaie des Chaleurs of those in
Aberdeenshire and other parts of Scotland, and the Uddevalla beds of
.Sweden. Tlie boulders drifted from Labrador to Nova Scotia were the
representatives of those in Europe scattered southward from Scandinavia,
and the local drift in various directions from the hills was the counterpart
of that observed in Great Britain. The survival of Mdstudon Amaricajiits
in Cape Ureton, to the close of the Pleistocene, is a decided American
feature, and so is the absence of any evidence of P'eistocene man.

In so far, therefore, as pala?ontology and the subdivisions of systems of
formations is concerned, the geology of the Maritime Provinces is
European, or perhaps more properly Atlantic, rather than American, and
is to be correlated rather with the British Islands and Scandinavia than
witli interior Canada and the United States. The latter country, even
on its eastern coast, possesses a much less perfect representation of these
Atlantic d' osits tluui that in the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland,
though the recent studies of Crosjjy, D'.de and others, are developing new
points of this kind in the geology of Xew England, and Hitchcock and
others have shown that the Xew Prunswick Geology extends in Maine.

ACADIAN REGION.

161

Cnn-<p'i-tiiA of Gi'nlnrjicaf Formations in th>' Acailian li<'</io)t, wilh
som- tijpi'-al I oral it iff, duAcrihed in '' Aca'Jian Gi'oloijij" or in R-ports of
Geolorjit'al Suro'i/ of CanaiJa. —

Saxicava Sand and Gravels.
Leda Clay
SiBoulder Clay or Till.

(lenerally distributed.
Xoar St. John, X. 15.
Generally di.striljuted.

Upper Red Sandstone and Traps
of Bay of Fundy. Upper Red
Sandstones of P. E. I.

(Coast of llasin of ^Nlinas and X.
( coast of Prince Kdwanl Island.

Upper Carb. and Pernno-Carb.
Middle Carboniferous.
Millstone Grit.
Windsor Group.

(r^iniesti)iie, Gypsum, otc.)

Horton Group.

( l.out-r Ccial Measures.)

X. Pictou and coast of P. K. I.
Joggins, Pict(JU, Cape Preton, etc.
Pictou, Colchester, etc.
1 --ll^ "Windsor, Shul)enacadie K., etc.

I ? 1=^=5- irorton P.luir, Hillsborough, etc.

C-»+el/ill f Scaiuu'Muie Beds
atiMi I . \ (]i;ij,. ,ii,,s (,'hiilfurs).

Chemung and Portage.

i St, .Iciliii Series.
Hamilton .' «-''>nUtite .Shiile.

(, SiiucLstoues. )

Oriskany. Nictau Series.

52 ^

.Scaunienac ])ay, (lasj)e P>ay.
Mispec, 8. New lirunswick.

i J 1' ;/ !

^ III; Courtney Pay, near St. John, X.P.

■r. —

Lower Helderberg I'liiierArisaig Series.
Niagara. ^^'^ Cauaan Series.

Clinton. Lower Arisaig .Series.

Cobequid Series?

Graptolitic Shales of New Bruns-
wick.

Xictau, X'ova Scotia.

Arisaig and East liiver, Pictou.
X'ew Canaan, S.W. XewPrunswick.

Arisaig.

. .Mire ami Ht An-

Upper Cambrian. I arewseri™,
Middle Cambrian.

Ciipe IJretoii.
Acaiiiaii Series.

Lower Cambrian. {;^i:'jj;;;^'::^'!,

Cnlie(iuid Mts., East K., Pictou.
X. Xew lirunswick.

Southern Capo Proton.

( .St. John, Xew Ih'ui.swick.
\Atlaniiccoast,Canseau to Yarmouth.
]5a.sal series, near St. John, X.P.

Felsitic, Chloritic, and Epidotic j >.. r i,„ vp .,„ i . .. .f„.n.. i t
_, , r r^, , , ,, " I I ot. .lolm, JS.l). and oastwanl, 1

Kork.<; nt St. . nhn Yarm(.uth V , , ,' ,, „ ,,

Rocks of St. John, YarmoJth
and Cape Breton, in part

■OlS-

dale Hills, CIS

Gneiss, Quartzite and Lim -ne
of St. John and St. , ,ie's
Mountain, Cape Breton. j

(Southern Xew Prunswick and
j Xortheru Cape Proton.

162

'iil"

II. TIIK CAXADIAX KKGIOX TKoPKR.

{(2w:li''i' aitiJ ihtlariii.)

Tliis iTL,Miiu ill its caslci'ii jiart cniisi.sts of tlio Silui'ci-Caniluian and
.Silurian valley (if tlie Lnwcr St. Lawrence;, extcnilin^; from Antii'M>ti and
(Jii.'^pe to the Thousand Islands, witli [lorlioiis of llie folded rocks of the
A])alachiaiis inthe Kaslern To\vns]ii]is of (^tuohec in ihe south, and of thu
<,'reat Laurentiau nucleus of the North American continent in the north.
These features lielonj.;' maiidy to the Province of (^)uel)ec. In the west-
ern or (>itario section it consists of the northern margin nf the great
palteozoic |)lateau of the interior of North America along with a wide
area of Huronianand Lanrentian country to the northward and westward.

We thus have in the Provinces of (Juel^ec and Ontario the following
geological districts : —

1. Tlie southern jiortiim of the great K( zoic ( Laurentiau and Huron-
ian) nucleus of Northern Canada, separating the valley nf the St.
Lawrence anil the (treat Lakes from the Arctic I5asin.

2. The hilly and l)roken region of Siluro-Camhrian and Canihrian and
Pre-Canihrian rocks extending through the southeastern part of (,)uebec
from Ciaspi' to the United States boundary, and constituting a north-east-
ern extension of the Apalachian ami (Ireen mountain ranges.

."). The Siluro-Cambrian plain of the Lower St. Lawri'nce, east of the
Thousand islands, and occupied principally by slightly inclineil formations
ranging from the l\itsdam sandstone to the Hudson Kiver series, inclusive,
with some limited areas of Silurian beds and occasional masses of igneous
rock of Silurian date.

4. The Paleozoic plain of ( >ntario, consisting of nearly horizontal beds,
of ages ranging from the P(jtsdam to the L^pper Erian inclusive.

As these districts have in Part II. been taken as types of the Kozoic
and older Palfcozoic Periods, and as they have lieen descrilied with
much local detail in the " Geology of Canada " by Sir W. E. Logan, and
ill Reports of the Geological Survey, it will not lie necessary to tieat of
them very fully in this place, l)ut their great leiuling features will be
given, with reference to tluj above mentioned works for details.

1. The Archean or Eozoic district occu])ies the north shore of the Gulf
and Kiver St. Lawrence, with a few marginal patches of Siluro-Cambrian,
from the Straits of Uelleisle to (Juel)ec. Below Quebec the margin of
the Laurentian area begins to recede from tlie St. Lawrence and to leave
a gradually widening band of flat Siluro-Cambrian rocks between the
river and the Laurentian hills as far as the continence of the Ottawa

i :

(^rnr.Kc and (».\tari().

1G3

the
itions
visive,

beds,

l'"ozi>ic
I with
in, ami
rent of
viU be

H-C.ulf
Lbi'ian,
Ivj^iu of
[o leave
I'ou tlie
l( )ttawa

rivev.

Tt 11

icll

bill

n\V;

(he Viilicv (if the Ottawa to tlif wostwan

About 100 miles west of the (•oiiljiiciicc of the ( )ttawii willi the St.
LiiwrciiiT it is suddoiilv (Ifllcctcil to the south-east, aud erossiu'' the

St.

.awreiu'i' 111 a low au'l iiii

rrow baud at the Th

ousaiii

I I>laiii|s, connects

as by an isthmus tlir main Lauivntiau distrirt with the L^'reat [n'liinsular

mass ( I

f th

Adii'ondaek niountaius in New Voik, in which the Lauientiau

rocks attain tlieii\L;reatest altitude. Mt. Maicv lieint,' 5,400 feet in height.

West of the Ti

lousaiu

I h

and

the soulliern liouiidarv ot th

.lurentiau

1 H

ui'oiuan stiukes westwaidlv across ()iitario, till it reaches the

(teoruian Hav of Lake Huron, whence it sweeps m a lio

curve

liol'i

lered

in [)iu't by Cambrian and Iliiroiiiaii rocks, around the north shore of Lake
Superior. Ueyond tht; western end of that ^reat lake it turns to the
north-west and skirting,' the west side of Lake Winnipeg; runs into tlu;
Arctic region. In this district are the most important deposits of
Ma,i;netite, lleuiatito. Apatite and (Jraphite, mined in (^iiiebec and
Ontario, and also vidualile quarries of granite, niarbh,' and mica, and
deposits of copper ami silver. Tiie Laureiitian area is on (leoigiaii Hay
and the North shore of Lake Superior, fringed and partly covered with
Iluroniau and Ivowenian rocks. The typical Ilurouian of Logan is that
on the north of (leorgian I'ay. (See I'art II.)

'2. The secmid district, that of the Kastern Townships of (^tiieliee and
thence to (laspe, is principally characterized by the prevalence id' the
Quebec group of Sir William Log.in, consisting of black, gray and re<l
shales, .sindstoiies, and coarsi- limestone conglomerates, with some bands
of limestone and dolomit(!. Originally a peculiar .sub-marginal formation
belonging to the Atlanti(; basin, these Ix'd.s have been greatly folded and
disturbed and l)roken oif by faults from tin; undisturlteil plateau forma-
tions to the westwanl. Their age, as indicati'd by fossils, ranges from that
of the Potsdam to the Cliazy, though the greater part would seem to
belong to the lower part of the Siluro-Caml)rian and to be eiiuivaleiit to
the Upper Calciferotis and Chazy of tlio inland plateau.

As the (piestion of the special character of the •^•neliei; gi'oiip is of
importance to the understamling of the geology of the whole region, it
may be useful to give from a note contributed by the author to Harrington's
lliography of Sir William FiOgan (1SS.3) the following explanation, with
ideal sections intended to illustrate it. —

There seems to have occurred, before the Siluro-Cambrian age, an
elevation of the Laurentian nucleus of the American Contiinuit which
caused either an absence of dejtosit or very shallow watc deposits over

164

CANADIAN GEOLOOY.

the groator imrl df tlio aiTii

ijf North America, wliih; thick (h'pdsils were

laid down on th(! Athuitic l^order. This ditfereiice ami its causes are

u ^b

E J

Cr*

CJ3

3iV//^/

I 3: V^

(P/

iN^

e/3

laO

t£

u- O

:/: -

c s

t! J"

■J2 J= t-

c; _=

s? ?=

5 ^

represented in the Section, Vig. 172(1.) Towanl the close of the Siluro-
Cambrian i.<'viod there followed on the previous une.iual elevation and

<2UK]3EC AND ONTARIO.

iGo

depression, one of the grout crumplinf,'.s of the crust of llio eartli, wliicli
cruslicd tlie tliick ami llicii soft deposits of the Athiiitie border iiLrainst
the edge of the inland Laurentian area, producing foldings, th-xuri's, lateral
thrusts and n'versed faults in these marginal deposits, ])ut leaving the
thinner beds on the Laurentian j)lateau comparatively unilisturbctl. Thus
was i)r()duced the state of things represented in Fig. 172 (2), which shows
the present condition of the (^)U(d)ec gnni]! strata. The beds of the
(Quebec Series wluch represent a portion of tin; Atlantic deposits of the
period, formed in ('omiiaratively deep and cold water, and contaiinng
remains of a fauna suited to such conditions, were thrust against the
Laurentian jilateau and the Hat beds of the inland Potsilam, Calciferous
and Chazy, and piled up in gigantic ciirth-waves. Lastly, the subsenuent
denudation has scul[itured thrse folds and has probably, in some denuded
anticlinals, exposed portions of older Cambrian and iluronian rocks.
This is also sliown in the section.

With these typical (^)uel)('c (h'oU[) rocks, which are characterised liy
abundant remains of Trilobitcs, (Iraptolites and Sponges, there are
associated altered rocks originally classified l)y Logan as metamorphosed
niendjers of the (^)uebec (!roup, Imt now regarded by I)r. Selwyn as
Camln'ian and Pre-Cand)rian. The latter are thus describi'd by him : — *

"The I'alfeozoic rocks lie unconformably on or against an axis of
Pre-Cambriaii sub-crystalline rt)cks, hydro-nuca slates, i[uartzites, crystal-
line dolomit(,'s, dialjase, gabl)ro, olivinite, serpentint! and volcanic
agglomerates, the lowc'st Ijeils of the axis being nucaceous and granitoid
gnei.sses. ]\Iany of these volcanic agglomerates and diabases are now
serpentines. This lowiu' portion of the (^)uebec group is detineil on the
geological map and colored as Pre-Cambrian. It extends from Sutton
-Miuuitain, on the Vermont boundary, to a point some miles norili of the
lalitudi' of (^hiebec city, where it becomes covered liy the uuciiuformable
junction of the Levis foimation with the Silurod )i'Vonian roeks of the
( ias[)e series. To the north-east it again appears in some of the prominent
[)eaks and ridges of the Shickshock Mountains, the northern llaidvs of
which are occupied liy the Cambrian and Cand)ro-Sihuian f<irmations of
the (^)ueliee (Jroup, and the southern by those of the Siluro-1 '<n'oniau
system al)ove referred to, as l)eing in contact wit h the former a sliort
distance to the south-west of tlu' mountains."

" Similar Pre-Cambrian rocks form also several subordinate riilgjs to
the south-east, and as in the main axis, tliey are everywhere characterized

'Despii'iptive sketch "f Ceulojjy df Ciiiiail:i, ISSJ.

166

CANADIAN (JEOLOCiV,

by tlio pi'e.st'iice (if suliiliurettwl cdiiimt oiv.s ; also iK'Hiiililcs, inagiietiti>,
cliroiiiic irmi and ores of aiiliiiioiiy. The iua;^Mii'iitc is, f(jr the. most pari,
ccoiioiiii(;ally iiiiavailal)I(' ou accuiiul of tin' \n'j;\i pc'iri'iitat^'c' of lilaiiic
acid. Tlio soaji-stoiic, |iot-stoiui or mica-rock, smiiciiliiM' and aslirstos,
descrilird in the (IcoloL^yof Canada, also lidon.L,' to tlic ri'cC';ii!il)rian
Lclls. ()iic of llicst.' Ixdts crosses tlio St. Francis liivcr Ix'lwccu
Slicrbrookc and Lcniioxvilic. It constitntcs tin; hi,nli ridges known .is
the Stoke .Mountains, l)et\vecn Lake .Massa\vi]i)ii and Little .^^lL;■og, and
in it are the most extensively worked copiier nunes of Canaila. No
fossils of any kind have yet been found in liie rocks of thes(' liclts, and
they ai'e la'csunu'il to belong,' to tin; ilumnian System, not oidy because
of the guolo.L^ical position which they apparently occupy, Init also on
account of their close correspondence with it in physical aspect, and in
mineral ami lithological characters."

In this region are granites of hevonian age, trappean masses of Silurian
nge, and pmhably still older igneous I'ocks, some of them associated witli
large masses of serpentine, and the Siluro-Cand)rian rocks are in places
altered into hydro-mica .schists and graphitic slates.

In this district are the valuable copper mines of the Eastern Townships,
the gold deposits of the (Jhaudiere, S:o., and the deposits of Chrysotile or
librous Serpentine usually named .\>bestos and now extensively worked ;
also ijuarries of gi'aiiile and maible.

•i. The third and fourth districts are characteriseil by the jprevalence
of undisturhi (I members of the Siluro Cambrian, Silurian and Kriau
systems. The lirst mentioned system [irevailsin the Province of (j>U(d)ec
where its ordinarily Hat surface is broken by abrupt eminences of igneous
rock ejected at the close of the Silui'o-Cambrian, and idlbrding excellent
opportunity for the study of intrusive rocks and the remains of ancient
volcanic vents, in the hills of Rigauil, ^Montreal, .Montarville, Ueloeil and
]\fonn(»ir, Kougenujnt, Yamaska, Ih'ome and Shell'oi'd. The.se hills form
a line of ancient volcanoes e.xtending across the SiUu'o-Cambrian plain
for a distance (if !)U miles.

The Siluro-Candnian occuiiies the north side of Lake Ontario, but at
the head of the lake it is covered by the Silurian, the thick limestones
of which form tiie great Niagara escarpment, which is so prominent a
geographical feature in the Lake region, and gives origin to the fall of
Niagara, in Western Ontaiio, l)etween Lakes Huron and < Mitario, the
Silurian is overlaid by the Krian or I >evonian. of which in this region the
( h'iskany sandstone, the Corniferous limestone, remarkably rich in siliciHed
ciu'als, and the Hamilton shales, are characteristic features.

(.lUKBI'XJ AND OXTAIJTO.

ir.7

lul ut
Itonos
it'iit a
lull of
K the
In the
lei tied

'I'lic l'al;i'i)/,iiic nicks of tliesc distrii'ts liaviui;' liccii ahv;uly mitircil in
]'art II.. it will hi' iicccssarv here duly in rcl't-r hj tln' gedgmjtliical ilis-
ti'ibutii)n ami ii ^ist chanieteristic exposures.

The iiMi'sl Caiiihriaii rocks iire reprcscntcil in the thini district nnly hy
the (!('or'.,da series, whicl) enters into Canada ami Dccupicsa limited space
in the vicinity of I'hillipslmrLi;, and has lieeii described liy Mr. l!illin;/s.*
Tile I'dtsdani sandstone in this district usnally rests directly du the
Laurcnlian. all tin; nlder ^mups lieim^- absent. It cdnsists (if siliceous
sandstdiie nften indmated into (piartzite and slmwing ripph.'-niarked
surfaces. The prevalent fossils are the cylindrical perforations, usually
tortuous ami sDnietinics branchin,n', known as Sco/if/i/i.-^ Catiaili'ii-<i>', and
on till' surfaces of some of lln' Iteils are the crustacean foutjirints named
rriitirl(iiilr.<, IIimIs of conglomerate occur locally. The I'otsdaui covers
considerable p(jrtions of Huntingdon. Cliateauguay, lleauharnois,
Soulangi's and Vandrenil, and skirts the Laurentian on the Lower ( »ttawa
and in placi's as far east as the St. Maurice Kiver. In the vicinity of
^Montreal it is well seen at St. Anne's, A'audreuil, lieauhurnois, and at
various points on the ()ttawa IJiver.

The L'alcifcrous, a formation consisting Iarg(dy of dark-coloured impure
ilolomite. immediately overlies the I'otsdam and in places graduates into
it. It covers considerable areas adjoining the Potsdam in Huntingdon,
etc., and is well seen at St. Ainie's, near .Montreal, near lleaidiarnois and
].achuti.'. In these places it allbrds sevei'al characteristic fossils, as
(_>ji/n7'/i( i-niiiparta^ Miirrliiiiiinia Ainia, J'ifnrrrd.-! ((mjihi/ii, ( hihacrra.-t^
etc, Till' Calciferons is regarded as a conteiiiporanecnis formation with
the oldi'r parts of the (jJiieliec (iroup, and iiutalily with the J)iclyunema

lieds (jf .Matane an-

1 C

ape

losiei'.

Korks of this au'e also skirl ih

aurentian on the north shore of thcdulfof St. Lawrence at INIiiiLiaii

and
T

eisewliere

he line-stones and .shales of lie' .Siluro-Cambrian series occujiy

nil.

orniini

als,) occupy the

II-

■ivsteiu

greater [lart of the remainder of the Lower St, Lawn'iice
a broad belt on Ijutli sides of the St. Lawreiic, and
country between the Lower Ottawa and the former river,
iiicludi's all the formations from the Chazy to ihc Iluilson Kivci', inclusive,
and in tin- disti'ict in i[uestion tic Trenton and Utica forniations occupy
the widest areas, with patches of Hudson Kiver superimposed, and a
margin of Llack River and Chazv limestones between them and the oMer
rocks. These forniations are well seen in the (piarries and other excava-
tions in the vicinitv of Montreal and < Htaw.i.

* GeolDgy of Canada, p. 283, et. seq. See also Walcott, Kept.5. of U.S. Geol. Survey.

IGS

CANADIAN (GEOLOGY.

A small patch of Silurian liiiiestoiic of ircMciljcr;,' ago oci'ius in ihu
Iflaml of St. Iluk'U, at .Moiitri'al ; and there aro good e.\i>ii.-iu'os of
Silurian rocks, soino of them rich in characteristic fossils, fjn the north
side of tlie liaie dc Chalmrs, and on the s(juth side ncai' 1 >alliiiiisi('. and also
in tile I'eninsula of (lasjte. There' are also considerahle aieas nf Silurian
rooks, in some idaees altered and with slaty structure, in the hilly rountry
extending southwardly from (Jasjie, on the coiUines of (j)ui'ljec mid Xew-
Jirunswick.

Anticosti exhibits on its south side a large area of lime-;t(iiii- n( the
lower part of the Silurian, rich in characteristic fossils, whih' tie' north-
ern part of the island has a lndL of lludsou River rocks, and tlfse seem
to pass upward gradually into tlu' Silurian.

The Krian or Devonian series is rei)resented in this district nuly hy the
Gaspe sandstones, rich in fossil plants, while the lower l)eds of tln' (Jarbon-
iferous occupy a linuted area on the north siih; of the IJaie des tJhaleurs.
Xo geological system later than the Carboniferous has been recognised in
the district except the Pleistocene.

The Pleistocene deposits are spread over all the hjwer parts nf the
I'rovinces of (Quebec and Ontario, and consist of marine lieds in the
valley of the St. Lawrence, with eviden(;es (d' local glaciers nn tlic hills.
The prevailing direction of drift is fmrn the nortli-cast, and mi tln' hills
south nf the r.ower St. Fiawrence there is evidence of lU'ivciiiciit of
material from the high gi'ounds both to the north and south. "'^

In the St. liawrence Valley these deposits may be tabulated a> fnll(jws,
in ascending order : —

(aj L,uver stratified san.ls and ^n-avols | ''''"'«« represent land surfae- and sea
(Svrtensian dei.o.sits .,f Matthew). T""' """'^ ''''"''' ■■"»"''l'^^t"ly ^'"t'-nMr to

' tlie I'xjuldtT-claj' tieriod.

(Iij Ijdulder-elay or Till; hard ulay, or^ The Lower St. Lawrence reu'l'in iiolds
uiistratitied sand, with hmildcrs, a fmv marine sliells of Arctic siiecie.s, Far-
local and travelled, and stones often .ther inland it is iion-fossiliferMus. but has
striateil and polished. It rests on usually the clieniical characters of a marine
striated surfaces. J deposit.

(c) Lowi r Leda clay; fine cliiy, often"! Holds L((l(t (Pdvllandin] or'
laminated, and with a few large I soiuetinu's Tclliiui (ifninlmiiU

ft ion, and

travelled lioulders.

pro

balily ei

pii

seiMus to have been deiiosited in verv cold

alent toKrieclayof inland districts, j and ice-laden water.

(l) Upjier Leda clay, and jirobably San

geen clay of iidand districts ; clay I ■ ,

and sandy clay, in the Lower St.
Lawrence, with ninnerous marine
shells. '

Holds in Eastern Canada a marine fauna
ntical with that of the nortle'in i>art of
the (!ulf of St. Lawrence at jiresent : and
locally affords remains of boreal flora.

' Clialmers, Trans. R.S.C. The Author in Canadian Record of Science.

(^IHRKC AND ONTAIilO.

1 (II)

holds

l'"ar-
|iit lias
iiiHiine

\i, and

and

IV cold

• faiuia
liart of
and
Ira.

fcj Sax icava sand and gravel, oft.-n witln siiallow-wat.'r fauna ,.f 1h„v;.1 diarac-

nuuieroiis travi'llnd l)iiulders(r|)
Jjdiildi'i' df|insit), |>nil)al)ly tin- saiiu'
witli Alpiinasaiid, I'tc, of the West.

tcr, ninn; psiiccially Hii.rirnrii rinin.-i,
its varii'tieM. Ijunua "f Whales, otc.

r/J l>nst-(!h.cial deposits, rivi-alluviaaiKl^ i.,.,,,,^!,,, „f M,ixto,l..» ,t>vl Kh,,h,is,

r !>..... .1 :t . r .1... 1...^.'

Ki-avfls, Peaty deposits. Lake hot

toiiis, etc.

delll fresii-water shells.

All of ih('.«(' (li'po.sits iivo ,^('('11 ill the vicinity of ^^lllltl'l■;>l.

The Iiiwcr lloiilder-clay (c) is ofleii a true ami very hard Till, resting
oil intensely j^'laciatcd rock-,surt'aco.«, and lillod with stones and In nldevs.
"Whom very tliiek, it can l)o seen to have a nido stratiticatimi. Even
Avheii destitute of marine fossils, it shows its submarine aceuninlation hy
the iinoxidi/ed and iinwcatluatMl enndition of its materials. The striiB
beneath it, and the direction of transport of its boulders, show a general
movement from N.E. to S.W., or up the St. Lawrences Valley from the
Atlantic. C(jnnected with it, and apparently of tlu^ .same a^e, are
evidences of local glaciers descending into the valley from the Laiirentiaii
highlands.

The bould(!r clay and superficial deposits of the basin of the I'lent lakes
are of similar character, but they are destitute of marine shells, I'ontaiu
land plants in the beds corresponding to the Leda clay, and are surmounted
in places by old lake nuugins evidencing a former greater extension of
the lak(>s.

In tl

( )iitario Kc'doii the Pleistoeene and niodt-rn formations, which

mav for comnarison be noticed here, have been divided as f

olio ws

(Ji) IJoulder clay.
{c) Erie clay.

lugeen el.iy aiul san

(.0 s.

('') Avt(Miiesia gravel and Algoma sand.
(/) Keceiit alluvia.

iaim

which correspond in a general way to the lieds designated by tl
letters in the preceding talih;.

The Lower Leda clay ('/') seems in all respei'ts similar to the deposits
now forming under the ice in JJaliiu's J!ay and the Spitzbergeii Sea.
The L'pper Leda Clay represents a considerable amelioration of climate,
its fauna being so similar to that of the Gulf of St. Lawrence at present
that I have dredged in a living state nearly all the species it contains, ott'
• the coasts on which it occurs. Laml plants found in the IhmIs holding
these marine shells are of species still living on the north shore of the
St. Lawrence, and show that there were in certain portions of this period

170

CANADIAN tIKoLOCV.

consiiU'rabli- ImimI siirfiU'es clntlicil with vc^'oljition. Tlio rppiT I.dla
Clay is |)n)liiil)iy (;iiiitt'iii]u)iiiiu'(Ui.s wiili tiic so-callod intur-^'laciiil ilcposils
lioliliiiLT plants ami iiisofts discovi'Vcil \<y lliinlc on tlic slmics of Lake
Ontario.* On the < Utawa it contains land jilants (jf modern Canadian
specifs, insects and I'eatheis of liirds, interndxed with skeletons of capelin
and shells livin,^ in the (!idf of St. l.awicnce.

Till' changes of level in the eoinse ni the deposition of tlic Leila clays
n)iist have lieen very .i^reat ; fossiliferons marine doiiosits of this a.^e
liein^' found at a heiifhl of at least GUU teet, and sead)each('s at a much
greater elevation, while at other times there must have been larije land
areas and even fn'sh-water lakes. l.itloial gravels and sands of this
period may also lie undislin^uishahle, exi'cpt by their greater elevation,
from those of the Saxicava sand. I have recently de.scribeil the bones
of a large whale {Mfijajilcra loiiijiiiKOHi) from gravid north of the outlet
of Lake ()ntario and ll'O feet above the level of the sea, which is not
impr(d)ab|y coiifemiuiraneous with the Lcda (lay of lower levcds, juid
much higher than deposits near Lake Ontario rcgai'di'd as id' lacustrine
origin. t These changes of the ndati \e levels of sea .and laud must be
taken into account in exiilaining the dislribution of maiine idays and
sands, boulder deposits, etc., whiidi are oftiMi studied merely M'ith reference
to the present levels of the country, or as contemporaneous de|)osits with-

out n

'! to their tdexation, a

mell

lod certain

to 1

(!a(l

to nuiccurati

conclusions.

The Saxicava sand ( /') indicates shallow-water conditions with much
driftage ol boulders, ainl jirobalily glju'iers on the mountains. It con-
stitutes in many districts a .second lioulder formation, and ])ossil)ly implies

a somewliat more

the r

iH'cr

■vere or at least more extreme (dim.-tte than that id'
eila rlav. Terraces along the coast mark the successive

staires of idevalion of the land i

n aiiit a

fter tl

us iierioi

1. T

lere is also

evidence of ;i greater elevation of the land succeeding the time of the
Saxicava sand, and preceding the modern era.l

Iti

S Wi

11 known that verv diverse theoretical views exist among ljco-

logistsasto the oi'igin of the deposits above referred to.

le conclusions

* I'rticeediiigH of Canadian Institute, 187". Dr, Hindo in this jiajjer states that
the I.cda clay lieloHL's to tlic "close of the (Jlacial IVriod," and that lioiilder-drift is
not foinid aliove it. In truth, liowevcr, as .\duiiral Uaytield, Sir Charles IjVcII, and
the writer have shown, bouldcr-drift is still in (u-opress in tiie Culf and Kiver St.

iwi-euce, tliou''li in aniore linii

ted

1 than in the Pleistocene jieriod ; luit any con

siderable sulisidence of the laud uii^'ht enable it to resume its former extei
t Canadian Natiu'alist, vol. x. No. 7.
t Suiii)lement to Acadian (Jeolojify, 3rd edition, lip. 14, et. seq.

£|,

(^UKUKC AM) (tXTAKIO.

171

wliidi liiivi' hci'U I'orcL'd ii[iim the wiiti'i l)_v dftaili'il sliulics cxtomliiiif
over tlic l;i>t forty yi'iirs, an' that in I'aiiaila iIh- cDiKlitinii (if rxtii'iiic
glai'iatinii was mit' of parlial siiliiiH'rj,'oiice. in which llir valh'vs wciv

oc(:n|iU'il liv a sea nidt'ii with liravy lidd ice cdiitinunr^ thriin^iiout tiic

siunnior, wliih- tho hills ronniiuin'' aliov

13 water wcro occnpii'd with

},'laci('i's, and that thcsi; conditinns varied in tin-ir distril)iitiuu with tin?
varying' levels df the land, Mivin.i,' rise to ,i,'reat local diversities, as well as
to ehaiiu'es of climate. There soems tn lie within tiie limits of Canada no
^'ood evidi'Uce (if a i^eneral coverin.Lj (if the land, with a thick mantle of
ice, thmi^h iheic mnst at certain periods hav(> lieeii very extensive
•daeiers (m the Laurentian axis and in the mduntainons re'dons of the

■wost. It does 111 it, indued,
d

soeni possible

that,

niitler anv conceivaoie

hi.

nieteorolou'ieal cunditinns, an area so extensive as that (if Canada, if exist-
ing,' as a land surface, should re(;eive, except (in its oveaiiic mai'L^ins, a
sulHcieiil amniiiit iif precipitatiiin tn pindiice a continental .glacier.

Details nu .-oine of the alxive nientioneil formations will lie fninid in my
" Notes (111 the I'ost-PlioceiK! of Canada," and a larL,'e aiiionnt of recent
infiirinatiiin exists in the l^'pllrts of the ( ledld^ical Survey of Canada,
and in papeis pulilishcd in the (,'anadian Xatur.dist and (Jeologist, and in
the Canadian Record of Science.

th-west of the

-I. 'I'lie Western Pahenzini' district extends to the

sou

Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence valley, and includes the north
siiore of r,alve < )ntario, I.etween Lakes Krie and Huron, and the reninsula
extending in Cabot's Head ami the (Ireat Manitoulin and its assneiated
islands.

In this district tlie Xiai'ara limestone form

s a We

mai

ked

ariiiiient,

extending fium Niagara Falls westward and iKirlhward to Caliot's Head
and Maiiitiiulin Island. ( )n the east of this the countrv north of Lake

()ntari
Potsd;

II is (iccu[iied liy tin' formations from the Hudson Iviver to tin
to the west the peninsula hetween Mrie ami

nil, inclusive, Willie

Ilunm is (ii'cupied with the upper ineiulicrs of the Silurian and the Lrian

All the fdi'inations of tliis distri(;t are of similar type tn thn.-c of tin

interior plateau region of Xorth America, cumiiioi

York type of the Palivozoic formatiniis.

ilv kiinwn as the X'ew

The I'otsdani sandstone is not verv exteiisivelv distriliuti

eXcelit ill

the eastern part, Iml the exposures tif the upper layers at lleverlcy is
remarkalile for its line si»eciniens of LixijuUi (innniiuifa, and a ([Uarry near
Perth has ati'orded some of the finest specimens of the tracks known as
Protichnitr^ and CUmnrtichnili'^. In a great part of this district the

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

V «=>.

1.0

I.I

2.2

|!0

1.25 i 1.4

12.0

1.8

1.6

'^^

'»

c?-

Q>.

rmm

172

CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

f' I

oKlor bnds seem to have been overlapped by the extension of tlif SiUu'o-
Canibi'ian liiiicKtonos, who.^e outcrop cid.-sSL's in a broad band frnm Kings-
ton to (ienrgian IJay and has on its south-west side a wide ar(;a of Utiea
and Hudson River beds. The Trilol)ites A.iap/tns Cana(l'')i.ii-< and species
of Trinrthnix seem to l)e speeially charaeteristie of this (hslrict. and tiio
former occurs abumhintly at Colli ngwood as well as near to < Htawii, where,
however, the Trenton limestone is well e.\i)osed and alwnndsin cliaracter-
istic fossils, especially in crinoids. At various places near Toronto the
Hudson River beds are well exposed. On tlie J)on and lluml)er,
Li'ptcu'na ■•"'ricin, MoiIio/opKixniodiolariii, Anihoinjrliia ra<liat((, I'h rima
ih'hii.fna and Orf/nicrdi^ crrhrist'ij/inii arc characteristic species. Farther
west, in Mainloulin Island, tiie corals Pdraia rnrnirnlnin and Fari4illa
t>tij/l((f(i, are very abundant.

At the western end of Lake < )ntario the Medina samlstoni', constitut-
ing the base of the Silurian, spreads somewhat wiihdy on the lake shore,
and towanl tlie foot of the escari)ment of Hamilton, where il presents a
thickness of alunit GOO feet of reil and gray sandstone and marl. In its
westward extensit)n to (Jeorgian Hay it thins oft' and disappears. Two
chara(;teristic fo,ssils are the tracks Arf/irir/niifi.-t Ilavlani ami the brachio-
pod Limjida I'lDU'iita, an ( )rthoceras ((>. imtltisi'ptinii ) occurs rarely and
a few lamellibranchiate shells ( MDilinhipsifi.)

The grea: escarimient west of Hamilton and extending to (Jabot's
Head and by wliich tlie falls of Niagara are produced, exlii' its the
Clinton grouj) and the Niagara shale and limestone. At the falls of
Niagara thick beds of J)uloniite and dolomitic limestone constitute the
most prominent features; and the most al)unilant fossils are .S7/''///*r(/o-
ponii, but lielow the falls and near Hamilton as well as in many other
localities along the escar|)ment, numerous fossils have lieen fouuil. A-^fi/Zn-
S2><>fi<,lia and other sponges, /ar'«//'>- Xiai/dn'u.-'ix and other corals, Pi'u-
taiinriis ()/ilo)ii/ii.-i, JSpirif' r jyiai/nr'itsiK, dill'erent si)ecit's of Ufliiimrnia
and other graptolites, Cdlijiin'tv Xici'j'irfx.si.t ami Ddluuinil"' lininlarus
are characteristic.

The (iuelph formation is peculiar to this district, ami i- a dolomite
containing a special fauna iKdonging apparently to a land-locked sea, and
in which the h\\i\\\^i Mctjalnnuis CanailnisifinwA the curious Hrachiopods
of the genus Triinrnlla are chara(;teristic. (lood exposures occur near
Guelph and at Eloia, where many forms of Stromatoporae occur with
other fo.ssils.

The Salina or Onondaga salt group is well developed. Its outcrop
extends from the Niagara River aliove the falls to Lake Huron, and it

l^UEHKC AND ONTARIO.

173

(iontnins valnalilij di'iiosits of rock salt and uypsuni. Its striu'luii' lias
1)0011 notii.'od in tho previous i)art ami it untlouljlcdly marks a poriod of
continental elevation and dessication, separatinj^ the Silurian period into
two pnrtii'iis. (See section at (Jodcriidi in I'art II., p. ■"'O.) Tlio T'pper
or Helderberi; inembor of the Silurian is not lar^'oly developed in this
district, and is especially characterizetl by the Merostomatou.s crustacean
Eiir;//'f''r".-- rinilpi'H.

The ( )i iskany .samlstone constitutes tlie base of the P>ian deposits, and
is here as elsewhere rich in Spiriff.r ari'itnxit.t, Jli'ustti'l/nria oralis and
.several species df Farnaifrn. Ma'^y of its species are identical with those
of the rpper beds of the Silurian, but Krian fossils rather preponderate.
It may, however, be reganled as a transition <,'r(pup between the Silurian
ami Krian. Tho outcrops of this and the fiillnwini; series oci'ur in sue-
ce.ssiun, crossing,' the peninsula between Lakes ( )ntario and Huron.

The Cornifemus fonnation is ime of the most remarkable in the dis-
trict in a pala'ontolo„'ical point of view. It is esiiecially rich in silieified
corals, which exhibit in perf(!ction, um^ipiallecl elsewhere, the profusion
of fossils of this kind in the Kiian .seas. IJillings has described a lar^e
number of species of corals from this formation, which also abounds in
Brachiopod shelLs. Among the corals are specie.s of FaronifeK, Mii'liilhiia,
Fist 1(1 i pi I ra, Zapli r'u/i.-', Ci/xfip/ii/l/inn, IlaiiinitphiilhiDi, I'li i//ipmnfrr<i,
Siirinrjopura, KridDpliijlhim, etc., and among the Urachiopods are species
of Sfriij)/iniiii'na, ClKinrlca, LrptarD'-lia, Hifri'ptorhiiiu'lniif, Orthls, Rlninclin-
7U'//a, P'nf(iiwn(.!i, SfrirklauiUiiia, Spirifi'i; Athnrix, C/iariow //ii ami
Gi'ntrou'lla. Many other fossils of other types also occur.

The Hamilton shales are ne.xt in succession, and it is fi'om borings in
the.se shales, and especially along anticlinal l)enils of the strata, that the
petroleum of the Province of Ontario is chiefly obtained. The Hamilton
.shales afford many fossils, which for the most ))art are identical with tliose
of the Corniferou.s, but sonn; forms, as Spirifm' mucrunatun and Atvijpa
reticiikin't< are especially abundant and characteristic.

The u|»per members of the Krian, the Portage and Chemung groups
of the I'nited States, are only slenderly represented in Ontario. Kettle
Point in Lake Huron is especially remarkal)le for beils of l)ituminous
shale filled with the macrosi»ores of Khizocarps known as Spuramjiffg
Hnnnfit-ii.", and which not improl)ably indicate the character of the
vegetation from which the petroleum of the Erian has been derived, as
remains of those, aquatic i)lants abound throughout the Erian formations.

Xo later formations occur in this district except the Pleistocene and
!Nrodern, which have been already mentioned. Spencer has ascertained

174

CANADIAN GKOLOGY.

tliat many of tliu po'jiiliaritius of the i^'rciit lakes may lie aocouiitoil for
liy wai'itiiig, or uutM^ual I'lcvatioii of tlu; land in and since the I'leistoeone,
and it is now known that these great sheets of ficdi water have been
dammed up partly hy unci|ual elevation hut more by tilling <>{ their old
outlets with I'leistoeene deposits, so that they are very modern features,
and their basins must have liecn exeavatiiil l)efore the Pleistocene, and pro-
bal)ly at a time when the land was more elevated tlian at present.

liones of the Mnxtoihni iaid of a fossil Kle[)hant — ■Kmlciiha'^ Jarlsoni
— have lieen founil in Post-glacial gravel and peat in tlie vicinity of
Lake (Jntario.

'1,1

(^UEBKC AND ONTARIO.

17.-)

/ ;)

Cnnxprrfa. of a,-ohvjirnl Fnnmtions in thn Cam.Iian llyinn, ,nfh
I'lpiral Lnralifir,, ,f..rnh.,/ in Rrpnrh nf tin' a,ohujical SHrr.;,.-

Quaternary, Saxicava Sand | Vicinity of Montreal, I!euu,.n,.t, near

LedaClay. ,^„„.,„„, k. ,lu Lo,,,,. (I „ Ontario

Boulder Clay orTill. I Kri. Clay aii.l SauKcoi. sau,l.
Lower Carbonif., Bonaventure, Ilaie dos Clmleiirs.
Devonian, Catskill. <iaspe P.ay, Scanmonar Hav.

II Chemungand Portage. Kettle Point, Lake Huron.
Hamilton, includingi

Marcellus and Ge- -Western Ontario, Wi.M.r etc
nesee.

" Corniferous or Upper]

Helderberg. . X. Shore of Lake Erie

Oriskany. J

Silurian, Lower Helderberg. St. Ifden's Tslan.l, near Montreal

Salma or Onondaga. (Joderieli, Ontario.

I ^,"^'P^- ^''H'lpl, and (iait, Ontario.

, ^'^^^'^- -"^'''•yaia Fall.., vicinity of Hamilton.

,, r;"7"- ^fanitoidin Lsland, Niagara, etc.

Medina and Oneida. Hamilton, etc.

Cliaml)]y, Toronto, etc.
/Near Montreal and Ottawa; Whitby,
(, Ontario; Collingwood, Ontario.

Xeur Montreal, Point Claire, Caugh-

Siluro Cambrian, Hudson R
Utica.

Trenton.
Chazy,

u
(I

pear Montreal, Point Claire, Caugh-
j iiawaga, Itelleville, Kingston, Ottawa,
((^leboc group— Levis and S. Shore
V L. St. Lawrence.)

JSt. Anne, ]5eauliarnoi.s.
(Matane, Cape Rosier, etc.
St. Anne, Perth, etc.
Phiilip.sburg.

Maimanse, Lake Superior.
Port Arthur, and vicinity.

N. Shore, Georgian Bay.
St. Jerome, I5ay St. Paul.
I'Lachute, Cirenville, Calumet, Petite
. & L. Laurentian.-. Nation, Buckingham, N. Shore Lake
V Superior.

Cambrian, Calciferous.

Lower Cambrian, Potsdam.
'' Georgia.

" Keweenian.

'' Animikie.

Eozoic or Archaean, Huronian.
" U. Laurentian.

17<i

111. TlIK RKOIUX OF MANITor.A AXJ) THE XOKTII-WEST

TKKKITURIK8.

The fnllowiii^' account of tliis rcj^jioii is derived almost wholly from
jiapeis ami ivjioits of Dr. (1. ^f. Dawson, F.(J..S., etc. —

Physical (JEOGHAriiv.

The northern ]>artof the North American continent is geoloi^ically, and
to a ureat extent also physically, divisible into two ^'reat jtortions. In
the tirst, extending' from the Atlantic coasts to the south-eastern edge of
the Laureiitian axis, — which is niarketl by a chain of grccat lakes stretch-
ing fruui the Lake of the AVoods to the Arctic Ocean, — the Arclia?an
plateau is the dominant feature, the succeeding formations arranging
themselves about its edges or overlapping it to a greater or less extent in
the form of bays or inlets ; but, with the single exception of limited
tracts if Triassic rocks, no niesozoic or tertiary strata are represented in
it. In the second, stretching westward to the shores of the Pacific, the
Archa-an rocks play a very subordinate part, and Mesozoic and Tertiary
rocks are abundantly represented and alone characterize the whole area
of the great plains. Corvidated with the differenco of age in the forma-
tions represented, is the fact that at a date when the flexure and disturb-
ance of the eastern region had practically closed, and it was set and firm,
the western Cordillera belt continued to be the theatre of uplift and fold-
ing on a gigantic scale.

The great region of plain and prairie which occupies the central part
of the continent is on the 49th parallel of north latitude, includeil in
longitude Itetween the 9Gth and M-lth meridians. It narrows })retty
rapidly northwards, by the encroachment on it of its eastern border, but
continues as a great physical feature even to the shore of the Arctic
Ocean, where it appears to have a breadth of between 300 and 400 miles,
lieyond the North Saskatchewan River, however, it loses its essentially
prairie character, and with the increasing moisture of climate, becomes,
with limited exceptions, thickly covered with coniferous forest.

The north-eastern boundary of this interior continental plateau, north
of latitude forty-nine, is formed, as above stated, by the south-western
slojK' of that old crystalline nucleus of the continent which extends
north of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes from Labrador to the Lake
of the Woods, with a general east and west course, and then, turning
suddenly at an angle of 60° to its former general direction, runs with a
north-north-west course to the Arctic Sea. The eastern barrier is rather

MANITOIJAX KEGIOX.

17'

(1 tinn,
(1 fold-

•al piu-t

uled in
pretty
cr, Init
Arctic

iQ miles,
nitially

jecoines,

u, north

-western

extc'iitls

he Liikt!

turning

th a

ther

\vi

IS ra

a rocky plateau than a lununtaiu region. Tt presents iiu well-tleliued
height of land, and the watershed-line foUnws a very sintious cmirse
among tlie counties? lakes, small and great, which cover its surface.
Northwaid fnim the Lake of the Woods, it divides the waters llowing
into Iludsou's Uay from those draining directly into the Arctic ( >cean,
with one important exception. Tin' Xrlson Kiver, carrying the aci'Uiuu-
lated waters of the Saskatchewan, the Red Kiver and innumerahle
smaller streams, lireaks through the f.aurentian plateau at the north end
of Lake Wiuiupeg, and empties into Hudson's Hay at York Kactor\*.
The Churchill or Knglisii River, a not inconsiderable stream, pa.s.ses
through the same gap.

Near the 49th jiarallel, the Rocky Mountains on the west rise abruptly
from the elevated plain at their base, ami often present to the east almost
peri)endicular walls of rock. A short distance farther north, however,
they become bordered by an important zone of footdiills composed of
crumpled Me.sozoic rocks, and these continue with vai'ying bnadth at
least as far north as tlie Peace River region. Detween tiie tifty-tii'st and
fifty-second parallels the Rocky Mountain range appears to culminate, and
to the north gradually decreases in elevation till on the borders of the
Arctic < )ceau it is represented by comparatively low hills only. With
this decrease in lieight the mountains becoiiu' a less compli'te l)arriei', and
the streams Howing eastward across the plains rise further back, till in the
cases of the IViace and Liard Rivers tiie waters from the central plateau
of liritish Columbia completely traver.se the range.

Tiu' whohi interior region of tin; continent slopes gradually eastward
from the elevated plains lying near the base of the Rocky .Mountains to
the foot of the Laurentian highlands, and though the inclination is more
abrupt in approaching the mountain.s, it is not so much .so as to attract
special attention. Jjetween the tifty-fourth and forty-ninth degrees of
latitude, however, along two liiu's which are in a general way parallel and
hold a north-west and .south-east course across the plains, more or less
definite step-like rises occur. These respectively form the eastern bound-
aries of the two higher prairie plateaus, and the most eastern of them
overlooks the lowest prairie level or that of the Red River valley. The
three areas of plains or " prairie stej)])es "' thus outlined diller considerably
in age and character, ami iheir margins have been impre-sed on the soft
formations of the plains by the action of sub-aerial denudation, by that of
former lakes and probably also by that of the sea. Though not every-
wlu're sharply defineil in nature, they may be consiilered separately for
purposes of description.

..-^mammsK

III

17S

CANADIAN (iKOLOCJY.

The iictiiiil inci'oaso (if olcviitinn ;u!(-'ntiiit('(l for in tlie two usp.ni'pinoiits,
liu\VL!V(.'i', is .sli,t,'lit cuiniian-il with that ihif to the uuifonu eiisLwuitl slope
of tlio ]iliiiiis. The dircctioii of ,L;i'<'at('st incliiialioii is toward tiic north-
east, and a lini' diiiwn finni the iiilfrscction of tlie forty-niiilh jiarailol
ami tlic iiiniiiitains, to a point on the lirst prairie-level north of Lake
Winnipeg,', will be found to eross the esearpinents nearly at ri,t,dit an,;,des,
ami to have an averaLje slope of 5..jS fei-t to the mile. From tin' same
initial [joint, in a due east line to the lowest part of the valley of the Ked
River — a distaiiee of 750 miles — the plains have an average slope of 1.48
feet jier mile.

The lirst or lowest prairicdi'vd i> that of which the southern part lies
alon^' Ked Kivcr, and which northward einhraces Lake; Wiiuiipeg and
associated lakus and the ilat land surrounding them. A great part of its
eastern border is C(jnterminous with that of Lake Winnipeg, and formed
liy the rocky front of the Laurcntiaii, while east of Ked River it is
lioundi'd by the high-lying drift Iitimci's surrounding the Lake of the
Woods and forming part of llu' drift [tlateau of northern Miiuiesota. To
the west it is limited l)y a more or less abru[)t edge of the second prairie
level, forming an escarpment, which, though very irregular in some places,
is scarcely perceptible wlnu'e tlu; broad valley of the Assineboine breaks
thniugh it. The escarpment, wlnu'e it crosses the hn'ty-nintli parallel, is
known as I'cmlnna mountain, and is continued northward Ity the Riding,
JJuck, Poi'cu'pino and Basquia Hills. The average height aljove tin; sea
of this lowest level of the interior continental region is about 800 feet,
the lowest part being that includiuLj the Winnipeg group of lakes which
have an elevation ot about 700 feet. From this it slopes up southward,
and attains its 'greatest elevation — 9G0 feet — at its termination about 200
miles south of the international boundarv. The edi^es of this i)lain are
also, notwithstanding its apparent horizontality, considerably more ele-
vated than its axis where this is occupied by the Rwl River. Its wiiltli
on the forty-ninth parallel is tifty-two miles only. Its area north of the
same lint; may be estimat(;d at 55,000 sipiare miles, of which the great
system of lake-s in its northern part occupies about 13,900 squan; niiles.
A great par*^ of this prairie-level is wooded more or less densely, piir-
tieularly that portion adjacent to the lakes. The southern part, extend-
ing southward from Lidie Winnipeg, includes the prairie of the Red
River valley with an area north of the forty-ninth parallel of about G,900
square mile§.

The superficial deposits of this area are chiefly those of a former great
lake, which has been named liy ^Ir. Warren L^'pham Lake Agassiz, and

MAXITOHAN RK(JI()N.

nt'iits,
norlU-
f Luke

IC SlUUO

,\ie Ke>l
of 4.48

piivt lies
peg and
u't of ils
1 formed
,ver it is
Ke «>f tlie
sola. To
i„l prairie
uie \)laces,
iue breaks
parallel, is
lie Kiding,

ve tho sea

800 feet,
Un'A wUiek
LnuUwivrd,

i>l,out -200
lis plain are

,• more ele-

Hs width

,iaU of the

,1 the great

ipiare miles.

lensely, pivr-

,art, extend-
,f the Ked
ivbout G,900

former great
JAgassiz, aud.

wliich occiipied it towanl tlit; eloso of the ;,'Iacial ju'iioil. Many nf the
old ohuie lilies and ln'aelii's of this lake liave lieeii traceil nut, and it ha.s
been shown by (fcnrnil Warren, 1 )r. (1. M. Dawson, and tln' lirst nann'd
gentlonian, that its onttlow was originally .southward to tiir Mississippi.
The line silty niati'rial now tloDring the lied Rivei' plain and ( oiislituting
its soil of inisur[iassci

I fcrlilitv was laid down in this ancient ial

Red and Assiniboini! Rivers have not eut very deeply into these snper-
fieial deposits, having already nearly reac^hed abase level of erosion, and
the surfaei; of the plain is hsvel and little furrowed by dciiudaliou.

The second .steppe of the plains is bounded tntln! west by the Missouri
Coteau and its northern continuations constituting the edge of the third
.steppe. Its width on the forty-ninth parallel is two hundred and lifty
miles, and on tins liftyd'ourlh abniit two hundred )niles, though it cannot
there be so stri(;tly delim-d. its total area between these two parallels is

al)out l()."),Oi)Osipiar(! niile>i. a

nil nil

liiiles the whole eastern portion of th

great plain.s, properly so called, with an ap[iroxiiiiate .area of 7 1,000 square
miles. These occupy its southern and western portion, and are continnou.s
westward with those of the third ste|ii)e. The present rivers have ai:ted
on this region for a much longer time than on the last, and with the
advantage of agreatcr height abov<; base level ; ami now Ijow with unifnrm
though often swift currents, in wide trough-like valleys excavated in the
soft material of the plains, and frenueiitly depres.sed from one hundred
to three hundred feet Ix-low the general surface. In these valleys the
comparatively insignilicant streams wander from side to side in tortuous
channels, which they leave imly at times of flood. The surface; of this
steppe is al.so more diversiiied than tlie last, being broken into gentle
swells and uinlulation-;, partly due to the present denuding agencies, luit
in part also to original iiieipialities in the deposition of the drift material
which constitutes the superlicial formation. Tiie average altitude of this
region may be stated as IGOO f(!et, and its soil and adaptability for agri-
culture dill'er considerably in its diil'erent portions, though it is generally
fertile.

The third or highest steppe of the plains may be .said to have a gen-
eral normal altitude of about .'5000 feet, though its eastern edge is
usually little over 2000 feet, and it attains an elevation of 1000 feet at
the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Its area between the parallels aljove
defined, and including the high land and foot-hills along thi ba.se of the
mountains, is about 134,000 square miles, and of this the greater part is
almost entirely devoid ox forest, the wooded region being chiefly confined

r"^

ISO

CANADIAN (JK{)L<)(;Y.

I''

,; I

ti^

U) ii poitidii of its iiortlicni ami iiurtli-westfrn oxtcnsion near tlif North
oit;-kat('lic\v.iii Kivcr iUnl it's tiiljiitarics. It;^ lircailth on Uw forty-nintli
parallel is four Imihlreil ami sixty-live miles, ami its eastern hoiimlary is
there well marked, hein;^' the lirokeii hilly eoiiiitiy known as the Cntvaii
ih' Mixsiiiiri, or (ireat Coteau. This crosses the International lioundary
near the one hnmlred ami fourth meridian, and thcMice runs cast of the
Old Wives' Lakes to the Sontli Saskatchewan, and is then continued to
the north l)y a ran;,fe of hi^di lands, of which the Kai^le Hills constitute
I»ait, to tiie elliow of tin,' North Saskatchewan, and licyoml that river
prohalily to the 'I'hickwood Hills.

This ]»ortion of the ^^reat plains is inucli more diversilied than either
of those; before descrihed. It has lieen elevated to a ;^n'eater heiLjht above
the sea level, and act((d on to a much ,i,'reater extent by eroding aj^'cnts,
both in later Tertiary tinn; ami subse(|iient to the glacial peri.id. Those
portions of its surface whitdi still remain l)Ut liitle modiiied, form table-
lands such as those of the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain. The
inuiiense denudation which has taken place is evidenced by the size and
depth of the valleys of the streams, the great ravines and " coulees "
which have been cut and are still extending tluiinselves among th(! soft
sandstones and clays of the Cretiiceous and Laramie formations, and the
isolated plateaus and l)Uttes which now stand far out on ] lains of lower
level, seamed with newer systems of drainage. l)eposits belonging to the
glacial period, with transported liouldersand gravel, are found over almost
the entire area of the highest steppe, but are spread less uniformly than
on the lower levels, and the surface is often based almost directly on the
Cretaceous and Laramie beds. This is ample pi'oof that previous to the
glacial period the surface was much more rugged and worn than it is, now
that the glacial deposits have tilled many of the d(;eper hollows and given
rounded and flowing outlines to the whole.

In the foot-hills of tin; R(jcky Mountains the previously undisturbed
l)eds of the plains are thrown into wave-like Hexures and compressed
folds, which the surfac(! partici])ates in to a lesser degree, a.ssuining the
form of crest-like parallel ridges which fre(iuently possess considerable
uniformity. The nature of the soil and jirospective agricultural value
of this great district are too varied to allow of generalization. Tlunigh
it must be regarded rather as a grazing than a farming region, it presents
frequently an excellent soil, and when the rainfall is suHicient and the
altitude not too great, consideral)le connecteil tracts may yet be brought
under cultivation.

MAMTOIiAN KKcaoN.

181

Xoi'tli (if tlio Xortli Siisk;itclit'\Viiii 11(1 extensive treeless plains oce

III'

ill till' ceiitial ie^idii of ijit; conliiieiit, ami tiie forest country of tho east
forms a wiile unlproUcii connection with that of the northern part of
Ih'itish Columhia, ami though prairies of very attractive character are
found near the I'l-ac'e IJiver, th"y an; limited in area and isolated liy helts
of woodland. The width of tiie Mcso/.oic and Tertiary plain .ijiathially
diminishes to th(! north, lieini^' less than lUO miles near the lifty-sixth
parallel, and it is possihly completely interrupted north of the sixty-
second parallel hy the inosi'ulation of the pahi'ozoic rocks of the east and
west. In the liasin of the I'eace, the lower areas are covcreil superlii'ially
by fine silty (h'luisits reseudilinL;' thos^; of the Ived Iviver valley, and
doubtless indicaliiij,' a former j,'reat lake or extension of the si a in
time immediately sui;ceedini,' the j^dacial period.

Though thus so remarkably simph^ and ilelinite in its ^laiul features the

interior re-ion of the continent shows manv irregularities in detail

second steppe has some elevations on its surface as hi,t,di as tiie cdLje of the
third plateau, and that part siirroundiii-- the Assinilmiiie Kiver and its

tributari

les is aluKU'inally depiesseil, cau. ing some portion-

.f th

e eastern

eilj^'e of this prairielevel wlii(di overlook Manitoba Lake, more to
resembh; outliers than integral parts of it.

The transvci'se water-sheds wliii'li 1

iiiinnl

II' ilramau'e area o

{ tl

Saskat(.'hew

III aiKl

[ivers tl

null and north, tlciU'^li coiiipara-

tively low and diifusi', and iiisi^nilii'ant as geological boundaries, are
important geograiihically. Taken as a whole, however, the central por-
tion of the .I)ominioii may lie regarded as a great shallow trough, of
which the western edge is foniied by the Rocky .Mo'iiitaiiis, the east("rn
by the Laureiitiaii axis, Inil in wliirli the western portion of the Hour is
now, ([)robal)ly as the result of I'ost-Tertiary elevation,) liigluT than its
eastern rim. ( »f tin! area as at lirst delined, extending from the lifty-
fourth to the forty-ninth parallels, the great Saskatchewan Kiver and its
tributaries drain by far the largest part, or about 139,000 sipiare miles.
The Red Kivi.'r and its tributary the Assiniboine drain 70,.")()() sipiare
miles and the vallevs of the iiuu'erous smal

stream.--

Ill

iwing 111

to th

\\'

mnipeg group

-f 1;

IKCS,

iiududinif the area of the lakes theni.selve.s,

drain 52,800 si[uare miles. The upper luanclu's of the Mi.ssouri, and
especially those of its tributary the Milk Kiver, drain a considerable area
to the south, embracing about 22,800 sipiare inile.s, while to tin; south of
the tirst named parallel the tributaries of the Mackenzie drain an area of
about 10,000 miles only. The total area of prairie country between the
.same limits, including that of all three stejipes, may lie estimated at

18:

CANADIAN (IKOT.OCV.

}l\l

l!)l3,000 ,s(iu;irt' mill's. Tlii>ii;^'li iinii'li n|' tlii> iiica is ikiI uhsolutely
troc'losH tlu! n^';,'ri>giilo trot'-clatl iiroii is iclutivdy iiisigiiilicniit.

( Ii;iii.(k;v,

TIk' main i^'i'uln^ical fi'atures df tiic crntiMl ami wcstmi iiurlimi of tin.'
])()iniiiiiin have Ihmmi IhucIkmI on in iipinn'ctinii with its |iiiysical structure.
In tln^ i-rcscnt section lln-y an' (Uitlim-il in more systematic form.

'I'lic eastern mar^'in nf tiii; i^'real interior conlini'iital l»asin is ('oini)ose(l
of Silurian ami l)evoniaii rocks, \vlii(;li, rot iiiif almost liovi/.ontally on the
upturned and ,<,'reatly dentiileil niari,'in of tlie Liurentian ami Hunuiian,
form a lu'lt of varyiiiLf width whirh appears to exteml witli little or uo
interruption from Minnesota to tho shores of the Arctic Sea.

Recent investiL,Mtious of the fauna of these rocks by !Mr. Whiteavcs
show that the Trenton formation is most widely .spread ahotit the shores
of I.ake Winnipe,u', \vhil(!th(! horizon of the Hudson liiver is represented
on the lake at the moutli of tlie Little Saskati'hewan as well as at Stony
Mountain in the Red River valley. In lite vicinity of Selkirk in the
same valley the fossil.s are those of the (laleiia limestone of the west,
iMluivaleut to the Utica. On Manitolia and \Vinnipegosis Lakes JJevon-
ian limestones occur.

The SiluroCambriau and Devonian roeksof the Red River ami Win-
nipeg Lake region are for the most part i)ale grey or butr-coloiired mag-
ne-sian limestones. From Methy Portage northward it seems that I)evon-
ian rocks constitute almost the (Mitire width of the I'aheozoic belt. They
appear on the Clearwater and Athabasca Rivers as bituminous limestones
and shales, which are referred by Meek, fiom their fo.ssils, to the
Hamilton and Oene.see formations. In this region these rocks yield large
(jnantities of petroleum, which, exuding from them, saturates the over-
lying superlicial materials and Cretaceous sandstones and gives rise to
" tar springs '' along the banks of the river.s. Salt springs also occur, and
these are found to characterize the I)evonian rocks s mthward to Red
River, though no certain indications of petroleum have yet been observed
south of ^lelhy Portage.

The Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks occupy the entire breadth of
the interior continental region from the belt of Siluro-Cainl)rian and
Devonian limestones last noticed, to the eastern edge of the Cordillera
belt. These rocks correspond in their widespread and homogeneous gen-
eral character, to the uniformity of the great plains which they underlie,
and may be characterized in a few words,

North of the forty-ninth parallel, the Systems represented — so far as

MAMTORAN I{K(iI<)N.

I S3

at iii't'sciit kiiDwii -111'' tlif Ci'i'tiK'rdiis mill Tt'i'tiiUT. In the (•ii>t('ni [Mir-
tioii of tlic rcijioM, ':ii' Civtiiceniis. owim.; to tlif iiiimth.' df j,'ljifial ilo-
po.sits, is ill :,'('iii'ral, pmirly ex postal, Inn jn miKt i'cs|i(cts icsciulilfs tln'
strata oi tlie saiiio tv^r, sluiiii'tl liy Missis. Mcrk ami llayili'ii in tin.-
con'rspniiiliii;^ pnrtiiiii nf the NN'cslcni States. It iiiav l"' airaiii^cil as
folluw.s, in (loscomliii^' (inlcr : —

l''iiX Hill Sniltlstnlll'H.

Kiirt I'ifrri" Clays.

Nilihriirii .Mail.t.

Flirt Ufiiti'ii CliiVH anil LinieftfUie.

Diikota .Siiml-'toiK's and Clay,

For details soe Pt. ii., p. 107.

8i> far a.s at prcsont kiiuwn. IkmIs of tlio Dakota or lowest sul)ilivision
of tho MissMuii Cretaceous occuiiy a very small portion of the siirfaet! in
^ranitoiia anil the Xortli-west Territory. Sainlstoiies ami sliales possihiy
of this ai^i! oe(;nr at the lia.se of the sei'tion on Swan llivrr, west of
WinnipeLfosi.s Like, ami fos.sil plants of this .staj,'e are fouml ainoiiL,' the
iipturneil bases of the lioeky Mountain foot-hills. The Henti;!! ;iiiil
Xiolirara snh-divisions (loealiy scareely separalile) are represeiiteil in the
esearpiiieiit west of \Vinnipe,L,'(>sis and .Manitoha Lakes liy piaelii'ally
liorizoiital, dark i^ray clay shales intorhedded with layers of rliaiky liiiio-
stone and lian Is of sandstone. Similar mrks run southwaid aloii^^ the
base of tho Peinbimi escarpment, tiie greater part of which is composed
of I'ierre shales. Tho lower dark shales met with in the vieinity of
tile L'[tper Milk River are al.so regarded as oquivaleiit to the Jieiiton, or
Denton and Xiobrara, while tho Fort St. John shales of l^eaco River are
referred to the Benton. It is prol)ahle that tiie r.i-lly River ami I )un-
vegaii series, su1)se(iuently noticed, approximately represent the Xiobrara,
thouglidinering much from more easterndevelopmeiits of that sul)-divisioii.

The Pierre or next overlying group is in point of extent the most
important of tho sub-divisions of the Cretaceous in tho X'orth-West, its
characteristic dark shales or shaly-clays underlying a great part of the
prairie country. The sliales freiineiitly contain ironstone nodules, and in
some jtlaces arenaceous Ia3'ers also ap[)ear and are generally found to
become more important in approaching the mountains. The lithological
character of this group is, however, on the whole, remarkably uniform,
and Ijeds are occasionally found in it which are highly fossiliferous. The
highest bods of the Cretaceous .sj-stein proper, the Fox Hill, are closely
related to the Pierre, and form in many places a series of passage beds
between the Cretaceous and the overlving Lnraniie formation. "When

184

CANADIAX (JEOLOOY.

■fi;,

most (•haractoristically developed they consist of sandstone and yellowish
samly shales.

N'liticcs of the fossils of tlic western Cretaceous will be found in Part
II., and nior(! fnll dciails as lO tin.' iiiarin(! invertelirates in the lii'imrts on
^lesozoic Fossils by ^Ir. Whiteaves of the (leologieal Survey.

Overlyinir the Cretaceous proper in jiertuct conformity, isa^rcat series
of esluarine and fresh-water beds whieh may collectively bt; refcrreit to
the Laramie formation. Xo ((uestion in western ifcjolo^iy has Lfivi'U rise
to so much discu.ssion as that of tiie Cretaceous or Eocene a^c of these
beds. It is one which depends almost entirely on the apjtarently con-
Hictini,' evidence of the vertebr .le, inolhiscan and vegetable fossils which
they (.'ontain, and one wiiich cannot here be entered into. It may snliice
to •, 'e that while the vertebrates are of types regardeil as Cretaci'ous, the
plaiiL. and molluscs r('send)le most closely those of Tertiary beils (jf other
regions. The mollu.scs l)eing, howevcn', for the most l)ait, fresh-water
forms, are not so characteristic as marine shells would be. The formation
is really a transition one, but is closely attacheil to the Cretaceous by its
c<'mpli'te stratigraphical conforinity with that formation.

The most eastern locality of these b(!ds is Turtle .Mountain, on the
forty-ninth parallel, where they form a (!onsi<teral)le outlier. Hu the
Si uris River they are largely d(;veloi)ed, and constitute the su|ierli('ial
forimition of the wlnjle country. The Laramie of this region is. however,
an extension of that special development of the formation whii h on the
Missouri has long l)een known as the Fort llnicm series. Tln' rocks are
genendly soft, sandy elays and sandstones, of pali! colours, and on the
Souris hold ironstone and nmny seams ot' lignite of fair ipialily. Further
west the typical Laramie covers a vast area and beconnis a distinctly
estuarine formation at the base. The western Liraniie, particularly in the
vicinity of the mountains, is largely composed of sandstones wliicli are
freipiently bard, and the formation has a thickness of .several tliousanJ
feet, and has been suli-divided into several groups.

An interesting area of Pliocene Tertiary rocks occurs in the Cypress
Ilill.s, overlying both Cretaceous and Laranue l)eils. A small outlier of the
same age caps the Hand Ilills further north. The l)eds are chielly pebble-
beds, or conglomi'rates composed of coarse rolled shingle whiidi has had
its origin in the Kocky Mountains. These are as.sociated with soft sand-
stones and sandy clays, and have yielded characteristic vertebrate remains,
incl 'ding those of two species of 2fi')i()i/iis ( lironfdthifiiiin). The forma-
tion lias a thickness of oOO feet or more in some places. It covers an
area of 1,-100 sijuare miles in all.

MAXITOBAN HKCJION,

185

[y press

(if the

|)ebble-

|is had

linaiiis,
I'di'ina-
h'r.s !iu

It has ah'eaily bot.'ii stated tliat tin; Cretaceous rocks of tlie western
part of the plains diifer from tlio' e of the typical section first (piloted.
Id the reijion of the IjOw ami Belly Rivers, and northward to the
Saskatchewan, the Pierre is underlaid hy an ext(Misive fresh and lira>kish
water series, consisting of sandy argillitesand sandstones. This has Ijeen
called the lielly Kiver series, and appears to oorrespmul precisely to that
occupying a sinular stratigraphical position on the Peace Kiver, and there
designated the Dunvegan si-ries. It indicates the nccurrence of a pro-
longed inti'rval in the western Cretaceous area, during which '.he sea was
more or less exchuled from the region, and its place occupieil for long
periods l)y lagoons or fresii -.vater lakes.

Though the Dakota series is the lowest representative of the Creta-
ceous known to occur in the area of the [ilains, and has there been
observed to rest on Paheozoic rocks, still older Cretaceous beds come to
the surface in the corrugated region of the footdiills, and exist also in
more or less conijiletely isolated troughs or in folds in the Kocky Mount-
ains north of the forty-ninth parallel. These bods hav(! a thiekuess of, at
least, 7000 feet and have lieen named the Kootanie series. They con-
tain a peculiar flora consisting laigcly of cycads and conifers, and at their
base marine fossils of lower or middle Cretaceous age have In-en found.
It is proliable that the shore-line of the sea in which these lieils were
laid down oecu[iied a pt)sition not far to the east of the jiresent border of
the fooldnlls.

If we regard the J )akota, lienton and Ni(jbrara as Miildle Cretaceous
(see Part II.), the Kootanie may be takiui to re^>resent a part, at lea ^ of
the Lower Cretaceous. This corres[)onils with the indications of the
fossil plants; tor while tho.se of the Kootanie beds are cyi.'ads, conifers
and ferns, akin to tiiose of the Wealden and Triassic of other countries,
those of the Dunvegan and lielly Kiver are of more modi'rn type like
those of the Upi)er Cretaceous elsewhere.

The diH'erences of oiiinion among geologists in th(; Cnited States respect-
ing the age of the Laramie may be partly explained by the (h.-velopnieiit
of this formation in Canada. In the Wesi.ern or IJow Kiver district this
formation may be tabulated as follows, in descending order ; —

1. Porcupine HiU hi'<h. — Siindstonos aiul clays with li^'uite ami fi)ssil plaiits.

2. WiUov: C>'cck Scries — in wliicli red clays iiredDiiiiiiate. and wiiicli lias afforded no
fossils.

3. St, Mar;/ Mirer Series. — Cliieffy grey clays witli fessil plant,s.*

' Reports of Geol. Survey for details.

180

CANADIAN GEOLOCJY.

Ill the Siuiiis district, nearer tin; liduiidary of the United States, as stated
in I'ai't II., tlic nppiT mcnibcr is represented by the oontinnatidn of the
Furt I'nion gn)Ui> of tlio ^Missouri and the hnvor nicinln'r l>y the Dad
Lands {^'roup, the middle menil)er l)uing absent. In Itoth districts the
iipi)er intMuber contains a rich Hora of modern genera of exngcns, sucli as
Pojvtinx, P/afanits, Ciinjlnfi, i*ec., and the species resemble tliose of tlie
Eocene elsewhere, and there are also ]\Iolltiscs of Eocene type.* The
lower nicinber holds a flora similar to tliat of the iSelly Kiver Scries in
the nppcr Cretaccsous, and has also ailnnicd reptilia remains of creta-
ceous types. It is proljable, thi'refore, that the Laramie may ultimately
be diviilcd, the lower part being placed with the Cretaceous and the
upper with the Eocene. The hinn.^aurs and small mammals described
by .Mar.'^li, fidm the Laramie of the rnited States, and referred to the
Cretaceous probably belong to the lower membcr.f

The Cretaceous and Laramie Ix'ds (if the whole eastern portion of tlie
interior Continental region are almnst alisoluti'ly horizontal, or affected by
such slight inclinations that no dip is (jbservable in individual section.^.
The beds nf both .series have, however, ]>articipated in tlie western uplift
of this ]iart of the Continent, and are found at evi^r-increasing angles on
approaching tin; liocky ]\Iountain.s. Near the base of th(! range they are
also finmd to show more pronounced undulation.s, and in a narrow belt
ahmg the foot of the mountains are .shar])ly folded and contorted, l.'^o-
lated areas of thf^.se newer rocks have also been found in the Kocky
^Mountains thenl^elves.

The most inijiortant study depending on the question of the Cretaceous
and Laramie rocks of the North- West, is that of the fuel supply. Li the
eastern region, lignites of fair (piality and workaljle thickness occur in the
Laramie rocks of the Souris district, but have .so far not been found in
the underlying Cretaceou.s. Further west the Cretaceous also becomes
a coal-bearing formation, and in the vicinity of the iiow and Lelly, import-
ant lignites or coals have; now been found in the Kootanie series (anthra-
cite of r>o\v I'ass,) Lelly Kiver series (Medicine Hat, etc.); base of the
Pierre (Lethbridge, etc.) ; top of the I'icrre (Bow River) and in tlie
lower sub li vision of the Laramie (lUackfoot Crossing, etc.) In the
Peace Kiver district seains wlii(;li may prove to be of a workable char-
acter have licen found so far only in tin; Dunvegan .series. The fuels

*See iLijii'i-.s by tlie .-luthDr, Trans. Koy.al Sue. of Cixnada, also rei)oi-ts of Dr. (i. M,
Dawson and .Mr. \Vliiteave.«i.

t Anicrican Journ of Science.

MANIT015AX REGION.

is;

G. M.

fouiiil in the urea of tlie plains may be cliavacterizod ^^enerally as li^'nites,
but on approaching tlie mountains tluise are found to contain a decreasing
percentage of water, and eventually, in the footdiills and areas included
within til'.' lirst limestone range, freipiently become true coking l)ituminous
coals, and in niie instance, as above stated, liave actually been converted
into an anthracite which contains 80 per cent, of fixed carbon.

The Pleistocene deposits of tliis great interior region are of much
interest, and are thus ilescribed by J)r. (r. M. Dawson : — *

1. ilhii'ial PlirnoDii'na of tho Laxnntian Aji'is. — Ikginning with the
glacial phenoiiKnia of the Laurentian axis, we may nutice the ai)pearances
jiresenled in llie neighl)orhi)od of the I.ak(> nf tln' ^V(Mlds didy, where this
a.xis is intersected by the forty -ninth parallel ; but, from the similarity
of the traces of glacial action even in very distant parts (if the I.anrentian
region, this will serve in some sen.se as a representation of its general
features.

The Lake of the Woods, as a whole, occui)ies a depression in the snuth-
■western slupi? of the Laurentian region. It is over 7U miles in extreme
length, and has a coastdine of between .'500 and 400 miles. Its mn'thern
part is comparatively deep, reaching in some places a depth <,)f over 80
feet. Its general form has been deteruiineil by that of an area of less
highly altered rncks, which are probably Huriuiian ; and the iletails of its
outline even follow very closely the chfinging character of the rock,
spreading out over the schistose and thinly cleavable varietii's, and In'com-
ing narrow and tortuous where compact dioritic rocks, greenstone ciui-
glomerate, and gneiss prevail. Its shores are almost invariably composeil
of solid rock with the rounded forms characteristic of ice-ai'lion, and dip
rapidly l»elow the surface of the water, fornnng a bold coast, sandy or
gravelly beaidies Vicing comparatively rare. It is studded with innumer-
able islands, which vary from those several miles in length to mere water-
wasted rocks. The islands, like the mainland, are seen, where not
covered with luxuriant vegetation, to be composed of round-backed rocks.
( hdy where the rocks are of a specially soft and schistose charaeter has
tin? action of the waters of tlie lake had sullicient eil'ect on them to form
clills. The southern part of the lake is very dillerent : there are few
islands ; the water is not deep ; and the whole .southern shore is formed
by low lying deposits of sand and detrital matter. Where rock surfaces
ajipear, however, they are like those of the northern part of the lake,

leavilv

aciati.

Jdunial of Geol, Soc. of Lnndon, l^lTt.

188

CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

All the harder rcjcks uf the reL;ii>ii still show with tlie utmost perfec-
tion tlie scratching and grooving,' of the glacial period; and stuiie of the
more compact granitcH and intrusive dioriles retain a surface still perfectly
bright and polished. On a sniall scale even the hardest and most homo-
gen(!ous of the rocks show a tendency ni the longer axis of their eleva-
tions to paralhdism with the glacial markings. Though the general direc-
tion of the northern part of the lake also follows that of the ice-action,
it is at the same time that <>i the belt of lluronian rocks alrt-udy men-
tioned. The course of the glacial stiia' is extremely uniform, and, from
a great nunil)er of oljservations in ditlV'rent parts of the lake, is found to
vary through a few points only, lying between north-north-east and south-
south-west and north-oast and south-west. Slight deflexions, sometimes
ol)served, are generally traceable to deviation of the ice liv nuisses of
resistent rock running athwart its course, the stria' always shnwing a
tendeiii'V to liend toward the more level regions, and away froui the more
elevated (ir rugged parts,

At a few ]ila('es in the southern part <if the lake, glai-iatinn in the
onbnary direetiim winch gives furui to the rock masses, was dbservtid to
be superiuMailied wilii (■oarser scratidies nearly east and west in diieetiou.
Some of tliese may lie due to the packing of the ice td' tln' lake itself in
the spring; hut instances occur which caniint be accounted fur in this
way. Souie rock-surfaces on a low pinmnntctry in the southcin jiart of
the lake all'ord interesting examples. The most important direction, and
that with which the forms nf the surface coincide is hen,' S. l.'J W.,
superimposed on which at one place are scriitches S. 45 \V. ov N. to' K.
Xear this a ilirection of S. .'lO' \V. i<v X. oU' K. occui's, on whi(di is su[ier-
imposed striation S. 1.")' \\',, a direction closely agreeing with the general
one, and proljalily indicating a brief resumjition of the original force after

a short interval

Prii'f /'/(tfrd/i (if yuii/i

I'-ni

.1/

iin(i'!<i)

fn anil Kdttfriii MmiifnliK. The

;'reat plat

call n

f Norlhern Miune^nta, which stretches southward fnun

the Lake of the \\'oods, shows only drift materials, and is composed of
them to a great diiplh. Its general surface is rennu'kaljly uniform, and its
slojies almost imperceiitihly slight. It is, however, diversified on a small
scale, l)eing thickly strewn with shallow hollows, which are filled by little
lakes or the almost inipassal)le " muskegs " of the region. There are also
low flat-topped ridges of sand and gravel of tlie nature of kames or eskers,
and in many localities traces of larger lakes than those now existing,
which have been'drained liy the gradual wearing down of the lieds of their
outfall streams.

MANITOBAN RE(;iON,

189

;t porfoc-

10 of tlie
perfectly
ist luiiuo-
L'ir L'k'va-
ii'ul diix'c-
c(!-!i(;ti(Jii,
ally iiiL'U-
imi, from

fimiul to
lul .soulh-
onieliiuus
lua.sses of
Imwiiit,' a

I In* more

111 ill the
iserved to
(liiection.
f itself in
or ill this

11 part of
tion, ami

13 W.,
X. I.V K.

is siiper-
le general

ice after

iln(. The
aid from
iil)oseil of
111, ami its
111 a small
1 hy little
are also
or eskers,
existing,
- nf their

The (Irift-ileposits of this rc,t,non rest on tlie gently sloping fndt of the
Liuirentiaii axis, ami are composed to a depth of GO feet or more of line
sands and arenaeoous clays, with occasional beds of gra\el ami small
boulders. The finer deposits are generally very evidently false-bedded,
and sometimes (piite hard. The gravelly layers, as a nili , are found rest-
ing on the liner material between it ami its surface soil, and sometimes
lie on the denuded edges of the ctirveil sand-beds below. ( )n the Koseau
River, about 'M) feet from the top of the l)ank, a piece of wood ju-otruded
from a elilldf iiard, sandy clay, and, mi miei'dscopic examination, appeared
to be a fragmi'iit of tin; common cellar ( Tlnija ni'dih-ntalis.) These
distinctly-bedded deposits of the plateau appear to repose throughout on
bouMer-'lay. This ai)pears in the .southern part of tli(> Lake of the
Woods ; and on the Koseau Kiver, also, indications of the underlying
bouldi'i'-clay are found. In geni'ral, however, the few sections which
exist do m.t penetrate sullicieiitly deep to show this deposit.

An interesting cniitirmation of the general direction already stated for
the glacial action, is found in the composition of the materials of this
plateau. Its eastern side, fronting on Lake Superior, is very abrupt, and
seems Ui be held up l)y a ridge of hard old rocks, which li(!re and there
appears from beneath it. Ascending to the jjlateau-level from the extreme
Avcst'Tii point (if Lake Superior, l)y tlie Northern Pacific liailway, the
drift is seen to have a reddish-purple colour, which continues, though
gradually becoming less marked, for .some distance after attaining the
summit. The colour then changes to the pale, yellowish gray which is
generally characteristic of the drift of this plateau. The red drift is
derived from the red rocks of the border of the lake, and is found almig
its whole southern side. It is here buiimliMl liy a lim; lying a short dis-
tance back from the north-western shore and nearly parallel to it. This
western edge of the red drift has been already noticed by Whittlesey in
his pajier in the Smithsonian Contrilxitions. The surface of the plateau
is very generally strewn with erratics; and some of them are of great
size. They arc chiefly derived from the Laureiitian and Iluronian to the
north ; but there are also many of white limestone.*

3. Liiiri'M Prairii'-Ijpri'l and Valh'ij nf tin' R''<I Rircr. Descending the
western side of the drift-plateau of Northern Minnesota, we enter the
valley of the Red River. This trough runs nearly due iiortli and south,
and, from the south .shore of Lake Winnipeg to the source of the Red
River ill Lake Traverse, is 315 miles in length. It does not end here,

*Bigsby, Journal GeolDgical Society of London, 1851-r)2.

100

CANADIAN OEOLOGY.

howeviT, Imt jmsscs liy a niiitinuoiis Ljap, novcr more than 690 tCi'l aljovo
the so, x-vcl, to the sourrc of tlie MiiUR'sota Kiver, a trihiitaiy of the
^lissi.ssippi. ( hi the houiKhirv-Hiie the valley is ■[(] miles uiile, ainl it
narrows very ,L;i'ii(lually southwards. The lluor of the valley, thou,^fh it
slopes upwards towards the sides, do(!s so at so small an anyle as to be
quite iniperecptihle to the eye. It presents an appearance of perfect
hori/.oiilality, and is, perhaps, tiie most ahsohitely level pmirie-re^ion of
Anieriea. Looking down, towards eveiiiuL;, through one of the lircaehes
in the edge of the western escarpnujut, it re(iuires litth; imagiiiation to
sujipose that the bluish level expanse is the sea ; and, indeed, the whole
of this valley must, at a time genlogieally nunh.'rn, have been occupied liy
a great lake, the tine silty de[iosits of which now form its level lluor. ( »n
e.Kaminiiig these deposits tlii-y are found to l)e arraugi'd in thin, horizontal
beds, which together constitute a gri'at thickness, and rest npnii till or
boulder-clay. Some of the layers immediately overlying the till may
correspond with those already described in the same relative positi(ju (ju
the drift-plateau ; but nearly the whole thickness of the horizontal depo.sit
[>roliably lieloiigs to the great lake of a later pi'riod. Stones of any kind
are very seldom found on this prairie. They have no doulit l)een brought
to their prc.->eut jjosition l>y the shore-ice of the lake itself, and are similar
to those as.sociateil with the drift-deposits of its bounding escarpments.
A.sceiiding the front of the western escarpment, it is found, as might

ilmo.4

Kvve been foreseen, to lie terraced ; and on leaving the alluvial

flat, boulders are again found aliundantly, l)oth strewii. the teiraces and
the summit of the " mountain "" or second prairie-steppe. The terraces
not only occur on the front of this escarpment, but extend westward
along the banks of the great valley of Pembina River, which at the time
of their formation must have been an iniet of the lake, and is therefore
probably of pre-glacial age.

i. SrcnniJ Prairii'-Platran. The surface of the second jilateau or
stejipe of the plain appears to be almost everywhere very thickly covered
■with drift deposits ; and the undulations and slight irregularities of its
contour, seem, in the main, due to the arrangement of the.se surface
materials, which, thongh no doubt somewhat nuxliHcMl by subseii[Uont
denudatiiui, do not seem to have suflered much. Over large areas no
systems of " coulees " or stream-valleys are to bo found ; and the generally
undulated surface must l)e due to origiiuil inequality of deposition, though
a certain (piantity of material has no doubt been removed from the
rounded hillocks into the intervening basin-like swamps and hollows.

■ .L i iJWH Wi mm 'T .

tiMU or

s of its
surface
sequent
reus no
■luTiilly

tiiOUL,'ll

(111 tlie
lolluws.

MAMTOl'.AX l{K(;i()X. 191

Such iiii iuraii,L;fiiiL'iit not only iniiilics the porous naturt; of the sul)-s((il,
but is in acconlaiice with the coiuparativtjly vt-ry small rainfall of tho
r(',Ltioii, auil wouKl t'-nd tu show liiat at no tinic! since its enieri^'cncc has
till' precipitation Ix'cn ,L;rcat. It was oIjsovvciI thiit in many places
buulilers ami gravel are ei[ually abundant on the crests of the j,'enlle r: Iges
and hillocks and in the hollows, while they arc comparatively seldom
seen on the intervening slo})('s. A similar oljservation has been made by
Prof. I5(dl in a part of the second st(!ppe consi(h'ral)ly further north, and
Would ti'ud lo show slight erosion of liie irface by marine cui rents sul)-
sequent to tin' deposition of the heavier materials.

The drift material is found gi.'uerally to consist in great part of lucal
debris derived from the immediately underlying soft formations ; l)Ut
this is always mixed with a considenilih; ([uantity of far-lrans[)orted
material, which is generally most abundant in the upper layers. Largo
erratics are in s.Jine localilicts very plentifully strewn (jver the plains, luit
they seem to bt; almost always superficial. They an; giMierally of Laur-
entian rocks : but whitish and yellowish limestone, derived from tho
Silurian, flanking the western base of tho Laurentian region, is abundant.
A bank in Long-River Valley shows an interesting section, about 30 feet
of drift, resting on Cretaceous clay or shale. < )f the drift the lower por-
tion is composeil of stratilied sands and gravels, which are evidently false-
bedded. The peljbles are chiefly of the underlying rock, wiiich, though
soon splitting up under suljaereal influences, has been hard enough to
bear rounding under water. There are also a few examples of rocks of
foreign origin, and tiie whole arranged in a manner implying a very strong
flow of currents in ditl'erent directions. About 11 feet from the top of
the bank the false beilded layers end abruptly, being cut olf by a well-
marked iiorizontal plane. Above this the bedding is nearly horizontal,
and the drift inchules many travelled boulders of Laurentian and white
limestone, some of them large, together with much small Cretaceous stuff.
Large boulders are also al)undant, protruding from the surface of the
prairie above.

In otlu.'r places similar hard, yellowish, sandy clays are met with, but
with little sign of stratification, holding nuuiy well glaciated stones, and
thus resembling true till or boulder-clay.

"With reference to the origin of the boulders ami travelled stones the
following table shows the proportions of different kinds of rock in a great
number of samples taken frem different parts of the second prairie steppe :

L.iurenti.in 28.49

Huroiiian 9.71

Liniestdiic .')4.01

Quaitzite Drift Lit

19:.'

CANADIAN GE0L0(;Y.

Tlio LiUiii'iitiaa nntorial, consistin.L; of j,'raiuti's and j^'iieisscs, are easily
di8tiiij,'uislial)lo. Those classed as lluroiiian are (jhiiffl}' lianl, L^rccnish,
opid()ti(.', and lidrnblendic altered rocks. It is intorestinfj Lo ousorvethat
the proportional importance of the Laurentian ami Jluronian, thus ascer-
tained for till! drift, is nearly that uf their areas where thry have heen
niap]ied. The limestone is that of the Haidvs of the Laurentian axis;
and its j,'reat abundance is an interesting feature, and one tending to
nrovt! that this rock must in preglacial times have lappccl far up on the
Laurentian. These three classes arc ilcrived from the north-east or east.
The fourth, or QuarfrJfr drift, is a general name which may be applied to
that coming from the Kocky Mountains, which, although not entirely
comjjosed of ([Uartzile, is characterized by the great aljundance of that
material, and has a peculiar and distinctive appearance.

( )n the siufari! of this prairie-level there iccur some remarkable ele-
vated regions, which seem to be entirely com])Osed of accutnulated ilrift
materials. The most promiiuMit of these are iiKduded ttmler the names
of Turtle Mountain, Moo.-<e ^lountain, and the Touchwood llilLs. Though
quite unconnected, these elevations follow in a general way a contour-
line of the surface, and form a range roughly paralhd to the Coteau, to
which, in their appearance and material, they also bear the clo.sest like-
ne.s.s. Uf these elevi>.tion.s, the only one which 1 have personally exam-
ined is that known as Turtle Mountain, wdiich is bisected by the forty-
ninth parallcd, and forms the most southern of the series. It is a region
of broken hilly ground., which may be about 20 miles sc^uare, and is for
the most part thickly wooded — a circumstance which renders it a
specially prominent feattire when vieweil across the prairie. Its extreme
height is not more that 500 feet above the prairie at its base ; and its
general elevation is a little more than 2,000 fecit above the sea, or nearly
the same as that of the surface of the Coteau, On approaching it from
the east, the already gentle-swelling plain l)ecomes more markedly undul-
ating, small basin-likt! swamps and ponds are more frecpient, ami its
junction with the region of the ".Mountain" would l)e tindetinaV)le liut
for the linntiiig border of the wood.s. The western end of the mountain
is more abrupt towards the plain, and is much diversified with ridges,
between which lie swamps and lakes, which show a general tendency to
arrangement in north-and-south lines. Towards the eastern end there
are somewhat euteusive areas of gently tuidulating land, though always
characterized by the abundance of pools and swamjjs. Notwithstanding
the apparent abundance of water, there tire few brooks or drainage-

MANITOHAN RKCSIOX.

ntaiu

itlges,

ley to

there

llways

ln(lin<'

inage-

vallcy.i, anil the streams whieh (ht occwv are (|uite small. Tin; siufaeo
seems vi.'ry nearly that of the drift as originally deiiositf.-d, thouj,di sulli-
cicut HiK! material has l)een washed from tiio ridges to render the inter-
vening iiollosvs llat-liottomed.

f). K'/iji' i)f tilt' Third Pmirit'-P/af'-aii. — ( )ne hundred and tw'uty miles
west of Tnrtl(! Mountain tliesecoml [trairie-plalcau conu's loan end against
the fiiotof the great ludt of drift ihjposits known as the Missouri Cotcau.
IJeyond this ]iuint three diverse zones of country cross the forty-ninth
parallel nliliipicly with a west -north-west course, in the order suhjoiut'd : —

1. Tumulluously hilly country l)ascd on a great thickness of drift, and
forming tlie Coteau de Missouri properly so called.

2. Flat-topped n-ah r.^lnil ji/dfirui, formed of rocks of the Lignite
Tertiary, and constituting a part of the first tranverse watershed already
descrilu'il.

3. Lower, hrokcii-down region, south of the plateau, partly based on
the Lignite. Tiirtiary, and characteri/ed by gorges and large valleys
di'aining towards the Missouri.

The .second region can perliaps hardly l)e said to cross the line, but
app(!ars immediaUdy north of it. ( )n the line and southward the streams
Howing to the Missouri rise near the southern edge of the first division,
the greater part of the plateau liaving succundxMl to d(!iniding agencies.

The Missouri Coteau is one of the most important features of the
western plains, and is c(!rtaiidy the most romarkabli; monument of the
Glacial period now existing th(,'re. On the 49th parallel, the breadth of
the Coteau, measured at light angles to its general course, is al)out 30
miles ; and it widens .s(,mewhat northward.

( )n aii[troacliing its base, which is always W(dl defineil at a distance, a
gradual ascent is made, amounting in a distance of 25 miles to over 150
feet. The surface at the sami; time l)ecomes more mark(Mlly undulating,
as on Hearing Turtle Mountain from the oast, till, almost Ijefore one is
aware of tlie change, the trail is winding among a confusion of abrujitly
rounded and tumultuous hills. They consist entirely (jf drift material ;
and many of them seem to be formed almost altogether of boulders and
gravel, tlie liner matter having l)een to a great extent washed down into
the hollows and basin-like valleys without outl(;ts with which this dis-
trict abounds. The riiiges and valleys have in general no very dettjr-
mined direction; but a slight tendency to arrangement in north-and-south
lines was observable in some places.

The boulders and gravel of the Coteau are chiefly of I.,aurentiau
origin, with, however, a good deal of the usual white limestone and a

Jip

i l

!'^'!^

ip-

194

CANADIAN CJKOLOOY.

slij^'ht iidinixture <>f tin: ([Uartzitc tlrift. Tin; wIidIi- of llic ("olcni-lKilt is
chaructorized l)y the iil)SL'iic(! of ilmiiiaj,'t'-Viill«ys ; ami in cdiisciniciicc its
pools iuul lakes are oftoii cliarj,'(Ml witii salts, of which suliihiitcs of soila
and ma^'iicsiii art; thi; most almiidaiit. The saline lakes frcijiiently dry
up cotnpli'tely towards the end of tiic sinnnier, and present wide (expanses
of white elllorescent crystals, which (lontrast in colour with the crimson
Saliconn'a with which they are often frint,'e<l.

Taking' tlu; dill'creiice of level lielween the last Tertiary rocks seen
near the eastern hasc of th(^ Coteaii, and thos(! first found on its western
side, a distance of about 70 miles, we lind a rise of GOO feet. The sIojjo
of the surface of the underlyiuL; roi'ks is tlierefori', assumin;^' it to he
uniform, a litth; less than 100 feet per mile. ( >n and ai^'ainst this<,'eutly
inclined plane the immense drift deposits of the Coteau hills aic iiileil.

The average elevation of the Coteau aliove the sea, near the forty-ninth
parallel, is about "JOOO feet; and f<'W id' the hills rise mure ijiaii 100 feet
above the general lev(d.

Ijetween the south-western side of tin,' Cnteaii licit and the Tertiary
plateau is a very interesting region with characters of its own. Wide
and deep valleys with .systems of trilmtary cniilees have lieen cut in the
soft rocks of the northern fo(jt of the plateau, .some of which have small
streams still flowing in them feil by its drain:ige ; but for the most part
they are ilry, or occupied by chains of small .saline lakes which dry up
early in the summer. Some large ami deep saline lakes also exist which
do not disappear even late in the autumn. They have a winding, river-
like form, and fill steep-sided valley.s. These great old valleys have now
no outlet ; they are evidently of preglacial age, ami have formed a part
of the former sculpture of the country. The hea])ing of the great mass
of debris of the Coteau againi<t the foot of the Tertiary plateau has
blocked them up and prevented the waters fiiKling their way northward
as before ; and since glacial times the rainfall of tiie district has never
been sufHciently great in proportion to the eva[ioration to cnalile the
streams to cut through the barrier thus fin'med. The existence of these
old valleys, ami the arrangement of the drift-deposits with regard to
them, throw important light on the former history of the plain.s.

Northward, the Coteau ceases to be identified with the Tertiary
plateau, and rests on a slope of Cretaceous rocks. It can l)e followed by
Palliser's and Hector's descriptions of the country to the ell)ow of the
South Sa.skatchewan, and thence in a line nearly due north through the
Ea'de and Tluckwood Hills ; bevond the North Saskatchewan, however,

rcitiary

|\v('il by

(if the

linU the

IWI'VCI',

MANITOHAN UKIMON. 195

it aiiponr.s to !>t!ooino more hrnkcii ami less ilcliniic. In Dr. II(!(;t<n''.s
(h^■<l■l■iIl'. inii of eertaiii ^Teat valleys without <iiillct in tliis iiortliem re^'ion,
T l)clit've I can recoLjnize the o.xisteiiee of oM lilin'ketl up river courses
similar to tlicisc Just (Icscrilicil, That the 'Irift-ih'iKisits ilo wot /nnn tho
lii^^li ^friMiinJ i)f the watfrslx'il, Imt, are meri'jy pileil upuM it, is cviileiit,
ns Cretaceous nicks are frc(|uciitly seen in its ncii^hliniimoil at no ^M'cat
depth.

Sdiith iif tiic fnrty-ninth parallel tiie continuatimi of the lick nf drift
can lie tiacccl to a ^'rcal distance .southwanl and eastward in the territ<iry
of the TnitiMl States, wiiere it has liecii re^fardeil as llie terminal luoi'aine
of a iiypiithetical cnntinental ;.;ia<'ier.

In llu! Cutcau, we have a natural feature of the first maL;nitude — a
mass of ^dacial deliris ami travelleil iilocks with an averai,'e lir(;adtli of
perhaps .'?() to K) miles, and exUuiiliic.,' dia,L,'onaIly across the central
r(\i;ion nf the cnnlineut fur a distance nf aliout f<0() nnles.

G. Thinl or /f/'//ii.<f I'rdirii-l'lah'dn. — I'assiii;^ the (.'uteauand ascend-
ing,' the Plateau of tiic Tertiaiy, we notice aton(;e achan,i,'e in the character
of the drift deposits. They ar(! much thinner, ami, area for area, perhaps
do not (Mpiul one twentieth of those on the second prairie-steppe. They
are also now larL;ely composed of ipuirldt'- ilrifl from the Kocky Mount-
ains, of the nature of shiii,L;le, and seldom sIiowIu^l; much trace of Ljlacia-
tion. With tliis western drift, however, a smaller iiropurtion of that from
the east or north-east is mingled South of the watiu'shcd plateau the
thinl n-eion (that sloping' to the Missouri, where it is well shelt(;re(l t(j the
north) shows the iiiitirl"itr ilri/t in even ^'reater purity. When-, how(!ver,
gaps or lower places in the watershed-plateau occur, incursions of Launui-
tiau rocks and of eastern limestones are also found to a greater or less extent.

The geiiend character of th(i trav(dled di'ifl of the third step[ie may

bo seen fidui its percentage compcjsition, derived in the saiiu'. way as

already shown for tins second steppe : —

Laureiitiiiu . . 27.0")

Hurotiiiiii ''.

liiiiiesteiie l:"i.H4

(,>iiartzito Drift iVJ.lO

Though the |icrcentage of Lauventian material appears nearly the same

as before, the m\ich smalli-i' total ([uantily of drift on this level must be

remenilxu'ed. A mark of inlermgation is put after llunmian, to in<licate

that a few specimens of this formation may be present, but, if so, are

undislinguishaiile from some varieties of the Qitart::ifi' drift. The great

decrease in limestone is at once seen ; antl even the percentage here

r .

lOfi

CANADIAN CKOUHJY.

j,Mvt'ii iiK'Iucli'.M soiiH' s]it'ciiiH'n» iif l\()(ky MiiiMitaiii liiucsttinc wlidi liii'^
triivcllfil ciislwaiil witli tin- <iii(irf::ifr ilrift. Tin' liim'stoiifs nf tin-
lliiiikx of tin- l,;iiirt'iiti;iii Well' piiili.ilily iniii|ilt'ti'Iy sii1piiht;,'ci1 ci'i' tlu'
wiiti'i ri'iirliril tlic li'Vi'l nf tlic third sti'|i|ii'. (jtiiartzitc iiihI siiniliir locks
iiuw I'lirui ovcf li.ilf I'f the fiitiic travfllcil iMntioii nf tlic drift drposit.
Soim? nf till' Inwi'i' jiarts nf tliis stt'lt|M' slmw tiiiidi dcpnsits (d' tiui- till

or linilldtT ciav, wine

linlils III a

liard

Vclln\VI>

saiidv matrix \\i

^daciatfd stones, liotli from tlic moiintaiiis ami from the east, and also a
<,'reat ((uantity of di'Iiris frnin the softer iiiiderlyiii„' beds, anion;,' which
.are fi'a;_'iiieiits nf liLtnite fmni tin- Tertiary. 'I'liese deposits of till,
thniiLili generally massive and weatheiin;,' intn rinkdy colnmiiar forms in
jierpeiidiciilar hanks, often show traces of lieildim,' and arraii^'emeiit in
\Viiter ; and falsc-ltediled sandy masses are fnimd aliriiptly cut olf ahove
tlio confused hoiildery clay. The shiii;_'le deposits of the lii^dier levids
may jierhaps he formed partly from tlie reananu'ciiieiit of this material ;
they are at hast supeiior to it.

The width of the thil'il steppe, nil the line, is ahout \^>0 llliU'S ; hut it
narrows rapidly northward. Its suri'are is more diversified and worn
than that of either of the other prairii' levels ; and tin' occurrence and
features id' the drift are less const

lilt

i-'ollowiiiL,' it westward, and in
the main slowly risiiii,', l.iuiviitiaii and Eastern liiiiesloiie liniildcrs con-
tinue tn (irciir to within almut l'") miles nf the hase of the Kneky .Moun-
tains, at ii lii'i;-;ht id' ahout llJOU feet. The distainit! of IIkjsc; lrav(dled
lilocks from the nearest part of the I.aiirentian rc;4ion i.s over 700 mile.s.

iCVollll

is 'loini eastern ami ami imr

diei'ii I'oi'ks were not found : hut

that the deprrssioll nl the cnlltillelit ceased here cailliot he arL,'Ued from
this fiict ; I'nr hy this time the wlmle (d' the l.auieiitian highlamls wnuld
1

)ii .siilimer''eil

On the luLjher prairie, sIojiIhh; up towards tlio mountains, the drift i.s
entirely c-omposed of material derived fmin them, and consists of qnart-
zito, with softer shaly and slaty rocks, and limestone, which is Ljeiierally
distiii,L,'uishahle from that of the eastern origin. No granite or gneissic
rocks oi'cur in the vicinity of the forty-ninth paralhd, or northwards in
.llritish America, in tlio eastern ranges, so far as i.s known. Southwards,
in ]\roiitaiia, granites and gneisses arii found underlying all the other for-
mation.s, hut they do not apiie.ar to lie very extensively exposed.

7. Till' Jiiic/ri/ Miiiiiitainx. — The hrook issuing eastward from the mouth
of the South Kootaiiie Pass has cut througli a great thi( kiiess of clean
gravel drift, composed of large and uniform well-rounded i)ebbles. Above

Jli

■

MANITon.VN uimioN.

197

iiiilt'S.

,1 ; l.ut

from
wiiulil

drift is
■ ijwavt-
•lu'ially
i^uoirfsic
iivtls ill
iwai'iLs,
Jut fov-

it; mouth
of clciiu
Abovt'

llio liroiik, 111! llif llaiiks of till! luoiiiilaiiin nii tin; .smiili siili , an- scvi'i-al
\vell-iii'('8frvt!tl tcrrat-'ok'VL'Is (.•oiiiposoil of siinilar iiiati'iial. 'I'lio lii^'liust
(if tluvse, tl»i)ii;L,'li its alliliulo was not ai;lually iiirasiiri'ii, was csliiiiatoil
from tlu! known altitiidi' of tin- Pass to lie ahuiit HUU fret alioVi' tlic sua.
From the posiiioiiof iIr'si- tfrracL's, in tin! o|n;n iMstrrn tliroal of tin' pass,
from wiiidi i\u: wliok; surfacir of tin- country falls rapiiUy away, llicy can
hardly Ix' otiicr than old seamarks. The topo^rapliy of the n-^Mon wouM
not allow nil- to (!X|>lain lliciu on any liypolliL'sis of a former moraine
blockin.Lj up the valley.

I'r. lleetor has nwasured similar terraces at several points aloiii,' tlio
lioeky .Mountains norlli of the re;L,'ion now more especially undiT consid-
eration, and stales that they may he said to ranj,'u from ."JotJO to loOO feet
iihovu tile sea. He also states that in the re;,'ion examined liy him the or-
dinary Laiiii'iiliaii rirati(.'s were not oliMrved altovt; 15000 feel, Init ineiitions
a very remaikalilc line of lioiildiMN of ivd granite deposited on the [ilains
at a hei'^ht of .'iTHU feet, wiiicli, knowing,' what we do now of the country
can iiardly he -upposed lo have oihcr origin than the l.auientian axis.

Aiiioii^' the Kocky Mountains themselves traces of the former action
of L,diiciers art! everywhere ahumlant, thoUL,di in the part ot' the iMn^-e lu'ar
the fnrly-niiilli parallel elai'ieis ilo not at pre-eiiL exist. I'liey are, how-
ever, found further north. The evidence here niei with so riosely re-
semhlos that found in many other mountain regions as to render it
unnecessary that it siiouhl he ,i,'(Uie over in detail. Nearly all the valleys
holt! veinnants of moraines, .sotni? i>f them still very perfect. The harder
rocks show the usual rounded forms ; IjuL strialion was only ohserved in
a sinj,'le locality, and there coincided exactly with the main direetinn of
the valley.

Tin- valleys radiatin,:; from the summits of ,:,'reatest idevation Imld lon^
lakes, many of which ap|iear to he dee[), and are lilled with the most
pellucid water. Whether they are in all cases dammed in hy mouiiiuj
matter 1 was uiiahle to determine. These lon;^'er valleys very eem-ially
terminate in rfr'/ui'.-!, or amphitheatres, with almost piTpendicular hack
and sides, which overlook small liut deep terminal lakelets, held in liy
moraine-matter and shattered rock. In these sheltered liollows, ami on
the sliaily sides of the hi^dier [)eaks, are mas.ses of [ic'reiinial snow, which
have no douht kept up the direct succession from the time when great
7ieves tilled the heads of the valleys and tlu- mountains around them
were comnletelv snow-clad, ninl are only waitiu'' some cluuc'e in

tht

climatic conditions to advance again down the old valleys and occupy
the places they formerly lilled.

198

CANADIAN GEOLOUY.

<*^. Stati' nf fji" httitrior Rcijinu of flu' Cmtlinint prcrimts to fin' (iJarial
Period.— VmiovG tlie oiipot of glacial coiulitioiis we find the coiitiiii'iit stand-
ing at least at its present elevation, with its coniitlcte system of drainage
from the larger river-valleys to many of their less iiiiportant tril)ntaries
already outlined. Subaerial action must before this time have Ijeen in
operation for a vast period, all tiie great features of the western plains
having been already marked out, and the removal of a truly enormous
mass of the soft and nearly Imrizontal Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks
ellected. That some very considerable changes in the direction of the
drainage of the country in preglacial and in modern times took place,
however, is probable. An examination of the Lake-of-the-Woods region
and a comparison of levels render it almost certain that the waters of
the area now draiiifd liy its tributary strciims tlien found their outlet
southward and westward, towards the present valley nf the 1-ied Rivcu',
and that only after the blocking up of the southern region with the
deposits of the drift did the waters flow over the pre-existing lireach in
the northern rim of the lake, and descend over the surface of the Laur-
entian to Lake Winnipeg. The Winnipeg River does not show any of
the characters of a true river-valley, but consists of eroded and glaciated
ruck-hollows, from one to another of which tlu; stream falls. There is
also sonu) eviilence to show that the Red River itself, agreeing with the
general structure of the country, flowed S(iutliwards; and if so, the
Saskatchewan, loo, would probably with it join the former representa-
tive of the Mississippi.

This sul)ject, however, requires a more detailed di.scu.ssion th in ciui be
granted it in this place.

f'. Miiih' of Glaciafiou and Formation of fin' Drift Di'posit.f. — To the
precise manner in which the Glacial period was initiated, the area now
in (juestion gives no clue; bu there <loes not seem to be either in the
Laurentian region, or over the area of the plains, or in the Rocky Mount-
ains, any evidence necessitating the su})position of a great northern ice-cap
or its southward progress.

The great drift ridge of the Mi.s.souri Coteau at first sight resembles a
gigantic glacier-moraine; and, marking its course in the map, it might
be argued that the nearly parallel line of elevations, of which Tiu'tle
Mountain forms one, are remnants of a .second line of moraine produced
as a feeble effort by the retiring ice-sheet.

Such a glacier must either have been the southern extension of a polar
ice-cap, or derived from the elevated Laurentian region to the east and

MANITOBAN REGION.

199

lik'S a

'iirtle
liiced

polar
t and

nortli ; but I tliink, in view (jf tlie pliy.sical features of tlie country,
neither of tliese tlieories can be sustained.

To reacli the country in the vicinity nf the f(jrty-ninth paralh'l a
northern ico, slieet would have to move up the hm^' sloiie fmiii tlie Arctic
Ocean and cr()ss the second traverse watershed, tlien, after descending
to the level of the Saskatchewan valley, a,i,'ain to ascend the slope
(amounting, as has Ijcen shown, to over -1 feet per mile) to the lirst
transverse watershed and plateau of the Liginte Tertiary. Such an ice-
sheet, moving throughnut on liroad plains of soft, unconsolidated Creta-
ceous and Tertiary rocks, would be expected to mark the surhice with
broail flutings parallel to its direction, and to oljliterate the transverse
watersheds ; d valleys.

If it be supposed that a huge glaciar resting on the Laureiitian axis
spread westward across the plains, the physical ditficulties are even more
serious. The ice moving southward, after having descended into the
Red River trough, would have had to ascend tne enstern escarpment of
soft Cretaceous rocks forming its M'estern side, which in one place rises
over 90U feet above it. Having gained the second prairie-steppe, it
would have had to pass westward up its sloping surface, and surmount
tlie soft edge of the third steppe without much altering its form, and
finally terminate over 700 miles from its source, and at a height exceed-
ing the present elevation oi the Laurentian axis by over L',000 feet.
The distribution of the drift eijually negatives either of these thi'ories,
which would suppose the passage of an immense glacier across the plains.

In attributing the glacial phenomena of the great jilain to the action
of floating ice, we are in accord with l)r. Hector, who has studied a great
part of the basin of the Saskatchewan — and also with 1 >r. Ilaylen, who,
more than any other geologist, has had the opportunity ni beconung
familiar with all parts of the Western States.

The glaciating agent of the Laurentian ]»laleau in the 1 ake-of-the-
Woods region, however, cannot have bei'U other than glacier-ice. The
rounding, striatiiju, and polishing of the rocks there, are glacier-work ;
and icebergs floating, with however steady a current, cannot be supposed
to have passed over the higher region of the watershed to the north, and
then, following the ilirection of the striie and gaining ever deeper water,
to have borne down on the subjacent rocks. The slope of the axis,
however, is too small to account for the spontaneous descent of ordinary
glaciers. In a distance of about 30 miles, in the vicinity of the Lake
of the Woods, the fall of the general surface of the country is only al)out
Sk feet to the mile. The lieight of tlie watershed region ncjrth-east of

200

CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

tli(! lake lias not Ix'oii actually iiu'asiired ; l)ut near Lac Soul, which
closely coiTespoiids with the direction icipiired l>y i^daciation, according
to Mr. Selwyn's nu^asurcnients it cannot he over 1400 feet. The height
of land in other parts of the Laureiitian region is very luiifornily hetw(!cn
ahout IGOO and ll'OO feet. Allowing, then, IGOO feet as a maxiinnni
for tlie region north-east of the Lake of the Woods, iiid taking into
acciiunt tli(! height of that lake; and the distance, the general slope is not
greater than al)nut .3 feet per mile — an estimate agreeing closely with
till! last, which is h/r a smaller area and ohtained in a different way.
This slope cannot Ije (.'onsidereil stdficient to impel a glacier over a rocky
surface which Sir William J.ogan has well characterized as " niainil-
lated," unless the glacier he a conHuent one, [)ressed outwards mainly hy
its own weight and mas.s.

Such a glacier, 1 conceive, must have occupied the Laincnlian high-
lands; aud from its wall-like front were detached tlu; icehergs which
strewed the dehris over the then sul)merged ))lains, and gave rise to the
various nionuments of its actioi; now foinid there.

The sea, or ahody of water in coiimiunicalion with it, wliicli may have

heeii during tiie lirst stages of the depression partly or almost en

tirely

fresh, crept slowly upwai'd ami spread west-ward across the plains, carry-

1 )uring its progress most

iw' with it iceliergs Irom the east and nort

of the features of the glacial deiiosits were impi'fsseil. Li the sectit)n
descrihed at Long River we lind evidence of sliallow enrndit-depositeil

with deepening water, planed otl' hy

liaid<s of

il material

ift

ilterwani

heavy ice dcpnsitiiig travelle(l houlders.

The sea reaching the edge of the slope constituting the front of the
highest prairie-level, the deposition of the Coteaii hegan, and must have
ke|it pace with the increasing dejith of the water and i)revented the
action ot' heavy ice on the front of tia; Tertiary plateau. The water
may also have lieeii too much eiicunihered with ice to allow the forma-
tion of 1

leavv wave

solateil drift highlands of the second plateau, including the
Touchwood Hills, ^Lkjsc Mountain and Turtle Mountain, must also at
this time have heen formed. With regard to the two former, I do not
know whether there is any proglacial nucleus round which drift-liearing
icebergs may have gathered. There is no reason to suppose that Turtle
^Mountain had any such predisposing cause; hut it would appear that a
shoal once formed, liy currents or otherwise, must have been perpetuated
and built up inan increasing ratio by the grounding oi the floating ice.
The Kocky ^lountains Avere probably also at this time covered witli

11 liijfh-

which

i to the

(if the
ist have

.1 tl

Wiiter

foniKi-

iil; the

also at

(h) not

1 KM ring

'rurtle

tliat a

ctuated

ig ice.

cil with

MANITOBAN REGION.

•201

ilescending glaciers ; but tht-se would appear to have l)eer. siualliT than
those of the Laurentiau axis, as might, indeed, he pre-supposcd from
their position and comparatively small gathering-surface. Tlu; sea, when
it reached their base, received from them smaller icebergs ; and Ijy these
and the shoni-ice the i/iiarf-:ifi' drift deposits appear to have been spread.
That this material should have travelled in an opposite direction to the
greater mass of the drift is not strange ; for while the larger lastern and
northern iccl)L'vgs may have moved with the deeper currents, the smaller
western ice may have taken din^ctions caused by surface-currents from
the south and west, or even Ijccii imi)ell('d by the prevailing winds.
Some of the I,aiir«ntian debris, as we have seen, reached almost to the
mountains, while some of the niiartzitc drift can be distinguished far out
towards the Laurentiau axis.

The occurrence of Laurentiau fragniLMils at a stage in the subsidence
wlien, making every allowance for suljsenuent degradation, the Lauren-
tiau axis must have been far liclow water, would tend to show that the
weiglit and mass of the ice-cap was such as to enable it to remain as a
glacier till submergence was very dcc'[). The Laurentiau axis must
always have lieen si»mewliat higher, and then; may have been .some
in(!i|ualily in the total amount of subsidence and elevation.

The emergence of the land would seem to have Ixieii more rapid.
The water in retreat must have rearranged to some extent a [lart of the
surface-materials. The ([uartzite drift of the third ste[ipe v as prol)ably
more uniformly spread at this time, and a part of tin; shrfaet>scii![)ture
of the ilrift-deposits of the second plateau may have' l)i'en proiluced. It;
.seems certain, however, that the Rocky .Mountains still held compara-
tively small glaciers, and that the Laurenlian region on its emergence
was again clad to some extent with ice, for at least a short time. The
closing episode of the Cdacial jieriod in this region, was the formation of
the great fresh-water lake of the Red River valley, or first prairie-level
(which was only gra "nally draiiieil), and the re-excavation of tin; river
courses.

It must not be concealed that there are dilHculties yet unaccounteil for
by the theory of the glaciation and de]iosit of drift on the plains Ijy ice-
bergs ; and chief among these is the aljseiice, whereever I have examined
the deposits and elsewhere over the west, of the remains of marine
^lollusca or other forms of marine life. ^Vith a suimiergeiice as great as
that necessitated by the facts it is impossiljlt; to explain the exclusion of
the -sea ; for, Ijesides the evidence of the higher western plains and
Rocky Mountains, there are terraces Ijctween the Lake of the \Voods and

202

CANADIAN (lEOLOGY.

! ■<

I ; '

Lake Superior nearly to the summit of the Laurentiun axis, and corres-
ponding Ix-acli-marks on the face of the ncn'thern juuL of tlie second
jirairie escarpment.

Conspedai^ of (,'ei)lo(/ical Furmatiuns in (Iw Manitohan Rigion, irith
some iijpical localitirs : —

Alluviuna. Lake deposits of Red River Valley and Peace River,&c.
Stratified Sands and Gravels, c.nd Moraines.

QUATEUNAKY. ' , I 'pper HonlJir (.'l.iv. \

Boulder Clay or Till ' l"t«'Kli}eiiil !-"ik«. ' 'fposit. ]. of Southern Al-

Teutiauv.

Eocene,

CliKTACK )-

TKiiriAiiv,

L Alt AM IK.

Cretaceous.

Devonian.
Shako-Cam li.

HlltONIAN.

Lauuentian.

j Ijowcr I'joiiUlur Clay. j

VSIiinglo l',e,ls. ^

berta, utc.

Pliocene? Saskatchewan (iravels.

M iocene. Conglomerate Sandstone and Argillite of Cypress Hills, kc.

Porcupine Hilh i'!^^

Fort Union. | ; .: Wapite River
Laramie. V^- 'i Group.

5 X

ic5

;

Paskapoo Series. K'„rthern Alberta
Ednnonton Series. J

Fox Hill Series.

Pierre Series.

Niobrara Se-
ries.

Benton Se-
ries?

Smoky River

Group.
Dunvegan

Group.
Fort St. John

Group.

Series
Willow Creek

Series.
St. Mary River

Series

Fox Hill Series.

Pierre Series

Belly River Se-
ries.

Niobrara or Ben-
ton Series.

Kootanie Series.

Limestones of Manitoba Lake, etc.

Trenton Group. ] *''"'^:XvT*c. ^^'""'^'"^^ ^'''''*'' ^^'"^ ^''"''

lietween Red River Valley and Lake Su])erior.
West of Lake Winnii)eg and Nortiiward,

IV. THK r.KITISlI COLUMniAX KEGIOX.

The description of this region lias, like the last, Ijoen taken mainly
from the puhlislicd memoirs of J)r. G. ]\I. Daw.son, F.G.S., with the o.x;-
ceptiiin (if the Kocky Mountain region, the geology of which has been
condensed from the Rejiorts of R. 8. ^IcConnoll, 15. A.

From the western edge of the great plains to the Pacific, l)etween the
forty-ninth and fifty-sixth parallels, the Cordillera belt oi the west coast
has an average breadth of about 400 miles. Geologically, it may be
considered throughout as a region of fiexure and turmoil, and orographi-
cally, as one of nu)untainfi. As compared with its development in the
Western States, the Cordillera belt may here be characterized as strict

BRITISH COLU>[BIAN REGION.

203

■itlt

and iiairow. To the iiorlli of Uk; tifty-sixth iiarallel it lian, as yt-t, only
been traversi'il on a few lines and is very inipeifectly known topoj^raplii-
cally and geoloj^'ically. It appears proljable, liowever, that a wide l)ay of
eoniparatively undistnrlied Cretaceons rocks may penetrate it in the
region of the upper Liard River, which tlie echelon range bordering
the lower part of this stream and tlie Mackenzie may bound to the east.
A southern i)i'olongation of such a range, Ijcneatli the newer rocks, may
probably be indicated by the remarkable parallel Hexnres of the great
rivers of the northern plains, the Liard, Peace, Athabasca antl Saskat-
chewan.

Jjetween the forty-ninth and tifty-sixth degrees of latitude the Cor-
dillera belt is com[)osed of four great ranges ov axes of ui)lift and dis-
turbance, which may be named the liocky, the Gold, the Coast and the
Vancouver Mrtuntains. These are in the main nearly parallel and run
in north-west and south-east bearings.

In its southern part, the Rocky Mountain range has an average
breadth of about sixty miles, which decreases near the iVace River to
forty miles or less. Near the forty-ninth jjarallel several summits occur
with elevations exceeding 10,000 feet, but northward few attain this
elevation till the head-waters of the liow River are reached. Al>out
the sources of the Xorth Saskatchewan and Atlialiasca the range appears
to culminate, and Mounts Ih'own and Mnrchison occur witli re[nited
altitudes of 16,000 and 1.3, .')00 feet respectively; near the Peace few
summits exceed 6000, as far as known. Though more or less extensive
snow-lields occur in many places, true glaciers appear oidy about the
head waters of tlie Row, >('orth Saskatchewan and Ai iiabasca. Where
the line of junction has l)een closely exiunined, great faults oci;\ir along
the line of boundary between tiie Me.sozoic r(jcks of the eastern foot-hills
and the pahrozoic of the mountains, and numerous similar dislocations
are found in the heart of the range parallel to its general course. With
the exception of a single small area on the Upper Athabasca, reported ])y
Dr. Hector, no crystalline schists have been found in this range, which
consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks, largely limestones. A few
Cretaceous basins, resembling in their character isolated jtortions of the
eastern foothills, are included in the southern part of the range. Some
of the valleys penetrating the range on the east are lightly timbered or
in part prairie-like in character, but, as a rule, these mountains are
thickly wooded wherever sufficient soil exists for the support of trees,
and, owing to the greater rainfall on the western slopes, the forests are
there often very dense.

204

CANADIAN (;p:ology.

I t

From the Iwiuulavy line iiorthwarcl, the principal i)iisses are as fol-
lows : — South Kootanie Pays, elevation, 7100 feet; North Kootanie
Pass, eastern (ir main summit, 0750 feet ; western summit, 0<S00 feet ;
Crow Nest Pass, summit, r)JU0 feet; Kaiiaskis Pass, 5700 feet; Kick-
in;4 lf"rse Pass, A.'iOO ; llowse Pass, 5:210 leet ; Athaliasca Pass, (i0:i5
feet; Yellow Head Pass, 3733 feet; Smoky River Pass, 5300 feet;
Pine Kiver Pass, 2850 feet; Peace River valley, l-'OOO feet. With the
exception nf the route selected for the Canadian Pacitic Railway, (the
" Kicking Horse Pass,") these passes are traversed imly by rough moiuit-
ain trails, practicable for ])ack animals.

The western (^dge of the Rocky Mountain lange is delined liy a very
remarkable straight and wide valley, which can be traced uninterruptedly
from the forty-ninth parallel io the head waters of the Peace, a distance
of 700 miles. This valley is occupied by the upper jiortions of several
of the largest rivers, the Kootanie, Columliia, Fraser, Parsnip, and
Findlay.

The (Jold Ranges, which name may l)e applied as a general one to the
next mountain region, are ciunposed of a numlier of more or less clearly
delined sulisidiary ranges, tlie Selkirk, Purcell, Cohunbia and Caril)oo
Mountains. Crystalline schists, including gneisses and travi'rsed by
intrusive gvanitic masses, enter largely into the c(uui)osilion of these
mountains, and there is ground for the l)elief tiiat this is geologically the
oldest of the ranges of this part of the Cordilhu'a. Many of its summits
exciH'd SOOO feet, and Mt)\uit Sir l)oiiald in the Selkirks on tiie line of
the Canadian Pacilic Railway, is 10,645 feet high. Though many
points on the culminating ridges of these mountains are aliru})t and
rugged in outline, extensive; districts are occupied liy roiuided or
plateau-like mountains, which contrast remarkably in appearance with
the liroken crags of the Rocky Mountains. Tlie width of this mountain
system may be slated as about eighty miles, Init noith of the Caiiltoo
district, aliout the head waters of the Peace, it dies away completely,
though probably again resuming in the Onu'iuca district still further to
the north-west.

P)etween this and the Coast Ranges, stretches a region which may bo
called the interior I'lateau of Pritisli Cohunbia, with an average width
of one hundred miles, and mean elevation of about 3500 feet. Its height,
on the whole, increases to the south, while northward it falls gradually
towards the group of large lakes, and the low country about the head
waters of the Peace. It has over a great part of its area ])een covered
by wiilespread flows of ba.salt and otluu' volcanic rocks in the later Ter-

IMITTISII COLUMRIAX RECJIOX.

205

tiiuy i)erio(l, but is now dissected l)y dcop and troii^li-likc rivor valleys
into most of wliicli water standing,' at an elevation of 3000 feet above tlio
present sea level would How, dividing ii-s surface into a nuuilicr ni islands.
In some places tlie plateau is pretty level and uniform ; Init usually it is
only when l)roadly viewed that its character is apparent. It is practically
olo.sed to the mirtli about latitude ").")' 30' by the ends of several intcrla-
cateil mountain ranges of which some of the summits attain SOOO fiu-t.
Nearly coiiu;iding with the forty ninth paralitd is a second transverse
mountains zone, formc(l in a similar way, whicli may be considered as
limiting it to the south, though traversed by several river valley.s, of
which that of the Okanagan is orograpliically tlie most important. The
southern part of the plateau includes mucli open country, constitutes the
be.st grazing region of ISritish Columbia and otfers besides some good
agricultural laud. To tlu; north, with increasing moisture, it becomes
generally forested.

The coast ranges, with an average wiilth of one hundred miles, are
frequently named tlie Cascade Mountains, but this teri'i is a misleading
one, as they are l)oth geologically and orographically distinct from the
well-known Cascade range of "Wri-lii'ngton Territory and Oregon. The-so
mountains are largely composed of gncissic and granite rocks and crystal-
line .schists. The avei'age altitude of their higher peaks is between GOOO
and 7000, while some exceed 9000 feet. (Haciers are of frecpient
occurrence and large size in their northern part, and on the Alaskan
coast are known in several instances to (h'scend to the .sea level. These
mountains are, as a rule, densely forested and (ixtremely rugged, the flora
of their seaward slopes being that characteristic of the west coast and
co-ordinated with its excessive humidity, while on their northern and
eastern flanks it resembles that of the iidand ranges.

The name, Vancouver Kange, may be a[)plied to the fourth great
mountain axis, which, in a partially .submerged condition, constitutes
Yancouver and Queen Charlotte islands, is continued to the south in
the Olympian Mountains. The highest mountain of Vancouver Island
reaches an elevation of 7-4S4 feet, while there is a considerable moun-
tainous area in the centre of the island wiiich surpasses 1*000 feet in
average altitude. Several summits in the Queen Charlotte Islamls
exceed 4000 feet. This range, while still to a consideraVde extent formed
of crystalline rocks like those of the (Joast range, includes notable areas
of stratified rocks, and is flanked in places by Cretaceous strata, impor-
tant because of their coal-beariu'' I'haracter.

20G

OAXADIAN (iK<)L(M;V.

The most rcniarkal)lo feature of the const ai(( its fjords mid passu^'es
which, wliiio i(iiite aiialoi^ous to those of Stiothiud, Norway, and (irccn-
laiid, prolialily surpass tliose of any part of tlie world (iiuhiss it he the
last-iiaiiii'(l country) in dimensions ami coinph;xity. The i^rcat hei^ilit
of the ru^^ncMl mountain Widls whirh hurdiT them also ^ives them a
^'randt'ur (piitc tiicir own. The lon,Lj riverdike lakes of the interior of
the provinee n'[)roduct; the features of these fjords on a smaller scale,
and hold a homolo_i,'ous position to the inland ranges.

In treating; of the mck structure of the Cordillera lndt, in ririlish
Colnnihia, it will he most convenient to ontlini! that of earh of its Ljreat
com|ionent ri\L,dons, in so far as the older formations arc coucei'ned. The
Cretaceous and Tertiary of the entire' lielt, wliicii rest, npon these in a
comparatively little disturhed or altered slati-, may then he considered.

The r:ini;es of the Rocky ^fountains have hern explon^d hy Sir
d. l^ichardson. Dr. Hector and Dr. Selwyn, and more recently hy Dr.
(}. M. Dawsiai and .Mr. K. (1. McConnell.* AiM-onlin-- to '.lie latter the
■whole helt may he divided into two renions. an eastern and a western.
The former presents a series of faulted and often overdajip'd rocks, in-
dicatin^if },'reat pressure from the west and an.nnlar fractures ami lateral
thrusting of the heds. Tin; latter is, on the other hand, a region of great
folding without reversed faults and with much regional metamorphisni.

The formations of the eastern Itelt are. in descending ordc :

1. The Cretaceous lieds forming limited troughs.

L'. Tiie Uanir limestones and shales and " Intermediate Limestone,"
Avhich are I'pper Palaeozoic (Devono-Carhoinferous).

'^. The Castle Mountain .series, consisting of hi^ds of Camhrian age.

The whole thickness of these heds is estimated at IS, 000 hct.

In the western licit the highest heds are of Silurian ,ige and fnun their
characteristic coral have hcen nanieil the Hah/.'^i/i's l)eds. llelow these
are Silnro-Camhrian shales holding ''<vd\)U>\\tL'^ ( IJi'h/nniijra/iliis, (r/aKxo-
ijrapfiix, CriiptiKiraptiiti, Diiihuji'apliix, C/.iinac();/rajitii.-<, rtr.) They are
held hy r,ai»wortli to he of Trenton, Utica or Idandeilo age. Some of
the forms are W(dhknown .\merican and I-'uropi'aii species. I'nder these
are the Camhrian, represented hy a great series of heds (Mpiivalent to
those of the Castle Mountain series of the eastern h(dt and a lower series
known as the liow River group. Tin; former consists largely of lime-
stone and dolomite, the latter of argillite. It has all'orded fossils of the
genera Paraifoxides and OlencMus, now regai'ded as of Middh; or Lower
Cambrian age. .

* Geol. Survey of Canada, 188G .

I'.HTTISH COLUMBIAN REGION.

•20/

Ill ihuir
t hese

icy aro
Miiue of
■r tliesc
Iciil tl)
r sciifs
t' liiiio-
ot' tho
Lower

Tlio Camhrian fossils of tlic Rocky Mountains wore first discovered by
oiHcers of till' (l('(tl{)^'icivl Survey in 18S-t, anil are noticed in McConnell's
Report for liSS7. Speuinieiis liave also fountl their way to the hands of
United States LjeoloLfists, ami have been described by Rounder and
Walcott, who, however, ditl'cr as to their classilicatioi;.* Acccn'dinj,' ti>
AVhiteaves the fossils lieloiiL,' to tiuee distinct horizons. Lower ami
Midilie ( "auiliiian forms as ( Hiuilln^ and I'drci'lnxidi's, etc., were found
near tin' base, and about 2000 feet hi,i,di(!r such Middle and Tpper Cam-
brian forms as (J/t'noiih'.'^ and Donipiiiin witii two species of Jiaf/ii/nriin,
while the up]H'r beds yi(dded /{np/iixfnnia r(ifiifi/(>riin''< and an A.-!af.'/iii.-<,
and an.' therefore probably Siluro-Cambrian.

The Cretaeenus rocks of the eastern V)elt consist of shales holdin;^ in
.some plaee.s proilui'live beds of Antliracite coal, and they are over-ridden
by the older rocks with reversed faults and folded in abrupt troughs,
showin;^ that the Ljreat movements whi(di have ail'ecteil this belt are
post-cretaceous.

South of the region just de.scrilx'd, in the Rocky Mountains between
the liftieth and forty-ninth parallels, a wide-spread flow of contempor-
aneous, amvifdoloidal trap occurs in the upper [)art of the section, and is
probably referable to the Carboniferous period. Above this is a thick-
ness of several hundred f(,'et of red samlstones and flaf,'.i,'y magnesian
.sandstones and limestones.

''Mieso doubtless represent the Trias or Jura-Trias, which with similar
lithological clKUVK'ttrs is very extensively developed in the Rocky Moun-
tain region further south. The conditions indicated are those of an
inland lake, and the occurrence; of nnid-cracks, rii)ple-mark.s, and the
impre.ssiims of salt crystals show that considera])lt; sinfaces were at times
dry, or but lightly covered by water. These Ijcds have not been found
further north in the range; th.in the Xorth Kootanie Pass, and it would
appear pmliable that tliis is about the ancient limit of the Triassic inland
sea. Al)out the Peace River, and as far north as the Liard, Triassic beds
have lieen found, but they are dark shales and sandstones (piite ditferent
in character, and hold marine fossils of the age of the "Alpine Trias" of
the W(!stern States

I'lKioiiforinably uiKierlyiug these are rocks which may now be pro-
visionally cla.ssed as Cambrian, on the (iv.'dence of a few fossils found in
the Coliiml)ia valley, and fmm analogy with beds described in the
"Western Stales since this section was first published, though it is (piite

Am. .Iimriiul of Science, 1888.

20S

CANADIAN (;i;(»L()(iY.

l»ossilil(.' tliiil .Siliiiian beds iiiay also be inehnli'il. In scimo places, west
of the Klatlieail River, tin; icil lu-ds includiMl with these are character-
i/ed liy sini-cracks, ripiile-iiiarks and prints of salt crystals precistdy
reseiiihiin^' those (if the Trias and indicating' similar conditions of deposit,
though of vastly j^icater an1ii|uity. Contemporaneous flows of diorite or
dialtaso are also foiind at some horizons, and in tracinj,' this series of rocks,
which niu^t in the aj,'j;re;,Mtc Ik; of <,'rent thickness, from point to point
in the ran,t,'e, its litholoLjical character is found to hi' very varied, and the
suhdivisioiis worked out in the nei^dihourhood of Watcrtown Lake,
would appear to he inconstant.

In the Peace Kiver district, on the tii'ty-lifth and fifty-sixth parallel,
the axial mountains of the rai'Lje arc composed of massive limestones of
Devonian and prohalijy also of Carboniferous aj,'e, associated with saccha-
roidal (piartzites. On the west side these ap: believed to overlie a scries
of aruillites which occasionally become micaix'ous schists and slates, and
also include (piartzites. These rocks, which are probalily Cambrian, are
known to occupy a loni; troui^di east of the Parsnip river, and cross the
^lisinchinca with considerable width.

As before observed, the geological structure of the Gold Range, or
second mountain axis, is little known. Camlirian rocks like those of the
Rocky Mountains characterize its eastern portion, while its western side
is largely composed of highly crystalline rocks, including gneiss, and
considerable areas of granite. These are complicated, where tliey have
been oliserved, by tie' occurreiu'c of areas of much altered rocks resem-
Iding those of the interior ])lateau region, next to the west. Among
these is a series of dark slates or schists which an; the auriferous rocks
in the Cariboo district and elsewhere. The age of these has not been
determined.

The district coloure<l as Arehnean on the publisluMl maps, while
therefore probably in a large part composed of rocks of this ])eriod, is
much more heterogeneous in character than can be indicated with our
present information. The thickness of the crystalline rocks displayed
on Sluiswap Lake, has been estimated at about 32,.'W0 feet. An isolated
area of gneissic rocks doubtless belonging to a continuation of the main
axis, as shown on the map, occurs at Carp Lake, west of McLeod Lake.

The Pala'ozoic rocks of the interior plateau region of British Columbia
are very varied in lithological character, but may be said, as a whole,
to consist of massive limestone and compact or shaly (piartzite, together
with great beds, of diorites or diabases, felsi)athic rocks and agglomerates,
and some beds of serpentine. The last named material occurs in associa-

r,i{iTisH ror-i-.Mr.iAX itKciox.

209

anil

■ V hiive

I'csein-

Aiuoiig

IS rocks

)t bi'ou

whilo
•liiul, is
ith miv

jilayoil
isolated
le iiiaiu
,1 Lake,
ilumliia

whole,
ogethev
ii(!ratos,
associa-

tion with the conteinporaiioous volcanic materials, and douhthss repre-
sents the alteration product of olivine; rocks, ii is of interest a-! heing
of a period so recent as the Carhonifcrous. The limestones are not
unfreipiently converted to coarse-grained niarliles, and together with the
(piartzite, appear in greatest force on the south-western side nf the area

they occupy. They have now 1 n traced, maintaining their character

pretty uniforndy throngliout, fioni the forty-ninth to tiie lifty-tlnrd
parallel. Schistose or shaly argillite rocks, wliich jay represent those
folded wilii th (lold Kange series, also occur.

In regard to the evidence of the age of these I'aia'ozoic heds which
must htive in tin; aggregate a vast thickness, the following points may he
stated. A portion at least of thes(! rocks was, in 1S71, sliown liy fossils
collected hy Dr. Selwyn, to belong to a horizon between the liase of the
])evonian and sununit of the Permian; additional fossils have since been
procured, of which the most characteristic is the peculiarly Carboniferous
foraminifer Fn.vih'nn, which has now been found in several localities
scattered over a wide area. While it is therefore (piite possible that rocks
of all stages of the Pala'ozoic may yet be identilied in the interior plateau,
there is as yet no proof that any of a date earlier than the Carboniferous
occur, and the association of the otlier lieds with the fossiliferous lime-
stones is such as to .show that a considerable part of them must be approxi-
mately of this ago.

In the .southern portion at l(Mst of the interior i)lateau region there
exist, besides the Palreozoic rocks above described, and in addition to the
probably in i)art Triassic argillites, extensive but as yet undelincd areas
of Triassic rocks of another character. These are largely of volcanic
origin and have been designated the Xicola series. They have generally
a characteristically green colour, but are occasionally purplish and consist
chiefly of felspathic rocks and diabases, the latter often more or less
decomposed. These rocks are in some cases quite evidently amygilaloidal
or fragmental, and hold towards the base beds of grey sub-crystalline
limestone intermingled in some places with volcanic material and contain-
ing occasional layers of water-rounded detritus.

Preliminary investigations along certain lines have now l)een made of
the north-western extension of the region lying between the Rocky
Mountains and the Coast Ranges in the extreme north of IJritish Columbia
and in the upi)er Ytikon basin. Though its limiting ranges previously
mentioned are still recognizable there, the orographic features of this
country are not so simple as those in the south. The rocks, however, are
closely analogous in general character to those above described, Uiose of

210

CANADIAN (iKOLtXiV.

• 'II

I'liln'ozoic iiL,'f covL'iiii^' tlif .Lfii'iitt'st iirt'ii. 'I'lin I'ala'ijzoic rocks iucliulo
liiiii'sloiics, qiiartzittis, arL,'illil(!s, schists ami slates with a n<itahlt' lU'opor-
tioii of a^,i,'loiii('i'atfs ami oIIut malciials of viil(Miii(; ori;,'iii, and arc all
prulty tlioroii;^'lily altered and hardened and eoiisidunihly flexed. Near
iJoase Lake, on tlio I'elly liiver. and elsuwliere, heda of surpeiitine occur,
ami the associated rocks in these and luaiiy other places are preponder-
antly schistose and slaty, rnnnin^' throu;,di a nunilter of varii-lies, but
closely r(.'sonil)lin;,' the schistoso and slaty rocks of Cariboo and (jthurgold-
boariug districts to tiie south, and heie also yielding,' ;,'old.

TlicHo I'aliuozoic rociks art" here int(iru|ited by granite areas, which gen-
erally rise in the form of ridges or mountain elevations, antl are in some
places flanked by more or less considerable occurrences of crystalline
schists which appear to be more highly alti-red portions of the I'ahi'ozoic.
Fossils of Carboniferous age have liecn olilained from tiie linu'stones in
several places, and fnmi shales in the I)ea>se river graptolites of Miildle
Ordovieian age have been determined. Though the information available
is still insutlicient for the se|iaration of the various formations, it is pro-
bable that rocks ranging from the Cambrian to the top of the I'aheozoic
nnd possibly also including the Triassic, nuvy be embraced in this great
preponderantly Palaeozoic area.

The Coast Ranges of IJritish Columbia are remarkably uniform in com-
position from the vicinity of the Fraser, where tlujy originate, to the head
of Lynn Channel — a length of aluiut 900 miles. They are everywhere
largely composed of grey granites which usually contain l)oth hornblende
and mica, and often show a notable abundance of the first-named mineral.
"With tliese are associated gneisses and other crystalline schists, together
with belts of more or less highly altered argillites which often pass into
black stam'olitic and micaceous schists, while limestones are repres(Mited
in sonu) places by liighly crystalline marbles. Some of these rocks are
infolded and more or less completely altered portions of the Palopozoic
strata previously describetl, but it yet remains to be determined whether
there are represented any pre-pal?eozoic stratified rocks, or whether all
those met with may be explained as products of the extreme metamor-
phism of palaeozoic materials. Portions of the lower part of the Creta-
ceous series are found here and there at considerable elevations, resting
in a comparatively unaltered state on the upheaved rocks of these ranges.

Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands represent unsubmergeJ
features of another mountain axis, but one of less energetic uplift.
While granitic areas here still occur, these are of less importance and often
manifestly intrusions.

llinTISll COLUMIUAX UKtilON.

I'll

incUulo

ar." M
Near
1! occur,
.'|K)mler-
,ies, but
Ikt ;j;nlil-

licU K'eu-
iu soino
rystallinc
'iihi'iizoic.
•sioncs in
,f Mia.llc
I availiiblo
, il is pio-
I'ahvozoic
this ;^ve;\t

■111 ill I'lJiii-
) llu; Uoiul
vt'iywhere
Imrublemle
d miuenil.
p, t(i|^elhei'
1 pass into
L'proseutcLl
|. iHicks are
Paltpozoic
,1 whether
hether all
luetamor-
ihe Creta-
ns, resting
lese ranges,
ji submerged
;etic upUft.
and often

In Vancouver and the Qiieon Charlotte Islands all the stratified rocks,
of periods anterior to th<' Cretaceous, iiave suHercd great tiexiire and
disturbance, acciunpanied by more or less coiii[)leti' nietaiiiorphisin, and

tiiis composition indicates throughout a contiiirm u" rcciirrcneo of

ale. Rocks originally of volcanic

volcanic action on a

n enormous si

origin characterize the greater part of tlie entire area, anil lliese in tlieir
pre.'-.cnt condition, at first si^ht, and as juilged Ijy eastern American
analogies, miglit often bo sup|)osed to represent formations occupying a

'iiy

verv low staire in the ''eolo'Mcal scah

'I'l

i((se volcanic roclvs, nri;4iiia

composed of minerals already (■ryslailinc, have yieidt.'d readily to snbso-
ipieiit ahi'ialiiiii and recrystallizatioii, and now, I'nrthe nmst jiart, appear
as diabase, fclsite and diorite, more or less massive, but passing locally
into true schists. The massive varieties freipieiitly show little eviileiice
of a lieddcd character, but, when closely cxaiuined and traced out, are
found to form portions of a stratified series of great thickness, which in-
cluiles, lii'sides the piepniiderant volcanic niatctrials, inipnitaiit intercala-
tions of tlaggy and slaty argillites of quartzite and of limestone.

The greater part of tin; old volcanic rocks a[)pear to have consisted
originally of basaltic and trachytic lava fiows, alternating with rongli
volcanic lireccias and tutl's, largely composed of fragments of siirli Hows,
These have been deposited in the bed of a sea iu which life was at in-

tervals possiljle for considerable periods.

built

thick

entire se

sand feet, but no complete section of il can yet be given, and the
evidences of age, as derived from fossils, is scanty. ( )ljscure fossils,
which are probably of Carboniferous age, have been found in some of
the limestones of Vancouver Island, and beds of the same age may also
occur in the southern part of the (^ueen Charlotte Islands. The most
important zone of argillites and liiU(!stoues, however, which is known in
some places to attain a thickness of L',r>00 feet, has yielded a numl)er of
fossils characteristic of the so-called Ali)ine Trias of California and the
fortieth parallel region, which represents the Hallstadt and St. Cassiau
beds of Europe.

For this entire complex mass of pre-cretaceous rocks, the name Van-
couver series is provisionally employed, though it is intended to restrict
this name to the Triassic rocks when they shall have been distinctly
separated.

Lying everywhere quite unconformably upon the older beds so far
described, are the Cretaceous rocks, which constitute on the coast the
true coal-bearing horizon of British Columbia. These rocks probably at

mmii

212 CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

one time spread much more wiiltily aloiiL,' IIh; coast than they now do,
but have since been folded and disturhcd duriiit,^ tlic continuation of the
process of mountain elevation, and have been much reduced by denuda-
tion. Their most important area, includini.;' tlie coal-miniuf; regions of
Xanaimo and Comox, may be do.scrii)ed as forming a narrow trough
ixlong the north-east Ijorder of Vancouver Islaml, lUG miles in length.
The rocks are sandstones, conglomerates and shales. They hold abund-
fince of fossil plants and marine shells in some places, and in a] [learance
and degree of induration much reseml)l(! the, true Carboniferous rocks
of ,'^ome parts of Eastern America. In the Xanaimo area the formation
has been divided by ]\Ir. J. Richardson as follows, iu descending order : —

Sandstimes, conglomerates and shales '.VI'M feet.

Shales (iCO "

Productive coal-measures . , . , l;U(! "

52t;(J "

The last named consists of sandstones and shales, and holds valuable
coal-seams near its base. In the Comox area seven well-marked sub-
divisions occur, constituting a total thickness of 4911 feet.

Upper conglomerate 330 feet,

Ui)i)er shilfis 70'? '•

Middle conglomerate 1100 "

Middle shales 70 "

Lower conglomerate !)00 "

Lower shales.... 1000 "

Productive coal-measures 739 ' '

4911 feet.

The fuel obtained from these measures is a true bituminous coal, with
— according to the analysis of Dr. Harrington — an average of G.29 per
cent, of ash pnd 1.47 per cent, of water. It is admirably suited for most
ordinary purposes, and is largely exported, chiefly to San Francisco,
where, notwithstanding a heavy duty, it compet(!S successfully with coals
from the west coast of the United States, owing to its superior quality.
The output of 1883 amounted to 213,000 tons, and is yearly increasing.

In addition to the main area of Cretaceous rocks aliove described, there
are numerous smaller patches, holding more or less coal, in different parts
of Vancouver Island, some of which may yet prove important.

In the Queen Charlotte Islands, Cretaceous rocks cover a considerable
area on the east coast, near Cumshewa and Skidegate Inlets. At Skide-

ual)le
. sulj-

with

29 pel-
most

ncisco,
coals

uality.

asing.

there

ut parts

BRITISH COLUMBIAN REdlOX. 213

gate they Unld tnu' autliracite coal, whicli, bosulcs being a circumstance
of considerable geological interest, would ])ecoine, if a really workable
bed could be lu'ovod, a matter of great economic importance to the
Pacific coast.

At Skidegate, where these rocks are most typically developed, they
admit of suljdivision as follows, the order being, as Ijefore, descending :

A. Ui)i)er slialeti and .«aTid«t(ines I'lOO feet.

B. Coarse ci>ii>,'liiuierates '2000 "

C. Lower sliales with coal and clay ironstone. .. ."iOOO "

D. Aj,'t,'lonieratos ;>.->()0 "

E. Lower sandstones lOUO "

l.'?,000 feet.

The total lliickness is thus estimated at about 13,000 feet. With tlie
exception of the agglomerates, the rocks in their general appearance and
degree of indurati<jn compare closely with those of Vancouver Island.
The agglomerates represent an important intercalation of volcanic mate-
rial, which varies in t(!Xture, from beds holding angular masses a yard in
diameter, to tine; ash rocks, and appears at tlie junction to blend com-
pletely witli the next overlying subdivision. Tiie beds are generally
felspathic and often more or less distinctly porphyritic.

At the eastern margin of the formation, the rocks lie at low angles,
but become more disturbed as they approach the mountainous axis of
the Islands, showing eventually in some cases overturned dips. It is in
this disturbed region tliat tlie anthracite coal has been fi)un<l, and from
the condition of inckuled woody fragments in the eastern i)orli(m of the
area it is probable that any coal seams discovered there would be bitu-
nunous, like those of Vancouver Island.

The fossils from these beds are all from tliu lower portion of the
formation, which is conclusively sliown to represent the Cliico group of
the Californian geologists, which, with the locally developed Martinez
group is considered to be e(puvalent to the Lower and Upper Chalk of
Europe.* The highest subdivision of the Californian Cretaceous, the
Tejou group, is supj)osed to represent the Maestricht, and, in the absence
of fossils from the upper portion of the Vancouver Island formation, it
is possible that it may be e(|ually young. The llora of the Vancouver
Cretaceous consists largely of modern angiospermous and gymnospermous
genera, such as Quercus, P/afanns, Popnlus and Sequoia : several of the
genera and a few of the species being common to it and to the Dakota

* Whiteaves' Mesozoic Fossils, Reports Geol. Survey.

tv^

214

CANADIAN GKOLOr.Y.

group (if tlni ]Mi(l(lle Cretaceous of tlu; interior region of tlio eontinont.
The botiuiical evidence, wliile yd imperfect, is tlierefore by no means
in contrailictiou to that ail'orded by the animals and the stratigraphy.

A numlier of fossils from the (,>iieon Charlotte Islands have also been
described and figured from Mr. Kichanlson's collections and those of l)r.
])awson. There are few cases of specific identity between the forms in
the A".,ncouver Cretaceous, previously described, and those of the <,)ueen
Charlotte Islands, the latter representing a hnver stage in the Cretaceous
formation. The plants found in these rocks, embracing nunun'ous conifer-
ous trees and a species of Cycad, also indicate a greater age than those of
Vanc(juver.

The coal-bearing 1)eds at Qnatsino 8ounil,(m the west coast of Vancouver
Island, have also yielded a few fossils. These consist chielly of well-
characterized specimens of ^«ct//a PiocJiii, which occurs but sparingly in
the (^)ue(;n Charlotte Islands, and brings the rocks iiitr^ -1'- relations with
the Aucella beds of the mainland of liritish Columbia, and in Mr.
AVhiteaves' opinion probably indicate an " Upper Xeocomian " age. The
rocks of the (^Uieen Charlotte Islands and Quataino may therefore be taken
together as representing the upper and lower portions of the so-called
Shasta group of California, which in liritish Cohunbia can now b(! readily
distinguished l)y their fossils.

On the mainland, develope(l most characteristically along the north-
eastern border of the Coast Range, is a massive series of rocks first referred
to by Dr. Selwyn, in the provisional classification adopted l)y liim in 1S71,
as the Jackass Mountain group, from tlie name of the locality in which
they are best displayed on the main waggon-road. The age of these rocks
was not known at this time, but fo.ssils have since been discovered in the
locality above mentioned, and in several others, the most characteristic
forms h{i\ng Anc('//(i Pi<ic/i ii and lielemnitcs imprcssits. The rocks are
generally hard sandstones or quartzites, with occasional argillites, and very
thick beds of coarse conglomerate. A measured section on the Skagit
River includes over 4100 feet, without comprising the entire thickness of
the formation. Dehind lioston liar, on the Fraser River, the formation
is represented by nearly 5000 feet of rocks, while on Tatlyoco Lake it
probably does not fall short of 7000 feet. At the last-named place these
beds are found to rest on a series of felspathic rocks, evidently volcanic
in origin, and often more or less distinctly porphyritic. ( )n the Iltasyouco
River, near the fifty-first parallel, and in similar relation to the Coa.st
Rang?, an extensive formation characterized by rocks of volcanic origin,
and often porphyritic, has also been found. Its thickness must be very

f !■

1 :

i .

BRITISH COLUMBIAN RECION.

215

groat, and has heon roughly estimated at one locality at 10,000 feet. It
has been supposed, on litliological grounds, to represent the porphyritio
formation of the vicinity of Tatlayoco Lake, and fossils found in it have
been descrilied as Jurassic. From analogy since developed with the
Queen Charlotte Island fauna, however, Mr. Whiteaves now believes that
the Iltasyouco beds are also Cretaceous.

Still further north the Cretaceous furmation is not confined to the
vicinity of tin,' Coast Range, but spreads more widely eastward, lieing in
all probability represented l)y the argillites and felspathic and calcareous
sanilstones of the Lower Xechacco ; and, as the explorations of 1S79 have
shown, occupying a great extent of country on the tifty-fifth parallel about
the upper part of the Skeena and r.al)ine Laki-. They here include fels-
I>athic rocks of volcanic origin similar to those of the Itasyouco, which
are most abundant on the eastern Hanks of the Coast Range, and pro-
bably form the lower portion of the group, lii/sides these volcanic rocks,
there is, however, a great thickness of comparatively .soft sandstones and
argillites, with beds of impure coal. The strata are arranged in a series
of folds more or less abrupt, and have a general north-west or south-east
strike. It is not in-possible, from the general palivontological identity of
the rocks of the interior with the older of tho.'^e of the coast, that the
Skeena region may eventually be found to contain valuable coal-seams,
but this part of the country is at present very dillicult of access, and there
is no indurcMuent to explore it.

]\lore or less considerable areas of Cretaceous rocks are found still fur-
ther ntu'tlnvard, as far as the basin of the upper Yukon.

The Tertiary rocks do not form any wide or continuous belt on the
coast of ISritish Columbia, as is the case farther south. They are found
near Sooke, at the southern extremity of Vancouver Island, in the form
of sandstones, conglomerates, and shales, which are sometimes carbon-
aceous. Tertiary r(icks also occupy a consideral)le area about the mouth
of the Fraser River ; extending southward from lUirrard Inlet, across the
International boundary formed bj* the forty-ninth parallel, to liellingbam
Bay and beyond. Thin seams of lignite occur at lUirrard Inlet. Sections
of the Tertiary rocks at r>ellingham Uay are given in Dr. Hector's official
report. Lignite l)eds were extensively worked here some years ago, l)ut
the mine has been abandoned owing to the superior quality of the fuels
now obtained from Xanaimo and Seattle. About the estuary of the
Fraser the Tertiary beds are much covered by drift and alluvial deposits,
and are consequently not well known. Lignites, and even true coals,
have been found in connection with them, but so far in beds too thin to

!1G

CANADIAN CKOLOGY.

1.1

be of value. Fossil pliuits from llurriuil Inlet iind Uelliiigliam Bay have
l)eeii (lcsL'ril)c(l by Xewlit'i'ry and Lcsiiuerenx, ami these are supposed to
indicate a Miocene age for the deposits.

Mucli farther north, in the (^huM'ii Charlntte Islands, the wlinh,' north-
eastern portion of (iraham Island has now lieen shown t(t lie underlaid
by Tertiary rocks, which produce u Hat or gently undulating country,
markedly diirerent from that found on most parts nf the coast. The
prominent rocks are of volcanic origin, including basalts, dolerites,
trachytic rocks, and in one locality ol)sidian. Numerous examples of
fvagmcntal vulcanic rocks are also found. lielow these, but f^wM in a
few places oidy, are ordinary sedimentary deposits, consisting of sand-
stones (ir shales, and hard clays with lignites. At a single locality on the
north end of (Irahani Island, beds with numerous marine fossils occur.
These, in so far as they admit of specific determination, represent shells
found in the later Tertiary deposits of California, ami som(; of which are
still living on the north-west coast ; and the assi'inblage is not such as to
indicalt' any nnuked dillerence of climate from that now obtaining.

The Tertiary rocks of the coast are not anywhere nnich disturljed or
altered. The relative level of sea and land must have been nearly as at
present when they were formed, and it is probable that they originally
spread much more widely, the [(reservation of such an area as that of
Graham Island being due to the protective capping of volcanic rocks.
The lieds lielong evidently to the more recent Tertiary, and though the
pala'oiitological evitlence is scanty, it aiipears probaljle from this, and
by comparison with other parts of the west coast, that they should be
called Miocene.

To the east of the Coast or Cascade Kange, Tertiary rocks are very
extensively developed. They have not, however, yielded any marine
fossils, and ai)pear to have been formed in an extensive series of lakes,
which may at one time have submerged much of the region descril)ed as
the interior plateau. The Tertiary lakes may not improbably have been
produced by the interruption of the drainage of the region by a renewed
elevation of the coast mountains, proceeding in advance of the [tower of
the rivers of the periotl to lower their beds ; the movement culminating
in a profound disturbance leading to a very extensive volcanic action.
The lower beds are sandstones, clays, and shales, generally pale-greyi.sh or
yellowish in colour, except where darkened Ity carbonaceous matter.
They frequently hold lignite, coal, and in some even true bituminous
coal occurs. The sedimentary Ijeds rest generally on a very irregular
surface, and consequently vary much in thickness and character in diil'er-

r.lJITISII COLUMIilAN IIKCIOX.

217

cut iiiuts I if the cxtonsive ici^Moii over wiiicli they occur. Tin' H^'iiilL'^
appear in some places to rest on true " umlerclays," represeiilin^ the soil
on which the vegetation pro(lucin,L( them has grown, while in others — as
at Quesnel — they seem to be composed of ilrift-wooil, and show mnch
chiy and sand interlaminated with the coaly matter.

In the northern portion of the interior the upper volcanic part i>i the
Tertiary covers great area.", and is usually in Ix'ds nearly horizontal, or at
least not extensively or .'!hari)ly folded. Dasalts, dolerites, and allied
rocks of modern aspect occur in sheets, broken only here and there l)y
valleys of denudation, and acidic rocks are seldom met with except in
the immediate vicinity of the ancient volcanic vents ( >n ilie lower
Xechacco, and on the Parsnip Kivt'r, the lower sedimentary ror'ks appe;ir
to be somewhat extensively developed without the overlyin- volcanic
materials.

The southern part of the interior plateau is more irregular and moun-
tainous. The Tertiary rocks liere cover less extensive areas, and are
much more disturlied, and sometimes over wide districts — as on tlie
Nicola — are found dipping at an average angle of about thirty degrees.
The volcanic materials are occasi(nially of great thickness, anil the little
disturbed basalts of the north are, for the mout part, replaced liy agglom-
erates and tufas, with trachytes, porphyrites, and other felspathic njcks.
It may ind(!ed be questioned whether the character of these rocks does
not indicate that they arc of earlier date than those to the north, but, as
no direct paheontological evidence of this has l)een obtained, it is pre-
sumed that their diflerent composition and appearance is due to unlike
coiulitions of deposition and greater sul)sei[uent disturbance. Xu volcanic
rocks or lava flows of Post-glacial ago have been met with.

The organic remains so far obtained from these Tertiary rocks of the
interior consist of plants, insects, and a te / fresh-water molluscs and fish
scales, the last being the only indication of the vertel)rate fauna of this
period. The plants have been collected at a number of localities. They
have been subjected to a preliminary examination by Sir W. 1 >awson,
and several lists of species pul)lished. "Wliile they are certainly Tertiary,
and represent a temperate Hora like that elsewhere attril)uted to the
Miocene, they do not ailbrd a very deluiite criterion of age, being derived
from places whicli must have dilFered much in their physical surround-
ings at the time of the deposition of the l)eds. Insect remains have been
obtained in four localities. They have been examined by 31 r. .S. H.
Scuddcr, who hits contributed three papers on them to the (leological
Reports, in which he describes forty species, all of which are considered

218

CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

now. Xnno of tlic insects liave been found to occur in lunro than a
siii.Lj;I(' liifalily, wliii'h causes Mr. Scudiler to ol)serve tliat tiie deposits
from wiiicli tliey came may cither dill'er consideraljly in age, or, with
the fact tliat duplicittes liave seldom ])een fouiiil even in the same locality,
evidence the existence of dilFerent surroundings, and an exceedingly rich
insect fauna.

Till nigh a large part of the interior plateau may at one time have been
pretty uniformly covered with Tertiary rocks, it is evident that some
regions have never been overspreatl by them, while, owing to denudation,
they iiave since been almost altogether removed from other districts, and
the niDiliMn river valleys often mit completely through thcni [o the older
rocks, Tlu! outlines of the Tertiary areas are therefore now irregular
and complicated.

rh'iMoci'ne IJeposif^. — The following notes embrace the latest observa-
tions of l>r. G. ^r. J)awson, in ISritish Columbia, which seems to be
remarkable for the great development of its glacial jjhenomena. —

It l;as lifcn sliown* that at oiio .stai;e in the (Macial perind— tliat i>f inaxiin\uu
glaciaticiu— a great cmifliient iee-inass has (icc\i|iie I tlie rej,'ion whicli may he named the
Interior Phitean, between tlie Cnast Mountains and ((old and Kocky ^Mountain
Ranges. From tlie fifty-tiftli to thi' foity-nintii parallel this great glacier has left
traces of its gmieral southuani or southeastward movement, which are distinct from
those of subsequent local glaciers. The southern extensions or teriiiiiuitions of this
confluent glacier, in Washington and Idaho Territories, have quite recently been
examined by !Mr. I'.iiley Willis and Trof. T. C. Cliamberlin, of the U.S. (ieological
Survey. f There is, further, evidence to show that this inland ice Ht)wed also, by trans-
ver.se valleys and gajis, across the Coast Range, and that the fiords of the coast were
thus def]),y filled with glacier-ice, which, suiijilemeiited by tliat originating on the
Coast Kai)gt> itself, buried the entire great valley which sei>arates \'aiicouver Island
from the mainland, and discharged seaward round both ends of the island. Further
north, the glacier extending from the mainland coast, touched the northern shores of
the <i>ueeii Charlotte Islands. The observed facts on which these general statements
are based have been fully detailed in the i>ul)lications already referred to, and it is not
the object of this note to review former work in the region further than to enumerate
the main features devel()]>ed by it, and to add to these a .summary of observations made
during the summer of 1.SS7 m the extreme nortli of I'ritish Columbia, and in the Yukon
basin lieyond the sixtieth parallel, which forms the northern boundary of that province.

The littoral of the south-eastern part or "coast stri))" of Alaska presents features
identical with those of the i)reviously examined coast of British Columbia, at least as
far north as hit. 51) , beyond which I have not seen it. The coast ai'chii)ehigo has
evidently been involved in the border of a confluent glacier whicli sjireads from the
mainland and was subject to minor variations in ilirection of flow dependent on surface
irregularities, in the manner described in my rejiort on the nortlieru part of Vancouver

*(^uart. Journ. Geol. Sec. vol. xxxi. p. 89. Ibid. vol. xxxiv. p. 272. Canadian

Naturalist, vol. viii.

t Bulletin U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 40, 1887.

BRITISH COLUMBIAN REOIOX.

219

Island.* No conclusive evidence was hero found, liowover, either in tlic valloy oi tho
Stikiiiu Uivi'P or in tlic |in.ss leading inland from the head of Lynn Canal, to sh(Av
that tii>' ice forced seaward across the Coast ilange, though analogy with tln' coast to
the south favours the belief that it may have done so. The front of the glacier must
have passed tho outer liorderof the archi|ielago, as at Sitka, well iiiarivcd glaeiation is
found pointing toward the open I'acitict (average direction about S. Nl W. astr.) It
is, however, in tho interior region, between the Coast Ilange and the Rocky Moimtains
proi)er and extending northward to hit. GlV, explored and examined by us in 1SS7. that
the most iiitrn;stiiig facts have coi/ie to light respecting the direction of movement of
the Cordilleran glacier. Here, in the valleys of the Felly and Lewes branches of the
Yukon, traces were found of tho movement of heavy glacier-ice in a northerly direction.
Rock-Surfaces thus glaciated were observed down the Pelly to the point at which it
crosses the liiCith meiidiau, and on tiie licwes as far iioith as lat. til 10', the main direc-
tion in the tirst-named valley being north-west, in tin- second north-iiortiiwest. The
points referred to are not, however, spoken of as limiting ones, for rock exposures suit-
able for the ))reservation of glaeiation aie rather infre(|uent on the lower ]iortions of
both rivers, and more extended examination may result in carrying evidenci' of the
same kind nnich fiu'ther toward the elevated ])lains of the lower Yukon. Neither
the Pelly valley nor that of tlie Lewes is hemmed in by high mountainous country
excei)t towards tlie sources, and while local variations of tiie kind i)revious]y referred
to are met with, the glaeiation is not susceiitible of explanation by merely local agents,
btit rather implies the jiassageof a confluent or more or less connected glacier over the
region.

In the Lewes valley, both the sides and summits of rocky hills ;500 feet above the
water were found to l)e heavily glaciated, tiie direction on the summit being that of
the main (north-north-west) orographic valleys, while that at lower levels in the same
vicinity followed more nearly the iiumediate valley of tho river, which here turns
locallj- to the east of north.

(Jlaciation was .also noted in several places in the more mountainous country to the
south of the N'ukon basin, in the Dease and Liard valleys, but the direction of move-
ment of the ice could not be determined satisfactorilj-, and the influence of local action
is there less certainly eliminated.

Of the glacial deposits with which the greater part of the area of the inland region
is mantled it is not intended here t<j give any details, though it maybe mentioned
that true IJoulder-clay is frequently seen in the river sections, and tiiat tiiis generally
passes ujiward into, and is covered by important silty beds, analogous to the silts of
the Nechacco basin, further south in British Columbia, and to those of the Peace
River c<iuntry to the east of the Rocky Mountains. It Jnay be stated also that the
countrj' is generally terraced to a height of 4000 feet or more, while on an isolated
mountain-top near tho height of land between the Liard and Pelly rivers (Pacific-
Arctic watershed) rolled gravel of varied origin was found at a height of 4;i00 feet, a
height exceeding that of the actual watershed by over 1000 feet.

Reverting to the statements made as to the direction of the general glaeiation, tho
examinatitm of this northern region may now be considered to have established that
the main gathering-ground or nevi' of the great Cordilleran glacier of the west coast,
was included between the fifty-fifth and tifty-ninth parallels of latitude in a region
which, so far as explored, has proved to be of an exceptionally mountainous character.

* Annual Rei)ort (Jeol. Survey, Canada, 1885, p. 100 B.

fMr. F. (t, Wright has already given similar general statements with regard to
this part of the coast of Alaska, (American Naturalist, March, 1S87.)

220

CAlsADlAX (iKOUXiV.

It Would fiuther apiiuiir tliat tliis great glacifr oxti'iided, liotwccn tlif Ci^ast Hani,'o
and tlio Itiic'ky ^[(iiiiitiiiiis, south-eastward nearly to lat. -IS , and north-wistward to
lat. 03 , or lioycuid, whik- sending also Hniallcr streams to tliu Pacific Coast.

In conniction with the northerly direction of ice-tlow here nieiitioiieil, it is inter-
esting to recall the ohservatioiis which I have coUecteil in a recently [lulplished report
of the (ieological ijiurvey, relating to the northern portion of the continent east of the
Mackenzie River.* It is there stated tliat for the Arctic coast of the continent, and
the islands of the archiiiclago otf it, there is a considerable volume of evidence to
show that the main direction of movements of erratics wiia northminl. The most
striking facts are those derived from I'rof. S. Houghton's Appendix to .M'Clintock's
Voyage, where the occurrence is descriiwd of Ijoiilders anil jjel'hles from North
Somerset, at localities 100 and l.'i-"> miles north-eastward and north-westward from
tiieir s\ii)posed points of origin. Prof. Haugliton also states that the east side of
King William's Land is strewn with boulders of gneiss like that of Montreal Island,
to the sotithwarl, and points out the general nortliwird ice-movement thus indicated,
referring the caniage of tiio boulilers to floating ice of the ( Jlacial Period.

The copper saiJ to be picked uji in large masses by the Kskimo, near Princess
Royal Island, ii> r rinco of Wales Strait, as well as on Prince of Wales Island, t lias
likewiiio, in all probability been derived from the copiier-licariiig rocks of the Copper-
mine River region to the soutli, as this metal can scarcely be supp<ised to occur in
l)lace in the region of horizojital limestone where it is found.

Dr. A. Armstrong, Surgeon and Naturalist to the "Investigator," notes the
occurrence of granitic and other crystalline rocks not only on th-^ south shore of Piaring
Land, but also on the hills at some distance from the shore. These, from what is now
known of the region, must be supposed to have come from the continental land to
the southward.

Dr. Bessels, again, remarks on the abundance of b.uildeis on the shore of .'smith's
Sound in lat. 81' 30', which an^ manifestly derived from known localities on the
Greenland coast much farther southward, and adds, " Drawing a conclusion from
such observations, it becomes evident that the main line of the drift, indicating the
direction of its motion, runs from south to north. +

It may further be mentioned that Dr. R. Bell, of the Canadian (Ieological Survey,
has found evidence of a northward or north-eastward n.ovement of the glacier-ice in
the northern part of Hudson Ray, with distinct indications of eastward glaciation in
Hudson .Strait. § For the northern part of the great Mackenzie Valley we are as yet
without any very definite information, but .Sir J. Richardson notes that Laurentiau
boulders are scattered westward over the nearly horizontal limestones of the district.

Taken in conjunction with the facts for the more southern portion of the ct)ntinent,
already pretty well known, the observations here outlined would appear to indicate a
general m<ivement of ice outward, in all directions, from the great Laurontian axis or
plateau which extends from Labrador round the southern extremity of Hudson Bay
to the Arctic Sea ; while a second, smaller, though still very important region of
dispersion— the Cordilleran glacier-mass — occupied the Rocky Mcmntain region on
the west, with the northern and southern limits before approximately stated.

* Notes to accomp.any a Map of the Northern Portion of the Dominion of Canada,
east of the Rocky Mountains, p. 57 R., Anuual Report, 1880,
t De Ranee, in Nature, vol. xi, p. 492.
X Nature, vol. ix.

§ Annual Report Geol. Surv. Canada, 1885, p. 14 D.D. ; and Report of Progress,
1882-84, p. 30 D.D.

BRITISH COLUMBIAN REOION.

221

Tlio .u'uld of r.ritish Ciilum])ia 1ms Ion;,' 1)P(mi knoM-n ami workL'd in
placer deposits alon;,' tlio gold or second niniuitaiii raiiL;o. at. Cariljoo,
Cassiar, ami elsewhere. The original site of this gold is in the slaty rocks
of this range. Silver ores and native silver are found at various places
in British Coluinljia (Fort Hope, Cheny Creek, etc.) The Cretaceous
coal of Xanianio, in Vancouver Island, is extensively mined and lieds of
AnthraeiK." liave l)een opened in the Cretaceous troughs of the Kocky
^lountaiiis.

ilfl

222 Cans jK'i't 118 uj the Rock Formations of tin: Colutnhian Ri'ijion,

Coast IlEiiiox.

I.NTKKIOR IlEtilON. RtH'KY MolXT. KEdlON

1^- Ri'fi'iit Raisi'd lU'.'irlu's. Strut ificd Sainls and

2 Stiatitifd Saiim. (iiavoLs and ( iravfls. "Wli. Silts"
^ ClavH iM'"'i"' «' i-'""). I i)f Ni't'liacca, etc.

A IJouldur CUy or Till. i., ., ... .„ .' , .,,.,, '

>>|l*li<'ceiio(/)Pi'e-,i{lacial Lti'avuls .Miocuuu (Volcanic). Sliak's and SaiulstnnL's
.3 (uft.Mi AuritViniiH) Minceno (StMiimi-nUry, (if tlio Flat lioad rivois.

t Mlncunu (NolcaiiR'l. j

gi Mi()cun(.'(''^''<ii'"<'"t'i''y.M'"'i"'''^iit'ii«. )'

with life'iiitiH).

S'diutiiiii) Jiimiit

Siindst

Ciimii.r liimiit

3291' I'j). C«>n<^. 320'
V\>. Shaius 776'
Mid. ("Diig. iioo'
Mid.Shiiius 76'
L. Coni,'. 900'
L. Shales WW
1320' I'n.dnctivc Coiil Muaa. 73iC

Cliininf Ciii.

■- (t^uotsina. ftc )

(JiiiDi ChirU'tte
Islands.

jj'A. rp. Shalos

B. Coni^lonier-
atus.
C. L.Sandst.
iV- Shales'

(witli colli)

A. l\ Shales A

Sandst. looo'

B. Conglomer-
ates. 2000'

C. L. Shales iV:
Sandst. 5000

(with cnlll)

D. Wanting. D. Agglouier-

! ate. 3500

E. Wanting. ,E. L. Sand-

St. Alary River Series

(l>li:l.')

Fox Hill and Pierre.
I'lelly River Series.
Benton A' Nial)rara. iwo
Vojoanie rocks (iijuaii2750
Dakota |,
Koiitanie |

7IIIXJ'

Stones. 1000

Iltasyoueo Beds lO.ooo'
Ancella Beds of Tat-
layocii, .laek.iss Mt.
and Skagit "mw also
roeks on the Lewes,
Skoena and Nechacco
rivers and elsewhere,
often including vol-
canic materials.

Viinconver Series (hirjidy vdi- >^' jg,,].^ Series (largely IMonotis I?eds of North-
ern Rocky Mts. Red
BedsofS. Rocky Mts.

cniiic, Imt with Monotis shiilcs ami, Vdlciiiiic, liut with .Miuin-
liiiiestunes. tis shah'S and limt'stones

n'oL)."""'"^ ■voicaniOjL„^,.y,. i^.^^ff Shales.
rVltered Volcauic;Low. Banti' Limestones.

(t'(iW)"iu/r)-(iiM.) I it'tirhiinij'rrnm). [Viii-hiitiifimim).

Altered Volcanic Itocks and Cache Creek (ironp.i^'pper B;infi'S]iales.
Limestones (thesf have not yet, (i.initptdni's, (luartzit.'s L'p. Banff Limestones,
liceii ilistiiictly si'iiarati li from th
Vancouver Siries). ^

rocks, limestones.] Uhvimhm).

slates and (piart- Intermediate Limest.

ziteS(liccomin|j; schistic! (Silurian).

locally. I'ruhai.ly r^fcr- Halysites Beds.

alilf to vario\is horizons •'

of thf raliiMiziiic. tmt
nut yet euli-diviiled).

(Cambrian).

Quartzites, Slates,
etc., of Pnrcell it
Selkirk ranges.

(Ca)n\)ro-Silurian.)

(irajitolitic

Shales.

Castle Mt.

Limestone,

(Upper

part).

(Catiihrian).

Castle Mt.

Limestone.

(Lower

part).

iBovv River Group.

;^!Portion8 of Basal Rocks of

Coast Ranges (?)•

(iineissic it Schistose,
rocks of Shnswapi
L. & Gold Range.!

223

y. TIIK ARCTIC OR IHJI)S( »\IAX RKCIOX.

Tliis lias as yc-l Ikmmi only luirtially survcycil liy tlu; nHircrs of tlio
Canailiaii SurvL'y, principally hy l)r. R. iiell, and our infornialion n'sju'ct-
ing it is largely due to tliu obMTvations inado and spocinicns and fads
collected by the various exploring cxpcilitions. The following siiinniary
is chiefly derived from l)r. 1 )a\vsoirs " Notes to accompany a map i .' the
Xorthi-rn portion of Canada," INST.

Thi; region includes what may lie termed the Canadian portion of the
liasin of the Arctic Sea, extending from Creenland, Hallin Laud and
Labrador on the east to Alaska on tlu; west. It consists in great part of
the northern portion of the great Areha'an nucleus of the continent with
belts of I'akeozoic and later rocks around Hudson JJay and the Arctic
Sea, and in the valley of the Mackenzie River.

1. (ii'tii'i-al G'(i/i)i/icaf Strucfiiri'. — The Arclntan or Eozoic rocks are
dominant in the northern part of the continent. They form also, so far
as has lieen ascertained, the greater part of Greeidaud, and doidjtless
underlie, at no great depth, the entire Arctic archipelago. While the
information available is sutlici'Mit to indicate the existence of the dilfer-
ent subdivisions of the Arch; which are met with in the southern por-
tion of Canada, including the lowest Liurentian or granitoid gneiss series,
the Middle Launmtian, [)ossilily the peculiar rocks classed as the "Tppcr
Laurontian," and certain of the more schistose and geniindly darker
coloured and more basic rocks ^ilassed as Iluronian, it is far too imperfect
to admit of the separation of these subdivisions on the map. It is evi-
dent that the Iluronian is represented in parts of the west coast of Green-
land, and it is probably also recognizaljle on the Labrador coast, and on
the west coast of Hudson Bay, and possible that it is elsewhere present
over the Archrean area, in proportions as great as it has been found to hold
where these rocks have been subjected to more systematic and detailed
investigation. The distribution of the Iluronian is important from an
economic point of view, on account of its generally metalliferous character,
which may eventually give value to tracts of country in wliich the rigor-
ous nature of the climate entirely precludes the possibility of agriculture.

While the term Cambrian may be interpreted in the widest sense,
namely, as including all rocks above the Iluronian, to the base of the
Cambro Silurian of the Canadian Geological Survey, and the reference of
the rocks of the region here treated of to the Cambrian is based entirely
on lithological and stratigraphical grounds, the rocks so classed are, as far
as known, probably referable to the Lower Cambrian. It is further quite

224

CANADIAN (iKOLOCV.

■ 1
;!'i

oviik'ut tliiit ill the I'xteiisivo nroa wliicli has boon coloured mi tlic map us
Ciimlti'ian on tlus Arctic coast, in tlic vicinity of the Cojipcrniino River,
the rorks lire aniiloj,'ons in cliaracter to thuse of tlie Kewenaw or Aniinikio
of tiie Lake Suiieiior re,L;ion, aii'l prohal)!}' represent both j,'roups of that
groat ciiiiper-ltearin^' serii's. TIk mere oeeurroneo of native copper in
consiili'ialile (piantities on liie ("oppeiinine, in association with pnOinite
anil othrr mineials resomblinj,' thosuwliich accompany iton Lake Superior,
gives [\ jiriina farir prol)ability to tliis correlation, which is borne out by
a more careful study of Sir. .1. Kiohardson's accurate notes, and was
recognised by Richardson himself, who hail examined both regions. Prof.
]{. 1'. Irving states th..t the Animiki(! of Hunt, or " Lower (linup " of
Logan, oil Lake Superior, is composed of a great thickness of (piartzitos,
(piartz-slate.s, argillaceous or clay-slate.s, magnetic (juartzitos and sand-
."toiies, thin limestone beds, anil beds of a cherty or jaspery material,
associated with coar.se gabbro and line grained diabase (Copper-Hearing
Rocks of Lake Superior, 1S83, p. 37'.),) while the overlying Kewenaw
series is made up of similar basic crystalline rocks, with inteiliedded
detrital rocks, chielly reildish conglomerates and .sandstones, the con-
glomerates consisting, for the most part, of pebliles of acidic crystalline
rocks. A comjiarison of the above description with that of Richardson of
the rocks of the Coppermine, shows the practical lithological iilentity of
the two widely separated areas.

Though not a geologist, Captain I'mck, who had seen the Coppermine
rocks, referred the formation coloured as Cambrian on Great Slave Lake,
to the same series, from its lithological similarity ; to which also the
doubtfully placed area of Cambrian on Hack's route from Great Slave
Lake to the mouth of Great Fi.sh River is attril)uted. To this forma-
tion also may be referred the gre *- volcanic series, described by Dr. R.
Bell as t'ae Manitounuck grour : east coast of Hudson IJay, and

the red sandstones of his ' .tiate group," ■wliich he regards as

nnconfornnbly underlyin uiitounuck rocks, may possibly also be-

long to the Keewenaw or * luikie.

Throughout the whole of the vast northern part of the continent, this
characteristic. Cambrian formation, composed largely of volcanic rocks,
apparently occupies the same unconformable position with regard to the
underlying Laurentian and Hurouian systems. Its present remnants
serve to indicate the position of some of the earliest geological basins,
which, from the attitude of the rocks, appear to have undergone com-
paratively little subsequent disturbance. Its extent entitles it to be recog-
nized as one of the most important geological features of North America.

ARCTIC RWilON.

226

ime
ike,
the
Shive

H'lllil-

. R.

and
s as
I Ije-

tliis
ocks,
the
lants
isiiis,
coin-
ecog-

ca.

Till' Sihiriim and Cainhro-Sihiriaii (I'pjicr and Ldwuf Sihirian) ntcks
aro chiftly palo limustonos, often of a yellowisli or i;roain colour and
frequently more or less doloniitic. They rest everywhere uncoiiforniahly
on the Archaian or on the Canihrian rocks, and one of their most constant
features ajjpears to be the existence of a /one of red sandstones or arena-
ceous limestones and C(,•^^'lonu'rales at tlit! liase, a fact which leads us to
suspect that the red sandstones of Tunnudleorhick and Ij,'alliko in
Greenland, which have l)een doubtfully referred on lith(jlogical grounds
to the Permian, Devonian and Cambrian, may belong in reality to tho
Silurian.

This great .Silurian and Cambro-Silurian limestone series is very widely
develo[)i:d, and is, in most places, nearly horizontal and undisturbed,
•with long light undulations in the bedding or persistent and uniform dips
at very low angles. The.se featunjs are very prominently shown in tho
sketches of many parts of the coast line in the Arctic islands, reproduced
in the volumes of voyagers. l>ut for the undisturlieil and Hat condition
of the limestones, and the formations overlying them in the Arctic i)asin,
it would be impo.ssible, with the fragmentary geological information
available, to ofler any proximately correct geological mai) of the region
as a whole.

In a paper printed in the report of the British Association for 1855,
J. W. Salter states that the Silurian fossils, obtained up to that time,
showed a uniform horizon of U[)per Silurian limestone, stretching from
near the entrance of Jiarrow Strait to Melville Island and far to the
south along Prince Regent Inlet, and argues therefrom a wide extent of
circumpolar land in Lower Silurian (Cambro-Silurian) times. In this he
was followed, two years later, by Sir R. Murchison, who writes : — "I
am led to believe that the oldest fossiliferous rock of the Arctic regions
is the Upper Silurian." (Appendix to McClure's voyage, p. 40- ; Siluria,
p. 440.) Though the Upper Silurian beds undoubtedly occupy a great
part of the American polar region, characterizing the "south of North
Devon and nearly all the islands south of Melville and Lancaster sounds,
including the south of Jianks Lantl, Prince of Wales Land, King William
Land, North Somerset, Boothia Felix, etc." (Fielden and De Ranee,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiv.), the occurrence of Lower Silurian
(Utica) fossils in Frobisher Bay, as shown by Hall's collections, on the
shores of Kennedy Channel, as determined by Etheridge, and the occasional
discovery of Lower Silurian forms in the regions above, referred in a gen-
eral way to the Upper Silurian, prove that the generalization made by
Salter and Murchison, on the evidence of less complete collections, can-

226

CANADIAN GKOL(JGY.

not now l)e admitted, and that the limestones of the Arctic represent pro-
bably the wliolo of the Siluro-C'imbrian and Silurian, and possibly part
of the Devonian. (See Fielden and De Kance, loc. rif.) lleor enumer-
ates the followinij places, besides tlioso above particularly referred to, as
yieldin<,' Lower Silurian types :— North Devon, Cornwallis Island, Griffith
Island, west coast of King William Land, ISouthia (Flora Fossilis Arctica
vol. i., \). 21.)

The above allusion to the possibly Devonian ago of part of the lime-
stones of the Arctic basin proper, is o'^ '.terest in connection with the
question of the relation of these limestones to the equally inq)ortunt lime-
stone series of the ^lackenzie River Region. The early reference of an
extensive portion of these latter to the Silurian by Isbister and others,
can scarcely now be maintained, since ]Meek, as the result of his examina-
tion of the most ample collection of fossils which has ever been brought
together from the Mackenzii; valley, r(!ports the existence in tlie lime-
stones of Devonian forms alone, though, as he cautiously remarks, he is
not prcp^M'ed to deny tiie existence ot Silurian rocks. This Devonian
facias is maintained by the limestones of the ^Mackenzie valley to the very
shores of the Arctic Sea, as sliown by tlie occurrence of Hamilton group
fossils on the Anderson River.

Rocks of the Lower Carboniferous or so-called " I'rsa Stage" are
widely distributed in the Arctic Archipelago, and their character, as de-
scribed by Prjf. Haughton from an examination of the specimens Ijrought
back by voyagers is similar to that of these rocks in Spitzbergen, as de-
scribed by Heer, and to the Ilorton series of Xova Scotia. This formation,
which both from its extent, and in its character as a coal-bearing series is
a very important one, should apparently be regarded througliout as Lower
Carboniferous and e(|uivalent to the Tweedian of the north of England
and of Scotland, and to the Culm of fiermany.

It may be noted that we are as yet without the data for any accurate
estimate of the entire thickness of these or the previously mentioned
rock-series of the Arctic basin.

Certain small outlying areas in the nortliern part of the Arctic Archi-
pelago have been referred to the Lias. These it appeared possible might
now be assigned to the " Alpine Trias," a formation which since the above
reference was made has been found to bo wide-spread and important in
the Cordillera region of North America as far north as the nortliern part
of Dritish Columbia, and is also characteristically developed in Spitzbergen
and the north-west of Siberia. This question was referred to Prof. S.
Haughton, who had originally described the fossils on which the age of

are
as de-

L'Ollght

as de-
lation,
;ries is
,o\ver
"land

Archi-
might

Ibergen
frof. S.
1 age of

ARCTIC REGION.

227

tlu' beds in questii)n hud bucn di'lonniiic(l. The lesidt (d a critical
re-exannnation of tlie fossils, wliicii I'rof. IlaughloM was so kind as to
have made, app'-ars, however, rather to eniiliriii ihe origiiiiil Li;issic or
Jiu'assic referoiico of these northern rocks.

TIk' Tertiary rocks of the Mackenzii; Kiver and of Greenland, so remark-
able for their rich lloraof temperate aspei;t, liave usually been referred to
the Miocene, Ijut it now seems certain that the greater jiart are really of
Laraune or Kocene age. This seems evident froui their fossil llora as
describetl by lleer and others.

2. Miu'h'i'ii::)!' RinrDixfrirfauiJ Arctic Codst. — According to Richardson
and other observers, the valley of the Mackenzie River froui Arthabasca
Lake to the Arctic Hea is occupied principally l)y Pa!a>ozoie rocks of
Silurian and l)evonian age with proljaldy a narrow Ixdt (d Cambrian in
the hills west of the mouth of the river. The remainder of tlu; river
valley, more especially in its southern part ai"l toward the Peace River,
is occupied with Cretaceous and Larande beds, the latter atlbrding in
some j)laces abundance of characteristic plants which have lieen ilescril)ed
by Ileer.

(Jii the coast, west of Mackenzie; River, the Cretaceous and Larande beds
extend as far as Cape Parry. From this place to Coronation (lulf, at the
mouth of the Coppermine River, quartzite, slate and limestone, supposed
to be of Cambrian age, predominate. Tu the i.-lands to the north aiul
east are great bnjadths of .SiluroCambrian and Silurian limestones, and
the peninsula of Boothia consists of an axis of Laiu'entian with Sihu'o-
Cambrian and Silurian rocks which also line the great Laurentian mass
between the (lulf of Poothia and liaiHn's Pay.

3. HuiJson liaij. — The basin of IPulson ISay, as described by Rae and
Bell, is surrounded l)y LaiU'entian rocks bordered by lluronian and Palaso-
zoic rocks, including fossiliferous Silurian lime.Ntones. On tlu; west side
tlie.se rocks extend northward to Cape Ivsquimaux and occur also on the
south side of Hudson 15ay, the wide tract of Laurentian rocks which
extends to the Labrador coast, forming tin; shore of the bay, except
toward the south, where n :ks of Cand>rian age are reported. They con-
sist of limestones, sandstones and ipiartzites, shales and ironstones, associ-
ated wdth basalts and amygdaloid.s. At the south end of .lames' Pay are
Devonian rocks from which Dr. I'ell has obtained numerous species of
fossils deternuned by Mr. Whiteavo-s.* At the south end of Hudson's
Bay are al.so Pleistocene beds with ligidte and marine fossils, Saxicava

• Survey of Canada, 1877-8.

228

CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

rugosa, Macoma calcarea, Mija truncata.
been found.

Bones of Mastodon liavn also

4. Tlic Arctic Archipdarjo and coast of GfeenlaivJ. — In the. appendix
to McClintock's Voyage, Prof. Haughton has described this region, and
arranges the formations represented as follows : —

1. Granitic and Granitoid rocks, probably in great part Laurentian
gneiss, i^c.

2. Silurian, consisting of Red Sandstone overlaid by fossiliferous lime-
stones.

3. Carboniferous rocks, including limestone beds (Ilorton Series) with
plants aiiL. marine limestones.

4. Lias or ]\Iesozoic rocks holding Aiamoniti:», Monotis, &c., and a
Saurian, Arctosaurus Oshorni.

5. Cretaceous and Tertiary, apparently of the same age with those on
the coast of Greenland, and holding fossil plants.

6. Superficial deposits, which seem to be for the most part sands and
clays with marine fossils.

The Carboniferous beds of the Arctic islands arc thus described by
Haughton : — " The Upper Silurian limestones, already described, are suc-
ceeded by a most remarkal)le series of close-grained white s-andstones, con-
taining numerous beds of highly bituminous coal, and Imt few marine
fossils. In fact, the only fossil shell found in these beds, so far as I
know, in any part of the Arctic Archipelago, is a species of ribbed Atnjpa,
•which I believe to be identical with the Atnjpa fallax oi the Carbonifer-
ous slate of Ireland. These sandstone beds are succeeded by a series of
blue limestone beds, containing an abundance of the marine shells, com-
monly found in all parts of the world where the Carboniferous deposits
are at all developed. The line of junction of these deposits with the
Silurian on which they rest is N.E. to E.N.E. (true.) Like the former,
they occur in low, flat beds, sometimes rising into cliff's, but never reach-
ing the elevation attained by the Silurian rocks in Lancaster Sound.

" Coal, sandstone, clay-ironstone and brown haematite were found along

a line stretching E. X. E. from IJaring Island, through the south of

Melville Island, Ilyam-Martin Island, and the whole of liathurst Island.

Carboniferous limestone, with characteristic fossils, was found along the

north coast of Bathurst Island, and at Hillock Point, ]\lelville Island."

From a comparison of diiferent coal exposures noted by McClintock,
!McClure, Austen, Belcher and Parry, in the Parry Islands, Prof.
Haughton has laid down the approximate outcrops of some of the coal

ARCTIC REGION.

229

along
ith of
sland.

rr the

u.l."
intock,
Prof,
e coal

beds. Those he liiids to agree remarkably well with the trend of the
boundary of the formation drawn from totally different data. In connee-
tion with this place it is noteil tliat the Carboniferous sandstones under-
lie the limestones, and that " it is highly jjrobable tliat the coal beds of
]\[elville Island are very low down in the series, and do not correspond in
geological position with the coal beds of Europe."

The followi.ig account of the Cretaceous and Tertiary of Greenland is
condensed from lleer : —

I. C'HKrACKOUS.

1. Tlie Komc series, of black slialea resting on the Laurentian gneiss. Tliese beds
are found ;it various otiier localities, but the name above given is that by which they
are generally known. Their flora is limited to ferns, cycads, conifers, and a few endo-
gens, with only Fopulus prinui'va to represent the dicotyledons. These beds are
regarded as Lower Cretaceous (Urgonian,) but thi' animal fossiN would seem to give
them a ratiier higiier iio.sition. They may bi' regarded as equivalent to the Kootanio
and C^ueen Charlotte Ijeds in Canada, and the I'otomac series in Virginia.

2. The Ataiic series. These also are black shales with dark-coloured sandstones.
They are best exposed at Upernavik and Waigat. Here dicotyledonous leaves abound,
amounting to ninety species, or more than lialf the whole number of species found.
The fossil iilants resemble those of the Dakota series of the United States and the
Dinivegan series of Canada, and the animal fossils indicate tiie horizon of the Fort
Pierre or its lower part. They may be regarded as representing tlie lower part of the
U[)per Cretaceous. Tiie genera I'opiilas, Mi/rira, Qiicrcns, Firii.t, Platnnns, SdMafvas,
Lanvus, Mai/tiolin, and LirinihiKlron are among those represented iu these lu'ds, and
the i>eculiar genera Mdcclintockia and Creilncria are characteristic. The gemts J'inus
is rein-esented by five species, Scqnnia by five, and Sulialturia by two, with three of the
allied genus Bdicrii. There are many ferns and cycads.

3. The Patoot series. These are yellow and red siiales, which seem to owe their
colour to the spontaneous comi)ustion of i yritous lignite, in the manner observed on
the South Saskatchewan and tlie Mackenzie rivers. Their age is proljably aljout that
of the Fox- Hill groui) or .Senonian, and the I'pper Cretaceous of N'at.couver Island,
and tiiey afford a large ])roportion of dicotyledonous leaves. Tiie genera of dicoty-
ledons are not dissimilar from those of Atane, but wo now recognise Bctn/a and Aliiu!>,
('umiitDiiiii, Pliiiicru, Sdiiotarilen, Frcruiun, I'ihiiniuni, Co/vik.s, Acer, ('chmtnix,
P(illiirii,i, Ceuiwtkiis, Zi:yi)hi(!<, and ('rdtmiii.t as new genera of modern aspect.

On the whole there have been found in all these beds 335 species, belonging to liO
families, of which 'M> are dicotyledonous, and reiiresent all the leading types of arl)or-
escent dicotyledons of the temperati' latitudes. The flora is a warm temperate one,
witii some remarkable mixttires of subtropical forms, among wiiicli perhaps the most
remarkable are Kdklucarpiua referred to the Pundain iv, and such exogens as Firua and
CunuiiiKjiiiniii.

II. Tkutiahv.

4. The UiHirtok series. This is believed to be Eocene. It consists of sandstone,
whicii apjiears on the shores of Disco Islam), and jinssibly at some other places on the
coast. T1h> beds rest directly and apparently conf(jrmably on the Ujiper Cretaceous,
and iiave afforded only eleven species of plants. Magiwlia is represented by two species,

230

CANADIAN 0E0L()(;Y.

Laurns hy two, Platiaiun by two, and one of tln'sc siiid to bo identical with n sjiecies
found by licsqiiciinix in tlic Tjiiraniic,* Vihurnuu}^ Jinildii!!, (Jucrriis, each liy one
species ; tlie ubicjuitous Seiiuoias Ijy .S'. Lttiuiadnrffi. This in i)retty ch'arly a Lower
Laramie flora.

"). The AUinekcriUuk series, eonsistinj? of shaly be(ls, with limestone intercalated
between throat sheets of basalt, mucli like tlu; lOocene of Antrim and tlie Hebiides.
These beds have yielded 187 species, i)rincii)ally in bands and concretions of xiilcrite,
and often in a ^,'ood state of preservation. They are referred to tne Lower Miocene,
but, as explained in th(^ text, the flora is more nearly akin to that of the Kocene of
Europe and the Jjaramie of An;erica. The animal fossils are chiefly fresh-water shells.
Onoclea scnxihilis, several conifers, as Taxitct Olriki, Tdxodiitm didichiim, (I'liiiitosh'ohiis
Europans, and S«intna LaiujKil irffi, and -fi of the dicotyledon.s are recoi^'nized as found
also in American localities. Of these, a large proportion of the more common species
occur in the l'|)per Laramie of the Mackenzie River and elsewhere in north-west
Canada, and in the western United States. It is quite likely also that several species
regarded as distinct may prove to be identical.

It Would seem that throui^hoiit tiie whole thickness of these tertiary beds the flora
is similar, so that it is i>robable it bi'lon;<s altogether to the Jvicene rather tiian to the
ISIioceiie.

No in<lication has been <ibserved of any period of cold intervening ))etween the
Lower Cretaceous and the top of the Tertiary deposits, so that, in all the vast period
which these formations represent, the climate of CJreenland would seem to iiave been
temperate. There is, however, as is the case farther south, evidence of a gradual
diminution of temperatvu-e. In the Lower Cretaceous the jirobable mean annual tem-
jierature in latitude 71' north is stated as 21° to 22 centigrade, while in the early
Tertiary it is estimated at 12^ centigiade. Such temperatures, ranging from 71 to M"
of Fahrenheit, represetit a marvellously warm climate for so high a latitude. In jmint
of fact, however, the evidtMice of warm climates in the arctic regions, in the I'aheozoic
as well as in the Mesozoic and early Tertiary, should perhaps lead us to concluiie that,
relatively to tlie whole of geological time, the |)reseHt arctic climate is uniisually se\ ere,
and that a temperate climate in the arctic regions has throughout geological time been
the rule rather than the exce|ition.

It is iutt'ix'stiiig to note tliiit tliu driftago of erratics in the Arctic basin
seems to have been iiortlnvard. The foUowing extract refers to this, f —

"Along the Arctic coast, ami among the ishiiitls of the archipehigo,
there is a consichu'able vohime of evidence to sliow thai tlie main direc-
tion of movement of erratics was uorthwavd. Thus, boulders of granite,
supposed by Prof. Ilaughton to Ije derived from Xorth Somerset, arc
found 100 miles to the north-eastward, (Appendix to McClintock's
Voyage, )). 374,) and pebbles of granite, identical with that of Granite
Point, also in North 8omer.set, occur 135 knots to the north-west. (Op.
cit. p. 37G.) The east side of King William Land is also said to be
strewn with boulders like the gneiss of Montreal Island to tiie southward.
Prof. Ilaughton shows the directiim and distance of travel of .some of

* Viburnum mari/imttum of Lesquereux.
t Dr. Dawson's Notes, ]>. 57.

lllltO

(Op.

1 l)i>

•anl

e of

ARCTIC RECJION.

231

thesf) fragincuts by arrows on liis j,'i'()l()ifi(;al iiiapof tlie Arctic arcliipcla^Lfo,
and rev(.'rt.s to tlie same subject on pa^os IVJ'.] and 31)4, pointing' out tlie
general nortliward luoveniunt of ici; indicated, and referriiiLj tlie carriage
of the boulders to floating ice of the glacial period.

" Near Princess-Koyal Islaml, in I'rince-of- Wales Strait, and also on
the coast of I'rince-of- Wales Islaml, the copper saiil to be picked up in
large masses by the Eskinu), (De Kanee, Xatiu'e, Vol. xi. p. 492.) may be
supposed to Ije derived from the Cambrian rocks of the Coppermine river
region to the .south, as it is not probable that it occurs in place anywhere
in tin; region of horizontal limestone where it is found.

"Dr. Armstrong, previously (juoted, notes the occurren ■" .,.. granitic
and other crystalline rocks, iu)t only on the south shore of I'.aring Laiul,
but also on the hills iidaml. These, from what is now knnwn of the
region, can scarcely be supposed to have come from l ^where than the
continental land to the southward.

"In an account of the scientilic residt.. -f the 'Polaris' expedition,
(Nature, vol. ix,) it is stated of the west coast of Smith's Sound, north of
the Humboldt glacier, that ' wherever the locality was favorable,' the land
is coveri'd l»y drift, sometimes contaiuiiin' veiy characteristic lithological
specimens, the identification of which witli rocks of South (Ireeuland,
was a very easily accomplished task. For instance, garnets of unusually
large size were found in lat. 81° 30', having marked mineralogical charac-
ters by which the identity with some garnets from Tiskernaces was
established. Drawing a conclusion from such observations, it became
evident that the main line of the drift, indicating the direction of its
motion, runs from south to north. It should be stated, however, that
Dr. Bessels, who accompanied the ' Polaris ' expeilition, regards these
erratics as certainl}' not transported l)y glaciers, but by floating ice, and
as showing that the current of Davis S'.'ait was formerly to tiie north
and mU to the south, as at present. (Pull. Soc. Geog., l*aris, vol. ix.,
1885, p. 297.)

" It may further bo nu tioned as bearing on the general question here
referred to, that Dr. P>ell iias found evidence of a northward or north-
eastward movement of glacier-ice in the northern part of Hudson Pay,
(Annual Report Geol. Survey of Canada, 1875, p. 14, D.I),) with distinct
indications of eastward glaciation throughout Hudson Strait. (Re[)ort
of Progress, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1882-84, p. 3G, D.D.)

The facts so far developed in this northern part of the continent and in
the Arctic islands, thus point to a movement of ice outward in all directions
from the great Laurentian axis or plateau, which extends from Labrador

232

CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

round the soutliem extremity of Hudson's Bay to tlio Arctic Sea, rather
tlian to any general flow of ice from the vicinity of the geographical pole
southward.

VI. THE TERRAXOVAX OR NEWFOUNDLAND REGION.

A large part of the Island of Newfoundland is occupied with Lauren-
tian rocks. The western booundary of these extends south-west
throughout the length of the island, from near Hare Bay at the northern
extremity of the island to Cape Ray at its south-west end. The eastern
boundary of the Laurcntian forms the west coast of White ]!ay, and
south-east of this is broken l)y belts of newer strata, beyond which it
forms a sinuous line from Cape Freels on the east coast, to Fortune
liay. The extreme breadth of this Laurcntian district is therefore about
1.50 miles, and the general strike; of its beds seems to be N. E. and .S.W.
Its continuity is, however, interrupted by two areas of Palajozoic rocks
resting on it. One of these is a great tract of Cambrian and Siluro-
Canibrian rocks presenting a broad front to the Atlantic at Notre iJame
Bay, and forking into three l)i'anches before reaching the 8(Uitli coast.
It includes great breadths of ser[)entine, associated with chldrilic slates,
diorites, etc., and also a long trdugh of Silurian rocks.

The second and narrower lireak is that stretching to the south-west
from White Hay, along the Ilumber River to St, CJeorge's Bay, where
it is united with tiie I'aLTozoic of the west coast. It contains Siluro-
Cambriaii, Silurian and Carljonifcnius rocks.

To llic wi'stward of the Laurcntian nucleus, the ( lulf of St. Lawrence
coast is skirted with formations reaching in age from the Potsdam to the
Carlioniferous, and which, in their northern part, seem to lie faulted
against the Laurcntian.

To the eastward nf the Laurcntian nucleus the south-eastern portion
of the Isliiiiil, including the luMiinsula of Avalon, is occupied, with the
exception of two considerable patches of Laurcntian, by rocks referred
by ^lurray to the Huronian anil Lower and Middle Cand)rian.

These eastern rocks partake of the nnirginal and Atlantic character of
those of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, of which the eastern part of
Newfoundland may be regarded as a north-eastern continuation. The
Paloeozoic formations on the west cciast, on the other hand, constitute
the eastern margin of the great undisturbed area of the Gidf of St.
Lawrence.

The Huronian' rocks of Newfoundland consist of ijuartzites, diorites,

TERRANOVAN REGION. 033

slates and slate conglomerates, resembling those of tlio typical rc-ion
in Georgian Bay. Tlieir ..ppor beds have, however, atrurded the doubt-
ful f.)ssds known as Aspiddla and Arcnicolites spiralis.

Above these are reu .. .d green sandstones and conglomerates known
as the Signal Hill series. They correspoiul in mineral character and
geological relations to the Kewenian of the west, and the liasal Cambrian
of INIatthew, in ]S"ew Brunswick.

Next in succession are the Caml)rian beds, consisting largely of shales,
sometimes slaty, and sandstones, with some limestone. They appear tJ
include the lower members of the Caml)rian system as develoj-e.! on tlio
Atlantic coast. In a recent paper,* Walcott gives the section s.en on
Manuel s Brook, Conception Bay, as follows :
a. Archfean Gneisses. „

1. Oon^'loinerate re.stint? uncomforinably upon rt 35

2. Sancl.tono, shale and iiripun, li.nestone, with OlaHUusBrwj'jeri

sixteen species of the Olenellu.s fauna .... o")

3. Greenish argiHaceous shale T^

■1. Red do. do V.V

i"). Limestone .,

(3. •''■"'"'^f^^'^rgijlaceous shales with an abunda'nV ' I'amdoxidcs faun'a

7. Dark argillaceous shah's Pam<loxid,:^, Min-odisclil<' pMt,i^, "

Af/van/KS, Connco)-i//,ke, dr., etc. , near base S'l.")

8. Alternating bands of shale and sandstone, with r^rWw' in'm.'it ""

abundance ^ ,,,,,

4U0

Total, jn-i

Dip of .Strata, 12» to LV X. All strata inuiltered and undisturbed. '

This section includes the Lower au,l Middle Cambrian, and, acconlin-r
to ^^ alcott, proves that the 0/nt.//,s zone is l,.dow that of PamJa.ri,/,./

The Upper Cambrian or Uh'u us and DiMlna'phahis zone dnes not
seem to be recognized in southern Xewfoumllan.l, but occurs on the
strait of Belle Isle on the north, where it is continuous with the west
coast rocks of the interior type.

Rocks LMpiivalent to the (,)uebec group of Sir W. K. Lo^an orcupy a
considerable area in northern and western Xewfouudla.ub aud consi.st
of shales, samlstone and conglomerate, with beds of limestone, contain-
ing fossils characteristic of the Calciferous and Cliazv horizons. Like
those on tlu. Lower St. Lawrence, they are often thrown into sharp
folds. As uu the east side of the island, large areas of serpentine ac-
companied with altered slates, are associated with these rocks The
^giablea)pt^ of Tilt Cove Section are as sociated with these

* Nature, Oct. 1888.

234 CANADIAN GEOLOGY.

scrjK'ntiiics. In tlio narrow poiiin.siila nf Ldul,' P(jint, at the west side of
I'ort-i'i-l'ort liay, tliere are limestones wliicli contain fossils referaltle to
the Trcntdii jterioil, and whicli may indicate tlie outer margin of an ex-
tensive ai'ea of such limestones under the watisrs of the (lulf of St.
Lawrence, and resemljling this formation as it occurs in the interior
plateau of Xortli America and in the valley of the river St. Lawrence.

The Silurian l)eds are represented chiefly in the troughs running south-
west from White JJay and the J5ay of K.\])loits. They consist of con-
glomerates helow, overlaid l)y shales of various (pialities, and lieds of
sandstone, Init with only a meagre develnimient of limeslone, in this
resembling the Silurian of Nova Scotia. In the Hay of Kxploits region,
they are traversed l)y trap dykes and in places overlaid liy volcanic
breccia.

The fdssils niited are Far(i^ifi'>< aiillihunUca, Jfrlio/ifi'.-f, Zaphnntis
hrf/istri(i/(t, S/ri>ji/i/ir/)>'na r/nn/z/i'iiild/is, Alr>/pa vuticiilarh, Sfrid'hat-
<U)iia h'Hs, etc.

On the north side of White 15ay, and at its upper extremity, are small
areas of sandstones and conglomerates, in which fossil plants have l)een
found. The.se appear to be of Krian or Devonian age and the beds
themselves resemble the Gaspe sandstones. They occupy, however, only
very small areas so far as known.

The newest formation in Xewfoun<llanii, except the Pleistocene, is the
Carboniferous, whicli is limil('il to the trough extending from St. tJeorge's
liay on the west coast to ^Vhite llay on the east. It c(jnsists of two de-
tached areas, the larger fronting on St. George's I5ay, and the other on
the head waters of the 1 lumber liiver, not far fnjm the head uf "Wliite
iJay. In both areas beds occur representing the Lower Carboniferous
limestone, the Millstone Grit and the coal formation, or the lower part
of it. As in Xova Scotia, beds of gypsum occur in connection with the
limestone on St. George's Lay.

Murray gives the following general section of the formation as devel-
oped on St. George's Lay, in descending order :

Green iind red saiulstones witli brown, drub and black shales and

clays ; coal and fossil plants ... . 1000

Brown and rcildish sandstones and conglomerates and shales ;

fossil i)lants and thin layers of coal L'OOO

Variegated marls and red, green .and brown sandstones, with beds

of bhiisii and gray limestone, rich in marine fossils 2000

Beds of gypsmn with marls, sandstones and shales, and dark-
colored limestones and shales 150

Coarse conglomerate with boulders and pebbles of Laurentian and

Silurian rocks, lenticular beds of sandstone and shale 1 .'500

6450 feet.

THURANOVAN RKlJTON.

235

Tlio iippi'i' mcinbor of tlio above corresponds to llic lower part of the
productive coal formation in Xova Scotia. In Newfoundland the most
important bed of coal yet found in it is four feet thick. The second
member is the eiiuivaleiit of the millstonti _L;rit, the third and fourth of
the Windsor .series of Xova Scotia, and the last of the llorlon series, in
that form wiiich it as.sunies on the south side of the Cobequids in Nova
Scotia and in tlie lionaventure series in Quebec and Xew Ihainswick.

In speciiiicns cullected by Dr. R. Bull, :it St. George's I5ay, I have recopni/.ed tli(!
followiiif,' specii's, most of tlieiii found a'- in Xovii Scotia: — Scrpulitci uiniiiliilns,
Dawson ; C'diiii/nriii iil((nir(intiitii, Dawson ; Aririiluficrtcii Dihcrtianitu, DawsDU ; Hake-
vcllia (iiitiijiiii, Mont; I'lcronitcn (rai/eimU (var. oriKttnx,) Dawson; Ciipriftirili'i, sp.
Tvrcbvatula saccu/nn, Tilurtin ; S/tin'fcrd ijluhrit, Martin; Pritihictus KCmirdifnlntiiH.
Martin; /'. divd, l)"()rl)ij,'ny ; Slir/itnrlii/iicliits ciriiiiitri((, riiilliiis. Tln-ic is also a
new Scrpuliti's, (V. Murrnii, Dawson,) and a bi'autiful little ( !astroi)od, wliicli I have
named Macnirhtilus Tcrvaiwvkus.

In a small collection of fossil plants forwarded hy Mr. Murray tlirrc are two
sjieeiesof LeiiiiliKlcii'/roii, one of tlieni a]>i)arently new, ferns of tlie j,'enns Sii/icno/itcyis
and fossil wond of the genus Ihtdoxiihit.

The Pleistocene deposits are represented in X'ewfoumlland liy boulder
clay and by clays holding marine shells of recent species, and surroumled
by sand and gravel, as in most other parts of eastern America. Si_) far as
known the direction of drift has on the low grounds been from the north-
east, and there seems also evidence of local drift and striation from the
central highlands ilown the valleys toward the coast. These directions
mark ditrereiil stages of the great Pleistocene suljniergenee, in which
Newfoundland .seems to liave shared like other parts of eastern America.
In Xewfoundland, according to Richardson and llinde, there is evidence
of subnun'gence to the amount of P200 feet, and hills at the height of
2500 feet show evidence of ice-action.*

The economic resources of Xewfoundland, as described by Murray and
llowley, include copper ores (Tilt Cove, etc.), galena (Port-a-Port,) iron
ores, pyrites and ochres, gypsum and coal. (iold occurs in ipiartz veins
near JJrigus in Conception J5ay, in rocks regarded as Huronian. For
more full accounts of the economic nnneralsof the islaiul, reference may
be had to the Keports of ^Messrs. ^Murray and llowley, of the Geological
Survey of Xewfoundland.

* For the details see the author's Notes on the Post-Pliocene, 1872.

fl'

APPENDIX

PRINCIPAL MINEUAL CONSTITUENTS OF UOCKS.

The following descriptions are intendoil to alFonl the student con-
venient means of reference to the eluiracters of the more important
minerals referred to in the chapter on Lithology.

1. <j>UAIlTZ.

As familiar example?, Flint and Rock Crystal may be taken. The
former occurring in concretions in chalk and other calcareous rocks, was
probably one of the iirst mineral substances used by man ; l)eing the
material of the Hint implements of the "stone age." As nuartz is the
most commiin of minerals, and occurs in most silicious rocks, it may
serve as a typical mineral whereby to illustrate the terms used in other
cases.

Com posif ion. —Qnariz when pure is tfi/ica, a compound of the ele-
ments i<ilic(>n and oxj/f/cji. The former is an element not unlike carbon
or charcoal in many of its properties; the latter a gas and the most im-
portant ingredient of the atmosphere. Silica is thus an axiili: nf silicon,
and containing two comiiining proportions of Uxygen to one of Silicon,
its chemical name is xilicon dioxide.

Cri/.^fa//i::a/ion. — Its usual form is a six-sided pi'ism, terminated by a
six-sided pyramid. It thus Itelongs to the ILwcKjonal system of crystal-
lization. When mineral substances soliilify from the state of vapour,
from solution in water, or from a state of fusion, their particles tend to
arrange themselves along certain lines or axes, and thus to produce
crystals of definite geometrical forms. The law in the case of ([uartz is,
that its particles arrange themselves along three horizontal axis, or lines
of attraction, at angles of sixty degrees with -ach other, and along a
fourth axis at right angles to the other three. The six-sided plates and
six-rayed stars of snow are formed on the same principles.

MINERALOGY.

237

and

Perfect crystals of quartz are found lining rf/'ndes or cavities in rocks,
also the sides of fissures and veins, and sojuetimes imbedded in the sub-
stance of rocks. .Small crystals confusedly aggregated and imperfect,
owing to pressure, give i/rannlar rarirfics. Crystals so small that they
canntjt be discerned by tlie naked eye give criiptun'ijdaUiui' rariftirs.

Its Hanhirss is 7, measured by a scale in which talc is 1 and diamond
10. Tiie liardness of quartz is sutticient to enable it to scratch glass, to
resist the action of steel, and to feel gritty in the teeth.

Its Sp'-i'itJi- (imritij is 2.5 to 2.8, measured l)y a scale in whiiih water
is the unit. It is thus two and a half times heavier than water. (Juartz
being one of the most common minerals, and entering very largely into
the composition of rocks, in whicli also it is associated with many other
substances not very different in specific gravity, it follows that its specific
gravity is about that of most ordinary rocks, all of which are thus sufficiently
heavy to sink readily in water, but when immersed in water lose between
one lialf and one tliird of their weight.

Optical Characters. — Quartz is sometimes cohmrletfs, but becomes
coloured by mixture with other substances, especially oxides of iron.
The protoxide (ferrous oxide) gives dull green and l)lackisli colours — ■
the peroxide (ferric oxide) red colours, and the hydrous peroxide
yellow and brown colours. The lustre of quartz is, with reference to its
hind, vitreous or that of broken glass ; with reference to its (ti'(jree, it
varies from splendent, the lustre of perfect crystalline faces, to dull or
lustreless. The vitreous lustre is a good character whereby to distinguish
the mineral. The pure and crystalline varieties are transparent ; the
crypto-crystalline and coarse varieties translucent to opaque.

Quartz is brittle, ami its fracture concJioi'lal in the pure varieties. It
is infusible and insoluble in Avater and ordinary acids ; but may be fused
or dissolved in water, when combined with alkalis, as potash or soda.

Varieties of Quartz.
Quartz presents many varieties, which may be arranged under the heads
of (rt) Crystalline or vitreous, {b) Chalcedonic and (c) Jaspery.

(a.) Vitreous Varieties.

Rock Crystal. — Transparent and colourless, often in the definite crys-
talline form. Used for lenses, for ornamental purposes and to form imita-
tion gems or doublets.

Amethyst. — Purple and violet varieties, coloured by a minute quantity
of Manganese, or perhaps in some cases by iron and soda.

238

APPENDIX.

Ill

Rn^i' (liinrf::. —A more dolicntoly liiitcil pink variety.

Yr//i)wanif Snic/it/ Hitat'l::. — Ciillt'd Caini;,'orm (ir falso Topaz, of sinoky
or rich yi'Uowish and lirownisli hues; coloured l)y titanic acid, or liy
orj,'aiiic matter.

Cft/V Eiir, — Transparent (piarlz, containing liljres of asljc.<to.s, wliicli
give it a lustre ro.seiid)ling that of satin.

Arrutiirinc is translucent quartz s[)angled with brilliant scales of yellow
mica.

Tiic glassy varieties of quartz pass into common »(///,// '/itarf".

(h.) C/ia/criI(i)iir Vanities,

C/iafccdiini/ is the gentjral nanu; for colourless varieties having ft
glistening and simiewhat waxy lu.stre.

Canidian is a tle.sli coloured or red chalcedony coloured by iron. A
deeper red variety is called t«iril.

Aijatti is chalcedony with bands or spots of difl'erent textures and
colours. When these are in parallel layers it is called ouijj: Some of
the layers 1 icing al)sorbent, colourless agates of this kintl can be artificially
coloured. When some of the layers are of carnelian or sard it is called
sardonij.!-. These bandeil varieties are the material of cameos. When
translucent chalcedony is jienetrated with mossdike or dendritic filaments
of oxide of iron or manganese it is moss agate or Mocha stow.

Cliriisoprasc is a pale green variety coloured l)y oxide of nickel.
Green varieties coloured merely by iron are conuuon Prasf.

Flint and Chert are names for coarse chalcedonic varieties, usually
impure and of dull colours. A cellular variety is Bulir-stont; used for
millstones.

Agates are produced by the deposition of chalcedony in the cavities
of rocks, usually those of volcanic or igi\eous origin. When this pro-
cess is glow or intermittent, bands of various textures and colours are
formed in succession. Flint and Chert are formed by the slow collection
of silicious particles around centres by concretionary action. Hence they
often have fossil sponges, etc., in their interior. Wood imbedded in
rocks is often fossilized by silica, or silicified, so as to resem])le agate.

(c.) Jasper ij Varieties.
Jasper includes those varieties which are opaque and more or less
deeply coloured, usually by oxide of iron. Red jasper is one of the

MIN'KHALOdY.

23D

most c'oiiiiiiuii varieties ; ii lirnwn coloiircil or IxiihIimI jusiicr is eallwl
IJi/i/pfidu JiiAjnr ; f^'recu iunl n'll or i^a'ccii ainl yi'llow liamli'il varictica,
nro rihauif Ja^p' r : a <,'ri'L'ii varii'ly witli la'i'^'hl rcil spotM is hlnixhtone

or In liittnqii'.

(^)iiartz occurs very Ku^jciy in llic earth's crust, as saiul, sainlstouc and
quartz-rock m'^uartzite, ami also as a constituent uf many compound rocks.

2. FEr,sPAU.

Tlicrn aro several species of felspar ; but we may take as an cxaniplo
the most aliuiidant and most important species, n/7// </(•/«>•(' or cominoii
felspar.

In (Jh'iiiicnl C'liiiipimifiuii. it is a silicate of alumina and [miash. It
is not acted on by acids and is fusil)le with ditUcult}'.

Its C'ri/ftfal/ini' fonn is moiiu'-linic ; its particles bein.L,' arraiii^t.'d in ac-
cordance with three axes of crystallization — the two Imiizdiilal ones at
ri,t,dit anodes to each other, tiie third at an an,L,de of C)l\' 'y'S' to [ilaiie of
the others. Its two prini'ipal cleavas,'es aro at right angles, while the
corresponding cleavages in the other felspars are never at right angles.
The.se cleavage faces aid in distinguishing it from (piartz.

Its Hnrdncsx is six, lieing thus next to (pmrtz in the scale of hard-
ness. Though scratched by quartz it is hard enough to scratch glass,
but feebly.

Its Specific Gravity is 2.5 to 2.G.

Its Lustre is vitreous, but with a tendency to pearly on cleavage sur-
faces. Its more common colors are white, red and grey.

Kaolin, or the finest China clay, proceeds from the decomposition of
felspar ; the potash and part of the silica being dissolved by rain water
and leaving a hydrous silicate of alumina in a fine state of division.

Of the other Felspars the most important are Alhite, .soda felspar, in
■which soda replaces the potash of the orthoclase, AiK^rthifi', or lime
fels[)ar, and Oli'iorlase and Lahradorite, in which both soda and lime
are present. Albite sometimes presents a beautiful pearly opalescence
upon its cleavage faces, and Labradorite is remarkable for the splendid
play of colours observed in some specimens. Labradorite, Anortliite and
Oligoclase are basic, or have an excess of base relatively to their silica.
All beside Orthoclase are triclinic.

The felspars are extremely important in geology as constituents of
the silicious Ci_ystalline rocks, as granite, syenite, gneis.s, dolerite, etc.

2-iO

APPENDIX.

Tlioy enter very largely into the composition of the lavas of volcanoes ;
those called TracJii/tic Lavas or TmcV/z/^cs, consisting principally of felspar.

3. Leucite.

This mineral, like ortlioclase, is a silicate ot alumina and potash ; the
constituents, however, being in different proportion. Crystallization
isometric, the crystals often being very perfect trapezohedrons, with
twenty-four similar faces.

H.— 5.5 to 6. Gr.— 2.45 to 2.5.

Colour, white to gray ; surface usually dr.U ; infusible. Decomposed
by hydrochloric acid, without gelatinization. Not known to occur in
Canada, but an abundant constituent of certain volcanic rocks in Italy
and the United States.

4. Nepueline.

Nepheline is a mineral which sometimes takes the place of felspar in
crystalline rocks. It is a silicate of alumina, soda and potash, and crys-
tallizes in hexagonal forms. The color is commonly white or gray, and
the lustre vitreous to greasy.

H.— 5.5 to 6. Gr.— 2.5 to 2.G.

Xeplieline is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with .separation of
gelatinous silv-a. It is a prominent constituent of nepheliue-basalt,
nepheline-syenite, phonolite and other rocks.

5. ]\IlCA.

Of this also there are several species : Common mica or Muscotnte is
the most important.

It is a very complex silicate, containing silica, alumina, potash, iron,
magnesia, lime and soda.

Its crystals are inclined rhombic and six-sided prisms (monoclinic).
The angles of the rhombic prisms are 1 20" and GO". It is remarkable
for its very perfect cleavage parallel to the base of the prism. In this
direction it may be split into extremely thin laminae, which are flexible
and elastic. "When crys!',allized in small radiating plates it is called
Plimiose Mica.

H.— 2.0 to 2.5. Gr.— 2.75 to 3.1.

Its lustre on the faces of the cleavage planes is metallic pearly, and its
colors range from sih'ery white to greenish, yellow and black. They are
due to oxides of iron.

MINERALOGY.

241

Along with quartz it fonns n.ica-schist, an.l in a very fine state of
c ivision It IS largely concerned in giving cleavage to roofing slate. It
also gives a flaggy character tn sandstone. It general, when scales of
mica are arranged in parallel layers in rocks, they give to these more or
less ot their (jwn fissile character.

Biotih; a mica containing n.ucli magnesia and iron, and of a dark
color, IS next m importance to Muscovite.

Pldn.,,:>p1nt, is a mica containing a large proportion of magnesia, and
common y less iron than I]iotite. It is often of a curious brou-nish-red
color. It IS one of the most common minerals in the Apatite-hearincr
veins of Canada, as well as in some of the Lanrentian limestones.

G. Pvi{OXUXE.

Tlie name of this mineral, in.plying that it is a "stranger to fire » is a
roimniscence of the ol.l controversies as to the origin of r.'.cks from water
or heat, and is curiously contrary to the fact that Pyroxene is one of
the largest constituents of volcanic rocks.

a..V"-V.o„._8ilica, lime, magnesia and iron. Some of the varieties
Have much more iron than others.

Crystal I inef on., monoclinic or like that of orthoclase, Init the anodes
d^eiMhe inclination of the principal axis being 73° 59', and the a^lite
angle of the rhombic prism 87° 5', so that it is nearlv square. It oeeurs
ah.0 in granular ruid fil,rous forms. Its cleavage is not perfect, but mav
be obtained parallel to the faces and l,ases of the prisms.
H.— 5 to G. dr.— 3.2 to 3..5.

It is thus almost as hard as felspar, and somewhat heavier than that
miner.,, quartz, so that rocks containing much pyroxene are usually
somew liat Jieavy. ''

It ranges in colour from white, through diflerent shades of t,,. ^nd

green to black, the chief colouring constituent bein. ferrous oxide Its

lustre is vitreous inclining to resinous, and in some varieties . becomes
pearly. jclouils

Variifii'.-<.
These are very numerous and have receive.l ditlerent names. We shall
notice only a few of some geological impo,-...,,.

ht;n:!ri.i::kr ^"""^ ''- """^"^^^ --'' ----'y --- - -

fwr

242

APPEXUIX.

SaJiJif'' and Malacolifi' are li^flit green and white varieties, also occur-
ring sometimes as considerable ingredients of rocks.

Dialla(ie is a variety witli a very distinct cleavage, and strong metallic
pearly lustre on the surfaces.

7. Hornblende.

This is a mineral closely allied to Pyroxene. Its ordinary varieties,
however, contain more magnesia and less lime than the latter.

Criistallh:atinn monoclinic, hut its rhombic prism is much flatter than
that of Pyroxene, its obtuse angle (corresponding in position to the acute
angle in the case of Pyroxene) being I'ii" .30', and it has a distinct cleav-
age parallel to the sides of the prism. It thus forms flat blade-like crys-
tals, and those being often long and slender, it assumes fibrous forms.
IL— 5 to 6. (Ir.— 2.9 to 3.1.

Its range of colour is similar to that of the last species.

Vavii'tie!^.

Common ILirnhli'wh.' or Amphiljole includes the dark and more massive
varieties.

Adinolite is green, and columnar or fibrous.

TremolUe is white or gray, and finely filjrous.

Asbestos includes the finest fibrous varieties, which, from the slender-
ness and flexilnlity of the fibres, may be woven into fabrics which have
become celebrated as incombustible cloths.

Mountain Wood, Mountain Cork and Mountain Leather are fibrous and
lamellar varieties resembling the substances whose names they Ijear.

8. Olivine.
This is a silicate of magnesia and ferrous oxide, and crystallizes in the
ortho-rhombic system. It is commonly met with in rounded grains im-
betlded in crystalline rocks rather than as well defined crystals.
H.— 6 to 7. Gr.— 3.3 to 3.0.

Colour usually olive green, sometimes yellow, brownish, reddish.
Lustre, vitreous. Decomposed by hyilrochloric acid with separation of
gelatinous silica. Olivine is freipiently altered to serpentine. It is a
constituent of many crystalline rocks, some of which are almost entirely

MINERALOGY.

243

compose,! of it, A rock of this kin.l (dunite) occur, ut Mount Albert, in
the proviuct of Quebec.

9. (lAHNET.

_ This is a mineral which varies greatly in composition, and has accord-
ingly been divided into a number of subspecies. It is a silicate of diHer-
ent ses4UioxKles and protoxides (sesquioxides of aluminum, iron or
chromium, an.l protoxides of iron, calcium, magnesium or manganese.)

Ihe crystallization is isometric; rhombic, dodecahedrons and trapezo-
hedrons being the common forms. In many cases garnet occurs imbedded
in rocks in rounded or irregular <n'ains.

H. — G.5 to 7.5. Or. — 3.1 to 4.3.
_ Commonly red in colour, but also green, yellow, black, etc. : Lustre
vitreous: insoluble in hydrochloric acid and most varieties ii.fu.sible'
baruet is frequently found in such rocks as gneiss aud mica-schist.

10. Talc.

Is a silicate of magnesia, with water. It is thus an example of a
hydrous silicate.

CniMlKudiun ortho-rhombic, and usually occurring in ff,liated or cleav-
able masses, the cleavage being similar to that of mica. It also occurs
massive or crypto-crystalline,

H.— 1. Gr.— 2.-5 to 2.8.
The low hardness of Talc affords a ready means of distinguishing it
from other foliated minerals. It has also a soapy or unctuous feel, an.X
its lamina? are not elastic.

Its colour is usually light green, though sometimes a silvery white
Its lustre is pearly.

SoapstoneB.ii,\ Potstone are compact or confusedly crystalline varieties
used for hrestones, for furnaces, or vessels re.iuired to stand the fire. '
French Chalk is a variety used for marking.

raAMs an ingredient in Talc schists, to which it communicates its own
foliated character.

Meerschaum is closely allied to Talc, but has a larger proportion of
water. ^

11. Serpentine.
This is a silicate of magnesia with water, the latter in larger quantity

244

APPENDIX.

than in talc. It usually occurs massive, and some'.inies fibrous. It some-
times constitutes considerable rock masses.

II.— 2.0 to 4. (Jr.— 2..5 to 2.6.

Its colour is usually green, and its lustre somewhat resinous or waxy.

Precious Scrpenfin'! includes varieties of a rich green colour and trans-
lucent. ConniKm St'rpcnfiui' includes the more dull-coloured and oparjue
varieties. Picrolitc and Chrijsotili' are librous varieties ; the latter often
called Asbestos, and serves the same purposes with that mineral. Opliiulite
or Verde Antique Marble, consists of a mixture of Serpentine and Calcite,
and is usually of green and white colours.

12. Chlorite.

This represents a group of several species or sub-species. Chlorite may
be regarded as a hydrous silicate of alumina, magnesia and iron. It
occurs in foliated masses and flat crystals, of a greenish colour and slightly
pearly lustre. It is harder than talc, and its lamiujB are not ela-^tic. It
is the leading ingredient of chlorite schists.

13. Calcite.

Is Calcium carbonate, or common Limestone. Its effervescence with
acids, owing to the disengagement of gaseous carbonic acid, is one of
the ready ways of distinguishing it. Its inferior hardness, enabling it to
be easily scratched with a knife, aids in distiiiguisliing it from (piartz,
felspar and other hard silicious nunerals.

Crij>itallizati(m hexagonal. It occurs in many forms belonging to tl'is
system ; especially the six-sided prism, tlie rhombohedroii and the
scalenohedrou. It has very distinct cleavage parallel to the faces of the
rhombohedron. It occurs also in granular, fibrous and crypto-crystalline
states, as well as in eartliy conditions.

II.— 3. Si). Cr.— 2.5 to 2.S.

It is colourless, but is often coloured by other substances, especially
exiles of iron and carbonaceous matter. Its lustre is vitreous, inclining
to pearly on the cleavage faces. It varies from transparent to opaque.
The transparent varieties known as Icdand Spar possess double refraction.

Varieties.
CalcareousSpa r includes the perfectly crystalline forms.
Satin Sjmr is a fibrous form occurring in veins, and having a silky-
lustre.

^[INERALOGY.

245

Cah Sinter is a geiuTal name, Avhidi may incliule the imporfootly
crystalline conditions occurring \n Staladit.'s and Sfalacjniih', Cnui.'ah'd
imtev, Gihralfar Spar aii.l Cah-ar.nus Tufa. All these varieties are
deposited from solution in water, aided by an excess of carbonic a.'i.l

14. Dolomite.

This is calcium and ma-nesiuin carbonate. It effervesces less readily
with acids than calcite. Its crystallization is rhombohedral like that of
calcite, except that the angles -f its rhombohedron are slightly different
and It IS a little harder and heavier. It has also a more pearly lustre

Dolomite occurs in nature in the same manner as calcite, but often
contains ferrous carbonate, which causes it to assume a rusty colour in
weathering.

15. Gypsum.
Calrinm Sulphate with a largo proj^rtion of Avater (al)out 20 per cent )
Its crystallization is monoclinic, and it has a very distinct cleava-e
parallel to the larger faces of the rectangular prism. It is found 1u
foliated, Hbn.us and granular crystallizations, and sometimes occurs in
thick beds. Finer granular and translucent varieties are use.l for orna-
mental purposes, und..r tl.o name of soft or gypseous alabaster. Its soft-
ness, enabling it to be scratched with the finger nail, and its pearly lustre,
are distinguishing .-haracters.

H.— 1.5 to 2. Or.— 2..31 to 2.33.
Its lustre is pearly upon the cleavage faces. It is colourless, lint fre-
quently stained red by ferric oxide, and sometimes black bv carbonaceous
matter,

S'/enit. is a lamellar variety of Gypsum. Fibrous varieties are used to
imitate Cat's eye.

The readiness with which Gypsum parts with its water when heated,
and resumes it, becoming solid or setting, when mixed with water, gives
the substance important economical uses for casting, plastering"' and
cements. It is the cheapest means of supplying sulphuric acid to the
soil, and to manures, and thus is of some value in agriculture.

Anhydrite is anhydrous calcium sulphate. It is found with the pre-
vious species, from which it differs in its greater hardness and specific
gravity, and its orthorhombic crystallization. It is sometimes used as an
ornamental stone in the same manner as marble.

2iG

APPENDIX.

16. Apatite.

This is calcium phospliate with a small proportion of calcium chloriile
or fluoriile, and is of groat interest as representing the earthy part of the
bones of animals.

Its crystallization is hexagonal, and its usual form is the hexagonal
prism.

II.— 5. dr.— 3. to 3.2.

Its lustre is resinous, and its colour usually greenish.

In the crystalline state it occurs largely in veins and bc.'ds in the
Laurentian formation in Canadii. It is also found in concretionary
masses, in beds of various geological ages, and is the principal constituent
of the harder varieties of guano.

Calcium phosphate is an essential ingredient in soils, in which it is
usually present in very small quantity, and it is rapidly removed Ijy those
crops which produce the greatest amount of animal food. This gives to
it a very great importance in agriculture, and it is much sought for in
every civilized country, and largely used as a means of improving the soil.

17. Fluor Spar or Fluorite.
This is Calcium Fluoride. Its crystalline form is isometric, and it
often occurs in beautiful and regular cubes, with a cleavage parallel to the
faces of the octahedron.

H.— 1. Or.— 3. to 3.25.

It is sometimes colourless, but more fre(iuently of blue and purple
colours, and in some cases green, red or yellow.

It frequently occurs in metallic veins, more especially with the ores of
lead. It has been used as a tlux in reducing metallic ores, hence its
name Fluor.

18. KocK Salt.

Common Salt is sodium chloride. It crystallizes in the isometric
system, usually in cubes.

II.— 2. Gr.— 2.1 to 2.25.

It furnishes an excellent example of a soluble native salt. It occurs
not only in great quantity in the sea and in salt lakes, but also in exten-
sive beds in the crust of the earth, whence it is mined for use. These
beds have probably been formed by the drying up of salt lakes, and of
isolated portions of sea water, and the subsec^ueut covering by setliment

•h,

MINERALOGY.

247

of tlie liGtls of salt thus formed. Copious salt springs often rise from
such deposits.

19. Magnetite.

Is an ..xide of iron intermediate between the monoxide and sesqui-
oxide. Crystallization isometric, usually in octahedrons.

H. — .5.;") to 0.5. Gv. — ,5.
Colour black, Lustre metallic. It occurs in Canada in larye beds, in
the Laurentian, and also in layers as iron sand, and is the most valuable
of the ores of iron. It is attracted by the magnet, and it sometimes has
Jtself magnetic polarity, constituting the natural loadstone. It is dis-
tinguished from the other species by its black powder or streak and its
magnetic properties.

20. Hematite.

_ Also called specular iron, is ses.juioxide of the metal. Its crystalliza-
tion is lu^xagonal, and it often occurs in thin plates or scales, and also in
fibrous forms.

II.— 0.5 to G.5. Or.— i.5 to 5.3.

Its colour is black or steel grey in crystalline varieties, but its streak
or powder is deep red. It is not usually attracted by the magnet.

Foliated varieties constitute Micaceuns Iron Ore, compact°or fibrous
dull red varieties are called Hematite, and earthy varieties are IM Ochre.
It is a very valuable ore of iron.

21. LiMOXITE.

This is hydrous sesquioxide of iron. It occurs in fdorous and con-
cretionary masses.

H.— 5. to 5.5. Gr.— 3.6 to 4.
Its colour is ilark brown, and its streak or powder yellow. Compact
and fibrous varieties are called Brown Hematite. Concretionarv varieties
found ,n modern deposits are Bo,, Iron Ore, and earthy varieties are
Yellow Ochre. It is a valuable ore of iron.

22. PVRITE.

Is disulphide of iron. Crystallization isometric, usually in cubes and
octahedrons.

H.— 6. to 6.5. Gr.— 4.8 to 5.
Colour, bronze yellow. It is a very common mineral, and is often
mistaken for gold and for valuable metallic ores. When mixed with

248

APPENDIX.

metallic ores ami with coal it is a troublesome impurity ; but it is used as
source of sulph'.ir ami sulphuric acid, and of tlie ferrous sulphate.

»1

23. Coal.

Coal essentially consists of com|)i)Uiids of carliou and liydmucn, with
variable anmunls of oxyj,'en, of nilmucn and nf earthy matter. It pre-
sents many varieties, which shade into each other and dilli'r much in
composition and physical properties. This results from the fact that it
is not a detinite chemical comiiouud, or crystallized mineral specie.s, but
rather a product of the partial decomposition of vegetable matter buried
in the earth.

Its veg(;table origin is proved by the remains of plants imbiMldcd in it,
and often showing their structure distinctly under the micros"(ipe, and by
its resting on under-clays containing roots of trees, overlaid witli siiales
filled with impressions of plants. It is of dill'ereiit geological ages, liut
the greater part was formed at a ])artieular part of the earth's geological
history, knnwn as the carboniferous piM'ind.

Its hardness varies from 1. to 'IJ), and its sp. grav. from 1. to 1.8.
Its colour is black, or dark-ljrown, its powder either black or laown. Its
lustre is resinous or sub-metallic, and its fracture conchoidal or Hat. It
usually presents a laminated stru(;ture, with layers of mineral charcoal, or
of vegetal)le debris, or of eartliy matter l)etu-een the lamina>, wliiidi nfteu
consist principally of flattened trunks of which the coal has been made up.

The prin(Mpal varieties are tlie following: —

Brawn Coal is an imperfect coal found in the more modern formation.s.
It is often merely a consolidated [)eat, but when composed of llattened
trunks of trees it assumes the com])act form of jet. It is intermediate in
comp(jsition between coal and wooil. It contains from 47 to 70 per
cent, of carbon, and from 5 to 18 per cent, of hydrogen, the remainder
being oxygen and ashes. It is usually an inferior kind of fnei.

Bifuiiiinons Coal , or ordinary Ijlack coal, i)roceeds from a more perfect
carbonization of vegetable matter, and is the coal of the true Carboniferous
system. The coking varieties become soft when heated, and Inirn with
much flame. The non-coking varieties do not soften, and contain less
gaseous matter. Uituminous coal contains from 75 to 90 per cent, of
carbon, and from 3 to 6 per cent, of hydrogen, the remainder Ijeing
principally oxygen and ashes. The more bituminous varieties are used
for the production of gas.

Anfliracitc proceeds from the alteration of bituminous coals, and is

MINEKALOdV

249

il as

soniotnnes of the nuturo of natural coke. It is hanlcr aiul lieavier tl.an
the l,itu.iuiiou,. coals, and contains from 85 to 92 per cent, of carbon
and from 2 to 3 per cent, of hydro^^en. It gives littl.. or no flame in
burning. In some coal deposits Anthracite passes by a furlhcr process
of alteration into graphite or plumbago, which is, however, regar.led as a
distinct mineral species, owing to its very diirerent physical properties.

24. ]5lTUMEN.

Mineral oil ami mineral pitch are mi.vtures of different hydro-carbons
diflenng from coal in tlum- liquid, viscid or easily fusible character, and
in being soluble in oil of turpentine aiul ether. Like coal these sub-
stances are derived from the chemical change of vegetable matter buried
lu he crust of the earth ; but they result chi..fly fnm. marine vegetation,
or from that which has been buried and excluded from the air while still

Petrolr,,,, or mineral oil, includes the li,,uid or viscid varieties which
flow from natural oil wells, or are obtained by l,oring into the beds of
rock containing tiiis substance in their pores an.l fissures. It has been
known and used from the most ancient times, but has receuilv acniired
greater importance from the abundance of it obtained by b^rin'.,- ,nd the
means discovered for its purification. J>etroIeum often contains more
than 12 per cent, of hydrogen.

Asphnffu>» includes the .solid and semi-solid varieties, havin-r a <n,cltic
gravity similar to that of coal, and pitchy lustre with a black or browiush
black colour. It contains from 7 to 9 per cent, of hydrogen, and some-
imes a eonsiderable proportion of oxygen and .some earti,v impurities
It IS found in veins and bed.., and has ].roceeded from the alteration and
liardenmg of petroleum, owing to the loss of its more volatile ingre.lients.
A//>ertifrand " /.../. CW," are asphakic minerals .still further altered"
until they assume nearly the appearance and composition of the bitumin-
ous coals They are found in veins or fissures, and not in ])eds like the
true coals, and have no vegetable structure. In some altered rocks
materials of tins kind have been converted into anthracite and probably
into graphite. ^ •'

_Ea>-f/>!/ BitHu>en and Canu.J Cnal are materials of this series, mixcl
with much earthy matter, and hardened till they resemble tru,. coals
ihey are found in l,eds associated with the ordinary coals, and are much
used m gas-making and for the distillation of coal oil.

250

APPENDIX.

It will be seen that the Coals unA r.ituiiR'us form two pamllel series,
according to the amount of chemical change wiiich they have experienced,
thus : —

COAL SERIES. BITUMEN SERIES.

Vegetable matter. Vogi^table matter.

Peat. IVtroIinnn.

Urowti coal. Asphaltum.

Piituminous coal. Cannel coal.

Anthracite. Anthracite.

(Iraphite. (U'apliite.

25. (ilJAl'IIlTE.

This substance is Carbon with its molecules arrang(!d in a peculiar
manner, constituting an allotropic form. Its crystalline form is hexagonal,
in Hat six-sided tables.

IL— 1. to 2. Or.— 2.

Colour black and steel grey ; streak black. Lustre metallic. Divides
into thin Iamina>, flexible and greasy to touch.

Graphite is probably, in most cases, a coal or asphalt, altered l)y heat,
and in this way it is often formed accidentally in furnaces. It is largely
used in making crucibles for melting metals, in coating iron castings, in
lessening the friction of machinery, and in drawing an<l writing. Its
common names of "black lead " and " plumbago " are inappropriate, as it
contains no lead. The name Graphite is derived from its use in writing.

[For other minerals occurring disseminated in rocks or in veins and
other repositories, the student is referred to text-books of Mineralogy.]

cries,
need,

uuiiir
onal,

vides

heat,
rgely
[s, ill
Its
us it

ting.

and

y-]