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LIBRARIES
THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO
LONDON CANADA
LS-4>0135
CANADIAN OOPTBIQ&T BDXTI0K8.
HAMIBLIN SMITH'S STATICS,
With Appendix bu Tho$. Kirkland, M.A., Svimf
Matter Normal School, Toronto.
Price 00 cents.
Hamblin Smith's IlydrosUtics 76 cents.
" There are few boolca in elementary mathematical science that
I can more confidently reuommend. The arranig^ement of the
" book work" is admirable, its treatment clear, and the subject
made as elementary as it can be, consistent with a scientific treat-
ment of it. In such a study, the working of problems will excite
the same pleaxure and impart to the subject the same interest
that the conduotin(f of experiments does in chemistry. The ex-
amples at the end of each chapter are well selected- simple at the
bevinnintf, projrressive, and ending with problems of sufficient
difficulty. The appendix lends an additional interest to the Cana-
dian edition. Alprbu Barrr, B.A.,
"Math. Tutor, Univ. College, Toronto."
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HAMBLIN SMITH'S QEOMSTBT (Schooled.)
With Examination Papers by Thot. Kirkland, M.A.
Price 90 cento.
Hamblin Smith's Geometry, Books 1 and 2, with exun. paper8..30c.
II 11 II a 2 and 3, •• " •• ..30c.
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employed are modelx which any student would do well to imi-
tate ; while the modiflcations in the order and method of demon-
Btratiou constitute a happy step in the ri^ht direction.
'•WM. R. RiDDKLIi, B.A., B. So.,
" Math. Master OtUwa Normal School."
Hamblin Smith's Algebra, 75 cts., with Appendix by Alfred
Baker, B.A., Math. Tutor University College, Toronto.
* »
TRB
.«.
KNGUSH LANGUAGE
■
Second Canadian Copyright Edition,
ANALYSIS
OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
PART I. GRAMMAR.
PART II. ETYMOI-OGICAL DERIVATIONS.
PART III. PRAXIS.
eONTAININO
(i) A SYSTEMATIC COURSE OF EXAMINATION-QUESTIONS:
(il) ALL THE QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR AND ETYMOLOCY
PROPOSED AT THE WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAiMI-
NATIONS FROM 1864 TO 1869 ;
(Hi) THE PAPERS SET AT THE OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE
LOCAL EXAMINATIONS FOR SEVERAL YEARS.
<IV) SELECTION OF PAPERS FROM THE CANADIAN UN IYER-
SITIES BY W. HOUSTON, M.A., Examiner in English, Toronto,
University.
fr
L PLANT FLEMING, M.A., B.C.L.
IK/T-A' CORRECTIONS, ADDITIONS, AND COPIOUS INDJCWS.
TORONTO :
ADAM MILLER & CO.,
1877.
1
uuntered arc.„din3r to Act of Parliament, in the year 1876
Hv ADAM MILLER & CO., ^*"'^''*'
in tlie office of the Minister of Agriculture.
Tss^
PREFACE.
**Thi8 ' Analysis of the English Language ' is intended as a
brief, simple, and systematic introduction to the works of
Angus, Latham, and Marsh.
•
Perhaps, at the present time, no subject possesses more
Educational importance than the study and practice of
Method.* To meet, in this direction, a want extensively
felt, no less than to counteract in the mind of the student
uncertainty and confusion, special prominence has been
given to Definition and Classification.
Examples of Syntactical Rules might have been multi-
plied to any extent, but the bulk of the work would have
been seriously increased at a sacrifice of perspicuity .
The Second Part embraces, in twenty chapters, those
words most likely to occur in general reading. The Saxon
element has been carefully corrected by reference to Bos-
worth and Eask ; for, of late years, several Saxon words
of dubious origin have crept into existence.
* To promote this desirable object, Logic might receive some encouragement
in the Public Examinations as a collateral subject with English. Until this
be the case, Grammar may in some degree be made to supply its place.
VI
PREFACE.
Upon the subject of Derivation, the works of WedgnvoiKi
and Richardson have been principally consulted; and in
cases of disputed etymology, two or three of the most
plausible conjectures have been offered. .
In Part III., to a systematic course of Examination
Questions two series have been appended, to illustrate the
tone and requirements of the Public Competitive Examina-
tions. One contains a complete list of all the questions on
English Grammar and Etymology proposed at the Compe-
titive Examinations for admission to the Royal Militai-y
Academy, Woolwich, from their commencement (1854) to
the present time. The other is a collection of the Papers
f^et at the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations
(lufting a period of seven years.
A comparison of these two styles of examination will
suggest several reflections; one especially, the notable
absence from the former of Parsing and Analysis, which
constitute so prominent a feature of the latter,
Tunhkidoe: October 1, 1869.
A Third Edition being called for, corrections have been
made in many places. The Examination Papers of the
Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations for the last
four years have been added by the kind permission of the
Oxford Delegacy and the Cambridge Syndicate. Two
Indexes have been subjoined, and it is hoped that these
(especially the Etymological one) will materially enhance
the general utility of the wd^ k.
'I'onbkidok: Januan^ lH'tO.
CONTENTS,
I
Part I.— GRAMMAR.
CHAP.
I. Definitk,
It
p. '230)
AND Glossary
Nou A on the Definitions
§ 1. Introductohy
§ 2. Word according to Form.
Observations on the Letters
§ 3. Spelling
§ 4. Accent (see also Appendix II
§ 5. Word according to Meaning
Table of the Parts of Speech
\n. The Noun:
§ 1. Definition and Classification
§ 2. Noun according to Meaning
§ 3. Noun according to Structure
§ 4. Number ....
§ 6. Gender ....
§ 6. Case ....
IV. The Adjective :
§ 1. Definition and Classificatioii .
§ 2. Adjective according to M<n ilnq ('Articles)
PAUt
1
8
9
10
13
14
16
17
18
Id
20
20
23
29
33
36
37
Vlll
CHAP.
COXTKNTS.
f
I
§ 3. Adjective according to Formation and Meaning
§ 4. Adjective according to Structure
\ 5. Comparison ....
V. Thk Pronoun :
§ 1 . Definition and Classification .
§ 2. Pronoun according * / Meaning
§ 3. Pronoun according to Structure
§ 4. Accidents of the Pronoun
Observations ....
VI. The Verb :
§ 1. Definition and Classification.
§ 2. Explanation of the Classification
§ 3. Conjxigation ....
§ 4. Conjugation of the Verb in the Active Voice
§ 5, Conjugation of the Verb in the Passive Voice
§ 6. Auxiliary Verbs.
Conjugation of the Verb ' To Be '
Analysis of the Auxiliary Verbs
General Bemarks .
VII. The Adverb:
§ 1. Definition and Classification .
§ 2. Adverb according to Meaning
§ 3. Adverb according to Structure
§ 1. Comparison of Adverbs .
VI IT. The Preposition :
§ 1. Definition and Classification. . . .
§ 2. Preposition according to Meaning and Strttcturt
IX. The Conjttnction:
§ 1. Definition and Classification . . , .
I 2. Conjunction according to Meaning . . .
§ 3. Conjunction according to Structure ,
General Kemarks ... ...
paob
39
40
41
45
46
49
50
52
53
54
58
60
63
64
65
68
68
70
71
72
73
75
76
77
78
79
'
L
CONTENTS.
tx
SYNTAX.
I. Pboi»o9ition according to Logic
II. Sbntknces (Proposition according to Grammai^
Til. Parsing ....
Parsing Schemp .
IV. General Laws of Syntax
V Special Rules:
S 1 . The Nominative
§ 2. The Genitive
§ 3. The Dative .
§ 4. The Accusative
§ 6. The Adjective
§ 6. The Articles
§ 7. The Pronouns
§ 8. Relatives
§ 9. The Verb .
§ 10. The Participle
§ 11. Succession of Tenses
§ 12. General Remarks
§ 13. Conjunctions, Prepositions, Adverbs
VI. Figures of Speech .
VII. Cautions and Criticisms:
§ 1. Usage ....
§ 2. Grammatical Purity
§ 3. Cautions and Critical Remarks
(i). The Adverb .
(ii). The Adjective
(iii). The Article .
(iv). Pronouns
PAOB
82
86
89
91
92
92
94
95
95
97
98
100
100
101
103
103
104
104
106
109
HI
112
112
113
113
114
CONTENTS.
OIUP.
(t). Relatiye
(vi). The Verb .
(rii). Conjunctions, Prepositions
(viii). Collocation of Words .
§ 4. Proper Usage of certain Words
§ 5. Critical Remarks .
(i). Words
(ii). Phrases
Appendix I. List of Strong Verbs
Appendix II. Redundant Verbs.
PAas
115
116
117
117
118
124
124
128
132
136
Part II.— ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
I. Inflbxions:
§ 1. Nouns 136
1. Cases 136
2. Gender 136
3. Number 137
4. Diminutives 137
b. Augmentatives 137
6. Patronymics 137
7. General Noun Terminations . . . . .138
8. Classical and Norman French TerminationH . .138
§ 2. Adjectives 139
1. Terminations (Saxon) 139
2. Chief Classical Terminations 139
3. Plurals 140
4. Comparative and Superlative Afilxes . . .140
5. Irregular Comparisons 140
6. Numerals 141
.
f
i.
CONTBi^TS.
I 3. Pronounb
Pronominal Adrerbs
M The Verb
I . Principal Prefixes .
3. InflexionB
a. DimiQutire Verbs .
4. Intensire Verbs
4. Caasative Verbs .
6. Frequentative Verbs
7. Inceptive Verbs
8. The Verb * To Be ' .
9. Auxiliary Verbs
Pronunciation of Saxon
IL CoMnmcnoMs .
III. Pbkfositions .
IV. ASVEBBS, &C
V. Abstbact dbritbd Nouns:
1. Nouns ending in * d' or • n '
2. Nouns ending in ' th *
VI. Saxon Roots ....
\'II. SOXJBCBS OF WOBDS
VIII. QMOOAAFBlCAh WoBDS :
§ 1. Roman .
• • •
§ 2. Saxon .
• • •
§ 3. Celtic
§ 4. Scandinavian ....
§ 6. Places showing Norman Occupation
IX. Nambs of Colonies, Foreign Places, &c.
Geographical Equivalents
X. WoBDs dehivbd fbom Names of Places
XI. W0B1*S DKBIVED FROM NaMKS OF PERSONS
PAttl
142
143
143
143
144
144
144
145
145
145
145
146
147
149
150
151
153
154
156
161
166
167
168
169
171
171
174
175
178
Kll CONTENTS.
CHAP. fAOl
XII. Namks of thb Months, Dats, dec. :
S 1. Months and Days 181
§ 2. The Winds 182
§ 3. The Passions 182
§ 4. The Colours 183
XIII. Farts of thb Body 183
XIV. Names of Weights ami) Mkasubbs 184
XV. Titles 186
XVI. MiuTAHT Tebms 188
XVII. EccLBSiASTiCAi. Tbbms 192
XVIII. Political Teems 195
XIX. Peculiar Words 206
XX. Words in common use with obscure Deri'vations . .210
Appendix I. Latin and Greek Prefixes 226
Appendix II. Words which change their Meaning with their Accent 230
Part III.— PRAXIS.
General Questions 232
Woolwich Competitive Examinations.
Dr. Dasent 261
Rev. W. Stebbing 261
Rev. R. C. Trench 272
Oxford Local Examinations:
Junior Candidates 27."?
Senior Candidates 283
Cambridge Local Examinations:
Junior Candidates ... 292
Senior Candidates 301
fAOB
. 181
. 182 «
182
183
183
184
186
188
192
195
206
210
226
23G
P
ton.
'^■s
A Single Tliought
A WORD
LANGUAGE IS THE EXPRESS!
!
Kxprrssos names of Objects op Qualities
Ascribes Attributes
Noun
PuoNorw
AnJKCTivi! and
According to
Meaning
Accoi-ding to
Structure
Substantive
Adjective
I
I I ^1 r' " T "~i i J 1 I
fleet. Indef. Puss. Demons. Relat. Reflect. Recipr. Distrib. Indef. Inter.
ccipr.
Proper Common Abstract Primitive Derived Compouud
According to
Meaning
Strong
Weak
Definitive Qualitative Quantitative
Propriat« Diminutives Augmentatives Patronymics
Expreiting
Office
Stale
Coniiition
Ptv/eition
J;c. dtc. I
According to
•Structure
.1 I. I
Simple Derived Compound
jlcconUng ta^Formation and Meaning
Proper Common Numeral Pronominal Participial Compound
Verb
I
Impersonal
Personal
according to
AD^'ERB
according to
Q\iality Relation Form Meaning Origin
Connection
Conjunctive Simply
Attributive
Meaning
Structure
I _ I
Time Place Degree Quality Simple Derived Compound
or I
Quantity from
Nouns Pronouns Adjectives
IS THE EXPRESSION OF
[To fact poffe xi\i.
Incomplcto Thought
A PHRA8E
Coniplero Thniijfht
A 8ENTENUE
\ttribiites
l_
I
I
Adjkctivf, and
Orumniatical
Idiumutio
1 I
adof. Inter.
[hnf» to
vture
ived Compound
Hcluted
~"1
Absolute*
Simple
Complex
J
Compound (consistB of
Coordinate Clauses)
Principal
Clause
I
Subordinate Connective Disjunctive Adversative Wtive
(Altornutive)
Noun Sentence Adjective Sentence Adverb Sentence
ng
I I
icipial Compound
Expresses Relations
between Words
Pbeposition
I
according to
Meaning
Conjunction
I
according to
Structure
Meaning
Position Direction Time Cause Degree Simple C.nipouud Veibal
or
Structure
Agency
Expresses Feeling
rather than Thought
Interjection
Structure
Coordinate
Derived Compound
Subordinate Simple DeriJred Compo'und
from
Pronouns Adjectiveg
Connective Disjunctive Alternative Adversative Illativo TiiLe Plice
Degree or Manner Cause
J
•■
i
Substantiye
PARTS OP SPEECH.
TABLE I.
Parts op Sprkch.— ^/V<t Morelt.
WORDS oxpress
Xlll
Notions
Relations
Attributive Bctwpon
Words
Between
AHsertiuns.
Noun Pronoun With an Without an Secondary
Assertion Assertion Attribute.
(Verb) (A(^"eetive) (Adverb)
Extra grammatical utterance— Interjection.
(Preposition) (Conjunction)
TABLE II.
Parts of Speech.— ^row the Suggestions of Home Tooke.
WORDS aro
Necessary
Noun
Substantive Adjective
Pronoun.
Convenient
for abbreviation and despatch
Verb Adverb Preposition Conjunction.
-'zzzr
tm^m
XIV
PARTS OF SPEECH.
I
I
a'
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O
i
K
V
i—t
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£
M
'^^
cfl
t-H
g
o
Ph
"a-
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I
Ph
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a
o
a
o
O
I
^
a
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B
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1
1
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d
o
i4
s
.&
9
:S
s
00
fl
t
-s
^
rt
t-l
X
I
cc
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o
r
QQ
tlv
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8
PM
H
39
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^
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4J
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M
®
L^-
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l*J
•sb
•^
s
oi
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^
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■**
R
(—T
h-?
?^
1
Sn
^.^
o
?)
»4
Pl
o
u
a
■u
«
a
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B
4J
QQ
'2
>>
o
W
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as
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A
C
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SJD
91
2
G
33
9
U
m
U
efl
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B
9)
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J5
ANALYSIS
OF TUB
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER I.
DEFINITIONS AND OLOSSABT.
Abstract Noun — vide infra^ Noun.
Accent — is the stress laid on a syllable in a word.
Accidence — that department of Etymology which treats of the
Grammatical inflexions of words.
Accident — the * property ' of an individual, not of a class.
Adjective — a word added to a noun to qualify it.
(j'\ Definitive — distinguishes a noun from its class.
(ii) Qualitative — marks the peculiarities of a thing with ref-
erence to its Qualities, or supposed Qualities.
(iii) Quantitative — distinguishes things according to their num-
ber.
(iv) Common — any ordinary epithet or adjective denoting quality.
(v) Proper — an Adjective formed from a Proper Noun.
(vi) Numeral — an Adjective that expresses a definite Number.
(vii) Cardinal — shows the number of things taken,
(viii) Ordinal — shows the order in which they are taken.
(ix) Multiplicative — shows how many times one thing exceeds
another.
(x) Pronominal — is one that may either accompany a noun or
represent it.
(xi) Participial — a participle used as an Adjective, i.e. without
the notion of I'ime
Adverb — a word joined to a verb or any Attrihutive, to denote
some modification, degree, or circumstance of thi; expressed
Attribute.
B
'mp
in:
2
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAQE.
Anteckdknt — a word going before, to wliich a Relative refers.
Art — An applied Science.
Article — a Definitive Adjective — (i) used generally with nouns
to limit tiieir signification, (ii) from Articulus, a joint, *a small
part or portion of the entire limb,' hence, metaphorically, a small,
but critical part of tho entire signification.
Augmentative — a word formed by the addition of a suffix,
which has the effect of increasing or intensifying the signification.
Barbarism — a 'slang term,' an offence against the vocabulary
of a languag*^.
Case * — a grammatical form expressive of the relation of nouns
and pronouns to other words — expressive of dejiendejit relation.
Nominative — or 'name case,' denotes the source of the action.
Genitive — possessive relation.
Dative — receptive or locative relation.
Accusative — objective relation.
Ablative — instrumental, modal or causal relation.
Categorical — absolute, without a condition.
Common Noun — vide Noun.
Comparison — of Adjectives and Adverbs means a variation in
them to express quality in different degrees.
(i) Positive — is an Adjective in its simple state.
ii) Comparative — An Adjective is said to be in the Comparative
degree when on comparing two objects or classes it expresses
relatively an increase or diminution of the quality.
(iii) Superlative — An Adjective is said to be in the Superlative
degree, when on comparing more than two objects or classes
it expresses the limit of the increase or diminution of the
quality.
Composition — the process of word formation by adding whole
words to whole words.
Compound — a word formed by adding words, each possessing a
distinct signification.
— a combination of two or more words, each retaining
its own signification.
i
* See note A, p. 8.
■^
W"" — ?\
1
.«*-^-dl*.
DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSARY.
8
in
ive
3es
ive
pes
he
le
a
.
Conjunction — a word connecting clauses.
Conjugation — a connected view of the inflexion? of a verb.
Consonant — a letter that cannot be sounded without the aid of
a vowel.
Copula — what connects, or expresses the agreement and disa-
greement of, subject and predicate.
Coordinate — of equal rank or position ; applied to tiie members
of a compound sentence, and to the conjunctions which coniiect them.
Correlative — terms mutually related, which explain each other,
and are not able to exist, but together.
Diminutive — a word formed hy adding to the primitive a sufRx
which signifies 'little,' and has the effect of diminio!;ing or weaken-
ing the signification.
Diphthong — two vowels sounded together.
Distributive — a word taken for all and for each of the things
signified by it.
Declension — the deviation of the oblique cases from the nomina-
tive or true noun.
Definition — an explanatory sentence.
Defective — wanting some of its parts.
Derivation — the process of word formation by modifying the
letters of the root, or by adding thereto prefixes or suffixes.
Derivative — a word formed from another by the modification of
its letters, or by the addition of an affix.
(i) Primary — is a word formed direct from the root,
(ii) Secondary — is a word formed from a ' primary derivative.'
EviPHASis- — is the stress laid on a word in a sentence.
Etymology — is that part of Grammar whicli treats of the true
matter or meaning and form of words.
Factitive Verb — See Verb.
Figure of Speech — a peculiar form of expression.
Gender* — a grammatical form expressive of class or sex.
Gerund — a verbal noun — 'a carrying on or performing' — 'the
* See note A, p. 8.
b2 • . ,
4U I"
f
xrn
4 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
imperfect participle generalized, and denoting not an object being or
doing, but the mere fact of being or doing.'
Grammar — the Principles which guide language forni the Science
of Grammar.
As an Art, Grammar is concerned with the right use (in speech
or writing) of Rules deduced from these Princijjks.
GovKRNMKNT — is the power one word has to regulate another.
HVPOTHETICAL — Vide PROPOSITION.
Idiom — an expression peculiar to a language.
Impersonal Verb — vide Verb.
Impropriety — a grammatical error offending against Etymology.
Inflexion — the variation of words in termination, due to number,
gender, case, degree, &c.
Intention — the mode in which the mind views any outward
object of thought.
Interjection — a word expressing feeling and not thought.
Irregular Verb — vide Verb.
Letter — the svmbol of a sound.
(i) Mute — a letter that cannot be sounded at all without vhe aid of
a vowel.
(li"^ T^iQUiD — a letter that combines most easily with others.
MeiRE — is the measured arrangement of words in a verse.
— is the combination of syllables similarly affected.
Mood — a grammatical form expressing the manner of an action.
Noun — the name of any object of sejise or subject of thought.
(i) Proper Noun — is the name of any individual, person, place,
or thing.
(ii) Common Noun — is a name common to all individuals of the
same class — 'the name of & distributed conception.'
(iii) Ap.stract Noun — is the name of anything which we only con-
ceive of in our minds as having a real independent existence.
(iv) CoiiT-ECTiVE Noun — is the name of a class in which the idea of
Unity is prominent — ' of an undistributed conception.'
(v) Noun of Mui.titude — is the name of a class in which the idea
of Number is prominent,
(vi) Propriate — expresses some special notion or character affecting
the meaning of the original word.
' I
s
DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSARY. 5
NuMBKR* — is B, granwiatical form expressing one, or iiiore liiaii
one, of tlie things indicated by the name.
(i) SiNGULAU — expresses one.
(ii) Plural — expresses more than one. •
Obsolkte — out of use.
Orthoepy — the art of correct pronunciation.
Okthography — tlie art of correct spelhiig.
Particle — a small indeclinable word.
Participle — a word partaking of tlie functions of the Adjective
and Verb — a ^verbal Adjective.^
Paragraph — a section of discourse nearly related to preceding
parts.
Passive — vide Voice.
Person* — a grammatical form expressive of distinctive relation ;
i.e. distinguishes the speaker, the hearer, and person or thing spoken of.
Paraphrase — an amplified version of any discourse.
Phrase — two or more related words not making a complete ex-
pression of thought.
Predicate —
{^Logically) that which is asserted of the sul)ject.
{^Grammatically) z=z copula + attribute.
Preposition — a word connecting other words, and expressing a
relation between them.
Pronoun — a word used instead of a noun.
(i) Personal — simple substitute for che name of a Person or Tiling.
(ii) Reflexive — denotes the same person or thing as the person or
thing spoken of.
(iii) Indefinite — represents a noun without specifying any indi-
vidual.
(iv) Demon STRATrv^E — points out the object to which it refers.
(v) Possessive — is a substitute for the possessive case of the Per-
sonal Pronoun.
(vi) Relative — in addition to being a substitute for the name of a
person or thing refers to sometliing- gone before, nii'l so C(m-
nects the parts of the sentence together.
(vii) Intekkogative — asks a question.
* See note A, p. 8.
r
mm
TIL
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(viii) DrsTiiiBUTiVE — represents a noun, and at the same time more
than one indicidual of the class.
(ix) KECiriiocAri — tminesaQa mutual feelinr/ a.nd action.
Proposition — is an asserting sentence [Logicalbj).
— ia the asserting part of a sentence ( Grammatically) .
(i) Categouical — asserts absolutely, i.e. without a condition,
(ii) IlYroTiiETiCAL — asserts with a condition.
Prosody — ia tliat part of Grammar wliich treats of Rliymc,
RhyLhm, Metre, and Accent.
Quantity — is the lengtii or brevity of a vowel sound,
Rkdundant — more than necessary.
Rhyme — the recurrence of similar final sounds.
Rhythm — the liarmonious arrangement of words.
j^OQX — a word reduced to its simplest form.
Sentence — a complete expression of thought.
(i) Simple Sentence— has one Predicate.
(ii) Complex Sentence — has two or more Predicates, one principal
and the others dependent or subordinate.
(iii) Compound Sentence — consists of two or m^re principal or
coordinate assertions.
Solecism — {poXoiKLonoq) Soloi, a colony of Cilicia, corrupted the
pure Attic Greek, hence — 'a grammatical error violating the laws
of Syntax.'
Subjunctive — a mood or word subjoined, or conditionally depen-
dent on a preceding mood, word, or clause.
Strong — a term applied to a tense, number, &c., retaining the
same form as the primitive word, or derived from it by a radical
change.
Subordinate — of inferior or dependent position, applied to some
members of a complex sentence and to the covjuiictions which connect
them.
Syllable — a simple vowel sound, with or without one or more
consonants.
Syntax — that part of Grammar which treats of the right arrange-
ment of words in a sentence.
Tense — a grammatical form expressive of the time of an action.
\ ;
I.
DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSAEY'.
►re
i
I
,1
1,
1! \
1
Tkrm — really (he extreme of a proposition ; now, a 'word limited
to a particular signification.^
Theoky — the principle that accounts for a classification of facts.
Verb — the principal word in a sentence.
(i) SuBSTANTiVK Verb— assBfts what things are.
(ii) Impersonal Verb — has no clear source of action expressed.
(Hi) Unipeusonal — has the source of the action represented by It.
(iv) Transitive — pasess the action on to an object.
(v) Intransitive — is one in which the action ceases with the verb.
(vi) Auxiliary — assists other verbs in the formation of Voice,
Mood, and Tense.
(vii) Regular, or weak — forms its past tense by adding t, d, or ed,
to the present.
(viii) Irregular, or strong — forms its past tense from the present by
a radical change, or retains the same form for both.
(ix) Redundant — has more than one form for the past tense, or
perfect participle, or both.
(x) Defective — is used only in some tenses and moods.
(xi) Reflective — has the same person for object and subject.
(xii) Causative — denotes the action or situation as being caused or
effected in an object.
(xiii) Intensive — strengthens the meaning. , ~~
(xiv) Diminutive — lessens or weakens the meaning.
(xv) Inceptive — expresses the commencement of an action, or a
change of state.
(xvi) Frequentative — expresses the repetition of an action,
(xvii) Factitive — signifies to make, to appoint.
(xviii) Personal — one that has a subject in the first, second, or third
person.
Vowel — a letter that has a full open sound.
Voice — a grammatical form expressive of a state of doing or
suffering.
(i) Active — expresses a state of doing.
(ii) Passive — expresses a state of suffering.
(iii) Middle — expresses neither the act of an agent nor the suffer-
ing of an object.
"Weak — a term applied to a tense, number, &c., derived from the
primitive word by the addition of a sufiSx.
Word — the sign or symbol of a thing or thought.
— consists of a syllable or combination of syllables possess-
ing a distinct signification.
if
ifT'
d:
8
tl!
;
t '
I
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Note A.
In h'lH ' Orammar of Grammars,' Ooold Brown defines ' Modifications'
to mean ' infiections or chaiiges in the terminations, forms, or senses of
some kinds of words.' lie then gives tlio following definitions : —
' Nouns have modifications of four kinds, viz. Persons, Numbers,
Genders, and Cases.'
' Pronouns have the same modifications as Nouns.*
'Verbs have modifications of four kinds, viz. Moods, Tenses, Persons,
and Numbers.'
' Numbers in Grammar are modifications that distinguish unity and
plurality.'
' Genders in Grammar are modifications that distinguish objects in
regard to sex.'
' Cases in Grammar are modifications that distinguish the relations of
Nouns and Pronouns to other words.'
With respect to Gender, Latham writes : — ' as terms to be useful
must be limited, it may be laid down as a stfrt of definition tJiat there is
710 gender where there is no affection of the declension ; consequently,
that, although we have in English words corresponding to ' genitor *
and 'genitrix,' we have no true gender until we find words correspond-
ing to dominus and domina.' — Vol. ii, p. 154, EnglisJi Language.
Again, with reference to Case, he observes : — ' In order to constitute
a case there must be not only a change of form, hut also a change of
meaning. There is no change of case unless there be a change of form.'
—Vol. ii. p. 173.
Of Numbers, he says : — ' They are restricted to Nouns and Pronouns.*
Most Grammarians adopt these or similar definitions, wliich limit
Number, Gender, Case to inflexions or variations in the forms of words.
Such definitions do not suit our language. The following facts
strongly oppose them.
1. Many words, deer, sheep, trout, salmon, &c., have the same form
for both singular and plural.
2. Adjectives have no inflexions whatever for number, gender, case ;
yet are said to agree with nouns in number, gender, and case.
3. Verbs have no inflexions to distinguish the first person singular,
and the three persons plural, &c.
4. We can ascertain the gender of such words as parent, child, &c.,
only by their grammatical relation to other words.
5. A large class of nouns indicate gender by compounds ; such as
' he-goat,' ' she-goat.'
6. Another class distinguish sex by a totally different word ; as, bull,
cow.
7. We have no inflexions to distinguish the nominative from the
objective case, yet all admit we have an objective case.
Grammatical Relation, and not any peculiarity of form, enables us to
distinguish the one from the other.
k^
INTUODUCTOllY.
'
Tlius, US lins boon well said, ' Ocndpr, Number, and Case are very
imperfectly sliown in our hinguugc by injU'xiona.'
Logic teaches us that the first aTtiit requisite of a correct definition is,
' that it nhould he adequate;' and, au^ W'liateiy reinarlts, ' it should admit
no arbitrary exceptions'
Tlie question is sim])ly to reconcile such facts with the requirements
of Logic. If Logic and (Jrammar arc at variance, (irannnar must give
way.
This reconciliation will bo easily effected hy nltering i\\o> 'ffenus'ot
these definitions, and selecting one more suitable and more exact. Such
a ' genus ' is found in the expression grammatical form. It is sufficiently
comprehensive to embrace the peculiarities above-mentioned, whether
of number, or gender, or case, indicated as they may be by variation of
termination, by change of form, by compounds, or by grammatical rela-
tion. It will enable us also with more propriety to make use of certain
classical terms which we cannot altogether afford to dispense with.
Dr. Angus has a very appropriate remark on tliis subject, he says: —
' Strictly speaking, therefore. Number, Case, Gender are, as applied
to words, grammatical forms expressive of the number, the condition, or
relation to something else named in the sentence, and the sex of the tilings
to which the words, whether nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or verbs, are
applied.' — Handbook of the English 2'ongue, p. 148.
CHAPTER II.
§ 1. INTKODTJCTOEY.
1. Languagk is the expression of Thought.
2. Thk Expression of a single Thought is called a Word;
of incomplete thought, a Phrase; of complete thought, a Skntenck.
3. The Principles by which Language is guided form tiie
Science of Grammar.
As an Art, Grammar is concerned with tiie riglit application (in
speech and writing) of Rules deduced from tliese Principles.
4. The difference between an Art and a Science is this: —
A Science concerns itself with Principles alone.
To an Art three things are requisite, (i) Principles ; (ii) Rules
deduced from these Principles ; (iii) Production. Hence an Art is
defined to be an Applied Science.
\ jr-
10
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
5. Grammar is divided into three parts* (i) Etymology, (ii) Syn-
tax, (iii) Prosody.
(i) Etymology is that part of Grammar vvliicli treats of the
true matter or meaning and form of words,
(ii) Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of the right
arrangement of words in a sentence,
(iii) Prosody is tliat part of Grammar whicli treats o{ Accent^
Afetre, Rhyme, and Rhythm, *
§ 2. WORD ACCORDING TO FORM AND MEANING.
Word according to Form.
1. A Word, according to its form, is either simple or compound.
2. A Simple Word possesses a distinct meaning, and consists of
one or more syllables.
A Compound Word is a combination of two or more simple words.
ii. A Syllable consists of one or more letters possessing one
vowel sound.
A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable.
A Dissyllable „ two syllables.
A Trisyllable „ three syllables.
A Polysyllable „ more than three syllables.
4. A Letter is the symbol of a sound. Letters are divided
into 2 classes ; Vowels and Consonants.
(i) A Vowel is a full, open sound. The vowels are 5,
a, e, 7, 0, u.
' (ii) A Consonant is a letter which cannot be sounded with-
out the aid of a vowel,
(iii) The Consonants are divided into:
(a) Liquids, so called because they most easily combine
with other letters : I, m, n, r.
(b) Mutes, because they cannot be sounded at all
without a vowel.
(iv) W, Y are called Semivowels; X, J, double Consonants.
(v) W and Y are called Conso.xants when they precede a
vowel in the same syllal)le ; as in wine, twine, yet,
INTKODUCTOJtY.
11
o
— "-«
%
r
o
03
Eh
«
bo
a
o
Q
«
O
o
«
o
bo
fl
•^^
♦J
OS
fl
8
O
C3
>
Ml
H
-►J
(in
<1
P o
O *d
' t, .s
o
1-3 t>
bo
a
►J CO
o "
0)
^ s
•^ a
o
u
a.
— o tJ
i
s
s
%
Cf-I
O
•F-4
OQ
c
o
09
K
W a.
-XL c.
w °
e
Hi
en
9}
Q
00
— O
CO
o
.H
Hi
0}
W3
-H
U
Q
§■
I
on
f
12 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
youth: in all other cases these letters luc vowels ; us in
Ystadt, newly^ dewy.
(vi) DiiMiTiioNos consist of two vowels sounded to^jetiier.
Generally, the sound is that of a single vowel, but iu
some cases they have a sound of their own; as House,
new. TUeae i\n^ called 2)roperdij)hthoii(/s. When only
one of the vowels is sounded, the diphthong is culled
improper; as, oa in loaf, eo \n people.
The diphthongH in English are 2!) ; embracing all but Oof thn
JJo possible combinations of two vowels. The six rejected are U,
iu, iw, iy, uu, uw.
I'en of tliese diphthongs being variously sounded may be either
pro'per or improper : to wit, ay, ie, oi, ou, ow, ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.
The proper diphthongs appear to be 13 : ay, iti, ie, io, oi, ou, o>o,
oy, ua, uc, ui, uo, uy, of which combinations only 6, ui, io, and
oy are invariably of this class.
(vii) Triphtuonqs consist of three vowels sounded together, as
buoyant.
When all the vowels are sounded the triphthong is called
proper ; as uoy in buoy.
When only one or two of the vowels are sounded ♦'le triph-
thong is called improper; as, eau in beauty.
The only proper triphthong in English is 'mf, as in buoy,
buoyant, unless uoi in quoit may be considered a parallol
instance.
The improper triphthongs are 16.
5. The whole system of Letters may be thus represented in tabular
form :
LETTERS
Vowels
Consonants
Full
(a, e, i, 0, u)
Semi
{w,y)
Mutes
Liquids
(/, m, n, r)
TjAbials Dentals (Jitturals
{b,p,v,f) {d, t, 8) "•, g, g, k)
jl — is simply a breathing, possessing no articulate .sound of its own.
^^.^in^4*is««tSft9l«£:ii.^!ir;..:„„^
INTKOUUCTUUY.
18
in
i\r
r)
\
\
Observations on the Letters.
6. Lahiai.s aio those loiters we proiioimco vvitli tlie MipH;' Dkn-
TAi.s — with tlio 'teeth ;' Guttuuals — with the 'throat.'
7. (i) c in soft like s bi'foro e, i\ y, as cell, civil, cynihul ; excopt
in sceptiCyCymry (|iroiiouiicecl Cuniru).
id hard like A; before a, o, w, r, /, t.
It has the sound of sh in some wordd ; as, socud.
(ii) F is pioiioiinced uniformly, except in o/ and its conipound^,
when it is pronounced like v.
(iii) a is soft before c, «, y ; hard before a, o, m, »j, /, r.
(iv) s is sometimes sharp, as in siug ; flat, as in raisin ; zh, or
sh, as m pleasure ; silent, as in island.
(v) TH has two sounds: sharp, as in thin — flat, as in these.
These two sounds were represented by tlie symbols |) — th,
and is — dh, in Anglo-Saxon.
(vi) X has the sound of A;.?, as in exercise, gs as \\\ "xcrtion, z as
in Xenophon»
(vii) z has the sound of flat s, as in zebra: of flat sh, as in
azure,
8. There are 4 2 elementary sounds in the Englivsh Alphabet, and
2(1 letters. A perfect alphabet requires: —
(i) A single sign for every simple sound.
(ii) JVb sound should have more than one sign.
(iii) No sign should represent more than one sound.
(iv) Similar sounds should be represented by similar signs.
9. Viewed by these tests the English alphabet is uncertain, incon-
sistent, erroneous^ deficient, redundant.
10. These defects are remedied by various exjiedients, such as:
(i) Lengthening a voivel by adding a final e mute, as lAt, bite.
(ii) Shortening a voivtl by doubling tlie next cunsonant, as
carry.
(iii) Additig h to mark the ai^pi rates of/), t, s.
I
14
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISU LANGUAGE.
O
§ 3. Spelling.
1. Spkllino is the arrangement of letters in a word.
2. Orthoqrapuy is the art of correct spelling.
3. The anomalies of English spelling are influenced by :
(i) The deficiencies and uncertain sounds of our alphabet.
(il) The variety and copiousness of our words taken from
various sources, and necessarilj' connected by their spell-
ing with their roots.
(iii) The necessity of distinguishing loords of like sound, but of
different meaning.
4. Rules for Spelling :
(i) Vowels. yft
(a) Final E. Words ending in e mute generally —
— retain it before additions that begin with a conso-
nant ; as, paleness. Exc. : Awfal^ duly, truly, wholly.
— omit it before additions that begin with a vowel ; as,
curable,
Exc: After v, c, and G soft it is retained; as,
changeable. After dg it is generally omitted ; aa, judg-
ment. Before ous it becomes i; as, gracious.
(b) Diphthongal sounds of e are spelt ei in derivatives
from capio; as, receive: otherwise in ie; as, believe.
(c) Final Y — remains unchanged before additions :
— in simple words preceded by a vowel,
— in true compounds, except before ing and ish; as,
joyful, ladyship.
— is changed into i before additions:
— when preceded by a vowel.
— when the compound word is made one ; as,
hayidiwork, daily.
The words laid, paid, said, staid are accounted for by the
participial suffix ed.
'L
;?
II-
o{
1
u
INTRODUCTORY.
15
(ii) Consonants.
(a) Monosyllables ending in '/ /, s, preceded by a
short vowel, double the final letter; as, well, mill, pass, staff.
JLxcept As, gas, his, this, thus, us, yes, was, clef, if, of.
(b) Monosyllables ending in any other letter than/ / s
keep the ^na^ consonant single; as, son, cup.
Except: Add, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd. -
'^pTunds^ ' '^ ^^''''"^' *° monosyllables and their cora-
(c) Final c and c;?;. Monosyllables and English verbs
end m ck, other words in c, as public.
Except : lac, soc, zinc, disc, talc.
(iii) Double Letters;
(a) Words ending with a double letter retain both be- ,
fore addition, if these do not begin with the same letter •
as, agreeable, successful, '
If the same letter follows, one is omitted; as, hilly.
(iv) Compound and Derived Words.
Words ending with a double letter preserve it double
mall derivatives formed hyprefxes; as, call, recall, fall
befall. ' "^ '
Exc. : Enrol, fulfil, hefel.
(v) Monosyllables.
Words ending in single I; words accented on the final
syllable when the voioel is short, double the final consonant
before additions ; as, thinner, acquittal, grovelling,
(b) If the accent is thrown back the final letter is not
generally doubled ; as, refer, reference.
(vi) IzE, iSE. Causative verbs end in izc: monosyllables
(and where ise is not a distinct part of the root) in ise •
as, in advise, rise, surjjrise. '
5. Dividing Syllables.
As a general rule subordinate to etymological propriety
. each separate syllable should, as far as possible, begin with
a consonant : as, re-pre-hen-si-hle.
-t p . 1 »i n. i m > i
1 ' ■■ iwp
16 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 4. Accent.
1. Orthoepy is the art of correct pronunciation.
Emphasis is tlie stress laid on a word in a sentence.
AccKNT is the stress hiid on a syllable in a word.
Quantity is the length or brevity of a vowel sound.
2. Accent in English is entirely distinct from quantity. Thus,
August, august have each one long syllable (aw), but we accent
either syllable.
.S. Accent as a rule is on the root, not on the prefix, nor on the
suffix.
4. One great use of accent is to distinguish words alike in form,
according to this general rule. The verb moves the accent to the
right from the adjective and noun ; the adjective moves it to the
right from the noun.* Thus : —
I.
II.
III.
Noun. verb.
adj. verb.
noun. adj.
Desert desert
Attribute attribute
frequent frequent
absent absent
compact compact
minute miniite
Accent accent
&c.
present present
&c.
Expert expert
&c.
5. English words are accented on any of the last four syllables.
Tlie favourite place in words that admit of it is the antepenult ; and
words imported into English have a tendency to shift their accent
in accordance with this law ; as,
TheatriB has become Theatre Academy has become Academy
Revenue „ Revenue Samaria „ Samaria
Fanatic ,, Fanatic Sennacherib ,, Sennacherib
Orator „ O'rator &c. kc.
Senator ,, Senator
>»
" There are some exceptions of course; as Invalid (noun), InvAlid (nAj.) The qnos-
tion arises wliellier the former should not be Invalid.
)
I
l\
\
INTRODUCTORY.
17
it
§ 5. Word according to Meaning. i '
1. Etymology has a threefold province: —
(i) It treats of the classijication of words.
(ii) It treats of the composition and derivation of words.
(iii) It treats of the inflexions of words.
2. All words may be classified, or arranged under certain heads.
3. The classes into which all words may be divided are termed
Parts op Speech.
4. The classification of words is exceedingly diverse. Four prin-
cipal schemes are given : (1) according to Morell ; (2) according to
the suggestions of Home Tooke ; (3) according to LatJiam\ and (4)
from Angus.
5. Preference is given to the views of Dr. Angus, because they
a|)pear to he most logical and most universal in application.
(>. Words are divided into those,
1. Which give tuimes io persons and things — Appellative.
2. TVhich ascribe attributes to persons and things — Attri-
butive.
3. Which express relations between other words — Rela-
tional.
4. Which express /ee/in^r rather than thought — Emotional.
7. 1. Appellative words are Nouns and Personal Pro-
nouns.
s. Attributives are —
(i) Adjectives which append a quality to a Noun
without formally asserting it.
(ii) Verbs which assert the qualities or acts; or
(iii) Adverbs which append qualities either to Adjec-
tives or Verbs.
3. Relational or Interrelating Words are —
(i) Prepositions, which express the relation between
one word and another.
(ii) Conjunctions, which express the relation between
one assertion and another.
4. Emotional arc called Intkrjections.
18
WORDS
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Tabid of Words.
I. Give nameH to persons or j 1. Noun.
things (Appeli^th^) j 2. Personal Pkonoun.
'3. Adjective = Simple
attribute.
II. Ascribe attributes to persons
or things (Attributive)
i'
III. Express relations between
words (Relational)
4. Verb = Attribute +
Assertion.
6. Adverb = Attribute
of another attribute.
'6 Preposition, relates
notions.
7. CoNJUNCTiON,relate8
sentences.
IV. Expffess feeling rather than j-. ivTEiLTPrTiov
^AoM^Ai (Emotional) Y' interjection.
It^* I^'or the schemes of Morell, Horno Tooke, Latham, see
Tables 2, 3, 4.
5. Thus we mny enumerate the Parts of Speech as eighty
which we proceed to discuss separately, exhibiting the classifi-
cation, structure, and inflexions of each. This will render our
analysis of Etymology complete.
tS^ Though the method pursued in this analysis is in exact
accordance with the tabular division of the subject of Lan-
guage given at the commencement, it may be useful to state
that it is applied unifoi-mly thus :— (i) Definition ; (ii) Divi-
sion, or Classification (according to the general principles.
Meaning and Structure) ; (iii) Explanations and Relations of
this Classifi^saiion ; (iv) Accidents; (v) General remarks.
Subject-matter which cannot be well introduced without
a sacrifice of perspicuity or method will be. found in the
Appendices.
1',
■
THE NOUN.
19
CHAPTER III.
THE NOUN.
§1-
1. Definition. A Noun is the name of any object of sense or
subject of tliought.
2. CLASSIFICATION.
(i) Strictly so. as .... mjh^^
(ii) In transition state . . . Cjesar
(i) Class names . \ J^^nsible, as knife
/ Rational... conqueror
(ii) Collective names \ J^^^^ular, as mob
• ••x XT « Nounofmultitude..clere-v
111) Names of mnforinla „» "*«'. ^lergy
. yard
• sleeper
• death
. thinking
. goodness
excess
—■-S Meaning •
-ai
o
O
(iii) Names of materials, as
(iv) Names of quantity
I. (v) Names of agents
(i) Names of states, as
(ii) Names of acts
(iii) Names of qualities
(iv) Names of degree
-2
—? Structure-/—^
I
—Patronymics
—AugmentaUvea
■Diminutives
^—Propriate
{Office
State
< Profession
I Condition
{, &c.
t
08
20
ANALYSIS OF THE KNGLISH LANGUAGP:.
§ 2. Nouns according to Meaning.
1. A Propkr Noun is tlie name of any individual person, place,
or thing; as, London, Philip, Hero.
2. A Common Noun is a name common to all individuals of the
same class ; as, tree, bird, flower, dog. Liogically we may define a
comtnon noun to be the name of a distributive conception.
A term is said to be 'distributed' wlien it is taken for all and for
each of the things signified h-j it.
3. A CoLLECTivpj Noun is the name of a collective conception, i.e.
of a cl.Tss viewed as a unit, and is* of two kinds:
(i) The singular noun, in which the idea of unity is promi
nent; as, mob, crowd.
(ii) The noun of multitude, in which the idea of number is
prominent; as, clergy, nobility.
4. An Abstract Noun is the name of anything which we only
conceive of in our minds as having a real independent existence; as,
wisdom, prudence, sleep.
§ 3. Nouns according to Structure.
1. When a word can be reduced to no simpler form, it ist called
a root.
2. A word derived from a simple word or root by a radical
change, is called a strong derivative; as, bless, bliss; sing, song;
feed, food; choose, choice.
3. A word derived from another by the addition of a suffix is
called a loeak derivative ; as, lance, lancet ; stream, streamlet.
4. Djcrivativks formed direct from the root are called primary
derivatives ; derivatives formed from other derivatives — secondary
derivatives.
5. Words formed by the addition of two or more words, each re-
taining its own signification, are called compounds.
■ 6. Nouns are either — "
THE NOUN.
•',,
'
f
^
■» (i) Orif/iudl Hoots.
(ii) Strung or weak Derivatives.
(iii) Compounds.
(i) Primitive Nouns are chiefly monosyllubic and Anglo-
Saxon. They embrace the names of all the common
objects of nature and human life around us, the winds,
passions, &c. ; as, brother^ sister, sun, earth, fear, wife,
roof.
(ii) Strong Derivatives are also, with few ex'^eptions,
Anglo-Saxon.
(iii) Weak Derivatives may be divided into four classes.
(a) Pkopriate Nouns {propriuvi) which express some
special notion or char.actor (such as, state, condition, form,
profession, office, <l;c.) affecting the meaning of tlie ori-
ginal word ; as, childhood, musician, homage, kindred, (&c.
For an explanation of such words, or their suffixes, vide
Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 7.
(b) DiMiNUTiVKS are nouns formed by adding to the
primitive words suffixes which signify 'little,' and have
tlie effect of diminishing or weakening the meaning; as,
lance, lancet; stream, streamlet.
(c) Diminutives, besides 'littleness,' sometimes ex-
press endearment, pity, depreciation, or contempt; as,
darling, mannikin, lordling.
For List and Explanation, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 4.
(d) AuGMENTATiVKS are nouns formed by adding to the
primitive words suffixes which have the effect of in-
tensifying the meaning ; as, balloon, pollard.
(e) AuGMENTATiVES also soinetimcs express censure;
as, dotard, dullard, buffoon.
For List and Explanation, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 5.
(f) Patronymics are nouns formed by adding a pre-
fix or suffix to the name of the father to indicate the son ;
as, liobin-son, Fitz- Herbert, O^Connell, Mt Ivor, &c.
Vide Etym. Deriv. chap. T. G.
■.:73-.-«.-7-aMl.-«:, --qilriKTifmTi
t
22 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Compounds : —
(iv) Compound Nouns are various. They are formed by
combining —
Noun + Noun
Noun -f Adjective
Noun + Verb
Noun + Gerund
Pronoun + Noun
Adverb + Noun
'2
'«
8
Q
as, rosetree, moonlight.
„ courtmarti'alj freeman,
„ godsend, breakfast.
„ cockcrowing, walking-stick.
, hegoat, shebear.
. out-law, after-thought.
Adverb + Verb and vice versd, loelcome, runaway.
Adverb -f Participle . bygones.
Adverb + Gerund . . uprising, outgoing.
Verb 4- Verb . . . hearsay, makebelieve,
(a) The logical force of a compound noun is tliis. Tlie second
word indicates the genus or class, and the first word the difference
or 'species.' Thus in manservant, servant is the 'genus'; but in
servant-man, man is the 'genus.' Since a logical definition is
formed by adding the difference to the genus, it follows, that many
compound nouns are logical definitions of the person or thing to
which we apply the term.
(b) 'There are several nouns in which the composition is con-
cealed by the apparent incompleteness of one of the elements or
sometimes both. The compound hence appears as a derivative, or
even as a root, when in truth it is neither : thus w/sdeed, king-
dom, manhood, friendship, bishopr/c are all compounds, the italic
syllables having originally a distinct meaning. To these may be
added .
Atone
-^
at + one.
Daisy
day's eye.
Verdict
^_
vere-dictum.
Bachelor
^^
bas chevalier.
Biscuit
^^
bis coctus.
Curfew
__
couvrefeu.
Kerchief
couvrechef.
4^*1
g-
lie
)e
THE NOUN.
23
r
Viiiogiir
Privilege
Kickshaws = qnelques clioses.
= vin nigre = vinum acer.
= by private law.'
&c. &c. &c.
(c) *0n tlie other hand, many words which appear to be coni'
pounds are not really such. Such are
Crayfish, for crevice, Fr. ecrivisse.
Wiseacre, for weissager, Ger. a diviner.
Sparrowgrass, for asparagus.
Yeoman, for yemeane, A.-S. common.
Beefeater, for bufettier.
Bag-o-nails, for bacchanals.' 4||
&c. &c. &c.
v^VI?
(d) ' Compositiov, it may be added, is later in a language than
DtrivatioUy and it forms a most important power in any tongue.
In English, as in German and Greek, it is a great excellence^ and
goes far to compensate us for the loss of case-endings. Indeed it
helps us to express our meaning with a brevity and clearness
which case-endings alone would never have given.' — Angus,
//. E. Tongue, p. 143.
§ 4. Number.
1. "We speak of ih^ properties of a class, and the accidents of an
individual. Hence we say the accidents of a noun are Number^
Gender, Case.
2. Definition. Number is a gra'"niatical form expressing one,
or more than one, of the things indicated by the name. These num-
bers are called singular and ju^ura/.
3. Nouns of Anglo-Saxon origin form their plurals in four ways:
(i) By a radical change ; as, mouse, mice. These are called
strong plurals, and imply collectiveness.
(ii) By the sufBx en; A.-S. as, ox, oxen. These are
rapidly becoming obsolete, and are estimated strong.
(iii) By the suffix er ; as childer (in A.-S. ru or ra), cor-
-<.
■"»«W^^^«ii««H
34
ANAr.vsia OP Till." PKr.,,,.
rat EhCLISU LANGUAGE.
"•u/)tcd now into ™ • •,, „,„
«w«,,. ^'"''^^"""""•^."'^oin.pb'ingcv*,.
('>') %tliesuffixe»or»-„, ;i„ ; . ,
'•• A favourite termination ofH , f' "' ''"'™''- ^'"'-''-•
«. -d of A.-Saxon nusj "'"""' °' ^-'•^--'' -'"-was
»o>vprevai,,would„at„ra ;beacl„ :rw/ .f""' "'''""' ^''-'^
W Nouns ending in c/i soft .j
ivv" consonants or t double .„' ' '' ''' '' "'"' g™^^''"/ i"
7<^ed b, a consonant, r"ternT"'-'''r '" " "'" ^ ^-
■"to i before es ; as, /y.^fe ' '"""' ' * ^'''""S''^
. (0) Oti,er nouns endingin 1 w7 '" "'""'^ '" ^•
'" and y preceded by a vowef f, rm tl o'" T' T"'""""' "
'"■•^ol-iei; proo^ roof; rept" \; 'f "^^''''= '^-^'''ef, hoof,
plurals both ways- as \1' /^''f^ ""-^ dwarf form their
l'; ihe following thirteen »;,„„i '"""'A dwarves.
rals :_ ^ '" "'"?'« """n^ I'ave strong ph,.
Man— Men r>„ „
Woman W ^'oose— Geese
woman— Women Foot— Feet
Child-Children Tooth-Teeth
Brother— Brethren r t
Jireiiiien Louse— Lice
^x — Uxen n,r
Mouse— Mice
Other words, as sheep, oroui^ h„ u
changed forn,. ^' ^ '' *'- '"'^ »"-ong plurals of „n
6- Some n/yams have l.nti, „ .,
I>ie— Dice
Pennj^Pence
Pea— Pease.
f*
f.
Sing.
Penny
Pea
THE NOUN.
Weak Plural.
Pennies
Peas
26
Strong Plural.
Ptjnce
Pease
Since plurals in en are estimated strong, to tliese we may add
Brother Brothers Brethren
7. Nouns which have two plurals with totally different meanings :
Sing. Plu. 1. Plu. 2.
Cloth Cloths Clothes
Die Dies Dice
Genius
Index
Geniuses
Indexes
Genii
Indices
8. Nouns which* have different meanings in the singular and
plural: *'
Sing. : Metal Plu. : Manacles, &c.
Iron
Content
Domino
Good
Salt
Vesper
Spectacle
Volume —
A mask —
An adjective —
A condiment —
Evening — .
A sight —
Subject-matter of a book
A game
Property " ' •
A medicine
Evening prayers
Glasses to see with
Under this class we may place the names of materials which
in the plural indicate varieties ; as, mnea, sugars, &c.
9. Nouns which have two meanings in the singular and one in
the plural
Sing, Meaning. Plural. Meaning.
Horse — Cavalry; animal Horses — Animals
Foot — Infantry; part of the body Feet — Parts of the body
Powder — For guns ; mixture Powders — Mixtures
Light — Of a lamp; a lamp Lights — Lamps
Compass — Circuit ; mariner's compass Compasses — For measuring
1 0. Nouns which have two meanings in the plural and one in the
singular :
Sing. Meaning. Plural. Meaning.
Pain — SufiFering Pains — SulFering, troubles
Custom — Habit Customs — Habits, revenue duties
26
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
11. The nonn * letter* has two meanings m the singular, alphabet-
letter, and epistle; and three in the plural, viz. alphabet-letter,
literature, epistles.
12, Nouns which have no singular.
(a) Hiose which express dual conceptions ; as,
Bellows Scissors Spectacles Troasers
Pincers Shears Tongs
Pliers Snuffers Tweezers
(b) Those, which express things plural by nature or art, or are
plurals in the languages from which they are derived ; such a»,
Antipodes
Bowels
Hustings
Nuptials
Annals
Calends
Ides
Oats
Archives
Credentials
Lees
Obsequies
Assets
Dregs
Matins
Odds
Aborigines
Entrails
Measles
Premises
Banns
Filings
Nones
Thanks
Tidings
Trappings
Victuals
Vitals
13. Nouns which have no plural: — Names of objects, &c., which
from their nature cannot be counted, have no plurals ; such as,
(a) Names of materials; as, gold, pitch, &c.
(b) Names of abstract and moral qualities; as, hardness^
prudence, pride.
14. Collectiveness is shown m three yr&ya : —
(a) By the collective noun ; as, mob, crowd,
(b) By the strong plural ; as, mouse, mice.
(c) By the suffix ry; as.
Cavalry = a collection of * caballi,* or steeds
Yeomanry = „ yeomen
Artillery = „ bows and arrows [arcus, telum)
Eyrie = eggery . . eggs
Jewry =; Jews, i. e. Judaea
jfcc. , &ic.
THE NOUN.
27
w
hich
\rdness,
ilum)
15. Words imported from forei.j.i lauguugcs form tlieir plurals
according Lo the law of the language whcne they are derived; as,
(Hebrew)
(Greek)
(Latin)
^French)
(Italian)
&c.
16. Several of these foreign words have a tendency to form their
plurals according to English rule; as,
Crocuses, formulas, frustums, mernorandums, &c.
Wiieu this takes place the word may be said to be naturalised.
17. We have now t< discuss the following words: —
(i) Means
Cherub
Cherubim
Criterion
Criteria
Formula
FormuliB
Beau
Beaux
Bandit
Banditti
&c.
&c.
/ > j Ethics
^ ' I Metaphysics
[b) Chickens
Children
Ferns
Swine
Kino
Pullen
News
u
(«)
(0
(g)
(1')
(k)
(I)
(-•)
(0)
(P)
(<l)
(0
Pains
Amends
Riches
Alms
Folk, folks
Wages
Thiuiks
"SVelkin
(a) Ethics, Metaphysics, Politics, Physics, &c. 'In
Greek the science was denoted by a feminine adjective sin-
gular (to agree with Te;\;v^, art) ; and the treatises upon it by
the neuter adjective plural. The treatises of Aristotle are so
named. To apply this. A science of Greek origin might
have its name drawn from two sources, viz. from the name of
the art or science, or from the name of tiie books wherein it was
treated. In the first case it had a singular form, as physic,
logic. In the second place a plural form, as metaphysi^ .,
mathematics, optics,' &c. — Latham, vol. ii. p. 167, English
Language.
(b) Chickens. Latham gives this as an instance of a
double plural exhibiting the same formation a.a ferns; but this
is very questionable, because though en is a plural suffix,
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAUK.
1 1
it is also a diminutive'; as m garden ; m which chqq chicken
Bignifies a Utile chick, and tliis phiral is formed quite regularly.
(c) CHiLr>RKN. Tliis is an instance of a double plural from
child-er-en ; er and en being plural suffixes; so lumhren.
— Wickliff.
( 1) Fkrns. According to Wallis (to quote Latham) this is
another instance of a double plural {fer-en-es) fere being the
singular. This is doubtful, as the A.-S. form is /ear/i.
(e) Swine (A.-S.) Swin, (Danish) Swyn, Swine is singular,
also plural and collective.
* As a jewel of gold m aswine^s snout. — Prov. xi. 22.
'And there was an herd of many swine feeding.* — St.
Luke viii, 32.
(f) KiXE. *Kine is the plural we have adopted from
Cotven. Analogy seems to point to sow-en^ the plural of sow^
as the origin of swine^ by dropping the o in pronunciation.'
— Dr, liichardson.
Referring to what has just been said about kine, we may
add that there is a word Al/e, used in Scotland for cows, with
which it may also be connected.
(g) PuLLEN (poultry). 'The en is no more a sign of a
plural than es m riches. The proper form is am, or eyn,
pullain.^ — Latham.-
(h) ' News is in respect to its original form plural : in re-
spect to its meaning, either singular or plural, most frequently
the former.' — Latham.
The same remark applies to —
(i) (k) (1) Means, Pains, Amends. All were plurals origin-
ally, and now are used as singulars.
(m) Riches is a true singular derived from the N.-Prench
richesse. A plural, richesses, is however met with in Chaucer
and Wickliff.
(n) Alms is also a true singular, derived from the Greek
kXerfnoovvT], or A.-Saxon ^Imesse, 0. English almesse and
almes. A plural olmesses is met with in Chaucer.
(o) Folk and Polks used indiscnminately; but the plural
termination is superfluous, as the won\folk implies plurality.
:-^.
THE NOUN.
29
chicken
rularly.
il from
irtihren.
) this is
ing the
ingular,
d from
of SOWj
ciation.'
we may
s, with
^n of a
I or eyUj
in re-
[quently
origm-
[Prench
Jhaucer
Greek
$56 and
phiral
lihtv.
(p) Wages now singular but formerly jiilaral; lieiice the
word wage. Its singular use is exemplified in the verse,
* The wages of sin is death.'
(q) TuANKS. A singular to this did exist, as in tlie phrase,
'What thank have ye?'
(r) Welkin is an adjective meaning rolling^ used substan-
tively to denote the sky ; hence singular, and never plural.
18. In forming the plurals of Proper names we retain the spell-
ing unchanged ; as, the three Marys, unless they have become,
through frequent usage, CImss or Common names ; as, the Ptolemies.
19. In Compound nouns the substantive part takes the plural
suffix; as, courts martial, Knights Templar, aides-de-camp. So
also we say the Misses Thompson.
20. National names compounded with man make the plural in
men; as. Frenchman, Frenchmen. Exception, Norman.
21. The following words are not compounds of man, and there-
fore form their plurals by adding s; German* Mussulman, Brah-
man, Ottoman, Turcoman, Talisman, Caiman, Firman.
§ 5. Gender.
1. Definition. Gender is a grammatical form expressive of class
or sex.
'Though gender is more applied to class than to sex, in
English the two are co-cxtensive ; and thus in Gender our
language is more philosophic and effective than the
classic languages.'
2. Gender is of three kinds, masculine, feminine, neuter.
In English gender is determined by sex alone ; the name of
everything of the male sex is called masculine, the
name of everything of the female sex is called feminine,
and of neither sex, neuter.
3. In some grammars a fourfold division is given, viz. masculine,
feminine, neuter, and common. Such words as parent, child, &c.
* The etymology of * German ' is much disputed. The most reasonable one seems to
be (Celtic) • galrmean ' = * one who cries out.'— Taylor, Words and Places, p. 65. At all
events the word does not seem to be a compound of ' man.^
III! I J_J-l,i..
.*
M
|i
30
ANALYSIS OF TllK ENCJLIHII LANOUAaiS.
are given as instances of tlie Inst. This division is an instance of a
logical fault, ciilleil 'cross division.' It is evident 'parent,' &c. must
be either masculine or ft'/nininc, and therefore cannot represe'it
another sort of gender.
4. Gkndku of nouns is shown in three ways: —
(i) By a prefix; as, liegoat^ she-goat.
(ii) ByasufBx; as, shephei'd, shepherdess.
(iii) By a total change of word; as, bidl, cow.
5. In A.-Saxon the syllable ere, now er, was a masc— suffix.
The male agent ia shown by this termination or its variations, ar,
or, yor ; as, heggar, sailor, lawyer. The feminine suffix was estre,
or istre, now ster ; as, spinster.
6. In N.-French the feminine suffix was ess, derived from Lat.
ix ; as, empress.
7. 'All males are not of the masculine gender.* Gender in its
general definition cannot be limited to sex.
(i) In Latin the fem. termination a is found in many mascu-
line words; as, nauta, poeta, &c.
(ii) In French we have une sentinelle, a sentinel, /em.
(iii) In English such words as tapster, maltster, &c. are masc.y
though ster is & feminine suffix as above stated.
The cause of this was, that the operations indicated by the
terms, tapster^ maltster, &c., were formerly performed by
women.
8. The termination ster is found in otlier combinations; as,
youngster, punster, &c. Hoie this fem. suffix is employed as a
diminutive of depreciation. On the oth^r hand the augmentative
suffix ard is used to denote the 7iiasc. gender in the words wizard
and mallard.
9. As a rule the feminine is formed from the masc; but, m the
words drake, widower, gander, hridegroom, the reverse is the case.
(a) Drakk is an example of a Scandinavian masc. ending.
Tiie word is Ant-rnkko ; ant, meaning ^ swimmer,^ lias been
lost. Duck, chiedy used as feminine, is really the generic term,
and therefore is, according to circumstances, of either gender.
THE NOUN.
31
masc.f
the
[ed by
, a^
as a
itative
tjizard
\n the
case.
hding.
been
term,
jnder.
(b) WiDowKR. The A.-S. was vdduwa (luasc.) and widuwe
(feni.). In O. E. widow was applied to both sexes, and er,
the common A.-S masc. suffix was ultimately added to distin-
guish them.
(c) Gander, from gans = a goose, is a similar example.
(d) Brideoboom ought to be hridegoom; from A.-S. gyman^
to attend.
10. To explain the following words: lordj lady, man, woman^
nep/ieWf niece, Iieroine, vixen, sultana, girl, slut, seamstress.
(a) Lord, either hlaf-ord, A. -S.= loaf-giver, or from hlaf=
lofty, and ord=ortus, (uat.) born; so lord=:lofty born.
(b) Lady (hlaf-d-ig); ig means add; as if to say, 'add a
raised condition.'
(c) Nephew. (Fr.) neveu, (Lat.) nepos.
(d) Niece. (LaL) neptis.
(e) Man, a generic term, (A.-S.) m/igan, to be powerful. ,
* (f) WoMAN=wif-man, i. e. 'the r^an that weaves.'
(g) Heroine is an example of a fem. suffix form in many
languages, Lat., Gr., German.
(h) Vixen. A.-S. /cm. fixen; (fix = a fox.)
(k) Sultana, a Turkish feminine.
(1) Girl, an abbreviation from ceorlen, cirlen, (A.-S.), a
little churl; originally of either gender. It is now appropri-
ated as a feminine.
(m) Slut, etymologically the same as sloven, from slow. In
Old Englisli, of either gender, now used as a feminine.
(n) Seamstress, Songstress. Compound feminines, seamr
str-ess, or seam-ster-ess. The A.-S. suffix ster, aud N.-French
ess, are here both combined.
11. The following words are feminine without any corresponding
masculine form : — «
Amazon
Milliner
Termagant
Brunette
Seamstress
Virago
Dowager
Shrew
Virgin
Jointress
Siren
32
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
11
I'
12. The third loay of showing gender of nouns is hy a total change
of word. The following is a list of nouns that have a separate word
for male and female : —
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc. Fem.
Bachelor Maid
Dog
Bitch
King
Queen
Ram Ewe
Beau
Belle
Drake
Duck
Lad
Lass
Sire Dam
Boy
Girl
Earl
Countess
Lord
Lady
Sir Madam
Bride-
Bride
Father
Mother
Male
Female
Sloven Slut
groom
Gaffer
Gammer
Man
Woman
Son Daughter
Brother
Sister
Gander
Goose
Master
Mistress
Stag Hind
Buck
Doe
Gentle-
Lady
Milter
Spawner
Steer Heifer
Boar
Sow
man
Monk
Nun
Swain Nymph
Bull
Cow
Hart
Roe
Nephew Niece
Uncle Aunt
Cock
Hen
Horse
Mare
Papa
Mama
Wizard Witch
Colt
Filly
Husband Wife
Rake
Jilt
^-t^israe'^
13. We assign gender to the inanimate objects or qualities which
nouns represent on three principles: (i) Ancient Mythology, or
classic usage, (ii) A natural principle of Personification, which
teaches us to group under the masculine things remarkable for
strength^ courage^ majesty y dignity, permanence, &c., and generally
those which would range under cav^e, whilst the feminine gender
embraces those which specify gentleness, fruitfulnesSf beauty, weak-
ness, clvange, volatility, inferiority, and those which would come
under * effect.^ Thus^re in Lat. and French is mobsc, but the '■flame '
proceeding from it yem.; 'water* in both languages, yem.; ^cedifi-
cium,' Lat. (generic term) neuter; *8edes*=temple for worship,
masc. 'domus'= habitation (changeable) fem.; so door, window,
chair, &c., in Lat. and French, fem.; &ic. &c. (iii) Cobbett notices
a third principle. He tells us the country people speak of things
closely identified with themselves as she; of things that pass from
hand to hand as he. The shovel and prong are masculine, the
scythe and plough, feminine.
-fW*e,
— sUt
THE NOUN.
38
§ 6. Case.
1. Definition. Case is a gnnnmatical form expressive of relation.
In English we have three cuaes, Nominative^ Possessive, Objective ;
or, as the form for the nominative and objective is now always the
same, it is sometimes said Hhat we have two cases expressing three
relations;^ as, king, king (nominative and objective), dnd king's
(possessive).
2. In Latin, Gr., and A.-Saxon there were five or six cases :
nominative, genitive, dative, accnsative, vocative, ablative; and
these terms arc frequently used in English.
3. The explanation of such case-endings as remain to us will be
better understood after an inspection of the following table of A.-S.
declensions; the critical terminations, of which traces remain, being
marked.
Anglo-Saxon Inflexions.
First Declension. \
Sing.
Plur.
Mas. Fern. Neu.
Steorra Tunge Eage
SteorraTi Tungan Eagan,
Steorran Tungan Eagan
Steorran Tungan Eage
Nom.
Oen.
Dat. <fe Ahl.
Ace.
Mas. Fern. Neu.
Steorran Tungan Eagan
Steorre/ia Tungena Eag^na
Steorrww Tungww Eagwm
Steorran Tungan Eagan
Second Declension.
'ir-.
let Class.
2nd Class.
3rd Class.
1st Class.
2nd Class.
Zrd Class.
Nom.
Word
Smitli
Spraece
Word
SmithoA
Spraoca
Gen.
Worde*
Smiths*
Sprsece*
Worda
Smitha
Spraeca
Dat. & Ahl
Worde
Smithe
Spraece
WoTdum
Smithw7n,
Spraecww
Ace.
Word
Smith
Spraece
Word
Smitha«
Spraeca
Third Declen
sion.
t
Sing.
Plural.
Nom.
Treow
Man
Gifu
Treowu
Menn
Gifa
Oen.
Treow««
M&nnes
Gife
Treowa
Manna
G'liena
Dat. <fc Ahl.
Treowe
Men
Gife
Treow?^m
Msinnum
G'lium
Ace.
Treow
Man
Gife i-u)
D
Treowu
Menn
Gifa
r
I
34
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
4. The Genitive (or Possessive Relation). — It is evident that
in A.-S. the commonest genitive suffix was es. In 0. English this
appears as is, and later as '5; as, Hhe birdis nest,^ ^John^s book.^
The '5 is also appended to plural nouns; as, the children's bread.
5. Singulars Irhat end in es, ss, x, us, ce, and all plurals that end
in 5, form the genitive by the apostrophe only without the 5/ as, for
goodness' sake, for Jesus' sake, for conscience' sake.
6. It was long supposed that the 's was an abbreviation of his ;
as, the king's horse = the king his horse, and many expressions
countenance the idea. But this explanation was manifestly wrong,
since 's was appended to feminine uouns and to plurals also.
7. ' His, however, may have been inserted in A.-S. or O.-E. for a
possessive in cases where the genitive of the noun did not end in s,
as happened with many nouns of the first and third declensions.'—
Angus's Handbook, E. Tongue.
8. This form of genitive appears in many adverbs which ori-
ginally were genitives; as, unawares, needs, eftsoons, once, twice,
thrice, towards, backwards. So also the pronoun forms, hence, thence,
whence.
9. Another genitive ending was in an, n, ena (pi.). Hence, words
like mine, thine, wooden, oakeUf and generally en, the adjective
suffix which has the force made of. - •'
10. The A.-S. form of the genitive or possessive was, as we have
seen, in es, subsequently '5. The substitution of tlie preposition of
for the case-ending arose from Norman-French.
(i) The genitive in *8 is Saxon and possessive, limited to
animate and personified objects ; as, Ccesar's head.
(ii) The genitive with qfi3 Norman-French, and is called the
partitive genitive; as, a quart of plums; or signifies
quality, as, a man of courage ; or signifies the material
of which something is made, as, a table of wood.
11. The Dativb (Receptive or Locative Relation). The
common A.-S. dative was in m, um (pi.), and in re for adjectives.
Hence, forms like seldom, whilom^ here, there, &c.
THE NOUN.
35
12 The Aoousati7e (Objective Relation) in A.-S. often
ended m n, whence such forms as twain, tJien.
TioN) in A.-S. sometimes ended in y oi e ; hence why and ^Ae
wluch IS an abhtive in the phrase the more the merrier,
^Jtuffti^''\f^''^'''^ -^^^^ '^"^ ^-S- ^ere distinguished by
O Fn^^Lh M «*i^«^/,f esj^ence. the frequent addition ote in
U. Jiinghsh. Much of the old spelling is exolainpH hv i^^Lfll
Angua's Har^ook of the Englil 2h7ffue,Tw2 ^ ^'"^
asions. —
■ -Ul JJ» L . I J^
^sat.
1
i
36
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER IV.
THE ADJECTIVE.
§1-
1. Definition. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to
quality It.
2. CLASSIFICATION.
1— Compound .... as seagreen
— Structure •?— Derived . . . . ,, beauteous
l-Sii
>
O '-3
o
u
o
Formation
and
Meaning
-SiHaple
—Common
—Proper
—Numeral
—Pronominal
—Participial .
—Compound .
— Meaning
—Definitive
i:
—General
Particular
—Qualitative ,
—Privative .
—Diminutive
—Augmentative
—Positive
—Causative .
—Potential .
,, white
as good, bad
,, American
,, three, four
,, all, each
,, amusing
.. four-footed
as a, an
„ the
,, sleepless
,, childish
,, truthful
,, learned
,, terrific
,, pleasurable
-Quantitative
—Definite —
—Indefinite .
—Distributive
—Cardinal
—Ordinal
—Multipli-
cative
two,
first,
double
as few, many
,, each, every
)less
lish
ful
ed
fie
urable
I two,
1 first,
1 double
many
I, every
THE ADJECTIVE
87
§ 2. Adjective according to Meaning.
1. Adjectives whicli distinguish a class, or a noun from its class,
arc caiiod definitive.
These adjectives are of two kinds ; general and particular.
2. The general definitive or distinctive adjective is a or an, and
the particular distinctive adjective is the.
3. These words, owing to the frequency of their use and strongly
inseparable character, have been differently classed, and called Arti-
cles, the former, indefinite ; the latter, definite.
4. Article from articulus a joint — *a small part or portion of the
entire limb;' hence metaphorically, a small, but critical part of the
entire signification. Since these adjectives limit the significations of
nouns, we shall not be wrong in defining them according to our classi-
tication as ^definitive or distinctive adjectives.^
5. Upon no subject has there been so much difference of opinion
as the nature and classification of these two small words. By
some grammarians they are regarded as adj'ectives ; by others as
pronouns ; by others again as forming a distinct class of themselves.
The question seems to be easily settled by refetence to the definitions
of an adj'ective and of a pronoun.
(i) An adjective is a word added to a noun, dtc.
(ii) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
It is the characteristic of the latter that it can he used by itself.
Therefore, in the case of these words, a and the, it is evident that
as they can never be used instead of others, but, on the contrary, must
always be added to others; they are adjectives and not pronouns. In
this respect they differ completely from any, this, that, with which
they are sometimes erroneously classed.
6. The logical force of these articles is this : A or An (= one)
indicates a common noun. The reduces the ' common ' noun to a
^ singular.^
7. An is used before vowels and silent h; as, an apple, an ugly
tree, an heir.
38
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAGj!:.
8. The words in tlie following list, though beginning with vowels,
require a before them :
union
unity
usage
usurious
yell
uniform
universe
usual
yaclit
yellow
unicorn
universal
usurper
yard
yoke
unison
use
usurping
yawn
youth
unit
useful
usurer
year
youthful
9. The following words beginning with an li aspirate, but having
the accent on the second syllable, require the article an before them :
habitual
hardngue
harmonic
harmonious
heraldic
herbaceous
hereditary
heretical
heroic
hexameter.
hexagonal
hist6rian
historical
horizon
hostility
hyp6crisy
hypothesis
hysterical
I'^'^i
N. B. — It will he noticed that the substantives belonging to these adjec-
tives take ' a ' before them.
10. The applies to either number; a, to the singular number
only, except when it gives a collective meaning to an expression con-
sisting of an adjective and plural noun ; as, a few days, a hundred
pounds.
Prefixed to adjectives, the marks a class ; as, the righteoics, the
wicked.
11. In phrases like three times a year, *a' = each, every, and is
distributive.
12. Sometimes a means any; as, *Ifa man keep my saying,*
i.e. ^any man.'
13. Adjectives which mark the peculiarities of a thing by a re-
ference to its qualities, or supposed qualities, are called quali-
tative.
14. Qualitative adjectives are of six kinds — positive and privative,
which signify the possession of, or absence of, a quality ; diminutive
and augmentative, which weaken or intensify the meaning ; causa'
tive and potential, which impart or excite a quality.
«
._4
)welfl,
'ul
luiving
the in :
J
is
il
86 adjee-
number
ion con-
lundred
■>us^ the
and is
mying'
THE ADJECTIVE.
39
15. Adjkctives which distinguish things according to their num-
ber are called quantitative.
16. Quantitative adjectives are of three kinds — definite^ rs ten ;
indefinite^ as few ; and distributive^ as eac/j, every.
17. Definite Numeral Adjectives are divided into three
classes — (i) Cardinal^ (ii) Ordinal^ (iii) Multiplicative.
(i) A CARDINAL numeral shows the number of things taken ;
as ten J twenty^ &c.
(ii) An ORDINAL numeral shows in what order they are
taken ; as, first, fourth^ &c.
(iii) A MULTIPLICATIVE numeral shows how many times one
thing exceeds another; rs, single^ double, treble, &c.,
twofold, threefo'd, &c.
For derivation and explanation of these numerals, vide Etym.
Deriv. chap. I. § 2, 6.
1 8. The following nouns are employed as collective numerals : pair,
brace, couple, gross, dozen, score, stone, &c. '
19. The compounds of one are, only = one-like; atone^ i.e. to be
at-one; alone = all one; 'none = no-one.
|^~ Distinguish ]}etween ' one ' the noun (homo) and ' one' the adjec-
tive (an).
20. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives are such as, all, few,
many, certain, divers, several, &c.
21. Distributive Adjectives denote objects one, tvo, or more
taken separately ; as, each, every, &c.
ky a re-
QUALI-
ivativey
\inutive
causa'
§ 3. Adjectives according to Formation and Meaning.
1. Possibly this classification is more grammatical, though less
logical: according to it we divide adjectives into six classes, which
are thus briefly explained.
(i) A Common Adjective is any ordinary epithet or adjec-
tive denoting quality or situatfon ; as, good, bad.
i
40 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(ii) A PitorKR Adjkctivk is an adjective formed from a
proper noun : as, English^ American.
(iii) A NuMKUAL Adjkctivk is an adjective tliat expresses
a definite number; as, owe, two^ three.
(iv) A PuoNOMiNAL Adjkctivk is 0116 that may eitlier accom*
puny its noun, or represent it understood ; as, all.
(v) A Participial Adjkctivk is a participle used us an adjec-
tive, i. e. without tlio notion of time ; as, amusing,
dying,
(vi) A Compound Adjkctivk is one that consists of two or
more words joined together ; as, surefooted.
B^* This classification will be found very useful in parsing.
§ 4. Adjectives accordin|^ to Structure.
1. Like nouns, adjectives are either simple^ derived^ or compound.
2. Simple Adjectives are A.-Saxon.
3. Derived Adjectives may be divided into strong and weak, or
primary and secondary.
4. Primary derivatives are A.-Saxon. They are derived from
verbs and nouns; as, wit, wise ; pride, proud; fill, full.
5. Secondary derivatives are derived from verbs, nouns, adjectives,
either Saxon or Latin or Greek, by the addition of various prefixes
and suffixes derived from these languages, for which see Etym, Deriv.
chap. L § 2.
6. Compound Adjectives are formed by combining —
(i) Nouns with adjectives, imperfect participles, and perfect
participles ; as, sea-green, heart-breaking, moth-eaten.
(ii) Adverbs with participles, perfect nnd imperfect; as, well-
favoured, ill-looking.
(iii) By adding a suffix, as ' ed, ' to some of these compounds ;
as, grey-lieaded, long-legged.
--4
THE ADJECTIVE.
41
7. In compound ordinal nnmerah tlie last only assumes the ordi-
nal forin ; as, twenty-third, one-hundred nd ninety-Jifth, &c.
For derivation, compoHition, and explanation of the nunieralii,
vide Etym. JJeriv. chap. I. § 2, (J.
§ 5. Comparison.
1. The Accidknts of an Adjective are Nuvibery Getuler, Case,
and Comparison.
2. Tiie English adjective does not exhibit, by inflexional changes,
the accidents of Gender, Number ^ Case, which it has in common
with tlie noun which it qualifies, and with which it is snid to agree.
3. The only striking peculiarity of the English adjective, as com-
pared with the same part of speech in other languages, is its invari-
ability, or its want of distinct forms for different cases, genders, and
numbers. The irreconcilability of the Norman and Saxo, modes of
inflecting adjectives compelled the English to discaid them both ; but
the Saxon endings of number were not given up till the fifteenth
century, and some of them held out longer. Hooker uses my deare
for my dears, where a modern preacher would have said my dear
hearers. — Marsh's Lectures on Eng. Lang.
4. Definition. Comparison of adjectives and adverbs means a
variation in them to express quality in different degrees.
6. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the com-
parative, and the superlative.
(i) The Positive Degree. An adjective is said to be in
the positive degree when it is in its simple state; as,
white, fierce, hard, &c.
(ii) The Comparative Degree. An adjective is said to be
in the comparative degree when, on comparing two
objects or classes, it expresses relatively an increase or
diminution of the quality; as, higher, fiercer, lower,
more hard, less feeble.
(iii) The Superlative Degree. An adjective is said to be
in the superlative degree when, on comparing more than
two objects or classes, it expresses relatively the limit
'%
UgL-ll. ! . . ! ' . f . * W*yi P''
'4
■■i
<i I
42 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
of the increase or diminution of the quality ; as, hi(/hest,
fiercest^ lowest^ most wise, least plentifaL
ID^g" These definitions of the comparative and superlative are not so
short as those which obtain generally in grammars. There is a
serious fault in some of these definitions. To define a compar-
ative by a comparative, or a superlative by a superlative, is simply
illogical.
6. Adjectives of more than one syllable form their comparisons
by the adverbs more, m^ost, less, least; as, more virtuous, most
virtuous, less joyous, least joyous,
7. Adjectives of one syllable and dissyllables in y form their
comparisons by adding to the positive cr for the comparative, and
est for the superlative; as, grand, grander, grandest. They may
also form their comparisons by more, most, less, least,
8. In the variation of adjectives fin^bl consonants are doubled,
final e is omitted, and y is changed to i ; as, hot, hotter, hottest; wide,
wider, widest; happy, happier, happiest.
9. The following adjectives, though dissyllables, may form their
comparatives and superlatives by adding er, est, to the positive: —
pleasant tender
handsome clever
bitter honest
slender proper
10. The comparative suffix er signifies duality. Superlatives
have two forms; one in ema, the other in est. The former is found
only in such words /ore-m-osi, hind-m-ost. The latter was in A.-S.
est for adjectives, and ost for adverbs,
11. Comparatives and superlatives which are formed by less,
least, are sometimes called comparatives and superlatives of dimi-
nution or negation.
12. Adjectives indicating qualities which admit of no variatior,
admit of no comparison. Such adjectives are : —
(i) Definitive adjectives; as, a, the.
(ii) Adjectives formed from names of figures, materials, time^
person, place; as, circulat, wooden, Asiatic.
able
noble
humble
idle
gentle
simple
nimble
subtle
THE ADJECTIVE.
43
(iii) Adjectives which express an extreme limit; as, eternal,
supreme, &c.
13. The following are irregular, and some of them obsolete: —
Vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. § 2, 5.
P08.
Com.
Superl.
Good
Better
Best
Bad
Worse
Worst
Little
Less
Least
Much, Many
More
Most
Nigh, Near
Nearer
Nearest, next
Pore
Por-m-er
Poremost, Pirst
Par
Parther
Parthest
Porth
Purther
Purthest
Late
Later, Latter
Latest, Last
Old [Eld-age]
Older, Elder
Oldest, Eldest
Out
Outer, Utter
Outermost, Utmost
[Rathe]
Rather
[Rathest]
Chief
Chiefest
14. The comparative is followed by than which is called a sign of
the comparative degree. By this test we find that many words,
which are comparatives in Latin, &c., such as senior, junior,
superior, inferior, &c., are not comparatives in the same sense in
English. Among such word? may be classed also the words elder^
former, latter, hinder, upper, under, inner, outer, &c.
15. Forms like inmost, uppermost, are doubly superlative.
16. With reference to the irregular forms given above we may
make the following remarks : —
(i) (WoRSK, Less.) The fact of these comparatives being
the only two ending in es or se has given ns the double
comparative form lesser. It is not unusual to meet with
the word worser among the lower class, and we find it
occasionally ir> old authors: as, 'Our worser thoughts
Heaven mend.' Skakspeare.
(ii) LiTTLK is a diminutive form.
iiiUiiMH
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iii) Farther, Further. Far means distant, and we use
farther wlien speaking of the relative position of bodies;
as, 'The sun is fartlier from tlie earth than tlie moon.'
Further is the comparative of forth^ from foris, out o/,
or beyond. It is used when motion is implied ; as, 'Pie
threw the ball further (i.e. more beyond) tiian you.'
The th in farther is an instance of Epenthesis, which inserts a
letter or syllable in the middle of a word in this instance, to
prevent the collision of two r's, as, farrer.
(iv) Much applies to quality, as well as to quantity. Many
to quantity only.
(v) Few, Many. Few is used with a plural noun, and yet
admits before it the indefinite article.
Few :=zh\\t few, if any.
A /eM;=:some, thougli not many.
Many is said by some to be a substantive in its origin,
from (N.-Fr.) mesiiie, a multitude. Plence we say a
great many* i.e. a great multitude. So also many a man,
q.d. many of men. Others take it from A.-S. manig,
a diminutive joined to a plural noun, and (with a inter-
vening), to a singular one, as above. Thongli the
latter derivation seems more correct, it leaves us witlioitt
any explanation of this singular use of the word.*
(vi) Later, latest, refer to time. Latter ^ last, reiar m place,
(vii) Elder applies to persona ; older to dbjeets, ammate oimT
inanimate.
(viii) Th.5 word chief, which denotes head or Jirst, eanuot
strictly have a superlative; we find chiefest however,
in St. Mark x. 44, in Milton, and elsewhere.
For complete explanation, derivation, &c. of these words, vide
Etyni. Deriv. chap. 1. § 2, 5.
* See Syntax, chap. VTI. § ft. Many.
i .wti i i >i I
1 WO use
)f bodies;
le moon.'
is, out of,
' as, *£Ie
you.'
inserts a
stance, to
Many
and yet
THE PRONOUN.
45
! origin,
e sav n
y a man,
, m>anig,
a inter-
tigh the
witlioitt
L*
) pkce>
ate iMiiJ
eanuot
owever,
is, vide
CHAPTER V.
§ 1. PBONOUN.
1. Definition. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
2. CLASSIFICATION.
I -Compound
-Structure . -Derived
'-Simple
1^
O
'A
o
be
o
o
u
— Meaning
-Adjective . -
-Possessive . .
-Demonstrative
-Relative . .
-Interrogative .
-Reflective . .
-Reciprocal . .
-Distribuiive .
■Indefinite . .
my, mine, thy,
thine, his, hers,
&c.
this, that
who, which, what,
that, &c.
who, which, what,
&c.
self, own
each other, one
another
each, every, either,
neither
any, such, some
'-Substantive-
-Personal . . I, tnou, ho, she,
it, &c.
-Reflective . . self
-Indefinite . . aught, naught.
one
W BS iH * . -*' *' V f i. - g. r
'^''Ir
h
46
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 2. Pronoun according to Meaning.
1. Pronouns according to meaning are divided into pronouns
substantive and pronouns adjective.
2. Pronoun Substantives are used instead of nouns, and are of
three kinds — (i) Personaly (ii) Ee/lective, (iii) Indefinite.
(i) Personal pronouns are simple substitutes for the names
of persons and things.
The PERSONAL pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it, and their
plurals,
(ii) When the thing or person spoken of is the same as the
thing or person denoted by the noun or pronoun, the
pronoun is called reflective.
The reflective pronoun is self, originally an adjective, but
used sometimes as a noun, meaning person or indi-
viduality.
(iii) An indefinite pronoun repre^piits a noun without spe-
cifying any individual. Tiio iii'lcfinite pronouns are
onCf aught, naught.
3. Pronouns Adjective are so called because, though all of l.hem
can be used without a noun, they yet have the qualifying force of
adjectives.
4. Under Pronouns Adjective we enumerate eight classes — (i)
Possessive, (ii) Demonstrative, (iii) Relative, (iv) Interrogative, (v)
Reflective, (vi) Reciprocal, (vii) Distributive, (viii) Indefinite.
(i) Possessive pronouns are substitutes for the possessive
cases of the personal jyronouns. The possessive pro-
nouns are my, mine; thy, thine; his, hers, its; our,
ours; your, yours ; their, theirs.
(ii) Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out the
object to which they refer.
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that; plural, iliesc,
those.
TxIE PKONOUN.
4T
ronouna
1 are of
e names
[id their
! as the
Dun, the
•live J but
or t'wrfi-
ut spe-
Inns are
of them
Iforce of
fses — (i)
tive, (v)
ie.
[ssessive
ive pro-
|s; ouVf
)ut the
tJiese,
(ill) Relative pronoiina are those which, in addition to being
substitutes for the names of persons or things, refer to
something which has gone before in the sentence, and so
connect the parts of the sentence togetlier.
The word referred to is caded the antecedent.
The RELATIVE PRONOUNS are who^ whichf what^ and tJuit.
Besides these, the particles but and as are sometimes employed
as relatives.
(iv) Interrogative pronouns are those used in asking ques-
tions. They are whoy which, wJiat, and whether.
1^ The last is obsolete as an adjective, and nearly so as an interro-
gatite.
(v) Reflective pronouns adjective are se{/*and own.
For an explanation of these pronouns see below.
(vi) Reciprocal pronouns, which express mutual feehng and
action are each other, one another,
(vii) A Distributive pronoun represents a noun, and at the
same time more than one individual of the class. Such
pronouns are each, every, either, neither.
(viii) The Indefinite pronouns adjective are any, other, some.
5. Having thus explained and defined those various classes we
proceed to make some observations on those that especially call
for it. *
(i) Rejiectives, 'self and 'own.'
(ii) Relatives.
(iii) Reciprocal pronouns.
1. Self, (a) The anomalies of the construction of self have given
rise to much difference of opinion. According to some, self is a
•iuhatantive, and means person, or individuality. In the nom. my-
self means mea or mei persona, and the construction is that of an
adjective or genitive preceding a noun. He himself. They them-
selves, can only be accounted for by supposing m euphonic, to avoid
the repetition of ss in hisself: a word sometimes met with in vulgar
use. In the oblique cases, himself, themselves, are instances of
n(Mms him, them, in apposition with 'selves.'
-■"X^'j^imf-
48
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
!
i!
i r
(b) This is Latham's explanation of tlie anomaly. It dues
not seem to be correct. In the first place jn A.-S. sylf, or
self, is an adjective and not a noun, like avrhg- in Greek and
meme in French. In the next place, whilst it is usnally added
to the personal pronoun in the same case and gender; as, ic
^ylfi '-^ ('^iy)s6lf,' the dative of the personal pronoun is also
sometimes prefixed j as, ic com me sylf, ' I myself came ;' himsylf
\*aer getuihte, ' himself there taught.'
(c) From this it appears that he himself is perfectly correct,
and a construction bequeathed to us from A.— Saxon. It is far
more reasonable to suppose with the evidence before us,
that the true construction is meself, theeself, and not myself^
thyself. We meet with an analogous construction in French —
c^est nioimeme.
(d) The conclusion to which we must come is this: that
as myself thyself &c. are established in the language, self
must be regarded in such cases as a noun. In himself &c. we
have the true original construction, where self is an adjective
and him a dative governed by it.
2. Own is an adjective, and is used with the genitive or possessive
case, his, my, &c. Self is used with both the genitive and objective
cases.
(i) Kelatives.
(a) Who is a definitive relative used when the antecedent
is a rational being, or personified agent.
(b) Which is an indefinite relative used for animate beings
and inanimate objects ; as, * Our Father, which art,' &c.
The common supposition that which is the neuter of who
(which is an error) has now caused its relation to be restricted
to neuter objects.
(c) What is the neuter of who, and refers to inanimate
objects. It is sometimes called a comjjound relative, because
11= that which.
(d) That, really li demonstrative, is used as a general relative
THE PRONOUN.
49
for any kind of antecedent, but especially when the antecedent
is indefinite or a class; as, the cities that escaped destruction^
the nations that were civilised.
(e)"BuT is used as a relative -wh^n it follows a negative. Its
force is then = who + not ; as, there was no one hut saw him,
i. e. ^who did not see him.'
(f) *As' is used as a relative after such, so much, same.
These words are sometimes called ^correlatives' from the fact
of their inseparability.
(g) The compound relatives are whoever, whosoever, &c.
(ii) Reciprocal Pronouns.
Each other refers to two ; one another to. more than
two. In the sentence, ' They liked one another,' one is the
nominative in opposition to the pronoun one — the other. In
the sentences, 'They liked each other,' 'They were kind to
each other,' we should interpret strictly in accordance with
Grammar, * They each liked the other,' * They were kind each
to the other.'
§ 3. Fronouns according to Structure.
1. Pronouns are divided according to structure into (i) Simple^
(ii) Derived, (iii) Compound,
2. All are of Saxon origin except one, the derivative of on^
homme, homo.
3. The primitive or simple pronouns are I, me; loe, us; thou;
ye, you; he, she, it, they ; who; self.
8^" ffe, she, it, they, were not originally personal pronouns, but
demonstratives, like hie and ille in Latin.
4. The derived pronouns are,
Thee
Him
Her
Them
My
objective form from
dative
fem. dative ,,
dative
A.-S.
Thou
He
Heo,
That
possessive case ,,
Me
£
60
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAQE.
P i
Thy
Mine, thine
Our, i.e. we-er
Your
Their
Hers
His
Ours, yours, theirs
Its (about 1640)
Whom, whose
What
Which = who-like
Such = so-like
Each = one-like
possessive case from
possessive forms
Thou
My and thy
We
You
They
Her*
His, he
Our, your, their
It
objective and possessive forms Who
neuter form Who
I*
•*
$»
>>
5. Compound pronouns are formed by combinations of the personalf
possessive, and relative pronouns with self, own, and ever,
6. The following adverbs are derived from the pronouns He, The,
Who ;—
Table of Pronominal Adverbs.
Proa.
Gen. Form
Dat. Form
Ace. Form
Abl. Form
Comp. Form
He
The
Who
Hence
Thence
Whence
Here
There
Where
j Then
{ Than
When
How
Thus
Why
Hither
Thither
Whither
§ 4. Accidents.
1. The Accidents of a pronoun are Number, Gender, Person. Case.
Definition. Person is a grammatical form expressive of dis-
tinctive relation, i. e. distinguishes the speaker, the hearer, and person
or thing spoken of.
These are called respectively the first, second, and third persons.
2. The pronoun of the third person has in the singular three
^genders, but in the plural we have only one set of forms for all
genders.
3. The following is a complete declension of the | ersonal pro-
nouns.
V,
THE PUONOUN.
in
md tLy
lie
your, tlidir
e per so naif
3 He, The,
rap. Form
[ither
liither
liitlier
\on. Case.
of dt's-
|d person
)erso7is.
^r three
for all
lal pro-
O
o
o
o
w
I
CO
a"
s
00
0)
a
CD
a
•1 -H
ID
l-H
Ph
• i-H
01
CO
<M
(0
^ ^ .-t^ ^ ^ .ti ^ ^ .
-fj
-tJ
•FH
-fj
M
M
^T
<U m
Ol
0)
-^^
r^
-s
a *co i
a.
.,H .,« 01
• rH
OJ
r^^^
^
f£4
O
0)
CO
02
O
01
r£3,J3
0»
0^
1—1
CO
a
I— I
(O
CQ
>-.
a
1-3
p.'
i
o
52;
O
CO
CO ^
> o»
'3 2
to a
as
m
.a a
O) V
CO CO to
0> d 'i^ ^
> i^ > >
I— I ^ P— I l-H
CU O 0> 01
01
o
o
CO
^1 hi
^ ^^ ^
o o O o
c c o o
a
o
a
0)
O
o
o
CO
Si
2 •
S 00
0)
■S
•73
B i
i
1
Ji
62
ANALYSIS OF THE ENQLISII LANGUAGE.
Observations.
1. T, MK. Me lj.18 notliiiig to do witli /. It lias been regarded
as an inde))endent 7i07n. form. Hence tlie phrase, It is me, is less
unexceptionable than it is him; for while there may be doubt
about mCj there is none about him, which is an objective case.
Compare however the French idiom cW moi, which is similar, and
seems to warrant the use of the dative. In the verbs methinks, me-
seems, melists, me is a dative form.
2. My, mink, thy, think. My, thy are used when the noun is
expressed and with it. Mine and thine are used as predicates, or when
the noun is understood, or when it begins with a vowel or h mute;
as, 'This book is mine,' * Haat thou found me, mine enemy?'
3. Tiiou, YOU, YK. Thou is generally expressive ot familiarity
or contempt, except in addressing God. You was first used as a sin-
gular in the 13th century. Old English writers treated ye as a
nominative and you as an accusative ; as, 'I know you not, whehce
ye are.'
4. TiiKiR, YOUR, are generally used as Possessive Pronouns.
Sometimes they express origin, the true meaning of the genitive; as,
their terror (I Pet. iii. 16), your rejoicing (1 Cor. xv. 31).
5. Its is a word of recent introduction (about 1640) after the
completion of the authorised version of the Scriptures, in which it
is not found once,* and where his did duty for it; as, *If the salt
have lost his savour;' 'the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind.'
6. One derived from Fr. on (Lat. homo), is an indefinite pronoun
corresponding to the German man, French on; men, people, they,
are used in this general indefinite sense.
7. Any (an-iV/^add one) means any single one, an indefinite
pronoun.
8. Aught, naught. These indefinite pronouns are compounded
of a-whit=:a bit, and no-whitz=no bit.
9. Other, properly an A.-S. form for second, means ^ one of two. ^
* It does occur in Levit. xxv. 5, but this is said to be due to the correction of some
modern printer.
THE VEUB.
58
1. Definition.
sentence.
CHAPTER VI.
THE VEBB.
§1-
A Vkhr Is the 2)7' hici'jHil or asserting ivord in a
2. CLASSIFICATION.
VERB
el
<D
Imperflonal, as ' Mesooms '
6c
o
o
ca
a
o
"2
Uniporsonal, as ' It rains'
( Hiibstantive
( Adj«5ctivo
— Quality
—Relation -
Transitive
Intransitive
Auxiliary
—Form
—Meaning
(i) Active
(ii) Middle
(iii) Passive
(iv) Reflective
(i) Active
(ii) Neuter
(i) of Voice
(ii) of Mood
(iii) of Tense
(iv) of Eniphasb
' Regular or Weak
Irregular or Strong
Redundant
Defective
Active, Passive, Middle
Neuter
Reflective
Causative
Intensive
Diminutive
Inceptive
Frequentative
r Primitive
r^ornrxr J ( f fom Verbs
-uiiiaiN . -{ 3gj.i^,e^^ ^ from Adjectives
( I'rom Nouns.
M
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 2. Explanation of the Classification.
1. Verbs are either Personal or Impersonal.
2. Impersonal Verbs are of two kinds, (i) Impersonal, which
have no clear source of action expressed (the subject of which is,
however, the sentence after the verb), (ii) (Jnipersonal ; as, 'It
rains,' where It represents the source of the action.
3. Personal Verbs are divided variously : —
(i) According to Quality.
(ii) According to Relation.
(iii) According to Form.
(iv) According to Meaning,
(v) According to Origin.
The Impersonal Verbs are three : — Methinhs, Meseems, Mdists.
4. The Quality of a verb is the nature of its assertion. If verbs
assert what things are, they are c^W^di verbs substantive ; if they
assert their qualities — verbs adjective.
5. By Relation is meant the syntactical connection, with other
words. According to relation verbs are
(i) Transitive, which pass the action on to an object; as,
' He struck the dog.'
(ii) Intransitive, which do not pass the action on to an ob
ject ; as, ' He ran.'
(ii) Auxiliary, which assist to form the voices, moods, and
tenses of other verbs; as, *I have written.'
6. By Form is meant the mode by which the chief parts of the
verb are derived. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense
by adding d or ed to the present; as, love, loved; call, called.
7. An Irregular Verb is one that has the same form for both
present and past tense, or forms the latter from the former by a
radical change; as, burst, burst; smite, smote.
8. Tlie former class are usually called Weak Verbs; the latter
Strong Verbs.
i-M y ^!
THE VEUB.
9. Weak Verba fall into three classes : —
(i) 'J'hose which form their preterites by the simple addition
of — d, — t, or ed ; as, serve, served, expel, expelled.
(ii) In the second class, besides the addition of — t or — d,
the vowel is shortened ; as, leave, left ; dream, dreamt.
To this class belong the greater part of the weak verbs and all verbs of
foreign origin.
(iii) In the third class the vowel is changed; as, tell, told ;
sell, sold. To this class belong the remarkable preterites
of the verbs seek, beseech, catch, teach, bring, think, and
buy.
10. The Strong Verbs have been arranged in twelve classes, which
may however be reduced to three.
(i) Those which have one form to express the Present, Past
tense and Perfect Participle ; as, burst, burst, burst.
(ii) Those which have two forms to express these three parts;
• as, abide, abode, abode.
(iii) Tliose which have three forms to express these three
parts; as, arise, arose, arisen.
For a complete list of Strong Verbs, vide App. I.
1 1. Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one form
for the past tense, or perfect participle, or both ; as, clothe, clad, or
clothed.
For a complete list of these Verbs, vide App. II.
12. Defective Verbs are used only in some tenses or moods.
The defective verbs are
Beware
Can
May
Must
Ought
Shall
Will
Wis
Wit
Quoth
13. According to Meaning verbs are
(i) Active, and express a state of doing,
(ii) Passive, " " suffering,
(iii) Verbs which express neither the act of agent nor the
suffering of an object, are said to be in the Middle voice ;
as 'It tastes sweet.' "
mmmmmmm
I'l
\i I
h
I
56
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The middle voice is however restricted to those verbs which have
both an active and passive voice.
(iv) Neuter Verbs are those which are neither active nor
passive. Some divide them into intransitive verbs-
inactive; a,9f to sleep; intransitive verbs-active ; as, to fly,
to run; and inceptives, 'im\)\y'mg h change of state ; as, she
wakes. The verb ^ Tobe' is really the only neuter verb.
(v) Reflective Verbs are those which have the same person
for subject and object; as, 'He has shot himself.'
This reflective meaning is shown by the use of the personal
pronouns single, or combined with self; as, 'Sit thee
down;' ' He turned himself.'
The prefix * Je ' is sometimes used to give reflective power ;
as, ' Behave yourself.'
(vi) Causative Verbs denote the action or situation as being
caused or effected in an object. Causative verbs are : —
(a) Those derived from corresponding strong verbs; as,
Fell == to make to fall, from . . Fall. .
Set =to make to sit „ . . Sit.
Lay, i.e. make to lie „ . . Lie.
&c. &c. &c.
(b) TTiose derived from nouns and adjectives by the prefix
or sufiBx e7i; as enslave, whiten.
The verbs enlighten, enliven, enripen, ensti'engthen,
endarken, engladden, have both.
(c) Some verbs that end in er, se, ish, y ; as, linger,
cleanse, burnish, weary.
(d) Verbs of classical origin which end in ate, fy, ite,
and ize ; as, facilitate, terrify, expedite, tranquillize.
(vii) Intensive Verbs strengthen the meaning.
(a) They terminate in ster; as, bluster.
(b) They are derived from other verbs by strong vowel
or terminal changes; as, chip, chop; rest, roost; dij),
dive, &c.
As a rule, in such cases, the fuller the souad the stronger the
meaning.
THE VERB.
(viii) Diminutive Vkrbs lessen or weaken the signification ;
as, glimmer.
For these verbs, ride Etym. Deriv. chap. I, § 4, 3.
(ix) Frkquentativk Verbs express tlve repetition of an
action. Some sucli verbs end in er ; as, cUiniber, and
ate (classical); as, agitate.
1^^ Such idioms as to keep saying, are equivalent uO these verbs.
(x) Inceptive Verbs express the cornrrj.f>aceraent of an
action, or a change of state. Those of classical origin
end in esce ; as, effervesce.
13. According to origin verbs are
(i) Primitive.
(ii) Derived,
(i) Primitive Verbs are chiefly Saxon, monosyllabic, and
strong.
(ii) Derived Verbs are all weak. They may be divided
into four classes :
(a) Verbs derived from strong verbs; .is, drench, from
drink.
(b) Verbs derived from nouns and adjectives, by prefix
or suffix en ; as, enslave, soften.
(c) A erbs derived from nouns and adjectives, by change
of accent; as, decent, accent; frequent, frequent; or
from
(d) Nouns hy change of quantity ; as, use, use; clbth^
clothe.
Classes (a) (b) have been shown above to be causative.
in I
1 ^,$^'^
l ^'y^*&'^t^ifc*-^^^ r"-'.:'r: -^
":afe^ lMiiiiug ri
.T-w?7^"7r;*(T
58
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
i ii'^;
§ 3. Conjugation.
1. Definition. The Conjugation of a verb is a connected view
of its inflexions.
2. In English we have two conjugations : —
(i) 0/ the weak or regular verb.
(ii) Of the strong or irregular verb.
3. The Accidents of a verb are Fbice, Mood, Tense., Person, and
Number.
4. In English we have no real form for the Passive Voice. * Pas-
sives have grown out of Reflectives ; and, as we have no special form
for reflectives, so we have no special form for passives.'' — Adams'
Eng. Lang. Instead, we use tenses compounded of the perfect par-
ticiple and tlie verb 'To be.'
5. Some compound tenses are formed by the various parts of the
verb To have, others by the aid of the verb To he. The simple
principle for this seems to be — Flave is used when the action
concerns the ohject with which the participle ought to agree ; hence
the verb must be transitive; as, *I have written the letter' {^Habeo
epistolam scriptam^). Be is used when the action concerns the
subject; hence it will be used to form the compound tenses of in-
transitive, reflective, and passive verbs; as, 'He is come,' 'He is
arrived.' .
6. Nevertheless, convention has established the forms — * He has
come,' 'He has arrived.* Without inquiring how far these arc right
or wrong, we must discriminate between the expressions by saying
that in the phrases — 'He is come,' ' He is arrived, ' we refer to thd
subject of tlie verb; in the phrases — -^ He has come,^ ^ He has ar-
rived,^ to the fact of his coming, or of his arrival.
7. The Moons, which grammatically express the manner of an
action, are four : Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive.
(i) The Indicative mood asserts absolutely.
(ii) The Imperatin mood commands, enjoins, exhorts, en-
treats.
^\
THE VERB.
59
(iii) The Subjunctive mood expresses contingency, futurity,
and genertilly dependence upon some previous verb.
(iv) The Infinitive mood (or Indefinite mood) expresses the
act without reference to time or agent.
8. Definition. Tknse is a grammatical form expressive of tlie
time of an action.
9. Tlie Tenses are three : Present, Past, and Future, witli five
modifications of each.
10. (i) Indefinite tenses refer strictly to a point of time, and to
single acts or habits without regard to duration.
(ii) Incomplete '•efer to the unfinishedness or imperfection of
the act.
(iii) Complete refer to the perfection of the act.
(iv) Continuous describe relation to time.
11. (i) The present indefinite is used to express general truths,
(ii) The present and past indefinite are used to express habit;
as, 'She writes well.'
12. The present indefinite is used for —
(i) Description of past events, to give animation to narrative;
as, 'Caesar marches to the Rhine,' this is called the
'■historical present.^
(\'\) A future indefinite; as, 'Duncan comes to night,' i.e.
will come.*
(iii) A complete future; as, 'When he .arrives he will tell
you,' i. e. ^ shall Jiave arrived.'
♦ This arises from tho fact of the A.-S. verb posaessing no form for tho future.
118
i
ri
u
IV 'ij
''I
n
I I
ili
60 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 4. Active Voice.
1. The following is a Complete Conjugation of a Verb Active.
TO SEND.
Indicative Mood.
Tense
Present
Past
Future
Iiideflnite Incomplete Complete
I am sending
I send
I sent
I shall send
I was send-
ing
I shall be
sending
I have sent
I had sent
I shall have
sent
Continaona Emphatic
I have been
sending
I had been
sending
I shall be
sending
I do send
I did send
I will send
Presen<
Past
Future
I send
I sent
I shoul d
send
Subjunctive Mood
I be sending
I were send-
ing
should
sending
ing
I should be
I have sent
I had sent
I should
have sent
I have been
sending
I liad been
sending
I should
have been
sending
I do send
I did send
I would
send
Imperative Mood.
Present]
Future
Send thou
Thou shalt send
send ye
he shall send you shall send| they shall send
Infinitive Mood.
Indefinite
To send
Incomplete
to be sending
Complete
to have sent
Participles.
I sending
having sent
Continaona
to have been
sending
having been
sending
Gerund.
To send; (for) to send: sending.
1 '■».
THE VERB.
ei
send
2. The mode of conjugating the Indicative and Subjunctive moods
differs in the following respects: —
(i) The Subjunctive Mood has no inflexions; as,
Indicative. . Subjunctive.
{If) I send
I send
Thou sendest
He sends
We send
You send
They send
Thou send
He send
We send
You send
They send
lit^" ' Wert' is not a subjunctive form.
(ii) Am, art, is, are, are changed in the subjunctive to * be '
Was is changed „ „ were
Shall „ „ „ should
Will „ „ „ would
Hast, hath, has, are changed „ „ have
3. In conjugating the future tenses it must be remembered that
shall in the first person goes with will in the second and
third ; vjill in the first person goes with shall in the second and
third • thus —
Future Indefinite.
I sJiall send
Thou wilt send
He will send
We shall send
You will send
They will send
Interrogatively thus —
Shall I?
Shalt thou ?
Will he ?
Future Emphatic.
I will send
Thou shalt send
He shall send
We will send
You shall send
They shall send
Shall we ?
Shall you?
Will they?
4. Some grammarians have given additional forms, called Inten-
tional, of the three tenses. This seems to be merely m notion bor-
rowed from the Greek Paulopost future. ' I have been going to
send,' is a very composite tense indeed I
5. Participles. — A participle is a verbal adjective — verbal as
govern; (ig an object, if derived from a transitive verb; adjective as
1
62
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
ill
ill
agreeing with its substantive, and yet differing from an adjective in
the following respects : —
(i) It attributes action to a noun without any indication of
time, therefore we speak of the participles as 'indefi-
nite ' or 'imperfect,' ' complete ' or ' perfect,' and 'con-
tinuous,' not as is sometimes the case, as 'present,'
'past,' &c.
(ii) It expresses the same modijlcations of the action as the
infinitive.
G. Gerunds are verbal nouns capable of being the objects or sab-
jects of sentences. The forms of the infinitive which are gerundial,
are 'to hunt,' 'for to hunt,' hunting,' and 'a-hunting.'
When these forms follow intransitive verbs, adjectives, or nouns,
they exipress purpose or Jitness ; as,
Fools who came to scoff remained to pray ;_'
' Apt to teach ;' ' A house to let ;' ' A time ^ build.*
It;^" For origin, explanation, &c. vide Etym. Derivations, chap. I. § 4, 2.
■THfrmu«i.-^^5ir-?»ar::*>«ii
THE VERB.
63
§ 5. FasBlve Voice.
1. Subject to the remarks made in § 3, 4, the following is a tabu-
lar view of the conjugation of a Verb Passive.
TO BE SENT.
Indicative Mood.
Tense
Present
Past
Future
Indefinite
I am sent
I was sent
I shall be sent
Incomplete
I am being
sent
I was being
sent
Complete Continuous Emphatic
I have been
sent
I ,had been
sent
I shall have I will be
been sent sent
Subjunctive Mood.
4,2.
m
Present
PaU
Future
I be sent
I were sent
I should be
sent
I am being
sent
I were being
sent
I have been
sent
I had been
sent
I should have
been sent
I would
be sent
Imperative Mood.
Present Be senfc
Be sent
You shall ) ,, , „„. .
They shall )■ ^'^ «^"*
Infinitive Mood.
Indefinite
To be sent
Being sent
Incomplete Complete Continaoua
I To have been
I sent
Participles.
Having been
sent
■ (
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G4
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 6. Auxiliary Verbs.
)'i
\>
I. Definition. An auxiliary
voices, moods, or tenses of other
verb is one that helps to form the
verbs.
2. Auxiliary Verbs are diviJetl variously.
(i) Thky are divided into simple, as 'I shall;* compound^
» ' I sluill have been.'
(ii) They are divided into —
(a) Auxiliaries of voice ; *am,' 'be,' 'was.'
(&) Auxiliaries of mood ; 'may,' 'can,' 'must.'
(c) Auxiliaries of tense ; 'have,' 'will.'
{d) Auxiliaries of emphasis ; 'do,' 'will,' &c.
(iii) Again, Auxiliaries may be divided into —
(a) Those which possess inflexional power.
(&) Those which cfo no^ ; as, 'do,' 'can,' 'must,' 'let.'
XW By this is meant that, in other languages, many of these
auxiliaries are expressed by inflexions ; as, ' I shall write '
(' scribaw'). Others are interpreted by idiomatic phrases; as, ' I
must walk * (' ambulandum est mihi; ' ' Ilfaut queje me promene').
(iv) Auxiliaries are again divided into —
(r/) Those which can be used as main or principal-
verbs.
(h) Those which cannot be so used.
In the former class are such verbs as do, have, &c. ; in the
latter, must, can, may, &c.
I
THE VKRB.
65
Conjugation of the Verb * To Be.'
TO BE.
Tens>e Indnflnito
Preaent
Pad
Future
I am
I was
I sliall be
Indioative Mood.
Incomplete Complete Continuous Emphatic
I have been
I had been
I shall have I will be
been
Present
Pant
Future
I be
I were
I should be
Subjunctive Mood.
W)
I have been
1 had been
I should
have been
I would be
Imperative Mood.
Present
Future
Be thou
Thou shalt be
Be ye
He shall be You shall be
Infinitive.
To be
To have been
*,
Participles.
Being
Been
Having been
Gerund.
To Be, Being.
They shall be
6. The following is a list of Auxiliary and Defective verbs
with such parts as are in use.
JI^For their origin, &c. vide Etym. Derimtions, chap. I. § 4, 8,9.
66
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Verbs
' I
i -i I
:!
Havk
Shall
Will
May
Can
Must
Do
Parts in list), &c.
(Pn^sent) ' have,' (past and per-
fect participle) * had.'
(Past tense) 'should ;' no par-
ticiples; defective, means 'to
owe.'
(Past tense) 'would,' (present
participle)'willing,' used only
as an adjective. There is a
past tpnso ' willed,' with a
different nieaniuff.
(Past tense) 'might;' no partici-
ples; means literally 'to be
able;' it expresses 'liberty,'
and ' permission,' also ' possi-
bility. ' When before its sub-
ject it expresses a wish.
(Past tense) 'could,' (participle)
'cunning;' now used as an
adjective. The verb literally
means 'to know.'
(Present) 'must,' (past) 'must;'
in: ])articiples. This verb is
a strong form of * may.'
(Present) ' do,' (past indicative)
'did,' (participles)
' done. '
doing,
Hoiiiiuka
Conjugated after proper form
in all tenses. From partici-
ple 'hav'd,' comes 'haft,'
— Ilorne Tooke.
The present and past tenses
only in use.
The present and past tenses
only in use.
([[^"The main difference be-
tween ' shall ' and ' will ' is
this:—
' Shall ' expresses ' the idea of
the future, depending upon
what is external :'
'Wiirexpresses*thei(?eao/the
future depending upon what
is internal, i.e. 'volition.'
These tenses only in use.
The present and past tenses
only in use. The past tense
' could,' properly ' c o u d,'
or 'couth,' is formed by a
false analogy like ' should,'
' would.'
!!;:^The difference between
' may' and ' can ' is this: —
' May ' expresses ' the idea of
p(?icer,depending upon what
is external :'
' Can ' expresses the * idea of
power, depending upon what
is internal,' i.e. ' resolve.'
These parts only in use.
Conjugated after proper form.
There are two verbs 'do,'
between which it is neces-
sary to distinguish:
(i) Active, with the meaning
' to make. '
(ii) Neuter, wit'i the meaning
'-^
THE VERH.
07
Verbs
PartH ill use, Ac.
Dauk
Owe
Mare
Go
WiTE
WiLNE
Quoth
Worth
List
1
(PrcHf^nt) 'dare,' (past indica-
tive^ 'durst,' (imperfect par-
ticiple) ' daring,' used as an
adjective, (perfect participle)
•durst.'
(Present) 'owe,' (past) 'ought,'
(imperfect participle) 'owing,'
used as an adj«'ctive, (perfect
participle) 'ought.' Origi-
nally moans ' to have.'
(Present indicative) 'make,'
(past indicative) ' made,' (im-
perfect participle) 'making,'
(perfect artici pie) 'made.*
(Present ib native) 'go,' (past
indicative) 'went,' (imper-
fect participle) ' going,' (per-
fect) ' gone.'
(Infinitive) 'to wit,' i.e. 'to
know,' (second singular indic-
ative present) ' wist,' (past)
'wot,' (participle) 'witting,'
used as an adjective.
Meaning ' to desire,' is a deriv-
ative from • will.'
Used only in the third person.
Found only in the third person
singular; means, 'to be,' 'to
become.'
Only used in third singular,
])ersonal and impersonal: as,
' me lists,' ' it listeth;' means,
' to please.'
Komtirk8
'to avail,' 'to thrive.' Hoth
are found in the idiom,
' IIow do you do ?' i.e. 'How
make you youTAoU to thiivef
The form ' did ' is said to be an
instance of r(Mluplication.
Conjugated after j)roper form.
Used only in these tenses,
though it may bo conjuga-
ted after proper form. It
has the meaning also of ' to
be due;' hence the imper-
sonal 'him ought,' 'us
ought.' Tho word 'own'
may be supposed originally
a participle of this verb;
and the word ' odd * a cor-
ruption of another partici-
ple 'ow'd.'
An irregular verb, conjugated
after proper form.
An instance of a defective
verb, borrowing its past
tense from the verb ' to
wend.' Conjugated after
pro])er form.
Obsolete.
Obsolete.
Derived from ' quod.' Hence
the verbs 'quote,' 'be-
queath.' 'Quoth' always
precedes its nominative.
Obsolete.
An obsolete verb,
same root comes
From the
lust.'
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68
ANALYSIS OF THE ENQLISU LANGUAGE.
§ 7. Oeneral Remarks.
1. Grammars differ very widely as to the structure of tlie English
verb. Some following a classical model present us with a mere
translation of the Latin or Greek verb. Others rush to the opposite
extreme, and forgetting that English is not Anglo-Saxon, conjugate
the verb as if the reverse were the case. The principle which ought
to guide us lies between the two extremes. Our language is com-
posite, and derived /rom Norman-French as well &a/roin A.-Saocon,
It seems only reasonable to consider both these elements in our
calculation. Hence, in addition to the simple tenses, only those
formed by the auxiliaries * have ' and ' be ' ought to be admitted.
2. At first sight an exception seems to meet us in the use of 'shall '
and ' will.' This is more apparent than real. The future tense in
Latin, French, and English also, is not a simple tense, but one com-
pounded of the verb to /tave and the infinitive mood. Thus (Lat.)
amabo= amare habeo= French, j'aimerai, i.e. j'ai-aimer=I have
to love, t. e. I shall love. Now shall originally means to owey and
owe (from Goth, 'aigan') mean.'i to have or Jwld ; hence, 'I shall
love * is exactly like the corresponding tense in Lat. or French, and
means / have to love.
3. Exception also may be taken to the emphatic forma^ as intro-
ducing another auxiliary, ^do.^ The fact is, we have an em.phatic
future *willf^ and thus we are led to ask. Why not an empliatic past
and an emphatic present ? Rigidly ^ ofcourse^ they should he excluded^
if the principle above laid dovm be adopted. Otherwise there will
be no limit to the number of possible tenses ; and all our auxiliary
verbs ought to be enlisted in the conjugation of a single verb.
* Paulopoat future ' forms have been given by some grammarians,*
and, besides the indicative and subjunctive moods which we certainly
possess, we are sometimes favoured with -a potential mood (where wo
* Wo might as reasonnbly expect to find in the conjugation of a French verb the
*Unset,^ 'jo vais 6crlre,' 'je viens d'6crire' I
i
THE VERB.
69
get it from is a mystery). Why not an optative mood — a permissive
mood — a compulsory mood ?
4. Strong verbs have a tendency to become weak. "Where the
strong and weak forms coexist, the verb is in a state of transition.
As we have remarked, ' all derived verbs take the weaK torm ; ' so
also do new verbs, and verbs derived from classical origin
5. The present tendency of the language is to reject the distincuun
of the subjunctive mood. Some grammarians assert, facts noiwith'
standing, that we have no subjunctive mood !
I
i
^.
70
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER VII.
THE ADYEBB.
§••
1. Definition. 'An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, or any
attributive, to denote some modification, degree, or circumstance of
the expressed attribute.'
2. CLASSIFICATION.
-Primitive
bo
— Origin .
— Derived
-Compound
-Time .
00
00
P4
—Meaning
en
o
<
-Place
Quantity
or
Degree
-Quality
-Periodal . (when ?) now, then, presently
-Continuous (now long ?) always, ever, aye
-Repetitive . (how often ?) once, twice,
weekly, &c.
•-Relative . (how soon ?) then, meanwhile,
afterwards
—Positional . (where?) here, there, above,
below, &c.
-Amotional . (whence?) hence.thence.'vway
-Admotional (whither?) hither, thither,
aloft, down
■ -Ordinal . (whereabouts ?) firstly, lastly,
&c.
^-Positive . ^ how, ever so, &c.
-Expletive . « g'^^ much, too, very great-
S=§g ly, &c.
-Adequate . « | S a exactly , enough ,equal-
1=^11 ly, &c.
-Defective . g^Kpq little, less, hardly, al-
** most
-Modal . (how?) well, ill, thus, name-
ly, &c.
-Inferential . therefore, wherefore,&c.
-Catee-orical i a^rmative ) yes, no, verily,
-categorical | negative \ &c.
-Contingent . perhaps, possibly, &c.
— Connection
i
-Conjunctional
Simply attributive
THE ADVERB.
71
§ 2. Adverb according to Meaning.
1 . Adverbs are classified according to (i) Meaning ; (ii) ConneC'
tion; (iii) Structure or Origin.
2. Adverbs according to meaning express (i) Time; (ii) Place;
(iii) Degree or Quantity; (iv) Quality.
3. Adverbs of Time are those which answer the qtiestions,
(i) when f (periodal), i. e. a fixed point of time^ past, pre-
sent, future, indefinite.
(ii) liow long ? (continuous), the duration of time ; as, always^
ever, never.
(iii) how often? (repetitive), the repetition of time; as, once,
twice, often.
(iv) how soon f (relative), to some other event ; as, then, mean-
while, before, &c.
4. Adverbs of Place are those which answer to the questions,
(i) where? (positional), rest in or at a place; as, here, there,
above, &c.
(ii) whsnce ? (amotional), motion from a place ; as hence, thence,
aiuay, &c.
(iii) whither? (adnjotional), motion to a place; as, hither,
thither, down, ike.
(iv) whereabouts? (ordinal), in what order; B.a firstly, lastly,
&c.
6. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity are those which answer to
the questions how much? how little? or to the idea of more or
less. These adverbs express degree without comparison (positive) ;
as, however, so.
or, „ abundance (expletive) ; as, much, too,
very.
tf »> sufficiency (adequate) ; as, enough,
equally, exactly.
)i „ deficiency (defective) ; as, less, hardly,
&c.
6. Adverbs of Quality answer the question how? or express
affirmation, negation, uncertainty.
n
ANALYSIS OP THE ENaLISH LANGUAGE.
7. Adverbs that relate to time, place, and manner are gene-
rally coniiected with verba or participles. Adverbs that relate to
degree with adjectives or adverbs.
§ 3. Adverb according to Connection and Btructore.
1. Adverbs according to their Connection are (i) simplt/ attribu-
tive, i. e. qualify verbs, adjectives, and o^Aer adverbs; or, in addition
to this, (ii) have a conjunctional force. The latter connect clauses ;
they are often adverbs of cause; as, why, wherefore: relative forms,
as, where, when: pronominal compound adverbs j as, wlierewithf
hereafter, &c. than, so, as,
2. Adverbs according to Structure are simple, derived, compound.
(i) Simple Adverbs are monosyllabic and Saxon ; such as,
now, oft, aye, ill, well,
(ii) Adverbs are derived,
(a) From nouns: —
old genitives ; as, needs, unawares, eftsoons, once,
twice, thrice, &c.
old datives; as, seldom, whilom.
by suffix ling ; as, darkling, with diminutive force,
by four prefixes, a, al, be, to,
a as aboard,
(d „ always,
be „ besides.
to
»»
to-day.
(b) from adjectives and nouns : —
by four suffixes, ly, wise, ways, wards.
ly as lively,
wise „ likewise,
ways „ sideways. *
wards ,, homewards.
(c) from the pronouns he. the, who.
THE ADVERB.
73
Go iiive
Form
D:ltiV0
Form ,
Aocii'^iitive
Form
AMutivo
Form
Compariitive
borm
From IIo
M The
„ Who
lience
thence
whence
here
there
where
then, or
than
when
how
thus
why
hither
thither
whitlier
(iii) Many Adverbs are compoutid words and phrases; as,
peradventurCy of course^ nevertJieless.
§ 4. Comparison of Adverbs, &c.
1. In Anglo-Saxon there were two forms for the comparative
and superlative degrees, one in re and este; tlie other in or and ost
respectively. Now the first of these was tiie form taken by adjec-
tives ; as, se scearpe sweord, se scearjjeste sweord ; t/te sharper sword f
the sharpest »word.
The second, on the other hand, was taken by adverbs; as, se
sweord scyr^ scearpor or scearpost, i. e. the sword cuts sJtarper or
sharpest. — LatJtam, vol. ii. p. 184.
2. These Jidverbial comparative and superlative endings in or and
ost have disappeared, except in such words as hind-m-ost up-nv-ost* he.
3. When the adverb ends in Zy, the comparison is formed by
more and most.
4. 1^** To explain certain phrases as, clean gone, to stick fast, lo'ud
and long, fie rode hard, you did right, sore let and himlered, &c.
In the Classic languages and in Anglo-Saxon the neuter adjective
is used in the accusative adverbiallv.
In Anglo-Saxon and Old English the adverb was oflen formed
from the adjective by adding e; as, seft or soft (adjective), sefte or
softe (adverb). The adjective was really the nominative or accu-
sative case; the adverb in e, the ablative. T!ie two forms were
easily confounded, especially when case endings were dropped. The
words above, clean, fast, hard, right, loud, long, sore, &c., are in-
stances of this confusion.
5. 'In many cases the adjective form is intended to express the
* Soe p. 42. 10.
I ;
t
!:
f(
74
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANQUAQE.
quality of the agent as seen in the act rather than the quahiy of
the act itself. After verbs of being or seeming, for instance, or their
equivalents, the adjective is constantly used ;* as, it looks beauti/ulf
it sounds grand^ it feels hard, he arrived late, Iiow sweet it sleeps,
&c.' — Angus, Handbook E. Tongue, p. 231.
* It will be seen hereafter thnt a mle has been laid down: * Tran^Hvt rerbs take the
adverb ; Intransitive verba, the acUective.*
For exptaaation of the meaning and deriTattoa of adverbs, vide ^ym. Dthi9.
eliup. ly.
I
THE rilEFOSlTION,
75
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PBEFOBITIOir.
§1-
1 . Definition. A pbeposition is a word connecting other worthy
and expressing a relation between them. ,
♦Prepositions relate notions to one another; conjtinctions sen-
tences.' — Morell.
2.
CLASSIFICATION.
—Simple
— Structure —
—Compound
B
^
—Verbal
1
o
•8
— Position
•
pj
Ai
O
1
—Time
•
'
— Meaning
0)
—Cause, Instrumentality, Agency
1
— Degree
—Direction
n
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(f '
I h
§ 2. Preposition according to Meaning and Structure.
1. Prepositions are divided according to their meaning and
nccording to their structure.
2. Prepositions according to their meaning. The relations
which prepositions express are not easily classified. If we use Ihe
terms in a metaphorical as well as a natural sense^ they may be
possibly embraced by the division we have given; viz. position,
time, cause, degree, and direction.
3. Prepositions according to their structure are divided into —
(i) Simple ; monosyllabic ; such as, in, with, from, by, &c.
(ii) Compound; such as, betweer., among, beside, &c.
(iii) Verbal; such as, notwithstanding, pending, during, &c.
4. The Jii'st two classes are Anglo-Saxon, the third class is
Classical: ihe j^rejiositions in this class are really participles, and
with the words they govern ouglit to be interpreted as absolute
constructions to which in other languages they are equivalent.
5. The following is a list of the Prepositions : —
(i) Simple. At, by, down, ere, for, from, in, midat, of, off,
on, out, round, through, to, up, with, since, till.
(ii) Compound. About, above, across, aboard, after, against,
along, amidsi, among, around, athwart, before, behind,
below, beneath, beside or besides, between, betwixt,
beyond, over, throughout, toward(8), under(neath), until,
unto, into, upon, within, without.
(iii) Verbal. Concerning, during, except(ing), notwithstand-
ing, pending, regarding, respecting, save, touching.
For explanation of the above, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. III.
E.
TUB CONJUNCTION.
77
Itructure.
meaning and
'lie relations
f we use the
hey may be
iriz. position,
ided into —
m, iy, &c.
&c.
uring, &c.
uV(i c/a55 is
'ticfples, and
as absolute
ralent.
Idat, of, off,
till.
ter, against,
ore, behind,
m, betwixt,
ieath), until,
)twithstand-
ching.
hap. III.
■O
'A
If
CHAPTER IX.
THE CONJUNCTION.
§ ••
1. Deflnition. A Conjunction is a word connecting clauses or
sentences.
Where conjunctions seem to connect words it is been use of some
ellipsis or abbreviation ; thus, He is good and wise = He is good and
(he is) wise.
2. CLASSIFICATION.
-Structure \ -Denv«d
-Simple, such as but, if. or
Denvud ,, nor, eitbei
Compound I, althougli, bowb|)it
/ — OIIU
} -Der
<-Con
nor, eitber. tban
55
O
H
O
o
-Meaning
-Co-ordinate *
^-Copulative, as and, also
-Negative ,, neitber, nor
-Alternative ,, eitber, or
-Adversative „ but, yet, still
'--Illative
M
tbcrefurc, because
i-Time .
-Subordinate
(refer to)
-Plnce
-Periodal, as as, as soon as, now
that
-Continuous ,, as long as, asj
wbilst
-Repetitive . ,, as oft as
-llelatioual. ,, whenever, when
# -Popitional . „ where, there
•J -Ad motional ,, whither, thither
* -Amotiunal . ,, whence, thence
Manner
or
Degree
-Modal . . ,, as, how. so
-Positive . „ as-as
-Comparative,, than, not, so as
00
-''ause 9
c? ^-Condition
-Purpose
-Reason .
p.
-Result
,, if.provided. except
,, that, in order that
,, inasmuch as, be-
cause
,, although, and so
78
ANALYHIH OF THE KNOLISII LANGUAQE.
h f
li \
ii
V
§ 2. Conjunction according to Meaning.
1. Conjunctions nro divided according to mmning^ and according
to structure.
2. According to meaning, Conjunctions are co-ordinatk and
SUnORDINATK.
(i) Co-ORDINATK CONJUNCTIONS iinite Coordinate (or equipol-
lent) statements, or join in construction co<urdinnte
wordt
(ii) SuBORDiNATK Conjunctions unite statements in such a
way that the one modifies the meaning or application of
the other.
3. Coordinate Conjunctions are divided into five classes: (i)
Copulative; (ii) Negative; (iii) Alternative; (iv) Adversative;
(v) Illative.
4. Subordinate Conjunctions are more numerous and complex,
and, as will be perceived, mostly follow the division of adverbs into
those which refer to time, place, manner or degree, cause.
5. This division is valuable on account of its harmony with the
principles which regulate the analysis of sentences. As it is com-
plex, however, another and simpler scheme is annexed.
—Simple
— Structure -l — Derived
-Compound
CONJUNCTION—
— Meaning
rC/onnectivo
no,»t.,»^4:«.» J Concessive
-Conjunctive ^ conditional
[ Inferential
{Negative
Alternative
Adversative
— Correlative
C. Copulative Conjunctions are those which connect both
chtuse and sense.
THE CONJUNCnON.
7i>
lid according
DiNATK and
' (oreqnipol-
cu*urdinnte
8 in such li
)()Iication of
I classes : (i)
i dversative ;
ind complex,
d verbs into
ly with the
it IS com-
ectivo
jssive
tional
ential
tive
native
rsative
Minect both
7. DiSiUNOTivB Conjunctions are those whicli, while they
conned the clause, disconnect the sense or meaning.
8. CoBRELATiVE CONJUNCTIONS are those which are used in
pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other.
(i) The Copulative conjunctions are; — and, as, both, becau.se,
even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so, but.
(ii) The Disjunctive conjunctions are ; — or, nor, either, neither,
than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest,
unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.
(iii) The Correlative conjunctions are; —
As — as
As — so
Both — and
Either — or
9. Of the above we have
Connective or additive
Concessive
Conditional
Inferential (i) cause
Neither — nor
So — as
Though — yet
Whether — or.
— And, also, but, both.
— Though, although, albeit, yet.
— If, provided that, unless.
— For, that, because, aince,
whereas.
(ii) consequence — Therefore, wherefore, then.
Negative — Neither, nor.
Alternative — Either, or.
Adversative — But, however, notwithstanding,
yet.
§ 3. Conjnnction according to Strncture.
1. Conjunctions according to structure are divided into (i)
Simple ; (ii) Derived ; (iii) Compound.
(i) The Simple conjunctions are Saxon and monosyllabic ;
such as andy if, so, but, eke.
(ii) The Derived conjunctions
whether, since, seeing
exc
are such as nor, neither, than,
ept, Sic.
mill
80 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iii) Compound conjunctiuns are made up of two or more
words; as, howheit, in as for as, inasmuch as, forasmuch
as, nevertheless, whereas, although, &c.
§ 4. General Eemarks.
1. Several luords are used as adverbs, conjunctions, and prepo-
sitions according to circumstances. The word hut, for instance, is
used as a relative, a preposition, a conjunction, an adverb.
(i) But, &. relative ^vi\iO + wot, and follows a negative; as,
' there was no one hut saw him ' = ' who did not see
him.' .
(ii) But, a conjunction = and ; as, * we ran hut he stopped,*
i. e. we ran and he stopped : it has also an adversative
force,
(iii) But, a preposition = except; as, 'all fled hut John,* i. e.
except John,
(iv) But an adverb = only, and is placed next the verb; as,
' If he could hut know,' i. e. only know.
2. So after is an adjective ; as, * The after-part of a ship '
an adverb ; as, '^hey that come after.'
li preposition ; as, 'After me the Deluge.'
a conjunction ; as, *He called two days after I saw
you.'
8. Tlien, with its double form then and than, is both a conjunction
and adverb.
For, a conjunction and preposition.
Except, a preposition and conjunction.
4. When these words, which are used as prepositiond and c&n-
jwnctions, are followed by that, they are best regarded as jJrepositionSy
otherwise as conjunctions ; as,
'Before that certain came from James,' &c.
'After that I was turned, I repented.' — Jer. xxxi. 19.
'Since that I haVe told you.'
5. The ADVERB may generally he known by the fact of its being
movable to any ^jar< of the sentence in which it occurs ; as, ' He
THE CONJUNCTION.
81
v'o or more
, forasmuch
and prepo-
instance, is
?gative ; as,
did not "see
he stopped,*
adversative
I John,' i. e.
B verb ; as,
hip'
5.'
after I saw
conjunction
T'^
''X
I
then altered his intention.' ' Then he altered his intention.' ' He
altered his intention then,* When an adverb qualifies an adjec-
tive^ or other adverb^ it is not movable ; but then its connection dis-
covers it.
6. Prepositions are always attached to a noun, and cannot be re-
moved from one part of the sentence to another without the noun to
which they belong.
7. We have said, if the word is movable to any other part of the
sentence it is an adverb. If it cannot be moved from the beginning
without destroying the sense, it must be a Conjunction.
1^" 8. The Interjection has been defined to be a word expressing
feeling and not thought. 'Almost all animals have some peculiar
sound to express any sudden feeling they experience. The inter-
jection is such a, sound as employed by man.' — Morell. It is speech
which distinguishes man. Speech is the expression of thought, and,
as interjections are not the expressions of thought, they are not
properly classed as 9. part of speech.
For explanation, derivation, &c. of the Conjunctions, vide Etym,
Deriv. chap. II.
yrio and cori-
jJreposi lions.
H
k\. 19.
of its being
rs; as, 'He
SYNTAX.
i
CHAPTKU I.
PBOPOSITION ACGOBPINO TO LOGIC.
1. TiiERK are two ambiguous terms in general use: Proposition
and Predicate. These terms are borrowed from logic, but in gram-
mar they possess a different meaning. First, we shall explain the
logical signification of these words, and then investigate their gram-
matical import.
2. There are three mental operations, (i) Simple apprehension
or conception, the expression of which in language is called a
Term; (ii) Judgment, i. e. the comparison of two conceptions, and
pronouncing upon their agreement or disagreement, the expression
of which in language is called a Proposition; (iii) Reasoning, i. e.
the comparison of two judgments and pronouncing upon their agree-
ment or disagreement by means of a third, the expression of whicii
in language is called a Syllogism.
3. A Proposition, then, is defined to be a. judgment expressed in
words ; or, an indicative sentence (oratio indicativa).
4. Every Proposition is divided into three parts — subject, copula,
predicate.
(i) The subject is that of which something else is asserted.
(ii) The predicate is that which is asserted of the subject.
(iii) The copula expresses the agreement of subject and predi-
cate ; hence tlie copula is affirmative, or negative —
is, or, is not, &c.
Thus, in the proposition.
Sub.
The Romans
Cop. I Fred,
are | brave,*
Rouians=subject; are=copula; braver predicate.
SYNTAX.
83
Sab. I Cop.
* He walks,' i. e. ' He is
lent expressed in
—subject, copula.
Pred.
walkine.'
' Tliis author contradicts your assertion.'
Sob. I Cop.
This author is
Pred.
contradicting your assertion.'
5. Terms are so called because they are subjects or predicaU's,
\. e. 'termini propositionis,' or 'extremes of a proposition.' Thfy
are now generally used for words limited to a particular signification.
6. The subject may be (i) a noun, with or without adjuncts ; (ii)
an infinitive mood; (iii) a setiience,
7. The predicate may be an adjective; (ii) a noun; (iii) an
infinitive mood; (iv) a sentence,
8. There are many ways of considering the relation of subject and
vredicate. The simplest method is, perhaps, to consider the predi-
''te as a whole, and the subject 9a a part. Thus, in the proposition,
* All men are animals,'
we imply that (the subject) 'men' is a part of the class 'anim.il'
(predicate).
9. Propositions are divided according to their substance, quality,
and quantity.
The Sdbstance of a Proposition is the nature of its asser-
tion. If we assert absolutely, i. e. without a condition, ihe
proposition is called categorical ; if, with a condition, hypo-
thetical; as,
* Books I are [ instructive ' (categorical).
* If books are instructive, they are useful ' (hypothetical).
N. B. — AU hypotheticals may be reduced to eatcgoricals, by changing
if, &c. into the ease of, as in the latter example : —
Subject I Predicate
' The case of books-being-instructive
is a case of their-being-
I useful.'
10. The Quality of a proportion is the character of itJi asser-
tion. This character is twofold; (i) essential; (ii) accidental. The
g2
84
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANCiUAGE.
!l
il
if!
I I
If I
essential character is it8 heing affirmative or negative. The acct»
dental character is its being true or false.
11. A TERM is said in logic to be distributed * when it is taken for
all and each of the things signified by it ;' as, when we say, *All
men are mortaV Here men is said to be distributed, for we predi-
cate I .ortality of the whole class — maa, and of every individual com-
posing it.
12. By the Quantity of a Proposition we mean the extent of
its distribution. According to this division propositions are either
universal^ particular^ singular^ or indefinite.
Of these four kinds of propositions, singulars are regarded as
UNiVERSALS, and indefinites are either unitersals or particu-
lars, according to their matter^ i. e. the nature of the connection of
the extremes. This matter is of three kinds — necessary^ impossible^
contingent. If the matter be necessary or impossible^ the proposition
will be universal ; if contingent, particular ; as,
* Snow is white ' (necessary), i. e. * All snow is white.'
* Apples are ripe ' (contingent), i. e. * Some apples are ripe.*
13. Hence all propositions can be reduced to four kinds: —
1. All X is y, universal affirmative (A).
2. No X is y, universal negative (E).
8. Some X is y, particular affirmative (I).
4. Some X is not y, particular negative (0).
14. These four kinds of proposition are symbolised in logic by
the letters A, E, /, 0.
15. A distributes its subject; J57 distributes both subject and p7'e-
dicate ; I distributes neither; distributes the predicate. This is
easily remembered by the rule : —
Uhiversals distribute their subjects.
Negatives „ ^ „ predicates.
1 6. The following diagrams will simply illustrate the meaning of
this with reference to what has been S-iid about ilu; relation between
subject and predicate : —
SYNTAX.
85
X Y
A. All men are animals, i. e. the whole class
man i.s a ^)ar< o/*</te c/tws animal.
X Y
E. 1^0 men are winged, i. o. the whole
class man is completely without the whole
class ^ winged.^
X Y
I. Some fruit is wholesome^ i. e. a.
j)nrt of the class fruit is also a part of
the class wholesome.
X Y
0. Some metals are not scarce, i. e. a part
of the class * metal ' is entirely without the whole
class 'scarce.'
17. With the following scheme of division we conclude this brief
sketch of ' Proposition ' treated logically.
i Categorical
?
— Substance
(Hypothetical
1
r Affirmative
'Essential . <
( Negative
2
CO
§
-Quality . ■{
(True
Accidental •<
(False
' Universal
1^
— Quantity -
Particular
Singular
Indefinite
For complete information on this subject the student is referred o
Whately's Logic.
f
80
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
!
I
M i
1 il
CHAPTER II.
SENTENCES.
1. Definition. Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of
the right arrangement of words in a sentence.
2. A Sentence is a complete expression of thought.
3. A Proposition is defined grammatically to be — * tlie asserting
part of a sentence.'
Hence a sentence may contain several propositions.
4. Sentences are of three kinds— smtp/e, complex^ compound,
(i) A SIMPLE SENTENCE has One predicate ; as,
1
* The good woman prepared for me a simple meal.'
(ii) A COMPLEX SENTENCE lias two Of more predicates : one
principal, and the others dependent or subordinate ; as,
1 2
* We manure the fields, in order that they may become fruitful '
(iii) A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more principal
or co-ordinate assertions; as,
1 2 ^
* The boat sank, and they were all drowned.'
5. The following is an analytical sclieme of ' sentence :' —
SENTENCE
I •
Simple Complex
Compound
I
Principal Subordinate Conjunctive Disjunctive Adversative Illative
I I I
Nouu Bcutence Adjective gentence Adverb sentence
SYNTAX.
87
hicli treats of
sative Illative
6. Simple Sentenck.
(a) The essential parts of a sentence are subject and predicate.
These every sentence must possess, and, in addition, it may,
according to circumstances, have complement of the predicate^
and extension of the predicate.
(b) The subject may be, •
(i) A noun^ witli or without modifications or adjuncts,
(ii) An infinitive mood. ,
(iii) A sentence itself.
(c) By the predicate in grammar is meant the copula + attri-
bute ; hence generally the verb, or its equivalent.
(d) The complement of the predicate completes the sense con-
cerning the action aflBrmed ; thus,
' The boy struck the dog.*
The boy struck, what? — the dog.
Here ' the dog ' confpletes the predicate, and conveys perfect
sense.
TJie comjjlement of the predicate after a transitive verb is
called the object.
(e) The extension of the predicate means its qualifications,
which must be adverbs^ adverbial phrases^ or their equivalents.
The extension of predicate answers the questions, when?
where f why f how f &c.
7. Complex Sentences consist of one principal sentence, and one
or more subordinate sentences, which are of three kinds : —
(i) The noun sentence, -
(ii) The adjective sentence.
(iii) The adverb sentence.
(i) Noun sentences mostly begin with that or it, and may be
either the object or subject of the principal sentence ; as,
Nonn Bentence.
*It is not known (where Moses was buried).*
88
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
i
> i i
111!
If m\
>ii
i|
II
It is evident that the noun sentence answers the question,
whatf thus, in this instance,
Nonn sentence.
* What is not known?' Ans. 'Where Moses was buried.'
' After negative verbs, but that is sometimes used.
(ii) The adjective sentence being equivalent to an ailjective^
may qualify any noun in the principal sentence.
An adjective sentence is introduced by the relative pronouns,
who, which, that, or by any equivalent to the relative, such aa
hoWj why, when, wherefore, wherein, whither,
(iii) Adverbial sentences are extensions or qualifications of the
predicate, and answer the questions, when ? whither f
'u/hencef where? why? how? what for? owing to what?
what of ? with what? in what degree? how often? how
long ?
8. Compound Sentences consist of co-ordinate members or
clauses, which are of four kinds, and aft known by the conjunctions
which connect them. . -
(i) Conjunctive, or copaUttive, connected by
(ii) Disjunctive or negative
»$
(iii) Adversative
(iv) Illative
>*
(And, also, liketoise, aa
j well as, however,
further, further-
more, both, and, also,
not only, but.
{Either, or;
Neither, nor;
Othertoise, else.
'But, on the oth^r Juind,
only, nevertheless,
however, notwith-
standing, on the one
h^nd, on the other
liand, yet, still.
f T/ierefore, thereupon,
I wherefore, accord-
f, -{ ingly, consequently,
Jience, whence, than,
so far.
SYNTAX.
CIIAFTER III.
PAB8IN0.
1. Parsing a sentence, or a word, is an explanation of the
sentence or word per se^ and relatively.
It consists of '
(i) An analysis of the sentence.
(ii) An explanation of each word, ^ersc; and in its relations
to other words.
'2. In analysing a simple sentence we select, (i) the subject ; (ii)
the predicate; (iii) the complement of the predicate, if any; (iv)
the extension of the predicate, it any; thus:
• AflBicted with many troubles he forgave him readily.'
Subject
Predicate
Complement of
Predicate
Extension of
Predica»e
He,
Afflicted with many
troubles
forgave
liim
readily
3. 'In analysing a complex sentence mark the principal subject
and predicate, and arrange under each the subordinate sentences
which modify or enlarge them.'
Ex. 1. ' Rain fertilises those fields which spread their bounty to
God's creatures.'
Principal sentence,
(a) Subject . . . Rain
(1>) Principal Predicate fertilises
(t) Object . . . those fields'
((]) Extension of Predicate
Adjective sentence to (b\
(i) SuiJtJECT . . %nhich
(ii) Sub. -Predicate spread
(iii) COMP. OP PuED. their
bounty to God's creatures.
Ex. 2. * Can the husbandman look forward with confidence to
90
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
I
\ I :
the increase, who has the promise of God that seed time and harvest
shall not fail ? '
Prinoipal sentenee. Acyeotive lentenoe to (a).
(a) Subject, The husband- i <f)|'™"«^ • ^^ Nottiiieiit«ioeto(iIi).
^' ' J (II) Pbkdicatb A,M . r 1. SUBJKOT . (<AaO
he husband' ( ;
man , \ (1
ii) Coirp. or ( the jnwnUie
Prkd. i qf God
SMd time and
futrvett
2. PRXDinATJe, shaU
not fail
(b) Prkdicate, can look forward
(c) Object
(d) Extension of Predioa.te, with confidence to the increase,
4. If the sentence is compound^ we resolve it into simple sentenc(53,
and then mark wli ether the co-ordinate sentences are copulative,
alternative, adversative, or causative.
Ex. 'The dying king begged to be attended bj his confessor,
hut she denied him even this comfort.'
Here we have two adversative clauses, each of which can be
analysed according to (2).
5. Word Parsing. ^
First, state what a word is; next, its relations; then, its ety-
mology ; lastly, any general remarks it suggests.
Ex. ' Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil.'
]t§^ For additional information and praxis on the above, vide Morell's
Analysis of Sentences.
SYNTAX.
91
and harvest
nitenoato(iii).
BJBCT . (thai)
BMd time and
harvest
XDiRATic, shaU
not /all
■2
a
en
2
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M
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ei
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2
a bfio
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a
I
£3
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g
od
cr
a
2
OS
^
o
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a
o
OS
lat is evil.'
ride Morell's
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d
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c^oa.ti
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bo-
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92
ANALYSIS OP THE ENQLISII LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER IV.
GENERAL LAWS OF SYNTAX.
1. Definition. Concord is the agreement of one word with
another in gender, number, cftse, or person.
2. Government is the power one word has to regulate anotlier,
3. The fundamental laws of Syntax are Jive.
(a) * The verb must agree witli its subject in number and
person.*
(b) ' Active verbs and prepositions take nouns or their eqiiivft'
lents after tliem as their object.^
(c) * Evefy adjectivey or word so used, qualifies a noun ex-
pressed or understood.'
(d) * Adverbs modify the meaning of words v.lnch convey
idea of action or attribute, but not existence.*
(e) * Copulative and disjunctive jmrticles unite together no-
tions and assertions which hold the same relation to any given
sentence.* — Morell.
CHAPTER V.
SPECIAL BULES.
1. There are three Concords. •
1. The concord of verb and its subject,
8. The concord of adjective and noun.
8. The concord of relative and antecedent.
2. The verb agrees with its subject in vumher and person ; as,
* The man speaks ;* ' They speak to him,'
SYNTAX.
noun ex-
3. If two or more notninatlves be connected coiijunctivelt/, the
verb is [lut in llie plural; as,
'Andrew Jind he were sclioolfellovvs.'
l^' Except thene nominatives refer to the same suhjeet, when the vorb
in in the singular; as, ' Flesh and blood hath not revealed tu thuu. >
4. If two or rnorc singular nominatives be connected disjunc-
tively, tlie verb is put in the singular; as,
*Neitljer the man nor his wife was summoned.'
5. If one of the nominatives be in the plural, it must be placed
next tlie verb, wliioh must also be in the plural; as,
'Neither the Emperor nor his generals were convinced.'
0. If the nominatives connected by or, or nor, be of different
persons, the verb agrees with the nearest; as,
'Neither you nor I am concerned.*
Since all nominatives that require different forms of tlie verb
virtually produce separate clauses or ])ropo.sition8, it is better to
complete the concord by expressing the verb or its auxiliary iu
connection with each of them; as,
• Either iAoM ari to blame, or /am.'
7. When two nominatives are connected, the one affirmative, the
other negative, they make two propositions, and the verb agrees
with tlie affirmative; as, •
*Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring conviction.'
8. When two nominatives are connected by as well as, or but,
they belong to diflFerent propositions ; as,
'Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule.'
9. * A collective noun (in which the idea of unity is prominent)
tfikes the verb in the singular; as, 'The mob was riotouc'
•Tho reanon for this seems very naturnl. Collective nouns have plurals; thuf, we
suy tnob, mobs; crowd, crowds; army, armies, Ac. Therefore being singulars, as it
were, they require the verb in the singular.
Nouns of multitude, on the other hand, have no plural forms, because they
94
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
10. A noun of multitude (in which the idea of plurality is promi-
nent) takes the verb in the plural; as, 'The nobihty were alarmed.'
11. Substantive verbs; passive verbs of calling^ naming; the
verbs to seem, to appear j to grow, to look, to become; certain reflective
verbs, and passive factitive verbs, take the same case after them a*
before them; and these cases may be considered cases in apposition;
as, * Welhngton was a general.'
B^" The verb in such cases may agree either with the nominative
before it or behind it.
" 12. Tlie absolute construction, which is ablative in Latin, genitive
in Greek, was dative in Anglo—Saxon and Early English, and is
now nominative: thus we say, 'He alone excepted,' where formerly
we should have said, ' Him alone excepted.'
§ 2. The Genitive or Possessive Case.
Vide chap. III. § 6, 10, p. 34.
1. The Possessive case ('«) precedes the noun on which it depends;
as, 'John's horse;' otherwise the noun refers to one o/ many ; as,
'The horse of John's,' i.e. 'Of John's horses.'
2. When tivo genitives are in apposition, the apostrophe is used
with only one of them (the principal noun) ; as, * A book of Virgil's,
the Roman poet.'
3. Several genitive relations expressed by of are appended to
adjectives, such as mindful, desirous, certain, guilty, conscious, inno-
cent, fearful, &c., to complete the sense. In Anglo-Saxon these
adjectives governed a genitive. (Compare the Lat. rules.)
4. Certain verbs, also expressing accusation, acquittal, sham^, repent-
ance, deprivation, emptying, &c., admit the same construction.
5. Vide § 5 note, with reference to the adjectives, worth, old,
high, long, broad, &c.
involve the notion <tf plurality : thas, we do not talk of ole^ffiet, nobilities (where we
do BO, the word mast be considered a collective noun). Ilence they take the verb in
the plural.
SYNTAX.
96
Qominative
'axon these
§ 3. The Dative.
1. The Dative case is sometimes called indirect object.
2. The constructions which may be best considered as dative con-
structions are seven.
(a) The dative follows the adjective like; as,
'He is like Am,' i. e. *to him.'
(b) Verbs of telling, bringing, giving, offering, lending, send-
ing, showing, promising, which may be termed generally verbs
of advantage or disadvantage, govern a dative of the person and
an accusative of the thing; as,
' Give sorrow words,' i. e. * to sorrow.' ■ •
(c) The absolute construction in O. English /as,
* Him alone excepted.'
(d) Me in connection with seems, thinks, lists, in meseems^
methinks (mihi videtur), melists.
(e) The dative follows certain Interjections; as,
* Woe is me,' i. e. *to me.'
(f ) Him in himself is a dative governed by self.
Vide cliap. V. § 2 (d), p. 48.
(g) The verbs please and obey, also thank and resemble^
govern a dative; as,
'Please it, your honours,' i. e. 'to your honours.'
* Know ye not that to whom ye yield yourselves servants
to obey, his servants ye are to whom ye obey.' —
Romans vi. 16.
§ 4. The Accusative (Ohjective) Case.
1. Transitive verbs and prepositions take after them an accusa-
tive; as,
* God made the world.'
96
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
2. Intransitive verbs sometimes take after them an accusative of
the same signijication I as,
' I dreamt a dream.'
Tliis construction is called the cognate accusative.
3. Intransitive verbs are sometimes made transitive by the ad-
dition of a preposition: tliey are then called prepositional verbs,
and these prepositional verbs govern objective cases ; as,
* I despair — of the result.'
4. Kouns of time, space, and measurement, follow certain in-
transitive verbs and adjectives in the objective case. These objective
cases, however, are really governed by some preposition under-
stood ; as,
*He waited all night,' i. e. {during) * all night.'
' He swam the river,' i. e. {across) 'the river.^
See § 5, 2, note p. 97.
5. The verbs ask and teach take two accusatives after them —
one of the person, the other of the thing. When the verb is in the
passive voice, one of these accusatives becomes a nominative, and
the other is said to be governed by the verb ; as,
* He asked me a question.^
' I was asked a question.'
* A question was asked me.'
' He taught me geography.'
* I was taught geography.'
'Geography was taught me.'
J^"This rule is stated as it is usually given. Perhaps the best
explanation of this anomalous construction is, that one of these
objective eases is a dative, or governed by some preposition under-
stood ; as,
Eitiier,
or.
So,
' He asked (from) me a question.'
' A question was asked (from) me.'
* He asked me (concerning) a question.'
*I was asked (concerning) a question.'
' He taught me (concerning or in) geography.'
' I was taught (concerning or in) geography.'
SYNTAX.
97
or, . * He taught (to) mt geograpliy.'
'Geography was taught (to) me.'
6. Factitive verbs, i. e. verbs signifying to create, to make, to ap-
point, take after them two accusatives of 'the person^ which are in
apposition; as,
* They made him king.^
7. When the verbs are in the passive voice, these accusatives
become nominatives.
§ 5. The Adjective.
1. The adjective agrees with the noun it quahfies in gender,
number, and case ; as,
* Faithful friends are U treasure.'
2. The adjective like is the only adjective that governs a case
(dative). — Latham*
3. Other, rather, else, otherwise, used as comparatives, and all
comparative forms are followed by the word than, which takes the
same case (ej'usdem generis) after it as before it ; as,
* He loved him better than me.'
'I could do it better than he.'
* This is not accurate. The adjectives worth, old, high, broad, long, and some say
nigh, take after them, as generally stated, an oit^ective case, governed recUly by a prep-
osition understood ; as,
* It is tvorth six shillings.*
' He is three years old.''
' The wall is fourteen feet long, high, broad.*
Qoold Brown explains the government of worth, by supposing it a preposition I
Such an explanation is unsatisfactory. An examination will prove that we are as much
justified in asserting that these adjectives govern a genitive case, as that like governs a
dative.
In Anglo-Saxon, such adjectives as worth, old, high, &c., signifying measure, value,
age, and the like, govern a genitive ; and in French they are followed by the preposition
de, which is equivalent to a genitive relation ; hence in English we can only conclude
that the case governed by these adjectives is really a genitive and not an accusative, for
the construction must have come to us from one of these sources, most probably the
former.
n
98
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The word tJian means next, and there is always an ellipsis in
its use; thus,
than
(First) • ' I could do it better {next) he ' [could do it well].
(First) * He loved him better Tiexi (he loved me well).'
By this method the correct case to follow than is always ascer-
tained.
4. ' The ' before the comparative is not the article, but an abk-
tive case; as,
' Tlie more, tiie merrier.*
i. e. ' By this the more, hy that the merrier.' Cf. Latin eo, quo.
5. H\\Q first two refer to one class, the two first to two different
classes.
§^. Articles.
■ •
1. The Article, 'a' or *an,* is merely 'one' in its simple signifi-
cation. There is a difference, liowever, between the two words.
We use ' one ' when we speak numerically : we use * a ' or * an '
when we wish to emphasize not the number but the description of
the thing spoken of.
2. A or an always implies unity, and can therefore never be used
but in speaking of one, or in speaking of many things collectively; as,
'A thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday.'
IJ^" 3. The article a has several meanings :
Sometimes it means each; as, 'once a year,' i. e. ^each year.'
Sometimes it means any ; as, 'If a man love me,' i. e. ^ any man.'
Sometimes it means every ; as, ' It is good that a man should botli
hope and fear,' i. e. ^ every man.'
4. The definite article is prefixed to plural adjectives and singular
nouns to represent a class, and to singular adjectives to form an
abstract noun; as,
' Men call the provd happy.'
' TTie dog is n;ore sagacious than the catj
'Idolatry is the worship of #/ie -ymJZc'
SYNTAX.
99
5. If we make a comjjarison between two nouns with reference to
a third, than is followed by an ohjectlve case without the article, by
a nomma^it;e with the article; as,
Object.
1. * He would make a better statesman than lawyer.'
Nom.
2. ' He would make a better statesman than a lawyer.'
In (l) lawyer is an ohjectlve case; thus,
*TIe would make a better statesman than (he would make a) lawyer.*
In (2) A lawyer is a nominative case; thus,
*He would make a better statesman thaii a lawyer (would nuike).
0. Whe7i two or more nouns are taken collectivehj, or describe one
person, the article is used only before the first ; as,
* The treasurer and secretary (one person).'
J^" If different persons and things are meant, the article is repeated
before each; as,
' The treasurer and the secretary (two persons).'
^^W Sometimes, however, the article is repeated for the sake of
emphasis; as,
* I returned a sadder and a wiser man. '
7. The pronominal adjectives, '■all, both, many, such, what,' and
other adjectives luhen preceded hy Hoo, so, how,' stand 'before the
article; as,
'Ye see how large a letter I have written to you.' — Gal. vi. 2.
E^^The expression many a time, &c. will be discussed in chapter VII.
8. 'The' bef(tre the comparative is not an article, but an ablative
case; as,
* Tlie more the merrier;'
i e. ^ By this the more, by that the merrier.'
113
"•P^
100
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 7. Pronouns.
1. Pronouns possess the same gender, numberf and person as the
nouns they represent.
2. The rules that regulate the use of a singular verb after two or
more nouns, or after a collective noun, apply also to the use of plural
or singular pronouns; as,
•' Everyone must judge of his own feelings.*
3. My and thy are used before a noun; mine and thine when the
noun is understood, or begins with a vowel or h mute ; as,
J Mine eye also shall see my desire upon mine enemies, and mine
ears sliall hear my desire of the wicked that rise up against
me.' — Ps. xcii. 11. •
4. In such constructions as, ' He said that it was good,' that is
usually termed a conjunction. It is really a demonstrative pronoun,
and in apposition to the sentence it was good; thus,
* He knew that (thing)' — viz. * it was good.^
5. The demonstrative pronoun ^this^ when used with a plural
noun and adjective, gives the expression a collective force, and hence
the verb is in the singular ; as,
'This seven years has passed quickly.'
6. Each, every, either, neither, no, require the verb to be in the
singular.
7. For the construction of self, vide chap. V. § 2, (d) p. 48.
§ 8. Belatives.
1. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number.
jj^^ 2. Who, whose, whom are used now with reference to
rational beings; which, to irrational beings, inanimate 6bjects,\i\i[
collective nouns. TTiat is a general relative used after any ante-
cedent. •
3. Collective nouns, which are followed by a singular verb, require
/
SYNTAX.
101
jcrson as the
which. Nouns of multitude, which are followed by a plural verb,
require who; as,
'The mob which followed the candidate was dispersed.'
'The clergy who assembled were then addressed.*
4. If two or more nouns are capable of being antecedents to a
relative, the relative agrees with the nearest; as,
'Solomon, son of David, who slew Gojinth' (correct).
' Solomon, son of David, who built the Temple ' (wrong).
ft. When two or more relative clauses refer to the same antecedent,
and are connected by a conjunction, the relative must be repeated:
so also must possessive pronouns, when the nouns they qualify are
distinguished; as,
' Thus saith He who is, and who was, and who is to come.'
6. If a nominative come between the relative and the verb, tlie
relaiive is governed by the verb, otherwise the relative is nominative
to the verb ; as,
* The man whom you saw.'
* The man wlio saw you.'
to be in the
§ 9. The Verb.
1. When the truth of one proposition depends upon the truth of
another, the sentence is said to be hypothetical ; as,
' If thou read this, Ca3sar, thou mayest live.' — Shakspere.
IH^'" The clause which contains the condition is called the conditional
clause : ' If thou read this,' The clause which contains the conse-
quence of the supposition is called the consequent clause : ' Thou
mayest live.' •
2. The conditional clause sometimes appears in the form of a
question, or as an imperative ; sometimes it is introduced by were,
or had,. or would. Sometimes it is omitted ; as,
'Is any afflicted? let him pray.' — St. James.
'Prove that, and I will consent.'
102
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
'4 :
3. A preventing conditional clause is introduced by were it not
for^ were it not that, but for; and is followed by tlie sahjunctive m
the principal clause. — Angus.
4. The subjunctive mood is used when uncertainty and futurihj
are implied; —
(i) After «y and although, expressing contingency and futurity.
(ii) After if although, unless, except, denoting a sup)position
expressed or understood ; as,
* Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him.*
(iii) After an imperative with lest or that; as,
■ *See that thou do it not.'
(iv) After that, expressing a wish; as,
, * Would that I had died for thee.'
5. The infinitive mood is governed (i) by a verb; (ii) by a prepo-
sition; as, 'I will write;' '1 wish to write.'
6. Besides the auxiliary verbs shaU, loill, may, can, let, &c., the
verbs behold, bid, dare (neuter), feel, hear, make, need, observe^ per-
ceive, and see, govern an infinitive mood directly.
7. The gerundial infinitive in ing, or with to, represents the .4.-*S'.
dative form. It generally implies purpose or fitness when found
after nouns, adjectives, intransitive, and passive verbs; as,
* Apt to teach.'
'Fools who came to scoff, remained io pray! ^
8. The gerund also expresses purpose, when nnited to a noun in
a compound word; as, 'a walking stick,' i. e. 'a stick for walking.'
9. The gerundial infinitive explains the following forms : —
'He went a hunting.'' 'Hard to bear.^
' What went ye out for to see.' 'Sad to say.'
' Fit for teaching.' 'They are for surrendering.^
'A house to let.' 'He is to start.'
SYNTAX,
103
§ 10. The Participle.
1. Participles^ being verbal adjectives^ possess the concord of ad-
j'ectives, and the government of the verbs to wliich they belong.
2. The participles of transitive verbs admit of degrees of com-
parison; as, 'more loving,' 'most amusing.*
1^" In this case they are treated as adjectives.
3. In tenses formed by the auxiliary verb To Be^ the 2^(^fiiciple
agrees with the subject of the verb; as,
* He is walking fast.'
4. In tenses of transitive verbs formed by the auxiliary Have, the
jjarticiple agrees with the object of the verb; as,
* He has written the letter.*
5. Gerunds are verbal nouns, therefore they can be the subjects
or objects of verbs, which participles cannot be; as,
Gerund. Participle.
* Writing is amusing.'
§ 11. Succession of Tenses.
1. 'Whenever the conjunction that expresses intention, and con-
sequently connects tivo verbs, the second of wiiich denotes an action *
which takes place after the action denoted by the first, the verb in
question must be in the same tense; as,
" I do this that I may gain by it."
*^I c?ic/ this tHat I w/^A^ gain by it" ' — Latham.
2. Correlative subjunctive forms may be gathered from the fol-
lowing: — •
(i) ' If he be here, he is in this room, or I ivill find him.'
(ii) * If he have paid the money it is at the bank, or will be
found there to-morrow.'
(iii) *If he ivere here, I would tell him.'
(iv) * If he had been here, I should have found him.*
♦
■t •
!
I
■MM
1.1
ill
I II ill
I
104 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(v) ' If lie were (or were to 6e, or should be) rewarded, others
would be encouraged by hia success.*
(vi) 'If lie should^ or would, or were to try, he would succeed.'
— Angus.
§ 12. General Bemarks.
The imperative, the infinitive, with *<o' and in *iw^,' are some-
times used absolutely; as,
* Many boys, say twenty, were present.'
' To tell you the truth, I do not believe him.*
^Judging at random, there were over a hundred.*
§ 13. Gonjunctions, Prepositions, Adverbs.
»
1. A conjunction is employed to connect clauses, « >«
^^ In such expressions as * two and two are four,' and has the
force of with, and is prepositional.
2. If governs both the indicative and subjunctive. With the for-
mer it means since; with the latter, supposing that. To ascertain
the proper mood of the verb, insert immediately after the conjunc-
tion one of the two following phrases : —
(i) ^Asis tJie case f (ii) '■As may be the case.*
When (i) is required, the verb should be in the indicative mood;
when (ii) satisfies the expression, the verb must be in the subjunc-
tive mood; as,
*If (as is the case) he is gone, I must follow him.'
*If (as may be the case) he be gone,»I must follow him.'
3. Although, though, also govern the indicative and subjunctive.
4.* Conjunctions that are intended to express uncertainty, whether
of condition (if, unless, as, though), of concession (tfiough, however),
of purpose {in order that, lest) ; or of time, place, manner (wherever,
whenever, until), govern the subjunctive ; as,
'Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him.' — A.
* See §9, 4.
SYNTAX.
106
are some-
5. Than is a conjunction^ and takes the same case (ejusdem ge«
neris) after it as be/ore it.
6. When conjunctions are used to connect clauses, eacli clause
m\i8t moke complete grammatical sense ; as,
*He was more beloved (add, than), but not so much admired, as
Cinthio.'
7. OeneraUy, prepositions stand before the words they govern.
They never stand before the relative Uhat'; when the sentence is
interrogative, or the relative is omitted, they are placed after the
verb; as,
'What did he do it for?'
8. The word or phrase which belongs to the governed word should
always be so placed that the connection may be clear; as,
'Errors are committed by the most distinguished writers [with
respect to shall and will '].
This should be written thus : —
'Errors with respect to shall and will are committed,' &c.
|I|^"For Prepositional Constructions, see Hiley's English Orammar.
9. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. When
they stand alone, as, yes, no, certainly, they stand for a whole sen-
tence. Sometimes they seem to qualify prepositions, nouns, or words
belonging to other parts of speech ; as,
* I hear the far-oS curfew bell ! ' — Milton.
10. In Anglo— Saxon, and in Greek and French, two negatives
strengthen the negation. In English and Latin they destroy one
another.
1 1. Ever ana never are otten confounded. Never is an adverb of
time; as, ^Seldom or never has such misfortune happened, Uver'xs
an adverb both of time and degree; as, '■Ever witii thee,' ^ Ever so
good.'
'Charm he ever so wisely ' is better than 'never so wisely,' though
this last is admissible.
lOG
ANALVeiS OF THE ENQLISH LANGUAGE.
If"
!
»tf«
12. When tlje word not comes between an indicative^ imperative,
or subjunctive mood, and an wjinitive verb^ it is uhuoat always taken *
witli the word it follows.
13. From the time of Wycliffe to the time of Sir Thomas More,
tnero was a minute distinction between yea, nay, and yes, no. Yea
and nay answered affirmative questions ; as,
♦Will become?' Ans. ' Yea,' or ' Nay.'
Yes and no answered negative questions ; as,
♦ Will he not come? ' Answ. * Yes,' or ^ No.'
CHAPTER VI.
FIGTJBES OF SPEECH.
1. Definition. Fiqurks of Speech are peculiar forms of ex-
pression — recognised deviations from the ordinary forms, grammat-
ical constructions, and literal meanings n words and phrases.
2. According to this definitiou we ought to divide Figures of
Speech into Figures of Orthography, Figures of Syntax, and Figures
of Rhetoric. For general purposes it will be better to consider the
last two divisions as one, so as to have but two classes, (i) Gram-
matical or Etymological Figures; (ii) Figures of Speech.
3. Etymological Figures are modes wherebj words undergo
change, especially in process of formation or derivation.
4. These Figures are —
(i) Syncope, whereby a word is abbreviated; as, lord for
hlaford.
(ii) Metathesis, whereby letters in the same word are inter-
changed ; as, nostrils for nose-thirles ; brunt, for. burnt;
brid for bird.
SYNTAX. 107
5. Three are Additivk:—
(i) Prothesis^ wliereby a letter or syllable is added to the
beginning of a word; as, espy for spy.
(ii) Epenthcsis, whereby tlie insertion of a letter or letters, or
a syllable, is made in the middle of a word; as, far-
th-er for far-rer.
(iii) Paragoge, whereby an addiMon of a letter or le*, ers is
made to the end of a word ; as, soun-d from son.
6. Three are Subtbactive : —
1. AphoerestSf whereby a letter or syllable is taken from the
beginning of a word ; as, uncle from av-uncle.
8. Elision, whereby a withdrawal is made from the middle
of a word ; as, muster from mo-n-strare.
8. Apocope, whereby a letter or syllable is taken from the
end of a word ; as, sue from suivre.
7. Pig ures of Speech are peculiar forms of expression.
(i) Pleonasm is redundancy of expression ; as,
' I know thee, stranger, who thou art.'
(ii) Ellipsis is deficiency of expression ; as,
'She went to St. Paul's,' i. e. 'cathedral.'
(iii) Personification is a figure of speech whereby we clothe
qualities or inanimate objects with the attributes of
life; as,
'Hope spread her wings, and flew away.'
(iv) Simile is the comparison of two ideas, and corresponds
to a ratio; as,
* Youth is like the spring.*
(v) ilfetop^or (transference of ideas) is the comparison of ratios
or relations of ideas, and corresponds to a 2>'roportion; as,
' Youth is the spring of life ;'
drawn out thus : —
Youth : life : : spring : year.
108
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
tli
4
Sometimes the combination of the extremes gives us one
metaphor, and the combination of the 'means another;
thus, we talk of the 'spring of hfe,' and of the 'youth
of the year.'
(vi) Si/necdochej whereby we use part for the whole, and vice
versd; as,
* Ten sail appeared off our port.'
Here sail is used for ships.
(vii) MetoTwmy is the use of cause for effect, or vice versd; or
the symbol for the thing signified; ae^
'Flee the bottle,' i. e. 'the contents thereof*
(viii) Hyperbole is exaggeration ; as,
'They built a tower to reach up to Heaven I ' i. e. 'very high.'
(ix) Meiosis is lessening or weakening the force of an expres-
sion; as,
'George is not very industrious,' i. e. 'he is very idle.'
(x) Antithesis compares things contrary or different ; as,
' Though deep, yet clear.'
8. Besides these, Latham gives two more, which he calls conver-
tibility and zeugma.
1. Convertibility is the use of one part of speech for another,
and is either,
(a) Etymological, or permanent; as, seldom, now always an
adverb, formerly an old dative.
(b) Syntactical, or temporary; as, the use of the infinitive for
the noun.
2. Zeugma, whereby a verb, &c., applicable to only one
clause, does duty for two ; as,
'They wear a garment like the Scythians, but a language
peculiar to themselves.' — Sir J. Mandeville.
|^"If this were tolerated, much bad grammar would find shelter
under Zeugma 1
il
SYNTAX,
109
CHAPTER VII.
CBITICISMS AND CAUTIONS.
§ 1. Usage.
The subject-matter of the following chapter is chiefly based
on Dr. Crombie's English Etymology and Syntax, and on the works
of Dr. Angus, of Mr. Washington Moon, and of Archbishop
Trench. References made to these authors are characterised by
the letters Cr., A., M., Tr.
1. Language is antecedent to Grammar. Law and general
principles are necessary before rules can be deduced from them. To
deduce these rules is the province of the grammarian, and the law
of a language to which he must make his appeal is usage.
2. The usage which gives law to a language, and which is gene-
rally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and
present. .
3. The following Canons are laid down to guide us in retaining
or preferring certain words or phrases : —
Canon I. When the usage is divided as to any particular
words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is
susceptible of a different meaniifig, while the other ad-
mits only one signification, the expression which is
strictly univocal should be preferred.
Examples. — Aught for * anything ' is preferable to ought.
Scarcely, as an adverb, is better than scarce.
Canon II. In doubtful cases, a/nahgy should be regarded.
Example. — Contemporary is better than cotemporary.
Canon III. When expressions are in other respects equal,
that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the
ear.
no
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
nil i i
t: i'
Canon IV. When none of the preceding rules takes place,
regard should be had to simplicity; thus, to accept,
approve, admit, are preferable to accept of, approve of,
admit of.
4. The following Canons regulate the decisions of grammar with
reference to the rejection of phraseology which may be deemed ob-
jectionable : —
Canon I. All words and phrases particularly harsh, and not
absolutely necessary, should be dismissed ; as, shame'
facedness, uns access fulness, wrongheadedness.
Canon II. When the etymology plainly points to a different
signification from what the word bears, propriety and
simplicity require its dismissal. For example, the word
beholden taken for obliged, and unloose for untie, should
be rejected.
Canon III. When words become obsolete, or are never used
but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated,
as they give the style the air of vulgarity and cant,
and their general disuse renders them obscure.
Example. — By dint of argument; I had as lief go; a moot
point, &c.
Canon IV. All words and phrases which, analysed gram-
matically, inclndG, a. solecism, should he disnv.iaed; as, /
had rather go; which should be, / would rather go.
Canon V. All expressions which, according to the estab-
lished rules of the language, either have no meaning, or
involve a contradiction, or according to the fair con-
struction of the words convey a meaning different from
the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed ; such
as, he sings a good song, i, e. he sings well.
5. These Canons taken from Campbell on Rhetoric, Dr. Crombio
has fully explained in his excellent work.
If
SYNTAX.
Ill
§ 2. Orammatical Purity.
1. To write any language with grammatical ^wriVy implies three
things:
1. That the words be all of that language.
2. That they may be construed and arranged according to
the rules of syntax in that language.
8. That they be employed in that sense which usage nas
annexed to them.
2. Grammatical purity may therefore be violated in three ways.
1. The words may not be English. This error is called a
Barbarism.
2. Their construction may be contrary to English idiom.
This error is called a Solecism. *
3. They may be nsed in a sense different from their estab-
lished acceptation. T!»is error is termed an Impro-
priety. — Crombie, Etym. Syntax.
3. If we analyse grammatical errors more minutely, we find that
they arise from the following causes : —
(i) Faulty definition — misconception of the meaning of
words.
(ii) Faulty classification — confusing words belonging to dif-
ferent parts of speech.
(iii) Faulty ellipsis.
(iv) Redundancy.
(v) Faulty concord and government.
(vi) Faulty arrangement or collocation of words.
4t. Of these errors the principal illustrations occur in
(i) Mistaking the adverb for the adjective.
(ii) Misgovernment and false concord oi pronouns ; especially
(iii) The false concord ->f relative and antecedent.
(iv) Tlie ellipsis of the article,
(v) The erroneous collocation of words ; especially m<5/??aciw5'
the adverb^ and violating the arrangement of correla-
iivcc in till! corresjwndinj clauses of a sentence.
A,
.1
112
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH L..NGUAGE.
5. We now proceed to give a list of general rules and cautions
bearing upon these points ; a selection of such words in common use
as are Hable to misconception; a list of words and phrases alpha*
betically arranged, which suggest criticism or require explanation.
§'^-
CAUTIONS, CRITICAL REMARKS, ETC.
I. Adverb.
1. Adverbs are often made adjectives or nouns, though not ele-
gantly; as,
'The then ministry.' ^ •
'Very God of very God.'
' It is a long while ago.' — A»
1^^ 2. Adverbs in * ly ' from adjectives in * \y ' should be
avoided; as,
* That we may godly serve Thee.'
3. When adverbs are found in the same clause with several
words, they must be closely connected with the words to which
they belong. They are generally placed before adjectives, after
verbs, and between the auxiliary and the participle.
4. Such adverbs as totally, supremely, absolutely, universally, &c.,
are not to be qualified by so, more, most, or by any word implying
comparison, — M,
5. When the verb is intransitive, the adjective must be used ; as,
*She looks cold.* When the verb is transitive, the adverb is to be
used ; as, * She looks coldly on him.'
6. The verb To Be in all its moods and tenses, generally requires
the word immediately connected with it to be an adjective, and not
an adverb ; and consequently, when this verb can be substituted for
any other without varying the sense or construction, that other verb
must be connected with an adjective; as, 'The rose smells sweet,*
not sweetly; for, if we substitute is for smells, we have * The rose
is sweet,'
7. The misuse of the adverb for the adjective is a common
blunder^ as,
SYNTAX.
113
common
' They could easier get them hy heart ;' say, more easily/.
'Use a httle wme for tliy stomach's sake and thine often in-
firmities.' Often is an adverb, and therefore wrong: we
should say, % frequent infirmities.
II. Adjective.
1. When adjectives, or their equivalents, deny equality, or affirm
inequality, neither term of the comparison should ever include the
other; as,
' I know none so happy in his metaphors as Addison.'
Addison is included in none, and therefore is not so happy as him-
self. — A.
2. When a comparative is used with than, the thing compared
must always be excluded from the class of things compared ; as,
'Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children;'
corrected, 'all his (o^Aer) children.'-— ^.
K^" 3. Avoid the common blunder of confounding thejirst two
with the two first, the last two with the two last.
III. Article.
iW 1. If diferent persons or objects are referred to, the article
must be repeated with each; as,
* TAe wooden and iron bridge '= one bridge.
' The wooden and the iron bridge '=two bridges.
2. The article is never used in English before virtues, vices,
arts, and sciences; abstract quantities defined not otherwise par-
ticularly; <em5 strictly limited by other definite words; titles used
as titles, and names as names.
3. Since a (an) indicates one thing of a kind, it must not be used
to denote the whole kind; as,
(Not) 'The unicorn is a kind of a rhinoceros;'
(But) 'The unicorn is a kind o/rAmocero5.'
114
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
U
:
XV. Pronoun.
1. Pronouns and collective nouns whicli require a singular verb
are followed by singular pronouns; as,
'Everyone must judge of his (not their) own feelings.'
2. Nouns of multitude^ which require verbs in the j)^^^^^^ ^re
followed hy plural pronouns; as,
'The clergy would not surrender tlieir privileges.'
3. If two or more pronouns in one sentence "differ in gender,
number, or person, the reference to each will be clear; but, if they
agree, care must be taken that there be no confusion. Speaking
generally the nominatives should all refer to the same person, and
tiie accusatives to the same. — A.
4. As personal pronouns are often found in connected sentences
in one of which the verb is omitted, and relative pronouns are often
connected with two verbs in the same sentence, the use of them is
peculiarly liable to errors. Such errors are most easily avoided by
completing the sentence, or by analyzing it ; e. g.
1. ' Let you and I endeavour to improve the enclosure of
the cave;' say, ' Let you and let me ;' ' Let us.'
2. 'If there be one character more base than another, it is
7dm who;' say, 'That character is he who.'
3. ' Between you and I (me) he is mistaken.'
4. 'The nations not so blessed as thee (as thou art).^ —
Thomson.
5. 'It is not for such as us {as we are) to sit with the rulers
- of the land.'
6. 'Is she as tall as me [as I am).' — Shakspere.
7. 'There were a thousand in the French army who could
have done it as well as him [as he could).^ — Napier.
8. 'Whom do men say that I am? (TJiat I am who do men
say?y
9. 'Who do you take me to be? {me to he whom?Y
SYNTAX.
115
10. ' Who servest thou under? (whom?y
11. ' Who should I meet the other day but my old friend.' —
Steele.
13. *My son is going to be married to I don't know who.' —
Goldsmith.
[Whom, in both cases). — A.
5. Ye is the nominative form of the pronoun, you the accusative.
Ill Old English this distinction is carefully preserved. In Shaks-
peie it is not observed; by later writers it is reversed. — A.
6. Avoid the use of tJiat for wJien; as,
*He tells them that the time should come that the Temple
should be graced with the presence of the Messias.' For
that substitute when.
V. Eelative.
1. 1^^ The antecedent to which a relative refers must be perfectly
obvious. Hence no other word which might grammatically be m-
terpreted as the antecedent must intervene.
2. An adjective should never be an antecedent. Avoid such ex-
pressions as,
* Homer is remarkably concise, which renders him lively and
agreeable. ' — Blair.
3. Relatives being connective words, do not admit conjunctions
before them, unless there are two or more relative clauses to be re-
peated. Hence avoid such errors as, And which.
ExAMPLK. — 'The principal and distinguishing excellence of
Virgil, and which in my opinion he possesses beyond other
poets, is tenderness.'
4. Vide Syntax, § 8, 5, p. 101. *
5. Avoid such common errors as, 'Who do you speak to?' for
* Whom do you speak to ?'
i2
116
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
VI. Verb.
1- l^*" Be careful about the use of the verb Z)o, as a substitute
for other verbs. It ought to be so used only when the ellipsis of
the preceding verb can be supplied j as,
* I did not say as some do (say).'
' I did not say as some have done (correct saiUy
2. I^^ Avoid the use of the verb ffet, got. It is generally re-
dundant, or else used for a verb far more suitable than itself; as,
*I have got a cold.' Simply, *I have a cold;* or, 'I have
caught a cold.'
*I can't get into the box ;' i. e. * open the box.'
3. If verbs are used in different voices, moods, and tenses, and are
emphatically distinguished, the nominative, or its equivalent, must
be repeated with each.
4. 1^** Since conjunctions connect like constructions, test the con-
cord of subject with verb in each clause.
5. Propositions universally true are generally put in the present
tense, whatever tense precedes them.
6. The genitive form of the infinitive in ing, after a possessive
case, is always questionable, and to be avoided ; as,
* What is the object of your brother's writing so long a letter ?'
7. Shall and Will. For the use of these verbs the following
excellent rule is laid down : * If the speaker is nominative to the
verb, and also determines its accomplishment; or, if he is neither the
nominative to the verb, nor determines its accomplishment, the proper
auxiliary is willf in every other case it is ahaU. — M.
8. How far back soever the expectation or intention may be re-
ferred, the seeing or writing must be considered as contemporary, or
as soon to follow, but cannot, without absurdity, be considered as
anterior; thus,
SYNTAX.
117
be re-
*I have lost this game, though I thought I should have won it.^
(Corrected). ' I have lost this game, though I thought I should
win it.*
9. u^= Instead of 'I had rather go, say *I would rather go.'
YII. Conjunctions, Prepositions, &c.
1. When conjunctions are used to connect terms or phrases, en re
must be taken that tlie phrase which is applied to the two makes
grammatical sense with each; as,
* He was more beloved (than), but not so much admired as
Cinthio.' — A.
2. |^~ See that correlative expressions, such as not only^ hut
also, are similarly situated in the clauses to which they belong.
3. A few having an affirmative meaning may be followed by but.
Few having a negative meaning, does not admit the conjunction
hut. — M.
4. J^^ Cities, towns, countries^ lan>h, islands, take q/* after them
Rivers are not followed by of.
VIII. Collocation of Words, &o.
These rules are of frequent use and great value.
1. Words that express things connected in thought should be
placed as near to each other as possible, unless another arrangement
be required by the emphasis.
2. Where words or clauses are so placed as to be susceptible of
a double reference, the construction (called 'construction louclie ')
must be chanaed.
i\. Use as few stops as poosible ; depend upon the careful arrange-
ment of words for a clear expression of meaning.
4. When different things have an obvious relatifjfi to each other
in respect to the order of nature or time, that order should be re-
garded in assigning them their places in the sentence, unless tlie
scope of the passages require it to be varied. — I.tnc/hy Murray,
quoted by Moon. ■'
118
ANALYSIS OF THE ENOLISII LASdUAGE,
U'B
§ 4. Proper Usage of certain Words.
Aught. — Anything (A.-Sax. awiht), should be so spelt, not ought.
All, Whole. All is plural and collqctive. Whole refers to the
component parts of a single body, and is singular.
KiAj^ Evkry. All is collective. Every is distributive.
Amid, Amidst, Among, Amongst. Among originally signified
one out of many ; amid and amidst, in the middle of. Hence,
then, among and amongst always imply number ; amid and
amidst, generally quantity: thus, ^ among, not amidst, these
books I cannot find the one I want;' but not, *Iwas out
among snow and rain.' In this last case, amidst would be the
correct expression.
Amid and amidst also indicate that the thing specified is
of a different class from those around it. While, among, and
amongst are oftener applied to objects surrounded by those of
the same class. We are said to be ^ among friends, but amidst
enemies.'
Authentic, Genuine. A genuine book is that which was written
by the author whose name it bears. An authentic book relates
matters of fact as they really happened.
Between, Among. Between_\3 used when we speak of two :
among, when we speak of more than two.
By, With, Through. Nearness, oneness, throughness are the
ideas suggested by these words. By belongs to the agent;
wifh, to the instrument. W^en they both express means only,
and not origiTial agency, by implies that the means are neces-
sary ; with, that they are auxiliary only. Through implies
that the means used form the appointed channel for the con-
veyance of the object named. — A.
By the BYE, By and by, Good bye. In the phrase By and by, we
have two 7?r<7;o5?7«ow.s connected by a conjunction ; consequently,
as prepositions express the relation between words, and con-
junctions connect clauses, we have an ellipsis, which seems to
be something of this kind : (Passing) ^By (this time) and by
(that time),' i. e. ' omitting present and immediate consideration,'
i. e, presently.
SYNTAX.
119
ot ought.
8 to tlie
signified
Hence,
mid and
1st, tliese
was out
d be the
jcified is
ong, and
those of
t amidst
written
h relates
)f two :
are the
agent;
us only,
neces-
implies
le con-
hy, we
juently,
nd cow-
ems to
and hy
iration,*
By the hye is a phrase totally dlfTerent. The first hy is a
preposition; the second J?/e means * a town/ * a particular lo-
cality,' found in the affix hy, as in Derby; also in tlie phrase,
hye-laWf or local law, and bycioord, i. e. town^s talk. The phrase
therefore means, 'whilst passing by this place;' tantamount to
saying, ' digressing from the general subject,' this particular
topic (rd7rof=: place) suggests a similar idea.
Good hye is a corruption of the words God he with you.
Betwixt, Bktvvken. Betwixt is ordinarily confined to places; be-
tween has a much more extended signification. We speak of
'what may happen between morning and evening,' of 'hesita-
ting between opposite courses ' ; we could not use betwixt in
tliese senses; but ^betiuixt the chair and the table,' ^betwixt the
road and the mountain,' would be quite correct. In poetry,
however, these words are used indifferently.
Besides, Also, Too, Likewise. Too is a slighter and a more familiar
expression than also, which has something in it more specified
TCCidi formal. ' \
Likewise has a rather different meaning. Originally it meant
in like manner. It implies some connection or agreement be-
tween the words it unites. We may say, ' He is a poet, likewise
a musician,^ but not 'He is a prince, likewise a musician,' .
because there is no natural connection between the functions.
Also implies merely addition.
Besides is used rather when some additional circumstance is
npmed after others as a kind of afterthought, and generally to
usher in some n fw clause of a sentence ; as, ^Besides what has
been said, this must be considered,' &c. — 7V.
Because, Since, Inasmuch as, For, As. These are all causal par-
ticles, i. e. they indicate a proposition fro77i which something
follows; they correspond conversely to the illative, which point
out that which does follow.
Because (by cause) is now used in answer to why? — 1st,
as indicating physical sequence, 'from what cause?' 2ndly,
by logical sequence, 'how is it proved?' 3rdly, 'for what
purpose ? '
120
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
li
UiV:.
{! )
Since is less formal than because; it also generally begins a
sentence, or is understood at the beginning.
Inasmuch as has something of a qualifying power which
the others do not possess. It is merely the same as in as far.
As is more incidental than since, and seems to take for
granted what is stated. As seems to suppose its correspond-
ing word so to follow ; but unless some strict comparison is
intended, it is generally omitted.
For is a slighter because. — Tr.
Completely, Entirely. Completely, like almost, is used in ques-
tions o( degree; entirely in those of ^uan^t<y. Thus, we should
say, *I am completely (not entirely) tired.'
Contemporary, Cotemporary. Crombie says the former is pref-
erable, and gives a rule that con is to be used before a conso-
nant, and CO before a vowel ; thus, contemporary, coeval.
This rule is not borne out by fact, for we say, copartner^ coreli-
gionist, cobishop, cotrustee, cofounders, &c.
Contemptuously, Contemptibly. We speak contemptuously of
a person, i. e. disrespectfully. Contemptibly qualifies the verb,
and means the manner of speaking, as speaking.
Composure, Composition. Composure, from compose, means tran-
quillity ; composition, from compound^ means to unite different
elements.
Disposal, Disposition. The former is used when a grant or giv-
ing away is denoted, or the management of anything is to be
expressed. The latter signifies arrangement, likewise temper
of mind.
Distinguish, Discriminate. "We distinguish one thing from an-
other ; but we discriminate between two or more things.
To distinguish is merely to mark broad and obvious differ-
ences ; to discriminate is to notice . minute and more subtle
shades of difference.
Distinction, Difference. We make a distinction, but we explain
a difference.
Either, Whether. Either refers to two only, and means one of
two ; whether also refers to two only, and means which of two.
SYNTAX.
121
icgins a
• which
, as far.
ake for
espond-
ridon is
HI ques-
B should
r is pref-
a cjnso-
coeval.
r, coreli-
oualy of
he verb,
ns iran-
Idifferent
U or giv-
lis to be
temper
rom an-
\s differ-
le subtle
\ explain
one of
\of two.
Exposure, Exposition. Tho former TmsanB the manifestation of
iomething — the latter an explanation, llenco vve speak of the
exposure of a fault — th<" exposition of a text.
Elder, Older. FAder is applied to rational beings ; older to
objects animate and inanimate.
Bach other, One another. Each other is used when we refer
to two; one another to more than two.
Ever, Never, are often confounded. Never is an adverb of time ;
as, * Seldom or never has an English word two ftill accents.'
Ever is an adverb both of time and degree ; as, * Ever with
thee; ' * Ever so good.'
Seldom or ever is equivalent to seldom or always, or to
seldom or at any time — evidently improper. ' Charm he never
80 wisely ' should be, * Charm he ever so wisely.' • .
Each, Every, refer to one of many ; the first restrictively, the
second unircrsally.
Farther, Furiher. Farther is the comparative of far=di«tant,
and is used when we speak of bodies relatively at rest\ as,
* The sun is farther from the earth than the moon.' Further is
the comparative of forth (forisj beyond), and is used when
motion is implied; as, ' He throws fuj'ther than you.'
If, Whether. If means given that, and is a conditional conjunction ;
whether is an alternative conjunction, and means which of two
— its correlative is or.
Highest, Uppermost ; Lowest, Nethermost. When we refer to di-
mension we should say, lowest or highest ; and when we refer to
site or situation, we ought to say lowermost or uppemiGst. — Cr.
Less, Fewer. Less refers to quantity in bulk, and is singular :
fewer is the proper word to use when speaking of numbers, and
i& plural. •
Lie, Lay ; Overlain, Overlaid. Lay (perf.) laid, (active) : Lie,
(perf.\ lay, ' to make to lie ' (intransitive). These verbs are
often used erroneously. Thus, ' He laid him, or himself,
down ' is correct : but * He laid down ' wrong ; — say, * He lay
down.' Overlain is sometimes wrongly used for overlaid ; as,
* the child was overlain.'
• \^-
122
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
f
Like, As. Like is an adjective exprossing resemblance in acci-
dental qualities : as is a conjunction of manner or degree ex-
pressing likeness. Like and notwithstanding are now used as
conjunctions, though not properly ; a usage that originates in
the employment of them in Old English as prepositions with
that, as ; thus, ' Like (as) a father pitieth his children, so the
Lord pitieth them that fear Him.'
If as and that are omitted, the use of like and notwith-
standing as CONJUNCTIONS is very questionable. — A.
Mutual, Common. Mutual implies reciprocity between two indi-
viduals or two parties. Common implies more than two. Two
persons may be mutually friends, but if a third be a friend to
both, he is ' their common friend,' not ' their mutual friend.'
Nation, People. Nation denotes a race of men, or connection by
birth or descent ; people, persons or men who form a com-
munity. The people of Saxony and Bavaria are a portion of
the German nation. The Americans are not a portion of the
English people, but in the true sense of the word nascor they
are of the English nation.
Nearly, Almost. There is a alight difference between these words :
nearly is applied rather to questions of quantity, time, and
space ; as, * It is nearly eight o'clock,' * I walked nearly two
miles.'
Almost might be used in the same way, but is more com-
monly appropriated to questions of degree ; as, for instance, ' It
is almost as white as snow.'
Almost is never used with a negative.
Overflown, Overflowed. We say overflowed of rivers, not over-
flown. (Flowed is the participle of ' to Aow,' flown of * to fly.')
Purpose, Propose. Purpose means to intend ; propose signifies to
lay before, to submit to consideration.
Proposal, Proposition. Proposal is a * thing offered or proposed.''
Proposition denotes ' a position,^ or the affirmation of any prin-
ciple or maxim, or any ordinary assertion.
Primitive, Primary. Primitive is equivalent to original, and is
opposed to derivative or acquired : primary is synonymous with
principal, and is opposed to secondary.
SYNTAX.
123
Obvious, Apparent. Obvious means evident, and is opposed to
obscure ; apparent means seeming, and is opposed to real.
Scarcely, Hardly. Scarcely/ relates to quantity, hardly to degree ,
as, * He "is scarcely ten years old ; ' ' I shall hardly be able to
finish the work.'
So, As. In comparative clauses of equality^ as is both the relative
and antecedent. But, when one of the parts differs from tlie
other in degree the antecedent is so ; as, ' John is as brave as
James ;' ' John is not so brave as James.' Generally as alludes
to likeness and similarity, while so refers to the comparison of
extent or degree.
Talented, Gifted. The Dean of Canterbury, in his remarks on the
■ * Queen's English,' objects to these words. He assumes that
they are participles, but they are simply adjectives, ed being
a common adjectival suflSx, as in wooded.
Total, Entire, Whole, Complete. Nothing is whole that has any-
thing taken from it : nothing is entire that is divided : nothing
is complete that has not all its parts. Complete refers to the
perfection of parts ; entire to their unify ; whole to their junc-
tion ; total to their aggregate. A whoh orange ; an entire set ;
a complete facsimile ; the total expense.
Therefore, Wherefore, Then, Accordingly, Consequently.
Therefore is * for that reason,' or ' for those reasons ; ' where-
fore is 'for which reason or reasons;' then indicates a less
formal conclusion, and is often applicable to physical"* sequence.
Accordingly is applicable to physical sequence only : both it
and then often refer to a practical course following certain
causes. Consequently i^ the most formal conclusion of the
whole, though generally confined to a practical sequence. — Tr.
Though, Although. Although is the stronger and more emphatic
of the two, and is therefore generally chosen, to begin a
sentence.
While, Though. Though implies more of contrast in the parallels
made than while. For instance, we should say, ' While 1
admire his courage, I esteem his mildness and moderation;*
but ' Though I admire his courage, I detest his ferocity.'
Which, That. Which i.s used in speaking of a class generally, and
-I
I)'!
' I
124 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
that when we mean to designate any particular individual of
that class. That is applied to the antecedent immediately pre-
ceding the relative, and which to an antecedent sentence or
part of a sentence. — Tr. .
(^ For further information consult English Synonyms, by the Arch<
bishop of Dublin.
§ 5. Critioal Bemarks.
I. Words. II. Phrases.
(i) Words.
The ibilowing are some of the principal words and phrases which
suggest observations : —
Also. This adverb is very often misplaced in a sentence.
* The first word of an example may also very properly
begin with a capital.'
Better thus :
* The first word of an example, ahOy may very properly
b^in, &c.'
' The author also says in the same volume ; *
Correct!
* The author says also in the same volume.'
Both. The position of this word in a sentence will be gathered
fVom the following examples : —
* Performing at the same time the oflices hath of the nomi-
native aiid objective cases.' — Lindley Murray.
Here both is redundant. If both be retained ; say :
* And of the objective c«««.'
* The perfect tense and the imperfect tense, both denote a
thing that is past.' — Lindley Murray.
Correct thus :
SYNTtAX.
125
foth denote a
^ Both the perfect tense and the imperfect tense denote a
thing of the past.'
* The present, past, and future tenses may be used either
definitely or indefinitely, both with respect to time and
action.' — Lindley Murray.
Say rather :
* With respect both to time and to action.''
f^ ' In order that the meaning may not be doubtful, the adverb should
be placed as near as possible to the word or words which it ia
intended to qualify.
'Secondly: In a compound sentence formed with the adverb
both and the conjunction and, if an article or a preposition, or
both, follt 7 the adverb, then that article, or that preposition, or
both, must be repeated after the conjunction.' — M.
Even is often misplaced; thus:
' It is a frequent and capital error in the wiifings even of
some distinguished authors.'
Say:
* In the writings of even some distinguished authors.'
Not. The position. of this word is important, as the following ex-
amples show: —
* All that is favoured by good use is not proper to be
retained.' — MwTay,
Corrected :
* Not all that, &c.'
Not should never be separated from the verb to which it
belongs; as,
* Not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake
Could save the son of Thei. "rom to die.'
This should be :
^To have been dipped, &c. . . . Could not save, 4e.*
126
ANALYSIS OV THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
'■ >
.. (
Only. This adverb should generally be placed after the verb^ not
before i<; otherwise the grammatical effect is to make onli/
apply to the verb instead of to what follows the verb.^ — M. Thus
it is better to combine onli/ when, only that, only in, only thus,
only as;^ ex.:
* It is said that this can only be filled in thus.''
Corrected:
* It is said that this can be filled in only thus.''
Where only occurs in connection with one, the words should
not be separated.
Otheu than, Otherwise than. These are thus distinguished :
(Adjective) * He had no expectations other than good.'
(Adverb) * He never wrote otherwise than clearly.'
Properly. * The colon may be properly applied in the tliree
following cases : '
Corrected : * May properly he applied.^
Whether the adverb is placed before the auxiliary, or be
tween the auxiliary and participle, depends upon the meaning
we wish to express. If we mean that it is proper that certain
rules should be written ; our words may be arranged thus :
' The rules should properly he written.' If we wish to say that
they should be written in a proper manner, then we must say,
* The rules should be properly written.^
The same remark will apply to many other adverbs.
Rather, when followed by than, should not be separated from it.
* This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave
style.'
, Say:
* Suits a familiar rather than a grave style.'
Soon. In Shakspere's age soon meant ad primam vesperam; and
this reference to the evening we find in the phrase, going soon
SYNTAX.
127
to hed. Quickly was then the positive of sooner and soonest.^
Mai'sh,
Quantity is often erroneously used for number ; as, * a quantity of
windows ' for a ' number of windows.'
Tomorrow is sometimes used as a noun. ' Tomorrow will suit me
equally well.' Say, * The morrow.*
Few, a Few. Few, written without the article, signifies something
quite different from what it does when written with it ; as,
* Few persons really believe it ; ' it is incredible.
' A few persons really believe it ; ' it is not incredible. — M.
Little, A Little.
' He thought little about it ; ' i. e. it was a matter of indif-
ference to him.
' He thought a little about it ; ' i. e. it was not a matter of
indifference to him. — M.
A Many, Many a. * Though we say a multitude, which means many,
we never say a many.* — Moon. One is tempted to ask, why
not?
Mr. Moon continues : ' ? et, by a strange caprice of idiom,
we say, a great many^
' Many,' says Lowth, * is chiefly used with the word great
before it.' G. Douglas uses the expression, a few menye.
The confusion about this word seems to* have arisen from its
disputed etymology. Some derive it from N.-French, mesnie-=.
a mixed multitude, a company, a household; others from A.-
Saxon, manig (adjective). It does not seem to have occurred
to grammarians that both derivations are correct, and that we
possess in reality two distinct words, which have accidentally
assumed the same form ; the one many, a noun from mesnie ;
the other many, an adjective from the Saxon manig. Hence
when we say, a great many, wo mean a great multitude, and
many is the noun. If this explanation be borne out by fact, as
a reference to the history of the word will prove, what error
can there be in saying a many ?
* Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.'
.•I
I!
128
ANALYSIS OP TfiE ENGLISH LANGtJAGfi.
The expression, many a flower^ presents greater difficulties.
To arrive at an explanation of the phrase, we must appeal to
the meanings which a possesses when similarly situated.
The special meanings of a when not an article are,
Of as now-a-days = now-of-days.*
On „ he went-a-hunting = on hunting.
Each „ three times a-year = each year.
Any „ * If a man love me ' = if any man love me.
Every „ * It is good that a man should both hope, and
quietly wait for the salvation of the Lord,' i. e. every man.
To interpret the phrase many a man, Home Tooke suggests
that a means of, and many is the noim ; thus, according to him,
many a man is a corruption of many of men. Archbishop
Trench favours this explanation, t
Although, with the exception of the word nowadays, we cannot
find any instance of a used for of, the use of a for on is clear ;
and it is not imcommon, at the present time, to meet with
the use of on for of in vulgar phraseology ; as, ' I am glad on
it,' for ' I am glad of it',' 'He did half on it,' for ' He did half
of it,' &c. &c. This will help us to understand how the cor-
ruption would naturally take place.
Learn, in the Psalms, means teach ; as, learn me, i. e. teach me.
Prevent, in the Collect, ' Prevent us, O Lord,' &c., means go be-
fore; * Our most religious and gracious queen;' religious means
here, sacred in person.
(ii) Phrases.
ft am I. * The wages of sin is death J
Sometimes the noun following a neuter or passive verb is re-
garded as the nominative; and with it the verb is made to agree;
As, in interrogatives, ' Who art thou?''
And in Old English, '/< am /,' * It ben the sherrefes men.'
Chaucer.
* This is regarded by some as corrupted from ' now-on-days," i.e. ' now in
these days.'
t In A.-S. the adjective manig agreed with its noun in the singular ; as,
manig man. It seems probable that the guttural sound of the i^ gave rise to
tho sound of a which follows many.
STNTAi.
m
i.e. 'now in
*His pavilion were dark waters.' — Ps. xviii. 11.
* The wages of sin is death.'
In the last example, wages may be a singular. Dr. Richard-
son's Study of Language.
It is me. It is hirriy vide cLi»:'. V. § 4, 2.
T. . T ^ 1 / command "I
li 18 /, your master, who | ^^^,,,„^^, j ycu.
The question is whether the verb should be command or
commands, i. e. what is the antecedent to * who ' ?
In the iSrst place, there ought to be no ambiguity, and the
construction should be altered.
In the next place, according to rule, the relative agrees with
the nearest antecedent, i. e. master, therefore, the verb should
be commands.
If it is said, your master is in apposition to /, put it in a
parenthesis, and avoid all difficulty : thus, It is I (your master)
who command you.
Of this expression, Latham says :
* This brings us to the following question : With which
of the two antecedents does the relative agree ? with /, or
with master ? '
This may be answered by the two following rules :—
Rule 1. When the two antecedents are in the 8am£ pro-
position, the relative agrees with the first ; thus,
1. It is I, your master,
2. who command you.
Rule 2. When the two antecedents are in different pro-
positions, the relative agrees with the second ; thus,
1. It is I,
2. your master, who commands you.
This position of the antecedent is determined by the con-
nection or want of connection, between the substantive anteoe-
dent and the verb governed by the relative.
n
; ty
■ ^
If
130
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
In the expression, the word * master ' is logically connected
with the word ^ command \! and this fact makes the expression,
* It is I, your master, who commands you,' the better of the two.
— E. Language, vol. ii. p. 376.
Three times three s *^ ? nine. * Plurality being evidently implied,
the plural verb seems more consonant with our natural con-
ception of numbers, as well as the idiom of our language.' — Cr.
Fare thee well. This familiar expression, which has the authority
of Byron, is wrong. We should say, * Fare thou well.'
The words are < ^ ,, ' > Crombie, Morell, Allen, and others
favour the form as follow, on the ground that as is a relative,
and therefore the verb must be plural. Angus says the expres-
sion as follows is preferable, for admitting that, if as follow is
used, as is a relative, he observes it is not so used in English
in any other case ; the expression is now adverbial, like as
regards, or so far as concerns.
Try and think. This common expression should evidently be, try to
think.
' Satan than whom none higher sat.'' This quotation from Milton
has given occasion to some controversy. Latham observes with
respect to it, ' The following is a practical rule for determining
doubtful constructions : —
(a) * Reduce the sentence to the several propositions
(which are never less than two) which it contains.
(b) ' Replace the relative by its equivalent personal or de-
monstrative pronoun, or by its equivalent substantive.
(c) * The case of the demonstrative or substantive is the
case of the relative also.' Thus we have :
* Satan spake ; none sat higher than he sat.'
* Satan spake ; none sat higher than Satan sat.'
Hence the expression should be—
' Satan than who
None higher sat.' ....
SYNTAX.
181
ly connected
5 expression,
r of the two.
itly implied,
latural con-
guage.' — Cr,
he authority
rell.'
, and others
is a relative,
3 the expres-
as follow is
id in English
bial, like as
tly be, try to
from Milton
bserves with
determining
propositions
^ntains.
mal or de-
ibstantive.
Lntive is the
This also coincides with the rule given respecting than after
a comparative, q.v.
in respect to. In respect of. Avoid the latter expression. Marsh
says, * Old writers sometimes say respectively to. This- is now
disused ; but relatively to is by no means unfrequent, and in
respect of, used in this sense, is just as gross a violation of
English grammar as to write relatively of or in reference of.^ —
Lectures on E. Lang.
* Thou canst not tell whence it cometh, < I whither it goeth.*
* We will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image.^ — ^Dan.
iii. 18.
There is a dispute among grammarians concerning the adop-
tion of or or nor, when any other negative than neither or nor
occurs in the preceding clause or phrase, and Goold Brown cites
a goodly array of authors who advocate contradictory opinions.
Dr. Angus says, * During a considerable period in the history
of our language, double negatives with a negative sense were
common.' . . . ^ If the fivo negatives belong to different clauses,
we may use them both.' Or can be used in such cases, and
the negative will then extend over both clauses.
The dispute seems to rest ultimately upon the definition of
a conjunction. Those who define a conjunction as a ' word con-
necting clauses,' must of course defend the use of nor. Thoae
who assert that ' a conjunction connects words as well as clauses,^
are justified in using or.
Bat;
xS
^
i
m
ANALYSIS OF THE ENCrLISH LANGI^AOlB.
APPENDIX I.
List of Strong Verbs.
Strong Verbs may be divided into three classes.
(i) Those which have one form to express the present^
past tense, and perfect participle.
(ii) Those which have two forms to express these three
parts.
(iii) Those which have three forms to express these three
parts.
Class 1
. Those which have the same
form for present and past
tenses anc
perfect participle.
Present.
Past.
P. Participle.
Present.
Past. P. Participle
Beset
Beset
Beset
Bid
Bid Bid
Burst
Burst
Burst
Set
Set Set
Bestead
Bestead
Bestead
Shed
Shed Shed
Cast
Cast
Cast
Shut
Shut Shut
Cost
Cost
Cost
Shred
Shread Shread
Cut
Cut
Cut
Slit
Slit Slit
Hit
Hit
Hit
Spread
Spread Spread
Hurt
Hurt
Hurt
Split
Split Split
Let
Let
Let
Thrust
Thrust Thrust
Put
Put
Put
Sweat
Sweat Sweat
Class 2. Those which have two different forms to express the
present tense, past tense, and perfect participle.
Present.
Past.
P. Participle.
I^esent.
Past.
P. Participle.
Abide
Abode
Abode
Bleed
Bled
Bled
Awake
Awaked or
Awaked
Breed
Bred
Bred
awoke
Cling
Clung
Clung
Beat
Beat
Beaten
Come
Came
Come
Bend
Bent
Bent (O.-E.
Curse
Cursed or
Cursed or
bended
curst
curst
Bind
Bound
Bound
Dig
Dug
Dug
UST OP STRONG VERBS.
133
the present,
these three
these three
sent and past
p. Participle
Bid
Set
Shed
Shut
Shread
Slit
Spread
SpUt
Thrust
Sweat
express the
p. Partie^le.
Bled
Bred
Olnng
Come
Cursed or
curst
Dug
fiftttnt^
Past.
P. Pariioiple.
Preaent.
Past.
P. PatHeipU,
Feed
Fed
Fed
Meet
Met
Met
Fight
Fought
Fought
Bead
Bead
Bead
Find
Found
Found
Bun
Ban
Bun
Flee
Fled
Fled
Shine
Shone
Shone
Fling
Flung
Flung
Shoot
Shot
Shot
aet
Got
Got
Sit
Sat
Sat
Grind
Ground
Ground
Slide
Slid
Slid
Hang
Hanged or
Hanged or
Sling
Slung
Slung or
hung
hung
Hlang
Hold
Held
Held
Speed
Sped
Sped
Keep
Kept
Kept
Stand
Stood
Stood
Knit
Knitted or
Knitted or
Stick
Stuck
Stuck
knit
knit
Sting
Stung
Stung
Load
Led
Led
Swing
Swung
Swung
Lend
Lent
Lent
Wind
Wound
Wound
Make
Made
Made
Wring
Wrung
Wrung
Class 3. Those which have three different forms for the three
principal parts of the verb.
(With these verbs some are classed that have weak preterites.)
Preset^t.
Past.
P. Participle.
Present.
Past.
P. Participle.
Arise
Arose
Arisen
Draw
Drew
Drawn
Bear (to
Bore or
Borne
Dress
Dressed
Drest
carry)
bare
Drink
Drank
Drunk
Bear (to
Bore or
Bom
Drive
Drove
Driven
bring forth) bare
Eat
Ate
Eaten
Bdgin
Began
Begun
Fall
Fell
Fallen
Bid
Bade
Bidden
Fly
Flew
Flown
Bite
Bit
Bitten or
Forsake
Forsook
Forsaken
bit
Freeze
Froze
Frozen
Blow
Blew
Blown
Freight
Freighted
Freighted or
Break
Broke
Broken
fraught
Chide
Chid
Chidden
Give
Gave
Given
Choose
Chose
Chosen
Grave
Graved
Graven
Cleave (to
Clave or
Cleaved
Grow
Grew
Grown
cleave to)
cleaved
Hew
Hewed
Hewn
Cleave (to
Clove or
Cloven or
Know
Knew
Known
split)
cleft
cleft
Load
Loaded
Loaded,
Crow
Crew
Crowed
loaden or
Dare (to
Durst or
Dared
laden
venture)
dared
Lie
Lay
Lain
t f
i
134
AnALYSia OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Present.
Past.
P. Participle.
Present.
Past.
P. ParHeipU.
Mow
Mowed
Mown
Spin
Span or spun
Spun
Kido
Rode
Ridden
Spit
Spat
Spit
Ring
Rang
Rung
Spring
Sprang
Sprung
Rise
Rose
Risen
Steal
Stole
Stolen
Rive
Rived
Riven
Stink
Stank or
Stunk
Seethe
Seethed
Sodden or
Htunk
seethed
Stride
Strode
Stridden
Sew
Sewed
Sewn
Strive
Strove
Striven
Shake
Shook
Shaken
Strew, strow Strewed or
Strewed or
Shape
Shaped
Shapen
strowed
strown
Shave
Shaved
Shaven
Swear
Swore or
Sworn
Shear
Sheared
Shorn or
sware
sheared
Swell
Swelled
Swollen or
Show
Showed
Shown
Bwoln
Shrink
Shrank
Shrunk or
Swim
Swam
Swum
shrunken
Take
Took
Taken
Sing
Sang
Sung
Turive
Throve
Thriven
Sink
Sank
Sunk
Throw
Threw
Thrown
Slay
Slew
Slain
Tread
Trod
Trodden
Slink
Slank
Slunk
Wax
Waxed
Waxen
Smite
Smote
Smitten
Wear
Wore
Worn
Sow
Sowed
Sown or
Weave
Wove
Woven
■owed
Writ©
Wrote
Written
REDUNDANT VERBS.
135
p. PariitripU,
■
\
Spun
1
1
Spit
1
'
Sprung
■ -
Stolen
B .
Stunk
I
APPENDIX II.
(
Stridden
1
Reduudant Verbs.
Striven
H
Strewed or
■ RiDUNDAMT Verbs
axe those which have
more than
one form for
Btrown
■ the past tenaej or perfect participle, or both.
-
.▼?
Sworn
H
H Prestnt.
Past.
P. Participle.
Present.
Past.
P. Participle.
Swollen or
H Bear (to
Bore or bare Borne
Load
Loaded
Loaded,
i
Bwoln
K carry)
loaden or
1
Swum
■ Bear (to
Bore or bare Bom
laden
1
Taken
H bring forth)
Saw
Sawed
Sawed or
f
Thriven
H Bite
Bit
Bitten orbit
sawn
i
Thrown
H Cleave (to
Clave or
Cleaved
Seethe
Seethed
Sodden or
1
Trodden
V clin^ to)
cleaved
seethed
Waxen
■ Cleave (to
Cleft or
Cleft or
Shear
Sheared
Sheared or
1
Worn
I split)
clove
cloven
shorn
Woven
■ Dare (to
Durst or
Dared
Spin
Span or
Spun
Written
■ venture)
dared
spun
I Freight
Freighted
Freighted or
fraught
Stink
Stank or
stunk
Stunk
I Hang
Hanged or
Hanged or
Strew
Strewed or
Strewed or
■
hung
hung
strowed
strown
I Hide
Hid
Hidden or
hid
Strike
Struck
Struck or
stricken
1+
1 ^
Knitted or
knit
Knitted or
knit
li
136
PART II.
ETTMOLOOIGAL DERIVATIONS.
1(1
CHAPTER I.
INFLEXIONS.
§ 1. NOTULS
1. Gases.
Gen. IS or es; as, hinges horse, i.e. king^s horse (A.-S. es).
Dat, OM, UM, m; as, whilom, him, them, whom (A.-S. um).
[The m in this suffix, according to Richardson, is Hom-o"]
2. Gender.
ER, AR, OR, signify male agent. (A.-S. wer, a man; or, ^Er, the
front, the prime person, or agent.) See below er of the com-
parative.
STER, female agent, denotes guidance, direction, (A.-S. steoran, to
guide or steer) ; used also as a dimiuutiye of depreciation and
contempt ; as, youngster, punster.
ESS (N.-F. fem. suffix from Lat. ix).
EB, male agent (A.-S. corrupted from a or e): as, hante', now
hunter.
STRESS =ster-|-ess, double fem. termination (Sax andNur.); as,
seamstress, songstress.
INE, Greek fem. ; as, heroine ; en. Germ. fem. ; as, vixen, from
fuchsen.
ETYMOIiOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
137
). steoran, to
areciation and
3. Number.
^N (A.-S. an, pi. suffix) ; as, brethren ; reckoned strong.
ER (A.-S. ru, now ry), a suffix implying collectiveness ; as, yeo-
manry.
ES (A.-S. as, pi. suffix; also, N.-F. in x); whence the general
modem pi. suffix es, as suiting both languages.
EL
EH
EN
ER
ET
ix;k
OW
ING
ULE,
CULE
as shovel,
stream,
chicken,
splinter,
lancet,
hillock,
shadow,
farthing.
, Uci(
icicle (Lat.) .
ICLE, J
isK as asterisk (Gr.)
4. Diminntives.
Other diminutive suffixes art
formed by combinations of these
elementary diminutives ; as,
KiN=ock + en, as mannikin.
LET=el-f et „ streamlet.
REL— er + el „ pikerel.
KLE=ock + el „ knuckle.
ROCK=er-f-ock„ laverock =lark.
LiNQ = el + ing „ duckling.
5. Augmentatives.
ARD as drunkard l ^^ ^^^j^ ^^. .^ ^^ _jj ^ ^^^^^
ART „ braggart J
DON „ balloon "^
ONE „ trombone > of Italian origin.
ION „ stanchion J
6. Patronymics.
ING as Harding, ing (A.-S.) denotes dos. endant, or son oK
SON „ Johnson 1 /p .
s „ Richards J ^ ^^'^
FiTZ „ Fitzroy (N.-Fr.)
MAC „ Macdouald (Scotch Gaelic).
„ O'Connor (Trisli).
AP or p „ Priceac A]^iiee8=lr()iii iiee« (VV elsh).
IT
m
-I
138
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
7. General Noun Terminations.
ADE (A.-S. a'd, a pile), continuity ; as, arcade, balustrade.
HEAD, HOOD (A.-S. hdd), persoH, form, quality, condition; as, child-
hood.
DOM (A.-S. dom.), doom, judgment ; as, wisdom.
EE (derived from French past. part, in e'; as, assigne), impliws office ^
as, trustee.
ING (A.-S. ung), denotes being-, as, evening, mx)rning.
NESS (A.-S. naes), a nose, or promontory — prominent quality ; as,
idleness.
RED (A.-S. raBd), counsel, advice, whence society; as, kindred,
RIG (A.-S. rice) ; kingdom, ; as, bishopric.
SKIP \ (A.-S. scyppan), to fashion, ot form.
SHIP r „
SCAPE )
>»
„ as, friendship.
„ as, la/ndscape.
Y (x\.-S. e) signifies ^Zace ; as, smithe, now smithy.
WICK (A.-S. wic, or wye), a village] as, bailiwick.
8. Classical and N.-French.
AGE (Lat. age re), acf, .stoie, or condition; a«, bondage
ACY (Lat. acia, from adjective in ax, acis), has the meaning of ac,
or ic (add), signifies office ; as, magistracy.
ARY, ORY (Lat. ar-is, arius, orius, urus, sai»» foi^ ^ er, q.v.)^
applied to person or place ; as, granary. lapida*-y.
CE 1
? (Lat. tia), abstract quality ; as. iicfijice.
TY (Lat. tas), abstract quality ; as, liberty.
TUDE (Lat. tudo), abstract quality ; a? magnf^t4e.
IAN (Gr. koq), relating to, or belonging vy; ejigoisfies profession; as,
musician.
ST (Gt. iffrrii;), agent, or person; as, sophist.
MEN ] (Lat. mens, mentum, moneoj, i (unifies meawm^, or mien^jow;
MENT thus, testimony, testament, aliinony, aliment, differ merely in
M0N>' j their application. Anything meant to testify, to nourish.
ETYUOIiOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
I3d
TURE, SURE (Lat. ura), abstract quality ; as Uncture.
OUR (N.-Fr. eur; Lat. or); oRy ardour.
lOM (Lat. io), abstract idea ; as, action.
§ 2. A^eotives.
1. Terminations (Saxon).
EN (A.-S. an, en), means one, or united to ; as, golden ring, gene-
rally, made of.
ED (A.-S. ad, od), means add, or join ; as, wooded=:aAd wood.
T (A.-S. ig, from eacan, to add)=join'j as, woodi/=sadd wood.
ERN (A.-S- asm, a place) ; as, southern.
ERLY, contracted from emly, as, southemly ; ly=like.
FOLD (A.-S. fealdan, to multiply, feald=many) ; as, manifold.
FULL (A.-S. fyllan, to^ZZ); as,, faithful.
ISH (A.-S. isc, or ics), denoting the external quality of a thing; as
if from ic, es=add it. Also a national appellative term ; as,
coldish, Irish.
LESS (A.-S. leosan, to loose, to dismiss), means witkoit; as, sleep-
less.
LY (A.-S. lie or like) ; as, meanly.
SOME (A.-S. sum, from somnian, to collect); as, winsome.
WARD (A.-S. wardian=to look at); as, homeward.
yrofession; as, 1
2. Ghief Classical Terminations.
, from Lat. adjectives in 'alis; ' as, equalis.
„ * ans,' ' ens ; ' as, elegans.
AL
ANT, ENT
ABLE, IBLE
FIC, FERGUS
*0U8, OSE (full of)
TORY, SCRY
* bilis ; ' as, visihilis.
* ficus,' * ferus ; ' as, horrifcus, pesti-
ferus.
* osus ; ' as, verhosus.
'torius,' 'sorius; ' as, migratorius.
* o^rs in righteous is Saxon not Latin ; the word being corrupted from rigki-
uiis ^right-wise.
I
MP
mmmmmmmm
146
ANALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGB.
IVE
ft
' ivus ; * as, capttvus.
m
91
* anus ; ' as, humanus
m
W
* idus > * as, timidtu.
PLE, BLE
»
' plex ; * as triplex.
QUE (Pr.)
n
' quus ; ' as, obliquua.
3. Plurals.
The plural suffix of adjectives was e in O. E. as allej pi. of all.
Some assert that ihesef those, are such plural forms : these from
this or thes.
4. Comparative and Superlative Affixes.
ER (A.-S. i£r=front), signifies duality and prominence^ found in the
wordh-er-o.
SE, as in worse, less, Goth, comparative suffix, found only in these
words.
EST, superlative suffix; as if es-ed, which would mean add it.
M0RE-\ possibly derived from mow (A.-S. md), a heap ; as harley-
I mow.
MOST r WM>re=m4-er, a bigger heap; and mos<=m4-est, biggest
J heap.
In Shakespeare and earlier writers more was written moe,
5. Irregular Comparisons.
Po8. Com. Superl.
Good (A.-S. god).
[Bet] (A.-S. betan), to improve, better, bettest, or best.
Bad (A.S. badian), <o seize in distress, to worsen.
[Waur] (A.-S. weor=bad), worse, wor-est, worst.
M UCH =mo-c-el, muckle = mow-like = heap-like.
Ti, r(A.-S. manig, N.-Fr. mesnie, "I _ ^ / -j x
^^[\ „^itJ) 'I >""«' ^"^ ("-i- ™p-).
Little (A.-S. lit, small), { '"*^ (-*-"*• l^^ssa), 1 ,^^j, ^^^ _g ^^^^^
L lesSj lesser, j
Late (A.-S. latian, to delay), later, latter, latest, last. r
FoRE=/ron^, former=for-ema-er, for-m-ost, forest, first
NiaH(A.-S. neah), nearer (A.-S. nearra), nearest^ nextj {A.-S.
rnouli6i|.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
Uj
fun (A.-S. feoTj aC a distance), far-th-er, far-th-est.
Forth ( Lat. foris=Jc^ond), ftirther, furthest.
Old "I/* Q (^\A—ane>t { ^^^^^* oldest.
Eld J ^ eia-a^e;, ^ ^^^^^^ ^^ _g celdre), eldc^st, ealdest.
Out (A.-S. ut), outer, utter, outermost, utmoot.
[Rathe] (A.-S. rath), swifty early, rather [ratheat].
6. Nnmerals.
Cipher (Arabic, safira, empty).
One (A.-S. dn).
Two (A.-S. twd).
Three (A.-S. thrl).
Four (A.-S. feower).
Five (A.-S. fif)-
Six (Lat. sex).
Seven (A.-S. seofon, Lat. septem).
Eight (A.-S. eahta).
Nine (A.-S. nigon).
Ten (A.-S. tynan, to complete).
Eleven (A.-S. endlufon=owe left).
Twelve (A.-S. twalufon=<w>o left).
Half (A.-S. healf).
Quarter (Lat. quartus).
THiRTEEN=three-ten, i.e. ten added to three*
Twenty =twain-tig, tighten times.
Hundred (A.-S. hund=10) some syllable seems to be lost.
Thousand (A.-S. fusend). The A.-S. J>usend is nothing but tin
more complete Mseso-Goth. * tigos hund,' or * taihuns hurnJ ,*
viz. ten times hundred. — Bosworth.
Tithe (A.-S tith or tyth, a possession or holding).
Riding =trithing, a third part.
FARTHiNG=fourth-ing = little fourth part.
TTTn-TTT l^(A..-S. feowertha), the suflix th in these words is in
A.-S. ta or tha.
Fifth
/
i
ii-
Both (A.-S. ba-twa or butu), ha=both, twfi= tivo=boih the two^
or by twos.
■■
142
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Once (A.-S. an-es), now an adverb, formerly an old genitive.
TwiCE=twies (A.-S. twi), now an adverb, formerly an old genitive.
Thrice =tlirie8 (A.-S. thri) „ „
Twain (A.-S. tw^gen).
ONLT=onelike.
Atone =to be at one.
Alone = all one.
One {adj.)j A.-S. an; (noun), Fr. on, Lat. home.
f i.l
il !
11
§ 3. Frononns
I (A.-S. ic, Ger. ich).
Thou (A.-S. thu), connected with two.
He(A.-S. He).
She (A.-S. seo and heo): the former gives she, the latter hoo;
Lancash. dial, for she.
It (A.-S. hyt), possibly from hcBt=<Ae said, from hdtan, to name.
Mine (A.-S. min), gen. of ic, as if formed my-en, en being adject,
suffix.
Thine (A.-S. thin), gen. of thu, as if formed thy-en, en being adject,
suffix.
His (A.-S. hk), gen. of he.
Her (A.-S. hyre).
Its, gen. of it. His formerly did duty for its. which was intro-
duced '^.fter the completion of the authorised version of the
Scriptures, circa 1640.
Our (A.-S. ure), gen. oiwe ; as if, we-er.
Your (A.-S. eower); as if, you-er.
Their (A.-S. hyra) ; as if, they-er.
Who (A.-S. hwa), connected possibly with hedwan, to hew. The
relative represents the antecedent, as, an image does the original.
Which (A.-S. who -|- like).
What (A.-S. hwaet), neuter of m;Ao.
The, this, possibly from thean,* to take. — Home Tooke.
That. Tooke derives it from the p. part, of the same verb.
Self (A.-S. sylf) = the same.
* So written in Eichardson's Study of Language : t>icgan, higan. — ^osworth.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
143
Own (A.-S. Agen), from dgan, to have or hold.
Any (A.-S. an-ig = add one).
Enodgh (A.-S. genogan), to satisfy.
Some (A.-S. somnian), to collect.
Divers (Lat. di versus), different.
Each (A.-S. ea-ilk=07ie like); ilka means the same.
Every (A.-S. cefre), always; y= ig=iadd.
Such (A.-S. swa = «o + like).
Aught (A.-S. a whit = a bit).
Naught (A.-S. no whit or no bit).
Either (A.-S. athor or auther = one of two).
Wi
the latter hoc;
Pronominal Adverbs.
NomlnatiTe
Genitive
Form
Dative
Form
Acciisativo
Foi-m
Ablative
Form
Comporatire
Form
Hh
Thk
Who
Hence
Thence
Whence
Here
There
Where
/Then \
) Than /
When
How
Thus [for
thi]
Why
Hither
1 Thither
Whither
A.-S. r, ra, e, Bigmfy rest in; her =.here; \>sQr=there; hw8er =
where.
PER {motion to): hi- dex = hither; Tpi-dev = thither; hwi-der=:
whither. — Vernon's Anglo-Saxon Guide.
V 'i
§4. The Verb.
1. Principal Prefixes.
A, before verbs gives a transitive force ; as, await = wait on.
A, gerundial prefix = on ; as, a-hunting — on-hunting.
Be = by^ and gives a transitive or reflective force ; as, behave =
be-have.
For (Lat. foris, out of, or beyond) ; as, forget, forbid^ get forth, &c.
And or An = against ; as, answer = swear against.
Fore = before ; as, foretell = tell beforehand.
En, prefix or suffix, has the force of to make ; as, enrich, lighten ;
the "words enlighten^ enliven, enripen, engladden, enstrengthen^
endarken have both.
'm
144
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
;■ !
En or Em (Lat.) for in = in or on; as, embark.
Mis- (Goth.), to err, or stray from ; as, mislead ss: to lead wrong.
With (A.-S.) in composition against ; as, withstand^ i.e. stand against.
Be (Lat. back) ; as, retrace.
2. Inflexions.
•ST (A.-S. ast, 0. Sax. is, Gr. elg, ag, c) ; Sanscrit si; may be a
form of av, thou.
-TH (A.-S. ath, O.-Sax. and Lat. t), may be a form of the, an old
pronoun of the third person.
-ING, participial suffix (A.-S. ende).
-ING, gerund (A.-S. anne) ; as, writing = writanne = to write.
^ The infinitive to write (A.-S. an; as, writan) : the gerund to wriie
(A.-S. anne; as, writanne).
ED ; as in delighted. The force of this suffix is did ; thus, / loved —
T love-did.
3. Diminutive Verbs are or were those ending in
-M
as
seem.
-EN (n, on)
))
gladden, reckon.
-EL, LE
»
struggle, kneel.
-£R
»
glimmer.
-ND
»
bind.
-NG
M
swing.
-NK
»
drink.
-NT
»
stint.
-UCK (CK, k)
»
pluck
-UTCH (OTCH, ATCH)
J>
clutch.
-USH (SH, ass)
>>
brush
-OW
»
hallow.
-OT, T, D
)J
blot.
-AG, UG, AUGH,
Y
>>
laugh.
4.
Intensive.
-STER
as
bluster.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
145
5. Causative.
-ER
-EN
-SE
-ISH
-T
•-ATE
-FY
(Classical)^ -^^
-IZE
-ER
^Classical) -ate
as,
»
»
»»
linger.
whiten.
cleanse.
burnish.
worry.
facilitate.
terrify.
expedite.
tranquillize.
6. Frequentative.
as, batter, clamber.
„ agitate
7. Inceptive.
-ESCE (Lat.)
as, effervesce.
8. The Verb To Be.
The Anglo-Saxon verb substantive is composed of several verbs.
We can trace in its different inflexions no fewer than five, of which
three now remain — Je, aw, was.
1 am, eom, eart, ys, synd, synd, synd.
I was,
I be.
waes,
W8Bre, wflBS, wceron.
wflBron,
beoth,
weeron,
beoth.
beo, byst, byth, beoth.
In these inflexions we may distinctly see five verbs whose conju-
gations are intermixed : —
1. Eom, es, ys, are of one family, and resemble the Greek uni.
2. Ar, arth, am, are, proceed from another parent, like eram.
3. Sy, synd „ from another, and recall sum, stmt.
4. WiES, waere, weeron „ from another source, seen in A. -S.
wesan.
5. Beon, bist, byth, beoth „ from another family, of which the
infinitive been was kept in use,
\
n
1 1
1 1
m
4
I:-
1 m'
1
"I
mi 'I
'1
146
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
We now trace the derivation of such parts as are bequeathed to
us : then compare the French, Latin substantive verbs,
Am, cognate with Gr. eifil = &ei fiotf life to me»
Is If ti flQ = ac/) <rot, life to thee.
n
iy
, (Lat. setas =x life.)
Are (Icelandic or Danish) er; were (Ger. war); cognate with
Gr. eap^ spring; (Lat. ver, vireo).
Was (Goth.) wuasgan, to grow.
Be "1
jj f cognate with Gr. /3/oc, life.
Webt, said to be a remnant of A.-S. weorthan or wyrthan,
to he, to become.
French.
!^RE
Etant
Etais ,
Fus, (Lat. fui) ; (Gr. 0ww), to grow,
8ebai, (Span, ser, tu be) ; hence serai=j'ai ser, / have to be, or 1
shall be.
Latin.
Sum, similar to eifil = i^uiii not, life to me.
Fui, fuo, to spring, to grow. (Gr. ^ww.)
EsTO, (from e- stare), to stand out.
Hence we find the notions involved in the substantiye verb to be,
life, growth, standing, springing, existence, flourishing.
9. Anziliary Verbs.
Shall, (A.-S.) scealan, to owe.
Will, (A.-S.) wyllan, to will or wish.
May, (A.-S.) magan, to be able.
Can, (A.-S.) cunnan, to know.
Would, as if wol-did, wolde, would.
Should, „ shol-did, schold, should.
Gould, properly couth e, couth, coud. i^^ I insert^^d by
^Use analogy.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
147
Owe, (A.-8.) <igan, to have, or hold.
Wist, (A.-S.) witun, to know.
Worth, (A.-S.) weorthan, to be or beco7ne\ (Ger. werden).
Quoth, (quothe, quoth, quod), whrnce quote and bequeath.
Methinks, (A.-S.) thincan, to seem; thencan means to think.
MeLists, (A.-S.) lystan, to please, whence lust.
Do (act.), (A.-S.) don, to make (face re).
Do (intr.), (A.-S.) dugan, to thrive, to avail (valere).
YcLAD, Yclept. The A.- S. participial prefix was ge, corrupted into
y; so, geclad, geclept (clepan, to call, A.-S.), became
yclad, yclept.
Did, "1 These verbs are said to be the only verbs we possess
Hight, j which show traces of reduplication.
Fronnnoiation of Saxon.
1. The Btadent may find it difficult to trace the connection between the
Saxon word and its English doriyative, on acconnt of a difference in their
forms. Thia difficulty will disappear if the Saxon ^onunciaiion be rightly
understood.
2. To assist him the following rules and explanation are sul^oined.
Vowels.
Each vowel in the Saxon has a double sound, viz. the ordinary soimd and a
long or broader one. The latter is distinguished by the marks ' or " super-
scribed.
A has the sound of a in ah, as in father.
i. or A pronoimced longer and broader, something like o ; as, 14r = lore,
^T=8ore, kdsaoak.
M pronounced like a in glad.
jEf „ a in dare.
B „ e in send.
E (before a consonant followed by a vowel) pronounced like ea in bear.
B (before a or o) pronounced like y ; as, eorl, yeorl.
B at the end of a syllable is lightly sounded, like the French unac-
cented ' e.'
E pronounced like se'.
I Y pronounced like i in dim.
I (before another vowel) pronounced like y.
f f pronounced like e e in deem, some say like i in wine.
o pronounced like c in not.
12
148
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
6 pronounced like o in note. '
Ml ft o in now.
9 M nin/ull.
tl „ 00 in boot,
f^ I before e and u has the sound of y ; as, ludeas, Jews ; iugo^, youth.
10 seems to have hud a sound of u, as sweord = awurd.
)H-
m
'Ml'
i : M
M«
OomoirAim.
The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions :
c was pronouncer! like k until a comparatively late period, when it ap-
pears to have degenerated into ch, as in church ; ceorl, churl ; cild,
child.
V had probably a sound approaching to v between two vowels, or at the
end of a syllable, as appears from its being sometimes represented
by u ; as, heauod for heqfod, head, Sec.
o is never soft : when placod between two of the vowels ee, e, i, or y, or
at the beginning of a syllable before e or i, followed by another
vowel, it has the sound of y as lufigo, li^it/e ; gear, year; fsegen,
fayne; t«%eT, fayre, fair.
o before e or i, and (like h) at the end of a syllable, was probably
guttural, as often in German, and almost silent ; as, bys-ig, busy.
H was a hard aspirate, and is used at the beginning of syllables before
1, n, r, w ; as, hlaf, loaf', hnutu, r^ut ; bring, ring. Before w it has
become our wh ; as, hwettan, to whet ; hwsal, whale.
At the end of a word, either by itself, or followed by a hard
consonant, it has the sound of Gr. Xi or Ger. ch guttural, and is
represented in modern .English by gh ; as, purh, through ; leoht,
light.
^ • CO is usually written for gg ; as, secgan, for seggan, to st^.
p (tha) is oxir hard th, as in thing.
^ (eth) is our soft tb, as in other.
p usually begins, 'S ends a syllable. A corrupted form of p, written in
later MSS. not unlike y, has given rise to the use of ye in old books
for ' the,' i.e. pe. TL" use of this letter was continued as late as
the 16th century.
f^ If the student will attend to these simple rules, he will be able to re-
concile many apparent incongruities in etymology ; for he will perceive that
many words have been written after the pronunciation rather than the form of
their originals. Thus ' own ' from ^en ; here, if a be pronounced as o, and g
like y (as is often the case in German), we have oyen, which is not far from
BTYMOLOOIOAL DBBIVATIOira.
149
CHAPTER II.
OONJUNOTIONS.
An, (A.-S.) annan, uanan, to grant.
And, Irom an-ad. An, / grant, from (A.-S.) annan: 6d means
pile or heap.—' Home Tooke.
As, (Ger.) es, it.
Because = hy cause, by reason of.
Both, (A.-S.) butu, hy twos.
But, (A.-S.) botan, to hoot. — Home Tooke\ possibly b6t, a correction.
Except, (Lat.) excipere.
Even, (A.-S.) aefen ; (Dan.) evenen, to smooth, to level.
Either, (A.-S.) segther.
For, (Goth.) fairina, a cause ; (A.-S.) for, oh account of.
Eke, (A.-S.) eacan, to add.
Else, (A.-S.) alysan, to dismiss, or alias (Lat.) otherwise.
If, (A.-S.) gifan, to give. This derivation of Tooke's is questioned.
Lest, (A.-S.) leosan, to dismiss.
Neither =: not either', vide supra, not one of two.
Nor, vide or, not other.
Or, (A.-S.) o8er, oder, other.
Since = seeing that, (A.-S.) seon, to see.
So, (A.-S.) sw a, from stegan, to say. — Tooke.
Still, (A.-S.) stellan, to put. — Tooke. Stillan, to quiet.
Though, Although, (A.-S.) thafigan, to allow.
That, (A.-S.) thicgan, to take. — Tooke.
Unless, (A.-S.) onlys an, to dismiss.
Whether, (A.-S.) hwaether, which of two.
Yet, (A.-S.) getan, <o get.
T Home Tooke's theory is that conjunctions, prepositions, and adverbs
are originally parts of verbs, chiefly imperative moods : e.g. if means
give.
■ <9
M*}';>'(«)&i^ .
150
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
; I
CHAPTER III.
PEEFOSITIONS.
Above, a=on. (A.-S.) bufan=be-ufan; from ufa, lofty.
About, (A.-S.) abutan=on boda=circum; 'boda= extremity.
After, (A.-S.) sefter, comparative of aeft; (Dan.) efter, behind.
Against, 'A.-S.) ongean, to meet.
Among, (A.-S.) a = on, mcengan, or mengian, to mingle.
Athwart, (A.-S.) thweorian (according to Home Tooke), to twisty
to oppose-
At, (A.-S.) 8Bt, at.
BEKseiD, (A.-S.) bin dan.
Bflow, (A.-S.) licjan, to lay or lie.
Beneath, (A.-S.) neothan, beneath.
Between, (A.-S.) be-twegsn, by twos.
Beyond, (A.-S.) hi^^ond=^be passed] geondfromgangen, togo\
whence, yond^ yonder.
BuT=&e outy (A.-S.) biitan, to bi out.
Down, (A.-S.) dufan, to sink.
Ere, Erst, (A.-S.) oer, er, before.
For, (Goth.) fairina, cause. (A.-S.) for, on account of.
Fore, (A.-S.) foran, before.
From, (A.-S.) frum, the beginning.
In, (A.-S.) in. Tooke says from inna=viscei*a?
Midst, (A.-S.) mid. In composition = with (Lat.) medius.
Or', (A.-S.) of; (Goth.) af-ara, posterity.
Off, probably thfe same word as of with a different application.
On, (Goth, ana ; A.-S. on), is of unsettl<^d etymology.
Out, (A.-S.) ut, utan. Tooke derives it from a word outa=s^m ?
Round, (A.-S.) rond= ftordcr; also (Lat.) rotundus.
Over, (A.-S.) 6fer; Gr. vicip. Tooke supposes ufa means top or
head.
Through, (Goth.) dauro, a door or passage. (A.-S.) thurh.
tremity.
behind.
IfffilrOLOmCAL DERIVATIONS.
151
To, (Germ, than), meas^ to do \ hence Tooke considers to equiva-
lent to the end.
Towards, (A.-S.) wardian. to look at ; as if, to looh to the end.
Till, Until. While=a time. Till is a corruption of to-while=fo
a time. Until means on till.
Under. Tooke, resolves this into on ri^^\ nedeissinferior.
, ' >(A.-S.) abufan. See above, upon.
Upon, J
Without, (A.-S.) withutan, to be out of.
With, (A.-S.) withan, to bind.
), to twisty
ren, to go:
us.
cation.
ta=sA:m ?
ans top or
urh.
CHAPTER rV.
ADVEBBS, &o.
1. The four adverbial prefixes are a, al, be, to. The signification
of these is a=on, al^s^all, be=^hy., to = the or this. The four ad-
verbial suffixes are ly, wise, ways, wards. These mean respectively,
ly = like, wise = manner, ways =^ direction, wards from ward=^
looking at.
2. Aboard, on board.
Adrift, (A.-S.) drifan, to drive; on the drive.
Aghast, (A.-S.) gast, geist; whence ghost, on the gaze.
aloft, (A.-S.) luft=mr, on the air.
Askew, (Dan.) skiaever, to twist.
Askant, (Dutch), schuins, wry, oblique.
Astound, (Fr.) e tenner, astonish.
Asunder, (A.-S.) sundrian, to separate, whence * sand.'
Away, (A.-S.) on-wseg, on the way.
Awhile, (A.-S.), on a time.
Awry, (A.-S.) writhan, to writhe.
Atwist, (A.-S.) twisan, from twa two, to twist.
Athwart, (A.-S.) thweorian, to twist.
Already = all-ready, (A.-S.) radian, to prepare.
Alone =a/^-o/i^^
3 I
* ■'■•,
i
i
11
M
: Mli
» i |i
f i ' M I
I
^'' i
11 ii
1<
1^
''*')«l#%***wi,Mki«^''
152
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Anon=iw one, (instant^.
But, as an adverb, means only.
Enough, (A.-S.)genogan, to satisfy.
Ever, (A.-S.) sdfTe=alwat/s.
¥Am=gladly, (A.-S.) fasgnian, to rejoice.
Forthwith, forth. + with.=.without delay, foris=:ow< of.
Instantly, (Lat.) in stare, urgently.
Immediately, (Lat.) in=not, mediua=:middle, no middle thing
intervening.
YoviSOOTYL— utterly, sooth; i.e. true. Truth, what a man troweth ;
sooth, what a man sayeth.
Lief, (A.-S.) lufian, to love.
Lo, (A.-S.) 14, whence vulgarly law and lawk.
Merely, (Dutch) maar, but, only, no more than.
Nay, (A.-S.) na, formerly answered affirmative questions; ab.
Will he come ? — Ans. Yea or Nay.
Never, (A.-S.) nsefre, na=wo^, gstre=ever.
No, (A.-S.) no; (Sw.) nodig=ai;erse, answered negative ques-
tions ; as. Will he not come ? — ^Ans. Yes or No.
Now, (Goth., A.-S., Dan.), nu ; Lat. nunc; Gr. vvv^ written
formerly nouthe.
NowADAYs=woi« of days, or now on, i.e. in these days.
Oft, (A.-S., Ger.) oft, possibly from ofeatan, to hasten.
Often, „ „ „ „
Once, an old genitive form for on-es ; so twi-es, thri-es, &c.
Only = one like.
Perhaps, •per=thro2igh] haps=r c/mnces, from (A.-S.) habban.
Q,ijiCKLY=:quick-like, (A.-S.) cwician, to make alive.
Quite, from verb to quit, i.e. to leave quietly; Lat. quietus.
Rather, comparative of (A.-S.) rathe, swift, early.
Scarcely, (Dutch) skears, unfrequent.
Soon, properly means ad priniam vesperam (A.-S.) sona.
Stark, (Germ.), really means strong.
Thus, possibly from (A.-S.) thses, gen. of thset.
Too, strengthened form of to, q.v.
To-MORROW, To-day =f//e morrow, this day ; morrow from(A.-S.)
myrran, to dissipate {night).
Mil
I :\ I!
■ilil
ii
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
153
liddle thing
an troweth ;
lestions; ab,
3gative ques-
vvvy written
isten.
Ihri-es, &c.
.) habban.
[uietus.
ona.
Vert, (Fr.) vrai; (Lat.) verus, true.
Yes, (A.-S.) geae, visibly. (Fr.) ayez.
Yea. See above, Nay^ No.
Yesterday, (A.-S.) gestrinan, to acquire^ and dseg, a day.
.»^r
from (A.-S.)
CHAPTER V.
ABSTBAGT DERIVED NOUNS.
1. The first class of these nouns ends in d or n. These, Home
Tooke supposes to be really participles or adjectives.
BRAND=brenn'd, i.e. burnt, from (A.-S.) byrnan, to hum.
Blind =blinr»'d, from (A.-S.) blinnan, to stop, to cease.
BREAD=brod, from (A.-S.) breowan, to brew.
*CjWARD=cower'd, from to cower down.
CuD=chew'd, from (A.-S.) ceo wan, to chew; hence cow and law.
Dastard =dastr'd, from (A.-S.) dastrigan(?), to terrify.
FiELD=felled, i.e. trees ; to fell, i.e. make to fall.
Flood, LouD=flow'd and low'd ; ex. the ' lowing ' herd,
Head=(A.-S.) heafod, hebban, to heave, or lift up.
ODD=owedj i.e. one due, to make even.
Shred, Sherd, i.e. (A.-S.) wcyrian, to sheer or cut.
'WiU)=iwilled, i.e. self-willed.
Fiend =fiand, (A.-S.) fian, to hate.
FRiEND=freond, (A.-S.) freon, to love.
'REi^'T=bended.
Draught, (A.-S.) dragan, to draw.
Gaunt, (A.-S.) gewanian, to wane.
HAFT=haved=hav'd, from tc have or hold.
Hilt, by which the sword is held.
Malt, Mould, (Fr.) mouille, from mouiller, to moisten-, or
(0. N.) maltr=ro«e/t.
HmET^tied.
* Wedgewood gives (Lat.) cauda, (Wallon) cow, the tail, possibly referring
to the picture of a terrified animal crouching with his tail between his loga.
■>'^^Mflll>:,,
«i|
154
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
T/LT, (A.-S.) tilian, to raise.
Twist, (A.-S.) twynan, to twist.
Want, Wane. See gaunt, «upra.
Bacon, (A.-S.) bacan, to bake; possibly from buchen, or
beechen, belonging to the beech tree.
Barren.— ftarrefZ, or stopped up.
BEARN=6orrt into life.
Churn, (A.-S.) cj^ran, to turn ; whence also, according to Tooke,
chair, car, chariot, &c.
Craven =5we who has craved his life.
Dawn, (A.-S.) dagian, to grow light.
Heaven, (A.-S.) hebban, to lift up.
Leaven, (Fr.) lever, to raise.
S)TEH}^=:stirred part ; (A.-S.) styrian, to more. (A.-S.) stj^ran,
to steer.
Yarn, (A.-S.) gearwan, to prepare by spinning.
BRAWN=boaren=macZe of pig. Taylor, in his Words and Places,
derives the word from Braun, a German who lived but recently !
Tills derivation is disposed of by Ps. cxix. 70 : * Their heart
is as fat as brawn.'
2. The second class of these abstract derived nouns consists of
those which end in th. According to Tooke these are really third
persons singular, present tense, of verbs. It should be observed,
however, whether this be true or not, that such words as smith,
youth, ^c. end in * th ' in A.-S. and are nouns in A.-S.
ALE=aloth, it infiameih, (A.-S.) aelan, to inflame.
Birth =beareth, (A.-S.) beran, to bear,
BROTH=breweth, (A.-S.) breowan, to brew.
Length =lengeth, (A.-S.) lengian, to prolong.
Breadth =br8edeth, (A.-S) brsedan, to widen.
Depth =dippeth, (A.-S.) dippan, to plunge.
Height =heafeth, (A.-S.) hebban, to raise.
Dearth =deareth, (A.-S.) derian, to hurt.
Drought =drugoth, (A.-S.) dr^gan, toeojjpeZ, to dr^, whence drcme,
drain.
li]Aina=eareth, (A.-S.) erian, to plough.
im
EryMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
155
Faith =fflBgeth, (A.-S.) fsegan, to fix.
Filth =defileth, (A.-S.) fylan, to pollute.
Girth =girdeth, (A.-S.) gyrdaii, to surround.
Growth =groweth, (A.-S.) g rowan, to grow.
HARM=harmeth, (A.-S.) ha^rman, to injure.
HEALTH=heaIeth, (A.-S.) helan, to cover up.
Knave =nafath, (A.-S.) nab ban, to have not.
LiGHT=5lighteth, (A.-S.) leohtan, to lighten.
MATH=inayeth, (A.-S.) magan, to he able.
MiRTH=myrreth, (A.-S.) myrran, to dissipate.
MuRTHEB ; from the same verb, also morning and morrow.
MoNTH=mooneth.
Mouth, Moth, (A.-S.) metian, to feed; whence also meat.
RuTH=rueth, (A.-S.) hreowan, to bewail.
SEEA.'TR^slieadeth= shadeth, (A.-S.) sceadan, to shade.
SiGHT=seeth, (A.S.) aeon, <o se«.
Sloth =sloweth, (A.-S.) slawian, to become slow.
SMiTH=8miteth, (A.-S.) smitan, to smite.
Stealth =stealeth, (A.-S.) stelan, to steal.
STRENGTH=8trengeth, (A.-S.) strangian, to be powerful.
TiLTH=tilleth, (A.-S.) tilian, to lift up.
Tooth Mtuggeth, (A.-S.) teogan, to tug.
Truth =troweth; / trow not (A.-S.) truwian, to believe Jirmltf
WARMTH=warmeth, (A.-S.) wearman, to warm.
WEALTH=wealeth, (A.-S.) welegian, to enrich.
U\
.f
^"^'.r
-«». t«afflK;»j_-,
111 I
156
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
I i
n
CHAPTER VI.
SAXON
BOOTS
Saxon
Bngllah Derivaiivea
Saxon
English DarivatlTes
Ao
Oak
Acorn, i.e. oak-corn
Berth
Bier
JEo
^
Burden
Eyry, i.e. eggery
Betan,
Better
MassL,
Acre
to improve
Best
afield
Aoet
JEb.
Ere
Beobgan,
Burgh
Erst
to protect
Bui^ess
Early
Borough
Burrow
AlDLIAN
Ail
Idle
Dl
Burglar
Bury
Baron
Bacan,
Bakster (Bagster)
Bark
to bake
Batch
BlDDAN,
Bid
Eana,
Bane
to ask, to
Bead
a deathblow
Henbane
fray
Bode
Banc
Bank
Forbid
Bench
BiaAN, or
Bow
BeItan,
to beat
Beat
Bat, combat, debate
Bygan,
to bend
Bower (anchor)
Bight
Bow(sprit)
Bough
Battery
Battle
Beetle
Buxom, i.e. bough-
Boat
some
Elbow
Bbllak,
to roar
Bell
Bull
Bellow
BiDAN
to wait, to
remain
Abide
Body
Abode
Bbkdan
Bend
Bandy
BiNDAK,
to bind
Bine
Bond
Bebak,
Bear
Band
to bear
Bairn
Barrow
Berry
Birth
Bound*
Bundle
Husband
Bunch
* Bound (bown, bone) from the Scandinavian boa to ure'oare to make ready; ^
»i, bound for New York.
( ,'ii
i;
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
157
ariTfttlfB*
1 (anchor)
trit)
i.e. bough-
id
to make ready;
Saxon
English Derivatives
SaxoQ
English Derivatives
BlTAN,
Bit
Ckarcian
Creak
to bite
Embitter
Cark
Bait
Chatter
Blac
Bleak, black
Chirp
Bleach
Cennan
Kindred
Blawan,
Blow
Cyn,
Kin, kind, akin
to blow
Blast
to proditce
Mankind: kind==
Bluster
kinned
Blowtaw,
BloOLl
Ceorl,
Churl, churlish
to blossom
Blossom
Blade
a peasant
Girl
Blaze
Clam,
Clammy
Blush
clasp
B6t,
To Boot
Clifian,
Cleave, cleft, clove
satisfaction
Bootless
to separate
Cliff
01 ft VAT
BB^Tt
Broad
V/Af T WX
Clifian,
Cleave to
Bbedan,
Breadth
to adhere
Clay
to widen
Bird
Clog
Brecan,
Break
Crvc, or
Crook
to break
Breakers
Cric,
Crutch
Breach
a crook
Creek
Breaches
Cricket
BaBOWAN
Brew
CWBLLAN,
Quell
Brewer
to slay
Kill
Broth
BrnnA
CtTNNAlT,
Can
Bruy=malt
to know
Con
Cunning
B6an,
Boor
King i
to dwell or
Neighbour
Canny
tiU
Bower
D^LAN,
Deal
Brbnnan,
Burn, burnish
to divide
Dole
to bum
Brown
Middle = mid-dsel =>
Brunt, i.e. burnt
mid-part
Bronze
Brand
Auburn
Brandy
Daoian,
to dawn
Bay
Daisys day's eye
Dawn
CeJLpian,
to exchange,
Cheap
Chapman
Deor,
an animal
De«T
Durham
Derby
barter, or
Chipping
seU
Chepstow
DSAOAN,
Draw
Cheapside
to drew
Drag, dnggle
Eastdieap |
Dray
0]
ft l
:i
158
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Saxon
English Derivatl-ves
Saxon
English Derivativea
Dredge
Fetter
Drain
Fetlock
Draught
Fik,
Foul
Dkawian,
Dew
Fulsome
to moisten
Dough
Filthy
Drincan,
Drink
FUOEX,
Fowl
to drink
Drench
a bird
Fowler
Drown
Fowling
Drunkard
Gast,
Ghost, ghostly
Dryoan
Pry
a spirit
Ghastly
Drought
Aghast
Drug
\
Gas
Drypan
Drip
Gykdan
Yard
Drop i
Garden
Dribble '
Girdle
Droop
Gird, girth
Driblet
God
Good
Drivel
Gospel
Dbman,
Deem
Gossip = god-sib =
to Judge
Doom
akin to God
Doomsday
GOEST,
Gorse
Faran,
Fare
furze
Gooaeberry = gorse-
to go
Farewell
berry
Ferry
Graf AN,
Grave
Fed AN,
to feed
Food
Feed
to dig
Groove
Grove
Graft
Fodder
Foster =foodster
Grub
FlAN,
Fiend
Grapian
Grapple
to hate
Geipan
Gripe
Fenqan, or
Fangs
Geopian
Grope
FoN,
to catch
Finger
Group
Grapnel
Grape
Fboh,
Fee
Grovel
cattle, money
Feudal
Habban
Have
Fle6gan,
Flee, fly, flighty
Haft
to fly
Fledge
Hap
Fleet
Happy
Flit, Flutter
Behave
Fluster
Perhaps
Flurry
1
Helan,
Heal
i£6f
Foot !
to cove':' up
Hale 1
p' "?
ftTYMOT-OnirAT, DRRTVATI0N8.
isO
ti«t.xon
l.iijjlu'i . crlviu i\i
Hoalth
Hail
Holy
Hallow
Hall
Hold
Hole
Hell
Hull
Whole
Hi.M,
Home
a dwelling
Hamlet
Westerham, &c.
Hangian
Hang, hinge
Hbaldan
Hold
Behold
Halt
Halter
Hilt
TTkfan,
Heave
to lift wp
Heaven
Heavy
Head
Hat
Hut
Haven
Hlidan,
Lit
to cover up
Lot
Blot=be-hlot
Cloud =ge-hlot
HSABHIAK,
Eeady
to hasten
Eathe, rather
lt^S)LA
Lead
Leader
Lad
Lass=ladd6S8
Ladder
Loadstone
LSTIN,
Let
to hinder
Latun,
Late
to delay
Lattei
1
Last
Siixon
English Derivatives
LlCUAN
Lie
Lay
Lair
Law
Lea
Ledge
Lodger
Low
Lower
Maoan,
May
to be able
Might
Dismay
.
Man?
Main
Ter-magant
MiENGAN,
Among
to mix
Mongrel
P^DH
Path
Paddle
Footpad
PiCAN,
Pick
Pic,
Peak
a point
Beak
Pike
Pitch
Pyndan,
Pen
to enclose
Penfold
Pound
Reafian
Rob
Bereave
Rover
,
Robber
Raveu
Recan,
Reck, reckless
to heed
Reckon
SCAPAN,
Shape
to shape
Friendship
Landscape
SCEADAN,
Shade, shadow
to cover
Shed
Sheathe
Scatter
I I
*
i
01
II
I
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I
il
1*1
i
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if
160
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAGB.
Saxon
English DenrativeB
Saxon
EnglJflh DerivatiT«
SCEOTAN,
Shoot, shot
St^pan,
Step
to shoot
Shout
to raise
Steep
Shuttle
Steeple
Shutter
Sheet
STiaAN,
Stick
to stick
Stitch
SCEEAN, OP
Scar
Stake
SCYBAN,
Scarf
Stock
to divide
Score
Stockade
Share
Steak
Sharp
Stocks
Shroud
Shears
Stioan,
Stage
Sheer
to mount
Stair
Shire, sheriff
Stye
Shore
Storey
Short, i.e. shor'd
Stirrup =6tig-rap.
Shred
mounting rope
Stoc, >
Stow, \
Stow
SCUFAN,
Shove, shovel
Bestow
to shove
Shuffle
a place
Steward, i.e. stow-
Scuffle
JT
ward
Scoop
Stykan,
Stem
SCYiAN,
Scale
to move, or
Starboard
to divide
SheU
govern
Stores
Scalp
Stir
Scallop
Shale
TiLlAN,
Till
Skill
to raise or
Toll
Skull
lift up
Toil
„, .„. 1 according
Tynak,
Tiller
Ten
J Tooke
to enclose
Town
Slawian,
Slow
Tunnel
to be slow
Sloth
Wanian,
Wane
• Slug
to lessen
Wan
Sluggard
Want
Slack
, Gaunt
Snican,
Sneak
Wauian,
Aware
to creep
Snake
to beware
Beware
JL
Snail = snae-gel, dim.
Wary
Wardian
SOTH,
Sooth
Guardian
true
Soothsayer
Warden
Spinnan
Spin
Warder
Spindle
Wardrobe
Spider
Wax, sword
ETTMOLOOICAL DERIVATIONS.
161
Saxon
English DerlTatives
Saxon
Engllah DeriratlTM
Warrant
WiTAN,
Wizard
Warn
to know
Witnesi
Wit
Wbfaw
Weave
Wistful
Woof
Wife
Woman = woof-man,
Wbecan,
Wreak
to punish
Wreck
Wrack
weaving-man
Wretched, wretch
Wbo,
Way
WuiNOAN,
Wring, wrong
a way
Waggle
to ivring,
Wrench
strain, press
Wrangle
Wegan,
to hear,
to weigh
Waggon
Wain
Weigh (anchor)
Wtlbn,
a slave
Villain
Wave
Wbithan,
Wreathe
Awkward = away-
to twist
Writhe
ward
Wroth
Wrath
WiSSIAN
Wise, wisdom
Wry
CHAPTER VII.
SOVBGES OF WOBDS.
1. The iio.ds of our language may be conveniently divided into
three classes : (i) primary ; (ii) secondary ; (iii) tertiary.
2. .Primary words are mostly Anglo-Saxon. They express the
most simple ideas, the most common natural objects, all ordinary
actions, the fundamental necessities of a people, the designations of
kindred, the ordinary terms of traffic, the strongest natural feelings
and emotions. From this source are derived the names of the winds,
the seasons, and divisions of time ; the pronouns, numerals, preposi-
tions, conjunctions, adverbs, auxiliary verbs, and almost all words
in our national proverbs.
3. The secondary words are mostly of N. -French origin. To this
class belong those words that express not things necessary^ but those
that are ben^cial ; that appertain to dignity and minister to luoaury;
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AKALTBIS 09 tHE ENOLISH LAKOVAOB.
w
.
abstreict and general tetTns; those especially which belong tt; i&u
classes — laiOj warj chivalry^ and the chase.
4. To the tertiary division belong words pertaining to art, science,
philosophy, and theology ; all scientific and technical terms. These
are directly classical, and mainly of Latin origin.
5. Of words in Modern English about five-eighths are Anglo-
Saxonj and two-eighths Latin^ direct or indirect^ through Norman-
French.
6. The occupation of Britain by various races will be shown he re-
ader by the prefixes and afiixes, &c. of the geographical terms we
employ. In addition, we have a few words bequeathed to us by the
first Roman occupation^ a.d. 43 to a.d. 418 ; a group of Latin eccle-
siastical terms, introduced by Roman worship subsequent to the
mission of Augustine ; a small Celtic element ; and, finally, words
imported from the languages of every nation with which we have
been brought into connection by war, commerce, or any historical
circumstances.
7. Celtic Words.
The following words^ as being most familiar to us, are taken
firom a longer list given by Mr. Gamett, in vol. {.'Proceedings
of the Phil. Society : —
EngUih
Wdah
TtngHah
Wdah
TfnglUli
Wetah
Basket
basgawd
MXIOOT
mwygl
Bachkb
rhasg
BCTTOK
botwn
Fbibzb
firis
Rde
rhim
Balokb-I
DASH J
baldorddus
Fumnu.
Griddlb
fi^el
greidell
Bug
Knock
rhnwch
cnocs rap
Bran
bran
Obubi.
grual
FUSOB <
ixi%—decep-
BUOBBAB
bwg
FUUTNEL
gwlanen
Hon
Cabin
caban
Goww
gwn
Whd
gweddu
Cu>UT
olwt
Housing
hws
Wain
gwain
Cbookkbt
Cockboat
rcrochan, a
cwcLfttboat
Kn.N
Lath
Mattock
cylyn
liath
matog
Waxx
WlCKBT
gwall=
rampart
gwioea = a
f
daataeth=>
Mop
mop
iUOedoor
Daimtt <
ehoiee
Task
tasg
Tbtjdob
tioddi
I
morul
Pan
pan
1 Dabm
dam
Pkk
peg
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
16b
8. The few words bequeathed to us from the Roman occupatioii,
AJ> 43 to A.D 418, are chiefly geographical names : —
Lancaster, Chester, Exeter, &c., castra, a camp.
Street, Stratton, Btr&t&j a paved way,
Pontefract, pons, a bridge,
Lincoln, colonia, a colony,
Portsmouth, portus, a harbour,
FossBURT, fossa, a ditch,
Bailet, Bailiff, vallum, a rampart.
9. Words derived from Latin, relating to church ritesj ceremo-
nies, offices, &c. were introduced during the four centuries subse-
quent to the mission of Augustine. — Vide Ecclesiastical TermSf
chap. XVIL
10. Nautical terms are chiejly Danish and Dutch ; such as,
Block Bowsprit Skates Spoor Veer
Boom Reef (verb) Sloop Shiver Wear (ship)
Boor Schooner Smuggle Taffirail Yacht (Dan.)
11. Italian words chiefly relate to banking and the fine arts : —
Balustrade
Banditti
Bravado
Bravo
Bust
Canto
Caricature
Carnival
Charlatan
Cupola
Ditto
Dilettante
Farrago
Folio
Gazette
Gondola
Grotto
Harlequin
Improvisatore Regatta
Influenza Scaramouch
Lava
Manifesto
Motto
Opera
Pantaloon
Piazza
Portico
Sketch
Soprano
Stanza
Stiletto
Stucco
Studio
Tenor
Terracotta
Torso
Umbrella
Virtuoso
Vista
Volcano
Zany
12. Frenoh words chiefly refer to military matters ; besides which
we have such as
Beau Billet-doux
Belle Bon-mot
Belles-lettres Bouquet
13. Spanish:—
Alligator
Armada
Armadillo
Barricade
Cambist
Carbonade
Owbine
Cargo
Chocolate
Cigar
Creole
Desperado
Don
Duenna
D^enner
Depot
Eclat
Embargo
Flotilla
Gala
Grandee
Grenade
Jennet
Ennui
Envelope
Environs
Musquito
Mulatto
Negro
OUo
Paroquet
Platina
ii2
Penchant
Soiree
Trousseau
Poncho
Punctilio
Savannah
Sherry
Tornado
Verandah
164
ANALYSIS Of THE ENGLISH LANGFAGE.
14. Portognese: —
Ayah
Caste
Commodore
Fetish
Port wine
Cash
Cocoa
Compound
Mandarin
Palaver
15. Arabic: —
Admiral
Camphor
Fakir
Mohair
Scullion
Alchemy
Carat
Firman
Monsoon
Shrub
Alcohol
Caravan
Gazelle
Moslem
Sirocco
Alcove
Caravanserai
Giraffe
Mosque
Sofa
Alembic
Cipher
Harem
Mufti
Sultan
Algebra
Civet
Hazard
Mummy
Slyrup
Tabor
Alkali
Coffee
Jar
Nabob
Almanac
Cotton
Lake
Nadir
Talisman
Altar (?)
Crimson
Lemon
• Naphtha
Tamarind
Amber
Damask (?^
Damson (?)
Lime
Nard
Tambourine
Ambergris
Lute
Opium
Tariff
Arrack
Divan
Magazine
Ottoman
Vizir
Azimnth
Eli-nr
Mameluke
Saffron
Zenith
Cadi
Mattress
Salaam
Zero
Caliph
Emir
Minaret
16. TnrkiBh :—
Bey
Chouse
Kiosk
Tulip
Chibouk Janissary
Sash
Seraglio
17. Persian:—
Azure
Chess
Jackal
Pasha
Sherbet
Balcony
Dervise
Jasmin
Pawn (in chess) Simoon
Barbican
Emerald
Kaffir
Saraband
Taffeta
Bashaw
Hookah
Lilac
Scimitar
Tiffin
Bazaar
Howdah
Musk
Sepoy
Turban
Check(mate) Indigo
Orange (?)
Shawl
18. Hebrew:—
Abbey
Cabal
Halleltyah
Manna
Shibboleth
Abbot
Cherub
Hosanna
Sabbaoth
Talmud
Amen
Ephod
Jubilee
Sabbath
Babbi
Behemoth
Gehenna
Leviathan
Seraph
19. Hindustani:—
Banian
Calico
Lac
Palanquin
Bupee
Batta
Coolie
Loot
Pariah
Sandal (wood)
Betel
Cowrie
MuUagatawny Punch
Sugar
Buggy
Dimity
Muslin
Pundit
Suttee
Bungalow
Jungle
Pagoda
Bi^ah
Toddy
BTYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
20. Halay:—
165
A-muek
Bamboo
Bantam
Caddj
Caoutchouc Curry
Ciii^ta Gamboge
Cockatoo Godo^
Cre«Be Gtong
Gutto percha Orang-outang
Junk
Mango
21. Ghineie:—
Bohea
Congou
HjBon
Nankeen
22. American: —
Cadque
Calumet
Condor
Lama
Ifaice
Moccasin
Pampas
Pemmican
23. Peruvian:—
24. Polynesian:—
Tattoo
25. Caribbean:—
Pekoe
Satin
Potato
Squaw
Wigwam
Tobacco (W. I.)
Battan
Sago
Spj
Tea
Tomahawk
Tomata
Hurricane (West
Indian)
Charki -;«•*«? meat
26. Anoient Carian :—
Anoitot Hnbian :—
Ancient Egyptian :
Ancient Syrian :
Ancient Lydian :
Ancient Penian: —
Taboo
Hammock
Mausoleum
Bfjrbarous
Ammonia
Cyder
Mseauder
Kangaroo
Paradise
The abore are chiefly taken from Adams' English Lanyu^
i:
166
ANALTBIS OF THB BNGLIBH LAITGUAOB.
CHAPTER Vni.
aiOORAPHIOAL W0SO8.
§ 1. Roman.
The Roman occupation of Britain, from a.d. 43 to a.d. 418,
bequeathed to us five or six terms : —
Gastra, a camp
Strata, a paved road
CoLONiA, a colony
PoRTUs, a harbour
Pons, a bridge
Fossa, a ditch
Vallum, a rampart
These, in various forms, will
be found as below, in names
of places.
1. Gastra; as, caster: Ex. Dcmcaster^ Lancaster j Caaterton
t*
l>
It
n
»
})
Castor
Caistor
„ cester
Chester
»
))
»
cister
ETER
n
Castor
Caistor
Jilt;,
Oloucester
Chester, Winchester
Bedcister
Exeter y formerly Excestre, i.e. Camj
on the Exe.
2. Strata; as. Street: Ex. Watling Street^ Streetthorpe
Strat
it
ft
ii
Stret
Streat
„ Stratford
„ Stretford
„ Streatham
Stradbroke,
1*
n
n
n
„ • „ Strad
8. Colonia; as,C0LN: Ex. Lincoln.
4. PoRTus „ Portsmouth^ Porchester, Port$ea^
6. Pons „ Pontefract.
6. Fossa „ Fossway, Fossbridge,
7. Vallum „ Wallbury.
BTTMOLOaiCAL DBBIYATIONB.
167
{ 2. Saxon.
SUOB.
Ash
mwmng
aah
as, Ashford
Beck
block
„ Wansbeck
BOTL
dwelling
„ Harhottle
Bero
hill
„ Iceberg
Borough, Burt a fortified town
„ St. EdtnoruTa Bury
Croft
a email enclosed fielc
I
„ Woodcraft
Ea
a stream
„ Chelsea
Et
an island
„ Jersey— CcBBar' 8 laL
Feld
a field
Fen
a marsh
„ Fenchurch
Fleet
ariyer
„ Purfieet
Ford '
Forth
Firth
. sFiORD anarmof the sea
„ Carlingford
Frith ^
Ham
a dwelling
„ Nottingham
Hamoei
t a meadow
„ Westemhanger
Hlaws
a LAW a rising ground
„ Bermck-law
Holt
a wood
„ Neville-holt
Htrne
a comer (also Danish)
Hurst
a copse
„ Penshurst
r a low shore or land-
\ ing-place for ships
}
HiTHE
„ Hythey Rotherhithe
f a water-channel with
t raised banks
}
•
Lode
„ Evenlode
Lea, L]
ET a meadow
„ Madingley
Mere
a lake
„ Windermere
Mersh
a marsh
„ Mickelmersh
Mos
a swamp
„ Chatmoa
Mtln
a mill
„ Milnthorpe ^
Ness
a promontory
„ Dungeneas
Ofer
ashore
„ Wendover
Seta
r a settlement
„ Dorset
Shade
8 portion cut off
„ Whipsnade
i
I
'9
[■4
I
168
ANALYSIS OF THB ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Sazoii.
Stead
Stoo, Stoke
Stow
Ton
Weald, Wold
WiC, WiCJH
(Lat viouB)
Worth
Thorp
Den
Odtio.
AUGHIN
Ard, Aird
Bal
Ben or Pen
Blair
Bottom
Brae
Cairn
Caer
Comb
COMP
Craig
Carrick
Crick
CUL
Dun
Glen
Cl=
Kin
Kiir
Chin
}
Meaning.
a place
a place
a place
a town
a forest
a town
land, a close
a village
a valley, a receptacle
as, Hampstead
„ Basingstoke
„ Chepstow
„ Wigton
„ Weald of Kent
„ Oreenwioh
„ Tamworth
„ Milnthorpe
„ Marden.
as, Auchinleck
Ardnamuchan
»>
§ 8. Geltio.
Itaning.
afield
a hill, a promontory
a village
a head, a mountain
a field clear of wood
a valley or low ground „ Bottomley
J a rough hiUy piece of )
I ground \»Brmmr
a heap of stones „ Cairngorm
„ Balvwral
„ Ben Nevis, Penrith
„ Blair Athol
}
a fort or hill
))
Carlisle, Caerleon
the low partof the valley „ Compton
a craggy hill
the back or hind part
a hill or fort on a hill
a narrow valley
chapel
I- a cape
Craigmillar .
„. Carrickfergus
Crick Howell
„ Dumbarton^Huntingdon
„ Glen.Tilt
jClosebum s Chapel of
"I Osborne
a cape or comer
u
Kent
ETTMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
160
CMtfe.
Meuiliig.
1
1
Inch
Ennis
> an island
as, Inchcape Sock 1
TwVRR
a mouth of a river
), Inverness
Abkb
(North of Ghrampians, In-
var ; south of ditto, Aber)
„ Aberwickf i.e. Berwick
iLaunceston— Church oj
" t St. Stephen \
Llan a chtirch
Lm a deep pool
„ Linlithgow yKing'sLi/nn i
Tbi a town
(Oswestry = town of St. *
"t Oswald
Ro8 a promontory
„ Rostrevor •
Strath a broad valley
„ StrathjUldsaye. j
i
§ 4. Soft&dinavian. 1
fttandliiATiM. MeMilng.
1 1
1
Ark a temple or altar
as, Arkholm
Aroh „ „
„ Orimsargh \
Beck a brook
„ Caldbeck j
Brek a steep
„ Norhrek
Brik „
„ Killhricks
BoL a dwelling
„ Thorhol
Bt a town
„ Orimsby
Dal a valley
„ Dalby
Dale „
„ Scarsdale
Dan 1 ^
Dank) ^^^^
„ Danby
Et
an island
„ Orkney
At
»»
„ Calvay \
A
»)
„ Qrimsa
Fell a rocky hill
„ Scawfell I
FisKEH fish
,1 Fiskerton
Ford 1
\ ■ . / ;
Firth
Forth
an inlet (fiord)
„ Seaforth
Frith
Fob
CK
a waterfall
„ Micklejorce
170
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOS.
^M
Hn 1 HoMnHiuTian. Umaiag.
I
nn ' r^ > An enclosure as, Fishguard
Wtw Guard/
H
0|I| Gate a way m Sandgate
H
llHi Gill a valley „ Ormesgill
■
WaM Hag high pasture land „ Hag-gaU
H
Hi.. Haio „
H
||||i Hadoh „ „ Philip-haugh
H
ljl|l 4 Hoc a hill „ Langenhoc
H
P* Holm an island „ Langholm
H
1 Kell a spring „ Kellhy
H
1 * Kirk a church „ Ormakirk
H
1 Orme a demigod or hero „ Orme^a head
1
a river „ Thurso
■
\ A „ • „ Skeba
I
Scar a steep rock „ Scarborough
I
\ ScAW a wood „ Scawby
1
! ^^^^ \ a ship „ Skipwith.
; ; Ship J
1
llll Ster a place „ Ulster
1
IE ; SUTHER
.
j^^^B
||l Sutter
south „ Sutherland
^B
II Souther
H
II I SODOR
„ Sodor and Man
H
III 1 < Tarn a mountain lake „ Tamsyke
1
1 I'i ■ iE"'™ a place of meeting ) y^ „
I 1 1 Ting {meeting = mote-thmg) )
H
1 ', Ding „ » u Dingwall i
H
1 Thorpe)
„ Milnthorpe •
^H
il Throp
a village
'
H
\ Drop
„ Staindrop
H
1 11 Toft a small field „ Lowes-toft
H
; HI'i Vat a lake „ Tanvats
1
\ l|l:i Wig 1
11 ^j^i^ j a creek or bay „ Wigtoft ^
1
1 11;, With a wood „ Langwith.
1
1
- ■■i-f ■■
STTHOLOOICAL DSEIVATIONS.
Itl
§ 5. Namei of Plaoei ihowing Honnan Ooonpation.
ASHBT DE LA ZOUGH,
Leioestershire.
Braulieu,
Hampshire.
Beaumaris,
Anglesey.
Beaumont,
Oxford.
Grace Dieu,
Leicestershire.
HURSTOOURTRAY,
Sussex.
HURSTMONCEAUX,
Sussex.
HURSTPIERPOINT,
Sussex.
Malpas,
guards the valley of the Doe.
MoNTACUTE Hill,
Somerset.
MONTFORD,
Shropshire.
MONTGOMERT,
Welsh border.
MiNSHULL Vernon,
Cheshire.
Plesht,
Essex.
Richmond,
Yorkshire.
RiEVAUX, 1
JORYBAUX, J
Yorkshire.
Stoke Mandsville,
Bucks.
in
CHAPTER IX.
NAMES 07 COLONIES, FOBEION PLACES, fto.
§ 1.
Albemarle Sound, named after Monk, Duke of Albemarle, temp.
Charles II.
Albion, from either * Alp ' or * Alb ' (albus), * the snowy range.'
Aristotle was the first to write of Britain under this name.
Alleghany, derived from the name of an Indian tiibe rapidly be-
coming extinct.
America, from Amerigo Yespucd, a Florentine traveller, who is
said to have inserted the words ' Tierra de Amerigo ' in a map
published by him early in the 16th century.
Its
AITALTSIB OF THE ENGLISH LARObAOS.
U
AsanmoN Iolaiid, named after Aacension Day, the day of dJ§-
coTCjy.
AzoRis, 'the ialand of hawks;' acorshawk; e«=iBland (Porta-
guese).
Bab-el-makdeb, 'the gate of hell.'
Bermudas, discovered 1522, by a Spaniard, Juan Bermudez, who
happened to be wrecked on them.
Baltimore, named after Lord Baltimore, the patentee of the colony
of Maryland; founded 1745.
Bombay (Port). Jiona Bahiazst^ the good bay.'
Brisbane, founded 1828, named after a governor of this Australian
colony.
Britain, possibly from ' Bri-etan-ia ; ' ttan signifies country.— 71
Canada (Indian). Kanatass* a cluster of wigwams.'
Ganabt, from a peculiar race of large d&gs found there; cant«=dog,
and y= island.
Carolina, dates from the Restoration (Charles II.; .
Charleston, „ „
Columbia, named after Christopher Columbus, ceded to^ United
States Government by Maryland and Virginia, 1790.
Connecticut (1665), derived from Indian.
Dampier Archipelago ; from William Dampier, the navigator, who
discovered it August 31, 1699.
Davis Strait, discovered by Captain John Davis, August 11, 1585,
during his first voyage in quest of the North-west Passage.
Detroit, means * narrow passage ' between Lake St. Clair and Lake
Erie.
Dominica, Isle of, discovered on a Sunday (dies Dominica), Nov. 2,
1493, by Christopher Columbus.
Elizabeth Countt (America), so-called in honour of the mother
of Prince Rupert.
England, i.e. ' Angle-land :' land of the Angles.
Faroe Isles (Norse), /aar =sheep, oe=isIand.
Formosa (Port.)=' beautiful.'
Fort Orange, formerly Dutch, now called Albany, so named after
James £[., Duke of York and Albany, when the Dutch were
expelled.
Fukdsbicsburo, after Frederic, Prince of Wales, son of (it»cige 11.
RTTMOLOGICAL DERTVATI0N8.
178
Geneva =c«nn a/on (Celtic), ' tho head of the river.'
Gibraltar, yebel-al-Tarick=* the mountain of Tarik.'
Good Hope (Cape of), called, by Bartholomew Diaz, Capo Tormen-
toaa, the Cape of Storms, changed into itH present name by
King John of Portugal.
Hatti (Indian), ' a mountainous country.'
Heligolamds' holy island land.'
HiUALATA (Sans.), * perpetual abode of snow.'
Jersey, ' Cassar's island.'
JuAM Fernandez, so called from the Spanish navigator who dis-
covered it.
Lancaster Sound, from Sir John Lancaster, who heln^d to fit out
Baffin's expedition.
LiBERiAa' land of freedom.'
Louisiana, so called from Louis XIY. ^
Malaga (PhoBnician), fna/aca=' salt'
MALTA=3f«/i<aa=* a place of refuge.'
Man (Isle of). Jlfan (Celtic) =* district.'
Marsala (Arabic), * Port of God.'
Maryland, so called after Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I.
Massachusetts (Indian), ' the blue hills.'
Mississippi (Indian), ' the great river.'
Missouri (Indian), * the muddy river.'
New York, so-called after James II., Duke of York and Albany,
formerly called by the Dutch, New Amsterdam.
Niagara (Indian), ' thunder of waters.'
Pennsylvania, bo called from ' Pcnn ' the Quaker, who colonised it
Pernambuco=* the mouth of Hell.'
Rapidan, so called from Queen Anne. r •
St. Domingo (Spanish) ; Hayti (Indian).
St. Helier's, from ' St Helerius,' who mortified the flesh and ' kept
his body in subjection,' by standing on sharp stones with spikes
pointed against his shoulders and breast to prevent him falling
St. Malo, from St. Maclou, possibly St. M'Cleod| a wandering
evangelist of the 6th century.
Sandwich (Isles), discovered by Cook, 1769 ; so named after Lord
Sandwich, the first Lord of the Admiralty.
174
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGB.
'
Tarifa; Sept. 710, a.d. Tarif-Abn-Farah first landed here for the
conquest of Spain.
Valetta, from John Farisot de la Valette, the heroic Grand Master
of the Knights of St. John (1566).
Van Diemak's Land, so called by ' Tasman ' after Maria (daughter
of the Batavian governor, Van Dieman), to whom he was
attached.
Wight (Isle of ), Lat. /n^/a vec^ts.
^ For additional iaformation the reader is referred to Words and Places,
by the Rev. Isaac Taylor.
§ 2. Oeographical Equivalents.
Bat, or arm of the sea = Bahia, hai, loch, lough, bight.
Bend of a river = cambus, wic.
Bridge = bridge, biiucke, pont.
Cape = ard, cabo, kin, ness, ros.
City, Town, or Village = ciudad, bal, gar, gorod, medina, burg,
patam, polis, pore, vie, tre.
Eminence = auchter. berg, brae, cliff, col, cota, dun,
fort, hill, gherry, mont, ramah.
Encampment = caer (fort), caster, alcala.
Forest, Hill, Wood = hurst, kil, wald.
Fountain, Well = beer, biimn, en, font, well.
s hamn, hithe, pool, port.
= ben or pen, berg, brae, cairn, col, craig,
carrick, crick, djebel, feld, horn, kopf,
law, low, mont, sierra.
^ ea, diva, ennis, holm.
= lago, loch, lough, zee, mere, meer, tarn.
= cheap, forum, haut, klobing.
= acqua, bad.
= baal, church, eccles, kirk, kil, llan, min-
ster.
= aber, inver, monde, mouth, praag.
= ab, alt, bahar, bourn, brook, bee, ermat,
ganga, ho, rio,^ fleet.
Haven, &c.
Height, Mountain
Island
Lake
Market
Mineral Spring
Plage of Worship
Mouth of River
River, a stream
BTTMOLOOICAL DBRIVATI0N8.
175
BooET Height
Valley
=: cliff, craig, rock, stein.
= combe, dale, den, guad, glen, p;rund,
strath.
CHAPTER X.
WORDS BEBIVED FROM NAMES OF PLACES.
Agate, ' precioue stone,' from Achates, a river in Sicily.
Alabaster, Pliny tells us from Alabastrum, in Egypt.
Ammonia, * salt,' prepared by the priests of Jupiter Ammon,
Arras, * tapestry,' from Arras in France.
Artesian, well sunk through the chalk basin of the province of
Artois.
Babbler, from the Tower of ' Babel.'
Baudeein, gold, silver, silk tissue, from Baldacca, 7>r New Bagdad,
a suburb of Cairo.
Batonet, from Bayonne. ,
Bernouse, from Fr. * Berne,'' from Hi-bern-ia*
Bezant (coir.), from Byzantium.
Bilboes, from Bilboa.
Bonnet, from an Irish village of the same name.
Calibre, possibly from Calabria (Taylor's Words and Places). See
page 191.
Cambric, from Cambray.
Canter, * a Canterbury gallop ; ' the easy ambling pace of pilgrims
going to the shrine of Thomas a Becket, at Canterbury.
Carp, from Cyprus.
Carpet, fit)m Cairo, where made.
Carrawat, Pliny tells us from Caria.
Chaltbeate, from Chalubes, a tribe of Armenia.
Charlatan, derived the Italian forms ciarlatano^ cerretanoy from the
city of Cerreto.
Cherrt, from Cerasus in Pontus.
Chestnut, from Castaneea in The^saly.
Coffer, from Cyprus.
CORDWAIN, from Cordova.
Crayat. from Croatia.
!
>
178
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAGB.
GuRRAMTS, from Corinth.
Candt, from Candia.
Coach, from * Kottsee,' a town in Hungary.
Cooo.i, from the Mexican province of Choco.
Coffee, from the mountains of Caffa, south of Abyssinia.
5"^*^®^' I from Damascus.
Damson, J
Demijohn, a glass vessel from Damaghan, a town of Khoraasan.
Delft Ware, from Delfr.
Diaper, from d'Ypres, in Flanders.
DiMiTT, from Damietta.
DiTTANT, from Dicta, a mountain in Crete.
Druooet, from Drogheda.
Ermine, the skin of the Armenian rat.
Flash, from the gipsy squatters on the eommons around ' Flash, a
village between Macclesfield and Buxton.
Fustian, from Fostat, a suburb of Cairo.
Gallowat, horse, derived from horses wrecked there from Spanish
Armada.
Gamboge, from Cambodia.
Gauntlet, or Gantlope (lopesrace) ; from Ghent, where the punish-
ment originated.
Gauze, from Graza.
Ginger {%^. jengihre), possibly from Zanzibar.
Guinea, gold from the Guinea coast.
Harlequin (It. Arlecchino), possibly from Arlecamps, or Champ
d' Aries.
Humbug, a piece of ^ Hamburg ' news, i.e. * a canard,' or £ilse report.
Jalap, from Jalapa. ^
Jet (from gagate, jaet). Gagates, a river in Lycia. -
Jennet, probably from Jaen, capital of one of the Moorish kingdoms
in the peninsula.
Latakia, irom Laodicea.
Loadstone = X^e^ruA Zopzs, from Lydia (?).
Lumber, the Lombards were the first pawnbrokers ; hence a room frdl
of miscellaneous effects was named a Lombard (lumber) room«
MaomeTi from Magnesia.
STTHOLO0ICAL DEBITATIOIIB.
177
Majolica, from Majorca.
Malmset {wme\ from Malvaaia, a port of the Morea.
Matdukes, cherries from Medoc in the Gironde.
MiLLiNEB, from Milan.
MusLiN) from Moussul.
NiTBE, from Nitria, a province of Egypt.
Pad, Padding, from Padua.
Pabchment, Charta Pergamenay used for library of Pergamus.
Peach (persica)^ from Persia.
Pheasant, from the banks of the Phasis.
Pistol, from Pistoja, near Florence.
Quince, the apple of Cydon, a town in Crete.
BoAN {horse), Norman horse imported from Rouen.
Sable, frur, from Siberia.
Sabcenet, silken fabric, from the Saracens. . • ; '
Saioine {the fish), from Sardinia. /
Saki/iNE {the precious stone), from Sardes, in Asia Minor.
Sabdv, ic {smile), said to have been caused by eating the ' Herba
Sardonica,' a species of ranunculus growing in Sardinia.
Sedan, from the town of Sedan, in France.
Seneh, from the slopes of Sinai.
Shallot, from Ascalon.
Shillelah, from parish of Shellelah, county Wicklow,
Spaniel, from Spain.
Spinach (Ar. Hispanach), Spain.
Spbuce, means Prussian.
Squills, possibly from Squillace.
Tafett, Tabbt, silk fabrics woven in Atab, a street of Bagdad.
Tabiff. Moorish cruisers sallied forth from Tarifa to plunder
vessels passing through the Straits of Gibraltar. Afterwards
they levied their black mail on a fixed scale of payment.
Tobacco, from island of Tobago.
Topaz, from Topazos, an island in the Red Sea.
Tuc$, TucKEB, cloth worked at Toucques, in Normandy.
Umbeb, earth brought from Umbria, in Italy.
Vabnish, from the city of Berenice, on the Red Sea.
^qbst^d^ from ^he village of Worsted, neair Norwich.
\i '
178
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
I
Zouave, corrupted from * shawi,' an Arab desert tribe.
Vaudeville, from Vau-de-vire, in Normandy, where the enter-
tainment was introduced at the end of the 14th century.
CHAPTER XL r. ..
WOBDS DEBIVED FBOH THE NAXES OF FEBSOHS.
Algebra (At.), from Geber, an Eastern writer on Alchemy, &c.
Alexandrine (verse), invented by a French poet, Alexandre Pa,ris.
Blanket, first manufactured by Thomas Blacket, a citizen of Bristol.
Brawn, said to be from a German cook named Braim 1 ! * In the
Psalms we have, 'Their heart is as fat as brawn.' — Ps, cxix. 70.
This disposes of such an idea.
Burlesque (It. Burlescoj or Bemesco), from Francesco Berni, the
inventor.
Cereal, from goddess of com, Ceres.
Chauvinism, from * Chauvin,' a braggart character introduced into
plays at the period of the Eestoration, in ridicule of the Bona-
partist fire-eating officev.
Czar, possibly from Caesar.
Dahlia, from Dahl, a Swede, who introduced the flower. »
Darics, coins, so called from Darius.
Debauch, from Bacchus, god of wine.
Ducat, the coin of a Duke.
Dunce, a disciple of Duns Scotus, the scholastic philosopher.
DoTLEY, called from one Doyley, a tradesman of the Strand.
Fiacre, St. Fiacre, Fiachra. An Irish saint, whose shrine was
twenty-five miles from Paris. The name was given to convey-
ances which fiarried the pilgrims.
Gibberish, from Geber, see above, 'Algebra.'
Galvanimi, from Galvani, an Italian.
Gobelin, from the brothers Gobelin, dyers of Paris, temp. Louis XV.
Greenpage, from Gage, a Sussex man, who introduced it.
Gaoa. Admiral Vernon used to wear a Grogram coat, whence the
sailors called him ^ Old Grog,' and applied the name to the mix-
ture of rum and water which he first introduced on board ship.
• Tft^lor, Words and Flam, p. 462.
KTYMOLOaiCAL DBKTVATI0N8.
179
(Guillotine, from Guillotine, a French physician, who invented the
instrument, a modem repetition of the old Scotch ' maiden.'
Henchman,* possibly from Hengist, the lieutenant of Horsa. (Taylor.)
Herculean, from the Greek mythological hero, Hercules.
HEOTORiNa, from the Trojan hero, Hector.
Hebmeticallt sealed, from Hermes Trismegistus, an Egyptian
priest and philosopher.
HoBSl, poflflibly from the Saxon warrior, Horsa. (Taylor.) This is
fanciful.
Jacket (Fr. Jaque)y from Jaque of Beauvais.
Jacobins (1798), held their meetings in the hall of the Dominican
or Jacobin convent.
Jacobite, an adherent of James (Jacobus), the Stuart pretendei
(1715).
Jovial, ftwm Jove.
Lazaretto, from Lazarus, the patron saint of lepers.
Martial, from Mars, god of war.
Mercurial, from Mercury.
Macintosh, from the name of the inventor.
Mansarde, from a French architect of the same name (1666).
Martinet, from a strict disciplinarian in the army of Louis XIV.
Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Garia, built by Arte-
misia, his wife.
Negus, bo called after one Francis Negus. Some leading Whigs and
Tories (Geo. I.) having got to high words over their cups, Mr.
Negus recommended them to dilute their wine with water as
he did.
Orrert, really invented by Mr. George Graham, 1700, and copied
for the Earl of Orrery.
Panic, fear possessing sheep, from Pan, the shepherd-god
Pasquinade, fix>m Pasquin, a Roman cobbler, and a noted character.
He had a very marked physiognomy, and the statue of an
anci^t gladiator having been exhumed, the Roman wits
detected a resemblance to the cobbler, and gave the statue his
name. Afterwards it became a practice to post lampoons on
the pedestal of the statue. Hence the name.
* More likely henoh, from haunch : the man who stands beside his maeter'a
hannch.
180
A9ALTBIB OF THE ENGLISH LAirGUAGl.
PjKONT, from UalutVf Apollo, who is said to haye applied it to
medicinal purposes.
Pander, from Pandarus, who procured for Troilus the love of
Ghryseis.
PhaSton, from Phaeton, son of Phoebus, who drove the chariot of the
Sun unskilfully and was hurled by a thunderbolt from Jupiter
into the river Po.
Philippics, the orations of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon.
BooOMONTADE, from Sodomonte, a braggart, who figures in Orlando
Furioso.
Sandwich, from Lord Sandwich, an inveterate gamester, who be-
grudged the time for a meal.
Saturnine, from Saturn. Supposed to be under the influence of
Saturn : dull, grave, phlegmatic.
Samphire, corrupted from St. Pierre ; the name of a seaweed.
Silhouette, a shadow portrait, in sarcastic allusion to M. de Sil-
houette, finance minister, temp. Louis XV. / '
Stentorian, from Stentcr, a Greek herald in the Trojan war, whose
voice, according to Homer, was louder than the united shout of
fifty men.
Spencer, from Lord Spencer, who, when Lord-Iiieutenant of beland,
once in hunting had one skirt of his coat torn off. He tore ofi*
the other himself, and some inventive genius made half coats
and gave the name to them.
Tantalise, from tiie punishment of Tantalus.
Tontine, from an Italian, Lorenzo Tonti, who devised this method of
insurance (1635).
Taw)RT, from the fiiir of St. Etheldreda, or St. Awdrey, where gaudy
finery was sold.
Tram (wat), from Outram, the inventor.
Zant, Itatuui corruption of Giovannis John.
tettliOLOOiOAL DERIYAtlONB.
181
CHAPTER Xn.
HA1ES8 OF XOKTHB, DATS, WnTDB, OOLOVBS, *•.
§ 1. Months and Dayi.
1. Tear, (A.-S.) gear^ from erianj to plough.
Month, (A.-S.)=:moon«tA. Vid. chap. V. 2.
Week, (A.-S.) weocj (Groth.) u;t/b= order.
Dat, (A.-S.) dcBg^ from dagian^ to dawn.
Testebdat, (A.-S.) gestrinan, to acquire ; dcBgtmd&j,
2. Season, (Lat.) satiOy a planting.
Spring, (A.-S.) spring.
Summer, (A.-S.) sumor or sumerj from the 9un.
Winter, (A.-S.) from the unnd. Hence Winter means the windy
time.
3. Januart, either from JanuSj or from ^'anua, the portal of the year.
Februart, (JM.) februaref to expiate ; febrisj a ferer.
March, the month of the god Mars.
April, (Lat.) aperirey to open ; the spring month.
Mat, (Lat.) from Maia, the mother of Mercury.
June, (Lat.) from Junius Brutus, who expelled the Tarquins in
this month.
JuLT, (Lat.) in honour of Julius Caesar, formerly called Quintilis.
August, (Lat.) in honour of Augustus Csesar.
September, (Lat.) septem, the seventh month.
October, (Lat.) octOf the eighth month.
November, (Lat.) novem, the ninth month.
December, (Lat.) decern, the tenth month.
Bissextile, bo called because the sixth of the Calends of March
was repeated ; occurred twice.
4. MoNDAT = day of the moon.
TussDAT = day of Tuesco, a northern divinity (A.-8.).
Wednesday = day of Woden, the Teutonic war-god.
iim
ANALYSIS OF THB ENGLISH LANOUA08.
Thursday = day of Thor, Saxon deity.
Friday = day of Friga, the Venus of the Saxona.
Saturday = day of Seator, the Saturn of the Saxons.
Sunday = day of the Sun.
§ 2. Winds.
North, (A.-S.) nyrwian^ to bind together, to constrain.
South, (A.-S.) seothan. to seethe.
East, (A.-S.) yr«ian, to be angry.
West, (A.-S.) wesan, to be wet, to soak.
§ 3. Passions.
Hope, (A.-S.) hopian, to look out or after ; probably connected with
yppon, to open.
Joy, (Lat.) gcmdium.
Fear, (A.-S.) fcer, a coming suddenly upon — a danger.
Love, (A.-S.) lujian, tx) love.
Anger, (A.-S.) angef vexation.
Malice, (Lat.) malitia^ malum, evil.
Grief, (Lat.) gravis, heavy.
Hate, (A.-S.) hatian, to hate.
Sorrow, (A.-S.) sorA, care, anrlety.
Wrath, (A.-S.) wrath, anger.
Jealousy, (Fr.) jalousie, a window-blind (Venetian), or (Lat) zelus,
emulation.
§ 4. Colours.
Auburn, (A.-S.) =a-Jron, i.e. bordering on brown.
Brown, (A.-S.) ftrenwaw, to burn.
Black, (A.-S.) the same word as bleak ; bldcian, to grow dark.
Crimson, (Ar.) kermes, an insect producing the dye.
Green, (A.-S.) grenian, to become or make green, to flourish.
Grey, (A.-S.) grcsg. H. Tooke gives geregnan, to stain.
Blue, (A.-S.) hldwan, to blow ; the colour seen when the clouds
are blown away.
Lake, (It. and Low 1-B,t,\ lacca, an Armenian ^um.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
188
Pnnc, (Dan.) pincken, to sparkle, to glitter.
Red, (A.-S.) readj rud.
SoARLET, (Low Lat.) a-car-letunif possibly connected with car in caro.
Orange, (Lat.) aurataj golden ?
Umbeb, earth brought from Umbria, in Italy.
Vermilion, (Lat.) vermea^ vemiiculus, a snoall worm yielding this
colour.
White, (Goth.) Ivwathany to foam. — Home Tooke.
YellgWi (A.-S.) gealeiv. Tooke derives it from gecBlan^ to inflam<»
CHAPTER Xm.
PABTS OF THE BODT, fte.
Arm, (A.-S.) earrn^ whence erian^ to plough.
Blood, (A.-S.) hUd, from bledauy to bleed.
Body, (A.-S.) bidaUf to abide.
Bone, (A.-S.) ban, origin of which is doubtftil.
Breath, A.-S.) be-oreth ; (^ei(/i=breath.
Breast, (A.-S.) breost.
Calf, (Gael.) calpuy calbUf a lump. (Icel.) kaljif the calf of the leg.
Chest, (Lat.) cista.
Cheek, (A.-S.)=cAcM;+«ifce (again). Ceowan, U) chew.
Chin, (A.-S.) cm, cinan, to split.
Eye, (A.-S.) eah, €age=eye.
Ear, (A.-S.) eare=eax.
Elbow, (A.-S.) eZn= ell, and bigan, to bend; the bow or bending
of the arm.
Finger, {A.-S.) fon, fangan, to take, to grasp.
Flesh, {A.-S.) JIcbsc.
Foot, (A.-S.) /o<,/eimn, to fetch.
Hand, (A.-S.) hand, hentan, to hold.
Head, (A.-S.) heafod, hebban, to lift up.
Heart, (A.-S.) heorte.
Instep, (A.-S.) anstcepauj to step forward.
Jaw, (A.-S.)=scAatt' or cAcm; ; ceoM;a/i, to chev,
184
ANALTBIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
JomT, (Lat)juti^«r«, tojoin.
Knib, (A.-S.) hniganf to bend.
KiniCKLi, diminutive, from knee.
Lip, (A.-S.) lippe ; whence to lap.
Lungs, (A.-S.) lunge.
Leo, (A.-S.) Ucgan^ to place, to lay.
Mind, (A.-S.) mynany to remember ; (Lat.) mtn$.
Mouth, (A.-S.) metian^ to eat.
Nail, (A.- 8.) nagel.
Neck, (A.-S.) hnecca^ hnigan^ to bend, vide ' Knee.*
Nose, (A.-S.) ncss.
Rib, (A.-S.) rt&, ribh.
Shoulder, (A.-S.) sculder, acylan^ to divide.
Skin, (A.-S.) scinauy to shine.
Spirit, (Lat.) apiritus ; apiro, to breathe.
Stomach, (Fr.) estomac.
Soul, (A.-S.) sawlj aawoL
Sinew, (A.-8.) ainu.
TmQEsssthick part of the leg.
Throat, (A.-S.) throte and throtu.
Thumb, (A.-S.) thuma.
Tongue, (A.-S.) tkingiarij to address, to speak.
Toe, (A.-S) td, from tacan, to take.
Tooth, {A.-S.)^tuggethj from teogan, to tug.
Wrist, (A.-S.) whereby we wreat^ or pull.
CHAPTER XIV.
NAMES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASITEES:
1. Sterling. — Temp. Rich. I., the Easterlinga^ who dwelt in the
east parts of Germany, were noted for the purity of their
coinage; and, being skilfril in minting, were employed in
coining, whence the name ' sterling.' — Camden.
Pound, (A.-S.) pond^ pund ; (Lat.) pondua.
8oy::iui;lGir has the superscription of the sovran ; (Lat.) aupremm.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
1B5
Shilling, (A.-8.) scylan, to divide.
Penny, (Celtic) pen^Bhe&d. Penny is probably a diminutive,
FARTHiNa=s/ourM-tn^ (ing dim. suffix) = little fourth part of a
penny.
Guinea, firom the Guinea coast.
Floben, so called, from Florence, where first coined with the
device of the lily flower.
ThalebI took their names from the silver works in the Thal^
DoLLAB J or valley of Joachim. — Taylor, Words and Places.
Ducat sscoin of a duke.
Tester, bore the image of the king's head (teste, or tite).
Gboat, like the German groschen, were great coins four times the
size of a penny.
Mark, was a Venetian coin, stamped with the winged lion of
St. Mark.
Guilder, a Dutch coin, possibly from Guelder land.
Btzant, a gold coin, value 15/., struck at Byzantium.
Jane, a small coin of Genoa (J&nua).
Moiodore, (Portuguese) moeda de ouro=monej of gold.
Stiver, a Dutch coin, hal^nny in value. (Dutch) stuyver, from
stuyven, to beat fine.
2. Avoirdupois, avoir-du-pois, to have weight.
Trot, so called firom the local standard of ^ Troyes.
Grain, (Lat.) granum.
Scruple, (Lat.) scrupuSf a sharp rock ; hence difficulty, a nicety,
a small weight
Dram, (Gr.) Spaxftri (drachme), so termed, for it was as much
as the hand could grasp.
Ounce, (Lat.) uncia, the 12th part of a pound.
8. League, (Low Lat.) leuca, (Fr.) Ueue, from locus j a district.
Mile, (h&t) mille pussuum,
VuBLOKQ, ajiirrow long.
Fathom, (A.-S.) fcBthm. ^ \.
Ell, (Lat.) ulna, the forearm.
Yard, (A.-S.) geard, a rod, a measure.
Inch, (Lat.) uncta, the 12th part of a foot
180
ANALT8M9 OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOK.
4 Pint, (Low Lat.) pinta, (A.-S.) pynte^ from pyndan^ to hold.
Quart, (Lat.) quartus, a fourth part of a gallon.
Gallon, (Low Lat.) galo^ (l^i*>) galon, a mcuMuro containing Uimje
pots.
P£CK from poke, (A.-S.) pocca, a sack ; whence pocket. Also
(Celtic) ; see chap VII. 8.
Bushel, (Low Lat.) 6use//ii«, the origin of which is not clear.
5. Firkin, (Ger.) vtVr, four, and kin is diminutive : cf. ' farthing.'
Kilderkin, (Dan.) kindeken; kind=chi\d', meaning 'small barrel.'
Tierce, (Lat.) tres, the third part of a pipe.
CHAPTER XV.
TITLBS.
Empebor, (Lat) imperator.
Empress, (Lat.) imperatrix.
King, (A.-S.) cyning, from cunnan, to know.
Queen, ( A.-S.) ge-t&enian, ' to dwell with,' contracted cweBman.
Noble, (Lat.) iwhilis.
Peer, (Lat.) par, equal.
Lord, (A.-S. and Lat.) hlaf, lofty, ertus, born; or (A.-S.) hlaford,
loaf-giver.
Ladt, (A.-S.) hlaf, raised ; ig, add ; from eacan.
Duke, (Lat.) dux, a leader.
Marquis, Lord of the ' Marches,* on the Welsh and Scotch borders.
Earl, (A.-S.) eorl, (Dan.) eorla, connected with er or ere, signifying
priority.
Count, (Lat.) comes, a companion.
ViscOuNT, (Lat.) vice comes.
Baron, (A.-S.) beorgan, to fence or protect (with armour). — H. Tooke,
Baronet, diminutive of the preceding.
Sir, (Fr.) sieur, i. e. seigneur.
Bishop, (Lat.) episcopus, ((Jr.) ivtoKO'triu, to overlook.
Canon, (Gr.) Kayutv^a, rule.
Dean, (Lat.) decanus^ C^^*) Se'«ca=ten. Sees were divided at an
ETYMOLOGICAL DBRIVATIONB.
J 87
early period into 'tithings/ each of which comprifled ten
churches or parisheH, placed under the government of a dear
Priest, (Lat.) presbytei; (Gr.) vptafivrtpotj an elder.
Curate, (Lat.) CMra, one who hath the care or cure of soula.
Deacon, (Lat.) diaconuSf (Gr.) iutKoyoQ, servant or minister.
Parson, the peraona, or chief individual, of a parish. Some take it
from parochiannar.
SiXTON, corrupted from aacmtaUf the officer who looka after th<^
accessories of worship.
Chancellor,* (Lat.) cancellariuHj a cancellia.
Constable, (Lat.) comes atabuli^ count of the stable smaster of the
horse.
Marshal, (Dutch) mareachalk, q.d. magister caballommssimaBter
of the horse ; or m&hre^ a horse, and achalk, a servant.
Admiral, (Arabic or Turkish) emi'r-a/-6aAr=lord of the sea.
Kniqht, (Ger.) knecht.
Esquire, i. e. scutigery shield-bearer, (Lat.) scutum gerere^ to carry
the shield.
Dauphin, from Dauphin^, a province sold or given by Humbert, earl
thereof, to Philip of Valois, on condition that the king's eldest
son should bold it during the lifetime >f his father.
Clerk, (Gr.) tcX^poc, a lot, because Matth 5u» was chosen by lot ;
hence * clergy.'
Seneschal, (Ijat.) senescaUus= senior servus ; scale (A.-S.), serves.
Sheriff = shire-reeve ; 5/tire^=county, reeve = officer.
WooDREEVE = an officer who looks after the wood.
Abbot, (Hebrew) -466a = father.
Nabob, (Hindoo) i\rat<7a6= gentleman.
Steward = sted-ward := keeper of the place. Hence tbe name
* Stewart ; ' as * Howard,^ from hold- ward, or keeper of the hold.
Beadle, (A.-S.) beadf a prayer, from beodan, to pray, to cry : so
beadle means * crier.'
♦ ** jp eancdlarii were officers of a court of justice, who stood ad cancelhs, at
the j«iliiig8, received the petitions of suitors, and acted as intermediaries
between them and the judge. To them naturally fell the office of keeping the
seal of the sourt — the distinctive feature of chancellors of modem times.—
Wedaewood,
188
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Bailiff, from vallum^ a rampart : one who looks after the en-
closure.
Other titles will be found under the chapters relating to Military and
EcCLESIASTICAIi TeRMS.
i
I
I I
CHAPTER XVL
MILITABT TESMS.
Arsenal, (It.) arce-navale^ or naval citadel.
Cadet, (Sp.) cadetey one who enlists without pay, expecting a com-
mission.
Commander, (Lat.) manrfare, to entrust.
Commodore, (Sp.) comendador, i.e. commander.
Corps, (Lat.) corpus^ the body.
Comrade, (Fr.) camerade^ (Lat.) cameraj a chamber.
General, (Lat.) genus \ one who attends to general and not particu-
lar arrangement.
Colonel, either from (Lat.) dux colonias ; or columna, the column
or pivot of the regiment ; some say (It.) colonello, formerly
coronel or crown captain, from (Lat.) corona.
Major, (Lat.) major, greater.
Captain, (Lat.) caput, the head.
Lieutenant, (Fr.) lieu tenant, (Lat.) locu7n tenens.
Cornet, (Lat.) cornw, a horn. -
Ensign, (Lat.) insignia. Some say corrupted from ancient.
Serjeant-at-law, (Lat.) serviens.
Sergeant-at-arms, (Fr.) serriant, i.e. one who dres£«:s or drills or
masses men. So we speak of seiried ranks.
Corporal, (Lat.) corpus, a body.
Pioneer, (Sp.) j9eon, a foot soldier.
Private, (Lat.) privatus, an individual.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
189
IlLITART and
Sentinel,* (Fr.) sentinelle, (Lat.) sentire.
Soldier, (Lat.) solidus, pay.
Sepot, (Pers.) sipahi, a soldier.
Artillery, (Lat.) arcus and <c^Mm=bow and arrow; ry, suffix,
implying coUectiveness.
Cavalry, (Lat.) caballus, a steed.
Infantry, th? bodyguard of the Infanta of Spain.
Grenadier, (Sp.) granada, a hollow globe of iron resembling a pome-
granate.
Dragoon, (Lat.) draconarii, standard-bearers of the dragon, at the
period of the decline of the Roman empire. Some say from
dragon^ a species of carbine.
Hussar, (Hungarian) Awsz=twenty and ar=pay. Every twenty
houses furnished one cavalry soldier.
Accoutrements, (Fr.) accoutrer^ formerly accoustrer^ to equip with
habiliments (ecclesiastical), (old Fr.) cousteur is the iame ai
custos.
Arms, (Lat.) arma.
Bayonet, from Bayonne, the place of its first manufacture.
Baudrick, Baldrick, also spnlt bawdrich, a belt or girdle, (Fr.)
baudrier, to dress or curry leather ; from (Low Lat.) baldringuSt
which Du Cange thinks to be ' the belt or ring of a bold man.*
Cannon, (Lat.) cannaf a hollow reed.
Carbine, (Sp.) caraba, a guarda costa, or revenue cutter, the guns
of which were small.
Carronade, a gun made at Loch Carron foundry, in Scotland.
Claymore, (Gael) claideamh, a sword, and more, great.
Cuirass, (Fr.) cuir, (Lat.) coriurtiy leather.
Cutlass, (Lat.) cultellus, a knife.
Chevaux de frise, wooden horses of Friesland, first used at siege
of Groningen, 1658, to check the Spanish cavalry.
* The real origin of the designation is the conEnement of the soldier on
gourd to a short path or beat, (Old Fr.) sente, a path. Sentinelle is a seoon-
daxy deriyation from eeniine, and the name has been transferred to the man
\uma9U.—W0dgewood.
mm
190
ANALYSIS Ot TUB ENGLISH LANGUAGfi.
Dagger, (Fr.) dague^ (Low Lat.) dagga. Some derive it a Dacis,
Dirk, (Icelandic) daur, a sword, (Dan.) dorck^ a abort sword.
VALCEiov^ensts falcatus, (Lat.) /ate, a scythe, or cutter.
Fascines, (Lat.) fascis, a bundle of sticks.
Grenade, (Sp.) granada, a hollow globe of iron, so called from its
likeness to a ' pomegranate.'
Gun, (A.-S.) gynian, to yawn, or gape; hence gin, a snare.
Gabion, (It.) gabbia, (Lat.) cavea, a basket ifilled with earth.
Halberd, (Swiss) ^a^w= handle of an axe; and (Ger.) barte, a
broad axe : the word means * a long-handled axe.'
Hauberk, (A.-S.) hals, the neck, and beorgan, to protect.
Helmet, (A.-S.) helan, to cover: the helm, or the helmet, is the
highest point of the armour, so the helm is the highest point
of the rudder.
Morion, a Maurorum usu ; possibly from (A.-S.) myrran, to dissi-
pate.
Mortar, (Fr.) mortier, to bruise or pound.
MusJtET,* (Lat.) musca, a gnat : the ball stings like the bite of a gnat.
Partisan, (Fr.) pertuiser-, (Lat.) pertusum^ pertundere, to beat
through.
Petard, (Sp.) petardo, (Fr.) peter, (Lat.) pedere.
Pistol, (It.) Pistoja, near Florence.
Sabre, (Ar.) self, a sword, (Hung.) szafni, to cut.
Scimitar, (Turkish).
Shield, (A.-S.) scyldan, to protect.
Squadron, (Lat.), acies quadrata.
Spear, same as spar; (A.-S.) speare, a small dart.
Sword, (A.-S.) warian, to guard.
Stiletto, (It.) dim. from (Lat.) stylus.
Target, dim. from targe, (Lat.) a tergo, because made of hides'.
Trumpet, (Lat.) triumphare=to triumph.
Tumbril, (Fr.) tombereau, (Low Lat.) tumberellaf a cart or waggon
Troop, (Lat.) turba.
Ambulance, (Lat.) ambulare, to walk.
* (Mid. Lat.) mtischetta, a bolt ajped from a ^allista ; muachetta, from (Prov.)
mosyue/, a sparrow-hawk; (Dutch) muach, a t>parrow.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
191
Bulwark, (Fr.) boulevart, (Dan.) bollverk ; boll^ a globe or circular
work.
Gamp, (Lat.) campus, a plain.
Port, (Lat.) /or<is, strong.
Parapet, (Gr. Lat.) Trapa and pectus, i.e. * as high as the breast.'
Quarters, (Lat.) quartus, quatuor, the Roman camp was divided
into four parts.
Tent, (Lat.) tender e, to stretch.
Trench, (Lat.) trans, across, and scinderey to cut.
Ambuscade, (It.) imboscare, bosco, (Fr.) bois, (Eng.) bush.
Bivouac, (Ger.) ft«-t<;acAen, to watch.
Escalade, (Fr.) eschelle, a ladder.
Flank, either (Gr.) Xayarf, or (A.-S.) lengian; thence be-lauk,
p-lank, flank.
Rear, (Fr.) arriere, (Lat.) retro.
Van, (Fr.) avant, (Lat.) ante, before.
March, (Fr.) marcher, i. e. monter-a-cheval, from (Bret.) mar&h, a
horse. — Wedgewood.
Retreat, (Lat.) re-^ra Acre, to draw back.
Siege, (Lat.) sedere, to sit.
Challenge, (Lat.) cnlumniari, to calumniate.
Calibre, either from Calabria, or (Fr.) qualibre=qua libra (Lat.)
cequilibrium.
Commissariat, (Lat.) committere, to entrust.
Donjon, (Lat.) dominium, dominus, (A.-S.) deman, to subdue.
Forage, (Lat.) foris, abroad ; agere, to collect.
Fodder, (Low Lat.) foderum, {A.-S.) fodre, fother=ipabulum, from
fedan, to feed.
Ledger, (A.-S.) lecgan, to lie. A book that lies open for immediate
entries.
Stores, (A.-S.) styrian, to move.
Rum (Erse), a cant word for a poor country parson ; it means kill-devil,
Gin, (Fr.) genievre, or juniper, or Geneva.
Brandt, (A.-S.) brand or burned (wine).
Whiskey, (C), corrupted from usquebaugh, or water of life.
BuouiT, (Lat.) bis coctusj twice cooked.
18^
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAOK.
'4
MM
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M
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i
CHAPTER XVII.
ECCLESIASTICAL TERMS.
§1. -
Abbey, (Hebrew) a community governed by an abbot. Abba meaiui
father.
Cathedral, (Gr.) »ca0c?pa=from the bishop's chair or throne.
Convent, (Lat.) convenire, to assemble.
Chapter, (Lat.) caput, the head : an assembly of ' heads,' or chap-
ter of the church.
Church, (Gr.) Kvpiov oJkoc = the House of the Lord, to KvpiaKov.
Chapel, (Lat.) capella, a shrine.
Cloister, (Lat.) claustntm, a barrier, from claudere, to shut.
Minster, (Lat.) monasterium, an abode of monks.
§2.
Archbishop, (Gr.) apx}-iiriiTKOTroez=chief overseer.
Bishop, vide chap. XV.
Dean, vide chap. XV.
Canon, vide chap. XV.
Priest, vide chap. XV.
Parson, vide chap. XV.
Clerk, vide chap. XV. ,,
Acolyte, an attendant, (Gr.) aKoXovdiu), to follow.
Sexton, vide chap. XV.
Verger, one that beareth a staff or rod ; (Lat.) virga.
Monk, (Gr.) fx6voe, alone, solitary.
Nun, (A.-S.) nonne, (It.) nonna, a grandmother. The first nuns
would naturally be elderly women ; possibly a Coptic word
meaning * chaste.'
Friar, (Lat.) /raier, brother.
Deacon, vide chap. XV. ., ,
Hermit, CGr.) ?/);j/l<oc, the desert ^. ' .,*/ ,vi>i. .
ill
GTYHOLOGICAL DBRITATlONB.
195
Churchwarden, the guardian of the church.
Sidesman, said to be a corruption of ' synod's man,' from the ancient
custom of electing three laymen to represent the parish in
* synod/
§3.
Aisle, (Lat.) alOf the wing or side of a church.
Belfry, (Fr.) beffroi, a watch-tower.
Chancel, a cancellis, because cancelli, or bars, separated it from the
area of the church.
Choir, (Gr.) xopoQy (Lat.) chorus, a multitude of singers^ or dancers.
Nave, (A.-S.) nafa^ the concave centre or body of a church ; hence
also navel \ possibly from naviSy a ship, the symbol of the
church.
Pew, (Dutch) puye^ possibly (Lat.) podium^ an elevated place or
balcony.
Pulpit, (Ft.) poulpitre, (hat.) pulpituniy a raised place.
Steeple, (A.-S.) steopl^ a tower, or steeple, perhaps from A.-S.
stedp, precipitous.
Vestry, the place where sacred robes were kept; (Lat.) vestiSf a
garment.
Font, (Lat.) fonSj fountain.
§4. .
Alb, (Lat.) albus, white.
Chalice, (Lat.) caltx.
Chasuble, (Low Lat.) casula, dim. of casa^ a house.
Cope, (Low Lat.) capa, or cappa^ a cloak.
Cowl, (Lat.) cucullus.
Gown, (Welsh) gwn.
Surplice, (Lat.) super pelliceum ; super ^ over, pellis^ akin.
Paten, (Lat.) patina^ a plate, or dish.
Rochet, (Lat.) rochettwm^ (A.S.) roc, a shirt or short-sleeved alb.
TuNiCLE, (Lat.) tunicella, a little tunic.
n
k
§5.
CHBiSTMASssmass of Christ.
MiCHA£LMAS=masB of St. Michael.
n
'•»
III
'ID!
Illi!
1) .
! t
1 1 ll
194
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Epipha^tt, (Gr.) iimftareia = manifestation ; the manifbstation ol
Christ to the Gentiles.
Septuagesima, (Gr.) 70th ; really sixty-four days before Easter.
Sexagesima, (Gr.) 60th ; really fifty-seven days before Easter.
QuiNQUAGESiMA, (Gr.) 60th ; really fifty days before Easter.
Ash Wednesday. On this day anciently penitents presented them-
selves in church with ashes sprinkled on their heads.
Lent, (A.-S.) /enc<en = spring.
Maunday Thursday, the day before Good Friday, from dies man-
dati ^ the * day of the commandment,' either because Christ
commanded * the washing of feet,' or because he commanded the
observance of the Eucharist.
Easter, (A.-S.) Eastre. * Eostur-monathj says Bede, * which is now
called the Paschal month, had its name from a goddess called
Eostre, and to whom they at that time used to celebrate festivals.'
This goddess is supposed to be the same as Ashtaroth, or Venus.
Others take it immediately from East, q.v. ; others from (A.-S.)
an'san, to arise.
Rogation Days. Days for special * litanies,' or supplications ; (Lat.
rogo, to ask.
Litany, (Gr.) Xiravela from Xtrr£«»0at, to pray.
Liturgy, (Gr.)X£troi;pyta=iapubiic work; Xelroi', public, epyov, work.
Ember Weeks, (A.-S.) ymbyme=^a. revolution, or circuit, e.g. yeares
ymhyme=2i year's course. In the Anglo-Saxon we find for
these fasts of the four seasons, ymhyme dcegas, ymbren festen,
ymbren wucan.
Pentecost, (Gr.). Fifty days after Easter bring us to this festival,
called in the Christian church —
Whitsunday.* This was a stated time for baptism in the ancient
churchy and the baptized put on white garments.
§6.
Apostle, a messenger ; (Gr.) uTroffrcXXw, to send.
Heretic, one who chooses his own doctrines; (Gr.) alpeiadaiy to choose.
Fast, (Goth.) yaston ; (A.-S.)/cB5ton, to observe, or keep.
Feast, (Lat.) festus^ festal, or joyous.
* Another Buggestion is that the day was so called because our anoeBtora
used to give the poor on that day all the mUk of their ewes and kine, which
milk WAS called in some places the whites oj kim^ in others whitt meat.
ilL
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
195
Mass, either from the concluding words of the service, i<«, mi»8a tit,
or from the Hebrew misacht almsgiving.
Parish, (Gr.) trapa, okoc, i. e. a contiguous dwelling.
Pagan, (Lat.) paganus = a villager. ' When the Roman empire was
converted to Christianity, religion did first take place in the
cities ; this word, signifying a country people^ came to be used
in common speech for the samt. that infidels and unbelievers
were.' — Hooker.
Heathen ^ dwellers on the heathy same as pagan.
Pall, (Lat.) pallium^ a cloak, whence palliate.
Preach, (Lat.) /?r^c?icare.
Saint, (Lat.) sanctus, holy.
Shrine, (Lat.) scrinium, a basket, or chest, in which books, writing*,
or other secret things were deposited.
Sacrament, (Lat.) sacramentum^ an oath.
Synod, (Lat.) synodus; (Gr.) avvodogj a convention.
U^ N. or M., in the baptismal service, in answer to the question, ' What ia
your nam« ? ' are said to be the initials of the patron saints Nicholas
and Mary.
Diocese, (Gr.) BioiKtiVf to dwell apart.
' CHAPTER XVm.
POLITICAL TEBMS.
Cavalier, Roundhead. The apprentices of London published a
petition against Popery and Prelacy in 1641. Seditious cries
having been raised, and the bishops assaulted on their way to
Parliament, skirmishes between the malcontent apprenticis
and many gentlemen, who volimteered to be the king's body-
guard, were of daily occurrence. ' And from these contests,'
says Clarendon, * the two terms of Soundhead and Cavalier
grew to be received in discourse, and were afterwards continued
for the most succinct distinction of affections throughout the
quarrel ; the servants of the king being called Cavaliers^ and
the other of the rabble, contemned and despised under the
name of Roundheads.''
I '
196
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Cabinet. According to the original constitution of our monarchy, the
king had his privy council, consisting of the great officers of
state, and any others he should summon, bound by oaths of
fidelity and secresy, by whom all affairs, foreign or domestic,
were debated and determined, subject to his good pleasure. It
thence happened that some councillors more eminent than the
rest formed juntos, or cabals, for more close and private manage-
ment of affairs, or were selected as more confidential advisers
of the sovereign. The very name of cabinet council, as distin-
guished from the larger body, may be found as far back as
Charles I. After the Restoration, by degrees the ministry, or
cabinet, obtained the king's final approbation to their measures
before they were laid before the council. During the reign of
William III., this distinction of the cabinet fi*om the privy
council, and the exclusion of the latter from all business of
state, became fully established.
Cabal, fi*om Hebrew cabala, a secret. The word cabal had been
employed earlier than 1667 to denote a secret council^ what is
now termed the cabinet. Its influence was principally directed
to foreign affairs. In 1670, afl;er the fall of Clarendon, an
administration was formed consisting of Clifford, Ai'lington,
Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale ; and as the initial let-
ters formed the word C. A. B. A. L, this cabinet was hence-
forward called the Cabal, par excellence.
Chartist. There was held in the open air, at Birmingham, August
6, 1838, the first demonstration, on a large scale, of the poli-
tical agitators called ' Chartists,' because they clamoured for
what they called 'the people's charter,' which contained six
points : —
(i) Universal suffrage.
(ii) Vote by ballot. >
(iii) Equal electoral 'listricts.
(iv) Paid representatives in parliament.
(v) Abolition of property qualification for members of par-
liament. .
(vi) Annual parliaments.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
197
CSovENANTER. The national covenant, professing to be based upon h
document which James VI. of Scotland had signed in 1680,
was drawn up and published by the four Tables : (i) Nobility,
(ii) Gentry, (iii) Ministers, (iv) Burgesses ; and in their hands
the whole authority of the realm was vested. They elected a
general assembly, which met at Glasgow, November 21, 1638,
and abolished episcopacy, ordering that every one should sign
the covenant under pain of excommunication. The Covenanters
prepared for war, and they entered England August 20, 1640.
An agreement was signed at Ripon, October 26, 1640; com-
nissioners were appointed, to whom the settlement of points
in dispute were referred. This covenant, under the name of
Solemn League and Covenant^ was received by the Parliament or
assembly of divines, September 25, 1643. It differed essentially
from the covenant of 1638, according to Hallam, and consisted of
aa oath, to be subscribed by all sorts of persons in both king-
doms : —
(i) To preserve the reformed Religion in the Church o/
Scotland in doctrine, discipline, worship, and govern-
ment.
(ii) To endeavour to bring the churches of God in the three
kingdoms into the nearest conjunction and uniformity
in religion, confession of faith, form of church govern-
ment, directory of worship, catechising, &c.
(iii) To' endeavour, without respect of persons, the extirpa-
tion of Popery, prelacy, and whatsoever should be found
contrary to sound doctrine and the power of godliness.
(iv) To preserve the rights and privileges of the Parliaments
and the liberties of the kingdoms, and the king's person
and authority in the preservation and defence of the true
religion and true liberty.
(v) To endeavour the discovery of incendiaries and malig-
nants who hinder the reformation of religion, and divide
the king from his people, that they may be brought to
pimishment.
(vi) To assist and defend all such as should enter into this
Covenant.
m'
I
M
•will
Mllll
111
(It
I'
ti
'!'i
!i^
-i
198
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
A large number of beneficed clergy who refused to subscribe
were ejected. Charles II. signed it reluctantly at Spey (1660).
In 1661 the House of Commons ordered it to be burnt by the
common hangman, and in the same year Scotland renounced
, the Covenant, and declared the supremacy of the king.
Exchequer, Court of. This name was derived firom ' the table at
which the sittings of the court were held — a four-cornered board
about 10 feet long and 5 feet broad, fitted in manner of a table
. to sit about, on every side whereof is a standing ledge or border
four fingers broad. Upon tliis board is laid a cloth, bought in
Easter term, of black colour, rowed with strakes distant about
a foot and a span. On the squares of this '' scaccarium," or
chequered cloth, counters were placed to assist in making the
needful computations.'
Fenian. Afler the ludicrous attempt at insurrection in 1848, made
by Smith O'Brien, Mitchell, Meagher, and others, a new secret
society of conspirators was formed by Stephens, who seems to
have derived his method and organisation from tho revolu-
tionary Polish committees. To this new society he gave the
name of * Phoenix,' as symbolical of * resurrection ' (i. e. insur-
rection). The difficulty experienced by an Irish peasant in
pronouncing the *ii^jrd led, no doubt, to its corruption into
* Fenian.' The laborious attempts made from time to time to
derive the name from early Irish history, or the Phoenicians,
remind one of the squabbles of the antiquaiies ab«ut 'Bill
Stumps his mark,' in the pages of Pickwick !
Fifth Monarchy Man. A sect of republicans who appeared in
England in 1645, and taught that Christ was about to reappear
on earth, and establish a new imiversal monarchy. In 1653
they held weekly meetings in London, at which they de-
nounced Cromwell as * the man of sin,' ' the old dragon,' and
'the dissemblingest perjured villain in the world,' in conse-
quence of which he put a stop to their proceedings. They
reappeared, however, at the Restoration, and stirred up a riot
in which several lives were lost (1661).
GuELPH, Ghibbeline. On the death of Lothaire II., Emperor of
<::i
BTTMOLOOICAL DERIVATIONS.
199
Germany, in 1137, Conrad, Duke of Franconia, Ron of Frede-
rick of Hohenstaufen, Duke of Swabia and Lord of Wiblingen,
corrupted into Ghibbeline, was elected his succesHor. His right
to the throne was contested by Henry the Proud, Duke of Saxony
and Bavaria, nephew of Guelph II., Duke of Bavaria. He
yfka declared an outlaw, and shortly afler died. Hi3 adherents
transferred their allegiance to his son Henry the Lion, and the
empire was divided into two factions, — the adherents of tJonrad,
or Ghibbelines, and the adherents of Henry, called Guelphs.
The titles were first used at the battle of Weinsberg, 1140.
When the strife terminated in Germany, it continued in Italy.
The supporters of the popes were called Guelphs ; those of the
emperor, Ghibbelines. Charles of Anjou expelled the Ghibel-
lines from Italy.
Girondist. A political party during the great French Revolution,
80 called because its leaders were deputies from the Gironde. In
principle they were really Moderate Republicans. Sometimes
this party was called ' Brissotine,' sometimes the ' Plain,' be-
cause they sat on the floor of the Convention. Their opponents
were called ' Jacobins,' because the meetings of their clubs
took place in a building formerly a convent of Dominicans or
Jacobins. These men, headed by Robespierre, Danton, Marat,
St. Just, and others, were called the ' Mountain,' because they
sat on the highest seats ranged round the Hall of Convention.
The leading difference between these two parties may be
briefly stated thus : — The aim of the Girondists was to consti-
tute France a federal republic. The aim of the Jacobius
was manifested in their motto, ' A Republic, one and Indi-
visible.' This great question between republicans of two
shades has been repeated in the war between the Northern and
Southern States of America, the motto of the Southern States
being ' States' Rights,' i. e. a federal union ; and the principle of
the Northern republicans, * A Republic, one and Indivisible.'
Huguenot. So called from (Ger.) eidgenossen^ confederates; or
from Hugues, a noted Calvinist of Geneva : a name given to
French Protestants of the 16th century, first persecuted in
200
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGB.
' k
1559, and bo called in 1561. By the revocation of the Edict ol
Nantes, 1685, they were deprived of toleration, and many took
refuge in neighbouring countries.
Jacobites. The party that supported the Stuart Pretenders in
1715 and 1745. In general, adherents of the Stuart dynasty.
Levellers. A party, which desired that ' all degrees of men should
be levelled, and an equality established both in titles and
estates throughout the kingdom,' obtained the supremacy in the
army of the Long Parliament in 1647. They denounced all
existing forms of government, and clamoured for the blood of
Charles I. They raised an insurrection in 1649, and Cromwell
took measures to suppress them. Vide ' Fifth Monarchy Man.'
Lollards. A sect in Germany, who dissented from the Church
before she renounced Popery. They sprang from William
Lollard, who began to propagate his opinions in 1315, and was
burned at Cologne 1351. The name was afterwards given to
the disciples of Wickliffe.
MuGGLETONiANS. A scct, followers of Lodowicke Muggleton, a
journeyman tailor, who in 1651 commenced as a religious
teacher, declaring that he and his companion, John Reeve,
were the two witnesses mentioned in the * Book of Revelation.'
Muggleton was tried at the Old Biiley for blasphemy, and con-
'^ victed Jan. 17, 1676. Ha died March, 1677. The Muggle-
tonians were in existence i^ the middle of the last century.
' It is also to be noticed that, during the civil troubles,
several sects had sprung into existence, whose eccentricities
surpassed anything that had before been seen in England.
A mad tailor, named Lodowick Muggleton, wandered from
pot-house to pot-house, tippling ale and denoimcing eternal
torments against those who refused to believe on his testimony,
that the Supreme Being was only six feet high, and that the sun
was just four miles from the earth.* — Macaulay's History of
England, vol. i. p. 170.
Mountain. Vide supra, * Girondist.'
N^ONCONFORMiST. A name used generally to describe dissenters
from the Church of England, was first given to those who re-
fused to comply with the Act of Uniformity (2 & 3 Edward VI.
K?
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
201
e. 1.) p»fl8e9 an 1549. On the passing of the Act of Uniformiiy
of Charles XL, 2000 of tlie clergy voluntarily resigned their
livings on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1662. The Nonconformists
held a bicentenary commemoration of this event in 1862,
though no prominence was given to the fact of how they had
become possessed of livings which the Act compelled them to
relinquish.
Orangeman. This name was given by the Roman Catholics :■} the
Protestants of Ireland, on account of their support to W liiiam
III., Prince of Orange. It was first assumed in 1795, as the
designation of a political party, by the Protestants who formed
loyal associations in opposition to the Society of United Irish-
men, organised in 1791.
NoN/UJROR. Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of
Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, and Peterborough
refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III., and were
deprived Feb. 1, 1691. The Bishops of Chichester and Wor-
cester also refused, but died in the interim. To these men
and their followers the term nonjurors was applied. They
divided into two sections in 1720, in consequence of a dispute
concerning the administration of the Communion.' By 9
Geo. I. c. 18, 1723, they were subject to the same taxes as
Papists, and conducted their worship in hired rooms or private
houses. They became extinct in 1780.
Peelite. a name given to that section of the Conservative party
which, after the rupture caused by the repeal of the corn laws,
still adhered to Sir Kobert Peel. Most of them joined the
Liberal party.
Protestant. The second Diet of Spires, in 1529, decided that
religious differences could only be decided by an ecclesiastical
council, thus entirely disallowing the right of private judgment.
A solemn protest was made against this decision by the
Lutheran princes of Germany, April 19, 1529, in consequence
of which the members of the Reformed Churches have since
been known as Protestants. The protest was drawn up by
Luther and Melanchthon.
Parliament. ' At the close of the reign of Heniy III., the curia
■A 4
202
1
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
regis was called the King's Parliament, a term then employed
to express any assembly met for the purpose of conference.' —
Parry, Parliament and Councils of England. It did not then
denote a legislative assembly, though the term began to be
used in that sense at the commencement of the reign of
Edward II. (1307-1317). The two branches of the legislature
assembled in the same room as late as 1342. Their joint
, assent became necessary before any act could become law, in
the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483).
Puritan. According to Fuller, the name was first applied in 1564
(or, as others say, 1569) to persons who, in the time of Queen
Elizabeth, refused to adhere to the episcopal form of worship.
In the reign of Charles I. it was chiefly applied to the Indek
pendents.
RiBBONMEN. Owing to the secret nature of the constitution of this
faction of Irish Roman Catholics, the date of origin is not
known. Some authorities refer it to about the commencement
of the present century : others fix the date twenty years after.
Their outrages are mentioned in March, 1820, and they have
ever since been intimately connected with the troubles of
Ireland. Numerous murders were committed by them in 1858
and 1862.
Radical. The extreme democrats in England first received the
name of Radical about 1819. Derived fi:om radix (root)
because the politicians so called desire to upset or alter tie
constitution from the root or foundation.
Tory and Whig.* The origin of these names is a subject of contro-
versy. Macaulay says (vol. i. p. 267), ' Opponents of the
court were called Birminghams, Petitioners, Exclusioniste.
Those who took the king's side were called anti-Birminghams,
AbhorrerSj Tantivies. These appellations soon became obsolete,
* 1648. 'Argyle drew to aoms in the Highlands, whilst the Western
peasantry, assembling and headed by their divines, repaired to Edinburgh,
This insurrection is called the Whigamore's Raid, from the word whig whig,
i.e. get on, get on, which is used by the Western peasantry in driving their
horses ; a name destined to become the distinction of a powerful party in British
History.'— Sir W. Scott's Tales of a Grandfather.
I
ETYMOLOGICAL DBKIVATI0N8.
20^
n employed
nference.' —
id not then
)egan to be
16 reign of
B legislature
Their joint
)me law, in
led in 1564
ne of Queen
of worship.
the Inddr
itii^n of this
rigin is not
amencement
years after,
id they have
troubles of
!■ ' '
lem in 1858 !
:i
eceived the ^
adix (root) I
)r alter tie
>
;t of contro-
ents of the
sclusionists.
irminghamSj
ne obsolete,
a
the Western
Edinburgh.
i whig whig, \
driving their ^
rty in British |
but at this time were first heard two nicknames still
in daily use. It is a curious circumstance that one of these
nicknames was of Scotch, the other of Irish origin. In Scotland
some of the persecuted Covenanters, driven mad by oppression,
had lately murdered the Primate, taken arms against the
Government, obtained some advantages over the king's troops,
and been finally routed at Both well Brig by Monmouth.
These zealots were most numerous among the rustics of the
western Lowlands, who were vulgarly termed whigs (from
whey, sour milk). Thus the appellation was transferred to
those English politicians who were disposed to treat Protestant
Nonconformists with indulgence. The bogs of Ireland at the
same time afforded refuge to Popish outlaws, much resembling
those afterwards known by the name of Wliiteboys. These men
were then called Tories (which means robbers). The name Tory
was therefore given to those who refused to concur in excluding
a Boman Catholic prince from the throne.' — Macaulay.
For additional information the student is referred to Notes
and Queries, /
Trimmer. A political party, of which Viscount Halifax (temp.
Charles II.) was chief.
* He (Halifax) was the chief of those politicians whom the
two great parties contemptuously called " Trimmers," i.e.
between both, now siding with the one, now with the other.
He assumed it as a title of honour, and vindicated the dignity
of the appellation. " Everything good, he said, trims between
two extremes." ' — Macaulay.
Trimmers were analogous to Peelites.
Adullamite. a name given by Mr. Bright to Mr. Lowe and other
Liberals who differed from their party on the subject of
Reform (1867). The name is taken from the Scripture narra-
tive of David's resort to the cave of AduUam with * all that
were discontented.''
This epithet will probably be applied henceforth to a re-
bellious faction of either political party.
Hustings. * The most noticeable traditions of ancient liberties are
associated with the places where the Things — ihe judicial «dA
204
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
ii 't;
iti
i
legislative assemblies of the Scandinavian nations were wont to
meet. . . . The Northmen introduced their Things into Eng-
land. The very name survives among us as an household word.
A meeting is properly the mote-thingy an assembly of free-
holders, and at the hustings or housething the duly qualified
householders still assemble to delegate their legislative powers
to their representatives in Parliament.' — Taylor's Words and
Places.
Star-Ghamber. The derivation of this term is uncertain. Some
say it arose from the starry decorations of the roof; others
derive it from Sterra (Port.), a parchment, because it was used
as a repository for contracts made with the Jews.
Hallam considers this court originated in the consilium regis
ordinarium — the subject of many statutes from temp. Edward
ni. Though not erected it was remodelled by 3 Henry VII.
(1486). Its constitution and authority were defined more par-
ticularly by 21 Henry VIII. (1529), by which the President of
the Council was made one of the judges. It was abolished by
16 Charles I. (1640). An unsuccessful attempt was made to
revive it in 1662.
The Star Chamber took cognisance both of civil suits and of
criminal offences throughout the time of the Tudors. The civil
jurisdiction claimed and exerted by the Star Chamber was in
general such as now belongs to the Court of Admiralty ; some
testamentary matters, in order to prevent appeals to Rome; and
suits between corporations. The offences principally cognisable
in this court were forgery, perjury, riot, maintenance, fraud,
libel, and conspiracy. But, besides these, every misdemeanofu*
came within the proper scope of its inquiry. Corruption,
breach of trust, and malfeasance in public affairs, or attempts to
commit felony, seem to have been reckoned not indictable at
common law, and came in consequence under the cognisance of
the Star Chamber. The mode of process Was of a summary
nature. The accused person was privately examined, and if
he had confessed enough to deserve sei^.tence it was immediately
awarded. The more regular course of proceeding seems to
have nearly resembled that of the Court of Chancery. It was
BTTMOLOaiCAL DERIVATIONS.
205
held competent for the court to adjudge any punishment short
of death. Fine and imprisonment were of course the most;
usual. The pillory, whipping, branding, and cutting off the
ears, grew into use by degrees.
lemeano;ir
CHAPTER XIX.
PEOULIAB WOBDS.
Amugker, Run-a-Muck, (Malay) amuco, a madman.
Assassin, (Pers.) Hashish^ an intoxicating poison. The name of a
tribe of fanatics, who lived in the mountains of Lebanon, similar
to the Thugs in India.
Bailiff, (Lat.) valluniy a rampart.
Balderdash, possibly from the Scandinavian deity. Balder ; or Ice-
landic, Balldur=:balbuties stultorum ; or Welsh, baldorddus.
Barbican, (Pers.) bdla-khanehj (Mid. Lat.) barba cana, an upper
chamber ; whence also balcony.
Barlet Sugar, corrupted from (Fr.) sucre brule, i.e. burnt sugar.
Bedlam, corrupted from the convent of St. Mary of Bethlehem, as-
signed by the Reformers for the reception of lunatics.
Beefeater, corrupted from Fr. buffetier, buffet = sideboard.
Bigot, from bigote (Sp.), a moustache ; or from old N.-Fr. btgoty
i.e. by God; or possibly corrupted from Visigothz=:a. fierce per-
secutor.
Blackguard, a name given to the lowest servants who attended to
the pots and kitchen utensils of the great on their travels.
Blunderbuss, (Ger.) biichse, applied to a rifle, a box, hence * arque-
bus,' * Brown Bess,' &c.
Bog Latin, i. e. bok-ledene, or book-learning.
Bogie, possibly from BogUj the name of a Scandinavian deiiy.
Bogus, corrupted from Borghese, an American worthy.
BooBT, (Lat.) bubOf an owl ; (Gr.) (iovQ, an ox.
Bosh, a pure gipsy word tor fiddle. — Blackley's Word Ooasip,
Bft40, probably from Bragi,^ the Norse god of mirth and Bong.
206
ANALYSIS OP THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE.
Brigand, (Fr.) brigand ; (Sp.) bregante, a footman armed ; or pos-
sibly, (It.) brigarCy to strive, to brawl.
Buccaneer, (Fr.) boucan, a wooden gridiron, whereon cannibals broil
pieces of flesh ; a term applied to savage pirates.
Buffoon, (Fr.) buffon, the fool in the pantomime, who receives the
buffs or blows for the amusement of the spectators ; possibly
bufo, a toad.
Bunkum, a name derived from some American worthy.
Burlesque, (It.) burlesco, or BernescOy from Francesco Bemi, who
invented this species of composition.
Cannibal, probably a corruption of Carib, or Caribal, a savage West
Indian people.
Canter, i. e. Canterbury gallop, taken from the ambling pace of pil-
grims going to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury.
Charles's Wain, corrupted from ceorVs-wain, or peasant's waggon.
Cheek by Jowl. Sometimes written jig by jowl=* cheek by head '
Jowl means head or gullet.
Chouse, (T«rk.) chiaoua^ a messenger from the Grand Seignor, in
1609, defrauded the Turkish and Persian merchants in London
of 4,000/.
Coax, from cogs-meuy who, in the garb of sailors, practised on the
credulity of those they met by tales of pretended shipwrecks.
Country Dance, corrupted from (Fr.) contredansej i. e. a dance in
which the partners faced each other.
Coxswain. Cog, a fishing-boat, from (A.-S.) cceggian, to confine,
and swain, a servant, or attendant.
Curmudgeon (Fr.) coeur, the heart, and mechant, wicked ; or from
corn-merchant, one subjected to penalties for hoarding grain.
Deuce, possibly from the Scandinavian deity Tiw ; or from (Celt.)
diaus, a corruption of diabolus.
Dodge, to go about like a dog.
DoGCHEAP : dog =* god ' or * good ; ' cA6a/>= market, or barter.
Dudgeon, (A.-S.) dugan, to be strong, whence doughly.
Fellow, possibly Fr. filou=.a, rogue ; or (Low Lat.) felagns, i. e. Jide-
ligatus.
Felon, as above, (¥T.)filou ; oxfeah, beneficium, and (Ger.) Ion, pre-
Hum, i. e. * crime punished by loss of fee : ' or (Gael.^ feall,
treaaon : feallan, a traitor.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
207
Fiacre. St. Fiachra had a shrine at Meaux, twenty-five miles from
Paris. Carriages were kept at an inn for infirm pilgrims.
Fib, (It.) Jiabbare, to sing merry tunes and idle songs, as nurses do
in rocking their children.
Fiend, (A.-S.) Jian, to hate ; or possibly from the Finns, whom tra-
dition described as malignant imps.
Flash, a wild district between Macclesfield and Buxton, the gipsy
squatters on which used a barbarous slang.
Flitch, same aafleischj ov fiesh (Germ.).
Franchise, from Frank, denotes the possession of full civil rights of
the conquering race.
Gab, (A.-S.) gabban, to scoff.
Gaffer, (Fr.) grand-pere, grandfather, some say godfather.
Galloshes, i. e. Gallo shoes, or French shoes.
Gammer, (Fr.) grand'mere, grandmother, or some say godmother.
Gammon, (It.) gamha, (Fr.) jambe, possibly connected with gambol.
Gauntlet, vide chap. X.
Gawby, perhaps a gap-y, i. e. a gaping fool, dunce, or blockhead.
Gawky, (A.-S.) gcec, a cuckoo.
Gewgaw, (A.-S.) gegaf, from gegifan, to give away.
Gibberish, from Geber, an obscure Eastern writer on Alchemy.
Girl, ( A.-S.) ceorl, properly a peasant of either sex.
GoosEBERRY-FOOL, (A.-S.) fulUau, to beat, to press down.
Growl, (Ger.) grollen, as if ge-rollen, to murmur.
GRUFF=rough, from ge, participle prefix, and (A.-S.) ruh, or rug, or
rough", p. part, of reffan, to rive.
Haberdasher. Berdash was a sort of necktie. Haberdasher means
berdasher.
Hammercloth, i. e. hanaper or hamper cloth. In olden times it was
usual to cover the hamper which contained provisions with a
cloth. This hamper was placed in front of the cairriage, and
served as a seat ibr the driver.
HABRiDAN^one harried, or worn out, from (Fr.) harrier, to harry ;
or (Wallon) hdrde'-dain, gap-toothed, applied to an old woman.
— Wedgewood.
Hoax, from hocus-pocus. Hocus-pocus, corrupted from Hoc est meum
corpus ; the word was used in aversion to the Romish doctrine
208
1
fl
Amysis OP THE .POLISH ..^atAOE.
Of transubstintiation. Others d^^V •. .
the Stag, fl,e perquMte of fc fce!t 7^ " "'" *^« '^^ of
Hu«Buo=a pk-oe of Hamburg ne„.?r c""**^-
fc^OL^ss, (Ge,-.) hausenilaslJkZ;,'^^ ^'^'^ ^<"««'«« canard
Jabgok, posriWy from (It.) cC^oor / "^'°''' *'"**' 'h^Wadder
^^rrT^anwi''^^'^^'''^"''--'^-
blockhead ^-^ ""'' = ''"P'^' »<> "O^^ = knoll = iead •
.' ^^^'^ ff^uncata, (Ft.) ionrh/^
Ldmbep, from Lombard Th» T„ ., ,
^ pawnbrokers. ' ' ^°"''"'^'' ^«« ^e fir^ b,^,„ ^^
UGBE. The OerPfl «i. tt •
BTTMOLOaiCAL DERIVATIONS.
20D
= Venetian win-
gyrare ad aotem,
aoll = head, i. e.
\e Ural, sup-v
Old NiCKfNikr, the dangerous water- demon of Scandinavian legends.
Old Scratch, from the demon Skrattiy which still survives in the
superstitions of Northern Europe.
Otes, O tes, i. e. Oyez, Oyez, Hear ye, Hear ye.
Pantaloon, (It.) pianta leone^ * the Planter of the Lion,* i. «.
Standard-bearer of Venice; the Lion of St. Mark was the
standard of Venice.
PiCCAR00N=a plunderer ; (Fr.) piqueron^irom picorer,i.Q. pecorare, to
steal pecora.
Poltroon, (Lat.) pollice truncus^ lame, or maimed in the thumb, to
escape military service.
POTWALLOPER, from pot-wabblcr, i.e. pot-boiler; (A.-S.) wappelian, to
boil. One who boiled a pot within the precincts of the borough,
within a certain time of the election, had the right of voting.
Punch and Judy, supposed to be from Pontius cum Judceis, i. e.
Pontius Pilate and the Jews ; possibly a mediaeval play, or
mystery.
Quandary, from (Fr.) Qu'en dirai-je ? * What shall I say of it? '
Rascal, (A.-S.) a lean deer. *
Riffraff, (A.-S.) redfian, to take away : tattered, worn, or worthless .
people.
Rigmarole, uncertain. The ragman's role occurs in Sir T. More^
Fox, Skelton, &c.
Robber, (Ger.) rauben, (A.-S.) redfian, to rip, rob, take away.
Scaramouch, (Fr.) escarmoucheur, a skirmisher.
Scoundrel, (Lat.) abscondere, to hide.
Scullion, (Fr.) escuelle, a platter ; esatllien, a washer of dishes.
Shotover, or Shooter, from chdteau vert.
Skipper, (Old Norse) skipveri, a sailor.
Skylarking : Latham says from (A.-S.) Idc, a game, or a sport.
Slubber de GhjLLiON=slubbering glutton ; (Fr.) goulu, gluttonous.
Spick and Span New, (Du.) spyker a warehouse, and spange, shining.
Sterling, vide chap. XIV.
Tariff, tarifa. Cruisers plundered vessels passing the Straits of
Gibraltar, and levied toll. See p. 177.
Tatterdemallion, (It.) tattere, to tear, and mallionf of unceirtain
pi^tifming and origin.
210
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Thunder, from Thunor, or Thor, a Scandinavian deity; whence
Thursday.
TiNTiHARRE, a noise, or clashing ; (Fr.) tinter, to ring, and marrey a
mattock.
Urchin, (Fr.) herisson, (Lat.) erinaceus, a sea hedgehog.
Walnut, means 'foreign' nut, from Walschland, or Italy, cf. Wales,
Cornwall.
: Ml
ill
CHAPTER XX.
WOBDS IN COKMON VSE WITH OBSCVBE DEBIYATIONS.
Abominable, (Lat.) ahominory from ah and omeuy really applicable
to what is detestable in a religious light — of evil omen.
Absurd, (Lat.) ah and surduSj deaf; such an answer as one would
expect to get from a ' deaf man.
Academy, (Gr.) dmSi^/u ta, a grove near Athens, where Plato and
other philosophers were wont to lecture. Hence a name trans-
ferred to places of instruction.
Acorn, (A.-S.) €^c=oak and corUf oak-corn.
Address, (Lat. and It.) ad and dirigere.
Adultery, (Lat.) ad and alteimm or alteranif to another.
Ajar, i.e. a-cAar=on the turn^ (A.-S.) cyran^ to turn.
Algebra, (Ar.) from Geber, an obscure writer on Alchemy.
Alligator, (Sp.) el lagarto, or (Lat.) lacerta^ the lizard.
Allow, (Fr.) allouer^ (Lat.) adlaudare.
Almanac, (Ar.) aZ, the, (Gr.) /u^*', month.
Answer, (A.-S.) andswarian, to answer, (Goth.) and^ against,
swararif to swear.
Anthem, (A.-S.) anteferif (Low Lat.) antiphonOf (Gr.) avr'npiavov.
Argosy, possibly from the Argos, which Jason commanded.
Assault, (Lat.) assultumy part, of assilirey to leap against.
Attorney, (Fr.) attoumery to take a turn, to transfer.
Awkward, imcertain, possibly from (Dan.) aver-rechts ward, c[. d.
* looking from the right.' See p. 161.
ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
211
Bachelor, (Fr.) baa chevalier, next to a banneret.
Balance, (Lat.) bilanx, an instrument for weighing, composed of
two dishes or scales.
Ballad, (It.) ballata, from ballarCy to dance ; whence ballet.
Balluster, (Lat.) balltsta, (It.) baleatra^ a cross-bow; baleatriera^
a loophole to shoot from.
Bankrupt, (It.) banco rotto, (Fr.) banqueroute, i.e. bench-broken.
The Lombard merchants were wont to expose their wares for
sale on benches in the market. When one could not pay
his debts, the rest drove him away and broke his bench to
' pieces.
Banns, (Ger. and Dutch) bann-en, bann, (A.-S.) bannan, to publish,
to proclaim. Hence * banna ' of marriage, * bandit,' an out-
law, &c.
Banquet, (Ger. and Dan.) banchet, from bank, a bench.
Barrister, (Low Lat.) bairasterius, possibly from (Fr.) barreauj the
bar of a court of justice.
Belfry, (Fr.) beffroi, a watch-tower.
Billiard, or Balliard, augm. from ball ; (Ger. and Dan.) bollerif
to roll.
Bullion, (Lat.) bulla, a seal ; properly the mint, or oflSce.
BuRCjjiAR, (Lat.) burgi-latrocinium, the plundering of a house.
Cabbage, (Fr.) caboche, (Lat.) capuccio, from caput.
Caitiff, (Lat.) captivus, a captive.
Cajole, from cage, (Lat.) cavea, to sing in a cage.
Candidate, (Lat.) candidus, white : one seeking office went about in
a white toga. ..
Canopy, (Mod. Gr.) Kiavuirelov, a mosquito curtain, fr. Ki!jva)\p, a gnat.
Carat, (At.) kavra, a bean ; the standard weight for diamonds.
Cardinal, (Lat.) cardo, a hing*^ ; hence critical, principal.
Carnival, (Lat.) camera vale.
Carouse, (Ger.) gar, completely, entirely ; aus, out, i. e. to drink all
out
Cash, (Lat.) capsa, from capio, to take.
Chaqrin, (Fr.) chagrin, care, grief; (Genoese) sagrind, to gnaw;
(Pied.) aagri, shagreen, a shark's akin used as a rasp in polish-
ing.
?12
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGUSH LANOUAGB.
•!i
Chair, (Gr.) KaOidpOy (Lat.) cathedra, or (A.-S.) cyran^ to turn.
Chancel, a cancellis. Vide chap. XV.
Charm, (Lat.) carmen^ i. e. magictim.
Chattel, Cattle, (Lat.) capitalia, from caputs the head.
Cheat, (Lat.) cadere, to fall. The word ' escheats ' was first applied
to lands which fell to the crown by forfeiture. The * escheators,'
or king's officers, were guilty of so much fraud, that at last the
word, corrupted into ' cheat,' was used in a bad sense.
Cheer, (Gr.) xalpuVf or (Fr.) oceur, the heart.
Chimnet, (Gr.) Kaynvot, from Kaiuv, to bum.
City, (Lat.) civitas, a state.
Clever, commonly derived from deliver (?), allied to cleaver.
Club, (A.-S.) cleofan, to divide, to apportion expenses.
Cluhst, from clumps, (Dan.) klompe, a mass, (A.-S.) ge-lmaUf to
connect.
Comedt, (Gr.) Kui^rif a village, and ^cri, a song ; at first a sort of
village festival or harvest-home.
Companion, (Lat.) con, together, paniSf bread; one who has the
fellowship of eating bread.
Control, contra, against, and rotuluSf a roll.
Copse, (Gr.) kowtuv, to cut down.
CosTERM0NOER=costardmonger, costard = kind of apple.
Couch, (Lat.) collocare.
Counterpane, (Lat.) culcita puncta, a quilt arranged in patterns for
ornament ; (Fr.) coulte-pointe, courte-pointe, contre-pointe ;
whence the name.
Court, (Lat.) cohors.
Cousin, (Lat.) consanguineus (con sanguis), of the same blood.
Coverlet, (Lat.) codperire ledum, (Fr.) couvre-lit.
CuPBOARDscup horde, a cup or press for cups, or cup-bur, i.e. cup-
bower, (Icel.) hur=a receptacle.
Curfew, (Lat.) codperire focum, (Fr.) couvre-feu.
Dainty, (Welsh) dantaeth=a. choice morsel, (Lat.) a dente,
Daisy, the day's eye.
Damage, (Lat.) damnum agere.
Dandelion, (Fr.) dent de lion, lion's tooth
Pavtoe^, (Lat.) damnum gerere.,
.4'
1
'■- 'W
VTTMOLOeiOAL DEBIVATIONa
213
Delight, (Lat.) delicia.
Delirious, (Lat.) de, lira^ a furrow or ridge ; a metaphor taken
from a person deviating from the straight furrow or ridge in
ploughing.
Demub, (Lat.) demorarif to delay.
Demure, (Lat.) de moribua, of good manners. .
Denizen, (Welsh) dinaa^ a city, and aydd, free.
Diet, a council, or parliament, (Lat.) from dies, a day.
Diet, a feast, (Gr.) Uavra.
Dirge, (Lat.) dirige^ so called from Psalm v. 8 : ' Dirige, Domine
Deus rneWf in conspectu tuo vitam meam.^
Disaster, a word borrowed from astrology, (Gr.) Bve and &<rTpov»
Doff = do-off.
DoN=do-on.
Dole, (A.-S.) dcBlan, to divide, a share or portion.
Doll, (Dan.) dol, senseless, stupid ; whence dolt.
Dozen, (Lat.) duodecimo twelve.
Drone, (A.-S.) drygan, to expel.
Dropsy, (Lat.) hydrops, (Gr.) iJSwp, water.
Drug, (A.-S.) drygan, to dry.
Easter, vide chap. XV.
Eaves, (A.-S.) efese, the brink, ridge, or edge of anything.
Egg-on, (A.-S.) eggian, to incite, or urge on.
Elope, (Belg.) loopen, to run. Vide * Gauntlet.'
Engine, (Lat.) ingenium.
Equip, (Lat.) ephippiare, or equum ephippio instmere.
Errand, (Goth.) ara, to employ.
Etre, (Lat.) iter, a journey.
EYRT=eggery, i.e. a collection of eggs; an eagle's nest.
Bysell, (A.-S.) eisile, vinegar, from eggian. Vide supra
Fagot, (Ijat.)/a^Ms, a beach-tree.
Fain, {X.-^.^ fcegenian, to rejoice.
Fair, (A.-S.) /cB^rer, joy or gladness.
Fair, (JloX.) ferre, forum.
Fallow, (A.-S.) /eaZo, pale yellow-coloured.
Fare, (A.-S.) ^aran, to go.
Faubourg, i.e. fwas hurgi, the outside of the town.
214
A5ALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Ferry, (A.-S.)/a?'an, to go.
Filibeg, (Gael.) Jilleadh = a. fold or cloth, and beg =\ittle.
FiLiGRANE, (lt&\.) filigrana, (LB.t.)Jilum and granum.
Fiscal, (Fr.)fi8qu€, a bag, (L&t) fiscus.
Foolscap, (It.) foglio capo, a chief or full-sized sheet of paper ;
foglio, from (Lat.)/o/iMm, a leaf.
Fret, (A.-S.) /refan, +0 fret, to gnaw.
Friar, (Lat.) frater, a brother.
Furbish, (Fr.) fourbir, (It.) forbire ; possibly from Lat. purua.
Furnish, (It.) /ornace, (Lat.) ybrnax, (Gr.) irvp, fire.
Gadfly = goad-fly, i. e. fly that goads, or pricks.
Gambol, or Gambauld (Fr.) gambiller, to wag the legs, (Fr.) jambe.
Garment, (Fr.) garnir, to adorn or garnish, i.e. the body, by raiment.
Gazette, a Venetian coin, the price of a newspaper; thence the
paper itself. -
Gooseberry, i.e. gorse berry.
Gossip, (A.-S.), properly a sponsor, or one related to God.
Grimace, (Lat.j gryma, a mask.
Grocer, (Fr.) gros, one who sells or buys things by the gross.
Gross, (Fr.) gros, (Lat.) crassus.
Grouse, (Fr.) gros, (Lat.) crassus ; or possibly from gorse.
Guerdon, (A.-S.) wardian, to look at, to guard, cf. reward.
Guitar, (Lat.) cithara.
Haggard, (A.-S.) hcegesse, a witch.
Hammock, (Caribbsean).
Harangue, (A.-S.) hringan, to sound.
Harbinger, (Dan. and Ger.) herberger=^one who looks out for a
harbour, or lodging for another.
Harbour, (A.-S.) here, an army, beorgan, to protect.
Harpoon, (Lat.) harpago, Gr. apiraiiuv.
Harvest, (Goth.) ar=year, and vest=food.
Hawk, (A.-S.) hafoc, whence havoc.
HEATHEN=dwellers on the heath. After the towns were Christian-
ised, many of the rural districts were pagan.
Heifer, (A.-S.) heah-fore ; hedh =high, and /ore = step, or fodder.
Heirloom, (A.-S.) gelSma, household stuff, furniture, stock, store ;
(Lat.) heresj an heir.
^. 4
11
i
BTTMOLOOICAL DERIVATIONS.
215
I
Hrkald, (A.-S.) here-healt — champion of the army.
Hermit, (Lat.) eremita, (Gr.) iprf^lrrii, from ipttfio^, a dcHert.
Herrino, (A.-S.) herSf an >> ny, to express their numbers.
Host, (Lat.) hostiSj an enemy.
Host, (Lat.) hoapes, an entertainer.
Host, (Lat.) hoatiay a sacrifice.
Hurdle = a little hoard or building.
Hurricane, (Sp. W. Indian) ouragan- a storm.
Hurry, (A.-S.) Aere, an army ; whence herian, to ravage, to plundei.
Hence also ' harry,' ' hurry,' * harrow,' &c.
Husband, (A.-S.) house-bond.
Imbecile, (Lat.) in baculum, one who leans on a stick.
Impair, (Lat.) pejor, worse.
Individual, derived from Logic. Dividing genus into species, and
so on, we come at last to the unit, which we cannot divide^
except physically; hence ' individuum,' i.e. * nondivisible.'
Ingot, (Fr.) lingot, from lingua^ q. d. tongue- shaped, or (Du.) in-
gieten, to infuse.
Intrigue, (Lat. and Gr.) tncce, rpix^i, hairs, entanglements.
Inveigle, (It.) invogliare, to make one willing or desirous.
Invoice, (Lat.) in viam, on the way.
Ivory, (Lat.) ebur, (Gr.) /3apwc=heavy.
Jaded, (A.-S.) yede or yode= goed or gone, one tired with going.
Janissary, (Turk.) yengi cheri, or new soldier.
Jargon, vide chap. XIX.
Jaw, (A.-S.) chatv, from ceowan, to chaw.
Jenneting, corrupted from ' Juneting.' zVpples which ripen in June,
Jig, conjectured to be from (Fr.) gigue, (It.) giga, a fiddle.
Jorden, (A.-S.) g6r=fi\th, and c?e»= receptacle.
Jowle, written also choule (Lat,) gula, the gullet.
Juice, (Lat.) succus, sugere, to suck.
Julep, (Low Latin) yM/ep«s= water sweetened with sugar.
Kennel, (Lat.) canis, a dog.
Kerchief, (Fr.) couvre-chef.
Kidnap, q. d. to nab or steal children : ^'lnc?=child.
Knave, (A.S.) cnafa, a boy, a youth. - '
Knife, (A.-S.) cnif. Some derive it from (Gr.) KvLvtiv, to scrape.
Si^BK««««V
216
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
' 1
Laceet, (Sw.) laquerCj or lakere, a runner; whence 'leg.'
Lad, (A.-S.) Icedan, to lead, q. d. one led.
LamfoOxs^ (^'O lamponier, an idle companion, from old Fr. Uxmptr^
to drink.
Larum, (It.) alV amii=ito arms 1
Lass, i. e. laddess, fem. of lad.
League, a confederacy ; (Lat.) Zt^are, to bind.
League, a distance ; (Fr.) lieu, (Low Lat.) leucaf (A.-S.) Uag^ liahf
lah, a law ; a district in which a particular law was in force.
Leather, (A.-S.) lether, from (A.-S.) hlidan, to cover up.
Lecherous, (A.-S.) liccian, to lick.
Lees, (A.-S.) licjan, to lie, v\'hat remains at the bottom of the bottlu.
Leman, (Fr.) le mtgnon, or Vaimant.
Lettuce, (Lat.) lactuca, from lac, milk.
Lewd, (Lat.) laicus, (Gr.) Xaoc, same as layman; possibly from
(A.-S.) Icewede, p. part, of Icewian, to mislead.
Liquorice, corrupted from (Gr.) glycyri'hiza=sweet root.
Lizard, (Lat.) lacerta.
Lobby, (Low Lat.) lohium, (Ger.) laube=a. leaf.
Lobster, (A.-S.) loppestre, loppe=za, flea.
Luncheon, corrupted from noonshun, i. e. meal taken at noon.
Mace, (It.) mazza, (Lat.) massa, a club ; whence ' massacre.' '
Mackerel, (Dan.) makrel, some say a maculis, from its spots.
Madrigal, anciently Madriale, (It., Sp., Lat) mandra, a sheep-
fold, q. d. a shepherd's song.
Maggot, (Goth.) matjan, (A.S.) metian, to eat; whence moth, &c.
Malady, (Lat.) male aptus.
Malein, t. e. little Mary.
Man, (A.-S.) ma^an=/)osse; whence may, might, &c.
Massacre, see above, ' Mace.'
Mastiff, from maison-tenant, or ' mase the thefe,' because he guards.
the house from the thief.
Meal, (A.-S.) md^l, a part, or portion.
Meal, (Dan.) meel, (Goth.) malan, (Ger.) malen, (Lat.) moiere, tor
grind.
Measles, (Du.) maese, (Ger.) maser, a spot.
Meat, (A.-S.) metiuUf to eat.
ETYMOLOGICAL DBMVATIOira.
217
"MxxTiSQ, i. e. mot-thing (Sc.). Motescouncil ; thingssjudicial as-
sembly, an assembly of freemen.
Megrim, (Lat.) hemicraniuni, (Gr.) ^/L(tic/9avia=pain round the middle
of the head.
Menial, (Old Fr.) meanie^ a household.
Mess, (Lat.) missus^ from mittere, to send. *
MiKABiT, (Ar.) menarahj a lantern.
MmcE, (Lat.) minutusj small.
MiNiATUBE, (Lat.) mmmm= red lead: miniare^ to paint with yer-
mUion.
Minion, (Fr.) mignon^ (A.-S.) mdencun, velle, cupere.
MoB:=mo6t/« vulgus. Game into use temp. Charles II. Dryden
uses * mobile,* and mentions ' mob ' as a novelty.
MoLB, (Lat.) moleSf a heap, a mess.
MoNKET, from mannikin, a little man.
Morass, (Dan.) morads, another mode of writing marsh; (A.-S.) wersc.
Morganatic, (A.-S.) morgen-gifey (Dan.) morgangaue=z the mormng
gift; a kind of dowry paid on the morning before or after
marriage.
MoROPS, (Lat.) mos and osus^ a man full of his own ways.
Mortise, (Lat.) mordere, to bite.
Mosque, (Ar.) mesgid, a place of adoration.
Muggy, (Welsh) mwglio, to warm.
MuMUT, (Ar.) murriy signifies wax.
Munch, (Fr.) manger , to eat.
Mustard, (Lat.) mustus, pungent, and ardeo, to bum.
Muster, (Lat.) monatrarey to show.
Mustache, (Gr.) /ivcTa^, an upper lip.
Nap, (A.-S.) hnappian, to sleep.
Nap, (A.-S.) hnoppa, the same word as knapf Jcnop, or ^noJ=any-
thing rising.
Neat, (A.-S.) hmtan=to butt; means properly horned cattle.
Neat, (Lat.) nitidus, clean, nice.
Neighbour, (A.-S.) neah, near, and gebure, a country man, or bowery
a dwelling.
Nephew, (Lat.) nepos.
Niece, (Lat.) neptis.
hi
t
-41
m
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-If. ■ ¥1
218
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Nettle, (A.-S.) netle, possibly the same origin for needle, i. e. that
which pricketh.
Never, (A.-S.) ncsfre, na=not, and cefre=^ever.
Niggard (augmentative), from nigh, or (A.-S.) nyrwan, to constrain
Nightingale, (Ger.) nacht-i-gall : nacht, night, and gdllen, to resoimd
Noon, (A.-S.) won, (Lat.) {hora nona), the ninth hour. >
Nostril, (A.-S.) nose-thirle, i. e. nose-hole : thirliarij to pierce ;
whence * drill.'
Nuisance, (Lat.) noceo, to hurt.
Oar, (A.-S.) erianf to plough, to ply.
Offal, i . e. that which ' falls off.'
Omelet, (Fr.) omelette^ q. d. ceufs-molette, i. e. mixture of eggs.
Onion, (Lat.) unus, i.e. a root with one bulb.
Ooze, (A.-S.) wse=water ; whence Ouse, Usk, Esk, and other rivers.
Orchard, corrupted from hortyard, (Lat.) Aor^i^s :=garden, (A.-S.)
1/ard, an enclosure.
Ordeal, (A.-S.) orddsl ; or !=great, and deBl=:judgment.
Orddre, (Lat,) either horridus, or sordidua.
Ore, (A.-S.) ora^ (Fr.) or, (Lat.) aurum.
Orgies, (Lat.) orgia, avb r^c opy^c, i. e. a furore bacchantium.
Ospray, i.e. ossifrage, (Lat.) os, a bone, and frangere, to break.
Ostler, (A.-S.) hosteler, vide * Host : ' some say, oat-stealer !
Ostrich, (Lat.) avis struthio, (Gr.) (TTpovd6e=a, sparrow.
Otter, (A.-S.) oter^ (Lat) Intra, (Gr.) vSwjo.
Owl, (Lat.) ululare, (A.-S.) ule.
Paddock, (A.-S.) pad, a toad.
Paddock, coirupted from (A.-S.) parruck, a park.
PagaN, (Lat.) paganus, a villager. Vide * Heathen.'
Palette, (Fr.) paille, (Lat.) palea, straw.
Palfrey, (Fr) par le frein, by the bridle. A horse led by the
bridle.
Palliate, (Lat.) pallium, n cloak.
Palst, (Gr.) 7ra/oaXv<rtc, «.«. paralysis.
Pamper, (Fr. ) pampre, (Lat.) pampinus, a ▼ine-leaf.
Pamphlet = papers stitched together jsar WW j?/€f.
Paradise, (Ancient Persian) ; whence irapahlffoQ, a park.
pA^iAMOUR, (Fr.) par amour,
ii
'.I
ST f MO LOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
219
the
Pabgel,. (It.) parttcella, a little part ; hence ' particle.'
Parlous, (Ft.) parloir, the room in a nunnery where the nuns are
allowed to speak with a visitor.
Parrot, (Fr.) perroquet, from Ferroty dim. of Pierre (Peter).
Parjs... " ^' , ^Fr.) persilf (Lat.) petroselinum,
Parsnep, (^Lat.) pastinaca ; the nep is the same in turnip, q. v.
Partridge, (Lat.) perdrix.
Peacock, (A.-S.) pawa^ (Fr) paon^ (Lat.) pavo.
Peasant, (Fr.) paysariy (Lat.) pagqnusy a rustic.
Pebble, (A.>S.) paboL
Peculiar, ^a.t.) peculium, stock (pecus) or money acquired by son or
slave with parental sanction; hence 'private property.'
Pedlar. A pad, ped, in Norfolk, is a pannier, or wicker basket ;
a pedlar, or peddar, a man who carricj such.
Pell-mell, (Ft.) pesle-meslej confusedly ; milee, or medley.
Pennant, (liai.) pinna, a feather, or flap; posaibly from pendant (Fr.).
Person. The Roman theatres were ho large that the actors wore
masks containing a contrivance to render the voice louder.
Such a mask was called persona (per, sonare, to sound through) ;
aflei'wards persona came to signify an actor, or a character of
a play.
Pilgrim, (Fr.) pelerin, (Lat.) peregrinus, from per ager.
Pillory, (Fr.) pilier, the pillar, or post, or (Lat.) piliorium, the iron
ring by which the neck was confined.
Pirate, (It., Sp., I-at.) pirata ; (Gr.) trtipariiq, because he risks many
dangers.
Pitcher, (Fr.) pichier, (It.) bicchiere, a beaker, or beaked cup.
Placard, (Fr.) plaquard ; plaquer, to stick, daub, or paste on.
Plagiarism, (Lat.) plagium, meant man- stealing ; now it means a
literary theft.
Plunder, (Low Ger.) /)ZMnc?en=rags, trumpery; (Dutch) plonderen.
This word, it is said, was introduced after the Thirty Years' War.
Pocket, (diminutive), a little poke, or wallet.
Poll-tax. Poll, or boll, means *hef H '
Pommel, (It.) pomolo, dim. of porno, ai. cwpple; so any round head.
Porcupine, (It.) porco spinoso, q. d. porcus spinatus.
Porpoise, (Lat.) jaorcMS /)wcis— pig-fish.
f*'
m
«f*M
^■^i
m
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
i' 1
I
Porridge, (Lat.) porrumj a leek ; also said to be a corruption of
pottage.
Posset, (Lat.) pottOy a draught.
TREACHf (LbX.) predicare.
Prowl, (Fr.) proiej prey, q. d. to seek for prey.
Pudding, (Fr.) boudin, (Low Lat.) hodinua^ a sleeve, large and loose.
PoNCH, (Hindoo) pounch^ five, because made of five ingredients.
Punt, (Fr.) puis-nd^ (Lat.) pos<-nafi<ms=8ince bom; hence sickly,
inferior, diminutive. From the same source, pony^ puisne judge.
Purchase, (Fr.) pour-chasser.
Puzzle, q.d.|)oste, from |70«e, i.e. postulate.
Pyramid, (La.t.) pyramis, (Gr.) vvp, '
Quack, (Du.) to make the noise of frogs, ducks. ' ; /;
Quagmire, (Lat.) ^uatto, to shake.
Quaint, (Lat.) comp<t<5, com«r«, to dress, or deck.
Qualm, (A.-S.) cwealmf from cwellanj to quell.
Quarrel, (Lat.) ^M^r^Za, a complaint. '.'
Queer, g'Mt«r=bad. — Wedgwood.
Quinsy, (Fr.) esquinande^ (Gr.) awayxri.
Quire, (Fr.) carreau^ or quarreaUj a square, or bundle of square
papers.
Quiver, (Fr.) couvrir, (Lat.) cooperire.
Quoit, possibly corrupted from CM<, from Lat. co-»r«.
Rabbit, (Lat.) rapidus, swift.
Babbit, (TF6M)=rarebit, or morsel.
Racket, (Lat.) rete^ a net.
Radish, (Lat.) radix, a root.
Baffle, (Dan.) rajler, (Lat.) rapere.
Bally, (Lat.) re-alligare.
Bamble, (Lat.) re-ambulare.
Bancour, (Fr.) rancceury (Lat.) rancor.
Bandom, ( A.-S.) rennan, to flow, and dun, down.
Bansack, (A.-S.) raUf to plunder, and secarij to seek.
Bansom, (Lat.) rcrfmpfeo (?).
Beligion, (Lat.) reZt^^ar^.
Bent, (Lat.) reditus.
Bbpartes, a return thrust in fencing.
BtYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS.
221
Reverie, (Fr.) reaver, to rave.
Reward, (Lat.) re, back, and (A.-S.) wardian, to look.
Rhubarb, (Lat.) Rha-barbarum. So called because brought from the
banks of the Rha, now the Volga.
Ribald, (Fr.) ribaud, possibly re and baldo (It.), q.d. very bold.
Rival, (Lat.) rivuSj a stream, a source of contention to neighbouring
proprietors.
Round, (A.-S.) rondCf a border, (Lat.) rotundus.
Rudder, (A.-S.) rother, (Du.) roeder, the broader part of an oar.
Ruffian, (Fr.) ruffien, from ruff, to raise a tumult.
Russet, (Lat.) rusms, somewhat rosy or red.
Saffron, (Sp. and Ar.) atafran.
Salad, (Lat.) sal, salt.
Salamander, (Gr.) aaXafxavlpa.
Salary, (Lat.) sal, because salt formed part of every payment. ,.
Salmon, (Lat.) a saliendo, from the leaps it makes. . .^
Saloon, (Goth.) saljan, to dwell, to lodge.
Samphire =herb of St. Peter (St. Pierre).
Sarcasm, (Gr.) aapK&i^eiv, to tear the flesh.
Savage, (Lat.) i. e. silvage, frt)m silva=a, wood.
Sauce, (Lat) sal, salt.
SAUNTERER=a Vagrant begging on pretence of going a pilgrimage
to la sainte terre ; some say from aun^er=adventure, t. e. one
idling in quest of adventures.
Scarf, (Fr.) escharpe ; derivation uncertain.
Scarlet, (Low Lat.) scarletum ; possibly connected with caVf in care,
flesh.
Scavenger, (A.-S.) sceafan, to scrape.
Scourge, (Lat.) corrigia, a strap.
Scrawl, corrupted from scrabble, or scribble, (Lat.) scribo.
Scupper, (Ger.) schopfen, to draw off.
Secure, (Lat.) 5t7?e cura, i. e. free from care.
Shagreen, (Pers.) sdghre, or sa^Air=leather prepared from skin.
Sillt, (Ger.) selig, pious.
Sincere, (Lat.) sine cerdy without wax, i.e. jewelry solid, not hol-
lowed and filled with wax.
Skibmisb, (Fr.) McarmoucAer.
r'
1-11
222
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGB.
Sluice, from (Lat.) clausus (?), (It) sclusa.
Sofa, (Pers.) so/at.
Solecism, (Gr.) aoXoiKifffjidsf from Soli, a town of Cilicia, the people
of which corrupted pure Greek.
Somersault, i. e. sopra salto, or supra aalire.
Sorcerer, (Lat.) sors, a lot.
Sparrow, (Goth.) sparva.
Spider, or Spinner (A.-S.) apinnan, to spin.
Spouse, (Lat.) spondere, to pledge, (Gr.) n^iwvyn, to pour out. In
making contracts it was customary to pour out libations to the
Gods.
Squirrel, (Gr.) oKla, ohpd. ada, a shade ; oi^pa, a tail.
Stallion, (It.) stallonef i.e. equus ad 8tallum=a. horse kept in the
stable.
Stannary, (Lat.) stannum, tin. ^
Stark, (A.-S.) stare, sterc, strong, hard.
Starve, (Dan.) sterven, (Ger.) aterben, (A.-S.) steorfan, to die, or
cause to die. Mr. Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, first used
the word starvation, in one of his speeches on the American
War, 1775.
Steward, i.e. s<e<?e ware? = keeper of the place.
Stimulate, (Lat.) stimulus, a goad.
Stipend, (Lat.) atipendium, from slips, pay, and pendere, to pay.
Stipulate, (Lat.) stipula, a straw, used to ratify a covenant.
Sturdy, (Fr.) dtourdi, (It.) stordire, to make dizzy.
Sturgeon, (Ger.) stor, (A.-S.) styrian, to stir, to move.
Subtle, (Lat.) subtilis=sub tela, a web consisting of fine threads.
Sulky, (A.-S.) solcen, (Lat.) solus.
Surgeon, (Lat.) chirurgus, (Gr.) x^tpowpyoc {xelp and spyoy),
Swain, (A.-S.) 8wincan=to labour.
Swine, some say, corrupted from «oM>6n, plural of sow.
Sycophant, a ' fig-shew er' =an informer. The export of figs from
Attica was forbidden.
Tabbard, (Fr.) tabarre, a long riding-cloak.
TAi>POLE=toad poll, I.e. * toad-head.'
Tallow, (Du.) talgh, (A.-S.) telgan, to smear.
T Ais tvf Y, (Lat.) tantdvi, ,.:'
m
Btymolooical derivations.
*22^
Task, (Lat.) taxare, same as tax.
Tattoo, (Polynesian), or possibly from tapoter tous='besA all.
Teach, (A.-S.) tdecan, to instruct, direct
Teem, Team, (A.-S.) tyman, to pour forth.
Temper, (Lat.) temperare.
Tennis, derived from (Fr.) tenez^ take; a word used in playing the
game.
Testy, (Fr.) teste, or tetej the head.
Tether, possibly from the verb to tie.
Theriac, Treacle, (Gr.) dnptuKti , the word means viper's blood.
THIMBLE=<^MmJ-6eW.
Threshold, (A.-S.) thrcecswald : threscian, to beat, t:;a^c?=wood.
Ticket, (Fr.) etiquette, a little tick, or bell, or note.
Timber, (A.-S.) timhnan, to build, or construct.
Tinsel, (Fr.) e'tincelle, (Lat.) scintilla, a spark.
Tissue, (Lat.) fex'o, to weave.
Toilette, (Lat.) telum, a thread. <
Tornado, (Sp.) tornar, to turn.
Torpedo, (Lat.) toipere, to benumb.
Tortoise, (Sp.) tortuga, either from tarda, sJow, or torta, twisted.
Towel, (Fr.) touaille, possibly from the same root as toilet.
Trance, (Lat.) trans, acrosb, and eo, to go.
Tribulation, (Lat.) trihulum, a roller to thrash out wheat; the word
is metaphorically used.
Trifle, (A.-S.) trifelan, to pound, to break ; possibly from trivial.
Trigger = that which drags (Du.) dragge, drecken, to drag.
Trim, (A.-S.) tryman, to set in order.
Trinket, (Fr.) trinquet, means properly the highest sail of a ship.
Trivial, (Lat.) tres vice, a place where three ways met, from gossips
meeting at street corners ; or from (Lat.) trivium, the elementary
course of instruction ; possibly from tero.
Truant, (Du.) trouwant, a wanderer.
Trumpery, (Du.) trompen, to deceive, (Fr.) tromper,
Turbot, possibly from (Lat.) turbo, a top.
Turnip, from turn, and (A.-S.) ncepe^napm.
Tweak, (A.-S.) twiccian, to pluck.
Twins, (A.-S) twinauj to double, to 'twain.'
if
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[I '."'I
;2
224
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
1
Twirl, (A.-S.) thirlian, to tiirn round or about.
Ugly, (A.-S.) oguj great fear; whence 'ogre' (?). See p. 208.
Umpire, (Lat.) nonpar, having no equal, t. e. * sole judge.'
Usher, (Lat.) oatiarius, a door-keeper.
Valet, same as varlet=haT\ot, or hireling.
Vassal, possibly from (Lat.) vas, a pledge.
Venison, (Lat.) venor, to hunt.
Venom, (Lat.) venenum, poison.
Verdigris, a viride cBm='from the green of brass.'
Vignette, (Fr.) a little vine or vine-branch, or branch- like bordei.
Villain, (Lat.) viliSy or because he belonged ad ^villam^ domini', or
(A.-S.) wylen, a slave.
Vinegar, (Lat.) vinum acgr= sour wine.
Viper, (Lat.) vipera, i. e. vivipara, because it produces its young
alive.
Vixen, (A.-S.) /rcen, a female fox.
Volley, (Lat.) volo, to fly.
Voyage, (Lat.) viam agere.
W AUHSCOT, (DvL.) waeghen-schot : waeghe=iwave. -
Wallet, (A.-S.) weallian, to go abroad : a traveller's pouch.
Wassail, (A.-S.) wees hale—salvus sis (?\ Good health to you.
Weather, (A.-S.) weder or wether, derivation uncertain.
Wedge, (Du.) wegghe. '
Weight, (A.-S.) wcegan, to bear, carry, or raise.
Wether, (A.-S.), possibly from wetheran, to withstand.
Wherry, (Lat.) vehere, (A.-S.) wertan, to urge on at all speed ; or
faran, to go.
Whey, (A.-S.) /iiycP3r= the watery portion of milk.
Wicket, (Fr.) guichet, (Du.) wicket, a hatch of a door.
Wife, (Ger.) weben, to weave.
Wile = same as guile (A.-S.) tvtglian, to bewitch.
Wimple, a veil, or covering; possibly from (Lat.) umbella.
Wince, (Fr.) guincher, to writhe ; possibly connected with (A.-S.)
winnan, to oppose. — Richardson.
Window, corrupted from wind-door j door to admit the wind.
WoAD, (A.-S.) wad. , . - . .
Wold, (A.-S.) «;eaW=wood.
UTYMOLOGICAL DBRIVATlONS.
Woman, (A.-S.) tvifman^weHvmgman.
Work, (A.-S.) wt/rcan, to act, to act upon.
Wrath, (A.-S.) wr^than, t» writhe, or twist.
rlru^'m'V ""/' ''''' "'^''''""' *^^ «^«»« «« to rack.
I ACHT, (Dan.) ^achten, to pursue.
Yearn, (A.-S.) ge-yrnan, to run after, to pursue.
wilfSr* " '""'■"■ """""»" ^^-'-^ •'-"•• p«>p'e
Zenith, (A.-K.), opposed to Nadib. •
'ofix ^orr*° °'^*'^ ""*^''' " --'''" ' '■ " "-*
tahoiM are oaUed after the ftnoied figure of aninml»
I
m
'aAI
ii4j
f' »
?".
i
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Ill, y
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1;^
226
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGU8H LANOUAOB.
APPENDIX L
Latin Preflxei.
1B6-
AB-
from or atray
A-
AD*
V "
AO-
AV-
''■,
AL-
AM-
AP-
- AS, to
AB-
A8-
AT-
A-
ABIBI-
AUBO, both
ANTB-
AiTTB, before
fiBMB-
BBNB, well
BI-
BI8-
BIS, twice
cmcoM-
0IBCT7-
ciBOXJH, aronnd
CON-
COM-
oot-
COB-
• coK, together
00-
couw-
OONTBA-
CONTBO-
ooMTBA, against
OOTJMTBB-
IMN
SB, of, from, or down
w*
' -
»IS-
separation, or negation
as, abt-ee»8
„ <d>-tue
a-vertion
ad-vance
atHsmt
af-fect
mi-hw
am-munition
ap-plause
arrogate
as-taitlt
at-tend
aspect
amb-iffuoti8
ante-ehamber
iene-diction
bi-ped
bia-ouit
ciroum-ferenoe
oirou-itous
eon-voke
oom-bme
coUleot
eor-rupt
oo-eqtud
ooun^
ooHtra'V&M
N
M
l>
W
**
M
It
It
M
It
il
»
»
•»
tl
It
tt
It
tt
11
oounter-act
dt-throne
diriwt
dU'treut
<N»
i 1
LATIN PREFIXES.
■, n, out of
■ZTBA, without, out of, beyond
nc-
nc-
XL-
m, in oompoiitioB with » '
m-
upon
m-
•-
mr-
Df-
IL-
IB-
• Df, in composition with an
10-
BW-
•
BNTKB-
> INTBU, between
INTHL-
IMTBO-
IMTBO, to within
JUXTA-
roxTA, clone by
ICALK- ]
KALI-
' KAXB, ill, or bad
VAT.-
MANU-
MANUS, a hand
WON-
»ov, not
OB-
OC-
OF-
> OB, against
OP-
OS-
OMNI-
ouMis, all
PBB-
PBB, through
P08T-
POST, after
PBB-
PBA, before
PBO-
PBO, for, before
PUB-
PB«rB»>
PB£TBB, past, or beyond
SB-
•BSD'
■ BB, back
BSfTBO-
BBTBo, backwards
8B-
signifies apart or separate
Hura-
siNB, without
227
as 0-diet
„ ex-ctue
„ ef-fect
„ extra-ordinary
„ in-duce
„ im-poM
„ U-lume
„ ir-radiate
,, efnu-bark
„ oii-graw
„ in-iquity
„ U-leg(U
„ im-prudent
„ $r-r«wren<
„ ig-nomiriy
„ wi-ty
„ inter-course
„ enter-prise
„ intel-ligencc
„ intro-duce
„ jvuta-position
„ male-factor
„ mtUi-gnant
„ mal-contmt
„ wianM-«cTfp<
„ non-resident
„ ob-Ject
„ oc-ovr
„ of-Jioe
„ op-pose
„ os-tentation
„ per-feot
„ post-pone
„ pre-vent
„ pro-mise
„ pur-pose
t, preter-naiwal
„ re-gain
n retrospect
„ ee-erete
1 ; I
if
''i
a2
•i
I
'228
SHliI<
8TTB-
SUC-
8UF-
8U0-
8UB-
8US-
8U-
8UHTKB-
8VPKB-
8tJ8-
TRAN8-
TRA-
(FR.)Tlti8-
TBI-
uin-
VICB-
▲•
AW-
▲M-
AM-
AHFH-
ANA-
ANTl-
ANT-
APO-
APH-
ARCH-
ARCai-
Atrro-
ATJT-
f'ATA-
CATH-
CAT-
DBOA-
DIA-
DIS-
ANALtSIS OF THE BNQLIBU lANQUAGtt.
RignifieB half
■ BVB, undor
suBTHB, under
svPBB, over
TRAKS, acroBS
TRE8, three
ULTRA, beyond
UNTTS, one
VICE, ioBtead of
Greek Prefixes.
A, iy, without, not
ttfupt, about, on both sides
iwi, up
ityri, against, instead of
&ir6, from
itp6 s, chief
aMs, self
Kord, down
BiKa, ten
Sii, through
iis, ill
It
a« temi-eiroU
„ subscribe
„ tuc-cted
„ ^-fir
„ Miff-gest
„ sur-render
„ tui-peot
§u-spioion
tubtttr-fuge
guper-ven«
sur-plu»
tran»-act
tra-dition
tres-paat
tri-dent
tUtra-foonttme
tmi-form
un-attimou*
viee-rojf
»
»
f»
>»
fi
>•
i»
n
II
II
»
II
a-pathy
an-arohy
am-brosia
am-bitioH
amphi-biou»
ana-tomy
anti-ehriat
ant-agoniat
apo-»tate
aph-oriam
arch-angtl
arohi-teot
auto-graph
aut-opay
cata-logue
oath-edral
cat-egory
deea-logue
dia-meter
di$-aater
dya-entery
GREEK PREFIXES.
229
ML'
MPIr
■xo-
HSFT>
WOA.'
BTPMMr
HTPO-
HTPH-
ICBTA-
MIITH-
Mjrr-
MOMJ-
Moxr-
OBTHO-
PANTO-
PAN-
PABA-
PAR-
PBNTA-
PBBI-
rniijo-
PHIL-
POLT-
FBO-
FBOS-
psBxnx)-
PSBUB-
HTM-
8TH-
fcYI.-
■T-
nu-
h, out from
if, in
M, iqpon .
f(«, without
ffS, well
llHi; half
h-tpot, different
liTTo, seven
l(, six
Mp, over, abora
dir((, under
^cri, change (or after)
fi6vos, single
^pd<^s, right
nas, all
iropii, beside, beyond
w4vTtt five
Ttpf, around
iftiKos, a friend
iroXtis, many
irp6, before
irp<(s, to
^cvSos, £iilse
<r^, together with
rpci;, rpiat three
fi
•»
H
•I
as 0e-»ttujf
„ ex-odus
II «»-«r^
,1 ttn-otMt
„ el-liptis
„ epi-tapk
„ t^poek
„ ts-oiie
eu-phottjf
hete-rodox
hept-archy
hex-agon
hyptr-oritical
hypo-orUe
hjfpk-tn
meta-phynca
meth-od
met-onomy
monosjfllohle
mon-arch
ortho-dox
panto-mime
pan-orama
paragraph
par-ody
penia-teuch
peri-phery
philosophy
phil-anthropy
poly-syllable
pro-gramme
pros-elyte
pseudo-prophet
psevd-onym
syn-tax
aym-pathy
tyl-labls
„ system
„ tripod
•I
II
II
II
II
ti
II
280
ANALTRIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
APPENDIX n.
Lifft of Words which vary their Meaning with thdr Accent
See page 16.
(Taken from Adama' English Languofffi,)
1. Noun and Adjective.
C6mpact,
comp&ct
minute,
minAt;e
Expert,
expert
prieedent^
precMent
Instinct,
instinct
si&pine,
supine.
2. ITonn and Ver?;.
A'ccent,
accent
Export,
»p6rt
4fRx,
affix
Extract,
extr&ct
attribute
attribute
ferment.
ferment
augment,
augment
import.
imp6rt
colleague,
collogue
impress.
impress
collect,
collect
incense.
incense
c6mpre8S,
compress
increase,
increase
c6ncert,
concert
insult.
insi<
c6nduot,
condiict
Object,
obj^t
c6ntest.
contest
p^fiime,
perf&me
c6nfine.
confine
permit,
permit
c6nflict,
conflict
pervert.
pervert
c6n8eiTe,
conserve
prefix.
prefix
eiinsort,
cons6ri;
prAlude,
prelMe
cdntrast.
contrast
premise.
premise
c6nver8e.
converse
presage,
presage
convert.
convert
pr6duce.
produce
c6nv!ct.
convict
pr6,iect.
projic*/
decrease.
decrease
pr6te8t,
protest
descant.
descant
record.
rPcOfd
detail.
detail
isArvey,
survey
digest,
digest
t6nnent,
torment
iasay,
essay
transfer.
transf^
hJle,
exile
transport,
tran8p6rti
AlMNBt,
, APPSNDn: n.
S. AcQeotive and Verb.
absent |; fir^uent,
231
frequent.
4. Honn and A^'eotive and Verb.
Anbstract,
sbstract
r^bel,
reb^
edmpomnd,
compound
refuse,
refuse
c6ntract,
contract
retail,
retail
pr^ent,
present
s&bject,
salgict.
it
Tbe accent remains unchanged in the following words :—
Concrete, p4tent, consent, respict^ herald.
m
mmmmm
PART III.
PR4XIS.
'J ■
e Gramma? a«i
GENERAL QUESTIONS.
L What is meant by Dhfinition?
2. Define and divide Language and Word.
3. Explain the difiFerence between a science and »>n art.
a science — as an art.
4. How is Grammar divided ? Explain the meaning of Etymelogy, Synlaa,
Prosody.
5. Define Word, Syllable, Letter, Vowel, Consonant. How are Vowels and
Consonants divided ?
6. Explain what is meant by Labials, Dentals, and Gutturals.
7. Exhibit the division of Letter in a tabular form.
8. When are to and y to be regarded as vowc^ls ? When as consonants'
9- What are Diphthongs and Triphthongs ? Mention those that are proper.
It. VVhen are c and g soft and hard?
11. What are the defects of the English Alphabet?
12. What are the requisites of a perfect Alphabet?
13. What letters are superfluous?
1 4. What is meant by Orthography, Orthoepy ?
16. Give a tabular scheme showing tm analysis of ' word according '■<> form.'
10. How are the anomalies of English spwUlng to be account«d for'r
17. Examine the spelling of the lollowing wordf Deferred differed, foreteis
or foretells, xmraveled., gallopped, ponies, instill, uneontroiablejudgement,
Henrys, marshall (the verb), ascendency, brimfull, travel ag, fatigueing,
moveable or movable, judgeship, lodgable Hlledge>«4>le alledgement,
abridgment, lodgment, infringement enla^MMMt £M±&ow]edgement,
combatting, recalls, marvelously.
18. State the general rule for dividing words into M"llabiefl.
19. Divide the following words into syllables: .^^nefit, cabinet, covetous,
diminutive, education, nicety, civil, colour, vscribe, massy, chanter,
blanket, vestry, evening, folio, genius, officiate, i.ible, scholar, separate,
polysyllable, geographical, Helen, Philip, wealthy.
PRAXIS.
233
knt,
knt,
n.
1. Define Accent, Euphasis, Quantity.
2. Show that accent differs from quantity.
8. What is the use of accent?
4. What general rule regulates the position of accent in words which are
identical in form?*
6. On what part of a ' derived form' is the accent generally fouai in English?
6. Which seems to be the favourite place for accent in words of more than three
syllables ? Q-ive instances of words that have shifted their accent io
obedience to this principle.
m.
1. What is the threefold province of Ettmolcot?
2. Define Part of Speech.
3. Give a fourfold- classification of words.
4 Exhibit in tabular form MorelFs schomo for classifying words.
6. What are Latham's views ?
6. Sliow by a tabular scheme how, according to Home Tooke, the parts of speech
may be reduced to two.
7. Enumerate the parts of speech and explain each.
8. Define Accident, Accidence.
IV.
\. Classify Nottn according to meaning.
2. What is mejint by Proper, Common, and Abstract Nouns?
3. Into what two classes are 'Singular' or 'Collective' Nouns divided?
4. Classify 'Common' Nouns.
5. Classify 'Abstract' Nouns,
6. Divide Noun according to ' Structure,'
7. Explain the meaning of ' Primary Dorivativo,' ' Secondary Derivative.*
8. What is the meaning of ' strong' and ' weak' as used in English Grammar?
9. From what language do wo take our primitive nouns ?
10. Explain the meaning of 'Diminutive,' ' Aiigmentative,' and 'Patronymic'
11. What are the 'Simple Diminutive Suffixes'?
12. Give instances of words which have compound 'Diminutive Suffixes.'
13. What are the 'Augmentative Suffixes'? Give instances cf 'Patronymics.
14. Explain the meaning of thu following affixes : 'Hood,' 'ness,' 'ty,' 'rie,' 'ry,'
'ship,' 'dom,' 'ment,' ' mony,' 'cy,' 'tude,' and illustrate by examples.
16. Explain the force of the affixes in the following words: Balustrade, forage,
morning, farthing, firkin, stiincliion. |i()Il;ini, tartlet, garden, pockei.
i4ti
I .
1
.*>»
For a list of tlnise wortls, si* AppuudU il. p. 2aO.
234
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
!!^.
16. What is meant by Derivation and Composition?
17. How are compound nouns formed ?
18. What is the logical force of a 'compound? ' Which tenn limits and defines
the other?
19. Mention words which are incomplete 'compounds,' one element being
concealed.
20. Give instances of words which are erroneously supposed to be * compounds.'
21. Which is earlier in a language, 'composition' or 'derivation'?
1. Define Tbrm, Number, Genbbb, Case, Person.
2. How do nouns of A.-Saxon origin form their ' plurals ' ?
3. How do nouns imported from foreign languages form their 'plurals?'
Give instances and exceptions.
4. How is the prevalence of the plural form in s and es to be accounted for?
6. State the general rule for forming the plural in s and es. State exceptions.
6. What is meant by a strong plural ? Give a list of those noons that have
strong plurals. ' '
7. What do strong plurals imply ?
8. Give the plurals of the following : Sister, brother, ox, tooth, penny, hero,
cargo, lady, palmetto, fife, knife, scarf, proof, ruflF, phenomenon, axis,
formula, crocus, loaf, genus, analysis, appendix, bandit, cherub, judge,
beau, focus, omnibus, beauty, key, valley, lily, animalculum, mouse,
country, leaf, woman, pea, kiss, beach, self, fox, wharf, chief, eye,
donkey, medium, sheep.
9. Nouns that end in fe form their plurals in ves. State exceptions to the
rule.
10. Give a list of nouns ending in/, which do not change it in the plural.
11. Mention nouns that have both a strong and a weaJc plural.
12. Give a list of nouns that have two plurals with different meanings.
13. What nouns hava different meanings in the singular and plural?
14. What nouns have two meanings in the singular, and one in the plural?
What have two meanings in the plural and one in the singular ?
1 5. What nouns have no singular ? What have no plural ?
16. How is collectiveness shown in English?
17. Discuss with reference to number the following nouns: Alms, means,
news, pains, amends, richos.
18. Ethics, children, wages, chickens, swine, kine, welkin, ferns, folk — explain
these words, with reference to number.
19. Explain the origin of the plural affixes cs, en, and ri/ in yeomanry.
89. Give the plural of ' courtmartial,' • aidecamp,' ' lord mayor.' How do com-
pound nouns form their plural?
PtlAXtB.
\i'\\'
^Z^
SI. GIVe tbe plurals of finnan, Brahman, talisman, caiman, Massuinuii,
Norman, Frenchman, German, Dutchman.
the
lural?
jeans,
^plain
com-
. .•' VI- . ^„. . . .
\. Define Obndeb. What is meant by Common Gender?
2. Why is the English language more philosophic in regard to gender than
other languages?
3. In Turhat three ways is gender indicated?
4. What are the A.-Sazon and N.-French alBxes to show the male or female
agent?
5. Explain tiie words Songstress, tapster, maltster, wizard, punster.
6. What peculiarity is there iu the words Drake, gander, bridegroom, widower?
7. Explain the following words: Lord, lady, man, woman, nephew, uieoe,
heroine, vixen, sultana, girl, slut.
8. Give the feminine forms of Bachelor, beau, buck, colt, gaffer, hart, milter,
monk, rake, sloven, steer, wizard.
9. Mention feminine nouns that have no corresponding masculine.
10. What is the meaning of the affixes er and aier ?
U. On what principle or principles do we attribute gender to inanimate
objects?
vn.
1. Define Cask. How many cases have we ? Explain the statement ' that we
have two cases expressing threj relations.'
2. Explain the words Declension, Case, Oblique, in connection with one another.
3. Explain the meaning of genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative case.
4. What is the difference between subject and nominative ; object and accusa-
tive?
6. What is the origin of the possessive case in 's ? How is the ' \>TJlten when
the word ends with s ?
6. Whence did we obtain the genitive with of?
7. What is the ordinary difference between the genitive with of, and the
genitive with 'at
8. What adverbs show traces of genitive and dative forms ?
9. Give words that are respectively instances of genitive, dative, accusative,
and ablative forms.
10. Enumerate all the traces which survive of A. Saxou noun inflexions.
11. Write down the genitive cases singular and pl\iral of the following:
Mother, man, girl, John, righteousness, woman, Xerxes, sheep, cat^
Moses, rose, people, bees, caterpillar, children, tree.
12. Explain the affixes in the following words : Liar, sailor, duckling, hillock,
knuckle, streamlet, brooklet, freedom, landscape, bailiwick, horseman*
m
m
tiii
(4) I
m
2de
ANALTBtS OF THE flNGLISU LANOUAOS.
1, 1
! I
II !
alup, blackness, slavery, nnitliy, manhood, pocket, shovel, gizdle, kin-
dred, arcade, musician, trastee, Perkin, wisdom, bishopric, asterisk.
13. Explain the meaning of the following affixes and give instances: Aid,
one, kin, sor, tzy, trix, ee, eer, iaa, iat, ling^ lodk» tode, ence, axy, el,
ness, ment^ isk.
vm.
1. Define ADJKCTrvB.
2. Classify ac^ective according to Meaning.
3. Classify adjective according to Meaning and Formation.
1. Explain with examples Common, Proper, Numeral, PMnominal, Partiei*
pial, and Compound Adjectives.
6. How are Definitive Adjectives divided ?
6. Divide Qualitative Adjectives.
7. Divide Quantitative Ac^ectives. '
8. Classify Adjectives according to Structure.
9. What are the A.-Saxon adjectival suffixes ?
10. What are the principal classical ac^ectival suffixes ?
11. In what ways can we form adjectives to express the absence of a quality ,
the presence of a quality ; the presence of it in a small degree ; in a
larger degree ; the power of anything to impart a quality ; the fitness of
anything to exercise it ?
12. What is meant by Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals?
13. What is meant by Distributive and Multiplicative Numerals?
14. Explain the so-called Article. What is the meaning of the word?
16. On what grounds are these articles classed as adjectives and not as pro-
nouns ?
16. Give general rules for the use of a and an.
17. What is the rule for a or an before words beginning with h? Give
examples.
18. Explain the phrase 'three times a year.'
19. What are the Indefinite Quantitative Adjectives?
20. Give a list of noons employed as collective numerals.
21. What are the compounds oi one? What is the diffisrence between one the
noun, and one the adjective ?
22. How are Compound Adjectives formed ?
23. What are Simple Adjectives in origin ? How are adjectives Derived?
24. What is the great peculiarity of the English adjective ? In what respectb
has it an advantage over the adjective in highly inflected languages ?
25. Define Comparison, Positive, Comparative, Superlative.
26. Give rules for the comparison of adjectives.
27. What dissyllable adjectives form their comparison by er and eU?
28. Explain the meaning of these suffixes er and est.
29. What is the meaning assigned by Tooke to more and most?
12. Wh
13. Whi
14. Wh
16. Givi
PRAXIS.
287
to. What a4JeotiveB admit no degrees of companion f
81. Give a lift of irregnlar comparisons.
82. Explain the forms, Better, worse, less, much, manj, Hearty flrst, last,
farthest, rather.
88. Explain the forms lesser, uppermost.
84. What is the difference between few and a /etc, further and farther, elder
and older, latter and later ?
85. What is the test of a true English comparative? Mention classical ad-
jectives, as well as others of Saxon origin, which, though comparatives
in form, do not conform to this test.
38. Give the derivation of the 'first ten' numerals.
37. Explain eleven, twelve, thirteen, twenty, liundred, thousand.
38. Explain farthing, firkin, riding (of Yorkshire), first, both, once, twice, only,
cipher.
39. Give the force of the affixes in the following words : Sleepless, learned,
talented, gifted, brazen, western, easterly, truthful, shady, blithesome,
homeward, lovely, odious, righteous, verbose.
iO. Mention adjectives that have more than one superlative form.
41. What a^*ectives have no positive — no comparative form?
42. What is the difference between the ' two first' and ' the first two' ?
43. What are comparatives and superlatives of eminence and diminution ?
IX.
1. Define Fbokoitk.
2. Classify Pronouns.
3. Define the classes into which pronouns are divided.
4. What are the Personal Pronouns ?
5. What are the Possessive Pronouns ?
6. Specify the Indefinite Pronouns — Substantive and Adjective.
7. What are the Belative Pronouns ? State the difference in the use of the
words so employed.
I one the 8. Explain the anomalies in the use of the pronoun ' self
0. Give a complete declension of the Personal Pronouns.
10. What are the Reciprocal Pronouns ? What is the difference between them
[? in their use?
respectb 11. Explain Mine, thine, our, your, their. What is the difference between
jes? *my and mine,'— 'thy and thine'?
12. What are the Compound Pronoims ?
13. What are the uses of ' self' and ' own ' ?
14. Why is ' it is me' less unexceptionable than ' it is him' ?
16. Give the derivations of He, she, it, the, that, who, which, such, each, everj,
thither.
f !B
m. ii
f;-: ■
288
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAOB.
16. When was the word ' its' introduced? What form did it supplant?
17« Distinguish between 'each' and 'every.'
18. Explain etymologically Any, enough, some, divers, aught, naught, either.
19. What are the Pronominal Adverbs?
20. Explain the words ' why' and ' the' in the phrase, ' the more the merrier.
21. When are ' but' and ' as' used as relatives ?
22. What are the Demonstrative Pronouns ? How are ' this ' and ' that' used
when they express contrasts ?
28. Explain the word 'to' in 'to-day.'
24. Divide pronoun according to structure.
25. Define Relative, Antecedent, and Beflective pronouns.
26. Distinguish between ' each other,' ' one another.'
27. What are Distributive Pronouns ? «
•11
1. Define Vbbb.
2. Exhibit in tabular form a general classification of Verb.
8. Define Personal, Impersonal, and Unipersonal Verbs.
4. What are the three Lnpersonal Verbs ?
5. How are Personal Verbs divided according to Quality ?
6. Explain the meaning of Verb Substantive.
7. Classify verbs according to Relation. What is meant by ' Relation' ?
8. Explain what is meant by Transitive, Intransitive, and Neuter Verb.
How many kinds of Intransitive Verbs are there ?
0. Define ' Auxiliary Verb.'
10. How are verbs divided according to ' form' ?
11. What is the difference between 'strong' and 'weak* verbs?
12. Into how many classes taay 'weak' and 'strong' verbs be respectively
divided? Specify their..
13. What is meant by a Redundant Verb? *
14. What are Defective Verbs? Enumerate them.
15. Classify verbs according to Meaning.
16. Define a Reflective Verb. Have we any special form for reflective verbs
in English ?
17. What is a Causative Verb ? In what ways are causative verbs formed?
18. What are Intensive and Diminutive Verbs? By what aflSxes may they be
known ?
19. What are Inceptive Verbs ? Have they any special terminations ?
20. What is meant by a Frequentative Verb ? Mention the suffixes, classical
or otherwise, which characterise them.
21. Give a division of Verbs according to Or^tw.
22. Into what three or four classes may derived verbs be divided ?
23. What is meant by Conjugation ? How many coiyugations have we ?
PRAXIS.
289
24.
26.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
36.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
erb.
41.
42.
48.
44.
vely
4(S.
46.
47.
rerbs
48.
40.
d?
60.
ay be
■
L 61.
T 62.
sical
^ hat are the Accidents of the verb? Define them.
Have we a true Fassiye voice in English ?
What is meant by the Middle voice in English ? What verbs are said to
have a middle voice? . ,
How many Moods have we ? Explain them.
What is meant by Tense ? How many tenses have we in English ? How
many modifications of each ?
Explain the meaning of Indefinite, Incomplete, Oomplote, Continuous, as
applied to tenses.
What are the various uses of the Present Indefinite ?
How are Compound tenses formed ?
What kind of verbs form their compound tenses with the verb ' to have ' ?
With the verb ' to be' ?
What effect have these auxiliary verbs on the concord of the participle?
Which is correct, ' He is come,' or • He has come' ? If both are allowable,
what is the distinction between them ?
Conjugate the verbs ' to be,' ' to have,' ' to bring,' ' to run,* ' to smite,' ' to
drown.'
Write out the Future tenses in full of the verbs * to bring,' ' to remove. '
Coiy agate the Passive voice of the verbs ' to strike,' ' to invite.'
In what four ways may Auxiliary verbs be divided ?
Give a list ef auxiliary verbs.
State what you know about the verbs ' shall' and ' will,* * may' and ' can.'
There are two verbs 'do' ; two verbs 'become' ; two verbs 'think' ; and
two verbs 'let'* in the language, explain them.
What is a Participle ? How does it differ from an ordinary adjective ?
When are participles capable of comparison ?
Write down the active and passive participles of the verb * to strike.*
What is meant by Gerunds ? How may they be distinguished from the
indefinite infinitive or imperfect participle ?
Explain the formation of ' could.'
What is the tendency of the present usage with reference to the Subjunctive
mood and strong verb ?
On what grounds is the Potential mood not admissible ?
What two forms have we of the Infinitive mood ? How did they arise ?
What are Gerundial Infinitives ? How are they distinguished from common
infinitiyeB?
Explain the verbs ' did' and ' hight.*
What remnants have we in English verbs ci' terminations expressing dis-
tinctions of persons ? Explain the terminations st, th.
\-,'
II i r-"
* Let (auxiliary) used in first and third persons Imperative mood, from (A.-S.) he'tan, to
loiter, to permit.
Lsr, to retard, to delay, from (A.-S.) latian, to delay ; as, ' we are sore let and hindeted.'
*:(
240
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAQB.
65. What is the origin of the participial and gerundial endings in ingi
64. What is the force of the suffix ed in ' delighted'?
66. Give the meaning f4 the verbal prefixes a, be, for, and an ; en, mi$, vfith,
and re.
66. Ooi\JTigate and analyse the verb 'to be.' Show of how many verbs It
originally consisted. Compare it with the substantive verb in Latin
and French, and give the supposed meanings of Am, was, were, are, be,
is, wert.
67. What is there peculiar about • are' and • were' ?
68. Give the original meanings of Shall, will, can, may, worth, quoth, and
yclept.
69. Explain the participial prefix ^ in yclept.
60. Explain the phrase, ' woe worth the day.'
XI.
1. Define Asvbbb.
2. Classify adverbs according to Meaning.
8. Classify adverbs according to Structure.
4. From what parts of speech are adverbs derived ?
6. Mention adverbs derived from old genitives and datives.
6. Explain the word ' darkling.'
7. What are the four adverbial prefixes with their meanings ? Give the four
adverbial suffixes and their meanings.
8. What adverbs qualify verbs or participles ? What qualify ac^'eetives, or
other adverbs ?
0. Mention adverbs that have conjunctional power.
10. Tabulate the Pronominal Adverbs.
11. How are adverbs compared? What difference formerly existed betwee
the comparison of adjectives and adverbs ?
12. Explain the phrases, ' clean gone,' 'to stick fast,' ' to ride hard,' 'you dad
right.'
18. How are Compoimd Adverbs formed?
xn. •
1. Define FBBPOsrnoir, and explain its use. How do Prepositions differ from
Conjunctions?
2. What relations do prepositions chiefiy express?
3. Classify prepositions according to meaning and structu/re.
4. How do Simple and Compound Prepositions differ in origin from VerbaJl
prepositions?
6, Whi^ axe verbal prepositions in reality?
id
OfiX
PRAXIS.
241
6. Oire a lift of simple prepositions, and explain them etymologically.
7. Qive a list of compound prepositions, and explain them etymologically.
8. Give a list of verbal prepositions, and explain them etymologically.
9. Why are prepositions more frequently used in modern than in ancient
languages ?
10. When prepositions are affixed to verbs what change do they often produce
in the verb ?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
xm.
Define CoNJXTNcnonr. •
Classify coi\junction8 according to meaning.
Classify conjunctions according to structure.
Explain the meaning of ' coordinate ' and ' subordinate.*
How are Coordinate Conjunctions divided ?
How are Subordinate Conjunctions divided?
Give another classification of conjunctions, and illustrate it by examples.
Define ' correlative.* What are the Correlative Coiyunctions ?
Give a list of simple coi^junctions and explain thorn etymologically.
Give six examples of derived conjunctions. , .
Give six examples of compound conjunctions.
Hew may Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions be distinguished t
Give examples of 'but' as a relative, a preposition, a conjunction, aii
adverb.
Give examples of 'after' as an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, a
conjunction.
Give instances of other words which are adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions
according as we use them.
Show that 'that' the conjunction is one and the same as ' that' the demon-
strative prono\m.
What are Interjections ?
Give the five senses of e» as a suffix.
Give the five senses of 0r as a suffix.
Give the five senses of-tn^ as a suffix.
Give the etymology of the monosyllabic coi\junction8 and prepositions.
What is Home Tooke's theory respecting the particles ?
What is the suppcied origin of all nouns ending in thl
What is the supposed origin of all nouns ending in ed or its equivalent,
and in en ?
Give the etymology of Smith, earth, girth, truth, health, bacon, heaven,
bread, brawn, field, flood, month, mouth, moth, dawn, chum, haft, head,
fiend, friend.
Give the etymology of Yes, no, perhaps, yesterday, to-morrow, morniug'.
quickly, lol lief, fain, about.
5ow does ' between' differ from ' among' ?
\l
Jl!;
'ill I
tRil
ill
'I I
:ip
iji!
I f
242
.\NALTSI& OP THE BITGLISH LANGUAGE.
.1
28. What is the m<taning of ' either ' and ' whether ' ?
29. What is the true meaning of ' soon' ? What is the positiye of ' sooner' and
' soonest ' ?
XIV. '
1. What are the three mental operations? Define them. How are the;
expressed in language?
2. Define Proposition fogwaWy.
3. What is the meaning of Term ?
4. Define Subject, Predicate, and Copula.
6. How is a 'judgment ' dotflrmined?
6. In the following propositions show the Subject, Copula, and Predicate.
i. The thirst for fame is an infirmity of noble minds.
ii. Pensiveness without mind is dulness.
iii. It is excellent to have a giant's strength.
It. To advise Her M^'esty is the duty of the Cabinet
▼. Few inventors have reaped the benefit of their own inventions.
ri. The pressure of population causes people to emigrate,
yii. The Bomans were the greatest nation of antiquity.
7. What is the relation between Subject and Predicate ?
8> What is meant by the Substance, Quality, and Quantity of a proposi<4p>9
9. When is a term said to be 'distributed' ?
JO. What are th^ rules for the distribution of terms?
11. Give examples of the four kinds of propositions.
12. Explain the terms ' Categorical,' ' Hypothetical.'
13. How may 'Hypotheticalfl' be divided? %
14. How are Hypotheticals reduced to Categoricals?
16. How is the quantity of Indefinite Propositions determined?
16. What is meant by the * matter' of a proposition ?
17. Examine the following propositions and state their Substance, Quantity
and QoftUty.
i. All virtuous men are rewarded.
ii. No one can believe all tha^ historians say.
iii. Some books are instructive.
iy. Not in outward charms shotdd men build their pretension* ^ ph«i»
f . Some political evils are not to be avoided,
fi. Veni, vidi, vici.
Tii. Iron is heavy.
\^» (Jidiibit the Division of Proposition in tabular form.
PRAXIS.
243
.*,»•■
XV.
1. How are Propoaition, Predicate, and Subject defined grammatically f
2. Define Sentence. How many kinds of sentences are there?
8. Define Simple Sentence, Complex Sentence, Compound Sentence.
4. Exhibit in tabular form a division of sentence.
6. What are the < essential ' parts of every sentence?
6. What is meant by Complement of predicate and Extension of predicate ?
7. Explain with examplod the meaning of Noun sentence, Adjective sentence,
and Adverb sentence.
8. Of what parts does a Complex sentence consist ? Explain them fully.
d. What are the components of a Compound sentence ? Explain them fully.
10. Analyse the following Simple Sentences : —
i. The two men climbed the steep mountain in silence.
ii. In summer he took his frugal meal in the open air.
iii. Long ere noon all sounds in the village were silenced.
iv. In Brussels there was a sound of revelry by night.
V. Expense ought to be limited by a man's means.
vi. The Ancient Christians were animated by a noble love to each
other, and a strong hope of immortality.
yii. Overwhelmed by the sight, yet speechless, the priest and the
maiden gazed upon the scene.
viii. The death of Caesar threw all Bome into consternation.
ix. Your father returned home yesterday.
X. ' Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook ? '
xi. The perception of the ridiculous does not necessarily imply bitter-
ness.
zii. They returned to their own country fiill of the discoveries they h&(\
ma'^.e.
XIV.
W9-i'
xiii. Convinced of the necessity, he resigned himself to his fate.
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea.
Him the almighty power,
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky
With hideous ruin and combustion down
To bottomless perdition.
How oft the sight of means to do ill deeda
Makes ill deeds done.
Zfl.
■
244
XTU.
zyiu.
XIZ.
XX.
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
. . a rich throne, as bright as sunny day,
On which there sat most brave, embellished
With royal robes and gorgeous array,
A maiden queen.'
To check this plague, the skilful farmer chaff
And blazing straw before his orchard burns.
.... who pierce,
With vision pure, into those secret stores
Of health, and life, and joy.
In ancient times, the sacred plough employed
The kings and awful fathers of mankind.
U. Analyse the following Complex Sentences : —
i. It was so cold in the year 1830, that the Thames was frozen over.
ii. Many learned men write so badly that they cannot be understood.
iii. Kain fertilises these fields which spread their bounty to God's
i-reatiires.
iv. Maay books cost more than they are worth.
V. When the king heard the news he was frightened,
vi. ' Thou shalt honour thy fath&r and thy mother that thy days be
long.'
yii. When Jesus was twelve years old he went up to the temple with
his brethren,
viii. Foolg rush in where angels fear to tread.
ix. ' Where the carcase is there will the eagles be gathered together.'
X. He cannot write because he has injured his hand,
xi. As a man lives so will he die.
xii. Whene'er I Malk abroad how much I learn from the beauties of
nature around me.
12. Analyse the following Compound Sentences : —
i. The clergy were much displeased at the fashion, and one deigymaa
, is said to have preached a sermon against it.
ii. He looked at her sorrowfully, but without manifesting either vexa-
tion or surprise,
iii. He was a bad man, therefore he was not respectel by his subjects.
iv. War is attended with desolating effects, for it is confessedly the
scourge of oar angry passions.
J. He arrived a,t the right moment, or I should have l^een lost.
Maxis.
245
Ti. The life of the queen bee aeems to be all enjoyment^ yet It if only
an idle life.
▼ii. With a slow and* noiselees footstep,
Comes that messenger divine,
Takes the vacant (^hair hekAn me,
Lays her gentle hand on mine.
viii. Birds 8e<ek their nests; the cgt, ja j s up o , and other domestic animals
sleep around ns.
ix. Flowers form one of the deli^u? of «!arly age, and they have
proved a source of recreation to the most profound philosophers.
K. The vine still clings to the mouldwring wall,
But at every gust the de«i^ leaves fall.
xi. Take the instant .«• v.
For honour travels in a strau ^io uarrow,
Where one but goes abreast.
xii. The Jews would not tread upon the sn tallest piece of paper in
their way, but took it up ; for possibly, say they, the name of
G-od may be on it.
OSf For additional examples, consult Morell's Analysis of Sentences,
;il
lift '
1 3. What is meant by Parsing ?
14. Parse the following :
i. Gl-ood sense, clear ideas, perspicuity of language, and proper arrange-
ment of words and thoughts will always command attention. —
Blair's Rhetoric.
li. Money, like other things, is more or less valuable, as it is less or
more plentiful.
iii. ' And who is he that will harm you if ye be followers of that which
is good.' — 1 Peter iii. 13.
iy. He has desires after the kingdom, and makes no question but it
shall be his ; he wills, runs, strives, believes, hopes, prays, reads
scripture, observes duties, and regards ordinances.
V. ' Giving no offence in anything, but in all things approving ourselves
as the ministers of God ; as unknown, and yet well known"; as
dying, and behold we live ; as chastened, and L.ot killed ; as sor-
rowful, yet alvays rejoicing ; as poor, yet making many rich; as
having nothing, and yet possessing ail things.' — 2 Cor. vi.
^. A true friend unbosoms freely, advises jusdy, ab^siuU. readily, ad-
«^i
I..
m
246
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LAmUAGl?:.
▼enturefl boldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and
continues a friend unchangeably.
vii. No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time ;
no man so wise, but ha may err, if he take no counsel but his
own.
yiii. It is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the
aspect ; to see the cheeks take the dye tf the passions, and appear
in all the colours of thought.— Co/i^i^.
ix. Oh ! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos.
X. I know that that that that that writer uses is wrong.
Each example will be found to give special prominence to some particular
part of speech.
XVL
(a)
1. Define Syntax.
2. What are the C^e fundamental laws of syntax, according to Morell?
3. Explain what is meant by Concord, Government, Apposition.
4. If two or more nominatives are connected conjunctively, in what number
must the verb be put ?
6. What exception is there to this rule ?
6. State the rules bearing upon the concord of verb and nominative when the
nominatives are connected disjunctively.
7. In what number is the verb put when the subject is a noun of multitude ?
8. In what number is the verb put when the subject is a collective noun ?
9. If two nominatives are connected, the one afi&rmative, the other negative,
with which does the verb agree ?
10. What is the absolute construction in Engb'sh? What was it formerly?
1. What is the difference between Cicero's bust and a bust of Cicero's ?
2. How is the genitive of nouns in apposition expressed ? Which has the
apostrophe ?
3. What verbs are followed by genitive relations?
4. What case do the adjectives 'worth," old,' 'high,' 'broad,' ♦long,'&c. (i.e.
adjectives of value, age, and measurement), really govern ? Whnt are
they said to govern ? How have such ac^ectives been interpreted by
Qoold Brown, and other granuuariana ?
PRAXIS.
241
5. What kind of verbs take after them a dative as well as an acciisative ?
6. What is the construction of the adjective ' like'?
7. Explain the construction of ' himself.'
8. Explain the construction of 'methinks,' <me seems/ 'me lists,' ' him ought.'
9. What case do the verbs ' please ' and • obey ' govern ?
10. Enumerate the constructions which are best regarded as dative con-
structions.
11. What is the general rule for the governmeat of the Objective Case ?
12. What is meant by the Cognate Accusative ?
13. Explain the constructions ' he waited all night ; ' ' he walked a mile ; ' ' he
swam the river.'
14. Give iha constructions of the verbs ' ask * and ' teach.' Explain them
16. What is meant by the Factitive Accusative ?
5,11
1. According to Latham 'like' is the only adjective that governs a case.
Examine this statement.
.'<j. What is the construction of • than ' after the comparative ?
3. Explain the word ' the ' in such phrases as ' the more the merrier,'
4. What is the difference between the article ' an ' and ' one ' ?
6. Give general rules for the use of ' a,' ' an.'
6. Give examples of the different meanings belonging to ' a ' before a noun.
7. What is the effect of prefixing the definite article to plural adjectives,
singular nouns, and singular adjectives ?
8. Explain the following : He woulci make a better soldier than poet. He
would make a better soldier than a poet.
9. What is the effect of using the article once with several nouns, and repeating
it before each of them ?
10. Explain the phrase ' many a time.'
11. Explain the phrases 'a thousand men,' ' a few horses.'
12. State the difference between ' my and mine,' ' thy and thine.'
13. What is the effect of prefixing ' this ' to a plural noun "''
1 4. In what number must the verb be put to agree with each, every, either,
neither, no /
16. Give general rules for the concord of the relative and antecedent.
16. How do ' who,' ' which,' * what ' and ' that ' differ in their use ?
17. With what relatives are collective nouns and nouns of multitude respectively
used?
18. By what pronouns are 'each' and ' every' followed.
19. What pronominal ac^ectives stand before the article?
248
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK.
xvn.
1. "What is meant by a ' hypothetical ' sentence?
2. What is the difTerence between a ' conditional clause ' and a 'consequent
clause ? '
3. How ia a ' preventing conditional clause ' shown ?
4. Give general rules for the use of the subjunctive mood.
6. What is the twofold government of the infinitive mood ?
6. By what verbs is the infinitive governed directly?
7. Explain the 'gerundial infinitive.' What does it express after nouns,
adjectives, and intransitive verbs ?
8. Mention some ei^pressions which are explained by the gerundial iiifinitive.
9. What is the difference between a participle and a gerund ?
10. When are participles compared ?
11. What effect have the auxiliaries 'be' and 'have' on the concord of thw
participle ?
12. Give a simple rule for the succession of tenses.
13. Give examples of correlative subjunctive forms.
14. What parte of the verb are sometimes used absolutely ?
XVIIL
Explain the phrase ' two and two are four.'
Whua does 'if govern the indicative and subjunctive mood?
Whatis the force of two negatives in Greek, French, Anglo-Saxon, and English ?
1.
2.
3.
4, What difference formerly existed between 'yea,* ' nay,* *yes,' and ' no' ?
6. What conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood?
6. What rule determines the position of prepositions ?
7. Which is correct ? ' Charm he ever so wisely ; * ' Charm he never so
wisely.*
8. What is the syntax of the negative ?
XIX.
1. Define ' Figure of Speech.' How may figures of speech be conveniently
divided?
2. What are the Etymological figiires ?
3. Give instances of Syncope and Metathesis.
4. Explain what is meant by Prothesis, Epenthesi? Paragoge. Give examples.
6. Explain what is meant by Apliseresis, El / i -in, and Apooope. Give exampleb
6. Enumerate the principal Figures of Sput'cli.
G
folio
PRAXIS.
249
I?
7. What is the difference bet wen a Simile and a Metaphor ?
8. Explain with examples Synecdoche, Metonomy.
9. What does Lutham mean by Converdbility and Zeugma ?
10. Explain the following figures of speech :
i. 'According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay, fury to hia
adversaries, recompense to his enemies.' — Is. lix. 18.
ii. He too is witness, noblest of the train
That wait op man, the flight-performing horse. — Cowper,
iii. Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ;
The strength he gains is from th' embrace he gives. — Pope.
iv. ' The Lord is my rock and my fortress.'
His eye was morning's brightest ray.
The clouds of sorrow gathered round his head.
The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head.
V. Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains,
And thy SL^ile as the dawn of the vernal day. — Dr. Johnson.
vi. Swifter than a whirlwind flies the leaden death,
His arm is conquest aad his frown is fate. — BaT/.
vii. ' Twas then his threshold first received a guest. — Parndl.
viii. I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ;
his shield, the rising moon ; ho sat ou the shore like a cloud of
mist on the hili. — Ossian.
ix. Oh sacred Truth ! thy triumph ceased awhile,
And Hope, thy sister, ceased with thoc to smile. — Campbeil.
Hope for a season bade the world farewell.
And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell. — Campbell.
z. Wellington was the shield of England.
'■'t
1 S( (, :• '«
I ; :■[ '
IS.
lb
XX.
Give the etymology of all the words, with their prefixes and sufl&xes, in the
following examples :
1. Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain,
Where health and pltn^y cheered the labouring swain ;
Where smiling Spring its earliest visit paid,
And parting Summer's lingering blooms delayed.— Goldsmith,
51. Noble lord and lady bright,
I have brought yo new delight ;
i /H
'■0 1
i u; ). ' ^1;-
250
AI^ALYSIS OP THE ENGLKH LANGUAGE.
Here behold so goodly grown
Three fair branches of your own.
Heaven hath timely tried their youth,
Their faith, their patience, and their truth,
And sent them here, through hard assays,
With a crown of deathless praise,
To triumph in victorious dance,
O'er sensual folly and intemperance. — Milton's Covms.
8. Oh, sacred Truth, thy triumph ceased awhile.
And Hope, thy sister, ceased with thee to smile ;
When leagued Oppression poured to northern wars
Her whiskered Pandours and her fierce Hussars. — Campbell,
4. With them rose
A forest huge of spears ; and thronging helms
Appeared, and serried shields in thick array,
Of depth immeasiirable. Anon they move
In perfect pb^-lanx. — Milton's Paradise Lost,
5. A numerous brigad hastened; as when bands
Of pioneers with spade and pickaxe armed
Forerun the royal camp, to trench a field
Or cast a rampart. — Milton's Paradise Lost.
6. The daisy, primrose, violet darkly blue
And polyanthus of unnumbered dyes,
And yellow wallflowers stained with iron brown.
7. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled.
8. The blazing straw before his orchard burns.
y. Great Spring before.
Greened all the year, and fruits and blossoms blushed.
10. Falling into a trance, but having his eyes open.
1 ] . Give the etymologies of the following : That, through, asunder,
strawberry, scarcely, coward, brawn, tooth, neighbour, cunning,
elbow, gooseberry, lass, stirrup, snail.
12. Give the etymologies of the following: Judge, gown, wicket,
wall, jerked beef, paradise, Coventry, Chepstow, Albion,
Britain, Azores, Faroe, Canada, Canary, Gibraltar, Babel-
mandeb, Valetta.
13. Give the etymologies of the following: Copper, cravat, lumber,
spruce, varnish, nitre, drugget, demijohn, humbixg, loadstone,
tariff, negus, pasquinade, gibberish, debauch, tawdry, tramway.
The :
tions
notgi
very
1. Tl
2. H(
3. m
WOOLWICH COMPBTITIVK EXAMINATION.
251
14. Give the etymologies of the following: Bissextile, thimble, calf
{of the leg), jealousy, vermilion, crimson, peck, furloog, moio-
dore, peiiny, firkin, sterling.
15. Q-ive the etymologies of the following: Dean, parson, parish,
chancellor, sexton, beadle, sheriff, seneschal, nabob, admiral,
dauphin.
16. Give the derivations of the following : Sergeant, soldier, pioneer*
hussar, dragoon, colonel, sentinel, artillery, claymore, carbine,
halberd, parapet, ambuscade, blunderbuss, calibre, bivouac,
trench.
17. Give the etymologies of the following: Biscuit, rum, brandy,
whiskey, bulwark, troop, cohort.
18. Explain the following: Abbot, nup, monk, minster, hermit,
friar, pew, pulpit, steeple, chancel, gown, Easter, Lent, liturgy,
heathen, pagan, diocese, shrine.
19. Explain the following words : Booby, brag, bosh, chouse,
balderdash, canter, fiacre, flash, isinglass, jeopardy, joUyboat,
ogre, poltroon, lumber.
20. Explain the following words : Cheer, danger, denizen, gazette,
grouse, haggard, host, imbecile, inveigle, kerchief, lobster,
malady, meeting, minaret, muggy, mustard, nostril, palfrey,
pamphlet, porpoise, pon;^, ransack, rhubarb, savage, samphire,
saloon, surgeon, usher, vignette, yacht, voyage, zodiac.
inder,
ining,
picket,
Ibion,
Jabel-
limber,
istone,
iway.
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
DB. DASENT.
The following questions were set by Dr. Dasent at the competitive examina-
tions for admission to the R. M. A., Woolwich, 1857-1869. The questions are
not given in papers as they were proposed, because many of thero have been
very often repeated.
1. The English is a composite language : mention the languages from which
its chief components are derived.
2. How many lang'aages are now spoken in the United Kingdrm, and in what
district ?
9. Mention any words or terminations in the names of places in the Unit<ed
252
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Kingdom, which indicate the occupation of the country at a formei
period by foreign races.
4. In what way are the cases of substantives expressed in English ? Give
examples of English cases, and compare their formation with that in
use in any other laliiguago.
6. Explain accurately the use of the verb, adjective, substantive, and adverb
in a sentence.
6. In how many ways are diminutives formed in English ?
7. Define gender, number, and case in English nouns.
8. Give the plurals of the following words: Cow, sow, knife, wife, dwarf,
staflF, ox, die, house, wealth, and phenomenon.
9. Is there anything etymologically remarkable in the following words : Its,
chickens, what, seamstress, brethren, pence, shepherdess, which, vixen,
am, welkin, seldo^, whilom, cavalry, spinster ?
10. What is tlie ordinary way in which the plurals of nouns substantive are
formed in English ? Give as many exceptions to that mode of forma-
tion as you may remember.
11. Explain the meaning of the terms positive, comparative, and superlative as
applied to adjectives.
12. Give a list of the irregular comparatives and superlatives in English.
13. Distinguish between derivation and composition in English, and state
which is earlier in any language.
14. Examine the verb substantive in English, and show out of how many verbs
it was originally composed.
15. Compare this method of formation in English with that p\irsued in any
other language with which you may be acquainted.
16. 'They may talk as they will of the dead languages: our auxiliary verbs
give us a power to which the ancients with all their variety of mood
and inflexion of tense never could attain.' Examine the truth of this
statement, and give examples of the use and force of the auxiliary verbs
in English.
17. What is the difference between regular, irregular, and defective verbs ?
18. Explain the use of pronouns in a sentence. How many kinds are there in
English ? Give one or two examples of their use.
19. Is it an invariable rule that a singular noun should be followed by a sin-
gular verb ? If it is not, give instances of variauon, and explain them.
20. What is the use of the subjunctive mood in English ? Give examples of
its use.
li
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIOP^.
253
rmei
Give
at in
dvorb
dwarf,
is: Its,
, vixen.
tivo are
' forma-
lative as
.h.
tid state
,ny verbs
i in any
try verba
of mood
,h of this
iry verbs
there in
Iby a sin-
lin them.
imples of
Si. Explain the meaning and construction of the following passages, and give
the derivations of the underlined words : —
The man lay a dying.
For John his sake.
I have broke with her father, and his good will obtained
I pray you have him presently discharged.
For he is bound to sea, and stays but for it.
He doth bestride the world like a Colossus.
You may come to-morrow, in the morning.
There was a blazing fire.
22. Give as complete a list as you can of foreign words which have been natural*
ised in English during the last two centuries.
23, What do you understand by a figiiro of speech ? .
24 Explain accurately the terms Word, language, dialect, idiom, provincialism,
vulgarism, plagiarism.
26. What do you understand by Syntax, Concord, and Regimen in English
Grammar ?
26. Of how many parts does every grammatical sentence consist ? Name those
parts and analyse three such sentences.
27. What is meant by Etymology, Orthography, Orthoepy, and Prosody ?
28. Explain the use of adverbs in a sentence. Show how they are formed in
English, and give a list of adverbial terminations.
29. Is it possible to write a sentence which shall not contain a Saxon word ?
"Write one or two Saxon sentences.
30. Give a few plain rules for writing good English.
31. Explain the meaning of the first syllable in the following words: a-dying,
a-bed, aboard, abroad, ashore, agape, aghast, aloft, aloof, alone.
32. Explain the following terms as applied to language : Accent, orthoepy,
orthography, and etymology.
33. To what extent can English Substantives be said to possess gender, number,
and case ?
84. Explain the following passages :
Woe worth the day.
And every thing that pretty bin.
Many a youth and many a maid.
Those eyea
They have not wept a many teaza. ;j
' i:
254
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
They hung me up hy tne hools, and beat me with hard flticks ....
that the whole kingdom took notice of me for a baffled whipped
fellow.
All winds blow fair that did the world embroil ;
Your vipers treacle yield, and scorpions oil.
The rising sun o'er Galston muirs
Wi' glorious light was glinting,
The haros wore hirplin down the furs,
The laverocks they wore chanting.
86. Give the derivations of the following words, and explain how they acquired
their present signification : Pagan, companion, savage, villain, infantry,
pioneer, cavalry, artillery, gun, engineer, cannon, musket, soldier, cor-
poral, Serjeant, ensign, lieutenant, captain, colonel, general, marshal.
86. What do you understand by a Figure of Speech ? Write a seriei of short
sentences, each containing an example of a figure of speech.
37< State in prose the sense of the following passage; mention the kind o'
verse in which it is written ; and explain the derivations of the words
and the allusions contained in the sentences printed in italics :
Captain, or colonel, or knight in arms.
Whose chance on those defenceless doors may seize,
If deed of honour did thee ever please,
Guard them, and him witliin protect from harms.
He can requite thee, for he knows the charms
That call fame on such gentle acts as those ;
And he can spread thy name o'er lands or seas,
Whatever c/me the sun's bright circle warms.
Lift not thy spear against the Muses' iower;
The great Emuthian conqueror hid spare
The house of Pindarus, V)hen temple and tower
Went to the ground ; and the repeated air
Of sad Electra's poet had the power
To save the Athenian walls from ruin bare.
88. Distinguish the following pairs of words by accentuation :
4(
41
42
43.
An attribute
The month of August
A compact
To conjure (magically)
Desert (wilderness)
Invalid (not valid)
Minute (60 seconds)
Supine (part of speech)
To attribute.
An august person.
Compact (close).
Conjure (enjoin).
Desert (merit).
Invalid (a weakly person).
Minute (small).
Supine (easy).
WOOLWICn COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
255
ped
aired
ntry,
, cor-
al,
short
ind o'
words
^9. Is there any etymological connection between the words in italics in the
♦bilowiug oxpri'ssions ? If there be, explain it.
(a) Ha is a puny child.
He is a puisne judge.
(6) The ship is outward hound.
The ship is wind-bound.
The man is bound iu chains.
(<?) I have a deal to say.
The table is made of deal.
We played at cards, and it was my deal.
I deal with that tradesman.
{d) The nightingale's thrilling note.
The horyoD nostril.
The carpenter's drill.
The lassie thirled at the pin.
The pikeman trailed his pike.
The soldiers are at drill.
40. Prove the existence of several successive races o' conquerors in the British
Isles by the traces of their languages which remain at the present day
in the names of persons and places.
41. Explain the derivation and original and present meaning of the following
words: Alderman, mayor, sheriff, hustings, parliament, assize, lords,
commons, exchequer, county, hundred, parish, church, and chapel.
42. Explain the origin and derivation of Protestant, Puritan, Roundhead,
Quake • Cavalier, Trimmer, Orangeman, Whig, Tory, Non Juror, Jaco-
bin, ana Eadical, when used as party names.
43. Examine critically the English and versification of the following passage,
and explain the historical allusions contained in it:
Edward and Henry, now the boast of Fame,
And virtuous Alfred, a more sacred name.
After a life of generous toils endured.
The Gaul subdued, or property secured.
Ambition humbled, mighty cities stormed,
Or laws established, and the vorld reformed ;
Closed their long glories with a sigh, to find
The unwilling gratitude of base mankind.
All human virtue, to its latest breath.
Finds Envy never conquered, save by Death.
The great Alcides, every labour past.
Had still this monster to subdue at last.
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ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Sure fate of all, beneath whose rising ray
Each star of meaner merit fades awfly !
Oppressed we feel the beam directly beat,
These sons of glory please not till they set.
44. Are the following statements consistent with facts ?
All males are of the masculine gender.
We have in English six cases of nouns.
John is the nominative case to the verb.
Men are in the plural number, because they mean many.
The s cannot be a contraction for his, for it is put to female nouns.
— Johnson.
46. Correct the errors, if any occur to you, in the following passages :
Who should I meet the other day but my old friend.— Addison.
I cannot tell who to compare them to. — Bunyan.
We are still at a loss who civil power belongs to. — Locke.
My son is to be married to I know not who. — Goldsmith.
My desire has been for some years past to retire myaelf to some of oiu
American plantations. — Cowley.
Any word that will conjugate is a verb.
Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign ! — Bums.
46. Explain the difference between irregular and defective verbs in English.
Is it possible to classify as regular a large proportion of the so-called
irregular verbs ?
47> How do you account for the forms am, be, and was in the verb substantive?
Illustrate your explanation by similar forms of the verb substantive in
other languages.
48. How do you account for the fact that the earlier stages of a language are
richer in forms and inflexions than the later ?
49. Mention any forms and infiexions which are gradually dying out in Eng-
lish, and thus show that the process of simplification is still continuing
in the language.
60. Examine the English of the following passage, referring each word to the
language from which it is derived :
At the death of the king, his chief wife and several of his followers
are immolated, that they may attend him in the next world.
When a monarch succeeds to the throne, he sacrifices at least one
wife and many followers, merely to show that he can exercise his
prerogative.
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
257
re?
in
61. Gire example of words adopted into English from other langnages than
those alluded to in (1).
62. What is meant by a noun of multitude ? Give examples of such noons,
and write a series of sentences showing their peculiarities of constmc-
tion.
d3. How dr you explain the substitution of his for its in the following, and
many other passages of the Bible ? — The fruit tree bearing fruit after
his kind.
54. Write a series of short sentences showing the right and the wrong use of e«
and Man; of or, nor, and neither; of each, either, and both; of here tatii.
there ; of hither, whither, and thither ; and of henee, whence, and thence.
66. Explain accurately the meaning of the term passive voice. How is th«
passive formed in English ? Can it be called a true passive so far as
formation is concerned ? Give examples of true passive formations from
other tongues.
66. Examine the English of the following sentences and explain the allnsioiis :
1 . This was the most unkindest cut of all.
2. Earthlier happy is the rose distilled.
3. And Nicanor lay dead in his harness.
4. But mice and rats and such small deer
Have been Tom's food for many a year.
i. For 'tis the sport to have the engineer
Hoist with his own petard.
6. The fattest hog in Epicurus' sty.
7. Lay not that flattering unction to your soul.
0. I have thee on the hip.
9. And mistress of herself, thoiigh China fall.
10. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossua.
67. Explain the meaning and give the derivation of the following word* :
Apocryphal, alphabet, didactic, sardonic, sarcastic, tautological, enthu-
siastic, orgy, organ, mystery, epitaph, pyramid, hieroglyphic, and night-
ingale.
68. Is it possible for a language to remain stationary ? What are the causes
which have given rise to the greatest changes in English, and what are
the causes which tended most to fix and settle the language ?
50. Write a grammatical sentence and then analyse it, showing the partf ottt
of which it is made.
60. Explain accurately the meaning and ubc of coqjngation and infleadon is
grammar.
•1. Diitingoisb between auxiliary, irregular, and defeetive vnbb in gramoiat.
■' v.
^iil,
258
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
66
67
Write a few sentences containing examples of each of those kinds of
verbs.
62. Compare the English language as a means of expressing thought with any
other language with which you may be acquainted.
63. Enumerate the parts of speech, and show the use of each in a sentence.
64. What do you understand by cardinal and ordinal numerals? Compare
the English numerals with those of any other language.
65. Explain the names of the months, and of the days in the week. What is
the derivation of bissextile, and what is its English equivalent ?
Give L list of words in common use derived directly from the Celtic,
Latin, and Scandinavian elements in the English language.
Explain the construction of the words printed in italics in the following
passages : —
(a) That same year the Queen died in Lindsay,
At Westminster I ween his body they did lay.
(b) Let bring a car^wAccZ here into this hall,
But look that it have his spokes all.
68 Explain the original and secondary meanings of the words printed in italic
in the following passages :
(a) For this believe, that impudence is now
A cardinal virtue.
(b) Skilled in no other arts was she
But dressing, patching, repartee ;
And just as humour rose or fell.
By turns a slattern or a belle.
(p) True faith, like gold into the furnace cast,
Maintains its sterling puroness to the last.
{d) Thus, utmost lands are ransacked to afford
The far-fetched dainties and the costly board.
(«) The ordeal was an established method of trial among the Anglo-
Saxons.
(/) And Jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad, and said unto him*
Go, carry them to the city.
((f) The fierce Pratorians threw their swords into the scale.
(A) There is no need to be scrupulously critical in distinguishing
between them.
(t) They must not think that all about them are such idioCi as not
to Bpj ont the prevarication,
(i) And mistress of herself, though China fall.
{I) Hypocn'ny, detest her as we may.
Woolwich competitive EXAMmATioN.
259
ft
60. Explain the meaning of the following grammatical terms : Letter, word,
sentence, voice, mood, tense, person, number, and gender.
70. Are there any true cases in English? Explain the use of prepositions in
the formation of cases.
71. What is the use of the subjunctive mood in grammar? Give examples of
its use in English.
72. Give the derivations of the following words : Aught, many, nostril,
threshold, pigmy, cubit, ell, ironmonger, wharfinger, harbinger, arbour,
haven, and heaven.
73. Explain the meaning of the word verb. How many conjugations of the
verb are there in English ?
74. What is meant b^ the infinitive, imperative, subjunctive, and indicative
moods in Englibh ?
75. Explain the meaning of the term Syntax, and show its use in grammar.
76. Give as complete a list as you can of words which change their meaning with
their accent.
77. Out of how many elements is the English language formed? Is it pos-
sible to write a sentence composed entirely of one of these elements ? If
it is, write such a sentence.
78. Mention the languages from which the English language is derived. In
what proportions are those lauguages represented in modem English ?
79. Give a lint of foreign woid.° which have been natiiralised in English since
the year 16G0.
80. Explain such expressions as ' Johi: his book,' and ' the gate which opened
of his own accord.' Explain the formation and use of its.
81. Explain the use of person, number, gender, mood, tense, and voice in
grammar.
82. Quote several English proverbs and explain them.
83. Define what is meant by a verb in grammar. Explain the difference
between the active and passive voices of a verb.
84. Define what is meant by a noun substantive. How many cases has the
noun substantive in English ?
86. Li what way do nouns substantive usually form their plurals ? Give some
examples of irregular plurals in English.
86. Explain what is meant by an adverb. What part do adverbs play in
grammar?
87. Give a list of English prepositions, and explain the meaning and force of
each.
88. What do you understand by simple and compound sentences ? Give boma
examples of each kind of sentence.
•i
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260
ANALYSIS OP THE ENOUSll LANGUAGB.
89. Whf t is tho meaning of grammar, and what are its uses ?
90. How many participles are there in English ? Explain the use of participles
in English, and compare it with the use of participles in other languages.
91. Explain why some verbs are irregular or defective, and mention some of
each kind in English.
92. Cor\jugate the verb substantive in English, and show that it is made up of
several verbs.
98. Give a list of words imported into English during the seTMiteenth and
eighteenth centuries, mentioning in eaih case the country firom which
tho word came.
94. Show the effect of the Norman Conquest on the English language, by in-
stances of words still in use.
96. Explain accurately, and illustrate by examples, the difference between
shall and tvill, should and would, and am and he.
96. Explain the derivation and formation oigvll in the sense of dupe,£e?ontVin,
goblin, gazette; buck in the sense of wash, host, tournament, trade,
spinster, gossip, and bridegroom.
97. Mention any parts of the verb which have a tendency to become obsolete.
Show that this tendency is common to other languages.
98. Explain the derivations of the following words : Candidate, sycophant, cur-
few, history, algebra, almanack, hypocrite, seraph, assassin, and gazette.
99. Give a list of English words which, with the same spelling, have different
meanings.
1 00. Explain the derivation of the following words: Ambition, attention,
Bible, cannon, companion, gospel, gossip, panic, and paradise.
1 01. Explain the derivation of Cardinal, club, curfew, dunce, guillotine, pagan,
sacrament, tribulation, ttmic, and tyrant.
i02. Explain the derivation of Biggin, calico, cicerone, dragonnade, essay,
Hugonot, husband, kickshaws, miscreant, neophyte, noyade, Tory, and
Whig.
103. Explain the terms. Demonstrative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, diminu-
tive, and patronymic, as used in English grammar, and give instances of
each.
«04. Take any regular English verb, and run it through its numbers, moods,
and tenses, in the active voice.
106. Do the same with the verb substantive.
i
WOOLWIOU COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 261
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
REV. W. STEfiBINO.
Jnly 1859— January 1869.
1. Explain the following terms : Imperfect tense, indirect qnestion, proper
name, analogy, snbjectiye, objective.
2. ' It is necessary that he who desires fiime, a«^ in a way to deserve it.' Is
this constmction correct ? Explain the meaning of subjonotiTe mood.
When is the subjunctive mood used in English ?
8. Is the English language capable of receiving accessions readily ? In what
ways does it borrow or invent new terms ? Compare it in these points
with any other language with which you may be acquainted.
4. Distinguish between the following : Paraphrase, gloss, commentaiy, illus>
tr*tion, version, translation, analysis, manual, abstract.
5. How many parts of spaech are thc.?8 in English ? Explain the names they
bear ; and show how those names express their real character.
6. In how many different ways are the feminine gender and the plural num«
ber of substantives formed in English? Account for the variety of
formation.
7. Point out and oormct errors or defects, if any, in the following sentences :
They wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language pecu*
liar to themselves. — Sir John MancleviUe.
They were planned by a clever servant, who to say all that can be
said in his praise, is, th«t he is worthy of such a master as he
has. — Cobbett's Rural Eidis.
Let us hear Dr. Lingard, to prevent his society firom presenting whoce
work to me the sincere and pious Samuel Butler was ready to go
down upon his knees. — Ibid.
Sixteen have been sentenced to suffer death, but two only were left for
execution. — Ibid.
8. Explain the following terms: Auxiliary, impersonal, inti&asitive, and
reflective verbs, and verb substantive. Give examples.
i
262
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
9. To what langnagas, and for what classes of words respectively is Engliih
most indebted ? To which respectively can you trace the word* in the
following passage?
A vast metropolis with glistening spires,
With theatres, basilicas adorned ;
A scene of light and glory, a dominion
That has endured the longest among men.
10. Compose ft short passage to illustrate the use of ellipse, pleonasm, and
antithesis.
11. Explain the word ' synonyme.' Give examples of words which are properly,
and of words which are improperly oied as synonymous. Aooonnt for
the erroneous use.
13. What is signified in grammar by the expressions : ' Governed hy* agreeing
with, depending on, in apposition to, used absoluieiy. Give examples.
13. Explain the expressions in italics: 'What is it o'doekt' 'It wants
fifteen minutes to one by railway time, not but thai this is no rear on why
you should hurry away.'
14. Distinguish between composition and derivation of words. Are bishopric,
kingly, friendship, compounds or derivatives?
15* State the rule for the formation of comparatives and superlatives. In-
stance and account for any five exceptions.
16. Distinguish between the use of the full stop, colon, semicolon, and comma.
Give examples.
17. Why have wheat, pitch, gold, deer, sheep, no plural ; and bellows, scissors,
mathematics, no singular form? Instance other substantives which
have only one number.
18. Instance words which are not pronounced as they are written ; and account
for the inconsistency.
19. Point out and defend anything unusual in the construction of the words in
italics : Him ought not to be a tyrant. The rule is also general but
that it admits of his exceptions. The cities who aspired to liberty.
For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake
Could save the son of Thetis /rom to (2m.
30. Point out and correct the errors or inaccuracies in the following:
Every constable amounting to 240 had his cresse .
The town consists of three distinct quarters, of \ 'hich the western one
is by far the larger.
Every sort of legislature resolve themselves into this.
SI. Instance words, which, being borrowed by English from other languages^
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
263
Aaye had their meaning or spelling altered. Account, where it is p<M*
■ible, for the changes.
tl CompoBe one or two sentences to illustrate the use of a^ectives, participles,
and infinitives as substantives.
23. Give examples of the formation of the past tense ftom the prsaeiit hj a
change of vowel and change of termination, and with no changa.
Account, where it is possible, for the particular form.
S4. Explain the term idiom ; and give several examples of idiomatio expres*
■ions in English.
15. In what mood or case are the words in italics in the following passages?- •
He was let depart.
Kg one MW this man |>2(iy«(2 the hero. :
He was given a book. .
Please it your honours
To call me to your senate, I'll deliver
Myself your loyal servant.
26. How do you explain the construction of the following passages ? Rewrite
them in a fuller form :
Wit, whither wilt.— iSAiiAr«p«are.
£ven share hath he that keeps his tent and he to field ' doth go.' —
Chapman.
He's heir in double trust,
First as I am his kinsman and his subject,
Strong both against the deed. — Shakapeare.
27. What is meant by an exception ? Give five or six instances of exceptions
to rules of grammar.
28. What is meant by obsolete ? Give five or six instances.
29. Compose two or more sentences, containing specimens of the different past
tenses of the indicative mood active.
SO. In what respect is English defective as compared with any other language
or languages ? How does it supply its deficiencies ?
tl. Point out and explain any peculiarity in the construction of the following :
What with pain, and what with fear, he was unable to proceed.
He is gone a-hunt?ng.
Him who disobeys me disobeys. — Milton.
This lodging likes me better. — Shakspeare
264
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Good name in man or woman, dear my lord,
Is the immedirte jewel of their bohIb. — Shakt^r§,
Thon most awfbl form !
Bisest from forth thy silent sea of pines. — Colmdgt.
32. By what ooi\jttnctions are clauses expressing a purpose, consequence, oppo*
sition, condition, cause, introduced ?
13. Enumerate several defective verbs and nouns, naming the parts that are
wanting in them, and accounting, when you can, for the want.
34. Name the moods used in English; and state briefly their uses. Give
examples.
36. Explain the terms traruitwe and itUranntive. When and why do they
sometimes seem to change characters ? Give examples.
36. State, with examples, the various causes of differences between the spelling
and the pronunciation of words in English.
37. Write out a list of the terminations of adjectives in English ; and say from
what language each has been borrowed.
3ft What peculiarity is there in the use of the words in italics ?
Woe is me.
This said, they departed.
It contains the same information as the Lady Rich her letter.
Dark with excessive bright thy skirts appear.
39. Is there any difference in the meaning of the following words : Ye and
you ; all, each, and every ; farther and further ; between and among ;
severally and respectively.
40. Explain the formation of the following words : Children,- twain, brethren,
pease, alms, swine.
41. Point out any peculiarity in the formation of Inmost, could, quoth, tapster,
methinks.
42. Why are some letters in the following words retained in the spelling,
though not pronounced? — Viscount, medicine, debt, would, hymn, sove-
reign, chronicle, hour.
43. Explain the use of the tenses and moods in the following sentences :
Darius at once retreats.
Scott, Byron, and Wordsworth have flourished in this century.
Byron flourished thirty years ago.
He is come.
Would it were so.
44. Do the literal meanings of the tenns, indicative, subjunctive, infinitive,
explain the uses of the moods so named ?
61
6k
60
61.
62.
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
266
|>8ter,
ing,
ove-
ive,
40. Explain the old forms :
He went a-hunting.
He went for to do it.
Some will burn a houie an it wero but to roast their eggs.
46. In what respects is the English alphabet defective or redundant ?
47. What circumstances most commonly lead to the introduction of new words
in a language ? Instance words so imported into English.
48. Explain the terms oblique, transitive, root, part of speech, as used in Eng-
lish grammar.
49. Distingniah between clause, sentence, phrase, paragraph, proposition.
60. What is meant in grammar by ooncordi Give examples of the several
kinds of grammatical concord.
61. Explain the form of the possessive case singular, e.g. Father's, Will the
same explanation suffice for the plural possessive. Fathers' ?
62. Why is the past tense killed said to bo regular and struck irregular in form-
ation ? What is meant by the terms regular aud irregular as applied in
English grammar?
63. To what extent is a correct use of words facilitated by an acquaintance
with their etymology ?
64. Compare English and any other language with which you may be ac-
quainted with reference to the order of words in a sentence.
56. Of what inflexions are English a(\jectives, substantives, and verbs capable ?
66. In what sense can it be said that or and nor are conjunctions, the letter
y sometimes a consonant, and w sometimes, or always, a vowel, and
that the past tense is formed regularly by the addition oi d or ed to
the present ?
67. Does a participle, used as an adjective, differ from an ordinary adjective,
an intransitive verb used transitively from an ordinary transitive, and
a noun of multitude from a noun in the plural number ?
68. Do the literal significations of proper name, common noun, and perfect and
pluperfect express the ways in which the forms so named are used in
English?
60. On what grounds have the foUowing expressions been sometimes defended ?
Than whom. It is m£. You was. The Duke with his sons are here.
I walked a hundred mile.
60. State several of the most general rules for forming the plural in English ;
and mention exceptions to them.
61. Distinguish between accent and quantitij in English. Give examples.
62. What were the usual wmvh nf f<. niinL' the {ilurul and genitive in old
English ? Do any words still bo I'urm them?
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266
ANALYSIS OP THE ENOLTSH LA50UA0B.
6S. The Donn and the verb have been said to be the two original partnof ipeech,
' all thn others being substitutes, abbreyiiitions, jr contractions, for the
purpose of facility and despatch.' What is meant by this statement ?
64. State, with examples, reasons for the diversity in the pronunciation, in
English, of syllables or parts of syllables spelt ia the same way.
06. Explain the construction in the following expressions, and give examples
of similar constructions : He is about to die ; The wine tastes sour ;
Ah me I Four o'clock.
60. Explain the term infinitive ; and mention the various uses and forms of
tiiat mood.
67- To what languages may the terminations of the following words respectively
be traced ? — Nation, awful, double, sympathy, gracious, valour, pathetic,
astonish.
68. Explain etymologically the following forms: Innermost, whence, methinks,
widower, eyry, farthing.
69. What are the essoutial parts of every English sentence? Give examples of
nmple, compound, and compfcx sentences.
70. Mention, with examples, the various forms and uses of the present tenw in
English.
71. State the rules for the formation of the comparative and superlative degrees
in English. Can you mention any exceptions ?
72. Are the following expressions good English? Give reasons for your
opinion : ' Mutual friendH,' ' talented,' ' unreliable,' ' a man of talent.'
73. In how many different ways may compound nouns be formed?
74. Explain the following statements : ' The imperfect participle is often used
as a genind.' ' The present tendency of the English language is to oon^
vert strong verbs into weak.'
76. What internal evidence does English contain of its derivation from several
different languages?
76. Can you account for the spelling of the terminations of ' deferred,' * em-
ployed,' ' the Henrys,' ' infallible,' ' saddest,' as compared respectively
with ' differed,' ' defied,' ' miseries,' ' incurable,' ' longest.'
77. Mention grammatical terms which are used in English grammar in sensei
differing from their original meanings.
78. Can you justify or explain the following old expressions ?— ' It am I ;'
' His pavilion were dark waters ; ' ' It liketh thee ; ' ' I never was nor
never will be false.'
79. Are the following expressions grammatically correct or not? Give reasons
for your opinion :
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMIKATION.
267
ed
He ii a bettor philosopher than a stateaman.
The tenth and the eleventh boyv in the class.
The words are as follow.
This is one of the most successful works that ever was executed.
Death has come to all greater, better, wiser than L
80. Explain the force of the rerb in the following expressions: It strikes
four; The earth mores ; The fish weighs five pounds ; A house to let
81. GiTe examples of the following rules: * When the subject, though having
a plural form, is Ntill regarded as one thing, the verb is singular.' A
collective noun takes a singular verb when the idea of unity is promi-
nent, but a plural verb when the idea of plurality is prominent.
82. What is the force of the genitive case in English ? Give examples of diflbr-
ent meanings it may be used to express.
83. Show, by examples, the meanings of in, re, and /or, in composition.
84. Point out and explain any peculiar!^ in the spelling of^wherever, freer,
schiam, could.
86. Take any four words which have undergone important changes in meaning
since their original introduction into English ; and account for the
changes.
86. Show the uses in English of the infinitive and the several participles.
87. Point out the redundancies and deficiencies in our alphabet.
88. Enumerate the most commonly used conjunctions. How may coi^junctions
be classified?
89. State, with examples, the rules for the sequence, i.e. succession, of tenses in
English.
do. Which mode of spelling do you prefer, and why ? — Honor or honour, apoetaey
or apoeUujf, travelled or traveled, realize or realise, dependent or dependant,
jewelry atjeweUery.
91. Explain, with examples, the terms irregular, defective, and exception, as
used in English Grammar.
92. Explain the uses of ' by^ in the following expressions : By-and-by ; day by
day ; ten feet by twenty ; he was by himself ; by him the man looked
short ; he stood by ; he swore by his gods.
93. Point out and explain anything unusual in the words or construction of
the following sentences:
I do you to wit of this fact.
They left off beating of Paul.
He WHf let and hindered in running the race.
.Thif is expedient for you not only to do, but also to be forwaid «
7Murago.
If,
1' *
W
it '
M
II
tm
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAOB.
94. What is the usual order of words in an English sentence? Quote ct
compose sentences in which this order is departed from.
96i Account for the existence of synonyms in a language. Instance words
which are, and words which appear to be, but in fact are not^ synonyms.
96. What functions do the articles perform in English ? Illustarate the use of
them by examples.
97> By what forms of the verb can you express habit, command, the act of the
verb without reference to an agent, and an action at once future, perfect,
and continuous ?
98. Explain the following assertions :
Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.
English is not so well adapted to rhyming versification as French,
Spanish, or Italian.
The present tendt.ncy of the English language is to reject foreign
plurals.
99. Explain any peculiarities in the construction of the following sentences :
He received double as much again.
I cannot but think you are in the wrong.
He will not succeed in this, be he ever so wise.
All of us have given to us a task to perform.
100. Mention differences between the language of the present day and Old
English in the mode of declining and conjugating words.
101. What is the use of prepositions? Distinguish between prepositions and
ooigunctions; and mention prepositions which may be employed as con-
junctions.
102. State, with examples, the signification in composition of the particles,
oon, dis, ward, and ther.
103. What is meant by a relative pronoun ? Enumerate, with an example of
the use of each, the several words employed in English as relatives.
104. When are e and g hard, and when soft ? State the rule, with any excep-
tion to it.
105. Mention, with examples, various ways of forming the feminine gender in
English.
106. Point out, and correct, any grammatical errors or obscuritieB in the follow-
ing sent^Aces :
She stood back in the room— more backward ^ good deal than she
was accustomed to do on such occasions.
I am disposed to think that to persons in trade the difficulty of
answering these questions would not be so great if they will
imdtrtake to diicus!> ihem.
1
.„ , ''""'''''^ '''''^^ mMm.„o^. 269
•«. i» wh« w.^,™"* ^ *^^ -P""' of being compoM, ^ „
*". Is there any peculiarifv • *u
following sentences? ^ '° "^^ "'^^"^ «^'e««ed by th. rerb in the
The violet smells sweet.
-The wine tastes four.
He is doing well.
112. Explain, with examoles fha ♦
^ntrauHti^e, aa appi"' tf^rb? ^ ''^''''^' ^^'-^^ ^/-«t., and
Ki
* , ^'^n^ect or justify the following Rp^ •. .
incorrect or obscure ; '*^ *^^ sentences when
l* *Hia sport ropnlied hiH foM
». -i da not tUni h. ,„ the tlu.rom,h i • f *' """^ ■"»'••
3- 'The oath taken by the r«^_
^ _^ ia. been «„rfe i. theUws of S^' ""°° »V »>Ii.tle eha^
«m wrong, nor no man wrong.'
'.:
I
270
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
9. ' The assembly consists of forty-seven members, two being elected by cineteen
districts, and three by each of three other districts.'
10. ' Sir Theodore was one of the few South Sea directors, who (though he lost
considerably) did not lose his character.'
11. ' If this be him we mean, let him beware.'
12. ' In every minutise they manifeskcd great interest.'
13. ' Prospered beyond his utmost expectations, he returned home.'
14. 'It contained sundry memorandas of money paid by the archdeacon.'
15. ' By a telegram received this morning the prince had arrived, and is in
the castle.'
16. ' I do uot believe they ever did any real harm to any one ; or, if they did^
were unfeignedly sorry for it.'
IT. ' They would allow Dr. Priestley or Channing to be clergy of the Church of
England, only not Woolston or Hume.'
18. 'If this gentleman would make himself practically acquainted with the
subject, he would not find it so simple as he is inclined to believe it,
and is desirous to lead the public into the same error.' > •
10. 'The king advises that between those oflScials, by whom business can be
carried on by word of mouth, the writing of letters should not be allowed,
as having a tendency to hinder controversies on unimportant matters.'
80. ' Many a Frenchman, German, and American are to be found in London.'
81. ' As you write to say how glad you would be to be informed of where I
intoid going, I now do so in compliance with your request.'
28. ' His evident compassion was not the least painful, though touching, part
of the spectacle.'
83. ' There are very few who know how to be idle and innocent : every diversion
they take is at the expense of some virtue.'
24. 'He taught them what human nature was, and which knowledge was
unquestionably necessary to enable a man to do his duty in the world.'
26. ' Never will the cardinals agree among one another to elect t pope the
secretary of the last pontiff.'
26. ' Every one of us talks worse English every hour of our lives.'
27. ' It is said that the prince will limit his stay in the Highlands till about
the 10th of September.'
28. '.Against these appointments a very few of extreme views had only ventured
to feebly remonstrate.'
89. 'All the Stuart sovereigns had very few good qualities.' '^
WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION.
271
9ion
lid;
the
>ui
80. ' Kixig John and King Edward I. wore severally men of the greatest inca-
pacity, and of the greatest capacity for government.'
31. * Their want of merit is the real reason that none of them have attained
much reputation, and are all of them declining in favour day by day.'
32. ' I have lormerly read the answer to such an application to the prince.'
13. ' No one regretted more than myself that the matter was brought before the
public until all other modes of redress had been tried.'
34. ' I would have given little consideration to the news if an Englishman's
opinion did not confirm it.'
35. ' This gentleman may be a good churchman, but his whole sympathies are
evidently with her enemies.'
36. ' Tourists may break the journey at any of the stations betwen Carnforth
and Coniston Lake, to enable passengers to visit Fumess Abbey.'
37. ' Some pertons will have perceived with siirpriBe, that an Englishman should
have co^ uted to take service in a foreign court.'
38. ' This event v^ 1 hereafter take rank among the annals of the empire.'
39. ' His brave heart and love of adventure made him an agreeable companion,
and many friends.'
40. ' The practice is increasing, since the French treaty, of adiilterating wines.'
41. ' The Senate had decreed a separate triumph to both of them.'
42. ' A Scotchman will not marry on a Saturday. Except when the last day
of the year falls on a Saturday, it is the favourite marrying day in
Scotland.'
43. ' Messrs. W.'s covered case for valuable plans and maps will be found as
useful as a tin case, at one-fourth the price.'
44. ' Ifum governs both the nominative and the accusative cases.'
45. ' The reigning sovereign of the United Kingdom shall be successively the
sovereign of the order.'
46. ' The House of Commons has, with becoming dignity, supported their own
privileges.'
47. ' I will, fbr my conscience sake, spend all my lives, if I had a thousand,
against all the world that shall draw sword against our religion.'
48. ' It was in the monastery of St. John that these MSS. were discovered, and
are now deposited in the Bodleian Library.'
40. ' The Empress Catherine sent for the ambassador last week, and desired
he will Older for her a bust of Charles Fox.'
':l
H
1 i 1
!!!
ill
i !
272
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOB.
60. ' The new Italian banknote is adorned in the two lower conien with po^
traits of Cavour and of Christopher Columbus.'
51. ' The English commissioners intend to bring over their own fire engines,
all of which are exactly equal in water-throwing force to eight of the
ordinary Paris engines.'
63. ' The Crystal Palace is almost the first place ever visited by a foreigner in
England.'
58. ' I have been alwa} , accustomed to believe that your professions of friendship
to myself and late lamented husband were sincere.'
54. ' I desire that the coronation gift of 60,000 ducats, presented to me by the
country, shall be dedicated to the purpose I have indicated.'
55. ' The trade of Marseilles vastly increased since the French have had Algiers.'
66. ' From the judgment of this coxat he appeals not, to which as provided by
the letters patent the appeal lies ; viz. the archbishop, but to the crown.'
57. ' Messrs. S. request us to state, that neither they nor any relation of theirs
are in any way concerned in this suit.'
58. ' This publication being somewhat of an official character, I think the
profession are entitled to its being accurate.'
59. ' I have no reason to think other than well of you, nor do I think other,
believe me.'
60. ' If your correspondent has any real object in view, he will furnish me with
the names of the persons to whom he alludes ; and I have no means of
making this known to him except through the medium of your columns,
and on receiving which he may be sure that the fullest investigation will
be proceeded with.'
REV. R. C. TRENCH.
1865-1856.
1. The plural is usually formed in English by adding « to the singular. Ex-
plain the following plurals which are otherwise formed : Oxen, swine,
kine, b. ithren, feet, mice, phenomena, banditti.
8. In what two ways do we form comparatives and superlatives in English?
Explain the comparatives : Elder, better, rather, farther, further ; and
the superlatives: first, mosti stating the positives on which thejr ajre
formed.
TfOOLWICH COMPBTinVE BXAMINATIOir.
273
S. Write a sentence of four or five lines on any subject yon please, which shall
consist exclusiyely of words drawn from the Anglo-Saxon portion of our
language. ^
4. To which branch of the language, the Latin or the Anglo-Saxon, do adjec-
tives ending in ful, able, ible, ly, like, some, al, ous, less, severally be-
long? Give examples of each, and explain the force of the termination.
5. To which branch of the language, the Latin or the Anglo-Saxon, do sub-
stantives ending in ness, hood, head, ment, ion, dom, ty, cy, severally
belong ? Give examples of each, and explain the force of the termi-
nation.
6. Give the force of the prefixes, dis, mis, fore, pre, pro, de, un, in, and con ,
and state whether they belong to the Anglo-Saxon or Latin portions of
the language.
7< Distinguish between the following words : Each and every; common and
mutual ; feminine and effeminate ; childlike and childish ; to oblige and
to compel ; to pardon and to forgive.
8. State from what quarters, whether from Anglo-Saxon, the Latin, or else-
where, we have derived the following words : Sword, candidate, salary,
sycophant, curfew, history, algebra, almanack, daughter, sister, hypo-
crite, book, bride, seraph, assassin, coffee, sarcasm, gazette.
9. Give the derivation of Candidate, salary, engine, soldier, bayonet, curfew,
ensign, infantry, radical, England, intoxicate, feudal, heresy, homage,
gossip.
10. Erom what languages have we derived the following words: Eclipse, mob,
arsenal, zenith, tornado, anodyne, parish, parochial, halcyon, priest, war,
dwarf, duke, candle, bazaar, regatta, minster?
11. Give the derivations of the following words: Auspice, arsenic, carnival,
Stoic, pagan, alms, leopard, renown, solecism, gentle, satire.
12. Write out the following passage, underlining with a single line the Anglo-
Saxon words occurring in it, mch two lines the words derived directly
from the Latin, and with three the Latin derived directly through the
French ; also if there are any words derived from any other quarter.
Gives not the hawthorn-bush a sweeter shade
To shepherds, looking on their silly sheep.
Than doth a rich embroidered canopy
To kings that fear their subjects' treachery?
yes, it doth ; a thousand-fold it doth.
And to conclude, — the shepherd's homely curds,
His thin cold drink out of his leather bottle,
Bis wonted sleep under a fresh tree's shade,
lii
274
ANALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
All which secur* and sweetly he ei\jo7s, ;
Is far beyond a prince's delicates,
His Tiands sparkling in a golden cup,
His body coached in a carious bed,
When care, mistmst, and treason wait on him.
Of man's first disobedience, and the firuit
Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world and all our woe.
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Bestore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That shepherd, who first taught the chcaen seed
In the beginning how the hearens and earth
Bose out of Chaos.
In the above passage (i) either distribute the words according to the
languages, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and Anglo-Saxon,
from which they are drawn ; (ii) or else distribute them according
to the several parts of speech to which they belong.
18. Give the derivation of the following words: Eremite, quaint, heaven, earth,
smith, champion, exotic, engine, ecstasy, diamond, citadel, cabal, antidote,
anthem, cathedral, romance, remorse, crucible, caitiff.
276
EXAMINATION Papers
SOT AT THB
OXFOBO LOCA. EXAMINATIONS
^862^1868.
JWIOB CATOIDATES, ,8M.
1.
PfB- E™», e«,.-. . '*°^'^ '•'*^' *••
*^oup questions should ho ^ *'**'^*'
*A* dwdl„<^°i^«""*« tioB «,d Death
Wtiodoam ° '"■™'»ln'ed
B«nti.L ^.'"'"^"""^^Oy Milton:
^ „ ^"^ Co-re,;.. ?^'°««,"».
■ TheiustH:;:::^"^^^t^^-p-sious:
Ambrosial odours ^P^^'«chus huge.
5 Wh«f • .. Cerberean mouths t^^ ''^^^*-
«• What ,s the general rule for the f ^' '^'^'^^ «««».
•ttbstaatives ? tot, * , "*® lormation of th« ^i ,
What are the exception, to tl^e^p'^'™' ""»"»'«
T 2
Uncouth,
Intend,
Welkin.
S«rbonian bog.
Vexed Scylla.
The trading flood.
278
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH liANGUAGE.
6. Explain the terms relatire and antecedent, and the grammatical eon-
nection existing between them. Illustrate this connection by parsing the
relative in the following passages :
But who here
Will envy whom the highest place exposes?
None whose portion is so small
Of present pain, that with ambitious mind
Will covet more.
The prison of his tyranny who rules.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1863.
2.
Analysis, Parsing, &o.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examinwn in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
Four questions should be answered, of which the first and second must be two.]
1. Analyse the following passagfe, distinguishing in each clause the subject,
predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the principal and
subordinate clauses.
[N.B. A verbal analysis is not required.]
'Tis silence all,
And pleasing expectation. Herds and flocks
Drop the dry sprig, and, mute-imploring, eye
The falling verdure. Hush'd in short suspense,
The plumy people streak their wings with oil,
To throw the lucid moisture trickling off ;
And ymt th' approaching sign, to strike at once
Into the general choir. EVn mountains, vales,
And forests seem, impatient, to demand
The promised sweetness. - ?
2. Parse the words to which numbers are prefixed in the following senteneesr,
taking care to explain the construction as well as the parts of speech, &c.
[N.B. The numbers may be substituted for the words in the answers to
this and the following questions. Abbreviations may be used. Rules of Syntax
9t^ not be quoted.]
277
W Shook ftoa w u. .,„<^ f':;'^" h^ (.) .ta«^
(io)WhH»Uiediuifin„„v_.'','^f*"'""'« gloom.
0.) Wlo.e loft//,';/:;;:^' (■')'-"«. the ™^ ^e.
«. Give the pa.t tense and past mrf- 1 .
0. state the subiects in - .
'• I'ivid torrents. '""°'"^^"^-«^^«»--
J. The bright BuU receives him
3- Winds the whole work
^. Unflesh'd in blood.
5. AU,s off the poise within.
'• S: J,"^^^'^ of the Samian saga
7. The Mantnan swain. ^^*
8. As fl,es the father-dust.
'• J'"!°f ^iWa's shore.
10. British Tempe.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1864.
3.
fN.B Ev ^*^^'"' ^^^'^^ *«•
Attention sho^dTe^|!^d t '"^.f"^ ^ ^^^'^^ ^he examine™ i„ .v
I i
14
2t8
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAQl^.
1. Analyie the following sentences, distinguishing in each clause the sutjeot,
predicate, Sec, and pointing out the connecting links between the prindptl
and subordinate clauses.
[N.B. A verbal or detailed analysis is not required.]
Low the woods
Bow thoir hoar head ; and, ere the languid sun
Faint from the west emits his evening ray,
Earth's universal face, deep hid, and chill,
Is one wild dazzling waste, that buries wide
The works of man The fowls of heaven.
Tamed by the cruel season, crowd around
The winnowing store, and claim the little boon
Which Providence assigns them.
3. Enumerate the 'parts of speech,' and classify each word in the abore
passage under its proper denomination in this respect.
3. What are the ordinary inflexions of nouns, pronouns, and verbs ? Cite
instances of such inflexions in the above passage.
4. How many cases are there ? State the case and grammatical construction
of the following words as they occur in the above passage: 'Their/
•his,' 'ray,' 'waste,' 'that,' 'man', 'season,' 'boon,' * which,' 'them.'
fi. Parse each word in these lines :
Father of light and life, thou Good supreme t
teach me what is good ! teach me Thyself I
0. Explain the following allusions, and either quote the context or state the
topics with which they are connected in Thomson's Winter.
1. Ethereal nitre.
3. Sacred to the household gods.
3. Loose-revolving fields.
4. The noblest name of Just.
5. The two Achaian heroes.
6. Awful from the plough.
7. Attic point.
8. Unwearied plying the mechanic tooL
9. His tardy wain.
10. The frantic Alexander of the North. '
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPBRS.
279
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1860.
4.
Analysis, Parsing, fto.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question,
so as (if possible) to answer aU on the paper.]
1. Parse each word printed in Italics in the following passage, showing its
oonnection with other words in the sentence to which it belongs :
Yet BtUl, even here, content can spread a charm.
Redress the clime, and tUl its rage diiarm.
Though poor the peasant's hut, h\% feast though tmaUt
He sees his little ^^ the fo^ of a//;
Sees no contiguous palace rear its head
To shame the meanness of his humble shed ;
No costly lord the sumptuous banquet deal,
To make him loathe his vegetable meal ;
But calm, and bred in ignorance and toil,
Each vfish contracting, fits him to the soiL
?. Give the past tense indicative and the perfect participle of each of these
verbs :
FaU,
Seethe,
Set,
Cleave,
Chide,
Gk),
Swell,
Bid,
Thrive,
Sit,
Lie,
Lay.
8. What is an intransitive verb ? What is a verb in the passive voice f
4. What is a pronoun ? Into what clesses are pronouns divided?
6. Analyse the following passage :
Cheerful at mom he wakes from short repose,
Breasts the keen air, and carols as he goes ;
With patient angle trolls the finny deep,
' Or drives his vent'rous ploughshare to the steep ;
Or seeks the den where snow-tracks mark the way,
And drags the struggling savage into day.
280
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANOUAOB.
6. Explain the menning of these ozpresBloni :
a. The lazy Scheld.
b. The wandering Po.
0. Campania's plain.
d. Wild Oswego.
e. Famed Hydaspea.
/. Damien's bod of steel.
7. Briefly express in your own words the substance of the reflexions eon*
tained in the passage which begins :
Vain, very rain, my weary search to flnd
That bliss which only centres in the mind, &o.
\
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1866.
A.
Analysis, Parsing, &o.
[N.B. Erery candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
C&ndidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question,
so as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.]
1. Analyse the following passage :
Unskilful he to fawn, or seek for power,
• . By doctrines fashion'd to the varying hour;
Far other aims his heart had learned to prize,
More bent to raise the wretched than to rise.
His house was known to all the vagrant train ;
He chid their wanderings, but relieVd their pain.
2. Parse each word in the first three lines of the above passage, taking care
to show the grammatical construction, as well as the part of speech, &c.
3. What is a noun ? Enumerate the various kinds of nouns, and instance
objects to which they may severally be applied.
4. How is the past participle formed ? Illustrate your explanation by refer-
ence to the following forms: Beceived, cloven, fled, brought, flung,
laden, shorn, put.
6. What do you mean by gender ? How should you describe ' child * and
'fowl' in reference to gender? and what are the feminine forms of
' actor, ' executor,' ' hero,' and ' lad ' ?
OXFOUD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS.
281
6. Give a brief account of tho gulyoct of Qr)ld«»niith'H Deserted Village, and
explain the following ezpresHionsj quoting (if you ciiu) tho coutoxt:
a. Labour'd mole. e. Bay'd the whispering wind.
b. Mantling bliss. /. Wild Altama.
e. Unprofltably gay. g. Muttod woods.
4, Impotence of dreu. h. Life's taper.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1867.
6.
Analysis, Parsing, &o.
[N.B. Eyory candidate is required to satisfy tko examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, piinctuation, and correct*
ness of expression.
Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any siigle question,
■• as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.]
1. Analyse the following passage :
From his native hills
He wandered far ; much did he see of men,
Their manners, their eiyoymeuts, and pursuits.
Their passions and their feelings; chiefly those
Essential and eternal in the heart,
That, 'mid the simpler forms of niral life,
Exist more simple in their elements,
And speak a plainer language.
2. Parse each word in the following passages :
a. His calling laid aside, he lived at ease.
h. The youth resigned
A task he was unable to perform
c. We parted, nothing willingly.
4» He could afford to suffer
With those whom he saw siiffer.
8. Of the following verbs give (a) the past tense and (b) the perfect parti*
dple ; and arrange the verbs in two classes according to the former (a) :
Ask, Choose, Go, Make, Strive, Wander,
Bend, Come, Lay, Quit, Take, Win,
Blend, Drink, Lie, Read, Tell, Yearn.
282
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANOUAGB.
4. Give the sense in simple words of the following passage :
In dreams, in study, and in ardent thought,
Thus was he reared ; much wanting to assist
The growth of intellect, yet gaining more.
And every moral feeling of his soul
Strengthened and braced, by breathing in content
The keen, the wholesome air of poverty,
And drinking from the well of homely life.
5. Explain and illitstrate Jt^rom the foregoing passages the following gvam-
matical tennt*!: Antecedent — auxiliary — case — conjunction — inflexion —
mood — prexulwiti' relative — syntax.
6. Explain the following words and phrases, and (where you can) supply
the etymology of those marked by italics : Enthusiast — itinerant — rustic
— sequestration — equipoise — garrulous — mighty orb of song — unutterable
loY&— preternatural — lineaments — superstitions — nervous gait — spon-
taneously.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1868.
7.
Analysis, Parsing, &o.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention shoiild be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctnesfr
of expression.
Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question,
80 as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.]
1. Analyse the following passage :
And by yon gate.
That bars the traveller's road, she often stood.
And when a stranger horseman came, the latch
Would lift, and in his face look wistfully :
Most happy, if, from aught discovered there
Of tender feeling, she might dare repeat
The same sad question.
2. Parse carefully each word in the following passages .
a. The cottage-clock struck eight.
h. Yes, it wold have grieved
Your very soul to see her.
C. I wist not what to do.
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 28R
«. GHre in simple words the general senso .f tho following passage:
It were a wantonness, and would demand
Severe reproof, if we were men wLos(^ hearts
Could hold vain dalliance Mith the misery
Even of the dead ; contented uhonco to draw
A momentary pleasure, never marked
By reason, barren of all future gooti.
4. «^«(«)thepasttenseand(6)thopastparti.:,leofthefollowingverb«.
^Id, Tell, Eeceive, Gird, - vSu..^ Leave
Creep. Wear, Catch. Eeview. StrilTe. Se.
SENIOR CANDIDATES, lg62.
8.
English Grammar, inclnding Analysis of Sentences.
^}Hn T7,T^'t'" '" "'^"^'"^ '° '''''^y '^e examiners in this paper
of eCssion ^^ '''''°'' '"'"''"'' ^^°^'"^^^°°' ^^^ ^°"-''^-
The first four questions should be attempted before any of the others.!
7%is vesper-service closed, without delay,
From that exalted station to the plain
Descending, we pursued our ^o»?ftt;rt-rf course.
In mute composure, o'er the shadowy lake
Under a fated sky. [No trace remained '
Of those celestial splendours ; gra/ the vault—
Pure, cloudless, etUr ; and the star of eve
Was wanting ;^but inferior lights appeared,
Faintly, too faint almost for sight ■ iuvA soine
Above the darkened hills stood ho/dhj forth
In twinkling lustre, ere the boat attained
Her mooring-place ;] «>^er<^ to the sheltering tree,
Our youthful voyagers bound /rtsif her prow.
With prompt, yet careful hands. This done, we paced
The dewy fields. v ^^
1. Paraphrase the portion of the above passage placed in bracketfi.
?. Analyse the first sentence ending with 'faded sky.'
»
284
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH liANGUAGB.
8. Parse the words and expressions in italics.
4. Correct the following sentences if faulty ; if not fanlly, vindicate theif
correctness :
The council have no intention to adhere to its former decision.
The land grows excellent wheat, forty biushels the acre.
Sleep flies the wretch.
The family was well conducted and regular attendants at church.
A ten inch board.
More than ten mile.
The best as I ever met with.
Who do you think it was ?
He had two sisters, the one a wealthy spinster, the other a married sistet
is the wife of a farmer.
6. Explain the origin and meaning of the prefixes circum-, sub-, ao-, de-, c(n-
be-, sym-, and of the affixes -gram, -graph, -graphy, -logy. lUustrate
by instances of werds in which they occur.
6. How is the comparative degree formed in adjectives and adverbs ? By what
construction is it followed ? Is the following correct : 'He is more worthy
of blame than me ? '
7. Define the terms pronoun, conjunction, and verb, giving the etymology ot
each. How many kinds of pronouns are there ? Give examples of each
kin«l.
8. Give the past tenses and participial forms of the verbs :
Break, Lie, Swim, Hold,
Slide, Spread, Climb, Forsake,
Drink, Strew, Sing, Ely.
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1863.
9.
English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
[N.3. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness
of expression.
The first four questions should be attempted before any of the others.]
1. Analyse the following passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject,
predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between tLe several dausea
[N.B. A verbal analysis is not required.]
theb
sifltef
-, con-
lutxate
y what
worthy
ogy ot
of each
[paper.
ctnesB
abject,
lUBea.
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 285
' I never did repent for doing good,
Nor shall not now : for in companions
That do converse and waste the time together,
Whose souls do bear an equal yoke of love,
There must be needs a like proportion
Of lineaments, of manners, and of spirit ;
Which makes me think, that this Antonio,
Being the bosom lover of my lord,
Must needs be like my lord.
2. Farse fully the words to which numbers are prefixed in the- following
sentences, stating the construction, as well as the parts of speech, &c.
[N.B. The numbers may be substituted for the words in the answers to
this and the follovnng questions. Abbreviations may be used. Rules of syntax
need not be quoted.]
(i) I, (2) who (3) weep (4) little, (5) did, I will (6) confess
The (7) moment I was (h) seated here (9) alone,
(10) Honour (11) my little (12) cell (13) with (14) some few tears,
(16) Which anger (16) and resentment (17) could not (is) drv.
All (19) night the storm (20) endured; and, (21) soon as (22) help
, >
(23) Had been collected horn the (24) neighbouring vale.
With morning we (25) renewed (26) our quest.
3. Explain the terms (1) auxiliary verb ; (2) case absolute; (3) objective case;
(4) noun of multitude; (5) disjunctive conjunction; (6) apposition; (7)
abstract noun ; (s) neuter verb ; (9) relative pronoun ; (10) strong perfect.
Illustrate by examples.
4. Distinguish between lie and lay; survey and survey; shall and will;
horse's legs and horses' legs ; subject and subj^t ; depository and de-
positary; farther and further; owed and ought; was and were; this
and that ; my and mine.
6. Words really or apparently the same frequently express different gram-
matical relations. Explain the differences in the following instances :
(1) Seeing a person coming &c. (2) Seeing is believing.
(3) TTiat is the man (4) that told you (5) that you were not to go to (6)
^ thtU place.
(7) What say you? He did (s) what I told him.
(9) But so it was. None (10) but the brave deserve &c
He Wiis all (11) 6tt^ gone.
It rains (13) hard. A (13) hard stone.
(14) Whence are you? The place ( 1 5) whence I came &e.
(1 6) For he told me &>e. Send ( 1 7 )for him.
286
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
6. Give the feminino forms of (i) tiger and ('2/ abbot; the diminutives o^
(:)) gooso and (4) lamb ; tho plurals of (5) penny and. (6) loaf; the pos-
sessive cases of (7) he, and (s) us; the perfect tenses and perfect
participles of (9) thrive, (10) slay, (11) tear, and (12) tread; the compa-
ratives and superlatives of (1 j) lovely, (14) sly, and (15) humble.
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1864.
10.
English Orammar. including Analysis of Sentences.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examineia in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spoiling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness
of expression.]
1. Parse each word printed in italics in the following passage, showing its
construction in tho sentence to which it belongs :
purblind race of miserable men.
How many among us at this very hour
Do forge a life-long trouble for ourselves.
By taking true ior false, or false for true ;
Here, through the feeble twilight of this world
Groping, how many, until we pass and reach
That other, where wc see as we are seen.
y. Eixpress the sense of the above passage in simple prose as briefly as you can.
8. 'The parts of speech are not the names of classes of words taken by
themselves, but of words as they are constructed in sentences.'
Explain this statement, giving examples to show that the following words
become different parts of speech according to the connection in which they
occur : but, that, taking, trouble, false, forge, contract.
4. When the same word, being of more than one syllable, may be used either
as a verb or a noun, what distinction is usually made in the place of
the accent ? What exceptions of common occurrence are there to this rule?
5. What is an auxiliary verb ? Explain the use and meaning of each of the
English auxiliary verbs.
6. What is the distinction between conjunctions and prepositions ?
7. Analyse the following passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject,
predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the several
clauses :
Oxford local examination papers. 28t
What stronger breiistplnte than a heart untainted ?
Thrice is he armed, that hath his quarrel just ;
And he but naked, though locked up in steel,
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.
8. Distinguish between these expressions and words :
He is come, and He has come.
I alone can do it, and I can do it alone.
A picture of the Queen's and A picture of the Queen.
Fall, and fell. Rise, and raise.
Lie, and lay. Stop, and stay.
Sit, seat, and set.
9. Give the Saxon words in common use which most nearly answer to the
following : Extend, expand, penetrate, pervade, denote, depart, spiritual,
multitude, intrusion, invasion, incursion, elevation, altitude, division
ither
ice of
rule?
Ith9
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1866.
11.
English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attentioa should be paid to spelling, handwriting, piuct nation, and correctness
of expression.]
Bless'd are those
Whose blood and judgment are so well comingled.
That they are not a pipe for fortunes finger
To sound what stop ahe please : Giie me that m&n
That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him
In my heart's core, ay, in my heart of heart.
Aside thee.— Something too much of this.
1. Analyse the above passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject,
predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the several
clauses.
2. Parse fully the words in italics, stating in each case the construction or
relation of the word parsed to the other parts of the scatence.
8. How do you distinguish between the participle and the verbal substantive
in -wtjjT ? HlnBtrate your answer by the following examples : ' I am
o
288
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
going a hunting,' ' I saw a boy throwing a stone,' • Day dawnmg, Wb
started,' 'Biding is healthy.' Explain the a in the first of these.
4. What is the exact force of the prefix in the following words ? — Problem,
procure, proceed, prologue : subtract, subacid, subside, subsidize, surrepti-
tious: innate, intact, incident: disqualify, dispense, dissect, dissuade: re-
peat, reluctant, remit, remote : withdraw, withhold, v/ithstand.
6. The term pronoun etymologically means a ' word used instead of a noun.'
Would such a definition comprehend all the words classed as pronouns,
or all the cases to which pronouns apply ?
«i. Enumerate the inflexions (proper) of verbs, and the auxiliaries employed
where inflexions are wanting. Distinguish the shades of meaning in the
following forms : I wrote, I have written, and I have been writing ;
I write and I am writing; You shall write and You will write.
7. Which do you consider correct in point of orthography? — Honor, or honour;
recognize, or recognise ; center, or centre ; traveler, or traveller ; moveable,
or movable ; wilful, or willful. Give reasons for your preference.
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1866.
12.
English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness
of expression.]
ERs years but young, but his experience old ;
His head unmellowed, but \i\b judgment ripe;
And, in a word {for far behind his worth
Come all the praises that I now bestow)
He is complete in feature and in mind.
With all good grace to grace a gentleman.
1. Parse each word printed in italics in the above passage, explaining its
grammatical connection with other words in the sentence.
2. Classify the English aiixiliary verbs, and explain the uses of each of them.
8. What are the uses of the adverb ? How many kinds of adverbs are there ?
4. What ia the distinction between strong verbs and weak verbs ?
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 289
It was told him.
He walked ten miles.
Give Am the book.
He lived many ycor« after <Aa<.
7. How do you explain the foUowing constructions ?
The church-going boll.
There is some ill a brewing.
While grace is saying.
A walking stick.
I go a fishing.
He was an hungered.
8. Analyse
Then she for her good deeds and her pure We^
And for the power of ministration in her
And likewise for the high rank she had borne.
Was chosen abbess, there, an abbess, lived
For three brief years, and there, an abbess, part
10 where beyond these voices there is peace
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1867.
13.
English Grammar, inolnding Analysis Of Sentences
<*ive % thoughts no tongue.
INor any unproportioned thought hia act.
Be thoufamiluir but bt/ no means vulgar.
290
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried,
Grapple thorn to thy soul with hooks of steel ;
But do not du/l thy palm with entertainment
Of each niw hatched, unjiedgcd comrade. Beware
Of entrance to a quarrel ; but, being in,
Bear it, that the opposed may beware of thee.
2. Express the purport of tlio passage in prose as briefly and as simply as
you can.
3. What is a pronoun ? Into whiit classes are pronouns divided ? Explain
the distinction between my, mine, and my own.
4. How many kinds of verbs are there ? Define each of them.
6. Give the past tense and the perfect participle of each of these verbs :
Lay, ^ek. Flee, Set,
Thrive, Tear, Sit, Dare,
Fly, Catch, Lie, Cleave.
6. What are the meanings of the following prefixes, and from what languaget
do they come ?
With-
Dia-
. Sub-
Syn
Contra-
Ee-
Arch-
Ab-
Dis-
Hyper-
Per-
Un-
7. What diflFerence in signification or usage is there in the followinG[ cypres*
sions ?
Older and elder.
Bold and brave.
Drunk and drunken.
Weighty and heavy.
Stay and stop.
He is gone ar.d he has gone.
He loves him more than me and he loves him more than I
He has died and he is dead.
b. Analyse
He that has light within his own clear breast,
May sit in the centrb, and enjoy bright day ;
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts,
Benighted walks under the mid-day sun ;
Himself is his own dungeou.
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEES. 291
' SENIOB CANDIDATES, 1868.
English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
^l^^ell,^ long farewell, io all my greatness !
2%« «, the state of n,an:^o-rf«^ he puts forth
The tender leaves of hope, ^o-^.on-o«, W«.,am.
Ihe Mzrrf c?a^ ,m.. a frost, a /li//iW frost •
And-when he thinks, good easy ,««n,yw/.«r.^y
His greatness IS a n>m«y-^,>, his root.
And then he falls 05 I (fo.
for your an/wer. " ^ ''^"""°" "' " P™°>^ ? »i™ ■ m,on
4. What i« an auxiliary verb ? Classify the EugUsh auxUiary verb.
6. What 18 the passive voice? xn^.v, ,
Mowed by the "b^ ca^ ""^ " ™'' '» ''" I""'™ "'« •»
6. 8ive the past tenses and perfeet participles of these verbs ■
W, Expel, F„,^
'& Grow, Climb.
Spnng, Lie. ^ee,
7. Explain the prefixes in the following words :
Innate,
Intact,
Uncomfortable,
Disordbrly,
Hypothesis,
Thrive,
Slide.
Lay.
Withhold,
Subtract*
Return,
Hyper tole,
Annul.
u2
292
8. Analyss
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK.
Heaven doth with us, as we with torches do,
Not light them for themselves : for if our virtues
Did not go forth of us, 'twere all altke
As if we had them not
EXAMINATION PAPERS
BBT AT THB
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIdNS.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1869.
1.
Budiments of English Orammar.
[M.B. Every candidate must satisfy the examiners in this paper. Three
questions at least should be attempted.]
1. Give the plimJs of the following nouns :
Wolf, Fife, Canto, Soliloquy,
Flagstaff, Negro, Lily, Donlcey.
Life,
Give instances of nouns having two forms of the plural of different meanings.
2. Give the past tense indicative and past participle of each of the following
verbs :
Abide, Blow, Cleave, Draw, Sing^
Beseech, Drink, Hurt, Lie (to rest), Run.
3. Point out and correct what is amies in the following expressions :
Was you there ? or was it him ?
James and him didn't ought to have said so.
Who did you expect to have seen here ?
I was neither considering James nor John when I did it.
Either James or John have great caus^ for complaint.
He don't mind what I say ; but I will be sorry to punish him.
UAMBRIDQE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS.
293
4. What is a gentence/ Define the terms 'subject' and 'predicate.' Point
out the subject and predicate in the following sentences :
He always acts with considerable judgment.
To be angry is unwise.
In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England.
6. Parte fully the following passage :
Pare to be true. Nothing can need a lie.
A fault which needs it most grows two therebj*
JUNIOR CANDIDATES,
Trench on the Stndy of Words.
1. In what sense is language man's invention, and in what sense God's gift?
2. Words sometimes preserve the record of exploded errors. Show in what
way the following wordt), Leopard, sardonic, humour, saturnine, jovial,
mercurial, amethyst, do this.
3. Give the derivation of Tinsel, desultory, dunce, gipsy, curfew.
4. Allusion to what ancient customs is bound up in the words, Thraldom, cal<
oulation, expense, stipT2lation ?
6. What information about the following things, namely, Bayonet, calico,
guinea, cordwain, cherry, peach, currants, dimity, damask, sherry, er-
mine, may be obtained from the names they bear ?
6. Define synonyms. How do synonyms find place in a language? What
advantages in respect of style may we hope to gain by the study of
them?
7. Give some examples of the morality, and some of the immorality, which
find place in the use of words.
1'
294
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOE.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1860.
Rndiments of English Orammar.
(PKRMMrNAUV.)
1. What is the meaning of an ' abstract,' ' common,' and • proper' noun ; an
' auxiliary' and ' impersonal ' verb ; a ' cardinal ' and an ' ordinal ' num-
ber ? Give examples of each.
3. What is the general rule for forming the possessive case, singular and
plural, of nouns ; and what are the exceptions to this rule ?
3. How do nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant,/, aud/e respectively,
form their plurals ? Give the plurals of the following words : Key,
berry, calf, grief, knife, penny, ox, fly, brother.
4. Write out the present and past tenses of the following verbs : Forget, speak,
think, stand ; and give the past tense and past participle of the verbs
Lose, knit, ride, wear, run, sit.
5. Parse the words in italics in the following passage :
FvXl many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ;
Full many a flower is bom to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray's Elegy.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES.
4.
Trench on the Study of Words.
1. What objection is there to regarding language simply as an invertion?
2. To which of the races which have inhabited England do we mainly owe
oup language ? Mention any words which are derived (1) from ancient
Greek or Roman philosophers, (2) from the Schoolmen. Whence do we
derive the words ' earl ' and 'countess ' ?
8. Show from etymology' what influence the planets Mercury, Jupiter, and
Saturn were supposed by astrologers respectively to have upon those
, bom under them. What three articles of food may be shown by ety-
mology to have come to us originally from the coast of the Black Sea.
,r
CAMBRIDGE LOCAT. EXAMINATION PAPERS.
295
4. Horace says, ' Many wokIh will bo revived which have now gone out, and
many will pass out of use which arc now in vogue.' Show by example*
that this has boon the case in English.
6t It has been questioned whether wo ought to write ' honour ' or ' honor,' ' favour*
or 'favor.' State the case on both huIch, and point out precisely what is
meant when the latter spoiling is called wrong.
.1. Define and trace to a common root the words Sense, sensual, sensitive,
sensuous, sensiblo, sontimuntal, roscntmont, aftsentation ; also Qentle,
genteel, gentile, generous, general.
7. Diatiognish between Deist and Theist, diffidence and distrust, effective and
effectual, conscience and consciousness, invention and discovery, vir-
tuous and virtual. .
8. What change has taken place in the meaning of the words Nephew, noyel-
ist, neologist, plantation, favour, naturalist ?
JUNIOR CANDIDATES.
English Orammar.
Pabt I. — Frblihin^bt.
[N.B. All students are required to satisfy the examiners in the first part
jf this Paper, which is the English Grammar of the Freliminaiy Examination.
Four questions at least should be attempted.]
1. Give the names of the parts of speech. What is a pronoun? What is
the particular use of a relative pronoun ?
2. When is a noun in the nominative case absolute ? Give a sentence con-
toning an example of one.
8. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. Give two simple
sentences, a transitive verb occurring in one, an intransitive one in the
other.
4. Write down the past tense, present and past participles of the following
verbs : Scatter, swear, ride, mow, gallop, spin, trouble, profit, lose,
toes, fly.
5. Parse the following sentence :
Your voiceless lips, flowers, are living preachers.
11
29Q
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGUSH LANGUAGE.
1
i
1
) :
Pakt II.
6. Why are somd consonants tormed liquids and some mutes ? Give instances
of each. What is a diphthong ?
7. State the different parts of speech to which each of the following words
may belong : Sleep, long, tear, close, shade, below, last, pluck, shed,
btar, underneath.
8. Gite the rules, with ex»mp1ea to each, for the use of s and the apostrophe
in the following; cases :
a. Nouns in the possessive case in apposition.
b. Several possessives used together.
c. When of is used with the possessive form.
9. Specify what class of transitive verbs may take two objects after them. In
what cases may neuter verbs take an object after them ? Give examples.
10. Name the moods of a verb, and explain their use. Take a verb, ard pjivp
an example of each.
1 1. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences :
Mind who you are speaking to.
Since you were here last, I rode out on horseback regularly every day.
On notice of this been given to the committee, a resolution was at once
come to to forbid it. *
The ten first chapters of the book were interesting very, the remaining
was dull.
4 2. Analyso the following sentence :
The lively Grecian, in a land of hills,
Bivers and fertile plains, and sounding shores.
Under a cope of sky more variable,
Could find commodious place for every god,
Promptly received, as prodigally brought,
Froia the surrounding countries, at the choice
Of all adventurers.
;
t<
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 297
JUNIOR CANDIDATES.
English Grammar.
PaetL
[N.B. All students are reqiured to satisfy the examiners in the first part
of this paper. Four questions at least should be attempted.]
1. Write down the feminine forms of Abbot, duke, hero, ram, traitor, widower.
2. Writedown the plural forms of Cargo, child, chiirch, knife, monkey, penny,
portfolio, roof, tooth, -tree, woman.
3. Place the indefinite article before each of the following nouns : Box, ewe,
heir, historian, house, union.
4. Mention the parts of speech to which the following words respectively
belong : Arrow, beside, besides, boy, grow, often, seldom, since, though,
through, vain, vein, yellow, your.
6. Write down the past tense of each of the following verbs : Beseech, drive,
forsake, fly, bear, lay, lend, lie, shear, shoot.
6. State the rules for forming the degrees of comparison of adjectives.
Part II.
7. Distinguish between transitive and intj-ansitive verbs. What is meant by
(1) a verbal preposition, (2) a verbal substantiva ?
8. Into what classes are pronouns divided? Form a sentence including a
personal pronoun in the objective ease, and a relative pronoun in the
possessive case.
9. Write down a part of tr.d verb * to love,' diflferiug in voice, mood, tense,
number, and person, from ' I was loved.'
10. Distinguish between the meanings of the sentences within the following
brackets:
fYou Lave hdpod mo oftener than he.
i. You have helped mo uftencT than him.
■%
298
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
11. State the rules for the concord of
1. A relative with its antecedent. •
2. A collective substantive with its verb.
12. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences : —
1. As neither John or Thomas are going, let you and I go.
2. Observing the house actually on fiio, ic was evident the enginei
were required.
3. I can't go unless John comes home.
4. I don't know whether he goes now, but he didn't use to.
13. Explain the terms subject, object, and predicate. Give an example of an
indirect object.
14. Analyse
Those who reason in tliis manner do not observe that they are setting
up a general rule, of all the least to be endured; namely, that
secrecy, whenever secrecy is practicable, will justify any action.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES.
7.
EngUsh Grammar.
[N.B. All students must satisfy the examiners in this paper. Four
questions at least must be attempted.]
1. Define a noun; and distinguish between proper, common, and abstract
nouis; giving examples of each.
2. What does the possessive case denote ? State the rule for its formation.
"Write down the possessive case plural of Man, lady.
3. Give the comparative and superlative degrees of Good, bad, little^ old, nu-
merous.
4. Name the number, gender, person, and case of She, its, ours, them, us, ye, thee.
6. What is an adverb? Into how many classes are adverbs divisible? State
the classes to tvhich the following adverbs respectively belong : Again,
almost, enoxigh, fully, hiiher, pcradvcnture, well, yesterday, yonder,
6. Distinguish between the properties of prepositions and conjv notions. State
the difference between copulative and disjunctive conjunctions. In the
sentence 'Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy,' what
part of speech is /or. <*
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 299
JUNIOR CANDIDATES.
8.
English Grammar.
1. Explain briefly the meanings of Etymology, syntax, concoid, declension,
mood, tense.
2. Define a noun and an adjective. Distribute a^'ectives into three classen
according to their meanings.
3. Write down six words which are used as adverbs and prepositions. How
do you detect a preposition in a sentence ?
4. Assign to its proper part of speech each word in the following sentences :
a. I will conduct myself so as to gain respect.
b. Pending the trial all but a few perished.
c. He is fond of pleasing everybody.
6. Write three short sentences, one containing a substantive clause, one an
adjective clause, and one an adferbiai ciaxise.
6. What do you mean by a contracted sentence?
7. Correct mistakes in the following sentences :
a. Riches does not belong everybody.
b. These sort of arguments ought to be more inculcate.
^ e. If the Sun goes about the Earth, astronomy's results are misleading us.
d Speak thou then which trespass here.
e. I saw a black and white man walking together.
8. Analyse the following sentences :
a. Why are you so late ?
6. He will succeed or die.
c. Whatever the consequences may be, I shall go my way.
d. You ask me why, though ill at ease,
Within these regions I subsist,
Whose spirits falter in the mist»
And languish for the purple seas. ,
9. Can you show that the number of the parts ol speech is complete and sof-
ficient for expressing our thoughts ?
366
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAGB.
JUNIOB CANDIDATES.
9.
English Orammar
[Every student must satisfy the examiners in this paper. Four questions
at least must be attempted.]
1. Name the parts of speech, giving one example of each.
2. Define a preposition. Show bj examples that the sa*ne word may be used
sometimes as a preposition and sometimes as a conjuntion.
3. Give the masculine nouns corresponding to Duchess, ewe, heifer, witch ; and
the feminine corresponding to Beau, host, lord, master, executor. Write
down six nouns of common gender.
4. Write down the past trnse and the perfect participle of the following
verbs : Arrive, begin, dare, freeze, go, spread, strike, tell.
6. What is an auxiliary verb ? What tenses and moods require the use of
auxiliaries?
6. Distinguish between the meanings of the following pairs of words and
phrases: Any, some; alone, only; stay, stop; decrease, diminish;
sanitary, sanatory ; prevail upon, prevail with.
7. Analyse the following sentences, and parse the words printed in italics:
1. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
2. Being angry with one who controverts an opinion which you value,
is a necessary consequence of the uneasiness which you feeL
8. How are adverbs usually formed ? What adverbs are derived from the
following words : All, beside, ground, heaven ?
Write down the principal adverbs which can be derived from words
contained in the sentences of question 7>
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS.
301
DB
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1869.
10.
Rndiments of English Orammar.
I
and
rite
vvag
le of
and
ralue,
the
woidi
[N.B. Every candidate must satisfy the examiners in this paper. Three
qneftions at least should be attempted.]
1. Give the past teutir indicative and past participle of each of the following
verbs :
Awake, Break, Fly, Hit, Sit, Swell,
Forbid, Eat, Flee, Ring, Strive, Tear.
2. ^iTrite down the following passage without changing the order of the words,
but spelling them according to the present usage ; and point out any
differences between this passage and modem English, other than those
of spelling:
And Jhesus, seynge the puple, wento up into an hil ; and whanne he
was set, hise disciplis camen to hym. And he openyde his mouth,
and taughte hem, and seide, Blessid be the pore in spirit, for the
kyngdom of hevenes is heme. Blessid be mylde men, for thei
Bchulon welde the erthe. Blessid be thei that mournen, for thei
Bchulen be comfortid. Blessid be thei that hungren and thirsten
rightwisnesse, for thei schulen be fulfillid. Blessid be mercyful
men, for thei schulen gete merci. Blessid be thei that be of cleno
herte, for thei schulen se God. Blessid be pesible men, for thei
schulen be clepid Goddis children. Blessid be thei that suf&eu
persecusioun for rightfulnesse, for the kingdom of hevenes is heme.
—8t. Matt. V. 1-10. (Wyclip).
Jt. What is a pronoun ? Write a short sentence containing the words This,
that, who, and whom.
4. Parse fully the following passage : —
Stone walls do not a prison make,
Nor iron bars a cage ;
A free and quiet mind can take
These for a hermitage.
5. Define the terms ' subject ' and ' predicate.' When is a sentence said to
to be ' simple,' and when ' complex ' ?
Write a simple sentence in which the subject shall bo qualified by a par*
t|ici|^ial plirase, and the predicate extended by an adverbial ]^hrase,s
I! ^
802 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1860.
11.
Bndiments of Engi^ish Grammar.
'_' s> )
(PBBLmiNiLBT.) ^
[N.B. All candidates are required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.]
1. EiruuBBATB the different kinds of pronouns. Decline such pronouns as
admit of declension.
2. Give a list of nouns (a) that have no singular, (b) that have no plural, (o)
that have the singular and plural alike.
3. Point out the errors in the following sentences :
How will we know whether is the greatest of the two ?
* Neither John or Thomas considered that morning or evening are the
best time for study.
Either in the four first of that class were clever boys.
If I had not broke your stick, you would never have ran home, nor
began to tell those kind of lies, which nobody but foolish men
believe.
Every member of our families have been introduced to each other.
4. Write down an example of (1) a simple, (2) a compoimd, and (3) a complex
sentence.
6. Rewrite the following in modern English : —
Lo lo (quod Dame Prudence) howe lightly is every man eodyned to his
owne desyre and his owne pleasaunce. Certes (quod she) the woides
of the phisiciens ne shulden not ben understonden in that wise,
for certes wickednesse is not controrie to wickednesse, ne vengeaunce
is not contrarie to vengeaunce, ne wronge to wronge, but everich
of hem encreaseth and engendreth other. But certes the wordes of
the phisiciens shuld be understonde in this wise, for good and wick-
ednesse ben two contraries : and peace and werre, vengeaunce and
suf&aunce, discord and acord, and many other thingea : But certes
wickednesse shalbe warished with goodnes, discorde by acorde,
werre by peace, and so forthe in other thinges. — Chaucer, Cantet'
bury Tales,
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 308
.... A-
per.l
vasuB aB
oral, (o)
are the
tome, nor
lish men
ber.
% complex
ned to his
the wordes
that wise,
rengeaunce
)ufc everich
B wordes of
i andwick-
eaxtnce and
But ceites
by acorde,
ceri CanUf'
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1866.
12.
Preliminary English Grammar.
[N.B. All candidates are required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.]
1. Explain the word vowel. Show by rules and exceptions, with the aid of
examples, the various sounds indicated by the rowels, both singly and
in combination.
2. What means have we for expressing relation between nouns substantive?
Explain such a phrase as * Wills Act Amendment Act.'
3. What is a defective verb? Give examples, and show how they are sup-
plemented. J f
4. Explain what is meant by a conditional sentence ; and point out the dis-
tinction in meaning between
' If you go at once you may be in time,'
and
' If you went at once you might be in time.'
6. Examine the construction of tbe following sentences : 'Tis sixty years since
Miich ado about nothing. They must fight it out. He came himself. '
b. Analyse the foUowing passage, and parse the words printed in italics :
I cannot tell if to depart in silence,
Or bitterly to speak in your reproof,
Beatfittetk my degree or your condition.
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1866.
13.
English Grammar.
1. Which letter is the aspirate, and why is it so called ? In what words is it
rightly dropped when it stands as their first letter? Under what cir-
eamstanoes are the forms a or an used of the indefinite article ?
304
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
2. Explain how you distinguish between proper, common, and abstract nonns.
ClaBsify the following: Inconsistency, confession, gorernor, squadron, day,
education, knowledge, youth, time, contest, Wellington, talent, Robert
3. Define the term ' case ' as employed in grammar. How many cases ar»
there in English? How are they used? Decline Child, nAbish, he,
who, another.
4. Point out the difference of meaning in the forms of exDression, ' A states
. man and oratoi* walking up Constitution Hill,' and ' A statesman and an
oiStftrv^alking up Constitution Hill.'
"When is the sMMe^i^eated or not in such cases ?
6. What parts of a verb must b'^ntn^vn in order to conjugate it? In what
particulars does a regular differ ^oi^-^liMpMjgular verb ? Give the past
tense and past participle of Demean, mean, hf ftYft, npJhfinTr. cost, accost.
6. Parse
Analyse
Uprouse ye then, my merry, merry men,
For 'tis our opening day.
That time of year thou mayst in me behold
When yellow leaves, or none, or few do hang
Upon those boughs which shake against the cold,
Bare ruin'd choirs, where, late the sweet birds sang.
"•*«■,
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1867.
14.
English Grammar.
1. Define the following terms: Vowel, consonant, diphthong, syllable. Into
what are diphthongs divided ? Point out the vowels i n the words wayward
and yearly.
2. Give the general rule for the formation of the plural number of nouns; and
enumerate the principal exceptions to this rule. Give the plural forms
of Church, stomach, baby, day, knife, handkerchief, ox, folio, grotto.
3. What is meant by a relative pronoun ? When the relative is preceded by
two antecedents of different persons, with which of them do the relative
and the verb agree ? Correct the errors in the following sentence: ' Thoq,
art the person which were supposed to have written the letter.'
GAMBKIBGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS.
305
ns.
Ay,
pt
are
Mies
kdan
what
e past
BbCCOSt.
■E'V
4. Distingnish between transitive and intransitive verbs. Explain the terms
mood and tense. Point out the dilTerence between the potential and
subjunctive mood.
5. Point out the difference of meaning in the following sentences :
I was disappointed of the letter which I have so long wished for.
I was disappointed in the letter which I have so long wished for.
Distinguish between 'a taste o/a thing,' and 'a taste /or a thing.'
6. Parse
Analyse
I know him as myself: for from our infancy
We have conversed, and spent our hours together.
Then burst his mighty heart ;
And, in his mantle muffling up his face.
Even at the base of Fompey's statue,
Which all the while ran blood, great Csesar fell.
ble. Into
wayward
louns; and
viral forms
jrotto.
receded by
the relative
jnce-.'Thoa
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1868.
16.
English Grammar.
1. Define the following terms: Phrase, clause, sentence. Write a short sentence
containing substantival, adjectival, and adverbial clauses.
2. Give some of the rules for the use of commas.
3. Give the rules for forming the imperfect participles of verbs; and form those
of Call, love, singe, tie, strip, sait, defer, recover, frolic.
4. Explain carefully the meaning of the terms, person and mood.
Correct the following sentence so as first to state the supposed case as a
fact, secondly as a supposition : If thou i.^ honest, I love you.
5. What are the diflferent shades of meaning between the sentences : I think,
I am thinking, I do think ?
Q. Parse
Such holy rite,
Methinks, if audibly repeated now
From hill or valley, could not move
gUiblimer transport.
806
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
I II
Analjie
Brutus, I do observe you now of late.
I have not from your eyes that gentleness,
And show of love, as I was wont to have :
Yon bear too stubborn and too strange a haod
Over your firiend th '* ''>ve« you.
i
307
EXAMINATION PAPEES
8BT AT THB
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATIONS,
1870-1873.
JXJNIOB CANDIDATES, 1870.
Analysis, Parsing, fto.
A^fn'f ^^,^*°^^<J»*« « 'eq^i^ed to satisfy the examinew in this paper.
AttenUon should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and c^^
ness of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsing. As regard, the
rest of this paper, they are recommended not to dwell too long over any single
question, but (if possible) to answer the whole of the questions.]
The knight of the Eedcrosse when him he spide
Bpwring so hote with rage dispiteous,
^^** fairely couch his speare, and towards ride :
Soone »i«c^e they both, ioif* yeZ; and furious.
That daunted with their forces hideous,
Their steeds do stagger, and aww^gif stand,
And eke themselves, too udely rigorous,
Astonied with the stroke of their own hand.
Do back r«4tt^, and €flcA to oifA^r yeeldeth land.
** ^^fl"^ ^ord printed in italics, explaining its grammatical connecUon
with other words in the sentence in which it occurs.
2. Notice every obsolete expression and mode of spelling.
3. Give an account of the English auxiliary verbs.
i. What is an adverb ? How are adverbs classified ?
308
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGl.
0. Explain the following words And phrases occnrring in the Faery Queem^
Bk. X. Canto ii. :
chaunst buff
purfled ygoe
shapes in seeming wise debonaire
owches fone
the dye of warre falsed
shamefast pight.
6. Explain the allusions contained in these expressions :
(a) Where Tiberis doth pas.
(6) His sevenfold teme.
(o) The rosy fingered morning.
(i) The stedfast starre. ^
(e) Sad Proserpine's wrath.
7. Give an account of Fradubio, and of the three Sarazin brothers.
8. Analyse this passage :
Long time they thus together travailed,
Till, weary of their way, they came at last,
Where grew two goodly trees, that faire did spred
Their armes abroad, with gray mosse overcast ; •'
And their greene leaves trembling with every blast, *
Made a calme shadow far in compasse round.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1871.
2.
Analysis, Parsing, &o.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsing. As regards the
rest of this paper, they are recommended not to dwell too long over any single
question, but (if possible) to answer the whole of the questions.]
1 Analyse:
Yet not for those,
Nor what the potent Victor in his rage
Can else inflict, do I repent or change.
Though changed in outward lustre, that fixed mind.
And high disdain from sense of injured merit,
^hat with the Mightiest raised me to contend.
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 309
I
2. Fane every word in the following passage :
Hii gpear, to equal which the ti>"«rt pine
Hewn on Norwegiau hills, to be the maet
Of some great amiral, were but a wandi
He walked with.
8. Explain fully the following words and phrases :
empyreal
thrallm
)er.
«t-
the
gle
(•) amerced belated
jousted nathless
(A) The ffrunael edge.
Prone on the flood.
The burning Tnarle.
Night-foundered skiff.
> . , Locusts, warping on the oastom wind.
.^^w with insolence and wine.
The ascendina; pile
Stood Jlxed her statelt/ highth.
Ml but less than no.
What time his pride had cast him out of heaven.
What though the field be lost.
4. In the following passages explain the allusions, and illustrate, if necessarv
by other passages from Paradise Lost, Book I :
(a) The hill of scandal.
(A) The Aonian mount.
(*') Siloa'fl brook that flowed
Fast by the oracle of God.
(<^ The brook that parts
Egypt from Syria's ground.
(e) The asphaltic pool.
if) Smooth Adonis from liis native rock
Ran purple to the sea.
(g) Uther'g son.
(*) The Dorian mood
Of flutes and soft recorders.
(•) The moon whose orb
Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views.
(A) When Charlemain with all his peerage fell
By Fontarabbia.
6. What is meant by gender in grammar? Give instance*.
310
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOK.
6. Express in simple words the meaning of the following passage:
Say, muse, their names then known, who first, who last,
Roused ftom their nlumber on that fiery couch.
At their great emperor's call, as next in worth
Came singly where he stood on the bare strand,
While the promiscuous crowd stood yet aloof.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1873.
I!
m\
Analysis, Parsing, &c.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsing. As regards the
rt st of this paper, they are requested not to dwell too long over any single
question, but (if possible) to answer the whole of the questions.]
1. Parse every word in the following passage :
Intermit no watch
Against a wakeful foe, while I, abroad.
Through all the coasts of dark destruction seek
Deliverance for us all.
2. Analyse:
Me, though just right and the fixed laws of heaven
Did first create your leader, next free choice,
With wliat besides in counsel or in fight
. Hath been achieved of merit, — ^yet this loss,
Thus far at least recovered, hath much more
Established — .
8. Explain the allusions in the following passages : '^ .
(a) The wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
(h) That Serbonian bog,
Betwixt Damiata and Mount Casius old.
Where armies whole have sunk.
(e) Goigons, and Hydras, and Chimeras dire.
(d) Whftu Argo passed
Through Bosphorus, betwixt the justling totHuk
OXFORD I/)GAL fiXAMINATION PAPERS.
311
uncouth
pinnace.
4. Show the appropriateness of the following simile in all its parte, and
explain the allusions :
As when fer oflFat sea a fleet descried
Hangs in the clouds, by equinoctial winds
Close sailing from Bengala, or the isles
Of Temate and Tidore, whence merchants bring
Their spicy drugs,— they on the trading flood.
Through the wide Ethiopian to the Cape,
Ply stemming nightly toward the pole,— so seemed
Far oflFthe flying fiend.
6. Jiixplain the following words and phrases :
(a) unessential frore
welkin buxom
(b) By success untaught.
That forgetful lake.
The vassals of his anger.
His fatal throne.
Ages of hopeless end.
The sensible of pain.
Or shun the goal with rapid wheels.
The harmony . . . suspende«1 Hell.
Impaled with circling fire.
6. Trace the line of argument in the speech of Belial.
7. How does Milton describe the fallen angels as employing themselves in
their place of punishment ?
8. Derive the following words : puny, arrive, paramount, apathy, treason.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES.
4.
Analysis, Faxsing, &c.
(Paradise Lost, Book III.)
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this pape:.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness
of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsing. As regards the
rest of this paper, they are recommended not to dwell too long over any single
question, but ;if pobsible) to answer the whole of the que»tiou»»,]
312
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
1. Analyse :
Wliat praise could they receive ?
What pleaflure I from such obedience paid,
When will and reason, reason also is choice,
Useless and vain, of freedom both despoiled,
Made passive both, had serv'd necessity,
Not me?
2. Parse each word printed in italics in the following passages, explaining its
grammatical connection with other words in the sentence :
(1) HaU, holy light, offspring of he&Vn Jirstborn
Or of th' Mernal coetemal beam
May I express thee unblamed ?
(2) The rest shall hear me call, and oft be warned
Their sinful state, and to appease betimes
Th' incensed Deity, while offered grace
Invites.
(3) As in him perish all men, so in thee.
As from a second root, shall be restored
As many as are restor'd, without theo none.
Distinguish the several meanings of the word 'as' in the last passage.
3. What is meant by : subject, extension of predicate, indirect object, com-
pound sentence, noun sentence, adversative connection ?
4. Explain the following: drop serene, glozing, maugre, amarant, eremite,
limbec, tiar, archchimic, empyreal.
6. What are the allusions in these passage^^ ?
(1) Pilgrims . . . that btrayed so far to seek
In Golgotha him dead who lives in heaven.
(2) Seasons return, but not to me returns
Day.
(3) Tho weeds of Dominic.
(4) Hesperian gardens.
(6) That crystalline sphere whose balance weighs
The trepidation talked, and that first moved.
6. What was the course of Satan's journey as described by Milton f
OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEES. 318
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1870.
J - ^
• >
EngUsh Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
Afffn? "^rT, T^'^""^ '' "'^''^"'^ ^° ^^^''^y ^^« examiners in this papor.
A^ntion should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsing. As regards the
rest ot this paper, they are recommended not to dweU too long over any single
question, but (if possible) to answer the whole of the questions.]
1. Parse, and show the grammatical construction of evav word in the follow-
ing passage :
What good would follow this, if this were done ?
What harm, undone ? Deep harm to disobey,
Seeing obedience is the bond of rule.
2. Express in simple words the meaning of the foregoing passage.
3. Give the feminine forms for the following substantives :
abbot
actor
earl
duke
marquis
lad
hero
horse
hunter
governor
songster
tailor
tiger
testator
master
nephew.
4. A, an, the: give the names for each of these words as parts of speech,
and point out with instances their grammatical usage.
6. Give the past tense and past participle of the following verbs, and classify
tnem accordingly :
^^^ los« sell malce
. p. loose slay trot
teed leave teach leap
decide beseech marry receive.
6. Show the meaning and usage of the verbs shall, will, ma: '-th as princi
pals and as auxiliaries.
7. Give instances of words in which the addition or withdrawal of the aspi-
rate h materially affects their meaning.
314
8. Analyse
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
For what are men better than sheep or goats,
That nourish a blind life within the brain,
If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer
Both for themselves and those who call theqa friend ?
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1871.
English Orammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
[N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct-
ness of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsiig. As regards the
rest of this paper, they are recommended not to dwell too long over any single
question, but (if possible) to answer the whole of the questions.]
1. Parse each word which is printed in italics in the following passage, and
show its relation to other words in the sentence to which it belongs :
Virtue may he assailed, but never hurt,
Surprised hy unjust force, but not inthralled :
Yea, even that which Mischief meant most ftarm,
Shall in the happy trial prove most glory.
But evil on itself shall back recoil,
And mix no more with goodness.
2. Briefly and simply express the meaning of the passage in your own
words.
8. Explain the terms : (a) objective case, (6) apposition, (o) abstract noun,
{d) auxiliary verb, (c) intransitive verb, (/) distributive pronoun. Illus-
trate your explanations by examples.
4. Give the past tense and the perfect participle of each of these verbs :
sink lie iit fell
dig lay thrive rise
Am set fall swim.
6. G-ive the origin and meaning of the following prefixes : con-, de-, dis-, oo,
eub; sym-, un-, in-. Illustrate your answer by examples.
OXl'ORD LOCAL ILVAMLNATION PAPERS.
315
6. Distinguish the imperfect participle from the participial substantive.
XiXplain the expressions :
(a) Walking stick,
(b) Running footman.
(c) The house is a building.
(d) He is building a house.
(e) Acting is better than talking.
7. What is a preposition ? Distinguish the preposition from the coiyunction.
8. Analyse this passage :
And where two raging fires meet together,
They do consume the thing that feeds their fury :
Though little fire grows great with little wind,
Yet extreme gusts will blow out fire and all.
• SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1872.
7. ■
English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences.
[N.B. Every candidate is expected to satisfy the examiners in this paper
Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and co^ect-
ness of expression.
Candidates should pay very strict attention to the parsing. As regards the
rest of this paper, they are recommended not to dwell too long over any single
question, but (if possible) to answer the whole of the questions.]
1. Ptese each word which is printed in italics in the following passages,
and stati its grammatical connection with other words of the same
sentence :
(1) Boast not my fall, he cried, insulting foe !
Thou by some other Shalt be laid as fow.
Nor think, to die dejects mj? lofty mind ;
All that I dread is leaving you behind.
(2) Come one, come all, this rock shall fly
l^m its firm base as soon as\.
316
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(3) Besides, it were a mock
Apt to be rendered, for some one to say,
' Break up the senate till another time.
When CtBsar's wife shall meet with better dreams.
If Caesar hide himself, shall they not whisper,
' Lo, Caesar is afraid ' ?
2. Analyse the following sentences : >
(1) To the great, real, and amiable virtues, and to the uneqiialled
abilities of that gentleman, I shall always join with my coun-
try in paying a just tribute of applause.
(2) So closely connected with these men was Terence, that a rumour
soon gained ground that he himself was not the real author
of the plays exhibited under his name, but that young noble-
men composed what they had not the courage to own.
(3) I am monarch of all I survey :
My right there is none to dispute.
8. Give the meaning of the terms: (1) syntax, (2) predicate, (3) indirect
object, (4) inflection, (5) analysis.
4. Distinguish between : laid and lain, bom and borne, straight and strait
taught and taut, ought and aiight, ere and e'er ; and give the comparative
and superlative of —
good agile quickly
easy feeble badly
full hot blest.
.5. refine : adverb, pronoun, auxiliary verb, interjection, participle, infinitive
mood, adversative conjunction, and write down two examples of each.
The past tense and perfect participle of :
bury saw shine
seek shake
strive flee
sit
lee
dwell
sink
think.
7. How does the position of words serve to show the grammatical structure
of an English sentence ? Is there any difference on this point between
poetry and prose?
I
OXPOKb LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 317
SENIOR CANDIBATES, 1873.
8.
English Grammar, inclnding Analysis of Sentences
ne» of exprjon "^ '^ '■"'• '""'^"-"'"e. P»nc.aati«„. and coZf
que,t.„„, tat (if p„.«ib,e) to a„„„ ^^0 whoifof tt^lto?] '"^ ""^
'■ 'Zotroi"::::;^;r,^~?-»««--"^'^^
(1) Those many Aaef not dand to do that eviJ
If the first man that did the edict infringe'
Had answer'd for his deed.
(2) Eeturn, fair Eve,
m.rn fly'st thou ? Whom thou fly'st, of him thou art.
-ttis flesh, his bone.
(3) But, madam, if the fates withstand, and you
Are destined Hymen's willing t^fc^m too
Trust not too much your now resistless charms •
iAo^e, age or sickness, soon or late, disarms. '
The gods would humble them
That we might laugh at thnr ridiculous fear
iVhose names we trembled at beyond the Alps,
I'll tell quaint lies.
How honourable ladies sought my love,
^AicA /(^ew^my, thoy fell sick and died.
2. Analyse the following sentences :
^'^ ^obw" f:^""'"' ^'' '"^' ^^^" ^^1« ^ °^-t« abstractionB
objects of terror, of pity, and of love.
(2) Since words are only names for things, it would be more conve-
nient for all men to carry about them such things as are necls-
aary t« express the particular business they ar'e to dLoZ
(8) ^ ^ Or, wouldst thou drown thyself,
Put a little water in a spoon,
And it shall be as all the ocean,
Enough to stifle Buch a villain up.
(4)
(6)
318
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGB.
3. Name and distinguish the diifta'ont uses of each of the following worda
himself, which, beside, rather, very, hut, without, as.
4. Explain the difference between : tninsitive and intransitive verbs, adverbs
and conjunctions, subject and object, nouns and pronouns.
6. How does the language of Chaucer differ from modern literary English
in the use of inflections ? Trace the several changes as completely as
you can.
6. Distinguish between: lie, lay, laid; eat, ate; rode, road, rowed; fell^
fallen; dyed, died : and give the present and past participles of:
slay rise shrive shoot
• bray shake flee teach
reply speed obey set.
319
EXAMINATION PAPEES
SET AT THB
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIONS.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1870.
1.
English Grammar.
LN.B. Every student is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper 1
1. What IS meant by the parts of speech? Givetheir
of each.
names with an example
2. Write down the singular or plural, as the
case may be, of :
bureau
pence
chimney
proof
dice
staff
kine
seraph
man
teeth.
3. Write down the masculine op feminine, as the
actor
maid
case may be, of:
toy dame heifer hero
marquis nephew nun
widow.
4. Distinguish the use of the pronoun in the expressions :
That is Ms book ;
That book is his;
and give the corresponding forms of all the personal pronoun..
6. Write down the past tense and past participle of the verbs :
awake
make
burst
shine
chide
skj-
lay
throw
lie
waa"ve.
»!
820
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
6. In what raooda aro verbs conjiigatod? Explain when tho subjunctive mood
is used:
7. Explain tho terms predicate, completion of the predicate, extension of the
predicate, and write down a souteuce in illustration.
8. Parse and analyse the following :
The hero bound for battle strife
Or bard of martial lay,
'Twero worth ten years of peaceful life,
One glance at their array.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1871.
English Grammar.
J . Explain the term abstract notm, collective noun, relative pronoun, transitive
verb, with an oxumplo of each,
2. How do you form tlio plural of nouns ending in ch, x,f, a, y? Give an
example in each case.
3. Define adjective. When do you use the comparative and when the super-
lative degree ? Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of
noble, much, holy, benevolent.
4. Name the different classes of pronouns, and give the possessive and
objective cases (singular and plural) of /, she, who.
b. Write out the past and future tenses in the indicative mood of the verbs
to write and to lose.
6. Parse : Little Gertrude was the eldest daughter of a farmer, who lived in
a very fertile country.
I
7. Explain the terms simple sentence, complex sentence, compound sentence^
noun clause ; and analyse :
To bliss domestic he his heart resigned.
Mk-
CAMBRIDGE L6nAL EXAMINATION PAPKR8.
8. Analyse the following :
The heights, by groat men reached and kept,
Wore not attained l.y sudden flight ;
But they, while their companions slept,
Were toiling upward in the night.
821
JUNIOR CANDIDATES. 1872.
3.
English Orammar.
[N.B. Every student is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.]
1 . Name the different kinds of nouns, and give an example of each.
2. Explain the terms nmnher, case, gender, taking the word hero to illustrate
your explanation.
3. De^ne transitive verb, adverb, and give examples of each. What inflexions
does the adverb undergo ?
4. Name the relative pronouns, and give examples of their respective uses
How does the relative agree with its antecedent ?
6. Explain the terms mood, tense; and give the past tense (first person
singular, indicative mood) and past participle of the verbs, -^o bring
to arise, to draw, to lay, to eat.
6. In the following passage parse the words in italics:
TA^re at the foot of yo»c?ernodding beech
That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high,
His listless length at noon-tide would he stretch,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by.
7. Explain the X^tvcxb predicate, adverbial sentence (or clause), complex sentence
with examples. '
8. Analyse:
(1) Twilight's soft dew^ steal o'er the village green.
(2; Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose.
822
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1873.
. ti-.
English Grammar.
1. Verbs have voice, mood, teu«c, uurnbor and person. Explain what oach ot
these means, and giro examplos of oach from the verbs to sing nud
to run,
2. Give tho plurals of leaf, watch, story, storey, potato ; and the singular of
swiiio, lives, banditti.
3. Give the past tense and past participle of the verbs to slay, to drink.
to mov, to beseech.
4. Correct:
He picked up the man who he knocked down.
Of London and Paris tho former is the wealthiest.
Going into the garden the grass wetted my feet.
5. What do you mean by subject, object, predicate f
'iti you justify either or both of the following?
He hit him a blow on the head.
He ran him a race.
Which is the subject in tho following : To perform is better than to promise ^
Write this with a verbal noun for subject.
6. Parse the words in italics in the following passage:
Music can soften pain to ease
And make despair and madness please*
7. Analyse and punctuate:
He that will not when ho may
When he will he shall have nay.
8. Write in the third person the following speech of King Richard, taking
care to make the meaning plain, and commencing with King Richard
said that :
1 wish I may forget my brother John's injuries as soon as he will forget my
pardon of them.
r
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS.
328
SENIOR CANDIDATES, J 870.
English Grammar.
1. Define the terms language, parts of /ipcech, syllable. How many ByliiibleB
are there respectively in the words dainty, laity ? Distinguish between
vowels and consonants. Fhice a dot over the aspirate in the sentence :
The heir, the hope of the house, sickened and died in u few hours.
2. What is the use of the adjective ? Write down the comparative find super-
lative degrees of bad, beautiful, good, much, near, old.
8. Define a verb : and distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs.
Of what iafiexions are verbs susceptible, and what are their respective
uses ?
4. Distinguish between the uses of conjunctions and prepositions. Into what
two principal classes are conjunctions divisible ? When is for a con-
junction?
6. Correct the following sentences :
(a) He didn't ought to have broke the window.
(b) Why won't you come with me ? JBecause I don't want to.
(c) Neither you or me are invited.
(d) Let each esteem other better than themselves.
6. When does a noun of multitude tuke the verb in the singular ; and when
in the plural ? Illustrate by examples.
I . What parts are essential to the formation of a complete sentence ? Explain
clearly the use and construction of the copula. By what kinds of phrases
may nouns, adjectives, and adverbs be respectively replaced in a sentencs "*
Give examples.
Y 2
>&■
i \
524
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
8. Analyse :
One adequate support
For the calamities of mortal life
E-riats — one only ; an assured belief
That the procession of our fate, howe'cr
Sad or disturbed, is ordered hy a Being
Of infinite benevolence and power :
Whose everlasting purposes embrace
All accidents, converting them- to good. — Wordsworth,
Paree the portion of the above which is printed in italiw
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1871.
English Orammar.
1. How many parts of speech are there in English ? Explain the names they
bear ; and show that these names express their real character.
2. What is a pronoun ? What are the relative pronouns 1 Explain the dis-
tinctions between my, mine, and my own.
Distinguish between the uss of each other and one another ; and parse the
phrase — They esteemed each other.
3. How many moods of a verb are there ? Explain them.
To what parts of the verb do the words in italics in the following sentence
belong ?
I saw him reading the prize he had gained for reading.
4. Give the past tense and the past participle of the following verbs:
bespeak, shrink, espy, seethe, throw, grind, strew, rive, shred, lave.
GKve the imperfect participles of the following : differ, offer, confer, visit,
repel, revel: and state the rules that guide you in forming them.
6. Define an adverb. Into v/hat classes of adverbs would you distribute
the following : yesterday, why, once, whereby, backwards, nearly, badly,
halfl
Explain the following: He speaks lovd. It is exceeding great. You
did riglU to speak at once
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 325
6. DiBtinguish between chuse, sentence, phrase, period, paragraph. What
parts are essential to make a complete sentence ? ^ ^ '^ ""^
Of what parts does a complex sentence consist? Explain these briefly
giving examples. ^^joujr,
7. Give the Saxon words in common use which most noarly answer to the
tollowing: ea^panswn, depression, elevation, contraction, depart, proba-
OUtty, ridiculous, transgression, veracious, fortitude.*
8. Analyse:
•Dangerous it wei-e for the feeble brain of man to wade far into the
doings of the Most High; whom although to know be life, and W to
make mention of His name yet our soundest knowledge is to knoi Lt
yfe know Him not as indeed He is, neither can know Him.'
9. Parse:
• Ay me ! ay me ! with what another heart
In days far-off, and with what other eyes
I used to watch— if I be he that watch'd.'
SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1872.
English Grammar.
2. Mention the principal sources from which words in u.o in modern English
have been derived, and give examples.
^' ^'inr:do^?^' ^''^' '^ '^'''^ '"^ ^''^^''^- ^'''^ ^^ ^^'^' ^^^'t of
Form a sentence to show the different uses of the word that, and mention
in every case what part of speech it is.
4. Explain the different m.-^ of distinguishing the masculine and feminine
genders m English, and illustrate vour answer by examples.
S2(J
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
•; \
■i .
6. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. What is tenM?
Give the first person plural of the tenses in the indicative mood of tbe
verb to sing. '
How do you classify verbs with regard to the mode of forming their past
tense ? Give the past tense and past participle of the following verbs :
to begin, to flee, to flow, to lose, to mistake, to spread, to understand.
6. What are adverbsl Classify them according to their meaning. Give
examples of nouns used as adverbs, of adverbial phrases, and of adverbs
formed from prepositions and from adjectives.
7. Explain briefly the correct uses of the auxiliary verbs shall and mil in the
first, second, and third persons.
Give examples of correct and incorrect uses.
8. Analyse :
Thus saying, from her side the fatal key,
Sad instnxment of all our woe, she took ;
And, towards the gate rolling her bestial train.
Forthwith the huge portcullis high up drew,
Which but herself not all tiie Stygian powers
Could once have moved. — Milton.
9. Parse tjie words in italics in the following passage :
Slowly and conscious of the rageful eye
That watch'd him, till he heard the ponderous door
Close, crashing with loug echoes thro' the land,
Went Leolin. — Tennyson.
SENIOR CiiNDIDATES, 1873.
English Grammar.
1. What inflexion do adjectives admit of in modem English " State the
general rules for the formation of the comparative and nperlative
degrees, and give instances of regular and irregular comparisons.
2. What are pronouns? Enumerate the different cirtvsses into whicli thej
may bo divided.
!
Ba
M?
the
)a8t
'bn:
hve
3rbs
the
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 327
i. Mention the inflexions of which verbs admit. Enumerate the auxiliary
verbs, distinguishing those which are auxiliaries of voice, mood, and
4. What is the meaning of the terms 'weak' and 'strong' conjugations?
Give the past tense and past participle of the verbs, to fall, to drink,
to lend, to hit, to throw, to swim, to hide, to dig, to dream.
5. Explain the meaning of the terms subject, object, predicate; and give an
example of a compound sentence, and of a complex sentence,
6. Form sentences to show the different uses of the words >-. since, mention-
ing m each case the part of speech which the word is.
7. Parse the words in italics in the following passage :
This is the state of man ; to-day he puts forth
The tender /«aws of hope; ^o-Twm-ow; ifosso»^5,
^»c? 5ear5 his blushing honours thick upon him :
The third day comes a/rosif, a killing frost,
And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely
His greatness w n-ripening, nips his root,
And then he falls, as 1 do. •
8. Punctuate and analyse :
I desire you as the last suit I am like to make to you to believe that I do
not fly my country for guilt and how passionately soever I am pursued
that 1 have not done anything to make the university ashamed of me
or to repent the good opinion they once had of me and though i
must have no further mention in your public devotions I hope I shall
De always remembered in your private prayers.— CZarenrfon.
;e the
lative
th^
...t J
TOEONTO UNIVEKSITY EXAMINATIONS.
The following papers are made up of questions selected from those set
at the different Examinations in English in the University at Toronto
during the last fifteen years. In arranging his Praxis the author states
that the ohject in view was "to illustrate the tone and requirements of
the Public Competitive Examinations " in England, and many of the ques-
tions given have not, therefore, a very direct bearing on the contents of
the book. The object in view in adding a selection of Canadian questions
being very similar, the student need not be surprised to find that some of
the questions chosen can be answered but very imperfectly from the work
itself
I.
1. Give the plurals of "body," "valley," "knife," "appendix," "ter-
minus ; " and state all the regular modes of forming genuine English
plurals, with examples.
2. Write short notes upon the peculiarities of form in these words :
seamstress, afield, himself, twain, he-goat, widower, father-in-law.
3. Give examples of adverbs exhibiting plural and comparative forms and
genuine case-endings.
4. What are the chief peculiarities of interjections ? How do you distinguish
them from expletives?
6. Mention the most common native English prefixes and affixes, and those
derived from Latin and Greek, giving the significance of each.
6. Write a note on the Etymology of the following words : Antithesis,
anticipate, shame-faced, bright-faced, bundle, shilly-shally, lamb-
kin, deaf-mute, slave-born, Whitby, Colborne, potato.
7. When should the article be repeated before each of several adjectives
qualifying a noun, and when not?
8. How may figures of speech ba divided, and what rules are to be ob-
served in their useK
IT.
1. Give an historical sketch of the English alphabet.
2. Name and explain the parts into wiiich Grannuar may be divided.
i ■ '
-
I ;
11.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS
3. Give rules for the comparison of adjectives, and compare happy, beaati-
ful, old, superior, ill, circular, near, fore.
4. Point out the cases in which "that" may he used as a relative instead
of "who" or "which;" those in which it must be used; and those
in which it must not.
5. Write a note on the distinctive use of the auxiliary verbs sJudl and
will.
6. Can a sentence be formed without a verb? Parse the following: (a)
Every one to his taste; (6) Great wealth, little wealj (c) The
greatest of rarities, a wise man.
7. Illustrate the difference between a simple, a compound, and a complex
sentence.
8. Compare as to their historical and grammatical etymology, and their
precise meaning, the following words and expressions : break, frac-
ture ; trenchant, cutting ; all but one, all except one ; shatter,
atomize; astronomy, astrology; swift, rapid; timely, temporary;
proceed, go.
III.
1. Define the several parts of speech;
2. Give the etymological signification of the definite and indefinite
article,
3. "What is meant by Apposition, Nominative Absolute, Predicate noun,
Mood, and Voice ?
4. Write a single sentence which shall contain all the parts of speech,
employing only words of An ^jlo-Saxon origin.
5. Write notes on the historical etymology of the following : Refract, if,
an you choose, fount, font of type, but, except, catarrh, cataract,
counteract, disastrous, catastrophe, ox, beef.
6. Mention some words which have been introduced as a result of old
superstitions anJ customs,
7. State the rules for tl c concord of (a) a verb and its subject, and (b) a
relative and it": antecedent, noticing the peculiar cases that occur.
8. Define and illustrate allegory, simile, metaphor, epizeuxis, litotes, and
zeugma.
IV.
1. Give rules for syllabication, and state the principles on which they are
buHktU.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
111.
k old
(5) a
tsur.
3, and
are
2L When may the Saxon possessive be used instead of the Norman ; and ,
, . when is the "s" omitted after the apostrophe in the possessive
singular?
8. Give the force of the "s" in "towards," "unawares"; of the *'om"in
"whilom," "seldom"; of the "re" in "here," "there"; of the
"n"in "twam," "then" ; and of the "ch"in "which," "such."
4. Account for the silent letters in debt, schism, judge, two, doubt, talk,
design, phlegm, sought, victuals, know, reign. Is their retention
desirable in modern orthography ? Give reasons for your answer.
6. The following geographical names occur in Britain ; explain their
derivation and note briefly the events in British history which ac-
count for the varied origin of such words : Beaumaris, Berwick,
Chester, Danby, Dungeness, Dingwall, GrS,ce-Dieu, Inverness,
Kent, Langholm, Milnethorpe, Portsmouth, Purfleet, Rotherhithe,
Scarborough, Seaforth, Wendover.
6. Name and give examples of those rhetorical figures which consist in the
repetition of a word or a phrase.
7. When it is said that " usage gives the law to language " what kind of
usage is meant ? If usage is divided, what considerations should
have chief weight in establishing a Tiorma loquendi f
V.
1. Give a list of those simple phonetic elements in English which have no
simple orthographic representations.
2. Explain fully the character and use of Interrogative and Relative Pro-
nouns, giving the derivation of the words so classed, and noticing
peculiarities in the use of any of them.
3. Write an article on the Noun-substantive, defining it, noticing its ac-
cidents, explaining anomalous forms, and giving the rules which
regulate its syntax.
4. Give the present infinitive and preterite forms of the verbs whose par-
ticiples are, dared, dug, eaten, lain, led, read, riven, sat, 8et>
sodden, sown, wound, wning.
5. Shew how the loss of inflections in English has afl'ected its syntax, and
give the fundamental laws which regulate the arranging of words
into sentences.
6. Comment on the form and history of the following words — roremos;,
other, itfly hard, bent/ cottld, wrought, and svugvtrolif
IV.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS
M
7. Derive the following words, giving the intermediate fornui: — Sir,
madam, curfew, vinegar, bachelor, prize, biscuit, proxy, kerohie
and verdict.
8. Define and exemplify the following figures ; — Comparison, personifica-
tion, hyperbole, climax, pleonasm, anastrophe, truism, and pro-
lepsis.
VI.
1. Give a sketch of the origin and history of alphabetical writing, and
show how far the imperfections of the English alphabet may be
historically accounted for.
2. Classify the consonants so as to indicate the different relations of each
sound.
3. Divide the following words into syllables, marking accent and quantity,
and exhibiting the correct pronunciation : — Climacteric, espionage,
fanatic, herculean, homogeneity, hymeneal, imbecile, indecorous,
pharmaceutist, plethora, recondite, splenetic.
4. " Oral spelling is a contradiction in terms." Give reasons for agreeing
with or differing from this view.
5. Give the logical force and explain the derivation of the indefinite article.
Which of its ^forms should precede hero, host, hostility, usual,
yellow ?
6. Define voice, mood, and tense. Explain the method of the formation
of the tenses of an English verb of ti^e strong conjugation.
7. Define "hybrid" /ords, and give som'3 example of such as are in
common use.
8. Distinguish with regard to signification and use : Some from any ;
each from every and either ; by from with ; a or an from one ; the
from that ; shall from will ; where from whither ; hope from ex-
pect } laudable from praiseworthy ; silence from taciturnity.
VII.
1. Some grammarians classify all words as notional and relational ; where,
in such a system, can the Interjection find a place ? Give reasons
for the answer.
2. Give a list of auxiliary verbs Avith their etymological derivation and
original meaning, specially noting such as can still be used inde-
pendently*
TORONTO ITNTTERSITY EXAMTNATIONS.
V,
8. Rushton says : "Grammarians have produced much needless perplexity
by confounding the two forms in *ing."' Distinguish etymologi-
oally between the two forms of the so-called present participle, and
shew whether any advantage is gained by observing the distinction
in practice.
4. Gire an accurate description of the personal pronoun, and state the
reasons for and against classifying "he," "she," and "it" as de-
monstrative rather than personal pronouns.
6. Fowler defines conjunctions as "words that connect sentences or parts
of sentences." Mention all those that do this and nothing more.
6. Give an account of the various influences which have affected English
orthography, and state the benefits that have resulted to it from
the invention and employment of printing.
7. Trace and explain the derivation of the following words : Abandon,
absurd, agree, afraid, coil, doll, dollar, dolomite, doggerel, ency-
clopaedia, gramercy, marry (interjection), outrage, proxy, provost,
Pleiad, pomp, 'sdeath, surgeon, trespass, teetotaller,
8. What rhetorical advantages are gained by the use of tropical forms,
and what rules regulate their use ?
.,11
■1
in
ex-
^ere,
sons
and
Inde*
VIII.
1. If the words of the English language were to be divided into classes
according as they were appellative, attributive, or relational, what
parts of speech would be aiTanged under each head, and which ones
would fail to find any appropriate position? Give reasons for the
distribution you would make.
2. What rules regarding the accidence of nouns are exemplified or trans-
gressed in the formation of the following words : Banditti, beaux,
genii, horses, irons. Ides, letters, news, pease, pence, politics,
scissors, tidings, vespers, women, yeomanry ?
3. Give the past tense and past participle of the following verbs : Burst,
ohide, cleave, cling, dare, flee, fly, flow, lay, lie, load, rid, set, sit,
shear, thrust.
4. Explain the part played by auxiliaries in the conjugation of English
verbs, and show what is gained by their use.
5. Give the derivation and precise meaning of the following terminations
when used to form adjectives from other parts of speech : — ary,
— al, — ly, — fed, — some, — n, — ic, — y, — ^ist.
'1
vi
TORONTO UNIVERSTTY EXAMINaTTONS.
6. Give the derivation of the prefix "a," found in many adverbs and
prepositions.
7. Explain the formation and general signification of such reduplicated
words as zig-zag, pell-mell, helter-skelter, &c.
8. Can than govern an objective case ? If so, what is the nature of the
government ?
IX.
1. Explain and exemplify the meaning of the term " orthographical ex-
pedient," and \jomt out any that occur in the following couplet :
A nightingale that all day long
Had cheered the village with his song.
2. Give the rules for the formation of the plural and the possessive case
of nouns. Why is **y " changed into "ies" and "f " into "ves"
in the plural ? Explain the peculiarities of the following plurals,
account for their existence, and give the corresponding singular
forms : Oxen, mice, kine, women, mussulmans, arcana, virtuosi,
larvae. Magi.
8. Define the verb. Explain what is meant by ** voice," and by the ten-^a
"strong" and " weak" as applied to the conjugation of verbs.
4. * * Every part of speech is capable of becoming an adverb. " Discuss the
correctness of this statement, giving examples.
5. Write a paper on the mode of origin of the various classes of inteijec-
tions, and give examples.
6. Explain and illustrate what is meant by poetical license, and define
clearly wherein it difters from prose.
7. Give the original derivation and meaning of knave, churl, clown,
rustic, pagan, diffident, cunning, impertinent. Define their later
meanings, and trace the changes to their source.
8. ** A great part of our ordinary language, all that concerns the relations
of invisible things, consists of implied metaphors. " Explain and
illustrate this statement;
X.
1. What are the chief conditions requisite in a perfect system of notation
by letters ? Account for the " b" in dumb," " I" in could," "a"'
in kiln," "s" in island."
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
Vll.
2. Some grammarians are of opinion that " self" was orif^inally a noun,
others hold that it was an adjective. Which theory will best
account for anomalies in the formation of the compound pronouns,
myself, thyself, himself, themselves, and why ?
3. Arrange in classes such adjectivt^s us do not admit of comparison, and
explain the peculiarities of the following comparatives : Nearer,
ulterior, nether, inner, aiU'r, utter, prior, major, elder, rather,
other. Give examples of atJjeetivcs in comparative and su[)erlative
forma which, though not lo{;;ically correct, are rhetorically admissible.
4. Describe fully the office of the Relative Tronouu, and give the rules that
regulate itut syntax.
6. What is Syntax ? Define and give examples of the following syntac-
tical figures : Ellipsis, zeugma, pleonasm, hypallage, anastrophe,
hysteron-proteron.
6. Distinguish between Barbarism, Solecism, and Impropriety, and give
one or more examples of each.
7. Give examples of the varioua forms of compound sentences containing
correlative clauses.
8. Give the derivation of the names of the days of the week and the
months of the year ; also of Easter, riding (division of a county),
shire, county, since, frontispiece, afraid, feign, surgeon, peck, fur-
long, sorcerer, matriculation, feat, address, impair, invoice,
squadron, raisin, parapet, usher, and surplice.
XI.
"n'
1. Give rules for the formation of the possessive case of nouns. When
may both ** of" and the pc ssessive case proper be used? Correct
the following expressions : Misses shoes ; James hat j old wives
stories ; old womens fables.
2. Distinguish between gender and sex. Compare English with Greek and
Latin with respect to this distini tion. Point out the various
methods by which gender is expressed in English.
8. *' Strictly speaking there is no mood in the English veib." What is
implied in this statement ? In what sense are mo'^ds of the English
verb spoken of ? Specify the moods attributed to it.
4. Shew by what jarocess romplex past and future tenses are expressed in
English, and discuss the gains or lossei^ thereby produced.
Vlll.
TORONTO TTNTVEliaiTY FXAMINATTONS.
1^
i
\i\
\
imht
H, In what canes are articluA Qs^itted before nouns in English. Give
wxamplea.
6. Can an interjection govern a case I Explain such ezpreasions as "Ah
mel" "Alas for love I"
7. Latiiam says : " The logical and hiHtorical analyses of a language
generally coincide. " Illustrate this in the case of the English
language.
8. Define, giving examples, syncdoche, metonomy, allusion, antithesis,
aposiopeais, epanalopais, paronomasia.
XII.
1. Define Grammar as a science <md as an art ; also name and define the
parts into which it is generally divided.
2. Fowler says :— "The objective case follows the adjectives ' like,' ' nigh,*
* near,' and * next. '" State reasons for this,
3. In what cases and in what verbal connections does the present participle
become a noun ? Give examples of the absolute use of the participle.
4. How may English verbs be divided ? Classify these divisions, giving a
definition of each.
6. Give rules regarding the place of adverbs in a sentence. When several
adverbs or adverbial phrases occur show by examples how the
meaning of the sentence may be modified by changing their relative
positions.
6. Give a brief historical sketch of the constituent philological elements
of the English language, and trace to their origin the following
words : Atone, bishop, chemistry, proctor, Sadducee, squirrel, plaid,
waltz, sketch, agate, ammonia, anthem, artesian, belfry, canter,
ermine, hoax, imbecile, musket, sheriff, silly, and tariff.
7. When should capital letters be used in commencing a quotation, and
when not ? What is the use of brackets ?
8. When should the hyphen be used in the fonnation of compound words,
and when not ? Supply it where required in the following sentences •
— (a) The sextons in " Hamlet " were grave diggers, but not grave
diggers ; [b) He is a stone mason, but not a master mason ; (c) You
ought to hare a cork, for you look like an inverted cork screw ; (d)
Old school ideas are not more taught in old school houses than in
new ones ; (e) We had become so absorbed in his slow striking
sentences that we were astonished when the slow striking clock
pealed forth twelve.
m
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
XIII.
ix.
1. What is meant by " orthographical ijxpcdient **? Emimorate as many
as you can, showing how each has become nece^jyary, and giving
examples.
2. Discuss the desirability of speUiDg our words by means of a phonotypic
alphabet.
8. Distinguish between "historical" and "grammatical" etymology,
and show whether the former ever affords any assistance in deter-
mining the latter. Write a note upon the following italicised
words, correcting errors, and giving reasons : — (a) No one ever
waited on me but he ; (6) I know no one there but him ; (c) The
more I saw of him the more I disliked him.
4. Mention all the points of difference that serve to distinguish the follow-
ing words : — Session, cession ; cite, site ; licence, licenje ; comple-
ment, compliment j practice, practise ; prophecy, prophesy ;
precedent, president ; principal, principle.
6. State the derivation and significance of the affixes, "ose," "kin,"
"ric," "fy," "dom," "ock," giving examples of words formed
therewith.
6. Explain the symbol " &, " which is commonly used to represent " and. '
In some editions of the Bible the word "the" is frequently
represented by " y© " ; what is the reason for this ?
7. Some grammarians lay down, as a rule for composition, that no trifling
word, such as "of," "by," or "to," should ever end a sentence.
Assign reasons for approving or disapproving of this rule, and give
examples in illustration.
8. Define the terms Rhetorical Form, Trope, Figure of Thought ; and give
definitions and examples of meiosis, anacoenosis, prosopopccia,
anadiplosis, epanorthosi", syllepsis, metalepsis, autonomasia.
J I
I
':.'
v^
g
XIV.
1. When are the letters "w" and "y" consonants, and when vowels?
Give reasons and examples.
2« What, if any, is the plural of the following words : — Stimulus, tyro,
attorney, deer, shelf, riches, vortex, court-martial, cargo, calico^
portico, analysis, gallows, spount'ul, species '(
^
X. TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
3. Explain the origin of the formation of the English possessive case
singular by means of the letter ** s " and an apostrophe. When is
it formed by adding an apostrophe alone ?
4. Give four examples of orthographical expedients for the purpose of ex-
pressing the quantity of vowels. Give examples of orthographical
corapendiums.
5. Define "etymology" as used (a) in its widest, and (5) in its most
limited signification. IDusti ate by examples.
6. Estimate the relative value and effect of the two elements in a com-
pound word. Distinguish between composition and combination.
7. Define "idiom," and "ixiannerism," and explain the following English
idioms: — (a) I myself did it; (6) He saw it with his own eyes;
(c) Man never is, but always to be blest; {d) Of the things which
we have spoken this is the sura.
8. Discuss the mixed character of English as a language of Germanic
origin. De5n,r the ratio of its native and foreign elements as
tested by tlis vci- abulary and by the practice of the best writers,
and account for the different results of the two tests.
XV.
1. Webster spells "traveller," "traveler"; "centre," "center"; "flavour,'
"flavor"; "musick," "music." Discuss the value of such
changes, and their accordance with the analogies of the language.
2. The "ster" in songster was originally a feminine affix; the "stress"
in songstress is a double and hybrid termination. Explain these
forms and trace their origin.
3. " The striking peculiarity of the English adjective as compared with
the same part of speech in other languages is its invariability. "
Explain this and trace its history and causes.
4. Distinguish between the following expressions: — "Yours and her
ancestors," and " Your and her ancestors."
5. Distinguish otymologically and in signification between the first "one"
and the second in the following sentence, and discuss the applica-
bility of the term "pronoun" to each: — "One does not know
whether to accept the one or the other."
6. Trace and explain the derivation of the following words : — ^Acom, alms,
auburn, balderdash, bard, brunt, candidate, canvas, coverlet, crab.
TORONTO UNIVEBfTfTY EXAMmATIONS.
XI.
cuFmudgeon, enjoy, heretic, hermit, humbug, imbecile, lass, milli-
ner, naughty, parasite, preliminary, priest, schooner, soldier,
spinach, stentorian, sycophant, window.
7. Account for the existence of the following double forms ; — Chart, card;
compute, count; fidelity, fealty; particle, yivrael; provident, pru-
dent; ration, reason.
8. Distinguish between a figure of syntax and a figuii> of rh«!toric. Define
enallage, catachresis, anti-climax, oxymoron, a»ti«uaclasis, tauto-
logy, alliteration, and euphemism.
XVI.
1 Classify the letters of the English alphabet with if^erunce to the
organs by which the sounds they represent are produc»^d. Classify
in the same manner all the simple sounds of the English language.
2. What relics of a previous inflectional state remain in the English
language? Mention some inflections that are obsolescent at the
present time.
3. Explain the nature ajjd use of the subjunctive mood. What importance
should be attached to it in English ? Could it be dispensed with ?
Give reasons for your answer
4. Classify as parts of speech the following expressions : — Worth, naught,
due, lief, away, afloat, mine, own, self-same, belike, meseems.
6. In how many different ways is the word " that " used ? Write a sen-
tones containing an example of each,
6. Give etymological reasons for changing the spelling of the following
words : — Leftenant, kurnel, aquaduct, bewty, parsel, decon, sepe-
rate, nusance, analize, sirname, deceiptful, supercede,
7. Craik says : "The English of the Anglo-Saxon period diflbred from the
English that we speak in two important respects. It was an un-
mixed language ; and it is what is called a synthetic, in contradis-
tinction to an analytic language." Explain this,
8. Explain what is meant by purity, propriety, and precision of style, and
shew how they may bfe attained.
XVII.
1. What are the Anglo-Saxon forms of "my" and "mine,', and what
assistance can be derived from them in determining the classification
Qf these wordi 'i
M
't
//
i; :i
Xll.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
2. Account etymologically for the forms, it, his, there, am, dicl, more,
children, other, these.
3. Explain fully the nature and oflSce of the preposition.
i. Do conjunctions ever connect individual words in a sentence? Illustrate
your answer by examples, and distinguish in nature and use between
coordinate and subordinate conjunctions.
5. Mr. Morrell calls the interjection an extra-grammatical utterance.
Shew|what is implied in this description and discuss its correctness.
6. Give examples of English words, three or four of each kind, derived
from the Celtic, Italian, Spanish, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and
Hindustani languages.
7. Di-syllable or dis-syllable ; di-ph thong or diph-thong; el -iptical or el-
liptical; en-dogenous or endo-genous; ep-hemeral or eph-emeral;
pro-gnostic or prog-nostic ; trig-lypli or tri-glyph ; hex-ameter or
hexa-meter. Give etymological reasons in each case for preferring
one or other of the above forms.
8. Give the derivation of the following words and show how they acquired
their present signification : — AduUamite, artillery, bailiff, bankrupt,
black-guard, bombast, chartist, chattel, cheque, companion, esquire,
gazette, grenadier, heathen, infantry, lumber, marquis, pioneer,
prodigious, pragmatical, pagan, preposterous, romance, sacrament,
tribulation, villain.
ziiL
PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS' EXAMIN-
ATIONS.
The following questions have been selected from amongst those set
during the last few years for the examination of first and second class
teachers in. the Provinoe of Ontario :
FIRST CLASS.
I.
1. Specify and exemplify the various constructions in which the sign of
the possessive case is omitted.
2. Explain with the aid of examples the meaning of the terms, "gram-
matical equivalent" and "conjunctive adverb."
3. Parse the italicized words in the following sentences : — (a) Furthest
from him is best ; (&) He told me his sad story on his way thither ;
(c) She saved ten dollars a year out of her wages as a servant.
4. Correct or justify the forms of expression employed in the following
sentences :
(a) Nobody but the good go to Congress.
(b) I did groan
To think that a most unambitious slave,
Like thou, should'st dance and revel on the grave
Of Liberty.
(c) The hue and cry was raised,
{d) Having discussed the future of the good, consider we now
the destiny of the wicked.
(e) Failing this pvrangement, will you be so good as to come to
my assistance.
6. Write half a dozen lines on any subject you choose, using only words
of Anglo-Saxon origin.
6. Give the derivation and trace the history of lesson, mean, peer, im-
postor, insolent.
I
XIV.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
II.
1
<<<
Orthogj'iiplucal expedients are resorted to on account of the imper-
fections of the English alphabet, which may bo characterized as
deficient, redundant, and ambiguous." — Authorized Spelling Booh.
Explain clearly the meaning of the term *' orthographical expe-
dient," and show in wliat respects the Engliah alphabet is deHcient,
redundant, and ambiguous.
ii. Some grammarians consider the article and the participle diatinct parts
of speech. State your own views with reasons.
3. Discuss the grammar of these sentences : —
^) thou my voice inspire
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips witli fire.
(J) Ellipsis is where one or more words are wanting to complete
the sense.
(c) Lot us take care how we sin.
(d) This blunder is said actually to have occurred.
(c) An example or two are sufficient to illustrate the general
principle.
(/) There is more than one fashionable dealer in old furniture in
the west of London who habitually sells as old furniture, a
great part of which is new.
4. Define the rhetorical figures of which tlie following quotations are
illustrative : —
(a) Can gray hairs make folly venerable ? — Junius.
(6) To Adam Paradise was a home ; to the good among his descen-
dants home is a Paradise. — Hare.
(c) Pity, ihe violet on the tyrant's grave. — Tennyson.
5. Enumerate the meanings of dear, fair, sound, become, spirit, and brook.
6. Give the derivation of the following words : — Fault, but, that, under-
ling, sound, conjure, spirit, once, age, noble, there, fame, than,
encompass, indeed, only, and easily ; and trace the history of the
meaning where you can.
ni.
1. Name the inflected parts of speech, state the inflections to v>Lkii they
are subject, and give an example of every iuiiectioual form in the
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
XV.
language. Give all tlie inflectional forms of "abbot," "me," and
"was." Are "fatherly," "happier," and "acknowledgement,"
inflectional foiins ? Explain the forms "his" and " whom."
2. Parse the italicized words in the following : (a) To speak the truth, I
have never been in such distress as now ; {b) The king, so far from
raising the question, attempted to prevent the queen from raising
it ; (c) The performance of the pupils is wonderfully good, consider-
ing that they have only one teacher,
3. " Substantives signifying the same thing agree in case." Point out the
defects of this rule for apposition, and define "apposition."
4. Correct or justify : (a) The pupils who have finished the exercise
"stand up" ; (b) I intended to have written last week ; (c) Do for
any sake be quiet ; {d) He got married to a widow ; (e) About one
hundred feet of the dam has been swept away.
5. Point out the figures of speech in
wild west wind, thou breath of Autumn's being,
Thou from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven like ghosts from au enchanter fleeing,
Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red.
Pestilence-stricken multitudes !
6. When and under what circumstances did the principal elements which
enter into the composition of the English language severally take
their places in it ?
7. Give the derivation of : muslin, currant, hymeneal, bursar, coercion,
rill, priest, bishopric, deed, urbanity, universe, here, inoculate,
religion, gentiy, chestnut, vulgate, preposterous, rival, romance,
health, legend, fancy ; tracing the history of the meaning wherever
you can.
IV.
1 Define adjective and pronoun ; state how you classify adjectives and
pronouns ; show where yon draw the line between these parts of
speech, and explain your vi'^ws with regard to the parsing of his,
each, this, all, another, what, and some, in the various construc-
tions in which they may occur. Give reasons for your answers.
2. Give examples of sentences in which it is U'.ore appropriate to use
"that" than '"who" or "which.." Explain the reason in each
case.
XVI.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
hi
8. Parse the italicized words in the following sentences from Macaulay's
letters : —
{a) I will not omit writing two days running.
{b) The great topic now in London is not, as you perhaps fancy,
Reform, but cholera. There is a great panic, as great a panic
as I remember, particularly in the city.
(c) When Chantry dined with Rogers some time ago, &o.
{d) Her ladyship is all courtesy and kindness to me.
(e) Well, writing to constituents is less of a plague to you than to
most people.
(/) Now that 1 had risen again, he hoped that they should hear
me often.
4. Explain the meaning of orthoepy, idiom, dialect, and metaphor, and
give the best definitions you know of letter, syllable, and word.
5. Distinguish between the following wo.'^ds: Common and mutual;
stationery and stationary ; feminine and effeminate ; sanitary and
sanatory ; persecute and torment ; loiter and linger.
6. Explain the derivation of afeard, afraid, valour, ornament, prithee,
peace, enterprise, lady, esteem, adhere, and desire.
7. What information about the following things may be obtained from
the names they bear: Port (wiue), sherry, nankeen, ammonia,
bayonet, cherry, currants ?
8. Correct or justify, in either case giving your reasons, the following
sentences : —
(a) In this poem is a very confident and discriminate character of
Spenser whose work he had then never read. — Dr. Johnson.
(6) This is one of the most successful works that ever was executed.
(c) The trade of Marseilles vestly increase^' o^'nce the French have
had Algiers.
(d) He always begins by drawing down his shaggy eye-brows,
making a face extremely like his uncle, wagging his head
and saying, &c. — MaccMlay,
zviL
ig
\9,
id
SECOND CLASS.
I.
1. Give the abstract nouns of the same derivation as brief, tme, common,
needy, and poor. j
2. Write the plural ef the following: — Two, hidalgo, no, chimney, col-
loquy, Livy, vinculum, 3, w, appendix. Lord Gordon, court-martial.
3. Classify the pronouns enumerating those coming under each head.
4. Parse the italicised words in the following quotations : (a) In spite of
such a man as Gibbon's opposition ; (b) They are not the same
that they have been ; (c) He did it in the geography class ; (d)
They are very much in the style of Milton's sonnets ; (e) That is
the way that boys begin.
5. Give accurate rules for the use of sTiall and loill,
6. What are the Latin and Greek prefixes meauing/rom, beyond, without ?
7. Give the derivation of none, prophet, line, fruitless, crown, barren,
sceptre, succeeding.
II.
1. Give the full syntactical parsing of italicised words in the following
extract : — ^'Strange as it may seem to find a song-writer put for-
ward as an active instrument of union among his foUow-Hellens, it
is not the less tme that those poets whom we have briefly passed in
review, by enriching the common langum/c, and by circulating from
town to town either in person or in their compositions, contributed
to fan the flame of Pan-Hellenic patriotism at a time when there
were few circumstances to co-operate with them, and when the causes
tending to pei-petuate isolation seemed in the ascendant. — Grate :
History of Greece.
2. Divide the extract into propositions, stating their kind and connection,
and give a complete analysis of each proposition.
3. Make lists of the prefixes and affixes occurring in the pasi'^«:e and
classify them according to (a) meaning, and (^6) derivation.
i. Give the principal parts of new, fly, Hue, stride, rive, crow.
i
I
XVIU.
TORONTO UNIVEHSITY EXAMINATIONS/
6. Give examples of the difFerent uses of (a) wordi ending in ing, and (J)
of but.
6. Correct, where necessary, the spelling of the following words : — Indi-
genous, surpless, deliniatiou, dipthong, subtile, judgement, elly-
gyac, prophane, purliew, suffragan, indispensible, responsible.
7. Trace the following words to Latin or Greek roots: — Venison, sample,
maintain, livery, human, hermit, sarcophagus, volume, technical,
phylactery, blasphemy.
I' 1
III.
1. Parse the italicised words in the following sentences : —
[i) Did •* religion" when our translation was made mean godliness t
(b) Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage.
The promised /a^7ter of a future age.
(c) In Christian hearts for a pagan zeal !
A needful but opprobrious prayer I
{d) He is busy thrashing.
2. Give instances of infinitives and infinitive phrases used as the object of
a verb.
3. Give examples of the different constructions in which " as" is used, and
tell in which of them it may be replaced by " that."
4. Distinguish {a) May I go ? from Can I go ? (i) Shall I go ? from "Will
I go? (c) Were I to go? from Was I to go ? {d) Would I have gone?
from Should I have gone ?
5. Enumerate the ailixes denoting state, condition, or quality, and give an
example of each in cgmbination.
6. Make a list of words derived from lego, including four from the Latin
and four from the Greek verb.
7. Correct, giving reasons, or defend the modes of expression employed in
the following quotations : —
(a) Give us the secrets of his pagan hell.
Where ghost with ghost in sad communion dwell.
(ft) What sort of a looking man is he ?
{e) Thou lovest, but ne'er knew love's sad satiety.
(d) One sort of feels impressed with the vastness of the building,
thuu<'-h disgusted with the cliiMlohueSS of the ceremonies.
Latin
3d in
TORONTO UmVERSITY EXAMINATIOWa
IV.
tit.
1. What do yon understand by gender in grammar t Show that your
definition applies to each of these words : — Lady, seamstress, man-
servant, testatrix, mistress, nervine, margravine.
2. Give rules for the right use of the subjunctive mood with examples.
3. Write the past tense, present participle, and past participle of flow, fly,
singe, dye, loose, lay, bear.
4. What parts of speech perform a double function ? Give full explanatory
examples.
6. Give adjectives formed from Latin or Greek roots, corresponding to
the English nouns : brother, forest, breath, beginning, husband,
cloud, leg, eye, bad, rule.
6. Convert the following adjectives, by the help of prefixes or suffixes, 'into
verbs : — Large, just, humble, strong ; and convert the following
verbs into nouns : Weave, compel, receive, dig, think. Explain
the law which governs each change.
7. Criticise the syntax of the following sentences, suggesting corrections
where necessary : —
(o) Whom say ye that I am f
(6) From whence comes he ?
(c) Whom the gods love die young.
{d) And many a holy text she strews
That teach the moralist how to die.
(e) Neither riches or beauty furnish solid peace and contentment.
(/) Three months' notice are required previous to a pupil leaving
school.
ig) If I were he, I would take more care for the future.
(A) The atrocious crime of being a young man I siiall neither at-
tempt to palliate nor deny.
[ling,
33.
McGILL UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
The following qnesticns, selected from amongst those set in English at
the various examinations in connection with McGill University in 1875,
will afford some idea of the requirements in that institution.
1. Shew the difference between abstract and concrete names. Are class
names abstract or concrete f Mention some names that are abstract
or concrete, according to the way they are employed.
2. Give examples illustrating the use of "that" as an adjective and as a
pronoun.
8. Explain the restricting and the oo-ordinating uses of the relative
pronouns.
4. Nouns are often used as adjectives ; how are they distinguished from
true adjectives?
6. Mention any peculiarities worth noting in the use of the numeral
adjectives — both, many, some, all, no, none, every.
6. Enumerate the conjunctions in the first class of the co-ordinating, and
mention the classes into which the subordinating are divided.
7. How is the use of different words to denote gender to be accounted for ?
II.
1. What are supposed to be the reasons for assigning to inanimate objects,
gender, masculine and feminine ?
2. If such forms as "Who do you speak to?"; "Who for?", are admissible,
how is the relative pronoun to be construed ?
3. Mention the points of difference between the Past Indefinite and the
Present Perfect Tenses,
4. Mention the different periods that have been noted for the inti'oduction
of Latin words into the vocabulary of English.
$. Composition of Nouna. Give examples of nouns with adjectives — nouns
with rulea — nouns with adverbs— adverli and verb—verb and verb.
TORONTO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS.
XXI.
6. Oire examples of the noun clause, adjeotire olaase, and adverbial
clause.
7. State the mode suggested for reconciling grammar and usage in sucli
expressions as " it is me," &c.
kts,
[he
Ion
m.
1. Mention the principal differences in regard to inflection betwcjen the
Anglo-Saxon and Semi<Sazon, and between the Semi-Saxon and
early English.
2. Give the dates of the different periods of our philological history.
8. Mention the principal causes by which changes in a language are
brought about.
4. Why are the English said to occupy, in the nations of Europe, a
philological station somewhat anomalous ?
6. What proportion of Anglo-Saxon words have we lost f Describe the
classes.
6. State the points of evidence adduced in regard to the subject of dialectic
differences in Anglo-Saxon.
7. As to the question in regard to the dialects whence the standard English
had its birth, what is the most probable hypothesis ?
IV.
, 1. Classify the consonants according to the organs of speech by which they
are pronounced.
2. Write down a sentence which contains all the parts of speech, and
draw a line under each indeclinable word in it.
8. Give the plurals of the following words : Self, sheaf, gulf, woman,
spoonful, father-in-law, no, deer, Mr., Madam, focus, vortex, larva,
genus, genius, crisis, cherub, virtuoso, beau, dilettante.
4. Write the principal parts of the following verbs :— bid, set, sit, lie. Jay,
sing, flee, fly, see, swell.
5. When is sfuUl used as an auxiliary, and when loUl t
e. Parse : " That is the very book that I lq§t "
7. Give an example of a simple, complex, and compound sentence respect-
ively.
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TORONTO UHIVEKSITT EXAMINATIONS.
V.
i
1. Give fimr methods of enlarging fhe snbjeet of ft tentenoe^ ififh examplef.
2. Analyse the following sentence : — " Sunshine of Saint Eulalie" was she
called ; for that was the sunshine which, as the farmers believed,
would load their orchards with apples.
8. Correct, where necessary, the following sentences :— Suppose you and
me go. He gave them to yon and L If I were him I would go
abroad. They that honour me I will honour. "The Pleasures of
Hope" was written by CampbelL I got it at Dawson's the book-
seller. I done my sum first. Has either of your three friends
arrived t Neither the captain nor the mate .were saved. Give me
them books.
4. The bulk of our borrowed words are of Latin origin ; when and how
did they oome into the language f
5. Write down the words in the Lord's Prayer, not of Saxon origin.
d. State dearly the differences between Early English (Anglo«Sazon) and
Modem Englishi
i1
ZXIU
UNIVEKSITY OF VICTOBIA COLLEGE.
Matrionlation EzaminationB, September 1874. English Grammar,
(Time — Two Hoars.)
I. »
1. What are the oharaoteristios of mntes, semi-yowels, and liquids ?
What letters belong to each of these classes ?
2. To what rules of orthography are the words thus, buzz, $aid, and
truly, severally exceptions.
8. Define abstract nouns and adjectives. Show how these classes
of words resemble each other and how they di£Fer.
4. How do you distinguish between aender and sex t How does the
English language differ from other languages in the matter of Gender ?
What is the gender usually given to the words sun, moon, Winter, Spriny,
death, and man-of-war ? Give reasons for the usage in these cases.
5. In what number should the words politics, mathematics, &o., be
•onstrued ? Give sentences introducing these words as subjects.
6. Into what classes are verbs divided? Givo difiuition and ox*
ample of each class.
7. Give the imparfeot tense and the past participle of bid, eat, hang,
lay, lie, (to recline), load, and wet,
8. Explain the proper use of the auxiliaries shall and will, Givo
•xamples in illustration.
9. Give analysis ofJ[the following sentences; parse the words in
itaUcs ; and note peculiar forms and uses of words : —
" But that I am forbid
To tell the secrets of my prison-house,
I could a tale unfold whose hghtest word
Would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood,
Make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres^
Thy knotted and combined locks to part.
And each particular hair to stand an end,
Like quills upon the fretful poi-pentine."
XXIV
TIOTOBU COLLEGE EXAMINATIONS.
10. Saj ^liioh of the following fcrms are to be preferred, and giya
reasons for the preference m each case : —
(a.) The hoaee is building. The honoe is a-bnilding. The
house is being built.
(6.) The Miss Smiths. Tho Misses Smith. The Misses Smiilu
(c.) A house to let. A house to be let.
(d). The first two verses. Tlie two first verses.
' : . Parse the words in italics in the following sentences :—
(a.) The well is twenty feet deep,
{b.) Thou madest Him a little lower than the ongols.
(c.) The land is worth eighty dollars an acre,
(d.) We are to leave this evening.
(f .) " Let such an one think, such as we are in word by letters,
such will we be in deed,"
(/.) That was but part of tho truth, though nothing but tho
truth.
12. Correct vulgar errors in the following sentences, and give the
reason for each correction : —
{a.) We were looking for you this morning, me and my brother,
but we could not find you. Was you at home ?
(6.) It's no use trying to persuade him ; he will do as he has a
miud to.
(c.) She looks beautifully, and sings sweetly.
(d.) Mr. A. is a tolerable good writer, but a very poor
fipeakor.
{e.) I have never been able to find them men, tho' I have tried
to, very often.
n.
English Composition, (Time— One Hour.)
1. Write sentences in which the words god, heaven, saviour, and
providence, should begin with small letters.
2. State the various cases in which a colon should be used. QiT6
examples.
3. Give rule for the punctuation of words and clauses in apposition.
State the exceptions to this rule, and give example of both rule and ex-
ceptions.
4. When should numbers be expressed by written words, and when
by Arabic characters ? Givo rule for punctuation in the last case.
yiCTOBU OOLLSafl BXAICniATIONS.
ZX7
6. Whfti is the proper use of the markB of parentheiis t When may
eommM serve to set off parenthetical clauses f
6. Qive the roles of syllabification. Diyide the following words into
lullabies by means of hyphens :— individuality, animosity, astronomy,
preexistenoe, apostolical, adhesion.
7. CSorreot all errors of punctuation, spelling, Ac, in the following
passages : —
(a.) Rev. Dr. Egerton Byorson D D, L.L.D Ghiel superintcndnat of
education ; Normal School Toronto Ont.
(b.) Vio CoU, Cobourg Ont. Sept 29. 1874.
(e.) Permit me to subscribe myself
your obliged and obt servt Oiobox J Mombamto.
(d) I say gentlemen there is an individual present, resumed the
host, in whose society I am sure we must take great delight and and the
conversation of that individual must have afforded to every one present
the utmost pleasure : Thank Heaven He dost not mean me thought
Minus; Gentlemen I am but a humble individuel myself and I perhaps
ought to apologise for allowing any individuel feelings of fricndBhips to
induce me to venture to rise to pupose the health of that perein : A per-
son that I am sure, that is to say ; i\ person whose vertues must indear
Lim to those who krow him and arid those who have not the pleasure
of knowing him can not dialikb him hear here said the Company in a
tone of encouragement and approval ? Gentleman continued budden my
Cousen is a man who who is a reallat5on of my own Here here Minus
groaned oddibly * • * Gentlemen I feel, that I have already tres-
passed on your attentions for to long a time. With every feeling of with
every Sentiment of of Grattification suggested the friend of the family
of Grattification I beg to purpose the health of Mr Minus.
Standing Gentlemen Shouted the indefatigeable little man with the
whiskers and with the honors take your time, from me if you please Hip
Hip Pip Za Hip Hip Pip Za Hip pip Za a a a
I
A
GENEEAL INDEX.
■*o*-
I GRAMMATICAL.
ABLATIVE, 2, 35
Abstract noun (rae Noun), 1
Accent, 1, 16
rale of, 16
use of, 16
law of, 16
words which vary their meaning
according to, 280, 281
Acddenoe, 1
Accident, 1, 28
Accusatiye, 2, 85
doable, 93
cognate, 96
factitive, 97
of space, time, and measurement, 96
Active (see Verb)
Adjective, definition of, 1, 36
dassiflcation of, 36
simple, 86
compound, 86
derived, 86
common, 1, 86
proper, 1, 86
numeral, 1, 36
pronominal, 1, 36
ordinal, 1, 86
^v ^rHtnA.1, 1, 86
definitive, 1, 86
qualitative, 1, 86
quantitative, 1, 36
distributive^ 89
multiplicative, 89
comparison of, 41
rules for do., 42
incapable of comparison, 42
irregular, 48
syntax of, 97, 118
for adverb, n^suse of, 112
Adverb, definition of, 1, 7Q
Adverb, classification of, 70
formation of, 72
prefixes of, 72
sufiixes of, 72
phrases and words, 72
comparison of, 78
pronominal, 60, 78 "
derivation of, 72
how distinguished, 80, 81
syntax of, 105, 112
for adjective, misuse of, 113
in ly, 112
position of, 126, 126
Affirmative proposition, 85
After, used differently, 80
All, every, whole (usage of), 118
Alphabet, imperfections of, 13
expedients for remedying these, 18
Also, 124
Amid, among (usage of), 118
Antecedent, syntax of, 101
Antithesis, 108
Aphsresis, 107
Apocope, 107
Apparent, obvious (usage of), 123
Art and sciences, definition of, 2, 9
Article, definition of, 2, 37
syntax of, 98, 99, 118
As, a relative, 47, 49
Aught, 118
Augmentative (see Noim), 2, 21
Authentic, genuine (usage of), 1 18
Auxiliary (verb), definition of, 7, 64
classification o^ 64
list of, 66, 67
l|
B
AD, 43
BarbariAn, 2, 111
830
INDEX.
Be, ooi^tigation of, 66
syntax of, 112
compound tenses fbrmod with, 58
Because (usage of), 1 19
Besides (usage uf), 119
Between, betwixt (usiigc of), 119
among (usage of), 118
Both, 124
But, as a relative, 80
as a conjunction, 80
as a preposition, 80
aa an adverb, 80
By, with, through (usage of), 118
By and by, 118
By the bye, 118
CAN, 66
Canons of good usage, 109, 110
Case, 2, 38
Categorical, 2
proposition, 83
Causative verbs, 56, 57
Chiefest, 44
Collective noun (see Noun)
syntax of, 93
Collectiveness, how shown, 26
Collocation of words, 117
Common noun (see Noun), 20
mutual (usa^e of), 122
Comparison of adjective and adverb, 2
of adjectives. Ill
of adverbs, 78
irregular, 48
sign of, 48
syntax of, 97, 99, 118
Complement of predicate, 87
Completely (usage of), 120
Complex sentences, 88
Composition, 2, 23
Composure, composition (usage of), 120
Compound, 2
nouns, 22
disguised, 22
apparent, 28
adjectives, 40
pronouns, 60
conjunctions, 80
prepositions, 7S
adverbs, 78
sentences, 86, 88
Concord, 92
Conditional daune, 101
Goiyugation, 3, 58
active, 60
passive, 63
Conjugation of yerb (to bk), 6S
Conjunction, definition of, H, 77
classification of, 77
co-ordinate, 78
subordinate, 78
correlative, 78, /'9
syntaxof, 104, 117
Consequent clause, 101
Consonant, 3, 10
Contemporary, cotemporary (usage of),
120
Contemptuously, contemptibly (usage
of), 120
Convertibility, 108
Co-ordinate conjunction, 78, 79
clause, 88
Copula, 3, 82
Correlntive, 3
subjunctive form, 103
Ciould, 66
DARE, 67
Dative, constructions of, d5
absolute, 94
Declension, 8
Defective, 8
verb, 56
Definition, 8
Demonstrative pronouns 46
Derivation, 3, 23
Derivative, 3
Diminutive, 8
suffixes, 137
Diphthong, 3, 12
Disposal, disposition (usage of), 120
Distinction, difference (usage of), 120
Distinguish, discriminate (usage of) 120
Distributed term, 84
Distributive, 3
pronouns, 47
Do, 66, 116
EACH, 47, 50, IM, 121
every, 121
Each other, 49
one another, 121
Eft80ons,72
Either, 47, 88, 100, 120
Either, whether (usage of), 120
Elder, older, 4 1, 121
EHsion, 107
Emp8i8,107
Emphasis, 3, 16
Epenthesis, 107
Etymology, 8, 10, 17
INDEX.
831
ET«n, 126
Ever, never (luage of), 121
Eynry, 89, 47, 100, 118, 121, 128
Except, a preposition and a oonjonction,
80
Exposure, expodtion (usage of), 121
FACTITIVE verb (see Vkbb)
accusative, 97
Fare thee well, 180
Farther and Further, 48, 44, 121
Few, a few, 44, 117, 127
Fewer, less (usage of), 121
Figure of speech, 8, 106
First, 48
First two, and two first, 118
For, a preposition and a co ^junction, 80
n ENDER, definition of, 8, 29
U kinds of, 29
bow shown, 80
Anglo-Saxon feminines, 30
Noman French do., 30
masculine fbrmed from feminine, 81
feminine without masculine, 81
shown by different words, 32
how due to thought, 82
Genitive, 2, 83, 39
adverbs derived from, 72
sjmtax of, 94
adjectives governing, 97 (note)
Gerund, 8, 103
in compounds, 22
Gerundial infinitive, 102
Get, 116
Gifted, talented (usage oO> 128
Good, 48
Government, 4, 92
Grammar, 4, 9
Grammatical purity. 111
Gutturals, 18
HAVE, compound tenses formed with,
68
He, 47
Highest, uppermost (usage of), 121
Himself, 47, 95
His, a false sign of genitive, 34
Hyperbole, 108
Hypothetical proposition, 88
TDIOM, 4
X Impersonal verb, 4^ 64
ImproprielT, 4, 111
Inflexion, 4
In respect to, in respect of, 181
Intention, 4
Inteijeotion, 18, 81
Irregular verbs, 4, 64, 66, 67
It am 1, 128
It is I, your master, who command(aX
129
It is me, 129
LABIALS, 18
Last, 48
Later, 43, 44
Latter, 43, 44
Learn, 128
Less, 43
Less and fewer (usage of), 121
Letters, table of, 4, 10, 12
observations on the, 18
Lie, lay (usage oH, 121
Like, syntax of, 122
Like, as (usage of), 122
Liquids, 10
List, 67
Little, 48
a little, 127 -
MADE, 67
Make, 67
Man. termination, and plural of, 29
Many, 48, 44
a many, many a, 127
May, 66
Meiosis, 108
Meseems, methinks, melists, 54, 95
Metaphor, 107
Metathesis, 106
Metonymy, 108
Metre, 4
Monosvllables, 10, 15
Mood, 4, 58
indicative, 58
imperative, 58, 104
subjunctive, 58, 61, 69, 102,
103
infinitive, 58, 102, 116
gerundial do., 102
Most, 42, 43
Much, 43, 44
Multiplicative numerals, 39
Must, 66
Mutes, 10, 13
332 INDEX.
Mutual, common (usage of), 122
Owe, 67
lly, mine, 60, 100
Own, 47, 48
VATION, people (usaKe oO, 122
i^ Nay, no, difroronce between, 106
Near, 48
DARAOOGE, 107
•T Para^'raph, 6
Paraphrase, 6
Nearly, almoHt (usape of), 121
Parsing, 89
Negative propouition, 84
table of, 91
Negatives, 105, 181
Participle, 561
Nigh, 4;J, 97 (note)
syntax of, 103, 126
No, 100
Porticle, 6 '
Nominative, 2, 88, 116
Parts of speech, 17, 18
syntax of, 1)3, 96
absolute, 94
Passive voice, 7, 58
conjugation of, 68
Nor, or, after a negative, 181
Person, 6
Not, position of, 126
Personal pronouns, 4G, 67
Noun, definition of, 4, 19
Personification, 107
classification of, 19
Pleonasm, 107
simple and compound, 20
Plural of nouns, 23, 24
proper, 4, 20
single forms, 24
propriate, 4, 21
double forms, 26
common, 4, 20
collective, syntax of, 98, 94
collective, 4, 20
strong, 24, 25
of multitude, 4, 20
different meanings in, 26
abstract, 4, 20
Possessive case, 38
concrete, 4
syntax of, 94, 97 (note)
Predicate, complement of, 87
solely plural, 26'
solely singular, 26
extension of, 87
diminutive, 21
Preposition, 5, 75, 76, 81
augmentative, 21
syntax of, 105
patronymic, 21
Primitive, primary (usage of), 122
primitive, 20
Pronoun, definition of, 5
derivative, 20
classification of, 45, 46, 120
Number, 5, 23
syntax of, 100, 114
dual, 26
Proposal, proposition (usage of), 122
Numerals, 34
Proposition, according to logic, 6, 82
cardinal, 39
substance of, 83
ordinal, 89
quality of, 83
multiplicative, 39
quantity of, 84
distribution of, 84
categorical, 83
ABJECT, direct, 35
yf indirect, 86
hypothetical, 83, 101
Property, 126
Obsolete, 5
Prothesis, 107
*
Obvious, apparent (usage of), 123
Purpose, propose (usage of), 122
Of, genitive with, 34
expressed by gerund, 62
Older, elder, 43, 121
One, 62
Only, 126
AUANTITY, 6, 16
v^ Quantity (usage of), 187
Or, nor, after a negative, 131
Orthoepy, 6
Quoth, 67
Orthography, 6
Other, 62
than, otherwise than, 126
pATHER, 43. 126
li Keduudttut,6
Overflown, overflowed, 122
INDEX.
388
Uedundant TerbR, lint of, 184
Ueduplication (did, hi^t), 67, 147
Hefleclive verbs, 56
Kulntive pronoun, deflnitioD of, 6, 47, 48
Hyntax of, 100, 116
Rhyme, 6
Rhythm, 6
Root, 6
SAME, 49
Save, 76
Scarcely, scarce (usage of), 109
Scarcely, hardly (usage of), llfS
Seamstress, songHtress, 81
Seldom, 72
Self (anomalies of), 47, 56
Sentence, 6
simple, 6, 86
complex, 6, 86, 87
compound, 6, 86, 87
co-ordinate, 88
subordinate, 87
analytical scheme of, 86
adjective, 87, 88
noun, 87, 88
adverb, 87, 88
hypothetical, 101
ShaU and will, 66, 116
Shall, 66
Should, 66
Simile, 107
Singular (number), 23, 93
Slut, 81
So, as ^sage of), 123
So, as, / 9
Solecism, 6, 111
Soon, 126
Spelling, rules o(^ 80
anomalies of, 14
Strong, 6
plurals, 24
verbs, 64, 65
Ust of, do., 132, 133, 134
Subject, 82, 88, 87
Subjunctive mood, 69, 61, 68
syntax of, 102
Such, 49, 50, 99
Superlative acyectives, 6, 41
irregular, 48
double, 48
Syllables, 6, 10
dividing, 15
Syncope, 106
Synecdoche, 108
Syntax, 6
Syntax, general rules, 92
special rules, 92
rPALENTED, gifted (usage oO. 121
1 Teach, 96
Tenses, 59
succession of, 108
Term, 7, 82
Than, 98, 99, 106
That, 46, 48, 80, 102, 105, 106
That, which, 124
The, 98, 118
The (more), 98, 99, 118
Then, 80
Theory, 7
Thine, 46, 100
This, 46, 100
Though, although (usage of), 123
Thy and thine, 130
To-morrow (usage of), 127
Total, entire, &c. (usage of), 128
VERB,7, 58, 101, 116
classification of, 63
substantive, 7, 64
impersonal, 7, 54
nmpersonal, 7, 64
tranflitive, 7, 54
intransitive, 7, 54
auxiliary, 7, 64, 6-1
regular or weak (classes of), 7, bb
irregular or strong (classes of}, 7, 66
list of, 132
redundant, 7, 56
list of, 136
defective, 7, 56, 66, 67
reflective, 7, 66
causative, 7, 66
intensive, 7, 66
diminutive, 7, 67
inceptive, 7, 57
frequentative, 7, 57
factitive, 7, 97
personal, 7, 64
Vixen, 31
Voice, active, 7, 60
passive, 58, 63
WAGES, 29
Weak, 7
Welkin, 29
West, 61
What,48. 100. 115
Wliidi. 4«, lUO, 116
834
Which, that (usage of), 128
While, though (usage of), 128
Whilom, 72
Who, 78, 100, 116
Whole (usage oO 128
Will, 66, 116
Wilne, 67
Wite,67
Word, 7, 10
INDEX.
, Words, table of, 18
Worse, 48
Worth, adjective (syntax), VI
Worth, verb, 67
YE and you, B2, 116
Yea and nay, lOt
Yes (uid no, 106
GENEEAL INDEX.
to*
2. ETYMOLOGICAL
[llie numerals reftr to paiii^B. (v. p.) means verbal prefix, and (y. 8.^ verba! e^fi*
- before a small letter or syllaule, a tuffix. - after a letter or syllaue, t^pr^fixT]
A (y.p.).148
A A (gerund, pref.), 148
-a, 169, 170
A, an, 88,48
Ab-, 174
Abbey, 164, 192
Abbot, 164, 197
Aber-, 169
Abet, 156
Abide, 166
-able, 189
Aboard, 151
Abode, 156
Abominable, 210
About, 150
Above, 150
Abreast, 157
Absurd, 210
Academy, 210
Accoutrements, 187
Acolj-te, 192
Acorn, 156, 210
Acqua, 174
Acre, 156 .
-acy, 188
Address, 210
-ade, 188
Admiral, 164, 187
Adrift, 161
Adullamite, 203
Adultery, 210
After, 150
Against, 150
Agar. 210
Agate, 176
-age, 188
A^rhast, 151, 167
Aisle, 198
-al, 139
Alabaster, '175
Alb, 193
Albemarle Sound, 171
Albion, 171
Alcala, 174
Alchemy, 164
Alcohol, 164
Alcove, 164
Ale, 164
Alembic, 164
Alexandrine, 178
Algebra, 164, 178, 210
Alkali, 164
Alleghany, 171
Alligator, 163, 210
AUow,210
Almanac, 164, 210
Alms, 28
Aloft, 151
Alone, 142, 157
Already, 161
Alt-, 174
Am, 146
Amber, 164
Ambergris, 164
Ambulance, 190
Ambuscade, 191
Amen, 164
America, 171
American words, 164
Ammonia, 165, 175
Among, 150, 159
Amuck, 166
Amucker, 205
An, 149
-an, 140
Anckor, 1S8
And (conj.), 149
Anger, 182
Anglo-Saxon words
(classes of). 161
Anon, 152
Answer, 210
-ant, 189
Anthem, 210
Any, 189
Ap-, 137
Apostle, 194
April, 181
-ar, male agent, 186
Arabic (words), 164
Archbishop, 192
Ard-, Aird-, 168, 174
-ard, -art, 137
-argh, 169
Argosy, 210
Ark, 169
Arm, 183
Armada, 168
Armadillo, 168
Arms, 189
Arrack, 164
Arras, 175
\
836
INDEX.
Aiwnal, 188
Art, 146, 166
Artesian, 176
Article, 37
Artillery, 189
-ary, 138
is, 149
Ascension, 172
Ash, 167
Ask, 96
Askant, 151
Askew, 151
Assassin, 206
Assault, 210
Astound, 161
Asunder, 161
At, 150
Athwart, 160, 161
Atone, 22, 142
Attorney, 210
Auburn, 157, 182
Auchter-, 174
Aught, 52, 148
Avoirdupois, 185
Aware, 160
Away, 151
Awhile, 151
Awkward, 161, 210
Awry, 151
-ay, 169
Ayah, 164
Azimuth, 164
Azores, 172
Azure, 164
BAAL 174
Bab-, 165, 174
Babbler, 175
Babelmandeb, 172
Bachelor, 22, 211
Bacon, 154
Bad, 140
-bad, 174
Bag-o-nails, 28
Bahar, 174
Bahia, 174
Bailey, 163
•BaiM, 163, 188
Bairn, 154, 166
Bait, 157
Balance, 211
Balcony, 164
Balderdash, 162, 205
BaUad, 211
Baltimore, 172
Baluster, 211
Balustrade, 163
Bamboo, 166
Bund, 156
Banditti, 1G3
Bandy, 156
Bane, 156
Banian, 164
JJank, 156
Bank:. ipt, 211
Banns, 211
Banquet, 211
Bantam, 165
Banter, 156
Barbarous, 165
Barbican, 164, 205
Bark, 156
Barleysugar, 205
Baron, 156, 186
Baronet, 186
Barren, 154
Barricade, 163
Barrister, 211
Borrow, 156
Bashaw, 164
Basket, 162
Bat, 166
Batch, 166
Batta, 164
Battery, 166
Battle, 156
Baudekin, 175
Baudrick, 189
Bayonet, 175, 189
Bazaar, 164
Be, 146
be- (v. p.), 143
Bead, 156
Beadle, 156, 187
Beak, 159
Bean, 163
Bear, 156
Beat, 156
Because, 149
-beck, 167, 169, 174
Bedlam, 206
Beef-eater, 205
Been, 146
Beer, 174
Behemoth, 164
Behind, 150
Behold, 15B
Belfry, 193, 206
Believe, 156
Bell, 156
Belles (-lettres), 163
Bellow, 15(5
Below, 150
Ben- (Pen), 168, 174
Bend, 156
Beneath, 160
Bent, 166
Bereave, 169
-berg, 174
Bermuda, 172
Bemouse, 175
Berrj', 166
Berth, 156
-bery, 167
Best, 140, 156
Bestow, 169
Betel, 164
Better, 140, 164
Beware, 159
Bey, 163
Beyond, 150
Bezant, 175, 186
Bid, 156
Bight, 174
Bigot, 205
BUboes, 175
BiUet-doux, 163
Billiard, 211
Bine, 156
Bird, 167
Birth, 164, 156
Biscuit, 22
Bishop, 186
Bissextile, 181
Bit, 157
Bivouac, 191
Black, 167, 182
Blackguard, 205
Blade, 157
Blair-, 168
Blanket, 178
Blast, 157
Blaze, 157
-ble,140
Bleach, 157
Bleak, 157
Blind, 153
Block, 163
Blood, 183
Bloom, 157
Blossom, 167
Blot, 159
Blow, 157
Blue, 182
jdlunderbuss, 205
Blush, 157'
Bluster, 157
Boat, 166
Bode, 156
Body, 156
Body, 188
Bogie, 205
Bog-Latin, 20i>
Bogus, 205
Bohea, 166
-bol, 169
-boll, 167
Bond, 156
Bone, 183
Bon-mot, 163
Bonnet, 163, 175
Bocby, 205
Boom, 168
Boor, 167, 168
Boot (to), 157
Bootless, 157
Borough, 166, 157
Bosh, 205
Both, 141, 149
Bottom, 168
Bough, 156
Boulevard, 191
Bound, 156
Bouquet, 168
-bourn, 174
Bow, 156
Bow (sprit), 156, 163
Bower, 157
Bower (anchor), 156
Brae, 168, 174
Brag, 205
Bran, 162
Brand, 153, 157
Brandy, 157, 191
Bravado, 163
Bravo, 163
Brawn, 154, 178
Breach, 157
Break, 157
Breas^ 183
Breath, 164, 167, 183
-breck, 169
Breeches, 157
Brew, 167
Brewer, 167
-brick, 169
Bridegroom, 31
-bridge, 174
Brigand, 206
Brisbane, 172
Britain, 172
Broad, 157
Bronze, 157
Brose, 157
Broth, 154, 167
Brown, 157
-brucke, 174
INDEX.
Bmnn, 174
Brunt, 157
Bruy malt, 157
Buccaneer, 206
Buffoon, 206
Bugbear, 162
Buggy, 164
Bull, 166 -^
Bullion, 211
Bulwark, 191
Bunch, 15G
Bundle, 156 ,
Bungalow, 164
Bunkum, 206
Burden, 156
Burgess, 166
Burgh, 166
Burglar, 166, 211
Burlesque, 178, 206
Bum, 167
Burnish, 167
Burrow, 156
B>'ry, 156, 167
-bury, 174
Bushel, 186
Bust, 168
But (adv.), 152
But (conj.), 149
But (prep.) , i60
Button, 162
Buxom, 156
-by, 169
flABAL, 164, 19G
V Cabbage, 211
Cabin, 162
Cabinet, 196
Cabo-, 174
Cacique, 166
Caddy, 164
Cadet, 188
Cadi, 164
Caer-, 168, 174
Cairn, 168, 174
Caister, 166
Caitiff, 211
Cajole, 211
Calf (of leg), 183
Calibre, 176, 191
Calico, 164
Caliph, 164
Calumet, 166
Cambist, 163
Cambric, 176
Cambus, 174
Camp, 191
Z
3S7
Camphor, 164
Can, 146, 167
Canada, 172
Candidate, 211
Candy, 176
Cannibal, 206
Cannon, 189
Canny, 167
Canon, 186
Canopy, 211 .
Canter, 176, 206
Canto, 163
Caoutchouc, 164
Captain, 188
Carat, 164, 211
Caravan, 164
Caravanserai, 164
Carbine, 163, 189
Carbonado, 163
Cardinal, 211
Cargo, 163
Caricature, 163
Cark, 167
Carnival, 163, 211
Carolina, 172
Carouse, 211
Carp, 176
Cai^t, 175
Carraway, 175
Carrick, 168
Carronade, 189
Cash, 211
Castra, 166, 174
Cathedral, 192
Cattle, 212
Cavalier, 195
Cavalry, 26, 189
-ce, 128
Celtic words, 162
Cereal, 178
-cester, 166
Chagrin, 211
Chair, 212
Chalice, 193
Challenge, 191
Chalybeate, 175
Chancel, 193, 212
Chancellor, 187
Chapel, 192
Chapman, 157
Chapter, 192
Chariatan, 163, I7h
Charies's Wain, 20t
Charleston, 172
Charm, 212
Chartist, 196
Chasuble, 193
B38
Chattel, 212
Cbauvinism, 178
Cheap, 157, 174
Cheapside, 167
Cheat, 212
Check (mate), 164
Cheek, 183
Cheek by jowl, 206
Cheer, 212
Chepstow, 157
Cherry, 176
Cherub, 164
Chess, 164
Chest, 188
-Chester, 166
Chestnut, 175
Ckevaux de fHse, 189
Chibouk, 1G4
Chickens, 28
Children, 28
Chimney, 212
-Chin-, 168
Chin, 188
Chinese words, 162
Chintz, 165
Chipping-, 157
Chirp, 157
Chocolate, 163
Choir, 193
Chouse, 206
Christmas, 193
Church, 192
Churchwarden, 1*J3
Churl, 157
Cigar, 168
Cipher, 141, 164
-cister, 166
Citv, 212
Ciudad, 174
Civet, 164
-ck (v. 8.)» 144
C1-, 168
Clammy, 157
Clarke, 165
Clay, 157
Claymore, 189
-cle, 187
Cleave, 157
Cleave (to), 167
Cleft, 157
Clerk, 187
a.ever, 157, 212
CUff. 157
. -cUff, 174
Clog, 157
Cloister, 192
Cloud, 159
INDBX.
Oont, 162
Clove, 157
Qub, 212
Clumsy, 212
Coach, 176
Coax, 206
Cockatoo, 165 ■
Cockboat, 162
Cocoa, 176
Coffee, 164, 175
-001,174
-coin, 16S
Colonel, 188
Colonia, 166
Comb-, 168
Comedy, 212
Commander, 188
Commissariat, 171
Commodore, 188
Comp-, 168
Companion, 212
Comrade, 188
Con, 167
Condor, 165
Con%ou, 165
Connecticut, 172
Constable, 187
Control, 212
Convent, 192
CooUe, 164
Cope, 193
Copoe, 212
Copper, 176
Cordwain, 175
Corporal, 188
Corps, 188
Costermonger, 212
-cota, 174
Cotter, 164
Couch, 212
Could, 66, 146
Count, 186
Counterpane, 212
Country dance, 206
Court, 212
Cousin, 212
Covenanter, 197
Coverlet, 212
Coward, 158
Cowl, 198
Coxswain, 206
Crag, 168
Craig, 168
Cravat, 175
Craven, 154
Crayfish, 22
Creak, 157
Creek, 167
Creese, 166
Creole, 168
Crick, 168
Cricket, 157
Crimson, 164, Ifii
Crock ,^ry, 162
-croft, 167
Crook, 167
Crutch, 167
Cud, 158
Cuirass, 189
Cul-, 168
cule-, 187
Cunning, 66, 157
Cupboard, 212
Cupola, 168
Curate, 187
Curfew, 22, 212
Currantf", 176
Curry, 165
Cutlass, 189
-cy, 128
Cyder, 166
Czar, 178
T\ (v. 8.), 144
"1/ Dagger, 190
DahUa, 178
Dainty, 162, 212
Daisy, 22, 167, 212
-dal, 169
-dale, 169
Damage, 206
Damask, 176
Dampier, 172
Damson, 176
Dan-, 169
Dandelion, 206
Dane-, 169
Danes, 178
Danger, 206
Danish words, 163
Dam, 162
Dastard, 158
Dauphin, 187
Davis Strait, 172
Dawn, 164, 167
Day, 167, 181
Deacon, 187
Deal, 167
Dean, 186
Dearth, 164
Debauch, 178
December, 18 i
Deem, 168
INDEX.
339
Deer, 157
Dejeuner, 168
Deift^ware, 176
DeUght, 207
Delirious, 207
Demijohn, 176
Demur, 207
-den, 168
Denizen, 207
Depdt, 163
Depth, 164
-der, 143
Derby, 167
Dervise, 164
Desperaido, 163
Detroit, 172
Deuce, 206
Dew, 168
Diaper, 176
Did, 67, 147
Diet, 307
Dilett 'te,163
Dimity, 164, 17
Ding-, "?0
Diocese, i^5
Dirge, 207
Dirk, 190
Disaster, 207
Dismay, 169
Dittanv, 176
Ditto, 163
Diva-, 174
Divan, 164
Divers, 143
Djebel, 174 •
Do, 67, 147
Dodge, 206
Doff, 207
Dog-cheap, 206
Dole, 167
Dollar, 185
Dominic 0, 172
Don, 163, 207
-done, 188
Donjon, 191
Doom, 168
Doomsday, 168
Dough, 168
Down, 160
Doyley, 178
Dozen, 207
Drag, 167
Draggle, 167
Dragoman, 164
Dragoon, 189
Dram, 158
Drake, 80
Dram, 186
Draught. 163, 158
Draw, 157
Dray, 157
Dredge, 168
Drench, 158
Dribble, 158
Driblet, 158
Drink, 158
Drip, 168
Drivel, 158
Drone, 207
Droop, 158
Drop, 158, 170
Dropsy, 207
Drought, 154, 168
Drown, 168
Drug, 207
Drugget, 176
Drunkard, 168
Dry, 168
Ducat, 178, 185
Dudgeon, 206
Duenna, 163
Duke, 186
Dun, 168, 174
Dunce, 178
Durham. 167
Dutch words, 163
JCj -ea,167
Each, 60, Uii ,
Ear, 183
Earl, 186
Early, 166
Earth, 164
East, 182
Easter, 194
Eaves, 213
Eccles, 174
Eclat, 163
-ed, 139, 144
-«e, 188
Egg, 156
Egg-on, 213
Egrip, 213
Eight, 141
Either, 149, 193
Eke, 149
-el (v. s.), 144, 146
Elbow, 166, 188
Elder, 141
Eldest, 141
Eleven, 141 .
Elixir, 164
s2
Elizabeth Ck>antT, 172
Elb, 186
Rlope, 218
Else, 149
Embargo, 168
Ember Weeks, 194
Embitter, 167
Emerald, 164
Emir, 164
Kmperor, 186
Empress, 186
-En-, 174
-en, 137, 139, 144
-en- (v. p. 8.), 143
Engine, 213
England, 172
Ennia-, 169,174
Ennui^ 163
Enough, 148, 162
Ensign, 188
Envelope, 168
Environs, 163
Ephod, 164
Epiphany, 194
-er, 140, 144, 146
-er,-ar,-or, 136, 187, 140
Ere, 160
-erly, 139
-ermat, 174
Ermine, 176
-€m, 139
Erst, 160
-€s, 136, 187
Escalade,'191
-esce, 146
Esquire, 187
-ess, 186
-est, 140
-et, 187
Ethics, 27
Even, 149
Ever, 152
Every, 141
Except, 149
Exchequer, Court of, 196
-ey, 167, 169
Eye, 188
Eyry, 26, 156, 218
EyseU, 213
FAGOT, 218
Fain, 162, 218
Fair, 218
Faith, 154
Fakir, 164
Falchion, 190
340
INDEX.
Fallow, 218
Fangs. 168
Fare, 168, 213
Farewell, 168
Faroe Isles, 172
FaiTago, 163
Farther, 44, 146
Farthing, 141, 185
Fascines, 190
Fast, 194
Fathom, 186
Faubourg, 213
Fear, 182
Feast, 194
February, 181
Fee, 168
Feed, 168
Feld, 174
-feld, 167
-fell, 169
Fellow, 206
Felon, 206
Fenian, 198
Ferns, 28
-ferous, 139
Ferry, 168, 214
Fetlock, 168
Fetter, 168
Feudal, 168
Fiacre, 178, 207
Fib, 207
Field, 153
Fiend, 168, 207
Fifth, 141
Fifth Monarchy Man,
198
Filibeg, 214
Filigram, 214
Filth, 154
filthy, 168
Finger, 158, 183
Firkin, 186
Firman, 164
First, 140
-firth, 167, 169
Fiscal, 214
Fisker-, 169
Five, 141
-fix, 139
Flank, 191
Flannel, 162
Flash, 176, 207
Flee, 168
Fleet, 168, 167
-Fleet-, 174
Flesh, 183
FUghty, 168
Flit, 158
Flitch, 207
Flood, 153
Florin, 185
Flotilla, 163
Flurry, 158
Fluster, 158
Flutter, 168
Fly, 158
Fodder, 158, 191
-fold, 139
Folio, 163
Folk(8), 28
Fons, 166
Font, 174, 193
Food, 158
Foolscap, 214
Foot, 158, 183
Footpad, 168
For- (v. p.), 143
For, 149, 150
Forage, 191
Forbid, 146
-force, 169
-ford, 167, 169
Fore- (v. p.), 143
Fore, 150
Former, 140
Formosa, 172
Forsooth, 162
Fort, 191
For thi, 143
Forthwith, 152
Fort Orange, 172
Forum, 174
Fossa, 166
Foster, 158
Foul, 158
Four, 141
Fourth, 141
Fowl, 158
Fowler, 158
FowUng, 158
Franchise, 207
Fredericsburg, 172
French words, 163
Fret, 214
Friar, 192, 214
Friday, 182
Friendship, 159
Frieze, 162
-frith, 167, 169
From, 150
Fudge, 162
-ful, 139
Fulsome, 158
Funnel, 162
Furbish, 214
Furlong, 185
Furnish, 214
Further, 44, 146
Fustian, 176
-fy (v. 8.), 145
GAB, 207
Gabion, 189
Gadfly, 214
Gaffer, 207
Gala, 163
Gallon, 186
Galloshes, 207
Galloway, 176
Galvanism, 178
Gamboge, 166, 176
Gambol, 214
Gammer, 207
Gammon, 207
Gander, 31
Ganger, 174
-gar, 174
Garden, 168
Garment, 214
-garth, 170
Gas, 168
-gate, 170
Gaunt, 153, 100
Gauntlet, 176
Gawby, 207
Gawky, 207
Gazelle, 164
Gazette, 163, 214
Gehenna, 164
Geneva, 173
Geographical equiva
lents, 174
Geographical terms :
Roman, 166
Saxon, 167
Celtic, 168
Scandinavian, l(i9
Norman, 171
German, 29
Gewgaw, 201
-gherrv, 174
Ghibbeline, 198
Ghost(ly), 168
Gibberish, 178, 207
Gibraltar, 173
-gill, 170
Gin, 191
Ginger, i76
Giraffe, .64
Girdle, 158
INDEX.
341
Girl, 81, 207
Girondist, 199
Girth, 154, 158
Glen, 168, 174
Gnat, 185
Gobelin, 178
Godown, 165
Gondola, 163
Gong, 165
Good, 140, 158
Good Hope, 173
Goose, 158
Gooseberry, 168, 214
Gooseberry Fool, 207
-gorod, 174
Gospel, 158
Gossip, 158, 214
Gown, 162, 193
Graft, 158
Grain, 185
Grandee, 163
Grape, 158
Grapnel, 158
Grapple, 158
Grasp, 158
Grave, 168
Greek words, 161
Green, 182
Greengage, 178
Grenade, 163, 189
Grenadier, 189
Grey, 182
Griddle, 162
Grief, 182
Grimace, 214
Gripe, 168
Grocer, 214
Grog, 178
Groove, 158
Grope, 158
Gross, 214
Grotto, 163
Grouse, 214
Grove, 168
Grovel, 158
Growl, 207
Growth, 164
Grub, 168
/ Gruel, 162
Gruff, 207
i Grand-, 174
^ Guad-,174
-guard, 170
Guardian, 160
Guelph, 198
Gueidon, 214
Guilder, 185
Guillotine, 179
Guinea, 176, 185
Guitar, 214
Gun, 189
Gutta percha, 165
HABERDASHER, 207
Haft, 66, 188
Hag, 170
Haggard, 214
Hai, 174
Halberd, 190
Hale, 158, 159
Half, 141
Hallelujah, 164
Hallow, 169
Halt, 169 '
Halter, 159
-ham, 167
Hamlet, 159
Hammercloth, 207
Hammock, 165, 214
Hand, 183
Hang, 159
-hanger, 167
Hap, 158
Happy, lo8
Harangue, 214
Harbinger, 214
Harbour, 214
Harem, 164
Hariequin, 163, 176
Harm, 164
Harpoon, 214
HaiTidan, 207
Harvest, 214
Hat, 169
Hate, 182
Hauberk, 190
-haugh-, 170
-haut, 174
Have, 158
Haven, 159
Hawk, 214
Hayti, 173
Hazard, 164
He, 142
-head, 138
Head, 153, 169, 183
Heal, 168
Health, 164
Heart, 183
Heathen, 195, 214
Heaven, 154, 169
Hebrew words, 164
Hectoring, 179
Heifer, 214
Height, 154
Heirloom, 214
Heligoland, 173
HeU, 159
Helmet, 190
Helter-skelter, 208
Hence, 143
Henchman, 179
Her, 142
Herald, 214
Herculean, 179
Here, 148
Heretic, 194
Hermetically (sealed),
179
Hermit, 192, 216
Herring, 214
Hight, 147
Hilt, 163
Himalaya, 173
Hindoo words, 164
Hinge, 159
His, 142
-hithe, 167, 174
Hither, 143
-hlaw, 167
-ho, 174
Hoax, 207
-hoe, 170
Hold, 169
Hole, 159
-holm, 174
-holt, 167
Holy, 159
Home, 159
-hood, 138
Hookah, 164
Hope, 182
-horn, 174
Hosunna, 164
Host, 216
Housing. 162
How, 143
Howdah, 164
Huguenot, 199
Humble-bee, 208
Humble-pie, 208
Humbug, 176, 208
Hundred, 141
Hurdle, 216
Hurricane, 165
Hurry, 215
-hurst, 167
Husband, 156, 215
Hussar, 189
'Hustings, 203
842
INDEX.
Hat, 159
-hyrae, 167
IlysoD, 166
T, 142
i -ible, 139
-id, 140
Idle, 152
If, 104, 109
111, 152
Imbecile, 216
Immediately, 152
Impair, 215
Improvisatore, 163
In, 150
Inch, 185
Inch-, 169
Indigo, 169
Individual, 216
-ine, 136
Infantry, 169
Influenza, 163
-ing, 137, 138
Ingot, 215
Instantly, 152
Intrigue, 215
Inveigle, 215
Inver-, 169
Invoice, 215
-ion, 137, 139
-is, 's, 136
-ish, 139
Isinglass, 209
-isk, 138
It, 142
Italian words, 163
-ite (v. 8.)» 145
Its, 52, 142
-ive, 140
Ivory, 216
-ize (v. s.)» 146
TACKAL, 164
Jacket, 179
Jacobin, 179
Jacobite, 179, 199
Jaded, 215
Jalap, 176
Jane, 185 „ , ,i
Janissar}', 164 . /r..
January, 181 y.-i <
Jar, 164
Jargon, 208
Jasmin, 164 J % i j
Jaw, 183
Jealousv, 182, 208
Jennet, 163, 176
Jenneting, 215
Jeopardy, 208
Jerked beof, 208
Jersey, 173
Jerusalem artichoke, 208
Jet, 176
Jewry, 26
Jig, 215
Jigumbob, 208
Jobbernowl, 208
Joint, 184
JoUvboat, 208
Jorcien, 215
Jovial, 179
Jowle, 215
Joy, 182
Juan Fernandez, 173
Jubilee, 164
Juice, 215
Julep, 216
July, 181
June, 181
Jungle, IGi
Junk, 1(54
Junket, 208
.jT- (v. s.), 144
14- Kangaroo, 165
-keU, 170
Ken-, 168
Kennel, 215
Kerchief, 23, 215
Kib-, 174
Kickshaws, 23, 208
Kidnap, 215
Kilderkin, 186
Kill, 157
Kiln, 162
Kin-, 168, 174
-kin, 139
Kine, 28
King, 167, 1«0
EUosk, 164
-kirk, 170, 174
-kle, 137
-klobing, 174
Knave, 154, 2lii
Knee, 184
Knife, 215
Knight, 187
Knock, 162
Knuckle, IS**
-kopf, 174
T AC, 164
Li Lackey, 216
Lad, 159, 216
Ladder, 169
Lady, 31, 186
Lago, 174
Lake, 164, 182
Lampoon, 216
Lancaster Sotmd, 173
Landscape, 159
Larum, 216
Lass, 169, 216
Last, 140, 159
Latakia, 176
Late, 140, 159
Lath, 162
Latin words, 161, 163
Latter, 159
Lava, 163
Law, 159
Law — lawk ! 152
-law, 167, 174
Lay, 169
Lazaretto, 179
-le (v. 8.), 144
Lea, 159
Lead, 159
Leader, 169
League, 185, 216
Leather, 216
Leaven, 154
Lecherous, 216
Ledge, 159
Ledger, 169, 191
Lees, 216
Leman, 216
Lemon, 164
Length, 154
Lent, 194
-less, 139
Lest, 149
Let, 159
-let, 137
Let (sore), 239
Lettuce, 216
Levellers, 200
Leviathan, 164
Lewd, 216
Liberia, 173
Lie, 159
Lief, 152
Lieutenant, 188
Light, 154
Like, 97
Lilac, 169
Lime, 164
in-, 168
-Ung, 137
Lip, 184
Liquorice, 216
List, 67
Litany, 194
Little, 140
Liturjo'^, 194
Lizard) 216
Llan-, 168, 174
Lo, 162
Lowistone, 159, 176
Lobby, 216
Lobster, 216
Loch, 174
Lollards, 200
Loot, 164
Lord, 81, 186
Lot, 159
Loud, 153
Lough, 174
Louisiana, 173
Love, 182
Low, 159
-low, 174
Lower, 159
Lumber, 176, 208
Luncheon, 216
Lungs, 184
Lute, 164
-ly, 139
M(v. 8.), 144
Mao-, 137
Mace, 216
Macintosh, 179
Mackerel, 216
Madrigal, 216
Maeander, 165
i?»«Sar:ine, 164
Maggot, 216
Magnet, 176
Main, 157
Maize, 165
Majolica, 177
Major, 188
Malady, 216
Malaga, 173
Malay words, 164
Malice, 182
Malkin, 216 •
Malmsey, 177
Malt, 152
Malta, 173
Mameluke, 164
Man, 31
Man (Isle of), 173
INDEX.
Mango, 165
Manifesto, 163
Manna, 164
Mansarde, 179
Many, 44, 127, 140
Marauder, 208
March, 181, 191
Mark, 185
Marquis, 186
Marsala, 173
Marshal, 187
Martial, 179
Martinet, 179
Maryland, 173
Mass, 194
Massachusetts, 173
Massacre, 216
Mastiff, 216
Math, 155
Mattock, 162 .
Mattress, 164
Maudlin, 208
Maunday Thursday, 194
Mausoleum, 165
May, 146, 181
Maydukes, 177
Meal, 216
Measles, 216
Meat, 216
Medina, 174
-meer, 174
Meeting, 217
Megrim, 217
Melists, 147
-men, 138
Menial, 217
-ment, 138
Mercurial, 179
-mere, 167, 174
Merely, 152
-mersh, 167
Meseems, 147
Mess, 217
Methinks, 147
Michaelmas, 198
Middle, 157
Midst, 150
MUe, 185
Milliner, 177
Minaret, 164, 217
Mince, 217
Mind, 184
Mine, 142
Miniature, 217
Minion, 217
-minster, 174
Mi&- (v. p.), 144
348
Mississippi, 178
Missouri, 178
Mob, 217
Mocassin, 165
Muhair, 164
Moidore, 185
Mole, 217
Monday, 181
-monde, 174
Mongrel, 159 •
Monk, 192
Monkey, 217
Monsoon, 164
-mont, 174
Month, 155, 181
-mony, 188
Mop, 162
Morass, 217
More, 140
Morganatic, 217
Morion, 190
Morose, 217
Mortar, 190
Mortise, 217
-mos, 167
Moslem, 164
Mosque, 164, 217
Mosquito, 163
Most, 140
Moth, 135
Motto, 163
Mould, 153
Mountain (party), 200
Mountebank, 208
Mouth, 155, 184
Much, 140
Mufti, 164
Muggletonians, 200
Muggy, 162, 217
Mulatto, 163
Mullagatawny, 164
Mummy, 164, 217
Munch, 217
Murder, 155
Musk, 164
Musket, 190
Muslin, 164, 177
Mustache, 217
Mustard, 217
Muster, 217
-myln, 167
11 Nabob. 167, 187
Nadir, 164
Nail, 184
,
I
344
INDEX.
Nankeen, 164
Nap, 217
Naphtha, 164
Nard, 164
Naught, 62, 148
Nave, 193
Nav, 162
-nd (v. 8.), 144
Neat, 217
Neck, 184
Negro, 168
Negus, 179
Neighbour, 167, 217
Neither, 149
Nephew, 81, 217
-nes8, 138, 167, 174
Nettle, 218
Never, 218
News, 28
New York, 178
Next, 140
-ng (v. 8.), 144
Niagara, 173
Niece, 31,217
Niggard, 218
Nightingale, 218
Nightmare, 208
Nine, 141
Nitre, 177
-nk (v. 8.), 144
No, 152
Noble, 186
Nonconformist, 200
Nonjuror, 201
Noon, 218
Norman words, 161
North, 182
Nose, 184
Nostril, 218
Now, 162
Nowadays, 162
Nuisance, 218
Nun, 192
-, 187
-0,170
Oak, 152
Oar, 218
-ock, 137
October, 181
Odd, 162
Of, 160
-ofer, 167
Off, 160
Offal, 218
Oft»162
Often, 162
Ogre, 208, 218
Old Nick, 209
Old Scratch, 209
Olio, 163
-cm, 186
Omelet, 218
On, 150
Once, 142, 152
One, 39, 52, 141, 142
-one, 137
Onion, 218
Only, 142, 162
-oon, 137
Ooze, 218
Opera, 168
Opium, 164
Or, 149 * •
-or, 136
Orange, 188
Orangeman, 201
Orang-outang, 166
Orchard, 218
Ordeal, 218
Ordure, 218
Ore, 218
Orgies, 218
Orm-, 170
Orrery, 179
-ory, 188
-ose, 189
Ospray, 218
Ostler, 218
Ostrich, 218
-ot, 144
-otch, 144
Other, 52
Otter, 218
Ottoman, 164
Ounce, 185
Our, 142
-our, 139
-ous, 139
Out, 150
Over, 151
-ow, 137, 144
Owe, 67, 147
Owl, 218
Own, 148
O yes, O yes ! 209
mD(DING), 177
r Paddle, 159
Paddock, 218
Paeony, 180
Pagan, 195, 218
Pagoda, 164
Palanquin, 164
Pale, 196
Palette, 218
Palfrey, 218
Palliate, 218
Pahjy, 218
Pampas, 164
Pamper, 218
Pamphlet, 218
Pan, 162
Pander, 180
Panic, 179
Pantaloon, 162, 209
Paradise, 165, 218
Paramour, 218
Parapet, 191
Parcel, 219
Parchment, 177
Pariah, 164
Parish, 196
Parliament, 201
Parlour, 219
Parroquet, 168
Parrot, 219
Parsley, 219
Parsnip, 219
Parson, 187
Partisan, 190
Partridge, 219
Pasquinade, 179
-patam, 174
Paten, 198
Path, 159
Pawn (in chess), 164
Peach, 177
Peacock, 219
Peasant, 219
Pebble, 219
Peck, 162, 186
Peculiar, 219
Pedlar, 219
Peelite, 201
Peer, 186
Pekoe, 164
Pell mell, 219
Pemmican, 166
Pen, 159
Pen-, 168
Penchant, 168
Penfold, 169
Pennant, 219
Pennsylvania, 178
Penny, 185
Pentecost 194
Perhaps, 162, 158
Pemambuco, 173
INDEX.
845
Persian words, 164
Person, 219
Petard, 190
Pew, 193
Phaeton, 180
Pheasant, 177
Philippics, 180
Piazza, 163
Piccaroon, 209
Pick, 169
Piiie, 159
Pilgrir 219
PiUory, 219
Pink, 183
Pint, 186
Pioneer, 188
Pirate, 219
Pistol, 177, 190
Pitch, 169
Pitcher, 219
Placard, 219
Plagiarism, 219
Platina, 163
-pie, 140
Plunder, 219
Pocket, 219
-polls, 174
PoU-tax, 219
Poltroon, 209
Poljrnesian words, 164
Pommel, 219
Poncho, 163
Pont, 174
-pool, 174
Porcupine, 219
-pore, 174
Porpoise, 219
Porridge, 220
Portico, 163
Portuguese words, 164
Portus, 166
Posset, 220
Potatoe, 165
Potwalloper, 209
Pound, 159, 184
-praag, 174
Preach, 195, 220
Priest, 187
Private, 188
Privilege, 23
Pi«testant, 201
Pi owl, 220
Pudding, 220
Pullen, 28
Pslpit, 193
Punch, 164, 220
Punch and Judy, 209
Punctilio, 162
Pundit, 164
Puny, 220
Purchase, 220
Puritan, 202
Puzzle, 220
Pyramid, 220
QUACK, 220
Quagmire, 220
Quaint, 220
Qualm, 220
Quandary, 209
Quarrel, 220
Quart, 186
Quarter, 141
Quarters, 191
-que, 140
Quell, 167
Queen, 186
Queer, 220
Quickly, 162
Quince, 177
Quinsy, 220
Quire, 220
Quite, 162
Quiver, 220
Quoit, 220
Quoth, 67, 220
.T>, 143
n -ra, 143
Rabbi, 164
Rabbit, 220
Racket, 220
Radical, 202
Radish, 220
Raffle, 220
Rajah, 164
Rally, 220
Ramab, 174
Ramble, 220
Rancour, 220
Random, 220
Ransack, 220
Ransom, 220
Rapidan, 173
Rascal, 209
Rasher, 162
Rather, 146, 162, 169
Rattan, 166
Raven, 159
Re- (v. p.), 144
-re, 143
Ready, 159
Reck(les8), 169
Reckon, 159
-red, 188
Red, 183
Reef (verb), 163
Regatta, 163
-rel, 137
Religion, 220
Rent, 220
Repartee, 220
Retreat, 191
Reverie, 221
Reward, 221
Rhubarb, 221
Rib, 184
Ribald, 221
Ribbonnian, 202
-ric 188
Riches, 28
Riding, 141
Riffraff, 209
Righteous, 139
Rigmarole, 209
Rim, 162
Rio, 174
Rival, 221
Roam, 177
Rob, 159
Robber, 149, 209
Rochet, 193
-rock, 137
Rodomontade, 180
Rogation days, 194
Ros-, 169
Ross-, 174
Round, 151, 221
Roundhead, 195
Rover, 159
Rudder, 221
Ruffian, 221
Rug, 162
Rum, 191
Rupee, 164
Russet, 221
Ruth, 152
'S-'f?
-s, 137
Sabba(o)th, 164
Sable, 177
Sabre, 190
Sacrament, 196
Saffron, 221
Sago, 164
Saint, 196
Salaam, 164
i
m
INDEX.
Salad, 221
Salamander, 221
Sslar}', 221
Salmon, 221
Saloon, 221
Samphire, 180, 221
Sandal, 164
Sandwich, 180
Sandwich (Isles), 173
Saraband, 164
Sarcasm, 221
Sarcenet, 177
Sardine, 177
Sash, 164
Satin, 166
Saturday, 182
Saturnine, 180
Sauce, 221
Saunterer, 221
Savage, 221
Savannah, 168
Scale, 160
Scalp, 160
-scape, 128
Soar, 160
Scar-, 170
Scaramouch, 209
Scarcely, 152
Scarf, Too, 221
Scarlet, 188, 221
Scatter, 160
Scavenger, 221
Scaw-, 170
Schooner, 168
Scimitar, 164, 190
Scoop, 160
Scorn, 160
Scoundrel, 209
Scourge, 221
Scrawl, 221
Scruple, 185
Scuffle, 160
Scullion, 164, 209
Scupper, 221
-se (v. s.), 140, 145
Seamstress, 21
Season, 121
Secure, 221
Sedan, 177
Self, 48, 142
Stneh, 177
Seneschal, 187
Sentinel, 189
Sentinelle, 189
Sepoy, 164, 189
September, 181
Septuogcsima, 194
Seraglio, 164
Seraph, 104
Sergeant-at-artns, 188
Sergeant-at-law, 188
-set, 167
Seven, 141
Sexagesima, 194
Sexton, 187
-sh (v. sX 144
Shade, 160
Shadow, 160
Shagreen, 221
Shale, 160
Shall, 66, 146
ShaUot, 177
Shape, 159
Share, 160
Sharp, 160
Shawl, 164
She, 142
Shears, 160
Sheath, 155
Sheathe, 160
Sheer, 160
Sheet, 160
Shell, 160 ^
SherueL, jo4
Sherd, 153
Sheriff, 160, 187
Sherry, 168
Shibboleth, 164
Shield, 190
Shillelah, 177
Shilling, 160, 185
-ship, 188
Shiver, 163
Shoot, 160
Shore, 160
Short, 160
Shot, 160
Shotover, 209
Shoulder, 160, 184
Shout, 160
Shove(l), 160
Shred, 153, 160
Shrine, 195
Shroud, 160
Shrub, 164
Shuffle, 160
Shutter, 160
Shuttle, 160
Sidesman, 193
Siege, 191
Sight, 165
Silhouette, 180
Silly, 221
Simoon, 164
Since, 149
Sincere, 221
Smew, 184
Sir, 186
Sirocco, 164
Six, 141
Skuti's, !68
Sketch, 168
Skill, 160
Skin, 184
Skip, 138, 170
Skipper, 209
Skirmish, 221
Skull, 160
Skvlark, 209
Sla'ck, 160
Sloop, 168
Sloth, 168
Slow, 160
Slubber de Gullion, 209
Slug, 160
Sluggard, 160
Sluice, 222
Slut, 31
Smith, 156
Smuggle, 163
-snade, 167
Snail, 160
Sneak, 160
So, 149
Sodor, 170
Sofa, 164, 222
Soir^, 163
Soldier, 189
Solecism, 222
Some, 143
-some, 139
Somersnult, 222
-son, 136
Songstress, 31
Soon, 162
Soothsayer, 160
Soprano, 163
Sorcerer, 222
Sorrow, 182
South, 182
Souther, 170
Sovereign, 184
Soy, 168
. Spaniel, 177
Spanish words, 168
Sparrow, 222
Sparrowgrass, 23
Spear, 190
Spencer, 180
Spick and span, 20t
Spider, 16Q, 222
Spin, 160
Spinach, 177
Spindle, 160
Spirit, 184
Spoor, 168
Spouse, 222
Squadron, 190
Squaw, 166
SquillB, 177
Squirrel, 222
-sc,188
St. Domingo, 178
St. HeUer, 178
St. Malo, 178
Stage, 160
Stair, 160
Stallion, 222
Stannary, 222
Stanza, 168
Starboard, 160
Star Chamber, 204
Stork, 162, 2?2
Storve, 222
-stead, 168
Steak, 160
Stealth, 166
Steep, 160
Steeple, 160, 193
-stein, 176
Stentorian, 180
Step, 160
-ster, 130, 170, 144
Steriing, 184
Stern, 164, 160
Steward, 122, 160, 189
Stick, 160
Stiletto, 163, 190
Still, 149
Stimulate, 222
Stipend, 222
Stipulate, 222
Stir, 160
Stirrup, 160
Stitch, 160
Stiver, 185
-stoc, 168
Stock, 160
Stockade, 160
Stocks, 160
-stoke, 168
Stomach, 1$4
• Stores, 160, 191
Storey, 160
-stow, 168
Strad, 160
Strata, 160
Strath, 160
INDEX.
847
Streat, 160
Ttanpor, 228
Street, 160, 168
Ten, 141, 166
Strength, 166
Tennis, 223
-stress, 136
Tenor, 168
Stret-, 160
Tent, 191
Stucco, 168
Tcnnagttnt, 1 69
Studio, 168
Terracotta, 163
Sturdy, 222
Tester, 186
Sturgeon, 222
Testy, 228
Stye, 160
Tether, 228
Subtle, 222
-th,lM
Such, 60, 148
Thaler, 185
Sugar, 164
SuScy, 222
Thank(8), 29
That, 142, 149
Snlt^n, 164
The, 86, 142
Summer, 181
Their, 142
Sunday, 182
Then, 85, 148
-sure, 138
Thence, 143
Surgeon, 222
There, 143
Surplice, 193
These, 140
Suttee, 164
Thigh, 186
Sutter-, 170
Thimble, 228
Swain, 222
Thine, 142
Swine, 222
Thing, 170
Sword, 190
Thither, 143
Sycophant, 222
-thorpe, 168, 170
Synod, 196
Those, 140
Syrup, 164
Thou, 142
Though, 149
Thousand, 141
.rp (v. s. ), 144
i Tabbard, 222
Three, 141
Threshold, 228
Tabby, 177
Thrice, 142
Taboo, 164
Throat, 185
Tabor, 164
Through, 150
Tadpole, 222
Thnmb, 186
Tafety, 177
Thunder, 210
Tafftta, 164
Thursday, 182
Taflrail, 163
Thus, 143, 162
Talisman, 164
Ticket, 223
Tallow, 222
Tierce, 186
Talmud, 164
Tiffin, 164
Tamarind, 164
Tight, 163
Till, 160, 181
Tambourine, 164
Tantalise, 180
Tiller, 166
Tantivy, 222
Tilt, 164
Target, 190
Tilth, 156
Tarifa, 174
Timber, 223
Tariflf, 164, 177, 208
Tinsel, 223
Tarn, 174
Tintimatre, 210
Task, 162, 223
Tissue, 228
Tatterdemallion, 209
Tithe, 141
Tattoo, 164, 223
To, 151
Tawdry, 180
Tobacco, 164, 177
Teach, 97, 223
Toddy, 164
Teem, 223
Toe, 184
-teen, 141
-toft, 170
848
INDK.
ToU, 160
Toilette, 228
ToU, 160
Tomahawk, 164
Tomato, 164
To-morrow, 162
Tongue, 186
Tontine, 180
Too, 162
Tooth, 166, 184
Topaz, 177
Tornado, 168, 228
Torpedo, 228
Torso, 168
Tortoise, 228
Tory, 202
Towards. 161
Towel, 228
Town, 160
Train, 228
Tram-(w»,y), 180
Trance, 2ilS
-tro, 169, 174
Treacle, 228
Trench, 191
Tribulation, 228
Trifle, 228
Trigger, 228
Trim, 228
Trimmer, 208
Trinliet, 228
Trivial, 228
Troop, 190
Trousseau, 163
Troy, 186
Truant, 228
Trudge, 162
Trumpery, 228
Trumpet, 190
Tuck-(er), 177
-tude, 188
Tuesday, 181
Tulip, 164
Tumbril, 190
Tunicle, 193
Tumwl, 160
Turban, 164
Turbot, 223
-ture, 189
Turkish words, 164
Turnip, 228
Twain, 36, 142
Tweak, 223
Twelve, 141
Twice, 142
Twine, 223
Twirl, 224
Twist, 161
Two, 141
-ty, 188, 141
TTCK (V. 8.), 144
yj -ng (v. 8.), 144
Ugly, 224
ule, 187
Umber, 177, 183
Umbrella, 163
Umpire, 224
Under, 151
Unless, 149
Until, 161
Up, 161
Upon, 161
Urchin, 210
Usher, 224
-usk (v. 8.), 144
-utch (v. s.), 144
Utmost, 141
VALET, 224
V Valetta, 174
Vallum, 166
Van Dieman, 174
Vaudeville, 178
Varnish, 177
-vat, 170
Veer, 163
Venal, 224
Venison, 224
Venom, 224
Verandah, 163
Verbal prefixes :
a, and, an, be, for,
fore, en, ent, mis,
re, with, 148, 144
Verbal suffixes :
ate, en, le, em, m, en,
er, esce, nd, ng, nk,
nt, ot, t, d, ow, ag,
augh, ug, uck, ck, k,
ulch, otch, atch, ush,
sh, ass, ster, isb, fy,
ite, ize, y, on, 144,
146
Verdict, 22
Verdigris, 224
Verger, 192
Vermilion, 183
Very, 153
Vestry, 193
-vie, 174
Vignette, 234
Villain, 161,224
Vinegar, 224
Vipor, 224
Virtuoso, 168
Vista, 163
Vixen, 31, 224
Vizir, 164
Volcano, 168
Volley, 224
Voyage, 224
WAGES, 29
Waggle, 161
Wagon, 161
Wain, 161, 162
Wainscot, 224
Wald, 174
Wall, 162
Wallet, 224
Walnut, 210
Wan, 160
Wane, 160
Want, 160
-ward, 139
Warden, 160
Warder, 160
Wardrobe, 160
Warmth, 166
Warn, 161
Warrant, 161
Wary, 160
Was, 146
Wassail, 224
Wave, 161
Way, 161
-weald, 168
Wealth, 165
Wear (ship), 16f
Weather, 224
Weave, 161
Wed, 16^
Wedge, 224
Wednesday, 181
Week, 181
Weigh (anchor), 145
Weight, 224
Welkin, 29
Wert, 146
West, 182
Westerham, 16>
Wether, 224
What, 142
When, 193
Whence, 148
Where, 143
Wherry, 224
Whey, 224
Which, 60, 142
Whiff, 202
Whilom, 72
Whisky, 191
White, 182
Whither, 143
Whitsunday, 194
Who, 142
Whole, 169
Why, 86, 148
-wich, 170, 188
Wicket, 162, 224
Widower, 81
Wife, 161, 224
Wig, 170
Wight (lale of), 174
Wigwam, 166
Wild, 168
WiU. 66, 146, 224
Wimple, 224
Wince, 224
Window, 224
Winter, 181
Wisdom, 161
Wise, 161
Wist, 147
Wiatftil, 161
INDKX.
Wit, 161
With (v. p.), 144
With. 151
-with, 170
Without, 161
Wizard, 161
Wold, 224
-wold, 168
Woiii/in, 31, 161,224
Woodrocvo, 187
Woof, 161
Work, 224
Worn, 140
Worsted, 177
Worth, 67, 147, 168
Wot, 67
Wrack, 161
Wrangle, 161
Wrath, 161, 182, 224
Wreak, 161
Wreath, 224
Wreathe, 161
Wreck, 161
Wrench, 161
Wretch, 161
Wretched. 161
Writhe, 161
Wrist, 184
Wrong, 168
849
Wroth. 161
Wiy, 161
_y, 188, 144, 146
" 1 y-, part, pref..
Yacht, 168, 226
Yard, 168, 186
Y-clept, 147
Y-<lrad, 147
Ye^^ 162
Year, 181
Yearn, 226
Yellow, 183
Yeoman, 38, 226
Yeomanry, 26
Yes, 168
Yesterday, 168, 188
Yet, 149
Yoke, 226
Yolk, 226
Your, 142
ZANY, 168, 180
Zeal, 226
Zenith, 164, 225
Zero, 164, 225
Zodiac, 225
Ztuave, 178
147
i
■'?^'>
ANALYSIS
— OF —
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
By I. PLANT FLBMINO, M.A.. B.CX.
With a SnionoN of Examination Papkiw tbom odr Canadian Univmwitibs,
Bt W. Houston, M. A., Examinbr in Enoi.mh, Toronto Unitbrsitt.
FOR USE IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGIATE
INSTITUTES.
PRICE,
$1.00.
OlOROK DiCKBOK, B.A., Head MmiUr, ColUgiate Instttute, HamilUm.
" Fleming's English Analysis has been used in the Hamilton Collegiate Insti-
tute since 187S.
" I know of no better text book in English Onuumar for the Intermediate
Forms in our High Schools and Collegiate Institutes."
J. Sbath, B.A., Head Master^ Colltgiate Institutt^ St. Catharints.
" Fleming's Analysis has been in use here for about two years ; it is the best
manual I know of for advanced pupils— particularly in etymology.**
OlOROK WalIiACB, B.A., HeadMoiter, H. S.^ Weston.
" We have used Fleming for nearly one year. It Is the best book I have ever
taught on the subject during an experience of two years in Canada and eight in
Bnglish Grammar Schools."
T. MolNTTRC, M.A,, Head Master, H. S., IngersolL
" Fleming's Analysis has not been introduced into the High School, Ingersoll,
as a Text Book, but much of its contents has been brought before the notice of
the students in the form of lectures.
** I have carefully examined the work, and I have no hesitation in pronounc-
ing it superior to anything yet presented on the subject of English. It is especially
adapted to High School work. I shall be gratifled to l«am that it is placed OQ
the list (^ authorized Text Books."
FLEMING 8 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
W. W. Tambltn, VL.K.y Head Master^ Hi^h School, Oskawa.
" I think that Fleminf^'s Analysis is a very excellent work."
A. P. Kniobt, M.A., Rector K. C. /., Kingston.
'* Accept thanks. It is in my opinion the best School Text Book on the sub-
ject that has ever been placed before the public, and supplies a want felt by every
teacher in the Dojiinion."
S. J. WWLi:wOf)V,B.A., Head Master U.S., Streetsviiie.
" I consider that it contains much valuable information, and that it is en-
titled to a place on the list of Authorized School Books."
G. StradchoN, Head Master, H. S., IVoodstock.
" I use * Fleming's Analysis ' to a considerable extent in the higher classes
of the school."
A. HlliLaR, Head Master, H. S., IValkerton.
""' I am now using ' Fleming's Analysis ' in my senior class in English Gram-
mar, and must say that I consider it a most excellent text book, and hope to see
it put on the authorized list for High Schools."
Ahdrbw McCulloch, M.A., Head Master, H.S., Drummondville.
** I have used Fleming's Analysis for several years, and from its brevity, clear-
ness and comprehension, consider it especially adapted for the use of senior classes
in our high schools."
L. G. Morgan, B.A., Head Master, H. S., Vientui.
*' I am much pleased with it, and hope it will be authorized for use in the
7.^h Schools, as it contains much valuable infonnation not found in any of our
text books. It is a work long needed. The examination questions at the end
will prove very valuable to both teacher an*!, pupil."
• A. PuRSliOW, LL.B., Head Master, H. S., Pert Hope.
" I have used it extensively in my teaching for two years or more. It has so
many excellencies that I would like to see it permissively authorized, but not pre-
scribied to the exclusion of others."
W. C. MiDDLBTON, B.A., Head Master, U. S., Amprior.
" I consider ' Fleming's Analysis ' admirably adapted for the upper forms in
our High Schools."
R. W. Young, B.A., UeadMasUr, H. S., Dunville.
^* I think that this work could be used in the Schools with much advantage."
RoBBRT Mathbson, B.A., Head Master, H. S. Napanee.
^ I am very happy to add my testimony to the value of ' Fleming's Analysis
of the English language ' as a text book for High Schools."
FLEMING S ANALYSIS OK TltE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
i8ub-
Bvery
isen-
Albirt Andrews, Head Master^ H. S., Niagara.
"I r^anl it as a valuable holp in the study of En)(lish daisies. I would b«
glad to see it authorized."
E, M. BiQO, M.A., Head Master, H. S., Aylmev.
" I have made a thorough examination of the work and think it just the
thint; for advanced clasaes in Enf^lish."
WaIiTBR Ruthbrford, B.A., Head Master, H. S., Parkkill.
" I have found it a very useful work in teaching. It is brief, yet comprehtnsiv
and practical, containing the etymology of words of every day use,^'
asses
John Millar, B.A., Head Master, H. S., St. Thotnas.
" I make use of it in teaching. The work is one very well arranged and emi*
nently suited for many of our High School classes."
ram-
nsee
lear-
usses
Rrv. F. L. Chbcklby, B.A., Head Master, H, S., Loughborough.
•' It is an oixcellent Jjook."
Wh. yflhUAHS, B.A., Head Master, H. S., CoUingwood.
" Fleming's Analysis has been used in our High SchoMs but hitherto as a
book of reference. We will probably use it more largely next term. I consider
it a very valuable and useful book for High School purposes, and believe that the
addition of the exauiination papeis will greatly add to Its usefulness."
the
our
end
pre-
B m
Sc.
ysis
Q.K.K .:>iaotl,^.A., Head Master, H.S., IV/titiy.
" I have to say in reply that Fleming's Analysis is not in use in this Schoo'
as a Text Book. It is used for occasional reference. I have already expressed mj-
opinionof it."
D. H. HUNTBR. B.A., Head Master, H. S., Waterdown.
" I may state that I liku the work very much, and hope that it will find a
place in the authorized list of text books for High Schools,"
F. ULiTCilKhh, B.A.., Head Master, High School, Perth.
" Fleming's Analysis has been in use in our school. In regard to its merits
as a text book, it cannot be too highly eulogized, and we feel confident in saying
that its introductcon into our High Schools would be attended with highly bene-
fictal results."
Jambs Lumsdbn, M. A., Head Master H. S., Port Dover.
" We have been using Fleming's Analysis in our school for some time. 1
think that the book is the best of any we have got for imparting a real knowledge
of the language to advanced pupils." .
E. T. Crowlb. M.A., Head Mastor, H. S., Markham.
" We use Fleming's Analysis, and consider it an e.xccllent work,"
ItLEMINg's analysis op the ENGLISH iiANOUAOt.
i I
H. M. HiOKB, M A.. Head Master, H. S., Trenton
" I have uaed the work and think it a» ^wA as any I have seen on the subject."
P. C. McOrioor, B.A., Head Master^ H.S., Almonte.
*' I have already introduced Fleming's Analysis into our High School here.
In the senior class, I find it an excellent work : far exceeding any grammar we
have yet had."
If
A, Sinclair, M.A., Head Master, H. S., IVindsor.
" Fleming's Analysis is used by the teachers of the Windsor High School in
giving notes on Grammar, &c. We have not used it as a text book yet, since it ia
not authorized. The work is certainly very good."
Jamks TurnbuIiL, B.A., Head Master, H. S., Clinton,
"I consider it an excellent book of reference, and as such it is in the hands
of some of the pupils of the senior class."
D. McBridk, B.A., Head Master, H. S., Port Perry.
''I have used 'Fleming's Analysis' in the seni&r grammar class in this
school, and I consider it an excellent work."
J. R. WiGHTMAN, M.A., Head Master, H. «., Newcastle.
" I value the work vury highly. The list of examination questions appended
to it I find especially useful.'*
P. A. SwiTZRR, B.A., Head Master, H. S., Oakville.
'* Our English Master uses Fleming's Analysis as a book of reference. He
would like to see it allowed as a text book."
Rev. F. F. Macnab, B. A., Head Master, H. S., Carlton Place.
" I regard it as the very best I have seen on that most important department
of Grammar ; and would have no hesitation in introducing it if on the authorised
list of text books.'*
Jambs Mills, M.A., Head Master Brant/ord Collegiate Institute.
" I have no hesitancy in saying that I consider it one of the best books we can
«ret for High School work."
S, Woods, M.A., Rector, Kingston Collegiate Institute.
" It fills a place too long unoccupied, by graving in small space, more g^enuine
information on our mother tongue than any other primary text book with which I
am acquainted.'
/.-
J. Campbbll, M.A., Head Master, H. S., Napanee.
**S9t High School purposes, such a work is just what is needed."
ect."
lere.
r we
ilin
itia
acU
his
ed
le
FLEMINO*S ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOS.
Obo. H. ROBIH8ON, M.A., Head Master. H. S. Whitby. '
** It is concise, methodictil, and generaily very accurate in definition."
OlO. S. Wrwht, Ph. D., Prof. 0/ Moderfi Literature.
" ' Fleming's Analysis ' has been four years in use in Albert College Grammar
School, and is considered the most comprehensive and scientific school-book on the
subject that we have ever used. I am pleased to see a Canadian Edition of the
woric, as we had some difficulty in getting a supply of the English edition of 1873-4
I consider the opinion of students who have used it, an indication of its merits and
their verdict is unanimously in its favour."
Obo. R. R. Cockburn, M.A., Frinctpal U. C. College.
'* During the last two or three years I have used ' Fleming's Analysis ' in the
Upper Forms of U. C. College, with the most satisfactory results. It is :.he best worIc
of the kind for teaching purposes with which I am acquainted."
Rbv. Dr. Fykb, Principal 0/ Canadian Literary Institute.
'*I deem it a very valuable introduction to more extended works on this
Bubject.*'
Jiias C.%VWA\kV, l,.h.li., Hmd Master H. S.^Dundas.
"• Having carefully examined ' Analysis of the English Lauguage ' by Fleming,
1 have no hesitation in strongly recommending it to teachers as a work well
adapted for High Schools, and Divisions 4, 6 and 6 of the Public Schools. It is
concise and methodiobl in its arrangement, and explains the leading principles of the
language in a short, clear and comprehensive manner. Although the author intendal
the book to be only ** a brief, simple and systematic introduction to the works of
Angus, Lv^ham and Marsh," yet it will be found to contain all that is necessary to
an ordinary English education."
D. C. McHbnrt, B.A., Principal Cobouxg Collegiate Institute,
*• After a careful examination of your " Analysis of the English Language " by
Fleming, I have great pleasure in testifying to the excellence of the work. It exactly
meets tne requirements of our High School course in English Classics. I shall be
£:lad to introduce it as soon as it is placed on the list of authorized text-books ; and
I trust it may meet with the general favor iirhich it merits."
tn
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OORTBZ Fbssbndbn, B. A., Head Master^ H. S. Brampton.
" I have carefully examined the " Analysis of the English Language " by I.
Plant Fleming, M. A., &c., and am well pleased with both the plan and execution of
the work. I shall be greatly disappointed if it is not soon found in all our High
Schools."
W. Ttler, B. a.. Head Master, H. S. Guelph.
" I am satisfied that it will prove a valuable aid to the teacher in imparting to
his pupils a knowledge of the structure and derivation uf the Englisi lani'uage."
FLBMING's ANALYSIK of I'HE EKOLtSH LANOlTAOF.
Wm . Cochrane, D.D., President of Faculty Young Ladies' Colk^e, Brantford.
"We have used ' Fleming's Analysis' in the Brantford Ladies' College for ti
past two years witli j^rcnt ttatisfaction. We regard it as admirably adaptM for thw
senior classes of our higher schools and colleges. Your Arm have conferred a favour
upon the friends of education in our land, by the issue of a Canadian edition of this
useful text book."
Wm. Tassw, LL.D„ Gnlt Collegiate Institute.
" I am convinced that from the extent of ground gone over, and the amount of
nformation contained in it, and that from sources from which many aru precluded,
that it will be a valuable acquisition to students generally, and especially to Public
School Tftfu^hers."
Jambs Huohbs, P. S. Inspector, Toronto.
'*! regard it as a very able and exhaustive work. The explanations of the
principles of English Orammar are clear and simple, and ought to do a great deal
towards renvoving the mysteries and difiicultiea which some treatises have thrown
around this imiraitant subject. The numerous exercises which it contains, render
it of great value to teachers."
\ '•
GioBB, Mtly 2.
" For High School purposes and for use in the higher classes of our Public
Schools, Mr. Fleming's Book is unquestionably the very best at present available.
No other volume yet published contains in so small a space so much valuable mat-
ter, well arranged and uitelligibly ex])ressed as this one does. It is not surprising,
therefore, that it has made its way rapidly into favor in the schools of Canada, or
that a publishing Arm here should have taken steps to secure the privilege of issu-
ing a Canadian ^ition. The present reprint is from the latest English edition, and
for the information of those not already acquainted with the work it is only necessary
to state that it contains a number of additional sets of examination papers, and,
what is of still greater importance, a very complete index, by reference to which the
place where any particular word is treated can readily be found. As the etymolo-
gical portion of the work is one of its most important features, the additional con-
venience thus provided can hardly be over-rated."
i I
^ Mail, May 1st.
" This is a class book of exceptional merit, well approved of by our educational
authorities, having been now for some years in use in the Orammar and High
Schools. For this— the third edition, several important improvements are claimed.
There have been added the Examination papers of the Oxford and Cambridge Local
Examinations for the last four years ; which, to:;ether with a valuable Etymological
Index, increases very much the utility of the work."
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NEW PUBLICATIONS.
Analysis of the English Language by
I. I'LAMT FLIMINa, M.A., B/J.L. Si 00
" Fleming^H Rngliih AnnlyglR hM been osed in
the Tlniiiiltou ColleKiiite Institute Rlncc 1873. I know
of no better I Vzt Book on iMigliHh OraniniAi for tbe
IntorrotMliiiti^ Forms In our ni^h Schools Autl •'ollegl-
ate IiMtitiituM."— ticoRGi Diouo, hM,. Uead SII<uUr^
Collf</ifit« InttituU, Hamilton.
" I h'\re used Fleming's Analysis in the Senior
Orammur Class in i\m School, and I considiir it an
excellent work." — D. MoBudii, B.A., Head .Uatter, Port
Perry lligK School.
•• • • As a Text Book, ft cannot he too highly
enloplBHd,"— F, MiTOUiu. B.A., Head JUutter^ Perth
High School.
" We use Fleming's Analysis and consider it an
nciLLKNT work"— Row. F Cbowli, M^., Hemd
MaMr, Mark hum High School.
'* Fleming's Analysii) has l)een In nse here for
abont two years. * * lt\H the best manual I Imow
of for adviinced pnpiLs especially in Etymology " —
J. NiATH. B.A , Head Matter, SL Catharinet ColUgiaU
Ituiitutti.
" • • It Is a work Ions needed/*— L. O.
tfoROAV, B.A.. Principal, Vienna High SehooL
Potts' £uclicl< ^**b Examination Papen by Thot.
Kirkland, M. A., Silence Master
Toronto Normal School. School
Edition 0.T5
<• « Books 1 and 3 do. do clotb OJO
•• *« " 3 and 3 do. do. do. 0.90
** I sha!I recommend Potts' Enclid to the Teachers
la Training, as a book of invaluable nse." —
W. CaooEatf, A.M., Principal ^ Training School, Jfcw
Brunewiek,
L.
NEW PUBLICATIONS.
Relds English Dictionary - - $1.00
'* The volume is n«At|y uoi ii|i ; the typ« clt«r And
legible; tho bunting Mtrorm, himI tho itize conrenieDt.
It Im inteiMluH tor a ScIio«iI Dictioimrj, and we do not
know n more Ruitiiltl*' one to bo plttrud in the handnof
PupilH, whether Hit(>n«ling our i'nhlic or Hi^h Schuolt*
and Colle(;iatu In8titiitf«. It ^fv«'H lK>th tlio meaning
and dosrivatioti of wfiniH, and indicntoM their pronunci'
ati on— omitting none of thoHti in common nan. At the
oloHe of the volume there lg a vocahuiarjr of roots,
which will be f<Mind very iii^'fnl, and iU\n ig followed
by an accented liitt of Oreeii. LHtin, Scriptnre and Geo*
graphical names, amounting to upwanlt of fourteen
thousand. •^(yM«//>A Mercury."
" * * I Hnd the arraiig«>meDt simple and plain,
well suited for the utte of Schools * * I will take
ple»><nre in recommending the Work to my TeAchen
and their Scholars.— tt. fi. Cabmai, M.A., P. tSL
Inspeetcr, Cornwall.
" As a convenient and cheap Etymological Dlo-
tlonary, t And it deserveilly popular among oar
Teachers." — V. BcRKOwti, /'. 5 Itu/fctor. Napane«,
" Reid's Dictionary has long if^^n in our school,
and considering itH price, I think it is the best for
the young student."— W. A. WmrnT. M.A., Head
Ma$ter, Iroquoit High School.
" • « It meetH a want that no other supplies
In an equal degree. Its chief excellence is its com»
pieteness in reference to derivHtiim, and especiHlly
Hazon derivation, wliich haH been alnioKt entirely neg-
lectefl in the preparation of Dictionaries for school
pnr))Oses, and ind«;(d in our syKtem of instruction as
well. I like also the collection of iiootH atthe en<i, with
their meanings. I have no hi-Hitation in recumuiending
It both for our Hiuh and l^iblic ScIjooIh."— Wiluam
OuTiB fiJL., JI*ad Matter, Bowmanmlle High School.
ADAM MILLER 41 CO.
U WtJUngUm St IVtti, T>trm*to,